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en
MMMMMADJARM
ARTES
LIBRARY
VERITAS
SCIENTIA
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUEROR
QUE MIS PERINTHILAM ANY
CIRCUMSPICE
JTE FEFF.DES. I
THIS BOOK
FORMS PART OF THE
Original LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHICAN
BOUGHT IN EUROPE
1838 TO 1839
BY
ASA GRAY
ม
THE
987
40
C.
HISTORY
OF
3
THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
FROM
ITS INSTITUTION
ΤΟ
THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
BY THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. F.R.S. L. & E.
MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, OF THE WERNERIAN SOCIETY, AND OF THE IMPERIAL
CHIRURGO-MEDICAL ACADEMY OF PETERSBURGH.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR ROBERT BALDWIN, 47, PATERNOSTER-ROW.
1812.
C. Baldwin, Printer, New Bridge-Street, London,
TO THE
RIGHT HON. SIR JOSEPH BANKS, BART. PRESIDENT,
AND TO THE
COUNCIL AND FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
THIS ATTEMPT TO ELUCIDATE
THE
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS,
IS INSCRIBED,
WITH MUCH RESPECT,
BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT,
THE AUTHOR.
2
*
+
1
PREFACE.
THE following Work was projected by the Proprietors of the New
Abridgement of the Philosophical Transactions, and was intended to
consist partly of Biographical Sketches of some of the most eminent
Fellows of the Royal Society, and partly of an arranged view of the
whole contents of the Philosophical Transactions, from the commence-
ment of the work, in 1665, down to the end of the year 1800, when
the Abridgement terminated. The plan being laid before the author
some years ago, he readily agreed to undertake the execution of it,
conceiving that such a work would be of considerable utility; but in
attempting to collect the materials, several difficulties occurred rather
of a formidable nature. The first, and not the least fatiguing part of
the task, was to peruse the whole of the Philosophical Transactions,
and to arrange all the papers under distinct heads, according to the
sciences to which they respectively belonged. This took up a much
longer portion of time than the author expected, or, indeed, would
choose to specify. On proceeding to draw up an account of the papers
belonging to each of the sciences, in the order that appeared most con-
venient, it was immediately perceived that the essays, for the most
part, were of so insulated a nature, that it would be impossible to
give any interest or connection to the work, if the subjects were strictly
confined, as was originally intended, merely to the details to be found
in the Transactions. To remedy this defect as much as possible, and
to give the reader a greater interest in the sciences as he proceeded, it
was thought necessary to begin the history of every science as nearly as
possible at its origin, and to give a rapid sketch of its progress till the
period of the establishment of the Royal Society. This, it was
thought, would put it in the power of every one to judge with more
accuracy how far the labours of the Royal Society had contributed to
the increase of knowledge, and the advancement of the sciences.
On attempting to give an analysis of the papers in the Transactions,
it was perceived that there were some classes of them which could not
vi
PREFACE.
with propriety be abridged, on account of the nature of the subjects of
which they treated. This in particular was the case with the
papers on
botany. In some branches of science the author was overwhelmed by
such a multitude of valuable papers, quite unconnected with each other,
that it was impossible, without swelling the work much beyond the
length that would have been tolerated, to notice them all. This is the
case particularly in the sciences of medicine, mathematics, and che-
mistry. The only resource left in these sciences was to select those
topics which appeared of the most importance; and the author is not
without hopes that the selection, which he has inade, will meet with
the approbation of the reader.
In several branches of science, where the papers in the Transactions
are either very few, or of comparatively trifling value, it was thought
requisite to introduce the subject with a short outline of the principles
of the science. This method was resorted to, because it was found im-
possible, in any other way, to give such a connection to the parts as
would render the subject treated of in a sufficient degree interesting to
the reader. Indeed the original plan was to have given a pretty full
outline of each of the sciences which occupy a place in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions; such, for example, as the section in the first Book
which treats of the physiology of plants. But on putting the work to
the press, it was soon found that these outlines would increase the size
much more than their utility would warrant. On that account several
of the longest of them, such as mathematics and chemistry, were
omitted. The reader can have no great cause to regret these omis-
sions, as there are such a multiplicity of books both in our own, and
in the French language, which supply them. Instead of these outlines,
it was thought more entertaining, as well as useful, to substitute histo-
rical details which are not so readily to be met with.
Throughout the whole work the references have been made to the
Philosophical Transactions rather than to the Abridgement, because it
was the object of the author to make it independent of the Abridgement.
These references however will serve equally well for the possessors of
either work; because in each page of the Abridgement are printed the
date and number of the volume where the corresponding paper is
found in the Original; and the page of the Original where the
commences is affixed to the title of each paper in the Abridgement.
paper
CONTENTS.
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION...
·BOOK I. NATURAL HISTORY.
+
CHAP. I. OF BOTANY....
Page.
1
17
17
Sect. 1. Of the Description and Arrangement of Plants.. 18
2. Of the Anatomy and Physiology of Plants......
3. Of Agriculture and the Economical Uses of
Plants.
CHAP. II. OF ZOOLOGY..
43
63
69
Sect. 1. Of the Arrangement and Description of Animals.. 70
2. Of Anatomy
3. Of Comparative Anatomy.
4. Of Physiology..
5. Of Medicine and Surgery.
CHAP. III. OF MINERALOGY.
Sect. 1. Of Oryctognosy.
2. Of Geognosy
3. Of Mining.
·
CHAP. IV. OF GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY
90
112
. 119
. 150
..179
179
.. 185
.. 219
221
BOOK II. OF MATHEMATICS.
BOOK III. OF MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY
CHAP. I. OF ASTRONOMY
II. OF OPTICS ..
..239
.311
312
359
. 384
390
III. OF DYNAMICS
IV. OF MECHANICS
V. OF HYDRODYNAMICS
Sect. 1. Of Liquids..
2. Of Pneumatics
. 397
397
410
vii
viii
CONTENTS.
Page.
CHAP. VI. OF ACOUSTICS.
...421
VII. OF NAVIGATION.
.425
VIII. OF ELECTRICITY
IX. OF MAGNETISM..
BOOK IV. OF CHEMISTRY..
429
.458
..465
CHAP. I. OF CHEMISTRY PROPER.
465
II. OF METEOROLOGY
..505
III. OF CHEMICAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
.513
BOOK V. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES
.523
CHAP. I. OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
•
..523
II. OF POLITICAL ARITHMETIC
528
III. OF ANTIQUITIES
..532
IV. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
..545
APPENDIX..
…i
No. I. CHARTER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
i
II. PATENT, GRANTING CHELSEA TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY....
III. MINUTES OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY RESPECTING NEWTON.... xv
IV. LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
. viii
xxi
V. THE PATRONS; AND ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE FELLOWS
OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
the
lxx
INDEX.
AN
ACCOUNT
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
THERE is nothing which has contributed so much to the rapid progress
which Philosophy has made since the revival of letters in Modern Europe, as
the exertions of those numerous scientific societies and academies, which have
successively been formed in most European countries. Italy, in which polite
literature and the arts first made their appearance, has the honour of having
given origin to these meritorious associations. England was not slow in imi-
tating the example of the Italian States. The Royal Society was established for
the express purpose of advancing experimental philosophy, and is beyond dis-
pute the most magnificent and liberal establishment of the kind which has ever
been formed. Its foundation was laid during the time of the civil wars, and
was owing to the accidental association of several learned men, who took no
part in the disturbances which agitated Great Britain.
About the year 1645, several ingenious men,* who resided in London, and Origin of the
were interested in the progress of mathematics and natural philosophy, agreed Royal Society
to meet once a week to discourse upon subjects connected with these sciences.†
The meetings were held sometimes in Dr. Goddard's lodgings, in Wood-street,
because he kept in his house an operator for grinding glasses for telescopes;
sometimes in Cheapside, and sometimes in Gresham College. In the years 1648
and 1649, several of the gentlemen who attended these meetings being ap-
pointed to situations in the University of Oxford, they instituted a similar So-
ciety in that city, in conjunction with several eminent men already established
there. Among the primitive members of this Oxonian Society, we find the fol-
lowing celebrated names: Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Wallis, Dr. Goddard, Dr. Seth
Ward, Dr. Bathurst, Dr. William Petty, Dr. Willis. The meetings were for
some time held in Dr. Petty's lodgings; and, when that gentleman went to Ire-
* The most remarkable of these men were, Dr. John Wilkins, Dr. Wallis, Dr. Goddard, Dr.
Ent, Dr. Glisson, Dr. Merret, Mr. Foster, and Mr. Haake, a German, who first suggested these
weekly meetings. Birch's Hist. of the Royal Society, Vol. I. p. 1.
Wallis's Account of his own Life. Preface to Mr. Hearne's edition of Langtoft's Chronicie
Vol. I. p. 161.
B
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
land in 1652, the Society met first in Dr. Wilkins' apartments, and afterwards
in those of Mr. Boyle.
The greatest part of these Oxford gentlemen coming to London in 1659,
held their meetings twice a week at Gresham College; on Wednesday, after
the Astronomical Lecture of Mr. Christopher Wren, and on Thursday, when
Mr. Lawrence Rooke lectured on Geometry. Here they were joined by several
new associates; among others, by Lord Brouncker, William Brereton, Esq., Sir
Paul Neile, John Evelyn, Esq., Thomas Henshaw, Esq., Henry Slingesby,
Esq., Dr. Timothy Clarke, Dr. Ent, William Balle, Esq., Abraham Hill, Esq.,
Dr. William Croune. These meetings were continued till the Members were
scattered by the disasters of 1659, after the resignation of Richard Cromwell,
when their place of meeting was converted into quarters for soldiers. But after
the restoration of King Charles II. in 1660, these meetings were revived, and
still more numerously attended. On the 28th of November, 1660, a number of
gentlemen met in Mr. Rooke's apartment, Gresham College, and agreed to
constitute themselves into a Society, for the promotion of all kinds of experi-
mental philosophy. A set of regulations was drawn up, and a weekly contri-
bution of a shilling was collected from each of the Members, in order to defray
the expenses of their experimental investigations. At first the number of Mem-
bers was limited to 55, but it was afterwards extended, and, finally, admission
was left open to every proper candidate. A President, a Secretary, and a Re-
gister, were elected out of their body, and an Amanuensis and Operator hired
to execute the purposes of the Society.
*
Such was the origin of the Royal Society of London, which from its very
commencement attracted the attention of all the philosophers in Europe, and
which was publicly encouraged by Charles II., and many of the principal Eng-
Receive lish nobility. On the 15th July, 1662, a Royal Chartert was granted by
Charles II., constituting them a body corporate, under the name of the Royal
Society, appointing Lord Viscount Brouncker the first President, Dr. Wilkins
and Mr. Oldenburg, the first Secretaries; William Balle, Esq. Treasurer; and
twenty-one of the most respectable Members the first Council. This Council
a charter.
* The following are their names: Lord Viscount Brouncker, Mr. Boyle, Mr. Bruce, Sir Robert
Moray, Sir Paul Neile, Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Goddard, Dr. Petty, Mr. Balle, Mr. Rooke, Mr. Wren,
and Mr. Hill. Birch's Hist. of the Royal Society, Vol. I. p. 3.
+ This Charter will be found in the Appendix, No. I.
†Their names were as follows :
Lord Viscount Brouncker
Sir Robert Moray
Mr. Robert Boyle
Mr. William Brereton
Sir Kenelm 'Digby
Sir Paul Neile
Sir Gilbert Talbot
Mr. Henry Slingesby
Sir William Petty
Dr. Timothy Clarke
Mr. William Erskine
Dr. John Wilkins
Dr. George Ent
Dr. Jonathan Goddard
Mr. William Balle
Mr. Matthew Wren
Mr. John Evelyn
Mr. Thomas Henshaw
Mr. Dudley Palmer
Mr. Abraham Hill
Mr. Henry Oldenburg
6
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
3
was empowered by the charter to nominate, during a period of two months,
what persons they thought proper as Members of the Society.* After the elapse
of this period all subsequent elections were to be conducted by the Society in a
body, and every candidate, in order to be admitted, required the votes of two
thirds of the Members present.
ing.
The Society first held their meetings at Gresham College; but, about the be- Place of meet-
ginning of the year 1667, Mr. Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk,
made them a present of the Arundel Library, which had been purchased by his
grandfather, the Earl of Arundel, during an embassy to Vienna. It had
formerly been part of the library of Mathew Corvinus, King of Hungary,
erected by him at Buda, in 1485, and after his death, in 1490, it came into the
possession of the famous Bilibaldus Pirckeimerus, of Nuremberg, who died in
* In consequence of this power, they declared the following persons Fellows of the Royal Society.
James, Lord Annesley
John Alleyn, Esq.
Elias Asmole, Esq.
John Austen, Esq.
John Aubrey, Esq.
George, Duke of Buckingham
George, Lord Berkeley
Robert, Lord Bruce
Richard Boyle, Esq.
Thomas Baynes, M. D.
Isaac Barrow, B. D.
Peter Balle, M. D.
John Brooks, Esq.
David Bruce, M. D.
George Bate, M. D.
William, Lord Cavendish
Walter Charleton, M. D.
Edward Cotton, D. D.
Daniel Colwall, Esq.
John Clayton, Esq.
Thomas Cox, M. D.
William Croone, M. D.
Francis Glisson, M. D.
John Graunt, Esq.
Christopher, Lord Hatton
Charles Howard, Esq.
William Hoare, M. D.
Sir Robert Harley
Nathaniel Henshaw, M. D.
James Hays, Esq.
William Holder, D. D.
Theodore Haake, Esq.
William Hammond, Esq.
John Hoskyns, Esq.
Robert Hooke, M. A.
Richard Jones, Esq.
Alexander, Earl of Kincardin
Sir Andrew King
John, Lord Lucas
James Long, Esq.
Anthony Lowthe, Esq.
John, Lord Visc. Massareene
Sir Anthony Morgan
Christopher Merret, M. D.
John, Earl of Crawford and James, Earl of Northampton
Lindsay
Henry, Marquis of Dorchester
William, Earl of Devonshire
Sir John Denham
Mr. John Dryden
Seth Ward, Bishop of Exeter
Andrew Ellis, Esq.
Sir Francis Feane
Sir John Finsh
Mons, Le Febure
Sir Thomas Nott
William Neile, Esq.
Jasper Needham, M. D.
Sir William Persal
Sir Richard Powle
Sir Robert Paston
Sir Peter Pett
Walter Pope, M. D.
John Pell, D. D.
Peter Pett, Esq.
Henry Powle, Esq.
Thomas Povey, Esq.
Henry Proby, Esq.
Philip Packer, Esq.
William Quatremaire, M. D.
Edward, Earl of Sandwich
Sir James Shaen
Charles Scarburgh, Esq.
Thomas Stanley, Esq.
George Smyth, M. D.
Alexander Stanhope, Esq.
Robert Southwell, Esq.
William Schroter, Esq.
Thomas Sprat, M. A.
Christopher Terne, M. D.
Samuel Tuke, Esq.
Cornelius Vermuyden, Esq.
Sir Cyril Wyche
Sir Peter Wyche
John Wallis, D. D.
Edmond Waller, Esq.
Joseph Williamson, Esq.
Francis Willughby, Esq.
William Winde, Esq.
John Winthrop, Esq.
Thomas Wren, M. D.
Christopher Wren, LL. D.
Edmond Wylde, Esq.
Daniel Whistler, M, D.
Sir Edward Bysshe
Sir John Birkenhead
Mons. Christian Huyghens
Mons. Samuel Sorbiere
i
R 2
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
Favourable
ence.
1530. It contains, besides a good number of printed books, many rare and
valuable manuscripts. At the same time, Mr. Howard gave the Society con-
venient apartments in Arundel House, to which they removed their meetings,
because Gresham College had been rendered unfit for that purpose in conse-
quence of the fire of London. In 1673, they were invited back to Gresham
College, by a deputation of the Professors and of the Mercer's Company and
they were induced to accept the offer because their apparatus and collection of
curiosities were deposited there, and because Mr. Hooke, their operator, resided
in that building. A grant of Chelsea College had been given them by Charles
II., and they formed the project of converting it into a house proper for their
meetings. Lord Henry Howard had likewise made them a present of a piece of
ground near Arundel House, upon which they resolved to build convenient
apartments by subscription. But neither of these designs was put into execu-
tion. They at last purchased a very convenient house in Crane Court, Fleet-
street, in which they continued to hold their meetings, till the British Govern-
ment, about 30 years ago, furnished them with apartments in Somerset House,
where their meetings have ever since been held, and their library and apparatus.
deposited.
The period of the institution of the Royal Society was peculiarly favourable
era for sci- for the objects in view. The spirit of inquiry, at first feeble, which animated
some individuals at the time of the revival of learning, had from numerous
causes gathered strength and spread itself over Europe. The Greek literary
men, who had taken refuge in Italy after the destruction of the Eastern Empire
by the Turks, brought with them a knowledge of their own language and some
of the finest models of writing that ever have been produced. These books
contributed to form the taste and enlighten the understandings of the poets and
historians of Italy, whose labours were fortunately appreciated and encouraged
by several of the principal men in that comparatively civilized country. The
progress of the mathematical sciences in Italy, France, Germany, and England;
the introduction of the new method of philosophizing by Lord Bacon; and
the happy illustration of that method, by the successful exertions of Galileo and
some of his contemporaries and successors, awakened an enthusiastic ardour in
the minds of literary men: the vast field of science lay exposed before them, the
true path of investigation had been discovered, and all were eager to enter
upon it. In that infant period of science every step was a discovery; every
judicious experiment led the fortunate philosopher to eminence. But all were
conscious of the immense space which was to be explored, of the little progress
that could be made by a single individual, and of the necessity of mutual
co-operation, and the division of scientific labour. Hence associations for the
purpose of experiment were naturally suggested, as the only means of ensuring
speedy and complete success. They furnished the money necessary for con-
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
ગ
5
venient apparatus without pressing too severely upon individuals, and
enabled the Members to make considerable progress in investigations with-
out dedicating more of their time to such subjects than they could conve-
niently spare.
At that period, the diffusion of new discoveries was peculiarly difficult, and
was chiefly accomplished by epistolary correspondence between philosophers
carried on in the Latin language. From the vast multitude of epistles left by
Erasmus, and some other eminent men of the same period, we may form some
notion of the great portion of time which must have been taken up in this kind
of correspondence. Even after every possible exertion, knowledge could be
very imperfectly diffused by such means. Hence another important purpose of
these associations was to publish, periodically, all the discoveries which came to
their knowledge. It is to these Societies, therefore, that we are indebted for
the present facility with which knowledge of every kind is diffused over the
world: the memoirs and transactions, and the monthly publications which
issue from the press in such numbers in most European countries, render it now
an easy matter to make oneself acquainted with every improvement in any
branch of science almost as soon as it takes place. Formerly, a philosopher
could not well appear before the world, unless he had a complete treatise to
publish. But at present, through these periodical channels, every idea and
new fact may be easily and advantageously communicated. The experimenter
runs but little risk of losing his labour by investigating what has been already
ascertained; while, by the multiplicity of co-operators, emulation and industry
are more likely to be maintained.
The period of the incorporation of the Royal Society was peculiarly favour-
able for the progress of science in Britain. The country had for many years
before been engrossed in a civil war, in which the energy and abilities of the
various partizans were called into the completest action. The parliament,
which from its nature and constitution was likely to contain the men of the
greatest talents in the nation, had gained the ascendancy, and in their turn had
been obliged to yield to the military usurpation of Oliver Cromwell. The Pro-
tector by his energy and abilities had crushed all opposition, and had made the
country respected and dreaded by the neighbouring states. After his death the
kingdom threatened to fall into complete anarchy, when the sudden restoration
of King Charles II. healed all divisions, and put an end to revolutionary vio-
lence. Then was a favourable time to draw the attention of the rich and the
well-informed to the improvement of science, and to direct the effervescence of
over-active minds to the advancement of knowledge, instead of political specu-
lations.
The number of eminent men who at that period existed in England, and were
disposed to associate for these important purposes, was uncommonly great, and
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
Philosophical
Transactions.
Society pro-
ceed by expe-
riment.
far surpassed what any other country in Europe could produce. The mathe-
matical sciences in particular and astronomy could boast of a great number of
very eminent cultivators. Indeed this was the age of British mathematics.
The Philosophical Transactions were the result of the labours of the Royal
Society. At first they were published by the Secretary in small numbers con-
sisting of a sheet or two, either monthly or seldomer, according as materials
were supplied. Many of the papers read before the Society were inserted in
these Transactions; but the editor took the liberty of putting into them like-
wise all the scientific information which he could pick up from any other chan-
nel. An analysis of books of science was frequently inserted, and indeed con-
tributed materially to the diffusion of knowledge, and tended very much to
bring works of merit into speedy celebrity.
From the nature and constitution of the Royal Society the objects of their
attention were necessarily unlimited. The physical sciences however, or those
which are promoted by experiment, were their declared objects; and experi-
ment was the method which they professed to follow in accomplishing their
purpose. Accordingly at first, and indeed for a considerable time after the
establishment of the Society, experiments were exhibited before them at every
meeting; and a person was appointed with a salary to contrive such experiments
as were proper to be shown, and to have every thing ready for the exhibition of
them against the meeting of the Society. This practice, in the infancy of ex-
perimental investigations, was probably attended with advantages, by putting
the spectators upon the right way of investigation, and inducing them to draw
legitimate consequences from their observations. But it was not the best way
of advancing the sciences. Experiments cannot be advantageously made by a
multitude or even before a multitude. Accordingly we find but few discoveries.
of importance made during these exhibitions, even when the experimenters were
eminently successful in their private labours at home. It is only necessary to
mention the names of Mr. Boyle, Dr. Hooke, and Dr. Grew, who frequently
exhibited experiments before the Society, to be convinced of the truth of this.
These experiments however were for the most part but repetitions of experi-
ments already made in private, and exhibited again with perfect propriety for
the satisfaction of the Society. In this way the knowledge of the subject was
spread rapidly, and fundamental points better established than they otherwise
might have been.
The Society, as might have been expected from the nature of such institu-
tions, underwent various periods of vigour and decay; though upon the whole
it has been progressive, and has continued to increase both in reputation and
in numbers. As the value of the Transactions was in some measure affected
by the abilities of the Secretary who had the superintendance of the publica-
tion, it may be worth while to lay before our readers the names of the succes
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
7
sive Secretaries with the different portions of the Transactions which they re-
spectively edited.
Transactions.
The Secretary, who began the publication of the Transactions, was Mr. Editors of the
Henry Oldenburg. The first Number was published in 1665; and he con- 1 Oldenburg.
tinued the publication till the period of his death in 1677, and published in all
136 numbers, making very nearly the whole of the first twelve volumes of the
Transactions. He was succeeded in office by Dr. Nehemiah Grew, who was 2 Grew.
chosen Secretary on the 30th of November 1677; he published Number 137,
and continued editor for two years. The last number which he published was
142. Dr. Grew was succeeded by Dr. Hooke. But the publication of the 3 Hooke.
Transactions was intermitted for three years. In 1681, Dr. Hooke began to
publish what he called Philosophical Collections; which have been always con-
sidered as constituting a portion of the Transactions, though under a different
name. Dr. Hooke continued his publication of the Collections during the
years 1681 and 1682, and published in all 7 numbers. The discontinuance of
the Transactions seems to have been owing to their very limited sale, and to
the small profit which accrued to the Secretary who acted as editor. But in
the year 1683, Dr. Robert Plot, who had, the preceding year, been chosen Secre- 4 Plot.
tary in place of Dr. Hooke, undertook to revive the publication, on condi-
tion that the Society would bind themselves to purchase 60 copies of each
number. Dr. Plot was editor during the years 1683 and 1684, and published
the 13th and 14th volumes, comprehending all the numbers between 143 and
166 inclusive. The 15th volume, comprehending the numbers between 167
and 178 inclusive, was edited by Mr. William Musgrave, who was Secretary 5 Musgrave.
during the year 1685.
This volume probably did not give much satisfaction to the Members of the
Royal Society. There seems also to have been a deficiency of materials; for it
appears, from the registers of the Society, that Dr. Edmund Halley, who had
been appointed Clerk to the Society in 1686, offered, on condition that the
publication should be renewed, to furnish one fourth of the whole out of his
own private stock. It would appear that Dr. Halley was editor of the 16th 6 Halley
volume, comprehending the numbers between 179 and 191 inclusive, and pub-
lished during the years 1686 and 1687. After the publication of this volume there
was an interval of three years without the appearance of any thing more, owing
obviously to the deficiency of materials. The publication was again revived in
1691, and though Dr. Halley was not the ostensible editor, he appears to have
been actively concerned in superintending the publication till the period of his
voyage to the southern hemisphere in 1698. For there is an order of council,
passed about that time, on record, enjoining Dr. Tyson, Mr. Hart, Dr. Sloane,
Mr. Waller, and Dr. Hooke, to assist Dr. Halley in drawing up the Transac-
tions. It is impossible to say how much each of these individuals contributed
8
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
7 Waller.
s Sloane.
9 Halley.
to the labour of editing; though there is reason to believe that the greatest
share of the drudgery fell upon Halley. Volumes 17 and 18, consisting of the
numbers between 192 and 214 inclusive, and published during the years 1691,
1692, 1693, and 1694, were ostensibly edited by Mr. Waller, who had been.
elected Secretary on the 30th of November 1687. The ostensible editor of all
the volumes from the 19th to the 28th inclusive, comprehending from number
215 to number 337, and published in succession between the years 1695 and
1713, was Sir Hans Sloane, who had been chosen Secretary on the 30th of
November 1693. Dr. Halley, chosen Secretary in 1713, was the editor of the
29th and 30th volumes, comprehending all the numbers between 338 and 363
inclusive, and published between the years 1714 and 1719, at the rate of two
numbers a year. The 31st, 32d, 33d, and 34th volumes, comprehending all
the numbers between 364 and 398, and published between the years 1720 and
1727, at the rate of two numbers annually, were edited by Dr. James Jurin,
chosen Secretary at the end of the year 1721. Dr. Rutty, chosen Secretary in
1727, was the editor of the 35th volume, consisting of eight numbers, namely
those between 399 and 406 inclusive, and published in the year 1728. Dr.
12 Mortimer. Cromwell Mortimer, elected Secretary in 1730, was the editor of the 36th
volume, and continued editor for a period of 20 years, during which he pub-
lished 11 volumes, comprehending all the numbers between 407 and 496 inclu-
sive. The 46th volume was published in 1750, and it was the last volume that
was published in numbers.
10 Jurin.
11 Rutty.
13 A Com-
mittee of the
Society.
In the year 1750, a Committee was appointed to superintend the publication;
and the Transactions ever since that period have been published in half volumes.
For the first 12 years only one half volume was published annually; but from
the year 1762, two half volumes or a complete volume have always made their
appearance every year.
* This volume, and all those published since, have been each prefaced by the following
ADVERTISEMENT.
"The Committee appointed by the Royal Society to direct the publication of the Philosophical
Transactions, take this opportunity to acquaint the public, that it fully appears, as well from the
council books and journals of the Society, as from the repeated declarations which have been made in
several former Transactions, that the printing of them was always, from time to time, the single act
of the respective secretaries, till this present 47th volume. And this information was thought the
more necessary, not only as it has been the conimon opinion that they were published by the autho
rity, and under the direction of the Society itself, but also because several authors, both at home and
abroad, have in their writings called them the Transactions of the Royal Society. Whereas in truth
the Society, as a body, never did interest themselves any further in their publication, than by occa
sionally recommending the revival of them to some of their secretaries, when, from the particular cir-
cumstances of their affairs, the Transactions had happened for any length of time to be intermitted.
And this seems principally to have been done with a view to satisfy the public, that their usual meet-
ings were then continued for the improvement of knowledge, and benefit of mankind, the great ends
of their first institution by the royal charters, and which they have ever since steadily pursued.
4
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
9
The preceding details, though of considerable importance, have from un-
avoidable necessity been so circumstantially minute as to border upon tedious-
ness. On that account we shall exhibit the whole under the form of a table,
which will enable the reader by a single glance of the eye to catch all the
details.

Year.
Number.
Volume.
Editor.
1665
1
7
6
8-20
1
Mr. Henry Oldenburg
7
21- 22
8
23- 40
2
9
41- 44
3
45- 54
54
1670
4
55— 56
1
57-68
5
69— 80
6
2
81- 91
7
3
92-100
8
4
101-109
9
5
110-120
10
121-122
6
123-132
11
7
133-137.
12
3 2 23932 2 22
Idem.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id. and Dr. Grew.
8
138-142
Dr. Grew.
Collections.
1681
2
1- 3
37
4 75
Dr. Hooke.
"But the Society being of late years greatly enlarged, and their communications more numerous,
it was thought advisable, that a Committee of their Members should be appointed to reconsider the
papers read before them, and select out of them such as they should judge most proper for publica-
tion in the future Transactions; which was accordingly done on the 26th of March 1752. And the
grounds of their choice are, and will continue to be, the importance or singularity of the subjects,
or the advantageous manner of treating them; without pretending to answer for the certainty of the
facts, or propriety of the reasonings contained in the several papers so published, which must still rest
on the credit or judgment of their respective authors.
"It is likewise necessary on this occasion to remark, that it is an established rule of the Society, to
which they will always adhere, never to give their opinion, as a body, on any subject, either of na-
ture or art, that comes before them. And therefore the thanks which are frequently proposed from
the chair, to be given to the authors of such papers as are read at their accustomed meetings, or to
the persons through whose hands they receive them, are to be considered in no other light than as a
matter of civility, in return for the respect shown to the Society by those communications. The like
also is to be said with regard to the several projects, inventions, and curiosities of various kinds,
which are often exhibited to the Society; the authors whereof, or those who exhibit them, frequently
take the liberty to report, and even to certify in the public news-papers, that they have met with the
highest applause and approbation. And therefore it is hoped that no regard will hereafter be paid to
such reports, and public notices; which in some instances have been too lightly credited, to the dis-
honour of the Society."
C
10
AN ACCOUNT OF THE

Year.
Number.
Volume.
Editor.
1683
143-154
13
4
155-166
14
Dr. Robert Plot.
Idem.
5
167-178
15
Mr. William Musgrave.
6
179-185)
16
7
186-191
Dr. Edmond Halley.
1691
192-194
2
195
17
Mr. Richard Waller.
3
196-206
4
207-214
18
Idem.
5
215-218
6
219-223
19
Sir Hans Stoane.
7
224-235
8
236-247
20
Idem.
9
248-259
21
Id.
1700
260-267
22
Id.
1
268-276
2
277-282
23
Id.
3
283-288
4
289-294
24
Id.
5
295-304
6
305-308
25
Id.
7
309-312
8
313-318)
26.
Id
g
319-324
1710
325-328
1
329-332
27
Id.
2
333-336
3
387
28
Id.
Ą
338-342
5
343-346
29
Dr. Edmond Halley.
6
347-350
7
351-354
8
355-358
30
Idem.
9
359-363
1720
364-366
31
Dr. James Jurin.
1
367-369
2
370-374)
32
Idem.
3
375-380
4
381-385
33
Id.
5
386-391
6
392-396
34
Id.
7
397-398
8
399-406
35
Dr. William Rutty.
9
407-411)
36
Dr. Cromwell Mortimer.
1730
412-416
1
417-421
37
Idem.
2
422-426
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
11
Year.
Number.
Volume.
Editor.

1733
427-430)
38
Dr. Cromwell Mortimer.
4
431-435
5
436-439)
39
Idem.
6
440-444 S
7
445-4467
40
Id.
8
447-451 S
9
452-455
1740
456-459
41
Id.
1
460-461
2
462-467
42
Id.
345
468-471
472-474
43
Id.
475-477 S
6
478-481)
44
Id.
7
482-484
8
485-490
45
Id.
9
491-493)
46
Id.
1750
494-496


Year.
Part. Volume.
Year.
Part.
Volume.
1751
1776
1, 2
66
פ פ
2
25
3
4
5
6
121Q
dandanda,
47
7
1, 2
67
8
1, 2
68
48
9
1, 2
69
1780
1, 2
70
49
1 1, 2
71
7
1
50
8
25
9
17
N ? +
2
1,
72
3
1, 2
73
1, 2
74
51
1760
2
5
1, 2
75
1
1
6
1, 2
76
52
25
7
1, 2
77
1. 2
53
8
1, 2
78
4
1. 2
54
9
1, 2
79
5
1, 2
55
1790
1,
80
6
1, 2
56
1
1, 2
81
7
1, 2
57
2
1, 2
82
8
1, 2
58
3
1, 2
83
9
1, 2
59
4
1, 2
84
1770
1, 2
60
5
1, 2
85
1
1, 2
61
6
1, 2
86
1, 2
62
7
1, 2
87
3
1, 2 63
1, 2
88
4
1, 2
64
9
1, 2
89
5
1, 2
65
1800
1, 2
90
C 2
12
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
Transactions
vary in value.
The nature of the papers read before the Society, and of course the value of
the Transactions published, were considerably influenced by the President. If
any person will take the trouble to examine the volumes published during the
presidency of Martin Folkes, Esq., and to compare them with the rest of the
work, he will find a much greater proportion of trifling and puerile papers than
are any where else to be found. It was during this period that Sir John Hill
published his Review of the Works of the Royal Society of London, in which
he endeavours, with all the humour and all the knowledge he was master of,
to throw ridicule upon the labours of that illustrious body. He was induced,
it is said, to take this step in consequence of being disappointed in an attempt
which he had made to be elected a Fellow. The story is by no means impro-
bable, though he himself formally disavows its truth.* It cannot be denied
that he has selected and exposed a variety of trifling and absurd papers. But
his own humour is coarse and poor, and in more instances than one the state-
ments contained in the papers which he attempts to ridicule are much more
accurate than his own. He affirms that, at the time when he wrote, the
Society was entirely under the management of Mr. Henry Baker, a man of
acknowledged abilities, but whose knowledge and pursuits were too circum-
scribed to qualify him for superintending such a Society with advantage.
Immediately on the election of Lord Macclesfield, who succeeded Martin
Folkes as President, in 1752, a very striking improvement is observable in the
value of the Transactions. Many excellent papers made their appearance in the
Transactions during the presidentship of the Earl of Morton. The unfor-
tunate dispute between Mr. Wilson and the other Electricians of the Royal
Society, about the relative goodness of pointed or knobbed conductors, occupies
too great a proportion of the Transactions during the presidentship of Sir John
Pringle; yet the volumes of that period contain many memorable papers: as,
for example, Dr. Maskelyne's experiments at Schehallien, to determine the
density of the earth, with Dr. Hutton's deductions from them; the experiments
of Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, and of General Roy, in order to establish
correct formulas for measuring heights by the barometer; the report of the
Committee appointed by the Royal Society to determine the proper method of
graduating thermometers; the experiments of Mr. Hutchins to ascertain the
freezing point of Mercury, and many others. Whoever will examine the
Transactions with care, will easily satisfy himself that by far the most valuable
volumes of that work are the 32 which have been published during the presi-
dentship of Sir Joseph Banks, and, fortunately for the progress of science,
he has enjoyed that situation for a much longer period than any of his prede-
cessors.
We shall here insert, for the satisfaction of our readers, a list of all the suc-
* See the preface to Sir John Hill's book, p. 6.
4
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
13
cessive Presidents of the Royal Society, with the time of their election and the
number of years which each held the office.
Presidents' Names.
William Lord Viscount Brouncker....
Sir Joseph Williamson, Kt...
Sir Christopher Wren, Kt.
Sir John Hoskins, Bart.
Sir Cyril Wyche, Bart.
Samuel Pepys, Esq..
John, Earl of Carbery.
P
Date of Election.
.. April 22, 1663...... 14
Nov. 30, 1677..
Nov. 30, 1680.
Years
in Office.
3
Presidents of
the Society.
2
Nov. 30, 1682...
1
1
Dec. 1, 1684....
2
... Nov. 30, 1686...
3
1
5
Nov. 30, 1683.
Thomas, Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery... Nov. 30, 1689.
Sir Robert Southwell, Kt...
Dec. 1, 1690..
Charles Montague, Esq. (afterwards Earl of Nov. 30, 1695...... 3
Halifax.).
John, Lord Somers.
Sir Isaac Newton, Kt.
Sir Hans Sloane, Bart.
Martin Folkes, Esq.
·
George, Earl of Macclesfield
James, Earl of Morton...
James Burrow, Esq.
James West, Esq..
}
Nov. 30, 1698.
5
.
Nov. 30, 1703...
24
Nov. 30, 1727.. ..14
Nov. 30, 1744.... .. 11
Nov. 30, 1764......
Nov. 30, 1768.....
Sept. 1768
Nov. 30,
1752.. .12
4
· 4
July 1772
Nov. 30, 1772.
Nov. 30,
6
James Burrow, Esq.
Sir John Pringle, Bart.
Sir Joseph Banks, Bart.
1772....
1778 Still continues.
We shall subjoin a list of the Secretaries of the Royal Society, with the date
of their elections; from which, the length of time that they continued respec-
tively in office can easily be ascertained. There are always two Secretaries at
the same time; and whenever either of them resigns or is displaced, another is
always elected in his room. The list therefore will consist of two columns, one
for each Secretary.
First Secretary.
Date of Election.
Second Secretary.
Date
of Election.
John Wilkins, D.D.... April 22, 1663 Henry Oldenburg, Esq. April 22, 1663 Secretaries
Thomas Henshaw, Esq.. Nov. 30, 1668
John Evelyn, Esq.
Nov. 30, 1672
Abraham Hill, Esq..... Nov. 30, 1673
Thomas Henshaw, Esq.. Nov. 30, 1675
11
AN ACCOUNT OF THE
First Secretary,
Foreign
Secretaries.
Date of Election.
Thomas Gale, D.D..... Nov. 30, 1679
Francis Aston, Esq. Nov. 30, 1681
Second Secretary,
Date of Elcetion,
Nehemiah Grew, M.D.. Nov. 30, 1677
Mr. Robert Hooke
Dec. 9, 1685, both Secretaries resigned.
Sir John Hoskyns, Bart.. Dec. 16, 1685 Thomas Gale, D.D. . . . . Dec. 16, 1685
Richard Waller, Esq.... Nov. 30, 1687
John Harris, D.D...... Nov. 30, 1709
Richard Waller, Esq. ... Nov. 30, 1710
Brook Taylor, LL.D. . . . Jan. 13, 1714
John Machin, Ast.
Prof. Gresh....
Peter Daval, Esq.
Dec. 1, 1718
Nov. 30, 1747
Charles Morton, M.D.. Nov. 30, 1759
Samuel Horsley, LL.B.. Nov. 30, 1773
Paul Henry Maty, M.A.. Nov. 30, 1778
Charles Blagden, M.D.. May 5, 1784
Edward Whitaker
Nov. 30, 1797
Gray, M.D.....
Humphry Davy, Esq. . . Jan. 22, 1807
Hans Sloane, M.D..... Nov. 30, 1693
Edmond Halley, LL.D.. Nov. 30, 1713
James Jurin, M.D..... Nov. 30, 1721
William Rutty, M.D... Nov. 30, 1727
Cromwell Mortimer,
M.D.....
Nov.30, 1730
}..
Thomas Birch, D.D.... Jan. 21, 1752
Mathew Maty, M.D... Nov. 30, 1765
Joseph Planta, Esq..... Nov.30, 1776
Will. Hyde Wollas-
ton, M.D......... Nov.30, 1806
The following is a list of the Foreign Secretaries of the Royal Society.
Date of Election.
April 11, 1723
Names.
Philip Henry Zollman.
April 18, 1728.... Dr. Dillenius
and
Appointed by the Council in room of
Mr. Zollman (he being obliged to attend
the Congress at Soissons) till his return.
Dr. Schuchzer.
Aug. 29, 1748.... Thomas Stack, M.D.
Nov. 20, 1751.... James Parsons, M.D.
March 4, 1762.... Matthew Maty, M.D.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
15
Date of Election.
Names.
Dec. 11,
Feb. 13,
1766.... John Bevis, M.D.
1772.... Paul Henry Maty, M.A.
June 30,
1774.... Mr. Joseph Planta.
Jan. 14,
1779.... Mr. Charles Hutton.
June 17,
1784.... Rev. Charles Peter Layard, M.A.
Mar. 22, 1804.... Thomas Young, M.D.
That we may lay a complete list of all the office-bearers of the Society before
our readers, we shall subjoin the Treasurers and the Clerks.
Treasurers,
William Ball, Esq.
Abraham Hill, Esq.
Daniel Colwal, Esq.
·
Abraham Hill, Esq.
Alexander Pitfield, Esq.
Roger Gale, Esq..
•
James West, Esq.
•
Samuel Wegg, Esq..
William Marsden, Esq.
Clerks.
Mr. Wicks..
Dr. Edmond Halley.
Mr. Henry Hunt.
Mr. Alban Thomas..
Mr. Francis Hauksbee..
•
·
Mr. Emanuel Mendez da Costa.
Mr. John Robertson..
Mr. John Robertson, Jun.
..
..
...
Date of Election.
April 22, 1663
Years
in Office.
Treasurers.
2
•
. 14
..21
Nov. 30, 1663....
Nov. 30, 1665.
Dec. 1, 1679.
Nov. 30, 1700... .28
Nov. 30, 1728...... 8
Nov. 30, 1736...... 32
Nov. 30, 1768...... 34
Nov. 30, 1802 Still continues.
Date of Election.
Years
in Office.
May 13, 1663...... 23
Jan. 27, 1686....
... Dec. 7, 1713..... 9
May 9, 1723.... 39
Feb. 3, 1763.....
... Jan.
7, 1768...
.. Jan.
9, 1777..
5
. 9
8
Clerks
Mr. George Gilpin.
Mr. Stephen Lee..
March 3, 1785...... 21
Nov. 30,
1810 Still continues.
The only account of a Literary Society which can be at all valuable or in-
teresting, is a detail of the efforts which they have made to increase the stock
of knowledge, and to promote the various branches of science to which they
have directed their attention. The result of these efforts is contained in the
Transactions of the Royal Society. Our object therefore will be to take a com-
prehensive view of the contents of these volumes, and to lay before our readers
the additions which the various sciences have received from the labours of this
7
16
ACCOUNT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Divisions.
illustrious Society. Now as almost every man of science in the British empire,
who has flourished since the original establishment of this Society, has been
enrolled among its Fellows, our work will contain in fact a history of the pro-
gress of the sciences in Great Britain during the last 150 years. By compar-
ing this progress with the present state of each science, we shall discover at a
glance what portion of each originated in Britain, and what portion on the
Continent. This comparative view cannot but be highly gratifying to a British
reader. We are far from wishing to depreciate the merits of the illustrious phi-
losophers on the Continent: they have been numerous and highly respectable.
But owing no doubt to the superior advantages attending a free government, a
much greater number of discoveries than ought to have fallen to our share, if
we attend only to the comparative population of the different countries, have
originated in Britain.
All the subjects treated of in the Philosophical Transactions may be arranged
under the five following divisions.
I. NATURAL HISTORY.
II. MATHEMATICS.
III. MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.
IV. CHEMISTRY.
V. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
We shall consider each of these divisions in succession in the five following
books; taking the liberty of passing over some of the subjects more slightly
than others; either when they occupy only an inferior department in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, or when they are of such a nature as not to be well sus-
ceptible of compression and generalization.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
17
BOOK I.
OF NATURAL HISTORY.
NATURAL History, as far at least as it constitutes a department in the
Philosophical Transactions, may be divided into four distinct heads; namely,
1 Botany. 3 Mineralogy.
2 Zoology. 4 Geography and Topography.
These will occupy our attention successively in the four following Chapters
CHAP. I.
OF BOTANY.
Botany.
BOTANY, or that part of Natural History which treats of plants, is one of the
most delightful branches of human knowledge, and has always commanded a very
numerous body of enthusiastic cultivators, ever since it assumed the form of a
science. If we take it in its most extensive signification, it consists, in reality,
of three distinct parts, which have been usually cultivated by different indi-
viduals. To the first part belongs the collection of plants, their description, Division of
and their artificial arrangement into a system in such a manner that every
species may be sufficiently distinguished from all the others, and that it may be
in the power of every person who understands, and is in the possession of the
system, to discover by means of it the name of every plant with which he may
happen to meet. This first part of botany is an essential preliminary to the
other two; for it is obvious that no communication whatever can be handed
down respecting plants, till we are in possession of the means of discovering
the plants, concerning which the writer treats. The second branch of botany
may be called the anatomy and physiology of plants. It is exceedingly curious
and important. It originated in Britain, and indeed took its rise from the
Royal Society; and almost all the additions to it, even to our own times, have
been made by the Members of that illustrious body. The third branch of
botany relates to the agriculture and economical uses of plants.
D
18
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Origin of
Botany.
We shall take a general view of these three departments of botany, as far
as the labours of the Royal Society are connected with them in the three fol-
lowing sections.
SECT. I.-Of the Description and Arrangement of Plants.
It is to this branch of the science that the term Botany, in common lan-
guage, is confined. It has always been considered as highly interesting, and
has been followed by numerous and enthusiastic cultivators. It must be con-
sidered as entirely modern. The ancients, indeed, have left us descriptions,
though they are imperfect ones, of many plants; but no systematic arrangement
seems ever to have been attempted or conceived by them. Hence the obscurity
and uncertainty which overhang all that they have left us on the subject.
The Greek and Roman writers, who treat professedly of plants, unless
Aristotle be included, (and the botanical works ascribed to him are unques-
tionably spurious,) are only three; namely, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and
Theophrastus. Pliny. Theophrastus, a native of Lesbos, the disciple and successor of Aristo-
tle, born about 370 years before the Christian era, was one of the most cele-
brated of all the ancients. He wrote two treatises on plants, both of which have
come down to us almost entire. The first, entitled History of Plants; the
second, On the Causes of Plants. In these works he mentions and even endeavours
to describe about 500 species. But his descriptions are so imperfect, and his allu-
sions so doubtful, that, in spite of the unwearied exertions of his commentators,
many of the species to which he alludes remain ambiguous.* As a commence-
ment of the study, however, the books have their value, and certainly deserve
to be examined as literary curiosities.
Dioscorides.
Pliny.
Dioscorides, a Greek writer, who published a work on Materia Medica, lived,
there is every reason to believe, during the reign of Nero. Though he was rather
a collector of receipts than a botanist, he was long considered, it is difficult to
conceive for what reason, as the prince of botanical writers. Every thing of any
value respecting plants was supposed to exist in his works, and therefore inde-
fatigable pains were bestowed by modern commentators, in order to determine
the species to which he alludes. But these labours have, if possible, been
attended with less success than those bestowed upon his predecessor, Theo-
phrastus.†
Pliny, the elder, may be considered as almost the only naturalist who
* Sprengel has bestowed uncommon pains in ascertaining the plants mentioned by Theophrastus.
In his Historia Rei Herbarice, Tom. I. p. 71, he has given a table of no fewer than 355 species, with
their Linnæan names.
+ Sprengel, in his Hist. Rei Herbariæ, Tom. I. p. 156, has given a very copious list of the plants
mentioned by Dioscorides, with their Linnæan names.
5
CHAP. I.]
19
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
appeared among the Romans. He lived during the reigns of Vespasian and
Titus, and fell a sacrifice to his curiosity during an eruption of Mount Vesuvius,
in the 56th year of his age and the 79th of the Christian era. His Natural
History is one of the most interesting monuments which antiquity has left us.
It was compiled, as he himself informs us, from the works of 2500 preceding
writers, and includes every branch of natural knowledge with which the an-
cients were acquainted. His work is divided into 37 books, and 16 of these
are devoted to plants. He mentions above 600 species; but in many places is
far from accurate, often translating from Theophrastus and Dioscorides, with-
out understanding the correct meaning of these authors, as has been sufficiently
proved by Hermolaus Barbarus, Nicolaus Leonicenus, and some others of his
early commentators. Like his predecessors, he treats of those plants only
which were employed in medicine, or applied to the various purposes of domestic
œconomy.
*
The Arabians added but little to the botanical knowledge which they derived Arabians.
from the Greeks. That nation in fact was never more than half civilized, and
their learned men were nearly destitute of invention, and leaned entirely on the
Grecian improvements, which they contented themselves with translating and
transfusing into their own language.
No progress in botany can be expected during the dark ages of Europe.
The cultivation of the sciences was first revived in Italy, where knowledge began
to be valued in consequence of the commerce of the different states and the en-
lightened patronage of the Italian princes. The cultivation of the Greek lan-
guage was encouraged, and the classic stores of the ancients investigated with
The first step towards the revival of botany, was to study the works of
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, and to determine, as far as possible,
the plants which these writers describe. These endeavours produced a whole
herd of commentators and translators, who acquired a splendid reputation Commenta-
during the 16th century. But it was soon found that without an examination
care.
* Sprengel has given the Linnæan names of a great number of the plants mentioned by Pliny.
Hist. Rei Herb. Tom. I. p. 200.
+ Some of the most distinguished of these, were
1. Georgius Valla, a native of Placentia. He published, in 1501, an epitome of all the Greek
writers on medicine and materia medica.
2. Hermolaus Barbarus, a noble Venetian, who died in 1493. He published, in 1492, a cor-
rected edition of Pliny. The performance was too hasty; yet he corrected many of Pliny's errors,
though he overlooked the most weighty.
3. Marcellus Vergilius, a Florentine. He was the first that undertook to correct Dioscorides.
He published a corrected edition of that writer with a commentary, at Florence, in 1518.
4. Nicolaus Leonicenus, a Venetian of prodigious learning. He was long a professor at Ferrara,
and lived till he was above 100. He elucidated the works of Serapion and Pliny.
5. Joannes Manardes, of Ferrara. He was born in 1462, and died in 1536. He illustrated the
works of Mesues, and corrected Marcellus Vergilius's edition of Dioscorides.
tors.
D 2
20
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Gesner.
Casalpinus.
of the plants themselves, it would be vain to expect to make out the descrip-
tions of the ancients. This consideration induced various medical men to make
collections of the plants which grew in the countries where they resided, and
to publish catalogues containing the result of their labours. This soon informed
botanists that every thing respecting plants was not contained in the writings.
of the ancients; that, in truth, the ancients had attempted to describe, or
enumerate, only a very small number of plants, while the great body had
escaped their attention.*
But these publications, though they tended to increase the knowledge of
plants, were far from being entitled to the name of scientific. They were
mere catalogues, without any attempt at arrangement. The real founder of
botany, as a science, was Conrad Gesner, who was born at Zurich, in Switzer-
land, in 1516. He was destined for the church; but marrying at an early age,
he was reduced to the most abject poverty, and obliged to turn himself to the
study of medicine. He afterwards practised in his native city, and died of the
plague in 1565, in the 49th year of his age.
&
He first suggested the idea of a methodical arrangement of plants, according
to classes, orders, genera, and species: an idea which all true botanists have
followed ever since, and to which the very existence of botany, as a science,
is to be ascribed. He pitched upon the fruit as the part of the plant from which
the characters were to be drawn.
Andrew Casalpinus, born at Arezzo, in the district of Florence, in 1519,
attempted an arrangement of plants, founded also upon the fruit. His know-
ledge of plants was too limited to enable him to accomplish his plan with
success. But his descriptions are excellent, and the new views which he sug-
gested were of the highest importance.
The number of botanical writers, who had by this time appeared in various
parts of Europe, was so great, and the names applied to the same plants so
numerous and discordant, that the subject was thrown into the greatest con-
fusion; and, unless some person had arisen willing to undertake the herculean
labour of arranging the chaotic mass, the science itself was in danger of
* The first publishers of botanical catalogues, were
1. Symphorianus Can pegius, of Lyons, physician to the Duke of Lorrain. He published an
account of various French plants in 1538.
2. Otho Brunfels, a physician, in Bern, who died in 1534. He delineated the plants of his
country in wood. His Herbarium was published in 1537.
3. Hieronimus Tragus, the Friend of Brunfels, born in 1498, died in 1554. His book on the
history of plants was published by Conrad Gesner, in 1532.
4. Leon Fuchsius, a physician, at Ingolstadt, born in 1501, died in 1565. He published a
history of plants
5. Antonius Musa Brasavolus, a Venetian. He published at Lyons, in 1537, an excellent book,
entitled Examen omnium simplicium medicamentorum.
2
CHAP. I.]
21
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
destruction. This was in a great measure accomplished by the two illustrious
brothers, John and Casper Bauhin, born in Switzerland, and pupils of Gesner. The Baubius.
John devoted the whole of his life to the composition of a work, which he left
complete in manuscript, and which was first published in 1650. This work
was nothing less than an Universal History of Plants. Casper Bauhin under-
took, and fortunately completed, a much more important and original work.
which was first printed in 1623, under the name of Pinax Theatri Botanici.
This book was meant as an index to all the botanical knowledge then in the
world; and, as its author informs us, it was the labour of 40 years. In this
work about 6000 plants are arranged in twelve books, with some slight atten-
tion to system. Each plant is distinguished by a kind of descriptive name, and
under it are placed the names given by every preceding author. This work
produced a pause in the progress of botany: the learned thought it sufficient if
they knew and called the plants by the names which Bauhin had given.
Such nearly was the state of botany, as far as the arrangement and descrip-
tion of plants are concerned, at the period when the Royal Society was
founded.
The progress which it has made since that period is prodigious, and perhaps Progress since
unexampled in any other department of science. Nearly 30,000 species of the Sorcery of
origin
the Society.
plants have been examined and described, and so admirably arranged, that it is
easy to find the place of any one in the system, and even to ascertain its name
and relations if it has been already examined and classified. It would be in vain
to look for any considerable part of this progress in the Transactions of the
Royal Society. That work was never considered as the proper place for register-
ing the labours of botanists, which were usually of too great length and too ex-
pensive to be inserted in a periodical work. But a considerable proportion of
the most eminent improvers of botany were Members of the Royal Society,
and botany stands indebted to Great-Britain for a very great number of the new
species which have been added to her treasures. On that account we think it
requisite to give a short view of these improvements, that our readers may per-
ceive what part of the progress has been the work of British botanists, and
what part has been accomplished by the botanists on the Continent.
pers in the
The botanical papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount to 100.* But Botanical pa-
of these there are 38 which cannot be considered as of any value. Only 24 Transactions.
new species are described. Several of the most eminent botanists, though Fel-
lows of the Society, did not contribute a single paper.
mention the name of Dillenius to be satisfied of this.
ment of the Linnæan Society in 1788, no botanical papers have been admitted
It is only necessary to
Since the commence-
* Among these we do not reckon the numerous lists of new plants annually published for a series
of years by the Society of Apothecaries, in obedience to the last will of Sir Hans Sloane, who be-
queathed to them his botanic garden on that condition.
22
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
llow.
Merret.
Plukenet.
into the Transactions of the Royal Society. If it came within our plan to
take a view of the ten volumes of Linnæan Transactions which have been al-
ready published, we should have it in our power to present our readers with a
rich and exquisite feast of botanical knowledge.
One of the declared objects of the Royal Society at its original establishment
was botany. Botanical committees were established; directions given to those
Members who went abroad to send accounts of rare plants; correspondents were
established in America, Asia, and Africa, for the same purpose; and persons
were even employed to traverse England in order to collect plants and other
natural curiosities. It seems to have been in some measure owing to these liberal
and enlightened exertions, and to the subsequent labours of Ray, that the study
of botany became extremely fashionable in England, and produced that cluster
of eminent men whose illustrious labours Linnæus dignifies with the name of
the golden age of botany. Gerard, Johnson, and Parkinson, lived before this
period, and do not therefore come within our view. Their writings were of
considerable importance at the time in which they appeared. The Theatrum
Botanicum of Parkinson is the most laboured and original work, though he ac-
quired less reputation than either of the other two. The first British Flora was
published by How in 1650, under the title of Phytologia Britannica, Natales
exhibens indigenarum Stirpium sponte emergentium. A meritorious book, con-
sidering the period and the opportunities of How. It contained 1,220 species;
many of which however were not indigenous, and many would now be rejected
as varieties.
Dr. Christopher Merret, a physician in considerable practice in London, and
an early and active Member of the Royal Society, deserves to be mentioned on
account of his Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum, continens Vegetabilia,
Animalia, et Fossilia, in hac Insula reperta, published in 1667. The greater
part of this book is occupied with the plants. He employed Willisel, as he
informs us, for five years to travel through England and collect plants for him.
He describes 1,400 species; but several of these are not indigenous, and a still
greater number are only varieties. His knowledge of the subject was too limited
to prevent him from falling into numerous mistakes. The plants are arranged
alphabetically, and only the synonyms of Gerard and Parkinson are given. But
the most illustrious botanists of these times, as far as description of new species
is concerned, were Plukenet, Sloane, Petiver, and the Sherards. Morison and
Ray indeed, as the revivers of systematic botany, occupy a superior place, and
are entitled to be considered separately.
Dr. Leonard Plukenet does not appear to have been a Member of the Royal
Society, and but few memorials of his life remain. He was born in 1642, ap-
pears to have been educated at Cambridge, and settled in London, but never
got into extensive practice. He lived at Old Palace-yard, Westminster, where
CHAP. I.]
23
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
he appears to have cultivated a small botanical garden. His zeal for botany was
excessive; he had correspondents in all parts of the world, and spared no ex-
pense to procure new and rare plants. He had access to the gardens in the
neighbourhood of London, and to that at Hampton Court, which was at that
time in a flourishing state. Such was his zeal and industry, that his herbarium
at last consisted of 8,000 plants, a much greater number than any botanist had
possessed since the days of Bauhin. The result of all this industry was com-
municated to the public in four works, containing about 500 new species,
and still valuable to the botanist on account of the numerous figures which
they contain. These figures amount to upwards of 2,740, of very unequal
merit, but all upon too small a scale. His works were; 1. PHYTOGRAPHIA, or
engravings of the more important and rarer plants, published in four parts suc-
cessively, and consisting of 328 plates. 2. ALMAGESTUM BOTANICUM; sive
Phytographia Plukenetiana Onomasticon, methodo synthetico digestum; exhi-
bens Stirpium exoticarum, rariorum, novarumque nomina, quæ descriptionis
locum supplere possint. 3. ALMAGESTI BOTANICI MANTISSA, Plantarum novis-
sime delectarum ultra millenarium numerum complectens. This may be consi-
dered as a continuation and amplification of the preceding works; many new
figures are given, and much curious critical information occurs. 4. AMALTHEUM
BOTANICUM ; seu Stirpium Indicarum alterum Copia Cornu, millenas ad minimam
et bis centum diversas Species novas et indictas nominatim comprehendens; qua-
rum sexcenæ et insuper selectis Iconibus ancisque Tabulis illustrantur. Plukenet
began to publish in 1691, and his last work was printed in 1705. He proba-
bly died soon after.
Mr. James Petiver was a contemporary of Plukenet. He was an apothecary Paiver..
in Aldersgate-street, London, where he resided during his whole life. In course
of time he became apothecary to the Charterhouse, and obtained a considerable
share of practice in his profession. He was a very active Member of the Royal
Society, and contributed a good many papers to the Transactions, the greater
number of which however are on zoological subjects. He collected a museum
of natural history with infinite industry, which must have been of very consider-
able value, as Sir Hans Sloane offered to purchase it from him for 4,000l. which
were refused. His publications, not reckoning a variety of minor ones of in-
ferior importance, nor his detached papers published in the Transactions, were
the following: 1. MUSEI PETIVERIANI Centuriæ decem. This book contains
the names of various rare animals, minerals, and plants. Several cryptogamous
plants make their first appearance in this work; in the investigation of which
plants Petiver was very successful. 2. GAZOPHYLACII NATURE ET ARTIS Decades
decem. This book was of very considerable value, as it contained engravings.
and descriptions of many new plants, chiefly American ferns and plants from.
the Cape of Good Hope. 3. In the third volume of Mr. Ray's History of
24
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Sloane.
Plants there is an account of the rare plants from China, Madras, and Africa,
by Petiver, comprehending more than a thousand species. 4. A Catalogue of
Plants found on the Mountains about Geneva, the Jura, La Dole, Saleve;
with others growing in the fields, &c. as observed by Gesner, the Bauhines,
Chabræus, and Ray. 5. PTERIGRAPHIA AMERICANA: Icones continens plus-
quam cccc Filicum variarum Specierum. Tab. 20. 1712. Fol. 6. A Catalogue
of Mr. Ray's English Herbal, with Figures. This work Mr. Petiver did not
live to complete; two parts only were published, containing 72 plates and
figures of 864 species of plants. This work is of considerable importance in
enabling us to ascertain the particular varieties described by Ray. The figures,
though only outlines and small, are very neat and distinct. Petiver had paid par-
ticular attention to English botany, and was the first discoverer of many British
plants. The second part of this work was published in 1715, and the author
probably died soon after.
Dr. Sloane, afterwards Sir Hans Sloane, acquired, during his life time, a
higher reputation than any botanist that Britain has produced, if we except
Ray. Indeed his merit must be admitted to have been very great. He was
born in the North of Ireland in the year 1660, of parents originally of Scotch
extraction. He studied the preliminary branches of medicine in London for
four years, and afterwards went to France for further improvement. At Paris
he studied under Tournefort and Du Verney; and he is supposed to have taken
his degrees in medicine at Montpelier. He returned to London in 1684, and
became the favourite of Dr. Sydenham, who took him into his house, and zeal-
ously promoted his interest. In 1684, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1687 became a Member of the College of Physicians. Though
these early advancements held out a flattering prospect of success in his profes-
sion, his passion for natural history induced him, in 1687, to relinquish his
situation, and to accompany the Duke of Albemarle to Jamaica as his physi-
cian. They touched at Madeira, Barbadoes, Nevis, and St. Christopher's;
but soon after their arrival in Jamaica the Duke died, and this contracted the
term of Dr. Sloane's stay in the island to 15 months. His industry during that
time must have been indefatigable, if we attend to the immense harvest which
he reaped. The task indeed at that period was not so arduous as it has since
become. Dr. Sloane was well acquainted with all the natural knowledge of his
age, and he was the first naturalist that ever went to the West-Indies for the
express purpose of prosecuting his science. Hence every thing was new, and
the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms in a great measure at his disposal. On
his return he settled in London as a physician, and soon acquired celebrity and
immense practice.
In 1696, he published the Prodromus to his history of Jamaica plants, under
the title of Catalogus Plantarum quæ in Insula Jamaica sponte proveniunt, vel
CHAP. I.]
25
NATURAL HISTORY.—BOTANY.
vulgo coluntur; cum earundem Synonymis et Locis natalibus; adjectis aliis qui-
busdam quæ
in Insulis Madeira, Barbados, Nieves, et Sancti Christophori nas-
cuntur: seu Prodromi Historie Naturalis Jamaica Pars prima. Præter Indicem
valde copiosum Nominum et Synonymorum. This work gives an account of about
800 species of plants, many of them new, arranged according to the method
of Ray. The descriptions and figures are so accurate that little difficulty was
found by succeeding botanists in determining the plants to which Sloane al-
ludes. Prodigious learning and industry are displayed in settling the synonyms
of all the plants mentioned by preceding botanists; in order to prevent the pos-
sibility of describing as new those vegetables which were already known. The
first volume of his great work, the History of Jamaica, was published in 1707,
and the second in 1725. The title of this work is as follows. A Voyage to the
Islands, Madeira, Barbadoes, Nevis, St. Christopher's, and Jamaica; with the
Natural History of the Herbs and Trees, Four-footed Beasts, Fishes, Birds, In-
sects, Reptiles, &c. To which is prefixed an Introduction, wherein is an Account.
of the Inhabitants, Air, IVater, Diseases, Trade, &c. of that Place; with some
Relations concerning the neighbouring Continent and Islands of America. This
work displays the erudition and industry of the author in a most conspicuous point
of view. It is curious, that out of 800 plants described by Sloane, 100 are ferns,
and most of the rest arborescent vegetables. It is now well understood, that a
much greater proportion of the vegetables which occur in the torrid zone are
trees, than of those which occur in the temperate climates. The plates amount
to 274.
:
This voyage of Sloane raised a corresponding emulation in France, and
induced Louis XIV. to send Plumier to the Caribbee Islands, and Tournefort
to the Levant; voyages, both of them productive of considerable advantage to
botany. In 1708, Sloane was elected a Foreign Member of the Academy of
Sciences, at Paris; in 1719 he was made President of the College of Physicians;
and in 1727, on the death of Sir Isaac Newton, he became President of the
Royal Society. He was Governor of almost every Hospital in London: to
each he presented 1007. during his life-time, besides a legacy which he be
queathed them at his death. The papers which he published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, of which he was for some years editor, amount to 35.
Several of these are upon medical subjects; several on subjects connected with
mineralogy and zoology; but by far the greatest part are botanical, and of very
considerable value: containing the first accurate account of various plants,
important either in medicine or domestic economy; as for example, the myr-
tus pimento, or Jamaica pepper; the Winterania canella; the drimys Winteri,
or Winter's bark tree; the protea argentea, or silver pine; the coffea arabica,
or coffee shrub, &c. Sir Hans Sloane began very early to form a museum of
natural curiosities. His voyage to Jamaica procured him a considerable num-
4
E
26
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Sherard.
Dillenius.
ber of articles, which were prodigiously increased by the indefatigable industry
of the collector, especially by the purchase of Courten's and Pettiver's museums.
The museum of Sloane at last consisted of above 30,000 articles; besides 2001
volumes of dried plants, and an excellent library. It now constitutes the prin-
cipal part of the British Museum, and is a lasting monument of the liberality
and zeal of the collector. In 1741, at the age of 80, he resigned his different
situations in London, and retired to Chelsea, where he passed his time in
serenity and in the constant exercise of benevolence, till the period of his death,
Jan. 11, 1752.
William Sherard, LL. D., was born in 1659, in Leicestershire, educated at
Merchant Taylors' School, and afterwards at St. John's College, Oxford. He
travelled on the continent, first with Lord Viscount Townsend, and afterwards
with a grandson of the first Duke of Bedford. His passion for botany was
great, and his progress uncommon, in the investigation both of English and
foreign plants, as appears from the obligations which Mr. Ray acknowledges
to have lain under to him. About the year 1702, he was appointed Consul at
Smyrna, where he resided about 16 years, cultivating a botanic garden and
forming his Herbarium, which afterwards became unrivalled; comprehending
about 12,000 species of plants. After his return to Britain with a handsome
fortune, he made another tour to the continent in 1721. It was by his means,
chiefly, that the manuscripts of Vaillant were purchased and published by
Boerhaave. On his return, he brought over with him the celebrated Dillenius,
whom he encouraged to persevere in his investigation of the cryptogamous
plants, and whom he kept with him to the period of his death. He bequeathed
3,000l. to the University of Oxford, to establish a botanical professorship, on
condition that Dillenius should be the first professor: he bequeathed also his
botanical library, and his collection and manuscripts. His great work was his
Pinax, which however he did not live to complete; and Dillenius, though
he undertook to finish it, never found sufficient leisure. The work, in conse-
quence, was never published. The brother of Dr. Sherard, first an apothecary
and afterwards a physician, had also a strong passion for botany, and uncom-
mon knowledge of the subject. He cultivated an excellent botanical garden at
Eltham, which has been immortalized by the pen of Dillenius. Both brothers
were Fellows of the Royal Society. William inserted many papers into the
Transactions, but few of them were upon botanical subjects.
John Jacob Dillenius, born at Darmstadt, in 1687, and brought to England
by Sherard, where he spent the remainder of his life, is one of the greatest
names that botany has to boast of. He was educated at Giessen, a city of
Upper Hesse, and first established his reputation as a scientific botanist by his
Catalogue of plants growing in the neighbourhood of Giessen, published in
1719. This was the most complete work of the kind which had hitherto
3
CHAP. I.]
27
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
appeared, and was particularly distinguished by the uncommon number of
Musci and Fungi which it contained, a class of plants hitherto almost entirely
neglected, except in England. It was this circumstance that drew the atten-
tion of Dr. Sherard, induced him to enter into a correspondence with Dillenius,
and, finally, to prevail upon him to accompany him to England. This hap-
pened in 1721, and soon after he published a new and very much improved
edition of Ray's Synopsis.
In August, 1728, his friend and patron, Dr. Sherard, died, and in conse-
quence of his will, he was soon after established as Botanical Professor at Oxford.
In 1732 he published his Hortus Elthamensis, a work enthusiastically praised
by Linnæus, who calls it the most perfect that the world had yet seen. It
contains engravings of 417 rare plants, all drawn and etched with his own
hand, and with the most minute precision. But his great work, a work which
will not easily be surpassed, is his HISTORIA MUSCORUM, published in 1741.
In this work he first subjected mosses, lichens, and algæ, to a rigid investiga-
tion, and arranged them into distinct genera and species. It may be interesting
to see the general outline of his classification. It was as follows:
He divided the plants of which he treats into two general classes.
I. Musci capitulis floridis destituti.
A. Non peltati aut tuberculati: Confervæ.
B. Peltis et tuberculis præditi: Lichenoides (our lichens) divided into foliosos et crustaceos.
II. Musci capitulis floridis donati.
A. Durioribus.
a. policoccis: Marchantia.
b. monococcis: Lichenastrum (our jungermania).
B. Mollioribus aut pulposis.
a. prorsus nudis: Bryum androginum.
b. membranis seu capsulis circumdatis.
a. calyptratis.
1. e foliorum alis: Hypnum.
2. e summis cauliculis.
aa. calyptra villosa: Polytrichum.
bb.
lævi: Bryum.
6. non calyptratis et sessilibus.
1. dispersis et solitariis.
aa. in summis cauliculis: Sphagnum,
bb. in foliorum alis: Selago.
2. aggregatis in spicam: Lycopodium.
This work comprehends an account of about 1000 plants, most of them new
and of exceedingly difficult investigation. It contained 85 plates, all engraved
by Dillenius himself, and with a minute accuracy that renders it easy for us to
determine every plant to which he alludes. Posterity will hardly believe that 250
copies of this work were considered as a sufficiently large impression, and that
E 2
es
[Book 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Other Bota-
nists.
Systematic
Botany.
Morison.
a guinea was reckoned a sufficient price for a copy. So little taste for natural
history existed at that time in England. The subject of mosses has been since
carried a good deal farther by Hedwig, who has subdivided them into numerous
new genera, and made many interesting discoveries respecting their parts of
fructification. But the path of investigation was first opened by Dillenius,
who had no predecessor nor coadjutor, and the progress which he made in it is
really astonishing. He died of an apoplexy in March, 1747, six years after the
publication of his great work.
It would be tedious to attempt a detailed account of the labours of all the
botanists who flourished in England during the early period of the last century.
Doody, Bobart, Martyn, Llhwyd, Robinson, Catesby, are distinguished
names; while Miller, Collinson, Ellis, Watson, Solander, &c. became con-
spicuous after the adoption of the Linnæan arrangement by British botanical
writers. Let us rather turn our attention to another and superior department
of botany, we mean systematic arrangement, and the accurate distribution of
plants into classes, orders, genera, and species.
This department had originated with Gesner; but its value had been but
faintly seen, and the labours of the Bauhins, important as they were, rather
contributed to draw the attention of botanists from classical arrangement. The
revivers of systematic botany were Morison and Ray, whose example was
imitated, with various success, by several distinguished botanists on the con-
tinent.
Robert Morison* was born at Aberdeen, in 1620.. He was educated at
that University, and originally intended for the church. In the civil war
which distracted Britain during his youth, he attached himself to the royal
cause, and received a dangerous wound at the battle of Brigg, near Aberdeen.
On his recovery he went to Paris, applied himself assiduously to the study of
natural history, and became so much distinguished for his botanical knowledge
that he was recommended by M. Robins, the French King's botanist, to the
patronage of the Duke of Orleans, uncle to Louis XIV., who appointed him
intendant of his fine garden at Blois, with a handsome salary. This situation
he held from 1650, till the death of the Duke in 1660, when King Charles II.
invited him over to England, made him King's Physician and Royal Professor
of Botany, and gave him a salary of 2001. a year. In 1669, he was elected
Botanical Professor at Oxford, and lectured in that University till the period of
his death, in 1683. He was bruised by the pole of a carriage, while crossing a
street in London, and died in consequence of the hurt which he received. If
we consider the celebrity which Morison acquired, and the respectable situa-
1
* There is a Life of Morison, by. Bobart, prefixed to the continuation of his. History of Plants,
published 19 years after his death.
}
CHAP. I.]
29
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
tions which he occupied, it is rather surprising that he never was a Member of
the Royal Society, An analytical account, however, of some of his publica-
tions is to be found in an early number of the Transactions.
The works published by Morison were three in number. The first was a
new edition of the Hortus Blesensis, which had been originally published in
1653. Morison greatly increased the catalogue of plants when he re-published
it in 1669. He professes to give an account of no fewer than 260 new species;
but many of these were either varieties, or they had been already known.
Several new plants, however, both from the South of Europe, and natives of
France or Britain, are first pointed out by him in this work. His physiological
opinions, as far as he delivers them, are, in general, accurate and of consider-
able value; especially his dissertation, to prove that all plants spring from
seeds, and to refute the notion of equivocal generation, at that time adopted
by many philosophers. In the year 1672, he published his Plantarum Umbel-
liferarum Distributio Nova, as a specimen of the new methodical arrangement
which he meditated. This book possesses very considerable merit, and is
admitted to be a very ingenious and even complete distribution of umbellated
plants. In 1680 he published a volume of his great work, which he entitled
Plantarum Historia Universalis Oxoniensis Pars Secunda. According to the
method universally adopted at that time, he divided all plants into two sets;
namely, trees and shrubs, and herbs. The trees and shrubs, which constituted
the first part of his history, were never published. He alleged, as his reason for
beginning with the herbs, that they were the most numerous and difficult set,
and that he began with them that he might not leave the most important part
of his work unfinished. He divides all herbaceous plants into fifteen classes, His method.
under the following titles:
1 Scandentes.
2 Leguminosa.
3 Siliquosæ.
4 Tricapsulares hexapetala.
5 Tricapsulares aliæ.
6 Corymbiferæ.
7 Papposæ lactescentes.
8 Culmiferæ.
9 Umbelliferæ.
10 Tricocca purgatrices.
11 Galeatæ et Verticillatæ,
12 Multisiliquæ et Multicapsu-
lares.
13 Bacciferæ.
14 Capillares.
15 Anomalæ,
As the method of Morison was not followed by succeeding writers, it is
unnecessary to enter into any examination of it. The titles of his classes are
sufficient to shew that his method is not uniformly founded on the fruit; but
on the fruit and habit conjointly. Of these 15 classes, Morison has given
a description of only five. After an interval of 19 years the next four were
published by Jacob Bobart, who had been appointed by the University of
Oxford, for that purpose. He introduced a considerable number of new plants,
discovered after Morison's death; and the figures, which are numerous, are
many of them good.
30
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Ray.
Ray was a man of much greater powers, and was of much more service to
botany in general than Morison, or indeed any other British writer of his age.
He may be considered as the person who introduced and established systematic
botany in England; and he prosecuted the science with such ardour, and gave
it such popularity, that no fewer than 500 new species of British plants are
introduced and described in the last editions of his Synopsis, which had been
unknown when he published the first edition of that work. All the plants
described in the first edition of his Catalogue of English Plants, amount to 1050
species. These were afterwards increased by his own exertions, and those of
his friends, to 1550 species. At present we are acquainted with about 2800
species of British plants, rather more than one half of which belong to the
cryptogamic class, which was but little attended to before the time of Mr. Ray;
and this, in some measure, accounts for the great deficiency in his catalogue.
The species of British fungi, at present known, amount to near 600.
John Wray, or, as he always spelt his name after the year 1669, Ray,* was
born at Black Notley, near Braintree, in Essex, Nov. 29th, 1628. Though
his father was only a common blacksmith, he resolved to give his son a liberal
education, and accordingly sent him to the grammar-school at Braintree. He
was entered at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in 1644, and two years after he
removed to Trinity College, where the politer sciences were more cultivated.
In 1649 he was chosen minor Fellow of Trinity; in 1651 he was made Greek
Lecturer; in 1653 Mathematical Lecturer; and in 1655 Humanity Reader.
While in these situations, he was tutor to various persons of distinction, with
whom he contracted friendships. Mr. Francis Willughby was one of these, with
whom, in consequence of the similarity of their tastes and pursuits, he ever
after kept up the greatest intimacy and friendship.
.
In December, 1660, Mr. Ray was ordained both deacon and priest, by Dr.
Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln; and he continued a Fellow of Trinity College,
to which situation he had been chosen some time before, till the passing of the
Bartholomew Act, in September, 1662, which, as he did not subscribe, neces-
sarily superseded him.
It was about this period that he undertook different journeys through Eng-
land, chiefly with a view to ascertain its vegetable and animal productions.
The first was undertaken in the summer of 1658, and lasted from the 9th of
August to the 18th of September. He travelled alone, and traversed the midland
counties of England, and the northern parts of Wales. The second journey
was undertaken in 1661, and lasted from July the 26th, to August the 30th.
He was accompanied by Mr. Willughby and some other gentlemen, and
* Dr. Scott published a Life of Ray, in 1760, from materials collected by Dr. Derham. It con-
tains the fullest account of him which we have seen.
CHAP. I.]
31
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
travelled through Durham and Northumberland, to Edinburgh; thence he
proceeded to Glasgow; and returned through Cumberland and Westmorland.
In his third, and most extensive journey, he was likewise accompanied by Mr.
Willughby. It was made in 1662, and lasted from the 8th of May to the 18th
of July. He traversed the midland counties, entered Wales by Cheshire, passed
through the whole length of the principality; and proceeded through Glou-
cester and Somersetshire, to the Land's End. From this he returned by the
southern counties.
Being freed by the loss of his fellowship from the business of a college life,
he was induced, in 1663, to accompany Mr. Willughby, Mr. Skipton, and
Mr. Nathaniel Bacon, to the continent. He was absent three years; and,
during that time, visited France, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Italy,
Sicily, and Malta. The consequence of this journey was a prodigious increase
of natural knowledge. After his return, he passed the year 1666, in reading
the publications which had appeared in England during his absence, and in
arranging Mr. Willughby's museum of animal and mineral productions, and
in completing his own catalogue of English vegetables.
In the summer of 1667, he made a fourth journey through England, accom-
panied by his friend Mr. Willughby. They set out on the 25th of June, and
travelled through the counties of Worcester, Gloucester, and Somerset, to the
Land's End; and returned through Hampshire to London, on the 13th of
September. He made a fifth journey alone in 1668, into Yorkshire and West-
morland. In 1667, he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, and con-
tributed several papers to the Transactions, but most of them upon zoological
or physiological subjects.
In the year 1671, Mr. Ray lost his much valued friend Mr. Francis
Willughby, in the 37th year of his age; who appointed him one of his exe-
cutors; confided to him the education of his two sons; and left him an annuity
of 701. In 1673, he married the daughter of Mr. John Oakeley, of Launton,
in Oxfordshire. He resided for several years at Middleton-hall, the seat of Mr.
Willughby; but after the sons of that gentleman were removed from his care,
he retired, first to Sutton Cofield, and afterwards to Falkborne-hall, near Black
Notley; at which last place he built a house, and finally settled June 24, 1678.
He died on the 17th of January, 1705.
The writings of this indefatigable naturalist are so numerous and various His writings.
that we shall not attempt a complete enumeration of them. Those on zoolo-
gical subjects will come under our review hereafter; and his theological writ-
ings, though important and popular, do not, strictly speaking, come within
our subject. His first botanical work was his Catalogus Plantarum circa
Cantabrigiam nascentium, first published in 1660, and two appendixes, con-
taining additional plants, subsequently discovered, were afterwards added. In
32
[Book L.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
His method.
1670, he published his Catalogus Plantarum Anglia et Insularum adjacentium,
tum indigenas tum in agris passim cultas complectens. This book was long
resorted to as classical, by the English botanist. His travels, published in 1673,
deserve to be mentioned on account of the great quantity of botanical informa-
tion which they contain. He gave them the following title: Observations,
Topographical, Moral, and Physiological, made in a Journey through part of
the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France. But the work which does
him the most credit, by raising him to the rank of a systematic botanist, was
first published in 1682; though he had turned his attention to the subject
much earlier, and the tables which he drew up for Bishop Wilkins's work,
entitled, Real or Universal Character, published in 1668, contain, in fact,
the outlines of his system. This work was entitled, Methodus Plantarum nova
Brevitatis et Perspicuitatis Causa synopticè in Tabulis exibita: cum Notis
Generum tum summorum, tum subalternorum characteristicis. Observationibus
nonnullis de. Seminibus Plantarum et Indice copioso. This work was nothing less.
than an elaborate attempt to reduce all plants under natural classes. The plan
was gradually improved in subsequent editions. We shall exhibit the outline
of his method in its most improved state.
All plants were arranged under two sets, namely, Herbaceous and Trees.
The first of these was subdivided into 25 classes: the second into eight. The
names of these classes were as follow:
1 Submarinæ,
2 Fungi.
3 Musci.
4 Capillares.
5 Apetalæ.
6 Plenipetalæ lactescentes.
7. Discoideæ.
8. Corymbiferæ,
9 Capitata,
26 Arundinaceæ.
HERBS.
10 Herbæ semine nudo solitario, 18 Multisiliqua.
flore simplice perfecto.
11 Umbelliferæ,
12 Stellatæ.
13 Asperifoliæ,
14 Verticellatæ.
15 Polysperma.
16. Pomiferæ.
17 Baccifera.
TREES AND SHRUBS.
27. Flore a fructu remoto; seu apetalæ.
19 Vasculiferæ, monopetalæ, et
dipetala.
20 Siliquosæ et siliculosæ.
21 Papilionaceæ..
22 Pentapetala.
23 Floriferæ graminifoleæ.
24. Stamineæ graminifoleæ.
25 Anomalæ,
30 Fructu sicco, non siliquaso nec umbil icato.
31 Siliquosæ non papilionacoa.
28 Fructu umbilicato; seu pomiferæ et bacciferæ. 32 Siliquosæ papilionacoa.
29 Fructu non umbilicato: seu pruniferæ.
83 Anomalæ.
From these titles, the reader will perceive that, though Mr. Ray made the
fruit the basis of his classification, he, was not solely guided by it; but attended,
likewise, to the habit of the plant; and, in fact, was too much influenced by
2
CHAP. I.]
33
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
the figure of the leaves. The method, though elaborate, is perplexed, and ex-
ceedingly difficult to follow. The last botanical work of Ray, which we shall
mention, was the most elaborate of all his performances, and perhaps the most
laborious work ever undertaken and performed by any single botanist. It was no
less than an attempt to arrange all known plants under his system, and to give a
complete account of every thing known respecting each. This immense task
he executed in his Historia Plantarum Generalis; consisting of three very
thick folio volumes. The first volume appeared in 1686; the second, in 1688;
and the third, intended as a supplement, and comprehending all the plants
discovered in the interim, was published in 1704. He gives an account of no
fewer than 18,600 plants; but the last volume, as was unavoidable from the
nature of the subject, abounds in repetitions.
Systematic Botany, thus revived in Britain, by Morison and Ray, soon drew
the universal attention of all true botanists; and the methods of the British
philosophers were soon followed on the continent by other methods, some of
which possessed superior merit. Of the systems which immediately followed
that of Ray, by far the best were those of Tournefort and Rivinus, both
founded on the flower. Neither of these philosophers was a Member of the
Royal Society. Tournefort possessed uncommon merit as a botanist: his
method, considering the time in which it appeared, was admirable. It soon
superseded almost all other systems; and, indeed, is still followed by a sect of
botanists in France.
Joseph Pitton Tournefort* was born in the south of France, in 1656. He Tournefort.
was first intended for the church, but his passion for botany was irresistible,
and prevented him from pursuing his theological studies. He travelled in search
of plants through France, Spain, and the Pyrenæan Mountains. His travels.
were afterwards extended to Portugal, the Netherlands, and England. He
was superintendant of the French King's garden, at Paris; and in 1700 he was
sent to Greece and Asia, at the expence of the King, his master, to collect
plants and make observations. The result of his observations was afterwards
published in his Travels, an excellent work, which has been translated into
English. While crossing a street in Paris, in 1708, he was struck in the
breast by the axle of a carriage: this brought on a hydrothorax, and occasioned
his death.
His great work was his Institutiones Rei Herbariæ, in three quarto volumes;
without doubt the best botanical book before the time of Linnæus. We shall
* Besides Fontenelle's cloge of Tournefort, which contains but little, there is a Life of him by
Lauthier, prefixed to his Voyage into the Levant.
F
34
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
His method, present our readers with the outline of his system. He divided plants into 22
classes, which he distinguished by the following names:
1 Simplices monopetali campaniformes.
2
3
4
Q & LO
infundibuliformes.
anomali (arum, aristolochia, &c.)
labiati.
5 Simplices polypetali cruciformes.
6
7
8
9
10
11
rosacei.
umbellati.
caryophyllei.
liliacei.
papilionacei.
anomali (fumaria, aconitum, aquilegia, &c.)
12 Compositi flosculi (carduus, &c.)
13
14
semiflosculi (leontodon, &c.)
radiati (aster, senecio, &c.)
15 Flores apetali.
16 Stirpes imperfecti, filices, musci, &c.
17 Herbæ et suffrutices.
18 Arbores et frutices flore apetalo cum fructu conjuncto.
19 Arbores amentaceo flore.
monopetala.
flore rosaceo.
20
21
22
flore papilionaceo.
Augustus
Rivinus.
Linnæus,
This classification is by no means difficult; and, were it not for the imperfect
characters of a few of the classes, might certainly be followed; though it will
not bear a comparison with the Linnæan method.
Augustus Quirinus Rivinus was professor at Leipsic. He was born in 1652,
and died in 1725. His system was founded upon the number of petals, and
upon their regularity or irregularity. He published it in 1690, in a tract
entitled, Introductio Generalis in Rem Herbariam. Though his method
is inferior to that of Tournefort, yet his work contains many admirable ob-
servations on the division of plants into genera, and on the way of de-
scribing and naming them; observations of which Linnæus afterwards availed
himself. He first laid aside the division of plants into herbs and trees, as a
useless incumbrance. On this subject, Ray entered into a controversy with
him. But the subsequent conduct of botanists has decided in favour of
Rivinus.
We come now to Linnæus, the most extraordinary botanist that ever existed.
That a young Swedish peasant should have taken upon him to publish a new
code of botanical laws, totally different from those formerly received, and that
these laws, in a few years, should have been embraced and implicitly obeyed
CHAP. I.]
$5
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
by almost all the botanists in Europe, is a phenomenon, we will venture to say,
without a parallel in the history of human nature.
Charles Linnæus,* afterwards enobled and created Knight of the Polar Star,
was born on the third of May, 1707, at Rashult, a village in the province of
Smaland, in Sweden. His father was pastor of the village. He was a lover
of gardening and flowers, and cultivated an extensive garden with considerable
taste. Young Charles was his constant associate, and made the garden the
place of his amusement and recreation. Thus he acquired a taste for plants at
a very early age; and his father, to encourage it, gave him a piece of ground
of his own to cultivate according to his fancy. He made excursions into
the neighbouring fields and woods, and filled it with all the wild plants which
he could collect. Thus early was his passion for botany formed, and thus
early did he acquire the seeds of his knowledge of the science.
His father destined him for the pulpit, and initiated him himself in the
rudiments of Latin, geography, religion, &c. At the age of 10 he sent him
to the Latin school, in the adjacent town of Wexicoe. At Wexicoe every
spare moment of his time was occupied in collecting and examining plants;
and, in consequence, his progress in those studies that fitted him for the clerical
profession was very small. In 1724, when he went into the higher college of
Wexicoe, some of the professors complained of his little progress to his father,
and supplied him with bad testimonials. His father, mortified at the disap-
pointment of his hopes, formed the resolution of binding his son apprentice
to a shoe-maker. John Rothman, a physician at Wexicoe, and professor of
medicine in the college of that city, had noticed the enthusiastic ardour with
which Linnæus cultivated botany, the surprising progress which he had made,
and the great genius which he possessed for the study. He stated these parti- •
culars to the father of Linnæus, and urged him to give his son liberty to follow
his inclinations. He offered to take him into his own family, and to initiate
him himself in the rudiments of medicine. These offers, together with the
earnest solicitations of Linnæus himself, at last struck the balance, and induced
his parents, though with reluctance and little satisfaction, to allow him to
enter upon the career of medicine. In Rothman's house he continued three
years, and made surprising progress in his favourite pursuits. Here he became
acquainted with Tournefort's Institutiones Rei Herbariæ, which first suggested
to him a plan, and turned his mind to the systematic arrangement of plants.
It was now requisite for the completion of his medical studies, that he Goes to the
* The name Linné, or Linnæus, was adopted by the father of Linnæus, from a large Linden tree,
which grew in the neighbourhood of his native place.
The best Life of Linnæus was published in German, by Stoever: there is a translation of it into
English, published in 1794, by Mr. Trapp, who must have been a foreigner, as the translation
betrays a want of knowledge of the English idiom.
University,
F 2
36
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
should go to a university; and he made choice of the University of Lund,
because Humærus, one of the professors, was one of his relations; and upon
his friendship, he, in a great measure, depended for subsistence. Unfortu-
nately, before our young philosopher reached the University of Lund, in 1727,
Humerus was dead. But the uncommon diligence, knowledge, and sagacity
of Linnæus, drew the attention of Stobæus, Professor of Physic and Botany;
who, aware of the forlorn situation of Linnæus, generously took him into his
own house and supported him during his residence at Lund. Here he had
access to the best botanical books, and to a collection of natural curiosities.
Here too he began to form a herbarium, and to accustom himself to make
descriptions of plants. Ilis ardour for knowledge induced him, in about a year,
His distress. to leave Lund and go to Upsal, the oldest and most celebrated University in
Sweden. Here he was soon reduced to a state of the greatest distress. His
money was exhausted, and his clothes worn out. For some time he supported
himself on the compassion of his fellow students; picked up a scanty meal
where he could procure it; dressed himself in their cast clothes; and was even
reduced to the necessity of mending their old shoes with the bark of trees, to
enable him to prosecute his favourite excursions in quest of plants. While he
was in this situation, Olaus Celsius, First Professor of Divinity, at Upsal, and
the most eminent botanist that Sweden could boast of, happened to meet
Linnæus in the botanic garden. He was astonished at the exactness and extent
of his botanical knowledge, which appeared the more extraordinary the more
closely he examined it. Celsius was, at that time, engaged in preparing his
Hierobotanicon, a work, in which the plants mentioned in the Scriptures were
to be determined and described. It struck him, that Linnæus might be of
considerable service to him in completing this work. On that account, he
invited him to his house, and gave him board and lodging for nothing. Here
he had free access to a very complete botanical library; here he first met with
the work of Vaillant, which pointed out to him the importance of the sexual
organs of plants; and here he first conceived the idea of a new arrangement
of plants, founded on the sexual system; an idea which he afterwards realised
with such complete success. In 1730 he wrote a small treatise on the sexual
system, which, coming into the hands of Olaus Rudbeck, at that time professor
of botany, at Upsal, and an old man, induced him to invite Linnæus into his
house, and to make him his substitute as a lecturer on botany.
His journey
to Lapland.
In the year 1731, a plan was formed by the Academy of Sciences at Upsal,
to send some person to explore the vast and dreary region of Lapland, and to
ascertain the various natural productions which it contained. Celsius and
Rudbeck united in proposing Linnæus as the best fitted for executing this
difficult task, and their choice was unanimously approved. Linnæus embraced
this offer with transport. The smallness of the sum devoted to defray his
СПАР. 1.]
37
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
:
expences, which did not exceed seven pounds ten shillings, did not discourage
him; neither was he deterred by the dismal country through which he had to
travel, covered with snow the greater part of the year, and almost destitute of
inhabitants and cultivation. Ile set out on horseback in the beginning of May,
and reached the northern extremity of the gulph of Bothnia, about the end of
that month. Here he set out on foot and alone, and with infinite fatigue and
difficulty traversed the whole of Lapland, and ascertained its vegetable, animal,
and mineral productions. He then bent his course to the mountains which
separate Sweden and Norway. These he examined with particular care, and
even travelled as far as the Frozen Ocean. Thence he passed through Finland,
crossed the gulf, and arrived at Upsal about the end of September. The fruit
of this journey was his Flora Laponica, published soon after by the Swedish
Academy, and containing above 100 new species of plants, arranged according
to his own new system. The journal of his Lapland journey was never pub-
lished by him. It was written in Swedish, and is in the possession of Dr.
Smith, President of the Linnæan Society, of London; who purchased it, toge-
ther with all the other manuscripts and collections of Linnæus; and has lately
favoured the British public with an English translation of it.
After his return to Upsal, Linnæus began to give public lectures on botany
and mineralogy. The novelty of his matter, and the ardour with which he
inculcated his views, drew general attention, and raised his reputation to the
highest pitch. This excited the envy of his competitors. By the laws of the
University, no man was entitled to give public lectures at Upsal, till he had
taken his degrees. Linnæus had obtained no academical honours, and there-
fore stood within the meaning of the statute. Dr. Rosen, at that time Lecturer Forbid to lec-
on Medicine, accused him before the Senate of the University, and insisted bure at Upsal
that the statutes should be put in execution. The Senate, notwithstanding the
exertions of the patrons and friends of Linnæus, were under the necessity of
enforcing the statutes, and of prohibiting Linnæus from continuing his lectures.
This drove the sanguine temper of our young naturalist almost to madness. He
drew his sword upon Rosen, at the door of the Senate House, and attempted
to stab him. Fortunately he was disarmed by the by-standers; and by the
interest of Celsius, this daring outrage, instead of being pursued by expulsion,
which would have blasted Linnæus's hopes for ever, was passed off with a repri-
mand. For some time Linnæus retained his resentment, and persisted in his
intention of stabbing Rosen, as soon as he could find him. But by degrees
his passion cooled, his resentment subsided, and he listened to
prudent suggestions.
milder and more
While he was hesitating what plan to follow in order to support himself,
his former pupils formed the project of making excursions to improve their
mineralogical knowledge, and they offered to put Linnæus at their head. The
38
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Goes to Hol-
land.
offer was accepted, and the excursions begun. Fahlun, the capital of Dale-
carlia, famous for its copper mines, was one of their principal objects. Here
Linnæus was introduced to Baron Reuterholm, the governor of the province,
a zealous naturalist, and particularly fond of mineralogy. He was struck with
the knowledge which Linnæus displayed, and proposed to place his two sons
under his care, in a journey which he projected for the sake of their improve-
ment in mining. This journey was accordingly made, and after his return to
Fahlun, Linnæus delivered a course of lectures on the method of assaying
metals, and upon other subjects connected with mineralogy. Here he got
acquainted with Dr. Moræus, the most eminent medical man at Fahlun; fell
in love with his eldest daughter; gained her affections; and solicited her hand
from Dr. Moræus. The father hesitated. He was fond of Linnæus, but dis-
liked his dependent situation. He therefore told him that his daughter should
remain unmarried for three years; and, that if his circumstances were mended
by that period, he should have no hesitation in giving a favourable decision.
Moræus disliked the precarious situation of Linnæus; urged him to lay aside
his botanical pursuits, which were too uncertain to be trusted to, and apply
himself seriously to the practice of medicine. To put this advice in practice,
it was necessary to obtain a Doctor's degree; and want of money had hitherto
prevented Linnæus from even thinking of such honours. Now, however, love
stepped in to his assistance, and smoothed the way to his advancement. It
was the custom with the Swedish medical men to leave their own country and
obtain their medical degrees at a foreign University, and the Universities in
Holland were usually preferred. Linnæus resolved to imitate this general
example. Miss Moræus supplied him with a hundred dollars, out of her
savings. This sum, together with what he had laid up from his lectures and
expeditions, amounted to about 501.
Having spent the winter months in visiting his friends, Linnæus set out for
Holland, in April, 1735. He spent about a month at Hamburgh, where he
got acquainted with the eminent men at that place, and inspected their
collections of natural curiosities. From this city, he proceeded to Harderwyk,
in Guelderland, where he defended a thesis on intermittent fevers, and obtained
the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From Harderwyk he proceeded to Leyden,
anxious to get acquainted with the literary characters, who, at that time, dis-
tinguished Holland. Boerhaave, the most celebrated physician of the age, at
that period the glory of Leyden, was an old man, rich, and so much pestered
by the visits of strangers, that it was difficult to obtain access to him. Linnæus
attempted it in vain. By the advice of Gronovius, with whom he had become
acquainted, he was induced to publish the outline of his Systema Naturæ,
on 14 folio pages. He sent a copy of this work to Boerhaave, with a letter.
Boerhaave was so much struck with the knowledge and genius displayed in this
CHAP. I.]
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
39
·
publication, that he longed earnestly to get acquainted with the author, and
appointed him to meet him at his country house about a mile from Leyden.
This house was surrounded by an excellent botanical garden. Here Linnæus
had an opportunity of displaying his unrivalled botanical knowledge. Boer-
haave exhorted him to remain in Holland, where he could not fail to make his
fortune. Linnæus stated that his pecuniary difficulties were such as to preclude
the possibility of following his advice. Next day he set out for Amsterdam,
and Boerhaave gave him a letter of introduction to Burmann at that time Pro-
fessor of Botany at Amsterdam. Burmann received him kindly, invited him
back, showed him his plants, and was so delighted with his botanical know-
ledge that he took him into his own house, in order to assist him in drawing up
a description of the plants of Ceylon, about which he was at that time em-
ployed.
Dr. George Cliffort, then Burgomaster of Amsterdam, and one of the Direc-
tors of the Dutch East-India Company, was a zealous patron of natural history
in general, and of botany in particular; and had expended vast sums in grati-
fying this passion. His botanical garden at Hartecamp contained an immense
collection of plants from all parts of the world. But they remained undescribed
and unarranged. Boerhaave, who had formed the highest and most just opinions.
of Linnæus's uncommon knowledge and abilities, recommended him to Cliffort
as a family physician, and as a man well qualified to arrange and describe his
plants. The bargain was immediately struck. Cliffort allowed Linnæus free
board and lodging, together with a salary of 1,000 florins a year. At Harte-
camp he found a paradise, and seized the opportunity of executing that bota-
nical reform for which he had already made adequate preparations.
His labours, during the years 1736 and 1737, were prodigious, and appear His publica-
almost too vast for human industry to accomplish. The matter certainly must. tions.
have been previously collected, and his facility in writing the Latin language
must have been very great. His first work was his Fundamenta Botanica, which
consisted only of 35 duodecimo pages. The theory of botany was reduced to
365 aphorisms, and he displayed in these the basis of his new system. This
work was afterwards greatly enlarged, and republished under the title of Philo-
sophia Botanica. His next work was his Bibliotheca Botanica, in 153 duode-
cimo pages. In this book he gave an account of above 1,000 preceding bota-
nical writers, and extracted from them a system of botanical researches which
he divided into 16 classes. His third work was an account of the Musa Para-
disica, or Banana Tree, which had blossomed in Cliffort's garden, and enabled
him to draw up an accurate description of that very rare plant.
In the summer of 1736, he paid a visit to England, induced partly by his Visits Eng-
desire to get acquainted with the celebrated botanists of that country, and land.
partly to procure plants for the botanical garden of Cliffort. Boerhaave gave
6
40
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
him a very flattering letter to Sir Hans Sloane, at that time in the meridian of
his glory. But his reception was cooler than he had reason to expect. Sloane,
who had adhered to the system of Ray, was too old to adopt another, and na-
turally looked with no very friendly eye upon every innovator. From London
Linnæus went to Oxford, to visit Dillenius. He found him in company with
Sherard, and was treated by him with coldness. He even observed to Sherard
when Linnæus entered, that he was the young man who was confounding all
botany. Though Linnæus was unacquainted with the English language, yet
he understood this remark, and next day, when he called to take leave of Dil-
lenius, he requested him to explain to him the meaning of his assertion. Dil-
leuius was thunderstruck, and endeavoured at first to explain away what he had
said; but upon being hard pressed by Linnæus, he carried him to his library,
and showed him the proof sheets of his Genera Plantarum, which Gronovius
had sent over without the knowledge of Linnæus. Every page was marked in
various places with the letters N. B. which signified, as Dillenius explained
them, the false genera to be found in his book. Linnæus defended the accu-
racy of his genera. They went into the garden to decide by inspection. A
blossom of blitum was taken up and examined, which according to the general
opinion contained three stamina, but according to Linnæus only one. Every
blossom was found to agree with the description of Linnæus, and it was so with
all the other plants which they examined. This produced a complete change in
the conduct of Dillenius. He showed him the herbàrium of Sherard, and
granted him all the plants which he wanted for Cliffort's garden. But Dille-
nius, like Sloane, was too old and too celebrated to change his system. He seems
even from his letters to Haller to have viewed the rising reputation of the young
Swede, and the botanical reform which he was accomplishing, with a degree of
jealousy not free from malignity.
In 1737, Linnæus published his Genera Plantarum, containing a great part
of his proposed reform. Here he described about 935 genera, and upwards of
8,000 species of plants, most of which he had himself examined with scrupulous
attention. His next work was his Flora Laponica, arranged according to his
new system, and dedicated to the Swedish Academy, who had already published
an abstract of it in their memoirs. The third and most expensive work which
distinguished the year 1737, was his description of Cliffort's botanical garden,
entitled Hortus Cliffortianus, in 501 folio pages, embellished with 32 plates,
engraved by Ehret. His fourth work of 1737, was his Critica Botanica, con-
sisting of a commentary on his Fundamenta Botanica. Here he examined the
old genera of botanists, pointed out the errors, both in nomenclature and ar-
rangement, rejected what was erroneous, and retained only those genera which
were conformable to his own regulations. His next work was a description of
Cliffort's orchard, entitled 'iridarium Cliffortianum.
CHAP I.]
41
NATURAL HISTORY.—BOTANY.
He now left Hartecamp with a resolution to return to Sweden. But on a
visit to Van Royen, Botanical Professor at Leyden, who had quarrelled with
Boerhaave, he was prevailed upon to remain and assist him in publishing a new
arrangement of the Leyden garden. This garden had been arranged by Boer
haave. Van Royen proposed to adopt the Linnæan method, but Linnæus out
of gratitude to his patron and benefactor, would not listen to this, but sug-
gested a new arrangement, which might be published as Van Royen's own.
This plan was adopted, and the arrangement which in fact belonged to Linnæus
was published accordingly.
While Linnæus lived with Van Royen he published two other works, the
first the Ichthyology of Artedi, his early and particular friend, who had been
drowned at Leyden about three years before. The second was his Classes Plan-
tarum, in which he gave a critical view of the 16 universal, and 13 partial
systems of arrangement which had been introduced into botany before his own
time, pointed out the defects and excellencies of each, and finally compared
them with his own system. These different publications had raised the reputa-
tion of Linnæus to the highest pitch, and his new system began already to be
adopted by various distinguished botanists in different countries.
During the whole of this period he had corresponded with his intended bride
through the intervention of a common friend for whom he had procured a pro-
fessor's chair. This friend unfortunately conceived a passion for Miss Moræus,
and endeavoured to supplant Linnæus, by representing to her father that Lin-
næus had remained abroad much longer than his stipulated time, and that there
was no prospect of his ever returning to Sweden. Luckily another friend of
Linnæus got intimation of the plan, warned Linnæus of his danger, and as-
sured Moræus that his intended son-in-law would infallibly return to his own
country, and very speedily too. This intelligence threw Linnæus into a sort of
melancholy; he was seized with a fever, and after his recovery resolved to leave
Holland without delay. Being so near France he could not resist the tempta-
tion of paying a short visit to Paris, and of getting personally acquainted with
those botanists with whom he had previously corresponded by letter. Here he
was received with politeness and attention; though the French, from their pre-
dilection for Tournefort and Vaillant, were but little disposed to adopt his sys-
tematic views.
After a residence of about a month in Paris he went on board a ship at Returns to
Rouen, and in five days reached Helsingburg, in Scania, whence he set out for Sweden.
Stockholm. Here he attempted the practice of medicine, relying upon the re-
putation which he had acquired to pave his way to employment. For some
time he met with nothing but disappointment. Every body was disposed to
view his reputation with jealousy and malignity. His wretched antagonist
Siegesbeek was every where cried up as having completely overcome him. In
G
4.2
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Becomes a
Professor at
Upsal.
this situation Haller offered to give up in his favour the Botanical Professorship
of Gottingen. But before he received Haller's letter, fortune began to smile
upon him, and to promise him fortunate days in Sweden. The cure of a
fashionable distemper struck the young Swedes with surprize, and recommended
him to practice in similar cases. His cures were successful, and his advice be-
came the fashion. He rose in reputation every day, and was called to the lady
of an Aulic counsellor troubled with a cough. He prescribed a medicine which
she carried about with her for constant use. One day, while at a card party
with Queen Ulrica Eleonora, this lady made use of her medicine. The Queen
inquired what it was, and was informed that it was a remedy for the cough
which always procured speedy relief. Her Majesty was troubled with a cough
at that very time. She sent for Linnæus, who prescribed the remedy, and the
disease vanished. This fortunate accident brought Linnæus into the first prac-
tice at Stockholm.
His great and constant patron was Count Charles Gustavus Tessin. By his
influence Linnæus was appointed Physician to the Admiralty, and Botanist to
the King. Having now a settled income, he married Miss Moræus, five years
after he had procured her father's conditional consent. The Stockholm Academy
was established about this time, and Linnæus was appointed the First President.
In 1741, he made a tour through the islands of land and Gothland, at the
expence and by orders of the Diet, in order to ascertain their mineral and vege-
table productions. The same year he was appointed Professor of Physic and
Anatomy, in the University of Upsal, in room of Roberg who had retired with
the whole of his salary. His old antagonist Rosen had the year before been
appointed Professor of Botany. The emoluments of both Professorships were
equal. They accordingly agreed, with the approbation of the Senate, to ex-
change their respective chairs, that each might teach the science for which he
was best adapted. Thus Linnæus got the botanical chair at Upsal, the origi-
nal object of his ambition, which he continued to fill for 37 years with greater
glory than any literary man in Sweden had ever obtained. His exertions, during
the whole of this period, were uncommonly great. He became the legislator
of botany. His pupils carried his reputation to all parts of the world; and, ac-
tuated by that enthusiasm which he so successfully inspired, they carried their
researches to the remotest countries, and scrupled not to sacrifice their lives to
the improvement of their favourite science. Thus botanical knowledge in-
creased with a rapidity altogether unexampled. The number of genera was al-
most doubled before the death of Linnæus, and since that period the rate of
increase has rather accelerated than diminished. South America, New Hol-
land, and New Zealand, have been recently explored, and have added prodigi-
ously to the number of botanical species. But this is a field into which we can-
not with propriety enter, as it is scarcely, if at all, connected with the labours
CHAP. I.]
43
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
Linnæan
of the Royal Society. Here therefore we shall close our account of the ar-
rangement and description of plants, remarking only that the Linnæan arrange-
ment, which has been almost universally embraced, though upon the whole de-
cidedly superior to every other, is notwithstanding of very unequal merit, some Improve-
parts being much more perfect than others. To the cryptogamous plants Lin- ments in the
næus paid much less attention than to the rest. Hence his arrangement of system.
them has been found inadequate and inexact, and it has been thought necessary
to alter it very materially. Hedwig is the person to whom we are most indebted
for his labours in this department. With a patient industry which admirably
fitted him for the task which he undertook, he devoted his life chiefly to the in-
vestigation of the musci, and has thrown them into new genera much more sa-
tisfactory and much more easily investigated than the genera of Linnæus. The
lichens, fungi, and fuci, have been successfully investigated by various distin-
guished botanists of Great-Britain, most of whom are still alive, and actively
prosecuting their meritorious investigations. Of the other Linnæan classes per-
haps the most defective are the tetradynamia and syngynesia, in both of which
a variety of very exceptionable genera might be pointed out; genera founded
entirely upon the arbitrary will of Linnæus, and of course accompanied by
descriptions so imperfect, that a beginner finds it extremely difficult to make out
the plants alluded to. This imperfection seems owing to the too great attention
which Linnæus paid to the flower, and his total disregard of the seed in con-
stituting the genera. Whereas in these two classes the seed is in fact of much
more importance than the flower. It would be easy to point out some other
parts of the Linnæan classification by no means adequate to the purpose for
which it was intended; but it would not be so easy in these cases to apply the
proper remedy.
SECTION 2. Of the Anatomy and Physiology of Plants.
This branch of botany possesses more dignity than the preceding. It opens Importance.
to our view some of those beautiful contrivances which nature follows to ac-
complish her purposes, and which irresistibly lead the enlightened observer to
the knowledge of the existence and benevolence of an all-powerful intelligent
being. This branch of knowledge, important as it is, is entirely modern, and
owes its origin to the Royal Society, by the Members of which the investiga-
tion was begun, and by whom almost every fact relating to the subject hitherto
established has been ascertained. These investigations however are not all to
be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society. The most important have
been published in separate treatises, either at the expence or at least with the
concurrence of the Royal Society. The papers in the Transactions relating to Papers on the
this subject amount to 60. But of these there are 22 which can hardly be con- Transactions.
subject in the
sidered as of any value. Subsequent investigations and more complete disco-
G 2
44
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Grew's work.
Malpighi
wrote on the
subject.
coveries have rendered several of the remaining 38 of comparatively little
importance, except in a historical point of view. Some of the most curious
papers, on the subject of vegetable functions, have been printed in those
volumes of the Transactions, which have made their appearance since the year
1800. These, of course, cannot, with propriety, come under our review.
The first person who began the anatomical examination of plants, was Dr.
Nehemiah Grew. He was born in Coventry, about the year 1628. His
father, who was a nonconformist, sent him abroad at an early age; and he
took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in a Foreign University. After his
return to England, he settled in London, became a Fellow of the Medical
College, and practised medicine, with some degree of success, till the period. of
his death, in 1711. He began to turn his attention to the anatomy of plants,
as early as the year 1664. In 1670, he put an essay on the subject, which
constitutes the first book of his Inatomy of Plants, into the hands of his
brother-in-law, Dr. Henry Sampson, who shewed it to Mr. Henry Oldenburg,
at that time Secretary to the Royal Society. By Mr. Oldenburg, it was given
to Dr. Wilkins, Bishop of Chester; by whom the manuscript was read to the
Royal Society. That learned body highly approved of it, and ordered it to be
printed in 1671. At the suggestion of Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Grew was appointed
Curator to the Royal Society, for the Anatomy of Plants. This occasioned the
drawing up of the 2d, 3d, and 4th parts of his Anatomy of Plants; and of the
various lectures on the same subject, which constitute a part of that work.
The whole of these papers were written between the years 1670 and 1676; and
read at intervals, during various meetings of the Royal Society. The whole
were collected in 1682, and published in a folio volume, by the orders of the
Society. It constitutes the book well known by the name of Grew's Anatomy
of Plants; a book which contains a great deal of valuable and important
matter; and which has always been in high estimation, and referred to as a
classical work on the subject.
In the year 1671, after the first part of Dr. Grew's labours were printed,
Malpighi, the celebrated Italian Anatomist, and a Member of the Royal
Society, sent over a manuscript treatise on the the same subject. It was with-
out figures, and much more concise than the essay of Dr. Grew. The second
part of Malpighi's treatise was received in 1674; after which, the work was
printed by the Royal Society. Thus, Malpighi began his investigation with-
out any previous knowledge of what had been already done by Grew. His
work, as might have been expected from so great a master of anatomical know-
ledge, is excellent; though the plan is more circumscribed, and the quantity
of knowledge communicated upon the whole, is less than is to be found in
the work of Grew. There is a very remarkable agreement in the sentiments of
these two writers respecting most of the subjects which they describe. This
5
CHAP. I.]
45
NATURAL HISTORY.-Botany,
agreement is the more striking, because it holds, not merely in their descrip-
tions, which might have been expected, supposing both correct, but likewise
in physiological opinions, and deductions from their observations.
Dr. Stephen Hales, one of the most celebrated names of the last century, the Hales.
philosopher who laid open the passage to pneumatic chemistry, which has added
so much to our knowledge of nature, and who investigated the functions of
animals and vegetables with much patient industry and uncommon success,
began his experiments on plants soon after the death of Dr. Grew. He was
born on the 7th September, 1677, in the county of Kent. He was descended
of an ancient family, his father being a Baronet. He was educated at Cam-
bridge, and immediately distinguished himself by his uncommon industry and skill.
He went into orders as early as the age of twenty-five, and was successfully
placed in various livings, where he discharged his duty with the most con-
scientious fidelity. His discoveries were all laid before the Royal Society, as
soon as made, and his works were published by order of that learned body.
The first volume of his Statical Essays, which contains almost all his experi-
ments on plants, was published in 1727;* the second, in 1733.
the second, in 1733. He modified
some of the opinions of Grew and Ray, relating to the supposed circulation of
the sap; and such was the weight of his reputation, that his sentiments seem
to have been implicitly adopted by all his contemporaries; though the recent
discoveries of modern experimenters have shown us that his opinions, on the
subject of the motion of the sap, were not quite correct. Besides his Stutical
Essays, he was the author of several other celebrated performances; the most
remarkable of which were his Essay against the Use of Spirits; his experi-
ments on Freshening Sea Water, and preserving Meat during long Sea Voyages;
and his Ventilator; for purifying the air of ships, and other confined places."
He died on the 4th January, 1761, aged nearly 80 years.
Duhamel de Monceau, a French philosopher, of a high and well-merited Duhamel..
reputation, took up the subject where Hales laid it down. In his book,
entitled, Physique des Arbres, first published in 1757, he relates many inge-
nious experiments, confirming and extending the opinions of Hales. He
investigated also the texture of trees; traced the position of the sap vessels; and
endeavoured to give precision and extension to the doctrines of Grew and
Malpighi, on these subjects. He ventures, in some cases, to call in question
the accuracy of the conclusions drawn by these first observers, and has advanced
new opinions of his own; all of them extremely ingenious, and supported by
well-contrived experiments, some of which have been confirmed by subsequent
enquirers; while the accuracy of others has been called in question, and, in
some cases, destroyed.
* Part of it was read to the Royal Society, in 1719, the year after his admission into that
learned body.
46
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Hedwig.
Giertuer.
Hedwig, a German writer, of great authority, but whose reputation depends
chiefly upon his discoveries relating to the mosses, and his new arrangement of
that difficult order of plants, followed the same career with Duhamel, and with
considerable success. But, perhaps, the greatest improvement in the anatomy
of plants, since the time of Grew, was made by Gærtner, a German botanist,
who devoted his life to the investigation of the seeds of plants.
He was born at Calw, in Suabia, on the 12th of March, 1732. His father
had been physician to the Duke of Wirtemberg, but died soon after the birth of
his son.
Young Gærtner was at first destined for the church, and afterwards
for the bar, but he displayed a strong repugnance for both of these professions;
while he was actuated by a violent passion for natural history and philosophy.
At 18 he went to Gottingen, and studied under Haller, who inspired him
with an enthusiastic fondness for anatomy, physiology, and botany. At the
age of 20, he travelled through Italy, France, and England; and on his return
to Germany, took a Doctor's degree in medicine; and afterwards devoted two
years to the study of mathematics, optics, and mechanics. In 1759, he went
to Holland; attended the botanical course of Van Royen, at Leyden; and
devoted himself entirely to natural history. From Holland, he went to Eng-
land, and spent above a year in London, and the sea coast, chiefly engaged in
the study of ichthyology. He returned to Germany, in 1761, and fixed his
residence at Tubingen, where he was, soon after, appointed Professor of Ana-
tomy. In 1768, he was elected a Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
at Petersburg; and Professor of Botany and Natural History, in that city.
But finding that the whole of his time was taken up in the discharge of the
duties attached to this situation, he quitted it in 1770, and returned to Calw,
his native city, where he married, and resolved to devote the rest of his life to
his favourite object, of giving an anatomical account of the fruits and seeds of
plants. To obtain a sufficient number of fruits, for his purpose, he found it
necessary to apply to the assistance of others, whose situation had given them
an opportunity of making considerable collections of these substances. The
collection of Sir Joseph Bankes was the richest in the universe. To that
distinguished patron of the sciences he applied in the first place, and met with
a reception which gratified his utmost wishes. Sir Joseph made him a present
of all his duplicates; allowed him to examine, and even to dissect his whole
collection; and procured him liberal supplies from the garden of Kew. On
his return to Holland, he met with Thunberg, who had just arrived from his
celebrated voyage to Japan, and who was richly furnished with new and inte-
resting fruits and seeds. From this distinguished and liberal botanist, he also
received an abundant supply. On his arrival at Calw, he was seized with a
disease in his eyes, which threatened to frustrate all his plans. For the space.
of 20 months he was obliged to confine himself in a dark room.
At last, the
7
CHAP. I.]
47
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
disease went off of its own accord, without the assistance of any medicine.
He resumed his labours with the most indefatigable assiduity; and finished the
first volume, containing engravings and dissections of 500 species of fruits; all
made with his own hand. After a full and deliberate revisal, the volume was
published in 1788. His incessant industry had, by this time, destroyed his
health; this made him exert himself the more strenuously, that he might
finish the second volume before his labours should be arrested by the hand of
death. It was sent to the press accordingly, in 1791. It contains a greater
number of seeds and fruits than the first volume, and they are arranged in a
much better and much more luminous manner. With this volume he intended
to terminate his literary career; but the celebrity which he had acquired was
such, that new species of seeds came pouring in upon him from all quarters.
He was unable to resist the temptation which these new treasures presented to
him, and resolved to publish a third volume, by way of supplement to his two
former. With this view, he dissected and made drawings of many new seeds;
and the evening before his death, was occupied in finishing the description
and drawing of the seeds of the Halleria Lucida. He died on the 14th July,
1791.*
Gærtner dissected the seeds of no fewer than 1050 species of plants; and
published the result of his labours in two large quarto volumes, entitled, De
Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum. This book, which enjoys a very high and
deserved authority among botanists, contains by far the clearest and best
account of the structure of the seeds of plants which has ever appeared; it
contains also an arrangement of plants, founded upon this structure;
arrangement, however, which had been long before anticipated by Ray. It
contains also very good engravings of the 1050 species of seeds, which
Gærtner had examined.
an
These are the most eminent among those philosophers who have turned their
attention to the physiology of plants. There are many others, indeed, who
have contributed towards this important investigation. Among these, Bonnet
and Senebier hold a distinguished place. Mr. Knight has gained a high and
deserved reputation, by his numerous papers on this subject; and has added
very much to the precision of our knowledge. His experiments are highly
ingenious, and often satisfactory. Unfortunately, the most important of his
papers have been published in the Transactions, since the year 1800; and
therefore they do not come under our review. Mirbel is another modern writer,
who has gained reputation by his labours on the anatomy of plants. He has
examined the structure of some of the smaller plants; for example, the grasses,
with more precision than had previously been done; and he has endeavoured
* Annales de Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Tom. I. p. 207.
48
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Chemical
physiologists.
to add to the knowledge which we before possessed, respecting the structure
of plants in general.
Much curious matter respecting the functions of plants has been brought
to light by the investigations of those philosophers, to whom we are chiefly
indebted for the improvements of pneumatic chemistry. The subject was begun
by Scheele and Priestley. Henry, Percival, Senebier, and Ingenhousz, con-
tributed a multitude of facts. Cruikshanks, Gough, Woodhouse, and Hassen-
fratz, added many curious circumstances; and, of late, Saussure has contri-
buted a considerable mass of experiments; while Mr. Ellis has set himself to
rectify what he conceives to be the mistakes with respect to this subject, into
which chemical writers have fallen.
We shall now endeavour to lay before ou. readers as short and perspicuous
a view of the whole subject as possible; and we shall notice, as we proceed,
such of the papers in the Philosophical Transactions, as seem to deserve par-
ticular attention.
1. Plants, as far, at least, as our observation goes, can be produced only two
ways, namely, by buds, and by seeds.
Plants propa-
The bud is the simplest mode, as it does not require the intervention of
gated by buds; sexual organs.
sexual organs. Buds
Buds* always produce plants exactly similar to their parents.
There are some plants which, as far as we know, are propagated only by buds.
These plants are considered as imperfect. There are numerous species of them,
and they all grow with very great rapidity. The fungi, lichens, confervæ, and
ulvæ, are plants of this kind. They produce buds in abundance, but no seeds.
We are not ignorant of the attempts made by Hedwig, and various other learned
and laborious botanists, not only to point out the seeds of all of these tribes of
plants, but even to demonstrate the presence of sexual organs in them. But
the irreconcilcable discordancy between the opinions of these various philoso-
phers, and the great uncertainty which every one of them acknowledges,
destroy all confidence in their opinions. Besides, the analogy of nature is
favourable to the notion that there are tribes of vegetables propagated only by
buds. For we know that various animals are propagated only that way, and
why should not the same law extend to the vegetable kingdom also.
and seeds.
But the greater number of plants furnish sceds, from which, when sown in
a proper soil, plants similar to the parents are produced. Now, plants pro-
Sexual organs ducing seeds have sexual organs; consisting of male and female. These organs
of plants.
constitute the essential part of the flower, which always precedes the perfect
seed, The male organs consist of three parts; namely, the filaments, the
antheræ, and the pollen. The filaments are certain threads to which the
Buds are of various kinds. For a particular description we refer to Gærtner De Fructibus et
Seminibus Plantarum. Vol. I. p. 3.
CHAP. I.J'
49
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
antheræ are fixed. They are not essential; for, in some flowers, they cannot be
observed. But the antheræ and pollen are essential organs, and therefore never
absent. The antheræ are oblong bags, usually of a yellow colour; placed on
the summit of the filaments. At the time of fecundation, they become covered
with a light dust, called the pollen; which performs the office of fecundating
the female organs by falling on them. The female organs are four in number;
namely, the stigma, the style, the ovarium, and the seeds. The stigma is
nothing else than the summit of the style upon which the pollen is deposited.
The style is a pillar terminating in the ovarium, or vessel in which the seeds
are afterwards found.
How the fecundation is performed, we remain entirely ignorant. We fear Fecundation,
the process is inscrutable, and altogether beyond our faculties. We know only
that the style is not sensibly hollow, even when examined by the most powerful
microscopes. The pollen therefore cannot, as some have supposed, make its
way through the style to the ovarium. Nothing can pass that way, except in
a liquid form, and in quantities so minute as to be insensible to our organs.*
Indeed there are some antheræ which, instead of pollen, exude a liquid; a fact
which confirms this position. Fecundation seems to be effected by the union
of something from the male and female organs; neither of which, alone, is
capable of constituting a complete seed: but what it is which unites, and how
the union is brought about, we are entirely ignorant.
Some plants seem to have only the female organs; or, to speak more cor-
rectly, the male and female organs are united together in the same part of the
plant, so that no distinct male organs can be found. Such plants do not pro-
duce perfect flowers indeed, in most of them, no flowers whatever can be
observed; but only seeds. Fuci, musci, and filices, are plants of this kind.
They have all perfect seeds; but we cannot detect any thing similar to a
flower.
•
The greater number of plants are furnished with both male and female
organs. Sometimes, most frequently indeed, both of these exist together in
the same flower. Sometimes the male organs are confined to one flower, and
the female to another; these two kinds of flowers often grow together on the
same plant; but not unfrequently male flowers only are found upon one plant,
and female flowers upon another. The plant with female flowers alone pro-
*There are two papers in the Philosophical Transactions, which attempt to prove that the
pollen, or at least grains which it contains, actually pass through the stigma, to the ovarium. The
first, written in 1703, by Mr. Morland, (Phil. Trans. XXIII. 1474;) the second, published in 1765,
by Sir F. H. Eyles. Stiles, (Ibid. LV. 261.) This last is an elaborate dissection, accompanied by
numerous engravings. But succeeding observers have been unable to observe the passages de-
scribed and figured by the author. He was probably misled by his microscope.
H
50
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Discovery of
the sexes of
plants.
produces seeds; and the seeds are capable of vegetating, only when the female
flowers have been impregnated by pollen from the male flowers.
§
This curious and important fact of the sexual organs of plants, and the man-
ner in which impregnation is accomplished, was totally unknown to the
ancients. They talk indeed frequently of male and female trees and plants;
but it was some difference between the size of the plants, the smoothness of the
leaves, or the shape of the seeds, and no knowledge of the male and female
organs, that induced them to impose these denominations. The person who
first suggested the real use of the sexual organs, and to whom, of course, the
discovery is due, was Sir Thomas Millington, Savilian Professor at Oxford,
soon after the establishment of the Royal Society. He mentioned his opinion
to Grew, who embraced it, and detailed, at some length, his reasons for
adopting it.*
In 1681, Bobart, keeper of the botanic garden at Oxford,
who probably was acquainted with the opinion of Sir Thomas Millington,
made some experiments on the lichnis dioica, and convinced himself that the
antheræ are necessary for obtaining perfect seeds.† Ray, soon after, adopted
the same opinion,‡ and even defended it at considerable length, against the
objections of his contemporaries. One of the principal opposers of this
opinion, when it was first propagated, was Leeuwenhoek, who acquired a very
great celebrity by his microscopical observations; a celebrity long ago entirely
vanished. He endeavoured to prove, that the plant existed ready formed in
the seed; an opinion, at that time, pretty generally embraced; but long since
laid aside as absurd and utterly improbable. Reaumur endeavoured to extend
the sexual system to the fuci; || but his opinion was refuted by Gmelin. Brad-
ley ascertained the effect of impregnating the stigmata with various kinds of
pollen; and showed that, by this means, hybrids might be obtained; the taste
of fruit changed; and various other curious effects produced. I
The same
topics were handled, with much success, in a paper by Dr. Blair, published in
the Philosophical Transactions, for 1721.** He refutes the opinion advanced
by Morland, respecting the passage of the pollen through the style to the embryo,
and gives several examples of superfœtation, or of a seed partaking of the proper-
ties of three distinct plants, in consequence of the female flower being at once
impregnated by two different species of pollen. This subject has been very
lately resumed by Mr. Knight,++ the most distinguished of modern physiologists.
But he does not seem to have been aware of what had been done on the same
* Grew's Anatomy of Plants, p. 171.
+ Blair's Botanical Essays, p. 243.
Hist. Plant. I. 17. This book was published in 1686.
Mem. Paris, 1711, p. 371; and 1712, p. 26.
See his preface ad Syl. Exol.
¶ A New Improvement of Planting and Gardening. London, 1717.
tt Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 195.
** Vol. XXXI. p. 216.
CHAP. I.]
51
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
subject by his predecessor Blair. He succeeded in obtaining several new varie-
ties of peas by cutting off the antheræ from the flowers of certain plants before
impregnation, and then introducing the pollen of another kind of pea into the
blossoms. He obtained also unequivocal examples of seeds partaking of the
qualities of three different plants at the same time. The female flower having
been at once impregnated with the pollen of two distinct male flowers.
Geoffroy had published experiments on the Zea Mays in the Memoirs of the
French Academy, from which he concluded that even when all the male flowers
of this monœcious plant were removed before impregnation, still the seeds con-
tinued to grow till they reached their full size. But when planted in the
ground they refused to germinate, and of course were imperfect. These asser-
tions induced Mr. Logan to repeat the experiments of Geoffroy with every pos-
When the impregna-
sible precaution. The result was published in 1736.*
tion was entirely prevented, the seeds in every case withered away without com-
ing to maturity.
Linnæus founded his arrangement of plants upon the sexual system. This
arrangement was made fully known to the public in 1736, and after a fceble
opposition from some captious botanists it was universally adopted, and with it
the opinions respecting the uses of the male and female organs of plants.†
seeds.
II. After the impregnation has taken place, the ovarium, or seed vessel, gra- Structure of
dually increases in bulk, and the seeds by slow degrees reach maturity. Now a
vegetable seed, not reckoning the integuments, which are usually two, consists
of the following parts: 1. The albumen, so called first by Grew from the re-
semblance which it bears to the white of an egg. The name was afterwards
adopted by Gærtner, and is now universally used by writers on vegetable phy-
siology. The albumen is originally a glary liquid, but becomes white and solid
when the seed reaches maturity. It commonly surrounds the other ingredients
of the seed, and in many cases, in the seeds of wheat (triticum) for example,
it constitutes almost the whole bulk of the seed. This organ seems destined to
supply the embryo with food. During a certain period of the growth of the
seed it can in most cases be detected, but not unfrequently no traces of it can be
observed in the mature seed. Of 1,050 kinds of seeds described by Gærtner,
418 want the albumen, 600 have it, and 32 are doubtful. The seeds of grasses
have usually a large albumen, while those of papilionaceous plants, as peas,
* Phil. Trans. XXXIX. 192.
+
There is a very curious paper in the Philosophical Transactions connected with the seeds of
plants, and therefore deserving of mention here. It is by Mr. Barrel, and is printed in the Phil.
Trans. 1727. Vol. XXXIV. p. 215. The subject is the growth of the parasytical plant called the
misscltoe (viscum album.) The seed sticks by a clammy covering to the bark of some tree. The
root issues first, proceeds some way, then forms an arch, and adheres by its extremity to the bark.
The other extremity now lets go its hold, and gradually becomes the stem of the plant.
H 2
+42
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
~
beans, &c. are most commonly destitute of it. 2. The vitellus, so called by
Gærtner from some supposed analogy with the yoke of an egg. It is a solid
body placed between the albumen and the embryo, and usually connected with
both. It is constantly small, is not always to be seen, and its use has not been
very clearly made out. Probably, like the albumen, it is connected with the
nourishment of the embryo during its subsequent developement.* 3. The em-
bryo, which consists of three parts, namely the cotyledons, the radicle, and the
plumula. It is the most important part of the seed, and is never wanting.
The cotyledons vary in number. In some seeds you cannot perceive them at
all. But all such seeds are exceedingly small, and on that account their form
eludes our examination, even when we are assisted by the best microscopes.
Plants yielding such seeds are called acotyledinous. The filices, musci, and
fuci, belong to this class of plants. Some seeds have only one cotyledon, most
seeds have two, and some have three, six, or ten. Of 1,050 genera of seeds de-
scribed by Gærtner, six are without cotyledons, 123 are monocotyledonous, 920
dicotyledonous, and five or six polycotyledonous. The polycotyledonous ge-
nera are pinus, rhizophora, canarium, lepidium, cupressus? and hernandia?†
The number of cotyledons in the seeds of plants constitutes the foundation of
a very
beautiful and useful arrangement of plants by Jussieu, an arrangement
indispensable to the general botanist. It is in fact an elaborate attempt at a
natural classification of plants; and though it may be considered as only in its
infancy, it possesses unquestionable merit and utility. Gærtner has also given us
an arrangement of plants according to the cotyledons of the seeds. The coty-
ledons are usually converted into seed leaves when the seed germinates. In
many cases, as in the bean, they give the seed its shape, and constitute al-
most the whole of its bulk.
In bicotyledonous plants the radicle projects between the two cotyledons. It
is a small knob just visible to the naked eye. It is always present in every seed,
and is converted by germination into the root of the young plants. The plu-
mula, which constitutes the future stem, is also a small knob, and in bicotyle-
donous seeds it lies concealed between the two cotyledons, and can only be dis-
tinguished when they are separated from each other. In many seeds it is not
possible to observe the plumula previous to the commencement of germination.
Dr. Smith, in an essay on the Vitellus, published in the 9th volume of the Linnæan Transac-
tions, p. 204, endeavours to prove that the vitellus is only a part of the cotyledons, and ought not to
be distinguished from them. Perhaps Gartner's description of the vitellus is not very accurate, but
that in various seeds there is a substance distinct from the albumen, and unconnected with the coty-
ledons we believe to be indisputable. This substance Gartner no doubt would have called the vitel-
Jus. As to its use, that is another and a very difficult question.
+ Mr. Salisbury has shown in a paper, published in the Linnæan Transactions, that the natural
order of plants called orchideæ have no cotyledons at all.
CHAP. I.]
153
NATURAL HISTORY.—BÓTANÝ.
seeds.
The number of seeds which plants produce annually is quite enormous, and Number of
can only be accounted for by considering it as an example of the wonderful
care taken by the Author of Nature that no species should be lost. To give an
example in a plant by no means comparable either in size or fertility to several
others that might be mentioned-Mr. Hobson found that a thriving plant of
the common mallow (malva sylvatica) yielded in one summer no fewer than
200,000 seeds.*
It is commonly believed that if seeds be kept even for a small number of years
they lose the power of germinating altogether. But there is a great diversity
between different seeds in this respect. Some, as the acorn, seem to lose their
power of germinating almost immediately, while others may be preserved for
almost any length of time without injury, provided they be kept in a dry place,
or totally excluded from the action of the air. Mr. Ellis pointed out a success-
ful method of bringing seeds without injury from warm climates to England.
It consisted in simply surrounding the seed with a covering of tallow or wax.
Secretary Hæreus, of Stockholm, found that melon-seeds kept for 41 years grew
remarkably well when sown.† In Zurich, in Switzerland, they were formerly
in the habit of keeping corn in granaries for SO years. Some seeds taken from
Tournefort's collection, and of course at least 100 years old, were lately sown
at Paris, and produced plants as readily as if they had been quite recent.
the most extraordinary example of the length of time that some seeds retain
their vegetating power was exhibited in London after the fire which laid waste
so great a part of that city in 1666. Several plants of sinapis arvensis and tri-
folium repens,§ speedily grew up in the site of several of the demolished houses.
Mr. Ray examined the soil, and found that it contained the seeds of these
plants. These seeds must have lain buried under the houses of London for se-
veral hundred years without losing their faculty of vegetating.
But
The most curious paper on seeds, in the Philosophical Transactions, is an
account of the seeds of fern by Mr. Miles. It is in fact rather a description
of the curious mechanism of the seed vessels, than the seed of ferns which are
too small to be examined. This mechanism was discovered by Dr. Hooke as
early as 1669. Swammerdam describes it with great accuracy, and exhibited
it to the Botanical Professor of Leyden as early as 1673. The account given
by Grew of this mechanism in his Anatomy of Plants is very
inaccurate.
* Phil. Trans. 1743. Vol. XLII.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. XLII. p. 115.
p. 320.
Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II. p. 464.
§ Stating this from recollection (for I cannot at present remember where I met with the anecdote)
it is possible I may not have given the proper species. The plants, as far as I remember, were wild
mustard and white clover.
Phil. Trans. Vol. XLI. p. 770.
6
54
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Structure of
plants.
The pith.
The wood.
III. The opinion of physiologists respecting the ultimate structure of plants is
divided. Grew and Malpighi considered them as composed of extremely minute
fibres interlacing each other in all directions. This opinion was embraced by
Duhamel, by Hedwig, and by almost all the German physiologists. Mirbel,
on the other hand, has advanced that the ultimate structure of plants is vesicular
and similar to the texture of a honeycomb. The walls which constitute the
cells are transparent, and two contiguous cells have only one wall between
them. Though these two opinions have been each sustained with great obsti-
nacy, and though they have lately occasioned a violent controversy between
Mirbel and the German Physiologists Sprængel, Link, Rudolphi, Bernhardi,
and Treviranus,* they do not appear to us to differ so much from one another
as the opposite parties suppose; and if Mirbel will compare some of the figures
given by Duhamel with his own, he will find the difference not quite so great as
he at present supposes. We fear that a discussion of this kind is not likely to
advance our knowledge of the vegetable kingdom. The ultimate structure both
of animals, plants, and minerals, is beyond the scrutiny of our imperfect senses.
To search for it is to run after a phantom, and to subject ourselves to the infalli-
ble certainty of being imposed upon by optical and other deceptions, which it
is not in the power even of the most patient and cautious man to guard against.
Trees, and indeed all plants, are composed essentially of three distinct parts,
the pith, the wood, and the bark. The pith is placed in the centre, and is at
first succulent, but dries up, and apparently becomes useless as the plant advances
in age. It is composed of vesicles as has been fully ascertained by Grew and
Malpighi, and by all succeeding anatomists.
The wood surrounds the pith. It consists of two distinct substances. The
internal cylinder is harder and more compact, and is called the perfect wood,
the external cylinder is of a softer and looser texture, and is called the alburnum.
Each of them is composed of concentric circles, one of which is formed every
year. It is always the outermost of these circles that is formed last, and the
circles of the alburnum gradually change into perfect wood. In the bicoty-
ledonous trees, there are horizontal rays which proceed from the pith to the
circumference of the stem, and these rays are composed of the same materials
with the pith. Hence they have been called medullary rays. By the carpen-
ters of this country these rays are distinguished by the name of the silver grain
of the wood. In monocotyledonous trees these medullary rays are not to be
observed. It is remarkable that these trees do not send out lateral branches,
and that when their top is cut off they uniformly die.
* The reader who wishes to make himself acquainted with this dispute, and with the opinions of
Mirbel, respecting the structure of plants, may consult the Exposition de la Theorie de l'Organisa-
tion Vegetale, published by Mirbel in 1809, in answer to the papers of the German physiologists who
gained the prize proposed by the Royal Society of Gottingen in 1804.
5
CHAP. I.J
55
NATURAL HISTORY.—BOTANY.
The bark constitutes the external covering of the stem. It consists of three The bark.
parts, namely, the epidermis, or outer skin, which may be rubbed off and is
renewed again; many monocotyledonous plants have no distinct epidermis.
The parenchyma, or green pulpy matter which lies within the epidermis. It
constitutes a considerable part of the bark; is composed of vesicles, and seems
to be an organ of great importance in the vegetable economy. The cortex
liber, or true bark; which lies innermost, and is composed of a number of
layers like the leaf of a book. The most generally received opinion is, that
these layers are gradually converted into wood; while new layers are formed
in their place. The experiments of Duhamel, successfully repeated by Mirbel,
were considered as demonstrating the truth of this opinion, but Mr. Knight has
lately started some doubts on the subject.
Vegetables, like animals, are furnished with a variety of vessels destined to Vessels of
convey their various liquids to the proper places, and to contribute to the deve- plants.
lopement of the various parts of the plant. Great attention has been paid to
these organs by anatomists; because the knowledge of their structure and
distribution was conceived to be the best means of throwing light upon the
œconomy of the vegetable kingdom. They were first discovered by Grew and
Malpighi; some additional knowledge was gained by the observations of Du-
hamel and Hedwig; but Mirbel is the physiologist who has studied the sub-
ject with the greatest industry. The vessels of vegetables, as far as we are
acquainted with them, are of five different kinds. 1. Trachea. They are the largest
vessels in plants, and may often be discovered by the naked eye. They were
first observed by Grew and Malpighi, who gave them the name of tracheæ,
because they found them full of air, and thought them air vessels. Their struc-
ture is very remarkable; they are composed of a fibre, twisted round like a
cork-screw, so that by laying hold of the extremities of this fibre, it may be
drawn out to a considerable length. Hedwig conceived that this fibre was a
hollow tube, and that it conveyed sap; but his opinion has not been confirmed
by the observations of succeeding physiologists The tracheæ do not seem to
be attached to the vegetable in which they are situated, except by their extre-
mities. They are never found in the pith or bark, but only in the wood; and,
according to Mirbel, chiefly in a zone immediately surrounding the pith.
2. False trachea. These vessels hsd been previously observed by others, but
the attention of physiologists was first particularly called to them by Mirbel,
who assigned them the name by which they are distinguished. They resemble
trachea, in appearance, but are not composed of a fibre, twisted like a cork-
screw, and cannot therefore be drawn out in length by laying hold of their
extremities. According to Mirbel, they are full of horizontal slits, each of
which is surrounded by a glandular protuberance. Others deny the existence
of these slits, though the protuberance is obvious enough. The fact is, that
$6
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE 5
ROYAL SOCIETY.
The leaves.
Food of
plants.
2
the slits, if they exist, are so small, that it is very difficult to perceive them,
and still more difficult to avoid being misled by optical deceptions. These falso
trachea, like the true, are found only in the wood. 3. Porous tubes. These
are vessels which are in the form of long tubes, and have no resemblance to
the trachea. According to Mirbel, to whom we owe the most exact account.
of them, they are full of pores, usually placed in horizontal rows, and each
pore is surrounded by a glandular protuberance. These porous tubes, like the
two last sets of vessels, are confined to the wood. According to Mirbel, and
his opinion is very likely to be accurate, those three vessels are all destined for
the same purpose, and often run into one another; so that if we trace a vessel
for some length, we find one part of it a tracheæ, another a false trachea, and
a third a porous tube. 4. Necklace tubes,
4. Necklace tubes, (vaisseaux en chapelet.) These
vessels are first mentioned by Mirbel. According to him, they consist of a
number of vesicles attached to each other by their extremities, and thus con-
stituting a long tube; having a diaphragm perforated with numerous pores at
the junction of each pair of cells; at which place, also, the diameter of the
tube is somewhat contracted. These tubes are found in similar situations with
the preceding, and doubtless answer the same purpose. 5. Proper vessels.
These are found in the bark; and sometimes, according to Mirbel, in the
pith, but never in the wood, Hedwig endeavoured to prove, that the struc-
ture of these vessels was similar to that of the trachea; but his opinions have
been refuted by Knight and Mirbel. They are simple tubes, without any
pores, sometimes single and large, sometimes numerous, small, and grouped
together. They contain the peculiar juice. Mirbel supposes them rather
reservoirs than proper vessels; but the rapidity with which the whole of their
contents are discharged when they are wounded or cut, is rather hostile to that
notion.
>
The composition of the roots, the branches, and even the foot-stalks of the
leaves, seems to be similar to that of the stem. The leaves themselves are
composed of abundance of vessels, diverging from the end of the foot-stalk,
which gives the leaf its shape. These vessels are double, lying one over
the other, as was first shown by Nicholls;* who found that the skeletons of
leaves are always double. The rest of the leaf consists of the parenchyma of
the bark, covered with the epidermis. Neither the cortical layers, nor the wood,
can be found in the leaves.
IV. As vegetables are continually increasing in bulk, and forming new
parts, it is obvious that they require food as well as animals; and that this
food must be digested and prepared, before it can be assimilated to the vegetable
organs. As plants have their roots fixed in the earth, and their branches in
*Phil. Traus. Vol. XXXVI. p. 371.
CHAP. I.]
57
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
the atmosphere, and as they will not vegetate well when deprived of either of
these elements, it is obvious that both must contribute, somehow, to their
nourishment. The effect of manure, in promoting the vegetation of plants,
and the well-known fact that soils are speedily exhausted if they be made to
bear crops, without being supplied with manure, is a proof that something else
besides mere air and earth contributes to the food of vegetables. A very great
number of experiments and observations have been made to elucidate this
subject; but the success of philosophers has not corresponded with their
industry. Indeed the subject is as difficult as it is important, and much
laborious investigation is still wanting before we can establish a satisfactory
theory. The following may be considered as a pretty accurate summary of the
present state of our knowledge.
Plants will not vegetate without a supply of water; but pure water alone is
not sufficient to produce a healthy and perfect vegetation. It is requisite that
the water should hold in solution a certain substance, which exists in abun-
dance in decayed animal and vegetable matter. This substance is similar, in
many of its properties, to vegetable extractive. Water, in order to answer
well the purposes of vegetation, ought not to contain above a certain proportion
of this matter; not more than five per cent. at most seems requisite. Accord-
ingly, too much manure is found just as hurtful to vegetation as too little.
Particular salts seem useful to the vegetation of certain plants, probably acting
as stimulants. Thus, gypsum promotes the vegetation of clover; nitre, of
nettles and sun-flower; nitrate of soda, of barley; common salt, of the salsolas,
and other plants, which vegetate upon the sea coast.
The food of plants is absorbed by the extremities of the roots. As these
extremities are very small, and do not appear perforated even when examined
by the best microscopes, it is obvious that this food can enter only in a liquid
state; it must therefore be previously in solution by water. From the extre-
mities of the roots, this liquid matter is conveyed to the very summit of the
plant. It has been ascertained that it passes entirely through the wood; and,
according to Knight, chiefly through the alburnum; and that none of it is to
be found either in the bark or pith. It passes up through the tracheæ, false
tracheæ, and porous tubes; and is known by the name of sap. It flows, in Ascent of the
the greatest quantity, in spring, just before the leaves expand. At that period, sap.
if the extremity of a branch of several plants, as the vine, be cut off, or if the
stem be perforated as far as the perfect wood, as in the birch or the maple, the
sap flows out with the more or less velocity, and the plant is then said to bleed.
From the experiments of Hales, we learn that the sap ascends in plants with
a very considerable force, a force which he found capable of balancing a
column of mercury 38 inches high :* even when it has proceeded to the
* Hales' Vegetable Statics. Vol. I, p. 114.
I
58
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Matter
transpiration.
distance of 44 feet from the root, he still found the sap to balance a column of
31 feet of water.*
This sap passes on to the surface of the leaves of the plant, where a con-
thrown off by siderable portion of it is exhaled, as was first shewn by the experiments of
Dr. Woodward's
Dr. Woodward, and afterwards by those of Dr. Hales.
experiments have acquired great celebrity, and are constantly referred to by
all writers on vegetable physiology. They consisted in putting sprigs of vege-
tables into the mouths of phials, filled with water, allowing them to vegetate
for some time, and then determining the quantity of water which they have
imbibed, and the quantity of weight which they have gained. The difference
obviously indicates the quantity of moisture exhaled by the plant. He found
that plants acquired the least increase of weight, when they grew in pure
water; and the greatest when they grew in water mixed with garden mould.
The following table exhibits a view of Dr. Woodward's experiments.†

Proportion of
increase of
Weight of plants.
Phial.
Kinds of plants and water.
When
put in.
When ta-
ken out.
Gained
in 77
days.
Expence
of water. | plants to ex-
pence of water
gr.
gr.
gr.
gr.
A Common spear mint, set in spring water.
27
42
15
2558
1:170+
B
Ditto, set in rain water…….
281
453
171
3004
1:1713
C
Ditto, in Thames water....
28
54
26
2493
1: 952킁
​D
Common night shade, in spring water...
49
106
57
3708
1: 653
E Lathyris, in spring water.
98
1014
31/12
2501
1:7144
·
Gained
Plants, all spear mint.
in 56
days.
H Hyde Park conduit water.
127
255
128
14190
I
The same.
110
249
139
13140
K
The same, mixed with an ounce and
half of garden mould..
}
76
24.4
168
#
10781
L
Ditto, with ditto.
92
376
284
14950
M
Ditto, distilled..
114
155
41
8803
N Residue of ditto, left in the still……
81
175
94
4344
Dr. Hales' experiments were of a similar nature.
He found that a cabbage
transmitted daily a quantity of moisture, equal to about half its weight; and
* Hales' Vegetable Statics. Vol. I, p. 117.
+. Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXL. p. 193.
CHAP. I.]
59
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
that a sun-flower, three feet high, transmitted in a day 1lb. 14 oz., avoirdupois,
of moisture.* He found that the transpiration was nearly confined to the day,
very little taking place during the night;† and that it was much promoted by
heat, and stopped by rain and frost. He showed that the quantity of trans-
piration, in the same plant, is proportional to the surface of the leaves, and
that when the leaves are taken off, the transpiration nearly ceases.§ These con-
clusions are confirmed by the subsequent observations of Millar, Guettard, and
Senebier.
Thus it appears that a liquid is absorbed by the roots of plants, that it Why does the
ascends through the wood in proper vessels to the leaves, where a considerable sap ascend?
portion of it is exhaled; that it ascends with a very considerable force; and
that the ascent is somehow connected with the leaves, soon ceasing when they
are removed. Now it becomes a problem, of considerable importance, to
ascertain the power which occasions this motion. It obviously depends upon
the life of the plant, because, when the plant dies, the ascent of the sap en-
tirely ceases; but in what way does the living plant exert a force which causes
the sap to ascend? We are afraid that no very satisfactory answer can be given
to this question. Most philosophers have endeavoured to account for the rise
upon mechanical principles; but not one of the solutions proposed, even the
most recent, can be admitted. Grew accounted for the rise by the levity of the
sap; an opinion too absurd to merit an examination. Malpighi supposed (as
is undoubtedly the case) that plants contained in their vesicles abundance of
air, and that the sap was forced up by the dilation of this air, occasioned by
heat. If the sap vessels were air tight, and furnished with valves, this solution
would possess considerable plausibility; but as neither of these states seems to
exist, it is plain that no dilatation of the air could force the sap upwards.
Capillary attraction has been a favourite mode of resolving the difficulty; but
if this were the cause of the ascent of the sap, it is plain that trees could never
bleed; because the attraction of the uppermost film of the vessels for the sap,
being as great as that of the lowest, would just balance the attraction, and
prevent the sap from leaving the vessels at all. Mirbel accounts for the ascent
of the sap by the suction of the leaves and bark; but this explanation is just
as inadmissible as the others. Suction means nothing more than the produc-
tion of a vacuum, by withdrawing the air or liquid sucked. Suppose such a
vacuum produced in the leaves, which could only happen if they were hard
and air tight, neither of which properties ever belongs to them; the conse-
quence would be, that the external air, acting upon the sap in the vessels,
would force it up into the leaves. Hence it is obvious, if suction be the cause
* Vegetable Statics.
Ibid. p. 27, 48.
Vol. I. p. 5, 15.
+ Ibid.
§ Ibid. p. 30.
I 2
60
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
of the ascent of the sap, that the force of that ascent can never be greater than
the atmospherical pressure. But Hales found the force of the sap at least one
fifth part greater than the pressure of the atmosphere; hence we are quite
certain that the cause of the ascent of the sap is not suction. Besides all this,
it is obvious that Mirbel's account of the structure of the sap vessels, which he
says are full of pores, and freely communicate, almost every where, with the
cells of the wood, is quite incompatible with the rise of sap by suction; unless
he be prepared to affirm that air cannot penetrate by the external bark, and
that the suction is applied, not to the sap vessels alone, but to the whole wood.
Now these positions are obviously ill founded. Mr. Knight seems inclined to
conceive the sap vessels as supplied with valves, and to account for the ascent
of the sap by the expansion of the included air. But even if we were to admit
the presence of valves, the contrary of which seems to be clearly demonstrated,
still the ascent of the sap would be unaccountable that way, if the sap vessels be
full of pores, as Mirbel has endeavoured to shew, and as Knight himself seems dis-
posed to admit. Even supposing the vessels not porous and perfectly air tight,
still the expansion of air would not occasion the sap to ascend with a force
balancing 38 inches of mercury; unless the air were to expand so much that
its bulk were doubled, and one-fifth more. Now this would require a tempe-
rature equivalent at least to 608° of Fahrenheit's thermometer: a degree of
heat which certainly never takes place, and which would destroy vegetation.
altogether. This supposition then, even supposing we concede to Mr. Knight
every thing which he thinks proper to demand, is absolutely inadmissible. The
ascent of the sap, indeed, might be accounted for, if we were to suppose the
vessels furnished with valves, destitute of pores, and an indefinite quantity of
elastic fluid to be generated within the plant. But these suppositions we allow
to be contrary to the fact, and therefore inadmissible.
The only remaining opinion is that of Saussure,
ascent of the sap by the contraction of the vessels.
us the most likely mode of explaining the phenomenon; though we do not see
how the anatomical structure of the vessels of plants can be reconciled with it:
for the texture of the sap vessels, and their connexion with the neighbouring
parts of the wood, are such, that we cannot very well see how contraction is
possible; and even if we were to concede the possibility of contracting, still if
the sap vessels be full of pores, and if they communicate freely with the cellular
texture of the wood, the contraction of the vessels would not occasion the
Cannot be ex- ascent, but the extravasation of the sap. Upon the whole, the safest conclu-
plained.
sion that we can draw, in the present state of our knowledge, is, that the ascent
of the sap is owing to some power exerted by the living vegetable; but what
that power is we are still entirely ignorant. Our knowledge of the ascent of
the sap in vegetables is, at present, nearly in the same state as that of anato-
senior, who explained the
We confess this
We confess this appears to
3
CHAP. I.]
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
mists with respect to the animal fluids, before Harvey's great discovery of the
circulation of the blood.
From the experiments of Hales, it appears that there is a free lateral com-
munication of the sap between the parts of plants; so that a tree may be nou-
rished by absorbing moisture by the extremity of a branch. A tree will even
live though its roots be taken out of the earth, provided its branches inosculate
with trees upon each side of it. From the experiments of Bonnet, it appears,
that even the under surface of the leaves is capable of absorbing enough of
moisture to keep a whole branch alive a considerable time. From the experi-
ments of Duhamel, it follows, that the sap moves equally well either from the
roots to the summits of the branches, or, in the contrary direction, from the
summits of the branches to the extremities of the roots. But Knight has
lately shown, that the conclusions drawn from these experiments require to be
somewhat modified; for he found a marked superiority in the facility with
which the sap flows in its natural direction.
Hales and Senebier contrived to collect portions of the liquid, which exhales
from the leaves of plants, by inclosing a living branch within a large glass
vessel. It possessed nearly the properties of pure water; but contained in it
some vegetable matter: for, when kept for some time, it acquired a putrid smell.
Senebier found in the liquid, collected in this manner from the vine, traces of
carbonate, and sulphate of lime, with some mucilaginous and resinous matter.
This enormous quantity of matter, almost purely aqueous, transpired by the Functions of
leaves of plants, must make a very considerable difference in the nature of the the leaves.
resident sap retained by these organs, or at least in the proportion of matter
held in solution in it. Other changes go on in the leaves at the same time;
for these organs are the instruments employed by plants to digest their food,ʼ
and convert it into the various liquids requisite for the purposes of vegetation.
They are, in some measure, equivalent to the lungs and stomach of animals.
In what way the digestion is performed we have no distinct notion: but it has
been ascertained, that during the day the leaves of plants absorb carbonic acid,
decompose it, emit part of the oxygen, in the form of gas, retain the carbon,
and a portion of the oxygen, and emit also a portion of azotic gas, in such a
quantity that the bulk of the atmosphere surrounding them remains nearly
unaltered. The absorption of carbonic acid, and the emission of oxygen gas,
were first observed by Priestley. Both were confirmed by the subsequent expe-
riments of Percival, Henry, and Ingenhousz. Senebier ascertained that the
emission of oxygen was the consequence of the absorption of carbonic acid;
and Saussure, junior, determined by experiment that the proportion of oxygen
gas, in the atmosphere surrounding a plant vegetating in air containing car-
Bonic acid and exposed to the light, was increased, while that of the carbonic
acid was diminished; that the whole oxygen in the carbonic acid gas absorbed
62
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
was not to be found in the surrounding atmosphere, and that the deficiency was
made up by a quantity of azotic gas. There seems to be some reason to dis-
trust the correctness of Saussure's conclusions respecting the azotic gas, emitted
by plants. In all likelihood he mistook for azotic gas some of the numerous
combustible gases which are formed of hydrogen and carbon.
It appears also, from the experiments of Ingenhousz and Saussure, junior,
that plants have the property of absorbing oxygen gas, and that this absorption
takes place chiefly in the night. Sometimes the oxygen gas is barely absorbed ;
but in other cases, it is either partly or wholly converted into carbonic acid
gas. Fleshy leaved plants absorb the least oxygen gas. Plants growing in
marshy situations likewise absorb little. Evergreen plants absorb rather more;
but the most of all is absorbed by those plants which lose their leaves during
the winter. The greatest quantity of absorption, observed by Saussure,
amounted to eight times the bulk of the plant; and the least, to rather more
than half the bulk of the plant, in a night's time.
It appears also, from the experiments of Bonnet, that the leaves of plants
have the property of absorbing moisture during the night. In trees, this ab-
sorption is performed by the under surface of the leaf, while the transpiration
is confined to the upper surface.
These are all the changes upon the atmosphere surrounding plants which
have been detected. It is probable that plants, by this means, absorb a con-
siderable portion of the carbon which they contain. Hence probably the
reason why the proportion of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere never
increases; notwithstanding the immense quantity which is constantly thrown
into it by the respiration of animals, and the processes of combustion. We
cannot account for the double process of absorbing and emitting carbonic acid
and oxygen. Some philosophers, on that account solely, have refused to admit
the reality of those processes, and endeavoured to prove that the changes pro-
duced upon air by plants, are precisely similar to those produced by animals;
that is to say, consist entirely in converting a portion of the surrounding
oxygen into carbonic acid gas. But the experiments of Senebier, Ingenhousz, and
Saussure, junior, are too exact to be rejected, at least without repetition. We
are rather surprised, that no British physiologist has thought it worth his
while to subject the whole doctrine to a rigid experimental investigation.
Much curious information would be the infallible consequence, of great
importance to the progress of vegetable physiology, and which might also
throw considerable light on some of the processes of agriculture.
By these and other unknown processes which take place in the leaves, the
sap is converted into that state which fits it for the purposes of vegetation.
From the leaves in this new state it is sent back to all the parts of the plant by
means of vessels situated in the bark, and which proceed only towards the root
1
CHAP. I.]
62
NATURAL HISTORY.-BOTANY.
and never in a contrary direction. From the observations of Mr. Knight it
would not be surprizing if these vessels were furnished with a kind of imperfect
valves. He has shown at least that they are much better fitted to carry the true True sap.
sap (as the liquid which they contain has been called) towards the root than in
the contrary direction. Mirbel is inclined to consider these vessels rather as re-
servoirs than as true vessels, and he conceives that the liquid which they con-
tain is not intended for the nourishment of the plant but for some other pur-
pose. The nourishing sap he considers as the liquid which appears in spring
between the wood and the bark, and to which, after Grew, he has given the
name of cambium. We think the opinion of Grew on this subject, and which
appears to have been adopted by Duhamel, to be more probable. Grew consi-
ders the cambium as the first rudiments of the new layer of wood, and as con-
sisting of a congeries of vessels so extremely fine that the least violence offered
to them reduces them to the state of a liquid pulp. Mr. Knight has rendered
it very probable that a portion of the true sap is lodged towards the end of the
year in the alburnum, to serve as food for the developement of the leaves against
the next season. It is not unlikely that a portion of this deposited sap may be
destined likewise for forming the new layer of wood, and may therefore be in
reality the source of the cambium, which only makes its appearance at a parti-
cular season.
V. The motion of the fluids in vegetables, though not similar to the circula-
tion of the blood in animals, is no less real, and the force of the ascending sap
has been shown by Dr. Hales considerably to exceed the force of the circulation
of the blood in a horse. As this motion is confined to the living vegetable, and
ceases entirely after death, it is difficult to avoid ascribing it to the same cause
which occasions the motion of blood in animals, we mean irritability. By irri- Irritability
tability is meant the property of contracting when certain stimulants are ap-
plied. Now there are not wanting proofs that vegetables possess irritability as
well as animals. We shall mention one, because it is contained in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, though it would not be difficult to produce others if requi-
site. Dr. Smith found that when the inside of the stamina of the berberis
communis, or common barberry bush, are touched ever so slightly, they imme-
diately start inwards till the antheræ strike against the stigma. But no motion
is produced by touching any other part of the stamen or even the antheræ.*
SECT. III.-Of Agriculture and the Economical Uses of Plants.
This very important subject is obviously too extensive to admit of our consi-
dering it in a general view. It cannot be doubted that agriculture has been
more an object of study, and has been brought to a much greater degree of
*Phil. Trans. 1788, Vol. LXXVIII. p. 158.
64
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
State of agri-
culture in
England.
Evelyn's
Sylva.
perfection in Great-Britain than in any other part of the world. In some coun-
ties of England these improvements are rather of an old date, and the atten-
tion bestowed on the subject for many years past has been attended with very
beneficial consequences. In the art of rearing cattle, and in the method of
ameliorating the breed both of cattle and horses, some counties of England still
continue unrivalled; but in the art of cultivating the ground, and raising crops
of corn, Norfolk seems to be the county that originated the first improvements.
From that county they were carried to Roxburgh and Berwickshire, in Scot-
land; and by the enlightened farmers of these provinces and of Haddington-
shire, immense improvements were made both in economizing labour, and in
improving the management of land and the rotation of crops. It is in these
three counties that farming, strictly so called, has acquired the greatest degree
of perfection. These improvements are gradually making their way into the
other southern counties of Scotland, and they have been long understood in
that part of England which borders on the Tweed. But in the south western
counties of England, and even in the inland counties as far north as Yorkshire,
the system of farming is still exceedingly defective. The farmers in general are
destitute of sufficient capital, and almost always of a good education; the
fields are too small and too much surrounded with trees; the plowing utensils
are ill contrived, and the number of horses and men employed above all calcu-
lation too great. The tythes and poor rates undoubtedly impede the improve-
ment of agriculture in England; but the system which prevails in many places
of not giving the farmers leases of their farms obviously forms an insuperable
check to all improvement. For no man will choose to lay out money in im-
proving a farm while he is conscious that he may be turned out before he has
reaped any advantage from his improvements. But it would be improper, in a
work of this nature, to dwell longer on a subject of this kind. We refer the
reader who wishes for full information on the subject to the Agricultural Re-
ports for the different counties of Great-Britain, published by the Board of
Agriculture, and to the works of Mr. Arthur Young and Mr. Marshall, and,
above all, to the System of Agriculture, printed in the Edinburgh Encyclo-
pædia, and since published in a separate state.
Agriculture forms but a very subordinate branch in the Philosophical Trans-
actions. The number of papers on the subject in that work amount to 40, and
more than the half of these are of a very old date. There are 15 of these
papers which at present can scarcely be considered as of any value. I shall
take a short view of the most interesting of the remaining 25.
I. The first paper that deserves notice is a review or rather an outline of
Evelyn's Sylva and Pomona, the first book ever written and published by the
express orders of the Royal Society.* This work is universally known, and is
* Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1069.
CHAP. I.]
65
NATURAL HISTORY.—Botany.
one of the most valuable books on the economy of forest and fruit trees that
has ever appeared. A new and splendid edition of it, enriched with numerous
notes, was published in 1786 by the late Dr. Hunter of York. Mr. Jolin
Evelyn was one of the original Members of the Royal Society, and one of its
greatest ornaments. He was born in 1620, and died in 1706. He was very
active in promoting the restoration, and on that account was honoured with
particular marks of attention both by Charles II. and James II.
II. The second paper which deserves notice is a letter written by Mr. Evelyn Drill plough.
to the President of the Royal Society, giving an account of a drill plough in-
vented by an Austrian, and used in Spain at the time when the letter was writ-
ten.* Though this plough is far inferior to the drill ploughs at present in use.
in this country, yet the fact deserves notice both in a historical point of view,
and because it serves in some measure to show the comparative progress of agri-
culture at that period in Spain and in England.
+
+
III. In the year 1675, the method of farming in Cornwall was to take four Farming i
crops of corn, and then allow the land to lie six or seven years in grass.+ At Cornwall.
that time they were in the habit of manuring their fields with a kind of sea
sand formed by the trituration of sea shells. That sand was found to answer
best which was covered by the sea. They laid 300 sacks of this sand on the
acre, when the land lay very near the sea; and gradually diminished the quan-
tity even to 20 or 30 sacks as the distance increased. The effect, according to
Dr. Cox, the author of the paper, was to increase the size of the ear and dimi-
nish the length of the straw, and he mentions a good crop of barley which he
had seen where the ear was as long as all the rest of the straw. The same
mode of manuring land was practised in Devonshire. They were accustomed
also to apply quicklime as a manure in that county; and some farmers (but the
practice is condemned by Dr. Bury as injurious) were in the habit of paring
the surface of poor land and burning it. This practice was so common that it
was known by the name of Devonshiring.§ Sea shells were used as a manure
for the turf lands of Londonderry and Donegal, in Ireland, and were found to
render the fields very productive. Quicklime was also employed for the same
purpose, but was not found to answer quite so well. This method of render-
ing mossy soils productive has been lately practised in Scotland, and considered
by the introducers of it as a new discovery. They were not aware that it had
been practised nearly a century before in Ireland.
Hardly any improvements make their way more slowly from one country to an-
other than improvements in agriculture. This must be ascribed entirely to the
* Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V.
p. 1056.
+ Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. IX.
‡ This method of manuring land in Cornwall is still continued. Probably the agricultural state of
p. 293.
that county is not much altered since the beginning of the last century.
§ Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 112.
|| Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 53.
K
66
[Book I,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Farming in
the Highlands
of Scoiland.
Saffron,
Indian corn.
ignorance and violent prejudices of the farmers. Though the value of sea shells as
a manure had been known in Cornwall at least as early as 1675; and though
the process followed had been published in the Transactions, yet in 1744 the
use of them was so little understood in Suffolk, that a farmer who found it out
by accident soon realized an ample fortune by the discovery.*
IV. In the year 1675, Sir George Mackenzie gives some account of the
mode of husbandry practised in the Highlands of Scotland. Oats and barley
appear to have been the only grain raised. Sea weed was employed as a manure,
which was found to answer much better for barley than oats. The increase he
says often amounts to 18 times the quantity sown.t
V. The culture of saffron was introduced into England from the Low Coun-
tries, and is still practised in several counties, especially in the neighbourhood
of Cambridge. Saffron consists of the dried styles and stigmata of the flowers
of the crocus sativus. Some of the cakes consist of the parts of the flowers
without any addition; but towards the end of the crop, when the flowers be-
come small, it is customary to sprinkle the cake with a quantity of beer. On ac-
count of the high price of saffron, and the small quantity produced, safflower
has been introduced by apothecaries as a substitute, and is commonly sold in-
stead of it. There are two different papers in the Philosophical Transactions
giving an account of the method of cultivating the plant, and preparing the
saffron. The first by the Hon. Charles Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk ;‡
and the second, which is more circumstantial and complete, by Dr. James
Douglass. §
+
VI. When North America was first planted by the English, they observed
that the Indians cultivated a sort of grain peculiar to that country, and now
well known by the name of Zea Mays or Indian corn. It grows to the length
of six or eight feet, and the grains are arranged in several rows upon the head
which has a considerable size. This corn has a sweetish taste, and makes very
palatable bread. It is much cultivated by the Americans, and is even employed
for making beer, and for various purposes of domestic economy. There is in
the Philosophical Transactions a very minute and accurate account of the mode
of cultivating Mays by Mr. Winthrop. The mode practised by the Americans
at that period to convert it into malt is curious. They spread it on garden soil,
covered it slightly with earth, and allowed it to remain till the surface was
covered over with a green vegetation. It was then dug up, cleaned and dried,
and used as malt. Mr. Winthrop assures us that the usual mode of malting
barley had been tried with maize but without success. The Americans had
*Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII. p. 191.
Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 945.
|| Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 1065.
+ Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. X. p. 396.
Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 566..
CHAP. I.]
67
NATURAL HISTORY.—BOTANY.
another method of preparing beer from mays which is no less curious. The
mays was ground and baked into bread. The bread was broken into lumps
which were infused in hot water; this water was then fermented and constituted
good beer.
corn in 1685.
VII. In the Transactions for 1685, we have the weight of a cubic foot of a Weight of
variety of substances, as determined by the experiments of the Philosophical
Society of Oxford. From this table we may deduce the following as at that
time the weight of a bushel of wheat, barley, and oats, raised in England.
Wheat..
Barley.
Oats..
59.891b. avoirdupois.
51.18.
•
36.71.*
The weight of the bushel of the same grain at present is considerably greater.
For example, good Norfolk barley usually weighs 53lb. per bushel. I have
even weighed barley from Essex, and from the Carse of Gowery, in Scotland,
heavier than 54lb. per bushel. From this increase of weight it seems reason-
able to conclude that the quality of grain has considerably improved in Great-
Britain since the year 1685.
VIII. Coffee has been used in Eastern nations from time immemorial; but its Coffee.
introduction into England, as we learn from a curious paper in the Transac-
tions by Mr. Houghton,† is but of very recent date. In the year 1652, Mr.
Daniel Edwards, a Smyrna merchant, brought over with him into England a
Greek servant named Pasqua, who made his coffee which he drank two or three
dishes at a time, twice or thrice a day. This gentleman seems to have been one
of the first persons that made use of coffee in England; though Dr. Harvey,
the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, is said likewise to have frequently
drunk it. It gradually made its way into private houses, which induced Mr.
Edwards to set up Pasqua as a coffeeman. He got a shed in the church-yard
of St. Michael, Cornhill, and thus opened the first coffee-house in England.
In the year 1699, the annual consumption of coffee, in Great-Britain, amounted
to about 100 tons, and it sold at the rate of 141. per ton.
*
trees.
IX. The great profit that results from plantations of trees, and the annual Growth of
increase of their value, was never better demonstrated than by the following
table drawn up by Mr. Marsham of Stratton, from his own observations.‡
*Phil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV. p.
{
昏
​Phil Trans. 1759. Vol. LI. p. 7.
926.
† Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXI. p. 311.
K 2
68
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Measure of trees taken in April 1743, before they began to shoot; and again in
autumn 1758, after the year's growth was completed. The measure taken at
five feet from the earth.

Circum-
ference
in Spring
Ditto in Increase
Autumn in 16
Content in Content in
Solid in-
crease in 16
1743.
1758.
1758.
1743.
years.
years.
Mode of in-
creasing fruit.
Produce of a
wheat seed.
Indigenous
trees.
1. Ash, planted since 16-17. ..
2. Oak past thriving, but sound.
3. Oak about 80 years old..
9 10 4
19
4 410 1 00 8 4
Inches.
8ths of inch.
8ths of inch.
Feet.
Inches.
Feet.
8ths of inch.
Inches.
Cubic feet.
Quarters.
Inches.
Cubic feet.
NO CO Quarters.
60 1 318 76 3 43 16 1 57
54 1 336 63 2 80
90 176
Inches.
Cubic feet.
Quarters.
Inches.
6
3 378 31
5 0
24 1 284 36 2 408
12 1 124
4. Scotch fir, seed in 1698..
15
4 6 6 6 01
1 2
17 3 48
26 1 270
8 2 222
5. Oak, planted about 60 years.
5
11 1
7 2 31
3 2
21 3 224
32 0 174
10 0 382
6. Spanish chesnut near 60 years old.
7. Do. 45 years old..
1
4 0
5 6 31
23
11 2 408
18 3 270
7 0 294
2
9 6
4 4 41
66
4 2 391
11 2 408)
7 0 17
8. Oak, planted in 1720..
2 11 2
5 1 22
20
5 1 116
16 0 260
10 3 144
·
11 6
4 0 02
0 2
2
1
·
2
22 0
5 1 4 3 11 10 0 3 2 260
7 0 2 8 21 1 2 1 2 116
9 5 4 9 41 11 7 4 2 391
|213 0 300 322 0 3331109 0 33
10 0
11 1
0
7 2
0
68
7 2 240
4 1 336
2 3 220
14 0 176
9 1 217
9. Scotch fir, planted 1734; 2 feet high 1
10. Pinaster, planted in 1734. .
11. Oak, set an acorn in 1719.
12. Oak, planted in 1720.
X. Mr. Fitzgerald cut off a portion of bark at the bottom of a fruit tree
branch, and immediately bound it on again. The consequence was, that the
branch bore much fruit, while the bark grew again to the wood as at first. He
recommends this as a good method of increasing the quantity of fruit upon
trees.* *
XI. Mr. Millar by repeated divisions obtained from a single seed of wheat
500 plants. These yielded 21,109 ears, or about 576,840 grains. The whole
amounted to three pecks and three quarters of clean corn, and weighed 471b.
7oz. This is perhaps the greatest instance of increase upon record; yet it ap-
pears from the observations of Dr. Watson who relates it, that the plants would
have admitted of still greater divisions, and that of course the increase might
have been still greater.†
XII. Mr. Daines Barrington published an elaborate paper, to shew that the
Spanish chesnut and lime trees are not indigenous in England. He is of the
same opinion with respect to the elm, the yew, and several other of our com-
mon trees. Dr. Ducarel adopted the opposite opinion; and has proved, in
a satisfactory manner, that the Spanish chesnut was common in England
during the time of the Saxons. The subject is not very susceptible of decision.
*
+
Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 71.
Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 23.
+ Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 203.
§ Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 136.
CHAP. I.]
69
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
Mr. Barrington's opinion would appear very probable; and the time when
these trees, and probably many other useful plants, were transplanted into
England, was, no doubt, when the Romans had possession of the country, and,
of course, anterior to the period of the Saxons.
XIII. Dr. Hales, in his Vegetable Statics, had recommended washing the Washing trees
stems of trees, as a means of promoting their growth. This advice was fol-
lowed by Mr. Marsham, who published two papers in the Transactions, giving
an account of the results.* In all the trials which he made, and they were
pretty numerous, the washed trees vegetated faster, and increased more in
diameter, in a given time, than the unwashed trees. It is difficult to explain
the reason of this advantage, resulting from washing the stems of trees, unless
we are to ascribe it to the removal of the lichens and mosses, which may, per-
haps, withdraw a considerable portion of the juices of the tree for their own
nourishment.
fruit trees.
XIV. We shall conclude our extracts from the Philosophical Transactions, Grafting of
on the subject of the agriculture and economy of plants, with a curious paper
by Mr. Knight, on the grafting of fruit trees. From his observations, it ap-
pears that most of the old varieties of apple and pear tree, are worn out with
old age.
age. When a
When a young tree is engrafted, from a branch of an old tree, the
branch retains all the defects of the old tree; exhibits the same symptoms of
old age; and is subject to the same diseases. On the contrary, if the graft be
taken from a very young tree, (as a tree raised lately from seed,) it possesses
all the health of the young plant; vegetates with vigour, but will not bear
fruit till it has acquired the age at which the tree, from which it was taken,
becomes capable of bearing. Grafts from old trees bear fruit immediately, but
are as unhealthy as the parent trees. Grafts from young trees are healthy and
vigorous, but do not bear fruit till the tree, from which they were taken, has
reached its thirteenth or fourteenth year.t
CHAP. II.
OF ZOOLOGY.
THIS department of Natural History must always have possessed attractions
for philosophers; as man, the chief and sovereign of terrestrial animals,
belongs to it. Even the politician and the man of business cannot view it with
* Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 12; and 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 449.
+ Phil. Trans. 1795, Vol. LXXXV, p. 290.
70
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
Division of
zoology.
C
indifference, as no small share of our power, and almost the whole of our com-
forts, depend upon the use which we make of the inferior animals. Hence it
becomes a curious and highly useful inquiry to ascertain the dispositions,
powers, and propensities of those animals, which assist us in our labour, or
contribute to our food.
It consists of various departments, which it will be requisite to consider
separately. The first department is occupied with the arrangement and de-
scription of animals. It is to this branch of the subject, that the term Zoology
is usually confined; but we must here take it in a more extended sense, that
we may include under it several branches of knowledge which cannot be con-
veniently placed any where else. Zoologists have found, that the only method
of arranging animals systematically, which can be followed with advantage,
is founded upon the knowledge of their structure. Now this knowledge can
be acquired only by anatomy. Hence anatomy is intimately, and indeed
inseparably, connected with the arrangement of animals. But anatomy has
been also made subservient to the purposes of surgery and medicine. On that
account, human anatomy has been exalted into a state of much greater com-
parative importance than the anatomy of the inferior animals.
The term
anatomy, without any epithet, is usually applied to human anatomy; while
the anatomy of the inferior animals, is called comparative anatomy. The
functions of the different animals, and especially of man, have been studied
with great care; chiefly, it must be acknowledged, by the physicians, and with
a medical object in view; and this study has been raised to the dignity of a
science, and distinguished by the name of physiology. It naturally comes to
be considered after anatomy, human and comparative, upon which it is in a
great measure dependent. Animals, especially man, are liable to various
accidents and diseases, which derange the functions and injure the health.
Much attention and study has been bestowed upon the method of remedying
these accidents, and curing these diseases, especially when they occur in man ;
and this study has given birth to two sciences, or rather professions, we mean
surgery and medicine. These, as far as they are possessed of any principles,
are dependent for them upon anatomy and physiology; and therefore naturally
come to be considered after these two branches of knowledge.
í
i
{
All of these various departments occupy a very conspicuous place in the
Philosophical Transactions, and come, therefore, necessarily under our review.
We shall accordingly divide this chapter into five sections; treating respectively,
1. Of the arrangement and description of animals. 2. Of anatomy. 3. Of
comparative anatomy. 4. Of physiology. 5. Of surgery and medicine.
SECT. I. Of the Arrangement and Description of Animals.
Aristotle. The earliest writer, who turned his attention to the animal kingdom was
6
CHAP. II.]
71.
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and one of the most eminent
philosophers that Greece ever produced. Alexander was at considerable ex-
pense in procuring animals for his examination. Aristotle's history of animals
is divided into nine books, and consists chiefly of generals. He treats, in the
first place, of the anatomy of animals; then, of their generation at great
length; and maintains a doctrine which, in consequence of his authority, long
continued prevalent in the schools, we mean the doctrine of equivocal genera-
tion. The last part of his work is occupied with the dispositions of animals.
Ile notices many curious particulars, which were copied by Elian, Gesner,
and Aldrovandus; and, from these authors, made their way into the writings of
Buffon; who has, in consequence, gained credit for many original observa-
tions, which do not belong to him. Aristotle divides animals into viviparous
and oviparous. The first division comprehends quadrupeds; the second,
birds, fishes, and insects. Every body now knows that this division is defective,
for some quadrupeds, (lizards for example,) are oviparous, while there are
various fishes and insects that are viviparous.
Pliny, in his Natural History, has not neglected animals. He has devoted Pliny
four books to the consideration of them. The 8th book of his work treats of
land animals, or quadrupeds; the 9th, of fishes; the 10th, of birds; and the
11th, of insects. He has less arrangement than Aristotle; and his zoology
must be admitted to be inferior to that of the Grecian philosopher. Indeed,
it is a mere sketch; but a sketch executed by the hand of a master.
Ælian, a Greek writer, of the second century of the Christian era, published Ælian
a work on animals, in 17 books. An edition of this book, in two quarto
volumes, was edited by Gronovius, and published in London, in 1744. It
contains little or no original matter, and is, in every respect, except in bulk,
inferior to the writings of his predecessors.
These are the only ancient writers, deserving of notice, who wrote upon
zoology. The science, for many ages, slumbered in oblivion, and can scarcely
be said to have drawn the attention of mankind for a moment, before the
auspicious period of the revival of letters. Soon after this period two very
laborious writers on zoology appeared, namely, Aldrovandus and Gesner.
Ulysses Aldrovandus was an Italian, and published his zoology at a very ad- Aldrovandus.
vanced age. It consists of six very thick folios. He treats, first, of quadrupeds,
then of birds, fishes, whales, insects, and serpents. He has given wooden
figures of many of the animals which he describes; and several of them are
tolerably exact representations. The book is an immense mass of erudition,
ill-digested, and introduced without discrimination; and contains a prodigious
quantity of matter totally unconnected with the subjects of which he treats.
Gesner, like Aldrovandus, arranged his voluminous history according to the
Aristotelian method.
72
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Johnston.
Willughby.
He
Johnston, a Dutch zoologist, published his work on zoology, in 1657.
can be considered in no other light than as a copyist of Gesner and Aldrovan-
dus; but as he left out the extraneous matter with which these authors are
loaded, he, in point of fact, considerably improved the subject.
Such nearly was the state of zoology, when the Royal Society was con-
stituted; for it would be tedious to enumerate all the writers who attempted,
with various success, to illustrate particular branches of this extensive subject.
The Aristotelian arrangement had not been altered; but a great improvement
had been introduced, by enumerating and describing every particular animal,
and by giving figures of them, which contributed materially to remove doubt
and ambiguity. Soon after the establishment of the Royal Society, a new and
more brilliant ara in the science of zoology commenced. This was owing
chiefly, if not entirely, to the exertions of two illustrious Fellows of the Society,
Willughby and Ray; and to the generous liberality of the Society, and some
of the most eminent Members, who agreed to defray the expense of the pub-
lication of Willughby's works.
Francis Willughby, Esq., was a gentleman of Warwickshire, born in 1634,
and the intimate friend, companion, and patron of Mr. Ray, with whom he
had contracted an acquaintance at Cambridge; an acquaintance soon warmed
into friendship by the congeniality of their tastes and their pursuits. With
Mr. Ray, he made repeated journies through the different counties of England,
in order to become acquainted with its plants and animals; and with Mr. Ray,
Mr. Shippon, and Mr. Nathaniel Bacon, he made a three years' tour on the
continent, with the same objects in view. He had made extraordinary col-
lections of birds and fishes, and in these he had been greatly assisted by Mr.
Ray. But, before he had time to complete his arrangements, far less to com-
mit the result of his labours to the press, he was snatched away by a sudden
death, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. He left to Mr. Ray the charge of
educating his two infant sons, with an annuity of 70 pounds; which con-
stituted, ever after, the chief part of Mr. Ray's income. In the year 1676,
Mr. Ray published the Ornithology of his friend; to which he himself had
given arrangement, and which he had enriched with many valuable materials
drawn from his own stores. It was published under the following title:
ORNITHOLOGIE LIBRI TRES: in quibus Aves omnes hactenus cognitæ in Me-
thodum Naturis suis convenientem redacta accuratè describuntur. Iconibus
elegantissimis et vivarum Avium simillimis Eri incisis illustrantur. Totum
Opus recognovit, digessit, supplevit Johanes Raius. Mr. Ray translated
this book into English, and published it two years after with large additions.
The figures were engraved at the expense of Mrs. Willughby, and were wholly
inadequate to the merit of the work.
In 1686, the Ichthiology of Mr. Willughby was likewise published by Mr.
5
CHAP. II.]
73
NATURAL HISTORY.—Zoology.
Ray. It had been left in a still more imperfect state than the ornithology.
Mr. Ray wrote the whole of the first and second books himself, and probably
added a great deal of new materials to the two others. The work was printed
at Oxford, at the expence of the Royal Society, the Members of which con-
tributed to furnish the plates; indeed, by far the greatest part of them were
engraved at the expence of Sir Robert Southwell, at that time President of the
Royal Society. The book came out under the following title: Francisci
WVillughbeii, Armig. DE HISTORIA PISCIUM Libri quatuor, jussu et sumptu
S. Reg. Lond. editi. Totum Opus recognovit, cooptavit, supplevit, Librum
etiam primum et secundum integros adjecit J. Raius.
Ray contributed more materially to the improvement of zoology, than any Ray.
other person of the age in which he lived. His classification was greatly
superior to that of any preceding writer. He divided animals into sanguinea
and exsanguinea. The sanguinea were subdivided into those that breathe with
lungs, and those that have gills. The former are separated into those whose
heart has two ventricles, and those which have only one. The latter division
contains reptiles; the former viviparous quadrupeds, whales, and birds. The
animalia bronchiis respirantia include all fishes properly so cailed; the whale,
and all the exsanguinea being excluded. The animalia exsanguinea are divided
into greater and less: the latter division contains insects; the former is again
subdivided into three genera; the first of which includes the mollusca; the
second, the crustacea; and the third, the testacea, or shell-fish. Upon this
arrangement it is not necessary to make any observations. The subsequent
classification of Linnæus was merely an extension and improvement of the
method of Ray. The first of Mr. Ray's zoological works, if we except the
ornithology and ichthyology of Willughby, which he edited, was his Synopsis
Quadrupedum; published in 1693. Soon after he drew up his Synopsis Avium
et Piscium; as we learn from his letters, and from the preface to those works,
by Dr. Derham; but the manuscripts lay unpublished in the hands of the book-
seller, till they were purchased by Mr. Innys, and prepared for the press by
Dr. Derham; who added the figures, and made some additions. They were
published in 1713, after Mr. Ray's death. The last work in which Mr. Ray
engaged, was his Methodus Insectorum. He had been accumulating materials
for it during many years, and was at last induced to engage in it at the age of
seventy-five, by the persuasion of Dr. Derham. He confined his object to Bri-
tish insects. Mr. Ray did not live to finish this work. It was published, after
his death, by Dr. Derham, in 1710.
Linnæus, the great reformer of botanical classification, did not neglect Linnæus.
zoology. His powers of arrangement were so great, and his industry so inde-
fatigable, that this extensive branch of natural history lies under almost as
many obligations to him as botany does. His Systema Nature was first pub-
L
74
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Pennant.
lished in 1785; and he continued to improve it during the whole period of his life.
The Linnæan classification of animals is generally considered as the most
unexceptionable, and has been much more universally followed than any other,
notwithstanding the great number of systems which have made their appear-
ance, during the last century, in various parts of Europe, especially in France;
where, from the influence and celebrity of Buffon, less justice was done to
Linnæus than in other countries. Linnæus divided animals into six classes;
namely, mammalia, birds, amphibia, fishes, worms, insects. His classification
of birds, and of insects, constitutes the best part of his system; and it is, at the
same time, the most original.
Pennant, one of the most celebrated and valuable of British zoological
writers, followed chiefly the classification of Ray. He does not treat of
insects and worms, but confines himself to the larger animals. This is the case,
also, with Buffon, who owes his celebrity chiefly to his style. He neglected
and despised artificial classification, and bestowed much of his time in endea-
vouring to establish certain favourite systematic opinions; all of which, per-
haps without exception, are erroneous and absurd.
Royal Society. Though zoology has always constituted a favourite pursuit with the Mem-
bers of the Royal Society, and though it is indebted to that learned body for
a very considerable part of the progress which it has made, yet, from the nature
of the Philosophical Transactions, it is not possible that they should contain
any thing like a complete system of zoology; or an artificial classification of
animals. All that we have a right to expect, is a variety of detached papers
on zoological subjects; we find in them, reckoning from the commencement
of the work to the year 1800, no fewer than 290 papers, connected with the
arrangement and description of animals. These papers, as might be expected,
are of various merits; many of them excellent; others reaching only medi-
ocrity; and there are 125 which seem, in the present advanced state of the
science, scarcely to be entitled to any attention whatever. It is curious to
observe, that a large proportion of these trifling papers were published when
Martin Folkes, Esq., was President of the Society; and not a few of them
were written by Mr. Arderon, an inhabitant of Norwich, who seemed to pos-
sess abilities and industry, but to be totally illiterate, as far as systematic
zoology was concerned. No fewer than 301 species of animals are described
in the zoological papers, published in the Transactions; several of which are
new, but certainly not the whole; and it is difficult to say how many,
Mammalia.
But we shall have it in our power to judge with more accuracy of the
zoological papers, in the Philosophical Transactions, if we take a view of the
different classes of animals in succession; and we may adopt the Linnæan classi-
fication, as more usually followed in this country.
I. MAMMALIA. The species of mammalia hitherto discovered and described
3
CHAP. II.]
75
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
amount to about 250. The most celebrated arrangements of these animals are
those of Ray, Klein, Linnæus, Brisson, and Daubenton. Buffon follows no
arrangement whatever. Pennant has adopted the arrangement of Ray. Klein
was the zoological antagonist of Linnæus, and has written successfully on most
parts of the science; though his system, as a whole, appears to be considerably
inferior to that of his celebrated antagonist. The French naturalists object to
Linnæus the new meanings which he has given to the names of his orders, and
the forcible union of animals of very different natures under the same order;
but they do not attend to the object of an artificial classification, which is
merely to facilitate the learner in discovering the name of every animal. Every
artificial arrangement is, in fact, intended to supply the place of a lexicon of
natural history, and of course that arrangement deserves the preference which
can be consulted with the greatest facility..
scribed in the
The species of mammalia described in the Transactions amount to 36. The Species de-
following is a list of the names of these animals, with the names of the authors Transactions.
to whom we are indebted for the account of them:
Mus lemmus, or sable mouse. Sir Paul Rycaut. Mustela lutreola, or lesser otter.
Šimia mormor, or mantegor... .. .. Dr. Tyson.
Cervus alces, or moose deer..... Mr. Dudley.
Mr. Dudley.
Sciurus volans, or flying squirrel... M. Klein.
Lemur volans, or flying macauco..
Ditto.
Monodon monoceros, or sea unicorn.
Dr. Steigertahl.
Phoca barbata, or great seal..... Dr. Parsons.
Mr. John Reinhold Forster.
Mustela martes, or pine marten. ...... Ditto.
Mustela erminea, or stoat and ermine.. Ditto.
Mustela nivalis, or common weasel..... Ditto.
Shunk..
Ditto.
Hystrix dorsata, or Canada porcupine.. Ditto.
Castor fiber, or beaver...
.Ditto.
Castor zibethicus, or musk beaver. Ditto.
Lepus timidus, or Alpine hare., . . . . . . . Ditto.
American hare.
Asiatic rhinoceros...
Ditto.
Simia jacchus, a small monkey.
Ditto.
Felis Caracal....
Ditto.
. Ditto.
African rhinoceros.
Ditto.
Quebec marmot...
. Ditto.
Simia lar, or tailless monkey... Mr. De Visme.
Calmelopardalis.....
Mr. Carteret.
Sciurus vulgaris, or common squirrel... Ditto.
Great flying squirrel..
Physeter catodon, or spermaceti whale.
Field mouse.
.. Ditto
Ditto.
James Robinson, Esq.
Antelope picta, or nyl ghau.
Dr. William Hunter.
Canis lagopus, or arctic fox.
Mus sylvaticus, or field mouse….. . . . . . . . Ditto.
Mus terrestris, or short-tailed mouse. .. Ditto.
Sorex araneus, or fetid shrew.
Shrew.....
Ditto.
Ditto.
Mr. John Reinhold Forster. Tyger cat, of the Cape of Good Hope.. Ditto.
The animals described by Forster were from Hudson's Bay. The greater num-
ber, if not the whole of them, had been previously described by Mr. Pennant.
+
II. BIRDS. The species of birds are much more numerous than those of the Birds.
quadrupeds; about 1800 have been described and classified. Belon was one of
the first of the moderns who treated of these animals.
published in 1555, and forms a single folio volume.
lished in 1686 by Ray, established a new era in this
His history of birds was
Willughby's work, pub-
branch of natural history.
L 2
76
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Species de-
scribed in the
Transactions.
A great many classifications have been since proposed, the best of which is that
of Linnæus founded on the bill and feet. Barrerre, Klein, Mæhring, Salerne,
and Brisson, also published classifications with more or less success. Edwards
published a work on the subject in 1748, with figures, which at the time were
excellent. Much valuable matter was published by Sloane in his Account of
Jamaica, and by Catesby in his work on Carolina. But the most complete work
on the subject which has appeared in this country is the work of Dr. Latham.
There are 69 species of birds described in the Philosophical Transactions.
The following is a list of them, together with the authors to whom we are in-
debted for describing them:
Phænicopterus ruber, or flamingo.
1
Loxia enucleator, or pine grosbeak... Forster,
Emberiza nivalis, or bunting...
Dr. Douglass.
Ditto.
Tetrao umbellus, or American pheasant.
Mr. Edwards.
Emberiza leucophrys. .
Ditto.
Fringilla laponica, or finch.
.. Ditto.
Otis tetrax, or little bustard.
Ditto.
Tringa lobata....
. Ditto.
Ditto.
Fringilla linaria, lesser red-headed linnet. Ditto.
Fringilla montana, mountain sparrow... Ditto.
Fringilla hudsonia...
Muscicapa striata.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Chinese pheasant.
Aptenodyta patochonica, or Patagonian pen-
guin...
Vultur serpentarius.
Mr. Pennant.
Mr. Edwards.
•
Columba cristata of Latham... Dr. Badenach.
Falco columbarius, or pigeon hawk... Forster.
Falco spadiceus... .
Ditto.
Falco sacer, or partridge hawk...... Ditto.
Strix brachiotos, or short-eared owl.... Ditto.
Strix nyctea, or snowy owl.
Strix funerea, or Canada owl,
Motacilla calendula, ruby-crowned wren. Ditto.
Porus atricapillus, black cap titmouse... Ditto.
Porus hudsonicus, Hudson Bay titmouse. Ditto.
Ardea canadensis, Canada crane..
Ardea americana, hooping crane....
Ardea stellarius, bittern.
Ditto.
. Ditto.
Ditto.
Scolopax totanus, spotted woodcock... Ditto.
Scolopax laponica, red godwit..
Strix paperina, or little owl. ..
Strix nebulosa, or grey owl.
.Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Scolopax borealis, Eskimaux curlew... Ditto.
Tringa interpres, turnstone..
Ditto.
.. Ditto.
Tringa helvetica..
·
Ditto.
Ditto.
Anas marila, scaup duck.
Anas nivalis, snow goose.
Anas canadensis, Canada goose.
Anas albeola, red duck...
Anas clangula, golden eye.
Anas perspicillata, black duck.
Anas glacialis, swallow tail.
Anas crocea, teal. ...
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
.. Ditto.
Ditto.
•
Ditto.
Ditto.
Lanius excubitor, or great butcher bird. Ditto.
Corvus canadensis, or cinereous crow... Ditto.
Corvus pica, or magpie....
Picus auratus, or gold wing woodpecker. Ditto.
Picus villosus, or hairy woodpecker.... Ditto.
Picus tridactylus, or three-toed woodpecker.
•
Ditto.
Tetrao canadensis, or spotted grous..... Ditto.
Tetrao lagopus, or white grous.. Ditto.
Tetrao togatus, or shoulderknot grous.. Ditto.
Tetrao phasianellus, or long tailed grous. Ditto.
Columba migratoria, or migratory pigeon.
Ditto.
Alauda alpestris, or shore lark......... Ditto.
Turdus migratorius, or American fieldfare.
Anas histrionica, harlequin duck....... Ditto.
Anas boschas, mallard drake.
Peliconus onocrotalos.
Ditto.
Ditto.
•
Colymbus glacialis, northern diver.
Colymbus auritus, eared grebe..
Larus parasiticus, arctic gull.
Sterna hirundo, common tern.
Cuculus indicator....
Ditto.
. Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Sparman.
Turdus merula? uncertain.
Loxia curvirostra, or cross bill...
. Ditto.
Meleagris gallo-pavo, the turkey.... Pennant.
Ditto.
Motacilla arundinacea, reed wren... Lightfoot
Ditto.
་
CHAP. II.]
77
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
The birds described by Forster consisted of a collection sent from Hudson's
Bay by Mr. Graham. Most of them were well known previously; though some
few were new species. It is remarkable enough that the motacilla arundinacea,
described by Lightfoot, was an unknown species, although the bird haunts the
Colne, in the neighbourhood of Uxbridge, not many miles from London. Pen-
nant's Dissertation on the Turkey is curious. He demonstrates that it was un-
known to the ancients, that it is a native of America, that it was brought first
from Mexico to Spain, and that it was introduced into England as early as 1524.
By 1583 it had become a common article of food.
III. AMPHIBIA. The amphibious animals are divided into two orders; the Amphibia.
first consisting of those which have feet; the second of those which are desti-
tute of limbs, and consist of the serpent tribe. As the name imports, this class
of animals is capable of living both on land and in water. They are not nearly
so numerous as the other classes of animals, though it is difficult to form an esti-
mate of the number of species which they comprehend.
scribed in the
There are only eight species described in the Transactions. The following is Species de-
a list of them, together with the names of the authors to whom we are obliged Transactions.
for the descriptions:
Rattle snake. ..
Dudley.
New species of chamælion.
...Parsons.
Lacerta gangetica, crocodile of the Ganges.
Manis pentadactyla.
Hampe.
Edwards.
Testudo ferox, soft-shelled turtle.
Pennant.
Siren lacertina...
•
Coluber cerastes, horned viper., . .
Ellis.
Ditto.
Testudo coriacea.
Ditto.
tina.
The most remarkable of these animals is the siren lacertina. Specimens of it Siren lacer-
were sent from Charlestown, in Carolina, by Dr. Garden, to Mr. Ellis. It was
at first suspected to be the larva of some species of lizard; but upon examining
all the larvæ of these animals in the British Museum, Mr. Ellis found that they
all had four feet, whereas this animal has only two. Ellis sent a specimen of
the animal to Linnæus at Upsal, who hesitated whether to consider it as a new
genus, or as the larva of some unknown lizard. It is now admitted by natura-
lists to constitute a new genus, and the name Siren proposed by Linnæus has
been adopted. Several additional species of this genus have been since dis-
covered.
!
pents.
There are many remarkable stories in the Philosophical Transactions about Fascinating
the fascinating power of serpents, some of which it is difficult to disbelieve, power of ser
especially one related by Dr. Sprengel, which he himself witnessed in Italy. A
viper-catcher in Italy had a collection of about 60 living vipers in a room for
sale. Among these was a pregnant female viper, for it is remarkable that these
animals, when in confinement, feed only when in the pregnant state. A live
mouse was thrown into the room among the serpents. As soon as the pregnant
female and the mouse exchanged looks, the mouse began to run round the viper
1
78.
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Fishes.
Artedi.
in a circle, uttering faint cries. At last he ran into the open mouth of the viper,
and was swallowed; the viper all the while remaining motionless in the middle
of the room. The Hon. Paul Dudley relates another story of a rattle snake in
North America. A squirrel was seen to leap in a restless manner from one
bough to another, at last it came down the tree and ran behind a log. On
going behind the log to see what was become of the animal, a rattlesnake was
observed which had just swallowed the squirrel. It is difficult to determine
what to make of these, and many other similar stories that are to be found in
books of natural history, relating to the fascinating power of serpents. The
most probable account of this supposed power which we have seen is in a paper
by Sir Hans Sloane in the Philosophical Transactions. According to him the
serpent always begins by biting his prey. He then retires to a little distance,
and waits the event. The animal is instantly enfeebled by the effects of the
poison, and in no long period of time drops down dead. The serpent then ad.
vances, and licking the animal all over to lubricate the skin, swallows him en-
tire. This account is very plausible and satisfactory; but cannot be admitted as
a complete explanation, unless we deny the truth of the numerous stories con-
cerning the fascinating power of serpents, some of which indeed do not seem
to be well authenticated; but others depend upon evidence that it would be
difficult to reject.
IV. FISHES. Fishes are much more numerous than the amphibious animals ;
but much fewer than the birds. From the nature of the element in which
they live, it is not likely that all the species are already known to naturalists.
Indeed, even upon the coasts of Great Britain, various new species have been
discovered by Mr. Montague, and described in the Linnæan and Wernerian
Transactions within these few years.
The ichthyology of Willughby and Ray constitutes the first great step
made by the moderns, in the knowledge and description of these animals. The
work of Artedi, though posthumous, and of consequence incomplete, was
notwithstanding greatly superior to every thing that had preceded it. Peter
Artedi was born in Angermannia, one of the provinces of Sweden, in 1705.
His father was a clergyman, and originally intended his son for the church;
but his love of natural history was invincible, and induced him to turn his
attention to medicine, as a profession that would permit him to cultivate his
favourite study. When Linnæus went to Upsal, in 1727, he inquired who
was the young man of greatest knowledge, and who devoted the most of his
time to study. All were unanimous in repeating the name of Peter Artedi.
Linnæus went to see him, and formed with him an intimacy and friendship
which became every day stronger. The ardour of both was equal; and the
emulation produced by their mutual discoveries contributed still more to
increase their industry. Artedi early devoted the greatest part of his attention
CHAP. II.]
79
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
to the study of fishes; and Linnæus assures us, that his knowledge of that class
of animals greatly exceeded his own. He went to London, in 1734, as a
place where he might have better opportunities of increasing his knowledge of
fishes, than at Upsal. Linnæus met him at Leyden, in 1735, with his finances
exhausted, and preparing to return to his own country. He recommend-
ed him to the celebrated apothecary Seba, at Amsterdam, to assist him
in describing his cabinet of natural history. Linnæus and he indulged in a
long friendly conversation, on the 27th of September, 1737 Linnæus showed
him his Fundamenta Botanica; and Artedi communicated his Philosophia
Ichthyologica; a work which had occupied him for many years. On his return
home at night, he stumbled in the dark and fell into a canal, and was drowned.
Linnæus took charge of his MSS., and published his work on fishes, in 1738.
Artedi was the first who divided fishes into orders and genera, and who esta-
blished accurate principles for the description and arrangement of the class.
His orders were five, and his genera fifty-two.
Though Linnæus did not adopt the arrangement of Artedi, he was obviously
indebted to him for much of the precision which he introduced into this class
of animals. He divides fishes into five orders; and the division depends chiefly
His genera
upon the absence, or position when present, of the ventral fins.
amount to 61.
One of the latest systems of ichthyology, which has made its appearance, is Lacepede,
the work of Lacepede, a French naturalist of considerable celebrity. The first
volume of his work was published in 1798. Four others, which complete the
book, have appeared since. It is in quarto, and embellished with plates of
almost all the species, described. Lacepede has an arrangement of his own,
according to which he has drawn up his book.
scribed in the
The species of fish described in the Transactions, amount to 19. The fol- Species de-
lowing is a list of their names, with the the authors to whom we are indebted Transactions.
for the descriptions:
Callionimus lyra, gemmeous dragonet. Tyson. | Accipenser sturio, sturgeon.
... Forster.
Lophius piscatorius, sea devil.
Zeus luna, king fish.
Silurus anguillaris, silvor..
Silurus cous, zakzuk...
Ophidium mastacem, balus
Parsons.
Mortimer.
Gadus lota, burbot...
Salmo lavaretus, gwiniad.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Russel.
Cyprinus catostomus, sucker...
Ditto.f
Ditto.
Raja torpedo, electric ray.
Walsh.
Ditto.
Squalus glaucus, blue shark.
Watson.
Schlosser.
Lophius conubicus, long angler..... Ferguson.
Chaetodon rostratus..
Siæna jaculatrix.
Chaetodon,
*
. Pallas.
Tyson. Tetrodon electricus, electric tetrodon. Paterson.
Exocætus volitans, flying fish....
Brown.
Ophidium barbatum, bearded ophidium.
Broussonet.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. LXI. p. 247.
+ Phil, Trans, Vol. LXIII. p. 149. The four fishes described by Forster were from Hudson's Bay.
80
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Journies of
cels.
Chatodon
rostratus.
Fecundity of
fish.
The numerous stories circulated respecting the journies of eels on dry land,
during the night time, are well known to every reader. Dr. Plot, in his History
of Staffordshire, gives an account of their passage across meadows. These
stories have been probably exaggerated, and have not always obtained credit.
This makes an account, contained in the Philosophical Transactions, of some
importance. Mr. Arderon in that paper states, that he saw a number of eels
sliding up the flood-gates of the water-works, at Norwich, though six feet
above the surface of the water, and perfectly dry and smooth. They as-
cended with the greatest facility, and made their way into the water above the
gates.**
We must not omit to mention a curious account, given in the Transactions,
of a method employed by the chatodon rostratus, a fish which frequents the
sea-shores, in the East-Indies, to catch its prey. When it observes a fly sitting
on the plants that grow in shallow water, it swims on to the distance of five
or six feet, and then, with a surprising dexterity, it ejects out of its tubular
mouth a single drop of water, which never fails striking the fly into the sea,
where it soon becomes its prey. Hommel, a Dutch governor in the East-
Indies, made a number of experiments to satisfy himself that the fish actually
possessed this property, and saw it repeatedly dart a drop of water at a fly
which he had fixed upon a stick within its reach. The chatodon rostratus is
not the only species of fish that possesses this curious property; Pallas describes
another, the siæna jaculatrix; which likewise secures flies by a similar con-
trivance.t
The prodigious fecundity of fish has long been well known and admired.
Petit found 342,144 eggs, in a carp; and Leewenhoeck estimated the eggs of
a cod at 9,384,000. But the most complete information on this subject, any
where to be met with, is in a paper published in the Transactions, by Harmer.
His method was to weigh the roe of the fish with accuracy, and then to count
the eggs contained in a certain number of grains. From this, it was easy to
determine the number contained in the whole roe. The following table exhibits
the result of his researches on this subject.§
* Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 395.
Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. p. 186.
† Phil. Trans. 1764. Vol. LIV. p. 89.
§ Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 280.
CHAP. II.]
81
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
Names of Fish.
Weight of Ditto.
Weight of the Number of Eggs
Roe.
in Ditto.
Avoirdupois.
Carp,
No. 1
16 oz. 12 dr.
1,265 gr.
101,200
2
25
8
2,571
203,109
Cod-fish,
Flounder,
12,540
3,686,760
No. 1
2
14
1825
133,407
2
3
81/
152
225,568
3
6
12
598
351,026
4.
24
4
2,200
1,357,400
Herring,
.. No. 1
3
367
32,663
2
0
2361
21,285
3
3
13
259
23,569
4
10
480
36,960
5
4.
61
366
29,646
6
4
8
4201
27,753
7
I
4901
32,863
Lobster,
Mackerel,
... No. 1
14
8
7,227
2
36
0
1,671
21,699
.. No. 1
20
1,027
454,961
2 20
949
430,846
3 18
0
1,223
546,681
Perch,
..No. 1
8
9
765
28,323
2
5
10
502
20,582
Pickerel,
... No. 1
56
4
5,1004
49,304
2
3,248
80,388
3
48
101
3,184
33, 32
Prawn,
.. No. 1
0
127 gr.
3,806
Roach,..
.. No. 1
2310 M
0
944
3,479
0
10011
3,579
2
O dr.
114
9,604
6
8
671
43,615
3
3
8
34611
29,799
4
2
2
153
9,486
5 10
61
361
81,586
6
9
10 3/4
417
113,841
7
3
8
2131
45,475
Shrimp, (with light-coloured spawn.) No. 1
0
174 gr.
3
3,057
2
0
39
7
6,807
3
4,601
Ditto, (with dark-coloured spawn,).. No. 1
Smelt,.
31
5
4,090
2
0
22
4
2,849
. No. 1
2
O dr.
1494
38,278
2
0
2891 gr.
50
14,411
3
1
14 dr.
157
29,925
1
12
5
1
6 1
274
1451
30,991
149
24,287
5
136
23,800
Soal,..
. No. 1
14
8
5425
100,362
2 5
0
1794
38,772
Tench,...
No. 1 40
0
383,252
2 28
8
5331
280,087
3
142
224
83,104
456N
8
2844
108,963
12
8
366
138,348
27
91
1,969
350,482
15
866
138,560
7 14
M
82
[ВоO I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Worms.
Intestina.
Species de-
scribed in the
V. WORMS. This class of animals, as Linnæus left it, is exceedingly hetero-
geneous, and has since, with great propriety, been split into various subdivisions
by succeeding naturalists. Linnæus divided it into four orders; namely, 1. In-
testina, including naked simple animals, without limbs. 2. Mollusca, naked
simple animals, furnished with limbs. 3. Testacea, shells, the calcareous
covering of mollusca. 4. Zoophita, composite animals, efflorescing like vege-
tables. 5. Infusoria, minute animalcules, seldom visible to the naked eye.
These orders are obviously independent of each other, and might each, without
impropriety, constitute a distinct class. The first order, though denominated
intestina, consists only in part of worms which inhabit the intestines of other
animals; several of the genera are found only in the earth, or the ocean.
The species belonging to this order, described in the Transactions, amount to
Transactions. eight. The following is a list of their names, together with the authors to
whom we are indebted for an account of them.
Mollusca.
Three species of tænia, two in the dog, one
in the mouse.
Tænia globosa.
•
Worm in the human tongue.
Lister.
Gordius aquaticus.*
Lister,
Gordius medinensis, guinea worm.
Ditto.
Garcin.
•
Bidloo.
Tyson.
Planaria clavata...
Dent. Fasciola hepatica
The mollusca constitute a very numerous class of animals, concerning the
œconomy of which many curious and interesting observations have been made.
It is to be regretted that these observations have been too little attended to by
systematic writers, and are scarcely to be found in any of the books which
they have written on the subject. The number of species described in the
Transactions, amounts only to 10. The following is a list of them, together
with the names of the authors to whom we are indebted for the descriptions:
Asterias caput medusæ, star-fish... Winthrop.
Aphrodita aculeata, sea-mouse.... Molineaux.
American cuttle fish.+
Actinia cereus.‡
Actinia bellis.
Actinia gemmacea.‡
Actinia mesembryanthemum.‡
Gaertner.
Ditto.
•
Baker,
Gaertner.
Ditto.
Holothuria pentactes,‡
Ditto.
Ascidia pedunculata.
Russel.
Actinia sociata, clustered animal flower.. Ellis..
Shells.
The testacea, or shells, constitute the covering or habitation of many of the
mollusca. They have been too little studied with reference to the animals
which inhabit them. Instead of classing shells in a particular order by them-
selves, it would have been better, had it been practicable, to have described
them along with the animals that form them. But this has not hitherto been
done; and indeed zoologists are entirely unacquainted with the nature of the
Phil. Traps. 1672. Vol. VII. p. 4064. Lister found this animal in a species of beetle. By Gmelin it is cop-
stituted a peculiar genus, under the name of Floria Scarabæi.
+ Phil. Trans. 1758. Yol. L. p. 777,
Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 75.
1
CHAP. II.]
83
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
animal that inhabits many of the shells. Shells constituting a beautiful set of
bodies, easily collected and preserved, were very early formed into cabinets.
The study of them was long ridiculed by the wits of the age, as an abuse of
time and waste of money; but its importance has lately become strikingly evi-
dent to all those who make the structure of the earth, and the various changes
which it has undergône, an object of their attention. For shells are found in
abundance in a great variety of rocks and positions; they constitute the medals
of the ancient world; and from an accurate acquaintance with their different
species, and with the nature of the animals that inhabited them, many curious
and important deductions respecting the formation and changes of the crust of
the earth may be drawn.
The first important works on conchology were by Bonanni and Lister. Dr. Lister
Lister's book formed a new æra in the science, and contributed chiefly to give
celebrity to this excellent naturalist. He practised medicine for many years at
York; where he cultivated entomology and conchology with much ardour and
success. His circumstances must have been at least easy, as he invited Mr.
Ray to come and live with him, when that admirable philosopher was, in some
measure, turned loose by the death of his friend and patron Mr. Willughby
Dr. Lister afterwards settled in London, and was an early and active Member
of the Royal Society. His Historia sive Synopsis Methodica Conchyliorum
was published in 1685. It contains very accurate figures of all the shells
known in his time, amounting to upwards of 1,000. It deserves to be re-
corded that they were all drawn by his two daughters, Susanna and Anne
Lister. The copper-plates of this work became the property of the University
of Oxford, and a second edition was published at Oxford in 1770, under the
care of Huddesford. This edition wants two or three of the plates in the ori-
ginal work; but to make up for this deficiency, two or three new plates have
been added. The figures of shells which it contains amount to 1,153, besides a
number of anatomical drawings and representations of fossil bodies. This work
of Lister, notwithstanding the progress which the study has since made, still
retains its value, and is indispensable to the student of conchology.
Gualtieri's Index Testarum Conchyliarum, published at Florence in 1742, is Gualtierí.
remarkable for the accuracy of its specific distinctions. But the most impor-
tant work on shells which has hitherto been published, a work which it will be
very difficult to surpass, is a Danish one in eleven quarto volumes, begun in
1769, and finished in 1795. The first three volumes were drawn up by Martini, Martini.
the last eight by Chemnitz. This work contains figures of above 3,800 shells,
all elegantly coloured.
of shells.
The arrangement of shells began at a very early period. Aristotle divided Arrangement
them into univalve, bivalve, and turbinated, and he imposed the names of vari-
ous genera still retained by modern naturalists; for example, lepas, solen, pinna,
AI 2
84
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Species de-
scribed in the
Transactions.
nerita.* Hardly any improvement in the arrangement was made from the time
of Aristotle to that of Linnæus. This celebrated naturalist at first established eight
genera of shells, namely, cochlea, nautilus, cypræa, haliotis, patella, dentalium,
concha, lepas. But he afterwards found the necessity of taking several of these
genera to pieces, so that in consequence he increased the number of genera to
35. Several valuable works on the subject have lately appeared in Britain.
Donovan's and Montague's books deserve to be mentioned with applause, and
much merit is due to the catalogue of British shells published by Racket and
Maton, in the Linnæan Transactions, and the catalogue of Scotch shells by
Captain Laskey in the Wernerian Transactions.
The number of testacea, described in the Philosophical Transactions, amount
to 60; though it must be acknowledged that several are included in that num-
ber that properly belong to the mollusca, as they consist of animals not pro-
vided with any shell. The difficulty of determining their specific names has in-
duced me to allow them to remain where they were placed by Ellis in his de-
scription of barnacles, among which he has thought proper to class them. The
following is a list of these testarca, together with the names of the authors to
whom we are indebted for the descriptions:
Turbo bidens.
Turbo perversus.
}
Twenty-seven snail shells.‡
Pholas conoides...
Twenty species of barnacles. §
Nautilus lacustris.
Helix fontana..
Anonymous.+
Lister.
Murex canaliculatus.
Witzen.
Ostrea Virginica.
.. Ditto.
Helix spinulosa...
Buccinum lapillus, purple fish.
.. Cole.
Turbo helicinus
Lepas diadema, pediculus ceti...... Sibbald.
Patella oblonga.||
Teredo navalis....
Baster.
Parsons.
Ellis.
•
Lightfoot.
.. Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Zoophites.
Ellis.
The zoophites are a class of animals most of which inhabit the sea, and have
so striking a resemblance to plants, that for many ages they were classed by natu-
ralists in the vegetable kingdom. The discovery of their real nature was first
made by Peyssonnel, a French physician, who had been many years settled at
Guadaloupe. He sent a manuscript Treatise on Coral to the Royal Society, a
full account of which, drawn up by Dr. Watson, was published in the Trans-
actions for the year 1751. The subject was much more completely and accu-
rately investigated by Mr. John Ellis, a merchant in London, who died in
1776, one of the greatest naturalists who adorned the last century, so prolific
in discoveries concerning subjects connected with natural history. It does not
* See Aristotle, Book IV. Chap. IV.
+ Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1011.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1674. Vol. IX. p. 96. Thy are chiefly helices,
buccina, bullæ, with two mytili. Figures are given so that the species may be readily determined.
Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 845. Most of the barnacles described belong to the genus lepas, though not the
whole.
Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 160.
CHAP II.]
85
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
appear that Mr. Ellis was assisted in his investigations by the Treatise of Peys-
sonnel. His mind was first turned to the subject by a collection of corralines
sent him from Anglesey, which he arranged upon paper so as to form a kind of
natural landscape. Dr. Hales, in one of his visits to Mr. Ellis, was struck
with the beauty of the picture, and requested him to make some similar ones
for the Princess Dowager of Wales, to contribute to the instruction and amuse-
ment of the young princesses. The request was complied with: Mr. Ellis, by
means of his friends who resided on the sea coast, made a new collection of
corralines, and he was induced to examine them with a microscope, and to at-
tempt to arrange them according to their appearances. These observations in-
ducing him to suspect that several of his corralines were animals, he drew up a
paper on the subject, which was read at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1752.
His opinions were still further confirmed by several other Members of the So-
ciety; but being conscious of a deficiency of accurate knowledge, he withdrew
his paper, and formed the resolution of making a set of observations on cor-
ralines in situ. For this purpose he went, in August 1752, to the Isle of
Sheppy, accompanied by Mr. Brooking, a painter, and the observations which
he made still further confirmed him in his opinions. In 1754, he prevailed on
Ehret, the celebrated engraver, to accompany him to Brighthelmstone, where
they made drawings, and formed a collection of zoophites. In 1755, he pub-
lished the result of all his investigations under the title of an Essay towards a
Natural History of Corralines. This is one of the most accurate books ever
published, whether we consider the plates, the descriptions, or the observations
which demonstrate the animal nature of the zoophites. His opinions on the
subject were opposed by Job Baster, a Dutch physician and naturalist, who
published various dissertations in the Philosophical Transactions in order to
prove that corralines were of a vegetable nature. But his arguments were vic-
toriously refuted by Ellis, whose opinions on the subject were almost imme-
diately assented to by naturalists in general, and have been only further con-
firmed by every subsequent examination of the subject.
In 1786, a posthumous work, entitled, Natural History of many curious and
uncommon Zoophites, was published by a daughter of Mr. Ellis at the request
of Sir Joseph Banks. The plates had been completed under the inspection of
Mr. Ellis himself, and the descriptions had been drawn up by Dr. Solander.
In this work the zoophites are divided into 16 genera; namely, actinia, hydra,
flustra, cellaria, tubularia, sertularia, pennatula, gorgonia, antipathes, isis,
corralina, millepora, madrepora, alcyonium, spongia. It is scarcely necessary to
observe that this is the best systematic account of the zoophites which has yet
appeared. The subject has also been investigated by Bohadsh and Muller, and
above all by Pallas, whose work on zoophites is classical.
The species of zoophites described in the Transactions amount to 18. The
86
(Book 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Species de-
scribed in the
Transactions.
following is a list of them, together with the names of the authors to whom wè
are indebted for the descriptions:
Hydra viridis, common polypus. (a)
Sertularia pumila.(6)
Ditto.
Leuwenhoeck.
Sertularia scruposa. (b)
Sertularia neritina.
4
Ellis.
Alcyonium Schlosseri,
Ditto.
Schlosser.
Isis asteria.
Ellis.
Ditto.
Pennatula phosphorea.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Pennatula purpurea. (c)… . . .
.. Ditto.
Ditto.
•
Ditto.
ranean,
.. Strange.
Infusoria.
Hydatids.
Pennatula encrinus.
Sertularia geniculata. (b)
Sertularia antennina. (b)
Sertularia volubilis. (b)
Sertularia rosacea.(b)
. Ditto.
Three species of sponge (d) from the Mediter
The infusoria consist of animalcules almost always too minute to be visible
to the naked eye, and observed in water either fresh or stagnant. The number
of them is very considerable; but from their extreme minuteness it is exceed-
ingly difficult to determine their structure with any tolerable accuracy. Leu-
wenhoeck, one of the first describers of these little animals, calculated that
some of the species which he observed were so small that a common-sized drop
of water might contain a million of them. The following is a list of those
described in the Transactions, together with the names of the authors to whom
we are indebted for the descriptions:
Vibrio aceti.(e)
Leuwenhoeck.
Ditto.
Vorticella convallaria.(h)
Vorticella ánastatica. ()
Vorticella socialis.(i)...
.. Ditto.
Brady.
Eight species described by....... Ditto.(f)
Volvox globator.(g)
Ditto.
Such are the species of vermes described in the Philosophical Transactions.
But that voluminous work contains many particulars respecting the economy
and animal nature of various species which deserve to be mentioned. The
hydatids, or small watery vesicles, which occur so frequently in the diseased
organs of the human body and of the inferior animals, especially the liver, were
long considered as nothing else than small bladders filled with water. Dr.
Tyson first showed them to be a species of worm, and to be very tenacious of
(4) Phil. Trans. 1703. Vol. XXIII. p. 1304. This animal was afterwards particularly described by Trembley.
Phil, Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 283. Reaumur observed it about the same time.
(b) Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 627. It was in this paper that Ellis first demonstrated the animal nature
of the sertularia,
(c) Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII. p. 419. In this paper Ellis describes three other pennatulas from Bohadsch.
(d) Ibid. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 179. Ellis first explained the nature of sponge in a satisfactory manner in a paper
published in 1765. Phil. Trans. Vol. LV.
p. 280.
(e) Phil. Trans. 1676. Vol. XI. p. 653.
(f) Ibid. 1677. Vol. XII. p. 821. His description is so imperfect that it is not easy to determine the animals he
alludes to.
(g) Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 509.
(h) Phil. Trans. 1703. Vol. XXIII. p. 1304. He describes also other species of vorticella in the same paper.
(i) Ibid, 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 248.
CHAP. II.]
87
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
life. They are now considered as tæniæ, and constitute two species of that
very extensive genus; namely, the tania visceralis and tania cellulosa.
certain shell
The manner in which the young of the murex canaliculatus, a species of Production of
shell fish, are produced is curious, and was first pointed out by Mr. Witzen.th.
It holds with all the species of the murer and the buccinum. At a certain.
season of the year a kind of matrix or sack, about 12 inches long, issues from
the shell. This long body, resembling a sausage, is filled with a great number
of round cells, each containing its little shell fish. These gradually increase in
size till at last their weight breaking them off from the common matrix, they
fall to the bottom of the sea and shift for themselves.
+.
dye.
The celebrated purple dye of the Tyrians, so highly prized by the ancients, is Tyrian purple
well known to have been obtained from a certain species of shell fish found
upon the coast of Phenicia. The use of this dye was superseded by the intro-
duction of cochineal, which yields a much more beautiful though not so perma-
nent a colour. The animals inhabiting various species of murer and buccinum
furnish this colouring matter. Among these none is more remarkable than the
buccinum lapillus, a shell fish to be found in abundance on the shores of Bri-
tain. The nature of this colouring matter has not yet been ascertained, though
from the suite of changes which take place when it is applied to cloth it would
appear to have some analogy to indigo, or to consist of a base capable of
uniting with various doses of oxygen, and of varying its colour accordingly.
There is a curious paper on the subject by Mr. William Cole of Bristol, in an
early volume of the Transactions. A person living on the sea coast in Ireland
had made considerable profit by marking fine linen for ladies and gentlemen of a
delicate durable purple colour. Mr. Cole being informed that the colouring
matter was obtained from a shell fish, examined all the shell fish on the coast,
and at last in the buccinum lapillus found a liquid which answered the purpose.
When the shell is removed, and the animal exposed, a white vessel appears near
the head of the fish, and the liquor in this vessel possesses the tinging property.
When applied to linen it appears at first of a pleasant green colour, and the
writing being exposed to the light the green gradually increases in intensity,
and at last changes to blue; the blue soon acquires a tint of red, and at last
becomes a fine purple of great intensity; and beyond this no further change is
produced by the action of the light of the sun. These changes go on with
greater or less celerity, according to the intensity of the light to which the linen
is exposed, and accordingly take place much more rapidly in summer than in
winter.
About the middle of the last century, the peculiar nature of the hydra viridis, Polypus.
Phil. Trans. 1691. Vol. XVII. p. 506.
Phil, Trans. 1695. Vol. XV. p. 1278..
† Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 870..
88
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Insects.
Mouffet's
treatise.
Linnæus.
Fabricius.
or fresh-water polypus, an animal originally discovered by Leuwenhoeck, and
described by him in an early volume of the Transactions, drew the attention of
naturalists. It was found that it could be propagated indefinitely by cutting
it in pieces, every picce speedily becoming a complete animal. Trembley,a phi-
losopher of Geneva, but at that time residing in Holland, seems to have been
the first that ascertained the point by correct experiments. His paper was no
sooner published in the Philosophical Transactions, than a multitude of ex-
perimenters set themselves to verify the observations which he had made. Of
these, the most eminent was Reaumur, whose curious experiments on the sub-
ject were published in the Memoires of the French Academy. Martin Folkes
also, at that time President of the Royal Society, and who valued himself upon
his knowledge of zoology, published a set of observations on the same animal.
Dicquemare extended his observations to the actinia; the different species of
which he distinguished by the name of the sea anemonies; and showed that
they could be propagated by cutting them in pieces, as well as the polypus;
and that when a piece was cut from them they soon recovered again the lost
member.*
VI. INSECTS. Insects constitute by far the most numerous class in the
animal kingdom, not fewer than 18,000 species being already described and
classified. The first book on the subject was the joint production of several
learned men, among whom was Conrade Gesner. It was published in 1634,
by Dr. Mouffet, an English Physician. The subject was cultivated with great
success about the beginning of the last century, by Goedart and Swammerdam.
To this last writer we are indebted for a great part of the anatomical know-
ledge of the structure of these animals, which we at present possess. His book
is written in a dull prolix style; but is fraught with much curious and import-
ant information. Reaumur turned his attention to insects soon after the begin-
ning of the last century; and the voluminous book, which he published on the
subject, is by far the most valuable of all his numerous works. He has laid
open to us as it were a new world, and has traced the surprising changes
which these animals undergo, with much persevering industry and success. It
is to this book chiefly that Reaumur is indebted for the celebrity which he has
acquired, and which will last as long as Natural History continues to be culti-
vated or respected. De Geer's book on insects is the counterpart of Reaumur's,
and hardly less extensive or accurate.
Linnæus was the first person who succeeded in arranging this numerous class
of animals into genera and specics. His classification of them is admirable,
and has been most generally followed. Fabricius indeed, who was his pupil,
* Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 361; and in two subsequent dissertations, published in Vol.
LXV. p. 207; and Vol. LXVII. p. 56.
2
CHAP. II.]
89
NATURAL HISTORY.-Zoology.
and who devoted the whole of his life to the study of these animals, contrived
a new classification; but, by the generality of entomologists, it is con-
sidered as inferior in value to the Linnæan. Fabricius, however, must be
admitted to have described a much greater number of insects than any other
naturalist. He was a Dane; born at Tundern, in 1742. He was, during the
greatest part of his life, Professor of Natural History, at Kiell; and died of a
dropsy, in 1807, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Except by Dr. Lister, this
branch of zoology has not, till lately, been much cultivated in Britain; but
we at present possess several persons very well acquainted with it; and some of
the works on British insects, which have lately appeared in this country, are of
very considerable value.
scribed in the
The number of insects described in the Philosophical Transactions, amount Species de-
to 60 species. The following table exhibits a list of their names, together with Transactions.
the authors to whom we are indebted for the descriptions:
Apis willughbiella. (a) King and Willughby.
Thirty three species of spiders. (b)………. Lister.
Three species of ants. (c)...... .. King.
Lampyris italica, flying glow worm. (d)
Waller.
Phalena granella, wolf. (e).... Leuwenhoeck.
Musca putris, cheese maggot. (e) .... Ditto.
Scarabæus melolontha, cockchafer. (f)
Molyneux.
Allen.
Ptinus fatidicus, death watch. (g) ………. Allen.
Termes pulsatorium, death watch. (h) Derham.
Acarus, which occasions the itch. (i) Bonomo.
Dermestes polygraphus. (j)........ Dudley.
Vespa, common wasp. (k)……….
Dudley.
Derham.
.. Breyne.
. Klein.
Collinson.
.. Skelton.
Coccus polonicus. (4)…..
Monoculus apus. (m)..
Ephemera vulgata. (»)…….
Phalena ecconymella. (0)
Sphex, from Pennsylvania (p).. . ... Bartram.
Coccus cacti coccineliferi, cochineal. (q) Ellis.
Cicada septendecim. (r)………………... Collinson.
Coccus polonicus, Polish cochineal. (s) Wolfe.
Cancer stagnalis. (t)
King.
Aphis, of the rose tree. (u)...... Richardson.
Different specics of the monoculi. (v) Muller.
Termites, of Africa. (w)........ Smeathman.
Coccus lacca, lac insect. (x)
.. Ker.
Tenthredo, that destroys turnips. (y) Marshall.
The economy and transformations of insects present some of the most
curious and interesting particulars to which the naturalist can direct his atten-
(a) Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 2098, and 2100.
(b) Ibid. 1671. Vol. VI, p. 2170. They are all English insects, but the last four in the list are not spiders.
(e) Ibid. 1667. Vol. II. p. 425.
(e) Ibid. 1694. Vol. XVIII. p. 194.
(g) Ibid. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 376.
(i) Ibid. 1703. Vol, XXIII. p. 1296.
(k) Ibid. 1724. Vol. XXXIII. p. 53.
(m) Ibid. 1738. Vol. XL. p. 150.
(0) Ibid. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 281.
(g) Ibid. 1762. Vol. III. p. 661.
(s) Ibid. 1764. Vol. LIV. p. 91. LVI. p. 184.
(u) Ibid. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 182.
(0) Ibid. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 189.
(y) Ibid. 1783. Vol. LXXIII, p. 217.
(d) Phil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV. p. 841.
(f) Ibid. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 741.
(h) Ibid. 1701. Vol. XXII. p. 832; and Vol. XXIV. p. 1586.
(j) Ibid. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 1859.
(1) Ibid. 1732. Vol. XXXVI. p. 444.
(n) Ibid. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 329.
(p) Ibid. 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 278.
(r) Ibid. 1764. Vol. LIV. p. 65.
(t) Ibid. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 72.
(v) Ibid. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 230.
(x) Ibid. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 374.
N
90
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Apis wil-
lughbiella.
Ichneumon
Ay.
Ants.
Spiders.
tion. The work of Reaumur is full of these accounts, and owes to them a
great part of its interest. Several very curious details likewise are to be found
in the Philosophical Transactions; and it will be worth while to notice the
most remarkable of these in this place.
The way in which the apis willughbiella of Kirby is hatched was first dis-
covered by Dr. Edmond King; and was farther elucidated by Mr. Willughby.
The parent bee forms long cells in the wood of old willows, and in these
borows, which are always in the direction of the grain of the wood, she de-
posites her eggs. Each egg is enveloped in pieces of rose leaves, rolled up in the
form of a cartridge, and containing along with it a quantity of food, sufficient
to support the young animal while in the state of a maggot. The maggots, after
consuming the greatest part of their food, surround themselves with a kind of
theca, where they undergo their transformation, and at last issue out in the
form of full-grown bees.*
The ichneumon fly deposites its eggs in the body of different caterpillars.
Sometimes the quantity of maggots produced from them is so great, that the
caterpillar shrinks up and dies; sometimes it changes to an aurelia, but never
becomes a butterfly, always dying before-hand; while the ichneumon flies make
their way out of the body of the animal.†
The economy and industry of ants has been celebrated in all ages. The
opinion, indeed, entertained by the ancients, that they laid up food for the
winter, is not true; because these animals remain in a torpid state during the
cold weather, and of course have no occasion for food during that period.
Their spawn is a white substance, similar to pounded sugar or the crumb of
bread. It contains in it white specks, which, when viewed with a microscope,
resemble the eggs of fowls. These specks are gradually changed into maggots,
as small as mites: these grow to a certain size, and are then surrounded with a
white bag. In that state they are of the size of a grain of wheat, and are com-
monly, though improperly, called ants' eggs. The little animal, in these cases,
is gradually changed into a perfect ant, which, at a certain period, breaks from
its prison and mingles with its fellows. of-
+
The spider tribe are commonly viewed with dislike by the generality of man-
kind; partly, no doubt, on account of their appearance; but chiefly on account
of their voracity, and the deceitful manner in which they entrap other insects.
But their economy and manners are exceedingly striking, and have attracted
the admiration of all those naturalists who have devoted any part of their time.
to the examination of these industrious animals. Dr. Lister was one of the
earliest Members of the Royal Society, who attended to the economy of the
* Phil. Trans. Vol. V. p. 2098.
Phil. Trans. Vol. II. p. 4.25.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. VI. p. 2279.
CHAP. II.]
91
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
spider tribe; and there are various papers by him in the Transactions, on the
subject. Willughby and Ray likewise endeavoured to elucidate several par-
ticulars respecting them; but it is to Leuwenhoeck that we are indebted for
the most minute and curious details respecting them. Their number is very
considerable; a catalogue of no fewer than 33 British species having been
drawn up by Dr. Lister. They are each furnished with eight immoveable eyes,
placed in various directions to enable them to see on all sides at once, so as
the better to observe and secure their prey. They have likewise cight very long
legs, besides two shorter ones near the mouth, which answer the purpose of
hands, and which are armed with two rows of teeth, and with a long hollow
moveable fang, through which they infuse the poison into the wound which
they inflict. They deposit an incredible number of very small eggs, which
they envelope round with a very strong web, and which are gradually hatched
by the heat of the weather. The young spiders are at first exceedingly small,
so as to be barely visible to the naked eye; but they very rapidly increase in
size, and begin to spin. The instruments of spinning are in the posterior part
of their body, and no fewer than eight different places, at which threads issue,
may be discerned. Each of these threads, according to Leuwenhoeck, when
it issues at first, consists of a great number of exceedingly fine threads, which
speedily unite and form one large one. The animal has the power of darting out
a very long thread, not attached to any thing, by means of which it is
wafted about in the air, where it often remains a considerable time, and
where it is doubtless employed in catching its prey. In spinning its web, it
makes the extremity of the thread adhere to any substance that it chooses, by
pressing the part of the body from which the thread is to proceed against it.
It then moves off to a distance, and by that means the thread is drawn out.
Spiders are exceedingly voracious, so that they attack and destroy one another
whenever they meet; and, in case of a rencounter, never separate till one of them
is lifeless. They can live without food for a very long period; but always eat
with the greatest voracity when it is in their power. They not only suck out
the juices of those insects which they catch, but also devour their solid parts.
Leuwenhoeck even affirms that wings and legs of flies may be sometimes ob-
served, unaltered, in their excrements.*
It is well known that certain species of winged insects sometimes appear in Scarabæus
such numbers, as to destroy all vegetation for many miles round those places melolontha.
which they haunt. The locust is a well-known example of this kind. There
nearly as destructive.
is a species of beetle, the scarabæus melolontha, which occasionally proves
Dr. Molyneux relates an example of tnis which occurred
Vast swarms of these insects were brought into Galway,
in Ireland, in 1688.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XXII. p. 867.
N 2
92
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Fleas.
Crab.
May fly.
by a south-west wind; during the day they hung in clusters from the boughs
of trees, but about sun-set they took wing, and darkened the air with their vast
numbers. It was difficult to make one's way through them; for they dashed
themselves against the face, and occasioned a considerable pain. They fed
upon the leaves of trees, and the noise they made in eating was like the sawing
of timber. For two or three miles round every tree was completely stript of
its leaves, so that the county bore the appearance of the depth of winter. They
made their way also into the gardens, and devoured the blossoms and leaves of
the fruit trees, and some of the more delicate were entirely killed. Smoke was
found to be a preservative. The burning of heath and ferns kept them out of
gardens, or drove them out if they had already taken possession. Towards
autumn they entirely disappeared, probably lodging under ground in a dormant
state; for next season immense quantities of them were found in some places in
holes under ground. They deposited their eggs below the surface of the earth,
which soon were hatched and became white caterpillars, which fed upon the
roots of the corn, and thus destroyed the future harvest. Cold weather proved
very injurious to them, and destroyed them by millions.*
Cestone has given an account of the transformation of common fleas, which
is precisely similar to what happens to winged insects. According to him,
these animals deposite eggs of the size of nits upon animals, or articles of furni-
ture. From these eggs, in process of time, a worm is generated, which moves
about very nimbly, and when it has acquired a certain size spins itself a theca,
in which it remains enveloped till it is converted into a perfect flea. In this
state it bursts its prison and escapes.†
There is no tribe of insects whose economy is more singular or more unac-
countable than the crab. These animals associate together in considerable
numbers, and if carried off and dropt into the sea, at the distance of several
miles, they find their way back again to their old haunts. They cast their crust
once a year, and when deprived of it look like a mishapen mass of jelly. The
surface of this jelly gradually hardens into a new crust, of larger dimensions
than the old; for it is in this way that the creature increases in size. If any
of
its legs be wounded, it has the property of throwing off the whole leg at the
joint, a quantity of mucilaginous matter issues out from the extremity, which
immediately stops the bleeding and is gradually hardened into a new limb.
If this mucous matter be forcibly removed, the animal speedily bleeds to
death.↑
of
Many insects continue a very considerable period in their caterpillar and
aurelia state; but after they have assumed the appearance of a winged insect,
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 741.
Collinson. Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIV. p. 70.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. XXI. p. 42.
1
CHAP. I.]
93
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
very speedily die. One of the most remarkable of these is the ephemera vulgata,
or May fly; of which a very entertaining account is given in the Transactions,
by Mr. Collinson. For the greatest part of the year the nymph lies quiet at
the bottom or sides of rivers; but about the end of May it rises to the surface,
splits open, and out starts a beautiful fly, with three long remarkable hairs at its
tail. These flies attach themselves to the trees that vegetate on the banks of
the river, and in a day or two they cast their skin and leave it behind them.
The males are now much smaller than the females. They fly under the trees at
some small distance from the river, whither the females repair, and fly briskly
about for some hours together, striking against each other in the air.
When
impregnated, the females return to the river, and drop their eggs into it succes-
sively for two or three days. When this task is finished, their strength is ex-
hausted, and they either drop into the river or become the prey of those fish
and birds which feed upon them. The males never repair to the river at all,
but drop down and die under the trees, where they originally took up their
habitation. During the whole of this period they never eat, and are not even
provided with an apparatus for that purpose; the sole purpose of their assum-
ing the winged state being to copulate and deposite their eggs.
There is a set of small insects, called aphides, which inhabit peculiar trees, Aphides.
and almost every tree has a species, and sometimes two or three species of its
own; so that this tribe of insects is exceedingly numerous; and it is very
singular and extraordinary in another respect. Dr. Richardson has given in
the Transactions a particular account of the largest species of aphis which.
inhabits the rose tree. Eggs are deposited by the animal on the branches of the
plant in autumn, and as near the bud as possible. These eggs are covered with
a hard crust, and are not injured by the coldness of the winter. As soon as
the mild temperature of spring comes on, the eggs are hatched, and the animals
produced are all females. These females, without any intercourse with the
male sex, soon produce a new offspring; this offspring is not an egg, but a
female animal like its mother. This female produces young like its mother, all
likewise females; and in the course of the summer no less than ten generations
succeed one another. The first nine of these are all females and viviparous ;
but the tenth consists of a mixture of males and females. The males have
wings, but the females are destitute of these organs. They copulate during
autumn, and the female deposites eggs, which remain on the plant all the winter,
and are hatched next year; so that, in these singular creatures, one copulation
produces no less than ten generations, without the necessity of a new impreg-
nation. The fecundity is now exhausted, males and females are produced;
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIV. p. 329.
94
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Termites.
the impregnation is again repeated, and proves efficacious as before for the pro-
duction of ten successive generations.*
way.
The number of insects which inhabit the warmer regions of the earth, is
much greater than we, who inhabit the colder climates, have any conception of.
The great purpose which these little animals answer in the economy of nature,
is to consume and destroy dead animal and vegetable matter, in order to prevent
the baneful effects which would result from an accumulation of putrid sub-
stances. As the rapidity of putrefaction is much greater in the torrid than in
the temperate zones, it is obviously necessary that those substances which are
liable to undergo the putrid change should be more speedily removed out of the
Hence the reason of a great increase of the insect tribe, whose task it is
to perform this great and important office. Of all these insects, there is none
which performs more work in this way than the termites, or white ants, as they
are improperly termed; nor is there any set of insects whose economy is more
singular or perfect. They exist together in kingdoms, and build cities, which
are extremely populous. There are a considerable number of species, some of
which build their nests or cities on trees, others on the ground; but perhaps
the most singular species of all is the termes bellicosus; of which an excellent
account is given in the Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. Smeathman. They
are found both in India and Africa; but the species which Smeathman observed
inhabited the middle regions of Africa. They build their habitations on the
surface of the ground, in the form of a cone rounded on the top, of the height
of four or five feet, and of vast extent, considering the size of the animals.
The walls are built of clay, and so very strong as to bear the weight of the
heaviest animals, without being crushed, Wild bulls often station themselves
on their summits; and they are usually pitched upon by Europeans as stations,
when they wish to observe any objects at a distance. They contain a vast
number of compartments; that in the centre always holds the king and queen,
and is increased in size as necessity requires. Other surrounding compartments
are destined for the attendants of the queen, which are very numerous, scarcely
fewer than 100,000. Other compartments are used as nurseries for hatching
the eggs and rearing the young, till they become capable of joining the rest of
the society. Others are destined for holding provisions, of which they have
always a plentiful store provided. The society consists of three different kinds
of animals; or, to speak more accurately, of the termites in three different
states. The first state is that of labourers; they consist of small animals, with-
out wings or visible eyes, and without any distinction of sex.
These are by
far the most numerous, and upon them the whole labour of the community
Phil. Trans. Vol. LXI. p. 182.
CHAP. II.]
95
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
falls. They build their cities and procure the provisions, and feed and nourish
the young. The soldiers constitute the second state of the animal. They exist
in every colony, in considerable numbers, though they are much fewer than the
labourers. They are about the size of 15 labourers, have a very large head
armed with a kind of awl-shaped forceps, with which they penetrate and wound
those animals which they attack. Their business is to defend the community,
which they do with the greatest obstinacy and bravery. They seem to exercise
a kind of control over the labourers. The third state is that of the king and
queen. This is the perfect state of the animal. In this state they are furnished
with four wings and two bright eyes, and the distinction of sex is very obvious.
Whenever they undergo this change, they immediately fly away, in order to
establish new colonies. Their wings last them only a few hours, and are then
broken off or rendered useless. In this state they are attacked by an infinite
number of enemies; birds, fish, insects, and even man, feed upon them with
voracity, so that very few escape with life A few pairs, however, fall in with
some of the labourers of their own species. These little animals immediately
pitch upon them for their king and queen, and without loss of time inclose
them in a wall of clay, round which they raise their whole city, with
wonderful celerity. The holes leading to the royal cell are only large
enough to admit the labourers, so that the royal pair cannot get out; but are
ever after fed and protected by the labouring insects. The abdomen of the
queen gradually increases prodigiously in size; so that she becomes as bulky as
20 or 30,000 labourers, and she lays an infinite number of eggs, laying at
the rate of 60 in a minute, or 80,000 and upwards in 24 hours. These eggs are
immediately removed by her attendants, and carried to the nurseries. These
animals never venture out in the open air, where they are no match for their
numerous enemies, but construct large galleries under ground, by means of
which they make their way to their favourite articles of food. Decayed wood,
or wood that is not vegetating, is the article which they chiefly select, and
scarcely any wood is capable of resisting their destructive ravages. When they
make their way into a stake or beam of wood, they hollow it completely within,
but leave the outside entire, so that a board or shelf, which shall appear to the
eye entire, shall be no heavier than if it were a hollow bag of paper. When
the beams have a weight to support, the animals are aware of this, and
fill up the interstices as they eat them out, with moistened clay, so that in a
very short time the wood is converted into a beam of clay. Boxes, fallen trees,
stakes in a hedge, nothing can resist their destructive ravages; and when once
they make their way, their numbers are so immense, that they complete the
destruction in a very short period of time. When their cities are broken open,
the soldiers march out with impetuosity, and attack every thing that comes in
their way. Wherever they strike they immediately draw blood, and they not
6
96
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Coccus.
unfrequently beat off the bare-legged negroes altogether. As soon as the
assailant has withdrawn, the labourers issue forth in prodigious numbers, and
very speedily erect a new wall, and repair the damage which their habitation
has sustained.*
The coccus constitutes a genus of insects, of a very peculiar nature. The
female fixes herself immoveable upon the branch of some tree, and, at a certain
period, the young animals burst their way through the body of their parent.
These animals furnish coloured juices, which have been always highly prized as
dye stuffs. The cochineal, which is a species of this animal, a native of
Mexico, and inhabiting a kind of cactus, furnishes the finest red colour known,
and has, in some measure, superseded the use of some other species, formerly
cultivated in Europe, for a similar purpose. But perhaps there is no species
of this singular animal of more importance than the coccus lacca, which in-
habits the uncultivated mountains on both sides of the Ganges, and is found on
four species of trees; namely, the ficus religiosa, ficus indica, plaso, and rham-
nus jujuba. But upon the last it is not so common. An account of this insect
was published in the Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. James Kerr. The
insect attaches itself to the branches of the tree which it inhabits, and is gra-
dually surrounded by a clear viscid juice, which soon hardens and incloses the
animal in a cell. This matter constitutes what is called gum lac, a species of
resin, which probably exudes with little alteration from the fig-trees upon
which the animal is fixed. It is produced in great abuùdance by these little
insects, and is an article of great importance in India, and even in Europe,
being applied to a great variety of uses. The insect itself contains a red juice,
which is employed in India for dying red, and gives to lac a considerable part
of its value. The lac, before it is imported into Europe, has been deprived of
its colouring matter by the Indian dyers.†
SECTION II.-Of Anatomy.
The various diseases and accidents, both internal and external, to which
mankind are liable, would necessarily turn their attention to medicine at a very
early period. The art of healing would speedily become a profession, and those
who devoted themselves to it would almost immediately discover the importance
of being acquainted with the structure of the human body, and endeavour, by
every means in their power, to make themselves acquainted with that structure.
In general diseases indeed, such as fever, palsy, epilepsy, &c., the seat of the
disease was not so apparent, and the malady might therefore be ascribed to the
malevolent interposition of some deity, or the preternatural power of some
enemy, and might accordingly be administered to by sacrifices, charms, and
+ Phil. Trans, Vol. LXXI. p. 374.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXI. p. 139.
·
CHAP. II.]
97
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
incantations. But when any of the organs were disordered, or when any
wound was inflicted, the seat of the malady was obvious to every one, and every
rational method of cure must be dependent in some measure upon a knowledge
of the structure of that part where the disease was situated. The importance
of this kind of knowledge was so obvious, that we find marks of it in the most
ancient writings upon record. Innumerable examples, for instance, occur in
Homer of his knowledge of the internal structure of the human body. A
spear is thrust through the right side of Pharcelus under the bone to the blad-
der;* Apizaon's liver is wounded by Euripulus's spear piercing under the pre-
cordia; the acetabulum coccendicis of Æneas was broken, and the nerves near
it, so that he must have remained for ever lame had not his cure been under-
taken by his goddess mother. ‡
the ancients.
But such was the veneration which the ancients entertained for their dead, Anatomy of
and such the guilt which they ascribed to the violation of them, that few op-
portunities would occur to ancient physicians of dissecting human bodies, and
these few they would hardly venture to indulge. The only knowledge of the
human body which they could acquire would be derived from the practice of
embalming, and from occasional wounds which would expose some of the in-
ternal cavities of the body. They would be under the necessity of confining
their dissections to brutes, and deducing from their observations upon them in-
ferences respecting the structure of the human body. These prejudices were
never overcome by the ancients. Accordingly we are not to look among them
for any accurate anatomical knowledge. The three most celebrated medical
men among the ancients, any of whose writings have come down to us, were
Hippocrates, Celsus, and Galen.
Hippocrates, who lived during the Peloponnesian war, was the father of Hippocrates.
medicine, and in point of reputation stands first in the list of medical men.
As to anatomy his works contain very little. There is not even evidence suffi-
cient to convince us that he had attempted to dissect brutes, far less human
bodies. Though the well known story of his interview with Democrates of
Abdera, whom he was employed to cure of madness, is a demonstration that
Democrates, at least in those days, was sensible of the great importance of ana-
tomy, and had applied himself to determine the structure of the inferior ani-
mals. Celsus, who flourished during the Augustan age, has left us a system of Celsus.
medicine written with great elegance and purity of style. But the anatomical
part is not more perfect in him than in Hippocrates. Indeed the few anatomi-
cal observations which he gives are evidently translated from the writings of the
Grecian physicians his predecessors. Galen is the writer that contains by far Galen.
the most anatomy of all the ancients. The reputation that he gained was enor-
*Iliad, Book V. v. 65.
+ Iliad, Book XI. v, 574.
Iliad, Book V. v. 304.
O
98
[BOOK 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Mundinus.
mous, and for many ages he ruled over medicine with despotic sway. His
writings constituted the oracles of the schools, and to venture to call any of his
opinions in question was deemed unlawful and heretical.
He has given a much more complete anatomical account of the human body
than any of his predecessors, or even successors, for a thousand years after.
There can be no doubt that he dissected the bodies of the inferior animals. But
Vesalius, the first of the moderns who ventured to call in question his infalli-
bility, affirmed that he never had dissected a human subject, and that all his
notions, respecting the structure of the human body were drawn from his exami-
nation of the lower animals. This assertion occasioned a violent controversy,
which did not soon subside. The physicians of the times started up in arms,
and in formidable numbers, to defend their oracle. But Vesalius, supported by
his knowledge of human anatomy, was invincible, though single, and victori-
ously repelled all their attacks. At present when the dispute has been for many
years at an end, and the reputation of Galen brought to its true level, it is the
opinion of some of the most learned and laborious anatomists, and some of the
best judges, that the accusation of Vesalius is well founded, and that Galen
never did dissect a human body. This in particular was the opinion of Haller,
If this judgment respecting Galen is to be adopted, and for our part we think it
very likely to be correct, then it follows that the anatomy of the human body
was an art with which the ancients were unacquainted, and that all their know-
ledge of the science was derived from the dissection of brutes.
It is not necessary to mention any of the Grecian physicians who lived after
Galen, nor the Arabian physicians who flourished during the age of the Caliphs,
because neither of them added any thing to the anatomical knowledge which
they derived from the writings of Galen. Nor need we notice, the schoolmen
who disputed about medical subjects in the different universities of Europe
during the dark ages. Mundinus indeed, who lived in the 13th century, and
wrote a treatise on the three cavities of the human body, gives proof that he
was a practical anatomist, and has made some additions to the anatomy of
Galen. His book is a barbarous jargon, half Latin, half Arabic, but it gained
him a high reputation, and was for a considerable time taught in all the univer-
sities of Italy.
ነ
The destruction of the Grecian empire, and the capture of Constantinople
by the Turks, drove the literary men of that country for refuge into. Italy; and
with them they brought the ancient classics of their country, and diffused a
knowledge of them, together with their language, over Europe.. Hippocrates
and Galen thus came to be known in their original dress; for before that period
they had been studied only from miserable Arabic translations. The editing of
these ancient fathers of medicine, and studying and commenting upon them,
occupied the medical world for a considerable time; but the human mind had
CHAP. II.]
99
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
now received an irresistible impulse which it was impossible to confine. Ana-
tomy came to be taught in the universities as a practical art: human subjects.
were publicly dissected, and the different parts of the human body accurately
explained' and described. It was impossible in that age, when the works of
Galen were in the hands of every student, to avoid comparing his descriptions
with the parts of the human subject actually before the eyes of the readers.
Thus his deficiencies and mistakes were gradually detected, and whispered
among the practical anatomists of Europe. His dominion over medicine and
anatomy was tottering on its basis when a young man of 28 years boldly re-
solved to hurl him from his throne.
-
1
school.
This was Andrew Vesalius of Brussels, who published his anatomy in the Vesalius.
year 1548, a work which occupies a most conspicuous place in the annals of
science, which freed medicine from the trammels of authority, which laid the
foundation of genuine anatomy, and even contained a bold and pretty full out-
line of the science. This book exhibited a. regular and minute description of
the human body, illustrated by excellent engravings, and a resolute exposure of
the mistakes of Galen; whose ignorance Vesalius is at great pains to point out.
This conduct raised against him a host of antagonists, and among others Sylvius.
who had been Vesalius's master. Vesalius it is said was appointed Professor of
Anatomy at Padua, and was the first anatomist that ever received a salary.
-Thus he laid the foundation of the celebrated Paduan school, which for a Paduan
period of nearly 200 years was constantly filled by anatomists of celebrity, to
which medical students resorted from all parts of the world, and where almost
every one who made a figure, either in medicine or anatomy, received his edu-
cation. The ancient prejudice against dissecting dead bodies still continuing in
France, Germany, and Britain; Italy was the only country in which it was
practised. To Italy therefore every student of medicine, who wished to acquire
a knowledge of anatomy, was obliged to resort. It would be tedious to detail
all the great anatomists that Italy produced during this period. Perhaps the
two most celebrated and valuable of all were Falopius and Eustachius; the first,
Professor of 'Anatomy at Padua; the second, at Rome. Both lived in the time
of Vesalius. Falopius published his anatomical work in 1561; and intended it Falopius.
obviously as a supplement to the book of Vesalius. For he passes over slightly
those parts which Vesalius had treated fully and accurately, and dwells on those
parts which the former had either omitted or inaccurately described. Eustachius Eustachius.
published his Opuscula Anatomica in 1563; but his great work which he had
promised, and for which he had engraven 46 copper-plates, was never pub-
lished by him. The copper-plates, after having been lost for many years, were
afterwards found at Rome in the beginning of the last century, and published
in 1714 by Lancisi, who added a short explanatory text, because Eustachius's
own account of his plates could not be found.
02
100
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Fabricius ab
Aquapen-
dente.
Harvey.
Royal Society.
Fabricius ab Aquapendente, also Professor of Anatomy at Padua, deserves
likewise to be mentioned, because he was the master of Harvey, and because
his particular pursuits and discoveries obviously bent the original mind of
Harvey into a particular channel, and thus paved the way for the greatest phy-
siological discovery which has ever been made a discovery to which we are in-
debted for almost all the knowledge of the animal economy that we possess,
and which raised Harvey to a degree of celebrity among medical philosophers
second only to that of Hippocrates himself. It is hardly necessary to say that
the discovery alluded to is that of the circulation of the blood. Harvey was a
demonstrator of anatomy in London, and taught his doctrine as early as 1616;
but he did not publish his demonstration till 1628. It was entitled, Exercitatio
Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. His doctrine was im-
mediately attacked by a host of antagonists, the most violent of whom was
Riolanus, who at that time taught anatomy at Paris. Harvey refuted all the
arguments of his opponents with great modesty and success in his second and
third Exercitatio, published in 1649. Harvey died in 1657, only three years
before the establishment of the Royal Society, at the advanced age of 80.
Long before his death he had the satisfaction of seeing his discovery universally
admitted, and the arguments of his antagonists tacitly given up. Harvey, be-
sides his discovery of the circulation of the blood, was the author also of
another great work scarcely less remarkable for solidity of reasoning and inge-
nuity of observation, namely, his Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium,
quibus accedunt quædam de Partu, de Membranis ac Humoribus, de Concep
tione, &c. In this work he overturned a doctrine first broached by Aristotle,
and obstinately maintained ever after, namely, the doctrine of equivocal gene-
ration, and substituted in its stead another opinion now universally admitted to
be true, an opinion which he expressed by the phrase omnia er ovo.
About the time when the Royal Society was established, anatomy, which
hitherto had been cultivated chiefly in Italy, began to be attended to in the
more northern regions of Europe. A crowd of anatomists made their appear-
ance in Britain, France, Holland, Denmark, who soon acquired celebrity, and
made the most rapid and unlooked for advances in their favourite science. The
Royal Society at its original establishment considered anatomy as one of the
most important objects to which they could direct their attention. Dissections
were frequently exhibited before them, and they even procured an order from
the crown to have the dead bodies of malefactors delivered to them by the
sheriffs of London for that purpose. Some of the most distinguished names in
anatomy, who contributed essentially to the progress of the science, were active
Members of the Society, and were in the habit of laying the results of their
discoveries before that illustrious body. But in a periodical work like the
Transactions, published so frequently, and in such small portions at a time, it
CHAP. II.]
101
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
was not possible, nor would it have been proper, to insert a complete system of
anatomy, or even a complete account of any of the complicated organs of
which it was composed. Short notices of discoveries and improvements were
all that could be expected, and all that was intended, sufficient to ascertain the
dates and secure to the inventors all the credit which they deserved, and at the
same time to inform the anatomical world what advances their favourite science
was making by the labours of the Royal Society. Before proceeding to notice.
the anatomical papers published in the Philosophical Transactions, it will be
worth while to take a short survey of the different branches of anatomy in order
to point out the anatomists to whom each is chiefly indebted for its present state
of improvement.
1. An ac-
I. The knowledge of the bones constitutes the foundation of all anatomy, The bones.
because it is by their means alone that the position of the soft parts can be ac-
curately marked out. This knowledge is likewise the simplest and most casily
attained. It was in some measure known to the ancients, who could not avoid
a certain degree of acquaintance with human bones. Whole skeletons must
have occasionally presented themselves to their view. There is even a story
told by some anatomists, though I do not know upon what authority it is
founded, that Hippocrates himself was in possession of a skeleton cast in brass,
and that he consecrated it to the oracle of Apollo at Delphos. Two circum-
stances respecting bones have occupied the attention of anatomists.
curate description and delineation of them. 2. An investigation of their struc-
ture and use. The first of these, though in appearance simple, is not so in
reality. Accordingly the description of the bones acquired its present state of
simplicity and perfection only by slow degrees. Vesalius has given us a de-
scription of the bones, and every anatomist since his time has done the same
thing; yet it was not till the beginning of the last century that the task was
completed. Cheselden gave excellent plates of the bones in his Anatomy first
published in 1713. Dr. Monro's Treatise on the Bones, published at Edin- Monro
burgh in 1726, is by far the best account which ever has appeared. It may be
considered as the completion of the subject, since it would be exceedingly diffi-
cult and perfectly unnecessary to introduce any improvement upon the descrip-
tions which Dr. Monro has given. Winslow deserves likewise to be mentioned. Winslow.
His Anatomy, published in 1732, contains an excellent description of the
bones, though not equal to that previously given by Monro.
Winslow was a
Dane who had changed his religion and settled in France. He became a Mem-
ber of the Academy of Sciences, and a demonstrator on anatomy at Paris. Ac-
cording to Haller, who had been his pupil, his abilities were not so remarkable
as his industry. But by dint of assiduity he became an excellent anatomist.
He was the author of a great number of anatomical dissertations on various
subjects, which appeared successively in the Memoires of the French Academy.
102
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Haller.
But his System of Anatomy, in four volumes, was his great work upon which his
celebrity is chiefly founded. He died about the year 1760, leaving a widow
and family in rather destitute circumstances. He had a son a captain of a
trading vessel, who was on a voyage to China at the time of his father's death,
and who, on his return to France, made application to the British Government,
by means of the Royal Society, for leave to sail with impunity, notwithstand-
ing the war and the ruined state of the French navy.
With respect to the structure and growth of the bones, the best account of
the subject which has yet appeared is by Clopton Havers, one of the early
Members of the Royal Society, and an account of his treatise is published in
one of the numbers of the Philosphical Transactions.* The subject was after-
wards resumed by Duhamel, and by Haller, one of the most indefatigable
anatomists, and perhaps the most industrious literary character that ever ex-
isted. He was a native of Switzerland; and, when only a boy, was initiated in
anatomy, by the lectures of Duverney. He then went to Leyden, at that time,
by the unrivaled talents of Boerhaave as a teacher, raised to the first rank
among Medical Universities. Here he profited by the instructions of Boer-
haave, and the anatomical talents of Albinus, who filled the anatomical chair.
From Leyden he passed over to London, where he lived in the house, of Dr.
Douglass, assisted at his dissections, and profited by his knowledge. His next
remove was to Paris, where he put himself under the tuition of: Le Dran and
Winslow. Here he became so notorious, for the great number of dead bodies
which he procured for his private dissections, that the indignation of the popu-
lace was raised, and information against him was lodged with the police,
which obliged him to flee from Paris with all speed, and return to his own
country. Mieg, the Professor of Anatomy at Basil, at that time labouring
under ill health, employed Haller, first as his dissector, and afterwards to give
lectures in his room. Soon afterwards he was chosen, Professor of Anatomy at
Berne. His various anatomical and botanical labours having by this time
raised Haller to a high degree of reputation, he was invited in consequence to
Gottinguen, where a new University was established, and where particular
care was taken to procure, the best qualified persons to fill each of the professorial
chairs. Here he continued for some time to exercise his double duty of Pro-
fessor and President of the Gottinguen Academy, till want of health, as he
informs us, obliged him to throw up his situations and return to his own coun-
try. He pubilshed, during a period of 50 years, an infinite number of anato-
mical dissertations upon almost every subject. But the greatest and most valu-
able of all his works is his Elementa Physiologia Corporis Humani, in eight
large quarto volumes; the first of which was published in 1757; the last,
1
!
*Phil, Trans., 1691, Vol. XVII. p. 544.
#
1
CHAP. II.]
103
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
in 1766. It is a work of inconceivable labour, and indicates an acquaintance
with books so extensive as almost to appear beyond the power of the longest
life to acquire.
·
II. After the bones, the muscles, by means of which the various parts of the The Muscles
body are put in motion, and which in some measure fill up and give shape to
the human figure, obviously claim the next attention of the anatomist. They
are very numerous and complicated, and of course could not have been fully
known to the ancients; though it must be admitted that they were acquainted
with a considerable number of them. Vesalius is the first anatomist who Vesalius.
attempted a minute description of them; and his attempt, considering the diffi-
culty of the subject, was attended with the happiest success. It was his
antagonist Sylvius who first imposed names upon a great many of the muscles,
and these names they still continue to bear; for before that time they were
merely denoted by numbers, and by the part of the body to which they were
connected; and as each anatomist used numbers peculiar to himself, it was
exceedingly difficult to understand his descriptions without a thorough know-
ledge of the subject. Vesalius's description of the muscles, improved indeed
somewhat by his rivals and successors, continued the best account of them till
the anatomy of Winslow was published, who far excelled his predecessors in
minute accuracy.
The plates of the muscles, published by Mr. William
Cowper, a little before the commencement of the last century, are excellent. Cowper.
But this ingenious surgeon and anatomist was guilty of a literary theft, which
remains as a slur upon his reputation. Bidloo, Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Leyden, published a valuable work, under the title of Anatomia
Corporis Humani, accompanied with excellent plates, where all the parts are de-
lineated as large as the life. Cowper purchased 300 copies of these plates, and
published them in London in 1698, with an English explanation drawn up by
himself, in which he had considerably improved upon Bidloo, and with a few
additional figures. In this publication no notice was taken of Bidloo, except
once or twice in the preface, in which he is censured. Bidloo complained of
this theft to the Royal Society, and immediately wrote a very severe pamphlet,
entitled Gulielmus Cowperus citatus coram Tribunali. Cowper, instead of ac-
knowledging the impropriety of his conduct, published a virulent pamphlet,
entitled Vindiciae; in which he endeavours to shew that Bidloo did not under-
stand his own figures, from which he infers that they were not really Bidloo's
figures; that they had been engraved by Swammerdam, and purchased by
Bidloo from Swammerdam's widow. A malicious charge, which some sub-
sequent writers have been malevolent enough to propagate and defend.
Dr. James Douglas deserves also to be mentioned as an excellent writer on Douglas.
the muscles. He published his Myographia, or a comparative description of
the muscles in a man and in a quadruped, in 1707; and it was confessedly the
104
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Albinus.
Muscular mo-
tion.
The blood-
vessels.
best account of the subject which had appeared when he wrote. But the per-
son who may be considered as having completed the description of the muscles
as far as structure, origin, and insertion are concerned, is Albinus, the Prince
of Anatomists. Bernard Siegfried Albinus, when scarcely 20 years of age,
was raised to the Anatomical Chair at Leyden, by the discerning and disin-
terested recommendation of Boerhaave; and he filled it for 50 years; during the
whole of which period he devoted his undisturbed attention to anatomical pur-
suits. Those intervals which were left him free from the care of the young
men under his charge, he dedicated to a careful examination of the origin
and the insertion of every muscle, and he employed the most skilful artists to
draw representations of the whole. His plates upon almost every subject of
anatomy are admirable, both for execution and exactness. Indeed it would be
a difficult and a useless task to endeavour to excel him in either. He died
about the year 1770.
There is another subject intimately connected with the muscles, and neces-
sary for completing our knowledge of them, which has been greatly and unac
countably neglected by anatomists in general; I mean the way in which they
combine in producing the motions of the human body. Anatomists content
themselves with describing the action of each muscle separately, or in conjunc-
tion with its fellow; but this is far from being sufficient to give an idea of the
motions of the human body. Winslow indeed, in his anatomy, has attempted
something better, and has given us some excellent observations on the way in
which the complicated motions of the human body are produced. But by far
the best account of the subject is given by Dr. Barclay, of Edinburgh, in a
work which he lately published on the muscles. In this excellent work, which
fills up a blank unaccountably left in anatomy, we have a very complete and
satisfactory account of the way in which the various muscles combine, and con-
tribute their parts, to produce the different complicated motions of the human
body.
III. The blood-vessels which pervade every part of the human system, and
distribute the blood to every organ of the body, are too important to have
been neglected by anatomists or physicians. But the ancients had no correct
ideas respecting either the nature or distribution of these vessels. According to
them the arteries were filled with air, and not with blood, and the chief seat
of the blood, from which it was distributed to other parts of the body, was not
the heart, but the liver. Though considerable advances were made in the know-
ledge of the blood-vessels by modern anatomists; though they had ascertained
that the arteries as well as the veins were filled with blood; though Fabricius
ab Aquapendente had discovered the valves in the veins, which might have led
him to a knowledge of the real motion of the blood; and though what is called
the lesser circulation, or the circulation of the blood through the lungs, was
4
CHAP. II.]
105
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
known to Columbus and Casalpinus, and is mentioned by Servetus; yet it was
our immortal Harvey who first removed the veil, and explained the subject with
luminous simplicity, by his discovery of the circulation. This discovery was Circulation.
not the result of any new observations respecting the structure of the heart and
blood-vessels, but of accurate consequences deduced from the structure already
known, and especially from the valves of the veins discovered by his master
Fabricius, which probably led Harvey at first to turn his attention to this im-
portant subject. He observed that the structure of the heart was muscular, and
that its motions were performed by the contractions of these muscles. The
auricles contract first, and thereby propel the blood into the ventricles. The
ventricles contract next, and as the valves prevent the possibility of the blood
returning to the auricles, it is thrown into the arteries. Here it would con-
stantly accumulate and speedily burst the vessels, unless it were carried by them
to all parts of the body, and afterwards conveyed by them to the extreme vessels
of the veins. In the veins, as is obvious from the structure of their valves, the
motion of the blood is from the small veins to the trunks, and thence to the
heart, by which organ it is again delivered to the arteries. Thus the circula-
tion perpetually goes on as long as life continues.
The attempts to deny the reality of this great discovery, and, when that was
impossible, to rob Harvey of the honour of it, were innumerable. Aristotle and
Galen, among the ancients; and Servetus, Cæsalpinus, and Columbus, among
the moderns, were quoted as philosophers who were acquainted with the circu-
lation, and taught it in their writings. Another story was circulated, and even
countenanced by Bartholine. According to it the discovery was made by
Father Paul, the Venetian, who communicated it to Fabricius ab Aquapen-
dente. But these philosophers, apprehensive of the fate of Galileo, if they
should venture to propagate a doctrine so contrary to the received opinions,
carefully concealed it, or revealed it only to their favourite pupils. Fabricius
communicated it to Harvey, who, being under no restraint in England, did not
hesitate to communicate it to the public. This ridiculous story was treated at
the time with more attention than it deserved; and Dr. Clarke was at the
trouble to refute it in the Philosophical Transactions, and to shew how it
originated. Harvey, it seems, and Father Paul were intimate friends, and the
knowledge of the circulation which Father Paul possessed was derived from
Dr. Harvey, by means of the Venetian Envoy then in England.*
Harvey's doctrine of the circulation was zealously defended by Sir George
Ent, one of the early Members of the Royal Society, a physician of consider-
able eminence, and a very zealous promoter of the objects of the Society. He
dispute with Thurston respecting the use of the lungs, which scarcely
* Phil. Trans. Vol. II. p. 672.
P
106
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Lower.
Anatomical
injections.
The brain and
nerves.
Willis.
deserves to be noticed. According to Thurston the blood underwent a commi-
nution in the lungs; an opinion which Ent successfully refuted.
The most complete Treatise on the Heart hitherto published is by Dr. Lower,
who was one of the most distinguished anatomists of the 17th century. He
first explained the reason of the difference of colour between venous and arte-
rial blood. It is well known that arterial blood is of a beautiful scarlet colour,
whereas venous blood is dark and almost brown. Lower showed that the colour
of the arterial blood was owing to the action of the air, and that venous blood
when exposed to the air immediately acquires the florid colour of the arterial
blood. It was Lower and Dr. King that first performed the celebrated experi-
ment of the transfusion of the blood of one animal into another, which at that
time was considered as likely to lead to the most important medical discoveries,
and which occasioned a violent dispute between the English and French anato-
mists with respect to priority of invention. This experiment has long lost
its celebrity, and the hopes entertained that it might be the means of producing
extraordinary cures naturally terminated with the humoral doctrines of patho-
logy which are now nearly exploded from medicine.
The knowledge of the distribution of the blood vessels was very much pro-
moted by the method of filling them with injections of coloured liquid wax,
which, afterwards hardening, rendered it easy to trace their most minute ramifi-
cations. This art was discovered in Holland, and is believed to have been first
practised by Swammerdam. Ruysch was indebted to it for a considerable share
of his celebrity. It was alleged that he had originally learned it from Swam-
merdam; but this he himself refused to admit. It is not unlikely that he might
have known that Swammerdam employed some artificial injection, and from this
hint he may have gone to work and hit upon a method which answered the
purpose. Senac published an excellent Treatise on the Structure of the IIeart,
its Action and Diseases, in 1749.
IV. The brain and nerves constitute one of the most important but the most
mysterious part of the human body. They form as it were the link that unite
together mind and body. All the motions of the body, every sensation, and
even the faculty of thinking itself, depends upon them. Hence they claim,
and have obtained, the most minute and accurate examination of anatomists.
Though it must be confessed that the physiological improvements resulting from
this investigation are scarcely adequate to the labour bestowed upon it. We are
indebted to Dr. Thomas Willis, one of the original Members of the Royal So-
ciety, for the first accurate anatomy of the brain and nerves. He was appointed
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy at Oxford in 1660, and some years
afterwards he removed to London, where he distinguished himself by a variety
of medical and anatomical publications. His anatomy of the brain was by far
the best of his works. He was assisted in his dissections by Dr. Lower, and in
CHAP. II.]
107
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
his drawings by Sir Christopher Wren. Though his anatomical descriptions be
good, yet his physiological opinions must be acknowledged to be altogether ex-
travagant and absurd. For example, he lodges common sense in the corpus
striatum of the brain, imagination in the corpus callosum, and memory in the
cineritious matter which encompasses the medullary.
Raymond Vieussens, Professor of Anatomy at Montpelier, is the next author Vieussens.
after Willis that deserves to be mentioned. He published his Neurographia
Universalis in 1685. In this work he greatly improved the description of the
brain and nerves, though he has fallen into mistakes in some points. His obli-
gations to his predecessor Willis are sufficiently obvious. It is to Vieussens
that we are indebted for imposing the names upon a great many parts of the
brain which are still adhered to by anatomists.* It must be acknowledge that
Vieussens was not very happy in the terms which he imposed; for scarcely any
thing is to be met with more whimsical or absurd than most of the names by
which the different parts of the brain are distinguished. Fortunately these terms
are all in a learned language, and of course their absurdity is not nearly so ob-
vious as it would be if we translated them into our own tongue.
The enumeration of the nerves given by Willis is still adhered to by anato-
mists. But since the time of Willis and Vieussens, many splendid sets of
plates, illustrating every thing respecting the brain and nerves, have been pub-
lished. Perhaps the finest of these in point of execution at least, if not the
most accurate, are the superb plates painted and published by Vicq. D'Azyre,
not many years before the commencement of the French revolution.
V. Besides the blood vessels, there is another set of vessels of no less impor- The absor-
tance in the human system, by no means so obvious, namely, the absorbents. bents.
These vessels are of two different kinds, and were discovered at different times.
The first kind consists of a set of vessels originating in the alimentary canal,
the use of which is to take up the chyle as it forms, and carry it to a large
vessel called the thoracic duct, which conveys it into the trunk of a vein very
near the heart. As the colour of the chyle is similar to that of milk, these ves-
sels have received the name of lacteals. These vessels are obscurely hinted at Lacteals.
by Hippocrates and Galen, and are supposed also to have been known to Erasis-
But they had been overlooked and forgotten by anatomists when they
were discovered a second time by Casper Asellius of Cremona, an anatomist of
great merit and modesty, who died in 1626. His account of the lacteals was a
tratus.
* The extreme fondness for coining new technical terms, by which the French have always been
distinguished, is very remarkable. In anatomy, chemistry, mineralogy, and even in mathematics,
they have been great inventors of words, and nothing in general can be more unfortunate than the
terms which they have contrived. Is this propensity to be ascribed to the extreme poverty of the
French language, and the rigid laws laid down by the academy, which, in some measure, preclude
the introduction of all new words except technical terms?
P 2
108
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Thoracic
duct.
Lymphatics.
Bartholine.
Rudbeck.
posthumous work, not published till 1628. It deserves to be recorded as a proof
that the account of these vessels, found in the writings of Hippocrates and
Galen, are not very obvious, that Dr. Harvey never would admit the reality of
this discovery of Asellius.
The thoracic duct was first discovered by Pecquet, an anatomist of Paris,
who published an account of it in 1651. Next year John Van Horne, a
Dutch Professor, published an account of the same organ, and laid claim to at
least a share of the merit of the discovery, appealing to his pupils for the truth
of his assertion, that he had publicly exhibited the thoracic duct before any
account of it by Pecquet had appeared. But the public did not allow of the
claim of Van Horne, and gave the whole merit of the discovery to Pecquet,
The other set of absorbent vessels arise from all the cavities of the body, aro
filled with a liquid almost as limpid as water, and are so thin and transparent
that it is no wonder they remained long unknown. Their discovery was inade in
the year 1651 or 1652, and two claimants appeared, each alleging that the ori
ginal discovery was made by himself. The first of these claimants was Thomas
Bartholine, a Dane, and one of the most active and illustrious philosophers of
his age.
He had inspired the Danes with an ardour for the sciences, and had
taken every means in his power to encourage and reward every appearance of
merit. The other claimant was Olaus Rudbeck, a Swede, a Professor at Upsal,
and not inferior in celebrity to Bartholine himself. As far as it is possible to
determine from the claims urged, and the concessions made by each of these
antagonists, both of them were entitled to the merit of the discovery; but the
priority of time seems to belong to Rudbeck, for he observed the lymphatic
vessels as early as the month of March, while they were not seen by Bartholine
till near the end of the year. Dr. Timothy Clark, in a dissertation which he
published in the Philosophical Transactions, endeavours to deprive both of these
philosophers of the merit of the discovery. But he does not appear to have
been accurately informed of the date at which the foreign anatomists first ob-
served the lymphatics. For he affirms that our countryman Jolif, while exa-
mining the spermatic vessels in 1652, accidentally observed the lymphatic ves-
sels swelled by his attempt to render the blood vessels of the part more turgid.*
Now this claim, urged 16 years after the period of the alleged observation, al-
lowing it all the validity that Dr. Clark could desire, does not invalidate the
claims of Rudbeck and Bartholine, since their observations had been at least as
early if not earlier than the supposed discovery of Jolif.
Many observations on the lymphatics were made by Dr. Hunter and Dr.
Monro, who entered into a very hot dispute about priority of discovery. Re-
specting the merits of this dispute it is not necessary to decide. But certainly
* Phil. Trans. 1668. Vol. II. p. 672.
CHAP. II.]
109
NATURAL HISTORY.—ZOOLOGY,
the claims of Dr. Hunter were preposterous in the extreme, when he boasted
that his discovery was more important than Harvey's far famed one of the cir-
culation. An excellent description of the lymphatics was published by Mr.
William Hewson in 1774. But the completest account of the subject which
has yet appeared was drawn up by Mr. Cruikshanks. Masgagni has published
by far the most splendid and accurate plates of the absorbent system that have
yet appeared.
branches of
anatomy.
VI. Such is an account of the improvements made by the moderns in the
most important parts of anatomy. The bones, blood vessels, brain and nerves,
and lymphatics, owe much of their present advanced state to the labours of
British anatomists; but the muscles have been more indebted to foreigners.
With respect to the other branches of anatomy, it would be tedious to enter into Other
a minute detail. We may mention however in general, that the first account of
the glands was given by Wharton, that for the best description of the organs of
generation we are indebted to De Graaf, Van Horne, and Swammerdam.
Duverney gave a full description of the ear; Malpighi of the tongue; Leu-
wenhoeck, Zinn, and J. Hunter, of the eye; Steno, and Caspar Bartholine,
junior, described the salivary vessels; Albinus, and John Hunter, gave an ac-
curate account of the teeth; Monro gave a full account of the bursa mucosæ ;
and Kirkringius, Hunter, and others, gave an account of the growth of the fœtus.
In short, the subject is so extensive, and the number of anatomists who have
written upon particular parts of the human body so great, that even a list of
the bare names of the authors of merit would swell to a size incompatible with
the limits of the present work.*
The anatomical papers which occur in the Philosophical Transactions.
amount to 118. A considerable number of these relate to morbid ana-
tomy, which, although they may be of considerable importance in a medical
point of view, either as explaining the symptoms, or as suggesting a particular
mode of treatment, yet they cannot with propriety be noticed here; because the
details into which it would be requisite to enter, in order to point out the im-
portance of the case, and the inferences which might be deduced from it, could
be admitted only with propriety into a medical treatise. A considerable num-
her of these papers, especially in the early volumes of the Transactions, are re-
views and analyses of anatomical works published at the time, or historical de-
tails of anatomical controversies which have long ago lost all their interest.
These circumstances reduce greatly the number of anatomical papers which it
* The readers who wish to become acquainted with the writings and merits of anatomists, will ob-
tain satisfaction by consulting Haller's Bibliotheca Anatomica; in two thick quartos. He brings
down the subject to 1776, which is sufficiently low.
110
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Anatomical
papers in the
Transactions.
is proper to notice here. The following papers I consider as the most impor-
tant anatomical dissertations contained in the Transactions.
1. Description of the epiploon, and the formation of fat. By Malpighi. Phil. Trans. Vol. II.
p. 533.
2. De viscerum structurâ exercitatio anatomica. Marcelli Malpighi. Phil. Trans. Vol. III.
p. 888. This is an account of a book; but so full, and well drawn up, that it deserves to be read
with attention.
3. Dissection of a man killed by thunder. Phil. Trans. Vol. I. p. 222. This dissection contains
nothing particular; but as it is communicated by the celebrated Dr. Wallis, and was performed by
Willis, Mallington, and Lower, it is too curious to be omitted without notice.
4. Anatomical observations on the structure of the nose. By Duverney. Phil. Trans. Vol. XII.
p. 976.
5. Account of a body, after being long buried, almost wholly converted into hair. Philosophical
Collections, No. II. p. 10. This is an account of a woman that had been buried at Nuremberg, and
her coffin had been covered by two others. Forty-three years after her interment the coffin was
opened, and the body was observed to retain its original shape, but was wholly covered with a very
thick growth of brown hair, long and much curled. On touching the body it fell to powder, and
nothing remained but the hair, part of which was exhibited to the Royal Society.
6. Anatomical observations on an abscess in the liver; also a great number of stones in the gall
bag, and bilious vessels; an unusual conformation of the emulgents and pelvis; a strange conjunc-
tion of both kidneys; and great dilatation of the vena cava. By Edward Tyson, A.M. and M.S.
Oxon. Phil. Trans. Vol. XII. p. 1035. This paper possesses considerable value, and was one of the
first that threw light upon the symptoms of the liver complaint.
7. Four ureters in a child, and on the glandulæ renales. By Dr. Edward Tyson. Phil. Trans.
Vol. XII. p. 1039.
8. Casp. Bartholini Thom. Fil. de ductu salivali hactenus non descripto, observatio anatomica.
Phil. Trans. Vol. XIV. p. 749.
9. A letter from Mr. Anthony Leuwenhoeck, F.R.S. dated April 14, 1684, containing observa-
tions on the crystalline humour of the eye, &c. Phil. Trans. Vol. XIV. p. 790. This paper contains
the first account of the fibrous structure of the crystalline humour.
10. Osteologia nova, or some observations on the bones, &c. communicated to the Royal Society
in several discourses read at their meetings. By Clopton Havers, M.D. and R.S. Soc. This is an
account of Havers's well known book on the Structure and Growth of the Bones.
11. An extract of a letter from Bernard Connor, M.D. to Sir Charles Walgrave, giving an ac-
count of an extraordinary human skeleton, having the vertebræ of the back, the ribs, and several
bones, down to the os sacrum, all firmly united into one solid bone without jointing or cartilage.
Phil. Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 21.
12. Account of two glands, and their excretory ducts lately discovered in human bodies. By
Mr. William Cowper, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXI. p. 364. These are two glands situated near the
prostate, and serving to secrete a mucilaginous matter to lubricate the urethra, and defend it from
the action of the urine.
13. The human alantois fully discovered. By Rich. Hale, M.D. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXI. p. 835.
14. An account of several schemes of arteries and veins dissected from adult human bodies, and
given to the repository of the Royal Society. By John Evelyn, Esq. F.R.S. To which are subjoined
a description of the extremities of those vessels, and the manner the blood is seen by the microscope
pass from the arteries to the veins in quadrupeds when living, with some surgical observations and
figures after the life. By William Cowper, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXIH. p. 1177. This is a very
to
CHAP. II.]
111
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
curious paper, and contains several important particulars respecting the anastomoses of arteries,
and the advantages to be derived from this kind of knowledge in cases of aneurism and wounded
arteries.
15. Observations on the glands in the human spleen, and on a fracture in the upper part of the
thigh-bone. By J. Douglass, M.D. et R.S.S. Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 499.
16. An account of the external maxillary and other salivary glands: also of the insertions of all
the lymphatics, both above and below the subclavians, into the veins. By Richard Hale, M.D. and
F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1720. Vol. XXXI. p. 5. This is an elaborate paper, containing a good deal
of historical information respecting the maxillary glands.
17. Concerning the difference in the height of a human body, between morning and night. By
the Rev. Mr. Wasse; Rector of Aynho, in Northamptonshire. Phil. Trans. 1724. Vol. XXXIII.
p. 87. Mr. Wasse found that the height of an ordinary sized man was diminished an inch, after
labour. The truth of this curious fact is now fully established. Every person is shorter at night
than in the morning when he rises out of bed. This is owing to the distances between the bones of
the spine being diminished by their weight and pressure upon each other.
18. Dissection of two eyes, which had been affected with cataract; communicated in a letter
from
to Samuel Molyneux, Esq.; Secretary to the Prince of Wales, and F.R.S. Phil.
Trans. 1724. Vol. XXXIII. p. 149. This paper shows what is now well known, that, after couching,
the lens of the eye is absorbed and disappears.
19. Account of Margaret Cutting, a young woman at Wickham market, in Suffolk, who speaks
readily and intelligibly, though she has lost her tongue. By Mr. Henry Baker, F.R.S. Phil. Trans.
1742. Vol. XLII. p. 143. This is the famous case of Margaret Cutting, concerning which it is not
necessary to make any remarks. Mr. Baker's account not proving satisfactory to many of the Mem-
bers of the Society, the woman was brought to London, examined in a meeting of the Society,
and an accurate account of her case, differing but little from the previous statement of Mr. Baker,
was afterwards published by Dr. Parsons. Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV.
p. 621.
20. Of the structure and diseases of articulating cartilages. By William Hunter, Surgeon. Phil.
Trans. 1743. Vol. XLII. p. 514. This is a very entertaining as well as accurate account of some of
the most curious parts of the animal œconomy.
21. On the use of the ganglions of the nerves. By James Johnstone, M.D. Phil. Trans. 1764.
Vol. LIV. p. 177.
22. A description of the lymphatics of the urethra and neck of the bladder. By Henry Watson,
Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, and F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX,
p. 392.
23. Of a remarkable transposition of the viscera. By Matthew Baillie, M.D. Phil. Trans. 1788.
Vol. LXXVIII. p. 350.
24. Of a particular change of structure in the human ovarium. By Matthew Baillie, M.D. Phil.
Trans. 1789. Vol. LXXIX. p. 71. In this paper, Dr. Baillie endeavours to shew that the change of
the ovarium into a fatty matter, intermixed with hair and bones, which is occasionally perceived,
is not the consequence of the sexual intercourse, but a change which the part assumes of itself.
25. Account of two instances of uncommon formation in the viscera of the human body. By
Mr. John Abernethy, Assistant-Surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Phil. Trans. 1793. Vol.
LXXXIII. p. 59.
26. Description of an extraordinary production of human generation, with observations. By John
Clarke, M.D. Phil. Trans. 1793. Vol. LXXXIII. p. 154. .
27. Observations on the foramina thebesii of the heart. By Mr. John Abernethy, F.R. S. Phil.
Trans. 1793. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 103. Mr. Abernethy endeavours to shew, that the use of these
foramina (which have been the occasion of so much hesitation among anatomists,) is to prevent the
heart from being too much distended in cases of diseases of the lungs.
28. Of the orifice in the retina of the human eye, discovered by Prof. Soemmering: with proofs
of this appearance being extended to the eyes of other animals. By Everard Home, Esq., F.R.S.
2
112
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 332. Mr. Home shews that this orifice is not peculiar to the
human eye, as he observed it also in the eye of the monkey.
29. On a very unusual formation of the human heart. By Mr. J. Wilson, Surgeon. Phil. Trans.
1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 346.
30. Of a tumour found in the substance of the human placenta. By John Clarke, M.D. Phil.
Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 361.
31. Additions to a paper on the subject of a child with a double head. By Everard Home, Esq.,
F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 28. The original paper, to which this is an addition,
was published in Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX. p. 296.
32. The Croonian lecture, on the structure and uses of the membrana tympani of the ear. By
Everard Home, Esq., F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. XC. p. 1.
These are the most interesting and important of the anatomical papers, which
have been published in the Philosophical Transactions. Perhaps, in strict
propriety, some of them ought to have been reserved for a following section,
when we take under our consideration the physiological labours of the Royal
Society. It is impossible to terminate these observations on anatomy, without
Anatomical mentioning the imperfect state of its nomenclature, which must strike every
nomenclature. person in the least degree conversant with the subject. We do not allude so
much to the names of the bones, muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves; which,
though awkward and inconvenient in some respects, yet answer the purpose
sufficiently well, but to the general terms which are used to express the position
of the several organs with respect to each other, and with respect to the body
in general. These general terms, indeed, we make a shift to understand when
the human body only is treated of; but, in many cases of comparative anatomy,
they are little else than an absolute jargon, which Oedipus himself could not
unravel. Anatomists ought immediately to adopt the new general anatomical
terms proposed by Dr. Barclay, in his Essay on the Anatomical Nomenclature,
which are elegant and precise, and infinitely more simple and more easily re-
membered than the terms which are in common use.
SECT. III.-Of Comparative Anatomy.
This branch of anatomy is, in reality, the oldest, for it was to it alone that
the ancient physicians turned their attention, and from it they drew inferences
with respect to the anatomy of the human body. Vesalius has shewn that Galen
drew most of his knowledge of anatomy from the dissection of apes. There is
a good deal of comparative anatomy to be found in the first part of Aristotle's
Importance. Treatise on Animals. The science has been cultivated by the moderns with much
assiduity, and has been of more importance in pointing out the use of the dif
ferent organs than human anatomy itself. Because particular organs being
wanting, or imperfectly developed in certain sets of animals, an opportunity is
afforded of determining what effect these deficiencies occasion in the animal
6
CHAP. II.]
113
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
œconomy in general. Another reason has induced even those naturalists, whose
immediate object was not directed towards physiology, to pay particular atten-
tion to comparative anatomy. It has been found that an accurate arrangement
of animals into classes, orders, genera, and species, can only be accomplished
by an accurate knowledge of the structure and arrangement of their organs.
For the arrrangement of Linnæus, though in fact somewhat dependent upon
structure, has been found, in some parts, inadequate and incongruous. His
class of vermes in particular contains a heterogeneous mixture of animals, which
have been since subdivided into four classes, by separating the mollusca, the
zoophites, the intestinal worms, and the infusoria, from each other. On this
account, comparative anatomy has been cultivated by the greater number of
zoologists, and indeed has received from them a great and valuable increase
of facts.
Swammerdam was one of the earliest and most diligent anatomists who turned Swammerdam.
their chief attention to comparative anatomy; and his work, of which a trans-
lation has been published in English, contains much curious information con-
cerning the anatomy of insects and worms. In 1681, Gerard Blasius published Blasius.
a large quarto volume, expressly devoted to comparative anatomy, in which
he gives the anatomy of the different classes of animals much in detail, and ac-
companied by figures. In 1746, a thin octavo volume on comparative ana-
tomy was published in London. It was a posthumous work of Dr. Monro, Monro.
and was possessed of great merit. After giving a view of comparative anatomy
in general, and pointing out its importance, he gives the anatomy of the dog,
the cow, fowls in general, the cock, carnivorous fowls, and of fishes.
But it would be a tedious and indeed a useless task to attempt an enumeration
of the writers on comparative anatomy, who have made their appearance since
the revival of learning in modern Europe. But some of the most celebrated
names, are Steno, Collins, Duverney, Petit, Lyonnet, Haller, Monro, Hunter,
Home, Geoffroy, Vicq D'Azyr, Camper, Comparetti, Scarpa, Blumenbach,
Poli, Kielmeyer, Harwood, Barthez, &c. One of the most laborious com-
parative anatomists of the last century was Daubenton. It is well known that Daubenton.
he was employed along with Buffon in publishing the Natural History of
Animals; and that all the dissections, which constitute the most valuable part
of the work, were executed by him. Vicq D'Azyr likewise published some
excellent dissertations on comparative anatomy, chiefly in the Memoires of the
French Academy. Britain, and the Royal Society in particular, ever since its
foundation, has always possessed a succession of eminent and celebrated com-
parative anatomists, who have enriched the Transactions with numerous
important papers on the subject; though it must be acknowledged that the
number of papers on comparative anatomy is greater in the Memoires of the
Q
114
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Transactions,
French Academy, than in our national publication. This was owing to the
pains taken during the reign of Louis XIV., to furnish the Academy with
Papers in the proper animals, and the number of anatomists who received a salary, and of
course devoted themselves to anatomical subjects. Of late years, both the num-
ber and the value of the papers on comparative anatomy, published in the
Philosophical Transactions, have greatly increased. The most eminent of those
persons, who have inserted papers on comparative anatomy into the Philo-
sophical Transactions, are Tyson, Swammerdam, Brown, Leuwenhoeck, Cow-
per, Blair, Price, Klein, Hewson, John Hunter, Camper, Abernethy, Home, Car-
lisle. The papers published on the subject, reckoning down to the year 1800,
amount to 90. But of these about 20, consisting chiefly of microscopical
observations by Leuwenhoeck, or of concretions and monstrosities found among
the lower animals, cannot be considered of much value.* I shall proceed to
give a catalogue of the more important of the remaining papers; but, from the
nature of the subject, it will not be possible to enter into any details.
1. Some observations on vipers. By Signor Redi. Phil. Trans. 1666. Vol. I. p. 160. In this
paper, Redi gives the first true account of the situation of the poison of vipers; namely, two small
bags placed on each side of the mouth, from which a tube passes and goes through the hollow fangs
of the animal. Thus a portion of the poison, when the animal bites, is squeezed through the fangs
and lodged in the wound. The subject, in consequence of a controversy excited about the truth of
this opinion, is continued in three subsequent papers of the Transactions; namely, Vol. V. p. 2034;
Vol. VI. p. 2006; and Vol. VII. p. 5060.
2. Dissection of a large fish, the chimera monstrosa, or sea fox; and of a lion in the King's
library at Paris, in 1657. Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II. p. 532. This is merely an abridgement of the
observations published by the dissectors at Paris.
3. Anatomical description of a chamelion (lacerta camelion), beaver (castor fiber), dromedary,
bear, gazelle. Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 987. These animals, like the preceding, were dis-
sected in the King's library, at Paris. The account contained in the Transactions is merely a review
of the essay published on the occasion by the dissectors.
4. Th. Bartholini dissertatio de cygni anatome, nunc aucta a Casp. Bartholino. Phil. Trans. 1669.
Vol. IV. p. 1017. The book here reviewed is chiefly occupied with an account of the curious
structure of the wind-pipe of the swan, which is of a great length, and bent in a curious manner.
5. Extract of a letter from Signor Malpighi to the editor, concerning the structure of the lungs
of frogs, tortoises, &c., and the more perfect animals; also on the texture of the spleen, &c. Phil.
* Two elementary systems of comparative anatomy have made their
appearance, of very considerable value,
and deserving the perusal of all who wish to possess general views on the subject. The first by Cuvier, Lecturer
on Comparative Anatomy, in Paris, who has gained a high and well-earned reputation by his papers on com-
parative anatomy, which have been both numerous and important. It was published in 1800, in four octavo
volumes, under the title of Lectures on Comparative Anatomy; and in 1802 was translated into English, by Mr.
Ross, under the inspection of Mr. Macartney, Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy, in London. The second work
was published by Blumenbach, a well-known German Naturalist, who has likewise acquired a high reputation.
It is in one volume, and of course contains fewer details than Cuvier's; but it is more entertaining and better
arranged. It was translated into English by Mr. Lawrence. Both of these translations are faithful, and do credit
to the translators.
CHAP. II.]
115
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 2149. In this paper, the celebrated author endeavours to shew that the
lungs of frogs, &c., are covered with a muscle.
6. Account of the dissection of a porpoise. By Mr. John Ray. Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI.
p. 2274. This is a very particular account of the anatomy of that animal; and from the great size of
the brain Mr. Ray infers the superior sagacity of the animal; not being aware that intellect is not
proportional to the absolute size of the brain, but to the size of the brain compared with that of the
nerves. There is another dissection of the porpoise, published in 1681, in the second number of the
Philosophical Collections. The dissection was made at Gresham College, by Dr. Tyson.
7. Some observations made by a microscope contrived by M. Leuwenhoeck, in Holland, lately
communicated by Dr. Regnerus de Graaf. Phil. Trans. 1673. Vol. VIII. p. 6037. This is remark.
able, as being the first of Leuwenhoeck's papers published in the Transactions. It contains some
curious observations on the structure of the bee and louse. Figures connected with this paper are
given at p. 6116 of the same volume.
8. Extract of two letters from Dr. Swammerdam, concerning some animals that, having lungs, are
yet found to be without the arterious vein, (pulmonary artery,) together with some other curious
particulars. Dated Amsterdam, Jan. 24, 1673. Phil. Trans. Vol. VIII. p. 6040. This letter
relates to frogs, and some other amphibious animals, which are well known to want the pulmonary
artery, and on that account can remain much longer without breathing than man, quadrupeds,
or birds.
9. Memoires pour servir a l'histoire naturelle des animaux; to which is joined another tract
totally different, entituled, La Mesure de la Terre. Paris, 1671. Phil. Trans. 1676. Vol. XI.
p. 591. A concise and accurate account of the contents of the French book is given in this paper.
The dissections related in it are those of a lion, chat pard, sea fox (squalus vulpes, a kind of shark,)
lynx, otter, civet cat, elk, coati mondi of Brazil. The book was afterwards translated by Mr.
Richard Waller, and an account of the translation is given in Phil. Trans. 1687. Vol. XVI.
p. 371.
"
10. Observationi intorno alle torpedini, fatte da Stephano Lorenzini. Fiorentino, 1681. Philoso-
phical Collections, No. I. p. 42. This is remarkable for being one of the first accounts of the
torpedo. A much more complete account of this wonderful animal is given in a subsequent volume
of the Transactions, when the animal was dissected by Mr. John Hunter.
11. An account of the dissection of an ostrich. By Edward Brown, F.R.S., and of the College
of Physicians, 1682. Philosophical Collections, No. V. p. 147.
12. Vipera caudisona Americana; or the anatomy of the rattle-snake; dissected at the repository
of the Royal Society, in January 1683. By Edward Tyson, M.D. Coll. Med. Lond. Cand. et
R.S. Soc. Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 25. This is a very minute account, with figures of
the structure of this singular and inactive animal. The intention of the rattle has never been ex-
plained in a satisfactory manner.
13. The lumbricus latus (tænia solium); or a discourse read before the Royal Society concern-
ing the jointed worm. By Eward Tyson, M.D. Col. Med. Lond. nec non Reg. Societ. Soc. Phil.
Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 113. This is a very elaborate account of a very singular genus of worms,
the tænia, which are found in the intestines of various animals, particularly in the human intestines.
The anatomy of this extraordinary animal has been lately still farther elucidated by Mr. Carlisle, in
an early volume of the Linnæan Transactions.
14. Lumbricus teres (ascaris lumbricoides); or some anatomical observations on the round worm
bred in human bodies. By Edward Tyson, M.D., &c. Phil. Trans. Vol. XIII. p. 154. This is
also a valuable paper. The animal described exists often in the human intestines, and produces
many distressing symptoms.
15. Tajaçu, seu aper Mexicanus moschiferus (sus tajaçu); or the anatomy of the Mexican musk
hog, &c. By Edward Tyson, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XIII. p. 359. This is the only species of
hag found in the New World. It is smaller than the common hog. Dr. Tyson, in this paper, ac-
º º
116
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
cording to Buffon, has fallen into very material error. He has affirmed that the animal has three
stomachs, whereas it has in reality but one stomach, parted a little, like that of the tapir, by two
strictures or contractions.
16. An observation concerning a blemish in a horse's eye, not hitherto discovered by any author.
By Dr. Rich. Lower. Phil. Trans. 1668. Vol. II. p. 613. This paper gives an account of certain
spongy excrescences that grow from the uvea of horses' eyes.
17. A letter of Malpighi to Jacobus Sponius, giving a minute account of the uterus of the cow.
Phil. Trans. 1684. Vol. XIV. p. 630.
18. Observations on the dissection of a rat. By Mr. R. W., S.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1693.
Vol. XVII. p. 594.
19. Anatomical observations on the heads of fowls. By the late Allen Moullen, M.D. S.R.S.
Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 711.
20. Observations on the dissection of a paroquet. By Mr. Richard Waller. Phil. Trans. 1694.
Vol. XVIII. p. 153.
21. On the structure of the internal parts of fish. By Dr. Charles Preston. Phil. Trans. 1697.
Vol. XIX. p. 419.
22. The dissection of the scallop. By Dr. Martin Lister, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX.
p. 567.
23. The anatomical history of the leech. By M. Paupart. Phil. Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 722.
24. Concerning the eggs of snails. By Mr. Anth. Van Leuwenhoeck. Phil Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 790.
25. Carigueya, seu marcupiale Americanum; or, the anatomy of an opossum, (didelphis marsu-
pialis ;) dissected at Gresham College. By Edward Tyson, M.D. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1698.
Vol. XX. p. 105.
26. Abstract of letters sent to Sir C. H. relating to some microscopical observations. Communi-
cated by Sir C. H. to the editor. Phil. Trans. 1703. Vol. XXIII. p. 1357. The animals described
in this paper are the louse, a mite, a muscle, the lepas balanus, various larvæ, ticks, and some in-
fusoria. The observations are not of much value.
27. The anatomy of those parts of a male opossum that differ from the female. By William
Cower, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1704. Vol. XXIV. p. 1576. The structure of the male organs of genera-
tion in the opossum is quite peculiar. It is very particularly described in this paper.
28. Microscopical observations on the structure of the spleen, and proboscis of fleas. By Mr.
Anthony Van Leuwenhoeck. Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2305.
1
29. The anatomy and osteology of an elephant; being an exact description of all the bones of the
elephant which died near Dundee, April 27, 1706, with their several dimensions. By Mr. Patrick
Blair, surgeon, &c. Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 53. This is a most surprizing paper, and
contains a most minute and accurate account of the anatomy of the elephant, especially of the osteo-
logy of that animal. If we consider that Dr. Blair made all his observations on one animal, we must
admit that his exertions must have been uncommon, and his address great to have made his account
so minute as it is.
30. Anatomical description of the heart of the land tortoise from America. By Mr. Paul Bussiere,
surgeon, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXVII. p. 170. The heart of this animal, as is the case with the
whole tribe of amphibia, has only one ventricle.
31. A description of that curious natural machine the wood-pecker's tongue, &c. By Richard
Waller, Esq. late Secretary to the Royal Society. Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 509. This ani-
mal bores holes in sound oak and beech trees with its beak, and builds its nest in them. Its tongue i
long and pointed, it suddenly darts it out three or four inches beyond the point of its bill, and draws
it in again very speedily with the insect spitted upon its point.
32. An account of the coati mondi of Brazil. By Dr. George Mackenzie. Phil. Trans. 1723.
Vol. XXXII. p. 317. In this paper Dr. Mackenzie compares his dissection with that of the same
animal by the French Academicians, and points out many differences, which he supposes owing to the
3
CHAP. II.]
117
NATURAL HISTORY.-Zoology.
difference in the sex of the animals examined, his being a female, while that of the French was a
male.
33. Some observations on an ostrich dissected by order of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. By Mr. John
Ranby, surgeon. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXIII. p. 223. Some additions are made to this paper in Vol.
XXXVI. p. 275. There is besides another dissection of an ostrich, by Mr. George Warren, sur-
geon, in Cambridge, in Vol. XXXIV. p. 113.
34. Anatomy of the mus Alpinus, or marmot. By J. Jas. Scheuczer, of Zurich, M.D. F.R.S. Phil.
Trans. 1727. Vol. XXIV. p. 237.
35. The dissection of the poisonous apparatus of a rattle-snake, made by the direction of Sir Hans
Sloane, Bart. With an account of the quick effects of its poison. By John Ranby, surgeon, F.R.S.
Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXV. p. 377. In this paper the structure of the fangs, and the way that the
poison is conveyed to the wound inflicted, are sufficiently explained.
36. An anatomical description of worms found in the kidneys of wolves. By Mr. James Theodo-
rus Klein, Secretary of the City of Dantzic, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 269.
37. An account of the hermaphrodite lobster presented to the Royal Society, May 7, by Mr.
Fisher of Newgate Market, examined and dissected, pursuant to an order of the Society. By F.
Nicholls, M.D. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXVI. p. 290.
38. The dissection of a female beaver, and an account of castor found in her. By C. Mortimer,
M.D. R.S.S. Phil. Trans. 1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 172. In this paper Dr. Mortimer gives an ex-
cellent historical account of every thing that had been previously observed respecting the anatomy of
the beaver. His own dissection is defective, because the animal was previously so much torn by a dog
that several of the parts were destroyed.
39. An account of some peculiar advantages in the structure of the aspera arteriæ, or wind-pipes
of several birds, and in the land tortoise. By Dr. Parsons, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI.
p. 204. This is a curious paper, giving an account of the tortuosities of the wind-pipe (with figures)
in several birds, particularly water fowl.
40. An account of the lymphatic system in birds. By Mr. Wm. Hewson, Reader in Anatomy.
Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 217. This is one of the papers which conferred celebrity upon Mr.
Hewson. It contains the first account of the lymphatics of birds ever published.
41. An account of the gymnotus electricus. By John Hunter, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol.
LXV. p. 395. This is a minute account of the electrical organs of the torpedo. Mr. Walsh having
made experiments on the electric power of this surprizing fish was anxious to get an exact account of
the organs which possessed the electric property, he accordingly procured a torpedo, and it was at his
request that Mr. Hunter dissected it. Mr. Hunter never having enjoyed the benefit of a liberal edu-
cation, his papers generally required to be corrected, or even new modelled, before they were com-
mitted to the press. The present paper was drawn up by Dr. Bancroft from J. Hunter's dissection, at
the request of Mr. Walsh.
42. On the organs of speech of the orang outang. By Peter Camper, M.D. late Professor of
Anatomy, &c. in the University of Groningen and F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 139.
This is a curious paper. Camper shows, contrary to Dr. Tyson's assertion in a former paper in the
Transactions, that these organs in the orang outang are very different from the human, and thence
deduces that the animal is not capable of articulate speech like man.
43. A microscopic description of the eyes of the monoculus polyphemus Linnæi. By Mr. William
André, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. P. 440.
44. A description of the teeth of the anarrhichas lupus Linnæi, and of those of the chaetodon nigri-
cans of the same author; to which is added, an attempt to prove that the teeth of cartilaginous fishes
are perpetually renewed. By Mr. William André, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1784. Vol. LXXIV. p. 274.
45. Observations on the structure and economy of whales. By John Hunter, Esq. F.R.S. Phil.
Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 371. This is a very long and elaborate paper, and contains the fullest.
information respecting the anatomy of the whale tribe yet offered to the public.
118
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE <
ROYAL SOCIETY.
46. Some particulars in the anatomy of a whale. By Mr. John Abernethy. Phil. Trans. 1796.
Vol. LXXXVI. p. 27. This paper contains several curious particulars, from which the author de-
duces some important physiological conclusions.
47. A description of the anatomy of the sea otter from a dissection made Nov. 15, 1795. By E.
Home, Esq. F.R.S. and Mr. Arch. Menzies.
48. The dissection of an hermaphrodite dog. With observations on hermaphrodites in general.
By Everard Home, Esq. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 157. This is a very curious
paper, containing a great collection of very important facts, and some general deductions from
them.
49. On the structure of the teeth of graminivorous quadrupeds; particularly those of the elephant.
and sus Ethiopicus. By E. Home, Esq. F.R.S. This paper contains much valuable information re-
specting the structure and growth of teeth; but not very susceptible of abridgement; as is indeed
the case with most papers on comparative anatomy.
50. Account of a peculiarity in the distribution of the arteries sent to the limbs of slow moving
animals; with some other similar facts. By Mr. Anthony Carlisle, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1800.
Vol. XC. p. 98. Mr. Carlisle's papers are all uncommonly ingenious and valuable. It is much to be
regretted that he has favoured the world with so few.
51. Some observations on the head of the ornithorhynchus paradoxus. By E. Home, Esq. F.R.S.
Phil. Trans. Vol. XC. p. 432. The ornithorhynchus is a singular animal from New Holland, having
attached to its mouth a beak very similar in appearance to the bill of a duck. In this paper we have
a curious account of the structure of the mouth.
From the preceding catalogue, we see that the Philosophical Transactions
contain an anatomical account of the following animals :
Viper.
Squalus vulpes, or sea-fox.
Chimera monstrosa, or sea-
Lynx.
Opossum.
Flea.
fox.
Otter.
Lion.
Civet cat.
Chamelion.
Beaver.
Elk.
Coati mondi.
Dromedary.
Bear.
Gazelle.
Swan.
Frog.
Porpoise.
Bee.
Louse.
Chatpard.
Torpedo.
Ratle-snake.
Tænia solium.
Ascaris lumbricoides.
Sus Tajaçu.
Rat.
Paroquet.
Scallop.
Leech.
Elephant.
Land tortoise.
Woodpecker.
Ostrich.
Marmot.
Worms, from the kidneys of
wolves.
Lobster.
Orang outang.
Whales.
Sea otter.
Hermaphrodite dog.
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus.
This is a pretty extensive list; though small when compared to the vast num-
ber of inferior animals which constitute the object of comparative anatomy.
To complete the list of the labours on comparative anatomy, performed by
British anatomists, it is proper to mention Dr. Monro's work on fishes, which
has added considerably to our knowledge of these animals. Mr. Carlisle, in a
paper lately published in the Transactions, and which unfortunately does not
CHAP. II.]
119
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
come under our review, has communicated some very valuable information
respecting the muscular system of these animals.
SECTION IV.-Of Physiology.
The term Physiology, originally synonimous with Natural Philosophy, has,
like many other Greek words, been very much restricted in its signification by
modern philosophers. It is now applied exclusively to that science which treats
of the properties and functions of living bodies. The first treatise on physiology,
at least which has come down to us, is Galen's book De Usu Partium. Galen.
Though possessed of considerable merit, considering the period in which it was
produced, it was necessarily very imperfect, in consequence of the small pro-
gress which had been made in anatomy. The anatomists were in fact the great Improvers of
improvers of physiology, and it is to their discoveries that we are indebted for physiology.
the greater part of the knowledge which we possess of the functions of living
bodies. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, and of the absorbent
system, contributed in no small degree to account for various phenomena and
diseases formerly inexplicable. For our part, however, we must acknowledge
that the science of physiology, notwithstanding the vast multitude of writers
who have attempted to elucidate it, and notwithstanding the numerous
theories which have been advanced, and the supercilious confidence with which
they have been maintained, appears to us to have hardly made any real ad-
vances even in the most modern times. We allow, indeed, that a great deal Present state
of knowledge has been gained of the mechanical structure of living bodies, and of the science,
that various plausible chemical explanations have been offered of some of the
functions; respiration, for example, and nutrition. But the action of the ner-
vous system; the manner in which it occasions motion, sensation, and percep-
tion; the connexion between organization and, thinking; animal heat; the
nature of generation; and, in short, upon what the phenomena of life depend;
are problems, just as far from solution at present, as they were in the days of
Hippocrates and Galen. The opinions, even of the most recent writers on the
subject, are too absurd to merit the smallest attention. Indeed we are appre-
hensive that the subject itself is beyond the reach of the human faculties, and
that nothing better than chimæras and vain imaginations can ever be pro-
duced on it.
The science of physiology has been chiefly cultivated by medical men, and
the practice of medicine, or the method employed by physicians in attempting
to cure diseases, has been almost entirely regulated by the physiological system
which happened to be in vogue. Now it is curious to remark, that the princi-
ples of physiology have uniformly depended upon the particular science that
happened to be in fashion. When the opinions of Aristotle and Galen reigned
paramount in the schools, all the functions of the living body were explained
6
120
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
by having recourse to occult qualities and occult faculties. When Paracelsus
drew the attention of Europe to chemistry, that science was considered as
paramount to account for all the animal functions; and the physiologists of the
time explained every thing by means of fermentation, sublimation, distillation,
filtration, concoction, and other similar processes, familiar to the chemists of
the age. When Newton and his contemporaries laid the foundation of me-
chanics, upon the rigid principles of mathematical demonstration, physiologists
embraced with eagerness the fashionable doctrines; the human body was con-
verted into a hydraulical machine; the force of the heart and the velocity of
the blood were rigidly ascertained; and every thing was accounted for by the
size, and shape, and motion, of the different particles of matter of which the
body was composed. When mechanical philosophy began to lose its novelty,
it was in some measure supplanted as a fashionable study by a peculiar species
of metaphysics, which was prosecuted with much ardour for a time, till it at
length terminated in universal scepticism. During the progress of this enticing
science, physiologists laid hold of its notions and doctrines, and two opposite
systems were produced, the more ancient explaining every thing by the action
of a living principle, and the more modern by a principle somewhat indefinite,
to which they gave the name of irritability. The recent discoveries in pneu-
matic chemistry having again brought that bewitching science into fashion, a
new race of physiologists has arisen, who ascribe every thing to chemical prin-
ciples; and ring changes upon the words oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and azote,
by means of which, in their opinion, every function in the living body may be
sufficiently and satisfactorily explained.
It would carry us too far, and would be spending time to very little purpose,
to take a particular view of the physiological systems which distinguished the
last century, and each of which for a time possessed its admirers, and gave
celebrity and success to the physician who first broached it. Boerhaave, Hoff-
man, Stahl, Cullen, Brown, Darwin, are the most distinguished names. The
system of Boerhaave has lost all its defenders; but the opinions of Stahl, of
Hoffman, as modified and altered by Cullen, and of Brown, are still adhered
to by numerous sects. Darwin's system has not been so fortunate. His Zoonomia
was published at an unlucky period; his opinions deviated too far from those of
his contemporaries; and his knowledge of chemistry, upon which his theories
chiefly depended, was too confined and inaccurate to attract much respect or
confidence. The short-lived celebrity of his botanic garden, and the extrava-
gant hypotheses which he advanced in various departments of the science, con-
tributed likewise to injure the success of his system. The physiology of Haller
is by far the most important work on the subject which has hitherto appeared,
and indeed will not be easily surpassed by succeeding physiologists. I consider
it as the most stupendous monument of industry which the eighteenth century
CHAP. II.]
121
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
produced. Instead of indulging, like most of his contemporaries and prede-
cessors, in constructing an ingenious hypothesis to account for the functions
of living bodies, Haller undertook the gigantic task of collecting all the facts
relative to the subject, which had been ascertained. This he accomplished in
his Elements of Physiology, which consists of eight pretty thick quarto volumes.
Let us imitate the example of this illustrious philosopher, and instead of
attempting an outline of the science, which would be of very little value, let
let us endeavour to collect and arrange all the physiological facts which have
made their appearance in the Philosophical Transactions. The physiological Papers on the
papers, which have been published in that voluminous work, amount to no subject in the
Philosophical
fewer than 220; and contain a vast collection of curious and important facts. Transactions.
They are of very various importance; and, indeed, no fewer than 81 of these
papers in the present state of our knowledge, may, without impropriety, be
overlooked, as of no manner of consequence. Every thing contained in the Topics touch-
remaining 139 papers may be arranged under the eight following heads; under ed upon in
which may be placed all the physiological topics touched upon in the Philo-
sophical Transactions.
that work,
1 The circulation of the blood.
2 Respiration.
5 Vision.
6 Organs of motion.
3 Action of the skin.
4 Nervous system.
7 Nourishment and digestion.
8 Generation.
Let us take a view of each of these topics in succession.
I. CIRCULATION. We have already detailed the great discovery of the circu- The circula
lation of the blood, by Harvey, at sufficient length; and mentioned the illiberal tion.
attempts of his contemporaries and of some of his successors to rob him of the
merit of the discovery, by ascribing it to ancient writers, who had formed no
conception whatever on the subject. Three particular points occupied physi-
ologists after this discovery; namely, to determine the quantity of blood in
man and other animals; to ascertain the nature and properties of blood; and
to calculate the force and velocity with which it flows. Dr. Allen Moulin Quantity of
found the quantity of blood in various animals as follows:
blood in ami-
mals.
Proportion
Weight of animal.
Weight of blood. of blood toi
the animal
Sheep
118 lb. O oz. O dr.
O gr.
5.25 lb. O gr.
Lamb
Duck
30元
​2
0
0
0
1.5 0
14
0
50
1. 5oz.53
Rabbit..
0 10
50
2 dr. 57
In the heart of a dog, whose blood he had coagulated by an injection inte
R
122
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Force with
which the
blood fows.
the vessels, he found six oz. of blood; and in that of another dog treated in the
same manner, he found a still greater quantity. Now, on the supposition that
the blood in a man bears the same proportion to his weight as in the lamb, it fol-
lows, that a man weighing 160 lb. contains about 8 lb. of blood. Supposing
only four oz. of blood to enter the heart at each diastole, and supposing the
pulse to beat at the rate of 75 times in a minute, then it will follow that the
whole blood in a man circulates 140 times in an hour.* Dr. James Keill
published a book on secretion in the year 1709, in which the different secre-
tions, and indeed all the diseases and disorders of the human body are accounted
for, by the attraction of the particles of matter for each other, and by the
different degrees of velocity with which the blood moves in different organs.
A pretty detailed account of this book is given in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. Dr. Keill differs entirely from Dr. Moulin, in his opinion respecting
the quantity of blood in animals. The mode taken to determine the point by
Moulin was to let the animal bleed to death, and then to weigh the quantity of
blood which flowed out. Dr. Keill demonstrates that the whole blood never
flows out in these cases, and that the quantity obtained depends upon the size
of the vessel punctured, being always greater the smaller the size of the
wounded vessel is. All this is very correct: but when Dr. Keill estimates the
quantity of blood in a man weighing 160lb. at 100lb., it is impossible to avoid
rejecting his calculation as altogether extravagant. A controversy upon this
subject took place between Dr. Keill and Dr. Jurin, who opposed his con-
clusions; but as this controversy depended upon the application of the laws of
dead matter to the living body, it is quite unnecessary to enter upon it here.
The subject has long lost the whole of its interest, it being now universally
admitted that the living body is regulated by laws quite different from those
which regulate dead matter. In fact, we have no better means of determining
the velocity of the circulation than those proposed by Dr. Moulin, and they
must be allowed to be very inadequate means.
7
With respect to the force with which the blood flows in different animals,
there is nothing of any importance to be found in the Philosophical Transac-
tions; but there is a work on the subject which contains much curious and
valuable matter, we mean the second volume of Hales' Statical Essays. As
this work was read to the Royal Society, and as it was published at the parti-
cular desire of the Society, it would be improper to omit stating the results
which this illustrious philosopher obtained.
Dr. Hales having laid open the crural and carotid arteries of various animals,
as horses, sheep, and dogs, fixed into them a long glass tube, by means of a
* Phil. Trans. 1687. Vol. XVI. p. 433.
† Phil. Trans. Vol. XXVI. p. 324.
CHAP. II.]
123
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
brass pipe, and observed how high the blood was impelled in each by the
action of the heart and arteries. The following table exhibits the results
obtained.


Animals,
Weight of
animals.
Height the
blood rose in
Pulses in a Blood that
minute. flowed out.
the tube.
Velocity of
blood in the
aorta, *
Blood thrown
into the aorta
per minute.
Feet. Inches.
lb.
lb.
Horse, 1st.
8
3
42.2
2d.
9
8
40
3d.
825 lb.
9
6
36
31.82
86.85
13.75
Ox...
1600
38
76.95
18.14
Sheep....
91
6
Doe...
4
Dog, Ist.
52
6
2d.
24
3d.
18
4
4th.
12
G
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 20
51
65
174.5
4.593
97
144.77
4.34
130.9
3.7
130.0
2.3
120 0
1.85
+
If the experiment had been made on man, Dr. Hales conceives that the
blood in the tube would have stood at the height of seven feet six inches.
From these data, he calculates the force with which the heart contracts, which
he shows to be equal to the weight of 51.5 lb.; and in the third horse to
113.22 lb.; in the sheep, it amounted to 36-56lb.; and in the first dog to
33.61 lb. He ascertained that the blood moves eleven times as fast in the large
arteries as in the capillary vessels, and that the motion through the capillary
vessels of the lungs is much more rapid and free than through those of the body.
The force necessary to burst the aorta, he found to be 50 times greater than
what it had to sustain. The veins are weaker, but the force to which they are
exposed is proportionably less. These are the most important conclusions to
be found in the Hydrostatics of Hales. His reasoning about animal heat is too
inaccurate to deserve recapitulation. He has drawn a number of practical
inferences from his experiments, which are of some importance in a medical
point of view; and advantage has been taken of them to improve certain sur-
gical operations.
A great many observations were made by physicians and physiologists during Nature of
the last century, to determine the nature of blood; because most of the physi- blood.
ological opinions, then in vogue, were connected with the motion and size of
the particles of that liquid. Leuwenhoeck examined it before the microscope,
and found that its red colour depended upon the presence of a number of
round globules, which floated in it. He afterwards thought that he ascer-
tained that each of these globules was composed of eight smaller globules; and
• Estimated In inches per minute.
R 2
124
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
each of these of eight still smaller.' * These fanciful observations were cm-
braced with great eagerness by the humoral pathologists of the times. Secre-
tion was accounted for by the breaking down of these globules; inflammation,
by a globule of too large a size having made its way into a capillary vessel;
and the effect of various medicines, by attenuating or breaking down the globules
of the blood into globules of a still smaller size. These opinions continued pre-
valent till the year 1761, when Father Di Torre, of Naples, having examined
blood with very powerful microscopes, pronounced the supposed globules to be
hollow articulated rings. These new opinions being detailed in the Transac-
tions, by Sir F. H. Eyles Stiles, occasioned a controversy, which terminated in
destroying the authority both of Leuwenhoeck and Di Torre, and in convincing
physiologists that the supposed structure of the globules of the blood, observed
both by the one and the other, was nothing more than an optical deception.
When blood, after being drawn from an animal, is allowed to remain for
some time in a vessel, it coagulates, and gradually separates into two parts;
namely, a fluid of a greenish yellow colour, called the serum, and a solid part
retaining the red colour of the blood, and called the crassamentum. From
some experiments on the specific gravity of blood and serum, made by Mr.
Boyle, it was inferred that the serum was specifically heavier than the crassa-
mentum, and of course than the whole blood. The discordancy of this
opinion with the common observation, that the erassamentum always sinks to
the bottom of the serum unless buoyed up by air, induced Dr. Jurin to make
an accurate set of experiments to determine the point. They were published
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1719. He found from an average of
numerous experiments, all nearly agreeing with each other, that the specific
gravity of human blood is 1.054, of serum 1030, and of the moist crassamen-
tum 1.084. He endeavoured to determine the proportion which the crassa-
mentum bears to the serum, by distilling off the liquid part of blood by means
of a low heat; and he concluded from the results which he obtained that
ths of the blood is serum, and ths crassamentum. But it is unneces-
sary to observe that his method was faulty, and entitled to no confidence
whatever.
૬.
TT
In the year 1770, Mr. Hewson inserted two valuable papers in the Trans-
actions, upon the blood.§ His object was to determine the circumstances
which occasion the coagulation of the blood, and, if possible, account for a
phenomenon which has always proved a stumbling-block to physiologists. But hist
endeavours were not crowned with success; the matter still remains obscure.
We have no better explanation than that proposed by Mr. John Hunter, that
* Phil. Trans. 1674. Vol. IX. p. 23 and 121.
Vol. XXX. p. 1000.
+ Phil. Trans. 1765. Vol. LV. p. 246.
f Vol. LX. p. 368 and 384.
A
CHAP. II.]
125
NATURAL HISTORY.-Zoology.
it depends upon the vitality of the blood. But how this supposed vitality
acts, is unscrutable. It is well known, that when animals are killed by lightning
the blood does not coagulate at all. In these cases, according to Mr. Hunter,
the vitality is destroyed instantaneously, and of course has not time to act.
But when blood is drawn out of a vein, it retains its vitality for a certain time,
Every person must be sensible that the term vitality, as applied to the blood by
Mr. Hunter, is merely the name of an occult principle. Hewson, in 1773,
published another paper on the blood, in which he endeavoured to rectify the
opinions of Leuwenhoeck, and Di Torre, respecting the globules of that
liquid.* The only other paper respecting the blood that requires to be men-
tioned, is one by Dr. Darwin, in which he shows, by experiments, that blood
contains no elastic fluid, unless it has been exposed to the air. Though the
opinion advanced in this paper is probably well founded, the experiments are
not calculated to demonstrate its truth,
of blood.
Towards the end of the 17th century, much attention was paid by philoso- Transfusion
phers to the art of transfusing blood from one animal to another. The subject
was first started in consequence of a set of experiments made by Sir Christopher
Wren, while Savilian Professor at Oxford. He injected liquids of various
kinds into the blood-vessels of dogs, in order to determine the effect which each
liquid would produce upon the animal. Soon after, Dr. Lower exhibited at
Oxford the transfusion of blood from one dog to another, by means of quills
inserted in the carotid artery of one dog and into the jugular vein of another.
Soon after, Dr. King suggested the possibility of transfusing the blood from
the vein instead of the artery. About a year after, the experiment was made
at Paris, by Dr. Denys, upon a man who had the blood of an animal trans-
fused into him, while his own blood was allowed to flow out. The experi-
ment was attended with no inconvenience whatever to the person upon whom
it was made. It was conceived upon the principles of the humoral pathology
then in vogue, that almost all diseases were occasioned by the diseased state of
the fluids, especially of the blood: hence it was believed that by this happy
expedient, diseases might be at once got rid of by drawing off the diseased blood,
and introducing healthy blood from some sound animal. There are no less than 11
papers upon the subject in the earlier volumes of the Philosophical Transactions.
A controversy was even begun between the French and English philosophers on
the subject, each claiming for his own country the merit of having first started
the happy idea. But it was at last agreed upon that the idea belonged to Dr.
Lower, and that the British physiologists first tried the experiment upon the
lower animals, and the French upon man. The expected advantages resulting
* Phil.. Trans. Vol. LXIII. p. 303..
+ Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 344..
126
[Воок 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Respiration.
Mechanical
part.
Effect of air.
from this practice have been long known to be visionary. It is not therefore
worth while to enter into the minute details of the experiments.
II. RESPIRATION. This function is known to be in some degree necessary to
all animals, though it is performed in different ways. In man and land animals
it is performed by lungs, and the whole blood of the body is made to circulate
through these organs as regularly as through the system itself. In amphibious
animals the circulation through the lungs can be interrupted for a time at the
pleasure of the animal, which can thus suspend its respiration for a certain period.
In fishes the blood is made to circulate through the gills, as it does through the
lungs of land animals; the air held in solution in water comes in contact with
these organs, and is as necessary for the fish as the inhalation of atmospheric air
is to land animals. In insects and worms the air is drawn in by means of nume-
rous pores arranged along their bodies, and when their pores are stopped up so
as to prevent the ingress and egress of the aerial fluid, the animal dies. We are
ignorant of the respiratory organs of zoophites and infusoria. Some of the in-
testinal worms ought from their situation to be independent of respiration alto-
gether. But we are hardly possessed of the means of determining the point
with accuracy.
The mechanical part of respiration was ascertained at an early period. By
the action of the diaphragm, and the intercostal muscles, &c. the thorax is ele-
vated and its capacity increased, a vacuum would be the consequence; but as
the lungs communicate with the external air, that fluid is forced in through the
nostrils, and fills the cavity. It is forced out again by the contraction of the
thorax and this alternate inspiration and expiration continues during the life
of the animal. Haller, in a paper published in the Transactions for 1750,*
showed that the intercostal muscles are active during respiration, concerning
which anatomists had formerly been in doubt. He showed also that there was
no air between the pleura and the ribs, as had been supposed by some; but that
the lungs filled the whole cavity of the thorax, whether in a state of contrac-
tion or dilatation. Lower, as early as 1667, showed that the diaphragm is the
chief organ of respiration; and that if the nerves of a dog which go to the dia-
phragm be cut, the animal breathes exactly like a broken-winded horse.†
In the year 1667, Fracassati wrote a paper to show, contrary to the opinion
then entertained, that the black colour of blood, at the bottom of a dish filled
with the liquid, was not owing to a mixture of the melancholy humour, but to
its not being exposed to the air; for he found that when it was turned up, and
placed in contact with the atmosphere, it became of a florid red. Lower soon
after showed that the scarlet colour of the arterial blood is owing to its being
+ Phil. Trans, Vol. II. p. 493.
* Vol. XLVI. p. 325.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. II. p. 544.
CHAP II.]
127
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
exposed to the influence of air in the lungs. In the year 1668, Mayow pub-
lished his celebrated tract on Respiration, in which he endeavoured to explain
that function, and certainly anticipated some of the most fashionable modern
theories on the subject. According to him, air contains certain subtile nitrous
particles, which are absorbed by the blood in the lungs; and when air is de-
prived of them, it becomes unfit for respiration. The blood thus impregnated
possesses the property of stimulating the heart, and thus in fact continues the
circulation upon which all the vital functions depend. Hence the reason of
the sudden death which ensues when respiration is suspended.* That so little
attention was paid to this theory when published was partly owing to the many
absurd opinions with which it was mixed, and partly to the hypothesis of Stahl,
which very speedily attracted the sole attention of chemists and physiologists.
But perhaps the most important papers on respiration, which appear in the
early volumes of the Transactions, are those of Mr. Boyle. They consist of
experiments demonstrating the necessity of air for all animals. The animals
were enclosed in the exhausted receiver of an air pump, and the phenomena
that took place were observed. These experiments labour under a considerable
defect. The degree of exhaustion produced is not noted, so that we do not
know how rare the atmosphere was to which the animals were exposed. There
is reason to believe that Mr. Boyle's air pump was very imperfect; of course
the exhaustion would be proportionably incomplete.
Ducks lost all signs of life in about two minutes; vipers continued alive about
two hours and a half; frogs were killed in appearance in about three hours, but
being left long enough in the open air again recovered; kittens, the day after
being kittened, were found just as unable to live without air as full grown ani-
mals; fishes lived much longer than land animals, but were likewise killed by
being kept under an exhausted receiver, except oysters and craw-fish, which re-
sisted the utmost efforts of the air pump. Sloe worms and leeches were also
found to live long in an exhausted receiver, but insects and caterpillars were
soon killed. Mr. Boyle likewise showed the unfavourable effects of too rarefied
an atmosphere upon animals exposed to it.+ About the same period Dr. Hook
exhibited an experiment to the Royal Society, at that time deemed of considera-
ble importance. He removed the ribs and diaphragm of a dog, and kept him
alive for an hour by blowing into his lungs with a pair of bellows. The expe-
riment succeeded equally when the lungs were pricked so as to let out the air;
and they were kept constantly distended, though without any motion, by blowing
a continued stream of air into them. Thus showing that it was the renewal of
the air, and not the motion of the lungs, that constituted the essential part of
respiration.+
• Phil. Trans. Vol. III. p. 833.
Ibid. 1667. Vol. II. p. 539.
+ Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 2011 and 2026.
6
128
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Animal heat.
These are the only papers contained in the Transactions relating to respira-
tion, except a curious dissertation by Dr. Parsons on Amphibious Animals, in
which he explains the peculiarities in their structure that enable them to sus-
pend their respiration for some time at pleasure.* There is also a paper, by
Mr. John Hunter, on certain receptacles of air in birds, which communicate
with the lungs, and are lodged both in the fleshy parts and in the hollow bones
of those animals. But these receptacles are rather subservient to the purposes
of flying, by rendering the animals as light as possible, than of respiration.
Death by drowning, being obviously connected with respiration, the analysis
of a book, on the subject, written by Conrad Becker, which is given in an early
volume of the Transactions,‡ deserves to be mentioned here. It was the uni-
versal opinion at that period that drowning was occasioned by water getting
into the lungs and filling them. It was supposed likewise that much water got
into the stomach and intestines. Becker endeavoured to show that both opi-
nions were ill founded. He mentions several cases of drowned persons examined
by himself, in which no water whatever was found either in the lungs or alimen-
tary canal. It is now well known that Becker's opinion is correct. A little
water indeed occasionally makes its way into the lungs, but the death of the
animal, which is kept immersed under water, is owing entirely to the absence
of air, and the consequent interruption of respiration.
Animal heat has always been considered as connected with respiration, be-
cause those animals that do not breathe are cold blooded; and when animals
breathe hard their heat is at the same time increased. But in what manner heat
is produced by breathing remained for many ages altogether inconceivable. The
ancients supposed that the use of respiration was to moderate and diminish the
heat of animals, which otherwise had a tendency to run into excess. After the
discovery of the circulation of the blood, animal heat was conceived to be pro-
duced by the friction of the blood against the vessels. Even Dr. Hales goes
into this notion; though he supposes that the electricity which, in his opinion,
is excited by the circulation, contributes to the evolution of heat. Dr. Crom-
well Mortimer, in a paper published in the Transactions for 1745,§ shows that
heat is never produced by the friction of liquids against solids; and therefore
considers the theory of animal heat at that time received as erroneous, He him-
self proposes another. According to him, phosphorus is distributed in conside-
rable quantity all over the animal body. By respiration air is brought in con-
tact with this very combustible body. The consequence is a constant and gra-
dual combustion of phosphorus in every part of the body, and this combustion
in his opinion occasions the heat which we perceive in the breathing animals.
This opinion was too absurd to produce many converts, and has been long
*Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. p. 193.
‡ Ibid. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 2152.
† Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 205.
Vol. XLIII. p. 473.
CHAP. 11.]
129
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
&
since forgotten. The theory by which animal heat is at present explained, and
it must be allowed to be a very plausible one, was first proposed by Dr. Craw-
ford. Arterial blood according to him has a greater capacity for heat than
venous blood. Venous blood is changed into arterial blood in the lungs, and
at the same time absorbs a quantity of heat given out by that portion of the air
inspired which is changed into carbonic acid gas. During the circulation the
arterial blood is gradually converted into venous blood; of course its capacity.
for heat is constantly diminishing, and therefore it is giving out heat during the
whole circulation. The truth of this theory depends entirely upon the different
capacities of venous and arterial blood for heat. This Dr. Crawford laboured
with great assiduity to establish. But the experiments are of so very delicate a
nature that it is difficult to receive them with perfect confidence.*
the skin.
III. ACTION OF THE SKIN. It is well known that the skin has the property of Action of
throwing out a certain vapour from the body, known by the name of perspira-
tion, and in some cases likewise a liquid matter, known by the name of sweat.
These fluids are considerable in quantity, as has been ascertained by the statical
physicians; and the state of the function has considerable influence upon the
health of the animal. The pores by which this matter is discharged are very
visible, especially upon the palms of the hand and the soles of the feet. The
palms of the hand, especially at the extremities of the fingers, may be seen dis-
posed in regular ridges. The pores are set in these ridges, and may be easily
distinguished by means of a moderate sized glass.+
One of the medical men to whom we are obliged for some of the most valua-
ble statical experiments, was Dr. John Lining, of Charlestown, in South Caro-
lina. They were continued for a whole year. He ascertained his weight in
the morning and evening; the weight of the food which he swallowed, and
the weight of the urine and alvine excretions ejected. The result of these very
troublesome experiments was published in 1743, in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. The tables are curious; but too long to be inserted here, and they do
not easily admit of abridgment.
+
It will be proper to mention here a very elaborate and ingenious essay by Dr. Colour of
John Mitchell, to account for the difference of colour in people of different negroes.
*There is a very interesting paper in the Philosophical Transactions (1792. Vol. LXXXII.
p. 199.) by Dr. Currie, of Liverpool, on the changes in animal heat occasioned by immersion in
cold salt, and fresh water, and by passing repeatedly from the water into air, and vice versa.
These experiments have not yet received any attention from chemists and physiologists. They ap-
pear to me to subvert every theory of animal heat hitherto proposed, not even excepting the theory
of Dr. Crawford, ingenious and plausible as it is. Some very curious experiments by Mr. Brodie,
published in the Transactions for 1811, are equally incompatible with the present chemical theory of
respiration. But there is an apparent discordance between them and those of Dr. Currie, which
ought to be cleared up before any attempts can be made to construct a new theory of animal heat.
+ Grew. Phil. Trans. 1684. Vol. XIV.
P. 566.
Vol. XLIL p. 491.
S
130
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
climates, published in the Transactions for 1744.* The following is the out-
line of this very elaborate composition :-the colour of white people proceeds
from the colour which the epidermis transmits; that is, from the colour of the
parts under the epidermis, rather than from any colour of its own. The skins
of negroes are of a thicker substance, and denser texture, than those of white
people, and transmit no colour through them. The part of the skin which
appears black in negroes is the corpus reticulare cutis, and external lamella of
the epidermis: and all other parts are of the same colour in them with those of
white people, except the fibres which pass between those two parts. The colour
of negroes does not proceed from any black humour or fluid parts contained in
their skins; for there is none such in any part of their bodies more than in
white people. The epidermis, especially its external lamella, is divided into
two parts, by its pores and scales, two hundred times less than the particles of
bodies on which their colours depend. These are the different data which he
establishes, and he deduces from them a pretty satisfactory explanation of the
black colour of negroes. But his reasoning is extended to a very great length,
and could not be abridged without stripping it of much of its plausibility, and
of course, without doing it injustice.
Living bodies
Connected with the action of the skin, and no doubt depending upon it, is
capable of
the power which the human body has of bearing a very high temperature, with-
bearing a high
temperature. out any change in the temperature of the body itself. Accurate experiments
upon this subject (for it is needless to mention the inaccurate trials of Boer-
haave) were first made by M. Tillet at Paris, in 1764. The subject was re-
sumed by Dr. Fordyce in 1775, and we have two curious papers by Sir Charles
Blagden in the Transactions, giving an account of the phenomena which were
observed. Dr. Fordyce heated a room by means of flues running along the
floor, and by means of boiling water, to the temperature of about 120°, he then
stripped himself to the shirt, and went into the room; the temperature of his
body continued at about 100°, but his pulse increased considerably in rapidity,
beating 126 times in a minute. Streams of water condensed upon his body,
and ran down to the floor. This was the vapour of the hot water by means of
which the room was heated, condensed by the action of the comparatively cold
surface of his body. Dr. Fordyce invited the Hon. Capt. Phipps, Sir Joseph
Banks, Dr. Solander, and Sir Charles Blagden, to repeat and verify these expe-
riments. These gentlemen attended two several days, and during the last of
these days there were also present Lord Seaforth, Sir George Home, Mr. Dun-
das, and Mr. Nooth. The room was heated by means of a large iron cocle
placed in the centre and heated red hot. The thermometer, in some of their
trials, rose to 260°. This degree of heat they found they could bear for a con-
* Vol. XLIII. p. 102.
6
CHAP. II.]
131
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
siderable time without any great inconvenience, both when dressed and when
naked. The temperature of the body continued at 100°, the pulse was greatly
quickened, increasing to 144 beats in a minute, which was rather more than
double its ordinary velocity. The perspiration, as might have been expected,
was very violent, and no doubt, together with the imperfect conducting power
of air, occasioned that equability of temperature which the body preserved. To
prove that the heat of the air was really as great as they stated, and that there
was no error in their thermometer, they introduced eggs and beef steaks,
which were perfectly roasted in a short time. Water introduced remained
stationary at 140°, the evaporation preventing any further increase; but when
this evaporation was stopped by covering its surface with oil or melted wax,
the water was soon heated so as to boil briskly.* Experiments attended with
nearly a similar result were made at the same time by Dr. Dobson, at
Liverpool.†
tem.
IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM. The brain is somehow or other the seat of intelli- Nervous sys-
gence; every disorder in it is attended with a corresponding disorder of the
intellectual faculties; the exercise of the senses, and even the motion of every
muscle, depend upon the nerves which pass into these organs, and are destroyed
entirely by injuring or cuting the nerves which belong to the organs. These
are facts which are perfectly well understood; but in what way the brain and
nerves exert this amazing power remains still a secret. Descartes started the Nervous Auic.
idea of a peculiar fluid, secreted in the brain, and moving along the nerves,
which produced the effect. The opinion, though not serving in the least to
elucidate the powers of the nerves, was adopted with eagerness; and the exist-
ence of a nervous fluid was long a favourite opinion of physiologists. And,
though no vacuity can be perceived in the nerves, even when viewed by the
best microscopes, we are not sure that the notion even at present is perfectly
exploded. It certainly existed in Italy not many years ago, and some of our
own young physiologists were fond of supporting it.
again when
But although we know nothing of the way the brain and nerves exert their
power, several curious and important particulars respecting them are delivered
in the Philosophical Transactions. Dr. Haighton, by a set of well contrived Nerves unite
and decisive experiments, has demonstrated that when the nerves are separated cut.
by cutting them in two, they again unite in process of time, and the nervous
energy passes through them as at first. He divided the eighth pair of nerves or.
a dog on both sides. These nerves supply the stomach; the animal became
disordered and died in two days. When the nerve on one side only was cut,
the dog was but little affected, but when the remaining nerve was cut three
days afterwards, the dog died in a few days. When the nerve of one side was
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. LXV.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. LXV. p. 111 and 484.
p. 463.
9 2
152
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Structure of
merves.
cloen.
cut, and an interval of six weeks suffered to elapse before cutting the nerve on
the other side, the dog suffered comparatively little and recovered completely.
This was not owing to any other nerves becoming larger and supplying the
place of the eighth pair in the stomach; for, when the dog who had thus re-
covered had the eighth pair cut again, on both sides at the same time, he died
in two days, as was the case with the first dog. Hence it follows, that his
recovery in the former case was owing to the re-union of the nerve which had
been cut first, before the other nerve was separated.*
A great variety of opinions, respecting the structure of nerves, has been enter-
tained by those physiologists who have examined them with microscopes.
According to some, they are composed of globules; according to others, of
hollow cylinders; according to a third party, of fibres. Animal substances
are less fitted for microscopical observations than almost any other; and wher-
ever great magnifying powers are employed, the observer is almost certain to
be deceived by his glasses. The knowledge of this fact induced Mr. Home,
to whom we are indebted for a paper upon the subject in the Philosophical
Transactions, to use single microscopes, which did not magnify more than
23 times. The result of his observations, assisted by Mr. Ramsden and Mr.
Clift, was, that the optic nerve of the cat, where it enters the eye, is trans-
parent; and that the optic nerve of the horse, and of the cat, is partly trans-
parent, partly opaque. The opaque portion consists of a number of cylinders,
and the transparent consists of a gelatinous matter, which joins them together.
These cylindrical bodies are least numerous where the nerve issues from the
brain, and they gradually increase in number as it proceeds towards the eye, so
as to increase from about 40 to nearly 500.
Mr. Cruikshanks made a number of experiments on dogs, pretty similar in
their nature to those stated above, as performed by Dr. Haighton. The result
was similar. The nerves after being cut, again united, and the parts to which
they were sent performed their functions as usual. This happened even when
a portion of the nerves was cut out and removed. He found that when the
spinal marrow was cut through, below the place where the phrenic nerve passes
off, the animal lives for some time, continuing to breathe by means of the
diaphragm. But when the phrenic nerve is divided, and then the spinal mar-
row cut in two at the same place, instant death takes place.‡
rinsleep is somehow connected with the nervous system; though no satisfactory
explanation of it can be given. The different theories of Haller, Brown, and
Darwin, though each had its zealous defenders and supporters, are not entitled
to any consideration whatever, as they are inconsistent with fact, and inade-
Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV.
p. 190.
Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 177.
+ Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. 1.
p.
2
CHAP. II.]
133
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
tinued sleep.
quate to explain the phenomena. The time of sleeping, and even the length
of time devoted to sleep, depend much upon custom. A sailor can sleep at
any time, and awake at any time; but most other persons sleep only during the
night. In general not more than one third of the 24 hours is devoted to sleep;
but there are some instances on record of a state of sleep continuing for a pre-
ternatural length of time, though every effort was used to rouse the sleepy
person. One of the most remarkable of these cases is related by Dr. Oliver, Long con-
in an early volume of the Philosophical Transactions.* Samuel Chilton, of
Tinsbury, near Bath, a labourer, about 25 years of age, of a robust habit of
body, not fat but fleshy, and having dark brown hair, fell asleep on the 13th
of May, 1694, and continued asleep for a month; when he awoke as usual and
went about his ordinary avocations. Food was placed beside him, which he eat
regularly every day, and had the usual evacuations. He fell asleep again in 1696,
and continued asleep for 17 weeks, during the last six of which he eat nothing.
He fell into a third sleepy fit in 1697, which continued for six months. During
these fits he was subjected to many experiments, by the curious who went to see
him, and were anxious to discover whether his sleep was real or pretended.
Volatile alkali was poured up his nose, his nostrils were stuffed with helle-
bore, pins were thrust into his flesh, he was blooded; but all these trials he
bore without appearing to have the least sensibility of pain.
The state of torpor, into which many animals fall during winter, is obviously Totpor.
analogous to sleep. But it differs from sleep in being occasioned solely by tem-
perature. Hybernating animals always assume their torpid state whenever the
thermometer sinks to a certain point. Almost all animals seem to be suscep-
tible of this state, at least to a certain extent, not even excepting man. For.
the apparent death produced by cold is probably nothing else but a species of
torpor, out of which the animal, in most cases, might be roused, if the requisite
caution in applying the heat were attended to; for death, in most cases, seems
to be produced not by the cold, but by the incautious application of heat,
which bursts the vessels and destroys the texture of the body. It is well known.
that if any part of the body be frost-bitten, an incautious application of heat
infallibly produces mortification, and destroys the part. There is a remarkable
example, in the Transactions, of a woman almost naked lying buried for six
days under the snow, and yet recovering. In this case it is scarcely possible
to avoid supposing that the woman must have been in a state of torpor,
otherwise she would certainly have endeavoured to have made her way home.
†
The action of poisons upon the animal body seems to depend chiefly upon Poisons.
the effect which they produce upon the nervous system. Some of the mineral
poisons indeed seem to corrode and destroy the texture of the solid parts of the
* Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 2177.
+ Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXVIII. p. 265.
134
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
body; and some of the animal and vegetable poisons probably produce their
fatal effects, by causing some change in the blood. But these effects alone
would not account for the suddenness with which the fatal symptoms appear,
while a variety of poisonous drugs, opium for example, seem to act upon the
nervous system alone. Though very little light has been hitherto thrown upon
the action of poisons; yet it is of importance to register the effects which are
produced, as it is by means of these effects alone that any valuable inferences.
can be drawn. There are two papers upon the subject in the Philosophical
Transactions: the first giving an account of a variety of experiments, made
at Montpelier, in 1679, by Mr. Courten,* chiefly by injecting various liquors
in the jugular and crural veins of dogs. The following are the results:
LIQUORS INJECTED.
1 oz. of emetic wine...
14 dr. of sal ammoniac..
1 dr. of salt of tartar.
1 oz. of human urine...
Decoction of 2 dr. of white hellebore.
Vinegar..
2 dr. of sugar in 1 oz. of water.
14 dr. of muriatic acid.. . . .
1 oz. of camphorated alcohol...
50 gr. opium in 1 oz. water..
14 dr. opium in 14 oz. water.
1½ dr. common salt in 14 oz. of water..
½ oz. olive oil, warm…..
1 oz. olive oil
10 dr. of alcohol.
3 dr. of alcohol..
•
5 oz. of white wine.
1 oz. of decoction of tobacco.
EFFECTS.
Violent evacuations. The dog died in convulsions.
Instantaneous death in convulsions.
Instant death in convulsions.
.. No bad symptoms.
Instant death.
No bad symptoms.
No bad symptoms.
Instant death.
Instant death.
Gradual convulsions and death.
Sleep, apoplexy, death.
Thirst, but no other bad symptom.
Apoplexy. Death.
.. Instant death.
Gradual death, without any symptom of pain.
Drunkenness, but gradually recovered.
Drunkenness, but recovered.
Violent convulsions and death.
10 drops oil of sage, mixed with dr. of sugar. No bad symptom.
1 dr. white vitriol..
30 gr. salt of urine……
Instant death.
2 dr. of senna, in water.
•
Violent convulsions, but recovered.
Violent vomiting, great weakness, but recovered.
Two ounces of the juice of Dutch nightshade, of hemlock, of wolfsbane, swallowed by a dog,
did no harm; two drams of white hellebore produced violent evacuations, but the dog recovered.
A dog bit by a viper was much revived by being made to swallow a solution of volatile alkali in water,
and finally recovered. Fifteen grains of the dried root of napellus, or monkshood, given to a dog,
produced violent evacuations and much weakness, but the animal finally recovered.
The other paper on poisons in the Transactions was published in 1751, by
Herissant, a physician in Paris. It gives an account of a set of experiments
on the effects of the poison of lamas and of ticunas; poisons extracted by the
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XXVII. p. 485.
Phil. Trans. Vol, XLVII. p. 75.
CHAP. II.]
135
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
!
natives of South America, from certain plants. With them they anoint the
points of their arrows, and the animals wounded, though never so slightly, drop
down dead almost immediately. M. de la Condamine, who went with the
other French academicians to measure a degree of the meridian in Peru,
brought with him a quantity of this poison to Paris, and supplied Herissant,
who was anxious to make some experiments on it, with a considerable quantity.
It had nearly the appearance and smell of treacle. Herissant was directed to
dissolve it in water, and boil it down to a proper consistency. The instruments
to be employed in wounding the animals were then to be dipt into this extract,
and allowed to remain till it dried upon them. Herissant found that the vapour
which proceeded from this poison while boiling, disordered both himself and a
young man who was with him so much that their lives were endangered. But
Fontana, who afterwards repeated the experiments of Herissant, did not find
any injurious effects from being exposed to this vapour. Hence there is reason
to suspect that the imagination had some effect in occasioning the symptoms of
which Herissant complained. A single drop of this poison, put into a wound,
occasioned instant palsy and death within a minute. But, when the poison
was swallowed by animals, it did not prove fatal if taken only in moderate
quantities. Sugar and salt, which had been proposed as remedies, were tried
without effect. The only successful mode of treatment was the immediate
application of a red hot iron to the wound, or the amputation of the wounded
limb immediately after the infliction of the wound. All quadrupeds and birds,
tried by Herissant, were speedily killed when this poison was infused into a
wound; but amphibious animals, fishes, worms, and insects, though they suf-
fered some inconvenience, uniformly recovered.
diseased bones
and tendons.
There is a circumstance which is not the least singular, of the many obstruse Sensibility of
points connected with the nervous system. Bones, tendons, and ligaments in
their healthy state, are found to have no sensibility whatever; so that they may
be pricked with pointed instruments, or burnt with corrosive liquids, without
the animal giving any symptoms whatever of feeling pain. Haller made many
experiments to determine this point. And in the year 1755, Dr. Brocklesby
made a number of experiments on the tendons and ligaments, all demonstrating
their want of sensibility.* But when these parts of the body are affected with
disease, they become most exquisitely sensible.
V. VISION. This is the only one of the Senses, respecting which any physi- Vision.
ological papers occur in the Philosophical Transactions. There are two
papers relative to vision; both of considerable celebrity, and of considerable
importance.
Mariotte, a French mathematician of considerable eminence, found, that
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIX. p. 240.
136
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Blind boy re-
when the rays of light from an object fell upon the optic nerve, the object
became invisible. He fastened upon a wall about the height of his eye a small
round paper, to serve as a fixed object of vision. He placed another paper on
the side towards his right eye, a little lower than the first paper and about two
fect from it. He then placed himself directly opposite to the first paper, with
his left eye shut, and drawing back by little and little he found when he was
about ten feet from the wall that the second paper totally disappeared.* He
conceived that it disappeared because the rays from it fell upon the optic nerve.
This conclusion has been generally acquiesced in, and indeed is very probable;
though it is possible that the deficiency of vision is owing to the rays falling
upon the hole in the retina, near the optic nerve, discovered by Soemmering in
the human eyes, and by Home in the eye of the ape. From this discovery,
Mariotte drew as a conclusion that the retina was not the medium of vision, as
had been hitherto supposed, but the choroid coat. This opinion occasioned a
controversy between Mariotte and Pequet, which is continued in several papers
published successively in the Philosophical Transactions. Pequet's opinion is
now universally adopted; indeed every thing known, respecting the nervous
system, leads irresistibly to that conclusion. A nerve is absolutely necessary
for the exercise of all the senses, and the retina is an expansion, according to
the common opinion, of the optic nerve.
The second paper on vision contained in the Transactions is of great cele-
stored to sight. brity, and throws a great deal of light on the nature of sight. Accordingly,
it is perpetually referred to by metaphysical writers. It is a paper by Cheselden,
giving an account of the observations made by a young gentleman, who had
been born blind, and who was couched when between 13 and 14 years of age.†
Before the operation he could distinguish certain colours, as black, white, and
scarlet, when they were placed in a strong light, but he was incapable of per-
ceiving the shape of any thing. When he first saw, he thought that all objects
touched his eyes, as what he felt did his skin; and only learned very slowly
and gradually to judge of distances. He thought no objects so agreeable as
those which were smooth and regular; though he could form no judgment of
their shape, or guess what it was in any object that was pleasing to him. At
first he thought that pictures were nothing else than party-coloured planes, or
surfaces diversified with variety of paint; but, about two months after he was
couched, he discovered all at once that they represented solids. He was very
much confounded at the discovery, expecting that the pictures would feel like
the things which they represented, and was amazed when he found those parts,
which, by their light and shadow appeared round and uneven, felt only flat like
the rest, and asked which was the lying sense, feeling or seeing? Being shown
Phil. Trans. 1668. Vol. II. p. 668.
† Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV, p. 447.
CHAP. II.]
137
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
his father's picture in a locket, at his mother's watch, and told what it was, he
acknowledged a likeness, but was vastly surprised; asking, how it could be
that a large face could be expressed in so little room; saying, it should have
seemed as impossible to him as to put a bushel of any thing into a pint. At
first he could bear but very little light, and the things which he saw he thought
extremely large; but on seeing things larger, those first seen he conceived
less; never being able to imagine any lines beyond the bounds which he saw.
The room which he was in he said he knew to be but part of the house, yet ye
could not conceive that the whole house could look larger. Being afterwards
couched in the other eye, he said that objects at first appeared large to this eye,
but not so large as they did at first to the other; and looking on the same
object with both eyes, he thought it looked about twice as large as with the first
couched eye only, but not double, that they could anywise discover.
There is a third paper relating to vision, in the Philosophical Transactions,
giving an account of a number of scales lying over each other in that part of
the sclerotic coat of the eyes of birds which is next the cornea.* The author
of the paper, Mr. Pierce Smith, considers the observation as new, and claims
the discovery as his own. His account however, in both particulars, is inac-
curate. Malpighi had long ago made the observation, and published an
account of it; so that there was nothing new in the observation of Mr. Smith.
But ignorance is not the only charge that may be brought against the author
of this paper. The observation which he claims in it was not his own origi-
nally. He derived his knowledge of this particularity in the eyes of birds from
a preparation of Dr. Barclay, at that time a Student of Medicine, in Edinburgh;
and the dissections which he describes were subsequent to his examination of
this preparation. As Mr. Smith's paper contains in fact nothing new, the
injury which he did to Dr. Barclay by publishing his dissection as his own.
was in reality trifling. But his obvious intention was to acquire credit by
appropriating to himself what he conceived to be the discovery of another,
and a fellow student. On that account his paper deserves to be stigmatized.
VI. ORGANS OF MOTION. Dr. William Croone, one of the original Mem- Organs of mo
bers of the Royal Society, and a philosopher and physician of considerable
eminence, left behind him, at his death in 1684, the plan of an annual lecture
on muscular motion before the Royal Society. This plan was put in execution
by his widow. The first lecture was read in 1738, by Dr. Alexander Stuart,
Physician to the Queen;t and has been continued ever since. These annual
lectures, for a considerable number of years, have been regularly published in the
Philosophical Transactions. They have been drawn up by the most eminent
* Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 263.
† Birche's History of the Royal Society, Vol. IV. p. 310.
T
tiou.
138
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
cular motion.
physiologists, who were Members of the Society, and contain a great collection
of very curious and important facts, respecting the muscles and their motions.
But few of the lecturers have attempted to investigate, far less to explain, the
nature of muscular motion. Indeed the subject appears to be altogether beyond
the reach of our faculties. We know that the motion of many of the muscles
is obedient to the will; that when a muscle produces motion it becomes shorter,
and at the same time swells out and becomes stiff. The degree of contraction
produced is not great, and particular pains have been taken to make it as small
as possible. When a muscle acts constantly, as the heart and diaphragm, the
contraction which it undergoes is never great. When a muscle contracts very
forcibly, it feels fatigued, and unless it be relieved by speedy relaxation, it is
apt to lose its tone, and cannot be exerted again without pain rest, however,
gradually restores it to its wonted energy. As to the cause of muscular motion,
no less than six different hypothetical explanations have been offered; but all
of them so absurd, or so hypothetical, that barely to mention them is sufficient.
Hypothetical 1. The action of a peculiar fluid secreted in the brain, passing along the nerves,
causes of mus- and therefore called the nervous fluid, was long a favourite hypothesis of
physiologists. It was the opinion of Dr. Stuart, who read the first Croonian
lecture on muscular motion. But this opinion, which in fact explained no-
thing, and the truth of which it was impossible to prove, has been long laid
aside by the greater number of medical meu. 2. Dr. Hartley endeavoured to
prove, that the intention of the will was communicated from the brain to the
muscle, by means of a vibration produced in the nerves. This opinion was
adopted by Dr. Priestley, who published a kind of abstract of the worst part of
Dr. Hartley's Treatise on Man; and endeavoured, by means of it, to demon-
strate the principles of materialism. This opinion is exceedingly absurd, and
never had many advocates. Supposing we were to concede all that those who
maintain it demand, namely, a vibration in the nerves; we are as far as ever
from understanding how this vibration produces muscular motion. But the
fact is, that nerves are the worst substances possible to be thrown into vibrations,
and seem scarcely susceptible of it. They are soft substances, destitute of
elasticity, and of every requisite for vibration. But though neither of these
hypotheses seems capable of being maintained, we must admit that the power
which the muscles have to produce motion, is somehow derived from the brain ;
because, whenever the nerves going to a muscle are cut or tied, all muscular
motion is destroyed. 3. Another hypothetical explanation of muscular motion
is, that it is owing to a quantity of electric matter, transmitted from the brain
to the muscles by the intervention of the nerves. This hypothesis is as little
satisfactory as the two preceding; because, if it were granted, the motion of
the muscle would still be as inexplicable as ever; and because the transmission
of electric matter along the nerves in animal bodies is inconsistent with the
CHAP. II.]
139
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
laws which electricity follows in its passage through bodies. To obviate this dif-
ficulty, some physiologists have supposed that the electric matter belonging to
animal bodies follows peculiar laws of its own. When this opinion is explained,
it means that a nervous fluid is secreted in the brain, having properties analogous
to the electric fluid; but differing in the way in which it passes through bodies.
This opinion, having nothing whatever to support it, is unworthy of examination.
A fourth opinion was proposed by Mayow in his Treatise on Respiration.
According to him, the spiritu-sulphureous particles of the blood, and the nitro-
aërial particles imbibed from the air by respiration, are thrown together into
every muscle previous to action. These two substances, when they come in con-
tact, occasion an effervescence, which swells up the muscle and occasions motion.
This opinion, not being intelligible, is not capable of discussion. 5. Dr. Mor-
ton, in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions about the year
1751, ascribed muscular motion to a sudden heat generated in the blood by the
will. This would not serve to explain the phenomena, though it were admitted;
and it is well known that no such sudden generation of heat in muscles takes
place in muscular motion. The cold blooded animals, as fish, possess muscular
motion as perfectly as quadrupeds, yet a very moderate heat, when applied to
them, is found sufficient to destroy life. 6. The last explanation of muscular
motion, with which I am acquainted, was proposed by Dr. George Fordyce in
a Croonian lecture on muscular motion, which he read before the Royal Society
in the year 1788.* All motions, according to him, are produced by attractions
or repulsions. There are various kinds of attractions known to philosophers, as
the attraction of gravitation, of electricity, of magnetism. Now muscular
motion is produced by a particular species of attraction between the parts of a
muscle, which makes them approach nearer each other. As this attraction is
confined to the living state of the muscle, Dr. Fordyce distinguishes it by the
name of the attraction of life. This attraction, according to him, is inscrutable,
like the ultimate attractions which regulate the motions of inanimate matter;
but we may determine the laws according to which it acts. And this, according
to him, should be the sole object of our inquiries, when we turn our attention to
muscular motion. This explanation of Dr. Fordyce, we are afraid, is nothing
else than the introduction of a new word, of which we do not know the mean-
ing. An attraction confined to animal matter, dependent upon the will, and
capable of being suspended at pleasure, has no analogy to gravitation, or any
other attraction belonging to inanimate matter, which has been dignified with a
name. Even if its existence were taken for granted, we should have no notions
of the nature of muscular motion, unless we knew how it is connected with
the brain and nerves, and how it is influenced by the will. Muscular motion
*Phil. Trans, Vol. LXXVIII. p. 23.
T 2
140
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
on the eye.
in fact resolves itself into the nervous energy, which is obviously inscrutable in
the present imperfect state of our faculties.
The greater number of physiologists have not attempted to explain the nature
of muscular motion; but have satisfied themselves with endeavouring to point
out some of its laws, or with noticing some peculiarities belonging to the
Experiments muscles of certain parts of the body. One of the most interesting topics made
choice of is the eye, a subject intended by Mr. John Hunter for a lecture on
muscular motion. He unfortunately died before his experiments were com-
pleted; but the subject was continued by Mr. Everard Home in several repeated
lectures, with a great deal of ingenuity and success. He was assisted in his ex-
periments by Mr. Ramsden and Sir Henry Englefield. Mr. Hunter had con-
ceived that the crystalline lens of the eye is muscular, and that the adjustment
of the eye to different distances is performed by the action of these muscles.
Leuwenhoeck had long before observed that the lens was fibrous. Mr. Hunter
had found in the eye of the cuttle-fish a lens in which this fibrous structure was
very conspicuous. These fibres Mr. Hunter supposed acted as muscles. But
when Mr. Home tried the experiment on an eye deprived of the lens by extrac-
tion, it was found to possess the power of adjustment as completely as a perfect
eye. Hence it was obvious that Mr. Hunter's opinion was inaccurate. Upon
examining the subject experimentally, it was found that the cornea changed its
shape in order to adjust the eye; and Mr. Home concluded that the adjustment
was accomplished partly by the action of the cornea, partly by the elongation
of the axis of vision, and partly by a change of place in the lens itself.
Specific gra-
vity of men.
It may not be improper to notice here a curious paper published in the Trans-
actions for 1757 by Mr. Robertson.* His object was to determine the specific
gravity of living men. For this purpose he constructed a vessel into which
(when containing water) men might be immersed, and he determined the speci-
fic gravity by the bulk of water displaced, or, which is the same thing, by the
rise of the water on the side of the vessel. Ten trials were made in this way on
ten labouring men belonging to the ordinary of Portsmouth yard. They were
all thin and varied in size from 6 feet 2 inches to five feet 3 inches. The fol-
lowing table exhibits the specific gravities of each of these, arranged according
to the height of each; the specific gravity of rain water being reckoned 1.000.
Height.
Feet. Inch,
Weight.
lb.
Sp. Gravity.
1. . .
.6.. 2.
.
161....
1·0012
2...
. 5.. 10%.
147..
..0·9096
3..
4...
5.. 94.
5.. 6%..
156..
..0·9961
.. 140...
..0 8111
* Phil. Trans. Vol. L. p. 30.
2
CHAP. II.]
141
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
5...
Height.
Feet. Inchi.
.5.. 5%.
6........ 5..
5.
7........5.. 43.
8........5.. 34.
Weight.
lb.
158...
158..
.. 140..
Sp. Gravity,
..0·8977
0.8600
0.8230
. 132..
..0·8429
9.
5.. 44.
. 121...
..0.7986
10...
..5.. 34.
.. 146...
..0·9972
From this table it appears, that all the persons tried were specifically lighter
than water, except one. Hence it is obvious that most persons naturally swim in
water, and that drowning might often be avoided if the person that falls into
the water were not deprived of his presence of mind.
VII. NOURISHMENT. This function is not so inscrutable, so completely be- Nourishment
yond our faculties, as the nervous influence or muscular motion; though we
must acknowledge that hitherto the phenomena of digestion and assimilation
have not been explained in a satisfactory manner. Animals, during one period
of their life, are increasing in size, and during the whole of it their organs are
undergoing almost perpetual changes. Hence the necessity of food to repair
the waste and increase the bulk. Now almost every substance belonging to the
animal and vegetable kingdom constitutes the food of animals, since it may be
truly said that there is hardly any one of these substances upon which some
animal or other does not feed. The quantity of food necessary varies in a sur-
prising and inexplicable manner. Some animals, spiders for example, can live
for months or even years without food, though they eat voraciously whenever
they can procure food. Some animals, as bears, marmots, bats, &c. spend the
winter in a dormant state. They sleep during the whole winter season, and of
course take no food; though during summer, when they are in a state of activity,
they require a supply as well as any other quadruped. Even in man himself,
though in general he requires frequent supplies of food during the whole of his
life, examples are not wanting of life being prolonged, and even a certain de-
gree of health and strength continuing for years without any supply of food
whatever, or with a supply totally inadequate to the usual demands of nature.
Two remarkable examples of abstinence from food occur in the Philosophical Abstinence
Transactions. Both of the individuals were natives of the Highlands of Scot-
land, and both cases are very well authenticated. John Ferguson was employed
in taking care of cattle in the Highlands. In the year 1724, having over-
heated himself by running on the mountains, he drank excessively from a spring
of cold water, fell asleep on the spot and awaked next day in a fever. He re-
covered, but lost all relish for food, and for 18 years afterwards he took no other
nourishment than pure water with now and then, during a certain period of the
from food.
142
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Digestion.
year, a draught of clarified whey. During the whole of this time he continued
in his employment, and enjoyed health and a certain portion of strength.* The
other example is of a more recent date. A young woman, in Rosshire, fell ill,
took to her bed, lost the faculty of speech, and the use of her eye-lids; her
jaws became locked, and she refused all sustenance. In this state she had con-
tinued for 13 years, when the account of her case was drawn up. Her parents
often attempted to convey nourishment into her mouth, first by forcing open
her jaws, and afterwards through the hole left by two of her teeth which fell
out; but she did not appear to swallow any of it. At first she drank occa-
sionally some water, but afterwards gave it up entirely. She did not continue
always in bed, but after some years got up and employed herself in spinning
wool.t
The mechanism of digestion (if the expression may be tolerated) in man,
and the larger animals, is tolerably well understood. The food is taken into
the mouth, where it is ground between the teeth and mixed with the saliva. It
is then swallowed and conveyed into the stomach, where it remains for some
time, and is converted into a kind of pulp, known by the name of chyme.
This chyme passes gradually into the intestinal canal, where, by the peristaltic
motion of the bowels and the agency of the bile, the pancreatic juice, and per-
haps other means not yet discovered, it is separated into two distinct substances;
a liquid matter, similar to milk in appearance, called chyle; and a solid matter,
or at least a matter of greater consistence, which is protruded along the canal,
and gradually thrown out of the body as excrementitious. The chyle is absorbed
by the lacteals, passes into the thoracic duct, from which it is conveyed into
the left subclavian vein, mixes with the blood, and is gradually converted into
that important liquid. The blood circulates through the whole body, and
furnishes materials to all the organs to supply their waste, and continue their
functions. From it too all the different liquids of the body are secreted. Thus,
digestion serves to increase the quantity of the blood, from which, as from a
store-house, every thing necessary for the supply of the animal is drawn.‡
In some tribes of animals, as birds, trituration is not performed in the mouth
but in the stomach, which, for that purpose, is made powerfully muscular.
And these animals are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles, to assist the
trituration. It would appear that some species of fish, the gillaroo trout for
example, found in some rivers in Ireland, have stomachs of the same nature.§
But most fish swallow their food entire, and it is gradually converted into
chyme by the digestive powers of the stomach, without any trituration. Some
* Phil. Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 240.
Cowper. Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 231.
+ Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 1.
§ Barrington. Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 116.
CHAP. II.]
143
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY,
animals, as oxen, swallow their food entire, and afterwards bring it up to the
mouth, chew it at their leisure, and swallow it again. This is called chewing
the cud. Examples of men possessing this power are on record. There is an
account, in the Philosophical Transactions, of a man at Bristol who regularly
chewed the cud. Dr. Sloane, who gives the account, mentions several other
instances of a similar nature.*
der on the
Assimilation is not confined merely to the muscles and soft parts of the body; Effect of mad-
even the bones undergo as rapid a change as any other organs. Mizaldus, in a bones.
book published in 1566, entitled Memorabilium, Utilium, ac Jucundorum Cen-
turia Novem, mentions, that when animals are made to swallow madder, their
bones are died red. This fact was afterwards discovered a second time by Mr.
Belchier, who published an account of it in the Transactions for 1736. He
observed, that hogs which had fed on bran boiled with an infusion of madder,
had their bones dyed red.† Duhamel repcated the experiments of Belchier
upon different fowls and pigeons, and found that three days' use of the food
was sufficient to give a red colour to the bones of the animals. If the animals
give up the use of madder, their bones speedily recover their whiteness. These
experiments are sufficient to demonstrate the rapidity with which the substance
of the bones is changed. There is an affinity between the phosphate of lime
and the colouring matter of madder. Hence that matter combines with the
phosphate of lime, which always constitutes part of the food. The compound
being deposited in the bones obviously occasions the red colour.
tion.
Physiologists have not been slow in endeavouring to explain the process of Attempts to
digestion; and a great variety of hypotheses have made their way into medical explain diges-
books. Most of these hypotheses have been restricted to explain what happens.
in the stomach. The subsequent processes in the intestinal canal and blood-
vessels, though much more curious and complicated, have attracted less atten-
tion. Most of the hypothetical explanations of digestion are discussed at some
length in the Transactions. A bare mention of them here will be sufficient, as
they have been for the most part rejected and exploded. The old doctrine of
Aristotle and Galen supposed that the food was converted into chyme in the
stomach, solely by the action of heat, as meat or vegetables may be boiled to a
pulp, by the continued action of heat and water. This hypothesis, which con-
ceived the stomach to be precisely similar to a stew pot, has received the name
of elixation, from modern physiologists; and has been long since laid aside as
utterly inconsistent with the phenomena of digestion, which takes place in cold
as well as warm-blooded animals. Another hypothesis advanced at an early
period, and continued down almost to our own times, was, that food is digested
Phil. Trans. 1691. Vol. XVII. p. 525.
Phil. Trans. 1740. Vol. XLI. p. 390.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXIX. p. 287,
5
114
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Action of bile.
in the stomach by the process of fermentation; and many methods were de-
vised for bringing on this fermentation. Some supposed that the food itself
fermented, without any additional ingredient; others, that a portion of the
digested food, still remaining in the stomach, was mixed with the newly swal-
lowed food, and thus brought on a fermentation, just as leaven does when
mixed with dough. Clopton Havers conceived the saliva to be the ferment.
According to him, saliva consists of two distinct liquids; one similar in its
nature to oil of vitriol, and the other to oil of turpentine. These two liquids
being mixed with the food in the mouth, begin to act on each other, and pro-
duce a gentle fermentation, which reduces the food to chyme.* Dr. Harvey
ascribed digestion to trituration alone; but the most prevalent opinion has
always been, that the change is produced by the chemical action of some sub-
stance upon the food, though there has been very little agreement as to the nature
of the liquid which performs this important office. According to Tilingius,
the substance which acts is a nitrous salt; according to Willis, it is an acid and
sulphur; according to Mayow, it is the nitro-aërial principle; according to
Diemerbroeck and Sylvius, it is the saliva. Leigh endeavoured to show that
it was a menstruum, secreted for the purpose in the stomach;† and this opinion
is at present generally received. The liquid which produces this important
effect is called the gastric juice. Many exertions have been made to procure
it, and ascertain its properties, but these exertions have not been crowned with
success. It has been ascertained, however, that it acts as a solvent; that it is
neither acid nor alkaline; that it is not capable of dissolving all substances
indifferently; that the husk, or outer coat, of the different species of corn
resists its action. Hence the necessity of trituration, in order to enable this
juice to perform its functions with effect. From the observations of Mr. John
Hunter, it appears that this juice, after the death of the animal, is capable of
acting upon the stomach itself, and of reducing it to a pulpy consistence, similar
to digested food.†
The bile, which is thrown into the intestinal canal, not far from its origin,
and to the formation of which the liver, the spleen, with a very curious set of
vessels, seem to be entirely devoted, is, without doubt, a very important liquid.
Though the way in which it acts, and how it contributes to the formation or
the separation of chyle, is not understood. Dr. Stuart, from a curious case,
of which he has given an account in the Transactions,§ has concluded that it
is essential to life, and that if it be not thrown into the intestines, no chyle is
absorbed by the lacteals. A Mr. Menzies, of the Guards, was wounded with a
sword in the body; he lived about six days, hardly slept at all during the
* Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXI. p. 233.
t Ibid. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 447.
+ Phil. Trans. 1684. Vol. XIV. p. 694.
§ Ibid. 1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 341.
CHAP. II.]
145
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
time, had no stool, though every method to procure evacuation was tried. On
examining the body, after death, the gall bladder was found punctured, and
the bile had made its way into the cavity of the abdomen; every other organ
was sound. Dr. Stuart inferred that the peristaltic motion of the bowels, in
this case, was stopped. From this, he concluded that this motion is occasioned
by the stimulus of the bile; and all his other inferences followed of course.
But this seems to be going much farther than the single case produced by Dr.
Stuart will warrant. One cannot see why a wound in the gall bladder should
prevent any bile whatever from making its way into the intestines, as there is
another channel through which it may enter. It is much more probable that
death, in this case, was occasioned by some other cause than the mere absence
of bile.
VIII. GENERATION. This, as it is one of the most important, so it is one Generation.
of the most inexplicable functions of animals. It is well known that animals
are of two sexes, male and female, and that the concurrence of both is neces-
sary for the propagation of the species. The females only produce young; but
the fecundating power of the male is an essential requisite. Some animals
indeed, as snails, unite, in one individual, the organs of both sexes; yet
copulation is necessary in them as well as in other animals. They mutually
impregnate each other, and both the individuals produce young. In fowls,
one copulation is capable of fecundating at least 20 eggs, laid in as many
successive days. And what is still more extraordinary and unaccountable, in a
genus of small insects, called aphides, living upon trees and bushes, one copu-
lation is sufficient to impregnate ten successive generations of these animals.
The first nine are all females; but the tenth is a mixture of males and females
which copulate together, and impregnate ten successive generations, as before.
The doctrine of equivocal generation; or, that animals are produced from Harvey's
putrefaction and fermentation, without the necessity of any parent, was taught
by the ancients, especially by Aristotle; and was long universally received in
the schools and universities of Europe. This doctrine was first formally refuted
by Harvey, who proved that all animals spring from eggs, previously deposited
by their parents. This opinion was rapidly propagated through Europe, and
speedily overturned the Aristotelian doctrine. One of the ablest supporters was
Redi, an Italian philosopher of considerable celebrity, who demonstrated, by
numerous and satisfactory experiments, that animals never breed in putrid
animal or vegetable substances; except when flies and other similar insects.
have access to them, and deposite their eggs in them. Redi, however, was not
quite free from absurd opinions on the subject of generation: for he conceived
that gall insects, which make their appearance on oaks and other trees; and
the worms, occasionally found in the livers of sheep, were produced by the
U
doctrine.
116
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Experiments
of Needham
and Bufon.
Hypothesis
of Leuwen-
hoeck,
Abandoned.
energy of the plants and animals in which they are found ;* whereas, it is now
well known that they also originate from parent animals, as well as all others.
There is only one set of experiments which seem still to give some counte-
nance to the doctrine of equivocal generation. Needham and Buffon found
successively that animal and vegetable infusions, in boiling water, though put
into a phial while scalding hot, and kept ever after close corked, generated
animalcula in a few days. These experiments were afterwards repeated and
confirmed by Mr. Wright. Now it is conceived, that the boiling water would
have destroyed any ova of these animalcula, previously deposited upon the
animal or vegetable substances employed. And hence it has been inferred, that
the animalcula in question have been produced by equivocal generation. But
we have no right to suppose that boiling water is capable of destroying the ova
of all animals, because it is capable of destroying a great many. The heat of
boiling water will not prevent the seeds of many vegetables from germinating.
It is likely that the ova of the animalcula in question are capable of resisting
its action.
The opinion respecting generation, anciently received, was, that there was
a female semen as well as a male; that the two were mixed together in the
uterus, and that the fœtus was produced by the mixture. But Leuwenhoeck,
having observed a vast number of animalcula in the male semen of different
animals, was induced, in consequence, to propagate a different opinion; which
very speedily acquired celebrity; and was even pretty generally acceded to.
According to him, one of these animalcula constitutes the rudiments of the future
fœtus. It is merely lodged in a convenient nidus, in the uterus, and all that
the female has to do is to supply it with proper nourishment. Dr. Garden, of
Aberdeen, made an addition to this theory. According to him, during the
period of copulation, one or more ova make their way from the female ovaria
to the uterus; such of the animalcula of the male semen, as were fortunate
enough to get into these ova, found a proper nidus, were nourished, and gra-
dually increasing in size, became fœtuses; while all the others, amounting by
Leuwenhoeck's calculation to several millions, speedily perished for want of
nourishment.‡
Subsequent physiologists having examined the semen of various animals,
found some in which no traces of animalcula could be found. These were as
capable of impregnating the female, as those in which animalcula abounded.
This was sufficient to overturn the hypothesis of Leuwenhoeck. Accordingly
it was abandoned, and consigned to ridicule as speedily as it had been adopted.
*Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 1175.
Ibid. 1691. Vol. XVI. p. 474.
+ Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 553.
5
CHAP. II.]
147
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
Indeed there is reason to believe, that Leuwenhoeck had sometimes mistaken
small crystals of phosphate of lime, which abound in the semen, for animalcula.
The opinion of Harvey, that the foetus proceeds from an ovum detached from
the female ovarium, and somehow fecundated by the influence of the male
semen, came to be universally admitted. This opinion was supported with
But De Graff is the anatomist who
considerable keenness by Kirkringius.*
threw the greatest light on the subject. He ascertained, by numerous experi-
ments on rabbits, that the ovaries are the seat of conception; that one or more
of their vesicles become changed; that they are enlarged, lose their trans-
parency, and become opaque and reddish coloured; that the number of vesicles
thus altered corresponds with the number of foetuses; that these changed
vesicles at a certain period after copulation discharge a substance, which,
being laid hold of by the fimbriated extremity of the falopian tube, and con-
veyed into the uterus, soon assumes a visible vesicular form, and is called an
ovum; and that this ovum gradually evolves different organs, and becomes a
fœtus. Considerable additional light has been thrown upon this obscure subject Experiments
by a curious paper of Dr. Haighton, published in the Philosophical Transac- of Haighton.
tions for 1797.† He has demonstrated by very decisive experiments upon rab-
bits that the male semen does not pass into the falopian tube or ovaries; but
merely stimulates the vagina. One or more ova pass in consequence of this
stimulus into the uterus, and become the fœtus. These experiments
These experiments render the
process of generation if possible still more obscure than it was.
semen certainly answers some other purposes than merely acting as a stimulus to
the parts, otherwise we could not see why it should be so absolutely necessary
in all cases as it is. Fowls often lay eggs without impregnation; but unless
they have had connection with a male these eggs are incapable of being hatched.
Toads, frogs, and fish, exclude the ova out of the body without any previous
connection with the male, and the male afterwards sprinkles his semen on the
excluded ova, without which they are incapable of being converted into ani-
mals. Here the semen is applied not to the female organs, but to the semen,
and therefore cannot be intended merely to stimulate these organs.
The male
Mr. Cruikshanks has demonstrated by a set of well conducted experiments on
rabbits, that the ovum is formed in the ovarium, that it comes out of it after
conception; that it passes along the falopian tube, and that it takes some days
in making its way to the uterus.‡ Female animals have two ovaries, one on
each side. Mr. John Hunter extirpated one of these organs from a sow, and
compared her breeding powers with another sow of the same age, and treated
in every respect the same as the first sow; but retaining both her ovaries. The
Phil. Trans. 1672. Vol. VII. p. 4018.
Phil. Trans. 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 197.
+ Vol. LXXXVII. p. 159.
U 2
148
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Nourishment
of the fœtus.
Children cry
in the womb.
spayed sow continued to breed till she was six years of age; the perfect sow till
she was eight the spayed sow had 76 pigs; the perfect sow 162. * From this
experiment it would appear that a determinate number of ova exist at first in
each ovarium, and that when these are exhausted the animal ceases to breed.
The loss of an ovarium must of course have a considerable influence both on
the time of breeding, and upon the quantity of young produced.
Needham published a work giving an anatomical account of the vessels,
liquors, coverings, nourishment, &c. of the fœtus, from which he acquired a
high reputation. Of this work there is a good analysis in the Philosophical
Transactions. There can be no doubt that the foetus is nourished, at least
chiefly, by means of the umbilical canal. Hence the reason why respiration is
unnecessary, and why the foetus can live and grow without some of its most es-
sential organs, as is well known sometimes to happen. The fœtus in utero is
surrounded by a liquor called the liquor amnii, and it has been supposed by
some that this liquor makes its way into the mouth of the fœtus, and serves it
for nourishment. Dr. Fleming mentions a fact which at first sight seems to
prove the truth of this opinion, at least with regard to some animals. Exa-
mining the meconium of a still born calf, he found it full of white hairs simi-
lar to the hairs with which the skin of the animal was covered. It is well
known that upon calves there is always a great deal of very loose hair. Hence he
supposed that this loose hair had mixed with the liquor amnii, been swallowed
by the calf, and thus made its way to the meconium. But that this mode of
nourishment is only partial, if it exists at all, is obvious from a multitude of
facts which might be produced; fœtuses have come into the world entirely des-
titute of a head, and of course incapable of swallowing. Mr. Brady gives an
example of a living puppy whelped without any mouth whatever,§ of course
incapable of swallowing or of being nourished by the liquor amnii.
The fœtus in utero is surrounded with a liquid, and consequently excluded
from air. Voice, it is well known, depends upon the action of air on the throat.
Accordingly fish and all animals that live constantly under water are absolutely
dumb. It is on that account very difficult to explain a fact which sometimes
happens, namely, a child crying in the womb. Yet there are examples of this
upon record, supported by evidence which cannot be set aside. Dr. Derham re-
lates an instance which came under his own examination. The child cried al-
most every day for six weeks before delivery, and so loud that it could be heard
in the next room. Chickens sometimes cry before they burst their shell; but
this is not so surprising, as these animals are at that time obviously surrounded
* Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 233.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 254.
| Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 485.
Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II.
p. 503.
§ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV.
p. 2176.
CHAP. II.]
149
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
with air; probably even breathing has begun in them some little time before
they make their way out of their shell.
In certain animals, as man, and most quadrupeds, the foetus is attached to
the uterus, and nourished by the mother by means of the navel string. In
others, as in birds and fishes, the ovum is excluded at once, and the fœtus is
nourished by means of the food deposited in the egg without any connection
with the parents whatever. The animals of the opossum tribe seem to be inter-
mediate in this respect between quadrupeds and birds. Mr. Home has given us Organs of the
kanguroo.
a curious account of the generative organs of the kanguroo, an animal belong-
ing to this tribe. The embryo in these animals does not appear to be attached
to the uterus. When not more than 21 grains in weight, it is excluded and re-
ceived into the false belly of the mother; the mouth of the fœtus attaches itself
to the nipple of the mother, and the young animal continues in that situation
for nine months, when it is expelled.*
young pro-
The number of young produced at once differs according to the animal. Number of
Some fish produce several thousands at a time. Dogs, cats, swine, &c. produce duced at onee.
from four to 20 at a time. But man and the large quadrupeds are usually li-
mited to one. In the human race twins are by no means uncommon. They
occur at an average about once in every 80 births. Three at a time is much
more uncommon, though it sometimes happens. An instance lately occurred in
Berwickshire, in which all the children survived. Four at a birth is a very un-
common occurrence; but there is a well authenticated case of that kind in the
Philosophical Transactions. It happened in Lancashire, and the children were
delivered by Mr. Hull, a surgeon, in the neighbourhood. Two of them were
still born, and two were alive but died soon after. Dr. Garthshore has attached
to the case a number of curious examples of numerous births recorded by medi-
cal authors. One of them an example of no fewer than eight children at a
birth, one of whom grew up to manhood, and was alive when the account was
drawn up.t
Physiologists have laid it down as a maxim that when animals are capable of Whether dif
breeding together, and of producing young perfect in all their organs, and ca- can breed.
ferent species
pable of propagating, they belong to the same species; but when the young
animal is incapable of propagating, then the parents belong to different species.
Thus the horse and the ass belong to different species, because the mule which
they produce is incapable of propagating. Relying upon these data, Mr. John
Hunter has published a variety of documents showing that wolves, jackals, and
dogs, breed together, and produce an offspring capable of propagating. Hence
he concludes that these animals belong to the same species. The wolf he con-
ceives to be the original, the dog to be the wolf tamed, and the jackal the dog
* Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 221.
+ Phil. Trans. 1787, Vol. LXXVII. p. 344.
6
150
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Why females
are mole nu-
nerous than
males.
run wild. But this mode of reasoning, though strenuously insisted upon by
Mr. Buffon, and though it became popular in consequence, scems entirely
hypothetical and incapable of proof. This capacity of propagating perfect.
animals certainly demonstrates a similarity in the organs of generation of the
animals which breed; but this is not sufficient to demonstrate identity of species.
It is conceivable that a perfect animal might be bred between man and the
ourang outang; but this surely would be insufficient to demonstrate identity
of species.
There is only one other paper in the Transactions connected with this subject
which we shall touch upon. It is well known that in most European countries
the number of male births exceed that of females; yet if a census be taken of
the inhabitants of a country, the number of females is always found to exceed
that of males. This is commonly accounted for by the more exposed life which
males lead. Hence it is conceived that they are liable to many more casualties
than the females. Wars, emigrations, the sea, are mentioned, and these are
conceived fully to account for the difference. But Dr. Clarke has shown that
other causes intervene besides these. For from a table of births and causualties
in the Dublin Lying-in-Hospital, for a series of years, he has shown that there
is a greater proportion of still-born males than females, and that more male
children die during their infancy than females. He accounts for this by show-
ing that male children are larger than female, and in particular that the head of
a male fœtus has a greater circumference than that of a female. Hence he con-
ceives that male children are more likely to be stunted of nourishment before
delivery than female, and from the greater size of the head they are much more
likely to be injured during delivery than females. The last we conceive to be
the true reason of the greater mortality of male than female children.
SECTION V.-Of Medicine and Surgery.
Medicine must have been, in some measure, coeval with mankind. For such
is the frailty of our nature, and so numerous are the accidents to which we are
exposed, that diseases and wounds must have speedily made their appearance,
and the sufferers must have cast about on every side for assistance and relief.
Surgery was probably the first department of medical knowledge which man-
kind attempted to acquire. Diseases were naturally enough ascribed to the
direct agency of the offended deities, whose resentment they attempted to re-
move by sacrifices and prayers. But a wound received in war, or the bite of an
enraged or poisonous animal, did not require any such explanation. They
were injuries obviously inflicted by their fellow creatures. Accordingly we find
that the medical men celebrated for their skill by Homer were in fact only sur-
* Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 253.
+ Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 349.
CHAP. II.]
151
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
dicine.
geons, When a pestilential fever thinned the Grecian ranks, Podalirius and
Machaon were not called. The disease was ascribed to the resentment of
Apollo, and his anger was deprecated, and the disease removed, by restoring the
captive daughter of his favourite priest. But when any of the Grecian heroes.
was wounded in battle these medical men immediately attended, and displayed
their skill in extracting the dart, stopping the blood, and healing the wound.
India, Chaldea, and Egypt, being the most ancient and the first civilized Origin of me
kingdoms, medicine no doubt made its first appearance among them. Apollo
and Esculapius, to whom the origin of the art is ascribed by the Greeks, appear
to have been both Egyptians. But what progress the science had made in these
countries is altogether unknown. It is from the Greeks that we have derived
all our arts and sciences, and that people have given us no information respect-
ing the state of medicine in Egypt. It was probably very low, entirely uncon-
nected with philosophy and science, and depending upon the delusive practices
of magic and superstition.
Even in Greece, which obviously derived its first medical knowledge from Hippocrates.
the Egyptians, the art continued long in a very low state. And Hippocrates
is acknowledged by the universal voice of antiquity to have been the first who
connected medicine with philosophy, and who established his practice upon ra-
tional and scientific principles. He has therefore been universally considered as
the true and legitimate founder of medicine, and has always enjoyed a higher
reputation than any other medical man whatever. He is the first physician
whose writings still exist. With him therefore commences the science as far as
our knowledge of the subject extends. In all probability he borrowed much of
his knowledge of the symptoms of the diseases, and of the effect of various
medicines, from his predecessors; but as we have no information concerning the
knowledge of his predecessors, the whole of the science, as far as he has deli-
vered it in his writings, has been ascribed to him.
On
Hippocrates was born in the Isle of Cos, in the first year of the 80th Olym-
piad, about 30 years before the commencement of the Peloponnesian war.
the father's side he was of the family of the Asclepiades, or the descendants of
Esculapius, a family in which the knowledge of the medical art had descended
without interruption from the illustrious founder. The Asclepiades were all
physicians, and the knowledge of diseases was confined to their family. Thus
he was at an early period initiated in all the medical knowledge of the times.
He added to this the study of philosophy, which he considered as essential to
the physician, a keen, constant, and accurate observation, the knowledge of
anatomy as far as it was in his power to attain it without dissecting human sub-
jects, and an industry and sagacity upon which medical celebrity, in all ages
and countries, in a great measure depends. A considerable part of the works
152
[BOOK 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
His physio-
logy.
His practice.
of Hippocrates still remains, from which a pretty accurate estimate may be
formed of his knowledge and practice.
His description of diseases is very accurate and complete, and has not been
surpassed by any succeeding writer. His knowledge of symptoms was wonder-
fully precise, and his prognosis, founded on that knowledge, though in some
cases it appears to us absurd, was upon the whole so exact that it must have
been, in a great measure, drawn from the observations of his predecessors. For
it is impossible for one man, however busy and acute, to make so many obser-
vations during the course of a short life time as his aphorisms obviously require.
His philosophy, founded upon the Pythagorean, led him to put much confi-
dence in the value of numbers. Upon this was founded his faith in odd num-
bers, and his opinion respecting the periods and revolutions of diseases, and
certain days on which all the important changes took place. These memorable
days were called critical, and he lays down his regulations respecting them with
much pains and precision. Though the philosophy upon which these critical
days were founded has been long banished from medicine, the belief in critical
days is by no means laid aside. We find it still taught by some of the most re-
cent and most celebrated medical writers. It is an opinion however that can
neither be supported by reasoning nor observation; and would not have been al-
lowed to affect medical opinions for so long a period, had it not been for the un-
bounded reputation and real merit of the original introducer of it. For it may
be said with truth, that no man is able permanently to injure a science by the
introduction of absurdities, excepting one who has contributed essentially to its
progress and celebrity.
His physiological opinions deserve to be mentioned, because they have had
considerable influence upon the opinions of his successors, and because his
language still continues to be used by modern physiologists; even when they
are unacquainted with, or do not believe, the philosophy of Hippocrates. He
conceived that there was implanted in man a living principle, or soul, which
was only a part of quais, or nature, concerning which he speaks in the highest
terms. Nature," says he, "is alone sufficient to animals for all things. It
knows of itself all that is necessary for them, without requiring any instruction
or information." It governs the body by means of certain duvapes, or facul-
ties, which are subordinate to it, act from necessity, and perform the various
functions of the body, such as hearing, seeing, digesting, &c.
rr
The medical practice of Hippocrates was regulated by these opinions:
Nature, in all cases, performed the cure; the business of the physician was only
to look on, and register her operations. Accordingly, in his treatment of acute
diseases, he seldom administered any powerful remedies, at least at first, but
trusting entirely to the influence of nature, satisfed himself with regulating the
CHAP. II.]
153
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
diet and the dress of the patient. The body, according to Hippocrates, con-
tained four humours; namely, blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile. Disease
was occasioned by the undue accumulation of some one of these humours in
particular organs, or by the unnatural separation of these organs from each
other. The object of the physician was, to get rid of the peccant humour, and
for this purpose various evacuant remedies were applied: bleeding, purging,
blisters, or, at least sinapisms, diaphoretics, and diuretics. Certain medicines
were conceived to have the property of driving off certain humours, and they
were applied accordingly, when the disease was ascribed to the redundancy
or peccant nature of the particular humour. Bleeding was frequently carried
by Hippocrates, till it produced fainting; and all his purgatives, such as hele-
The use of
bore, scammony, verdigris, were of the most drastic nature.
leeches appears to have been unknown to him; but cupping-glasses, pretty
much as they are used at present, are very particularly described by him.
The surgery of Hippocrates, (for he practised at once all the different parts His surgery
of the medical art,) was as violent as his medical treatment was mild. The
actual cautery was very frequently applied on five or six parts of the body at
once, and the ulcers produced by this cruel remedy were kept open for a
considerable time by corrosive dressings. It is not necessary to describe his
mode of purging the head by violent sternutatories; nor of evacuating matter
from the lungs by exciting violent coughing.*
Hippocrates having taught the art of medicine to all persons without dis-
tinction, who chose to become his pupils, medicine was no longer, as formerly,
confined to a particular family, but spread itself, like philosophy, over all the
states of Greece. Thessalus and Draco, the two sons, and Polybius, the son-
in-law of Hippocrates, exercised the profession with eclat after the death of
their father; especially Polybius, who acquired a high reputation, and intro- Polybius.
duced, it is supposed, considerable changes into the practice of medicine, as
taught by his father-in-law. A considerable period elapsed after the death of
these men, before any physician of great eminence made his appearance.
Diocles indeed, who seems to have flourished not many years after the death
of that father of medicine, acquired such celebrity, that he was distinguished by
the Athenians by the name of the second Hippocrates; but as none of his
writings remain, we know little of his method of practice, or of his opinions.
Herophilus, who was a physician in Alexandria, during the reign of Ptolemy Herophilus &
Soter; and Erasistratus, physician to Antiochus, King .of Syria, made great
improvements in anatomy, or rather indeed laid the foundation of the science.
* The reader will find a very detailed account of the practice of Hippocrates, with a list of the
diseases that he describes, and all the medicines which he employed, in Le Clerc's Histoire de la
Medicine, p. 112—253.
Erasistratus.
X
154
[Book 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Division of
medicine.
Being permitted by their respective sovereigns to inspect the bodies of crimi-
nals, a practice before that time considered as impious, and never allowed;
they acquired, in consequence, a high reputation, and became in some mea-
sure the founders of sects, which bore their name and followed their opinions.
But as their writings have not come down to our times, all our knowledge of
their opinions and practice is derived from Galen.
About this period, or a little after, as we are informed by Celsus, medicine,
which had hitherto been all practised by one individual, came to be divided
into three distinct professions, namely, dietetics, pharmaceutics, and surgery.
Those who practised dietetics confined themselves to regulating the food of
their patients; upon a strict attention to which, they made the whole of medi-
cine depend. Those who practised pharmaceutics administered internal me-
dicines; while the practitioners of surgery confined their attention to
wounds, fractures, dislocations, ulcers, and other external diseases, to which
surgeons confine themselves at present. It is hardly possible that dietetics and
pharmaceutics should have been practised exclusively by different individuals;
for, in many cases, physicians would find it necessary both to regulate the food
of their patients, and to administer some medicines, in order to obviate certain
symptoms.
Soon after this period the Grecian physicians separated into two sects, as we
are informed by Celsus, who regulated their practice on quite different prin-
ciples. These were the empirics and the dogmatists. Both considered Hippo-
crates as their founder, and both seemed to do so with considerable justice.
The empirics. The empirics discarded philosophy from medicine, and made the art depend
upon experience alone. According to them, the physician has nothing to do
with the causes of diseases; he ought only to make himself acquainted with the
symptoms, and to determine by experience what is the proper method of cure.
The dogma- The dogmatists, on the other hand, considered philosophy and medicine as inse-
parably connected. They began always by investigating the cause of every
disease; and this cause, once known, led them, they conceived, to the only
rational and efficacious mode of cure.
tists.
Celsus gives us, in his preface, the reasoning by which these two sects sup-
ported their different opinions, at considerable length; and, in the conclusion
which he draws, he holds a medium between both; acknowledging that the
practice of medicine has been chiefly promoted by experience, but affirming
that reasoning, and even an investigation of the causes of disease, as far as
possible, ought not to be neglected by medical men. By this sensible decision
every person, we presume, will be disposed to abide; for though it must be
granted that reasoning goes but a very little way in guiding the practical phy-
sician; though it will hardly be denied that absurd attempts at philosophizing,
and inaccurate physiological theories, have much more frequently led physicians
CHAP. II.]
155
NATURAL HISTORY.→Zoology,
astray, and deranged their practice, than contributed to the advancement of
the medical art; though the improvements in anatomy, in chemistry, and in
science in general, have not contributed so much as might have been expected
to the improvement of medicine; yet we presume, that there is no person so
hardy or inconsiderate as to maintain that the science has made no progress since
the days of Hippocrates; or that no part of this progress has been owing to the
reasoning and investigations of medical men. Various important and indis-
putable improvements might be mentioned, sufficient to rescue the profession
from such severe stigmas; as for example, the use of mercury in the venereal
disease; the cool regimen in fevers; the use of bark in intermittents; the
method of preventing the spreading of contagion, and the diffusion of pesti-
lential diseases. Even in those maladies which medicine can do but little to
assuage, the progress of knowledge has made itself conspicuous, and has at
least contributed to alleviate the afflictions, and to sooth the distresses, of those
whom it cannot completely relieve.
These two sects continued to divide the medical world of Greece for several
centuries. Meanwhile Rome was advancing with gigantic steps to the empire
of the world. That city increased enormously in opulence and extent, and
held out a tempting bait to the needy literary men of Greece, who flocked to it
in great numbers. Among these was Asclepiades, of Praso, who came to Asclepiades.
Rome, as Pliny informs us, during the Mithridatic war. He at first attempted
to distinguish himself by teaching rhetoric, but was unsuccessful. He then
thought of commencing physician; and, having studied the art for some time,
considered his abilities as sufficient to raise him to distinction. Archagathus,
a Grecian physician, who had settled some time before at Rome, had been
driven from the city in consequence of the severity of his remedies. This was
sufficient to induce Asclepiades to adopt a contrary method. According to him,
patients ought to be cured safely, quickly, and agreeably. His medical pro-
ject succeeded beyond his hopes; he speedily rose to the highest reputation,
overturned the method of practice established by his predecessors, and raised
himself to the rank of a second Esculapius. His philosophy appears to have
been that of Epicurus and Democritus; and his remedies, according to Pliny,
were reducible to five kinds; namely, abstinence from animal food, abstinence
from wine, friction, walking, and riding, or gestation. His practice, as it has
been transmitted to us by the writings of Celsus, Galen, and Cælius Aurelianus,
hardly corresponds with the pretensions of Asclepiades, and appears scarcely
less severe than that of his predecessors.
*
Asclepiades seems rather entitled to be considered as an expert quack, than
Tutè, celeriter, et jucunde. Id votum est (says Celsus, Lib. III. Cap. 4.); sed fere periculosa
esse nimia, et festinatio, et voluptas solet.
X 2
156
[Book L
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Themison.
The pneuma-
tists.
as a skilful physician. This, indeed, is the character which Pliny ascribes to
him; but he had the merit of setting free his successors from the trammels of
antiquity, to which the medical art had been before that period bound. His
successors, though in some measure the disciples of Asclepiades, aspired to the
honour of thinking for themselves, and accordingly almost every subsequent
physician of eminence introduced some innovation. The most celebrated of
them all was Themison, who founded the sect of the methodists, who continued
to flourish with considerable lustre for several centuries.
*
Themison was of Laodicea, and, from what Celsus says of him, appears to
have lived and speculated about the beginning of the reign of Augustus. His
object was to point out an easy method of conveying the knowledge of medicine
to others. All diseases, according to him, might be reduced under three
classes; those which proceed from tension, those which proceed from relaxa-
tion, and those which proceed from a mixture of the two. Some diseases are
acute, others chronic; some go on increasing for a certain time, become station-
ary, and then diminish in the same way as they increased. The treatment
must differ according to the stage of the disease, and according to its acute or
chronic nature. Such was the small number of heads under which Themison
reduced all diseases; and according to him, every disease that belongs to the
same class, whatever be the organ afflicted, and whatever be the temperament
of the patient, is to be treated exactly in the same way. It was only necessary
after this to know to what class a disease belonged, and to be acquainted with
the remedies belonging to the class, to be able to treat it according to rule.
Thus, bleeding and purging were medicines appropriated to the diseases of
tension; cold water and refrigerants, to the diseases of relaxation. It deserves
to be mentioned, that Themison is the first physician who is recorded to have
employed leeches; but, as Cælius Aurelianus, from whom we derive this infor-
mation, does not mention the application of leeches as a new remedy, they
were probably employed by others before the time of Themison, though no
notice is any where taken of the time of their introduction.
There is another sect of physicians known by the name of pneumatists, which
originated with Atheneus, a native of Cilicia, who appears to have lived during
the reign of Trajan. He believed, with the stoics, that a certain intelligent
principle, or TVEUμα, pervaded every living creature;t and diseases were
* The Greek terms Themison used, were φλεγμον, στέγνωσις, τασις, ρωσις, συναγωγή, πυκνωσις, which
I translate tension ; and ροωδες, ρύσις, χαλασις, αλονιά, χυσις, αραίωσις, which I translate relaxation.
+ Though this doctrine was only introduced into medicine by Atheneus, it had been long very
generally received by the philosophers and poets. Thus Virgil says,
Principio cœlum, ac terras, camposque liquentes,
Lucentemque globum lunæ, Titaniaque astra,
Spiritus intus alit: totamque, infusa per artus,
Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet,
CHAP. II.]
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
157
occasioned by every thing which incommoded or injured this living principle,
Οι πνεύμα. The only writer belonging to this sect, whose works remain, is
Aritæus, of Capadocia. His description of diseases possesses great merit; but
his practice is not inferior, in point of violence, to that of any physician of
antiquity. In various cases, the disease itself seems to have been more tolerable
than the cure.
Celsus, who lived during the Augustan age, and who seems from his book Celsus.
to have been a physician, though the contrary has been maintained by some,
has left us a system of medicine, written with much elegance of style, and
abounding in the soundest sense and the most accurate observations. It is by
far the most unexceptionable system which antiquity has left us. Celsus does
not appear to have attached himself to any sect, but to have adopted the eclectic
principles, and to have culled from all what was the most valuable in each.
He has given us also a good deal of historical information. Several of the pre-
ceding observations have been taken from him.
But the most celebrated of all the ancient physicians, Hippocrates excepted, Galen
is Galen, who was born in Pergamus, a city of Asia Minor, in the year 131
of our æra, and during the reign of the Emperor Adrian. He flourished during
the reign of the Antonines; which may be considered as the golden age of the
Roman empire. Galen was possessed of an independent fortune. His father,
who was himself a philosopher, initiated him early in the learning of the times,
and his own ardour was quite insatiable. He attached himself to medicine as
his favourite study, and such was his industry and abilities that he collected into
one body all the knowledge of his predecessors; added many new facts to their
store, and thus completed, it may be said, the whole body of ancient medicine.
Hippocrates was the standard whom he professed to follow. The medical sects
which had risen since the time of that illustrious father of medicine, he con-
sidered as injurious innovations, and attacked them accordingly. His writings
are so numerous and so various, that it would be impossible to give any idea
of his opinions, without going greatly beyond the limits which have been
assigned to this work. We shall therefore satisfy ourselves with referring to
Le Clerc, who has given a very full and accurate account of the medical opinions
of Galen.*
His
Galen was the last of the Greek physicians that deserve to be mentioned.
successors, confounded at the vastness of his knowledge, made no attempts to
increase it, but satisfied themselves with consulting the ample stores which he
had provided. Science in Greece lost its lustre, and made no progress. The
writings of her ancient sages were locked up in libraries or monasteries, and
hardly consulted. Superstition laid her iron hand upon the nation, and crushed
Hist. de la Medicine. Part III.
5
158
[ВООК 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
her beyond the possibility of recovery. Meanwhile, the sciences began to raise
The Arabians. their heads in another and an unexpected quarter of the world. After the Ma-
hometans had extended their empire from the banks of the Ganges to the Pil-
lars of Hercules, and the Atlantic Ocean, their Caliphs, seated on the borders
of the Euphrates, began to excite a spirit of inquiry, and a taste for the
sciences, among their courtiers and subjects. The works of the ancient Grecks
were sought for with avidity, and translated into Arabic.
Among the sciences which the Arabians cultivated, medicine holds a distin-
guished place. They cultivated it with much success; and, different from what
happened in the other sciences, the Arabian physicians considerably out-
stripped their Grecian masters in the mildness and efficacy of the new remedies
which they administered. This was partly owing to the country in which they
lived, and partly to the knowledge of chemistry, which they cultivated with
some success. We are indebted to them for several of the mildest and best pur-
gatives in the materia medica; such as manna, senna, rhubarb; we owe to
them our knowledge of distillation, and of various compound medicines, manu-
factured by means of the still. They likewise introduced sugar, which soon
superseded the use of honey, which had been formerly employed by the Grecian
physicians.
As to the theory of medicine, the Arabians made no additions or changes in
it, but satisfied themselves with copying their Grecian masters.
But some
diseases are described by them which appear to have been unknown to the
Greeks and Romans. The small-por and measles may be mentioned as exam-
ples. These dreadful diseases seem to have been formerly confined to the
eastern and southern regions of the earth, and to have made their way into
Europe, and the cultivated parts of Asia, in consequence of the conquests of
the Saracens. The small-pox has now made its way to every inhabited part of
the globe, and, in its ravages, proves more destructive to the human race than
any other disease whatever.
The most celebrated of the Arabian physicians were Rhazes, Avicenna, and
Mesué, who lived between the tenth and twelfth centuries. It is in their
writings that we find the first details concerning chemical medicines. Avicenna,
for example, describes rose water; and Mesué gives us the process for making
a distilled oil, which he calls oil of bricks. We may therefore date the period
at which chemical medicines were introduced into pharmacy, about the year
1000 of the Christian æra.
Medicine in It was from the Arabians chiefly, in consequence of their literary establish-
Europe during
the dark ages. ments in Spain, that the rude nations in Europe, during the middle ages,
acquired any information. Hence their physicians were the great authorities
who decided all disputes, and directed the practice of the medical men in
Europe. Avicenna, who was the most celebrated of the Arabians, ruled with
6
CHAP. II.]
159
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
despotic sway for several centuries, in all our schools; and to doubt or decline
his authority was considered as the most unpardonable of all heresies. Galen,
known in Europe through the impure channel of an Arabian translation,
enjoyed an equal authority. The medicine of Europe then, during the dark
ages, was all drawn from the writings of Galen and Avicenna. Their opinions,
on every subject, were embraced without appeal; their descriptions of diseases
were alone current; and their medicines only were administered.
of Galen and
Anatomy had the merit of first shaking the throne of this redoubted duumvirate, The dominion
and of setting loose the opinions of medical men, and leaving them to be guided Avicenna
by reason and experience. A spirit of inquiry had arisen in Europe, excited, or overthrown.
at least prodigiously increased, by the new religious opinions of Luther and
his followers. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks had driven the
literary men from that capital into Italy, and they brought with them a know-
ledge of their own language, and of the inestimable writings of their ancestors.
These excellent works supplied the ravenous appetites of the European literary
men with the most substantial food. The Greek physicians were studied, trans-
lated, and commented upon. The writings and opinions of Hippocrates
became known; Galen was studied in his own language, and free from many
of the gross faults with which the Arabians had loaded him. This itself was a
reformation, but it was not sufficient. The anatomical knowledge of Galen
was still looked up to as perfect, and his opinions acceded to in consequence,
without discussion. At last Vesalius, of Brussels, a man of independent for-
tune, and so enthusiastic an admirer of anatomy that he used to rob the gibbets,
and dissect the bodies in his bed-room, affirmed that Galen's knowledge of
anatomy was derived from the dissection of quadrupeds, and not of human
bodies; that it was inaccurate in many particulars; and, to prove the truth of
his assertions, published a System of Anatomy of his own, at the age of twenty-
seven. This produced a violent controversy: the admirers of Galen and Avi-
cenna took the alarm, examined the pretensions of the young anatomist, sifted
his performance, and loaded it with abuse. But the anatomy of Vesalius,
though not entirely free from those very faults of which he had accused Galen,
stood this ordeal without injury, and was speedily acknowledged infinitely
superior to every preceding system of anatomy. This successful work deprived
Galen of much of his authority; and, notwithstanding several spirited attempts
to revive his lost credit, his pathology and physiology were gradually discarded
from the schools of medicine.
Chemistry was the first science that attempted to take possession of the vacant Chemical
throne. The Arabian physicians had introduced chemical medicines, and the medicine.
practice of chemistry into pharmacy; and Raymond Lully, Arnoldus de Villa
Nova, Basil Valantine, and a few other European alchymists, had made some
important additions to the list of chemical medicines; but the person who first.
160
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
attempted to render chemistry paramount in medicine, and to explain the whole
Paracelsus. of physiology upon chemical principles, was Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus
Paracelsus Bombastus ab Hohenheim, one of the most extraordinary and unac-
countable men that ever existed. He was born in Einsidlen, in Switzerland,
in the year 1493. His father is supposed to have been a medical man, and he
instructed him, as Paracelsus informs us himself, in all the medical knowledge
of antiquity. He learned the practice of chemistry from Sigismond Fugerus,
a German of some celebrity, who took him as a pupil. He travelled through
most of the countries of Europe, and consulted indifferently, as he informs us
himself, physicians, old women, conjurors, and chemists. After this extra-
ordinary education, he commenced the practice of medicine, at a very early age,
and with the most unbounded applause. He was invited by the magistrates to
Basil, and delivered medical lectures in that city for about two years. At the
end of that time he quarreled with the magistrates about a medical fee, left the
town, rambled over Germany in a state of continual dissipation, and at last
died at Saltzburg, in the forty-eighth year of his age. His works, printed in
two large folios, consist of such a monstrous tissue of absurdities, that it is next
to impossible to develope his opinions. His practice was wholly chemical, and
his medicines almost all drawn from the laboratory. He was a believer in magic,
and anxious to pass for a profound magician. He affirmed that he had received
a letter from Galen, dated in the infernal regions; and that he had held a dis-
putation with Avicenna concerning his potable gold. He believed in the exist-
ence of a universal medicine, which he called a quintessence, extracted from all
things, and capable of curing all diseases. He affirms that he was in possession
of this grand arcanum, and gives various examples of the prodigies which it
had performed in his hands. But he allowed that it was difficult to obtain it.
and on that account points out various medicines for particular diseases, more
easily procurable. One method of discovering these remedies was, by observing
the signature of each plant; thus, the cuphrasia officinalis, having a mark on
its blossom similar to the eye, indicates, by that signature, that it is a remedy
provided by nature for sore eyes. In like manner, the leaf of the scrofularia
officinalis, having some resemblance to the texture of the lungs, indicated its
fitness for curing the diseases of that important organ. He affirmed that the
human body was a microcosm, or little world; and that parts bearing a strong
analogy to all the parts of the great world might be traced in it. He made
certain organs of the body connected with the planets and with the metals, and
hence conceived that the diseases of each would be cured by the metals which
they represent. Thus, the heart was connected with the sun, and with gold;
the brain, with the moon, and with silver; the kidneys and testacles, with
Venus, and copper; and the spleen, with Saturn, and lead.
He affirmed that all things were produced from an original prime matter,
CHAP. II.]
161
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
which was itself destitute of form, and of consequence invisible: that the
seeds of all things were created at the beginning, but remain invisible, and wrap-
ped up in this prime matter, till called out and brought to light by the agency of
a divine being whom he calls Archæus. The elements of things, he affirmed, were
not fire, air, water, and earth, as had been taught by the Greeks; but salt,
sulphur, and mercury, a set of principles obviously borrowed from his prede-
cessors the alchymists. Anatomy, as commonly taught, or the figure and posi-
tion of the different organs of the body, he considered as a useless piece of
knowledge. But the real and important anatomy was the chemical analysis of
the different organs of the body, in order to determine the proportion of salt,
sulphur, and mercury, which each of them contain, and the changes of these
proportions produced by age or disease. He describes, at some length, the par-
ticular discases occasioned by the prevalence of any of these principles in par-
ticular organs. Such seem to be the most important principles scattered through
the writings of Paracelsus. But his writings abound so much in barbarous
terms of his own coining, not accompanied by any explanation, that in various
places they are not to be understood. In all probability he did not himself un-
derstand what he dictated; but was induced to publish unintelligible jargon, in
order to maintain and extend the impressions in his favour, which had already
produced such important effects in those countries which he frequented. He
openly laid claim to the monarchy of medicine, and the most extraordinary
stories were propagated of the wonderful cures which he performed, little short,
many of them, of miraculous. But Libavius, who was himself a chemist of
eminence, and well qualified to form an accurate judgment of his conduct, has
given us a very different account. According to him, he seldom succeeded in
curing his patients: many were deceived by false hopes, and many were de-
stroyed by his remedies.
The monarchy, which Paracelsus flattered himself that he had established,
scarcely outlived the founder. His disciples were lost in the mazes of his absur-
dities and enigmas. Though Crollius, and a few others, propped up the credit
of the Paracelsine doctrines for some years, and though Van Helmont, desti-
tute as he was of imposture, and possessed of original genius, lent them a
favourable hearing, they contained so many inherent contradictions and incom-
patibilities, that they were gradually abandoned by all the world, before the
short-lived influence of chemical theory had time to produce any great or per-
manent effect upon the reasoning and language of medical men.
medicine.
Soon after the era of Paracelsus and his reveries, mathematics came to be Mathematical
cultivated with much ardour and success in almost every part of southern
Europe. During the whole of the 17th century mathematical discoveries of
importance followed each other in quick succession, till the science at length.
engrossed the exclusive attention of literary men. Physicians, who have never
Y
162
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Living prin-
ciple inro-
duced.
been behind their contemporaries in knowledge, were naturally induced to study
this all-powerful science, which lent its aid to every other, and successfully de-
veloped the principles of all. The consequence of this soon became conspicu-
ous in their practice and reasoning. The human body was converted into a
complicated machine, all the movements of which were regulated by the most
rigid mathematical laws. Borelli calculated the force of the muscles, and the
degree of contraction which they underwent in moving the bones. The dis-
covery of the circulation by Harvey enabled them to calculate the force of the
heart and arteries, the velocity of the blood, and the quantity of it which exists
in different animals. The blood vessels were converted into hydraulical engines,
the laws of which were explained according to the principles of hydrostatics.
Discases were accounted for by the globules of the blood, and other fluids, being
forced into vessels of too small a diameter; and the salutary effect of different
medicines was readily explained by the power which they had to diminish the
size of the globules of the blood. Every thing, in short, was accounted for on
mathematical principles; and treatises of medicine were filled with all the
technical terms of mathematicians, and every proposition underwent a systema-
tic demonstration.
The celebrated Pitcairn, first a Professor at Leyden, and afterwards at Edin-
burgh, was one of the most conspicuous of these mathematical physicians. The
doctrine was also embraced by Boerhaave, and supported by all his eloquence,
and by the far-famed celebrity of his name. Dr. Keill, Dr. Jurin, Dr. Friend,
and even Dr. Hales, were likewise conspicuous supporters of mathematical me-
dicine, and contributed by their writings to give it eclat, or to support its
credit.
But these erroneous notions, however specious, or however propped up by
celebrated names, could not always maintain their credit. The dissimilarity
between the living body and a mechanical engine was too great, and the impos-
sibility of accounting for all the functions on these principles was too glaring to
escape, for any length of time, the penetration or the attention of the medical
world. Two celebrated physicians in Germany, even during the period of their
greatest celebrity, had refused their assent to the mathematical theories of medi-
cine. These were Hoffman and Stahl; two men who left a very high reputation
behind them, and who still retain many adherents in various parts of Europe.
They saw the great influence of the brain, spinal marrow, and nerves, upon all
the functions and actions of the living body, and the impossibility of explain-
ing this influence by any suppositions which reduced the living body to a mere
mechanical machine. Stahl had recourse to a living principle, or soul, by
means of which he accounted for all the functions of the living body; and he
founded upon this physiological explanation a system of medical doctrines. pos-
sessed of much ingenuity, but at the same time abundantly intricate and ob-
CHAP II.]
163
NATURAL HISTORY.-Zoology.
scure. Hoffman had recourse to a principle of irritability residing in certain Doctrine of
solids, a principle connected with, and depending on, the nerves, and which irritability
enabled him to remove the seat of disease from the liquids, where it had been
uniformly placed by all preceding medical men, and to consider it as residing
in the solids. The theory of Hoffman was embraced, with some limitations, by
the celebrated Dr. Cullen, who taught it for many years in the University of
Edinburgh. His theory of fever, of which he has given an outline in his work,
entitled, First Lines of the Practice of Medicine, is obviously a modification
of the doctrine of Hoffman.
Neither ought the doctrine of Brown, which attracted so much attention, Brunonian
and acquired so much celebrity in consequence of its apparent simplicity, to be system.
considered in any other light than as a scion sprouting from the doctrine of
Hoffman. John Brown, the author of this system, resided long in Edinburgh,
and supported himself by teaching medical pupils. He was at first patronized
by Dr. Cullen, but afterwards quarrelled with him. He was a man of un-
doubted genius, but involved himself in various imprudences, which prevented
his success in life, and kept him in continual poverty. His system, like that of
the Methodists of old, has for its object to facilitate the method of practising
medicine, and certainly exceeds all others in that respect. It reduces all dis-
eases to two classes, and of course two methods of treatment will answer for all
maladies whatever. The different organs of the body, according to the Bruno-
nian doctrine, in order to perform the functions for which they were destined,
require to be in a state of excitement, and this excitement is produced by stimu-
lants. Health, and even life itself, depends upon the different organs being in
their proper degree of excitement. When the stimulants are too powerful or
too long continued, they at first produce an excessive degree of excitement, but
this state gradually exhausts itself, and the organ is left in a state of debility,
either with too little excitement or with none at all. According to this very
convenient doctrine all medicines are reduced to those which produce excite-
ment, and those which diminish it. Or, according to the most orthodox class
of Brunonians, all medicines are reduced to stimulants alone.
Darwin.
The only other medical doctrine which has appeared in this country is the System of
Zoonomia of Dr. Darwin, a most claborate work which is not very susceptible
of abridgment. I consider it as merely the Brunonian doctrine under a dis-
guised form, introduced with a greater parade of learning and science. The
great number of new terms which it contains makes it a very irksome task to
peruse it. Great pains are taken, throughout, to discard every appearance of a
living principle, and to establish medical practice on the broad and vulgar basis
of materialism.
Such is a short sketch of the history of medicine down to our own time.
From a view of the whole we are entitled to conclude, that medicine, if we
Y 2
164
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Medical pa-
pers in the
Transactions.
Sydenhami.
consider it as a science, has made very little progress since the days of Hippo-
crates. New theories indeed, and new modes of explanation, have successively
appeared in abundance; but they have been all equally visionary and absurd,
and have vanished without leaving any traces behind them. If we attend to
the opinions and writings of the medical men of the present day, we find a
propensity among some to restore the exploded chemical doctrines of Paracelsus,
amended, of course, and improved. Others lean pretty strongly to the humoral
doctrines of the ancients, obviously in consequence of the strong bias which
the popular systems of Hoffman and Cullen gave medicine, to direct the whole
of its attention to the solids. On the other hand, if we view medicine as an art,
it has undergone great and progressive improvements. The materia medica has
been gradually almost entirely changed; and the present mode of treating pa-
tients, though perhaps not less efficacious than that of the ancients, is infinitely
superior in every thing that concerns the feelings of the patient. The im-
provements in surgery are not less evident and important.
The medical papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount to no fewer
than 478, and constitute no small proportion of the whole work. Of these
201 belong to the department of medicine, and 277 to that of surgery. They
are of very various merit, as must be expected in such a collection. Indeed
there are no fewer than 283 which, in the present state of these arts, may be
safely considered as possessed of very little value. The remaining 195 are upon
the most miscellaneous subjects. All of them deserve the closest examination of
medical men.
But, as they are neither capable of classification nor abridgment,
a full account of them could not be given here without occupying a much
greater space than would be consistent either with the nature of this work, or
with the patience of our readers. I shall therefore satisfy myself with noticing
a few of the most prominent articles.
*
I. One of the most eminent physicians that England has produced was Dr.
Sydenham, the patron and friend of Sir Hans Sloane. An analysis of his work
on fevers occurs in an early volume of the Transactions. The great merit of
this celebrated physician consists in the accurate descriptions which he has left
us of several diseases which first became conspicuous in his time. His account
of the small-pox, and of his medical treatment of that disease, is admirable, and
contributed in no small degree to establish his celebrity. He was the first per-
son who introduced the cooling regimen in fevers, a method of treatment fre-
quently attended with the happiest effects. Though it must be acknowledged,
that he did not sufficiently distinguish between the typhus and the inflammatory
fever, and on that account he sometimes carried his bleedings to an excess. He
contributed also essentially to introduce the Peruvian bark as a cure for inter-
mittents.
* Vol. I. p. 210.
CHAP. II.]
165
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
II. Cantharides, as an internal remedy, were employed by Hippocrates, Cantharides.
though the application of them externally in blisters was not introduced till
long after. Hippocrates seems to have considered them as efficacious in cases of
disuria. There is a very remarkable instance of their efficacy in that very trou-
blesome disease, recorded in the Philosophical Transactions by Mr. Yonge.* A
lady, 54 years of age, long tormented by fits of the stone, and afterwards afflicted
with dropsy, soon after being cured of the latter disease fell into a total sup-
pression of urine, which continued for many days, and baffled all remedies. Mr.
Yonge at last gave her five cantharides without head, wings, or legs, weighing
four grains and a half. These were made up into two pills, with an equal quan-
tity of camphor. Next day about noon the flood came, and continued for 48
hours, during which she voided an immense quantity of urine, and her disease
went off without any bad symptoms whatever.
III. The small-pox is so dreadful a distemper, and so universally diffused over Small-pox.
the surface of the earth, that every thing respecting its medical treatment claims
particular attention, and rises to a degree of importance which no other disease
can command. The cow-pox, so happily substituted for it by Dr. Jenner,
would indeed eradicate this pestilential distemper in a very few years, if it could
be universally adopted. But this, we fear, is not likely speedily to take place.
Even in the streets of London, the city which may be considered as the centre
and source from which vaccination originated, small-pox patients are to be met
with in numbers. Much more likely are they to abound in distant countries,
where the new substitute can only make its way by slow and imperceptible steps.
There is an excellent paper on the treatment of the small-pox, by the celebrated
Dr. Huxham, of Plymouth, in an early volume of the Philosophical Transac
tions. This paper contains many valuable observations on the medical treat-
ment of the small-pox. Dr. Huxham particularly inculcates the necessity of
keeping the bowels open; and gives some striking examples of the good effects
arising from that practice. Indeed the propriety, and even the necessity, of this
practice is now very generally known. The disease very seldom ends fatally,
when the bowels have been kept uniformly and regularly open.
in fevers.
IV. The efficacy of cold water in fevers has been inculcated by the oldest Cold water
physicians. It was a remedy even employed by Hippocrates. It was not, how-
ever, used by the Greek physicians in enormous quantities, or to the exclusion
of all other remedies; but a new method of using it was introduced into Naples
about the year 1729; an account of which is given in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, by Dr. Cyrillus, of Naples. The patient was kept without food, and
made to drink from one to two pints of water, cooled with snow, every two
* Phil. Trans. 1702. Vol. XXIII. p. 1210.
Ibid. Vol. XXXVI. p. 142,
+ Phil. Trans. 1725. Vol. XXXII. p. 379.
4
166
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Spontaneous
combustion.
hours, day and night, except when asleep. This practice was persisted in
for three days, or even longer if the fever required it. Some cases are stated,
in which it was persisted in for ten days. The use of food, during the adminis-
tration of the water, was considered as injurious. In general, the water kept
the bowels open; but if it did not, it was thought requisite to keep them open
either by administering injections or almond oil. When sweats broke out, it
was requisite to check them; and if nothing else would do, the administration
of the cold water was to be laid aside. This method, though strongly
recommended by Dr. Cyrillus, and though warmly panegyrized in the
year 1722, by Dr. Hancock, was never much practised in this country. But
the external use of cold water in fevers, which seems to depend upon the same
principle, has been warmly recommended by Dr. Wright, and by the late Dr.
Curric, of Liverpool; whose publication on the subject attracted considerable
notice, and gave the practice currency and celebrity.
rr
V. There are several very remarkable examples recorded of persons taking
fire, and being burned to ashes, without any visible cause. A very striking
instance is given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1745,* from an Italian
treatise, by Joseph Bianchini, a Prebend in the city of Verona, where the
accident happened. The Countess Cornelia Bandi, in the sixty-second year
of her age, was all day as well as she used to be, but at night was observed,
when at supper, dull and heavy. She retired, was put to bed, where she passed
three hours or more in familiar discourses with her maid, and in some prayers;
at last falling asleep, the door was shut. In the morning, the maid taking
notice that her mistress did not awake at the usual hour, went into the bed-
chamber and called her; but not being answered, doubting some ill accident,
opened the window, and saw the corpse of her mistress in the deplorable con-
dition following:
Co
th
Four feet distance from the bed there was an heap of ashes, two legs un-
touched, from the foot to the knee, with their stockings on between them
was the lady's head; whose brains, half of the back part of the scull, and the
whole chin, were burnt to ashes; among which were found three fingers
blackened. All the rest was ashes, which had this peculiar quality, that they
left in the hand, when taken up, a greasy and stinking moisture. The air in
the room was also observed cumbered with soot floating in it: a small oil lamp
on the floor was covered with ashes, but no oil in it: two candles in candle-
sticks, on a table, stood upright; the cotton was left in both, but the tallow
was gone and vanished; somewhat of moisture was about the feet of the candle-
sticks the bed received no damage: the blankets and sheets were only raised
on one side, as when a person rises up from it, or goes in the whole furni
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIII. p. 417.
4
CHAP. II.J
167
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
ture, as well as the bed, was spread over with moist and ash-coloured soot, which
had penetrated into the chest of drawers, even to foul the linen; nay, the soot
was also gone into a neighbouring kitchen, and hung on the walls, movcables,
and utensils of it. From the pantry a piece of bread, covered with that soot
and grown black, was given to the dogs, which refused to eat it.
In the room
above it was noticed, that from the lower part of the windows trickled down a
greasy, loathsome, yellowish liquor; and thereabout they smelt a stink, with-
out knowing of what, and saw the soot fly around."
Such is the account of this extraordinary phenomenon, as given in the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Several other examples of similar deaths are recorded
in the same paper; and in the same volume of the Transactions, there is an
account of a woman at Ipswich, who perished in the same extraordinary man-
ner, during the spring of 1744. Several similar cases have occurred since that
period, both in Britain and on the Continent. It is remarkable that all the
cases recorded happened in the night, and when no spectator whatever was
present. The sufferers had, usually, either a lamp or a candle. But all the
circumstances render it impossible for us to conclude that they were destroyed
in consequence of their clothes catching fire, for most of them were undressed;
and portions of their clothes always escaped entirely, which could not very well
have happened if they had caught fire first. The phenomenon itself is still
unexplained. All the attempts to account for it are extremely nugatory, and
deserve no attention whatever.
per.
VI. The dreadful consequences of confined and stagnant air, in places Jail distem
crowded with inhabitants, are now universally known, and carefully guarded
against, both in prisons and ships. But prisons were formerly so small,
crowded, and ill contrived, as to be exceedingly injurious to the health of the
miserable wretches who were doomed to languish in them. The consequence
was a malignant and most infectious fever, well known by the name of the jail
distemper. In the year 1750, the Lord Mayor of London, two of the Judges,
and an Alderman on the Bench, in consequence of the state of the felons tried
at the Old Bailey Sessions, were seized with this fatal distemper, and died.
This induced the magistrates of London to resolve upon attempting to render
Newgate more healthy; and they consulted Dr. Hales and Sir John Pringle,
about the method which they should follow. Dr. Hales recommended the use
of his ventilator; a machine contrived to pump out the air of any place, and
thus occasion a perpetual renovation of it. The machine was accordingly
erected, and the salutary effects became speedily apparent. The deaths in
Newgate were reduced from seven or eight a week, to about two in a month.
Eleven men were employed in crecting the ventilator, and of these no fewer
than seven were seized with the jail distemper. A very interesting account of
the cases of these men, and of the mode of treatment, was drawn up by Sir
4
168
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Dropsy
Blisters in
fever with
cough.
phor.
John Pringle, and published in the Philosophical Transactions.* From this
account, the very infectious nature of the fever is obvious. One of the men
died, and the whole of his family, one after another, were seized with the
disease. They all recovered except his mother-in-law, to whom it proved fatal.
It was the enlightened exertions of Dr. Hales and Sir John Pringle, that first
turned the attention of mankind, in a forcible manner, to the importance of ven-
tilation, which led to the subsequent improvements introduced into our ships,
and our prisons, by Cooke and Howard.
VII. There are few diseases less under the control of the physician than
dropsies. They most frequently proceed from an exhausted constitution, which
nothing in the power of the physician is able to restore and invigorate. Every
successful mode of treating this disease, therefore, claims the particular attention
of medical men. There is a very simple method of treatment described in the
Philosophical Transactions, by Dr. Oliver,† which proved successful in three
different cases; and which, from its simplicity and gentle stimulating nature,
seems to promise as fairly as any other to restore the lost tone of the dropsical
parts. This method is nothing else than friction. The diseased part is rubbed
every day for an hour with sallad oil, by means of a warm hand. In a few
days the quantity of urine increases, and the parts resume their usual tone.
VIII. The next medical paper which we shall notice, is by the celebrated
Dr. Whytt, of Edinburgh. He points out the great advantage of blisters, in
cases of fever attended with cough, occasioned by an accumulation of pituitous
matter in the lungs, when the pulse is so small, and the strength so exhausted,
that the patient cannot well bear bleeding. In such cases, blisters always lower
the pulse in a remarkable degree; and when sufficiently large, and often enough
repeated, seldom fail to remove the disease.‡
Effect of cam- IX. A remarkable experiment made by Mr. Alexander, a surgeon, in Edin-
burgh, on the effect which camphor produces when swallowed as a medicine,
is described in the Philosophical Transactions ;§ and deserves to be noticed as
a warning to medical men, respecting the quantity of that substance which
may be swallowed at a time with impunity. Disputes existing at the time
whether camphor increased or diminished the heat of the body, Mr. Alexander
resolved to make an experiment on himself, in order to resolve the point. He
swallowed one scruple of camphor, and found that it produced no sensible
change on the heat of the body; but it lowered the pulse a few beats per minute.
Next day he swallowed two scruples of camphor: the effects at first were the same
as on the preceding day; but he gradually became giddy and confused, and at
last wholly lost his recollection, and was seized with convulsions. His pulse
* Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 42.
Ibid. 1758. Vol. V. p. 569.
+ Phil. Trans. 1756. Vol. XLIX.
Ibid. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 65.
P. 46.
10
CHAP. II.J
169
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
rose to 100 in a minute. Dr. Monro being sent for, and the cause of the dis-
order accidentally discovered by means of a written paper on the table, he was
made to vomit, and gradually recovered his senses. But, for a long time, his
intellect continued confused and unsteady. He was seized with a violent
head-ache, but after a night's sleep he found himself quite recovered. From
this case, it would appear that camphor, in small doses, acts as a sedative;
while in larger doses it is a powerful and dangerous stimulant.
thod of pre-
crew.
X. The remarkable state of health which the crews of Captain Cooke's ships Cooke's me-
enjoyed, during his long and memorable voyages of discovery, when contrasted serving the
with the dreadful ravages committed by the scurvy upon the crews of former health of his
ships, when long out at sea, is a convincing proof of the great importance of
a proper attention to the food of the seamen, and to the cleanliness and ventila-
tion of the vessel. Captain Cooke has given an account of the method which he
employed, in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions;* for which
he was rewarded with the Copleyan Medal. His men were furnished with a
certain quantity of fresh wort every day; they had a stock of sour crout; sugar
was substituted for oil; and wheat flour for oatmeal. The men were always
plentifully supplied with fresh water, and with fresh animal and vegetable food,
wherever it was to be procured. They were at three watches, and when wet
had always dry clothes to put on. Great care was taken to keep the ship clean;
and fires were frequently burnt in the well and between decks, in order to pro-
duce a proper ventilation. Captain Cooke considers the practice of sprinkling
vinegar upon the decks as of very little use; and there can be no doubt what-
ever, from the experiments which have been made upon the subject, that this
liquor, though more expensive, is not in the least more efficacious as a detergent
than mere water. It might be laid aside in the navy without impropriety, and
would occasion a considerable saving.
XI. The remaining papers which we mean to notice are more closely con-
nected with surgery than with medicine. Indeed, the number of important
surgical papers in the Transactions is much greater than of medical, strictly
so called. One of the most dreadful diseases to which mankind are subject, is
the stone. The only cure is the extraction of the calculus, and this is generally
a radical cure; though the operation sometimes terminates fatally. There is
reason to believe, that the calculi first form in the kidney; that they pass along
the ureter, while only of a small size; and being deposited in the bladder, gra-
dually increase in bulk. Sometimes, however, they remain in the kidney, and
occasion a most excruciating and hopeless disease; because the kidneys lie so
deep, and are so situated, that it is extremely difficult to cut into them, or to
perform the operation called nephrotomy. There is one successful case, however, Case of ne
phrotomy.
• Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 402.
Ꮓ
170
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Trachæa cut
through and
healed.
of the performance of this desperate operation, recorded in the Philosophical
Transactions; and as it is almost singular in its nature, we could not with pro-
pricty pass it over in silence. Mr. Hobson, the English Consul at Venice,
having been long afflicted with the stone in the kidney, was at length attacked
with a fit of such duration and violence, that it reduced him almost to despera-
tion; and finding no relief from any means that had been used, he determined
to apply himself to Dominic de Marchetti, a famed and experienced practitioner
at Padua; intreating him to cut the stone out of his kidney; being fully per-
suaded that no other method remained capable of relieving him. Marchetti
represented the extreme difficulty of the operation; that he had never attempted
it; and that it would in all probability destroy him. But Mr. Hobson per-
sisting, he was at length prevailed upon to undertake it. He began with his
knife cutting gradually upon the region of the kidney, till the blood disturbed
the operation, so that he could not finish it at that attempt; wherefore, dress-
ing the wound till the next day, he then resumed and completed the operation;
and, taking out of the kidney two or three small stones, he dressed up the
wound. From this instant Mr. Hobson was freed from the severity of his
pain, and in a reasonable time was able to walk about his chamber, having
been in no danger either from flux of blood or fever. The wound refused to
heal, became fistulous, and a small quantity of urine was constantly discharged
from it. Some time after, his wife, while dressing it, took out another small stone,
of the figure and magnitude of a date stone; after the removal of which he felt
no more pain whatever. He recovered his health perfectly, merely covered the
place with a linen cloth to receive the urinous discharge, and could ride 40
miles a day without inconvenience.*
XII. There is a very remarkable case recorded in the Philosophical Transactions,
of Nicholas Hobb, a man aged about sixty-three, who was set upon by ruffians,
knocked down, had his trachea cut somewhat below the pomum Adami, together
with several large blood-vessels; and, after being robbed, was left for dead.
After some time he recovered so much sense and strength as to thrust his neck-
cloth into the wound, and to crawl to his own house, which was at no great
distance. Mr. Keen, a surgeon in the neighbourhood, was called: he found
the two parts of the trachea at a great distance from each other; however by
raising his feet above his head he contrived to bring them near each other, and
sewed up the enormous wound. The stitches repeatedly gave way, but were
as often renewed, and in process of time new flesh granulated; pieces of bone
from the osseous cartilages of the trachea were discharged, and the wound
finally closed. The man was as well as ever, in most respects; only the epiglottis
did not exactly cover the rima of the larynx as at first, so that he was obliged
* Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 333.
3
CHAP. II.]
171
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
to use some precautions in swallowing liquids, and even solid food, to prevent
them from making their way into the trachæa.*
Dr. Musgrave, on the authority of this case, recommends the propriety of
laryngotomy in all cases where diseases in the throat threaten suffocation. There
can be no doubt of the propriety of the recommendation; and, at present, sur-
geons perform the operation without hesitation wherever it is necessary.
for the small-
, pox.
XIII. The method of inoculating for the small-pox, now so universally Inoculation
known, was first introduced at Constantinople by the Circassians, Georgians,
and other Asiatic nations, about the year 1670. People were at first shy in
imitating the example of these men; but, perceiving the good effects which re-
sulted from the practice, it gradually made its way into general use. The first
account of this practice was published in the Philosophical Transactions for
1714, in two different papers. The first was a letter from Emanuel Timoni,† au
Italian, who at that time practised medicine at Constantinople. The second
account was written by Jacob Pylarini,‡ a native of Cephalonia, who practised
medicine successively in Constantinople, Smyrna, and Moscow, and was like-
wise Venetian Consul at Smyrna. His account is more minute than that of
Timoni, and he seems to have had an active hand in bringing the practice into
repute in Turkey. Inoculation began to be practised in London soon after the
publication of these papers. But it made its way exceedingly slowly in conse-
quence of the violent prejudices which it had to combat. In the year 1722,
Dr. Nettleton began to try it at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and he published a de-
tail of his proceedings in the Philosophical Transactions. It had been like-
wise introduced into New England. The whole number inoculated in Eng-
land by the year 1722 amounted, according to Dr. Jurin, to 182. Of these
two died. Dr. Jurin, in an admirable paper which he published on inocula-
tion, demonstrated that, in the small-pox taken the natural way, the deaths
amounted to rather more than one in 14. Thus the superiority of inoculation
became conspicuous at the very outset. For, even by the enemies of that method,
the deaths were only estimated at one in 91. They are in fact somewhat lower
than that ratio. From various papers published in the Transactions** by Dr.
Williams and Mr. Wright, it appears that inoculation had been practised in
Wales long before the method was made known from Constantinople. The
Welch called their process buying the small-pox. It is remarkable that this
phrase has been applied to inoculation in the most distant and uncivilized coun-
tries, indicating the antiquity of the practice, and the probability that it has
originated from some common inventor.
+ Vol. XXIX. p. 72.
‡ Ibid. p. 393.
* Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXI. p. 398.
§ Vol. XXXII. p. 35.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1722. Vol. XXXII. p. 213.
|| Vol. XXXII. p. 33.
** Vol. XXXII. p. 262, 267.
Z 2
172
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Sir Hans Sloane interested himself greatly in promoting the practice of ino,
culation; and he drew up an historical detail of the proceedings in London,
which was afterwards published.* It was in consequence of a letter which he
wrote to Dr. Sherard, at that time in Smyrna, that the account of inoculation
by Dr. Pylarini was sent over and inserted in the Philosophical Transactions.
This notice lay dormant till Mr. Wortley Montague, then Ambassador at Con-
stantinople, and Lady Mary, his wife, inoculated their son, and brought him
in safety to England. Upon this Queen Caroline, at that time Princess of
Wales, begged the lives of six condemned criminals, who had never had the
small-pox. They were inoculated, and all took the disease except one woman.
To make further trial, Queen Caroline procured half a dozen of the charity
children belonging to St. James's parish, who were inoculated; and all of them,
except one (who had had the disease before, but concealed it for the sake of the
reward) went through it with the symptoms of a favourable kind of the distem-
per. Queen Caroline afterwards consulted Sir Hans Sloane about inoculating
her own family. Sir Hans approved of the process, but refused to advise her
Majesty to put it in practice in her own family, as not being certain of the con-
sequences that might follow, and on account of the great importance of the
persons experimented on to the public. This opinion determined both Queen
Caroline and King George I. The operation was performed, and the children
went through the disease favourably. Sir Hans Sloane adds that out of 200
cases of inoculation that he had seen, only one terminated fatally.
There is a curious historical account of the introduction and success of ino-
culation in New England, drawn up by Mr. Gale, and published in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1765. From this memoir it appears, that the natural
small-pox was particularly fatal in that colony. The number of deaths averaged
one in seven. When inoculation was introduced, the deaths amounted to one in
30. By improvements and proper precautions they were reduced to one in 80,
and finally, by the administration of mercury, to one in 800. In consequence of
the careless way in which persons ill of the inoculated small-pox were accus-
tomed to mix with society, and thus spread the infection, the magistrates of
New England were induced to prohibit the practice of inoculation altogether,
under severe penalties, and forbidding those who went to the other states in
order to be inoculated, from returning to their own homes within a shorter
period than 20 days.
XIV. It is a very remarkable circumstance in the history of medicine, and of
mankind, that some of the most formidable diseases of modern times are not
mentioned by the ancient physicians, and appear to have been unknown to the
Greeks and Romans. The small-pox and the measles, for example, are never
» Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX p. 516.
+. Vol. LV. p. 193,
CHAP. II.]
173
NATURAL HISTORY.—ZOOLOGY.
ease.
mentioned by any of the Greek physicians, and first make their appearance in
the writings of the Arabians. The first medical notice of the venereal disease Venereal dis
is of a much later date. Physicians almost uniformly agree to refer its first ap-
pearance to the year 1494. The story told by Fallopius, the first writer on the
subject, is this. Charles, King of France, having made an inroad into Italy,
took possession of the Milanese and Tuscany, and invaded Naples, at that time
in the possession of the Spaniards. The Spanish troops, not being a match for
the large French army which was brought against them, had recourse to
stratagem to accomplish their destruction. After poisoning the wells, and mix-
ing the French bread with plaster, they sent into their camp several prostitutes
infected with the venereal disease. This stratagem succeeded. The whole
French army was infected with the malady, which was spread in consequence
over Italy and Europe with prodigious rapidity, and filled the world with ter-
ror and despair. According to Peter Martyr (as quoted by Fallopius) this dis-
ease was communicated to the soldiers and sailors who accompanied Columbus
on his memorable expedition to the West Indies in 1492. It was spread over
the whole of the West India islands, and was communicated by the Indian
women to those Spaniards whom they admitted to their embraces. Some soldiers
from Columbus's ship, having gone directly to Naples, had communicated the
disorder, and made it known to the Spanish and Neapolitan physicians just be-
fore the French invasion.
Such is the account of the origin of this formidable disease given by the
Italian physicians. But we must confess that it is loaded with several circum-
stances which it is not easy to believe. There can be no doubt whatever that
the disease became first publicly known about the year 1494, and that this noto-
riety was occasioned by the general prevalence of it in the French army lying
in the Neapolitan dominions. But that it did not previously exist in Europe,
and that it was imported from the West India islands, are not so clear. In
the first place we have no evidence whatever that the disease existed in the
West India islands and America. It does not appear to exist at present among
the Indian tribes, and has never been observed in any of the more recently dis-
covered islands in the South Sea. There does indeed exist a disease in Otaheite,
bearing some resemblance to it, mistaken for it by most of our European
voyagers, and thought to have been imported from Europe to these delightful
regions. But it would appear from recent and more accurate examination, that
this disease differs entirely from our venereal disease both in its symptoms and
termination. Even if it had existed in the West India islands, the short period
of a year, which is all that elapsed between the discovery of America by Colum-
bus and the appearance of the venereal disease in Italy, appears too limited to
account for so general a diffusion of the malady, not only over Italy but every
other country of Europe. In the year 1497, it was so prevalent in Edinburgh,
174
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
same with the
leprosy.
as to have produced the greatest consternation in the king and his council.
There is a proclamation on the subject still existing in the records of the town
council of Edinburgh. It went by the name of the grandgor; and all those
that were infected with it were sent to Inchkeith, with their physicians, to re-
main there till cured, in order effectually to prevent the further spreading of the
infection.*
Mr. Beckett has published three elaborate papers in the Philosophical Trans-
actions to prove that the venereal disease existed in England long before the
year 1494. The evidence which he adduces, though not absolutely demon-
strative, is so strong as to produce conviction in any person who will weigh it
with attention. There can be no doubt that a disease existed in the sexual
organs of both sexes at a very early period. Some of the descriptions of this
disease seem to identify it with gonorrhea, while others describe symptoms
similar to those which exist in syphilis, such as chancres and bubos. Hence it
is not unlikely, that both states of the disease existed in England at an early
Supposed the period. Mr. Beckett conceives that what was called at that time the leprosy
was nothing else than the venereal disease. He has shown at least that it was
different from what we now call the leprosy, that it was cured by mercury, and
that it disappeared when the venereal disease became known by its real name.
Mr. Beckett brings his documents from the registers of the stews, which were
by authority allowed to be kept on the Bankside, in Southwark, under the juris-
diction of the Bishop of Winchester. Among other regulations drawn up as
early as the year 1162, is this: no stew-holder to keep any woman that hath the
perilous infirmity of burning. In a book in the custody of the Bishop of Win-
chester, supposed to have been written about 1430, there is found this regula-
tion that no stew-holder keep noo woman wythin his hous that hath any syck-
nesse of brenning, but that she be putte out, upon the peyne of makeit a fine
unto the lord of a hundred shylyngs. John Arden, Esq. who was surgeon to
Richard II. and afterwards to Henry IV. defines burning to be a certain inward
heat, and excoriation of the urethra, which is a tolerably correct description of
the gonorrhoea. He gives us an account of the mode of cure which was by in-
jecting a mixture of milk and oil of violets, some sugar, ptisane, and oil of al-
monds being likewise added. Mr. Beckett shows that the word burning was
given by English medical writers to the venereal disease even as late as the year
1530.
Mr. Beckett further shows, by quotations from ancient English writers, that
this disease arose from the impure embraces of infected persons, that it degene-
rated into an ulceration and putrefaction of the genital organs, which termi-
* Phil. Trans. 1743. Vol. XLII. p. 420.
† Phil. Trans. 1718. Vol. XXX. p. 839. Vol. XXXI. p. 47, and p. 108.
1
CHAP. II.]
175
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
nated in death. He quotes a curious passage from Dr. Thomas Gascoigne, at
clergyman, who gives an account of the symptoms, and affirms, that John of
Gaunt died of this disease; and that he showed the putrefied state of his genitals
to King Richard II., who visited him while he lay on his death-bed. Mr.
Beckett likewise shows, that the Italian medical writers, who lived during the
siege of Naples, in 1494, were by no means unanimous in considering the
disease as new, far less as imported from the new world. Upon the whole,
it is exceedingly probable that the disease existed previously under a milder
form; that, in consequence of some unknown accident, it assumed a more viru-
lent aspect about the period of the siege of Naples. This virulence drew the
attention of the medical world more particularly to it, and induced them to
give it a new name, and to invent a new mode of treating it. For many years
past it has lost this peculiar virulence, except in a few rare constitutions; and
it will not be surprising, if it should again sink into the same insignificance as
it was in before the siege of Naples. Mercury has been considered as an indis-
pensable medicine. Perhaps it might be so formerly; but there is reason to
doubt its necessity at present, at least in every case. Nor can there be much
hesitation in affirming, that the violent courses of mercury, formerly adminis-
tered in the slightest cases of venereal infection, were much more destructive
to the constitution than the disease itself. M. Christien, a physician in Mont-
pellier, has lately announced the application of various preparations of gold,
as a certain cure for the venereal disease. His experiments have been repeated
with success, in various parts of France. This shows us that mercury is not
absolutely necessary. Probably, in all the cases tried by Christien and his fol-
lowers, the disease would have disappeared of itself, without the administration
of any medicine whatever.
treatment for
XV. Though lithotomy must be admitted as a radical cure for the stone, and Palliative
though, in general, it may he performed without impropriety, or without much the stone.
risk to the patient, yet there are cases when, from old age and other circum-
stances, no surgeon would venture to recommend so formidable an operation.
In such cases, Mr. Douglas recommends the formation of an artificial fistula,
in the perinæum, which he affirms would remove all the disagreeable symptoms,
by enabling the patient, at pleasure, to introduce an oiled probe, and thus
push back the stone whenever it occasions a suppression of urine. He affirms,
that the fistula may even be gradually enlarged, so much as to admit of the
extraction of the stone, by means of a forceps.* It is rather surprising that so
simple a process, recommended by so eminent a surgeon, and skilful anatomist,
should not yet have come into general use.
Putrefaction
XVI. Mortifications of different parts of the body, from an internal cause; ured by bark.
* Phil. Trans. 1727. Vol. XXXV. p. 318..
176
Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Ascites cured
by injectious.
Improvement
in lithotomy.
were long considered as incurable; and accordingly, whenever they appeared,
the case was given up by surgeons as hopeless. About the year 1730, Mr.
Rushworth, a surgeon, in Northampton, discovered that their progress was
stopped by the copious administration of Peruvian bark. The truth of the dis-
covery was confirmed by the numerous observations of Mr. Sergeant Amyand;
and, in 1732, Mr. Douglas published an account of the method of treatment
in this disease; accompanied by a variety of cases confirming the efficacy of
bark, as a cure for mortification. An account of this treatise, by Dr. Douglas,
is published in the Philosophical Transactions.* This remedy is now univer-
sally employed, and considered as a specific; except in one case of mortification,
to which chimney-sweepers are liable, and which Mr. Pott discovered might be
cured by the administration of opium.
XVII. There is an account in the Philosophical Transactions of a very
ingenious attempt by Mr. Warwick, a surgeon at Truro, to cure ascites, by
injecting warm astringent liquors into the cavity of the abdomen, after the
dropsical liquid had been drawn off by tapping.† His experiment was made
upon a woman near fifty years of age, who had been previously tapped, and
36 pints of liquid drawn from the abdomen. The cavity filled again with great
rapidity, and he was called a second time to perform the same operation.
After having drawn off part of the serum collected, he injected a mixture of
warm claret and Bristol water, and repeated the injection twice. A syncope
came on, but the woman gradually recovered her senses, and in a few days her
health was restored, as completely as ever it had been; and though she was
afterwards afflicted with a tertian fever, yet her dropsy did not return. There
can be no doubt that such injections operate as complete cures in cases of partial
dropsies. Thus the hydrocele is usually cured by a similar injection. But, in
a confirmed ascites, the constitution is usually so much broken down, the cavity
is so large, and the organs which it contains of so much importance, and so
necessary for life, that such a practice could not be expected to be frequently
attended with success. Mr. Warwick's case, however, and some others that
have been since recorded, show us that the disease is not always incurable, and
that it is, at least, worth while to try the efficacy of such injections.
XVIII. The gradual improvements in the operation of lithotomy constitute
a very curious part of surgical history. The present improved state of the
lateral operation, which is now almost the only one practised, except in very
peculiar circumstances, was the gradual result of the successive improvements
of various ingenious surgeons. One improvement of some importance, intro-
duced by Dr. Mudge, a very ingenious surgeon and physician at Plymouth,
is described in the Philosophical Transactions. After cutting into the bladder,
+ Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXVII. p. 429.
Ibid. 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 24.
P. 12.
CHAP. II.]
177
NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY.
and introducing the forceps, it was customary for operators to extract the stone
by force. If the calculus was large, this could not be done without forcibly
tearing the bladder; and Mr. Mudge shows that most of the violent and fatal
symptoms which follow the operation, are owing to this laceration, which is
much more injurious to the parts than cutting them. An attempt to cut the
bladder, upon the forceps, while in a flaccid state, could hardly succeed; and
if it did, the rectum was almost sure to be cut at the same time.
Mr. Mudge
remedied this defect, and put it in the power of the surgeon to dilate the
wound of the bladder, at pleasure, by leaving a staff in the bladder, on which
there was a groove cut; along his groove a proper knife was slid, and thus the
bladder dilated at pleasure.
eye.
XIX. The cataract is a well-known disease of the eye, in which the crys- Extraction of
talline lens becomes opaque, and obstructs vision. The cure is the removal of the lens of the
the lens; for the eye can perform its functions without this part of it, with
tolerable accuracy. The method commonly practised is called couching. The
lens is forced out of its place into the back part of the eye, where it is speedily
absorbed and carried off. M. Daviel, a surgeon in Paris, about the year 1745,
contrived a new mode of operating. He cut a considerable opening in the
cornea, and through this opening, by gently pressing the eye, he forced out
the lens, and thus removed it at once out of the eye. He employed three
different instruments in succession; and, in consequence of the discharge of the
aqueous humour, and the flaccidity of the cornea, it was difficult, and required
a very steady hand, to dilate the cut in the cornea sufficiently, without cutting
the iris, which would injure the eye materially. There is a description of
Daviel's process, published in the Philosophical Transactions, by Dr. Hope.**
The subject was taken up by Mr. Sharp, a celebrated surgeon in London, who
improved the process, by employing a knife capable of performing the whole
cutting at once, without employing successive instruments, which greatly
facilitated the process. In two papers, which he published on the subject,† he
has given an account of his method in detail; and has likewise related the cases
of a variety of patients whom he successfully treated in this way. Notwith-
standing the apparent superiority of this operation, the method of couching
still continues to keep its ground; owing, probably, to its greater facility and
seeming mildness; though in fact, it occasions greater uneasiness than the
process of extracting the lens.
XX. Deafness is one of the diseases the least under the control of the Deafness
physician. Unless it proceed from some obvious disorder in the external cured.
meatus, or from swelled tonsils, it is usually given up as a hopeless case by
* Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 530.
+ Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 161 and p. 322.
2 A
178
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Regeneration
of bones.
Wounds of
the intestines
healed.
medical men; and the patient left to shift for himself. Every additional means
suggested to alleviate this distressing disease acquires, on that account, con-
siderable importance. Hence it will be proper to mention a method suggested
by Mr. Wathen, which he tried in various instances with success.
He con-
ceived that deafness was sometimes occasioned by the obstruction of the Eusta-
chian tube, which prevented the external air from making its way into the
internal cavity of the tympanum. He proposed, therefore, to try injections of
warm liquids into that tube, by means of a silver tube introduced through the
nose. In six cases tried, this injection was attended with success. *
XXI. The power which the bones have to regenerate in the human body,
after being partly exterminated, deserves the serious attention of the surgeon.
In all probability, fewer amputations would take place if this renovating power
in nature were sufficiently attended to by surgeons. Various cases are related
in the Transactions, of the renovation of bone after being cut out, and the
restoration of the limb to its original functions, or at least to a considerable.
part of them. It may be worth while to mention some of the most remarkable
of these examples: M. Le Cat, a surgeon, in Rouen, who has published a
great many papers in the Philosophical Transactions, cut three inches, ten
lines, out of the bone of the shoulder of a soldier. The arm was kept at its usual
length by machinery. In a short time, a callous formed; and the arm recovered
its energy completely. Mr. White, a celebrated surgeon, of Manchester, re-
commended the excision of the head of the os humeri, in certain cases; and
affirmed, that the arm healed after the operation, and recovered its energy.
He gives some cases, in his Surgical Essays, confirming the truth of this opinion.
In the Philosophical Transactions there is a case given by Mr. Bent, surgeon,
of the extirpation of the head of the os humeri, with success. The patient was
able, after the cure, to lift the arm six inches from the side, and to perform
every function that required no higher an elevation.‡
XXI. Wounds of the intestines are generally, and with reason, dreaded by
surgeons; and, for the most part, they terminate fatally. There are not want-
ing instances, however, when such wounds have healed of themselves, without
any disastrous symptoms intervening. Several examples of this kind occur in
the Philosophical Transactions. We shall notice one related by Mr. Nourse,
surgeon at Oxford. James Langford, a lad of twenty-one, was stabbed with
a knife in the left side of the belly; the wound was about three inches long ;
great part of the intestines were protruded; and it was found necessary to
enlarge the wound in order to return them into the abdomen. The colon was
wounded near that part which terminates in the rectum. For a considerable
Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 213.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 353.
† Phil. Trans, 1766. Vol. LIV. p. 270.
§ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 426.
CHAP. III.]
179
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
time, fæces were discharged by the wound in the belly, and blood by the
anus; but, by degrees, all the bad symptoms were removed, and the wound
healed in about three weeks, without any bad symptom whatever.
Such are a few of the most striking medical papers to be found in the Philo-
sophical Transactions. It would be easy to extend our observations, on this
important subject, almost to any length; but we have already, we fear, rather
exceeded the bounds prescribed to us in this work. We, therefore, take leave of
this interesting subject, inviting all medical men to consult this valuable
repository of important medical knowledge.
CHAP. III.
OF MINERALOGY.
THE term mineral is at present applied to all the different substances of
which this earth, which we inhabit, is composed; and Mineralogy is the
science which treat of these minerals. Now, there are three different points in
which minerals may be viewed: we may consider them as distinct substances,
and arrange them into a system by dividing them into genera and species; we
may consider the way in which they are deposited in the earth, the order in
which they lie, and their connexion with each other; or, we may consider the
best way of extracting from the earth such of them as can be applied to valu-
able purposes. The first of these views of the subject is, in this country, Division of
usually distinguished by the name of Mineralogy; but, in Germany, it is called the subject.
Oryctognosy; the second, is called Geognosy, or Geology; the third, Mining.
We shall consider each of these branches of the science, as far as the papers in
the Philosophical Transactions on these subjects are concerned, in the three
following sections.
SECTION I-Of Oryctognosy.
vated by the
ancients.
This branch of the science is quite recent; its real origin can hardly be dated Little culti-
further back than about 40 years ago. The ancients have left us little that is
valuable on the subject. Theophrastus wrote a Treatise on Stones, which was
translated into English by Sir John Hill, and first brought him into the notice
of the public. This translation contains many valuable notes, most of which
have been pillaged by more recent mineralogical writers, without acknowledge-
ment. Pliny, in the last two books of his Natural History, has likewise given
2A2
180
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Linnæus.
Cronstedt.
External
characters.
Wernerian
method.
Haüyan
ethod.
*
us a treatise on stones; but it is very difficult to determine many of the species.
to which he refers. The Arabian philosophers turned some of their attention
to this subject; and Avicenna has left us a Treatise on Minerals. After the
revival of learning in Europe, mineralogy acquired a portion of the attention
of naturalists, as well as botany and zoology; but much less progress was made
in it, partly on account of the difficulty of the subject, and partly on account
of the infant state of chemistry, on which mineralogy is obliged to depend for
a good deal of her exact information, as far as the division of minerals into
species is concerned.
Linnæus's mineralogy was far inferior to his arrangement of the two other
kingdoms of nature; though he first brought into view the importance of crys-
tallization, which has since been laid hold of by the French mineralogists with
such happy success in determining the species of minerals. It is hardly worth
while to notice the various systems of mineralogy which made their appearance
in various countries in succession, after the publication of the Linnæan system.
But the first system of sterling value was that of Cronstedt; who formed his
arrangement according to the composition of the various stones. His method
was adopted by Bergman, in his Sciagraphia; by Werner, and by almost all
succeeding writers on the subject.
The manner of describing minerals, and the technical language by which the
description is conveyed, were invented by Werner, of Freyberg, who published
his treatise on the external characters, in 1773. His mode of describing
minerals has been universally adopted. As to the arrangement of minerals into
species, two different methods are followed by the German and French schools.
According to Werner, the species of minerals are merely artificial associations,
for the conveniency of description. Accordingly, he has made them to depend
upon a certain agreement in all the external characters. Haüy, on the other
hand, conceives that minerals have been divided into species by nature herself,
as well as animals and vegetables. Identity of form constitutes, according to
him, the specific character. Accordingly, all those minerals which have the
same primitive form (with certain exceptions) are placed under the same
species. This method of Haüy recommends itself at once by its simplicity, and
the exact limits which it enables us to assign to every species; whereas the
Wernerians are obliged to admit, that different species pass, by imperceptible
shades, into each other, and that many minerals exist which cannot be referred
to any well-defined species, but lie intermediate between two. This is a neces-
sary consequence of the opinion which they entertain, that nature has not
*The late Dr. Walker, of the University of Edinburgh, understood Pliny's account of stones,
better than most persons. His new Mineralogical Nomenclature consists chiefly of words taken
from Pliny, and used in the same sense with that writer. In that point of view it deserves some
notice.
CHAP. III.]
181
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
divided minerals into species; but that species are merely artificial associations
of minerals, contrived by the mineralogist for the convenience of arrangement
and description.
be united.
After considering the subject with as much attention as was in my power, I Both might
have convinced myself that both parties carried their opinions too far, and that
both methods, when properly circumscribed, might be made to harmonize in the
construction of a better system of mineralogy than we possess at present. That
no well defined species exist in nature, is an assertion which, if made without
limitation, cannot be admitted. What can be better defined, or more constant
in its characters and composition, than diamond, fluate of lime, tinstone, and
many others which will readily occur to the recollection of every mineralogist.
On the other hand, to make species in every case depend upon form, is to ex-
clude from the mineral kingdom a great number of very important substances
which never assume a crystallized form. Chalk, for example, fullers'-carth,
and porcelain clay, according to the rigid rules laid down by the followers of
Haüy, could not be admitted as mineral species, though they are of much more
importance to society, and therefore better entitled to the attention of minera-
logists, than many substances found in a well defined crystallized state. Let
therefore the Haüyan method of determining species be introduced where it
can; but let it not be introduced to the exclusion of the Wernerian, which
enables us to distinguish those minerals that lie beyond the limits of the system
of Haüy.
I am
How far coincidence in form is sufficient to characterize crystallized minerals,
is a point which does not yet seem to me to be completely determined.
disposed to believe that it will prove sufficient, but am not quite certain. It is.
not impossible, that the number of primitive forms may be too small for the
purpose, and that the number of subdivisions which it will be found necessary
to introduce into the species according to that plan may be inconvenient. Iden-
tity of form may perhaps rather characterize the genus than the species. What
would somewhat incline one to this opinion is, the great number of coincidences
of the primitive forms of different species, which Haüy has lately pointed out
in his Tableau Comparatif, and the consequent diminution of the number of
his species. Thus he has united augite, sahlite, coccolite, and diopside, under
one species; schillerstone, smaragdite, and bronzite, under another; zoizite
and pistazite, under a third; and topaz and schorlous beryl, under a fourth.
The species of minerals at present known, and described by Werner, amount
to about 300. But Haüy has reduced them to a much smaller number. And
there can be no hesitation in admitting, that several of the Wernerian species
might, without impropriety, be united together. As for example, zircon and
hyacinth, corundum and adamantiue spar, beryl and emerald, &c. His sub-
divisions were made previous to the knowledge of the identity of the composi-
182
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions.
tion of these respective minerals, and he has not thought proper to alter it
since,
From the newness of this branch of mineralogy, we are not to expect much
valuable information on the subject in the Philosophical Transactions. Indeed
by far the best papers on the subject have made their appearance very recently,
and are contained in the volumes published since the commencement of the
present century, and which, of course, do not come under our review. There
are 38 mineralogical papers contained in the Philosophical Transactions; but
of these no fewer than 25 may be fairly neglected as of very trifling value. In
the remaining 13 papers we are not to look for accurate descriptions of mine-
rals; but the facts which they contain are useful in a historical point of view.
One gives an account of the formation of cloth and paper from amianthus, dis-
covered in Italy.* Another mentions the existence of a great quantity of
native sub-carbonate of soda in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, which the inha-
bitants of the country employed in making soap. Another paper contains a
Fallers-earth description of the pits from which fullers'-earth is dug in Bedfordshire, by
shire. Mr. Holloway. These pits lie near Woburn, in a ridge of sand hills which
run from Cambridge to Oxford, at the distance of about eight miles from
the Chiltern hills. From the surface to the depth of about 14 yards, there
occurs nothing but sand, through the middle of which, at about six yards from
the surface, there runs a thin bed of red-coloured sandstone. The fullers'-earth
lies under the sand, and is about eight feet thick. The first foot is so much
mixed with sand as to be useless The upper part of the fullers'-earth is
coloured yellow, but it becomes lighter coloured as we descend deeper. Under
the fullers'-earth is a bed of white rough stone about two feet thick, and below
this occurs sand again; but no fullers'-earth occurs deeper. These beds are
nearly horizontal, and extend a considerable way ‡
in Belford-
Discovery of
diamonds in
Brazils.
The high value attached to diamonds depends not so much upon their beauty
and hardness, as upon their great scarcity, and the labour and expense neces-
sary in procuring them. Hitherto they have been observed only in the torrid
zone, and Brazil is the only country in America where they have been found.
There is a paper in the Philosophical Transactions giving an historical account
of their discovery in that country by Dr. De Castro Sarmento. Near the capi-
tal of the county Do Serro do Frio flows the river Do Milho Verde, where
they used to dig for gold, or rather to extract it from the alluvial soil. The
miners, during their search for gold, found several diamonds, which they were
induced to lay aside in consequence of their particular shape and great beauty,
though they were ignorant what they were. At last, in the year 1728, a miner
* Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 2167.
Phil. Trans. 1723. Vol. XXXII. p. 419.
Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 228.
1
CHAP. III.]
183
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
came to the country, who, suspecting these stones to be diamonds, made some
experiments on the subject, and satisfied himself that his conjecture was well
founded. He set himself in consequence to search for diamonds in the alluvial
soil of the country, and the other miners followed his example. Diamonds were
even found among the sand of the river though in less abundance. Ever since
that period the searching for diamonds in that country has been continued with
good success.* The specific gravity of diamonds was first accurately deter-
mined by Mr. Ellicot, who employed a balance for the purpose that turned
with the 200th part of a grain.† The following table exhibits the result of
his trials:
Specific gra-
vity of dia-
monds.
Diamonds weighed.
1 A Brazil diamond, fine water, rough coat
2 A ditto, fine water, rough coat.
3 Ditto, fine bright coat
4 Ditto, fine bright coat.
•
5 An East India diamond, pale blue..
6 Ditto, bright yellow...
7 Ditto, very fine water, bright coat.....
8 Ditto, very bad water, honey-comb coat.
9 Ditto, very hard bluish coat.
.
10 Ditto, very soft, good water.
11 Ditto, a large red foul in it.
12 Ditto, soft, bad water.
13 Ditto, soft, brown coat.
14 Ditto, very deep green coat..
Mean sp. gr. of the Brazil diamonds.
Mean ditto of East India diamonds..
Mean of both...
Weight in
Sp. Gravity.
grain.
92.425..
3.518
...88-21
3.521
..10-025..
3.511
9.560...
3.501
..26-485...
3.512
23.33
3.524
20.66
3.525
20.38 ..
3.519
22.5
3.515
...22-615...
3.525
3.514
29.525....
..3.521
...26.535..
3.516
25.25
.3.521
3.513
3.519
. 3.517
...25·48.
Our accurate knowledge of the precious stones cannot be dated further back
than the publication of Romé de Lisle's Crystallography, and has been very
much improved of late years. Hence, a paper published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1747, by Mr. Dingley, giving a catalogue of the precious
stones, and mentioning those employed by the ancients for engraving on, is an
object of some curiosity. As he gives no other description of the stones which
he mentions, except their colour, his account is involved in some obscurity.
The following is his catalogue:
Beryl, red and yellow.‡
Chalcedony.
Plasma, green with white spots.
Jacinth, deep tawny red.
Chrysolite, light grass green.
Crystal, or oriental pebble, silver white.
Catalogue of
the precious
stones
Phil. Trans, 1731. Vol. XXXVII. p. 199.
+ Phil. Trans. 1745, Vol. XLIII, p. 468.
+ Probably jasper, cornelian, &c.
134
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Garnet, deep red claret.
Amethyst, purple.
Diamond, white.
Ruby, red or crimson.
Emerald, deep green.
Tourmaline,
the lyncu-
rium of the
ancients.
Native tin.
Aqua marina, bluish sea green.
Topaz, ripe citron yellow.
Sapphire, deep sky blue, or silver white.
Cornelian, red or white.
Opal, white and changeable.
Vermillion stone, more tawny than jacinth.
All these are more or less transparent. The following are opaque:
Cat's eye, brown.
Red jasper, red ochre.
Jet, black.
Agates.
Blood stone, green, veined with red and white.
Heliotrope?
Onyx, white and black.
Sardonyx, brown and white.
Agate onyx, two kinds of white, opaque and
transparent.
Alabaster, white and yellow.
Toad's eye, black.
Turquoise, yellowish blue inclining to green.
Lapis lazuli, deep bluc.
The ancients engraved usually on the beryl (jasper), sometimes on chalce-
dony, plasma, and jacinth. Rarely on the chrysolite, crystal, garnet, and
amethyst. They also engraved on several of the opaque stones.*
About the year 1757, in consequence of a dissertation on the subject pub-
lished by pinus, and another by Wilke, the electrical properties of the tour-
maline came to be accurately known. At that time, the stone itself was consi-
dered as very rare, and as a great curiosity, though it is now known to be a very
common constituent of primitive mountains, and occurs abundantly in different
parts of Great Britain. In the year 1759, Sir William Watson wrote a disser-
tation to prove that the lyncurium of the ancients, a stone described by Theo-
phrastus, and noticed by Pliny, was nothing else than the tourmaline; and the
evidence which he adduces from the properties of the stone, and the circum-
stances respecting these properties noticed by Theophrastus, leaves little doubt
that his conjecture is well founded.†
Tin is one of the metals which exhibits the fewest varieties of ores. Indeed
almost all the tin used by artists is obtained from the ore called tinstone, which
is an oxide of tin more or less mixed with foreign matter. Hitherto mineralo-
gists have not admitted native tin into their systems. Yet, from a paper on the
subject published by Dr. Borlase in the Philosophical Transactions, there can
be no doubt that native tin, though it be very scarce and only in small quantities,
yet does now and then occur. In that paper he describes three specimens of
native tin found in Cornwall, in the centre of very large masses of tin ore. His
description is so indistinct and unsatisfactory, that it is difficult to form any
notion of the constituents of the specimens. However, from the experiments of
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIV. p. 502.
Phil. Trans. Vol. LI. p. 391.
CHAP. III.]
135
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
Da Costa on the supposed tin, there can be no doubt that it was really that
metal. In the specimens, the tin was surrounded by a white substance, which
Borlase considered as quartz; but which, he says, turned out on examination to
be arsenic. A fourth specimen of native tin was afterwards found in the centre
of a transparent crystal of tin diamonds, as they are called in Cornwall. With
respect to this last specimen, there could be no doubt of its being natural.
Hence it puts the existence of native tin beyond dispute.*
Native lead is equally uncommon with native tin, and has not yet been ad- Native lead.
mitted into a mineralogical system. It deserves therefore to be noticed, that it
was found by Dr. Morris, though in no great quantity, interspersed in lead ore
(probably galena) from Monmouthshire. This, as far as I know, is the only
example on record, where this very rare mineral was observed.
These are the only mineralogical papers occurring in the Transactions that
seem entitled to notice; and it must be confessed, that they are not of very great
importance.
SECTION II.-Of Geognosy.
the term.
The term Geology has been applied in two different senses. Naturalists have Meaning of
been always fond of speculating about the original formation of the earth, and
about the changes which it has undergone since its original creation. Accord-
ingly, various fanciful theories have been constructed in succession, either
founded entirely upon the imagination of the constructor, or partly upon ima-
gination, and partly upon the account of the creation contained in the Old
Testament. These whimsical hypotheses have been dignified with the title of
theories of the earth, and the term geology has been very frequently applied to
them. These theories appeared in great numbers during the last century.
Burnet, Whiston, Woodward, Ray, Lazaro Moro, Buffon, Whitehurst, &c.
are the authors of the most celebrated. It is remarkable, that most of these are
to be found in the Philosophical Transactions. At present, the geological world
is divided between two opposite hypotheses respecting the original formation of
the earth. The first, at the head of which stands Werner (and with him al-
most all mineralogists agree in sentiment), conceives the surface of the earth to
have been gradually formed by successive depositions from an ocean which ori-
ginally covered the whole surface; but which, in process of time, by some un-
known and unaccountable means, withdrew and disappeared. The second, at
the head of which is Dr. Hutton (and with him coincide Lazaro Moro, Dr.
Hooke, Buffon, and a few other mineralogists), conceives, that the surface of the
earth has been formed by the operation of fire, which first melted the stony
* Phil.Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. p. 35 and 305.—Vol. LIX. p. 47.
+ Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 20.
2 B
186
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Present mean-
ing.
Papers in the
Transactions
masses, and afterwards raised them to their present clevation. These two sects
have been distinguished by the fanciful names of Neptunists and Vulcanists.
The second meaning which has been given to the term geology is, an account
of all the stony masses which compose the crust of the earth; the order in
which they lic with respect to each other, and with respect to the substances
which they contain. Geology, as thus explained, was cultivated with some
success by the late Mr. Whitehurst; but, it is to the learned labours of Werner,
of Freyberg, that we are indebted for almost all the progress which it has
hitherto made. To distinguish this important branch of science from the
absurd speculations about the formation of the earth, Werner has given it the
name of geognosy; a name which we have adopted.
The Philosophical Transactions, though they contain no regular treatise on
on the subject. geognosy, yet exhibit a very great mass of important information on the sub-
ject; information, indeed, which it is often difficult to appreciate, on account
of the imperfection of the mineralogical nomenclature which the authors of
various papers were obliged to employ, as no better existed when they wrote.
The papers on the subject amount to no fewer than 251, of very various value;
and I reckon no fewer of them than 85 to be trifling: the remaining 166,
however, contain a great collection of facts, of which geognosts have not
hitherto availed themselves sufficiently. I shall endeavour to point out the
most important facts which they contain, as briefly as possible. Instead of
noticing every paper individually, it will be more entertaining, as well as
more concise, to arrange the subject under a small number of distinct heads.
Petrifactions.
Vegetable.
I. PETRIFACTIONS. There is no fact connected with geognosy more interest-
ing, or more extraordinary, than the existence of a vast quantity of animal and
vegetable substances in the mineral kingdom. These substances occur in three
states; sometimes they are a little altered; sometimes they are converted into
stone; and sometimes only the impressions of them, or the moulds in which
they have been inclosed, remain. The term petrifaction, strictly speaking,
applies only to the second of these states; but it has been usual, for the sake of
conveniency, to extend it to all the three. The number of papers on this sub-
ject, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount to 42. The following are the
facts which they contain:
1. Vegetable petrifactions. Wood occurs in great abundance in many parts.
of England, buried at various depths under the surface, and very little altered
either in its texture or properties. Lincolnshire, and a considerable tract of
country on the banks of the Humber and the Thames, contain abundance of
trees, at no great depth below the surface. In the isle of Axholme, lying
partly in Lincoln and partly in Yorkshire, oak, fir, and other trees, are fre-
quently found under ground, in the moor. The roots are still found as they
grew, in firm earth, under the moor; but the trees had been cut down. The
4
CHAP. III.]
187
NATURAL HISTORY.-Mineralogy.
size of many of these trees is immense: some firs have been taken up 36 yards
long. The quantity of these trees was so great, that, during the 17th century,
many cart loads of them were taken up every year.* Oaks, and fir trees, are also
dug up at Youle, about 12 miles below York; where the Dun runs into the
Humber. They are at some depth, and lie in a bog, which is covered with
sand, and the sand with soil. The famous levels of Hatfield chase, in York-
shire, consisting of 180,000 acres, were, during the 17th century, drained at a
vast expence, by Sir Cornelius Vermuiden, a Dutchman. Even as low as the
bottom of the Ouse, and in the whole marsh, abundance of firs, oaks, birch,
beech, yew, thorn, willow, ash, &c., were found.‡
De la Pryme endeavours to account for the existence of so much wood all
over that tract of country, by supposing, that when the Romans were employed
in the conquest of Britain, the whole country was covered with forests, in
which the Britons lurked, and from which they were accustomed to make fre-
quent incursions upon the Romans. To put an end to these troublesome
attacks, the Romans cut down all the woods, and left the trees as they fell.
Soil and vegetable matter gradually accumulated over these trees, and preserved
them from destruction.§ This conjecture must be allowed to possess plausibility.
The trees must be admitted to be destroyed on purpose, as many of them exhibit
the marks of the hatchet, and many of them show evident traces of fire;
besides, various remains of Roman cutting instruments, and other utensils, are
found intermixed with the prostrate trees.
About the year 1705, there was an inundation of the Thames, at Dagenham
and Havering marshes, in Essex, which made an excavation nearly 20 feet
deep, and laid open a great number of trees, mostly alder (as was supposed
from their texture), buried under a soil, obviously composed of the mud of the
Thames. Trees, in a similar situation, have been discovered all along the Essex
banks of the river. Dr. Derham, to whom we owe the account of these trees,
supposes, with considerable plausibility, that they had been overturned by some
inundation of the Thames, and afterwards covered by the repeated overflowings
of the river, which took place every tide, before its waters were confined by
means of artificial banks.||
It is a common opinion among geologists, that pit coal is of vegetable origin,
and that it has been brought to its present state by means of some chemical pro-
cess, with which we are still unacquainted. There is one circumstance which
gives this opinion, though at first sight it may appear extravagant, consider-
Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. V. p. 2050.
Dr. Richardson. Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 526.
‡ Rev. Abraham de la Pryme. Phil. Trans. 1701. Vol. XXII. p. 980.
§ Phil. Trans. 1701. Vol. XXII. p. 980.
| Phil. Trans. 1712. Vol. XXVII. p. 478,
2 B 2
188
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Bovey coal.
Petrified
wood at
Lough Neagh.
able plausibility, we mean, the existence of vast depositions of matter, half way
as it were between perfect wood and perfect pit coal; betraying obviously its
vegetable nature, and yet so nearly approximating to pit coal in several respects,
that it has been generally distinguished by the name of coal. One of the most
remarkable of these depositions exists in Devonshire, about 13 miles south-west
of Exeter, and is well known under the name of Bovey coal. It has been very
well described by Dr. Mills, in the Philosophical Transactions; and its vegeta-
ble nature has been ascertained by Mr. Hatchett, in a set of experiments which,
unfortunately, do not come under our review.
The beds of coal are 70 feet thick, but there are beds of clay interspersed.
On the north side they come within a foot of the surface, and dip south at the
rate of about 20 inches per fathom. The deepest beds are the blackest and
heaviest, and have the closest resemblance to coal. The upper resemble wood
strongly, and are considered as wood by the people who dig them. They are
brown, and become exceedingly friable when dry. They burn with a flame
similar to wood. They have exactly the appearance of wood which has been
rendered quite soft by some unknown cause, and, while in this state, has been
crushed flat by the weight of the incumbent earth. This is the case, not only
with Bovey coal, but it holds also with all the beds of wood coal, hitherto
observed in every part of the earth. Dr. Mills and Dr. Miller have endea-
voured, by subjecting Bovey coal to destructive distillation, and comparing
the effects with the destructive distillation of wood, to prove, that it has not
been formed from the vegetable kingdom, but that it is purely and originally a
mineral.* But their arguments are not only inconclusive, but inconsistent
with many circumstances connected with the coal. Mr. Hatchett found in it
both ertractive and resin; substances peculiar to the vegetable kingdom.
In the neighbourhood of Lough Neagh, in Ireland, very large masses of
petrified wood are found, all of them siliceous, and of course exceedingly hard.
The grain of the wood is still very distinct; and, in some specimens, pieces of
wood still unchanged may be detected. The wood is of various kinds: holly,
ash, and oak, are mentioned by different writers; but it is no easy matter to
determine, with accuracy, the species of wood from a petrified specimen. On
the petrified wood of this lake, there are no fewer than four papers in the
Philosophical Transactions;† the best of which is that by Mr. Simon. In
these papers, an attempt is made to prove that Lough Neagh possesses the pro-
perty of petrifying wood, when left for some time in it; and this property is
even ascribed to the sand, which extends to some distance on the sides of the
* Phil. Trans. 1760. Vol. LI. p. 534 and 941.
+ Molineaux. Vol. XIV. p. 552. (1684.)-Smyth. Vol. XV. p. 1108. (1685.)-Simon. Vol. XLIV.
p. 305. (1746.)—Bishop Berkeley. Vol. XLIV. p. 325.. (1746.)
CHAP. III.]
183
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
Lough. But there is no foundation whatever for this opinion. The petrifac-
tions are of a very old date. The waters of the Lough in no respect differ from
other waters.
Besides the petrified wood from Lough Neagh, concerning the reality of
which there can be no doubt, there is an account, in the Transactions, of a
great variety of petrified fruits, dug up in the isle of Sheppey. The account is
by Dr. Parsons; and is so imperfect that it is difficult to make any thing out of
it. There can be little doubt, however, that these supposed petrifactions are
entirely fanciful; and nothing else than accidental imitations of the fruits in
question. The following is a list of the supposed petrified fruits, described
and figured by Parsons.*
Fig.
Myrobalon.
Phaseolus.
Seed of an American gourd.
Coffee berries.
Beans.
Underground pea.
Acorn.
Water melon.
Plum stone.
Cherry stone.
Euonomus.
Soap-tree berry.
Germen huræ.
Mango stone.
Long bean.
Horse chesnut.
Yellow myrobalon.
Halmo coco.
Walnut.
Ear of corn, or of
grass.
Cocculus indicus.
2. Shells and Zoophites. These are by far the most abundant of all the ani- Shells.
mal remains which occur in the mineral kingdom. They occur most frequently
in lime-stone rocks, though they are not entirely confined to them. I have
seen them pretty often in slate clay, and bituminous shale. These substances
occur in the mineral kingdom in two states: sometimes they are unaltered;
sometimes they are petrified, or converted into stone. The stony matter is
most commonly carbonate of limes but very frequently also it is pure silica
This, in particular, is the case with most of the numerous petrifactions of echini,
and other similar animals, which occur so abundantly in chalk. Some mine-
ralogists go so far as to suppose, that all the flints which occur in such quanti-
ties in chalk, and in lime-stone, are petrifactions. But this has not been
proved, nor even rendered probable; though it must be acknowledged, that
petrifactions very frequently occur in flints. Some kinds of lime-stone are
wholly made up of shells; and, in the South Seas, the coral accumulates in
such quantities as to form islands of considerable size. The papers in the
Transactions, respecting the depositions of shells and coral, in various parts
of the kingdom, are not of very great value, though the facts are worth enume-
rating.
Dr. Lister gives a description of trochite and entrochi, or St. Cuthbert's
beads, as they are usually called in this country, which occur abundantly in
Phil. Trans. 1757. Vol. L. p. 396.
190
[BOOK I.
IIISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
the scars, at Broughton and Stock, small villages in Craven.* They consist of
lime-stone, and are obviously remains of different species of the isis, especially
the entrocha, which is usually found petrified. They occur also in abundance
in Holy Island, upon the coast of Northumberland, where there is a bed of
lime-stone, that is thickly planted with them. By the sailors on that island,
they are considered as a preservative from drowning, and therefore sought after
with eagerness.
Lister also gives an account of glossopetræ, or shark's teeth; which occur in
considerable quantity in the isle of Sheppey, and in a quarry near Malton.†
These, indeed, ought rather to be reckoned among bones than shells; but, in
mineralogical collections (probably on account of their size), they are usually
put along with shells.
To the same indefatigable conchologist, we owe an account of the astroites,
or star stone; also a species of zoophite, consisting of lime-stone; which he
found deposited in beds of clay, in the Yorkshire wolds.‡
At Reading, in Berkshire, there is a bed of oyster-shells, lying over chalk,
(a circumstance by no means common.) This bed is two feet thick, and is
covered by the following beds: 1. clay; 2. fullers'-earth; 3. sand; 4. red clay
for bricks, which constitutes the bed at the surface of the earth. The oyster-
shells are very brittle, and consist entirely of carbonate of lime. I presume,
though Dr. Brewer, to whom we owe the account, makes no mention of the
circumstance, that all the animal membrane, which fresh oyster-shells contain,
had disappeared. This is usually the case with shells, when found in similar
situations, and is the cause of their brittleness.§
At Broughton, in Lincolnshire, there are two quarries, containing abun-
dance of fresh-water shells. These shells occur in a blue stone, which De la
Pryme, to whom we owe the account, conceives to have been formerly in the
state of clay, and to have become gradually indurated. The shells are pectinites,
echini, conchites, some pieces of coral, and shells of the fresh-water muscle,
(probably the margatifera).||
About a mile from Reculver, in Kent, there occurs a bed of shells, consist-
ing entirely of white conchites, and very brittle. This bed is twelve feet thick,
lies in a greenish sand, and contains here and there in it pieces of wood. T
The cliff at Harwich, at the side of the entrance of the river, is about 50 feet
* Phil. Trans. 1673. Vol. VIII. p. 6181.
Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. IX. p. 274.
Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. IX. p. 221.
Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 484.
Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 677. The names of the shells, given in the text, are Lister's.
Not having Dr. Lister's book at hand, it is not possible to give the Linnæan synonimes. Nor,
indeed, could they be given with safety, as De la Pryme enumerates only genera; and does not
venture to give specific names.
Stephen Gray. Phil. Trans. 1701. Vol. XXII. p. 762.
CHAP. III.]
191
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
high, and consists of sand. In this sand are found a great variety of shells.
Mr. Dale has given us a catalogue of them, to the number of 28. The follow-
ing are the names of genera which he found, according to the method of Lister,
at that time generally followed: 10 species of buccina, 2 of cochleæ, I nerita,
1 turbo, 1 pecten, I auricularia, 7 pectunculi, 4 conchæ, I trigonella.
*
On digging a moorish pasture, in Northamptonshire, abundance of snail and
river shells were found. The digging was not continued farther than three feet;
but the proportion of shells always increased the lower down they got. The
experiment was tried over a considerable extent of ground, with the same effect.
The shells found, distinguished by their Listerian names, were, buccinum exi-
guum, cochlea umbilicata, cochlea citrina, and common striped snail shell.
The river shells were, periwinkle of three wreaths, and a periwinkle of five.
Fresh shells, of the same species, are still found in the neighbouring peat soil.†
The preceding account is by no means satisfactory; it is probable, that the place
examined had been, at some preceding period, overflowed with water, and the
shells left mixed with the mud and sand, after the retreat of the water.
There is a species of petrifaction distinguished by the name of belemnites;
usually cylindrical, or conical; sometimes containing a hollow nucleus, divided
into compartments; sometimes not. They are often of considerable length,
consist of carbonate of lime, and are found imbedded in chalk, sand-stone,
sand, and clay. Considerable doubts, respecting their nature, were entertained
by mineralogists. Da Costa endeavours to prove, that they are not petrifactions,
but merely minerals, which have accidentally assumed a particular shape.‡
But Mr. Baker, junior, described two belemnites, from a chalk-pit, near Nor-
folk; having, the one, an oyster-shell, and the other, two of those vermiculi
commonly found on sea shells, attached to it. Hence he infers, with consider-
able probability, that the belemnites themselves are marine productions.§ Mr.
Platt examined the subject with much attention, and has shown, in a very con-
vincing manner, that the belemnites are real marine petrifactions. He has
rendered it probable, that they constitute a specie of nautilus; and, on that
supposition, has explained their formation in a satisfactory manner.|| The
belemnites occur very frequently in the coarser kinds of marble; and may be
often seen, of considerable size, in old marble chimney-pieces. To the belem-
nites may be referred another similar petrifaction, the orthoceratites, which
occurs likewise in marble; I and which is found at Kelwick, near Fulham.**
Much curious information, respecting the occurrence of shells in the mineral
* Phil. Trans. 1704. Vol. XXIV. p. 1568.
Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 397.
Phil. Trans. 1764. Vol. LIV. p. 38.
† Morton. Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXVIII. p. 2210.
§ Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 598.
¶ Wright. Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 670.
** Himsel. Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 692.
192
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Bones.
kingdom, has been lately given to the public, by La Marke, and by Cuvier,
and Brogniart.* These two last philosophers have given a most interesting
description of the structure of the country round Paris; and have drawn some
curious inferences from the alternate occurrence of fresh and salt water shells,
in different beds. Mr. Parkinson has given a similar account of the soil round
London; a subject, not so interesting as the country round Paris, from the
different nature of the beds; but still possessed of considerable interest and im-
portance.
3. Bones. The bones of animals, both sea and land, occur also in consider-
able quantity in the mineral kingdom; though the quantity is by no means
comparable to that of shells and zoophites. Boues are seldom petrified; for
they still retain their phosphate of lime, which constitutes, in some measure, their
distinguishing character. But they have undergone a great change; for most
commonly (though not always) they are destitute of their gelatinous and car-
tilaginous constituents, and are precisely in the same state as if they had been
exposed to a red heat in the open air. The facts respecting mineral bones,
detailed in the Transactions, possess considerable importance.
The head and horns of an unknown species of stag, much larger than any
European species, is found abundantly under ground in Ireland, usually in a
kind of marl. In one of these skeletons, measured by Molineux, the length, in
a straight line, from the tip of one horn to that of another, was 12 feet. The
horns were both palmated. Molineux conceived, that these skeletons belonged
to the American moose deer. But Pennant has shown, that it differs in various
particulars from the head and horns of the moose; and that it belongs to a
species of deer unknown in the live state, and probably extinct.
+
The bones of elephants have been found, at various times, scattered over most
parts of Europe; a fact which has puzzled naturalists considerably, because
the climate is at present too cold for these animals; and their remains, of course,
seem to indicate some change in the nature of the earth, or, at least, in the
climates. Much light has been thrown upon this obscure subject, by the ana-
tomical knowledge of the Hunters, and, of late, by the indefatigable labours
of Cuvier. These philosophers have demonstrated, that various bones, considered
at first as belonging to elephants, certainly belong to an animal totally different
from any species of elephant at present known. Cuvier has constituted this
animal a peculiar genus, and more species of it than one seem formerly to have
existed; though the whole genus appears to have been extinct, from a very
remote period. Still, however, it can scarcely be doubted, that the bones of
* See the Annales de Museum d'Hist. Nat. passim.
+ Transactions of the Geological Society of London. Vol. I.
Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 489.
5
CHAP. III.]
193
NATURAL HISTORY.-Mineralogy.
real elephants are occasionally dug up in various parts of Europe. The follow-
ing examples are recorded in the Philosophical Transactions:
The skeleton of an enormous elephant, which is conceived to have been 21
feet high, was found in white sand at the bottom of a mountain in Thuringia.*
Four elephants' teeth were dug up in Ireland. They were found about four feet
under ground, near a small brook which divides the counties of Cavan and
Monaghan. The tusk of an elephant was dug up at the end of Gray's-Inn-
lane, London, and another in Northamptonshire, together with a grinder of
the same enormous animal. The bones of an elephant were found under
ground in the Isle of Sheppey on the sea coast. They speedily fell to powder
when exposed to the air, but their size and shape had been previously ascer-
tained.§ Sir Hans Sloane endeavours to prove, and his proofs are pretty con-
vincing, that the bones of supposed giants, found in various parts of the world,
and described by different authors, were in reality elephants' bones.||
+
+
Near the river Ohio, in America, at a place called the Great Buffalo lick, a
great number of bones belonging to some enormous animals were discovered by
Croghan. These were at first supposed to be elephants' bones. But Mr. John
Hunter, having examined the teeth, pronounced them to belong to a carnivorous
animal. Dr. Hunter published a dissertation on the subject, founded chiefly on
his brother's observations,** and since that time they have been admitted to be-
long to some enormous unknown animal, and the name Mammoth, applied to
the bones of a large animal found in Siberia, has been applied to them. Cuvier
has shown that the American and Siberian Mammoth belong to different species.
Some years ago a complete skeleton of the American Mammoth was exhibited
in London by Mr. Peale.
A vast collection of fossil bones have been found in the rock of Gibraltar.
They were conceived to be human bones; but, Dr. Hunter having examined
them, demonstrated that they belonged to a quadruped.††
A stag's head and horns were found at Matlock, Derbyshire, on a rock
which, from the description of it given by Mr. Barker, seems to be calcareous
tuffa.tt
year 1770,
In the mountain of St. Peter, near Maestricht, were found in the
abundance of fossil bones, which Camper showed to belong to a kind of physe
*Tentzel. Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 757.
+ Neville and Molyneux. Phil. Trans. 1715. Vol. XXIX. p. 367 and 370.
‡ Sloane. Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 457.
|| Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 497.
** Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 34.
‡‡ Phil. Trans. 1785. Vol. LXXV, p. 353.
§ Jacob. Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 662.
Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 464.
†† Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 414
2 C
194
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Mosses.
ter.*
A splendid work was afterwards published on these bones by Fojas de
St. Fonde.
II. MOSSES. The great abundance of mosses in the colder parts of the earth,
and the rapidity with which in certain circumstances they are renewed, while
in the torrid zone they are totally wanting, are circumstances claiming the close
attention of geologists. Pit-coal, in like manner, abounds in cold climates;
but (as far as I know) has never been found in the torrid zone. Hence the
opinion entertained by some that mosses by length of time, and by being ex-
posed to considerable pressure, are converted into pit-coal, has at least some
little plausibility in its favour. That peat is entirely of vegetable origin can-
not be doubted; that it consists chiefly of sphagnum palustre, and other similar
plants which delight in moisture, is probable, and that it is formed by the
action of water on dead vegetable matter appears abundantly evident. But an
accurate explanation of the suite of changes which take place during the for-
mnation of peat has not been given. A precise chemical examination of peat,
and a comparison of its different varieties with those of pit-coal, would be a
valuable addition to geological knowledge.† In the mean time it cannot be
doubted that mosses act a very important part in nature, and that they afford us
the means of detecting many curious changes which have taken place in process
of time on the surface of the earth.
Mosses always occur on plains, though these are frequently situated at some
considerable height on the side of a mountain. They are always in the neigh-
bourhood of ground higher than themselves, and are obviously the receptacle
of water collected from neighbouring acclivities. They frequently contain
many large trees, chiefly oak and fir, and this even in countries where trees
will no longer grow, as the Orkneys and Western Islands of Scotland. There
is in an early number of the Philosophical Transactions a very valuable paper
on the origin of mosses, by the Earl of Cromartie. And this nobleman, who
was about the age of 80 when he wrote, had the singular good fortune to wit-
* Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 413.
+ I have made some experiments on the subject, but never could find any of the constituents of peat,
mentioned by Dr. Rennie in his work on peat, in any of the varieties of that combustible which I
was able to procure. I have examined peat from Lancashire, from Perthshire, from the neighbour-
hood of Stirling, from the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and from a moss between Stirling and Glas-
gow. Dry peat is tasteless and insoluble in water. But if you steep it in water for several months
it tinges the liquid reddish brown, similar to moss water. In water thus tinged I never could detect
any thing by re-agents, except some slight traces of vegetable extractive.
The reason why wood does not grow in these places is not any change of the climate for the
worse, but an increase of the number of sheep and cattle, which prevent trees from propagating
themselves by seeds, the only way in which forests can be continued in a cold climate. Young trees
brought from a distance and planted are sure to die.
6
CHAP. III.]
195
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
ness with his own eyes all the different steps of the process within a period of
rather less than 50 years.
In the year 1651, when his Lordship was 19 years old, going from a place Origin of peat.
called Achadiscald to Gonnazd, in the parish of Lochbrun, he passed by a very
high hill, which rose in a constant acclivity from the sea. At less than half a
mile up from the sea there is a plain about half a mile round, and from it the
hill rises in a constant steepness for more than a mile in ascent. This little
plain was at that time all covered over with a firm standing wood, which was
so very old that not only the trees had no green leaves, but the bark was quite
thrown off; which the old countrymen, who were with his Lordship, said was
the universal manner in which fir woods terminated, and that in 20 or 30 years
after the trees would commonly cast themselves up from the roots, and so lie in
heaps till the people cut and carried them away. About 15 years afterwards his
Lordship had occasion to come the same way, and observed that there was not
a tree, nor even a single root of all the old wood remaining; but instead of
them, the whole bounds where the wood had stood was all over a flat green
ground covered over with a plain green moss. He was told that nobody had
been at the trouble to carry away the trees; but that being all overturned from
their roots by the winds, the moisture from the high grounds stagnated among
them, and they had in consequence been covered over by the green moss. His
Lordship was informed that nobody could pass over it because the scurf of the
fog would not support them; but he thought proper to make the experiment,
sunk in consequence up to the arm pits, and was drawn out by his attendants.
Before the year 1699, the whole piece of ground was turned into a common
moss, and the country people were digging peats out of it. At first they were
soft and spongy, but gradually improved, and at the time when his Lordship
wrote (1711) they were good.*
This is the most valuable paper on mosses that I have ever met with. His
Lordship's observations and conclusions are confirmed by Sir Hans Sloane, who
gives a description of the mosses in Ireland, and shows them to be similar in
every respect to the mosses in Scotland.+
moss.
The only other paper on mosses in the Philosophical Transactions which deserves Irruption de
particular notice is written by the late Dr. Walker, Professor of Natural History
the Solway
in the University of Edinburgh. It gives us an account of the irruption of the
Solway moss, which took place on the 16th of December, 1772. The Solway
flow contains 1,300 acres of very deep and tender moss, which before this acci-
dent were impassable even in summer to a foot passenger. It was mostly of the
quag kind, which is a sort of moss covered at top with a turf of heath and
coarse aquatic grasses; but so soft and watery below, that if a pole is once thrust
+ Phil. Trans. 1711. Vol. XXVII. p. 302.
* Phil. Trans. 1711. Vol. XXVII. p. 296.
໑ ເ ຈ
196
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Earthquakes.
through the turf it can easily be pushed, though perhaps 15 or 20 feet long, to
the bottom. The surface of the flow was at different places between 50 and 80
feet higher than the fine fertile plain between it and the river Esk. About the
middle of the flow were the deepest quags, and there the moss was elevated
higher above the plain than in any part of the neighbourhood. From this to
the farm called the Gap, upon the plain, there was a broad gully, though not
very deep, through which a brook used to run. In consequence of an uncom-
mon fall of rain the moss being quite overcharged burst at these quags, about
eleven o'clock at night; and, finding a descent at hand, poured its contents
through the gully into the plain. It surprized the inhabitants of twelve farms
in their beds. Nobody was lost, but many persons saved their lives with great
difficulty. By the next morning 200 acres were entirely overwhelmed, and in a
few days it overspread about 400 acres. The land covered was all enclosed with
hedges, and bore excellent crops of wheat and turnips. The greatest part of
the plain was covered with 15 feet of moss, and in some hollows the moss could
not be less than 30 feet deep. The ridge of the flow itself subsided in conse-
quence of this inundation about 25 feet.*
The existence of petrifactions in such abundance, incorporated with different
rocks, is a demonstrative proof that this earth which we inhabit has undergone
great changes since its original formation. Now what are the sources of these
changes? There are three sources of changes which immediately present them-
selves to our view as soon as we consider the subject; namely, earthquakes, vol-
canoes, and inundations; and to one or other of these sources, or to all of
them united, geologists have been in the habit of ascribing these changes. Let
us consider each of them in succession, as far as the information contained in
the Philosophical Transactions on the subject will enable us to go.
III. EARTHQUAKES. If we consider the violent effects which earthquakes
produce, especially in hilly countries, where their effects are most perceptible,
we cannot hesitate to admit that considerable changes in the position of some
of the strata at the surface of the earth may have originated from them. The
number of papers on earthquakes in the Philosophical Transactions amount to
about 130. But, the greater number of these containing hardly any other in-
formation than the existence of an earthquake in a particular spot at a given
period, I did not include them among the number of geognostical papers, be-
cause very little geognostical information can be deduced from them.
With the exception of a few descriptions of earthquakes contained in the
earlier volumes of the Transactions, almost the whole of these papers refer to
the period between 1750 and 1756 inclusive, a period remarkable for the fre-
quency and the violence of the earthquakes which were felt in almost every part
* Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 123.
CHAP. III.]
197
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
year of
of the civilized world. No fewer than 55 of them relate to the earthquakes
which were felt all over the south-east of England during the year 1750, and
which some of the writers distinguish emphatically by the name of the
earthquakes. There are 45 papers which give an account of the earthquake
which destroyed Lisbon on the 1st of November 1755. This appears, from all
these descriptions, to have been one of the most extensive earthquakes ever felt,
having extended itself every way not less than 4,000 miles.
As to the phenomena of earthquakes, they scarcely admit of a general descrip-
tion. It has been supposed by some that they only take place in very dry sca-
sons; but this does not appear to be a well established fact. To the same place
they seem always to come in the same direction. Thus every earthquake felt at
Lisbon has come from the north-west. The agitation of the earth lasts only for
a very short time, but it is often repeated two or three times within a very small
interval. The effect has by most persons been compared to an undulation pass-
ing along the surface of the earth, and different persons affirm that they have
traced the progress of this undulation for a considerable way by the nodding of
the trees in succession. The earthquake is always attended by a loud noise.
As to the cause of earthquakes we are not in possession of any very satisfac- Cause of
tory theory. Dr. Stukely, who has inserted a paper on the subject in the Philo- carthquakes.
sophical Transactions, afterwards published separately, has endeavoured to ac-
count for them by means of the Franklinian theory of electricity. But his
reasoning is so loose and unsatisfactory, that it is not entitled to a serious exa-
mination. Neither is the hypothesis of Dr. Hales more plausible or better sup-
ported. He conceives the phenomenon to be occasioned by a sudden vacuum
formed in the atmosphere. In dry seasons he thought that sulphureous exhala-
tions rose in abundance from the earth. These, he conceived, might make their
way into the atmosphere enveloped in clouds; but the moment atmospherical air
was admitted to them a condensation would take place, which might be so ex-
tensive as to occasion an earthquake. This reasoning was founded on an expe-
riment which Dr. Hales had made many years before. By mixing together
nitric acid and iron pyrites, an effervescence was produced, and a particular air
generated, which remained without any alteration while confined over water;
but, when mixed with atmospherical air, assumed a fine reddish brown colour,
and diminished in bulk. The air which he had thus formed he conceived to be
the same with the supposed sulphureous exhalations which rise from the earth.
The mistake of Dr. Hales was afterwards clearly shown by the discoveries of
Dr. Priestley and Mr. Lavoisier.
The air which Dr. Hales had generated is the same substance which is now
distinguished by the name of nitrous gas. It is produced not from the pyrites,
but from the decomposition of the nitric acid. When mixed with atmospheri-
cal air, it unites with the oxygen of that air, and immediately forms again nitric
198
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
For the nitric acid, as
acid. Hence the red fumes and the diminution of bulk.
soon as formed, is absorbed by the water over which the experiment is made.
But we have no proof that nitrous gas is emitted from the earth: on the con-
trary, we have every reason to believe that it is not. But even supposing nitrous
gas by some unknown means to be introduced into the atmosphere in considera-
ble quantity, and to be suddenly mixed with the atmospherical air, the conse-
quence would, no doubt, be a violent tempest, the air rushing from all quarters
to fill up the vacuum; but no reason can be adduced why such a vacuum
should occasion any motion in the earth, far less a motion so extensive as to be
felt over 4,000 miles of the earth's surface.
We must conceive the cause of earthquakes to be lodged within the earth's
surface. And certainly no cause capable of producing the effect presents itself
to us with so much facility as the sudden generation of an enormous quantity
of elastic fluid within the bowels of the earth. Mr. Michell has written a
very elaborate and ingenious dissertation on this subject,* in which he endea-
vours to convince his readers, that earthquakes are occasioned by the sudden in-
undation of water upon the fires which he conceives to exist in considerable
numbers at various depths under the surface of the earth. The water thus
heated being converted into steam, he supposes, forces its way between the dif-
ferent strata of the earth which he conceives to be horizontal, and, heaving
them up in succession, may occasion an earthquake over a considerable extent
of country. When the internal fire lies deep under the surface, the earthquake
will move with greater velocity; when it is more superficial, it will move over a
smaller tract of country, and with less velocity. Where the strata raised by
this steam are covered by a smaller number of incumbent strata, the earthquake
will be more violent. This he conceives to be the case with mountainous coun-
tries; and if the strata be very thin, the fire may even break out and constitute a
volcano. This frequently happens on the summit of mountains. And the ir-
ruption of a volcano always puts an end to the earthquake for the time. Of
this Mr. Michell brings several instances from Peru. The internal fire which
occasioned the earthquake of Lisbon he conceives to exist under the Atlantic
Ocean, in a direction north-west from Lisbon, and at the distance of about a
degree. As to the depth, there are no data to determine that point, but he
guesses it to be intermediate between a mile and a half and three miles.
Though this hypothesis of Mr. Michell is attended with many difficulties,
which it is not possible at present to explain, yet it must be allowed to be the
most plausible solution of earthquakes hitherto proposed. Werner conceives
all volcanoes to be situated in a coal country; and explains them, by supposing
the coal, at an immense depth, by some means or other to be set on fire. But
* Phil. Trans. 1760. Vol. LI. p. 566.
CHAP III.]
199
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
there are several circumstances which militate against this very simple and
ingenious explanation. We have never heard of any coal occurring in tropical
countries; yet it is well known that volcanoes are very common in these coun-
tries. The account which Humboldt gives of the composition of several vol-
canic mountains, in South America, is utterly irreconcileable with their focus
being in coal, unless we admit that coal may exist below granite; a phenome-
non which has never been observed. But, if coal be not the combustible sub-
stance, we can form no idea of what the matter can be which supplies so many
internal fires with fuel for so many ages.
An idea has been thrown out that the combustible matter may be potassium,
sodium, and the metallic bases of the earths; which would take fire by mere
contact with water, and therefore might be conceived to burn any length of
time, without the assistance of external air. That such a combustion is pos-
sible, cannot be denied; but it is scarcely reconcileable with the nature of the
substances thrown out of volcanoes. We never find great quantities of potash,
or soda, among the lavas of volcanoes, nor of perfect glass; as we ought to do,
on the supposition that the bases of the alkalies, or alkaline earths, supplied
the materials of the combustion. Hence there does not appear any reason
to believe that these substances supply volcanoes with fewel. Nothing remains,
therefore, but the bases of silica and alumina; which are still hypothetical, and
concerning which, it would, consequently, be absurd to speculate. Besides, the
quantity of sulphureous vapours, of sulphureous acid, and of sulphur, which are
emitted from volcanoes, announces the presence of that combustible substance.
But, if sulphur, iron, and charcoal, (as is most likely) be the food which
supplies volcanoes with the means of burning, it is impossible to explain the
existence of subterraneous fire at great depths under the earth, and quite un-
connected with the external air. That they do in some cases exist, in such
situations, must be admitted; but every attempt hitherto made to explain
how, must be allowed to be unsatisfactory. Upon the whole, I feel rather
inclined to adopt the opinion of Mr. Michell, respecting the cause of earth-
quakes; though that opinion still leaves much to account for.
Dr. Hutton, of Edinburgh, and his disciples Mr. Playfair and Sir James
Hall, have got rid of these difficulties, by conceiving the whole central part of
this globe to be a mass of solid fire. But this supposition, independent of its
inexplicability, leads to consequences which are inconsistent with the pheno-
mena of nature; and of course overturn it. To reconcile this red hot nucleus
with the phenomena of earthquakes, it is obvious that it must extend to within
a few miles of the surface of the earth. We are not sufficiently acquainted with
the conducting powers of the earth to know what absolute effect such a central
mass would have upon the temperature of the surface of the globe; but we are
certain that it would have considerable effect. It is true, that we may conceive
the waste of heat, from the surface, just to balance the quantity proceeding
200
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Volcanoes.
from the centre. On such a supposition, the heat of the surface indeed would
not increase, but it would certainly remain stationary. But this is not the case,
we find the heat of the surface to vary, and to be entirely regulated by the sun,
indicating irresistibly that the temperature is derived from that luminary, and
not from the centre of the earth. Neither are the polar regions the hottest, as
they ought to be on the supposition of a central fire; since they are much
nearer the centre than the equatorial regions; but the coldest, because the sun's
rays strike them most obliquely. Neither do we find the temperature of the
earth increase, the deeper we dig in mines, as it must do, if the heat proceeded
from a central fire. On the contrary, we speedily come to a certain tempera-
ture, (always the mean temperature of the country in which the mine is
situated) which never varies, how deep soever we proceed. These, and various
other phenomena which will readily occur to the reader, appear to me so
utterly irreconcilable with the hypothesis of a central fire, as to oblige every
person who weighs them with sufficient care to abandon that hypothesis entirely.
IV. VOLCANOES. Volcanoes constitute, without doubt, the most striking
and formidable geognostic phenomenon which nature has presented to our view.
They are not, indeed, so destructive to the lives of the human race as earthquakes;
but they present the eye with something much more terrific. Their number is
very considerable, nearly two hundred having been reckoned by different
writers. There is an immense range of them running from north to south, on
the continent of America, and occupying the summits of many of the Andes,
and the mountains of Mexico and California. There is a considerable number
along the east coast of Asia, and in the Indian islands. Iceland alone contains
eight volcanoes. The two volcanoes with which we are best acquainted, are
those of Ætna and Vesuvius. Ætna has been burning as far back as the
records of history go. We have an account of an eruption during the expe-
dition of the Argonauts; which took place at least 12 centuries before the com-
mencement of the Christian æra. The following dates of remarkable eruptions
of this volcano are given in a paper published in an early volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions:
476 before Christ.
years
40 years after Christ.
after Christ.
812 years after Christ.
Mentioned by Thucydides.
During the reign of Caligula.
During the time of Charlemagne.
1284
1329
1444
1536
1633
1650*
Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 967.
4
CHAP. III.]
201
- •
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
The greatest eruption of Etna, which has taken place for many years, hap-
pened in 1669; when, by the torrent of lava, the town of Catanea was de-
stroyed. This eruption was particularly described by Borelli; and an abstract
of his account is given in the Philosophical Transactions.* Two subsequent
eruptions, namely, those of 1755 and 1766, are described in subsequent volumes
of the Transactions.
Vesuvius is a much smaller mountain than Etna; but its eruptions are more
frequent, and not less formidable. The first account of it, as an active volcano,
is that dreadful eruption in which Pliny the elder lost his life; which hap-
pened during the reign of Titus, about the year 72 of the Christian æra.
Though no previous mention of Vesuvius, as a volcano, is any where to be
found on record, yet it is not supposed that the mountain began only to be a
volcano at the time of the eruption which destroyed Pliny. Pliny the younger,
who gives a very circumstantial account of the whole affair, in two letters to
Tacitus, never once hints at any such thing; nor was the least surprise expressed
at the eruption, which, undoubtedly, he would have done, had it been the first
that ever happened. But, it is probable, that the mountain had lain quiet for
a considerable number of years before; and this, in some measure, accounts for
the consternation that seized all those who lived in its vicinity. In the Philo-
sophical Transactions, there is an account of no fewer than nine eruptions of
this mountain, which took place during the last century. The dates of these
eruptions are as follows: 1707;t 1737; 1751;§ 1754;|| 1760;¶ 1766;**
1767;** 1779;†† 1784.‡‡
The last four of these eruptions are described by Sir William Hamilton; who,
during a period of about 40 years, attended so assiduously to the operations of
that mountain. We owe to him, likewise, a description of Mount Ætna.
We have, in the Philosophical Transactions, an account, likewise, of the
Peak of Teneriffe, which is a volcano; but not so frequent in its eruptions as
Vesuvius, or even Etna.§§ We have also an interesting account of a new
volcano, which burst out in the Archipelago, near the island of St. Erini, on
the 8th of May, 1707; raising up, at the same time, a new island, out of the
bosom of the deep.|||
The number of papers on volcanoes, in the Philosophical Transactions,
amounts to 27. But, a student of geognosy would peruse these papers in vain
* Phil. Trans. Vol. IV. p. 1028.
‡ Ibid. 1739. Vol. XLI. p. 252.
Ibid. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 24.
** Ibid. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 188.
‡‡ Ibid. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 360.
Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 67.
at that time Consul at Smyrna.
+ Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXVIII. p. 22.
Ibid. 1751. Vol. XLVII.
p. 409.
¶ Ibid. 1761. Vol. LII. p. 39.
++ Ibid. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 42.
§§ Ibid. 1715. Vol. XXIX. p. 317.
The account is drawn up by Dr. William Sherard,
2 D
20.2
[Вook 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
if he were in search of accurate and satisfactory details respecting the nature of
the rocks of which volcanic hills are composed. The most valuable book on
the subject, which I have seen, is Dolomieu's account of the Lipari islands.
He had attended to the phenomena of volcanoes, with great attention, for many
years; but, from the papers which he published on the subject in the Journal
de Physique, there is reason to suspect that his knowledge of rocks was not
very precise. He gives us a list of a prodigious variety of minerals, which he
affirms to exist among lavas, and to have been vomited out of volcanoes. But
the list is so extensive, and so far exceeds what has been observed by others,
that it is by no means improbable that he confounded lava with various rocks,
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes indeed, but never vomited from the volcanic
crater in the form of lava, nor interspersed in lava.
We are neither acquainted with the nature of the rocks of which Etna or
Vesuvius is composed: indeed, the task is extremely difficult; for these moun-
tains are so surrounded with lava on all sides, that the rock itself, of which the
mountain consisted before the volcano commenced, may perhaps be entirely
concealed from view. The prodigious extent of Ætna, about a hundred miles
in circumference, and the vast number of volcanic hills attached to its sides, at
least 44 in number, render the geognostic examination of the rocks, of which
it was originally composed, almost impossible. Sir William Hamilton and
several other writers on volcanoes suppose, that, previous to the commencement
of the volcano, no mountain whatever existed; and that the whole mountain
has been formed by successive eruptions from the crater: But this opinion is
both improbable in itself, and destitute of evidence. Werner conceives, that
volcanic hills are always composed of green stone, basalt, and the other rocks
which constitute the independent coal formation, and the floetz trap. But the
observations of Humboldt, on the volcanoes of America, will not admit of such
conclusions; unless, indeed, we conceive granite and porphyry to belong to
these formations; a supposition not very improbable, if we attend to the late-
observations of Von Buch and Professor Jameson; the former of whom in
Norway, and the latter in Scotland, have found granite among secondary rocks.
Geologists are still deplorably ignorant of every thing relating to volcanic
rocks. As a proof of this, it may be stated with truth, that the best treatise
on volcanoes, which has hitherto appeared, was written by Bergmann, and
published before the year 1780. Even lava itself, or the melted matter which
issues from volcanoes, has been frequently confounded with basalt and green
At one time it was the fashion to consider all hills composed of these
two last rocks; and, in short, all floetz trap hills as extinct volcanoes. Thus,
Fojas de St. Fond, in his travels through Scotland, finds every where abundance
of extinct volcanoes; and Mr. Raspe inserted a paper in the Philosophical
Transactions, describing similar hills in Ilessia, under the same appella
stone.
CHAP. III.]
203
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
tion.* In like manner, the hills of Auvergne, in France, have been considered
as extinct volcanoes by the French mineralogists; even D'Aubaisson, who was
educated in an opposite school, has come to the same conclusion. Notwith-
standing this, there can be little doubt that these hills stand in the same pre-
dicament with the fitoez trap hills of Scotland and Germany. These opinions,
respecting the volcanic nature of basalt and green stone, are now pretty gene-
rally laid aside. The followers of Dr. Hutton, indeed, contend that they have
been melted by heat, but do not suppose that they have ever belonged to a
volcanic mountain.
Considerable doubts are entertained by some, whether pumice be a volcanic
substance or not; and these doubts are founded on the supposition that pumice,
though often observed in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, has never been seen
mixed with lava, or actually flowing from a volcano. If the evidence of
Tournefort be considered as sufficient, there can be no doubt that pumice is
occasionally thrown out of volcanoes; for he describes various examples of it
in his Voyage to the Levant. Pumice has been repeatedly observed floating
on the surface of the sea, in immense quantity. To give one example, Mr.
Dove, the Captain of an Indiaman, observed it floating in the Atlantic Ocean,
in immense abundance, over a tract of not less than 317 miles in length. The
pumice was first observed in south latitude 35° 36', west longitude 4° 9′, and
the shoals of it continued for several days. Now it is impossible to account
for such appearances on any other supposition than that the pumice has been
thrown from the bottom of the sea by some volcanic force; and, if that be
admitted, it will follow that pumice, at least sometimes, though perhaps not
always, is volcanic.
There is a phenomenon, in some measure connected with volcanoes, which Burning coal
deserves to be mentioned. Coal pits, in some cases, take fire, and continue pits.
burning for a considerable length of time. There is one example of this acci-
dent, related in two different papers in the Philosophical Transactions. About
the year 1648, a coal mine at Benwell, a village near Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
was accidentally kindled by a candle: at first, the fire was so feeble, that the
reward of half-a-crown, which was asked by a person who offered to extinguish
it, was refused. But it gradually increased, and had continued burning for
thirty years when the account, in the Transactions, was drawn up; and, it
was not conceived, that it ever could be extinguished till the fuel was burnt
out. Other examples, of a similar kind, have happened in Scotland and in
Germany.
* Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 580.
+ Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 444
Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. XI. p. 762; and Ibid. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 221.
2 D 2
204
[Book 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Hot springs.
Temperature
Connected with volcanoes, and probably depending upon the same cause,
are the hot springs, which issue out of the earth in such numbers, in different
countries. No satisfactory explanation of the temperature of these springs,
and, above all, of their wonderful equability in this respect, for a very long
series of years, has ever been offered. They are very frequently connected with
volcanoes, and appear in great numbers in volcanic countries. In such cases,
we naturally ascribe the temperature of the spring to the heat of the volcano;
but, when they occur at a considerable distance from volcanic countries, such an
explanation cannot be applied. Thus, the hot spring at Bath has continued at
a temperature higher than that of the air for a period not less than 2000 years;
yet it is so far from any volcano, that we cannot, without a very violent and
improbable extension of volcanic fires, ascribe it to their energy. There are
various decompositions of mineral bodies, which generate considerable heat.
These decompositions are usually brought about by means of water; or, to
speak more properly, water is itself the substance which is decomposed, and
which generates heat by its decomposition. Thus, for example, there are
varieties of pyrites, which are converted into sulphate of iron, by the contact
of water, and such a change is accompanied by an evolution of heat. Were
we to suppose the Bath spring to flow through a bed of such pyrites, its heat
might be occasioned by such a decomposition. Such, probably, is the way in
which those mineral springs, that contain sulphureted hydrogen gas, receive
their impregnation. But we are pretty certain, that such a supposition will
not apply to Bath water: first, because it does not contain the notable quan-
tity of sulphate of iron, which would be necessary upon such a supposition;
and, secondly, because instead of sulphureted hydrogen gas, which would
infallibly result from such a decomposition of pyrites, there is an evolution of
azotic gas. This evolution of azotic gas, however, is a decisive proof that the
heat of Bath waters is owing to some decomposition or other, which takes
place within the surface of the earth; though, from our imperfect acquaintance
with the nature of the mineral strata, through which the water flows, we can-
not give any satisfactory information about what that decomposition actually is.
I shall here give the small number of facts, concerning hot springs, con-
tained in the Philosophical Transactions; and mention also, as somewhat con-
nected with the subject, some trials made by Mr. Douglas, to determine the
temperature of the sea at great depths, in high latitudes.
1. The following table contains the temperature of Bath water, taken at dif-
of Bath water. ferent places. I have repeated some of these trials, and found them correct.
The table is drawn up by Mr. John Howard.*
* Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 201,
CHAP. III.]
205
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
King's bath pump
· •
Hot bath pump
Cross bath pump
Hot bath, coolest part,
Ditto, warmest part..
Pump in the hot bath
#
King's bath, coolest part..
Ditto, holtest part
•
Queen's bath, coolest part
Ditto, warmest...
·
113
Pump in the bath
114
•
Cross bath, coolest part
108
Ditto, warmest part.
96
Cross bath pump
97
.113
Pump in the Market-place, Bath
Springs on Claverton
113°
89
90
.. 107
54
47.
St. James's spring water.
43
•
101
Springs on Lansdown
45
97
·
Old Well-house, Bristol..
67
· •
98
New Well, ditto...
76
99
These temperatures were taken in the months of November and December,
1765. The scale was Fahrenheit's, and the themometer constructed by Bird.
2. In the island of St. Miguel, one of the Azores, which exhibits, according Hot springs in
to Mr. Masson, very obvious marks of having abounded in volcanoes, there are
St. Miguel.
a considerable number of hot springs of various temperature; some boiling hot,
others cooler, and some so low that they are used as baths, and have acquired
great celebrity for the wonderful cures they have performed. Mr. Masson in-
forms us, that these springs are surrounded with abundance of native sulphur,
which he affirms is exhaled by them in abundance. A circumstance which ren-
ders it probable, that the heat of these springs depends upon the decomposition
of pyrites.*
3. The following table exhibits the result of the trials made by Charles
Douglas, Esq. Captain of his Majesty's ship the Emerald, in the year 1769,
off the coasts of Norway and Lapland, to determine the temperature of the sea
at considerable depths:

Temperature.
Temperature
Date.
Latitude,
Open air.
Surface
of sea.
of the sea.
Bottom,
Depth.
May 12
70° 40′
27°
36°
39°
87 fathoms.
17
Ditto.
38
37
39
90
22
70° 32′
40
37
39
80
June 29
70° 54'
47
4.4
40
98
July 7
70 45
46
46
44
70
8
68 43
46
47
52
260
8
68 49
46
47
46
100
9
65 25
48
48
48
210
9
65 25
48
48
46
100
10
64 40
52
52
46
141
10
64 40
52
52
45
75
The experiments were made by letting down the thermometer enclosed in a
tin cylinder filled with water, and letting it remain at the bottom for half an
hour. It was sunk by means of the deep sea sounding lead.†
*Masson. Phil. Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII, p. 601.
+ Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 39..
5
206
[Book 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
Deluge.
Woodward's
theory.
V. DELUGE. Not only the account of a deluge related in the Book of
Genesis, and the traditions to the same effect preserved by all ancient nations;
but the abundant remains of sea shells and coral, found at great distances from
the sea, at great heights, and intermixed with various rocks, have induced
mineralogists, without exception, to agree that at some former period the whole
of this earth was covered with the sea. Various hypothetical explanations of
the way in which this supposed deluge took place have been from time to time
published, and several of these are to be found in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. It is not necessary to take notice of the old hypothesis of Burnet, who
conceived that the antediluvian world consisted of a thin smooth crust spread
over the whole sea, and that this crust breaking occasioned the deluge, and the
present uneven surface of the earth; nor of Whiston, who ascribed the deluge
to the effect of the tail of a comet; because these opinions have many years
ago lost all their supporters. Nor is any attention at present paid to the hypo-
thesis of Buffon, who conceived the earth to have been splintered from the sun
by the blow of a comet, and accounted for the deluge by suppositions equally
arbitrary, and inconsistent with the phenomena.
Dr. Woodward was the first writer on the subject, who acquired a splendid
reputation by his theory. He was a native of Derbyshire, and born in the year
1665. After having spent some years at the grammar school in the country,
he was sent to London, and bound apprentice to a linen draper. But this
situation not according with the philosophical turn of his mind, he soon left
it; and turning his attention to science and medicine made a very considerable
progress in both in a few years. In 1692, he was appointed to the vacant phy-
sical professorship in Gresham College, and in 1695, the degree of Doctor of
Medicine was conferred upon him by Archbishop Tenison, and he was after-
wards admitted to the same degree by the University of Cambridge. His Natu-
ral History of the Earth, first published in 1695, and afterwards considerably
augmented and improved, was the work to which he stood indebted for his re-
putation. It engaged him in a good deal of controversy with some foreign
writers; but his authority was such, that his opinions, though not always cor-
rect, generally prevailed. He seems to have been a man rather of a violent
temper. In the year 1710, when a Member of the Council of the Royal So-
ciety along with Sir Hans Sloane, in a dispute with that eminent physician, he
expressed himself in terms which were considered insulting by the other Mem-
bers of Council. On that account, he was required to make an apology to Sir
Hans, to which refusing his consent, he was in consequence expelled the Coun-
cil. He died in 1728. Besides the Natural History of the Earth, he wrote
His Method of Fossils, The State of Physic and Diseases, and several papers
in the Philosophical Transactions.*
* See Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors.
CHAP. III.]
207
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
In his Natural History of the Earth, after refuting the hypotheses of his pre-
decessors, he proceeds to show, that the present state of the earth is the conse-
quence of the universal deluge; that the waters took up and dissolved all the
minerals and rocks, and gradually deposited them along with the sea shells;
and he affirms that all rocks lie in the order of their specific gravity. It is not
worth while to examine into his theory with any minuteness, as it has long lost.
all its authority. Several of the positions, however, which he laid down con-
tinue still to find a place in every theory which has succeeded him. He first
showed, that an ordinary deluge would not account for the appearances which
we see in the present strata of the earth, and that we must conceive the rocks
themselves to have been held in solution and gradually deposited.*
Dr. Halley supposed, that the position of the poles of the earth was changed Halley's
by the blow of a comet. This he conceives would account for the deluge, and theory.
occasion such a dreadful agitation in the waters as would be sufficient to pro-
duce all the effects which have taken place. This opinion is still a favourite
one with astronomers, and has been illustrated at some length by La Place in
his popular System of Astronomy. But Dr. Halley himself seems afterwards.
rather to suppose, that the intermixture of sea shells with the strata of the earth
took place at a period much anterior to the Mosaic deluge. This opinion is
now universally adopted by modern geologists. Dr. Halley's opinions, in the
paper above referred to, bear a striking resemblance to the notions entertained
on the subject by the late Dr. Hutton of Edinburgh, which have been so much
admired by Mr. Playfair for their originality and philosophical nature. I mean,
that the earth was doomed at various periods to be buried in the sea and raised
up again. And this, he conceived, might be necessary for the purposes of
vegetation.
In the forty-ninth volume of the Philosophical Transactions there is an ela-
borate paper by Dr. Edward Wright, in which he endeavours to refute Buffon's
notion, that the earth had been for a long period covered by the sea, and that
the mountains had been formed by currents in the ocean.
He shows very
clearly, that Buffon was but little acquainted with mountains, and that the ac-
count which he gave of them was, in most respects, inaccurate. Dr. Wright
himself has recourse to the universal deluge to explain all the phenomena; but
he does not attempt to show how they proceed from it.§
Mr. Edward King, a very ingenious but whimsical man, advanced a new King's
theory of the deluge in 1787. According to him, the sea merely changed its theory.
place at the flood: The bottom of the ancient sea rose up while the surface of
P. 115..
Ibid. Vol. XXXIII. p. 123.
* For a particular account of Woodward's Theory, see Phil. Trans. 1695. Vol. XIX.
Phil. Trans. 1724. Vol. XXXIII. p. 118.
§ Phil. Trans 1785. Vol. XLIX. P. 672.
208
(Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Saltness of the
sea.
the ancient dry land subsided. In consequence what was formerly sea became
land, and what was formerly land became sea.* This opinion has been adopted
by Mr. Deluc in his late geological publications. There can be no doubt, that
all the phenomena may be accounted for on such a supposition. But as we
have no means of determining either its truth or its falsehood, it is beyond the
province of philosophical investigation. Such suppositions have nothing what-
ever to do with science. Geology has been much injured by them. Its real
object, as far as it deserves cultivation, is not to speculate about the original
formation of the earth, but to ascertain with precision the relative situation of
all its strata. And this might be done with precision, without indulging in fan-
ciful speculations no less inconsistent with true taste than with a philosophical
spirit.
Connected, in some degree, with this subject, is an ingenious proposal of Dr.
Halley for determining the age of the earth. All lakes, according to him, that
have no outlet, are more or less salt; while those from which a river runs are of
necessity as fresh as the water which flows into them. This is the case with the
Caspian sea, with the Dead sea, with the lake of Mexico, and with the lake
Titicaca in Peru; though the last two are much less salt than the two former.
Now Dr. Halley conceives that the saltness of these lakes is owing to this circum-
stance. The river water which runs into them, and by means of which they
are kept up, contains in it a small quantity of salt, which it has imbibed from
the soil over which it flows. This water, when it constitutes the lake, is conti-
nually rising from the surface of it in the state of vapour.
But this vapour
containing no salt in it, we see obviously, that the proportion of salt in the
lake must continually increase, though at a very slow rate, salt being always
flowing into it, and none ever leaving it. Now Dr. Halley thinks that the
ocean is precisely in the same circumstance as these lakes, since it may be con-
sidered as an enormous lake into which water is continually flowing, and from
which none escapes except by evaporation. Hence, to determine the age of the
earth, we have only to ascertain the rate at which the saltness of the sea in-
creases. Thus, if we find that in the year 1800 it contains a certain portion of
salt more than it did in the year 1700, we have only to find what proportion
that increase bears to the whole salt in the sea, from which we can at once de-
duce the time that has elapsed since the period when the sea first began to give
out water by evaporation.†
It will be admitted at once, that this is a very ingenious and plausible specu-
lation; but it will not bear a rigid examination. We have no evidence what-
ever, that the sea was not salt at its original formation. Indeed there is a pre-
sumption in favour of that opinion; because many of the animals which it
* Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 44.
+
Phil. Trans. 1715. Vol. XXIX. p. 296.
CHAP. III.]
209
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
contains cannot live in fresh water. Hence we must either admit that the sea
remained for many ages uninhabited, or that it was salt at its first formation.
But, granting that the sea was originally fresh, it would not follow that it be-
came salt by evaporation, unless we were certain that the vapour which rises
from the sea is absolutely destitute of salt. But we have evidence that this is
not the case. Margraaff found salt in rain water, which must have been origi-
nally raised by evaporation, either from the sea or the land; and, if we suppose
the latter, the supposition makes more strongly for the reality of the vapour
from sea water containing some salt. But even if this point were given up,
still there is another consideration which would make it difficult or impossible
to deduce any conclusions from the rate at which the saltness of the sea in-
creases. It is true that salt is mixed, to a certain amount, with almost every
mineral in nature, as follows from the galvanic experiments of Mr. Davy. But
the proportion of it is very various in different places. Sometimes, as in Cheshire
and in Poland, we find it deposited in prodigious quantities, so as to form beds
of enormous thickness. In other cases it is loosely scattered, but in very incon-
siderable quantities, in rocks and the soil. While in other cases, it is so inti-
mately mixed, that it cannot be separated by any other method, with which we
are acquainted, than the galvanic energy. Water flowing through minerals
of such different natures must dissolve very different proportions of salt. In
beds of the first kind, it may, in certain circumstances, become saturated with
salt, and will always dissolve so much as to be entitled to the name of a salt
spring. In beds of the second kind, it will dissolve only a very minute quantity
of salt; and, in those of the third kind, if any such exist of any considerable
extent, it will dissolve none at all. Hence waters, when they began to flow
into the sea and into lakes, would contain very different proportions of salt,
according to the nature of the country through which they flowed; and hence
different lakes, and different parts of the sea, would possess different degrees of
saltness, and would increase in saltness at very different rates. Finally, this
increase of saltness in the sea, if it takes place at all, must do so with incon-
ceivable slowness; for the specific gravity of sea water has never been observed
to increase since the first time that it ever was taken, which is more than a
century ago.
1.
hills.
VI. HEIGHT OF HILLS. The ridges of mountains which traverse so very Height of
considérable a portion of the earth's surface, claim the particular attention of
the geognost. They give every country its particular aspect. They give rise to
all the rivers, and determine the course which they are under the necessity of
following, in order to reach the sea. They exhibit to our view the rocks, of
which the earth is composed; and, what is equally important and unexpected,
the highest mountains are usually composed of those rocks which lie lowest, in
the order of strata, and which, accordingly, in level countries, lie at the greatest
1
3
}
2 E
10
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
depth below the surface. It is a point of considerable importance to determine
the height of mountains, not only on this account, but because this height has
considerable influence upon the climate; and because, if the heights of all
mountains were once accurately settled, we should be enabled to determine how
far the commonly received opinion, that the mountains are annually wasted by
the weather, and of course diminishing in height, is well founded. Much
pains have been taken to determine the height of mountains; and the method of
measuring these heights by the barometer is, upon the whole, the most accurate.
The labours by which that method was established, and the ultimate formulæ
at last pitched upon, will come under our observation in a subsequent part of
this work. At present, that we may not omit any thing of importance, we
shall give a table of the heights of different mountains in France; as determined
geometrically, during the trigonometrical survey of that kingdom, between the
years 1669 and 1703. We copy the table from a paper by Dr. Scheuchzer, on
the height of mountains. His own measurements by the the barometer, being
inaccurate, do not merit transcription. *
Mont Claret, in Provence...
La Massane, in Roussillon
French feet.
1662
2382
Bugarach, a mountain in Languedoc...
3888.
Mountains in Auvergne.
Le Puy de Domme, near Clermont..
4860
La Courlande..
5028
La Coste..
5106
•
Le Puy de Violent.
5118
Le Cantal....
5904
Le Mont d'Or……….
6180
Mountain in Avignon.
Le Mont Ventoux...
6216
Pyrenean Mountains.
S. Barthelemy dans le Paix de Foix
La Montagne de Mousset.
7110
.
7548
Le Conigou...
8640
Changes on
the earth's
surface.
To these heights we shall add that of the Peak of Teneriffe, as determined
geometrically by Dr. Thomas Heberden. He found it to be 15396 English
feet above the level of the sea.t
VII. CHANGES. A favourite object of geologists has always been to specu-
late on the supposed changes to which this earth has been subjected, since the
period of its original creation. They have frequently supported their hypo-
thetical reasoning, by producing certain changes, the existence of which is
*Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 577.
+ Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 353.
CHAP. III.]
211
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
actually supported by historical documents. Hence it becomes an object of
considerable importance to register, correctly, all the changes of that kind upon
record; 1 shall therefore state, in this place, the small number of such facts
contained in the Philosophical Transactions. Some of the facts, already
noticed in a preceding part of this section, might, without impropriety, be
introduced under this head; as the flow of the Solway moss; the subterraneous
forests in Lincoln and Yorkshire; and the bones of quadrupeds, found at con-
siderable depths under ground. But these, having been already stated at suffi-
cient length, need not be again repeated. The remaining papers, respecting
changes in the surface of the earth, are only six in number, and relate to three
changes, all, in some measure, hypothetical.
mus between
1. The first three of these papers relate to a supposed isthmus, which for- Supposed isth-
merly joined Great Britain and France, and which was conceived to have been Britain and
broken down by the sea, before the commencement of any accurate historical France.
records respecting these islands. Two of them were written by Dr. Wallis,
within two years of his death, when he had reached his eighty-fifth year; and
afford a surprizing proof of the activity of mind, and the perfect command of
his faculties, which that extraordinary man retained at so advanced an age.*
The third paper, on the same subject, was written by Dr. William Musgrave.†
This opinion was first broached by Camden, supported by Sumner, and op-
posed by Vossius. Dr. Wallis supports it with much learning, and points out the
effects of the rupture with much ingenuity. He conceives, that the tradition
mentioned by Plato, of the destruction of an island in the Atlantic Ocean,
related to the rupture of this isthmus; and Dr. Musgrave quotes the well-
known passage in Virgil:
Penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos.
as a proof that Virgil was aware of such a rupture, and alluded to it. When
men have recourse to such proofs as these in support of an opinion, it affords
clear evidence that they have nothing better to produce.
2. Few things are more curious or difficult to explain than the prodigious Coral islands.
quantity of coral formed in the sea, especially in the tropical regions. Coral
is the produce of different species of vermes, and it consists chiefly of carbonate
of lime. Now it is difficult to conceive where these animals procure such pro-
digious quantities of this substance. Sea water, indeed, contains traces of sul-
phate of lime, but no other calcareous salt, as far as we know. Hence it would
appear, that these creatures must either decompose sulphate of lime, though
the quantity of that salt contained in sea water seems inadequate to supply
their wants, or, they must form carbonate of lime from the constituents of sea
* Phil. Trans, 1701. Vol. XXII. p. 967 and 1030.
+ Phil. Trans. 1717. Vol. XXX. p. 389.
2 E 2
212
(Book I,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Supposed
formation
of marble.
water, in a way totally above our comprehension. Be that as it may, there is
one consequence of this copious formation of coral in the tropical regions of
considerable importance to navigation, which has been clearly pointed out by
Mr. Dalrymple, and is now pretty well understood. The winds and waves
accumulate these corals in large banks, which, entangling the sand, gradually
rise above the surface of the waves, and form islands. These, in process of
time, probably by the agency of birds, become covered with vegetation, and
frequently loaded with timber. The bottom of these islands is nothing else
than a coral bank; the surface is a black soil, formed of a mixture of sand and
decayed vegetable matter; the whole island is flat, long, and narrow, and ex-
tends usually in its greatest length from north to south, because, almost all the
winds between the tropics blow either from the east or the west. The sides of
these islands frequently constitute a perpendicular wall; and the sea, at a little
distance from them, is of unfathomable depth.*
3. The last paper in the Transactions which we shall notice, on this subject,
is by Mr. Raspe; and we notice it, chiefly, to point out the mistake into which
he is fallen. The Abbé Vegni traced the hot mineral waters of St. Philip,
situated at Radicofani, in Tuscany, on the road from Florence to Rome, to a
small hill, composed of white marble, from which they flowed in several rivu-
lets. He found that these waters deposited a great quantity of shining white
tophus, with which, not only the sides of the channels, along which they
flowed, became encrusted, but likewise all kinds of hard bodies that were
thrown into them; and this, in such manner, that when the said tophus was
dexterously broken off, it retained exactly the form and shape of the bodies on
which it had been deposited. This tophus Mr. Raspe considers as exactly the
same with white marble; and hence infers, that all white marble has been de-
posited from springs in this manner. But the tophus in question is quite
different in its characters from granular lime-stone, to which true white marble
belongs. It is the mineral well known under the name of calctuff white, sus-
ceptible of a fine polish, and, in many cases, very beautiful. It is often cut
into slabs, and used for ornamental purposes; and, as it is composed of the same
constituents with granular lime-stone, it may, and often is, called white marble;
but, when the two minerals are compared, their difference is at once conspi-
cuous. Granular lime-stone is a congeries of minute crystals; and, in some
cases, as in the parian marble, these crystals are of such a size that their form can
be distinctly seen with the naked eye. But the grain of calctuff is extremely fine,
and no appearance of crystallization can be observed in it. Its texture is similar
to that of chalk, only more compact. Hence it is obvious, that the mode in
which calctuff is formed can never be extended to the formation of granular
* Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 394.
† Phil. Trans, 1770. Vol. LX. p. 47.
CHAP. III.]
213
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
lime-stone. Sir James Hall has shown, that chalk, shells, and, probably, like-
wise calctuff, when violently heated in close vessels, undergo a species of fusion,
and assume the appearance of granular lime-stone. Bucholz has ascertained,
that the same thing takes place even in open vessels, provided the heat be applied
suddenly. How far these experiments will account for the existence of gra-
nular lime-stone in such abundance, and the contrast between it and chalk,
shells, and calctuff, as Sir James Hall seems to think they will, is a very
different question, and could not be discussed without the introduction of a
variety of topics foreign to our present subject.
VIII. DESCRIPTIONS. The only way of really improving geognosy, is by Descriptions.
an accurate examination of the whole surface of the earth; and describing, with
fidelity, the rocks of which it is composed; and the relative situation of these
rocks. Considerable progress has of late years been made in such a survey. But,
it could not be attempted, with any precision, till the science of mineralogy had
made considerable progress; till we were acquainted with the names of the dif-
ferent rocks which constitute the earth's surface; and able to distinguish and
describe these rock by their characters. Some valuable papers, on this subject,
have appeared in those volumes of the Transactions which have been published
since the commencement of the present century. But the small number of
descriptions which occur in the preceding volumes are of comparatively little
consequence. Yet, as descriptions constitute the only true means of improving
the science, it would be improper to omit noticing those contained in the
Transactions, even though of inferior value.
1. There is nothing which has contributed more essentially to the prosperity
of Great Britain, or, which has tended more to produce and foster the impor-
tant manufactures, by which this industrious and enterprizing island is distin-
guished, than the mines of coal, which are scattered in such profusion under
its surface. We find every manufacturing town set down in the midst of a coal
country: Bristol, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Sheffield, Newcastle, and
Glasgow, afford striking instances, and many more will readily occur to the
recollection of every one who is acquainted with Great Britain. An accurate
account of the different coal fields, in this island, would be a very valuable addi-
tion to our geognostic knowledge. Several excellent tracts on the subject have
been published at different periods, especially by Mr. Williams, in his Mineral
Kingdom; but, unfortunately, the terms employed in these tracts, being the
usual ones employed by the miners, are too vague and too little understood to
convey any exact information. There is a paper in an early volume of the
Transactions, giving an account of the coal mines of Mendip, in Somerset- Mendip coal-
shire. They occur in that county, as every where else in the low country, and mines.
are not to be found in the hills. The beds of coal are not horizontal, but
sloping, and they dip to the south-east at the rate of about 22 inches per
3
214
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Giant's Cause-
way.
Strata of
Boston.
fathom. Hence they would speedily sink so deep that it would not be possible
to work them, were it not that the beds are here and there intersected by per-
pendicular dykes, or veins, of a different kind of mineral, (sometimes clay, but
usually green stone); and, upon the other side of this vein, they are all found
considerably raised up. There are seven different beds of coal at Mendip, lying
at regular distances below each other, and separated by beds of a different kind
of matter. From the names which Mr. Strachey applies to these beds, it is
impossible to make out the nature of every mineral which occurs.
Sand stone,
slate slay, and bituminous shale, seem to be the principal. The deepest bed of
coal, which is ten inches thick, and is not considered as worth working, lies
about 38 fathoms, or 228 feet below the surface of the earth.*
2. The cliff on the northern coast of Ireland, usually distinguished by the
name of the Giant's Causeway, has attracted a great deal of the attention of
philosophers. There are no fewer than six descriptions of it in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions; two of them by the celebrated oriental traveller Dr. Pococke.†
But none of them convey any idea of the nature of the stone. The circum-
stance which has excited general attention is, the existence of a great number of
perpendicular pillars, usually hexagonal, composed of single stones placed above
one another, and jointed into each other very neatly. These pillars, from the
specimen which I have seen, appear to be green stone; and the black stone,
mentioned by Pococke, in which I have seen several cornua ammonis, is very
analogous to flinty slate, if not the very same. This columnar structure is very
commonly observed in green stone, basalt, and porphyry slate, and occurs
abundantly in many parts of the world. Staffa, Arthurseat, near Edinburgh,
many hills in Fifeshire, Italy, and Germany, may be mentioned as familiar ex-
amples. This columnar structure led to the supposition, that these hills had
been formed by fusion, and hence they were conceived to be extinct volcanoes.
A violent controversy was the result. It was impossible to bring decisive evi-
dence in favour of either opinion; but the greater number of geologists have
acceded to the opinion of Werner and his disciples, that these rocks exhibit no
proofs of ever having been in a state of fusion.
3. In the year 1783, the Magistrates of Boston, in Lincolnshire, employed
a person to sink a well in the market-place of that town. Accordingly, after
encountering a great many difficulties, a hole was bored, to the depth of 478
feet 8 inches below the surface. But the attempt was not attended with suc-
cess, no sufficient supply of water having been procured, and what did rise
being too salt to be employed for the purposes of domestic economy. In the
Philosophical Transactions, there is an account of the different beds of earth
* Phil. Trans. 1719. Vol. XXX. p. 968,
† Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 124; and 1752. Vol. XLVIII. p. 226.
1
CHAP. III.]
215
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
through which they bored. As an experiment of this kind is seldom made, the
description, though not expressed in language that can be always understood
with precision, yet deserves to be mentioned. The following table exhibits
the different beds passed through, as far as the paper in the Transactions
enables us to ascertain them.*
Beds.
Light coloured blue clay.
Thickness of beds
in feet.
Depth from surface
in feet.
Sand and gravel.
Blue clay.....
36
371..
.36
13
48
101
Dark green, stone.
481.
1
Blue clay....
75.
26/1/
Light coloured stone
}
f
Dark blue clay...
114
38
Stone.
8 inches.
Gravel..
$
Dark clay, like black lead'
174
.63
Chalkly clay, with flints ...
3 inches.
Dark coloured clay
..210
..36
.
Light coloured clay.
.
•
Dark coloured clay
342
31/
Shells and white coloured earth.
inch.
Light coloured earth
Dark coloured clay
447
Dark earth, with chalk and gravel.... 449
5 2
•
5
2 10 inches.
Dark coloured earth. . . . . .
4.54
5
Ditto, with chalk and gravel
456
2
Dark coloured earth....
457
1
Light coloured earth.
462
5.
Dark coloured earth.
470.
8.
Ditto, with chalk and gravel
7 inches.
Rag stone....
1
Dark coloured earth.
Dark coloured silt, with chalk,
Ditto, without chalk.
472 ..
475
1
3
•
478 8 inches..... 3. 83 inches.
3.83
J
4. Caverns are very commonly met with both in lime-stone and sand-stone Caverns.
rocks. Three remarkable caverns are described in the Philosophical Transac-
tions, but the description of the first two is very unsatisfactory, as nothing is
said about the nature of the rocks in which they occur. The third cavern is
mentioned to occur in lime-stone. The first cavern is Okey Hole; which Okey Hole.
occurs in the Mendip hills, about a mile from Wells, in Somersetshire. It
extends in length about 200 yards; and varies in height, from eight fathoms to
a few feet. The second cavern described is the celebrated one in Derbyshire,
* Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 50% + Beaumont. Philos. Collec. 1681. No. II. p. 1.
216
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Elden Hole. known by the name of Elden Hole. Mr. Lloyd descended into it, and found
it 186 feet deep. At the bottom, it consisted of a very spacious cavern, divided
into two compartments, the first, like an oven; the second, like the dome of a
glass-house furnace. From the stalactites, which Mr. Lloyd describes as hanging
from the roof of this cavern, we may reasonably conclude that it occurs in a
lime-stone rock.* The third cavern is that of Dunmore Park, in Kilkenny, in
Ireland. The mouth of it is at the top of a small lime-stone hill; and its
depth is 90 feet. Its bottom and top are covered with the finest specimens of
stalactites. These stalactites are of the same nature with calctuff, and admit of
a fine polish.†
Dunmore
Park.
Iron found in
Siberia.
5. We shall terminate this part of our subject, with noticing the account of
an enormous mass of iron, found by Pallas, on the ridge of a mountain in
Siberia, in the neighbourhood of the river Jenisca. This enormous mass, which
was discovered by the Russian miners, and first observed by Pallas, weighed
above 1680 Russian pounds. It was cavernous, and the vesicles were filled
with a yellowish green vitreous substance, similar, in appearance, to chrysolite.
On the outside it was rusty. The first accounts of this singular discovery were
communicated to the Society in a letter from M. de Steplin, Counsellor of
State to the Russian Empress. Afterwards, Pallas himself communicated a
more exact description, both of the mass itself, and of the situation where it
was found.§ This mass has been subjected to a chemical analysis, by Klap-
roth, and other eminent chemists, and found to be an alloy of iron and nickel.
Proust found the native iron, subsequently discovered in Peru, to be, likewise,
an alloy of iron and nickel. The same holds with iron discovered in the south
of Africa. Now, as the iron which exists in meteoric stones is an alloy of the
same kind, and as this alloy has never been observed in any ore of iron, and
as no rational account can be given of the formation of these enormous masses
of iron by human means, it has been conjectured with considerable plausi-
bility, and the conjecture has been generally acceded to, that these masses, like
meteoric stones, have fallen from the atmosphere.
SUCH, as far as I am able to judge, is a pretty complete account of all the
geognostic information of value, to be found in the Philosophical Transactions.
As a description of the structure of the earth, or, as an account of the different
rocks of which mountains are composed, and the relative position of these
rocks, the Philosophical Transactions, along with all other publications of the
period, must be admitted to be exceedingly defective. Some important obser-
vations on these subjects will be found in Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth;
and some valuable facts have been communicated by Saussure and Deluc. But,
* Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 250.
Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 461.
+ Walker. Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 16.
§ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 528.
CHAP. III.]
217
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
geog-
the philosopher to whom we are indebted for laying the real foundation of
nosy, for establishing its fundamental principles, and pointing out the true method
of improving it, by accurate observations, was Werner, the celebrated Professor
of Mineralogy, at Freyberg, in Saxony. He has not, himself, indeed, pub-
lished any thing on the subject; but has satisfied himself with teaching it in his
Annual Courses of Lectures. As hardly any sources of getting information re-
specting this important science exist in this country,* it will probably be
expected, that I should give a short sketch of the Wernerian geognosy in this
place. This I shall endeavour to do; but, as my limits are confined, it will be
impossible to enter into any details.
7
Wernerian
The rocks, of which this globe is composed, as far as we have been able to Sketch of the
penetrate below the surface, amount to 36; and they all occupy a determinate geognosy.
position with respect to each other. They extend round the whole earth, and
inclose the central nucleus like the coats of an onion. Not that they are every
where spherical, or uninterrupted: partly owing to inequalities in the central
nucleus, over which they are deposited, and partly to other causes, they rise
higher in one place and sink lower in another, sometimes slowly, and sometimes
abruptly; and they are entirely wanting in many paticular spots, having
either never been deposited, or having been removed and carried away by some
unknown cause. The position of the different rocks, being thus constant, has
been pitched upon as the basis of the classification of them. They have been
divided into five classes; and the term, formation, has been applied to them, Formations.
from the supposition that each class had been formed about the same time.
Those rocks which lie lowest down, or nearest the central nucleus, belong to
the first, or primitive formation; and those which lie highest up, or imme-
diately at the surface, belong to the fourth, or latest formation; for the fifth
formation includes only the volcanic matters, and of course is confined to par-
ticular spots. The names of the formations are as follow: 1. Primitive.—
2. Transition.-3. Floetz.-4. Alluvial.-5. Volcanic. We are not to suppose,
however, that the rocks belonging to the primitive formation are always at a
great depth below the surface. On the contrary, they frequently constitute
mountains; and the highest mountains, on the surface of the earth, are com
posed of them. In these cases, we must suppose the subsequent formations
either never to have been deposited, or to have been removed and carried off
by some unknown means. In like manner, the transition and the floetz forma-
tions often constitute mountains, and appear at the surface; and this must be
accounted for in the same way.
The primitive formation consists of five classes of rocks, which follow each Primitive
* I am acquainted with no English treatise on the subject, except Professor Jameson's excellent
outlines of it, which constitute the third volume of his Mineralogy. A work, to which I refer my
readers, who wish for accurate information respecting the structure and position of rocks.
formations.
2 F
218
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Transition
formations.
Floctz forma-
tions.
other in succession, in the order of their names, beginning with the lowest.
These are as follow: 1. Granite.-2. Gneiss.-3. Mica-slate.-4. Clay-slate.-
5. Porphyry and Sienite. Alternating with gneiss, mica-slate, and clay-slate,
there occur beds of several other rocks, which, being of no great extent com-
pared with them, and being frequently repeated, have been termed subordinate
formations. These are primitive lime-stone, primitive trap, * quartz, flinty
slate, and gypsum. Along with porphyry and sienite, occur serpentine and
granite. Primitive rocks contain no petrifactions. They constitute the highest
mountains on the face of the earth. They are evidently chemical compounds,
and contain no minerals, which show themselves to have been mechanical
depositions. They must have been formed before the earth was inhabited.
The transition formation consists, likewise, of five classes of rocks, only one
of which, namely, grey wacke, is peculiar to it, and characterizes it. These
recks are
as follow: 1. Transition lime-stone.-2. Grey wacke, and grey
wacke slate.-3. Transition trap.-4. Transition flinty slate.-5. Transition gyp-
sum. I believe Professor Jameson has likewise discovered porphyry and gra-
nite, among transition rocks. These rocks contain petrifactions of animals and
vegetables; but they are of the lowest order, both of animals and vegetables,
and generally consist of species which can be no longer found in a recent state.
Hence these rocks must have been formed after the earth contained both ani-
mals and vegetables. But we have no proofs that the inhabitants of the earth,
at the formation of these rocks, were of the same species as at present; far less,
that any of the large animals existed.
Our knowledge of the rocks which constitute the floetz formation is not so
far advanced as that of the two preceding. They occur in a level country, and
are usually covered by soil. Hence the investigation is much more difficult,
and will be brought to perfection very slowly. We are acquainted with the
following floctz formations:
1. Sand-stone. Of this, there are various formations; three at least have been
ascertained. The lowest of all is red, and distinguished by the name of old red
sand-stone.
2. Lime-stone. Of this, also, there are at least three formations, if we in-
clude chalk, the position of which is not very well understood.
3. Floetz gypsum. Of this, there are two formations, one of which is distin-
guished by alternating with rock salt.
4. Floetz trap. This consists of green stone, and was first observed by Pro-
fessor Jameson, in his examination of Dumfriesshire.
5. Independent coal. This formation, besides coal, which characterizes it,
By trap, mineralogists understand those rocks which are distinguished by a notable quantity of
hornblende. They consist of hornblende, hornblende-slate, and green-stone, which is a mixture of
hornblende and felspar.
I
CHAP. III.]
210
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
contains a variety of other rocks, in beds, chiefly sand-stone, green-stone, clay
iron-stone, lime-stone, shale.
6. Newest floetz trap. This formation generally caps the hills in those
countries where it occurs. It consists of basalt, wacke, grey-stone, porphyry-
slate, green-stone, trap tuff, clay-stone, sand-stone, &c. The floetz formations
abound in petrifactions and in mechanical depositions. Most of the metallic
ores occur in the primitive and transition formations.
formation
The alluvial formation consists of the loose soil, gravel, sand, moss, &c., Alluvial
which cover the surface of the earth, and do not require to be particularly
described. Neither is it necessary to mention, at any length, the volcanic for-
mations, which of course consist of the ashes and lavas vomited out of volcanoes.
Such is a sketch of the structure of the earth, according to the Wernerian
geognosy; a sketch which will be allowed to be imperfect; because the whole.
surface has not yet been examined by persons qualified for the task. But, im-
perfect as it is, its principles furnish us with the means of making accurate
observations, and the great outline has been amply confirmed by every recent
observation, upon the accuracy of which any reliance can be put. I may refer
to the observations of Humboldt, on the Andes, and of Mr. Farey, upon the
structure of a considerable part of England. Mr. Farey's observations are the
more remarkable, because he does not appear to be acquainted with the Wer-
merian geognosy. They certainly do him credit as an observer, but are, unfor-
tunately, too circumstantially minute for common use. General principles,
stripped of all useless details, are much more attractive, and much more easily
understood and remembered, than a multitude of minute observations, which
require an unusual portion of attention in the reader, in order to be able to
draw the proper deductions from them.
SECTION III-Of Mining.
The art of detecting the ores of metals in the earth, and of working them
with advantage, constitutes one of the most important objects of political
economy. It was carried to a considerable extent by the Grecian states, especially
the Athenians; and was likewise pretty successfully practised during the early
period of the Roman empire. Of the modern nations of Europe, the Germans
have paid the greatest attention to mining, and the French the least. Britain pos- British
sesses many important mining districts, especially Cornwall, Anglesey, Northum- mining
berland, Cumberland, and Derbyshire. The mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire
have been worked since the period of the Roman conquest of Britain, and pro-
bably long before that period; for the Phoenicians were in the habit of drawing
tin from Spain and Cornwall, in the remotest ages of antiquity. It is a very
remarkable circumstance, and a striking proof of the want of education among
our miners, that, notwithstanding the importance of our mining districts, and
districts.
2 F 2
220
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
the vast quantity of iron, copper, lead, tin, and zinc, every year extracted from
the bowels of the earth, in Great Britain, no systematic treatise on mining has
ever made its appearance. We have some treatises on the subject, translated
from the Spanish and German, all of them of a very old date, and, conse-
quently, imperfect; but no general account has yet appeared of the practices
followed in this country, in extracting the ore from the mine, and obtaining
from it the metal which it contains. We have, indeed, some valuable works
giving an account of the practices followed in particular districts, especially
Cornwall and Derbyshire; and some important information on the mode of
smelting, &c., in Watson's Chemical Essays; the most elegant chemical work
which has hitherto appeared in any language, a work not appreciated in this
country according to its value.
The papers on mining, contained in the Philosophical Transactions, amount
to 29; and more than the half of these were published before the year 1672.
Of these there are 15 which, in the present advanced state of our knowledge of
the subject, cannot be considered as of any value. The rest consist, either in
descriptions of particular mines, or in details of certain processes followed in
certain districts. I shall proceed to give an account of the most important
statements which they contain.
Blasting by
1. The method of blasting rocks by gunpowder is now so familiar to miners,
gunpowder. that little attention is paid to the importance of it. But the methods, practised
before its introduction, were so imperfect, that the use of gunpowder may be
considered as constituting an important æra in mining. In a very early number
of the Philosophical Transactions, we have a description of the method of blast-
ing rocks by gunpowder, by Sir Robert Moray, where the invention is ascribed
to M. Du Son.*
Mines in
Transylvania
and Hungary.
2. Transylvania and Hungary have long been celebrated as mining countries,
and supply annually a considerable quantity of gold. Dr. Brown, a physician
of London, of considerable eminence, who travelled on the continent in 1668,
communicated a description of these mines to the Royal Society, which was
published in the Philosophical Transactions. He describes a salt mine of great
note, near Eperies, in Upper Hungary, no less than 1080 feet deep. The
ground was not rocky but clay; and the salt, being ground to powder, was
used without any refining. The gold mines of Chremnitz, he describes as of
the greatest value, and as having been wrought for 900 years. His description
of the ore is so imperfect, as to be of no value; but he gives an exact detail of
the mode of extracting the gold by amalgamation, a process lately so much
improved by Baron Born and his coadjutors. There was a mine of mercury
about seven miles from Cremnitz, but it was not wrought. Dr. Brown makes
*
Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. p. 82.
5
CHAP. III.]
221
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY.
•
some curious observations on the filling up of the passages formerly dug out in
the old mines. By the trickling down of moisture along the sides of these pas-
sages they gradually become narrower, and approach each other.*
*
Poland.
3. The most extensive salt mines known are those in Poland, not far from Salt mines in
Cracovia, at a small town called Wilizka. There is an imperfect description
of them in the Philosophical Transactions. According to that account, they
are 1,200 feet deep; and about 1,000 miners are constantly employed in them.
The horses kept under ground become speedily blind, in consequence of the
sharpness of the salt; and the hoofs of one of them, who had been long in the
mine, were as long again as usual.†
Salt had been prepared in Cheshire for many years by boiling down the salt In Cheshire.
springs which are common in that country; but in 1670, a rock of salt was
discovered, from which they expected to be able to manufacture the article with
greater advantage.‡
Cornwall.
4. There is a pretty long paper, published in the Transactions for 1671, Tin mines in
giving an account of the method of working the tin mines in Cornwall, and of
preparing and smelting the ore, and obtaining the tin. As the terms used are
all provincial words, peculiar to the Cornish miners, without any explanation,
the paper is not very intelligible to ordinary readers. The publication of a
dictionary, explaining all the words used by the miners in the different mining
provinces of Great Britain, would be a work of considerable value, and would
greatly facilitate the attempts that may be made to improve the state of our
mines. Something of the kind indeed has been attempted with respect to Corn-
wall, but at a period when the science of mineralogy was not sufficiently ad-
vanced to admit of an explanation of every term.
5. It is very remarkable that diamonds, by far the most beautiful and most
highly valued of all the precious stones, have hitherto been found only in the
torrid zone, in India, and Brazil. The mines, as they are called, consist of
nothing else than the alluvial soil, no doubt originally washed down from
mountainous districts. In this soil, diamonds are found scattered very un-
equally; sometimes occuring in great abundance, sometimes very sparingly. In
some places the stones are all small, never exceeding a few grains in weight;
in other places they are occasionally found as heavy as nine ounces. Diamonds
have never yet been observed in their original position; from which circum-
stance one would be apt to suppose that this repository must be some of the
newest rocks; as these are the rocks which from their situation are most liable
to be worn away. In the Philosophical Transactions there is a particular ac-
* Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 1189.
Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 2015.
† Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 1099.
§ Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 2096. See also
a paper on the same subject by Merret, Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 949.
222
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Diamond
mines in
India.
Calaminc.
Mining terms.
count of the different places in India, on both sides of the Ganges, where
diamonds occur, the manner of digging and washing the soil, and the colour
of the different soils thus wrought. The paper was communicated to the Royal
Society by the Earl Marshal of England. The description of the soil and
rocks is so imperfect as to convey no information. But there is one curious
particular mentioned, that deserves to be noticed; we mean, the mode pursued by
the Indians to dig through rocks. They kindled a fire on the rock, and when
it was very hot they poured water on it. By this means the rock cracked and
split into shivers for a certain depth; these fragments were removed, the fire
again kindled, and water poured upon the hot rock as before. Thus they pro-
ceeded till they reached the requisite depth.*
6. Calamine is an oxide of zinc, which has been employed from time imme-
morial in the making of brass. There is in the Transactions an account of the
method followed by the miners in digging this ore out of the earth, and prepar-
ing it for sale. Calamine occurs frequently in beds, and seems, in some cases,
to exist in great abundance. The Mendip hills, in Somersetshire, were famous
for their calamine mines; though, I believe, the ore is now pretty much ex-
hausted in that quarter. From the description given of the calamine mines in
Somersetshire, by Mr. Pooley, it is plain that he considered the calamine as oc-
curing in veins. It is always mixed with some galena or sulphuret of lead. It is
dug out of the earth, and being broken into small pieces is exposed to the
action of a current of water, which washes away the light earthy matter, and
leaves the calamine. The whole is then thrown into deep wooden vessels full
of water, and agitated for a considerable time. The galena sinks to the bot-
tom, the calamine is deposited in the middle, and the earthy matter on the sur-
face. The calamine, thus separated from its impurities, is ground to powder,
and is then fit for sale.‡
7. Dr. Nichols, Professor of Anatomy in Oxford, seems to have examined
the structure of metallic veins with more accuracy than any other British
writer of the early part of the last century. He published some observations
on the mines of Devonshire and Cornwall, which possess some value. He has
given us an explanation of several of the Cornish words used by the miners, of
which the following may serve as a specimen:
Load, a vein.
Living load, a vein containing metallic ore.
* Phil. Trans. 1677. Vol. XII. p. 907.
† Pooley. Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 672.
The practice followed at present, in Somersetshire, differs in several particulars from the ac-
count given in the text; though the object in view, and even the means employed, are the very
same.
§ Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 402 and 180.
CHAP. IH.]
223
NATURAL HISTORY.-MINERALOGY,
Dead load, a vein destitute of ore.
Flooking, a cross vein of stone; or dyke, as called in the North of
England.
He has some observations on the crystals of tinstone, and on its specific gra-
vity compared with that of tin, and on its colour, much more accurate than
any to be met with in chemical books of the same period.
8. In the year 1751, there was a very rich copper mine wrought at the river Precipitation
of copper by
Arklow, in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland. From this mine there ran aro
iron.
stream of blue-coloured water, of so deleterious a nature as to destroy all the
fish in the river Arklow. One of the workmen, leaving an iron shovel in this
stream, found it some days after encrusted with copper. This induced Mr.
Johnston, one of the proprietors of the mine, to make a set of experiments on
the subject, from which he concluded, that the blue water contained an acid
holding copper in solution, that iron had a stronger affinity for the acid than
copper, that the consequence of this affinity was the precipitation of the cop-
per, and the solution of the iron when pieces of that metal were put into the
blue water. These ideas induced the miners to dig a great many pits for the
reception of this water, and to put bars of iron into them. By this means they
obtained a very great quantity of copper, much purer and more valuable than
the copper which they obtained from the ore itself by smelting.*
9. The superiority of Swedish iron over that of other countries, for the Swedish iron
making of steel, is well known. Hitherto the British steel makers have not been
able to employ British iron in their processes; they have found it too brittle to
bear cementation. Attempts are at present making by some very spirited steel
makers at Sheffield; and, from the products already obtained, good hopes are
entertained of ultimate success. This superiority of the Swedish iron depends
upon the great purity of the ore from which the iron is smelted. One of the
most remarkable of these mines, if the name can with propriety be applied to
it, is Taberg, a mountain of considerable size, composed entirely of pure iron
ore, and occurring in a large tract of sand over which it seems to have been
deposited. This mountain has been wrought for nearly these three hundred
years, and yet its size is scarcely diminished.†
* Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 500 and Vol. XLVIII. p. 181.
+ Ascanius. Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. P. 30.
:
224
[Book I
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
CHAP. IV.
OF GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
We are sensible that the title of this chapter, as a branch of natural history,
will appear objectionable to many persons. There can be no doubt, that the
topics which we mean to comprehend under it might have easily been arranged
under other branches of science. But if we had followed that plan, which we
acknowledge to be the usual one, the different topics would have still occupied a
place by themselves, so that nothing would have been gained for those sciences,
under which they would have been placed. Thus for example, had we ar-
ranged the facts respecting the latitude and longitude of places, which we mean
to give in this chapter, under the head of astronomy, they must still have conti-
nued as distinct from astronomy, strictly so called, as they do at present, and
have constituted a section apart. The fact is, that the geographical position of
all the different spots of the earth constitutes a very important part of the natu-
ral history of the earth, as the description of the manners and customs of dif
ferent nations do of the natural history of man. We might therefore have
placed the former under geognosy, and the latter under zoology. Buty upon the
whole, it appeared better to place them under a particular department by them-
selves.
The papers relating to geography and topography, in the Philosophical
Transactions, amount to 67, and contain several particulars of considerable im-
portance. They may be arranged under four distinct heads, namely: 1. The
latitudes and longitudes of different places as determined by astronomical obser-
vations. 2. The observations detailed in the Transactions on the construction
of maps. 3. The papers on hydrology. 4. The papers on topography.
Latitudes and 1. LATITUDES and longiTUDES OF PLACES. The following table exhibits a
longitudes of view of the different latitudes and longitudes determined in the Philosophical
places.
Transactions:
Places.
Greenwich.
Latitudes.
..51° 28′ 39″ N....
Ballasore, East Indies....21 20 0.
Moscow, Russia
55 34 0
Yereslaw, Russia
57 44 0
Wologda, Russia. ........59 19
59 19 0
Longitudes.
Observers.
0° 0′ 0″ ...... Bradley. (a)
86 20 0 E...... Halley and Harry.(b)
38 45 0
0 0 0
(c)
(c)
0 0 0
(c)
(a) Bradley and Maskelyne. Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII, p. 151.
(b) By the occultation of the bull's eye by the moon, 1682. Phil. Collect. No. V. p. 124.
(«) Phil. Trans, 1690, Vol. XVII. p. 453.
CHAP. IV.]
225
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
Places.
Woslak, Russia
•
Arkangel, Russia.
Latitudes.
61° 15′ 0″ N……….
64 30 0
Constantinople, Turkey....41
Rhodes, Turkey,
Pekin, China.
Canton, China.
60
37 50 0
39 55 30
0 0 0
38 42 30
0 0 0
0 S.
0 N.
0
Lisbon, Portugal..
New York, America ....
Buenos Ayres, America...34 35
Magdalen islands, America 47
41
Island of Entry, ibid......47 17
Bird's island, ibid...
Bryon island, ibid...
Island battery, ibid.
Cape North, ibid.
47 55 0
47 52 0
45 54 0
47 2 0
St. Paul's island, ibid......47 11 0
Dartmouth harbour, ibid. .46 13
• •
0
Conway harbour, ibid.....46 20 0
..46 44
0
•
•
•
•
•
•
*
.
Longitudes.
Observers.
(a)
(α)
28° 53′ 49″ E..
.116 12 35
... Greaves.(b)
.. Ditto.(c)
Cassini.(d)
Ditto.(d)
740 W...... Bradley.(e)
113
5 5
9
74.
4 0
58
0 0
. 61 38
61 20 0
0
·
Ditto.(e)
.Halley.(f)
Holland.(g)
Ditto.(g)
...Ditto.(g)
Ditto.(g)
.Ditto.(g)
Ditto.(g)
.Ditto.(g)
Ditto.(g)
Ditto.(g)
.Ditto.(g)
Niganishe, ibid.
Namur....
Luxemburg.
.50 28 32
49 37 6
..51 23 2
.51 15
15 10
50 36 57
La Heese.
Ostende
…..51
Tournai.
Cork.
Madras.
•
51 54
54 O
13 4 54
Brinhill, near the Severn...51 14 561
Quantock hill, ibid……………. 51
8 484
6 56
26 441
24 39
..51
12 421
0
Landmark tour, ibid.... .51 5 5
Watchet hill, ibid...... 51
St. Hilary's church, ibid...51
Llanmace church, ibid.....51
Minehead, ibid.
Frampton house, ibid...... 51 25
25
Llantwit church, ibid.. 51 24 13
Llangwynewar hill, ibid. ..51 28 281
St. Donat's castle, ibid.....51
51 23 49
Huston point, ibid.... 51 13 294
Leemouth, ibid.
..51
51 13 54
Hangman hill, ibid........51 12 22
Stockholm...
(a) Phil. Trans. 1690. Vol. XVII. p. 453.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
-
•
4 44 50 E...... Pigot.(h)
6 11 50
4 47 20
2 58 20
8 29 15 W...
3 5 58
3 21 57
Ditto.(h)
Ditto.(h)
Ditto.(h)
Ditto.(h)
Longfield.(i)
Steevens.(k)
... Pigot.(1)
Ditto.(1)
Ditto.(1)
3 26 52
3 30 1
..Ditto.(l)
3 34 23
Ditto.()
3 37 24
Ditto.(l)
3 37 52
Ditto.(1)
3 38 2
Ditto.(1)
3 38 38
Ditto. (1)
3 39 22
Ditto.()
3 41 15
Ditto.(1)
3 44 14
Ditto.(1)
3 57 7
Ditto.(1)
4 10 35
Ditto.(1)
18 5 15 E...... Wargentin.(m)
(b) The Greeks made it 43º 5′, the Arabians 45'. The real latitude is 41° 1′ 24″. Phil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV.
p. 1295.
(c) Ibid.
(d) Ibid. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 53 and 371. (e) Ibid. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. p. 85 and 92.
(ƒ) From an observation of Pere Feuillée. Ibid. 1721. Vol. XXXII. p. 2.
(g) He was sent out for the purpose by the Lords Commissioners of Trade and Plantations.
Vol. LVIII. p. 46.
(1) Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LVI. p. 182.
(1) Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX. p. 385.
(k) Ibid. p. 182.
Phil. Trans. 1768.
(i) Ibid. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 163.
(m) Phil, Trans, 1777, Vol. LXVIL p. 16º¸
2 G
226
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Places.
Paris.....
Landscrone, Sweden.
Hoeen church, ibid.....
Kullen lighthouse, ibid.
Frankeklint, Langlande.
Kongsberg, Moen...
Longitudes.
Latitudes.
Observers.
4
48° 50′ 14″ N……….
.. 2° 20′ 5″ E………….
.55 52 23
.0 15 16
Dalby. (a)
Bugge.(b)
..55 54 38
0 5 56
.56 18 3
0
7 58 W…….
Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
..55
9 44
1 38 47
Ditto. (b)
54 58 3
0 4 12
..
Ditto.(b)
Sproeisland, Belt...
55 19 56
1 37 0
•
Ditto.(b)
Copenhagen, Zealand........55 41 4
Ditto.(b)
Roeskilde, ibid. ...
Holbeck church, ibid......
Kallundborg church, ibid.
Korsor lighthouse, ibid.
Nestved church, ibid..
Wordingborg tower, ibid... ...55
Ringsted church, ibid....
Skagen, N. Jutland..
Hioring, ibid...
Fladstrand, ibid.
Sæbye, ibid.
55 38 25
0 29 48
55 43 2
2 51 26
..55 40 54
1 29 12
55 20 22
1 27 0
•
•
.55 13 55
0 49 12
0 32
.0 40 4
Ditto.(b)
Ditto.(b)
.. Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
55 26 51
0 47 20
Ditto.(b)
57 43 44
1 57 55
Ditto.(b)
57 27 44
•
2 35 17
Ditto. (b)
57 27 3
*
2 2 15
Ditto.(b)
57 20 2
.2 2 36
Ditto.(b)
Aalborg, ibid..
57 2 57
2 39 4
Ditto.(b)
Nibe, ibid..
56 59 4
2 55 54
Ditto.(b)
Greenaae, ibid..
56 24 57
1 41 49
Ditto. (b)
Rander's, ibid.
.56 27 48
2 32 3
Ditto.(b)
Viborg, ibid...
57 27 11
3 9 25
Ditto. (b)
Aarhuus, ibid.
56 9 35
2 21 40
Ditto.(b)
Ribe, ibid.
55 19 57
3 48 25
Ditto.(b)
Hudersleben, S. Jutland.....55 15 15
..3 4 56
Ditto.(b)
Norborg, ibid..
.55 3 53
2 49 53
Ditto.(b)
Apenrade, ibid.
..55 2 57
Tondern, S. Jutland.
54 56 30
Sonderborg, ibid...
Flensborg, ibid.
•
54 54 59
54 47 18
•
Husum church, ibid.
Gluckstadt, Holstein
Hesseloe, Cattegat.
Anholt lighthouse...
56 11 46
..56 44 20
Size of Eng-
land.
54 28 29
53 47 44
•
3 8
5
3 31 3
.3 8 43
•
.Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
. Ditto.(b)
..Ditto.(b)
Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
Ditto. (b)
Ditto.(b)
Such are all the latitudes and longitudes of places to be found in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, or at least the greatest number of them. There is one
other paper on a subject somewhat connected with this, which it may be proper
to notice. Dr. Grew, from a very simple calculation, estimates the number of
acres, in England, at 46,080,000. He then compares the size of England and
Holland, and observes, that if England were as populous in proportion to its
(a) Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 236.
(6) The longitudes are from the observatory of Copenhagen. Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 43.
3 9 7
3 41 53
2 47 1
0 51 44
.0 55 24
2
CHAP. IV.]
227
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
size as Holland, it would contain 110 millions of inhabitants.* But Dr.
Grew's estimate is obviously too great. He makes the length of England, from
Berwick to the southernmost point, 400 miles, whereas it certainly does not
exceed 350. The breadth of England, where greatest, he makes 360 miles,
whereas it cannot be reckoned more than 300, if it amounts to that quantity.
of maps.
II. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS. The construction of maps belongs to geometry, Construction
depending upon the various methods of projecting a sphere upon a plane sur-
face. The method most commonly used for maps is what is called the stereo-
graphic projection, in which the eye is usually conceived to be in the surface
of the sphere, opposite to that which is delineated. In maps of this construc-
tion, the meridians cut the circles of latitude perpendicularly, which they
ought to do; but the central parts of a map of this kind, when it represents
a considerable tract of country, for example, a hemisphere, are contracted
greatly below their proper size. Rectilinear maps were very early adopted, in
which the meridians were described parallel to each other, and the degrees of
longitude and latitude every where equal the rhumbs were consequently right
lines, and hereby it was thought that the courses or bearings of places would
be more easily determined. But such maps were soon found insufficient for
nautical purposes, as giving results totally erroneous. The first step to improve
them was made by Gerard Mercator, who published a map about the year Mercator's
1550, in which the degrees of latitude were increased from the equator to the
pole. But he did not show upon what principle he had constructed these maps.
About the year 1590, Mr. Edward Wright discovered the true principles on which
such charts should be constructed, and communicated his discovery to one
Iodocus Hondius, an engraver, who, contrary to his engagement, published i☛
as his own. This induced Mr. Wright, in the year 1599, to communicate his
method of construction to the public, in his book, entitled Correction of Errors
in Navigation. In the preface to this work, he explains the share which
Mercator had in this important invention, and gives an account, likewise, of
the treacherous conduct of Hondius. This invention of Wright is perfect in
its kind, and is of the utmost importance to navigators.
The greater number of maps seem to be laid down according to no fixed
principle of projection, and are often very erroneous, as far as the distances
between places is concerned. On this account Mr. Murdoch, in a paper which
he published in the Philosophical Transactions, proposed a new method of
projecting maps, in which these errors are the least possible. It consisted in
finding a conical surface, equal to the spherical surface, which was to be given,
and then, in spreading out this conical surface into a plane. He gives the
rules for finding the conical surface, and for constructing maps accurately,
* Phil. Trans. 1711. Vol. XXVII. p.
266.
projection.
? G 2
229
[Book I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Rate at which
camels travel.
Hydrology.
Zirchnitzer
Sea
according to his principles.* There can be no doubt, that maps constructed
on this principle would, in many cases, be preferable to the common ones;
though I do not recollect ever to have seen any map actually made according
to the rules laid down by Murdoch.
It may be worth while to mention here an ingenious method proposed by
Major Rennel, for determining distances in those parts of Africa and Asia,
where more accurate methods cannot be had recourse to. In these countries
long journies are performed by means of camels, between places at a very great
distance from each other. Now these caravans always travel the same number
of hours every day, and Major Rennel has shown, that camels always travel
at the rate of 2 miles in the hour. Hence, knowing the number of hours
travelled, or even the number of days, it is easy to determine the distance.
And if the bearings have been taken with a pocket compass, the position of the
places on the globe may be determined with considerable accuracy.†
III. HYDROLOGY. The papers on this subject, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, are only two: the first giving an account of a remarkable lake in Car-
niola; the other, of the falls of Niagara.
In Carniola there is a lake called the Zirchnitzer Sea, two German miles
long and one broad. In the month of June it sinks under ground, through a
great number of holes, which empty themselves in succession. At this period,
the inhabitants in the neighbourhood are employed in fishing, and a vast quan-
tity of fish are caught at the different holes. The fish in the lake are of three
kinds, namely, the eel pout, the tench, and the pike, all of which grow to a
large size. The lake also contains many crabs; but they do not constitute an
agreeable article of food. While the lake is dry, the soil produces a fine crop
of grass, which is cut down for hay. In some parts of it millet is sown, and a
considerable crop obtained. In the month of September, the water rushes back
again through the holes with great impetuosity, and the lake is restored to its
original size. This extraordinary alternation in this lake is accounted for in the
following manner: the country is hilly, and the lake is surrounded with rising
grounds. It has no visible exit, yet seven rivulets empty themselves into it.
By subterraneous channels, it communicates with two lakes concealed under-
ground, the one situated below, the other above its own level. Into the first
it empties itself by means of the holes in its bottom. From the second, it
receives a supply equal to its waste, which prevents it from sinking underground
during the winter. From the lowest lake a considerable river runs. In the
summer, the uppermost lake not being fed as usual by rain, becomes smaller,
and ceases to supply the Zirchnitzer Sea with water. The waste of this lake,
therefore, being greater than the supply, it is drained in consequence, and dis-
*Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 553.
+ Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p.. 129.
CHAP IV.]
220
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
appears. When the uppermost lake is restored to its usual size, it affords the
proper quantity of water; hence the lowest lake swells, and at last forces part of
its contents through the holes into the open air, and thus restores the Zirchnitzer
Sea to its original size.*
The falls of Niagara were measured in the year 1722, by order of the gover- Falls of Nia-
nor of Canada, by means of a plumb-line, and were found to be 156 French ara.
feet, which amounts to 1764 English feet.†
IV. TOPOGRAPHY. The countries and people, of which an account is given Topography
in the Philosophical Transactions, arc, Hudson's Bay, the North American
Indians, the Patagonians, the Falkland Islands, and Thibet.
1. Mr. Wales was sent out to Hudson's Bay, by the Royal Society, as a Hudson's Ba
proper station for observing the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, in 1769.
He continued in that country for 13 months; and, after his return, a very enter-
taining account of the climate, soil, and mode of living, with some observa-
tions on the inhabitants, was published by him in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. The place where he wintered was at the Factory, on Churchill river,
in north latitude 58° 55', west longitude 94° 50%. The following are the
most important observations contained in this paper: on his approaching the
coast the vessel was visited by some Eskimaux, in their boat, whom he praises
highly for the excellence of their dispositions, and their skill in all the arts
which they practised. The sea at that time was full of islands of ice, and he
had an opportunity of ascertaining that the green-coloured ice, contrary to the
opinion at that time received, was fresh, and not salt; provided sufficient care
was taken to wash it from the salt water in which it was swimming, before ex-
amining it. The islands of ice moved with considerable velocity, and, as they
went to the south, they were not long able to resist the united action of the
solar rays and the heat of the sea, but speedily melted into water.
The atmosphere was usually hazy, and Mr. Wales observed with surprise,
that the islands of ice, when seen at a distance, appeared considerably elevated,
though when they got near them they were found to be scarcely raised above
the level of the sea. When they approached the coast, the land was seen dis-
tinctly from the deck, but from the mast-head it was quite invisible. Mr.
Wales was so surprised at this fact, that he went to the mast-head, and verified
it himself. The country all round the factory for several miles is rocky, or
composed of loose sand; the soil poor, and utterly unfit for every kind of corn
except oats. There were many firs about 20 feet high, but no other trees,
*Brown. Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1080; and J. Weichard Valvasar. Ibid. 1687. Vol. XVL
p. 411.
† Paul Dudley. Phil. Trans. 1722. Vol. XXXII. p. 69.
930
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
though the country was covered with bushes, consisting of dwarf willows and
birches. There were many gooseberry and black currant bushes.
The country abounds with a prodigious number of birds, geese, ducks, par-
tridges, &c., which come in succession, and supply the inhabitants with the
greatest part of their food. During summer there are three insects which are
remarkably troublesome; these are the moschetto; a kind of small fly called
sand fly, which comes in such prodigious swarms as to fill the whole air, and
to be exceedingly troublesome; and a very large fly, like the English flesh fly,
which, when it lights on any part of the body, always draws blood.
The ground was covered with snow by the middle of October. In January
the cold became very intense; the beams of their houses were continually crack-
ing with a very loud noise, in consequence of the expansion of the frost, and
the rocks split with a prodigious explosion. The wood of their beds was
covered with a thick coat of ice, and brandy exposed to the open air soon be-
came solid. The first thaw appeared on the 19th March, for a few minutes at
noon, and on the 26th of March it thawed in reality. By the 23d of April,
the ground was bare of snow in many places, and spring was begun by the end
of that month. The month of May was of a pleasant temperature, neither too
hot nor too cold. On the 16th of June the ice in the river broke up and went
to sea, which enabled the inhabitants to begin their fishing pursuits. Great
numbers of salmon were caught, and a fish which Mr. Wales calls kepling,
and which he describes as the most delicate of all fish, far exceeding in flavour
every other. On the 22d of January, the coldest day, the thermometer stood
at 45° below zero, and on the third of July, which was the hottest day, it stood
at S0°; so that the range of temperature in this climate amounts to 125º. In
England, the range of temperature rarely exceeds 80°, and has scarcely ever
been observed more than 100°.
The inhabitants of the country are all thin, and rather tall; they are copper
coloured, with wide mouths, thick lips, and lank black hair. They appear
rather of a melancholic temperament, as is the case with most rude nations;
but they are friendly, good natured, honest, and hospitable. They lead a
wandering life, and depend, for their subsistence, on hunting. They believe
in two superior beings, a good and a bad, and pay a sort of worship to both.
Mr. Wales observed several marble rocks in the country, and specimens of
copper and copper ore. He mentions, also, different kinds of pyrites and micas.
The atmosphere is never clear for 24 hours together; there is a perpetual haze
round the horizon, which gives occasion to two red circles of light, which
make their appearance before sun-rise. The aurora borealis is not to be com-
pared, in point of brightness, with what is often seen in England.*
* Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 100.
CHAP. IV.]
231
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
can Indians.
2. There are two papers in the Philosophical Transactions, on the North North Ameri
American Indians; one by Sir William Johnson, who was for a considerable
time governor of one of the British settlements in that country;* another by
Mr. McCausland, surgeon to the 18th regiment, who probably spent some
years in that country, during the American war. The accounts communicated
in these papers are not of much importance, neither of the writers having had
an opportunity of viewing these people near enough to form an estimate of
them sufficiently exact and minute. The following are the most important
particulars:
It was conceived by many European writers, and brought as a proof that the
Indians in America belong to a different species from the Europeans, that they
were destitute of beards. But this opinion is not well founded. They are in
the habit, indeed, of pulling out the hairs of their chins, as fast as they grow,
and are all provided with instruments for the purpose, and this gives them the
appearance of a smooth chin; but those among them who have left off that
practice, require to shave as much as the natives of Europe. The order of
their government, and their civil polity, is much less perfect than it was for-
merly; owing to the proximity of Europeans, the diminution of their numbers,
the introduction of spirituous liquors, and a certain corruption of manners
which they have imbibed from the lower orders of their civilized neighbours,
When they want to convey their thoughts to those who are at a distance, they
do not use hieroglyphics, but draw as accurate a picture of the thing as they
can. Thus, if they wish to communicate a warlike expedition, they draw a
few trees, to represent the country; or a canoe, if the expedition is by water,
and as many warriors as go upon it, or at least a certain number. Each nation
is divided into several tribes, which have their peculiar designation and mark,
as the turtle, the bear, the wolf, the snake, the deer, &c. Every nation has a
sachem, or chief, who is most commonly chosen by election, and in consequence
of superior merit; though in some nations the office is hereditary. But his
power is very limited; and the small portion which he possesses, he is under the
necessity of using with great caution and prudence. Witchcraft and theft are
held in great detestation by them, and are usually punished with death; but
murder is left to the relations of the deceased, to avenge as they think proper ;
and they are commonly satisfied with something less than a capital punishment,
because the standing maxim of every individual is, to diminish the numbers
of the community as little as possible.
They possess indefatigable patience, and of course are capable of learning
our arts with great success; but the universal opinion of them all being, that
Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 142.
+ Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI,
p. 229..
232
[BOOK 1.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
every thing is contemptible except war, they are in consequence prevented
from improving in civilization; because every such improvement is looked upon
as a degradation. Their language is very emphatic, and abounds with the
boldest figures, like that of the Asiatic nations. The Indians on the river St.
Lawrence, in New England, and on the Ohio, understand one another, and of
course speak nearly the same language; but the six nations, though surrounded
by these, speak a totally different language. The letters M and P are wanting
in it, and they do not understand, nor are capable of conversing, with the other
American Indians.
Patagonians. 3. The Patagonians are a tribe of Indians who inhabit the extremity of the
Southern Continent of America. This country was visited by several of our
navigators, who represented the inhabitants as of a gigantic stature. Accord-
ing to Carteret, they are never below six feet, and vary from six feet to six feet
seven inches.* Succeeding accounts have taken away considerably from this
surprizing stature, and have produced a belief, that the inhabitants seen by
Carteret had, by some accident, been of an uncommon size.
Falkland
tlands.
4. The Falkland islands, or, as the French call them, the Maloine islands,
are situated between the latitude 52° 26' and 51° 6' south, and longitude 56°
and 60° 30' west. They are not very far from the coast of South America, and
are very numerous, forming a mass of broken high lands, or very low sedgy
keys and sunken rocks. There was a project formed at one time in this coun-
try to establish a colony on these islands. In consequence of this idea, they
were very carefully surveyed, and an account of them published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, by Mr. Clayton, of the navy. The following are the
particulars contained in that paper:
The eastmost island is the largest. There was a settlement formed on it by
M. Bougainville, in 1764; and this settlement was purchased by the Crown of
Spain, but soon abandoned. The island next to this is also large. The third
island is called Saunder's island. On it the English settlement was made,
chiefly because it afforded the most convenient landing place. No tree is to be
found on these islands, but they contain a variety of shrubs, grapes, and other
plants, which Mr. Clayton describes; but, as he was unacquainted with
botany, his descriptions are quite insufficient to convey any adequate notion of
the plants. The south and west winds blow over these islands for two thirds
of the year, and are often boisterous. The north and north-west winds are the
most pleasant, but seldom blow long; the north-east winds are moist, foggy,
and unwholesome. The winds from east to south are very pernicious, blasting
every thing, and even destroying animals, but, fortunately, they never blow
* Phil. Trans, 1770. Vol. LX. p. 20.
+ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 99.
CHAP. IV.]
233
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
long at a time. The sea abounds with mullets, muscles, limpets, cray-fish,
crabs, logger-heads, and with a transparent fish of the size of a herring. The
river in the large island furnishes delicious trout.
There is only one quadruped on these islands, a species of fox, very like the
English fox, but exceedingly shy. The amphibious animals are the sea lion
and the seal, of which there are various species. The birds, are penguins,
geese, ducks, widgeons, teals, shelldrakes, snipes, besides many small birds and
sea birds. The soil of the island is boggy, barreu, and rocky. The summer is
usually cold, the thermometer hardly rising higher than 64°. The winter, ou
the other hand, is warm, for the north wind blows most frequently, and the ther-
mometer seldom sinks below the freezing point. Mr. Clayton describes a sin-
gular vegetable, which rises like a mole hill, about six feet round, exsudes a
kind of gum like balsam of capaiva, and is covered with short dark-green leaves.
It would seem, from this account of it, to be a species of cactus, or some plant
analagous to that singular genus.
5. The country, called Thibet, is of an immense size, and appears, from the Thibet.
united result of all observations, to be the most elevated spot on the face of the
earth. It is divided from Bengal by a ridge of mountains, being a continua-
tion of the vast chain of Caucasus, which, passing along the north of Persia,
penetrates between Bengal and Thibet, and loses itself in China. Thibet had
scarcely ever been visited by any European since the time of Marco Polo, ex-
cept a few wandering and ignorant missionaries, till an accident put it in the
power of Mr. Hastings, Governor-general of Bengal, to send a deputation to
explore the country. On the death of one of the petty Rajahs, on the northern
border of Bengal, a dispute arose about the succession, and the inhabitants of
Boutan, which constitutes the southern part of Thibet, where called in by one
party, while the British took the field to assist the other. Our troops, in an
attack which they made upon a town called Gooch Behar, first met with the
Boutaners, and nothing could exceed the surprise of both parties at the ren-
counter. The Boutaners, instead of the timid and naked Indians who fled at
the first onset, found themselves opposed by a body of men regularly clothed
and disciplined, moving in exact order, officered by men whose complections and
appearances were quite new to them, and employing fire-arms with great
steadiness and execution. The British, on the other hand, met with a robust
and uncouth race of men, in dresses quite new, armed with bows and arrows,
and other weapons, to which they had not been accustomed. The town was
taken, and many articles belonging to the Boutaners were sent down to Mr.
Hastings. The Tayshoo Lama, who at that time governed Thibet, during the
infancy of the Delai Lama, interposed his good offices in behalf of the Dah
Terriah, or Governor of Boutan, who was dependent upon him, and sent a
letter to Mr. Hastings soliciting peace. The request was readily granted, upon
2 H
234
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
DA
the most favourable terms; and Mr. Hastings took the opportunity of sending
an embassy to the Tayshoo Lama, in order to negociate a treaty of alliance and
commerce, and to get some accurate information respecting the country of
Thibet. Mr. Bogle was selected for the purpose, and dispatched. He pene-
trated to the capital of Thibet, was absent 15 months, and executed his com-
mission to the entire satisfaction of the Governor general. Mr. John Stewart,
at that time in Bengal, drew up an account of this journey from authentic
documents, and this account was published in the Philosophical Transactions.*
A subsequent journey to the same country was made by Mr. Saunders, a
surgeon, and he communicated a very entertaining account of what he saw
to the Royal Society, which was likewise published in the Philosophical
Transactions. It relates chiefly to the vegetable and mineral productions of
Thibet, to the climate, and to the diseases to which the natives are liable.
The following are the most important particulars contained in these two excel-
lent papers.
The country is divided into two districts, very different from each other im
situation, aspect, and climate. The southernmost of these districts is called
by the inhabitants of Bengal, Boutan; and by the natives, Docpo. It is
under the government of the Dah Terriah, as he is called, a sort of sovereign
dependent upon the Delai Lama, Boutan is exceedingly hilly, and there is a
constant ascent from the south to the north of it. The hills are covered with
wood; through the valleys flow innumerable rivulets; the country is fertile, and
the climate delicious. Mr. Saunders describes a very great number of plants
which he met with, both Indian and European, for the country is capable of
bringing both to a state of perfection. The people are copper-coloured, rather
tall, hasty in their tempers, addicted to the use of spirituous liquors, but very
honest in their dealings. The farthest north, and most extensive district, is
called Thibet, and, by the natives, Pû. It begins at the summit of the ridge
where Boutan terminates, and continues almost to the borders of the Russian
empire. The whole of it is upon an elevated base, and consists of broad valleys
and moderate hills. It is exceedingly bleak and desolate, being destitute of
wood, and almost of vegetation. The climate, notwithstanding the position
of the country so near the tropic of Cancer, is exceedingly severe. At Cham-
nanning, which is only 8° north of Calcutta, Mr. Bogle frequently observed
the thermometer at 3°; and Mr. Saunders, whose thermometer scale went no
lower than 16°, was unable to determine the real temperature. The standing
waters were frozen in the middle of April.
The inhabitants of Thibet are a smaller race than their southern neighbours
of Boutan, and less robust; their complections are fairer, and their faces Tarta-
*Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 465,
+ Phil. Trans. 1789. Vol. LXXIX, p. 79.
CHAP. IV.]
235
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
rian. They are mild and cheerful in their dispositions, and the higher ranks,
according to Mr. Bogle, are remarkably polite and easy in their manners. The
common people dress in coarse woollen stuffs, the product of the country; but
the higher ranks wear European broad cloth, or Chinese silk lined with the
finest Siberian furs. Their food is chiefly milk, cheese, and butter, with a
coarse species of barley and peas. They have also plenty of animal food, and
they procure wheat and rice from Bengal. They have a particular way of pre-
paring their mutton, by exposing the whole carcase, newly killed, to the cold
winds of August and September, which speedily dry up the juices, and in this
state it will keep all the year round, and is eaten raw.
Thibet is considered as depending upon China, and there are two mandarines
and 1,000 Chinese, who reside by way of garrison in Lahissa, the capital of
the country, to support the government. But, in reality, the influence of the
Chinese extends but a very little way; and the Delai Lama, whose power is
founded upon religious veneration, and upon personal affection, rules within
the country with uncontrouled power. The Delai Lama constitutes the head of
one of the widest spread religions upon earth; he is venerated by the Tartars,
and, among some of the remote tribes, is considered as the Deity himself. Even
the Emperor of China acknowledges him in his religious capacity, and sup-
ports his nuncio, at Pekin, at a great expence. The Lamas, or priests, form a
very numerous and powerful body in Thibet, upon whom, in some measure,
depends the government of the state. The Delai Lama is both priest and king.
When he dies the opinion entertained is, that his soul leaves an old crazy habi-
tation, and takes up its abode in the body of an infant born on the same day.
This infant is always a Lama, and is discovered by certain marks known only to
the Lamas. During his minority (for he is made Delai Lama as soon as disco-
vered) the Tayshoo Lama, who is second in power, governs the country in his
name. There are many monasteries of these Lamas in the country, and they
resemble the Roman Catholic convents so much in their appearance, that it is
very easy to mistake them for Christians. Indeed the religion has been sup-
posed to be a corruption of Christianity; it is simple, conveys exalted notions
of the Deity, and inculcates a pure morality; but it is greatly corrupted.
Polygamy exists in this country under a very peculiar form. It is customary
for a family of five or six brothers to have a single wife among them, and they
live in this way in the greatest harmony. They neither bury nor burn their
dead, but expose them on the sides of meuntains to be devoured by wild beasts,
or destroyed by the weather. They have a peculiar species of cow, with a fine
flowing tail like a mare's, which they hold in great veneration. They venerate
also the waters of the Ganges, and requested liberty from Mr. Hastings to build
a place of worship on its banks; a request which was very readily granted. The
Delai Lama lives at Patelli, a vast palace about seven miles from Labassa, and
2 H 2
236
[BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Diseases.
い
​situated on the banks of the Barampooter. The rooms are large and highly
finished in the Chinese style; but they are unacquainted with the use of stairs
and of windows, they go up into their upper apartinents by means of ladders,
and their windows are merely holes in the ceiling which they can shut against
the weather. Lahassa is a large town, and is frequented by numerous caravans
of merchants from China, Cassimere, Siberia, &c. The caravans take two
years in travelling between Lahassa and Pekin, a distance of 2,000 miles; yet
an express arrives from the one capital to the other in three weeks. The trade
with Siberia is carried on by caravans to Seling, situated on the Baykal-lake.
The inhabitants of Thibet have four staples sufficient to insure them an exten-
sive trade with all their neighbours. These are!. The cow tails, mentioned
above, which are sold high, and used all over India to brush away flies from the
face. 2. The fine wool of which the shawls are made. This wool is bought
up by the Cassimere merchants, and carried into their own country, where it is
manufactured into shawls. 3. Musk, which is obtained from a species of deer,
an inhabitant of their mountains. 4. Gold, which is found in considerable
quantities in their rivers in the form of dust. There are likewise mines of it in
the northern provinces belonging to the Delai Lama, which are farmed out to
adventurers at a certain rent. The Tayshoo Lama, whom Mr. Bogle visited,
was a very intelligent and excellent man, well acquainted with the policy and
power of the different nations of Asia and with Russia, and eager to get ac-
quainted with that of the other European states. Mr. Bogle, at his request,
drew up a statement of the most interesting particulars relative to Europe in
the language of Hindostan, which was translated into that of Thibet for the
use of the Lama.
Mr. Saunders describes Thibet as abounding in valuable minerals; but his
description is not sufficiently precise to convey much information. He men-
tions lime-stone, granite, quartz, flint, and chalk, as having occurred to his
observation, and says, that mines of gold, lead, mercury, and copper, seem to
abound. But the fuel is so scarce, that they use it only for dressing food, and
spend even the cold winter months without fire, trusting for heat to the furs in
which they wrap themselves.
The diseases are not numerous. Swellings in the neck are very common. This
disease has been usually ascribed to snow water; but Mr. Saunders, with great
judgment, hesitates to admit the accuracy of that notion. The venereal disease
is likewise common, and is cured by mercury the same as in Europe. The me-
dicine which they employ is thus prepared. They mix together alum, nitre,
vermilion, and mercury, in a certain proportion, and put the mixture into the
bottom of a large earthen pot. Over this they lute a small inverted pot. A
measured quantity of fuel is burnt over the top of the small inverted pot, and
the fire continued for about 40 minutes. When the pots are unluted, the
3
CHAP. IV.]
237
NATURAL HISTORY.-GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
mercury has disappeared, and the medicine is fit for use. This medicine con-
sists essentially either of an oxyde of mercury or a nitrate, or more probably of
a mixture of both. The alum, assisted by heat, will decompose the nitre, and the
nitric acid set at liberty will speedily oxydise the mercury, and combine with it
if in sufficient quantity. The vermilion seems useless. They carry salivation
to a great height, and continue it for ten or twelve days. When the small-
pox appears among them, they shut up the infected to prevent the disease from
spreading, and leave them to their fate.
1
*
+
BOOK II.
OF MATHEMATICS.
the word.
THE word Mathematics, originally Madness, signifies, literally, instruction; Meaning of
and is usually supposed to have been applied by the Greeks to a science of
which they were in some measure the inventors, in consequence of the high
estimation in which they held it. This science treats of those quantities which Object.
are capable of being measured, and which on that account have been called
proper quantities. They consist of the following three, namely, extension,
duration, number. All other quantities are improper, and can only be intro-
duced into mathematics, by artificially applying to them some proper quantity
as a measure. Thus velocity, considered by itself, is not susceptible of measure-
ment, and, of course, we cannot determine how much one velocity surpasses
another. But if we make the space passed over in a given time the measure
of velocities, then they become susceptible of accurate comparison, and conse-
quently of mathematical investigation. Some improper quantities are of such
a kind that we cannot apply any proper quantity as an artificial measure of
them. Beauty, virtue, love, and many others, are of this nature. Such quan-
tities can never become the objects of mathematical investigation. We may,
indeed, throw our reasoning respecting them into a mathematical shape, and
ring changes upon mathematical formulas; but such reasoning can never pro-
mote our knowledge of these improper quantities, or contribute in the least to
the advancement of truth.*
The proper subjects of mathematics, then, are number and extension; for
duration may be easily joined to either the one or the other of these
Hence the science naturally divides itself into two parts; namely, arithmetic,
quantities.
which treats of number; and geometry, which treats of extension. These two
parts were, for many ages, considered separately. But, they have been gradually
* From not attending to these obvious principles, different metaphysical and moral treatises have
appeared, in which the various objects of thesc sciences have been treated with all the parade of
mathematical demonstration. The best account of quantity, which we have seen, and it ought to
be studied by every metaphysician, is by the celebrated Dr. Reid, in Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV.
p. 505. In the New Abridgement of the Transactions, by Dr. Hutton, &c., this paper is, by some
inadvertence, ascribed to Dr, Miles, who was only the transmitter of it to the Society.
6
240
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Importance.
so united and blended together, that, in the present improved state of the
science, they no longer admit of separate investigation. They constitute two
streams, rising from distant sources, and running a long and parallel course: at
first, only small and inconsiderable, but, fed each during its progress by a thou-
sand rills, they swell into two mighty rivers, which, gradually approaching,
at last mix their waters together, and flow united into the vast ocean of truth.
Mathematics constitute the most splendid monument of the human intellect.
They are of vast extent, and, unlike the other sciences, they have never suffered
any retrogression. Every mathematical truth, when once developed by that
rigid principle of demonstration, which alone the true mathematician admits,
constitutes ever after a part of the science, which no man, who understands
the subject, will venture to call in question. At times, indeed, the progress of
the science has been in a great measure stationary, while at others it has moved
with prodigious celerity but at no period has it been retrograde. Mathema-
tics have been divided into two great branches. The first branch, which treats
of pure number and extension, has been called pure mathematics; the second
branch comprehends most of the sciences belonging to mechanical philosophy;
which, by means of certain contrivances, have been subjected to mathematical
investigation, and owe most of their improvements to that powerful auxiliary.
This branch, which is of prodigious extent, has received the name of mixed
mathematics. It will occupy our attention in the next book. As to pure ma-
thematics, which constitute our present object, they comprehend such a vast
mass of important facts, and would require so very copious a developement in
order to lay them fully before our readers, that we feel ourselves overwhelmed
with superabundance of matter, and cannot even venture upon a subdivision of
the subject, without the certainty of over-stepping the just limits of the present
work. The papers on pure mathematics, in the Philosophical Transactions,
amount to 208; and the writers of them are no fewer than 74.* Instead of
*The following is a list of all the persons who have published papers on pure mathematics, in the
Philosophical Transactions:
Mercator.
Collins.
Petty.
Wood.
Wallis.
Castilion.
Jones.
James Gregory.
Brounker.
Viviani.
Robartes.
Wren.
Cotes.
Barrow.
Keill.
T. Simpson.
Reid.
Sluse.
Maclaurin.
Halley.
Leibnitz.
Machin.
Robertson.
Dodson.
Demoivre.
Ash.
Simson.
Landen.
T
Thornycroft.
D. Gregory.
Stirling.
Murdoch.
Colson.
Caswell.
Brakenridge.
Pemberton.
Craig.
Newton.
Gersten.
Brook Taylor.
Hobbes.
Sault.
Eames.
Bayes.
Waring.
Ditton.
Stone.
Price.
BOOK. II.]
241
MATHEMATICS.
attempting a regular account of them, which would require a much greater
space than we can allow, we shall rather venture upon a short historical sketch
of the progress of mathematics, from their original invention, dwelling chiefly
upon those improvements which have originated with the Members of the
Royal Society; and noticing, as we proceed, some of the most important
papers which have made their appearance in the Philosophical Transactions.
The origin of mathematics, like that of all other sciences, is buried in im- Origin.
penetrable obscurity. The Greeks drew their first notions of the science from
the Egyptians, who indeed were their masters in almost every species of know-
ledge. What progress it had made among the Egyptians we have no accurate
means of knowing; but, from the nature of the discoveries, which threw the
first Grecian mathematicians into raptures,* we may be certain that they had
never passed the first elements of mathematical knowledge. Suidas informs us,
that Anaximander, the celebrated successor and disciple of Thales, wrote the
first elementary treatise on geometry. This philosopher flourished about 560
years before the commencement of the Christian æra. This period, therefore,
as far as regards historical information, may be considered as but little posterior
to the origin of mathematics in Greece. Hippocrates, of Chios, who enjoyed Hippocrates.
a very high reputation among the ancients, shows us by his researches that, in
his time, geometry had advanced to more difficult speculations. He was a mer-
chant, and, if we believe Aristotle, of a degree of simplicity bordering on
stupidity, of which the custom-house officers at Byzantium taking advantage,
plundered him so unmercifully, that he was reduced to a state bordering upon
ruin. He went to Athens, in order if possible to re-establish his affairs, and
happening by accident to saunter into a school of philosophers, he was so much
captivated by the charms of geometry that he forthwith renounced his mercan-
tile speculations, and devoted himself wholly to the study of mathematics.
The discovery which rendered him famous among the ancients, and which has
transmitted his name to posterity, is that of a space contained between two
arches of circles, and known by the name of the lunula of Hippocrates, which
is perfectly quadrible. His reasoning is founded on the 47th proposition of
the first book of Euclid, and the quadrature is rather a piece of address, by
Horsefall.
Hutton.
Atwood.
Wildbore.
Horseley.
Maseres.
Wales.
L'Huillier.
Winthrop.
Playfair.
Vince.
Lexel.
Milner.
Landerbeck.
Sewel.
Wood.
Stedman.
Hellins.
Nicholson.
Lyons.
Ludlam.
Morgan.
Glenie.
Stanhope.
Brougham,
Wilson.
* Pythagoras, for example, is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb, when he discovered that
the square of the hypothenuse of a right angled triangle is equal to the squares of the two sides.
2 I
242
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Plato.
removing a portion common to two spaces, and thus leaving a circular space,
equal to a rectilineal, than a real quadrature. Attempts have been made to
discover the quadrature of the circle by the same process, but they have been
unsuccessful.
But it is to Plato, and to the Platonic school founded by that illustrious
philosopher, that geometry lies under the greatest obligations for its early ad-
vancement. The history of Plato is so generally known, that it is only neces-
sary to touch upon it here. He was an Athenian, and is believed to have been
born during the 88th olympiad. He turned his first attention to poetry, and
composed four dramatic pieces before he had completed his 18th year, intend-
ing to stand candidate for the laurel on the olympic stage. But happening by
accident, on the day before the contest, to hear an harangue of Socrates, before
the Bacchanals, he burnt all his poems that very evening, and entered himself
soon after a pupil of that celebrated philosopher. When' Socrates was con-
demned for impiety, Plato, who was at that time a senator, exerted himself in
favour of his master, and offered him a sum of money sufficient to procure his
discharge; which Socrates refused to accept. Disgusted at the fate of this
illustrious philosopher, he left Athens, and travelled for many years in quest of
knowledge. He first visited Italy, to learn the doctrines of the Pythagorean
school; thence he passed to Cyrene, where Theodorus, at that time, enjoyed a
high reputation for his skill in mathematics; from Cyrene he passed into
Egypt, where he placed himself under the tuition of the priests, and learned
from them all their opinions respecting every branch of science with which
they were acquainted; his three voyages to Sicily, and the treatment which he
received from the elder and younger Dionysius; his friendship for Dion; his
exertions to procure liberty for the Syracusans; the resentment of the elder
Dionysius at the freedom of his animadversions; his delivering him into the
hand of the Lacedemonian ambassador, who sold him for a slave; the purchase
of him by Anniceres, the Cyrenean, who generously restored him his liberty, and
sent him back to Athens-All these are historical facts so universally known,
that the bare mention of them here is sufficient. He finally settled at Athens,
and taught in the academy; a low marshy situation, covered with trees, re-
markably unhealthy, which he pitched upon, it is said, as a place well suited
to reduce the too great corpulency which he had contracted. He died in the
eighty-first year of his age, in the full enjoyment of the highest reputation ;
being almost adored by all the inhabitants of Greece. His estimation of mathe-
matical knowledge was so great, that he ordered the following inscription to
be engraved over the gate of the academy: Let no one presume to enter here
unless he has a taste for geometry and mathematics. He has left us no writings
on mathematical subjects, so that we do not know what his individual disco-
veries in that science were; though it is universally admitted that he paid very
BOOK. II.]
243
MATHEMATICS.
particular attention to it. Almost the whole of his works are in the form of
dialogues, and his style was universally admired by all the ancients, who com-
pared it with that of Homer, and considered him as a philosopher what Homer
was as a poet. Cicero says, that Jupiter, were he to condescend to speak to
men, would make use of the style of Plato; and the encomium of Quintilian is,
if possible, still higher.
the Platonic
Three very remarkable mathematical discoveries were made by the Platonic Discoveries of
school very soon after the time of Plato himself; namely, the analysis used by school.
the ancients, the conic sections, and geometrical loci.
The method of analysis is universally ascribed to Plato himself, and was Analysis.
without doubt one of the most important made by the ancients in any depart-
ment of mathematics, because it supplied them with an instrument for extend-
ing the bounds of mathematical investigations. There are two modes of pro-
ceeding in mathematics; by synthesis and analysis. The first is employed, when
we wish only to communicate the knowledge which has been already acquired.
We set out from some principle universally admitted, and proceed without in-
terruption from consequence to consequence, deducing one truth from another
previously ascertained. The Elements of Euclid, and indeed almost all the
mathematical writings of the ancients, exhibit specimens of this method, which
have always been admired for their elegance and beauty. Analysis proceeeds in
a different manner, and is employed when we wish to resolve some problem, or
discover the truth or falsehood of some mathematical position. It begins by
supposing the truth of the point to be discussed, and deduces the consequences
that follow from this assumption, till at last we come to some consequence ob-
viously true or obviously false, from which the truth or falsehood of the topic
investigated becomes evident. Then, by tracing our steps backwards from this
point, we establish the demonstration. Archimedes and Apollonius exhibit
several specimens of this mode of investigation, and Pappus uses it almost per-
petually.* There is a peculiar species of analysis used by the ancients known
by the name of porisms, on which Euclid wrote a treatise unfortunately lost, Porisms.
concerning the nature of which modern mathematicians were long at a loss"
what opinion to form. At last Dr. Simson restored the lost book of Euclid
from some indications given by Pappus, and thus explained the nature of
porisms. The subject has been carried further by Mr. Playfair, in the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh; and Mr. Wallis, Mr.
Brougham, and others, have since furnished us with an ample store of curious
porisms. There are two papers on the subject in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. The first by Dr. Simson, giving a great number of Euclid's porisms,
* Mr. Leslie, in his elementary work on geometry lately published, has given us ample specimens
of the analysis of the ancients.
2 12
244
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Conic sec-
dous.
Geometrical
loci.
Problem of
doubling a
cube.
and containing the first details respecting porisms.* The second is a valuable
paper by Mr. Brougham, which contains a variety of curious porisms chiefly
in the higher geometry.†
The discoverer of the conic sections, those curves which make so conspicu-
ous a figure both in mathematics and in nature, is not known. Some, from
some allusions in a commentary by Proclus on Euclid's Elements, have sup-
posed that the inventor was Plato himself; others, from an allusion by Eratos-
thenes, have ascribed the discovery to Menechmes. But as antiquity has been
silent on the subject, we have no right to draw conclusions. It is certain, how-
ever, that they were known at least soon after the age of Plato, that they were
discovered in the Platonic school, and that considerable progress was made by
that school in the investigation of their properties. The conic sections consist
of three different curves (supposing the circle to be a species of ellipse);
namely, the parabola, the ellipse, and hyperbola, formed by cutting the cone
by a plane passing through it in various directions. The planetary bodies,
comets, projectiles, move in these curves; which renders it necessary to be ac-
quainted with their properties before we can investigate the laws which regulate
the motions of these bodies.
The third invention of the Platonic school is that of geometrical loci. By
locus, in geometry, is meant a series of points, each of which resolves a problem,
capable by its nature of a variety of solutions. Suppose, for example, it were
required to describe a given number of equal triangles upon a certain base. We
have only to describe a line parallel to that base, and construct at pleasure tri-
angles upon the base, and having their apex in the parallel. We know, from
the first elements of mathematics, that they would be all equal. In this case the
parallel drawn is the locus of all these equal triangles. Suppose again, that we
were required to construct an indefinite number of right-angled triangles upon
a given line.
We have only to describe upon the line a semicircle. As in that
case all the lines drawn from the extremity of the given line to any point in
the circumference will form a right angle. Here the semicircle described is the
locus of all these triangles. The doctrine of loci, on account of its importance,
has been treated of, and elucidated, with great care by the moderns. There is
one problem on the subject, a problem of great celebrity among the ancients,
which has been fully and elegantly resolved by Dr. Pemberton in the Philoso-
phical Transactions; namely, the locus for three and four lines.‡
There were two problems of great celebrity among the ancients which took
their rise in the Platonic school, and therefore cannot be omitted here. We
mean the problem for doubling the cube, and for the trisection of an angle.
* Phil. Trans. 1723. Vol. XXXII. p. 330.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII. p. 496.
† Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 378.
3
BOOK. II.J
245
MATHEMATICS.
ease.
Valerius Maximus gives us the following account of the origin of the first of
these problems. A pestilence ravaging Attica, a deputation was sent to Delphi
to consult the oracle of Apollo on the means of removing the destructive dis-
The oracle in answer enjoined them to double the altar of the god. This
command appearing of easy execution, they pulled down the old altar, and,
doubling each side, they constructed another, not double, but eight times as
large as before. The plague still continuing, a new deputation was sent to in-
quire the reason. The god informed them that they had not executed his com-
mands. Suspecting some mystery in this duplication, they consulted the mathe-
maticians, who were very much puzzled what answer to return.
Plato in par-
ticular, who was first consulted, not being able to resolve the problem, saved
himself by a piece of finesse, and sent them to Euclid as to a geometrician by
trade. This story is obviously a fable; and the reference of Plato to Euclid,
who was posterior to him by half a century, shows it to a demonstration. The
difficulty of the problem was sufficient to give it charms in the eye of mathe-
maticians, who have been always accustomed to treat with contempt what was
of easy solution, and to bend the whole efforts of their mind to the explanation
of difficult and arduous problems. It was soon perceived, that this problem
might be reduced to the discovery of two mean proportionals between two
given lines. This cannot be effected by means of elementary geometry. The
employment of a conic section, or of a curve of a higher order, is necessary.
The ancients have furnished us with various solutions of the problem, all re-
markable for their ingenuity. Plato gave a mechanical solution. Archytas re-
solved the problem by means of a curve described upon a cylinder. At last
Menechmes gave two very elegant solutions, by means of two parabolas. Nico-
medes afterwards invented the conchoid, a curve by means of which the pro-
blem is solved with much ease and elegance.
The trisection of an angle is a problem scarcely less ancient than the duplica- Trisection of
tion of the cube, and scarcely less celebrated. It involves difficulties of a simi- an angle.
lar kind, and cannot be resolved by means of the ruler and compass alone.
Other lines of more difficult construction must be introduced. The quadratrix,
a curve invented by Dinostrates, seems to have been contrived on purpose for
the solution of this problem. Dinostrates was the brother of Merechmes, a
disciple of Plato, who distinguished himself by his celebrated solution of the
problem for doubling the cube, and who appears to have made great improve-
ments in the theory of conic sections. There is a paper in the Transactions
upon the construction of the quadratrix.†
We come now to notice the most extraordinary mathematician among the an- Archimedes.
cients, to whom antiquity, with one consent, gave the palm of genius and in-
* Lib. VII. c. 13.
† Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 445.
246
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
vention, we mean Archimedes, a name familiar to every tiro in mathematics or
science. Dr. Wallis, speaking of him, employs the following remarkable ex-
pressions: Iir stupende sagacitatis, qui prima fundamenta posuit inventionum
for omnium, de quibus promovendis ætas nostra gloriatur. Archimedes was
born at Syracuse, about the year 287, before the commencement of the Christian
æra; and, if we believe Plutarch, was a near relation of Hiero king of Syracuse.
His pursuits. His mechanical inventions were as extraordinary as his mathematical specula-
tions; but unfortunately he did not consider it as worth his while to convey
any account of them to posterity, so that the greater part of them, to the great
injury of mankind, have been unfortunately lost. A splendid edition of the
works of Archimedes, with a Latin translation, was published at Oxford in
1792. The edition had been prepared by Torelli, an Italian mathematician,
who dying before he was able to put it to the press, the manuscript was pur-
chased by some English gentlemen, and published at Oxford. Archimedes de-
voted himself, in a peculiar manner, to the mensuration of curve surfaces and
solids, a subject at that time new in mathematics; and, in consequence of his
perseverance and sagacity, he reaped a rich harvest of brilliant discoveries. In his
two books on the sphere and cylinder, he determines the surface of these bodies,
their solidity, and that of their various sections. His discovery, that the sphere
is two thirds of the circumscribed cylinder, both in surface and solidity, seems
to have given him peculiar delight, as he requested to have these figures en-
graven on his tomb; a request which was complied with, and by means of
which Cicero, many years afterwards, discovered it in the neighbourhood of
Syracuse. In his book on the mensuration of the circle, he demonstrates that
this figure is equal to a triangle, whose base is equal to the circumference, and
its height to the radius. Then, by methods now familiarly known to every tiro
in mathematics, he demonstrates that if radius be unity, the circumference is
less than 3 4%, and greater than 34. His quadrature of the parabola, which he
demonstrated equal to of the circumscribed rectangle, and his curious inves_
tigations respecting the spiral which retains his name, have been particularly
admired by the moderns. His psammites makes us, in some measure, acquainted
with the system of arithmetic employed by the Greeks, which, though difficult
and intricate when compared with ours, nevertheless was tolerably perfect as
far as principles went. It would be tedious to run over all his writings; but
we must not omit to mention that he laid the foundation of the science of
hydrostatics. He was led to turn his thoughts to the subject by the following
accident. Hiero, King of Syracuse, had given a quantity of gold to a gold-
smith to make into a coronet. The work was executed in an exquisite manner,
and was of the requisite weight; but some circumstances led the king to suspect,
that the jeweller had abstracted for his own use a portion of the gold, and re-
placed it with silver. Wishing to ascertain whether his suspicions were well
BOOK. II.]
247
MATHEMATICS.
founded, without destroying the coronet, he applied to Archimedes, who for
some time was at a loss for a solution. At last the truth struck him all at once
while bathing, and he was so transported with the discovery that, if we believe
Vitruvius, he ran naked through the streets of Syracuse crying out, Eupnxa, Eupnxx;
I have found it, I have found it. His discovery was, that every body, when
plunged into water, loses a portion of its weight equal to the weight of a quan-
tity of water equal to its own bulk. Hence he deduced the method of deter-
mining the specific gravity of bodies as at present practised; and by comparing
the specific gravity of the coronet with that of gold and of silver it was easy,
supposing no mutual penetration, to determine whether the coronet was an alloy;
and, if it was, what proportion of silver it contained.
To him likewise we are indebted for laying the foundation of the science of
statics, and for giving us a demonstration of the fundamental property of the
lever. The ancients ascribed to Archimedes 40 mechanical inventions, but the
names only of a few of them have been transmitted to posterity. The ingeni-
ous instrument for raising water, known by the name of Archimedes's screw, and
which he is said to have invented in Egypt, is one of them, and is familiarly
known to the moderns. The sphere, which he contrived to represent the motions
of the stars, is spoken of with rapture by Cicero,* and has been celebrated by
different poets + The account is without doubt greatly embellished. But the
mechanical invention of Archimedes, which has given occasion to the greatest
discussion, is the burning mirrors by which he is said to have set on fire the His burning
Roman ships during the siege of Syracuse. The story is not mentioned by
Polybius, who wrote the history of that siege not more than 50 years after. It
is passed over in equal silence by Livy and by Plutarch, though they dwell with
a sort of complaisance upon the exploits of Archimedes. It is founded entirely
upon relations of Zonaras and of Tzetzes, who wrote many ages after the time
* In his Tusculan Questions, and his Treatise de Nat. Deorum.
+ The epigram of Claudian is well known. As it is beautiful, and contains the only information
on the subject transmitted by the ancients, we shall insert it.
Jupiter in parvo cum cerneret ethera vitro,
Risit, et ad superos talia dicta dedit :
Huccine mortalis progressa potentia curæ ;
Jam meus in fragili luditur orbe labor.
Jura poli, utrumque fidem, legesque deorum,
Ecce Syracusius transtulit arte senex.
Inclusus variis famulatur spiritus astris,
Et vivum certis motibus urget opus.
Percurrit proprium mentitus signifer annum,
Et simulata nova Cynthia mense redit.
Jamque suum volvens audax industria mundum
Gaudet, et humana sidera mente regit,
Quid falso insontem tonitru salmonea miror,
Emula naturæ parva reperta manus.
mirrors.
2
218
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of Archimedes. But these writers appeal to the authority of Dion, of Diodo-
rus Siculus, Heron, Pappus, and Anthemius, men certainly of sufficient weight
to establish the truth of any fact to which they gave their united testimony.
The verses of Tzetzes are so remarkable, that we shall here insert a translation of
them:
Cum autem Marcellus removisset illas (naves) ad jactum arcus,
Educens quod speculum fabricavit senex,
A distantia autem commemorati specùli,
Parva ejusmodi specilla cum posuisset angulis quadrupla
Quæ movebantur scamis, et quibusdam yuyas moss,"
Medium illud posuit radiorum solis.
Refractis deinceps in hoc radiis.
Exarsio sublata est formidabilis ignita navibus, &c.
Dion et Diodorus scribunt historiam ;
Et cum ipsis multi meminerunt Archimedis;
Anthemius quidem imprimis, qui paradoxa scripsit,
Heron, Philon, Pappusque, ac omnis mechanographus,
Ex quibus legimus et speculorum incensiones,
Omnemque aliam descriptionem rerum mechanicarum
Ponderum tractricem, pneumaticam ac hydroscopia,
Idque ex senis hujus Archimedis libris.
It is obvious, that it was not possible for Archimedes to burn the ships of the
Romans by any simple mirror, either concave or convex, The focus of all
such, however enormous we can suppose them, is too short to be of any use for
such a purpose. The above passage of Tzetzes led Kircher to another idea.
He conceived that Archimedes might use a number of small plain mirrors, so
placed that all of them might reflect the light of the sun to the same point;
and Buffon afterwards constructed a burning glass upon this principle, which
was capable of melting lead and tin at the distance of 140 French feet, and of
kindling wood at a much greater distance.†
But let us hasten to finish the life of this extraordinary mathematician. The
successor of Hiero having unfortunately quarrelled with the Romans, that am-
bitious people laid hold of the opportunity to make themselves masters of Sicily.
After various successes, the celebrated Marcellus, the Roman General, laid siege
to Syracuse in the year 212, before the commencement of the Christian æra. It
was upon this occasion that the mechanical genius of Archimedes burst forth in
all its lustre. His countrymen, confounded at the success, and at the name of
the Romans, would have made little resistance; but Archimedes roused their
courage, and animated them to one of the most vigorous defences recorded in
history. The machines of Archimedes, each more formidable than another, dis-
* Hinges.
+ Mem. Par. 1746.
BOOK II.]
249
MATHEMATICS.
concerted the Roman engineers, and filled the breasts of the soldiers with terror
and dismay. The appearance of a beam of wood, or a bit of rope, from the
walls, set them instantly to flight. Marcellus, despairing of success, converted
the siege into a blockade, and waited patiently for a favourable opportunity to
surprise the place. The confidence of the Syracusans at length furnished him
with one. Occupied in celebrating the festival of Diana, they left their walls
defenceless. The Romans, always on the watch, perceived the error of their
enemies, applied scaling ladders to the wall, entered the city without opposition,
took it, and pillaged it. Marcellus had given orders to spare the life of Archi-
medes, but they were not obeyed. This extraordinary man, totally absorbed
in a mathematical investigation, was insensible of all that had happened; and
when a Roman soldier entered his apartment, and ordered him to follow him to
the general, he requested him to be gone, and not to derange his figure. The
soldier, either provoked at this answer, or tempted by the richness of his apart-
ment, put him to death. Thus perished Archimedes with the liberty of his
country.
school.
Archimedes was attached to no school, and of course had no predecessor nor Alexandriau
successor in Syracuse. But in his time there existed a celebrated mathematical
school at Alexandria, in Egypt, founded by the Ptolemies, the successors of
Alexander the Great, where a succession of eminent mathematicians appeared,
and where the last embers of Grecian science continued to be fanned and
cherished, after they had become cold and extinct in every other part of the
Roman empire. One of the first, and not the least celebrated of the mathe-
maticians, whom the Ptolemies collected in Egypt, was Euclid, the author of Euclid.
the Elements of Geometry; a book better known, and which has run through
a greater number of editions than any other, the Old and New Testament ex-
cepted. Hardly any thing is known concerning Euclid. He is said (and
Pappus is quoted, though I cannot find the passage,) to have been born in
Alexandria, and to have taught mathematics in that city about 300 years before
the commencement of the Christian era. His character is drawn by Pappus,
in the most advantageous terms. Good-natured and modest; he was peculiarly
attentive to all mathematicians, and never attempted to injure their reputation
nor diminish their laurels. Ptolemy, King of Egypt, was fond of his conversa-
tion, and asked him one day if there was not an easier road to geometry than
by his Elements? No, Prince, says he, there is no road made for kings to the
mathematics.* His Elements have been translated into almost all languages.
They consist of 13 books; but there are usually two others added, which are
considered as the workmanship of Hypsicles, of Alexandria. The first six of
these books treat of plane figures; the next three of arithmetic; the tenth, of
* Non est regia ad mathematicam via.
2 K
50
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Eratosthenes.
Apollonius.
#
commensurable and incommensurable quantities; the eleventh, twelfth, and
thirteenth, of solids. The seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and thirteenth, are
omitted in the ordinary editions, as of less value. The best English edition of
Euclid, is Dr. Simson's, of Glasgow, which has been for many years classical
in Great Britain. Most subsequent editions are merely Simson's, with a few
changes. Mr. Playfair, indeed, has substituted the investigations of Archi-
medes for the eleventh and twelfth books of Euclid, which we consider as an
improvement. Many attempts have been made by mathematicians to improve
the arrangement adopted by Euclid, by introducing a more methodical one;
but they have been all unsuccessful, losing in point of demonstration more than
they gained in point of arrangement. In France, Euclid, as an elementary
book, has been set aside, and other books substituted, much shorter, but greatly
inferior in point of rigid demonstration. In this country, however, Euclid,
and a just sense of the elegance of the ancient mode of demonstration, is still
retained. Besides the Elements, Euclid was the author of many other mathe-
matical works; some of which still remain. The Greek text of Euclid was first
published at Basil, in 1533, under the care of J. Grynæus. It was accom-
panied with the copious commentary on the first book of the Elements, by
Proclus. David Gregory published a superb edition of all Euclid's works, in
1703, in Greek and Latin. The edition is in folio, and does honour to the
Oxford press.
Eratosthenes is another mathematician of the Alexandrian school, who lived
about the same period with Archimedes, and who was the author of various
important works on geometry and astronomy, none of which remain. We
mention him here on account of a curious method which he contrived for deter-
mining the prime numbers, known by the name of the Sieve of Eratosthenes.
An excellent account of this valuable invention is given by Dr. Horseley, in
the Philosophical Transactions, which he has partly divined and partly copied
from the very imperfect account of it given by Nicomachus.*
The next mathematician that claims our attention is Apollonius, the most
celebrated of all those that adorned the Alexandrian school, and second only to
Archimedes himself. He was born in Pamphilia, about 150 years before the
commencement of the Christian era, and flourished chiefly during the reign of
Ptolemy Philopater. Pappus gives us a very unfavourable idea of his disposi-
tion, representing him as vain, jealous, and revengeful, and ever ready to re-
press his contemporaries, and prevent them from rivalling him in his own
department. His writings were very numerous and profound. But the most
celebrated are his Conics, which contain every thing that the ancients knew
respecting these curves, The first four books consist of a collection of the facts
* Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 327.
BOOK II.]
251
MATHEMATICS.
ascertained on the subject by his predecessors. The last four books contain his
own profound investigations on these celebrated curves. An edition of the first
four books, with a Latin translation, was published in 1537, by Memmius, a
noble Venetian. The last four were supposed to be lost, and efforts were
made by different geometricians to supply their place, from the indications
given by Pappus. Maurolicus and Viviani were the most remarkable of these.
While the latter was at work collecting materials for his intended publication,
the celebrated Golius returned from the East, loaded with Arabic manuscripts,
among which were the seven first books of the Conics of Apollonius. Golius
announced his intention of publishing a translation of this work, so eagerly
sought after by mathematicians; but some accident or other prevented him
from accomplishing it, and the public thought no more of his manuscript; and
it was generally concluded, notwithstanding the notice given by Golius, that
the rest of Apollonius was lost for ever. But in the year 1658, Borelli, while
examining the library of the Medici, during his passage through Florence,
found an Arabian manuscript, the Italian title of which announced the eight
books of Apollonius on Conics. Delighted with this discovery, he ran over the
manuscript, and judged, from a comparison of the figures, that it was really
the work of the Grecian geometer. He made a religious moronite translate the
title of the fifth part, which, according to the known division of Apollonius,
treated of maxima & minima. The Duke of Tuscany generously trusted him
with the manuscript, which he carried to Rome, and, by the assistance of
Abraham Ecchellensis, skilled in the Oriental languages, it was translated into
Latin, and published in 1661, with learned notes; rendered necessary by the
extreme conciseness of the Arabian translator, or rather abridger. This edition
contained only the first seven books of Apollonius, and there is every reason to be-
lieve that the eighth is entirely lost, as it is wanting in every Arabic manuscript
hitherto examined. In 1710, a splendid edition of Apollonius was published
at Oxford, under the care of Dr. Halley. The eighth book has been so well
restored by that celebrated mathematician, so thoroughly acquainted with the
geometry of the ancients, that we have no reason to regret the loss. All the
other writings of Apollonius are lost, except his treatise De Sectione Rationis,
which Dr. Halley published in 1708, from an Arabic manuscript; but most of
them have been restored by modern mathematicians, from the account of them
given by Pappus.
We must pass over a considerable number of years before we come to any
other mathematician that deserves particular notice. The Alexandrian school
produced indeed several eminent men, during the interval; but they drew their
celebrity rather from astronomy than from geometry. Diophantus, the man of Diophantus.
whom we have now to speak, is supposed to have lived during the reign of the
Emperor Julian, or about the year 365 of our era. Diophantus is celebrated
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in mathematics as the inventor of algebra; or at least the first writer on that
important branch of analysis, whose works have come down to us. His work
is entitled Arithmeticorum Libri, and only the first six books remain, together
with a book De Numeris Multangulis. The algebra of Diophantus was pretty
much the same as it continued among the moderns, till the introduction of
letters instead of numbers. The unknown quantity, or the quantity sought, he
denotes by ; its square he calls duvaus, potentia, and denotes by ; the
cube is called xußos, and denoted by x"; the biquadrate is denoted by ; and
the fifth power by dx". Algebra, in his time, had advanced as far as the solu-
tion of quadratic equations. But what constitutes the chief merit of his
algebra, is the address with which he resolves indeterminate problems: a branch
of analysis attended with peculiar difficulties.*
GT
With Diophantus, the glory of the Alexandrian school in some measure
terminated: most of the geometers who followed contented themselves with
writing commentaries on the labours of their predecessors, instead of exerting
themselves to extend the bounds of the science. Pappus, indeed, deserves to be
excepted from this reproach. His writings contain a great many valuable
historical details, with some appearances of original research; and we are
indebted to him for most of our knowledge of the writings of those ancient
mathematicians whose works have not come down to our times. Diocles, too.
the inventor of the cyssoid, deserves to be exempted from the reproach of want
of originality. This curve is very much approved of by Sir Isaac Newton, and
solves many problems famous among the ancients with peculiar elegance and
facility. Diocles must have been posterior to Pappus, as that writer takes no
notice of him in his enumeration of the various methods proposed by mathe-
* The reader will find some fine specimens of this kind of analysis in the second volume of Euler's
algebra, which is entirely devoted to it. We shall give a specimen of this species of problem, in
the following epitaph on Diophantus.
Hic Diophantus habet tumulum, qui tempora vitæ
Illius mira denotat arte tibi.'
Egit sextantem juvenis, lanugine malas
Vestire hinc cœpit parte duodecima.
Septante uxori post hæc sociatur, et anno
Formosus quinto nascitur inde puer.'
Semissem ætatis postquam attigit ille paternæ,
Infelix subita morte peremptus obit.
Quatuor æstates genitor lugere superstes
Cogitur; hinc annos illius esse quære.
1
The meaning of the epitaph is, that Diophantus passed the 6th part of his life in childhood,.
the 12th in youth; that after a 7th part of his life and five years more passed in a barren marriage
he had a son, who died after attaining half the age of his father, who survived' him four
years.
question is to find a number whose 6th, 12th, 7th with 5, with 4, make up the number. The
answer is easy, and is 84.
The
BOOK II.]
253
MATHEMATICS.
maticians for doubling the cube. We may therefore fix the period of his life at
about the sixth century of the Christian era.
We may now close our account of Grecian mathematicians. That unfortu-
nate nation, assailed at once by the double evil of despotism and superstition,
gradually lost that philosophic spirit which characterized it for so many ages,
and occupied itself with the most miserable objects which bigotry and besotted
ignorance could pursue. Happily for posterity a better spirit animated the
Arabians, who, after conquering all their opponents, and carrying the tenets Arabians.
of Mahomet from the shores of India to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, were
conquered in their turn by letters and the sciences. They procured, with great
care, the manuscripts of all the ancient Grecian philosophers, especially the
mathematicians, and translated them into their own language. By this means
they were preserved from destruction, and when civilization and the sciences
again shewed themselves in Europe, we were, by their means, supplied with
these invaluable writings, and enabled at once to profit by the accumulated
labours of the sages of antiquity. But it is not necessary to dwell on these
Arabian philosophers. As far as mathematics are concerned they added little
to the discoveries of their masters, and when they ventured to make changes,
they rather injured and disfigured than improved their Grecian models.
Let us return then to Europe, the country in which, owing to some unknown
fatality, all the great improvements in the arts and sciences have hitherto
originated: the country of activity, of invention, and innovation. After some ages
of barbarism, which the genius of Alfred and of Charlemagne in vain attempted
to soften, Europe began in the tenth century to shew some feeble symptoms of
improvement. The first person who claims our notice is the famous Gerbert, Gerbert.
afterwards raised to the papacy, and distinguished by the name of Sylvester II
He was born in Auvergne, about the commencement of the tenth century, and
educated in the monastery of Fleuri, where Abbon, who was Abbot, had insti-
tuted a school, which drew to it all the young men of abilities of the order.
Gerbert, however, was soon dissatisfied with the information which he could
acquire at this school, and passed into Spain, where the Saracens had established
two famous academics, at Cordova and Grenada, to which students flocked
from the east and from the west. Here Gerbert soon surpassed his masters in
mathematical knowledge. From some of his writings which have been pub-
lished, it appears that he was acquainted both with Euclid and Archimedes;
but what has given him celebrity, and for which we lie under the greatest obli- Introduction
gations to him, he first introduced the Arabian numbers and the Arabian me- of the Arabian
thod of notation into Christian Europe.*
* Abacum, says William, of Malmesbury, certe primus a Saracepis rapiens regulas, dedit quæ a
sudantibus abacistis vix intelliguntur.
notation.
254
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
+
With respect to the origin of the nine digits, and the decimal notation at
present in use, we know nothing for certain. It is commonly supposed to
have been an Indian invention, to have been borrowed from the Indians by the
Arabians, and it is certain that it was brought by Gerbert from the Saracens in
Spain into France, and from that country very speedily propagated over Europe.
The period of the introduction appears to have been between 970 and 980.
The preceding account is taken from Dr. Wallis's algebra, who has been at
great pains in collecting information on this curious subject. Indeed, that we
are indebted to Gerbert for the introduction of the present numbers, is obvious
from William, of Malmsbury, and from the letters of Gerbert himself. Kircher
ascribes the introduction of them to the tables of Alphonso, King of Castile ;
but this is undoubtedly too late a date, as these tables were not constructed till
the 13th century. There are no less than nine papers on this curious sub-
ject in the Philosophical, Transactions, chiefly employed in giving an account
of old inscriptions in Arabic figures still remaining in England. Dr. Wallis
describes a mantle-piece with this date A° Do' M° 133.* Mr. Luffkin men-
tions a house in Colchester, in which there is a stone with this date engraven
on it 1090. Mr. Cope describes a mantle-piece in Widgell Hall, Hertford-
shire, with this date engraven on it м16, which he considers as 1016. He
likewise mentions a gate at Worcester, having engraven on it 97v, in black
letter characters, which he considers as 975.§ But the validity of all these
dates is denied by Mr. Ward, who published three elaborate papers on the
subject in the Philosophical Transactions. The first date he conceives should
be read 1233, instead of 1133; the second, he considers as 1490; the third is
simply 1000, in Roman characters, and what has been read 16, he conceives
to be the letters I. G.; the fourth, he considers as MXV, or 1015, all Roman.
Mr. Ward is probably accurate with respect to all these inscriptions except the
first, which, there can be little doubt, is really м133, as Dr. Wallis read it.
As to the others they are of little consequence, as Mr. Barlow has brought for-
ward another date, so distinct that it is impossible to mistake it. This date is
upon the parish church of Romney, Southampton, and is 1011. Thus, there
appears sufficient evidence that the Arabic numerals were known in England
about the year 1000; which serves, in some degree, to establish the above
period, which we have assigned for their introduction into France by Gerbert.
But they do not seem to have come into common use for some time; for it
would appear, from a passage quoted above, that William of Malmesbury,
who wrote more than 200 years after, did not well understand their use: if he
had, he would scarcely have represented it as so difficult to be understood.
* Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 399.
Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX. 119.
Phil. Trans. 1741. Vol. XLI. p. 652.
p.
+ Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXI. p. 287.
§ Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX. 131.
p.
BOOK II.]
255
MATHEMATICS.
But the tenth century found Europe still too barbarous to detain us long.
Except this fortunate improvement of Gerbert, hardly any addition was made
to our knowledge. We may even pass over the next four centuries, during
which, though Europe was slowly imbibing knowledge from the Arabians, and
though Italy began to put on the smiling aspect of trade and civilization, her
progress was slow and faltering, and all her efforts sadly thwarted by the banc-
ful superstition which still involved mankind. Thus, Roger Bacon was perse-
cuted for his superior knowledge, thrown into prison, and prohibited from
writing and studying. But in the 15th century, the real symptoms of improve-
ment appeared, and the reformation in religion, which speedily followed, at
once unfettered the minds of men, and produced the most splendid and un-
looked for effects. Leonardo, of Pisa, travelling into the East for instruction, Leonardo
about the beginning of the 15th century, made himself acquainted with
algebra, as it was cultivated among the Arabians, and on his return into Italy
informed his countrymen of the science. Here it was cultivated with success;
became speedily known to all mathematicians, as is obvious from the work of
Regiomontanus, on triangles; in which he refers to the rules for resolving a
quadratic equation, as to a practice familiarly known. But the two men to
whom Mathematics owes most in the 15th century, and who may be considered
as in reality the revivers of the sciences in modern Europe, were Purbach and
Regiomontanus.
of Pisa.
George Purbach was born in Austria, in 1423, and was a disciple of John Purbach.
de Gmunden, who taught astronomy in the University of Vienna, at the com-
mencement of the 15th century. Purbach devoted himself to astronomical
pursuits with peculiar predilection, and travelled through Italy and various
parts of Europe, in order to acquire information from those who cultivated the
science. He finally settled at Vienna, where he succeeded Gmunden in the
University. He dedicated much of his time to astronomical observations, and
invented various instruments to facilitate his pursuits. Trigonometry lies under
particular obligations to him: he banished from it the sexagesimal notation,
and supposed the radius divided into 600,000 parts. He constructed a variety
of tables of sines, to facilitate astronomical calculation. He was at consider-
able pains in improving the vulgar editions of the works of Ptolemy, which
were extremely faulty; but being ignorant both of Greek and Arabic, he could
correct the blunders only by collating the different editions together, and by his
knowledge of astronomy. When Cardinal Bessarion, who was himself a Greek,
came to Vienna, as the Nuncio of the Pope, Purbach was easily persuaded to
accompany him to Rome, in order to learn the Greek language, and was just
preparing to set out when he was suddenly cut off by a disease, in the year 1461,
in the flower of his age.
John Muller was born in the town of Konigsberg, in Franconia, and, on
1
250
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Regiomon-
tanus.
Lucas de
Borgo.
Commenta
tors.
that account, took the name of Regiomontanus. The year of his birth was
1436. When only 14 years of age, his zeal for mathematics and astronomy
induced him to put himself under the care of Purbach, who was at that time.
in the height of his reputation. He became his favourite pupil, or rather his
intimate friend, continued with him till the time of his death, and ably seconded
all his views. When Purbach died, Regiomontanus set out for Italy, in the
suite of Cardinal Bessarion, where he learned Greek, and published a new
edition of Ptolemy's Almageste, translated from the original. He undertook
and executed a prodigious number of translations from the Greek, not only of
astronomical works, but of books in every department of mathematics. Archi-
medes, Euclid, and Apollonius, and many others passed through his hands.
This did not prevent him from composing many original works of his own, in
which trigonometry and various other departments of mathematics were greatly
improved. To him, in particular, we owe the first developement of our present sys-
tem of decimal fractions; which, though very simple, is notwithstanding exceed-
ingly useful and important. He returned to Germany about the year 1471, and
fixed himself at Nuremberg, where he employed his time in making astronomical
observations. In the year 1475 he returned to Rome, being invited by Pope
Sixtus IV., who had formed the project of reforming the calendar, and con-
ceived that Regiomontanus was the most proper person to manage the altera-
tion. For this purpose he made him great promises, and had even named him
Bishop of Ratisbon; but Regiomontanus died suddenly, in 1476, before he
had well commenced his reform.
Lucas Paccioli, usually called Lucas de Borgo, because he was of the Borgo-
San-Sepulchro, in Tuscany, deserves likewise to be mentioned, as a man who
contributed essentially to the introduction of mathematics into Italy. He was
a Franciscan who travelled into the East, and afterwards taught mathematics at
Naples, Venice, and Milan. He published three different works about the
commencement of the 16th century; one a kind of system of arithmetic, algebra,
and elementary geometry; another, on a line cut in extreme and mean ratio ;
the third treats of polygons and regular figures.
The end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century was the age of
commentators. After the recovery of the previous remains of ancient mathema-
tics, the first step undoubtedly was to publish correct editions of these works, in
order to enable mathematicians to understand them, and to profit by them.
These commentators, therefore, were a set of useful men, and contributed
essentially to the progress of the science. The first place among them is due to
Commandin; but it would be tedious and useless to run over a dry catalogue of
names long since forgotten, and consigned to oblivion. They constituted a
body of pioneers, useful indeed, and necessary to the science, but not of suffi-
cient importance, individually, to claim peculiar mention. Let us rather turn
6
BOOK II.]
257
MATHEMATICS.
our attention to the improvements which gradually were introduced into
mathematics, after the study of them was thus happily revived. The 16th
century exhibits several improvements of considerable importance; but the 17th
century is the golden age of mathematical science. During that fortunate and
busy era, its bounds were enlarged on every side: new branches of mathematics,
and new methods of calculation sprung up in every quarter, till at last the
fluctionary calculus of Newton made its appearance, and more than doubled
the power and the resources of the mathematician. We shall make a few obser-
vations on the discoveries of the 16th century; but we shall dwell at greater
length upon the new methods of the 17th century, because some of the chief
of them were made by the Founders, or Members, of the Royal Society, and
because various important documents, relative to these new methods, are to be
found in the Transactions.
cubic equa-
tions.
Nicolo Tartaglia is the mathematician who seems to hold the first rank Tartaglia.
among the geometers of the 16th century. He was born at Brescia, of a family
in the lowest situation of life. His father was a messenger, and dying while
Tartaglia was very young, left his family in extreme misery. Soon after, the
French army on its return from Naples, having gained the battle of Fornoul,
took Brescia and pillaged it. Tartaglia was wounded during the assault, and
on that account assumed the name which he bore. Recovered from this acci-
dent, he taught himself to read, and was obliged to get a writing book by trick,
pretending that he wanted to take a model of the letters of the alphabet. These
first difficulties overcome, he soon acquired all the learning of his time, and
established himself in Venice, where he taught mathematics. His great dis- Solution of
covery was the method of resolving cubic equations, commonly known under fin
the name of Cardan's rule, on account of a circumstance which deserves to be
detailed. Tartaglia having discovered the method of resolving cubic equations,
in consequence of a challenge by one Florido, an itinerant mathematician,
communicated it to Cardan, who was his particular friend, binding him at the
same time not to reveal it. This did not prevent Cardan, some time after,
from publishing it as his own. Tartaglia was provoked at this conduct, and
complained of it bitterly. He went farther in order to prove to the world that
he was the real inventor of the formula, and that he was a superior "mathema-
tician to Cardan, he challenged him to resolve, within a given time, 31 pro-
positions, which he should propose to him, and allowing Cardan to propose
as many to him, undertaking to resolve the propositions of Cardan, or at least
a greater number of them than Cardan would of his. The challenge was
accepted; and it appears that Cardan was scarcely able to resolve any of the
questions proposed by Tartaglia, and the few which he did resolve, not till after
the appointed time; while, on the contrary, Tartaglia resolved in a few days
almost the whole of Cardan's. But both sides, as is usual in these cases, claimed
2 L
258
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Cardan.
Solution of
biquadratics.
Ramus,
Vieta.
the victory; the quarrel continued, and was terminated only by the death of
the combatants.
Cardan himself was a very extraordinary man. He was born in Milan, in
1501, and died at Rome in 1575. He was a physician, and attached himself
with ardour to every branch of knowledge. We find him at once aiming at
oratory, geometry, algebra, astronomy, morality, philology, and the various
branches of natural history. Algebra, however, was the science which he un-
derstood best, and which has been the source of his reputation. Though it be
true that the method of resolving cubic equations is not his, yet it must be
admitted that he added considerably to the elucidation of the nature of cubic
equations.
The method of solving biquadratic equations was discovered very soon after
the discovery of the solution of cubic equations. The discovery is due to Louis
Ferrari, born at Milan, and a pupil of Cardan. A certain adventurer, called
John Colla, who took pleasure in puzzling the mathematicians of the age, had
proposed a certain problem, which involved a biquadratic equation, and about
the solution of which the learned were divided. Cardan requested his pupil,
Louis Ferrari, with whose genius he was well acquainted, to turn his attention
to this sort of equations, and endeavour to find the solution. Ferrari did so,
and speedily succeeded. It is with regret that we are obliged to add, that the
moral character of Ferrari appears to have been very bad. Cardan, who him-
self was not a model of morality, assures us that his conduct was so disgraceful,
that he was ashamed to allow him to visit him.
The only other mathematician of the 16th century, (except those concerned
in the introduction of new methods), whose name we think it necessary to
mention, is the celebrated Peter Ramus, a French Protestant, who distinguished
himself very much by his zeal for the mathematics, and his contempt for the
vain disputations of the schools at that time in vogue. He perished in the dis-
graceful massacre of St. Bartholomew, a day on which so many eminent French-
men lost their lives. For though the Hugonots never exceeded in number the
sixth part of the population of France, they comprehended within their body
all the learning and science, and almost all the talents, of the country.
Let us now proceed to the radical improvements which mathematics under-
went, and the new methods introduced, about the end of the 16th, and during
the course of the 17th century.
I. The first improvement which we shall notice was made by Vieta, a name
deservedly illustrious in the annals of mathematics. He first substituted letters
instead of known quantities in algebra; an improvement, which may seem of
little importance to those who are ill informed on the subject, but which ma-
thematicians know has contributed essentially to the progress of the science.
Vieta was born at Fontenai, in Poitou, about the year 1540. He was maitre
2
BOOK II.]
259
MATHEMATICS.
des requêtes at Paris, and, notwithstanding the multiplicity of his occupations,
found time to cultivate mathematics, and to outstrip all his contemporaries in
his knowledge of that science. According to M. de Thou, he used sometimes
to sit whole days at table absorbed in mathematical investigations, and his ser-
vants were under the necessity of bringing him food to supply the waste of
strength occasioned by this incessant labour. He had violent disputes with
Scaliger and Clavius. He refuted the pretended quadrature of the circle of the
first; but the calendar which he proposed to substitute for that adopted by
Gregory XIII., at the suggestion of Lilius and Clavius, was a very defective
one, and its errors were very well pointed out by Clavius. Vieta was well
skilled in the difficult art of explaining ciphers. He died at Paris in the year
1603, at the age of sixty-three. His works are scarcely intelligible to modern
mathematiciaus, in consequence of the vast number of Greek terms with which
they abound.
The next improver of algebra was Thomas Harriot, who was born at Oxford Harriot.
in the year 1560; he distinguished himself so much by his mathematical know-
ledge, that Sir Walter Raleigh made choice of him to be his instructor in that
science, and carried him out with him to Virginia, when he planted his first
colony in that country. Harriot constructed a map of Virginia, and published
an account of the country after his return, under the title of A brief and true
Report of the new-found Land of Virginia; which is to be found at the end
of the third volume of Hakluit's Voyages. He was afterwards introduced by
Sir Walter, to Henry, Earl of Northumberland, who allowed him a handsome
pension; as he did to Mr. Hues and Mr. Walter Warner. When the Earl, in
1606, was committed to the Tower for life, these three learned men still con-
tinued to associate and converse with him, and were known by the name of the
Earl of Northumberland's three Magi. Mr. Harriot removed some time after-
wards to Sion College, and he died in 1621, of a cancer in his lip. His Artis
Analytica Praxis was published after his death, by his friend Mr. Walter
Warner, and contains his analytical improvements. The great discovery which
he made was, that all the higher equations are composed of as many simple
equations multiplied together as are equal to the greatest index of the unknown
quantity. From this it follows, that every equation has as many ropts as are
equivalent to the index of its highest power. An equation of the fifth power
has five roots; one of the fourth, four; one of the third, three; and so on.
Dr. Wallis, in his Algebra, has given an elaborate catalogue of the discoveries
of Harriot; but he has been accused of partiality by the French mathema-
ticians, and of an undue eagerness to reduce the discoveries of Descartes as low
as possible.
tion of equa
Several important additions to the doctrine of equations have been made by Gereral solu-
Descartes, and by Sir Isaac Newton; and the most persevering efforts have tions.
2 L2
260
[BOOK II.
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Logarithms.
Napier.
been made to discover a general method of resolving equations of every degree.
Euler, Waring, Bezout, and La Grange, have particularly distinguished them-
selves in these investigations, and probably various other mathematicians, with
whose writings I am unacquainted. But all their efforts have been in vain;
new and unforeseen difficulties have arisen on every side, and a general resolu-
tion of equations seems to be as distant and as hopeless as ever. Whether the
problem is in itself insoluble, or whether the want of a solution be owing to
the imperfection of our methods and of our modes of investigation, has not
yet been determined. Mathematicians, deterred by the numerous difficulties
which opposed the general solution of equations, and by the prodigious length
of calculations which such investigations required, have turned their attention
to a method of approximation; and various very convenient methods have been
discovered, which scarcely leave any room to regret, in a practical point of view,
that the general solution of equations still continues unknown. Newton was
the first inventor of a method of approximation, which he communicated to
Dr. Barrow in 1669.* In 1669, Mr. Joseph Raphson, in his Universal Ana-
lysis of Equations, proposed another method, which was further prosecuted by
M. de Lagney, Professor of Mathematics at Paris. In 1694, Dr. Halley pub-
lished two new methods of accomplishing the same thing. The methods of
these three mathematicians are those still most generally followed. Newton's
method continued unknown, except from a small specimen of it given by Dr.
Wallis in his Algebra, till the publication of the Universal Arithmetic. These
three methods bear a close resemblance to each other. Other methods of ap-
proximation have been since proposed by Taylor, Thomas Simpson, the Ber-
noullis, Euler, and La Grange; and the subject has been, in a great measure,
exhausted.
II. The next improvement in mathematics, which we have to mention, is the
introduction of logarithms, those numbers so important by diminishing the la-
bour of tedious calculations, and which play so conspicuous a part in the trans-
cendental analysis. For this admirable discovery we are indebted to John
Napier, Baron of Merchiston, near Edinburgh. He was descended from an
ancient family; and his father, Sir Archibald Napier, was knighted by James VI.
and made Master of the Mint, an office which he sustained with honour and
dignity. Napier seems to have turned the bent of his genius towards the dis-
covery of methods to facilitate and abridge trigonometrical calculations; and
various contrivances were proposed by him in succession, all remarkable for
their ingenuity. The last and most memorable of all was his discovery of
logarithms. There is a story told by Mr. Wood, but it does not appear en-
.
*Methods indeed, though imperfect, had been proposed by Vieta, Harriot, and Oughtred.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. XVIII. p. 136.
BOOK II.]
261
MATHEMATICS.
titled to any attention, that one Dr. Craig, a Scotchman, coming out of Den-
mark into his own country, called upon John Napier, Baron of Merchiston,
near Edinburgh, and told him of a new invention, in Denmark, by Longo-
montanus, to save tedious multiplications and divisions in astronomical calcula-
tions. Napier being solicitous to know further of him of this matter, he could
give no other account of it than that it was by proportional numbers; which
hint Napier taking, desired him, at his return, to call upon him again. Craig,
after an interval of some weeks, did so, and Napier then showed him a rude
draught of what he called canon mirabilis logarithmorum. Had there been any
truth in such a story, we may be sure that Longomontanus and the Danes would
not have abstained from laying their claim to so admirable a discovery. Napier
has also been considered as having been anticipated in his invention by Stifels,
and by Juste Byrge, two German mathematicians; but these allegations origi-
nating from jealousy, or from national partiality, are entitled to no attention
whatever, and Napier's claims have for many years been allowed by the univer-
sal consent of all mankind.
Logarithms are numbers which follow an arithmetical proportion, while the
natural numbers corresponding to them follow the geometrical. Hence the ad-
dition of logarithms corresponds with the multiplication of natural numbers,
and their subtraction with the division of natural numbers. Dividing them by
the index of the power is equivalent to the extraction of the root denoted by
that number. Thus, to divide a logarithm by 3 is the same thing as to extract
the cube root of a natural number. Hence the admirable use of a table of
logarithms, and the great importance of which they must be in all tedious calcu-
lations where it would be necessary to multiply or divide large numbers. The
logarithms which first presented themselves to Napier were those at present
known by the name of hyperbolic logarithms. But it afterwards occurred to him
that logarithms, similar to those in our modern tables, in which the logarithm
of 1 is 0; that of 10, 1; that of 100, 2; &c., would be more convenient. But
he died, in 1618, before he had time to put his new plan in execution; but
not till he had explained its nature to Mr. Henry Briggs, Gresham Professor of
Mathematics, who had seen at once all the importance of logarithms, and had
early devoted himself to bring them to perfection.
મ
Henry Briggs was born at Worleywood, near Halifax, in Yorkshire, about Briggs.
the
year 1556.
After being educated at a grammar-school in the country, he
was sent to St. John's College, Cambridge, November 5, 1579; admitted a
scholar of the house in 1581, and took the degree of Bachelor of Arts; that of
Master in 1585; and was chosen Fellow of his College, March 29, 1588. He
applied himself chiefly to the study of mathematics; and, in 1592, was made
Examiner and Lecturer in that faculty, and soon after Reader of the Physic
Lecture founded by Dr. Linacer. On the settlement of Gresham College he
262
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Gunter.
Gellibrand.
Kepler.
Vlacq.
Sherwin.
was made first Professor of Geometry there. In 1620, he was appointed Savi-
lian Professor of Geometry in Oxford; in consequence of which appointment
he resigned his Gresham Professorship. In this situation he continued till his
death. As soon as the Napierian discovery of logarithms was announced, he
made two successive journeys into Scotland, to confer with the discoverer him-
self, and settle plans for the calculation and construction of logarithmic tables.
An account of the nature and properties of logarithms was published at Edin-
burgh, in 1618, by Robert Napier, the son of the great discoverer, under the
following title: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis constructio et eorum ad Na-
turales ipsorum Numeros Habitudines, una cum Appendice de alia eaque pre-
stantiori Logarithmorum Specie condenda, &c. &c. This book had been writ-
ten, and was ready for the press, when John Napier, the inventor of loga-
rithms, was prevented from publishing it by his death. The same year Briggs
published a table of the logarithms of the first 1,000 natural numbers, under
the title of Logarithmorum Chilias prima. In 1624, he published, under the
title of Arithmetica Logarithmica, the logarithms of all numbers from 1 to
20,000, and from 90,000 to 100,000, calculated to 14 decimal places. Briggs
was assisted in his calculations by Gunter, who was Professor of Astronomy at
Gresham College, and the contriver of the graduated rule which passes under
He calculated the logarithms of the sines and tangents, and pub-
lished a table of them in 1620, entitled, Canon of Triangles. Briggs had
made considerable progress in a table of sines and tangents, calculated to 100
parts of a degree, (for he wished to introduce the decimal notation into tri-
gonometry) but died, in 1630, before he had completed it. It was finished by
Henry Gellibrand, who had succeeded Gunter in the astronomical chair, at
Gresham College; and he published it in 1633, under the title of Trigonome-
tria Britannica.
his name.
One of the first persons on the Continent, who properly appreciated the im-
portance of logarithms, was Kepler. He published a work on the subject in
1624, in which he simplified the theory considerably, and developed the views
of Napier with great sagacity and simplicity. Adrian Vlacq, a Dutchman,
reprinted Brigg's book, at Gauda, in 1628, and the same year he published a
French translation of it, in which he filled up the gap left by Briggs, and gave
a complete table of the logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 100,000, calculated
to 11 decimal places. In 1633, he reprinted Gellibrand's Trigonometria Bri-
tannica, and the same year he published a work of his own on the subject,
entitled, Trigonometria Artificialis, seu Magnus Canon Logarithmicus, ad ra-
dium 1.00000,00000, et ad dena scrupula secunda, ab Adriano Gaudano con-
structus. Since that period a great number of logarithmic tables have ap-
peared in different countries. We shall mention some of the most remarkable
of these. In 1706, Sherwin published a set of tables, at London, entitled,
BOOK II.]
263
MATHEMATICS.
}
Tables of Logarithms, for all numbers from 1 to 102,100; and for the sines
and tangents to every ten seconds of each degree in the quadrant; as also for
the sines of the first 72 minutes to every single second; with other necessary
tables. This book was often reprinted, several editions being edited by Gar-
diner; the last of which, according to Dr. Hutton, abounds with errors. A
set of tables was published by Schulze, at Perlin, in 1778; another by Vega,
at Vienna, in 1783. A very splendid set of tables of the logarithms of the
sines and tangents, calculated to seconds by Taylor, and edited by Dr. Maske-
lyne, was published in London, in 1792. A set of tables by Callet, was pub- Callet.
lished at Paris, in 1783, and a new stereotype edition of the same work, re-
markable for beauty of execution and for accuracy, was published in 1795.
We shall terminate this list, which might be much further extended, by men-
tioning the logarithmic tables of Dr. Hutton, which are commonly used in this Hutton.
country, and have superseded those of Sherwin. They are equally conspicuous
for the beauty of execution and for accuracy, and will not be easily surpassed
by any succeeding tables. Dr. Hutton has prefixed to this book a curious and
interesting history of logarithms, to which we have been indebted for most of
the facts contained in the preceding sketch. It was this history likewise which
suggested to Baron Maseres the plan of his Scriptores Logarithmici, in which
he has collected together all the valuable tracts upon logarithms, published
since the original discovery by Napier to the present times.
thod.
III. We now come to the developement of those new methods which ap-
peared in such numbers during the 17th century, and which advanced the
science of mathematics to the most unlooked for perfection. The first of these
methods, and one of the least important, is that of Father Guldin. It is Guldin's me-
hinted at by Pappus with considerable clearness, and Guldin has been blamed,
and probably with justice, for taking no notice of the claim of that ancient
geometrician. Guldin was born at St. Gall, in 1577, and, having abjured the
Protestant religion, entered into the society of Jesuits as a temporal coadjutor.
His superiors, perceiving that he possessed a great genius for mathematics, sent
him to Rome, where he was a Professor of Mathematics for some years, and he
afterwards taught the science at Gratz and at Vienna. He published a variety
of works, but the most important of them is his Centrobaryca, or his Treatise
of the Centre of Gravity. Every body knows that there is a certain point in
every figure called its centre of gravity, and this point is such that if we sup-
pose an axis to pass through it, and to support the figure, the figure will re-
main at rest in any position that we please to give it. The centre of gravity
possesses several other remarkable properties well known to mathematicians.
The new method of Guldin consisted in the application of the centre of gra-
vity to measure solids of revolution. This discovery consisted in the following
proposition: Every solid formed by the rotation of a line, or a surface round
264
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Method of ia-
divisibles.
L'avalleri.
an immoveable axis, is equal to the product of the generating quantity multi-
plied by the course of its centre of gravity. Thus, for example, the rectan-
gular cone is formed by the revolution of a right angled triangle round one of
its sides. The centre of gravity of such a triangle is distant from the axis by a
space equal to one third of the base. Hence, according to Guldin's rule, the
cone is equal to the generating triangle multiplied by the third of the circum-
ference of the base of the cone. Hence it is obviously the third of the cylin-
der, having the same base and height as we know it from other means to be. In
this manner Guldin deduced the solidity of all the solids of revolution with
great facility. Though he did not succeed in demonstrating the truth of his
fundamental proposition. But its truth was afterwards demonstrated by Caval-
leri during a dispute between him and Guldin, and he informs us that it had
been drawn up many years before by one of his pupils.
IV. The method of indivisibles was of much greater importance than the
method of Guldin, and constitutes the real origin of the immense improve-
ments afterwards made. Bonaventure Cavalleri was born at Milan, in 1598,
and entered when young into the order of Hieronimites. He displayed so
much genius during the progress of his studies, that, after he had taken orders,
his superiors thought proper to send him to Pisa, that he might improve him-
self in that celebrated university. Here he became acquainted with Benedict
Castelli, one of the disciples of Galileo, who advised him to study geometry as
a means of alleviating his pain, and of affording him amusement during the fits
of the gout with which he had been attacked. Cavalleri made such progress in
his mathematical studies. and perused the writings of the ancient geometricians
with so much rapidity and avidity, that Galileo and his disciples predicted
the celebrity which he would one day acquire. This prediction was speedily
accomplished by his invention of the method of indivisibles, of which he was
in possession before the year 1629. For Magin, Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Bologna, dying that year, Cavalleri stood candidate for the
chair; and, as a proof that he deserved it, sent to the magistrates of that city his
Treatise on Indivisibles, and another Dissertation on Conic Sections. His claim
was sustained, and he began to execute the duties of his new professorship in
1629.
Cavalleri supposed surface or space to be composed of an infinity of parts
which constitute its ultimate elements, and which are obtained by dividing it
continually into slices parallel to each other. These last elements he called
indivisibles, and by determining the ratio in which these indivisibles increased
and decreased, he was enabled to measure the surfaces, or solids, which were
composed of them. It must be acknowledged that this mode of explaining the
foundation of his method was not quite consistent with rigid geometry, and on
that account he was attacked with some acrimony by Father Guldin. This at-
3
BOOK II.]
265
MATHEMATICS.
•
tack obliged him to explain himself with more precision; and it was easy for
him to show that his indivisibles were nothing else than the inscribed and cir-
cumscribed parallelograms of Archimedes reduced to their simple ratios, and
therefore much more easily managed. The geometry of indivisibles may be
divided into two parts. The object of the first part is to compare figures with
each other by means of the equality, or constant ratio, which exists between
their elements. Thus he shows the ratio of parallelograms, triangles, &c. on
the same base and between the same parallels, and reduces the whole to this ge-
neral proposition: All figures, whose elements increase or decrease in a similar
manner from the base to the summit, are to the uniform figure of the same base
and height in the same ratio. The second part consists in pointing out the me-
thod of determining the ratio of an infinite number of lines or planes, increasing
or decreasing according to a certain law with the same number of elements
homogeneous with the first, and all equal to each other. Thus, for example,
the cone, according to the language of Cavalleri, is composed of circles de-
creasing from the base to the summit, while the cylinder of the same base and
height is composed of an infinite number of circles all equal to each other. In
the cone these circles decrease from the base to the apex as the squares of the
terms of an arithmetical progression. If therefore we can determine the ratio
between an infinite number of terms decreasing according to that law, and an
infinite number of terms all equal to the first term of the first progression, we
shall have the proportion between the cone and the cylinder of the same base
and height. But Cavalleri shows that the one is the third of the other; hence
it follows that the cone is the third part of the cylinder. Cavalleri applied this
method to a great variety of figures, and solved a vast number of problems
which had escaped all the efforts of preceding geometers with the greatest faci-
lity. In particular he applied it to the solution of a great many curious and
difficult problems, which had been some time before laid before mathematicians
by Kepler, and he succeeded without difficulty in solving almost the whole of
them. Cavalleri was the author of various other mathematical works, and
during the whole of his life-time occupied the first rank among the Italian
mathematicians.
V. We must here interrupt our account of the new methods introduced into
mathematics, in order to give the history of the discoveries respecting the
cycloid, in consequence of their importance, and the great celebrity which
they acquired.
The cycloid is a curve formed by a circle rolling upon a straight line, situated The cycloid.
in a plane, while a point in the circumference, during its revolution, traces
the cycloid upon the plane. Who the discoverer of this curve was, is not very
well known. Wallis ascribes it to the Cardinal de Cusa; but this opinion
seems to be entirely destitute of foundation. Galileo appears in fact to have
2 M
966
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Roberval.
Descartes's
observations
been the first person that thought of it; for, in a letter to Torricelli, dated 1639,
he says, that he had considered it about 40 years before, and that he thought
it, from its pleasing figure, well calculated for the arch of bridges. Father
Mersenne, in the year 1628, proposed to Roberval the problem of finding the
area of the cycloid; but he was at that time unequal to the task. He therefore
made no very strenuous efforts to resolve it, but set himself to study the ancients,
especially Archimedes; and, after an interval of six years, the problem being
proposed to him again, he succeeded in demonstrating, that the area of the
cycloid is equal to three times the area of the generating circle.
Gilles Personnier de Roberval, the author of this discovery, was born in
1602, at Roberval, a village in the diocese of Beauvais. He came to Paris in
1627, got acquainted with the literary men of that capital, and began speedily
to figure among the principal geometers of the age. He was a Member of the
Academy of Sciences from its original institution, in 1665, and held, during
forty years, the situation of Mathematical Professor in the College of Gervais;
a professorship founded by Ramus, and which, according to the statutes, was
to be exposed to competition every three years. Though an excellent mathe-
matician, he was destitute of the art of communicating his discoveries with
neatness and precision. His demonstrations are distinguished by a want of
elegance, and by a profusion of lines and figures, which renders it very difficult
and very fatiguing to peruse them. There is an anecdote told of him, which
the enemies of mathematics have laid hold of, as a proof that they unfit the
mind for relishing compositions of taste and elegance. Being present during
the acting of a tragedy, and being afterwards asked what he thought of it, he
answered the question by asking What did it prove? But this reply proves
nothing, unless we knew the merits of the tragedy in question. It was pro-
bably execrable stuff, and Roberval's answer only a mathematical and whimsical
method of announcing his opinion of it. Were a mathematician to go to a
London theatre, in the present day, he might put such a question with the
greatest propriety, and without any reproach either to his good sense or
his taste.
Mersenne, in his Harmonie Universelle, published in 1637, gives Roberval's
on the cycloid, discovery of the area of the cycloid. In 1638 he gave an account of the dis-
covery to Descartes, and, from the answer of that celebrated mathematician
sprang the origin of the violent quarrel between him and Roberval, which
lasted so many years. Descartes said, that the discovery was a beautiful one,
and quite new to himself; but that it was by no means difficult, and perfectly
within the range of any person moderately skilled in geometry; and, to prove
the truth of his opinion, gave a hasty sketch of the demonstration of the rela-
tion between the cycloid and the generating circle, which he developed more
at length in a succeeding letter. Roberval, mortified at this decision of Des-
BOOK II.]
267
MATHEMATICS.
cartes, affirmed that he had been aided in his demonstration by his knowledge
of the result; an assertion which might very well be true. Descartes, to
demonstrate his superiority over Roberval, determined the tangents of the
cycloid, sent the solution to Mersenne, and, at the same time, challenged Ro-
berval and Fermat, with whom he was at that time at variance, to resolve the
problem.
Pierre de Fermat, Counsellor in the Parliament of Toulouse, was one of the Fermat.
greatest mathematicians of the age in which he lived. His discoveries respect-
ing parabolas and spirals, his method of maxima & minima, and his method
of tangents, procured him great and deserved celebrity. Fermat soon resolved
the problem respecting the tangents of the cycloid, and sent in his solution to
Mersenne; but Roberval was not able to succeed. He sent in five or six
solutions one after the other, as appears from the letters of Descartes, none of
which was satisfactory. At last, the method of Fermat having come to his
knowledge, he resolved the problem, but was not able to find a demonstration
of his own solution.
the Italians,
In the year 1639 Mersenne wrote to Galileo, and informed him that certain
problems relative to the cycloid at that time occupied the attention of the
French mathematicians. Galileo wrote to Cavalleri, and requested him to en-
deavour to determine the cycloidal area; but Cavalleri, skilful mathematician
as he was, could not discover the method of solving the problem, and Galileo
died in 1642, without knowing whether it was possible to find the area of the
cycloid or not. But Torricelli and Viviani, two of Galileo's disciples, and his Discoveries of
companions in his old age, knowing that their master had interested himself in
the cycloid, set about investigating its properties; and about the year 1643
Torricelli determined the area, and Viviani the tangents, of this figure; and
Torricelli inserted these discoveries by way of appendix to his works, which
were published that year. This excited the jealousy of Roberval, who wrote
him a long pedantic letter, claiming these discoveries for himself, and calling
the immortal gods to witness that he had discovered them many years before.
the Italian mathematicians had turned their thoughts to the subject. Torricelli,
worn out with the perpetual appeals of Roberval, at last wrote him that it was
of very little consequence whether the problems, relative to the cycloid, were
first solved in Italy or France; that he did not call himself the discoverer of
them; that the area of the curve was unknown in Italy till after the death of
Galileo; and that he did not get his information respecting it from France;
but, that he had found out the demonstration himself, and he did not concern
himself much whether his word was believed or not, as he knew that it was
conformable to the dictates of truth. If Roberval was jealous of that discovery,
he would abandon it to whom ever chose to take it up, provided they did not
attempt to wrest it from him by violence.
2 M 2
268
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Pascal.
Roberval next examined the solids, formed by the revolution of the cycloid,
about its base, and about its axis, and found that the first was to the cylinder
of the same base and height, as 5 to 8; and the second, nearly as 11 to 17.
Mersenne having mentioned these particulars to Torricelli, he returned for
answer, that he had discovered the same things a few months before.
The theory of the cycloid remained stationary for some years, when it was
brought again upon the field by the celebrated Pascal, in the year 1658. Blaise
Pascal* was one of the most extraordinary men of the 17th century. His father
was a mathematician, and intimately connected with all the celebrated geo-
meters at that time in France. He was anxious to conceal the science from his
son till he arrived at a certain age, lest it should turn his attention from other
studies, to which it was necessary that he should attend. But it was difficult
to live in the house of Pascal without hearing of geometry, because it was the
constant subject of conversation. This circumstance, together with the care
with which he was excluded from all means of studying its principles, created
in the mind of the young philosopher an eager desire to become acquainted
with this prohibited science, and he created, in consequence, a kind of geo-
metry for himself. When he was of the age of 12, his father going one day
into his apartment, found him occupied with a geometrical figure, and per-
ceived, to his great astonishment, that he had just demonstrated the 32d pro-
position of Euclid, or the equality of the three angles of a triangle to two right
angles. The father of Pascal no longer refused to initiate his son in the prin-
ciples of a science for which he had displayed so strong a predilection; but put
into his hands a Euclid, which he ran over like a romance. He was hence-
forth admitted to the philosophical conversations of his literary friends, and, at
the age of 16, when other young men are only entering upon the study, Pascal
was a consummate mathematician, and had composed a treatise on conic
sections; in which, from one proposition accompanied with 400 corollaries,
he demonstrated most of the properties of these celebrated curves.
At an early
age, he, in some measure, abandoned the pursuit of mathematics for religion.
and morality, which he considered as of greater importance. His Provincial
Letters, written in consequence of the religious disputes which at that time
divided France, constitute one of the finest specimens of eloquence that has
ever been produced, and continue even at present to be read and admired,
though the disputes, from which they originated, have been long since buried
in oblivion. He occasionally, however, turned himself back to geometrical
pursuits, and the cycloid at last caught his attention. Wishing to withdraw
his mind from the violent pain, occasioned by a disease with which he was
afflicted, he examined the segments of the cycloid, determined their area, their
* A most interesting Life of Pascal has been published by Bossut.
BOOK II.]
269
MATHEMATICS.
prize relative
centre of gravity, and the solids, formed by their revolution round their axes.
These discoveries would probably have remained unpublished, had not several
of his friends, who conceived that it would be for the advantage of religion to
show the world the great genius of one of its most zealous defenders, persuaded
Pascal to make use of these problems, to try the strength of the different mathe-
maticians of Europe. Accordingly, under the name of A. Dettonville, he Proposes a
addressed a circular letter to geometers, dated June 1658, inviting them to to the cycloid,
resolve his problems, and promising a prize of 40 pistoles to the first person
who resolved them, and 20 to the second. The first of October was the day
by which it was necessary to send in the solutions properly authenticated, and
M. de Carcavi was the person to whom they were to be sent. These problems
were of so difficult a nature, that there were few mathematicians of the age
capable of resolving them. Accordingly, only two men sent in solutions, and
stood candidates for the prize. Those were the celebrated Dr. Wallis, and
Father Lalouere, a Jesuit of Toulouse. There were some other persons, how-
ever, who, without laying any claim to the prize, took the opportunity of
sending in solutions of some important problems relative to the cycloid. Slusius,
for example, Ricci, Huygens, and Sir Christopher Wren; the last of whom
gave the method of rectifying the cycloidal arch. Commissioners being ap-
pointed to examine the two papers sent to M. de Carcavi, that of Father
Lalouere was declared at once to have no title to the prize. He had only fulfilled
a part of the task assigned by Pascal, and what he had done was inaccurate.
Neither was the prize assigned to Dr. Wallis. The commissioners published a
detailed account of the reasons which induced them to decide against him.
These were a number of mistakes into which he had fallen, and concerning
which, as the original paper of Dr. Wallis was never published, we have no
means of judging. Dr. Wallis himself, when he published his tract on the
cycloid, denied their validity; though he acknowledged a few inadvertencies
into which he had fallen: but these, he said, were of little moment. There
can be no doubt that this decision embittered him against the French mathe-
maticians, and contributed to that severity with which he handled them in his
algebra, and all his historical writings which appeared after this famous prize
question of Pascal. In 1659, Pascal published the solution of all his problems,
under the title of letters of M. Dettonville to M. Carcaci. He had already
favoured the world with an historical account of the cycloid, in which the infor-
mation which he communicated, obviously derived from his friend Roberval, is
far from accurate.
VI. One of the greatest improvements in mathematies was made by Des--
cartes, who, by connecting together geometry and algebraical analysis, supplied
mathematicians with a convenient instrument for improving the science, and
with the means of generalizing, and, in some measure, completing the doctrine-
270
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Descartes.
Flis mathema-
tical discove-
rict.
of curves. René Descartes was born at La Haye, in Touraine, the 31st of
March, 1596. While yet a boy he showed such an inquisitive turn of mind
that his father used to call him his little philosopher. He was sent to the
Jesuit's College, at La Fleche, in 1604, and put under the tuition of Father
Charlet. Here he made great progress in the learned languages, and in polite
literature, and contracted an acquaintance with different gentlemen, who after-
wards became eminent in the republic of letters. But having passed through
his course of philosophy, with little satisfaction to himself, he left the college
in 1612, and began to turn his attention to a military life; but the weakness
of his constitution not permitting him to go to the army, he was sent to Paris
under a tutor, where he contracted so many literary acquaintances, and his
passion for philosophy was so strongly rivetted by their example and exhorta-
tions, that he laid aside his amusements, and continued for some time in a very
laborious course of study. In 1616 he went to Holland, and entered as a
volunteer into the troops of the Prince of Orange. While he lay at garrison.
at Breda, he solved a difficult mathematical problem, which, having been
affixed in the streets by some unknown person, procured him a great deal of
reputation. He left Breda in 1619, and entering into the army of the Duke
of Bavaria, made several campaigns in Germany; till at last, becoming dis-
gusted with a military life, he left the army, sold his estate, and spent some
time in travelling through different parts of Europe. His love of liberty in-
duced him to settle in Holland, where he wrote most of his books, and where
he refused several advantageous offers, made him by the French King, to prevail
upon him to return to his own country. He was induced, however, to comply
with an invitation made him by Queen Christina, and died at the court of Sweden
in 1650. Seventeen years after, his bones were removed to Paris, and a magni-
ficent monument erected to his memory in the chuch of St. Genevieve. It is
not our object at present to give a catalogue of his numerous works, far less to
enter into any examination of his philosophy, which has been long since over-
turned. His pursuits were exceedingly various. He was a mathematician, a
metaphysician, a moralist, a chemist, an anatomist, and a naturalist. His
works were of considerable service at the time when they were published, and
contributed essentially to set free the minds of men from the trammels of au-
thority.
But it is to his geometry that he is indebted for the only part of his repu-
tation which will never fade. It was he that first pointed out the importance
of the negative roots of equations; and he added an important fact to the
theory of Harriot, respecting equations, by laying down this rule, that there
are as many positive roots of an equation as there are changes in the signs, and
as many negative roots as there are signs of the same kind, following each
other. This rule holds when there are no imaginary roots, and it even holds
6
BOOK II.]
271
MATHEMATICS.
2
when there are, if we conceive the imaginary roots to be both negative and
positive at the same time. But the important part of his mathematical labours
was his application of algebra to the investigation of curves. This he did, by
conceiving every curve to be formed by the motion of a straight line along the
axis of the curve, while a point moving along this line, according to a certain
law, describes the curve. This line, intercepted between the axis and the
curve, is called the ordinate; while the part of the axis, intercepted between
the ordinate and the apex of the curve, is called the abscisse. The ordinate is
always denoted by the letter y, and the abscisse by the letter r. The nature of
the curve is expressed, by stating the relation between the ordinate and the
abscisse. Thus, for example, in the parabola let the parameter be represented
by p, the ordinate by y, and the abscisse by r, we have always y² = pr. This
is called the equation of the parabola; and, from this equation, the different
properties of the parabola may be deduced with great facility. Hence, in
order to investigate the properties of a curve, we have only to determine its
equation. In the ellipse, if a and b be the two conjugate semi-diameters, the
equation is y² = = (2ar — x²). Descartes arranged curves into different orders, Different or-
according to the highest powers of the letters r and y, in their equations.
Those in which these letters are only of the first power, belong to the first
order. The straight line alone has such an equation. The curves of the second
order are four: the circle, the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola; or,
they are only three, if we consider the circle as a species of ellipse. The curves
of the third order were enumerated by Sir Isaac Newton, and reckoning some
few that have been added since his time, they amount to 78. Those of the
fourth order have never been reckoned; but they probably amount to nearly
2000. Beyond this, mathematicians have not ventured to go: the task would
be endless and useless, as the number of curves is obviously infinite; and when-
ever the equation of a curve is given, we have it in our power to delineate it,
and to examine its properties. Descartes' geometry of curves possesses this
further remarkable circumstance in its favour, that it is still the best method of
examining curves, being better adapted for that purpose, in several respects,
than the fluctionary calculus.
b2
2
a
$
ders of curves.
VII. We now come to the discoveries of Dr. Wallis, which claim parti- Wallis.
cular attention; because they constituted the germ from which some of the
most important of the Newtonian discoveries originated. Dr. John Wallis was
born at Ashford, in Kent, the 23d of November, 1616. His father was a clergy-
man, and died when his son was only in his sixth year. He was first put under
the charge of Mr. James Moffat, a Scotchman, and trained up in his school at
Leygreen, near Tenterden, till about the year 1630, when he was sent to
Felsteed school, in Essex, under the direction of Mr. Martin Holbech. At
272
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Christmas, 1631, he went home, and understanding that his brother had been
learning arithmetic, he requested him to show him what he had been doing.
His brother complying with this request, Dr. Wallis set himself to acquire this
new piece of knowledge, and, in ten days, made himself master of the four
common rules of arithmetic: the rule of three, fellowship, false position, prac-
tice, and the reduction of coins. This was his first introduction to mathema-
tics, and, as he informs us himself, all the learning that he ever got.* Under
Mr. Holbech he learned Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and the rudiments of
Logic, Music, and French. Thus accomplished, he was sent to the Univer-
sity of Cambridge, and admitted of Emanuel College. He afterwards removed
to Queen's College, where he was chosen a Fellow; a situation which he held
till his marriage, which, of necessity, vacated it. In 1640 he went into orders,
quitted the University, and became Chaplain, first to Sir Richard Darby, and
afterwards to Lady Vere. Next year he was chosen one of the Secretaries to
the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster. In the year 1642, a chaplain of Sir
William Waller, one evening at supper, at Lady Vere's, in London, showed
Dr. Wallis an intercepted letter, in cipher, and asked him if he could make
any thing of it? Dr. Wallis said, perhaps he might if it was only a new alpha-
bet. He took it with him, and in two hours deciphered it, and sent the
chaplain a copy of it next morning. This was his first attempt at deciphering,
in which afterwards he became so skilful and so famous.†
In 1645 he married Susanna, daughter of John and Rachael Glyde, of Nor-
tham, in Sussex; and soon after settled in London, at a time when philoso
phical studies of all kinds were greatly impeded by the civil wars. In 1649 he
was appointed Savillian Professor of Geometry, in Oxford, and Keeper of the
Archives, in that city; situations which he held till his death. On the resto-
ration, he was appointed one of the Chaplains to his Majesty; King Charles II.
having a great respect for him, on account of various services which he had
done to his father and to himself. He died in 1703, on the 28th of October,
being eighty-seven years three months and five days old. His memory was
prodigious. He informs us himself that he extracted the square root of 3, while
in bed in the night, and found it 1.73205,08075,68877,29353. At the request
of a foreigner he took another number, consisting of 53 places of figures, and
in the dark of the night extracted its root to 27 places, by the usual process.
Both of these numbers he retained in his mind, till he afterwards wrote them
down by day-light.‡
Dr. Wallis was the author of a great many books, not only on mathematics,
but divinity, and other subjects. His English Grammar, and his Treatise on
* Wallis's account of his own life. Langtoft's Chronicle, Vol. I. p. 146.
Ibid. p. 158.
+
Fhil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV. p. 1269.
BOOK II.]
973
MATHEMATICS.
C
1 1 1
I
1
2
His arithmetic
the Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb to speak, deserve particular
attention. His dispute with Hobbes, and his refutation of the absurd geome-
trical opinions of that paradoxical man, excited much attention at the time, but
have now lost their interest, because the reputation of Hobbes has long since
vanished. His mathematical works were published in three large volumes,
during his own lifetime. The most important of them all is his Arithmetic of the
of
Infinites; which contains, not only a rich harvest of important discoveries, but
constituted the germ from which almost all the discoveries of the age originated.
He first expressed the denominators of fractions by negative exponents, guided
by this analogy; in the progression æ³, x², x', æº,
in which the
terms are in geometrical progression, the exponents, till the fractions com-
mence, are obviously in arithmetical progression 3, 2, 1, 0. This progression
ought to continue, and therefore is the same thing as a¹; the same as a²,
and so on. Hence he wrote the progression this way, x³, x², x¹, xº, x¯', x¯², x˜³.
This happy thought gave him the quadrature of all spaces, both plane and solid,
whose elements are reciprocally as some power of the abscisse. The equation
of all hyperbolas, for example, is y = = 1/1 or y=m. But it was demonstrated
that in all curves, whose equation was y = rm, the area of the curve is to the
parallelogram of the same base and height, as 1:m+1; therefore, in hyper-
bolas, this ratio must be 1m+1. Suppose mas it is in one species
of hyperbola, then — m + 1 = 1, and we have the ratio of it to the parallelo.
gram of the same base and height 1:4. In the ordinary hyperbola the ratio is
1: − 1 + 1, or 1: 0, indicating that the asymptotic spaces of the ordinary
hyperbola are infinite. Wallis drew from this view of the subject a very
ingenious mode of obtaining an expression for the quadrature of the circle. He
observed, that we possessed the absolute quadrature of all the figures whose
ordinates are expressed by (1 - x²)°, (1 − x²)¹, (1 — 2²)², (1 − x²)³, &c.
But the first of these, according to the rules of the arithmetic of infinites, is the
equation of a figure equal to unity, or to the parallelogram circumscribed; the
second is of it; the third,; the fourth,; supposing = 1. Thus we
have a series of terms 1, 4, 5, 1, &c., each of which expresses the relation
to the circumscribed parallelogram of the figure, whose ordinate is expressed by
(1 − x²)°, (1 — ‚悲)', (1 — a²)², (1 — a²)³, &c. But the exponents of this
last series, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., are in arithmetical progression. Hence, if we
wished to introduce a new term between each of the old, it is obvious that the
term which would come between (1-2) and (1-2) would be (1-2).
But this is the expression for the ordinate of the circle. Hence we would have
the quadrature of the circle, if in the series 1, +, +5, 105, &c., it were possible
to interpolate a term between 1 and . This, however, is a difficult task, and
4 8
ΤΟ
a
2 N
974
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Continued
fractions.
Wallis investigated it with much genius and address. Not being able to find it
in finite terms, he expressed it by the infinite fraction
2 x 4 x 4 × 6 × 6 × 8 × 8, &c.
3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 x 9, &c.
These are but a small number of the important discoveries which Wallis
made by the application of his method. He determined the various properties
of the cycloid, the cyssoid, the conchoid, the parabola, the spiral, &c. &c.
His method gave occasion also to the first rectification of a curve which was
done by Mr. William Neil; and Wallis demonstrated that the curve which he
rectified was the semicubic parabola.* It gave occasion also to the discovery of
continued fractions. Being dissatisfied with the expression which he had found
for the quadrature of the circle, he wrote to Lord Brouncker, requesting him to
turn his thoughts to the subject. His Lordship did so, and ascertained that if
the square be 1 the circle is equal to +1
1
2+9
2 +25
Mercator.
1
2 + 49
2 + &c.
prolonged to infinity; and if we stop short at any place, the limits are alter-
nately too large and too small. The nature and properties of continued frac-
tions were afterwards investigated by Huygens, and in our own times the theory
of them has been completed by La Grange. It is to the arithmetic of infinites
of Wallis, likewise, that we owe the celebrated discovery of Mercator respecting
the hyperbola. Mercator was born in Holstein, and came over to England
about the year 1660, and continued to reside in London till his death. His
proper name was Kauffman, which he translated into Latin, as was customary in
these times. Wallis had shown that the expression for the ordinate of the
hyperbola, taking the origin of the abscisse upon the asymptote at a certain
distance from the centre, was 2+z; but this expression did not come within
his rules, and he had attempted in vain to bring it under them. The inge-
nious idea of "dividing the numerator of this fraction by its denominator
occurred to Mercator, and he obtained in consequence this infinite series
1 − x + x² — 3+, &c., the well known series for the hyperbola. Mer-
cator published this discovery in his Logaritimotechnia, printed in the year
1668. He gave his work that title because he employs his series in the con-
struction of logarithms, which depend, as every body knows, on the qua-
drature of the hyperbolic area between its asymptotes. Lord Brouncker
had previously discovered a very simple series for the hyperbola; namely,
12 + 3 4 + 56 + 7-8 &c. to infinity. This discovery was made before the
year 1657, but was not published till 1668.†
1
1
1
7.8'
* Phil. Trans. 1673. Vol. VIII. p. 6146.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. II. p. 645.
Book II.J
275
MATHEMATICS.
VIII. The next improvement which we have to mention is the method of
tangents of Dr. Barrow, which approaches very nearly to the fluctionary cal-
culus. Isaac Barrow was born, in London in 1630, and was sent for two or Barrow.
three years to the Charterhouse School, and afterwards to Felstead School, in
Essex, where his progress was so conspicuous, that his master appointed him
tutor to the son of Lord Viscount Fairfax, at that time at the school. When
14 years of age he was admitted a Pensioner of Peterhouse, in Cambridge,
under his uncle Mr. Isaac Barrow, then Fellow of that College. When he
was qualified for the university, he was entered a pensioner in Trinity College,
the 5th February, 1645. In 1647, he was chosen a scholar of the house, and
though he was always a staunch loyalist, yet his merit and his prudence were so
great, that he preserved the respect and good opinion of his superiors. He
turned his attention to all parts of learning, especially to natural philosophy,
and studied the writings of Galileo and Lord Bacon, as infinitely superior to
the trifling studies of the schools. In 1648, he was chosen Fellow of his Col-
lege entirely from his superior merit, for he had no friends to recommend him,
and the times were very unfavourable to men of his opinions. This induced
him to turn his thoughts to medicine, and he made some progress in anatomy,
botany, and medicine; but afterwards he was prevailed upon by the advice of
his uncle to resume his theological studies. These studies turned his attention
to chronology, which he soon found so intimately connected with astronomy,
that he thought it necessary to make himself acquainted with the principles of
that science. Astronomy was so dependent upon geometry that he was natu-
rally led to turn his attention to the mathematics, and be perused Euclid, and
made great progress in that delightful science. In 1652, he stood candidate or
the Greek Professorship which had been held by Dr. Duport; but his principles
being known to be favourable to monarchy, another was preferred. This in-
duced him to leave England: he went to France, then to Italy, then to Smyrna,
and thence to Constantinople. In 1659, he returned, through Germany and
Holland, to his own country. After the restoration, being neglected by
Charles II. he expressed his sense of the neglect in the following lines:
Te magis optârat rediturum, Carole, nemo.
Te reducem sensit, Carole, nemo minus.
His merit however was such that he could not long remain without prefer-
ment. In July 1662, he was elected Professor of Geometry at Gresham Col-
lege; and in 1663, when Mr. Lucas founded his Mathematical Professorship at
Cambridge, Dr. Barrow was so powerfully recommended by Dr. Wilkins, that
he was chosen the first Professor. In 1669, he resigned his chair to Sir Isaac
Newton, and resolved to dedicate the rest of his life to theology. In 1672, he
2 N2
276
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
tangents.
was appointed Master of Trinity College by a royal mandate, and Charles II.
declared that he had given the place to the best scholar in England. In 1675,
he was chosen Vice-chancellor of the University. He died of a fever in 1677,
when only 47 years of age. He was a man of an athletic size, but remarkable
for the mildness of his disposition. One day, while living at the house of a
friend, he went out into the garden, and was attacked by the dog, a large mas-
tiff, placed on purpose to guard the house. After some struggling, he got the
dog under him, and held him fast. At first he thought of strangling the ani-
mal; but, considering that the dog was only discharging his duty, he relented,
and thought it better to hold the animal fast till the family rose and came to his
assistance. His sermons are perhaps the best in point of matter in the English
language, though having been written before the metaphysical part of our
language acquired that precision which it possesses at present, it is not always
easy to understand them. Charles II. used to call him his unfair preacher, b-
cause when he discussed a subject he left nothing to his successors to do. He
had a great predilection for poetry, and has left us a variety of poems, chiefly in
Latin.
But it is to his geometrical writings that he is chiefly indebted for his cele-
brity. He was so fond of the science that he inscribed at the beginning of his
edition of Apollonius; ES YEQUETPEI, tu autem, Domine, quantus es geometra.
When his death approached, he is said to have expressed his joy, and con-
gratulated himself, that he was at length going to learn, in the bosom of the
Divinity, the solution of a great many intricate problems of geometry and astro-
nomy. His Lectiones Geometrica contain a great number of important re-
searches relating to the dimensions and properties of curve surfaces. But we
His method of shall at present notice only his method of tangents, and explain it as far as that
can be done without a figure. This method is only that of Fermat simplified
and generalized. He conceives the ordinate and the abscissa of the curve to
receive cach an infinitely small increment. These increments, together with
the small portion of the curve intercepted between them, form an infinitesimal
triangle, similar to the triangle formed by the ordinate, subtangent, and the tan-
gent of the curve. From the equation of the curve he finds the relation be-
tween these two increments, and then says, as the increment of the ordinate is
to the increment of the abscissa, so is the ordinate to the subtangent, which
solves the problem. To give an example, the equation of the common para-
bola is y = pv. Let the increment of a the abscissa be e, and that of y
the ordinate a. When these increments take place, the equation becomes
y² + Qay + a² = px + pe. From this equation take away from each side
y' and pa which are equal by the original equation, there remains 2ay + a² = pe.
But as a is a quantity infinitely small, a' may be thrown away. There remains
then 2ay = pe which gives us this proportion, a: e :: p: 2y, or ae :: p: 2√ pr
BOOK II.]
277
MATHEMATICS.
P
Hence we have p: 2√ pr :: √ px (the ordinate): the subtangent, which gives
2 √ px X √ px
us the subtangent
= 2.r. So that in the parabola the subtangent
is equal to twice the abscissa, as is well known to be the case. Every person must
sce the remarkable similarity between this method and the fluctionary calculus.
IX. We now come to the fluctionary calculus, the greatest improvement
hitherto introduced into mathematics; an improvement of such magnitude, that
the most arduous investigations of former mathematicians are performed by
means of it with such facility that they resemble the amusements of children.
For this admirable invention we are indebted to the genius of Sir Isaac Newton,
a man by the universal consent of all his successors, and of almost all his con-
temporaries, placed at the head of mathematics and of science; and allowed to
be the most splendid genius that has yet adorned human nature. On that ac-
count, and on account of the disputes between him and Leibnitz, about the
discovery of the differential calculus, we think it proper to enter into a more
minute detail of the particulars of Newton's life, than was requisite with re-
spect to those mathematicians of whom we have already spoken.*
Sir Isaac Newton was born on Christmas-day old style, 1642,† at Wools- Newton,
thorpe, in the parish of Colsterworth, in the county of Lincoln, near three
months after the death of his father, who was descended from the eldest branch
of the family of Sir John Newton, Bart. and was Lord of the Manor of
Woolsthorpe. The family came originally from Newtown, in the county of
Lancaster, from which probably they took their name. His mother was Hannah
Ayscough, of an ancient and honourable family in the county of Lincoln. She
was married a second time to the Rev. Barnabas Smith, Rector of North
Witham, and had by him a son and two daughters, from whom were descended
the four nephews and nieces, who inherited Sir Isaac's personal estate. Sir
Isaac went to two little day schools at Skillington and Stoke, till he was 12
years old, when he was sent to the great school at Grantham, under Mr
Stokes, who had the character of being a very good schoolmaster. While at
* The first life of Newton that appeared was drawn up by Fontenelle from materials furnished by
Newton's nephew, and published in the Memoires of the French Academy. This is the life from
which all succeeding biographers of Newton extracted their materials. But like almost all the
Eloges, published in the Memoires of the Academy, it is very inaccurate, and intended rather to
display the abilities, and answer the private views of Fontenelle, than to convey accurate inforına-
tion to the readers. Mr. Edmund Turnor has lately favoured the world with the original life of
Newton, drawn up by Mr. Conduitt, Newton's nephew, for the information of Fontenelle, and with
a most interesting letter of Dr. Stukely on the same subject, from the MSS. in possession of the
Earl of Portsmouth. See Turnor's Collections for the Town and Soke of Grantham, published in
1806. From these papers we have taken our account.
+ When born he was so little, that his mother used to say that he might have been put into a quart
mug, and so unlikely to live, that two women, who were sent to Lady Pakenham's, at North Witham,
for something for him, did not expect to find him alive at their return.
4
278
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Пis mechani-
cal inventions
when a boy.
Grantham, he boarded in the house of Mr. Clark, an apothecary, whose brother
was at that time usher of the school.
Here he soon gave proofs of a surprising genius, and astonished his acquaint-
ances by his mechanical contrivances. Instead of playing among other boys, he
always busied himself in making curiosities, and models of wood of different kinds.
For this purpose he had got little saws, hatchets, hammers, and all sorts of tools,
which he knew how to use with great dexterity. He even went so far as to make a
wooden clock. A new windmill was set up about this time near Grantham in
the way to Gunnerby. Young Newton's imitating genius was excited, and by
frequently prying into the fabric of it, as they were making it, he contrived to
make a very perfect model, which was considered at least equal to the work-
manship of the original. This sometimes he set upon the house-top where he
lodged, and clothing it with sails the wind readily turned it. He put a mouse
into this machine which he called his miller, and he contrived matters so that
the mouse would turn round the mill whenever he thought proper. He used
to joke too about the miller eating the corn that was put into the mill. Another
of his contrivances was a water clock, which he made out of a box that he
begged from the brother of his landlord's wife. It was about four feet in
height, and of a proportional breadth. There was a dial plate at top with
figures for the hours. The index was turned by a piece of wood which either
fell or rose by water dropping. This stood in the room where he lay, and he
took care every morning to supply it with its proper quantity of water.
*
These fancies sometimes engrossed so much of his thoughts, that he was apt
to neglect his book, and dull boys were now and then put over him in his form.
But this made him redouble his pains to overtake them, and such was his capa-
city that he could soon do it, and outstrip them when he pleased; and this was
taken notice of by his master. Still nothing could induce him to lay aside his
mechanical inventions; but during holidays, and every moment allotted to play,
he employed himself in knocking and hammering in his lodging room, pursuing
the strong bent of his inclination, not only in things serious but likewise in
ludicrous contrivances, calculated to please his school-fellows as well as him-
He
self. As for example, paper kites, which he first introduced at Grantham.
took pains to find out their proper proportion and figures, and the proper place
for fixing the string to them. He made lanterns of paper crimpled, which he
used to go to school by in winter mornings with a candle, and he tied them to
the tails of his kites in a dark night, which at first frightened the country peo-
ple exceedingly, who took his candles for comets. He was no less diligent in
* Sir Isaac used to relate that he was very negligent at school and very low in it, till the boy above
him gave him a kick on the belly, which put him to great pain. Not content with having thrashed his
adversary, Sir Isaac could not rest till he had got before him in the school, and from that time he
continued rising till he was the head boy.
3
BOOK II.]
279
MATHEMATICS.
observing the motion of the sun, especially in the yard of the house where he
lived, against the wall and roof wherein he drove pegs, to mark the hours and
half hours made by the shade. These, by some years' observation, he made
very exact, so that any body knew what o'clock it was by Isaac's dial, as they
usually called it.
His turn for drawing, which he acquired without any assistance, was equally
remarkable with his mechanical inventions. He filled his whole room with
pictures of his own making; copied partly from prints, and partly from the life.
Among others, were portraits of several of the kings, of Dr. Donne, and of Mr.
Stokes, his school-master.*
Mrs. Vincent was niece to the wife of Sir Isaac's landlord, at Grantham,
and lived with him in the same house. According to her account, he very
seldom joined with his school-fellows in their boyish amusements, but chose
rather to be at home, even among the girls, and would frequently make little
tables, cup-boards, and other utensils, for her and her play-fellows to set their
babies and trinkets in. She mentioned, likewise, a cart which he made with
four wheels, in which he would sit, and by turning a windlass about, make it
carry him round the house wherever he pleased. He is said to have contracted
an attachment to Mrs. Vincent, whose maiden name was Storey, and would
have married her, but being himself a Fellow of a College, with hardly any
other income, and she having little or no fortune of her own, he judged it im-
prudent to enter into any matrimonial connection. But he continued to visit
her as long as he lived, after her marriage, and repeatedly supplied her with
money when she wanted it.
During all this time the mother of Sir Isaac lived at North Witham, with
her second husband; but, upon his death, she returned to Woolsthorp, and, in
order to save expences as much as she could, she recalled her son from school,
* He informed his nephew, Mr. Conduitt, that he had a facility in making verses. This is the
more remarkable, as he had been heard to express a contempt for poetry. Hence it is probable,
that the following lines, which he wrote under the portrait of Charles I., were of his own compo..
sition. They were given by Dr. Stukely, from Mrs. Vincent, who repeated them from memory.
A secret art my soul requires to try,
If prayers can give me what the wars deny..
Three crowns distinguished here in order do
Present their objects to my knowing view.
Earth's crown, thus at my feet, I can disdain,
Which heavy is, and, at the best, but vain,
But now a crown of thorns I gladly greet:
Sharp is this crown, but not so sharp as sweet..
The crown of glory that I yonder see,
Is full of bliss and of eternity.
If Newton wrote these lines, it must be remembered that they were written when he was only
a boy at school.
·
980
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of his farm.
Takes charge in order to make him serviceable at Woolsthorp, in managing the farm and
country business. Here he was employed in superintending the tillage, grazing,
and harvest; and he was frequently sent on Saturdays to Grantham market,
with corn and other commoditics to sell, and to carry home what necessaries
were proper to be bought at a market-town for a family; but, on account of
his youth, his mother used to send a trusty old servant along with him, to put
him in the way of business.
of business. Their inn was at the Saracen's Head, in Westgate,
where, as soon as they had put up their horses, Isaac generally left the man to
manage the marketing, and, retiring to Mr. Clarke's garret, where he used to
lodge, entertained himself with a parcel of old books, till it was time to go
home again; or else he would stop by the way, between home and Grantham,
and lie under a bedge studying, till the man went to town and did the business,
and called upon him on his way back.
back. When at home, if his mother ordered
him into the fields to look after the sheep, the corn, or upon any other rural
employment, it went on very heavily under his management. His chief delight
was to sit under a tree with a book in his hands, or to busy himself with his
knife in cutting wood for models of somewhat or other that struck his fancy;
or he would get to a stream and make mill-wheels.*
Goes to Cam-
bridge.
This conduct of her son induced his mother to send him to Grantham school
again for nine months; and then to Trinity College, in Cambridge, where he
was admitted the fifth of June, 1660. He always informed himself, before
hand, of the books which his tutor intended to read, and when he came to the
lectures, he found he knew more of them than his tutor himself. The first
books which he read for that purpose, were Saunderson's Logic, and Kepler's
Optics. A desire to know whether there was any thing in judicial astrology,
first put him upon studying mathematics. He discovered the emptiness of that
study as soon as he erected a figure; for which purpose he made use of two or
three problems in Euclid, which he turned to by means of an index. He did
not then read the rest, looking upon it as a book containing only plain and
obvious things. This neglect of the ancient mathematicians, we are told by
Dr. Pemberton, he afterwards regretted. The modern books which he read
gave
his mind, he conceived, a wrong bias, vitiated his taste, and prevented
him from attaining that elegance of demonstration which he admired in the
ancients. The first mathematical book that he read was Descartes' Geometry;
and he made himself master of it by dint of genius and application, without
going through the usual steps, or having the assistance of any person.
Ilis
next book was the Arithmetic of Infinites, by Dr. Wallis. On these books he
wrote comments as he read them, and reaped a rich harvest of discoveries, or,
* The preceding details were collected upon the spot, by Dr. Stukely, from Sir Isaac's school-
fellows, and the companions of his boyhood.
Book. II.]
281
MATHEMATICS.
more properly, indeed, made almost all his mathematical discoveries as he pro-
ceeded in their perusal.
In 1664 he bought a prism, as appears by some of his own accounts of ex-
penses at Cambridge, to try some experiments upon Descartes's doctrine of
colours, and soon satisfied himself that the hypothesis of Descartes was destitute
of foundation. The further prosecution of the subject satisfied him respecting
the real nature of light and colours. He soon after drew up an account of his
doctrine, which was published in the Philosophical Transactions, and unfortu-
nately gave origin to a controversy between him and some foreign opticians,
which produced an unhappy effect upon his mind, and prevented him from
publishing his mathematical discoveries, as he had originally intended. He com-
municated them, however, to Dr. Barrow, who sent an account of them to
Collins and Oldenburg, and by that means they came to be known to the Mem-
bers of the Royal Society.
He laid the foundation of all his discoveries before he was 24 years of age. Discovery re-
In the year 1665, when he retired to his own estate on account of the plague, tatiou.
specting gravi
the idea of his system of gravitation first occurred to him, in consequence of
seeing an apple fall from a tree. This remarkable apple-tree is still remaining,
and is usually shown to strangers as a curiosity. At that time, not being in
possession of any accurate measure of the earth's surface, he estimated the force
of gravity erroneously, and found, in consequence, that it was not capable
alone of retaining the moon in her orbit. This induced him to dismiss his
hypothesis, at that time, as erroneous. But afterwards, when Picard had
measured a degree of the earth's surface, with tolerable accuracy, he was ena-
bled to make a more precise estimate, and found that the force of gravity
exactly accounted for the moon's motion in her orbit. He applied his doctrine
to the planets and the whole solar system, and found it to account, in a satis-
factory manner, for the whole phenomena of the motions of these bodies.
In 1667 he was elected Fellow of Trinity College, in Cambridge; and, in Made Prə-
1669, Dr. Barrow resigned his Mathematical Professorship to him. In 1671 fessor.
he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. It is stated, I do not know upon.
what authority, that at this time he was so poor that he was obliged to apply
to the Society for a dispensation from the usual contribution of a shilling a
week, which all the Fellows of the Society regularly pay. His estates (for he
had two) were worth about 807. a year. I do not know the value of his Fellow-
ship, nor of his Professorship, but both together could not be less, surely, than
1001. a year; so that his income, at that time, could not well be less than 2001.
a year. Upon this, indeed, he had his mother and her family to support;
but if we consider the expence of living in 1671, we can hardly pronouce Mr.
Newton, at that time, a poor man. In 1675 he had a dispensation from King
Charles II. for retaining his Fellowship without taking orders. In 1687 he
20
282
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
So
was chosen one of the Delegates to represent the University of Cambridge, be-
fore the High Commission Court, to answer for their refusing to admit Father
Francis Master of Arts, upon the King's mandamus, without his taking the
oaths prescribed by the statutes. He was a great instrument in persuading his
colleagues to persist in the maintenance of their rights and privileges.
strenuous, indeed, was the defence which he made, that the Crown thought
proper to drop its pretensions. In 1688 he was chosen by the University of
Cambridge, Member of the Convention Parliament, and sat in it till its disso-
lution. He was chosen Member of Parliament also for the same University in
1701. In 1696 the Earl of Halifax, at that time Mr. Montague, and Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, who was a great patron of the learned, wrote him a
letter to Cambridge, acquainting him that he had prevailed with the King to
Made Warden make him Warden of the Mint." In this post he did signal service in the great
re-coinage, which took place soon after. In 1699 he was made Master
and Worker of the Mint; in which situation he continued till his death, and
behaved himself with an universal character of integrity and disinterestedness.
He had frequent opportunities of employing his skill in mathematics and
chemistry, particularly in his Table of Assays of Foreign Coins, which is
printed at the end of Dr. Arbuthnot's Book of Coins.
of the Mint.
*
In 1701 he made Mr. Whiston his Deputy Professor of Mathematics at
Cambridge, and gave him all the salary from that time, though he did not
absolutely resign the Professorship till 1703. In the year 1703 he was chosen
President of the Royal Society, and continued to fill that honourable situation
till the time of his death. In 1705 he was knighted by Queen Anne, at Cam-
bridge.
At the University of Cambridge, he spent the greatest part of his time in his
closet, and when he was tired with the severer studies of philosophy, his relief
and amusement was going to some other study, as history, chronology, divinity,
chemistry; all of which he examined with the greatest attention, as appears by
the many papers which he left behind him on those subjects. After his coming
to London, all the time that he had to spare from his business, and from the
*The letter was as follows:
SIR,
I AM very glad that at last I can give you a good proof of my friendship, and the
esteem the King has of your merits. Mr. Overton, the Warden of the Mint, is made one of the
Commissioners of the Customs, and the King has promised me to make Mr. Newton Warden of the
Mint. The office is the most proper for you; 'tis the chief office in the Mint, 'tis worth five or six
hundred pounds per annuin, and has not too much business to require more attendance than you
may spare. I desire that you will come up as soon as you can, and will take care of your warrant in
the mean time. Let me see you as soon as you come to town, that I may carry you to kiss the
King's hand. I believe you may have a lodging near me.
I am,
&c.
CHARLES Montague.
BOOK II.]
283
MATHEMATICS.
in London,
civilities of life, in which he was scrupulously exact and complaisant, was em-
ployed in the same way; and he was hardly ever alone without a pen in his
hand, and a book before him: and in all the studies which he undertook, he
had a perseverance and patience equal to his sagacity and invention. His
niece, afterwards married to Mr. Conduitt, who succeeded him as Master of
the Mint, lived with him about twenty years, during his residence in London.
He always lived in a very handsome, generous manner, though without osten- Mode of living
tation or vanity; always hospitable, and, upon proper occasions, he gave
splendid entertainments. He was generous and charitable without bounds; and
he used to say, that they who gave away nothing till they died, never gave.
This, perhaps, was one reason why he never made a will. Scarcely any man of
his circumstances ever gave away so much, during his own life time, in alms,
in encouraging ingenuity and learning, and to his relations: nor, upon all
occasions, showed a greater contempt of his own money, or a more scrupulous
frugality of that which belonged to the public, or to any society he was entrusted
for. He refused pensions and additional employments that were offered him;
he was highly honoured and respected in all reigns, and under all administra-
tions, even by those whom he opposed; for in every situation he showed an
inflexible attachment to the cause of liberty, and to the constitution of Great
Britain. George the Second, and Queen Caroline, showed him particular marks
of their favour and esteem, and often conversed with him for hours together.
Queen Caroline in particular, who was so great a patroness of learned men.
used to take delight in his company, and was accustomed to congratulate her-
self that she lived in the same country, and at the same time, with so illustrious
a person.
Notwithstanding the extraordinary honours that were paid him, he had
humble an opinion of himself, that he had no relish for the applause which he
received. He was so little vain and desirous of glory from any of his works,
that he would have let others run away with the glory of those inventions which
have done so much honour to human nature, if his friends and countrymen had
not been more jealous than he was of his own glory, and the honour of his
country. He was exceedingly courteous and affable, even to the lowest, and
never despised any man for want of capacity; but always expressed freely his
resentment against any immorality or impiety. He not only showed a great
and constant regard to religion in general, as well by an exemplary life as in all
his writings, but was also a firm believer of revealed religion; as appears by the
many papers which he left behind him on the subject.* But his notion of the
* I have heard it affirmed by some of the self-constituted philosophers of the present day, that
Sir Isaac Newton believed the Christian Religion merely because he was born in a Christian country;
that he never examined it; and that he left behind him a cart load of papers on religious subjects,
which Dr. Horsley examined, and declared unfit for publication. These gentlemen do not perceive
202
234
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
His death,
Christian Religion was not founded on a narrow bottom, nor his charity and
morality so scanty, as to show a coldness to those who thought otherwise than
he did in matters indifferent: much less to admit of persecution, of which he
always expressed the strongest abhorrence and detestation. He had such a
mildness of temper that a melancholy story would often draw tears from him,
and he was exceedingly shocked at any act of cruelty to man or beast; mercy
to both being the topic that he loved to dwell upon. An innate modesty and
simplicity showed itself in all his actions and expressions. His whole life was
one continued series of labour, patience, charity, generosity, temperance,
piety, goodness, and all other virtues, without a mixture of any known vice
whotsoever.
He was blessed with a very happy and vigorous constitution: he was of a
middle stature, and rather plump in his latter years: he had a very lively and
piercing eye, a comely and gracious aspect, and a fine head of hair, as white
as silver, without any baldness. To the time of his last illness he had the
bloom and colour of a young man. He never wore spectacles, nor lost more
than one tooth till the day of his death. About five years before his death, he
was troubled with an incontinence of urine, and sometimes with a stillicidium;
both of which continued to afflict him, more or less, according to the motion
to which he was exposed. On this account he sold his chariot, and went
always in a chair; and he gave up dining abroad, or with much company at
home. He eat little flesh, and lived chiefly upon broth, vegetables, and fruit,
of which he always eat heartily. In August, 1724, he voided, without any
pain, a stone, about the size of a pea, which came away in two pieces; one
some days after the other. In January, 1725, he had a violent cough and
inflammation of the lungs, upon which, he was persuaded with considerable
difficulty to take a house in Kensington, where he had, in his 84th year, a
fit of the gout, for the second time, having had a slight attack of it some
years before. This fit left him in better health than he had enjoyed for several
years. In the winter of 1725, he wanted to resign his situation of Master of
the Mint to his nephew, Mr. Conduitt: that gentleman would not permit his
resignation, but offered to conduct the whole business in his place; and, for
about a year before his death Sir Isaac hardly ever went to the Mint, trusting
entirely to the management of his nephew.
On Tuesday, the last day of February, 1727, he went to town, in order to
attend a meeting of the Royal Society. Next day Mr. Conduitt paid him a
that their assertions are inconsistent with each other. No body who has ever read a page of New-
ton's works would believe that he could write a cart-load of papers on a subject which he never
examined. Newton's religious opinions were not orthodox; for example, he did not believe in the
Trinity. This gives us the reason why Horsley, the champion of the Trinity, found Newton's
papers unfit for publication. But it is much to be regretted that they have never seen the light.
Book II.J
285
MATHEMATICS.
visit, and found him apparently in better health than he had enjoyed for
several years. Sir Isaac was sensible of it himself, and told his nephew, smiling,
that he had slept the Sunday before from eleven at night till eight in the morn-
ing, without waking. But his fatigue in attending the Society, and in making
and receiving visits, brought his old complaint violently upon him. Dr.
Mead and Mr. Cheselden were carried out to Kensington to see him, by Mr.
Conduitt. They immediately said, that his disease was the stone in the bladder;
and gave no hopes of his recovery. The stone was probably removed from the
place where it lay quiet, by the great motion and fatigue of his last journey to
London. From this time he had violent fits of pain, with scarcely any inter-
mission; and though the drops of sweat ran down his face with anguish, he
never complained, nor cried out, nor showed the least sign of peevishness or
impatience and, during the short intervals from that violent torture, would
smile and talk with his usual cheerfulness. On Wednesday, the 15th March,
he was somewhat better, and fallacious hopes were entertained of his recovery.
On Saturday, the 18th March, he read the newspapers, and held a pretty long
conversation with Dr. Mead, and had all his senses perfect. But that evening
at six, and all Sunday, he was insensible, and died on Monday, between one
and two o'clock in the morning. Thus, he reached the age of eighty-four
years and a few months, and retained all his senses and faculties to the end of
his life, strong, vigorous, and lively; and he continued writing and studying
many hours every day till the period of his last illness. He died worth 32,000l.
of personal estate; which was divided between his four nephews and nieces of
half blood. The land which he had of his father and mother descended to his.
heir of the whole blood, John Newton, whose great grandfather was Sir Isaac's
uncle. A little before his death he gave away an estate, which he had in
Berkshire, to the sons and daughters of Mrs. Conduitt's brother; and an estate-
at Kensington to Mrs. Conduitt's daughter. From this lady the present Earl
of Portsmouth is descended.
Sir Isaac Newton was buried with great magnificence, at the public expence. His funeral,
On the 28th of March, he lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber, and was
buried from thence in Westminster Abbey, near the entry into the choir. The
spot is one of the most conspicuous in the Abbey, and had been previously
refused to different noblemen, who had applied for it. The pall was supported
by the Lord High Chancellor, the Dukes of Montrose and Roxborough, and
the Earls of Pembroke, Sussex, and Macclesfield, being Fellows of the Royal
Society. The Hon. Sir Michael Newton, Knight of the Bath, was chief
mourner, and was followed by some other relations, and some eminent persons
intimately acquainted with Sir Isaac. The olice was performed by the Bishop
of Rochester, attended by the Prebend and Choir. A magnificent monument:
was erected to his memory, with the following inscription:
A
286
[BOOK II,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
cal discoveries.
H. S. E.
ISAACUS NEWTON, EQUES AURATUS,
QUI ANIMI VI PROPE DIVINA
PLANETARUM MOTUS, FIGURAS,
COMETARUM SEMITAS OCEANIQUE ESTUS,
SUA MATHESI FACEM PRÆFERENTE,
PRIMUS DEMONSTRAVIT,
RADIORUM LUCIS DISSIMILITUDINES,
COLORUMQUE INDE NASCENTIUM PROPRIETATES,
QUAS NEMO ANTEA VEL SUSPICATUS ERAT, PERVESTIGAVIT,
NATURÆ, ANTIQUITATIS, S. SCRIPTURÆ,
SEDULUS, SAGAX, FIDUS INTERPRES,
DEI OPT. MAX. MAJESTATEM PHILOSOPHIA Asseruit,
EVANGELII SIMPLICITATEM MORIBUS EXPRESSIT.
SIBI GRATULENTUR MORTALES, TALE TANTUMQUE EXTITISSE
HUMANI GENERIS DECUS.
NATUS XXV. DECEMB. MDCXLII. OBIIT XX. MART.
MDCCXXVI.
His mathemati- The mathematical discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton were so numerous and so
important, that it is no easy task to give an idea of them. As his geometrical
studies were conducted, in a great measure, without a master; and as the first
books, to which he paid particular attention, were the Geometry of Descartes,
and the Arithmetic of Infinites of Dr. Wallis, he never possessed any intimate
acquaintance with the methods of the ancient mathematicians; a circumstance
which, as we are informed by Dr. Pemberton, he afterwards regretted; but
which, probably, contributed to render his invention so fertile and so happy.
He made a great many discoveries while perusing the two works above-men-
tioned; and we have complete evidence that he was in possession of all his
inventions before the age of 24. A complete collection of his works was pub-
lished in 1779, by Dr. Horsley, in five quarto volumes, accompanied by a
commentary, which, however, is any thing but complete. It is to be regretted
that the mathematical world is yet destitute of a good commentary on the works
of this consummate mathematician. Some of his books, indeed, have been
fully commented on. Thus the Jesuits' copy of the Principia, if it has any
fault, abounds too much with notes; and Stirling's Commentary on Newton's
Treatise respecting Lines of the Third Order, is excellent. We have also a
very elaborate Commentary on his Universal Arithmetic; and, perhaps his
Optics stands in need of no other commentary than the few optical discoveries
which have been made since he wrote, and which enable us to rectify one or
two of his opinions on that difficult subject.
Newton communicated many of his original discoveries to Dr. Barrow, at
that time Professor of Mathematics, at Cambridge; and by him they were
made known to various other British mathematicians. He likewise entered into
8
Book II.]
287
MATHEMATICS.
a correspondence with Collins and Oldenburg, and by them was induced to
write several long letters to Mr. Leibnitz, in which he gave an historical detail
All
of the way that he was led to some of his most considerable discoveries.
these letters were afterwards published in the Commercium Epistolicum. The
correspondence also between James Gregory and Collins, published in the same
book, throws considerable light upon the order and time of Newton's mathe-
matical discoveries. One of his first discoveries struck him while perusing
Wallis's Arithmetic of Infinites, about the year 1663. Wallis had shown the
method of finding the quadrature of all curves, the ordinates of which are ex-
pressed by (1-2)m, a being the abscissa, supposing m a whole number,
either positive or negative or zero; and that when m was respectively 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, &c., the areas corresponding to the abscissa r were respectively r;
x — ±x³; x — žæ³ +jx³; x — ±‹x³ +÷x³
zx³
r; &c.; and he showed, that if
x
1
a number could be interpolated between r and v r³ in the second series,
corresponding to the interpolation of in the first series between 0 and 1, that
this number would represent the quadrature of the circle. But Wallis could
not succeed in making this interpolation; it was left for one of the first steps
of Newton, in his mathematical career. Newton arranged the terms of the second
series given above, under each other in order, and examined them as follows:
Ꮖ
123
Ꮖ
÷x³ +÷x³
Ꮖ
32¹³ + 3.2³
30
1,2,3 +1.25
$27 +3.29
On considering this table, Newton observed, that the first terms are all r;
that the signs are alternately positive and negative; that the powers of x
increase by the odd numbers; that the co-efficient of the first term is 1; that
the co-efficient of all the other terms are fractions; that the denominators of
these fractions are always the indices of r, in the respective terms; that the
numerators in the second terms are the ordinary numbers; in the third terms,
the triangular numbers; in the fourth terms, the pyramidal numbers; &c.
These observations made him master of the laws that regulated the whole of the
series. Hence he concluded, that having to develope in general (1 − x²)m, the
series of numerators for the respective fractions in the different terms must be
&c., for these are the expressions which repre-
sent the natural, triangular, and pyramidal numbers. Now this will hold good
whether m be a whole number or a fraction. In the case which occasioned
the investigation, namely, (12²); m = ½, and, consequently, the nume-
rators deduced from the preceding formulas are 1, †, TT, TT, &C. These,
multiplied into the terms of the series, namely, r-
1; m;
m.m 1 M. M --- 1.m- - 2
;
1.2
1.2.3
"
x3
+
100
15
Quadrature of
x7
+
9
&c.,
& C., the ofrcle,
288
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Binomial
theorem.
Fluctionary
calculus.
x3
6
1
5
give us the following series: r — 8.5.2³-17 — 128.9ºº, &c., a series
which obviously represents the area of the circular segment, corresponding to
the abscissa r. This investigation led him likewise to the discovery of the
binomial theorem, so celebrated in algebra, and of so much importance in an
infinite number of investigations.
curves.
Newton had already made these discoveries, and many others, when the
Logarithmotechnia of Mercator was published; which contains only a parti-
cular case of the theory just explained. But, from an excess of modesty and
of diffidence, he made no attempt to publish his discoveries, expressing his
conviction, that mathematicians would discover them all before he was of an
age sufficiently mature to appear, with propriety, before the mathematical
world. But Dr. Barrow having contracted an acquaintance with him soon
after, speedily understood his value, and exhorted him not to conceal so many
treasures from men of science: he even prevailed upon him to allow him to
transmit to some of his friends in London a paper containing a summary view
of some of his discoveries. This paper was afterwards published under the title
of Analysis per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas. Besides the method
of extracting the roots of all equations, and of reducing fractional and irra-
tional expressions into infinite series, it contains the application of all these
discoveries to the quadrature, and the rectification of curves; together with
different series for the circle and hyperbola. He does not confine himself to
geometrical curves, but gives some examples of the quadrature of mechanical
He speaks of a method of tangents, of which he was in possession, in
which he was not stopped by surd quantities, and which applied equally well
to mechanical and geometrical curves. Finally, we find in this extraordinary
paper the method of fluctions and of fluents, explained and demonstrated with
sufficient clearness; from which it follows, irresistibly, that before that period
he was in possession of that admirable calculus: for the editors of this paper,
which was published in the Commercium Epistolicum, attest that it was faithfully
taken from the copy which Collins had transcribed, from the manuscript sent
by Barrow. At the request of Dr. Barrow, he drew up a full account of this
method, which was only described in the first tract with great conciseness.
This new work he entitled Methodus Flucionum, et Serierum Infinitarum.
This last book he meant to publish at the end of an English Translation of the
Algebra of Kinckuysens, which he had enriched with notes. But, in conse-
quence of the disagreeable disputes into which he had been dragged, by his
discoveries respecting the different refrangibility of the rays of light, he altered
his intention, and the treatise, to the great injury of mathematics, and ultimately,
likewise, to the diminution of his own peace, lay unpublished till after his death.
About the time that this paper of Newton's was sent to London, or about
the year 1668, James Gregory published his Exercitationes, a book which con-
Book II.]
289
MATHEMATICS.
tained several important facts connected with the discoveries which Newton had
made. In particular there is a new demonstration of Mercator's Series for the
Hyperbola. Collins communicated Newton's discoveries to various mathemati-
cians, and among others to Gregory. He first sent him Newton's Series for the
Circle, concerning the accuracy of which Gregory at first had his doubts; but
he soon discovered his mistake, and by pondering over the subject for about a
year, there appears sufficient evidence from his letters in the Commercium Epis- Discovered
tolicum, that he divined Newton's method, and consequently had the merit of gory.
discovering the fluctionary calculus at least in part. But he declined publish-
ing any thing on the subject, as he states in one of his letters, that he might
not interfere with the rights of the original inventor.
of
also by Gre-
James Gregory, having been one of the most eminent mathematicians of his James Gregory.
time, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, we must not omit this opportunity of
giving a few particulars respecting his life. He was born at Aberdeen in 1639,
and made great proficiency in classical learning; but still greater in mathema-
tics and philosophy. He invented his reflecting telescope when only 24 years
age, and came to London, in 1664, in order to get it constructed. But not
being able to find any person capable of grinding a speculum in the truly para-
bolic figure, he was obliged to lay aside his design for the present, on account
of the difficulty of putting it in execution. Next year he went to Italy, at
that time considered as the great school for mathematics and science in general;
and while in that country printed his book, entitled, Vera Circuli et Hyberbola
Quadratura, a book which raised his reputation to a great height; though
some of his positions were afterwards attacked by Huygens, and a controversy
ensued in which Mr. Gregory was considered by mathematicians as in the right.
Mr. Gregory was Professor of Mathematics in Aberdeen, and died of a fever in
1675, when only thirty-six years of age. Besides his work above-mentioned, he
published likewise a Treatise on Optics; and the Commercium Epistolicum con-
tains many egregious specimens of his analytical skill.
Newton had made all his discoveries before his future rival Leibnitz had en- Leibnitz.
tered upon his mathematical career. Godfrey William Leibnitz was born at
Leipsic on the 23d of June, old style, 1646. His father was Professor of
Ethics, and Secretary of the University of Leipsic, and dying when his son
William was very young, the care of his education devolved upon his mother,
who spared no expence to make it as complete as possible. His passion for
knowledge was excessive, and at the age of 15 he began to embrace, with in-
credible ardour, every species of learning. Poetry, history, antiquities, philo-
sophy, mathematics, jurisprudence, and law, engaged him in succession, and
with equal cagerness. His poetical career did not go far, and seems to have
terminated about the 15th year of his age. After this he studied philosophy
and mathematics at Jena and at Leipsic, till the year 1663, when he was made
? P
290
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Master of Arts. He next applied his mind with great assiduity to the study of
the Greek philosophers, and made many efforts to reconcile the opinions of
Plato and Aristotle, and those of Aristotle and Descartes. But finding his en-
deavours fruitless, he abandoned these barren pursuits for the law, in which he
made such progress that, in the year 1667, he was made Doctor of Laws by the
University of Altorf, and was offered a Professorship extraordinary in the law,
which however he declined accepting.
About this time Baron de Boinebourg, meeting him at an entertainment, was
so much pleased with his conversation, that he procured him the patronage of
the Elector of Mentz, and, in 1672, he went to Paris to manage some affairs
of that Elector. Here he became acquainted with Huygens, and with some
other Members of the Academy of Sciences, and began to turn his attention to
mathematical investigations, but his knowledge of the subject was still very im-
perfect. In 1673, he went to London, where he was introduced to Oldenburg
and Collins, and by their means was made acquainted with some of the New-
tonian discoveries. With these gentlemen he ever after kept up a correspon-
dence, and procured from them a great many important mathematical facts,
particularly different series of Newton and Gregory; and two remarkable letters
were sent him by Newton himself at the request of Mr. Collins, in which that
illustrious philosopher gives a detail of the steps by which he was led to his
various discoveries, and announces his possession of the fluctionary calculus,
though he does not give any explanation of it. From London he returned
again to France, and, in the year 1676, he came a second time to England, and
there is complete evidence that, during his residence in London, he had an op-
portunity of perusing all the different documents afterwards published in the
Commercium Epistolicum, among which there is a concise account of the fluc-
tionary method of Newton.
From London he returned to Germany by the way of Holland, having at-
tached himself to the service of the Elector of Hanover. Here he was so much
engrossed in business that he had no longer leisure to prosecute his philosophi-
cal ideas in detail; though he continued to enrich the Leipsic Acts with a great
variety of writings, partly on mathematics and partly on natural philosophy.
In the year 1700, when the Elector of Brandenburg, afterwards King of
Prussia, instituted an Academy of Sciences at Berlin, Leibnitz, whose reputa-
tion by this time had reached the highest point, was made President, and he
was continued in the office, though he could only be occasionally present at the
meetings of the Academy. In the Memoires of this Academy he published a
number of papers both on mathematical and other subjects. The same year
was admitted a Member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. His reputation
by this time was so high that honours and pensions accumulated upon him from
all quarters. He was Privy Counsellor of Justice to the Elector of Hanover,
he
BOOK II.]
291
MATHEMATICS.
Aulic Counsellor of the German Empire, and Privy Counsellor of Justice to
the Czar of Russia, with a pension of a thousand ducats a year.
In the year
1714, he came again to England to visit the Elector of Hanover, who was now
raised to the throne of Great Britain. During this last visit he engaged in the
well known controversy with Dr. Clarke, relating to the principles of natural
philosophy and religion. He died on the 14th November 1716, in conse-
quence of a violent fit of the gout, which produced, it is said, almost instant
suffocation. A complete collection of his works was published at Geneva, in
1768, by M. Dutens, in seven quarto volumes. They are upon every subject.
Metaphysics constituted a favourite subject of speculation with him his meta-
physical opinions are well known, and do no great honour either to his head or
his heart.
He was fond of controversy, and during the course of his life was engaged in
a great number of disputes. The most celebrated of all was his controversy
about the invention of the differential calculus, which is absolutely the same His differential
with the Newtonian fluctionary calculus, the notation excepted. What New- calculus,
ton expressed by i, Leibnitz expressed by dr. Had Leibnitz behaved with tole-
rable candour and moderation, such was the mildness and unassuming modesty
of Sir Isaac Newton, that he might have passed off without question as, at
least in some measure, the inventor of the differential method. But it is obvi-
ous from his letters that he had always a tendency to arrogate to himself the in-
ventions of others. He even returned to Newton some of the Newtonian series
that had been sent him, a little disguised, and claimed them as his own, till the
remonstrances of his correspondents in England induced him to renounce his
claim. He had previously had a kind of dispute with Dr. Wallis about the
invention of the fluctionary calculus, and had admitted that Newton had the
priority of invention by at least ten years. He did not begin to put in his claim
for originality of invention till Dr. Wallis was dead, and all the old mathema-
ticians who were acquainted with his correspondence with Oldenburg and
Collins.
with the Bri-
In the year 1704, the Treatise of Quadratures, by Newton, was published. His dispute
This treatise had been written long before, many things being cited out of it in tish mathema
Newton's letters of October 24, and November 8, 1676. It related to the me- ticians.
thod of fluctions, and that it might not be taken for a new piece, Newton re-
peated what Dr. Wallis had published nine years before without being contra-
dicted, namely, that this method was invented by degrees in the years 1665 and
1666. But the editors of the Acta Lipsica in their review of this book, and
the author of the review was conceived to have been Leibnitz himself, repre-
sented Leibnitz as the first inventor of the method, and said that Newton had
substituted fluctions for differences, just as Fabri, in his Geometria Synopsis, had
substituted movement for the indivisibles of Cavalleri. This accusation gave a
,
-
2P2
202
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
beginning to the controversy. For Dr. Keill, in an epistle published in the
Philosophical Transactions for September and October 1708, retorted the accu
sation, asserting that “ all these things follow from the now so much celebrated
method of fluctions, of which our Newton was doubtless the first inventor, as
will be evident to any one who shall read his letters published by Dr. Wallis.
Yet afterwards the same method was published by Mr. Leibnitz in the Acta
Eruditorum; only changing the name and manner of notation."* Leibnitz,
understanding this passage as a direct charge of plagiarism, complained of it
as a calumny in a letter to Sir Hans Sloane, the Secretary, dated March 4, 1711,
and moved that the Royal Society would cause Dr. Keill to make a public re-
cantation. Dr. Keill chose rather to explain and defend what he had written;
and though Newton was at first offended at his original paragraph, being ap-
prehensive that it might occasion a controversy, yet when he was shown the
accusation in the Acta Lipsica, he gave Keill liberty to maintain the opinions
which he had advanced. Keill wrote a long letter to Sir Hans Sloane, in which
he endeavours to demonstrate not only that Newton was the original discoverer,
but that he had given Leibnitz so many hints of his method, that even a man
of very ordinary abilities could hardly fail to make it out. This letter was sent
to Leibnitz, who demanded that the Royal Society would put a stop to the ac-
cusations of a man too young to know what had passed between Newton and
himself. Instead of making good his own accusation, as he ought to have
done, that it might not be deemed a calumny, he insisted only on his own can-
dour, and refused to tell how he came by his method. He said that the Acta
Lipsica had given every man his due; that he had concealed the invention
above nine years, that nobody might pretend to have been before him in it. He
called Dr. Keill a novice who deserved to be silenced, and desired that Newton
himself would give his opinion in the matter. Dr. Keill, in fact, had only re-
peated what Dr. Wallis had published 13 years before, and Newton had al-
ready given his opinion on the matter before the dispute began; and this opi-
nion in all probability was the cause of the controversy, by giving origin to the
severe and unjust treatment which the book had received in the Acta Lipsica.
The Royal Society being thus twice pressed by Mr. Leibnitz, and seeing no
reason to condemn or censure Dr. Keill without inquiring into the matter; and
that neither Newton nor Leibnitz (the only persons alive who knew and re-
membered any thing that had passed respecting these matters 40 years before)
could be witnesses for or against Dr. Keill, appointed a committee, consisting
of Dr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Hill, Dr. Halley, Mr. Jones, Mr. Machin, and Mr.
Burnet, to search old letters and papers, and report their opinion on what they
* Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 174. The passage occurs in a Latin paper, by Dr. Keill, on
The Laws of Centripetal Force.
BOOK II.]
293
MATHEMATICS.
might find, and ordered the letters and papers, with the report of their com-
mittee, to be published. This publication was the famous Commercium Episto-
licum, containing the letters of Oldenburg, Collins, Leibnitz, Gregory, and
Newton. The committee reported, that it appeared to them that Newton had
the method in or before the year 1669, and it did not appear to them that Mr.
Leibnitz had it before the year 1677, a year after the communication of a letter
from Newton to Leibnitz, in which the method of fluctions was sufficiently
described for every intelligent person. They add, that the differential method
of Leibnitz was the same as the fluctionary calculus of Newton, the notation
excepted; that they regard Newton as the first inventor of that method, and
that Dr. Keill in saying so has done, in their opinion, no injury to Leibnitz.*
The dispute did not and could not well terminate here. Leibnitz complained
bitterly of the Commercium Epistolicum, and threatened to publish a reply that
would confound his antagonists. But he was wise enough not to attempt it.
Indeed it would have been a hopeless and impossible task to have attempted to
overturn the evidence, contained in the Commercium Epistolicum, of the prio-
rity of Newton as the inventor of fluctions. Several anonymous papers were
published, either by Leibnitz or his friends, in which Newton was rather at-
tacked than Leibnitz defended. Bernoulli even attempted to prove that New-
ton did not understand the differential method as far as the higher orders of
fluctions are concerned. At last Leibnitz, associating himself with his friends
the Bernoullis, had recourse to a method which, he conceived, would demon-
strate his superiority over the British mathematicians, and thus give his claim
of originality a greater chance of obtaining credit. This was to propose diffi-
cult problems to embarrass his adversaries. Newton had formerly solved two
celebrated problems proposed by John Bernoulli in the year 1697, and an ano-
nymous solution was published that year in the Philosophical Transactions. He
received the first problem, proposed by the triumvirate, to confound the British,
mathematicians after he had undergone a good deal of fatigue in the Mint, and
yet he solved it before he went to bed.
During the course of this dispute the extreme partiality which united Ber-
noulli to Leibnitz induced him to treat Newton with an unbecoming severity,
and even injustice. He published, in the Acta Lipsica, under a disguised name,
a most violent attack upon Keill, in which he endeavours to prove that Newton
did not understand the rules of second differenciation. His opinion was founded
upon a passage in the Treatise on the Quadrature of Curves, in which Newton
from inadvertence had represented the different orders of fluctions by the terms.
* The best edition of the Commercium Epistolicum is the octavo of 1722, which contains several
articles not to be found in the original quarto edition.
294
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of his binomial theorem. On the other hand, Keill went too far when he at-
tempted so show that Newton had committed no inadvertence whatever. The
dispute at last was silenced, if not terminated, by the death of Leibnitz in
1716.
Now that the violence which actuated both parties in this memorable dispute
has subsided, and that all party feeling is, in some measure, at an end, we may
be allowed to judge of the merits of both parties from the documents that re-
main. Perhaps the safest way is to reject the arguments brought forward both
by the British and German writers of the times, considering them as parties.
French writers But there are several French writers who have given their opinions on the sub-
on the dispute, ject, and who may be considered as more impartial. The principal of these are
Fontenelle, Buffon, Bossut, and Montucla. Fontenelle is very unsatisfactory.
He lived too near the time of the dispute, and had, in some measure, committed
himself before hand in his Eloge on the Marquis De l'Hospital. Buffon adopts
the side of the English mathematicians, and seems to have taken their asser
tions for granted without ever having examined the documents. Bossut adopts
the side of Leibnitz; but it is equally evident that he has never examined the
documents, but trusted to the assertions of the Bernoullis, and the other coad-
jutors of Leibnitz, with whose works he is obviously much better acquainted
than with the Commercium Epistolicum, and the writings of Newton. His
History of Mathematics is written with much elegance, and does credit to his
taste and talents; but from several particulars which it contains we may infer
that it was written when he was a very young man, and that he gives many of
the facts which his book contains only at second hand. Montucla gives the
most particular and the most impartial account of the dispute of any writer
that we have seen; but even he does not appear to have perused all the docu-
ments, at least if we may be allowed to give that name to a very elaborate paper
which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, giving an account of the
Commercium Epistolicum, and of the dispute between Leibnitz and Keill.
Tradition ascribes this composition to Newton, and there is every reason from
internal evidence to believe that he was the author.* Now this paper brings
forward several striking instances of Leibnitz having attempted to palm New-
ton's inventions, received in Newton's own writing, upon Newton himself as
his own, and of his having desisted from his claim when the trick was pointed
out to him. It shows also that Leibnitz had formerly, during the life of Dr.
Wallis, acknowledged that Newton was the original inventor of the calculus,
and that he had retracted this admission after the death of Dr. Wallis. In short,
this paper contains so many important facts, and such accurate reasoning, that
* Phil. Trans. 1714. Vol. XXIX. p. 173.
6
BOOK II.]
295
MATHEMATICS.
it ought to be perused by every person who wishes to form an accurate opinion
on the dispute. We think that the following conclusions may be drawn with
almost perfect certainty.
1. The method of fluctions, and the differential calculus, are absolutely the
same in principle, and differ only in the notation. The reasoning of Newton is
rigidly accurate; but that of Leibnitz loose and unsatisfactory. The Leibnit-
zian notation is conceived to have an advantage over the Newtonian: this
advantage, as far as it is real, applies only to the mode of expressing the higher
orders of fluctions; and this mode might be introduced, with facility, into the
Newtonian notation. But it must be admitted, that the notation introduced by
Leibnitz into the integral calculus has advantages, and, accordingly, it has
been universally adopted by British writers; which is not the case with his
mode of expressing the higher orders of fluctions.
2. Newton was in possession of his method of fluctions many years before
Leibnitz thought of his differential calculus, or indeed before Leibnitz had made
any great progress in mathematics. This is so obvious from the Commercium
Epistolicum, that we believe no one will think of calling it in question.
3. Newton more than once announced to Leibnitz that he was in possession
of the fluctionary calculus, and points out its advantages with peculiar em-
phasis; but, in none of his letters does he explain the nature of this calculus.
There is an explanation of it, however, in Newton's Analysis per Equationes
Numero Terminorum Infinitas; which was sent up to London by Dr. Barrow, in
manuscript. There can be no doubt that Leibnitz saw this paper long before
he wrote any thing respecting the differential calculus. The notice, we allow,
very brief; but it is much more than the information given to James Gregory,
who, notwithstanding, succeeded in discovering Newton's method.
is
4. Newton himself admitted in his Principia, that Leibnitz had invented
his differential calculus without receiving any information. This passage,
which is of great importance to the subject in hand, is as follows:
"In literas quæ mihi cum geometra peritissimo G. G. Leibnitio, annis
abhinc decem intercedebant, cum significarem me compotem esse methodi de-
terminandi* maximas et minimas, ducendi tangentes, et similia peragendi, quæ
in terminis surdis æque ac in rationalibus procederent, et literis transpositis hanc
sententiam involventibus (data æquatione quotcunque fluentes quantitates invol
vente, fluxiones invenire, et vice versa) eandem celarem: rescripsit vir clarissi-
mus se quoque in ejusmodi methodum incidisse; et methodum suum communi-
cavit a meo vix abludentem præterquam in verborum et notarum formulis, et
idea generationis quantitatum utriusque fundamentum continetur in hoc lem-
mate.
* Newton's Principia, Lib. II. Scholium, at the end of Lemma II. p. 226, of the edition of 1714.
296
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
This passage appeared in the first edition of the Principia, published in 1686;
it was continued in the second edition, published in 1713, while the quarrel
between Keill and Leibnitz was at the hottest, but it is not to be found in the
edition of 1722. From this passage, there is complete evidence that Newton
admitted Leibnitz to have discovered the differential calculus; which he never
would have done, if he had furnished him with a sufficient explanation of his
own method to enable him to understand it.
5. Newton then was the original inventor; Leibnitz knew that he was in
possession of some unknown method; this seems to have stimulated his inven-
tion. His differential calculus seems to be founded on the method of tangents
of Barrow, from which it differs only in the notation. But it was the genera
lization of that method which constituted the chief merit of Leibnitz. Had
Newton published his Treatise on Fluctions, when it was originally written, he
would have had no competitor nor coadjutor, and Leibnitz's mathematical
reputation would probably never have risen beyond mediocrity. All conceal-
ment in matters of science we consider as improper, and Nature usually
punishes it by putting the same invention into the hands of some other person,
who deprives the real discoverer of a part of the reputation which he would
otherwise have acquired. Newton's hesitation, indeed, proceeded from an
amiable and praise-worthy motive; yet it was a weakness, and, as such, was
punished by raising up a competitor, who deprived him of his just share of
reputation, and gave him more trouble and uneasiness than that which he
sought to avoid by withholding his publication.
6. It has been attempted by some, to compare Leibnitz to Newton, and to
hold him up as scarcely inferior to that illustrious man: but the comparison is
very unequal. Leibnitz certainly was a very extraordinary man, and one of the
greatest geniuses that ever appeared among mankind: the extent of his infor-
mation was prodigious, his activity was indefatigable, and every region of
knowledge which he traversed received marks of his original and inventive
genius. But he was far inferior to Newton, both as a philosopher and as a man.
None of his productions will bear a comparison with the Principia, or the
Optics, of Sir Isaac Newton; nor do we think any of his mathematical writings
equal to the Universal Arithmetic, or the Fluctions of Newton. We cannot
* Montucla assigns, as a reason why it was continued in that edition, that Cotes, the editor,
published it without Newton's knowledge, and against his will. But there must be a mistake in
this; for after the preface there is an advertisement, by Newton himself, mentioning a great number
of additions and improvements, which he had made in that edition. A proof, not only that he knew
of the edition, but that he had been at some pains in correcting and improving it. The paragraph
then was retained, because Newton did not wish to erase it. It was doubtless scratched out of the
third edition at the suggestion of Keill, or of some other English mathematician engaged in the
dispute. Newton's opinion of the dispute is sufficiently evident from his account of the Commer-
cium Epistolicum, in the Phil. Trans.
5
´JOOK II.]
297
MATHEMATICS.
conclude this account better than by giving the comparison between the two
men, drawn up by Newton himself, on occasion of this very controversy.
Leibnitz com-
"It must be allowed that these two gentlemen differ very much in philoso- Newton and
phy. The one proceeds on the evidence arising from experiments and pheno- pared.
mena, and stops where such evidence is wanting; the other is taken up with
hypotheses, and propounds them, not to be examined by experiments, but to
be believed without examination. The one, for want of experiments to decide
the question, does not affirm whether the cause of gravity be mechanical or not
mechanical: the other, that it is a perpetual miracle, if it be not mechanical.
The one, by way of inquiry, attributes it to the power of the Creator, that the
least particles of matter are hard; the other, attributes the hardness of matter to
conspiring motions, and calls it a perpetual miracle, if the cause of this hard-
ness be other than mechanical. The one does not affirm that animal motion in
man is purely mechanical: the other teaches that it is purely mechanical, the
soul or mind (according to the hypothesis of a harmonia præstabilita) never
acting on the body so as to alter or influence its motions. The one teaches that
God (the God in whom we live, and move, and have our being,) is omnipre-
sent; but not a soul of the world: the other, that he is not the soul of the
world, but intelligentia supra mundana, an intelligence above the bounds
of the world; whence it seems to follow, that he cannot do any thing within
the bounds of the world, unless by an incredible miracle. The one teaches,
that philosophers are to argue from phenomena and experiments to the
causes thereof, and thence to the causes of those causes, and so on till we
come to the first cause: the other, that all the actions of the first cause are
miracles, and all the laws impressed on nature by the will of God are perpetual
miracles and occult qualities, and, therefore, not to be considered in philo-
sophy. But, must the constant and universal laws of nature, if derived from
the power of God, or the action of a cause not yet known to us, be called mi-
racles and occult qualities, that is to say, wonders and absurdities? Must all
the arguments for a God, taken from the phenomena of nature, be exploded by
new hard names? And must experimental philosophy be exploded as mira-
culous and absurd, because it asserts nothing more than can be proved by expe-
riments, and we cannot yet prove by experiments, that all the phenomena in
nature can be solved by mere mechanical causes? Certainly these things deserve
to be better considered."*
About five years after the death of Newton, Dr. Berkeley, the celebrated Berkeley's
Bishop of Cloyne, induced, as it is said, by the scepticism of Dr. Halley, who auctions,
* Phil. Trans. 1714. Vol. XXIX. p. 173. To contribute as much as possible to the elucidation
of this memorable dispute, we shall insert, in the Appendix No. III., the minutes of the Royal
Society, as far as they relate to Sir Isaac Newton.
attack on
20
298
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Robins.
professed himself an unbeliever of the Christian religion, published a book,
entitled, The Minute Philosopher; and afterwards another, entitled The
Analyst ; in which he undertook to prove, that mathematics was inconsistent
with religion; that mathematicians were all unbelievers of the Christian reli-
gion; and yet, by a singular contradiction of the understanding, believed in
the mysteries of the Newtonian calculus: that this calculus was false and
obscure in its principles; that if it led to truth in geometrical investigations,
it was because one error balanced another; and, finally, that Newton did not
understand the principles of his own method. These singular assertions would
only have served to entertain mathematicians, had not the metaphysical talents
of the author, and his great celebrity, given them a certain degree of weight
with the public, to which, in themselves, they were not entitled. On that
account, various elaborate answers were speedily published. The first which
appeared, in 1734, the same year in which The Minute Philosopher was laid
before the public, was written by Drs. Middleton and Smyth, Professors at
Cambridge; and was entitled, Geometry, no Friend to Incredulity; or, a
Defence of Sir Isaac Newton and the English Mathematicians, &c. In this
book, Bishop Berkeley is attacked, alternately, by the arms of ridicule, and of
serious discussion. But this defence does not appear to have proved satisfactory
to mathematicians. It was soon followed by another, written by Dr. Wilson,
Professor of Mathematics in Dublin, entitled, A Defence of the Principles of
Fluctions. But, one of the most important books which appeared on the
subject was written by Mr. Benjamin Robins, and was entitled, A Discourse
concerning the Nature and Certainty of Sir Isaac Newton's Method of Fluc-
tions, &c.
Benjamin Robins, the author of this treatise, has acquired too high a repu-
tation by his mathematical labours to be passed over in silence. He was born
at Bath, in 1707. His parents were Quakers, and did not, on that account,
encourage their son in his pursuit of scientific knowledge. But he made, not-
withstanding, surprising progress in different branches of learning; and some
of his friends, who interested themselves in his progress, sent one of his mathc-
matical papers to London, which was examined and highly approved of by Dr.
Pemberton. That eminent cultivator of ancient geometry sent him down, as a
further trial of his skill, some problems, of which he required elegant solutions,
according to the ancient model, and not founded on algebraic calculations.
The solutions of these problems by Mr. Robins gave a very advantageous idea
of his taste as well as invention. After perusing most of the eminent ancient
and modern mathematicians, he went up to London, where he supported him-
self for a number of years by teaching mathematics. He first distinguished
* This book I have never had an opportunity of seeing.
1
BOOK II.]
299
MATHEMATICS.
himself before the public by a refutation of the Leibnitzian doctrine of motion,
composed by the celebrated John Bernoulli. This famous question, being in
reality a dispute about a definition, was incapable of decision, and vanished
entirely whenever mathematicians were at the trouble to explain the meaning of
the terms which they employed. The Newtonian definition is obviously more
simple than the Leibnitzian; and, on that account, better adapted to the pur-
poses of philosophy. But neither are capable of demonstration.
Both are
true, and both are false, according to the meaning affixed to the terms em-
ployed.
In the year 1742, Mr. Robins published his most valuable performance,
entitled New Principles of Gunnery; containing a great deal of new and
valuable matter; and his experiments were conducted with the highest inge-
nuity and perspicuity. The reputation which he acquired by this performance
induced the Prince of Orange to invite him over, in 1747, to assist in the
defence of Bergen-op-zoom, at that time besieged by the French. He set out
in consequence of this invitation; but the place was taken before his arrival.
After the return of Lord Anson from his celebrated voyage round the world,
the public were in eager expectation of an account of his adventures. Accord-
ingly, Mr. Richard Walter, who had been Chaplain on board the Centurion
during the greatest part of the expedition, was employed to draw up an account
of the voyage. The manuscript was put into Mr. Robins's hands, who, after
perusing it, gave it as his opinion that it was not proper for publication, and
offered to write the whole over again himself. This offer was accepted; and
the work was soon after published, entirely from the pen of Mr. Robins; em-
ploying Mr. Walter's manuscript merely as materials from which his informa-
tion was obtained. This book is beyond comparison the most interesting
account of any voyage ever published; and, as such, has been always a great
favourite with the public, and has gone through a very great number of edi-
tions. It was probably the cause of the subsequent rise of Anson, who was
First Lord of the Admiralty during one of the most successful wars in which
Britain was ever engaged. This book also altered the circumstances of Mr.
Robins himself, he was offered his choice of two very considerable places: the
first was to go to Paris, as one of the Commissioners for adjusting the limits
of Acadia; the other, was to be Engineer General to the East India Company;
whose forts being in a most ruinous condition, required a man of abilities to put
them into a proper posture of defence. This last situation he accepted, as best
suited to his genius, and to his previous course of study. The Company settled
on him a salary of 500l. a year for life, on condition that he continued in their
service for five years. He set out for the East Indies at Christmas, 1749,
having provided himself with a complete set of astronomical instruments; but
the climate of the East Indies was too much for his delicate constitution.
He
202
300
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Maclaurin
was seized with a fever in September, 1750, and though he got the better of
this malady, he gradually relapsed into a languishing condition, and died at
Fort St. David, on the 29th of July, 1751, with his pen in his hand, as he
was drawing up for the Company an account of the posture of their affairs.
But the most complete answer to Dr. Berkeley's objections was made by the
celebrated Mr. Maclaurin, in his Treatise on Fluctions, published in 1742.
Colin Maclaurin, one of the most eminent mathematicians that Britain has
produced, was the son of a clergyman, and born at Kilmoddan, in Scotland,
in 1698. He was sent to the University of Glasgow, in 1709, where he con-
tinued for five years, and applied himself to study with the most intense assi-
duity. He discovered his mathematical genius as early as the 12th year of his
age. Having accidentally met with a Euclid, in a friend's chamber, he made
himself master of the first six books in a few days, without any assistance. It
is certain that, by the time he reached his 16th year, he had invented many of
the propositions which were afterwards published under the title of Geometrica
Organica. In his 15th year he took the degree of Master of Arts; on which
occasion he composed, and publicly defended, a Thesis on the Power of Gra-
vity, with great applause. After this, he quitted the University, and retired
to a country seat of his uncle, who had the care of his education, for his parents
had been dead for some time. Here he spent two or three years in pursuing
his favourite studies; but, in 1717, he offered himself a candidate for the Pro-
fessorship of Mathematics, in the Marischal College of Aberdeen; and obtained
it, after a trial of ten days with a very able competitor. In 1719 he went to
London, where he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and where he
acquired the friendship of Sir Isaac Newton, and of some others of the most
eminent philosophers at that time in the British capital. In 1722, Lord Pol-
worth, Plenipotentiary of the King of Great Britain, at the congress of Cam-
bray, engaged Mr. Maclaurin to go as tutor and companion to his eldest son,
who was just setting out on his travels. After a short stay at Paris, and some
other towns in France, they fixed their residence at Lorrain, where Mr. Mac-
laurin wrote his Essay on the Percussion of Forces; which gained the prize of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, for 1724.
His pupil dying soon after at Montpelier, Mr. Maclaurin returned imme-
diately to his Prefessorship, at Aberdeen. But scarcely was he settled at that
University, when he received an invitation to Edinburgh, the Curators of the
University being desirous that he should supply the place of Mr. James Gregory,
whose great age and infirmities had rendered him incapable of teaching. Mr.
Maclaurin had some difficulties to encounter, arising from competitors, who had
good interest with the Patrons of the University; and likewise from the want
of an additional fund for the new Professor: but these were removed, chiefly
by the interference of Sir Isaac Newton. He wrote a letter to Mr. Maclaurin,
BOOK II.]
301
MATHEMATICS.
and another to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh on the subject, part of each of
which we shall transcribe as curiosities. In his letter to Mr. Maclaurin he ex-
presses himself thus: "I am very glad to hear that you have a prospect of
being joined to Mr. James Gregory in the Professorship of the Mathematics at
Edinburgh; not only because you are my friend, but principally because of
your abilities; you being acquainted as well with the new improvements of ma-
thematics as with the former state of those sciences. I heartily wish you good
success, and shall be heartily glad to hear of your being elected." In his letter
to the Lord Provost he writes thus: "I am glad to understand that Mr. Mac-
laurin is in good repute among you for his skill in mathematics, for, I think,
he deserves it very well; and to satisfy you that I do not flatter you, and also
to encourage him to accept the place of assisting Mr. Gregory, in order to suc-
ceed him, I am ready, if you please to give me leave, to contribute 201. per
annum towards a provision for him till Mr. Gregory's place becomes void, if I
live so long, and I will pay it to his order in London."
In November 1725, he was introduced into the University of Edinburgh.
The number of his pupils amounted to about 100 every year, and being of dif-
ferent standing and proficiency, he was obliged to divide them into four or five
classes, in each of which he employed a full hour every day from the first of
November to the first of June. In the first class he taught the first six Books
of Euclid, plain trigonometry, practical geometry, the elements of fortifica-
tion, and an introduction to algebra. In the second class he taught algebra,
the 11th and 12th Books of Euclid, spherical trigonometry, conic sections,
and the general principles of astronomy. The third class were instructed in the
principles of astronomy and perspective, in Newton's Principia, and in the
elements of fluctions. The fourth class were instructed further in fluctions, in
the doctrine of chances, and read the remainder of Newton's Principia.
In 1784, when Dr. Berkeley published his Analyst, Mr. Maclaurin, think-
ing himself included in the charge of infidelity alleged against mathematicians
in general, resolved to write an answer to the Bishop's book. But the work
accumulating under his hands terminated in his celebrated Treatise on Fluc-
tions, which was published at Edinburgh, in two quarto volumes, in 1742. In
this book he demonstrates the whole doctrine of fluctions without having re-
course to infinitely small quantities, or any other supposition capable of being
contested; but, according to the rigid method of the ancients, following a mode
of demonstration often employed by Archimedes in his works. But his demon-
strations are often so long and complicated, and require such severe attention to
follow them, that we believe they are seldom perused by the mathematicians of the
present day, who, having turned almost the whole of their attention to the ana-
lytical method, are not so capable as their predecessors of following long syn-
thetical demonstrations. But it will be acknowledged by every person who
6
302
[BOOK II,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Methodus Ju-
peruses the book, that all the objections of Dr. Berkeley against the doctrine of
fluctions are completely refuted, and whatever doubts the most captious meta-
physicians may think proper hereafter to start about the nature of infinitics, the
mathematician has no more concern with them than with the famous sophisms
about space and motion. In the year 1740, Mr. Maclaurin gained a prize of
the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, for his Explanation of the Motion of the
Tides from the Theory of Gravitation. He had only ten days to draw up this
paper, and was obliged in consequence to send the first imperfect copy to the
Academy. He afterwards revised the whole, and inserted it in his Treatise on
Fluctions. His Algebra and his Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Discoveries were
published after his death. In 1745, having been very active in fortifying the
city of Edinburgh against the rebel army, he was obliged to take refuge in the
North of England, where he was invited by Dr. Herring, then Archbishop of
York, to reside with him during his stay in that country. During this expedi-
tion, being exposed to cold and hardships, he laid the foundation of an illness
which soon after put an end to his life. This disease was an ascites, of which
he died, on the 14th of June, in the forty-eighth year of his age. During his
last moments he requested his friend, Dr. Monro, to account for the flashes of
fire which seemed to dart from his eyes, while in the mean time his sight was
failing so that he could scarcely distinguish one object from another. This
singular request is a proof of the great calmness and serenity of mind which he
enjoyed at his last moments. He left behind him two sons and two daughters.
One of his sons was a lawyer and an eminent writer. He was appointed one of
the Lords of Session, in Edinburgh, when he assumed the name of Lord
Dreghorn.
X. The Methodus Incrementorum, for the invention of which we are in-
crementoru debted to Dr. Brook Taylor, ought rather to have preceded than followed the
Brook Taylor, invention of fluctions. Brook Taylor was born at Edmonton, in Middlesex, in
the year 1685. In 1701, he entered St. John's College, Cambridge, and in
1708, he wrote his Tract on the Centre of Oscillation. This paper was pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions for 1714, so that John Bernoulli's ac-
cusation of plagiarism, which he made with so much violence and indecorum,
is totally groundless. In 1709, he took the degree of Bachelor of Laws. In
1712, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and the same year took his
degree of LL.D. Dr. Taylor died in the year 1731, when only forty-six years
of age. He published a variety of excellent papers in the Transactions, and
was one of the chief writers in the memorable dispute between the Bernoullis.
and the British mathematicians respecting the discovery of fluctions. His great.
works were his Principles of Linear Perspective, in which he first established
the true practice of the art on principles which have been followed ever since.
This book was published in 1715. The same year he published his Methadus
Book II.]
303
MATHEMATICS.
Incrementorum Directa et Inversa. A book in which the calculus is explained
so concisely, and with so little developement, that Bernoulli had reason on his
side when he complained of it as excessively obscure. It can scarcely be under-
stood by any one, who is not as well acquainted with the method before he be-
gins to read as the author himself. The subject was afterwards explained by
Euler, in the first chapters of his Institutiones Calculi Differentialis, with that
remarkable order and perspicuity which distinguishes all his writings. To that
book therefore we refer those who wish to make themselves acquainted with the
Methodus Incrementorum with the greatest facility. The subject was likewise
treated by Emerson in his Method of Increments, published in 1763. This book,
like all those written by Emerson, contains much valuable matter, but so very
inelegantly put together, that it is scarcely possible to read it with patience.
The Methodus Incrementorum, of Taylor, contains the famous theorem which The Tayloriau
retains his name. It consists in a particular series to express what any function
of a variable quantity becomes, when a acquires any increment whatever.
Let Y be the function, and let r become Ar,* then, according to Taylor, F
becomes Y +
&c. If from this series,
Axd Y
1.dx
+
Ax²dd Y
1.2.dx²
+
Ax³d³Y
1.2.3.dx3
+
Ax¹d + Y
1.2.3.4dr¹³
the law of which is sufficiently evident, we take the first term Y, the remainder
will obviously express the simultaneous increment of P. Maclaurin afterwards
Y.
gave a demonstration of this theorem derived from the consideration of fluc-
tions, and rigorously exact, but a demonstration upon pure analytical principles
being considered as more elegant as well as more satisfactory, this has been
lately given by M. L'Huillier of Geneva, in his Principiorum Calculi Diff. et
Int. Expositio Elementaris, published in 1795.
theorem.
partial dif-
XI. We have now brought our history of mathematics as low down as is re-
quisite for the mathematical papers contained in the Philosophical Transactions.
But several additional improvements have been made, chiefly by foreign mathe-
maticians, which it will be sufficient merely to name here. The first is called Calculus of
the calculus of partial differences, and is of great importance in many philoso- ferences.
phical discussions, such as the vibration of cords, the propagation of sound,
&c. It was invented by Euler in the year 1734, and afterwards by D'Alem-
bert, who was ignorant of what Euler had done, and who first had the merit
of applying it to the solution of physico-mathematical questions. Euler has
represented this method under a much simpler form than D'Alembert, and on
that account mathematicians have followed the notation of Euler.
•
The method of variations is another improvement in the fluctionary calculus Method of
of considerable importance. By means of it alone some of the most difficult
* We use the foreign notation in this formula, the Newtonian not being fitted for expressing in-
crements. Ar means the increment of x; dY, the fluctions of Y, &c.
variations,
304
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions.
problems de maximis et minimis can be solved. Suppose we have a function of
two or more variable quantities, the relation between which is expressed by a
particular law, this method teaches us how to find what the function becomes
when the law itself undergoes an infinitely small variation. James Bernoulli,
in his celebrated isoperimetrical problem, which he proposed in consequence of
the quarrel between his brother and himself, had supposed an infinitely small
arc of the curve divided into three by two ordinates intermediate and equidis-
tant; and making them vary, he had found the position which they ought to
have to fulfil the condition demanded, and by this means he resolved the pro-
blem. This solution has been admired by all mathematicians as an astonishing
instance of patience and sagacity. Euler afterwards generalized it in his work
entitled, Methodus inveniendi Lineas Curvas Maximi Minimive Proprietati
gaudentes, seu Solutio Problematis Isoperimetrici latissimo Sensu accepti. But
he himself acknowledges that his method is destitute of that perfection which
it ought to possess. La Grange, in 1755, invented a method purely analytical:
Euler acknowledged its great superiority, and explained it at some length in
two dissertations published in the Memoires of the Petersburgh Academy,
under the title of the Method of Variations; for La Grange, satisfied with the
invention, had given it no name. A detailed explanation of this method may
be seen in the work on the differential and integral calculus by Lacroix, and
in the book on the same subject by Bossut. This last book is much better ar-
ranged, and may therefore be perused with much greater facility than the
former. But no account of the method that we have seen is so good as that of
Euler in the 10th volume of the New Memoires of the Petersburgh Academy.*
XII. It only remains to take a cursory view of the mathematical papers con-
tained in the Philosophical Transactions. We shall merely
We shall merely mention the most
important of them without entering into details which would be inconsistent
with the nature of this work.
1. The number of papers to which the title of Arithmetical is given in the
Transactions is 14. There is an account of Dr. Wallis's edition of Archimedes'
dissertation, entitled, Yaμurns, in which there is an account of the Greek
arithmetic lately explained at some length by Legendre.† The next paper
* We have no history of mathematics in the English language. Several have been published in
Germany and France. The most detailed is that of Montucla, published in four quarto volumes.
The first two volumes of that work, which bring down the history to the invention of fluctions, are
excellent. The history of mathematics during the 18th century, which occupies the first half of the
3d volume, is more defective. Montucla died while it was printing, and the last part of the 3d
volume, and the whole of the 4th, were supplied by La Lande, and are greatly inferior to the rest of
the work.
+Phil. Trans. 1676. Vol. XI. p. 567.
Book II.]
305
MATHEMATICS.
consists of twelve problems on compound interest and annuities by Adam
Martindale.*.
The next is entitled, On Infinitely Finite Fractions, by Dr. Wood.† It
consists of a number of infinite series of fractions with the corresponding num-
bers to which they are equal. The following table will give an idea of these:
1 = ÷ + ÷ + ÷ + TE, &c.
↓ = ↓ + ÷ ++, &c.
s + To + O'T + 75%, &c.
1
25
1
÷ ÷ ÷ + 5 + TIS + GIS, &c.
++
÷ = ÷ + + + 10 + TIDO, &c.
916
In these series it is evident that the numerator is always 1, and the denomi-
nators the powers of the first denominator.
The next paper is entitled, An Arithmetical Paradox concerning the Chances
of Lotteries. By the Hon. Francis Roberts, Esq.‡ The parodox is this. There
are two lotteries, at either of which a gamester pays a shilling for a lot or
throw. The first lottery, on a just computation of the odds, has 3 to 1 of the
gamester; the second lottery but 2 to 1, nevertheless the gamester has the very
same disadvantage, and no more, in playing at the first lottery as the second.
The next paper is entitled, The Doctrine of Combinations and Alternations,
improved and completed. By Major Edward Thornycroft.§ This is an elabo-
rate and complete treatise, though the subject has been explained with more
elegance by modern writers, especially by Euler.
The next paper is by De Moivre, and is entitled, De Mensura Sortis, seu de
Probabilitate Eventuum in Ludis a casu fortuito pendentibus. This is the
first sketch of a doctrine which was afterwards fully detailed in our author's
celebrated treatise on the subject, published in 1718.
I
The next paper is entitled, A Short Account of Negativo-affirmative Arith-
metic. By Mr. John Colson. This is a contrivance by means of which all
numbers larger than five are excluded, and thus the common operations of
arithmetic are performed with greater facility. But as the method has not come
into practice, and never probably will, it is needless to attempt a particular
description of it.
The next paper is The Description and Use of an Arithmetical Machine,
invented by Christian Ludovicus Gersten, Professor of Mathematics, at Griefsen.**
The first arithmetical machine was contrived by Pascal; another was in-
* Phil. Collections 1681. No. I. p. 34.
Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 677.
Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 213.
** Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX. p. 79.
+ Phil. Col. 1681. No. III. p. 415.
$ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 1961.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. P. 161.
2 R
306
[BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
vented by Sir Samuel Moreland; a third, by Leibnitz; a fourth, by the Mar-
chese Poleni; and a fifth, by Mr. Leopold. This of Gersten is founded on
that of Leibnitz, but so complicated and operose as not to be entitled to any
attention.
The next paper is entitled, Of a New-invented Arithmetical Instrument, called
a Shwan-pan, or Chinese Account Table. By Gamaliel Smethurst.* This is
an instrument somewhat like the abacus of the ancients, adapted to our arith-
metical notation, and conceived by Mr. Smethurst to be much superior to the
Shwan-pan of the Chinese. Such inventions are not worth much attention.
The common rules of arithmetic can be performed with sufficient facility with-
out any such assistance.
The next paper is entitled, An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doc-
trine of Chances. By the late Rev. Mr. Bayes.† The problem is as follows:
Having given the number of times an unknown event has happened and failed,
to find the chance that the probability of its happening should lie somewhere
between any two named degrees of probability. The solution is much too long
and intricate to be of much practical utility. Dr. Price published a supplement
to this paper in the succeeding volume of the Transactions.‡
The next paper is entitled, On the Theory of circulating Decimal Fractions.
By John Robertson, Lib. R. S.§ The subsequent publications of Dr. Hutton,
have deprived this paper of all its interest.
The next paper is by the same author, and is entitled, Investigations of Twenty
Cases of Compound Interest. These are investigations of cases of compound
interest previously engraven on a plate, by William Jones, Esq.; and published
without demonstration by Gardiner and Dodson.
The last arithmetical paper we have to mention, is entitled, Some Properties
of the Sum of the Divisors of Numbers. By Edward Waring, M.D.¶
Waring was one of the profoundest mathematicians of the 18th century; but
the inelegance and obscurity of his writings prevented him from obtaining that
reputation to which he was entitled. Except Emerson, there is scarcely any
writer whose works are so revolting as those of Waring. The great elegance
and admirable simplicity and order of all the writings of Euler contributed as
much to give him the great celebrity which he enjoyed, as his inventive genius.
2. The papers on Logarithms, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount to
11; and some of them are of very considerable importance. The first, is an
account of the Logarithmotechnia of Mercator; a book which we noticed,
with due praise, while detailing the history of mathematics.
* Phil. Trans. 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 22..
Phil. Trans. 1764. Vol. XIV. p. 296.
Phil, Trans. 1670. Vol. LX. p. 508.
+ Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII. p. 370.
Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 207.
q Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 388.
BOOK II.]
307
MATHEMATICS.
The next paper is an excellent one by Dr. Halley, on the Method of con-
structing Logarithms from the Nature of Numbers, without any regard to the
Hyperbola.* There is another Method of constructing Logarithms, proposed
some years after, by Mr. Craig, published in a subsequent volume;† and
another by Mr. Long, in a subsequent volume of the Transactions. But this
method is, in some measure, mechanical; and is not to be compared to the
methods of Halley and Craig.
Dr. Halley published an important paper, entitled, An Easy Demonstration
of the Analogy of the Logarithmic Tangents to the Meridian Line, or Sum of
the Secants; with various methods for computing the same to the utmost exact-
ness. This paper, though we mention it here, is rather connected with navi-
gation than logarithms.
The Logometria, of Cotes, deserves to be mentioned on account of its im-
portance. It was afterwards published in the collection of Mr. Cotes's works,
in 1722, by Dr. Smith, under the title of Harmonica Mensurarum. Roger Cates,
Cotes was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the age in which he lived.
He was born in 1682, at Burbach, in Leicestershire. He was educated at St.
Paul's School, London, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge; where,
in 1706, he was appointed the First Professor of Astronomy and Experimental
Philosophy, on the foundation of Dr. Plume, Archdeacon of Rochester. In
1713 he published a new edition of Newton's Principia; his preface to which
was much admired, and procured him great reputation. He unfortunately
died in the year 1716, in the thirty-fourth year of his age, to the great regret
of all lovers of the sciences. Newton had so high an opinion of his knowledge
and genius, that he used to say, " had Cotes lived, we should have known some-
thing." The celebrated property of the circle, which he discovered, and which
is of so much importance in the integral calculus, was not known till after his
death, when it was found among his papers, and made out, with great difficulty,
by his relation, Dr. Smith.
The next paper is An Account of the Method of protracting the Logarith-
mic Lines, on the common Gunter's Scale. By Mr. John Robertson. I
The next paper is A Dissertation on Logarithms. By Mr. Jones.** It is
remarkable for that great conciseness of expression, which distinguishes all the
writings of that eminent mathematician. The view which he takes of the sub-
ject is very similar to one taken on logarithms by Euler, and which, as far as
we can judge, seems to be the simplest and most perspicuous, as well as satis-
factory way of viewing the subject. In a subsequent paper++ Mr. Hellins
* Phil. Trans. 1695. Vol. XIX. p. 58.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1714. Vol. XXIX. p. 52.
Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXIX. p. 5.
** Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 455.
+ Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 191.
f Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 202.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 96.
++ Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 307,
2 R2
308
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
gives Two Theorems, which he demonstrates, and which he shows to be of
considerable utility in facilitating the computation of logarithms.
The last paper on this subject which we think requires mentioning, is one by
Mr. Nicholson, in which he gives the principles and illustration of an advantage-
ous method of arranging the differences of logarithms, on lines graduated for
the purpose of computation.*
3. There are no fewer than 15 papers on the nature of equations. But as
we have noticed the most important of these already, it will be sufficient
merely to refer to them in a note.†
4. On the doctrine of series, which is one of the most important branches of
mathematics, and which may be considered as in some measure the original of
all the modern improvements in the science, there are 13 papers. The follow-
ing are their titles, with the names of the authors:
Method of determining 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. Term of a Series taken in order.
T. Simpson.
New Method of computing the Sums of certain Series. Landen.
On certain Infinite Series. Bayes.
Series for computing the Ratio of the Diameter of a Circle, and its Circum-
ference. Hutton.
To find the Value of certain Infinite decreasing Series. Maseres.
To find a near Value of a slowly converging Series. Maseres.
New Methods of investigating the Sums of Infinite Series. Vince.
Summation of certain Series. Waring.
On Infinite Series. Waring.
On finding the Value of Algebraic Quantities, by converging Series. Waring.
On Infinite Series. Waring.
New Method of investigating the Sums of Infinite Series. Waring.
Method of computing the Values of slowly converging Series. Hellins.
5. There is only one paper on interpolation; the author of which is Dr.
Waring. But Newton, in his Principia, has given an excellent method, pro-
bably the first ever contrived. The subject has been much discussed by the
foreign mathematicians, but Newton's method still retains its utility.
6. On the doctrine of annuities, which was in a manner first broached in
* Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 246.
+ Collins. Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 929.-Halley. Ibid. 1687. Vol. XVI. p. 335 and 387;
and Vol. XVIII. p. 136.-Colson. Ibid. 1707. Vol. XXV. p. 2353.-Demoivre. Ibid. Vol. XXV.
p. 2368.—Maclaurin. Ibid. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. p. 104.-Milner. Ibid. 1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 380.
-Maseres. Ibid. Vol. LXVIII. p. 902.; and Vol. LXX. p. 85 and 221.-Waring. Ibid. 1779.
Vol. LXIX. p. 86.-Lord Stanhope. Ibid. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 195.-Wales. Ibid. 1781. Vol.
LXXI. p. 454.-Hellins. Ibid. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 417.-Wood. Ibid. 1798. Vol. LXXXVII.
p. 369. Wilson. Ibid. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 265.
6
BOOK II.J
*309
MATHEMATICS.
this country, and which has always been cultivated with much assiduity, there
are eight papers. The following are their titles:
Value of an Annuity for Life, and Probability of Survivorship. Dodson.
Method of calculating Reversions depending on Survivorship. Price.
Theorems for Annuities.
Price.
On the Probabilities of Survivorships, &c. Morgan.
Determination of Contingent Reversions. Morgan.
On determining the real Probabilities of Life, &c. Morgan.
Method of determining the Value of Contingent Reversions. Morgan.
Method of determining Contingent Reversions. Morgan.
7. There are three papers on the quadrature of the circle; not reckoning
the account of James Gregory's book on the subject, and his paper in answer
to the objections of Huygens. The first paper is by Leibnitz; the second is by
Dr. Hutton, and has been already mentioned under the head of Series; the
third paper is by Mr. Hellins; and is an improvement of Halley's method of
computing the quadrature of the circle.
8. Upon the conic sections, and other curves of a higher order, we have a
considerable number of papers. The following are the chief:
New Properties in Conic Sections. Waring.
Properties of the Conic Sections. Jones.
Length of the Arc of a Conic Hyperbola found. Landen.
Quadrature of the Hyperbola. Lord Brouncker.
New Quadrature of the Hyperbola. Demoivre.
Hyperbolical Cylindroid. Wren.
Testudo Veliformis Quadrabilis. David Gregory.
Synchronism of the Vibrations in a Cycloid.
Quadrable Cycloidal Spaces. Wallis.
Quadrature of a Portion of an Epicycloid. Caswell.
Method of Measuring all Cycloids and Epicycloids. Halley.
History of the Cycloid. Wallis.
Properties of the Catenaria. Gregory.
Curve, called Cardioid. Castillion.
Curve of Swiftest Descent. Sault and Craig, and Machin, in three different
papers. The problem, as first proposed by Bernoulli, is likewise resolved by
Sir Isaac Newton.
Quadrature of the Logarithmic Curve. Craig.
Quadrature of the Lunula of Hippocrates. Pertus and Gregory.
Dimension of the Solids, produced by Hippocrates' Lunula.
Quadrature of Figures geometrically irrational. Craig.
Easy Method of measuring Curvelinear Figures. Wallis.
Demoivre,
Of squaring some Kinds of Curves. Demoivre.
General Method of determining the Quadrature of Figures. Craig,
310
[Book II.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Quadrature of the Foliate, a Curve of the Third Order. Demoivre.
Theorems of computing the Areas of certain Curves. Landen.
General Method of describing Curves by the Intersection of Right Lines.
Brakenridge.
Description of Curve Lines. Maclaurin.
On finding Curve Lines from the Properties of the. Variation of Curvature.
Two Species of Lines of the Third Order, not mentioned by Newton nor
Stirling. Stone.
Length of Curve Lines. Craig.
Measure of Curves, and their Construction. Maclaurin.
Tangents to Curves. Sluse.
Tangents of Curves, deduced from the Theory of Maxima & Minima. Ditton.
Collection of Secants. Wallis.
9. On Plane and Spherical Trigonometry there are few papers in the Trans-
actions; unless we were to include, under that title, some of those mentioned
under the preceding heads, which might certainly be done without impropriety.
The following are the only papers on that subject which I at present recollect:
Spherical Trigonometry reduced to Plane. Blake.
Trigonometry abridged. Murdoch.
Calculations in Spherical Trigonometry abridged.
Lyons.
10. We shall now give a list of a few papers, which could not, with pro-
priety, be reduced under any of the preceding heads.
Equations for exhibiting the Resolution of Goniometrical Lines. Jones.
Locus of three or four Lines, famous among the Ancient Geometricians.
Pemberton.
Centre of Oscillation.
Brook Taylor.
Solid of least Resistance. Craig.
On Centripetal Forces. Waring.
On the Bases of Cells, where Bees lodge their Honey. Maclaurin.
Properties of the Machine for turning Ovals demonstrated. Ludlam.
The above lists may be considered as exhibiting the names of all the mathe-
matical papers contained in the Philosophical Transactions, except a few
papers on the fluctionary calculus, and subjects connected with it; the titles of
which could not have been rendered intelligible, without entering into further
details than is consistent with this work. Here then we take our leave of this
subject; upon which it would have been much easier to have extended our
observations to a far greater length, than to have confined ourselves to the
short space which our account of Mathematics occupies. But we did not con-
sider ourselves as at liberty to sacrifice the different branches of Mechanical
Philosophy and Chemistry, which, to most of our readers will probably be
more interesting than dry details respecting such abstract and difficult subjects.
BOOK III.
OF MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.
7
SUBSTANCES may either be examined in a state of rest, or as acting upon
each other, and producing changes on each other. The knowledge derived
from the first of these views is called Natural History; that which we obtain
by the second, is distinguished by the name of Science. But bodies cannot act
upon each other without producing motion, and the motions produced by such
actions are of two kinds; either so great as to be visible to our senses, and capa-
ble of being measured by the space passed over; or so small as not to be distin-
guishable by our senses, except by the effects produced. The phenomena
connected with the first of these kinds of motions constitute what is called
Natural Philosophy, or Mechanical Philosophy, in this country, and on the Nature of me-
Continent, Physics. The phenomena connected with the imperceptible mo-losophy.
tions belong to the science called Chemistry.
chanical phi
Mechanical Philosophy comprehends under it a great many very important Division,
phenomena, and has been sub-divided into different subordinate heads. A
variety of arrangements has been proposed, attended each with its pecu-
liar advantages and defects. Our object is only to consider it as far as it
is treated of in the Philosophical Transactions. Now all the topics connected
with it, as far as they occupy a part of that work, may be arranged under the
following heads:
1. Astronomy.
4. Mechanics.
2. Optics.
3. Dynamics.
5. Hydrodynamics.
6. Acoustics.
7. Navigation..
8. Electricity.
9. Magnetism.
These will constitute the subject of the nine following chapters.
Li
•
912
[Book III:
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
CHAP. I.
OF ASTRONOMY.
Origin of
astronomy,
THE Science of Astronomy furnishes the noblest proof of what the human
intellect is capable. The only true mode of advancing, patient and assiduous
observation, was early perceived by its cultivators; and for 2000 years past
astronomers have devoted themselves to the observation of the heavenly phe-
nomena, with a degree of persevering industry, which has only been equalled
by the progress which they have made. No other science can boast of the
same degree of perfection. It may be considered in some measure as complete
Astronomy constitutes one of the most prominent departments in the Philoso-
phical Transactions; and owes much of its progress to the splendid exertions
of some of the most conspicuous Members of the Royal Society. From the
foundation of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, in 1675, the place of
Astronomer Royal has been filled by a succession of men of the first eminence,
who have furnished a series of observations of infinite importance to navigation
and astronomy. Whether that race be at length extinct by the death of Dr.
Maskelyne, or whether succeeding Astronomers Royal will display any por-
tion of the vigour and abilities which illustrated their predecessors, remains to
be seen.
The History of Astronomy has been treated so amply and so well, in a great
variety of books, which are in every body's hands, that we may be excused for
passing it over in a very concise manner. The Chaldeans and Egyptians are
conceived to have turned their attention to astronomy at a very early period;
and attempts have been made to show that the Chinese, and the inhabitants of
India, are in possession of tables indicating observations coeval with, or even
anterior to, the commonly received era of the creation. But these observations,
notwithstanding the zeal, the skill, and the acknowledged abilities of the inge-
nious supporters of them, have not met with that favourable reception from
astronomers, which was expected by their propagators; and have been almost
unanimously rejected as erroneous and impossible. The oldest astronomical
observations on record were made at Babylon, 719 and 720 years before the
commencement of the Christian era. Ptolemy, who has transmitted them to
us, employed them for determining the period of the moon's mean motion; and
therefore, in all probability, had none more ancient on which he could depend.
The Greeks borrowed their first notions of astronomy, as of all the other
CHAP. I.]
313
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY
sciences, from the Egyptians. Thales, of Miletus, who lived in the seventh Thales
century before the Christian era, and who certainly acquired his knowledge
from the Egyptian priests, predicted a famous eclipse of the sun, which put an
end to a furious war that raged between Cyaxares, King of Media, and
Alyattes, King of Lydia. A total eclipse of the sun happening during an
engagement between the two armies, struck such a terror into each, that a peace
was concluded.* This eclipse has given rise to much discussion among learned
men; because, if the precise date at which it happened could be ascertained,
it would be of great service in establishing or correcting chronology. No fewer
than eight different dates have been proposed, varying from each other by a
period of 43 years. We shall only mention the date recently assigned by Mr.
Baily, as every thing concurs to render it most correct. According to him, it
happened in the year 610 before Christ, on the 30th of September: and he has
demonstrated, that this is the only total eclipse of the sun which took place in
Asia Minor, where the battle was fought, between the years 650 and 580
before Christ.†
Timocharis.
But the real foundation of astronomy was not laid by the Greeks till the
establishment of the Alexandrian school by Ptolemy Soter, and his successors.
Ptolemy Philadelphus built a magnificent observatory, and supplied it with the
requisite books and instruments. The first astronomers, who were placed in
this building, were Aristyllus and Timocharis, who lived about 300 years Aristyllus and
before Christ, and observed, with accuracy, the position of the principal stars
of the zodiac. The little that we know respecting their labours, we obtain
from the writings of Ptolemy, who quotes them sometimes. About the same
time flourished Aristarchus, of Samos, who is celebrated by the ancients for his
genius and discoveries. He pointed out an ingenious way of determining the Aristarchus.
comparative distances of the sun and moon from the earth; and demonstrated
that the sun was at least 20 times further off than the moon. Though this
determination was greatly below the truth, yet it was a considerable step at the
time, and extended the bounds of the universe to the eyes of astronomers. He
also supported the opinion, that the earth and the planets move round the sun;
an opinion previously advanced by Pythagoras, and some of his immediate
disciples; but which the imperfect state of astronomy and mathematics did not
enable them to support by such arguments as were calculated to give it general
credit.
Eratosthenes was another astronomer of the Alexandrian school, to whom Eratosthenes.
the science was much indebted. He prevailed upon Ptolemy Euergetes to
erect, in the portico of the observatory, different large instruments for observing
the stars. It was by means of these instruments that most of the subsequent
† Phil. Trans. 1811. p. 220.
* Herodotus. Lib. I. § 74.
2S
314
[BOOK III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
flis measure-
ment of a de-
gree.
Hipparchus.
observations of the Grecian astronomers were made.
Eratosthenes likewise
observed the obliquity of the ecliptic, and found it 23° 51′ 13″; a determination
which has been of some service to astronomers, in determining the change of
the obliquity which has taken place since that time. But the most famous of
his experiments was his measurement of a certain portion of the earth's surface.
There was a deep pit at Syena, an island in the Nile, and almost at the southern
extremity of Ptolemy's dominions. Eratosthenes had observed, that on the day
of the summer solstice, the whole bottom of this pit was illuminated at mid-day;
and, as objects for some distance round Syena cast no shadow on that day, he
concluded that Syena was situated directly under the tropic of Cancer. He next
concluded, that Alexandria was in the same meridian with Syena, and that
the distance between them was 5000 stadia. He then determined, by observa-
tion, the difference between the latitude of the two places. From all this, he
settled the length of a degree at 250,000 stadia: but as we do not know
the length of the stadium which he used, this measurement is of no use
at present. It cannot be very accurate, because several of the data, upon which
it was founded, are erroneous. Alexandria and Syena are not under the same
meridian, their longitude differs by several degrees. The distance between the
two places was not measured, but only estimated, and of course could not be
accurate. All the fragments of the works of Eratosthenes still remaining
have been inserted in the magnificent edition of Eratus, published at Oxford
in 1672.
But the true founder of astronomy, as a science, was Hipparchus, of
Bithynia, who observed in Alexandria during 35 years, between 160 years
before Christ, and 125 years B. C. We know very few particulars of his life;
but his astronomical labours are well known, and constitute a memorable era
in the science. His first care was to determine the length of the year, which
he did by a great many successive determinations of the exact times of the
equinoxes and solstices. But, in order to be able to determine the point with
greater exactness, he had recourse to the determination of the summer solstice,
about 150 years before, by Aristarchus, of Samos. The result of his calcu
lation was, that the year wants about five minutes of 365 days 6 hours. His
next object was to determine the rate of the sun's motion; and he showed, by
numerous and accurate observations, that this luminary moves fastest in winter
and slowest in summer; so that the summer half year is about nine days longer
than the winter half year. In order to account for this, Hipparchus supposed
the sun to move uniformly in an eccentric circle, the distance of the centre of
which, from that of the earth, was th of radius, and he placed the apogee in
the sixth degree of Gemini. In these determinations Ptolemy coincides with
Hipparchus; though it is now known that they made the eccentricity about
4th too great.
CHAP. I.J
315
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
Hipparchus also devoted much of his attention to the moon.
He determined
the length of a lunation, by the same means that he had ascertained the length
of the year. He measured the inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic,
which he found amount to five degrees. He determined, likewise, the motion
of the apsides and nodes with much greater exactness than had formerly been
done. He thought of an ingenious mode of ascertaining the size and distance
of the sun and moon; and his construction, though not sufficiently delicate
for the purpose to which he applied it, is still employed in the calculation of
eclipses. He found the distance of the sun 1200 semi-diameters of the earth,
and his horizontal parallax 3'. The mean distance of the moon from the earth
he found equal to 59 of these semi-diameters. From this he concluded that the
diameter of the earth was 3 times as great as that of the moon; and the dia-
meter of the sun 5 times as great as that of the earth. Though these numbers
are far below the truth, they served, however, to extend considerably the
bounds of the universe, and were a much nearer approximation than had been
formerly obtained.
logue of the
Hipparchus did not attempt to form any theory of the planetary motions;
but he made many accurate observations respecting them, in order to put it in
the power of his successors to contrive a theory to explain their motions. But
perhaps the greatest of all the labours of Hipparchus was his catalogue of the Makes a cata-
stars, and the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes, to which he was stars.
led by that catalogue. It was the appearance of a new star in the heavens,
during his time, that induced him to undertake that laborious task, in order to
enable future astronomers to know whether any new stars had made their ap-
pearance after his time. He not only drew up a catalogue of the principal
fixed stars, with their exact positions, but he appears to have constructed a
solid sphere, and to have placed them upon it in their proper situations, and
likewise to have projected this sphere upon paper, for the facility of transporta-
tion. On comparing his own observations with those of Arystillus and Timo-
charis, made 150 years before, he ascertained that all the stars had changed
their place since that time two degrees in the order of the signs: a discovery
which has been since amply confirmed, and is well known by the name of The
Precession of the Equinoxes.
Hardly any additions were made to astronomy (for it is unnecessary to men-
tion Posidonius, of whom we know little,) till the period of Ptolemy; whom
antiquity, perhaps a little unjustly with regard to Hipparchus, have dignified
with the name of the first of astronomers. Ptolemy was born in Ptolemais, in Ptolemy,
Egypt, and flourished during the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus, about the
year 125 of our era. Ptolemy contrived the first system of astronomy, and con-
signed it in his great work, which still remains, and which is usually known
by the name of Almageste; because it was first made known to Europeans by
2 s 2
316
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
translasious from the Arabic. He conceived the earth to be stationary in the
middle of the universe, and the sun, and all the other planets, to move round
her in the following order: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn. He confirmed the discovery of Hipparchus of the precession
of the equinoxes, and concluded it to be one degree in a century. It is now
known to be somewhat greater than that, being estimated at one degree in 72
years. He has given us the longitudes and latitudes of 1022 fixed stars; partly
from the labours of Hipparchus, and partly from his own observations. His
theory of the moon must have cost him much labour, and is a favourable proof
of his sagacity and patience. The lunar motions are so exceedingly compli-
cated, and subjected to so many irregularities, that it is not more than a cen-
tury since astronomers began to explain them in a satisfactory manner, setting
out from the theory first sketched by Newton, in his Principia; and accurate
lunar tables, notwithstanding their great importance to navigation, are of a
much shorter date. Ptolemy conceived the moon to move round a small circle,
while the centre of this circle moved in a circular orbit round the earth. The
earth was placed out of the centre of the orbit, and the orbit itself had a par-
ticular motion. This complicated hypothesis satisfied the phenomena to a
certain extent, and gave the moon's place in certain parts of the orbit with
tolerable precision; though in the intermediate points it was faulty, as every
false theory must naturally be. His explanation of the motions of the other
planets was similar. They moved in epicycles, the centres of which described
eccentric circles round the earth. He was obliged, in order to account for
some parts of their motions, in some measure to give up a favourite idea of the
ancient astronomers, that all the motions of the heavenly bodies were uniform.
There is some difference in the details of his explanation of the movements of
the superior and inferior planets. But it is not worth while to enter into
further particulars concerning a system which can be considered in no other
view than as a mathematical hypothesis, contrived to subject the motions of the
planets to calculation.
Ptolemy was one of the most laborious of all the ancients. Besides his Alma-
geste, which appears more than sufficient to employ the whole life of an
ordinary man, he has left us a Geography, in eight books, the composition of
which must have cost him immense labour. In it we find the first attempt to
mark the situation of places by their latitudes and longitudes; an idea due to
Hipparchus, and which is the only true method of pointing out the situation
of places exactly. Most of Ptolemy's latitudes are founded on loose calcula-
tions, from the length of the days and other doubtful data, and therefore are
often erroneous, as was unavoidable in those times, when the light of astronomy
was almost confined to Egypt.
Ptolemy may be considered as the last of the Grecian astronomers; for his
CHAP. I.]
317
MACHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
successors in the school of Alexandria, till the period of its destruction by the
Mahometans, added nothing to his theory. The perpetual religious disputes
which involved the Egyptians, after the introduction of the Christian religion,
was injurious to the cultivation of the sciences. It is remarkable enough that
Egypt has always been the focus of superstition, and that many of the absur-
dities which disfigure the Christian religion originated in that country. But
the Arabians, after the rage of conquest was over, and their princes began to The Arabians,
enjoy peace at home, began to turn their attention to the sciences which they
had at first despised. The Caliph Abu Giafar, surnamed Almansor, who reigned
about the middle of the eighth century, had considerable merit in promoting
this happy revolution. His successors Haroun-al-Raschid, (the perpetual hero
of the Arabian Tales) and Alamin, were influenced by the same spirit. But the
Caliph Abdalla Almanon, second son of Haroun-al-Raschid, who began to
reign at Bagdad in the year 814, was the prince to whom Arabian philosophy
lies under the greatest obligations. Having defeated the Greek Emperor
Michael III. he made it one of the conditions of peace, that the emperor
should deliver to him copies of all the Greek books of eminence. He collected
and encouraged by rewards a great number of translators, and thus put the
Arabians in possession of all the scientific treasures accumulated by the Greeks.
Among these books was the Almageste of Ptolemy, which was translated into
Arabic by Alhazen-ben-Joseph, assisted by a Christian called Sergius. Not
satisfied with this book, Almanon collected the most intelligent astronomers
whom he could procure, and caused them to draw up a complete body of the
science; a work which still exists in manuscript. Almanon, likewise, employed
a numerous band of astronomers to measure a degree of the meridian with
greater exactness than had been done by the Greeks. A vast plain in Mesopo-
tamia, called Sangior, was made choice of for the purpose. Here they divided ›
themselves into two bands, one of which measured due north, the other due
south, till each had completed a degree. The one measure was found to be 56
miles, the other 56 miles and two-thirds. Each of these miles contained 4,000
yards, containing each 27 inches; and the inch was equal to six grains of
barley placed side by side.
Encouraged by the munificence of the Califs, a vast number of Arabic astro- -
nomers made their appearance, who contributed considerably to the improve-
ment of the science. But it would be useless to attempt a dry catalogue of
names, as few of their works have been translated into the European languages;
though many of them exist in manuscript in various libraries. Oxford is said
to be particularly rich in Oriental manuscripts. Perhaps the most eminent of
all the Arabian astronomers was Albatenius, who had been called the Ptolemy Albatenius.
of the Arabians. He was born in Mesopotamia, and flourished about the year
880 of our era.
He was not a Mahometan, but a Sabean, or worshipper of
1
318
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Copernicus.
the stars. He approached nearer the truth than Ptolemy respecting the preces-
sion of the equinoxes, making it one degree in 66 years. He made the eccen-
tricity of the solar orbit 3,465 parts, supposing radius 100,000, which deter-
mination is very near the truth. He made the solar year too short by about two
minutes, owing, as Dr. Halley informs us, to his trusting too implicitly to
some erroneous observations of Ptolemy. He discovered the motion of the
sun's apogee, and pointed out the insufficiency of Ptolemy's hypothesis of the
lunar and planetary motions. Finally, he constructed a set of astronomical
tables more correct than those of Ptolemy, which enjoyed a high and deserved
reputation over all the East, and different editions of them have been published
in Europe.
Without noticing the numerous astronomers who appeared among the Sara-
cens and Persians, or in Spain while under the dominion of the Mahometans,
let us turn our attention to Europe after the revival of letters. It is remarkable
that for a period of nearly 300 years all the great astronomers were natives of
Germany. We have already mentioned Purbach and Regiomontanus under
the head of mathematics, and noticed the celebrity which they acquired by
their astronomical observations. The next great man who appeared was Coper-
nicus, who has given his name to the system of the motions of the heavenly
bodies at present universally received as the true one. Nicolas Copernicus was
born at Thorn, in Prussia, of a noble family, on the 19th of February, 1473.
After having learned Greek and Latin in his father's house, he went to the
University of Cracovia to continue his studies. Here he acquired the elements
of astronomy; and, inflamed with ardour by the high reputation which Regio-
montanus had acquired about 30 years before, he resolved to run the same
career, and on that account travelled into Italy, the country to which every
person who wished to acquire proficiency in the sciences at that time resorted.
Here he studied at Bologna and at Rome; and such was his proficiency that, in
this last city, he obtained a Professor's chair. He quitted Italy about the begin-
ning of the 17th century, and his uncle, who was Bishop of Warmia, having
made him a Canon in his Cathedral, he spent the rest of his life in that
situation.
Here he turned his attention with ardour to the study of the heavens. The
prodigious inconveniences of the Ptolemaic system struck him very forcibly.
The great confusion and irregularity of the motions of the heavenly bodies, and
the inconceivable and inconsistent velocity with which they must move, provided
the celestial sphere makes a complete revolution round the earth every 24 hours,
convinced him that astronomers had not yet succeeded in unravelling the true
motions of the heavenly bodies, and set him to search whether some more satis-
factory explanation was not to be found in the writings of the philosophers.
Plutarch furnished him with the first idea of his system, by informing him that
2
CHAP. I.]
319
MACHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
Philolaus, and other Pythagoreans, had placed the sun in the centre of the
system, and made the earth turn round it; and that they had accounted for the
apparent diurnal motion of the heavens round the earth by making the earth
turn round its axis. This last idea delighted him by its simplicity, and by its
removing at once some of the harshest suppositions that accompanied the Ptole-
maic system. He learned also from Martianus Capella that some philosophers
had conceived that Mercury and Venus moved round the sun.
This opinion
quadrated so much better with the phenomena, that he could hardly hesitate to
embrace it. Further, he observed himself that Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, al-
ways appeared much larger when in opposition to the sun than when they
were in any other part of their course. This he naturally ascribed to their
being much nearer the earth at that period. This was a strong reason for sus-
pecting that these planets did not move round the earth, otherwise it would be
necessary to give them a prodigious excentricity. Hence it was much more
probable that they moved round the sun. This opinion removed all difficulties,
and explained the whole of their apparently intricate motions in a very satis-
factory manner. These considerations induced Copernicus to conceive the sun
at rest in the centre of the system, and the planets to revolve round him in the
following order. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The
moon was degraded from the place of a primary planet to that of a satellite
moving round the earth, and accompanying that planet in its orbit.
Copernicus was not satisfied with the general agreement of his system with
appearances. He thought it necessary to examine whether it answered equally
well in every minute particular. To determine this important point, he under-
took a long course of observations, which he continued without intermission
for a period of 36 years before he ventured to publish his system. Nor did it
appear at last without great reluctance on his part. But having communicated
his ideas to some of his friends, Cardinal Schoenberg urged him not to conceal
any longer such a treasure from the philosophic world. Rheticus, Professor at
Wittemberg, attracted by the reputation of Copernicus, offered him his assist-
ance to put the last hand to his work. Copernicus, thus assailed on all sides,
could no longer hesitate. Accordingly his work appeared, in 1543, under the
title of De Revolutionibus Cælestibus, in six books. In his preface, addressed Publishes his
to Paul III. he presents his system only as a mathematical hypothesis, which system,
tallies better with the phenomena than the Ptolemaic; though from the argu-
ments which he advances in the book itself, it is easy to see that he was a firm
believer in the truth of his opinion. Copernicus died of a flux of blood on the
24th of May, 1543, a few days after the publication of his book. But his
reputation will live as long as astronomy continues to be cultivated among man-
kind.
The Earth had enjoyed for so long a period the tranquil possession of the
320
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
centre of the universe, that it could not be displaced without occasioning a vio-
lent contest.
A very keen dispute accordingly took place. On the one side
were arranged almost all the astronomers celebrated by their discoveries and
their genius; on the other the schoolmen, and the Roman Catholic divines,
who reasoned upon a subject which they did not understand, and advanced
arguments not worth refuting. This dispute, for the credit of philosophy, had
better be buried in oblivion, and on that account we shall not enter upon it
here.
We pass over the labours of William IV. Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, which
he continued with unremitting attention for 20 years, and afterwards committed
his observatory to the care of Rothman and Justus Byrge, and which were of
considerable importance to the progress of astronomy, to speak of Tycho, one
Tycho Brahe. of the most celebrated names in the annals of the science. Tycho Brahe was
born, in 1546, at Knadstrup, in Scania, of an illustrious family, still said to
exist in Denmark. His passion for astronomy originated from an eclipse of the
sun, which happened in the year 1560, when he was only 14 years of age. He
was so much struck with the justness of the calculation of those who announced
this phenomenon, that he resolved to make himself acquainted with the princi-
ples of so extraordinary a science. In 1562, he went to the University of
Leipsic; and his tutor, by prohibiting him from turning his attention to astro-
nomy, served only to increase his passion for the science. He sacrificed his
pocket money to purchase the proper books, and devoted the night to the peru-
sal of such as he could procure. By the year 1563, he had made such progress
in the study as to be sensible of the imperfection of the tables which announced
a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn, and he conceived the project of perfect-
ing the theory of the planets.
After remaining three years at Leipsic he returned to Copenhagen; but was
speedily disgusted by the contempt which the nobility and his own relations
expressed for his favourite study. This seems to have induced him to go abroad,
and he spent the next four years in travelling through different parts of Ger-
many. At Augsburg he contracted an acquaintance with two senators who
were lovers of astronomy, and procured a variety of instruments to be made by
the workmen of that city, who possessed considerable skill. On his return to
his own country, his uncle, Steno Billé, furnished him with a commodious
place for observing on one of his estates. Here he spent the year 1572, and
divided his time between astronomy and chemistry. This last science possessed
such attractions for him, that there was some risk of its diverting him from the
contemplation of the heavens, when an unlooked for occurrence fixed him for
ever to the study of astronomy. On the first of November, 1572, a new star
appeared all of a sudden in the constellation Cassiopeia, and shone with pecu-
liar lustre. Tycho was on his way to his laboratory, when happening to look up
CHAP. I.J
321
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
to the heavens, this new star attracted his attention, and struck him with
astonishment. He ran to his observatory, measured the distance of this new
star from several others, and continued to observe it, with the utmost attention,
all the time that it continued visible, which was about a year and a half. Tycho
had resolved to pay a new visit to Germany, and to travel into Italy, in 1573,
but several circumstances induced him to put off his journey to 1574. His first
journey was a visit to the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, who honoured him ever
after with his astronomical correspondence. When he came to Basil, he was
80 struck with the advantages of its situation on the borders of Germany,
France, and Italy, that he formed the resolution of transporting to it his instru-
ments, and of making it his abode during the rest of his life. But the munifi-
cence of Frederick, King of Denmark, at the instigation of the Landgrave of
Hesse Cassel, induced him to alter his resolution. That prince sent one of his
pages to him, requesting him to return to Copenhagen. Tycho having obeyed,
Frederick communicated to him his project; offered him the little island of
Huen at the entrance of the Baltic, as a convenient place for an observatory,
and undertook to be answerable for the expence of his instruments, and to give
him an annual pension amounting to a considerable sum. Tycho took posses-
sion of the isle of Huen in the summer of 1576, and laid the foundation of the
observatory so famous under the name of Uraniburg. Here he was accom-
panied by his family, by a number of workmen who were employed in con-
structing his instruments, and by about 12 young men who assisted him in his
observations. His reputation spread over Europe, and he was visited by many
noble and learned men from all quarters; among others by James VI. King of
Scotland, and afterwards of Great Britain, when he went to Copenhagen in
order to marry the daughter of King Frederick.*
In this situation, so much to his taste, Tycho spent more than 20 years, em-
ployed in assiduous observations, till the death of Frederick, his patron, in
1597, exposed him to the attacks of that envy and malignity to which eminent
are always exposed. Christian IV. listening to the suggestions of his
men
* King James wrote a copy of verses in praise of Tycho Brahé, which have been published, and
possess little merit. We shall insert them as a curiosity:
Ethereis bis quinque globis, queis machina mundi
Vertitur, ut celso est crustatus forice olympus
Ignibus, et pictus fulgentibus undique lychnis :
Pellucent vitreis domibus, vastisque planetæ
Orbibus, ut geminant cursos, vi et sponte rotati,
Ut miti aut torvo adspecta longe ante futura
Præmonstrant, regnisque tonans quæ fata volatet:
His tellure capis, quæ vis, quis motus et ordo
Cernere sublimem deductumque æthera terræ
Tychouis pandunt operæ ? lege, disce, videbis
Mira: domi mundum invenies, cælumque libello.
? T
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
enemies, deprived him of his pension, and obliged him to leave Uraniburg.
He transported his instruments to Copenhagen, and began to continue his
observations in that capital; when Valkendorf, his inveterate adversary, pro-
cured an order for his discontinuing them. He was even threatened with being
deprived of his instruments, the greatest loss which an astronomer can possibly
incur. Tycho hired a vessel, and, having put on board his family, his books,
and his instruments, set sail from his country with an intention never to return.
He reached Rostock in 1597, and from that city went to the house of Count
Rantzau, near Hamburg, where he finished his book, entitled Astronomia In-
stauratæ Mechanica; in which he gives a description of his different instru-
ments; and, in order to procure to himself a new patron, he dedicated it to the
Emperor Rodolphus II. His project succeeded. Rodolphus ordered his Vice-
chancellor to write to him, and invite him to Prague; and making him offers
with which he was perfectly satisfied, Tycho on the receipt of these offers
set out for Prague, and reached that city in 1599. The Emperor received him
in the most handsome manner, settled on him a pension of 3000 crowns per
annum, and offered him his choice of three houses in the neighbourhood to
establish an observatory. He made choice of Benatica; but some circum-
stances induced him to leave it, and return to Prague, where the Emperor pro-
cured for him the house of his old friend Curtius, in which he had resided formerly.
Here, assisted by Kepler, and by his disciples and secretaries Joestelius and Longo-
montanus, he renewed his astronomical observations with ardour, when he was un-
fortunately cut off by a sudden death, on the 24th of October, 1601, in the 55th
year of his age. Being at a ceremonious entertainment, in which, acording to
the custom of the age and country he was obliged to drink with almost every
person at table, he was seized with a strong desire to make water; which he
resisted, out of modesty, till the repast was at an end. But it was now too late;
he was afflicted with a retention of urine, which his medical attendants were
unable to cure, and died in the course of a few days.
The improvements which he introduced into astronomical observations, and
the precious collection of observations which he left behind him, have given him
a reputation which will be as lasting as his favourite science. A short sketch
of some of his most remarkable improvements' will be sufficient for our purpose
here. The astronomical instruments of the ancients were so imperfect, that
little confidence could be put in their observations. Some improvements had
been made in their instruments by Walther and Copernicus; but Tycho spent
great sums of money, and devoted much time and ingenuity to this important
part of astronomy; and perhaps went as far as he could well go without the
assistance of telescopes and pendulum clocks, which were not introduced into
observatories till after his time. Tycho was early sensible of the great defects
of the Ptolemaic catalogue of the fixed stars. Indeed, the method employed by
CHAP. I.]
323
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
the antients to determine the longitude and latitude of the stars was so defective,
that it was morally impossible for them to avoid errors. Tycho substituted the
planet Venus for the moon in their method, and ascertained the places of 1000
stars, with greater accuracy than had been formerly done. It must be admitted
that his determinations are not always correct; but they are perhaps as near
the truth as it was possible to go, before the happy invention of pendulum
clocks for the exact measurement of time. Before Tycho's time the comets had
been considered by all astronomers as mere meteors, floating in the sublunary
regions of the sky. This was the opinion of Aristotle, and of course was
adopted by all the schoolmen. But the comet of 1577 furnished Tycho with
an opportunity of correcting this erroneous notion. Examining that comet
with attention, he found that it had no sensible parallax. Hence he drew two
conclusions, both equally fatal to the Aristotelian doctrines; namely, that the
comet was beyond the region of the moon; and that the heavens, considered at
that time in the schools as solid, were permeable in every direction, and con-
tained no matter so dense as air. Subsequent comets, which he had an oppor-
tunity of observing, confirmed him still farther in these opinions; and they were
speedily acceded to by all astronomers as first principles. He even made some
steps towards determining the orbits of the comets; though at that period, when
the cycles and epicycles of Ptolemy were still considered as the courses of the
planets, nothing could be expected but a very rude approximation. This
opinion of Tycho, which shook the foundation of the Aristotelian doctrines,
was not acceded to without a pretty keen debate. But it was a contest between
learning and ignorance; between men of science and the votaries of the schools.
The advocates for the Aristotelian opinion were, one Craig, a Scotchman; and
Scipio Claramonti, a Professor of Pisa; who devoted a long life to stop the
progress of the sciences, as far as his influence or exertions could extend. The
advocates for the system of Tycho were, Kepler and Galileo; two of the
greatest philosophers of the age in which they lived. They refuted triumphantly
the miserable arguments of their opponents, and established the system of Tycho
on a basis which could not be overturned. Tycho was likewise the first person
who gave a theory of astronomical refraction. The existence of this refraction,
at least when objects were near the horizon, had been observed by Ptolemy,
and noticed by all succeeding observers; but they had ascribed it solely to the
vapours which they conceived to exist in abundance near the surface of the
earth. Tycho first showed that it was owing to the passage of the rays of light
through strata of air increasing in density. He determined the quantity of re-
fraction at the horizon pretty justly, and gave a table of the refractions up to
47° but he fell into several errors upon the subject, which were afterwards
pointed out. He conceived the refraction of the solar light to differ from that
of the stars; and he supposed both to terminate at a certain height in the
2 T£
324
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Kepler.
atmosphere. Both of these suppositions are contrary to truth. The refraction
is the same with regard to all the celestial bodies, and it continues to the very
zenith; though, before it reaches that point, it becomes insensible. Newton
afterwards gave a much more accurate table of refractions, which was improved
upon by Bradley; and the table of that accurate astronomer has been since im-
proved upon by subsequent observers.
Tycho made the theory of the moon much more perfect, and discovered
several irregularities which had escaped the ancients. He likewise made many
observations on the planets, but, not being satisfied with their accuracy, did not
publish them; though they were of much service to Kepler in his subsequent
investigations. Tycho's precious collection of astronomical observations remained
unpublished till 1666, when they were given to the world by Albert Curtius.
The copy from which he printed them was incorrect in many respects. The
original copy remained in Denmark, and was procured by Picard when he went
to Uraniburg, in 1671. Picard put the manuscript into the hands of the
French Academy of Sciences, who preserved it with proper care, and no doubt
at present it is to be found in the collection of the French Institute. It remains
only to say a few words on the system which Tycho attempted to substitute in
place of the Ptolemaic and Copernican. Satisfied by the arguments of Coper-
nicus that the Ptolemaic system was absurd; but being averse to the Copernican
system, either from vanity or religious scruples, he placed the earth in the
centre of the universe, and considered the sun to revolve round it, while the
other planets revolved round the sun. This system will mathematically account
for all the appearances as well as the Copernican; but it involved so many
inconsistencies and improbabilities that it never had many supporters. There
is another system called the Semitychonic, in which some of the absurdities
are removed, by conceiving the earth to revolve round its axis every 24 hours.
But the motion of the sun, carrying with it all the planets, round so small a
body as the earth has too much improbability to be easily admitted. Accord-
ingly, even the Semitychonic system had but few supporters.
We come now to the illustrious Kepler, who contributed more to the per-
fection of astronomy by his happy discoveries, than all his predecessors united
together. John Kepler was born on the 12th of December, 1571, at Wiel,
an Imperial city near the dutchy of Wirtemberg. His parents were noble, but
ruined by the long-continued wars in which Germany had been involved.
During the early years of his infancy he was left to the care of an infirm uncle,
and experienced the greatest difficulty in acquiring the first rudiments of his
education. At last, by the happy interference of the Duke of Wirtemberg, he
was put to school, and he entered into the University of Tubingen in the year
1591. Kepler himself had turned his views towards the church; but Mæstlin,
CHAP. I.]
325
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
a Professor at Tubingen, exhorted him to devote himself to astronomy. Being
some time after appointed Mathematical Professor at Gratz, and unwilling to
disoblige his patron the Duke of Wirtemberg, he accepted of the place, and
thus was under the necessity for some time of turning his attention to astronomy.
But at last perceiving the vast extent, and the sublimity of the science upon
which he had entered, he became sensible of its charms, and devoted himself to
astronomical investigations with alacrity and enthusiasm. The first fruit of his
studies was his Prodromus Dissertationum Cosmographicarum, &c.; published
in 1596, in which, from some fanciful opinions respecting the mysteries of
numbers, he endeavoured to explain why the number of the planets was only
six. Tycho Brahe, who perused this work, perceived the abilities of its author,
and exhorted him to lay aside speculating about causes, and turn his sole atten-
tion to observations.
Kepler married in 1597, and by that imprudent step (in a literary man
destitute of fortune) involved the rest of his life in poverty and distress. In
1598, the religious disturbances which raged in Germany obliged him to emi-
grate into Hungary. He returned to Gratz in 1600; but found the country so
desolated and disturbed by the calamities of war, that he was obliged to leave it
again. He repaired to Prague to visit Tycho Brahé, who procured for him
the title of Mathematician to the Emperor, together with a pension, which
was always ill paid. Here he fell ill of an intermittent fever, and was confined
for ten months; and quarrelled with Tycho because he refused to supply his
wife with money during his illness. However, he speedily made up this
quarrel, and was attached to Tycho by the Emperor, with a salary, to aid him
in his calculations. His situation in consequence was becoming more comfort-
able, when the sudden death of Tycho threw him into his former destitute state.
The next eleven years of his life were spent in the most abject poverty. At last
he received the arrears of his pension, and was appointed Mathematical Pro-
fessor at Lintz, in 1613. Here he passed about 16 years in tolerable tranquil-
lity, during which he published a considerable number of his works. In 1629
he entered into the service of Albert, Duke of Friesland, and was appointed a
Professor at Sagan. In 1630 he went to the Diet at Ratisbon, to solicit the
payment of his pension; and here he died on the fifth of November, of that
year, in the 59th year of his age. On his tomb-stone was engraved the follow-
ing inscription:
Mensus eram cælos, nunc terræ metior umbras.
Mens cælestis erat, corporis umbra jacet.
In Christo piè obiit, anno salutis 1630, die quinto Novembris, ætatis suæ quinquagesimo nono.
His writings were numerous, and on various subjects, and all marked with
the stamp of genius. But the most important of them all was the book pub- His discoveries.
3
326
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Galileo.
lished in 1609, entitled Astronomia Nova aтioλoynтos, sive Physica cælestis;
tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stella Martis. This book contains his three
grand discoveries, familiarly known under the name of Kepler's Three Laws.
They are the following: 1. All the planets move in ellipses, having the sun in
one of the foci; 2. The radius vector describes equal areas in equal times;
3. The squares of the periodic times of the planetary revolutions round the sun
are as the cubes of their distances from that luminary. It was in consequence
of a visit to Tycho, that Kepler was induced to make choice of Mars, in his re-
searches to discover the orbits of the planets. He found Tycho engaged in
correcting the orbit of Mars according to the Ptolemaic system of cycles and
epicycles, and he immediately expressed the little confidence he had in that
system. The great eccentricity of Mars rendered it easier for him to discover
the elliptic orbit of that planet, than it would have been had he made choice of
any of the others. Kepler's confidence in the mystical powers of numbers
never forsook him; and his discovery of his third law was in some measure
owing to this whimsical notion. But we shall abstain from dwelling upon the
foibles of one of the greatest men who has done honour to human nature.
The name of Galileo, the next astronomer that comes under our review,
recalls to our mind every thing that is respectable and noble. He was the great
founder of experimental science; and, during the whole period of a long life,
occupied the first place among the philosophers of Italy, at that time the centre.
and capital of the philosophy of Europe. Galileo was born at Pisa, on the
18th of February, 1564. His father, who was a noble Florentine, was versed
in the mathematical sciences, and gave his son an education suitable to his
views. Galileo was destined to be a physician; but an irresistible impulse drew
him towards mathematics and the mechanical sciences; and in the year 1589,
he obtained a Professor's Chair at Pisa. Here, however, he did not remain long:
his experiments on the falling of heavy bodies raised the resentment of the
Peripatetics, with whom that University was then filled, and obliged him to
leave it. He was invited to Padua, where his celebrity raised him to a Profes-
sor's Chair. Here he remained till 1609, when the Grand Duke of Tuscany,
unwilling that a foreign state should enjoy one of his subjects possessed of so
much merit and celebrity, invited him back to Pisa, and made him the Chief
Director of the University.
His splendid reputation, as far as foreign countries are concerned, may be
dated from the year 1609. Being at Venice, and hearing that the telescope
had been invented in Holland, though he received no account of the structure
of the instrument but merely of its effects, he speedily divined it from his
knowledge of optics, and soon made a telescope for himself which magnified
about 33 times. He turned it towards the heavens, and began to examine
the moon a few days after change. From the inequalities in the light and
CHAP. I.]
327
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
shade between the illuminated and dark part of that luminary, and from several
other circumstances, he drew as a conclusion, that the moon was a body similar
to our earth, and that it abounded with mountains and valleys. He even con-
trived to measure the height of one of the lunar mountains, and he showed that
it was much higher than any mountain upon the earth. Examining the milky
way and the nebulæ, he found that these parts of the heavens were covered
with clusters of stars too small to be seen by the naked eye, and that they owed
their luminous appearance to the multiplicity of these bodies. On the 8th of
January, 1610, turning his telescope to the planet Jupiter, he observed three
little stars, two on one side, and one on the other of the planet. These at first
he considered as fixed stars; but observing the planet night after night, and
finding that these stars continued always at the same distance from it notwith-
standing its progressive motion, he no longer hesitated to consider them as
moons, or satellites, moving round Jupiter, as our moon does round the earth.
Soon after he discovered a fourth satellite. When he published an account of
his discovery he called them the stars of the Medici, in honour of his patron
the Grand Duke. Not satisfied with this discovery, he examined the move-
ments of these satellites, and formed a theory of their revolutions so as to be
able to predict the place of each two months beforehand. He even conceived
the project of ascertaining the longitude by means of them; and, at the request
of the Grand Duke, made some efforts to construct tables of their motions; but
the project was never completed by him. On examining the planet Venus he
found that it changed its phasis like the moon, as Copernicus had concluded
that it must do. His telescope not possessing sufficient power to show him the
figure of the ring which surrounds the body of Saturn, the appearance of that
planet struck him with astonishment, but he was unable to explain it. His dis
covery of the spots on the sun's disc speedily followed those which we have men-
tioned, and contributed not a little to his celebrity.
Inquisition.
Galileo was too much of a philosopher not to draw from these discoveries He is con-
strong proofs of the truth of the Copernican system. He established the simi- demned by the
larity of the other planets to the earth, and showed that satellites revolved round
Jupiter as our moon does round the earth. The phases of Venus, and many
other points which it is unnecessary to notice, were urged by him with irresisti-
ble force in favour of the motion of the earth, and the position of the sun in
the centre of the system. These opinions were the occasion of the celebrated
condemnation of Galileo by the Inquisition; a condemnation which contributed
more than any thing else to throw a slur upon the ignorance and absurdity of
the Roman Catholic religion. Foscarini, an Italian priest, and a convert to the
system of Copernicus, was the innocent cause of this condemnation. In 1615,
he wrote a letter to his general Fantoni, explaining the texts of scripture which
appear contrary to the opinion of Copernicus, and showing, in a very ingenious
328
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Boygens.
manner, how they ought to be understood. About the same time a Spanish
clergyman, called Didace à Stunica, in a commentary on the book of Job,
embraced the same opinion, and endeavoured to show that the texts of scripture,
representing the motion of the sun, were merely written so in order to conform
with the commonly received opinion of the world at the time when these books
were published. These writings drew the attention of the Inquisition; they
were condemned by the College of Cardinals; and those passages of the book of
Copernicus, in which he asserts the reality of his system, were included in the
condemnation. Galileo was too celebrated a man to escape notice upon this
occasion. He was summoned before the Inquisition about the end of the year
1615; his opinions were condemned as heretical; and he was ordered to sub-
scribe a formal recantation of them. Galileo did not choose to run the risk of
perpetual imprisonment: he disavowed his opinions entirely, promised never
again to maintain or propagate them, and was dismissed by the Inquisition in
the beginning of the year 1616. Provoked at this unmerited treatment, Gali-
leo meditated a retaliation, which he executed, in 1632, by the publication of
his Systema Cosmicum. This book consists in a dialogue between three speakers;
namely, Sagredo, a Venetian senator, his old friend; Galileo himself, under
the name of Salviati; and a peripatetic, named Simplicio. The conversation
turns upon the different systems respecting the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies. Poor Simplicio defends of course the opinion of Aristotle, which places
the earth in the centre of the universe, and brings in its defence all the argu-
ments which the most consummate astronomer could advance in its favour; but
he is sadly treated, and completely refuted, by his two antagonists, who support
the Copernican system. Galileo probably expected that his patron, the Grand
Duke, would defend him from the vengeance of the Inquisition. But he was
mistaken. He was summoned the second time to appear at Rome on the 23d
June, 1632, and on his arrival in that city he was arrested. He was confined
in the house of Noailles, the French Ambassador, and obliged to subscribe a
most humiliating recantation, which was published by the Inquisition. In con-
sequence of his relapse he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment; but after
the interval of a year he was allowed to return home. Some years before his
death he lost the use of his eyes; but being accompanied by his two pupils,
Torricelli and Viviani, he spent the latter part of his life pretty comfortably at
his country house of Arcetri, which he called his prison. He died in 1642.
We come now to a period in which the number of astronomers become so
great, and their discoveries so frequent, that we must confine ourselves chiefly
to those who were Fellows of the Royal Society; and to those Fellows who
contributed most essentially to the progress of the science; for almost all the
celebrated astronomers in Europe enjoyed the honour of being associated with
that illustrious body. The next person that comes to be mentioned is Huygens,
CHAP. I.]
329
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
a man who occupied the very first rank among philosophers as a mathematician,
an astronomer, and a mechanician, and who perhaps is entitled to the first place
among the respectable list of literary men and philosophers that Holland has
produced. Christian Huygens, of Zelem and Zulichem, was born at the
Hague on the 4th of April, 1629. His father was not only a man of letters;
but a philosopher and mathematician, and he was the first instructor of his son.
Being intended for the bar, young Huygens was sent to the University of
Leyden, where he found Schooten the commentator of Descartes; and, profiting
by the instructions of this skilful mathematician, and by the resources of his
own genius, he soon made himself master of the most difficult parts of the
Cartesian geometry. Schooten, in his commentary, gives us some valuable re-
marks made at that time by Huygens. The appearance of the famous quadra-
ture of the circle by Gregory St. Vincent induced Huygens to commence
author. He refuted this pretended quadrature in a small-pamphlet, to which
the partizans of Gregory St. Vincent were never able to make any satisfactory
reply. The same year he published his Theoremata de Circuli et Hyperbola
Quadratura; and, in the year 1659, he published his ingenious treatise De
Circuli Magnitudine Inventa Nova. By the year 1665, his reputation was so
high, that when Louis XIV. founded the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
he considered it as an object to associate him as one of the Members, and of
fered him terms so honourable and advantageous, that Huygens accepted of
them. He came to Paris in 1666, and continued in that capital till 1681.
During this period he enriched the Memoires of the French Academy with a
great number of profound and ingenious discussions. The revocation of the
edict of Nantz was the occasion of his leaving France. Though he was as-
sured that he should enjoy the same liberty as before, and not be molested for
his religious opinions, he would not consent to live in a country where his reli-
gion was proscribed, and therefore returned to Holland. After his return to
his own country, he continued his labours, and published several important
works. He died on the 5th of June, 1695, in the sixty-sixth year of his age,
having bequeathed his papers to the University of Leyden, and requested
Burcher de Volder and Fullenius to select such of them as they thought of
value, and give them to the public. This task they executed in the year 1700,
and some time after 's Gravesende published a complete edition of all the works
of Huygens in four volumes in quarto.
The first, and not the least considerable of the astronomical discoveries of His disco-
Huygens, was the real nature or rather figure of the luminous appearance veries.
which accompanies the planet Saturn, and which had puzzled all preceding
astronomers. Furnished with telescopes of his own construction, and much
more perfect than those which had been employed by preceding observers, he
perceived that what Galileo had taken for two detached globes were united to
2 U
330
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Saturn by two streaks of light. And continuing to observe the planet in dif-
ferent positions, he found that this luminous portion gradually assumed the ap-
pearance of an ellipse surrounding the body of the planet. This gave him the
idea of a flat ring surrounding the body of Saturn at some distance. An opi-
nion which has been confirmed and established by succeeding observations. Dr.
Herschell has lately endeavoured to demonstrate that this ring, discovered by
Huygens, consists in fact of two distinct rings, separated from each other by a
dark interval. He has also made some interesting remarks upon the figure of
the planet itself, which he has shown not to be round. Huygens likewise dis-
covered one of the satellites of Saturn; and, misled by a false analogy, he con-
cluded that this discovery completed the number of the planetary bodies. For
he conceived that the number of the primary and of the secondary bodies must
be just the same, and as there were six primary planets known, he took it for
granted that the secondary planets must be just six also. Subsequent discoveries
have shown us how erroneous this opinion was. The number of primary planets
at present known amounts to eleven, and that of the secondary is considerably
greater. Huygens himself was speedily undeceived. For Cassini discovered
two others, one in 1671, and the other in 1672, lying on different sides of the
Huygenian satellites. The excellent glasses of Campani enabled him afterwards
to discover two others still nearer Saturn than any of the preceding. In the
year 1784, Dr. Herschell, assisted by his excellent telescopes, discovered two
other satellites circulating between Saturn and his ring; so that the whole num-
ber of satellites belonging to this planet amounts to seven; which, together
with the ring, must supply the inhabitants of that remote planet with a very
considerable quantity of light.
But perhaps the most precious presents which Huygens made to astronomers
were his pendulum clock and his micrometer;* by the one furnishing them
with an exact measure of time, the most precious element in all astronomical
calculations; and by the other enabling them to measure small angular distances
with much greater precision than would otherwise be possible. The microme-
ter was afterwards improved by Azout, and has been brought to a state of per-
fection by the improvements of modern times.
In the year 1671, the French Academy sent Richer to Cayenne, to settle, by
more accurate observations than could be made in Europe, some of the elements
of the theory of the sun. The most memorable and important of his observa-
tions was that a pendulum clock, which beat seconds at Paris, went too slow at
Cayenne; and he found it necessary to shorten the pendulum. This observa-
*The micrometer was really first invented by Gascoigne, an astronomer, who was associated with
Horrox, and who lost his life during the civil wars of Charles I. This is clearly proved by Townley
and Flamsteed, in the Philosophical Transactions.
CHAP. I.]
331
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
tion induced Huygens to conclude that the earth was an oblate spheroid flat-
tened at the poles: an opinion which Newton demonstrated from the theory
of gravitation, on the supposition that the earth had been originally in a fluid
state.*
This led to the famous controversy between Cassini and the New-
tonians; which was decided in favour of Newton, by the celebrated measure-
ments of a degree of the earth's meridian, in the torrid and frigid zones, by
deputations from the French Academy of Sciences.
Cassini, one of the most eminent astronomers of the 17th century, to whom Cassini.
we are indebted for the discovery of four of the satellites of Saturn, bestowed
much attention in observing the motions of Jupiter's satellites. He observed a
curious circumstance respecting the eclipses of the first satellite. At some
seasons of the year, they happen about 16 minutes too soon, according to the
tables at that time used; while at the opposite seasons of the year, they happen
about 16 minutes too late. They happen too soon when the earth is in that
part of her orbit which is nearest Jupiter, and too late when in that part which
is most remote. Cassini explained this anomally at first, by ascribing it to the
time taken up by the ray of light in passing from the satellite to our eye. If
light moves from the satellite to our eye, it is obvious that it must take some
time to traverse the space between them, and the greater the distance, the
longer is the time which must elapse before it reaches the eye of the observer.
But this opinion, which appeared at first sight so simple and satisfactory,
Cassini afterwards gave up, because no such anomaly was perceptible in the
eclipses of the other satellites, which he thought ought to have been the case
if the retardation and acceleration were owing to the movement of light. Cas-
sini's explanation was soon after taken up by Roemer, and illustrated with so
much force and perspicuity, that it satisfied the astronomical world, who have
unanimously concurred in the explanation of Roemer; an explanation which
received much additional weight from Bradley's subsequent discovery of the aberra-
tion of light. The reason why the anomaly does not appear in the eclipses of the
other satellites of Jupiter is, that these eclipses are not so regular as those of the
first satellite, and the immersion is so slow that it is difficult to be sure of it
within three or four minutes. From this theory, it follows, that light takes
about eight minutes to travel the half of the earth's orbit, or to move from the
sun to the earth, which is reckoned nearly 95,000,000 of English miles.
To this theory Roemer is indebted chiefly for his celebrity. Olaus Roemer Roemer.
was born at Copenhagen, the 25th of September, 1644. His parents were in
poor circumstances; but this did not prevent their son from acquiring a liberal
education, and from prosecuting the mathematical sciences, to which his genius
*Newton's Principia, in which this theory is developed, were published several years before
Huygens gave his thoughts on the subject to the world.
2 v2
332
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Hooke.
chiefly led him. When Picard went to Uraniburg, he got acquainted with
Roemer, and was so much pleased with his sagacity that he carried him with
him to France. In 1672 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and
received a pension from the French King, Louis XIV., who was the most
munificent patron of the sciences of the age in which he lived. In 1681,
Roemer was recalled by the King of Denmark, and made Astronomer Royal.
He spent many years in making observations, in order to discover the annual
parallax of the fixed stars; observations which his successor Horrebow after-
wards published, under the title of Copernicus Triumphans; and which he
considered as demonstrating the annual parallax of the fixed stars. But they
were afterwards shown to be inconsistent with the parallax which ought to
arise from the annual motion of the earth; and Dr. Bradley was able to explain
them upon different principles. Roemer died in 1710, on the 19th of Septem-
ber, in the 61st year of his age.
•
It is now time to turn our eyes to Great Britain, where, during the 17th and
beginning of the 18th century, the number of astronomers was uncommonly
great. We do not think it necessary to take any notice of Horrox or Gascoigne;
though their merits, especially those of the former, were great; because they
lived before the origin of the Royal Society. But Dr. Robert Hooke occupied
too prominent a place, during the first thirty years of the Royal Society, and
was too remarkable a man to be omitted. Though he paid considerable atten-
tion to astronomy, this was not the science to which he owed his great reputa-
tion. As a mechanical genius, he holds the very first rank of the age in which
he lived, not even excepting Newton and Huygens; perhaps indeed he was
the greatest mechanic that ever existed. Robert Hooke was born at Fresh-
water, on the west side of the Isle of Wight, on the 18th July, 1635. He was
at first so very weak and infirm that he was not expected to live, and was there-
fore for several years educated at home by his father, who was a clergyman.
He displayed from his earliest years a ready apprehension, a strong memory,
and a surprising invention. After learning English, he began to apply himself
to the Latin grammar; but falling ill, he was obliged to drop his studies, and his
father had thoughts of binding him an apprentice to a watch-maker, or a
painter, for which professions his mechanical turn seemed particularly to qualify
him. But the death of his father, in 1648, prevented him from putting either
of these schemes in execution. After this he was put to Westminster school,
where he learned Greek and Latin, and made some proficiency in Hebrew. He
went to the University of Oxford, in 1653, and took his degree of Master of
Arts, in 1660. While at the University, he became conspicuous by his me-
chanical inventions; and the air pump which he contrived for Mr. Boyle gave
him so much celebrity, that we find his name included in the first list of
Members, chosen by the President and Council of the Royal Society, after they
CHAP. I.]
333
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
had received their charter from Charles II. Soon after he was appointed
Curator to the Society, and his business was to contrive and exhibit experi-
ments at the meetings of that illustrious body. He was unremitting in his
exertions, and exhibited a vast number of experiments and inventions, and read
a great multitude of papers before the Royal Society, the list of which is so
very long that we are under the necessity of omitting it.*
*
In the year 1664, Sir John Cutler gave a salary of 501. per annum to Dr.
Hooke, for reading a course of mechanical lectures, under the direction of the
Royal Society. These lectures were afterwards published, under the name of
Lectiones Cutleriana. Some time after he was appointed Professor of Astro-
nomy, at Gresham College. We pass over his quarrel with Mr. Oldenburg,
which originated in that jealousy for his inventions by which he was charac-
terized. This quarrel did Dr. Hooke very little honour: Mr. Oldenburg was
publicly supported by the Royal Society, and appears to have acted with per-
fect propriety. In the year 1677, when Mr. Oldenburg died, Dr. Hooke was
chosen Secretary of the Society in his place; and while he held that situation
he published the seven numbers of Philosophical Collections, which have been
always considered as a part of the Philosophical Transactions. Towards the
end of his life his temper, which was always bad, became intolerable. He
claimed as his own the inventions and discoveries of all the world; being gene-
rally disappointed in his claims, he at last refused to communicate any of his
discoveries to the Royal Society, or the public, and seems in fact to have been
in a state bordering upon derangement. For the two or three last years of his
life he is said to have sat night and day at a table, engrossed with his inven-
tions and studies, and never to have gone to bed or even undressed. He died
on the third of March, 1703, in the 67th year of his age. In his person he
was small and deformed; but he was exceedingly active, and spared no pains
to execute all his mechanical contrivances.
His principal book is his Micrographia. His Lampas also possesses great
merit, and deserves the perusal of the chemists of the present day. His post-
humous works contain likewise much curious and valuable matter. The greatest
of his mechanical inventions is the method of regulating watches by the balance
spring, as a substitute for the pendulum; a contrivance which has made the
watch susceptible of much accuracy, as a measure of time. His object seems
to have been to apply it to the discovery of the longitude at sea: and though
he did not succeed in his attempts, the method has since been carried to great
perfection, and time-keepers have been made which for more than two months
* Mr. Waller published a Life of Hooke, prefixed to his posthumous works; there is also a Life
of him in Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors. Either of these gives a sufficient list of his
papers and inventions. The greater number are also to be found in Birch's History of the Royal
Society.
3
354
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Flamsteed.
are capable of giving the longitude without any considerable error. Huygens
has been considered as the author of this happy invention; but there is com-
plete proof that Hooke anticipated him by about 14 years. As to his astrono-
mical labours, they are not of so much importance as his mechanical inven-
tions. He made some efforts to discover the annual parallax of the fixed stars.
Bradley afterwards adopted his method, and was led by it to his celebrated
discovery of the aberration of light. He gave directions respecting the best
mode of measuring a degree of the earth's surface; and his method seems to
have been afterwards adopted by the French astronomers. But the most inge-
nious of all his astronomical speculations was his notion respecting gravitation,
which he conceived to be the power that kept the planets in their orbits. He
even made some experiments to determine the law of gravitation; but his ma-
thematical knowledge was not sufficiently great to enable him to succeed.
When Newton's Principia appeared, Hooke, with that jealousy which was
natural to him, claimed priority respecting the idea of gravitation. Newton,
who was candour itself, admitted his claim, but showed at the same time that
Hooke's notion of gravitation was different from his own, and that it did not
coincide with the phenomena. In reality, the notion of gravitation is as
ancient at least as the days of Lucretius, and is particularly noticed by Kepler.
Newton's merit consisted, not in ascribing the planetary motions to gravitation,
but in determining the law which gravitation follows, and in showing that it
exactly accounts for all the planetary phenomena, which no other system does.
Astronomy lies under much greater obligations to Flamsteed, who devoted
the whole course of his life to the most assiduous observations. John Flamsteed
was born at Denby, in Derbyshire, on the 19th of August, 1646. He was
educated at the Free School of Derby, and at the age of 14 fell into a severe
illness, which impaired his constitution, and prevented him from going to the
University, as had been intended. But this did not entirely obstruct his learn-
ing, as he applied himself to his studies with all the assiduity in his power; and
in the year 1662, Sacro Bosco's book on the Sphere having fallen into his
hands, he perused it with great attention, and contracted in consequence a
strong taste for astronomical pursuits. For some time he had no other books
on the subject but Sacro Bosco's Treatise, and Street's Caroline Tables; but
Mr. Halton, a neighbouring mathematician, having contracted an acquaintance
with him, in consequence of an eclipse of the sun, which he calculated in 1666,
supplied him with Riccioli's Almagestum Novum, and Kepler's Rudolphine
Tables. In the year 1669, he calculated a set of ephimerides for the succeeding
year, and sent them to the Royal Society. They were read, and highly ap
proved of by this illustrious body; and Flamsteed, in consequence, acquired
the friendship and correspondence of all the eminent mathematicians and astro-
nomers in London. In 1670 he paid a visit to London, in order to become
6
CHAP. I.]
335
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
personally acquainted with these celebrated men. Here he got acquainted with
Sir Jonas Moore, who continued ever after his zealous friend and patron; and
here he procured a telescope, a micrometer, and several other instruments, with
which, till that period, he had been entirely unprovided. On his return, he
entered himself a student at Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1674 he wrote a
theory, or rather a table, of the tides, at the request of Sir Jonas Moore, who
presented it to King Charles II. When the Royal Observatory of Greenwich
was founded, Flamsteed, chiefly by the influence of Sir Jonas Moore, was
appointed Astronomer Royal, with a salary of 100l. a year. He had entered
likewise into orders, and was presented with the Living of Burslow, in Surrey,
which he retained as long as he lived. Flamsteed was of a morose, unsociable
disposition; and, in the latter part of his life, was upon bad terms with most
of his contemporaries. From some of his letters, it even appears that he com-
plained of Sir Isaac Newton, as unreasonable in his demands of observations.
Dr. Halley, in the preface of the Historia Cœlestis Britannica, which he pub-
lished in 1712, draws rather an unfavourable picture of the disposition of
Flamsteed; and I find, from one of Sir Hans Sloane's manuscripts, in the
British Museum, that in the year 1710 he was expelled the Royal Society, be-
cause he refused to pay his annual contribution.
Flamsteed's observations were chiefly directed towards the moon, in order to
complete the theory of that luminary, for the purposes of observation and
towards determining the place of the fixed stars, with more precision than had
been done by preceding astronomers. Dr. Halley published an edition. of his
observations in 1712, in one volume folio, contrary to the wishes of Flamsteed,
who never would acknowledge the work as his. He prepared an edition of the
work himself, but died of a stranguary in 1719, before it was finished. It was
afterwards printed and published by his widow, in 1725, in three volumes
folio; and contains a prodigious number of observations, not only made by
himself, but by Gascoigne, who was likewise a Derbyshire man, and had ob-
served during the time of the civil wars. The third volume contains the posi-
tion of 3000 stars, several of them telescopic: the situation of 76 stars in the
zodiac is determined with particular care, because they may be eclipsed by the
moon, or the planets. In 1729, Mr. Hodgeson published an Atlas Coelestis from
this catalogue; a work of very great service to astronomers.
Few men have led a more active life, or run a more successful and brilliant Halley.
literary career, than Dr. Halley, who seems entitled to the second place
among the British philosophers of the age in which he lived; and, after New-
ton, claims the first rank among the Members of the Royal Society. Edmond
Halley was born at St. Leonard's, Shoreditch, on the 8th of November, 1656.
His father was in affluent circumstances, and spared no pains to improve the
promising genius of his son. He was educated at St. Paul's School, under Dr.
336
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Gale, and made great proficiency in the languages and geometry. He went to
Oxford in the 17th year of his age; and while in that University, he employed
a great part of his time in the study of astronomy, to which he was particularly
attached; his father having furnished him with a convenient apparatus. His
progress was so great in that, his favourite study, that before he was 20 years
of age he published several papers, on the subject, of real merit; which gave him
considerable celebrity among astronomers. In the year 1677, he conceived the
project of making a catalogue of the stars of the southern hemisphere, and
addressed himself to Sir Joseph Williamson, Secretary of State, and Sir Jonas
Moore, Surveyor of the Ordnance, who approved of his design, and prevailed
upon King Charles II. to send him out for that object to St. Helena, which he
had been told was a very convenient position for his purpose. This island, or
rather rock, lying about the 17th degree of southern latitude, at an immense
distance from every other land, he conceived would afford him every facility
for viewing the heavens, and ascertaining the position of the stars. But the
frequent fogs which hover over the island made the task much more difficult
than he had expected, and it was only by embracing every opportunity which
offered, during his abode on the island, that he was enabled to execute his pur-
pose. He ascertained the position of 350 stars; and published his account
of his labours in 1676, under the title of Catalogus Stellarum Australium. In
honour of his royal patron, he formed a new southern constellation, to which
he gave the name of Robur Carolinum, the Royal Oak. During his stay at St.
Helena, he had an opportunity of observing the transit of Mercury over the
sun's disk; an observation of some importance, because it could not be com-
pletely made in Europe, the sun not being risen in that country at the begin-
ning of the transit.
Soon after his return to England, he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1679 he went to Dantzick, in order to satisfy himself and astro-
nomers what degree of confidence ought to be put in the observations of
Hevelius; and likewise to settle the dispute between Hevelius and Hooke, rela-
tive to the use of telescopic sights in astronomical observations. Halley made
a number of observations together with Hevelius, and expressed himself highly
satisfied with the accuracy of that astronomer. In 1680 he went to Paris, and
from that capital to Rome, proposing to make the tour of Europe; but his
private affairs obliged him to return home in 1681. He had not been long at
home when he married a daughter of Mr. Tooke, Auditor of the Exchequer ;
established his residence at Islington, set up his instruments, and began to
occupy himself assiduously in astronomical observations. But such was his
assiduity, and such the versatility of his genius, that one department of science
was not sufficient to occupy his attention. In 1683, he published his Theory
of the Variation of the Compass; founded on the opinion, that the earth is a
CHAP. I.]
337
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
great magnet, having four magnetic poles, two near the north, and two near the
south pole. In 1684, he turned his thoughts to the theory of the planetary
motions; and gravity occurred to him, as it had done to Dr. Hooke, as the
probable cause. But he could not satisfy himself as to the law according
to which this power diminishes, and he applied to Dr. Hooke, and to Sir Chris-
topher Wren, without obtaining any additional information. This induced him
to make a journey to Cambridge, in order to consult Sir Isaac Newton. Sir
Isaac communicated to him twelve theorems, which he had drawn up on the
subject, comprehending the principles of what is now known by the name of
the Newtonian theory of gravitation. Dr. Halley was delighted with them,
and urged Newton so keenly not to withhold his theory from the world, that
he prevailed upon him to draw up his Principia; which were published in
1686, and constitute such a memorable era in astronomy and science.
In 1685, he became Clerk to the Royal Society, and seems, for several years
about that period, to have been the principal person employed in drawing up
the Philosophical Transactions. In 1687, he published his curious paper on
evaporation; in which he explained, in a satisfactory manner, why the Me-
diterranean Sea does not grow larger, notwithstanding the numerous rivers
which flow into it. In 1692, he was candidate for the Savilian Professorship
of Astronomy, at Oxford; but lost it because Bishop Stillingfleet refused to
recommend him, on account of his opinions, which were considered as unfa-
vourable to Christianity.
ascertain the
About the year 1698, he conceived the design of making a voyage, to deter- His voyage to
mine the variations of the needle, in order to make a more correct theory of that variation.
important circumstance than he had hitherto been able to make. He had
interest enough with King William to get himself appointed Captain of the
Paramour Pink. He set sail from the River on the 20th of October, 1698.
He advanced along the African coast, and then proceeded west to the coast of
America, going some degrees to the south of the Line. But his officers be-
coming refractory, he proceeded to the West Indies, in order if possible to
exchange them for others; and finding that could not be done, he returned
again to England for that purpose about the beginning of July, 1699. He
sailed again on the 16th of September, the same year, and went to about 53°
of the southern latitude, where he was in a manner stopped by the ice. Having
fully accomplished the object of his voyage, he returned to England, and an-
chored in Long Reach, on the 7th of September, 1700. Fom this voyage Dr.
Halley acquired the title of Captain in the Navy, and Queen Caroline after-
wards procured him half-pay; which he retained during the remainder of his
life. The result of these voyages was his General Chart, published in 1701;
showing, at one view, the variation of the compass, in all the seas which
2 X
338
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
British navigators frequented.* Very soon after, Dr. Halley went out again
in the same ship, in order to observe the course of the tides in every part of the
English channel, and to determine the latitudes and longitudes of the principal
headlands. This he accomplished with his usual expedition and precision, and,
in 1702, published a large Chart of the British Channel. In 1703, the Em-
peror of Germany sent for him, to fix upon a proper place for a harbour in
the Gulf of Venice; but, upon the representations of the Dutch, the design
was laid aside.
On the death of Dr. Wallis, in 1703, Dr. Halley succeeded him as Savilian
Professor of Geometry, at Oxford; and, by the unanimous voice of the Uni-
versity, he had the degree of Doctor of Laws conferred upon him. In 1713,
he succeeded Sir Hans Sloane, as Secretary to the Royal Society; and in 1719,
on the death of Mr. Flamsteed, he was appointed his successor, as Astronomer
Royal at Greenwich. This was a situation exactly to his taste, as it enabled
him to devote himself to his favourite object, the theory of the moon.
If we
consider that, when he was appointed to this laborious situation, he had
reached his 64th year, and that he continued for more than 20 years without
any assistance to observe so assiduously that he scarcely lost a meridian transit
of the moon, we shall have some idea of the uncommon activity of mind and
body which characterized this extraordinary man. He died on the 14th of
January, 1742, in the 85th year of his age. While Astronomer Royal, he was
frequently visited by Queen Caroline, who was a most distinguished patroness
of literature and science. The late Dr. Maskelyne used to relate a conversa-
tion that passed at one of these visits; upon what authority he told it we do not
know. Queen Caroline expressed her regret at the smallness of his salary as
Astronomer Royal, and offered to use her influence with his Majesty to get it
increased. Dr. Halley requested the Queen not to make any such application:
For, said he, the consequence of an increase of salary will be, that the place
will come in time to be bestowed on some younger son of some nobleman,
totally unfit for the office, but drawn to it merely by the emoluments.
In the preceding sketch, we have noticed only a very few of Dr. Halley's
literary labours. His mathematical and astronomical papers were very numer-
ous and valuable; and published chiefly in the Philosophical Transactions.
His labours to There is one branch of his astronomical labours, however, which he had so
lunar theory. much at heart, and towards which he devoted so much of his time, that it
would be improper to pass it over in total silence. The perfection of the lunar
complete the
In the year 1775, the original journals of Dr. Halley's two voyages were pnblished, by Mr.
Alexander Dalrymple, in a thin quarto volume. They are not of much value, and were obviously
never intended for publication by Dr. Halley himself.
CHAP. I.]
339
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
theory was always an important object with him. Even when he published his
Catalogue of the Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, he mentioned several im-
portant discoveries which he made respecting the moon's motion. For example,
that the moon moves more rapidly when the earth is in her aphelion, than in
her perihelion; and, on that account, he introduced into the calculation of the
moon's place a new equation, depending on the distance of the earth from the
sun. He perceived that a great deal was yet wanting in order to render the
theory of the moon's motions complete; and that these additions could not be
expected from one man, nor from one age. He therefore thought of another
method of subjecting the inequalities of the motions of that luminary to calcu-
lation. The principal inequalitics in the moon's motion depend upon her
position with respect to her apogee, to her nodes, and to the sun. Hence, if
a period of years could be found, at the end of which all these things were
brought to the same situation as at first, is is obvious that the inequalities of the
moon would renew themselves again in the same order as at first, and might
therefore be predicted exactly, provided they had been observed during the pre-
ceding period. But the most remote antiquity has furnished us with a period of
this kind. This consists of 223 lunations, and was known to the Chaldeans by
the name of Saros. This period consists of 18 Julian years 11 days 7 hours
42′ 45″, and the eclipses of the sun and moon succeed each other in every one
of these periods, nearly in the very same manner. Dr. Halley examined this
period, and found, that at the end of it the phenomena of the sun and moon
are renewed exactly in the same order, and within half an hour of the same
time. But this difference, which has some influence on the real place of the
moon, and on the time, has no sensible effect upon the equations. Hence, at
the end of the period, the difference between the calculated and real place f
the moon is not sensible. Halley conceived the idea of rectifying the theory of
the moon by means of this period, as early as the year 1680; and with that
view had made a continued series of observations upon the moon for 16 months
together, during the years 1682, 1683, and 1684; and he made the first essay
of his new method upon the eclipse of the sun, which happened in the month
of July, 1684, deducing all the circumstances of it from the eclipse which had
been observed in 1666: and his calculation approached much nearer the truth
than any other deduced from the best tables. After being appointed Astro-
nomer Royal, he renewed his observations at Greenwich, in the year 1722, and
resolved to make a continued set of observations on the moon during the whole
period of a Saros. After the expiration of one half of the period, he gave an
account of his plan, and of its progress, in a paper published in the Transac-
tions of the Royal Society, for 1731. In this paper he aunounced, that what
had already been done would enable navigators to determine the longitude at
sea, by the place of the moon, within 20 leagues of the truth. This favourable
2 x 2
340
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
His tables.
Theory of
Descartes.
Newtonian
theory.
result induced several other astronomers to direct their attention to the same
object. Delisle, of Petersburgh, observed the moon for a course of 12 years
without intermission. But M. Le Monnier is the astronomer who devoted the
greatest share of attention to this subject: he finished the period of Halley,
and began and finished a complete period himself.
It would be improper not to mention the astronomical tables of Halley, which
were partly drawn up by him in 1725; but labouring with much industry to
render them more and more perfect, he did not publish them till he was pre-
vented by death. They were published at last in 1749, and were for many years
the best and most complete with which astronomers were furnished: though of
late years other tables have been constructed still more perfect, and entitled to a
greater degree of confidence.
But it is time to turn our attention to the various theories of the planetary
motions which have been offered by philosophers. It is needless to specify the
various speculations of the ancient philosophers on the subject. The first theory,
which attempted to account for the motions of the planets in detail, was that of
Descartes, who conceived them to be placed in certain vortexes of matter rc-
volving round the sun, and carrying them along while the secondary planets
were carried round their primary by smaller vortexes of a similar kind. Newton
demonstrated that these supposed vortexes were inconsistent with the pheno-
mena; and notwithstanding the attempts of John Bernoulli to point out flaws
in this demonstration, it has stood the test of the closest investigation, has been
acquiesced in by the philosophic world, and has therefore overturned the Car-
tesian hypothesis. Newton himself adopted gravitation as the power which he
conceived to retain the planets in their orbits; an opinion which seems to have
been entertained by the Epicureans, since Lucretius assigns it as a reason for
believing the world to be infinite, otherwise all the bodies of which it is com-
posed would, according to him, have approached each other, and at last all
united together. The same opinion was also embraced by Kepler; though in
many parts of his works he seems to be better pleased with a kind of magnetic
attraction. Dr. Hooke, likewise, had embraced the same opinion, and published
a small paper explaining the planetary motions according to that doctrine. The
opinion had occurred to Dr. Halley; and Newton, in his Principia, informs us
with his usual candour, that the doctrine of gravitation had occurred to Hooke
and Halley, about the same time that it did to himself.
It was in the year 1666, that Newton first began to suspect the existence of
gravitation as the cause of the planetary motions. Having left Cambridge on
account of the plague, and having retired to his own house in Lincolnshire, he
began one day to consider that the cause which produces the fall of heavy
bodies to the ground continues to act at the greatest possible distance to which
we can go from the earth. It was probable therefore that it extended as far as
CHAP. I.]
341
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
the moon, and that it was the cause of the moon revolving continually round
the earth. It was probable that this power continued to diminish according to
the distance of the bodies on which it acted. The next point therefore was to
determine the rate at which it diminishes. Now Newton considered that if gra-
vity extended to the moon, it no doubt extended much further, and was the
cause of the revolution of the planets round the sun. Now from comparing
the periodic times of the planets with their distances, he found that the centri-
fugal force produced by the revolutions, and consequently the centripetal force
which counterbalances it, is inversely as the square of the distance. Hence he
concluded that the force which retains the moon in her orbit ought to be terres-
trial gravitation, diminished as the square of the distance of the moon from the
earth. But gravity at the earth's surface was represented by the space which a
body falls through in a given instant of time, and the centripetal force which
draws the moon to the earth is represented by the versed sine of the arc which
that luminary describes in the same time. If the opinion be true, these two
spaces ought to have to each other the ratio of inversely the square of the
distance of the falling body and the moon from the earth's centre. But the
distance of the moon from the earth was known to be equal to 60 semidiame-
ters of the earth. Newton at that time being at a distance from books, and not
being acquainted with the mensuration of a degree by Norwood, took 60 Eng-
lish miles as the length of a degree, as was commonly done at that time in
books of geography. But the real length of a degree is about 69 miles.
Hence when Newton came to compare the two forces he found them not to
bear the same ratio to each other as he had expected. This induced him at the
time to abandon his conjecture altogether.
1
He was induced to resume the subject again in 1676, perhaps in consequence
of Dr. Hooke's paper, explaining the planetary motions by the principle of
gravity. Picard, by this time, had measured a degree of the earth's meridian
with tolerable exactness, and Newton employing this new measure, found that
the space which the moon falls through in a minute towards the earth is just
equal to what a heavy body at the earth's surface falls through in a second.
Hence the first is just the 3,600th part of the last; which agrees exactly with
the supposition. Newton having thus ascertained this truth, endeavoured in
the next place to determine what curves bodies projected, and, obeying this law,
ought to describe round the sun. He found in the first place that, whatever be
the law according to which gravitation diminishes, bodies under its influence
must move in such a manner that the radius vector between them and the sun.
must describe areas equal to the times. He found in the next place that if gra-
vitation follow the law of the inverse of the square of the distance, the curve
described must be a conic section. Hence it followed that when the curve re-
turned into itself, as it does with regard to the orbits of the planets, it must be
342
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
either a circle or an ellipse. Thus the two first of Kepler's laws followed at
the outset from the theory of gravitation.
Newton had proceeded thus far when Dr. Halley, who had thought likewise
of gravitation as a method of explaining the planetary motions, but could not
determine the law according to which it diminished, paid him a visit at Cam-
bridge. Newton communicated to him his propositions on the subject, and
Dr. Halley prevailed upon him to communicate them to the Royal Society, and
to allow them to be published in the Philosophical Transactions. But after-
wards that illustrious body thought it better to endeavour to prevail upon Sir
Isaac to draw up a full account of his discoveries, and lay them before the pub-
lic, and Halley offered to take any pains whatever in superintending the publi-
His Principia, cation. These entreaties prevailed, and produced the Principia Mathematica
Philosophie Naturalis, which Newton wrote in 18 months, and which were
published, in 1687, in one volume in quarto. Some time elapsed before the
philosophical world were sensible of the merits of this extraordinary produc-
tion, on account of some obscurity which runs through it. But no sooner
were its contents understood, than one universal cry of admiration burst forth
from one extremity of Europe to the other; and Newton rose at once to the
highest pinnacle of glory. He has stood ever since in the front of the philoso-
phic world, leaving the rest of mankind far behind him. Not that the doctrine
of gravitation was at once acceded to. The Cartesian vortices, though annihi-
lated in the second book of the Principia, found still some staunch supporters.
The dispute likewise about the invention of fluctions, which took place soon
after, alienated the minds of Leibnitz and the Bernoullis, and disposed them to
treat Newton himself, and of course his philosophical opinions, with harshness.
and dislike. This conduct we find continued by their pupils for a considerable
number of years.
Even Euler, notwithstanding his consummate merit and his
candour in general, appears to have had a strong disposition to carp at the phi-
losophical opinions of Newton.
Newton, having thus ascertained the existence of gravitation as a general
principle, set himself to determine in what manner it acted. He showed that
if it followed the ratio of the distances of bodies, it would pass through the
centre of gravity of the mass, and would be proportional to the distance from
that centre. The same holds when attraction follows the inverse of the square
of the distances, provided the bodies attracting each other be spheres of the
same density throughout, or at least composed of concentric layers of the same
density. But when the attracted body is within the sphere, he demonstrated
that it is attracted directly as its distance from the centre. When a particle of
matter is placed within a hollow sphere, it is not acted upon at all, because the
mutual and opposite attractions destroy each other. When two spheres attract
each other, they act precisely as if all the matter in each were accumulated in
CHAP I.]
343
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
their centres, a law which holds only when the attraction is inversely as the
distance or inversely as the square of the distance.
Newton then showed that as attraction is mutual, not only the sun attracted
the planets, but the planets the sun, and that they must all in fact revolve round
their common centre of gravity. But the sun being so vast compared with all
the planets put together, it happens that this common centre is not far re-
moved from the body of the sun, and of course the motion of the sun itself is
insensible. The common centre of gravity varies somewhat according to the
position of the planets. Hence the motion of the apsides and of the nodes of
the planets; motions which some persons without reason have urged as incon-
sistent with the doctrine of gravitation.
Newton deduced from his theory a very ingenious, and at the same time satis-
factory, mode of determining the quantity of matter in the sun, and in all
those planets which have satellites. The method does not apply to those that
want satellites; but Newton deduced it with respect to them likewise, by ob-
serving that the density of the planets increased, the nearer they were to the
sun, and by supposing that this density increases in proportion to the quantity
of heat to which they are exposed. The following table exhibits the density
and the quantity of matter in the sun and several of the planets, deduced ac-
cording to Newton's method. The density of water is conceived to be 1.
Quantity of matter.
..329630
Sun...
Density.
1.
Mercury.
91.
Venus.
5.
Earth..
4+.
Mars.
3/
Jupiter.
175.
Saturn...
1 3
32
Herschell .....
Moon...
1+
0.135
1.135
1
... 330·6
. 103·95
0.025
But it would occupy a much greater space than we can conveniently spare
to attempt an abstract of all the important things pointed out in the Principia
Perhaps none of the discussions which it contains is more ingenious or impor-
tant than the lunar theory, which Newton first sketched with infinite sagacity,
and which has been, in some measure, perfected in our own days. He also
first gave a theory of the comets, and pointed out the method of determing
their parabolic orbits from three observations. Nor is his theory of the tides
less remarkable either for the sagacity displayed, or for its importance to
navigation.
344
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Astronomical
papers in the
Bradley.
The astronomical papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount to 416.
Transactions. They are of an exceedingly miscellaneous nature; many of them being simple
observations of eclipses or transits, while others involve the most important and
abstruse topics in the theory of astronomy. On these accounts they are not
susceptible of abridgment, and a particular detail of the contents of each paper
would be both useless and exceedingly tiresome both to the writer and reader.
On that account I shall select only a few of the most striking papers, and ter-
minate the whole with a kind of tabular view of the planetary system, which
will convey, in little compass, the sum and substance of a very considerable
number of the astronomical papers contained in the Philosophical Transactions.
1. The first topic which will engage our attention is the aberration of the
fixed stars, and the nutation of the earth's axis. Dr. James Bradley, to whom
these discoveries gave celebrity, was one of the most ingenious and accurate
astronomers of the last century. He was born at Sherborne, in Gloucester-
shire, in the year 1692; and, after receiving his grammar-school education,
entered at Baliol College, Oxford, where he took a degree in arts, and then
entered into orders. In 1719, he obtained the living of Bridstow, and after-
wards that of Landewy Welfry. He became also curate to his uncle, Mr.
James Pound, at Wansted, in Essex, and in this situation he gained his know-
ledge of mathematics and astronomy. His discovery of the aberration of the
fixed stars, which he published in 1728, gave him celebrity; but he had been
previously appointed the successor of Dr. John Keil, in 1721, as Savilian Pro-
fessor of Astronomy at Oxford; in consequence of which, agreeably to the
rules of the founder, he resigned all his church livings. In 1731, he succeeded
Mr. Whiteside as Lecturer in Experimental Philosophy in the Museum at
Oxford. On the death of Dr. Halley, he succeeded him as Astronomer Royal
at Greenwich, in 1742. At the same time the University of Oxford presented
him with the degree of D.D. In 1748, the King ordered 1,000l. to furnish
the Greenwich observatory with better instruments. Dr. Bradley employed the
celebrated artits Graham and Bird, who provided him with instruments entirely
to his satisfaction; and of these he made a most assiduous use during all the
remainder of his life. During his residence at the Royal Observatory he was
offered the vacant living of Greenwich, which however he declined, alleging
that the duty of a pastor was incompatible with his other studies and neces-
sary engagements. On this his Majesty thought fit to grant him a pension of
2501. a year, over and above the Astronomer's original salary from the Board of
Ordnance, a pension which has been continued to the Astronomer Royal ever
since. Dr. Bradley died at Chalfont, in Gloucestershire, of a suppression of
urine, in 1762, in the seventieth year of his age. He left behind him an im-
mense number of astronomical observations in 13 folio volumes; which were
CHAP. I.]
345
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
presented to the University of Oxford in 1776, on condition of their being
printed and published, a condition however not yet complied with.
the fixed stars.
The aberration of the fixed stars was discovered in consequence of a set of Aberration of
observations made in order to verify Dr. Hooke's observations on the annual
parallax of the fixed stars. The observations were begun by Mr. Samuel Moly-
neux, who got a very exact instrument constructed for the purpose by Mr.
Graham, and erected it at Kew, in order to make a continued set of observa-
tions on y Draconis, the star which Hooke had made choice of as passing near
the zenith, and therefore being nearly free from refraction. Dr. Bradley as-
sisted him in his observations. The apparatus was fitted up in November, 1725;
and on the 3d of December y Draconis was observed as it passed over the
zenith, and its situation carefully taken with the instrument. Similar observa-
tions were made on the 5th, 11th, and 12th days of the same month; and there
appearing no material difference in the place of the star, a further repetition
of them at this season was deemed needless, it being a part of the year when no
şensible alteration of parallax in this star could soon be expected. But on the
17th of December, Dr. Bradley, being at Kew, had the curiosity to repeat the
observation, and perceived that the star passed a little more southerly than it
had done when it had been observed before. This was at first ascribed to want
of exactness in the observations. On this account it was resolved to repeat
them again with as much precision as possible. This was done on the 20th of
December, and it was found that the star passed still more to the south than on
the 17th. This alteration being contrary to what it should have been, had it
proceeded from the annual parallax of the star, puzzled them exceedingly, and
they could think of no other means of accounting for it but some alteration in
the instrument itself with which they observed. But a great variety of trials
having convinced them of the accuracy of the instrument, and the star still
continuing to advance towards the south, they at last concluded that there must
be some regular cause producing this apparent motion. They resolved to exa-
mine the phenomena with the utmost care in order to discover this cause.
About the beginning of March, 1726, the star was found to be 20" more south-
erly than at the time of the first observation. It seemed now to have arrived at
its utmost limits south, for on several trials no further alteration could be per-
ceived. By the middle of April it appeared to be returning north, and about
the beginning of June it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it had
done in December when it was first observed. From the quick alteration of the
star's declination about this time, it was conjectured that it would now proceed
northward as it had formerly done southward, and this accordingly happened.
It continued to move northward till September, being then nearly 20″ more
northerly than in June. From September the star returned to the south, and in
December it was precisely in the same place as it had been a twelvemonth before.
3 Y
346
[Book III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
This was a sufficient proof that the instrument had not been the cause of this
apparent motion of the star; but to find out the true cause was the difficulty.
A nutation of the earth's axis was the first cause that presented itself; but, on
examining the apparent motion of other stars, nearly in the same situation
with y Draconis, such a nutation was found inadequate to account for the phe-
nomena. Dr. Bradley, that he might have it in his power to ascertain the
phenomena with sufficient exactness, resolved to get an instrument of his own,
and set it up at Wansted, where he lived, that he might, with the more ease
and certainty, inquire into the laws of this new and unexpected motion. An
instrument was made accordingly, by Mr. Graham, and fitted up on the 19th
of August, 1727. Mr. Molyneux's original instrument was capable of very
little change of position; but Dr. Bradley's was capable of extending about 64°
on each side the zenith, within which space there were about 200 stars that
could be observed with precision. After continuing his observations for some
time, he discovered what he considered as a general law with respect to these
motions; namely, that each of the stars became stationary, or was farthest
north or south when it passed over the zenith at six o'clock, either in the morn-
ing or evening. He perceived, likewise, that whatever situation the stars were
in, with respect to the cardinal points of the ecliptic, the apparent motion of
every one tended the same way when they passed the instrument about the same
hour of the day or night; for they all moved southward while they passed in
the day, and northward in the night; so that each was farthest north when it
came about six o'clock in the evening, and farthest south when it came about
six o'clock in the morning.
After completing a year's observations, and comparing them carefully with
each other, so as to determine the general laws of the phenomena, he endea-
voured to find out a cause for them. But his attempts, for some time, were
very unsatisfactory. The nutation of the earth's axis had been already con-
sidered, and given up. The next thing that occurred was an alteration in the
plumb-line, with which the instrument was constantly rectified; but this, upon
trial, proved insufficient. He then considered how far refraction might account
for this phenomena: but here nothing satisfactory occurred. At last, when he
despaired of being able to account for the phenomena which he had observed,
a satisfactory explanation of it occurred to him all at once, when he was not in
search of it. He accompanied à pleasure party in a sail upon the river Thames.
The boat in which they were was provided with a mast, which had a vane at
the top of it. It blew a moderate wind, and the party sailed up and down the
river for a considerable time. Dr. Bradley remarked, that every time the boat
put about, the vane at the top of the boat's mast shifted a little, as if there had
been a slight change in the direction of the wind. He observed this three or
four times, without speaking; at last he mentioned it to the sailors, and ex-
CHAP. I.]
347
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
+
pressed his surprise that the wind should shift so regularly every time they put
about. The sailors told him that the wind had not shifted, but, that the appa-
rent change was owing to the change in the direction of the boat, and assured
This accidental
him that the same thing invariably happened in all cases.
observation led him to conclude, that the phenomenon which had puzzled him
so much, was owing to the combined motion of light and of the earth. Since
light does not move instantaneously from one place to another, it is clear, that a
spectator standing on the earth's surface, will not see a star by means of the
same ray of light, if the earth be moving, that he would do if the earth were
standing still. Suppose a tube to extend from the spectator's eye to the star,
and that one extremity of this tube remains fixed at the star, and the other
moves along with the eye, it is clear that the ray of light which proceeded in
the original direction to the eye, will strike against the side of the tube, and be
lost; and the ray, by which the star will be seen, will be that ray which issued
in such a direction as to move always along the axis of the tube. Hence the star
will not appear in its true place, but will be seen in the diagonal of the paralle-
logram, whose two sides are the velocity of light, and its direction from the star,
and the velocity and direction of the earth in its orbit. From this explanation,
it was evident that the stars at the pole of the ecliptic will annually describe a
circle with a radius of 204"; that those between the pole of the ecliptic and the
ecliptic will describe an ellipse, having the greater axis to the smaller, as
radius to the sine of the latitude of the star, and of course at the ecliptic, where
the stars have no latitude, they will describe annually, instead of a curve, a
straight line. This explanation, which Bradley detailed in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1728,* was immediately acceded to by all astronomers. Soon
after, the subject was still farther developed by Mr. Thomas Simpson, and M.
Clairaut, almost at the same time. The exact coincidence of the motions of all
the stars with the hypothesis of the aberration of light, affords an unanswerable
argument, both for the motion of light, and for the revolution of the earth
round the sun. While the observations of Bradley show, that the annual paral-
lax of the stars is insensible, and, therefore, that the orbit of the earth, when
compared with the distance of the stars, is no more than a point. Now the
diameter of the earth's orbit is nearly 190,000,000 of miles; hence we may
form some conception of the immense distance of the fixed stars.
the earth's axis.
The discovery of the nutation of the earth's axis, which we likewise owe to Nutation of
the sagacity and assiduity of Dr. Bradley, cost him much more time than the
discovery of the aberration, since he thought it necessary to make a continued
series of observations for 20 years before he ventured to lay his discovery before
the public. He had, indeed, suspected the truth long before the end of that
* Vol. XXXV. p. 637.
2Y 2
348
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
[Book III.
period, and had even announced his opinion to several astronomers, among
others to Lemonnier and Machin; but as the apparent motions of the stars
which he had discovered seemed to depend upon the position of the moon's
nodes, he thought it necessary to observe till the nodes returned to their original
place, which they do in a period of little more than 18 years, in order to see
whether the position of the stars would be restored to their original place when
he began to observe, and this he had the satisfaction to verify. He published
his account of his discovery at last in the Philosophical Transactions for 1747;
together with tables indicating the change in the place of the stars, occasioned
by this nutation.*
Soon after he had ascertained the aberration of the fixed stars, his attention
was excited by another phenomenon, namely, an annual change of declination
in some of the fixed stars, which appeared to be sensibly greater about that
time, than a precession of the equinoxes of 50″ in a year would have occa-
sioned. The quantity of difference, though small in itself, was rendered sensi-
ble by the exactness of his instrument, even in the first year of his observations ;
but being at a loss to guess from what cause that greater change of declination
proceeded, he endeavoured to allow for it in his computations, leaving to time
the discovery of the cause from which it proceeded. Though he left Wansted
in 1732, yet his successor in the house that he occupied allowed his instrument
to remain unaltered, and he went thither to make his observations at stated
times annually, during a period of 20 years.
He had observed that the stars near the equinoctial colure showed a greater
apparent declination than could arise from a precession of 50 in a year; but,
there appearing at the same time an effect of a quite contrary nature in some
stars near the solstitial colure, which seemed to alter their declination less than
a precession of 50" required, it was obvious that the phenomenon could not be
accounted for merely by supposing that he had assumed a wrong quantity for the
precession of the equinoxes. At first he suspected that some alteration might
have taken place in the position of the parts of his sector; and afterwards, that
the appearances might be owing to the manner in which his plummet was sus-
pended; but an accurate examination satisfied him that neither of these suppo-
sitions was well founded. During his residence at Wansted, from 1727 to 1732,
he had made so many observations, and ascertained so many particulars, that he
began to suspect the real cause of these appearances. He found that some of
the stars near the solstitial colure had changed their declination 9" or 10" less
than a precession of 50" would have produced; and, at the same time, that
others near the equinoctial colure had altered theirs about the same quantity,
more than a like precession would have occasioned. The north pole of the
* Vol. XLI. p. 1.
CHAP. I.J
849
MACHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
equator seeming to have approached the stars which come to the meridian with
the sun about the vernal equinox and winter solstice; and to have receded
from those which come to the meridian with the sun about the autumnal
equinox and the summer solstice. When he considered these circumstances,
and the situation of the ascending node of the moon's orbit at the time
when he began his observations, he suspected that the moon's action on the
equatorial parts of the earth might produce these effects. For if the precession
of the equinox be, according to Sir Isaac Newton's principles, caused by the
action of the sun and moon on those parts, the plane of the moon's orbit being
at one time above 10° more inclined to the plane of the equator than at another,
it was reasonable to conclude, that the part of the whole annual precession
which arises from her action would, in different years, be varied in its quantity.
Whereas the plane of the ecliptic in which the sun appears keeping always the
same inclination to the equator, that part of the precession which is owing to
the sun's action, may be the same every year. Hence it would follow, that
though the mean annual precession proceeding from the joint actions of the
sun and moon were 50", yet the apparent annual precession might sometimes
exceed and sometimes fall short of that mean quantity, according to the various
situations of the nodes of the moon's orbit.
This reasoning induced him to conclude, that the whole deviation was owing
to the moon's action on the equatorial parts of the earth, which he conceived
to produce a libratory motion of the earth's axis. But being unable to judge
whether, after a complete revolution of the nodes, the axis would recover its
original position, he thought it necessary to continue his observations during a
complete revolution, and had the satisfaction to find that it did so. This
leaving no doubt about the reality of his explanation, he no longer hesitated to
publish it. He explains and shows how this nutation may be allowed for in
calculating the true position of the stars, by a method which he ascribes to
Mr. John Machin, at that time Secretary to the Royal Society. It consisted in
supposing the true pole to describe a circle round the pole of the equator, the
diameter of which is 18". This circle is described in 18 years; and the pole is
supposed to be always 90° distant from the nodes of the moon. D'Alembert
afterwards demonstrated, that the real figure described by the pole was not a
circle, but an ellipse, the larger axis of which was 18", and the smaller 13".
In the year 1748, Lacaille published rules for calculating the effect of this nu-
tation upon the place of the stars. Tables of the principal stars have even been
published, with the places of each corrected according to the nutation, in
order to save astronomers the trouble of making a troublesome calculation for
each observation..
It may be proper to mention here, that Newton was the first person who
deduced the precession of the equinoxes from the theory of gravitation. His
1
350
[Book III.
1
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Transit of
Venus.
Transit of
1761,
method was exceedingly ingenious, but indirect; and the real figure of the
carth not being so accurately known as it is at present, it was impossible for
him to assign precisely the effect produced by the sun and by the moon. The
problem first received a direct solution from D'Alembert. The effect of the sun
is at present reckoned 17", that of the moon 33".
II. The next subject to which we shall turn our attention, is the transit of
Venus over the sun's disc in 1761, and again in 1769. It constitutes one of
the most memorable points in the history of astronomy, during the 18th cen-
tury, and does infinite honour to the different learned societies, and to the
liberality of the different monarchs, who reigned in Europe at the time.
In the year 1691, Dr. Halley published a paper in the Philosophical Trans-
actions,* on the conjunction of the inferior planets with the sun.
He gave
tables of all the different transits of Mercury and Venus, for a considerable
period of time; and mentioned the importance of an accurate observation of
the transit of Venus, for determining the distance of the sun from the earth,
and consequently the dimensions of the solar system. Mercury might be used
for the same purpose, but his parallax is so small that observations, sufficiently
accurate, could not be made. The transits of Mercury are frequent, but those
of Venus happen very seldom. The first transit of this planet, ever observed,
was that of November the 24th, 1639, which had been predicted by Horrox,
and observed by him and Mr. Crabtree. The next two transits did not happen
till the years 1761 and 1769. In the year 1716, Dr. Halley published an ela-
borate paper on these transits, and described at length how they might be
employed for determining the sun's parallax, conjuring the astronomers, who
should be alive at that period, not to neglect so precious an opportunity to
determine so very important an astronomical problem.+ Dr. Halley committed
some errors in his calculation; and the motion of the nodes of Venus not being
known at the time when he wrote, he placed the transit of the planet too far
from the sun's centre. Notwithstanding these trifling mistakes. the importance
of the method continued undoubted, and, as the period of the first transit
approached, astronomers set themselves earnestly to consider in what manner
the intentions of Dr. Halley might best be accomplished. Dr. Halley had
pointed out the northern parts of America, and the shores of the Ganges, as
two places well adapted for the observation; but several circumstances, which
he did not foresee at the time, rendered North America by no means well
adapted for the purpose.
The Royal Society sent out two different observers; namely, Dr. Maskelyne,
to the island of St. Helena, and Messrs. Mason and Dixon to Bencoolen, in
the island of Sumatra. But several circumstances prevented these latter gentle-
Vol. XVII. p. 511.
+ Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 454.
CHAP. I.J
351
MACHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
men from arriving at their destined place soon enough. They therefore resolved
to remain at the Cape of Good Hope, and observe the transit there, and it was
fortunate that they did so; because Dr. Maskelyne was prevented, by bad
weather, from making accurate observations, and Pingré, who had been sent
by the French Academy to Rodrigues, committed an error of a minute in
noting down the time of the internal contact. Joseph Delisle, who was in the
habit of publishing details respecting every approaching astronomical pheno-
menon, printed a Chart, pointing out all the places where the transit of 1761
could be advantageously observed. This chart seems to have determined the
measures of the Royal Academy of Sciences, at Paris. They sent the Abbé
Chappe to Tobolsk, in Siberia; and Pingré to the island of Rodrigues, on the
east side of Africa. Legentil had set out for the East Indies, as early as 1759,
intending to observe the transit at Pondicherry. The Academy of Sciences, at
Stockholm, sent observers into Lapland, and placed them in different parts of
Sweden. The King of Denmark sent a party to Drontheim, in Norway; and
the Petersburgh Academy dispatched astronomers as far as the borders of the
empire of China. At Greenwich, Dr. Bradley was in too bad a state of health
to be able to make the requisite observations; on that account he sent for Mr.
Bliss, who succeeded him soon after as Astronomer Royal; and that gentleman,
together with Mr. Green, the Assistant at Greenwich, and Mr. Bird, observed
the transit at the Royal Observatory. The transit was likewise observed by Mr.
Short and Dr. Bevis, at Saville House; and by Mr. Hornsby and Mr. Phelps,
at Shirburn Castle, the seat of Lord Macclesfield. The French astronomers at
Paris were equally active. Owing to the unfavourable state of the weather,
and the war which at that time existed between Britain and France, several of
the intended observations were not made. Dr. Maskelyne failed from bad wea-
ther; Legentil was not enabled to observe at Pondicherry, on account of the
war; and Mason and Dixon made their observations at the Cape of Good Hope
instead of Bencoolen. After the observations had been all collected, and pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions, Mr. Short and Mr. Hornsby drew up
two excellent papers, deducing from the whole the solar parallax, which they
found very nearly 8" 5. Pingré, relying upon his observations, at Rodrigues.
published a paper in the Memoires of the Academy of Paris, in which he made
the parallax rather more than 10"; but the coincidence of all the other obser-
vations convinced astronomers that Pingré had committed an error of a minute
in marking down the time, and the transit of 1769 satisfied Pingré himself that
this had been the case.
The transit of 1761 not having been so satisfactory as was expected, the ap- Transit of
proaching transit of 1769 was looked forward to with great expectation; and 1769,
astronomers, warned by the errors into which they had fallen before, were now
more able to take advantage of that transit to obtain the wished for conclusions.
6
$52
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Mr. Hornsby published an excellent paper in the Philosophical Transactions,
pointing out the places most proper for making the observations, and exhorting
the Royal Society to make choice of some of the islands in the South Sea, as
peculiarly fitted for the purpose. Accordingly, Messrs. Dymond and Wales
were sent to Hudson's Bay; Mr. Green and Captain Cook, to Otaheite, being
accompanied by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander; Mr. Call was sent to
Madras; and Mr. Mason to the North Cape; and all the expences were muni-
ficently defrayed by his present Majesty. The French Academy sent Chappe
to California, and Pingré to the island of St. Domingo. Veron also had been
sent to India; but he died without having observed the transit. The Peters-
burgh Academy sent observers to different parts of Lapland. Indeed the num-
ber of observations made in different places, and the great interest taken in
making them as complete as possible, by all the Sovereigns in Europe, one or
two only excepted, make it next to impossible to give a complete account
of them all. Dr. Bradley was dead; but Dr. Maskelyne, who afterwards suc-
ceeded Bliss, as Astronomer Royal, and whose accuracy as an observer is known
to every one, observed at Greenwich. The result of all these observations, com-
pared with each other, gave the solar parallax 8"-6; differing very little from
what had been deduced by Short and Hornsby, from the Transit of 1761. Mr.
Hornsby deduced it from the observations of 1769 to be 8"-78; which does not
differ much from the preceding. He also gave us the following estimate of the
dimensions of the solar system, which has been pretty generally acceded to
He supposed the semi-diameter of the earth to be 3985 English miles.*
Relative distance.
387.10.....
Absolute distances in
English miles.
36,281,700
Mercury'.
Venus..
723.33..
67,795,500
Earth
.. 1000 00...
93,726,900
Mars.
1523'69...
142,818,000
Jupiter..
Saturn.
5200 98...
487,472,000
.9540.07..
894,162,000
Density of the
earth.
III. Sir Isaac Newton had calculated the density of the earth from the
general theory of gravitation; but several circumstances concurred to render it
probable that his result gave that density too small. It was therefore desirable
to employ some direct method, by means of which that density could be de-
duced experimentally. Newton himself had suggested one, by mentioning the
effect which a hill of a determinate size would have in drawing the plumb-line
* Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 574.
CHAP. I.]
353
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
from the perpendicular. The French academicians, sent to measure a degree
of the meridian in Peru, had endeavoured to determine the effect of Chimboraço
upon their plumb-line, and had found it 8"; a quantity much smaller than was
expected; but the imperfection of their instruments, and the exposed nature of
the situation in which they made their observations, prevented the requisite
degree of accuracy. It was therefore very desirable that the observations should
be repeated upon some hill in Great Britain, and with instruments sufficiently
delicate to determine the point with precision. In the year 1772, Dr. Maske-
lyne stated the importance of such an experiment in a paper given in to the
Royal Society, and exhorted them to make it, mentioning at the same time
some hills in Yorkshire and in Cumberland, which seemed well adapted for the
purpose. The plan was embraced by the Council of the Royal Society, and
Mr. Charles Mason was employed by them to make a journey through England
and the Highlands of Scotland, in order to pitch upon a hill which would
answer the purpose. He found the hills pointed out in Yorkshire and Cumber-
land not such as they had been described; but he recommended the mountain
of Schehallien, in Perthshire, as the best for the purpose of any that he had
met with. It was tolerably detached from other hills, very steep, and its direc-
tion, with respect to the greatest extent, was from east to west. Schehallien Experimenta
accordingly was chosen for the purpose, and Dr. Maskelyne was requested by
the Royal Society to make the experiments, to which he readily consented. The
Royal Society furnished him with the proper instruments, which they had pro-
cured for the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769. His Majesty supplied them
with the money requisite for defraying the expences, and was pleased to per-
mit Dr. Maskelyne to absent himself from the Royal Observatory as long as
would be necessary for the experiment. The summer of 1774 was chosen for
the purpose..
purpose.. Dr. Maskelyne arrived at the mountain on the last day of June;
and notwithstanding the badness of the season, which was uncommonly unfa-
vourable, the astronomical observations, and the greatest part of the survey of
the hill, were finished by the month of November. The result was that the
sum of the attractions of the hill on the north and south sides amounted to
11″6 *
Dr. Hutton undertook, from the data thus obtained, to deduce the density of
the earth; and after going through a most laborious set of calculations, he pub-
lighed a very curious and ingenious paper in the Philosophical Transactions,†
giving an account of the methods which he followed, and deducing as a con-
clusion that the density of the earth was to that of the mountain Schehallien,
as 17804 to 9933; or as 1434 to 800 nearly; or almost as 9 to 5. Dr. Hutton,
proceeding on the supposition that the mean density of Schehallien was 2.5,
+ Phil. Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 689.
* Phil. Trans, 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 500.
on Schiehallien.
2Z
354
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Figure of the
earth.
deduced the density of the earth 4-481. But since that time Mr. Playfair has
made an accurate survey of the mountain, in order to determine its specific gra-
vity with as much accuracy as possible. He found that the rocks of which it is
composed are of three different kinds; namely, mica slate, granular quartz
(probably granite), and limestone; the specific gravity of all of which is consi-
derably above 2·5. The mean specific gravity of the quartz rocks was found to
be 2·639876, and that of the limestone and mica slate 2∙S1039. The granular
quartz constitutes the upper part of the mountain, and the mica slate the lower.
It being uncertain whether the granular quartz continues from the very summit
to the base of the mountain, or whether the whole under part of the mountain
consists of mica slate, and granular limestone, Mr. Playfair has calculated the
density of the earth according to both suppositions. The first supposition gives
us 4-55886 for the density of the earth; while the last (which appears the more
probable supposition) gives us that density equal to 4-866997.* Mr. Caven-
dish, by a different method determined the density of the earth, at 5:48. Hence
it is by no means unlikely that if other experiments similar to those on Schehal-
lien were made upon a mountain composed of a homogeneous mass, the mean
density of the earth might be found about 5.
IV. The earth was supposed at first by astronomers to be an exact sphere; but
after the oblate figure of Jupiter was observed, and after Richard had found
that the second pendulum at Paris beat too slowly at Cayenne, then there
were reasons for suspecting that the earth also might be an oblate spheroid.
Huygens deduced from the variation of the pendulum that the earth was com-
pressed at the poles. Newton, from the theory of gravitation, demonstrated
that if the earth be of homogeneous density, the polar diameter must be to the
equatorial as 329 to 330. These reasons were acquiesced in by astronomers till
the finishing of the trigonometrical survey of France, which was begun in
1673, and concluded in 1716. From this survey, which had been made with
great care, it appeared that the degrees of the meridian were shortest in the
northern parts of the kingdom, and that they became gradually longer as they
approached the southern extremity. The observation of this unexpected cir-
cumstance induced Cassini and Fontenelle to conclude that the earth, instead of
being flat at the poles, had quite a different figure, and that the polar axis was
longer than the equatorial. This occasioned a dispute between the British phi-
losophers, who had unanimously adopted the opinion of Newton, and the
French astronomers, who, relying upon the measurement made in France,
adopted the opposite conclusion. To determine this dispute, the French Aca
demy resolved upon measuring a degree in two different parts of the North of
France, one near the west, and the other near the eastern extremity of that

* Phil. Trans. 1811. p. 347.
CHAP. I.]
355
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
kingdom, in order to compare the results obtained with what the length of a
degree, in that latitude, ought to be according to each hypothesis. The result
of this measurement was favourable to the hypothesis of Cassini and Fontenelle.
But it made no change in the opinion of the Newtonians, who advanced rea-
sons that appeared satisfactory for setting aside these new measurements as of
no value.
At last it was proposed to determine the point by measuring a degree under
the equator itself; and Count Maurepas procured the consent of the King of
France to defray the expence of the whole with the utmost munificence. Bodin,
Bouguer, and La Condamine, set sail for that purpose on the 16th of May,
1735, the King of Spain having given them liberty to make the proposed mea-
surement in Peru, and having ordered Don George Juan, and Don Antonio de
Ulloa, to accompany them in order to facilitate their operations. Another
measurement was determined on at the polar circle, and Maupertuis, Clairaut,
Camus, Lemonnier, and Outhier, were sent to accomplish it. The result of
these measurements was entirely in favour of the Newtonian doctrine, which
was in consequence acceded to by the whole philosophic world. But these
measurements, owing to various circumstances, as unavoidable inaccuracies in
the measurements, the attraction of mountains, and the effect of the various
density of different strata near the earth's surface, &c. were insufficient to de-
termine the true figure of the earth with the utmost precision. The following
table exhibits the length of a degree in Paris toises according to the measure-
ments of different astronomers:

Length of
a degree.
Latitude.
Observers.
Years.
57422
66° 20 N.
Maupertuis, &c.
1736
57074
49 23
Maupertuis and Cassini
1739
57091
47 40
Liesganig.
1768
•
57028
45 0
Cassini..
1739
57069
44 44
Beccaria
1768
56979
43 O
Boscovich and Le Maire.
1752
56888
39 12
Mason and Dixon..
1764 and 1768
56750
57037
0 0
33 18 S.
Bougner and La Condamine.
De La Caille..
1736
•
1752
But it ought to be observed that the first of these measurements has lately
been repeated by the Swedish astronomers, and found considerably erroneous.
The measurement of degrees, from the many sources of uncertainty, not being
sufficient to give us the true figure of the earth, philosophers have endeavoured
to deduce that figure from physical principles. Mr. Murdoch demonstrated
that the centrifugal force at the equator is equal toth part of gravitation.
The length of the pendulum that beats seconds in different latitudes has been
found as follows. The lengths are given in French feet and lines:
2 7 2
356
[Book III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Lines.
Herschel,
36.... 7:07
Feet.
The equator...
Lat. 9° 54' N.
48 50..
66 48
36....7.16
..36....8·57
.
36....9 17
Captain Warren has lately determined the second pendulum at Pondicherry,
in lat. 13° 4′ 19″ N. to be 39.026273 English inches. And he has deduced, from
the experiments hitherto made, the following as the relative lengths of the pen-
dulum beating seconds at the equator and at the pole in English inches.*
Equator 38.98726
Pole 39.20899
These facts show us that gravitation increases from the equator to the pole
more than can be accounted for by the diminution of centrifugal force; and
therefore demonstrate that the figure of the earth is an oblate spheroid. Sir
Isaac Newton showed that if the earth be a homogeneous spheroid, the pendu-
lum at the pole must beth longer than at the equator, to vibrate seconds.
But the difference by the preceding table is greater. Hence it follows that the
supposition that the earth is a homogeous spheroid is not correct.
1
Clairaut showed that if the earth be a dense nucleus surrounded by a fluid,
then the two fractions denoting the compression and the lengthening of the
pendulum are always the same or. The lengthening of the pendulum, ac-
cording to the experiments of Lord Mulgrave, is, which agrees very nearly
with the preceding table. This subtracted from T gives us the real shorten-
ing of the polar axis, and it lies between andth of the axis. From a
comparison of all the degrees measured, Mr. Playfair had deduced the number
for the compression, which probably approaches very nearly to the truth.
We have not noticed the anomalies resulting from the present trigonometrical
survey of Great Britain; because no satisfactory solution of them occurs. Mr.
Playfair has suspected differences in the specific gravity of the strata under the
surface of the earth in different parts of England; a conjecture very likely to
be true, though it cannot well be verified by actual observation. Neither was
it possible to notice the calculations of De la Place on the subject, because they
are liable to some difficulties that have not yet been cleared up.
V. The discovery of five new planets, and of eight new satellites, belonging
to the solar system, is not the least remarkable addition that has been made to
astronomy during our own days. Dr. William Herschel, to whom the discovery
* Asiatic Researches, Vol. XI. p. 293.
CHAP. I.]
357
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
the
discovered.
of no fewer than nine of these bodies has given celebrity, was born in Hanover,
in 1738, and came over to England as a musician in a Hanoverian regiment.
He attracted some notice by his musical talents, and was appointed organist at
Bath. Here he began to amuse himself with making telescopes; and being
possessed of great industry as well as dexterity, he soon acquired so much skill
as to make telescopes greatly superior to any that had been used before his time.
Being in possession of these instruments, it was natural to turn them towards
the heavens, and in a little time he acquired considerable skill as an observer,
and a strong passion for the science of astronomy. On the 13th of March,
1781, he was struck by the appearance of a small star, which seemed to differ New Planet
from those of the same size in its neighbourhood. On examining it with a more
powerful magnifier, he found that it increased in diameter, which was not the
case with the other stars near it, and on that account he suspected it to be a
comet; and he was confirmed in this opinion by finding some days afterwards
that it had changed its place. He communicated this piece of information to
Dr. Maskelyne, who having examined it himself, and drawn the same con-
clusions that Dr. Herschel had done, sent information of the circumstance in
the beginning of April to the astronomers at Paris. The supposed comet was
assiduously observed for some time, and attempts were made to calculate its
parabolic orbit. These attempts at first were very unsuccessful; but by degrees
it was perceived that the distance of this body from the earth was very great,
that its orbit was nearly circular, and of course that it ought not to be con-
sidered as a comet, but a planet. Its orbit was found to be about 83 years. It
was perceived that the star in Taurus marked 34 in Flamsteed's catalogue, and
the 964th star of Meyer's catalogue were no other than this planet. Hence
astronomers were in possession of a whole century of observations on it at once,
and were accordingly able to construct tables for it with surprising accuracy.
Herschel, the discoverer, gave it the name of the Georgium Sidus; but this name
has not been generally approved of. La Lande called it by the name of the
discoverer Herschel, while the German Astronomers, preferring the ancient
mode of assigning to the planets titles taken from the Heathen Mythology, gave
it the name of Uranus, the father of the gods. This last name seems at present
to stand the greatest chance of being generally adopted.
Dr. Herschell afterwards discovered six satellites moving round this planet; Its six satel
and what is very remarkable, their motion appears to be contrary to the order of lite.
the signs. The following table exhibits the time of the revolution of each of
these bodies as accurately as it has been ascertained.
1st ...
5 d.
21 h.
25 min.
2d
8
18
0
3d
10
23
A
4th .... 13 d.
12 h.
O' min,
5th .... 38
1
49
6th ....107
16
40
358
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
New Planeta
between Mars
The distance between Mars and Jupiter is so great when compared with the
and Jupiter. other planetary spaces, and the distance from the sun, that astronomers had
been looking for some primary planet in that position. Of late years these
expectations have been more than accomplished by the discovery of no fewer
than four planetary bodies almost all in the same place; but so small that Dr.
Herschel refuses to honour them with the name of planets, and chuses to
call them asteroids, though for what reason it is not easy to determine, unless
it be to deprive the discoverers of these bodies of any pretence for rating them-
selves as high in the list of astronomical discoverers as himself. These four
bodies have received the names of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. They were
discovered by Mr. Piazzi, Dr. Olbers, and Mr. Harding.
Some particu-
lars respecting
the solar sys-
tem.
VI. We shall terminate these observations with a few tables representing
some of the most remarkable particulars connected with the solar system.
1. Distances of the planets from the sun, that of the earth being 100.
Mercury.
..38
Vesta,
237
Venus,..
.72
Juno,..
.266
Jupiter,.........
Saturn,....
520
.950
Earth,.
.100
Ceres,
..276
Herschel,.
1900
•
150
Pallas,
279
Mars,.........
2, Diameters of the sun and planets in English miles.
Sun,....
..883,246
Mars,.......
4,189
Pallas,..
Mercury,
·
3,224
Vesta,
238
Jupiter,
... 80
89,170
Venus,
.7,687
Earth,
. 7,911
Juno,
Ceres,..
1,425
Saturn,.
79,042
·
•
163
Herschel,
.... 35,112
Moon,
.2,180
3. Density of the planets and sun, that of water being one.
Sun,.....
Mercury,
Venus,
•
1,75
Earth,...
•
9/1/1
5
Mars,..
Jupiter,
쇼플
​Saturn,.
33
Herschel,
17/14
14
1+
But if we suppose the density of the earth to be five, this will alter a little all
the numbers in the preceding table.
4. Quantity of matter in the planetary bodies, supposing that of the Earth
to be one.
Sun,...... 329,630.
Mercury,... ...0.135
Venus,
Earth,..
Moon,
1.135
Jupiter,.
1.000
0.025
330-600
Saturn,...
Herschel,
103.950
16.840
CHAP. I.]
359
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ASTRONOMY.
5. Number of feet per second through which a heavy body would fall at the
surface of each of these planets.
Sun,.
429
Mercury,.....
Venus,
12
Earth,..
Moon,..
16+
3
Saturn,.
Herschel,
15
4.2
18
•
Jupiter,...........
42
6. Rotation of the planets round their axis.
Sun,. 25 d. 10 h.
Mars,.. 24 h.
39′ 22″
Saturn's ring, 10 h. 32′ 15″
Venus,
Earth,
•
24
...24
Jupiter, 9
55 33
Moon,
A lunation.
+
Saturn, 10
16 1
7. Tropical revolution round the sun.
Mercury,.... 87 d.
23 h.
14 m.
33″
Jupiter,
Venus,.
224
16
41
24
Saturn,
4330 d.
10746
14 h.
39 m.
Q"
19
16
15
Earth,.
365
5
48
48
Herschel,
30589
8
39
Mars,..
686
22
18
27
Moon,*..
27
7
43
5
The orbits of all the planets formerly known are confined within the zodiac ;
but that of some of the newly discovered planets is so oblique as to pass without
the zodiac.
1
CHAP. II.
OF OPTICS.
THE Science of Optics consists of two parts; the first of which treats of
Vision, and the second of the Properties of Light. It is the most mathematical
of all the sciences; its whole progress, after the establishment of certain funda-
mental points by experiment, depending upon the application of mathematical
principles. It lies under the deepest obligations to the Royal Society, being
one of the sciences most strenuously and successfully promoted by that
illustrious body.
ancients.
It would be in vain to look towards the ancients for much information res- Optical know-
pecting this important science. Ptolemy was acquainted with the existence of ledge of the
atmospherical refraction, and must therefore have had some knowledge of
dioptrics; though he no where explains himself on the subject. The ancients
were acquainted with plain mirrors, and with the use of glass spheres filled with
* Round the earth.
2
860
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
spectacles.
water, both as burning glasses, and for increasing the size of objects. They
were used as magnifying glasses by the engravers on gems, as they still are even
Discovery of at present.
at present. The discovery of spectacles, one of the first and one of the most
useful optical instruments ever brought into general use, seems to have been
made about the end of the 13th century. It is obvious from the writings of
Roger Bacon, published a little before that period, that spectacles were unknown
in his time; and soon after the beginning of the 14th century they appear to
have been in general use. The common and most probable opinion is that they
were discovered in Italy, and Manni informs us that they were invented by a
Florentine called Salvino degl'Armati. He even quotes an inscription on a
tomb at Florence, which seems to leave no doubt of the fact. This inscription
is as follows: Qui diace Salvino d'Armato degl' Armati, Firenze, inventor di
egl'Occhiali, anno 1317. Here lies Salvino d'Armato, a Florentine, the inven-
tor of Spectacles, who died in 1317.
Vision ex-
plained.
Discovery of
the telescope.
The nature of vision was first explained in a satisfactory manner by Kepler,
in his Astronomia Pars Optica, published at Frankfort in 1604. He showed
that the rays of light, coming from objects, were refracted in such a manner by
the different humours of the eye, that a distinct inverted image of the object
was delineated on the retina, and that vision was the consequence of this image.
In what manner this image occasions vision, it is beyond our faculties to ex-
plain but the fact is certain. The retina is an expansion of the optic nerve;
and no doubt the rays of light produce a certain effect upon it, and vision is the
consequence of this effect. But all the metaphysical attempts to explain how,
have terminated only in absurdities.
About the same time that Kepler's book on optics was published, another
most important optical discovery was made in Holland, which has contributed
perhaps more to the advancement of the mathematical sciences, than any other
discovery whatever we allude to the discovery of the telescope. Some modern
writers have taken infinite pains to prove to us that this admirable instrument
was known to the ancients; but their proofs are so weak, or so absurd, that
they are not entitled to any notice. Indeed it is impossible, if that instrument
had been known to the ancients, that not a single writer, either among the
Greeks or Romans, should have made the least allusion to it. An enormous
number of different stories have been told, respecting the history of this inven-
tion; but the account which seems supported by the best authority, is that of
Mr. William Boreel, Envoy of the States of Holland to the British Court.
He ascribes the invention to a maker of spectacles at Middleburg, called
Zachary Jans, and places the date somewhere between 1590 and 1610. This
man and his son having contrived a telescope, made a present of it to
Prince Maurice, who requested them to conceal the invention, that he might
be able to employ it exclusively in the war at that time raging between the
3
CHAP. II.]
361
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
States of Holland and Spain. But the invention having transpired, some per-
son or other went to Middleburg, to get exact information about it, and ad-
dressed himself, by mistake, to John Lapprey, likewise a maker of spectacles
in the same town; that artist, in consequence of the questions that he put,
divined the nature of the invention; and, on that account, came by some to be
reckoned the inventor himself.
at the
As to the way in which the discovery was made, we know nothing that can
be implicitly depended on; though there can be little doubt that it was entirely
owing to accident. It is said, that two of Jans's sons, while amusing them-
selves with different glasses in their father's shop, happened to put two lenses
proper distance from each other, and looking through them to the wea-
ther-cock on the top of a neighbouring church, found that the size of the
object was considerably increased. The father, that the observation might be
easily repeated, fixed the glasses in their proper position; and afterwards, to
exclude the side light, which was injurious to the effect, he fixed the glasses in a
tube, which constituted the telescope. The original Dutch telescope consisted
of two glasses: the object glass was convex, and the eye glass concave. It has
the disadvantage of confining the field of vision within very narrow limits, espe-
cially if the telescope be of any considerable length; and, on that account, has
been long laid aside for astronomical purposes.
Galileo was at Venice, as he informs us, when he heard the report of the
discovery of the telescope, and probably that it consisted in the application of
two lenses of glass to the extremities of a tube. A few trials enabled him to
discover the lenses that answered the purpose, and after some labour and ex-
pence, he succeeded in constructing a telescope that magnified about 33 times;
and with it he made his discoveries of the satellites of Jupiter, and the spots on
the sun, which contributed so much to give him that celebrated name which he
has left behind him. Kepler was the first person who pointed out the construc-
tion of what is usually called the astronomical telescope; which has two convex
glasses, and which, as Kepler showed, has the property of reversing the object.
But this illustrious philosopher did not attempt to construct such an instrument.
Scheiner appears to have been the first person who ascertained the properties of
such a telescope experimentally. In his Rosa Ursina, published in 1650, he
describes its properties, and says, that as the stars are round, it may be used in
examining them without any disadvantage, though it reverses objects. He
points out, also, the method of restoring the original position of objects, by
means of two convex eye glasses. These three kinds of telescopes were almost
the only ones that were used by philosophers, for many years. At last, James
Gregory proposed the reflecting telescope, and came to London on purpose to
get it executed; but could not succeed. Sir Isaac Newton, after his discovery
of the different refrangibility of the rays of light, concluded that it was impos-
SA
362
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Achromatic
telescope.
Microscope.
Dioptrics,
sible ever to bring refracting telescopes to any great degree of perfection, and
therefore thought, likewise, of the reflecting telescope. Possessing a turn for
mechanics, he did not satisfy himself with merely pointing out its advantages
theoretically, but actually constructed one with his own hands, and sent it to
the Royal Society, as a specimen of what telescopes of that construction could
perform. Many years after, Mr. Dollond discovered the different dispersive.
power of different kinds of glass, and contrived in consequence a new kind of
refracting telescope, much more perfect than the old ones, to which Dr. Bevis
gave the name of achromatic; because they represent objects free from those
colours that arise from the difference of the refraction of the different rays. Dr.
Herschel has of late years added greatly to the perfection of the Newtonian
reflectors; nor is the convenience of the telescopes of his construction for use
less remarkable, than their perfection in representing a very distinct image of
the object viewed.
The microscope was in some measure known to the ancients, since they made.
use of glass globes, filled with water, to magnify objects; and the simple mi-
croscope, as far as small sphericles of glass are employed, may be considered as
not differing in principle from the glass globes of the ancients. Indeed all the
simple microscopes may be referred either to such globules, or to lenses, the
effect of which followed directly from the use of spectacles. But the compound
microscope seems to have been invented by the same Zachary Jans, to whom
we are indebted for the telescope. If we believe the testimony of Mr. Boreel,
already mentioned, and it would not be easy to set it aside, the discovery of the
microscope preceded that of the telescope. Boreel even informs us that he saw,
in the possession of Cornelius Drebbel, the original microscope, made by
Zachary Jans; which that artist had presented to the Archduke Albert, by
whom it was given to Drebbel. This may perhaps be the reason why some
have thought fit to ascribe the invention of the microscope to Drebbel himself.
Scarcely had the telescope been announced to the philosophic world, when
Kepler undertook to give a theory of this important instrument. This was the
object of his Dioptrics, published in 1611; a work of great merit, in which
that illustrious philosopher laid the true foundation of Dioptrics, such as they
exist at this day. He was not indeed acquainted with the law of refraction;
but he assumed a law, deduced from experiment, which, though not perfectly
accurate, yet, as far as the lenses of telescopes were concerned, he was able to
Law of refrac- make use of without falling into any error. The law of refraction was dis-
covered by Snellius, a mathematician of the Low Countries, of some eminence.
His book indeed, in which this discovery is contained, was never published;
but Vossius informs us, that Hortensius had taught it publicly as the discovery
of Snellius; and Huygens declares, in his Dioptrics, that he had read the
manuscript of Snellius, which was in the hands of the heirs of Hortensius.
tion.
CHAP. II.]
363
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
Optics
Snellius announced the law in this way: "In the same medium, the secants of
the complements of the angles of inclination and refraction have to each other
the same ratio." Descartes afterwards announced the law in this manner: "In
the same medium, the sines of the angles of inclination and refraction bear the
same ratio to each other." This mode of expressing the law is more con-
venient, and has been generally adopted. It has been supposed, that Descartes
acquired his knowledge of this law of refraction from Snellius's manuscript;
and that he expressed it in a different manner, the better to disguise the theft.
There can be no doubt that he actually perused the manuscript of Snellius, for
Huygens expressly says so. Hence the probability is, that he derived his know-
ledge of the law in that manner. But at all events there can be no doubt that
Snellius preceded him, and that the discovery belongs to that mathematician.
Descartes published his Optics in 1637, and it enjoyed, from its first appear- Descartes':
ance, a very high degree of celebrity. He conceived light to be produced by
the action of luminous bodies on a subtile fluid which filled all space. As he
believed that the transmission of light was instantaneous, it was necessary for
him to conceive the parts of this fluid as absolutely inflexible. But his fol-
lowers have since corrected this opinion, and have made the supposed fluid, by
means of which light is propagated, a highly elastic fluid. This hypothesis,
somewhat modified indeed, was afterwards adopted by Huygens, and supported
with astonishing ingenuity. It has in it something very seducing, and is still
embraced by several philosophers of the present day. But an objection has been
urged against it which appears to be insurmountable; namely, that, as undu-
lations propagate themselves not in straight lines, but in all directions, if the
hypothesis be true, there ought to be no such thing as darkness at all. At mid-
night, and during a total eclipse of the sun, we ought to have just as much
light as at noon day. Newton afterwards supported the hypothesis, that light
moves from luminous bodies in straight lines. This opinion has been embraced
by almost all succeeding philosophers; and even those who refuse to adopt it
are under the necessity of employing its language when they explain the phe-
nomena of optics.
Descartes attempted, likewise, to give a philosophical explanation of the
cause of refraction, which occasioned a long protracted dispute between him
and Fermat; a dispute never settled, and which Fermat continued after Des-
cartes' death with some of his disciples. Fermat himself advanced an explana-
tion equally false with the Cartesian; namely, that light always moves in the
shortest course. Neither was the explanation of Leibnitz, that light always
moves in the easiest direction, entitled to greater respect. We do not think it
necessary to mention the explanations of Barrow, De la Hire, and various
others. Newton afterwards gave the explanation which is considered as the
Descartes, in his Optics, added considerably to the explanation of
true one.
3A 2
364
(Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
The rainbow.
Grimaldi's dis-
coveries,
the effect of lenses upon light. He showed that when the surface of these
bodies is spherical, the light is not accurately collected into a point; but that
this would be the case if the figure of these bodies were that of the ellipse, or
hyperbola. He even made some attempts to grind glasses of a hyperbolic form,
but they were not attended with success nor were the subsequent attempts of
other opticians more fortunate. But this need not occasion any regret, as we
know, from the subsequent discoveries of Newton, that such glasses, even if
they could be constructed, would not give us an image better defined than com-
mon lenses with spherical surfaces.
We owe to Descartes, likewise, the first satisfactory explanation of the rain-
bow. De Dominis indeed, an Italian Clergyman, had about 40 years before
shown that the inferior, or principal rainbow, was produced by one reflection
of the ray of light against the bottom of the drop, and two refractions, one
when entering, and the other when leaving the drop. But he had failed in
explaining the upper rainbow, in which the colours are reversed. Descartes
showed that in it the ray underwent two reflections and two refractions. He
explained, also, why no more than these two rainbows can be seen; but he
failed in his explanation of the colours of the rainbow; that part of the pheno-
menon being reserved for Newton.
After the publication of the Optics of Descartes, the science continued
nearly stationary for a number of years; unless we are to reckon the discoveries
of Kircher, such as the magic lanthorn, &c., as improvements in the science.
But soon after the establishment of the Royal Society, the Members of that
illustrious body directed their attention to optical subjects; and the result was
a set of discoveries so important and unexpected, that they quite altered the
aspect of the science. The first writer on the subject was James Gregory,
whose observations upon optical instruments, particularly telescopes, are of the
greatest value. We have already mentioned his reflecting telescope. He failed
in his attempts to get it executed, because he wished to have his mirror polished
with a parabolic surface; and no workman in London was able to give it this
curvature. Barrow published his Lectiones Optica in 1674; and among other
valuable things contained in that book, is a general theorem for the foci of
lenses, of every possible shape.
About this time a discovery of considerable importance was made in Italy,
by Grimaldi, a Jesuit, who died in 1663, at the age of forty-four. His work
in which his discovery is contained, was posthumous, and only published in
1665. It was entitled Physicomathesis de Lumine, Coloribus, et Iride, aliisque
annexis, Libri II. Grimaldi let a small ray of light into a darkened room, by
means of a hole in the window-shutter. Suspending a hair or some minute
body in this ray, and measuring its shadow at a certain distance from the body,
he found it larger than it ought to have been. In like manner, when he made
CHAP II.]
265
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
a small hole in a metallic plate, and made the ray pass through the hole, he
found that the image of the sun, formed by the light passing through this hole,
was larger than it ought to have been. Hence he concluded, that the light
had been bent out of its course by the bodies in its neighbourhood. This pro-
perty is what has been since called the deflection of light.
nian disco-
We come now to the discoveries of Newton respecting light; which have The Newto-
been justly reckoned to afford proofs of his sagacity equally striking with his veries.
discoveries respecting universal gravitation. Newton's optical discoveries were
the first of his productions which saw the light. They were published in the
Philosophical Transactions for the year 1672.* His experiments were made in
the year 1666, when he was only 23 years of age. Being employed in grind-
ing glasses for telescopes, he had the curiosity to purchase a glass prism, in
order to observe the celebrated phenomena of the colours. That a ray of sun-
shine, passing through a glass prism, assumes beautiful colours like those of the
rainbow, was known to the ancients, and had been observed by every optician.
Newton having darkened his room, admitted a ray of light through his window-
shutter, and applying his prism made the image fall upon the opposite wall, at
the distance of 22 feet. For some time he was much amused with the bril-
liancy of the colours; but when he began to consider the spectrum more atten-
tively, he was much struck with its great length. By the laws of refraction
universally received, the spectrum ought to have been circular; but he found
the length of it no less than five times greater than the breadth. The sides of
it were terminated by straight lines; and the upper and lower extremities, as
far as could be determined by observation, were semicircular. He first tried
whether the thickness of the glass, or the size of the hole in the window-
shutter, could have any effect in producing this enormous disproportion; but
soon satisfied himself that it was owing to none of these causes. The uneven-
ness of the glass, or some other contingent irregularity in the prism, suggested
itself as a possible cause; but, upon applying another prism to the former, so
that the light might be refracted contrary ways by each, he found that the light
was now reduced to an orbicular form, with as much regularity as if it had not
been refracted at all. Hence it followed, that the oblong image was not occa-
sioned by any contingent irregularity in the glass. The effect of rays from
different parts of the sun's disc was next examined, and found inadequate to
produce the oblong image. He then began to suspect that the law of refrac-
tion, hitherto received, might not be quite accurate; but finding that a con-
siderable change in the position of the prism made no sensible alteration in the
length of the image, it was obvious that no small inaccuracy in the law of refrac-
tion could account for the phenomenon.
* Phil. Trans. Vol. VI. p. 3075.
2
366
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Colour.
The gradual removal of these suspicions led him at last to an experimentum
crucis, which furnished him with the true explanation of the phenomenon. Hc
took two boards, and placed one of them close behind the prism at the window,
so that the light might pass through a small hole made in it for the purpose,
and fall on the other board, which he placed at about 12 feet distance, having
first made a small hole in it also for some of the incident light to pass through.
Then he placed another prism behind this second board, that the light trajected
through both the boards might pass through that also, and be again refracted
before it arrived at the wall. This done, he took the first prism in his hand
and turned it to and fro slowly about its axis, so much as to make the several
parts of the image, cast on the second board, successively pass through the hole.
in it, that he might observe to what places on the wall the second prism would
refract them. And he saw by the variation of these places, that the light tend-
ing to that end of the image towards which the refraction of the first prism was
made, did in the second prism suffer a refraction considerably greater than the
light tending to the other end. Thus he detected the true cause of the length-
ened image to be no other than that light consists of rays differently refrangible,
which without any respect to a difference in their incidence, were, according
to their degrees of refrangibility, transmitted towards divers parts of the
wall.
Thus Newton ascertained that light is composed of rays differing from each
other in their refrangibility. The number of these rays he settled at seven,
guided by the difference of their colour; and he informs us in his Optics that the
names of the colours were not imposed by himself, but by another person whose
skill in distinguishing colours was much greater than his own. The least re-
frangible ray was the red, and the most refrangible the violet. The order of
refrangibility, and the names of the rays are as follows: Red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet. The proportional lengths of each of these rays in
the spectrum, he found by measurement to be the following.
Red,
Red and orange,.
Red, orange, and yellow,..
Red, orange, yellow, and green,..
Red, orange, yellow, green, and blue,
Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,.
Whole spectrum,
1
3
1
+40 -| -| -| aks no
÷
7
.. 1
These discoveries furnished him with an explanation of the different colours
of bodies, a circumstance which had not hitherto heen understood. Colours are
not qualifications of light derived from refractions or reflections of natural
CHAP. II.]
367
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
bodies, but original and connate properties, which in different rays are different.
To the same degree of refrangibility ever belongs the same colour, and to the
same colour ever belongs the same refrangibility. Thus the red rays are always
the least, and the violet rays the most, refrangible. And the same holds of all
the others. The colours of any particular ray cannot be changed by refraction
nor reflection from natural bodies, nor by any other cause that he could observe.
Every possible method was tried to alter the colour of such a ray; it was re-
fracted by prisms, and reflected from bodies possessing a different colour from
itself; it was transmitted through variously coloured mediums; in consequence
of this treatment it would, by contracting or dilating, become more brisk or faint,
and, by the loss of many rays, in some cases very obscure and dark; but it never
changed in the kind of colour which it exhibited. Yet seeming transmutations
of colours may be made, where there is any mixture of different sorts of rays.
For in such mixtures the common colours appear not; but by their mutual
allaying one another, they constitute a middle colour, which by refraction may
be resolved into all the constituents of which it is composed.
Thus there are two sorts of colours, the one original and simple, the other
compounded of these. The original or primary colours are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet. The compounded ones are made by mixtures of the
simple ones; thus blue and yellow make green; red and yellow, orange; red
and indigo, violet; and so on. White is the most surprizing of these compound
colours. It is formed by a mixture of all the simple colours in a due pro-
portion. When all the rays after being refracted by the prism are made to
converge together again, they constitute light perfectly white and free from
every other colour. Hence it happens that whiteness is the usual colour of
solar light. In it all the rays are mixed in their due proportion; but if any one
ray predominate, the light will incline to its colour. Hence the reason why the
light of a candle is yellow; that of burning sulphur, blue; that of Mars, red;
and so on.
These facts enabled him to explain the different colours which
bodies possess. They are always of the colour of the ray or rays which they
reflect to the eye of the spectator. The reason why different bodies appear of
one colour by reflected, and of another by transmitted light, is equally evident ;
and why two transparent liquids of different colours become opaque when placed
in contact. Nor is it more difficult to explain the colours produced by the
prism or the colours of the rainbow. These things being so, it can no longer be
disputed whether there be colours in the dark, nor whether they be the qualities.
of the objects we see, nor whether light be a body. For since colours are the
qualities of light, having its rays for their entire and immediate subject, how can
we think those rays qualities also, unless one quality may be the subject of and
sustain another; which in effect is to call it a substance. We should not know.
bodies for substances, were it not for their sensible qualities, and the principle
1
368
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Newton's theo-
ry attacked.
of those being now found due to something else, we have as good reason to
believe that to be a substance also.
Such is a pretty full account of Newton's first discoveries respecting light,
as given by himself in the Philosophical Transactions for 1672. No sooner had
it made its appearance than it was attacked with considerable violence by differ-
ent foreign mathematicians, chiefly disciples of Descartes. Father Ignatius
Gaston Pardies, a Jesuit, and Professor of Mathematics in the Parisian College
at Clermont, was the first who entered the lists. A set of animadversions by
him on Newton's theory was inserted in the S4th number of the Philosophical
Transactions published the same year with the original theory.* To this New-
ton wrote an answer, shewing the mistakes into which Pardies had fallen. Par-
dics wrote a second letter stating fresh objections, which was likewise an-
swered by Newton. Upon which the French Philosopher declared that all his
objections were removed, and that he was perfectly satisfied of the truth of the
Newtonian theory of light and colours. He died the year following, in the
37th year of his age.
Newton's next antagonist was Dr. Hooke, who wrote a number of animad-
versions on the Newtonian theory, admitting the truth of most of the ex-
periments, and explaining them by a hypothesis supposing light to be the
undulations of a fluid. This paper was not published; but Newton's answer,
which was very long, appeared in the same volume of the Philosophical Trans-
actions with his preceding papers above mentioned.† This answer is a most
masterly performance. He shows the absurdity of Dr. Hooke's hypothesis in a
very clear manner, proves that his own doctrine is totally unconnected with any
hypothesis, and merely expresses matter of fact. Finally he refutes Dr. Hooke's
opinions about colours, in such a manner as to leave no room for reply. Dr.
Hooke accordingly, notwithstanding the pertinacity with which he usually
adhered to his opinions, did not venture to continue the contest.
+
Newton's next antagonist was an anonymous Frenchman, who called himself
M. N. Some animadversions by him were published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1673. To these animadversions Newton immediately replied.
This reply was followed by another letter from M. N. upon the same subject, to
which Newton having replied at considerable length, and pointed out the
mistakes of his antagonist, the controversy dropped. The next antagonist was
Franc. Linus, a peripatetic philosopher of some eminence in those days, but
quite incapable of contending with Newton.§ To this only a very short answer
was at first deemed necessary: Linus replied a second time, and after his death
the controversy was still kept up by his pupil Mr. Gascoigne. To all of these
• Phil. Trans, Vol. VII. p. 4087.
+ Vol. VIII. p. 6086.
Phil. Trans. 1676. Vol. X. p. 499.
+ Page 5084.
ý Phil. Trans. 1674. Vol. IX. p. 217.
CHAP. II.]
969
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-Ortics.
Newton made appropriate answers, which were published in the Philosophical
Transactions immediately after the animadversions of Linus himself. Mr. Gas-
coigne having employed Mr. Lucas, of Liege, to repeat the experiments to
which Newton in his answers had appealed, that gentleman published an
account of the result, together with a new set of animadversions upon the New-
tonian doctrine.* The dispute between Linus and Newton turning chiefly
upon the length of the spectrum, which Linus denied, we do not think it
necessary to enter into minute details. To Mr. Lucas's animadversions Newton
made an appropriate reply, pointing out the proper method of repeating his
experiments, and shewing how he might satisfy himself of the truth of his
doctrine of the different refrangibility of light, and of the nature of
colours.
Thus terminated this long controversy, which had been carried on with con-
siderable keenness for about four years. On all sides, however, the utmost good
breeding was observed, unless some of the remarks of Dr. Hooke be considered
as exceptions; and all his opponents uniformly expressed the greatest respect
for the abilities of Newton. This controversy however had an unfortunate effect
upon Newton's mind, and prevented him from laying his discoveries before the
world as he had intended to do. An omission which, in a subsequent period of
his life, occasioned other disputes of a very disagreeable nature; and which must
have been the more unpleasant to him, as he must have been conscious that they
proceeded entirely from his long hesitation in laying his mathematical discoveries
before the world.
tics.
The first part of Newton's Optics, as he informs us in the preface, was drawn Newton's Op
up in the year 1675, and read before the Royal Society. The last part was
added about twelve years afterwards; it was not published till the year 1704.†
A second edition, with some augmentations, was published in 17 17. It was trans-
lated into Latin by Dr. Samuel Clarke; and no doubt has made its appearance in
almost every language in Europe. It consists of three parts. In the first the
different refrangibility of the rays of light is demonstrated by experiment. The
second part treats of the colours of thin plates, of colour in general, and of
some curious particulars respecting refraction and reflection. The third part
treats of the inflection of light. The whole is terminated by a most important
set of queries respecting the most abstruse parts of natural philosophy and
chemistry. Any remarks upon this admirable book would be quite unnecessary,
as it has long enjoyed that reputation to which it is so justly entitled. As an
analytical investigation, it constitutes the finest model hitherto offered to the
* Phil. Trans, 1676. Vol. XI. p. 692.
+ Newton seems to have declined giving his work to the public till after the death of Dr. Hooke,
probably in order to avoid reviving his disagreeable dispute with that caustic philosopher.
3 B
970
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Refraction and
reflection ex-
plained,
world. Various attempts have been made by philosophers to reduce the num-
ber of primary colours to three; namely, red, yellow, blue; and to prove that
all the other four are only mixtures of these three. Some of these attempts
have been exceedingly ingenious; and, in a metaphysical point of view, might
be admitted as satisfactory, if it were possible to get over the Newtonian expe-
riments, which show the impossibility of resolving the orange, green, and vio-
let, into more simple colours, and the objections which Newton started to the
admission of a nearly similar hypothesis advanced by Dr. Hooke.
in
Newton adopted the opinion that light consists of straight lines proceeding
rays from luminous bodies, in contradistinction to the opinion of the undu-
lations of a fluid advanced by Descartes, Huygens, and Hooke; but he does
not pertinaciously insist upon this opinion being adopted, and his Optics are
entirely independent of it.
It will be proper to notice, here, the way in which Newton explains refraction
and reflection in his Optics. It is exceedingly ingenious; but to a certain ex-
tent hypothetical, and by no means supported by the same evidence as the dif-
ferent refrangibility of light, and the theory of colours; both which are esta-
blished beyond the possibility of being overturned. Newton begins by repeat-
ing some experiments first made by Grimaldi, and which it will be necessary to
mention. He made a very small hole in a plate of copper, and allowing a ray
of light to enter through this hole he suspended a hair in the ray. The shadow
of the hair received at a certain distance was much larger than it ought to have
been. Newton measured it, and found it 35 times broader than it ought to
have been by the simple divergence of the rays. Hence it was obvious that the
hair had acted upon the light, and pushed it out of its direction. Here then is
an example of bodies repelling light. That this increase of width in the shadow
might not be ascribed to an atmosphere surrounding the hair, he plunged it in
water contained between two glass plates, and found the effect not in the least
altered. Again, he took two sharp metallic edges; placed them parallel, and
brought them gradually within th part of an inch of each other. The ray
of light that passed between them was now divided into two parts, which were
separated from each other, and thrown into the shadows of the respective
knives. Here it is obvious, that the light had been drawn out of its former
direction by the sharp metallic bodies, and that it had been drawn towards
them. This then is an example of light attracted by bodies. From an atten-
tive consideration of the phenomena, Newton shows that these attractions and
repulsions, which are not sensible at moderate distances, become exceedingly
strong at very small distances, or in case of actual contact; and hence he infers,
that they do not follow the law of the inverse of the square of the distance,
but that they approach much more nearly to the inverse of the cube of the
distance.
·
CHAP. II.]
371
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
*
When a
From these data refraction is explained in the following manner.
ray of light, moving in an oblique direction, approaches within the attracting
distance of a denser body, it begins to be drawn towards, and of course de-
scribes a small curve concave towards, the body; and it enters the body in a di-
rection nearer the perpendicular than it otherwise would have done. This curve
direction continues, till it has advanced so far into the body as to be beyond the
sphere of attraction of the medium which it had left when it entered the body;
it then moves on in a straight line, but in a direction more approaching the
perpendicular. Just the contrary happens when a ray of light passes from a
denser to a rarer medium. And Newton demonstrates, that on these supposi-
tions the sine of the angles of incidence and refraction, in the same medium,
will always have to each other the same ratio.
There are two kinds of reflections; one by the posterior surface, another by
the anterior of bodies. Newton demonstrates, that reflection is not produced by
the elastic particles of light impinging against these surfaces. The reflection by
the posterior surface is explained by the attraction of the body through which
the ray passes, precisely as in the case of refraction. When the direction of
the ray is so oblique that the posterior surface comes to be the apex of the
curve, into which the motion of the ray is changed, then the smallest additional
obliquity will oblige the ray to describe the other half of the curve, and so to
be reflected in such a manner that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle
of incidence. All these explanations are so happy, and explain the phenomena
so completely, that there can be little hesitation in embracing them; but
Newton does not appear equally fortunate in accounting for the reflection of
light from the anterior surface of bodies. This he accounts for by supposing
a repulsion between the body and the ray of light. In a mathematical point of
view, these alternate attractions and repulsions of light by the same body do well
enough; but when one begins to consider them metaphysically, it seems impos-
sible to adopt them. Newton indeed, in one of his queries at the end of his
Optics, suggests the action of a subtile elastic fluid as capable of accounting
for all of these phenomena. But the question is too refined, and too incapable
of solution, to be considered here.
Different persons, quite ignorant of mathematics, have, at different periods,
started as adversaries to the Optics of Newton, and have published pretended
demonstrations of the falschood of the Newtonian principles. But in reality
they are nothing else than demonstrations of the deplorable ignorance of these
pretended reformers, who, in their knowledge of optics, were far behind what
was even known in the time of Descartes. It is not worth while to notice their
objections. They were chiefly Frenchmen; and the most remarkable of them
were Gautier and Marat, who afterwards made so execrable a figure during the
early period of the French revolution.
3 B 2
972
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Photometry.
There is a curious branch of optics which has originated since the time of
Newton, which we cannot with propriety avoid mentioning here. We mean
the measurement of the intensity of the light of various bodies. Lambert, who
has cultivated it with much sagacity, has given it the name of photometry, a
name which has been adopted by those British writers who have treated of it.
Bouguer, a celebrated French mathematician and astronomer, may be considered
as the philosopher who laid the foundation of this branch of the science. He
published an essay on the subject in 1729, entitled, Essai d'Optique sur la
Gradation de la Lumiere. But he had prepared a much more complete work
on the subject, which was published after his death by La Caille in 1760, under
the title of Traité d'Optique sur la Gradation de la Lumiere. Bouguer showed,
that if light passes through a transparent body, the rate of its diminution
during its passage is measured by the ordinates of the logarithmic curve. Hence,
if we know the diminution produced by a transparent body of a given thick-
ness, we may easily calculate from a common table of logarithms the effect of
every degree of thickness. Bouguer pointed out a very ingenious way of
estimating the relative intensity of two different luminous bodies, by measuring
their distances when the shadows which they cast were of equal intensities. We
may mention some of the most remarkable results which he obtained. The light
of the full moon he found to be to that of the sun, when at the same height
above the horizon, as I to 300,000. But he deduces, in a very ingenious man-
ner, that if the moon were all equally luminous with some parts of it, the degree
of light given out by that luminary would be to that emitted by the sun as 1 to
90,000. Thus the moon only emits one-third of the light which it ought to
emit. This is accounted for by the numerous spots upon her disc. He showed,
that in winter, when the sun's height above the horizon was 19° 16′, the inten-
sity of his light was to that of the light emitted by him in summer, when at
the height of 66° 11′, as 1,681 to 2,500; or about more in the one case than
the other. This is not owing entirely to the obliquity of the rays, but to the
greater atmospherical space which they pass through in the one case than the
other. At the depth of 600 feet in the sea no sensible quantity of light pene-
trates. Air is 40,000 times more transparent than water. These are but a very
small number of the curious particulars discovered by Bouguer; but we must
refer to his treatise for further information on the subject: it is highly worthy
the perusal of every person who takes any interest in photometry.
/
Euler, in the year 1750, published a curious paper on the light emitted from
the sun, moon, planets, and stars. He made no experiments; but the method
he employed to subject the light emitted by these bodies to calculation was
highly ingenious. The following are the results which he obtained.
The light emitted by the full moon is one 374,000th part of that emitted by
the sun.
CHAP. II.]
373
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
The light of Saturn, in opposition, is 1,000,000 times more feeble than that
of the moon.
The light of Jupiter, in opposition, is 46,000 times less than that of the
moon, or 22 times greater than that of Saturn.
The light of Mars is 20,000 times less than that of the moon, or twice as
great as that of Jupiter.
Venus, when most luminous, emits 3,000 times less light than the moon,
If the fixed stars be of the size of the sun, and emit the same quantity of
light with Jupiter, they are 131,000 times further from the earth than the sun;
and their parallax will be 3".
Lambert published his treatise on this subject in 1760, under the title Photo-
metria; sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum, et Umbra. It is a
master-piece of sagacity, and contains a vast quantity of information of the
most curious and important nature. He gives us the light emitted from the
sun, moon, and planets; the relative light of different parts of the day and of
twilight; shows the effect of different dilatations of the pupil of the eye; and
gives a great number of the most curious and unexpected theorems; but they
are all of such a nature that they could not be noticed without entering into
much greater details than is consistent with the limits of this work. Of late
years the subject of photometry has engaged the attention of Count Rumford,
who has invented a new photometer, and ascertained a great number of curious
facts which have been made known to the public in one of the volumes of the
Philosophical Transactions, published since the commencement of the present
century, and which therefore does not come under our consideration. Mr.
Leslie has likewise occupied himself with the same inquiry, and has contrived
a very simple and easily-managed photometer, depending upon the heat pro-
duced by the rays of light. This instrument, if its theory be accurate, will be
of considerable service as a meteorological instrument, though it is not delicate
enough to measure the light of the moon and planets, which produce no sensi-
ble degree of heat.
in the Transac-
The optical papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount to 137; but of Optical papers
these there are 46 which may be fairly passed over as of little or no value, at tions.
least in the present state of the science. The remaining 91 are of a very mis-
cellaneous nature, and of very various merit. We shall endeavour to give
view of the most important of them, omitting however those written by Newton
and his opponents, because they have been already noticed in a preceding part
of this chapter.
1. The first paper we shall notice is an account of Villette's burning glass.* Burning
This glass was made at Lyons: it was about 30 inches in diameter, weighed a
glasses.
* Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. p. 95.
374
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Micrometers.
hundred weight, and its focus was at the distance of three feet, and was about
the size of half a Louis d'or. Its effects as a burning glass were very powerful;
setting fire to wood, melting all metals, and vitrifying those stony bodies that
were exposed to its action. This glass was purchased from Villette by Louis
XIV. and is at present in the cabinet of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. Vil-
lette afterwards made one of a much larger size which was purchased by the
Landgrave of Hesse Cassel. But a much more powerful burning mirror was
made by Tschirnhous in the year 1687. An account of it is also given in the
Philosophical Transactions.* It was made of copper-plate about twice the
thickness of the back of an ordinary knife, and though it was about three
Leipsic ells in diameter it was very light. It was well polished, and exhibited
all the effects of a common concave mirror. Its effect as a burning mirror was
very powerful: no stony body tried being able to resist its action; but being
speedily melted into glass. Tschirnhous, not being satisfied with this mirror, got
one made of glass, of three feet in diameter, which he contrived to polish by
means of the requisite machinery. Its effects were very great as a burning glass,
and have been described at length by different experimenters, in the Memoires
of the French Academy. It was purchased by the Duke of Orleans, who made
a present of it to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in which city it is still to
be found.
In the year 1747, Buffon contrived a kind of burning glass by means of 168
plane mirrors of six inches square each, and so placed, that the image of the
sun, reflected by each, might coincide in the same place. By this instrument
he burnt wood at the distance of 200 feet, and melted silver at the distance of
60 thus showing the possibility of Archimedes burning the Roman fleet at
the siege of Syracuse, which had been disbelieved as impossible by Descartes,
and almost all preceding optical writers. There are no fewer than four ac-
counts of this burning mirror of Buffon in the Philosophical Transactions;
the first by Tuberville Needham, the second by the Nicolini, the third by
Maupertuis, and the fourth by Buffon himself. The most powerful burning
glass made in England was Parker's, by means of which Dr. Priestley was
enabled to perform some of his most curious and important experiments. Un-
fortunately, it was sent by the British government as a present to the Emperor
of China; and of course cannot be expected to prove of any further service to
the advancement of science.
2. The next paper we shall notice is an account of Mr. Gascoigne's micro-
meter. Azout had announced, in a preceding number of the Transactions,t
that he was in possession of a method of dividing a foot into 30,000 parts, and
* Phil. Trans. 1687. Vol. XVI.
p. 352.
† Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 493, 495, and Vol. XLV. p. 504.
Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. I. p. 373.
6
CHAP. II.]
375
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
that he had applied this method to measuring the diameters of the sun and moon
with greater exactness than had been formerly attained. This induced Mr.
Townley to announce that Mr. Gascoigne had contrived a much more perfect
instrument long before, and had used it for astronomical purposes, and that he
himself had Gascoigne's original micrometer in his possession.* In a subse-
quent number of the Transactions, Dr. Hooke published a description and
drawing of this micrometer:† it depended upon the divisions of a screw.
Though micrometers have been greatly improved of late years, yet these papers
still retain their value as curious historical documents.
3. The next paper we shall mention is a dissertation by Huygens, explaining Solar halos
the nature and origin of halos round the sun. This paper possesses great
ingenuity; though the explanation given by Huygens, on account of his igno-
rance of the different refrangibility of the rays of light, is not quite accurate.
He accounts for halos by supposing a number of small bodies floating about in
the air, having an opaque nucleus, and a transparent outer ring, and he shews
how such bodies must of necessity occasion a halo. What the nature of these
bodies is, he does not attempt to explain; but he remarks that hail is often seen
exactly similar to them.
Alhazen,
4. The next paper we shall notice is the solution, or rather a number of Problem of
solutions, of a problem of Alhazen, at that time very much celebrated among
mathematicians. The problem is this; Having given a concave or convex
speculum, as also the place of the eye and the visual point, to find the point of
reflection. Huygens, at that time in Paris, sent a solution of it to the editor of
the Philosophical Transactions, Mr. Oldenburg, in the year 1670. He sent it to
Slusius, who informed him that the method was similar to one which he himself
had fallen upon two or three years before, and he likewise sent a solution which
The considered as easier. This produced a discussion between Huygens and
Slusius; and various solutions were given by each. The whole of these interest-
ing papers were afterwards published in the Transactions.§
5. The next paper deserving notice is an attempt, by Dr. Briggs, to explain
vision. He endeavours to shew, that the upper part of the optic nerves consists
of fibres which have a greater tension than those of the lower part, and he lays
a great deal of stress on this circumstance. The only valuable observation in
his essay is his reason why we see only single with two eyes. It is, he says,
because the image in both eyes is formed on exactly the same part of the retina;
but wherever this does not happen, either from some disorder in the eyes, or
from one of them being turned forcibly out of its natural direction, then we see
double.||
*Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II. p. 457.
Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 1065.
+ Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II. p. 541.
§ Phil. Trans. 1673. Vol. VIII. p. 6119 and 6140.
|| Phil. Coll. 1682. No. 6. p. 167, and Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 171.
376
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
sun.
Heat from the 6. The next paper deserving notice is a very curious one by Dr. Halley, On
the proportional Heat of the Sun in all Latitudes, with the Method of collecting
the same.* It might have been placed under the head of Meteorology; but as
the method employed by Dr. Halley depends upon optical principles, we
thought it better to notice it here. He shews, that the heat communicated by the
sun is always as the sine of his elevation, and as the length of the day; and he
points out a method of determining it for a given day in every latitude. The
following table exhibits the relative heat of the sun at the equinoxes and solstices,
for every tenth degree of latitude, according to his calculation.
Sun in VP
Lat.
0....
Sun in r
20000..
Sun in
.18341...
. 1834 1
10..
. 19696...
20...
.. 18794..
20290.
..21737...
.. 15834
13166
30...
40..
17321..
.15321...
22651.
10124
23048...
6944
50..
12855..
22991..
3798
60..
. 10000..
22773.
1075
70...
6840...
..23543..
0000
80..
3473...
24673...
0000
90..
0000..
25055..
0000
Foci of optical
glasses.
It is obvious, that this table does not exactly coincide with the temperature of
the different latitudes which it is meant to represent. If it did, the temperature
at the pole, at the summer solstice, would be much greater than under the
equator; which is quite inconsistent with experience. But there are two cir-
cumstances to be taken into consideration. The vast quantities of ice accumu-
lated during winter, in the polar regions, prevent the sun from producing the
effects which he otherwise would. Dr. Halley conceived cold to be a positive
something, which acted in a way not yet understood; but there is no occasion
for such a supposition; the accumulation is quite sufficient to account for the
comparatively low temperature of the polar solstice. Another circumstance
which Dr. Halley overlooked must have a considerable effect; namely, the obli-
quity of the sun's rays at the pole, and the greater quantity of atmospherical
air and vapour through which his rays must in consequence pass. This must
absorb a great deal of the heat which he would otherwise communicate.
7. The next paper is a very excellent one by Dr. Halley, giving formulas for
the resolution of the problem of finding the foci of optic glasses universally.†
This formula cannot well be understood without having recourse to a diagram,
though it is now universally known to opticians, and has been considerably
* Phil, Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 878.
† Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII p. 960.
CHAP. II.J
377
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
simplified. We may endeavour to render intelligible a single case of this
problem. Suppose we have a concave mirror and a luminous object, it is
required to find the focus of the mirror.
Let A B be the concave mirror, c its
centre, and o the luminous object, it
is required to find F, the focus. Let
o c=d, & c=r, CF, then by Hal-
ley's formula we have r =
or
2d + r:d :: rix.
dr
2d + r
When the rays are
A

O
C
F
G
B
dr
2d
7. So that
parallel, d becomes infinite, which reduces the formula to v =
in the case of parallel rays, or when the mirror is presented to the sun, the
focus is half way between the mirror and its centre. It may be demonstrated
likewise that when the luminous object is placed in c, the focus also is in c.
As o removes farther and farther from c, the focus advances nearer and nearer
to the mirror, and when the distance of o is infinite, then F is always half way
between c and G. When the mirror is convex, the same formula applies, only
it becomes r =
dr
† -
2d
m
72
and the focus in that case is manifestly virtual only.
In the case of lenses, if 'be the radii of the surfaces, and the ratio of the
incidence and refraction of the luminous ray, then we have the formula
changed into x =
; and in the case of parallel rays
go go
( − 1 ) (r+r)
drr
− 1) (dr + dr') — r
—
rr
(−1)
In the case of glass we have r =
2rr'
r+r
and when the
two radii of curvature are equal, as is commonly the case, then we have
λ=
2rk
2r
=r, or the focus is the centre of curvature. In the plano convex,
the formula becomes r =
dr
and when the rays are parallel,
(-1) d
r
y
λ=
and in the case of glass, r2r.
m
1
8. Mr. Stephen Gray described a very simple microscope, which deserves to Simple micros
be mentioned on account of the facility of its construction. It may be made cope.
in some measure at once, and therefore may be used in certain cases, where a
more perfect one cannot be had. He took a thin brass plate, and made a hole
in it the 30th of an inch in diameter. This hole was turned into two concave
spherical surfaces on each side, and he filled it with a drop of clear water.
The liquid assumed a spherical form, and answered the purpose of a micros-
3 C
378
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
air,
cope.*
His reflecting microscope cannot be considered as so happy a con-
trivance, and need not therefore be described.†
+
Refraction of 9. Mr. Lowthorp made a very accurate experiment to determine the refract-
ing power of air. The result was that if the sine of the angle of incidence be
100000, then the sine of the angle of refraction is 100036. This coincides
as nearly as possible with the result obtained by Newton, who found these sines
to each other as 3200 3201.§ Lowthorp gives us also the proportion between
the sines of incidence and refraction in water, as determined by Mr. Gascoigne,
as the numbers 100000 134400. Newton's proportion is different: he found
it to be 396: 529, which gives us 100000: 133585. This, no doubt, is the
true ratio.
Refraction of
ligaids.
:
10. The next paper is a geometrical method of determining the colours and
diameter of the rainbow from the given ratio of refraction, and the contrary,
by Dr. Halley. It is an excellent paper, like all the rest furnished by that
industrious and excellent philosopher, but not susceptible of abridgement.||
11. The next paper is a valuable set of experiments on the refraction of
different liquids by Mr. Hauksbee. The following table exhibits the results
which he obtained. The specific gravity of water is conceived to be 820.T
Bodies.
•
Oil of sassafras...
turpentine
bee's wax
caraways
oranges.
hyssop
rosemary
savine...
oryganum.
pennyroyal.
mint....
spike..
fennel
juniper.
cumin
tansey.
dill..
amber.
•
cinnamon..
cloves.
•
nutmegs
Spirit of wine...
•
•
Sp. Gr.
... 898
•
Ratio of
refraction
as 100,000 to
•
6475.8
713.5....6441-8
662 ..6885.4
752
....6696.5
711 ...6741.2
769.5....6757·6
747 ....6794-7
789 ..6730-9
752 ...6770.2
783 ....6730.9
780.5....6706.4
749
....6807.3
798 ....6616.5
729
..6757.6
766.5....6627·7
757 ....6865.1
795-5....6582.7
783 ....6662.3
828 ..6517.7
827 ...6606.8
759
...6721.4
703.5....7287.9
* Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 353.
Phil. Trans. 1699. Vol. XXI. p. 339.
Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 714.
Bodies.
Spirit of hartshorn...
vinegar..
salammoniac.
Succinic acid....
Sulphuric acid...
Nitrous acid.....
Aqua regia..
Aquafortis
Butter of antimony
Spirit of raw silk……
honey...
Sp. Gr.
Ratio of
refraction
as 100,000 to
786 ..7468.3
824.5....7468-8
794.5....7475·2
7475.2
....7011.5
....7104
....7120.5
....5941-3
825
. 1510
.1166
987
1157
....7195
•
1976
916
.7135
716
as water.
693
...7294-3
bark..
720
...7294·3
balsam of Tolu.. 717
..7219-3
gum ammoniac., 719
...7257.3
*
as water.
6832.7
Tincture of antimony.
Vitreous humour of an ox's eye.
Crystalline humour of ditto..
White of hen's egg.
Jelly of hartshorn
Human saliva....
Human urine.
French brandy..
•
·
7401.3
7384-7
as water.
..7451.9
.7338.6
•
+ Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 539.
Optics. p. 270.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 204,
CHAP. II.}
379
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
12. The method of separating the different rays from each other by the prism
completely not being understood, before the publication of Newton's Optics,
in 1704, several persons who had attempted it could not succeed. This in
particular was the case with M. Mariotte, who was induced in consequence to
refuse his assent to the Newtonian theory. In a number of the Acta Erudito-
rum, Newton was requested to explain how the experiment should be made,
and to remove the objections that had been started, in consequence of the want
of success of other experimenters. This induced him to request Dr. Desaguliers
to repeat the experiments as he had described them in his Optics, before the
Royal Society. The request was complied with, and the accuracy of Newton's
opinions fully confirmed. Dr. Desaguliers published three papers in the Trans-
actions, describing at full length the method which he followed in repeating
these experiments, and the success with which they were attended.* These
papers deserve to be studied by every person who wishes to satisfy himself expe-
rimentally of the Newtonian theory of light and colours.
This table was constructed by
But, as astronomers are now
refraction.
13. The next paper which we have to mention is a very important one, be- Atmospheric
cause it contains the first accurate table of the allowance to be made for atmos-
pherical refraction in astronomical observations.
Newton, and the paper was written by Halley.
in possession of tables of refraction, and of methods of calculating it still more
precisely than this table, it is not necessary to transcribe it here. The following
is the proportion which gives us an approximate value of this refraction for all
heights. Let r = refraction, z = angle which a ray of light makes with the
zenith line; then 33' r: tang. (90° 33' +3): tang. ≈ —
z 3r. This pro-
portion only holds when the barometer stand at 30 inches, and the ther-
mometer at 50º. When the barometer changes, let в = the actual height,
then we may say 30: B::r: r' the true refraction. When the thermometer
changes, lett actual height of it, then we may say 1:1-(t-50)00245 ::
B r:r"=true refraction. So that the complete formula for refraction is
30
B
g"=r+ + (1 − t - 50)-00245. The curve of a refracted ray nearly
30
coincides with a circle whose diameter is seven times that of the earth.
14. We come now to the discoveries made by Mr. Dollond, which are the Dollond.
most important that have been made in optics since the time of Sir Isaac New-
ton. John Dollond, the author of these discoveries, was born in Spitalfields,
London, in the year 1706. His father was a French refugee, who had left
his country on the revocation of the edict of Nantz, and had established him-
self in Spitalfields as a silk weaver. His son John was brought up to the same
* Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 439 and 448; and Vol. XXXV. p. 596.
Phil. Trans. 1721. Vol, XXXI. p. 169.
3 c 2
380
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
profession; but having a studious turn he contrived to get acquainted with
mathematics, and afterwards to make considerable progress in astronomy and
optics. Having married early, and being burthened with a family, he was
obliged to bring up his eldest son Peter in his own profession. But the young
man seeing the respect paid to his father for his knowledge by professional men,
was induced to commence optician under his father's direction. Having suc-
ceeded in his undertaking, his father joined him in 1752; and, in consequence
of his theoretical knowledge, soon became a proficient in the practical part of
the art. His first attempt was to improve the eye glasses of refracting teles-
copes; and he contrived, by a combination of five eye glasses, to make telescopes
greatly superior to those formerly in use. He gave an account of this improve-
ment in the Philosophical Transactions.* He next made a very useful im-
provement in Savery's micrometers. Instead of employing two entire object
glasses, as Savery and Bouguer had done, he used only one glass cut into two
equal parts, one of them sliding laterally on the other. By which contrivance
Mr. Short was enabled to apply it to the reflecting telescope with much advan-
tage. Of this micrometer he likewise gave a description in the Philosophical
Transactions. These improvements gave him celebrity; and he was encou-
raged by the friendship and protection of the most eminent men of science in
London.
He now engaged in a discussion, which at that time interested all the philo-
sophers of Europe. Sir Isaac Newton had declared in his Optics, that all
refracting substances diverged the prismatic colours in a constant proportion to
their mean refraction, and drew as a conclusion that refraction could not be
produced without colour, and consequently that no improvement could be ex-
pected in the refracting telescope. Every body acquiesced in the precision of
Newton's experiments; but Euler was of opinion that his conclusion went too
far, and maintained that in very small angles refraction might be obtained
without colour. Mr. Dollond took up the other side of the question, and
defended Newton's opinion with much ingenuity and skill; and drew as a con-
clusion from his arguments that, if the experiment be as Newton stated it,
refraction could not be without colour. Mr. Dollond's letter, and Euler's
answer, were both published in the Philosophical Transactions.
* 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 103.
+
+ Vol. XLVIII. p. 178 and 551.
Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 292. Euler informs us, in his letter, that he was led to his
opinion by considering the structure of the eye, which he conceived refracted without any dispersion
of the rays; and he thought that the eye was constructed of three different humours for that express
purpose. But his hypothesis does not apply to the eye; and Dr. Maskelyne afterwards showed that
the eye does not correct the dispersion of the rays; but, that the error is insensible, and that a
more perfect structure would have been less adapted for the common purposes of life. Phil. Trans.
1789, Vol. LXXIX. p. 256.
CHAP. II.]
381
MACHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.—OPTICS.
But Mr. Dollond was not satisfied with bare reasoning on the subject. It
occurred to him that it would be worth while to repeat the experiment of Sir
Isaac Newton, upon which the presently received theory was founded. He
took two thin glass plates, cemented them together at one of the edges, fitted
brass plates to the ends, and filled this vessel with water, so as to make a water
prism. Into this vessel he put a glass prism, with its reflecting angle upper-
most. Thus he had two prisms, one of glass, and another of water, acting
opposite ways; and by altering the angle of the water prism till an object seen
through both prisms occupied its natural place, he made both to refract equally,
so that they mutually destroyed each other's refractions. In this case, if New-
ton's principle were accurate, the object ought to be seen without colour; but,
on the contrary, it was as much coloured as if seen through the glass prism
alone. Hence it followed that Newton's principle was inaccurate; and that
therefore refraction might be effected without inducing colour. To prove this,
he put a glass prism, with a very small refracting angle, into his water prism ;
and altered the angle of the water prism, till objects seen through both were
free from colour. In this case there was a considerable refraction. Having
determined this important principle, his next object was to find whether there
were different sorts of glass that possessed this difference in their dispersive
power to a remarkable degree; and after trying various kinds, he found a re-
markable difference between crown glass and flint glass in this respect. He
found that two wedges of flint and crown glass, ground to such angles that the
refraction of the flint was to that of the crown as two to three, when placed
together, showed objects free from colour. Therefore a concave flint glass, and
a convex crown glass lens, placed together, would act in this manner, sup-
posing the focal distances of each inversely as. the ratio of the refraction
of the wedges. Upon trial, he was able, after overcoming various difficul-
ties, to construct refracting telescopes in this manner greatly superior to
any former ones.* To these new telescopes, Dr. Bevis gave the name of Achromaţie
achromatic. They have been of great service to astronomy, by being applied
to fixed instruments; and to navigation, by being applied to Hadley's sextant.
For this important discovery, Mr. Dollond was presented with the annual gold
medal by the Royal Society; though not yet a Member of that learned body.
He was elected into the Royal Society in 1761, and appointed Optician to the
King. But he did not long enjoy these honours; for on the 30th of November,
of the same year, a fit of apoplexy terminated his life in a few hours, in the
55th year of his age.†
While upon this subject, we ought to mention a very excellent paper by Mr.
Murdoch, in which he shows that Mr. Dollond's discovery is not inconsistent
* Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 733.
+ Phil. Magazine. Vol. XVIII. p. 47.
glasses.
382
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Objections to
the opinion
body answer-
ed.
with the doctrine of Sir Isaac Newton; but that a meaning had been affixed to
his expressions which he never intended to convey.* Sufficient attention has
not been paid by optical writers to this paper.
15. The next paper deserving notice, is a posthumous one, of Mr. Short,
which he delivered sealed up to the Society, on the 30th of April, 1752. After
his death it was opened by the council, and ordered to be printed. It is a
minute description of the method which he employed for grinding the object
glasses of refracting telescopes truly spherical; and must be of considerable im-
portance to practical opticians.†
16. The next paper is one by Dr. Horsley, to obviate certain objections
that light is a started by Dr. Franklin, against the common opinion, that light is a body
emitted from luminous substances. Dr. Franklin supposes, that if light were a
body, its velocity is so great that it would have a momentum greater than that
of a 24-pounder fired from a cannon; and that the sun, by the emission of such
a vast quantity of matter, would shrink in its dimensions, and cease to act upon
the revolving planets with the same energy. Dr. Horsley demonstrates that,
on the supposition that the particles of light are sphericles, having a diameter
equal to one millionth of one millionth of an inch, and a density three times as
great as that of iron, the momentum of each will not be greater than that of a
sphere of iron 4th of an inch in diameter, and moving at the rate of less than
an inch in 12,000 millions of millions of Egyptian years: that is, it will be
absolutely insensible. He demonstrates likewise that, on the most unfavourable
supposition possible, the sun could only loseds of his matter in the space
of 383,130,000 Egyptian years; and that at the end of that period the dimi-
nution of his bulk, and the alteration in the planetary motions, would be abso-
lutely insensible. Hence Dr. Franklin's opinions are obviously of no weight.
But, even if the Newtonian doctrine of light be admitted, it is very conceiv-
able that a great proportion of the light thus emitted is returned again into the
sun. Newton himself was of opinion, that the light thus emitted gradually
collected together, and formed masses of matter, which revolved round the sun.
He conceived the comets to be masses of this kind, and that, after circulating
for a given period, they at last fell into the sun's body, and thus restored all the
loss of matter which that luminary had sustained. He even conceived that the
very bright comet, which appeared in his time, and which is supposed to make
a revolution in rather more than 500 years, would, from the extreme nearness
of its approach to the sun, fall into it in the course of five or six revolutions ;
and the consequence, he supposed, would be such an increase of heat, as
would destroy all the living beings on this earth.
+
*Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII.
p. 173.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. P. 417.
+ Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 507.
CHAP. II.]
383
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-OPTICS.
"
There is a tendency among the British philosophers of the present day, to
adopt the hypothesis of Huygens, or rather indeed of Dr. Hooke. This is
chiefly owing to a paper by Dr. Wollaston, in which he shows, that the double
refraction of Iceland crystal can be accounted for in a satisfactory manner on
Huygens's principles, and on no other. This very ingenious paper is printed
in a volume of the Transactions, which does not come under our review. Some
curious discoveries of Malus, and some observations by La Place, in the two
volumes of the Memoires d'Arcueil, lately published, have added still farther
to the probability of this opinion. We must confess, however, that we think it
impossible to get over the objections pointed out by Newton himself, in his
answer to Dr. Hooke.
pable of distin-
lours.
17. The next paper is a curious account of three brothers, who were born at Persons inca-
Maryport, in Cumberland, who could distinguish the figure of objects per-guishing co-
fectly well, and saw to as great a distance as other people, but could not dis-
tinguish colour. They knew the difference between light colours and dark
colours, and never confounded white and black; but if two colours had the
same degree of liveliness, they could not distinguish between them: thus green,
red, and orange, they considered as the same. This defect of sight is by no
means uncommon. Mr. Dalton, of Manchester, who is himself affected with
it, has given us a curious account of it in one of the volumes of the Memoirs of
the Manchester Society. He mentions two other persons that he knew, who
were affected with the same disorder. He conceives it to arise from the lens of
the eye, or some of the humours, being tinged of a particular colour.
*
telescopes.
18. The next paper is a very valuable one, by Mr. Mudge, giving directions Mirrors of
for making the best composition for the metals of reflecting telescopes; with a
description of the process for grinding, polishing, and giving the great specu-
lum the true parabolic curve. For this paper, Mr. Mudge was honoured with
the annual gold medal of the Royal Society. The composition consists of two
pounds of good copper, and 14 ounces of grain tin, melted together; and to
prevent the speculum from being porous, it is always necessary to melt it twice
over, giving it the second time just heat enough to melt it. Mr. Mudge's
rules for grinding and polishing the speculum are excellent. But we must refer
for an account of them to the paper itself.
termining the
-
19. The next paper we shall notice is a very curious one, by Mr. Wilson, Method of de-
in which he proposes an experiment for determining, by the aberration of velocity of the
the fixed stars, whether the rays of light, in pervading different media, change rays of light,
their velocity according to the law which results from Sir Isaac Newton's ideas
concerning the cause of refraction; and for ascertaining their velocity in every
* Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 260.
+ Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 296. ·
5
384
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
medium whose refractive density is known.* This method is to employ a teles-
cope, filled with water, and to observe with it the aberration of the stars in the
same way as Dr. Bradley did with his sector. Mr. Wilson demonstrates, that
if the light be accelerated in its passage through the water, its direction will
not be altered; and this sameness in the direction constitutes the expected
proof of the acceleration of light during its passage through the water, and
consequently of the truth of the Newtonian theory of refraction. Boscovich
had proposed a similar method of determining the point; but he had fallen into
an error respecting the alteration of the direction, which he conceived would
be produced by the water.
+
20. The last papers we shall notice are two very curious ones, by Mr.
Brougham, on the flection and reflection of light;† and one on the same sub-
ject by Prevost, of Geneva, opposing some of Mr. Brougham's conclusions,
and defending the Newtonian doctrine. We regret that we cannot enter upon
the examination of these excellent papers. But to do them justice, or even to
render them intelligible to our readers, would require a length of discussion
totally inconsistent with the limits of this work. Here then we close our obser-
vations on optics. We acknowledge that various other papers would have been
entitled to notice; but we have still so much ground to travel over, and have
already exhausted so great a proportion of the limits allowed us, that any fur-
ther details would be made at the expence of the sciences which we have yet to
notice.
+
CHAP. III.
OF DYNAMICS.
THE term Dynamics is applied by natural philosophers to that preliminary
branch of their science which treats of the theory of moving bodies. Statics,
or the theory of equilibrium, is usually considered as a part of it, because it
depends upon similar principles. It is a very important branch of knowledge;
but it is so well understood, and treated so fully in all systems of natural philo-
sophy, that we do not think it necessary to enter into details. We may men-
tion, however, in a few sentences, the principal topics which enter into the
* Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 58.
+ Phil. Trans. 1796. Vol. LXXXVI. p. 227; and 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 352.
Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 311.
2
Chap. III.]
385
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-DYNAMICS.
science called Dynamics. We shall then notice the few papers on the subject
to be found in the Philosophical Transactions.
***
S
S
=
S
บ
dynamics.
Motion is estimated by the space passed over in a given time, and the rate of Outline of
motion is called velocity. Let s denote the space, t the time, and the velo-
city. Then, in uniform motions, we have 1.stv. 2. v = 3. t These
three simple theorems comprehend the whole doctrine of uniform motions. But
motions are seldom uniform; they usually either increase or diminish. In such
cases, philosophers have conceived the motion to be uniform during a very
small time, and to receive a certain addition or diminution at the end of it.
These additions or diminutions are called increments, or rather fluctions. And
we have as before vt, v = andi. A body continues for ever either
in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilineal motion, unless affected by some ex-
ternal cause. This cause is called a force, by writers on mechanics. Now
forces are measured by the quantity of motion which they produce in a given
time. When a body is acted on at once by two forces, if these forces be repre-
sented by lines meeting in an angle according to their direction, if we complete
the parallelogram, of which the two lines constitute two sides, then the body
will move in the diagonal of that parallelogram. Now these three lines con-
stitute a triangle. Hence it follows, that if a body be acted on at once by
three forces represented by the three sides of a triangle, it will remain in equi-
librio.
The next branch of dynamics considers the collision of bodies: 1st, of such
as are not elastic; 2d, of elastic bodies. In the first case, if a strike against в,
whatever motion it communicates to в it loses itself, so that the quantity of
motion continues unaltered. Suppose both bodies going the same way with
different velocities, and let the velocity of a be a, and that of в, b; and let the
common velocity after collision be r, then x =
If the bodies move
in opposite directions, then r =
mulas become a =
v
a + b
2
AⱭ Bb
A + B
b
A
Aа + вb
A+ B
Supposing the bodies equal the for-
and. Or, in the first case half the sum, and
in the second half the difference of the original motions.
A + B
If the bodies be elastic, they rebound after collision with a velocity equal to
the stroke. In that case the velocity lost is double, and is represented by
2B (a - b)
When the forces are equal, the bodies rebound back with inter-
changed velocities. In elastic bodies, the difference of velocities is the same
after as before collision; and in them, as well as in non-elastic bodies, the sum
of the motions is the same after as before collision. Hence the following pro-
position may be demonstrated: the square of the velocities, multiplied into the
3 D
386
[Book III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Gravity.
bodies, is the same before and after the collision. This is what is called the
vis viva so much attended to by some of the continental writers.
ABC.
B
C
The most important of all the accelerated motions is that from gravity; as
the motion of a heavy body falling to the ground. During the first second of
time it falls very nearly 16 feet and one inch, or 193 inches. Its velocity in-
creases regularly with the time: hence the motion of gravity is called an equably
accelerated motion. If the time be represented by the line
A
AB, and the velocity at the end of AB by the line CB,
then the space passed over is represented by the triangle
Now as triangles are to each other as the squares
of their homologous sides, it follows that the space passed
over is as the square of AB, or as the square of the time,
which is the great characteristic of equably accelerated
motions. The space is also as the square of BC, or as the
square of the acquired velocity. Hence it is obvious, that
if it had set out at first with the acquired velocity вc, it
would have passed over double the space ABC. Hence the acquired velocity
in a second is not measured by 16 feet, but by 32 feet. This velocity is
usually represented by the letter g. The doctrine of equably accelerated motions
is explained by the three following theorems, in which s, v, t, as before, repre-
sent the space, the velocity, and the time; and g = 324 feet.
1.2= gt.
& f.
t². 3. 2gs = v². From these we may easily deduce every thing
wanted respecting such motions.
When a body is thrown up from the surface of the earth it is uniformly re-
tarded. Hence the same formulas apply to such motions as to uniformly acce-
lerated motions. Let us suppose a body to be thrown up with a velocity c, and
let t denote the time. If gravity did not act, in the time t, it would have
moved ct: but during that time, by the action of gravity, it would have fallen
ť. To obtain the real height we must subtract this quantity. It will be there-
fore ct

2.8=
2011
2
ť².
The short sketch which we have now given contains the elements of dyna-
mics, stript indeed as much as possible of its mathematical dress; and we have
been under the necessity of passing over those propositions which could not be
rendered intelligible without entering into mathematical disquisitions. The first
good system of dynamics that appeared was written by D'Alembert; and the best
which we have ever seen in the English language is that which the late Pro-
fessor Robison, of Edinburgh, inserted in the supplement of the third edition
of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and which appeared in the first volume of his
System of Natural Philosophy, a work unfortunately stopped almost at the out-
CHAP. III.]
387
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-DYNAMICS.
Transactions.
set.by Dr. Robison's death. We shall now notice the most remarkable papers on Papers in the
dynamical subjects contained in the Philosophical Transactions. They amount.
in all to 40; but there are seven of these which can scarcely be considered as
of any value, and some of the remaining 33 are rather analyses, or reviews of
books, than original papers.
bodies.
1. The first three papers which occur in the Transactions contain the mathe- Collision of
matical doctrine of the collision of bodies. This important part of dynamics
was ascertained about the same time by Dr. Wallis, Sir Christopher Wren, and
Mr. Huygens, who all communicated their theories of the subject to the Royal
Society, within a very short space of time, and without any communication
with each other. Dr. Wallis was first: his paper was read to the Society on
the 29th of November, 1668. Sir Christopher Wren gave in his paper on the
17th of December, of the same year; and Mr. Huygens sent his on the 5th of
January, 1669. So that the interval between them was very small.*
2. The next paper deserving notice is a very valuable one by Dr. Halley on
gravity and its properties. The law of the fall of heavy bodies was first deter-
mined by Galileo, and the subject was still further prosecuted by his pupil Tor-
ricelli. But Sir Isaac Newton was the person who brought it to perfection,
and first demonstrated some of the propositions contained in our preceding
sketch. Dr. Halley's paper was published before the appearance of the Prin-
cipia, though it is plain that he was acquainted with many of the principles
contained in that admirable book. Indeed he mentions it as almost ready for
publication. Dr. Halley has fallen into some mistakes in this paper; though
as a whole it possesses considerable value. It contains not only the general
properties of gravity, but gives also the outlines of the mathematical theory of
projectiles.+
3. The next paper is by Mr. Hauksbee, and is not strictly speaking dynami-
cal, but consists of a set of experiments to prove the resistance of the air. I
mention it here because the resistance of the air has considerable effect in cer-
tain dynamical experiments. Hauksbee found that a marble let fall on glass re-
bounded higher in vacuo than in common air, and higher in common air than
in condensed air.‡
4. The next paper is by Mr. John Keill, entitled, Of the Laws of Centri-
petal Force.§ He begins by demonstrating the following theorem, which he
informs us had been communicated to him by Dr. Halley, but discovered by
Newton. If a body urged by a centripetal force move in any curve, then in
every point of the curve that force will be in a ratio compounded of the direct
ratio of the body's distance from the centre of force, and the reciprocal ratio
* Phil. Trans. Vol. III. p. 864, 867; and Vol. IV. p.
↑ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 1946.
925. + Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI. p. 3.
§ Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 174.
3D 2
388
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of the cube of the perpendicular on the tangent to the same point of the curve,
drawn into the radius of curvature of the same point. From this theorem,
which he demonstrates, he deduces, in a very luminous manner, the laws of
centripetal forces. But the paper is chiefly remarkable for containing the sen-
tence about the discovery of fluctions, which gave so much offence to Leibnitz,
and occasioned the famous controversy between the British and German mathe-
inaticians.
5. The next paper contains the repetition of the well known experiment of
the guinea and feather falling from the top of an exhausted receiver, and reach-
ing the bottom at the same time. Desaguliers, by joining together a number of
glass receivers, contrived to make these bodies fall from the height of eight feet;
and found, when the air was well exhausted, that both bodies fell to the bottom
at the same instant of time.*
6. The Philosophical Transactions contain no less than 12 papers on the cele-
brated controvery, whether the force of moving bodies be proportional to their
velocity, or to the square of their velocity. The authors of these papers are
Dr. Pemberton,† Dr. Desaguliers, Mr. Eames,§ Dr. Samuel Clarke,|| Dr.
Jurin, Dr. Reid,** and Mr. Milner.++ This, being a dispute about a definition,
could not possibly be terminated, both parties being in the right, and both in
the wrong. Newton's definition is simplest, and best adapted to mechanical
philosophy, and therefore in every respect preferable to that of Leibnitz. Dr.
Reid's paper above referred to explains the real nature of the controversy in a
very luminous manner; and
and may be considered as sufficient to set the contro-
versy for ever at rest.
7. In the next paper which deserves notice, Dr. Desaguliers demonstrates a
property of the balance, which at first view appears paradoxical. If a man be
counterpoised in one scale by a weight in the other, if he presses with a stick
against the beam he will become heavier than the counterpoise. On the other
hand, if the beam in which the man hangs be half way between the extremity
of the balance, and the point of suspension of the balance, and if he presses
against any part of the beam on the outside of the scale, he will become lighter
than the counterpoise. We likewise owe to Dr. Desaguliers some statical ex-
periments described in a subsequent volume of the Transactions.§§
afe afe
8. In the next paper Dr. Jurin gives a general theorem respecting the action of
* Phil. Trans. 1717. Vol. XXX. P. 717.
+ Phil. Trans. 1722. Vol. XXXII. p. 57.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1723. Vol. XXXII. p. 269 and 285; and Vol. XXXVIII. p. 143.
§ Phil. Trans. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. p. 183; and Vol. XXXV. p. 343.
Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 381.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1740. Vol. XLI. p. 607; 1745. Vol. XLIII. p. 423; and Vol. XLIV. p. 103.
** Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 505.
Phil. Trans. 1729. Vol. XXXVI. p. 128.
++ Phil. Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII.
P. 344.
§ Phil. Trans. 1737. Vol. XL. p. 62.
1
CHAP. III.]
389
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-DYNAMICS.
springs, and deduces from it a great number of curious corollaries. The paper
is not susceptible of abridgment.* The principle which regulates springs or
elastic bodies was first pointed out by Dr. Hooke in this short sentence, Ut tensio
sic vis, when he applied springs to regulate the motions of watches. The
meaning of this sentence is, that the resistance of the spring is always propor-
tional to the space by which it is driven from its natural situation. If a certain
force remove it an inch from its natural situation, it will take twice the force to
remove it two inches, and thrice the force to remove it three inches, and so on.
9. The next paper is a very elaborate one of Mr. Smeaton, entitled, An ex-
perimental Examination of the Quantity and Proportion of Mechanical Power
necessary to be employed in giving different degrees of velocity to heary bodies
from a state of rest. In this paper, Mr. Smeaton shows by experiment, that
what he calls the mechanical power of a body increases as the square of the
velocity. But we must carefully distinguish between this mechanical power
and the Newtonian term momentum or quantity of motion. The one is mea-
sured by its instantaneous action, the other by its action for a certain time. The
momentum by its definition is in the compound ratio of the mass of a body and
its velocity, and therefore simply as the velocity in a given body; while the
mechanical power by its definition is estimated by the mass compounded with
the space it has described in acquiring its velocity. Now since the space fallen
is as the square of the acquired velocity, it follows that this force must be as the
square of the velocity in a given body.
10. The next paper is a very long and elaborate one by Mr. Landen, entitled,
A New Theory of the Rotatory Motion of Bodies affected by forces disturbing
such Motion.‡ This is an excellent paper, like all the others communicated by
that very eminent mathematician, and is of considerable importance in several
astronomical discussions.
11. The next paper is by Mr. Bügge, Astronomer Royal at Copenhagen,
and is entitled, On the Theory of Pile Driving. This paper is very clearly
written; but there are some mistakes in his assumptions, which prevents his ulti-
mate conclusions from being quite accurate. His greatest error respects the
friction, which he estimates too high, making it (d+b)b instead of (d+÷b)b.
12. The next paper is entitled, An Investigation of the Principles of Pro-
gressive and Rotatory Motion.|| Mr. Vince, the author of this excellent paper
has carried the subject a good deal further than had been done by preceding
mathematicians. There is also a set of experiments on the collision of bodies
by Mr. Smeaton, in a subsequent volume of the Transactions, I in which that
* Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII. p. 472.
Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 266.
Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 516.
+ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 450.
§ Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 120.
Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 337.
390
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
ફ
very ingenious practical engineer falls into some mistakes, from confounding his
mechanical force with the Newtonian momentum.
13. We shall notice here a valuable paper by Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn,
on an invariable standard of weights and measures, because we do not know
where else it can be better placed. Mr. Whitehurst had been employed, like
Sir George, in endeavouring to determine an invariable standard of weights
and measures, and the method, which occurred to him as the best, was to deter-
mine the difference between the length of two pendulums which vibrate with
different degrees of velocity. He had constructed a machine for the purpose
which Sir George Shuckburgh procured. The result was, that the difference
between the length of two pendulums, which vibrate 42 and 84 times in a
minute of mean time in the latitude of London at 113 feet above the level of
the sea in the temperature of 68, and the barometer at 30 inches, is equal to
59.89358 inches of the parliamentary standard. From this all the measures of
superficies and capacity are deducible. Agreeably to the same scale of inches,
a cubic inch of pure distilled water, when the barometer is 29.74 inches, and
the thermometer at 66°, weighs 252-422 parliamentary grains. From which
all other weights may be easily deduced.*
Explanation of
the term.
CHAP. IV.
OF MECHANICS.
THE term Mechanics is applied in different senses, or at least with very
different degrees of latitude by different writers, sometimes comprehending
almost the whole of natural philosophy, sometimes being confined to the
constrained motions of bodies, and sometimes to the mechanical powers and
machines. It will answer our purpose at present to take the word in the last
sense; though we shall not scruple to class any paper in the Transactions,
which happens to treat of the doctrine of constrained motion, if any such occur,
under the present chapter.
The mechanical (powers are ususally reduced under five heads; namely, the
lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the wedge, and the screw. All these
mechanical powers are mentioned by Pappus as known before his time, though
Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 133.
3
CHAP. IV.]
391
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MECHANICS.
as no preceding writer makes an enumeration of them, we do not know at what
period or by whom they were discovered.
The lever is an inflexible rod moving about a fulcrum, and forces are ap- The lev r.
plied to two or more points of it. The fundamental property by which it is
distinguished is that, if it be supported on a fulcrum, and weights be suspended
from its two extremities, these weights will be in equilibrio, if they be to each
other inversely as their distances from the fulcrum. From this property the
whole doctrine of the lever is easily deduced. Hence considerable pains have
been taken to demonstrate it. It may be proper to mention that the lever is
distinguished into two kinds, according to the position of the fulcrum; in the
first kind the fulcrum lies between the two forces; in the second kind it is
placed at one extremity of the lever. The common balance is nothing else than The balance.
a lever with equal arms. A good balance should possess sensibility, correctness,
and stability, properties which depend upon the following particulars. The
arms must be of equal length: the friction of the beam about its axis should be
the least possible: the beam should be exactly at right angles to the suspension:
it should be so strong as not to bend under the weight, and it should be as
long as possible: finally, the axis of suspension must be higher than the centre
of gravity of the beam. Let a be one arm of the beam, b the distance between
the centre of gravity and the point of suspension, the load, the weight of
the beam, then the sensibility of the balance is represented by b (1+w)
Hence
it is obvious that the sensibility increases with the length of the arm, and
diminishes with the load, with the weight of the beam, and with the distance
between the axis and the centre of gravity of the beam. But on the other hand,
the stability diminishes as the length of the beam increases, and as the distance
between the axis and centre of gravity diminishes; this prevents the sensibility
from being carried beyond a certain point.
a
arle.
The wheel and axle is nothing else than a lever contrived to turn round an wheel and
axis, by which ingenious contrivance the greatest disadvantage of the lever is
got rid of; namely, the small height to which it can raise a weight. The wheel
and axle consists of two wheels of very different diameters, attached to the
same axis, the power is applied to the greater wheel, and the weight to be
raised to the smaller. In order to produce equilibrio, the weight must be to
the power inversely, as the diameter of the greater wheel is to that of the
smaller.
The pulley is only a mechanical power when it is moveable. When there is The pulley.
only a single moveable pulley, the equilibrium takes place when the power is to
the weight as 1 to 2; and every additional pulley doubles the power. Hence
if the number of pulleys be n, the advantage gained may be represented
by 2".
392
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
The wedge.
The screw,
The wedge is a triangular prism made of any tough materials. The funda-
mental property of the wedge, demonstrated by mechanical writers, is that, if
powers be applied perpendicularly to the faces, and to the back of a wedge,
they will balance each other, if they be proportional to the sides against which
they act.
But it must be conceived that the directions of these forces are such,
that if the lines representing them be continued, they will meet in one point.
From this property it is obvious that the power of a wedge increases in pro-
portion as it becomes sharper.
The screw is nothing else than a wedge wrapped round a cylinder. We
generally use a lever to turn round the screw. Now, the power is to the re-
sistance, as the circumference of the circle round which the lever moves to the
threads of the screw. The screw has this advantage over all the other mecha-
nical powers, that it continues to act after the power is removed, in consequence
of the greatness of the friction.
There is one principle common to all the mechanical powers; namely, that
the power multiplied by its velocity is always equal to the weight multiplied by
its velocity. This is usually expressed by saying, that the virtual velocities are
always the same. Hence it is obvious that whatever is gained in power, is lost
in velocity.
These observations, which are quite elementary, will be sufficient for our pur-
pose at present. For mechanics constitutes a very subordinate department in-
Papers in the deed in the Philosophical Transactions. The papers on the subject amount to
51; but the greatest number of these are very insignificant. Scarcely more
than 13 or 14 can be considered as of any importance; and several even of these
are merely historical notices.
Transactions.
Watches.
1. The first papers that deserve notice are several by Huygens, Leibnitz, and
Hooke, on watches. Huygens was the first person who employed the pendulum
to equalize the motion of clocks, or watches, as he called them; and in order to
make all the vibrations of the same time, he made the pendulum vibrate be-
tween cycloidal cheeks. These watches were recommended by him for deter-
mining the longitude at sea; and several trials were made by British Naval
Officers, which turned out favourably. Though in process of time it was found
that the tossing of the ship, especially in stormy weather, was inconsistent with
the equal motion of these watches, and that they were constantly liable to stop
and be deranged. Hence it was speedily found that they could not be em-
ployed at sea with any advantage. This seems to have been the principal mo-
tive that induced Huygens to turn his attention to equalizing the motion of
watches by the application of a balance spring instead of a pendulum. This
happy thought occurred originally to Dr. Hooke, who communicated it to Lord
Brounker, and a plan was in agitation for some time to secure the profits of
the invention by a patent. But the scheme, (probably from the irritability of
CHAP. IV.
393
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MECHANICS.
Dr. Hooke's temper), was not put in practice, and Mr. Oldenburg affirms that
none of the watches made upon Hooke's principle succeeded. Meanwhile
Huygens thought of this method of regulating the motion of watches, com-
municated it to the Royal Society, published a description of his watch in the
Journal des Sçavans, and requested Mr. Oldenburg to insert this description in
the Philosophical Transactions, which was complied with.* Upon this Dr.
Hooke published a pamphlet, entitled A Description of Helioscopes, and some
other Instruments, made by Robert Hooke, F. R. S. In this publication he
reflects upon Mr. Oldenburg for inserting Huygens' invention in the Trans-
actions, without noticing that this invention was first found out by an English-
man, and long since published to the world; and complained on that account
of unhandsome proceedings. Mr. Oldenburg inserted a vindication of himself in
a subsequent number of the Transactions,† and took the insinuations of Dr.
Hooke so much to heart, that he complained of them to the Royal Society, by
whom his conduct was approved of, and Dr. Hooke was reprimanded for his
insinuations of unhandsome proceedings. The proposal of Leibnitz was also
claimed by Dr. Hooke, though he acknowledged that he had never commu-
nicated it to any body, and therefore freed Leibnitz from all suspicion of having
stolen it from him.
2. The next paper we shall mention contains a set of experiments to shew the
advantage derived from making the fore wheels of a waggon as high as the hind
ones.§ Dr. Wallis had previously pointed out the advantage of this practice,
which is now well known; provided the axle of the wheels be not higher than
the horse's breast, and provided the waggon is not to be drawn down a
declivity.
3. The next paper which we shall mention is an account of some improve-
ments in the crane, by Mr. Ralph Allen, Post Master of Bath, described by
Dr. Desaguliers. The crane is one of the most useful of all the simple ma-
chines. It is chiefly used for raising great weights to a certain height, and then
lowering them down into a waggon or ship; or the contrary. The improve-
ments described in the paper referred to are now so generally known, that we do
not think it necessary to state them.
4. There are three papers in the Philosophical Transactions on friction, two Friction,
by Dr. Desaguliers, I and one by Mr. Vince.** This last paper contains the
best investigation of the subject which has yet appeared. The experiments
1
+ Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. X. p. 435.
Phil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV. P. 856
* Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. IX. p. 272.
Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. IX. p.
285.
Phil. Trans. 1729. Vol. XXXVI.
p. 194.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1732. Vol. XXXVII. p. 292 and 394.
** Phil. Trans. 1785. Vol. LXXV. p. 165.
3 E
394
BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
He has
seem to have been made with great care, and to be very accurate.
ascertained by experiment, that friction is a uniformly retarding force; that it
increases in a less ratio than the quantity of matter, or weight of the body; and
that it increases with the surface of the rubbing bodies. Mr. Vince has shown
also, by experience, that, when two bodies are allowed to remain at rest upon
each other, they acquire a degree of cohesion which increases very much their
apparent friction. In consequence of this, they require always a considerably
greater force to put them in motion, than to keep them moving after motion has
once begun.
When a body is placed upon a horizontal surface, it requires a con-
siderable force to make it just ready to move upon the smallest impulse. This
force is the measure of the friction. It varies from d to th of the
weight to be put in motion. The smoother the surfaces the less the friction.
It has been ascertained, that iron moves with less friction in brass than in any
other metal. There are two sorts of frictions, that of bodies sliding on each
other, and that of bodies rolling on each other. The first is much greater than
the last. We may conceive friction to be occasioned by the hollows and pro-
tuberances of the bodies laid on each other, which enter into each other.
Hence, before a body can move, its centre of gravity must rise a little: or, per-
haps the protuberances yield a little; and a certain force is obviously necessary
to produce this effect. When a body rolls upon another, the centre of gravity
does not need to rise; but the one body is raised from the other: hence the
reason of the less friction which takes place between rolling surfaces.
We may
here subjoin some of the most important practical remarks on friction that have
been hitherto made.
Whenever motion is begun friction is very much diminished, and brought
nearly to a half. The friction of wood upon wood is proportional to the
weight; that of metal upon metal is proportional to the pressure. In woods
the friction, when the bodies are in motion, is to that when at rest, as 2 to 9.
But in metals the friction is not diminished by motion. The friction is less
when one metal is made to rub against another, than when the same metals rub
against each other. The greatest friction is that of a rope round a cylinder:
it increases in a geometrical ratio for every turn of the rope. The great means
of diminishing friction is by substituting the rolling for the sliding motion.
Oils also are employed for the same purpose, and of all oils the best for the
purpose is olive oil. This oil is apt to get thick in time, and this circumstance
is the great cause which at present prevents time-pieces from going with the
same accuracy almost as pendulum clocks. Black lead likewise has been found
to diminish friction considerably.
5. There are two curious papers by Mr. Ellicott, on the effect which two
CHAP. IV.]
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MECHANICS.
$9.5
clocks had upon each other when placed very near. They were made as regu-
lators, and on that account every part was constructed with very great care.
The pendulums were heavy, and moved with much greater facility than usual.
Mr. Ellicott found that when they were both set in motion together one of them
speedily stopped. If the one that stopped was put in motion while the other
was at rest, it soon began to act upon the pendulum at rest, and occasioned
such a motion as soon set the clock going. This mutual influence was occa-
sioned by the motion communicated from the one to the other by means of a
rail against which both were leaning. If the clocks were removed from the
rail, they ceased to act upon each other; but if a piece of wood was interposed
between them, and wedged between both, the effect was greatly accelerated.
The two clocks were found to go with unequal velocities; and the clock which
went fastest was the one that was set in motion by the other.*
6. On the application of pendulums to clocks, it was conceived that the Peadulan
irregularities in their motions were owing to the unequal arcs described by the
pendulum. This induced Huygens to suggest the application of cycloidal
cheeks, which would completely put an end to every irregularity arising from
unequal vibrations. But the irregularities still continuing, notwithstanding this
improvement, it began to be suspected that they were owing to the effects pro-
duced upon the length of the pendulum by heat or cold. In the year 1726,
Mr. George Graham gave a paper to the Royal Society on the subject, in
which he mentions an idea that had struck him, that the irregularity from that
cause might be prevented by making the pendulum rod of two metals, differing
in their expansibility by heat; but, upon examining the expansion of metals by
heat, he found them so nearly the same that he gave up all thoughts of a pen-
dulum of that construction. He then describes a pendulum, which he contrived
to answer the purpose by means of a column of mercury; which is usually
known by the name of the quicksilver pendulum. In the year 1795, Mr. John
Harrison, the celebrated inventor of the time-pieces, contrived a compensation
pendulum, consisting of nine alternate wires of brass and steel, commonly
known by the name of the gridiron pendulum. In the year 1752, Mr. John
Ellicott gave a paper to the Royal Society, describing a compensation pendulum,
which he had made by screwing a brass plate to an iron plate, and making the
excess of the expansion of the brass above the iron lift up the ball of the pen-
dulum, just as much as the iron had lengthened; by this contrivance keeping
the pendulum always of the same length. This idea he informs us first struck
him in the year 1732, and it was executed by him in the year 1738. Mr.
3
* Phil. Trans. 1739. Vol. XLI. p. 196,
:
3E2
396
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Expansion of
metals.
Lever.
Ellicott had found it necessary to make a set of experiments on the expansion of
metals by heat. The following is the result which he obtained:*
Steel.... .. 56 | Gold.. .
Iron ........ 60 Copper.
.73 | Brass..
89 Silver...
..95 | Lead...
...103
Lead....... 149
From this account, it appears that the persons to whom we are indebted for
compensation pendulums, are Mr. Graham and Mr. Harrison; and that Mr.
Ellicott contrived one on a principle a little different from that of Harrison.+
7. The next paper we shall notice, is an improvement on the common tackle
of pulleys, by which the inequality from friction is prevented, and at the same
time the pulleys so placed that the weight may be raised to a considerable
height. The method is simple, but cannot easily be explained without a figure.
Mr. Smeaton was the person to whom we are indebted for it.‡
8. There is a short investigation of the pressure of weights on moving ma-
chines, by Christian Hée, Professor of Mathematics and Experimental Philo-
sophy, in the Marine Institution of Copenhagen. Such investigations are of
little practical utility, on account of the effect of friction, which destroys all
the mathematical deductions from the theory of machines. Mr. Hée demon-
strates, that if we exclude the friction and the weight of the machine, the
pressure in the case of the pulley is = A being the moving power, and
B the weight to be raised.
4AB
A + B
9. Mr. Francis Blake has inserted in the Transactions a paper on the
greatest effect of engines, with uniformly accelerated motion; and has shown
that the effect is a maximum when the weight is to the power, as 0.618 to 1.||
10. Archimedes was the first person who attempted to demonstrate the funda-
mental property of the lever; but his demonstration is liable to certain difficul-
ties, which have made writers on mechanics dissatisfied with it; and many
mathematicians of the first eminence have attempted to substitute more satis-
factory principles in its place. Thus Huygens, Newton, Maclaurin, Hamilton,
and Landen, have all published demonstrations of their own. Mr. Landen's
appears perfeetly satisfactory, but is rather too tedious for so simple a subject.
Mr. Vince has endeavoured, in a paper which he published in the Transactions,
to remove the difficulties which have been started against the demonstration of
* Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII, p. 479.
Short. Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 517. There is a curious paper on this subject also
by Dr. Fordyce, in Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 2.
Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 494.
Phil. Trans. 1750. Vol. LI. p. 1.
Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 1.
5
CHAP V.]
397
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
Archimedes, and we think he has succeeded. He has rendered the demonstra-
tion perfectly satisfactory; and as it is the easiest of all the demonstrations of
this important property hitherto proposed, perhaps it may, without impro-
priety, be considered as the best.*
11. The last paper we shall mention is a very useful one, by Mr. Atwood,
for determining the times of vibration of watch balances, by investigations
founded on the theory of motion. The paper, from its nature, is not suscep-
tible of abridgement; but deserves to be studied by those who wish to make
improvements in time-pieces. Mr. Atwood has shown, that errors in the rate
of going may arise from differences in the weights of the balance, too small
to be determined experimentally.
CHAP. V.
OF HYDRODYNAMICS.
THE term Hydrodynamics has lately been applied, by writers on Natural
Philosophy, to that branch of mechanical science which treats of fluids. Now Division of the
fluids, as is well known, are of two very different kinds; namely, the incom- subject.
pressible and the compressible, or, liquids and aerial fluids. These possess pro-
perties so different, that it is necessary to consider them separately. We shall
therefore divide this chapter into two sections. In the first we shall treat of
liquids, as far as the papers in the Philosophical Transactions enable us to go.
In the second we shall consider elastic fluids, or airs.
SECTION I.-Of Liquids.
Liquids, in a mechanical point of view, may be considered in two states;
a state of rest and a state of motion. This has induced mechanical writers to
subdivide what relates to them into two parts, distinguished by the names of
hydrostatics, which treats of liquids in a state of rest; and hydraulics, which
treats of them in a state of motion. We ought to follow this example, were it
not that the number of papers on the subject, in the Philosophical Transactions,
is so small, that we may throw all the observations, which we can with propriety
make on the subject, into one short section.
I. For the principles of the science of hydrostatics, we are chiefly indebted Hydrostatics,
Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 33. + Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 119.
398
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Boyle.
to Mr. Boyle, one of the original Members of the Royal Society, and one of
the greatest ornaments of the age in which he lived. Robert Boyle was born in
the province of Munster, in Ireland, on the 25th of January, 1627.
He was
the seventh son, and the 14th child of the Earl of Cork. After receiving the
rudiments of education in Ireland, he was sent to Eaton, to be placed under
the care of Sir Henry Wotton, who was the friend of his father. Here he con-
tinued three years, and afterwards his education was continued at home, by one
of his father's chaplains. When very young he discovered, not only an excel-
lent understanding, but a serious and religious turn of mind, and a strong
desire to make himself acquainted with the original languages in which the Old
and New Testament were written. This desire induced him to repair to the
University of Leyden, in the year 1640, and he studied with such assiduity,
that we are told by Bishop Burnet that he could quote every remarkable passage
both in the Old and New Testament, in the original Hebrew and Greek. He
left Leyden in order to make the tour of Europe; and during his travels through
France, Switzerland, and Italy, he paid a good deal of attention to several of
the Eastern languages. On his return from his travels, in 1655, he settled
at Oxford, and devoted himself almost entirely to experimental researches.
Chemistry, Pneumatics, and Hydrostatics, were the sciences which he chiefly
cultivated, and which lie under the greatest obligations to him: but he made
occasional excursions into the different departments of natural history, and every
thing he touched felt the benefit of his experimental investigations. Few men
were more respected during the period of their lives, or left behind them a more
unblemished reputation. He was offered a Peerage by Charles II., but declined
accepting it; and he refused to enter into orders, because he thought his reli-
gious writings would have a greater effect when they came from the hands of a
layman, than if they had been written by a clergyman. His works were pub-
lished in six enormous folio volumes; but they were afterwards abridged by
Dr. Shaw, and published in three quartos, which, in consequence of their
greater conciseness, while they contain all the facts discovered by Mr. Boyle,
seem to be preferable to the original. He died on the 30th of December, 1691.
in the sixty-fourth year of his age. We are chiefly indebted to Mr. Boyle for
the air pump. The first rude machine of the kind indéed was contrived by
Otto Guericke; but Mr. Boyle made it a much superior machine; and in his
improvements he was assisted by the great mechanical genius of Dr. Hooke.
Boyle, not possessing any great extent of mathematical knowledge, could
not be expected to add much to the hydrostatical investigations respecting
stability, &c. Archimedes is the person to whom we are indebted for the esta-
blishment of hydrostatics on mathematical principles. His writings on that
subject were more admired by his contemporaries than any other part of his
profound investigations.
CHAP. V.]
399
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
A FLUID is a body, the particles of which, when they are left to themselves, Fluid, what.
are all in equilibrio, or are ready to move upon the smallest force being applied
to any of them.
of them. All the particles of fluids gravitate as well as those of solids.
A perfect fluid ought to have no viscosity; but among liquid bodies we are
acquainted with none that are entirely free from this property. The following
propositions comprehend the principles of hydrostatics. The word fluid is used Outline of
in most of them, instead of liquid, because several of these propositions apply
to aerial fluids as well as liquids; and stating such, generally, will save us some
repetition hereafter.
1. The surface of every fluid when at rest is horizontal, or perpendicular to
the direction of gravity. It will at once be perceived, that when the extent
of surface of the fluid is considerable, instead of being flat it will assume per-
ceptibly the form of the segment of a sphere. For example, if a pond extends
two miles every way, it can be shewn that the centre is eight inches higher than
the sides. The quantity of curvature increases as the square of the arches de-
scribed. Hence in levelling, a correction is necessary for this curvature, and
it is usually made in this way: If D be the distance in miles, two thirds of D² is
equal to the correction in feet.
2. The fluid in a vessel being at rest, and subjected to the sole action of gravity,
every particle of it is subjected to the same pressure every way: and the pressure
is equal to the perpendicular column of water above the particle.
3. The pressure of water upon the sides of the vessel is equal to the greatest
height of the water, without any regard to the extent of its upper surface.
This is what is usually called the hydrostatical paradox; because, in conse-
quence of it, a very small quantity of water may be made to produce all the
effects of a very great weight. Mr. Bramah's very ingenious press is founded
upon this property of fluids. If the side and bottom of a vessel be equal, then
the pressure on the bottom is twice as great as on the sides. Hence, if we wish
to inclose a pond of water by a wall, it it obvious that the thickness of the wall
at the bottom must be greater than at the top, as it has a much greater pressure
to withstand. If the wall at the bottom by ths of the height of the water, it
will just balance the pressure of the water.
thicker.
A secure wall would require to be
4. When a body floats in water, it loses a portion of its own weight, just
equal to that of the water which it displaces. The same proposition holds if
the body be plunged entirely under the surface; in which case the bulk of water
displaced is just equal to the bulk of the body immersed. This principle was
first observed by Archimedes, and he founded on it the method of ascertaining
the specific gravity of bodies, as at present practised. Let w be the weight of
any body in air, w' its weight when immersed in water, then w-w' is the
weight of the water equal to the bulk of the body. Let 1 be the specific gra-
hydrostatics.
400
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions.
Hydrometers.
vity of water, and s the specific gravity of w, then we have 1: s:: w-w': w;
which gives us s= the specific gravity required. As the weight of
W
A
W
water varies with the temperature, it is usual to take specific gravities at the
temperature of 60°.
5. When a body floats in water it affects a particular position, and this posi-
tion is such, that the line which joins the centre of gravity of the body and the
centre of gravity of the immersed part is always vertical. Hence a body float-
ing in water may have such a form as to have no stability, but to float indiffe-
rently in any position whatever. The form must be such, that the centre of
gravity of the immersed part always retains the very same position, whatever
part of the body is under water. This is obviously the case with a sphere: or
a body floating in water may have a great deal of stability or tendency to
return to a particular position: or it may have a particular position which it
prefers, but from which it is very easily driven. Stability is obviously an
important requisite in ship-building. Now the lower the centre of gravity
of a ship is below the deck, the greater its stability; but if it be too low, the
ship returns to the vertical position with such celerity as to endanger the masts.*
The papers on hydrostatics, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount only
to 17; and of these there are no fewer than seven which may be passed over as
trifling. We shall notice the most remarkable of the remaining ten: but no-
thing like the general principles of the science is to be expected in them; they
contain only a few detached remarks.
1. The first paper contains a set of experiments, by Mr. Boyle, to show that
water, when weighed in water, has exactly the same weight as when weighed
in air. He blew a glass ball, with a long stem, rarified the air in it, and then
sealed it hermetically. By attaching a piece of lead to this bubble, it was
counterpoised under the surface of water, and the point of the stem being then
broken off, water rushed in and filled it half full, and it became so much
heavier than before that four drachms thirty-eight grains were requisite to re-
store the equilibrium. The water being expelled from the bubble, it was found
to weigh four drachms and thirty grains; the remaining eight were accounted
for by the pieces of glass broken off and lost, and by the water that could not
be expelled from the bubble.†
2. Various instruments have been contrived for determining the specific gra-
vity of liquids, and likewise of solids, immersed in liquids. These instruments.
have received the name of hydrometers and areometers. The first of these in-
struments is said to have been contrived by the celebrated Hypatia, the Egyptian
* There are two excellent papers in the Transactions on the stability of ships, by Mr. Atwood
Phil.Trans. 1796. Vol. LXXXVI. p. 46; and 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII, p. 201.
+ Phil Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1001.
СПАР. V.]
401
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
mathematician, who afterwards lost her life in an insurrection of that supersti-
tious people. There are various of these instruments described in the Philoso-
phical Transactions: one by Mr. Boyle, with the mode which he employed in
adjusting it.* He used it chiefly for determining the purity of metals, and did
not attempt to obtain the real specific gravity, but merely a comparative value.
A much superior contrivance of the same kind is described by Fahrenheit, cal-
culated only to determine the specific gravity of liquids. The principles laid
down in this paper have been followed in almost all the instruments of the same
kind proposed since this paper was published. An instrument of the same kind
made of copper, contrived by Mr. Clark, and intended for determining the speci-
fic gravity of spirits, is described in a subsequent number of the Transactions.‡
This instrument is very complicated and inconvenient; but it was till very lately,
if it be not still, employed by the excise officers of this country for regulating
the amount of the duties charged on spirits.
The methods of determining the specific gravity either of liquids or solids by
such instruments as these, even when in the greatest state of perfection to which
they have been brought, are greatly inferior in accuracy to the common hydro-
static balance for solids, and the weighing bottle for liquids. There is an adhe-
sion between the particles of water and all other liquids, which prevents the in-
strument from acquiring much sensibility; and as this adhesion is apt to be
overcome by a sort of jerk, it requires much time to reach even the degree of
precision which such instruments are capable of attaining.
vity of bodies,
3. There are a variety of papers on the specific gravity of bodies in the Phi- Specific gra-
losophical Transactions, which we do not consider as necessary to be transcribed,
on account of the inaccuracies apparent in them. We shall therefore only
mention them, and refer to the volumes where they may be found. The first
paper is anonymous, and contains a naked list of the specific gravity of 77
bodies without any observations. The second is by Hauksbee, and gives the
specific gravity of six metals, gold, silver, copper, brass, lead, iron. But the
metals were obviously impure. The third paper is by Fahrenheit, and con-
tains the specific gravity of 29 bodies. The experiments appear to have been
accurately made; but we have no proofs that the substances employed were
pure. The fourth paper is of very considerable value. It gives a detailed
history of all that had been previously done by philosophers to determine the
specific gravity of bodies, and then gives a copious table of specific gravities
extracted from all preceding authors. This paper is drawn up by Dr. Davies,
and deserves to be consulted even by modern writers. Many of the specific
* Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. X. p. 329.
Phil. Trans. 1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 277.
|| Phil. Trans. 1712. Vol. XXVII. p. 511.
+ Phil. Trans. 1724. Vol. XXXII. p. 140.
f Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 694.
¶ Phil Trans. 1724. Vol. XXXIII. p. 114.
3 F
402
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
}
Water com-
pressible.
gravities indeed are inaccurate; but the gradual approximation to accuracy
which may be seen in them is curious; while others have anticipated some of
the most accurate modern experiments.* There is another paper on a subject
connected with specific gravity which deserves to be mentioned; though the
experiments which it contains are not quite so satisfactory as they might have
easily been made. The object of Dr. Wilkinson, the author of the paper, was
to determine how much cork was necessary to buoy up a man in water. For
this purpose he attached pieces of cork to a certain weight of lead, and ascer-
tained the buoyancy of that substance both in river and sea water. There were
considerable differences, as might be expected, from the diversity in the com-
pactness of different pieces of cork. The next object was to determine how
much cork would buoy up a man in river water.. A thin man was taken five
feet two inches high, and weighing 104 pounds. It was found that 12 ounces,
five drachms, and two scruples, or 6100 grains of cork, were just sufficient to
buoy him up in the river Thames. Such a quantity of cork was found capable
of buoying up 60 ounces, three drachms, and 21 grains. If these data be ac-
curate, it follows that the specific gravity of the man subjected to this trial was
10508; which was unusually great. Many persons, indeed the greater num-
ber, are specifically lighter than water, and would have required no cork what-
ever to buoy them up. From this experiment then we may safely conclude,
that a cork jacket weighing 15 ounces will be sufficient to give abundance of
buoyancy to any man whatever.
帚
​4. The last paper which we have to mention, connected with this subject, is
a very ingenious one by Mr. Canton, in which he shows by a simple, but con-
clusive set of experiments, that water, and indeed all liquids, possess elasticity,
and are compressible. His method was to fill a glass ball, having a slender
tube attached to it, with the liquids to be tried, and to put them under the re-
ceiver of an air pump. When the receiver was exhausted, he observed how
much they increased in bulk. This increase was owing to the expansion pro-
duced by the removal of the pressure of the atmosphere. It disappeared when
the atmospherical air was let into the receiver. The following table exhibits
the increase of bulk produced by the removal of the aerial pressure in all the
liquids examined by Mr. Canton:
Alcohol...
Olive oil,
Rain water..
Sea water.
Mercury.
Millionth parts-
66....
Sp. gravity.
0.846
48.
0·918.
46..
1.000
40..
1.028
3...
13.595
* Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 416.
+ Phil. Trans. 1765. Vol. LV. p. 95.
6
CHAP. V.]
403
T
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
+
Mr. Canton observed, what it is difficult to account for, that water is more
compressible when near the freezing point than when near the temperature of
60°. In all the other liquids the compressibility increased with the temperature.
From this curious discovery it follows, that the sea, where it is two miles deep,
is compressed by its own weight 69 feet two inches.*
water in capil-
II. There is a curious subject which has been usually arranged by natural Suspension of
philosophers under the head of hydrostatics, we mean the suspension of water lary tubes.
in capillary tubes. As several papers upon this subject occur in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions, they come naturally to be noticed here. We shall begin by
giving a brief statement of the phenomena; observing that the whole doctrine
of capillary attraction depends upon experiment, and that almost all the expe-
riments hitherto made on the subject are to be found in the Transactions. From
them chiefly, of course, our information is derived.
Water contained in vessels is observed to stand higher at the sides than in the
middle of the vessel. If you diminish the size of the vessel, the concave sur-
faces gradually approach each other; and when the diameter of the vessel is re-
duced to about 4th of an inch, there is no level surface at all remaining. If the
bore be still diminished, the water rises in the tube, and its height is always in-
versely as the diameter of the tube. These tubes, in consequence of the small-
ness of their bore, are called capillary tubes.
If two glass plates be placed in contact at one edge, and separated from each
other at the opposite edge by a small wedge, and in this state be immersed in
water, the water rises between them as it does in a capillary tube, and it rises
the higher the nearer the plates approach each other. Hence the upper surface
of this capillary water forms a hyperbola, having the bottom and the close edge
of the glass plates as assymptotes.
may
When water has risen in a capillary tube plunged in a vessel of water, we
take the tube out of the vessel, and the water will still continue in it. If
we incline the tube (supposing it wet, within) the capillary water will move
freely from one end of the tube to the other, but when it comes very near either
extremity it shows some reluctance to advance any further.
However small the bore of the tube the water never rises to the top, unless
we immerse the tube altogether under water. If you take a wide tube, termi-
nating in a very fine capillary bore, the water will stand as high in it as if the
whole tube were of the same capillary bore.
Such are the phenomena; let us now state the explanation of them that is
considered by philosophers as most satisfactory. It is obvious that the force
which sustains the water in the capillary tubes is proportional to the diameter
of the tubes. Let r, r' denote the semidiameters of the tubes, and a, a' the re-
* Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 640; and 1764. Vol. LIV. p. 261.
3 F2
404
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions,
spective height of water, we haver: a: a, aad therefore rara. Now
the areas of the tubes are IIa and I ar². Let the weights of the water in
each be w, w', then we have w : w' :: II a r² : П d'². Hence w: w'::r:r'. This
result naturally leads to the conclusion that the water is sustained in the tube
by a certain attraction between the inner surface of the glass tube and the water;
a supposition which explains the phenomena in a satisfactory manner. The
water in the capillary tube will move easily along the tube, because it is equally
attracted both ways, till it comes nearer the end of the tube than the distance
at which glass can attract water; at this distance being drawn more strongly in
one direction than in the other, it will not easily be induced to move nearer the
extremity. When a tube is immersed in water, this capillary attraction di-
minishes the gravitation of the column of water immediately under the tube:
hence it rises in the tube.
The number of papers on capillary attraction in the Philosophical Trans-
actions amount to ten; and, one only excepted, they all possess a certain degree
of value. Mr. Hauksbee shewed that the phenomena are quite the same under
an exhausted receiver ass in the open air.* In another paper he described the
rising of water between two glass plates, a phenomenon of which he was the
original discoverer. He likewise found that oil and alcohol rise between glass
plates as well as water, and that plates of marble and of brass exhibit the same
phenomena as glass plates. Finally, he ascertained that water would rise to the
height of 32 inches, (the whole length of his tube), in a glass tube filled with
ashes and well crammed. In another paper he shewed that if a drop of oil
of oranges be placed between two glass plates touching at one side, and raised a
little from each other by a wedge at the other side, and laid horizontally on a
table, the drop of oil will immediately begin to move towards the side where the
glasses touch, and the nearer it approaches to that side, the higher is it ne-
cessary to elevate that edge of the glass to make the drop stationary.§ Dr. Brook
Taylor appears to have been the person who observed the hyperbolic figures of
the upper surface of water between two glass plates touching at one side, and
separated a little at the other. The experiment was repeated by Mr. Hauksbee, I
who tried also the same experiment with alcohol instead of water; and he
varied the common experiment by trying it with success under an exhausted
receiver.‡‡
Dr. Jurin, in consequence of a proposal made to him about a perpetual mo-
tion, was induced to examine the subject of capillary attraction. He endea-
voured to demonstrate that the water was suspended by the attraction of the
* Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2223.
Phil. Trans. 1711. Vol. XXVII. p. 395.
Phil. Trans. 1712. Vol. XXVII p. 538.
Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXVIII. p. 151.
† Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 258.
§ Phil. Trans. 1712. Vol. XXVII. p. 473.
Phil. Trans. 1712. Vol. XXVII. p. 539.
‡‡ Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXVIII. p. 153,
CHAP. V.]
405
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
upper film of the glass tube to which the water reaches.* In consequence of
some objections made to his explanation, he was induced to draw up another
paper upon the subject, in which he has given a detailed theory of capillary
attraction.† He informs us that Sir Isaac Newton entertained the same
opinion respecting capillary attraction that he himself did. His explanation is
very ingenious, and some of his experiments have an imposing aspect. But his
theory is now generally considered as erroneous, and the attraction which sus-
pends the water is considered as placed in the lower surface of the tube, instead
of the upper.
III. Hydraulics is a much more difficult science than Hydrostatics, and has by Hydraulics,
no means made the same progress. To attempt an intelligible outline of this
subject would necessarily subject us to details incompatible with the nature of
this work. A very few observations therefore will suffice.
The object of Hydraulics is to consider water in a state of motion. Now Its object.
water may move various ways; it may issue from an orifice in the bottom or the
sides of a vessel; it may move along a pipe, or an open channel like a river;
and it may be employed as a moving force to drive Hydraulic machines. Hy-
draulics is employed in considering each of these motions.
Q
Water issues out of a hole at the bottom of a vessel with a velocity equal to
that which it would have acquired by falling from the surface. When water
issues out at the side of a vessel, it can be demonstrated that the quantity issuing
out in a given time, is as the square root of the depth, and that the velocity,
per second for example, is always equal to 8D, D being the depth. If the
area of the orifice be represented by a², then the quantity of water issuing out in
a second of time will be 8a D in cubic feet: hence we have a² =
8 √/D'
D' being
Q
the quantity of water issuing per second. Such are the theoretical results. But
several circumstances prevent the issues of water in these cases from agreeing
with theory. The principle of these is the friction of the particles of water
against each other, and against the sides of the hole, which reduces the velocity
from 8D, to 5 D. The addition of a short tube to the hole at which the
water issues, is found to increase the discharge considerably; and this tube acts
with most advantage when it is of a conical form. The water, after it has gone
a small distance from the hole, contracts its diameter very sensibly; an observa-
tion first made by Sir Isaac Newton, and quite obvious to any person who will
make the experiment.
When water passes through pipes for any considerable distance, the quantity
discharged is still farther reduced, owing to the great friction against the sides
of the tube. Desaguliers found that when water passes for a mile or two
through leaden pipes on uneven ground, the quantity of water discharged was
* Phil. Trans. 1718. Vol. XXX. p. 739.
† Phil. Trans. 1719. Vol. XXX. p. 1097.
5
406
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Motion of wa-
ter in rivers,
Hydraulic ma-
chines.
Sa²/D
10
reduced to th part, so that the preceding formula in that case must be
changed iuto = = a²√ D. When the water flows in iron pipes, the
deduction to be made is much greater. It is obvious that the quantity of fric-
tion must increase in all cases with the length of the tubes. Suppose the diame-
ter of the pipe to be r, then a (or the area of the pipe), æº.
=². Hence we
Such is the theoretical
have Пr² =
Q
8/D
; and of consequence r =
ર
8D/D
expression for the diameter of the tube; but experiment gives us a very differ-
ent expression, from it we have a=
When the Magistrates of
5Q
40/D
Edinburgh first brought water into that city by leaden pipes, they applied to
Dr. Desaguliers, and to Mr. Maclaurin, to inform them what quantity of water
they could obtain by means of a pipe of a given diameter. After the pipes were
laid, the quantity of water discharged was measured and found to be only th
of Desagulier's estimate, and th of the estimate of Maclaurin.
The motion of water in rivers was first accurately investigated by Du Buat.
It exhibits the greatness of the friction in a very striking point of view; for the
motion of rivers soon become equable: Hence the whole force of gravity must
be nearly employed in overcoming the force of friction. The mean velocity of
most rivers may be reckoned about four feet per second, or not quite three
miles in the hour. The water next the bottom moves slowest, and the rapidity
gradually and equably increases from the bottom to the surface, which moves
with the greatest rapidity. The same thing holds from the centre of the stream
to the edges of the river. When a river winds, its velocity is diminished, and
the diminution is the greater the more abruptly the direction is changed. The
greatest velocity of a winding river is usually at its concave edge, which is con-
trary to what one would naturally expect.
Hydraulic machines are usually divided into three kinds; those that are put
in motion by the impulse, by the weight, and by the reaction of water.
Unless the wheel go slower than the water, it will be able to do no work.
If the velocity be too small, it will also do very little work. Hence there is
some intermediate velocity which will give the greatest advantage. Theory
gives us the greatest advantage when the velocity of the wheel is one third that
of the stream. But the experiments of Mr. Smeaton, to whom we are indebted
for the first accurate experimental investigation of the theory of the different
kinds of water wheels, have shewn that the velocity of the wheel may be a little
greater than 4d of that of the stream.
Theoretical reasoning gives us the work done by such a wheel equal to
of the water expended. But practice gives us the double of this, or
nearly d of the water expended.
ths
A
ths,
CHẤP. V
40.7
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
เ
There are two kinds of water wheels; namely, the undershot, in which the Water shoeks
water escapes below the wheel, and acts by pressure; and the overshot, which
is moved by the weight of the water filling the buckets on one side, and of
course turning the wheel round. An overshot wheel must go slowly, otherwise
part of the water is thrown off and lost by the centrifugal force. This wheel is
much more powerful than the undershot, the effect produced being equal to
2 thirds of the water expended. The greatest effect is produced when the cir-
cumference of the wheel moves with a velocity of three feet per second.
E
A
The Hydraulic machines set in motion by the reaction of water, have the ad-
vantage of requiring very little apparatus; but a considerable fall is necessary to
enable them to act with efficacy. I do not know any example of such a hy-
draulic engine in Great Britain: though there are certainly many spots where
they might be erected with advantage, Suppose a
cylinder A B terminating in a box, and moveable
about an axis, D E. Suppose a hole to be opened
at c, if the whole be filled with water, the fluid
issuing out at c, from the reaction of the column of
water on the side opposite to c will cause the whole
to move round. At F there is another hole on the
opposite side of the box. There may be another
box with similar holes crossing the box CF at right
angles. It is obvious that if a stream of water constantly enter at E sufficient
to keep the cylinder and boxes full, the whole will turn round, and may be
made to put in motion any apparatus proportional to the force with which it

moves.
F
D
B
C
When a body moves through water, the resistance is rather greater than the
square of the velocity; and it varies exceedingly according to the shape of
the body in motion. Thus the resistance to a sphere is much greater than to a
sphere cut in two, with a cylinder interposed between them. A long body
with the hinder end pointed, is much less resisted than when that end is flat.
The reason is, because the water displaced does not close in upon the body in-
stantaneously, and of course the pressure from behind must be diminished as the
flatness of that surface increases.*
The papers on Hydraulics in the Philosophical Transactions amount to 34. Papers in the
But of these there are no fewer than 15 of so little value, that we may without Transactions,
impropriety leave them out of consideration. The remaining 19 are of various
degrees of importance. Some of the statements given in the preceding pages
A very curious and valuable set of experiments on this subject have been made by Col.
Beaufoy, F. R. S. of the Tower Hamlet Militia. But unfortunately he has not thought proper to
communicate his results to the public.
408
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY:
have been derived from them. We shall take a view of the contents of these
papers in the same manner as we have done of those concerning the preceding
branches of this subject.
1. We may mention two books on the subject of Hydraulics, of which an
account is given in the Philosophical Transactions; the first is the Traité du
Mouvement des Eaux et des autres Corps fluides, by Mariotte. This book con-
tains some good experiments on the quantity of water discharged from a given
orifice in the side of a vessel.* The other is entitled De Motu Aquæ mixto, and
is written by Poleni, a Professor at Padua. It contains a very good historical
account of the progress of discoveries relative to Hydraulics before the pub-
lication of this book. He deduces a theorem from a set of experiments which
he made, and concludes from it that diminishing the breadth of rivers at the
mouth, often lessens instead of increases their velocity. A proposition quite
inconsistent with experience, and therefore inadmissible.†
2. There are four very elaborate papers by Dr. Jurin, in which he gives the
theory of water issuing out at a hole from a vessel. The theory is not confirmed
by experiments; but there is no doubt that it is very nearly just, and that
it would not differ much from the result of experiments, if made with
precision.‡
3. Dr. Desaguliers has given us a description of a pump for raising water,
contrived by Mr. Hoskins, in which, instead of the common piston with leather,
the vacuum is accomplished by means of mercury. In the common pumps the
loss of water is about 4th at an average, and often more. In this new pump the
whole water given by the capacity of the engine is discharged. But the great
expence of mercury, and the probability that it would be speedily oxydized in
such a situation, will ever prevent contrivances of this nature from coming into
common use.
4. The discharge of water through long pipes is much smaller than through
short. This difference is partly occasioned by the friction. But Dr. Desa-
guliers turning his thoughts to the subject, found that there was another cause;
namely, the air confined in the upper part of the pipes, which diminished their
bore, and of course might lessen the quantity of water discharged almost to any
amount. With the assistance of his friends, he contrived a very ingenious
apparatus for letting out this air, whenever it accumulated, to which he gave
the very fanciful appellation of Jack in a box.
5. Mr. Beighton, a celebrated civil engineer of the time, has given us an
accurate description of the water-works at London Bridge, which consist of a
* Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI p. 119.
+ Phil. Trans. 1717. Vol. XXX. p. 723.
† Phil. Trans 1718. Vol. XXX. p. 748; and 1722. Vol. XXXII. p. 179; and 1739. Vol. XLI.
p. 5 and 65.
Phil. Trans. 1722. Vol. XXXII. p. 5.
Phil. Trans. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. p. 77.
CHAP. V.]
409
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
set of forcing pumps, driven by the tide, for raising water out of the river
Thames, for the use of that part of the city which is in the neighbourhood.
The quantity of water, which these pumps raise to the height of 120 feet,
amounts to 1563 hogsheads in the hour; supposing a loss of 4th of the quantity
calculated from the capacity of the cylinders.*
6. Mr. Robertson has given us the formula for calculating the fall of water
under bridges, in consequence of the diminution of the breadth of the current
by the piers; and has applied his formula to London and Westminster bridges,
the only two existing at London at the time when he wrote. The breadth of
the Thames, at London bridge, is 926 feet. The sum of the water ways, at
the time of the greatest fall, is 236 feet. The fall at London bridge is four feet
nine inches. The breadth of the Thames, at Westminster bridge, is 1220 feet;
but at the time of the greatest fall there is water only through the 13 large
arches, which amount to 820 feet; to which, adding the breadth of the 12
intermediate piers, equal to 174 feet, we obtain 994 feet for the breadth of the
river at that time. The fall amounts only to an inch.†
7. The next paper which we have to mention is a very valuable one, by Mr.
Smeaton, entitled, An Experimental Inquiry concerning the natural Powers
of Water and Wind to turn Mills and other Machines depending on a circular
Motion. This paper is so very long, that we cannot attempt giving a general
view of its contents. It was from it that the first accurate views respecting
overshot and undershot wheels were obtained. The principles laid down at the
commencement of this article were derived from this paper.
8. The next paper we shall mention is a dissertation by M. Mallet, of
Geneva, on the most advantageous construction of water wheels.§
9. Mr. Whitehurst has given a curious account of a contrivance for raising
water, employed at Oulton, Cheshire, the seat of Philip Egerton, Esq.
The water was contained in a reservoir, from the bottom of which there passed
a pipe to the kitchen, sixteen feet below the reservoir. This pipe had two
extremities; one of them furnished with a stop-cock, was for the use of the
kitchen; the other, furuished with a valve, terminated near the bottom of a
stout vessel containing air. From the bottom of this air vessel, there passed a
tube to another reservoir, higher than the original reservoir, and destined for
the brew-house. When water was drawn for the kitchen, the water in the
pipe acquired, by running, a considerable velocity. Hence, when the stop-
cock was shut, it acted on the valve, forced it open, and rushing into the air
vessel, compressed the air which it contained. This happening every time that
water was drawn for the use of the kitchen, which was very frequenily, the
* Phil. Trans. 1781. Vol. XXXVII. p. 5.
Phil. Trans. 1759. Vol. LI. p. 100.
+ Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 492.
₫ Phil. Trans, 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 372.
3 G
410
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Aerostatics.
water made its way into the brew-house reservoir, and supplied it suffi-
ciently.*
10. Major Renuel, so well known by his important geographical labours,
has given us a very curious and entertaining account of the Ganges and Bur-
rampooter; two mighty rivers, which, rising from opposite sides of the moun-
tains of Thibet, run, the one west, and the other east, and afterwards meeting
in Bengal, flow united into the sea, discharging a most enormous mass of water.
The average breadth of the Ganges is about a mile; that of the Burrampooter,
between three and five miles. When the Ganges swells, in the rainy season, the
average rise is about 31 feet. The fall of the Ganges is about four inches per
mile; and the river flows at the rate of about three miles in the hour; but in
the rainy season the rate is increased to six miles in the hour. The average
quantity of water discharged by the Ganges into the sea, is 80,000 cubic feet
per second; but, during the rainy season, the quantity discharged amounts to
405,000 cubic feet. The Ganges varies its channel very much during its course
through Bengal, wearing away the banks on one side, while land is formed on
the other side. It empties itself into the sea by eight great channels. Major
Rennel was the original discoverer that the Sanpoo, of Thibet, is the same
with the Burrampooter. Before that time, the Sanpoo had been supposed to
discharge itself into the sea by the Gulph of Ava. To him, then, we are in-
debted for our knowledge of the Burrampooter, as one of the largest rivers of
Asia.t
11. The last paper we shall mention, consists of a valuable set of experi-
ments, on the resistance of bodies moving in fluids; made by Mr. Vince. He
shows, that the resistance is much greater than that given by theory; and hence
deduces, very justly, that every theory of such resistances can only be deduced
from experiment.‡
SECTION II.-Of Pneumatics.
Under the word Pneumatics, in our language, two different branches of
Hydrodynamics are usually included; namely, the consideration of elastic fluids
in a state of rest, and in a state of motion. Some persons, indeed, have lately
distinguished the first branch by the name of Aerostatics; and the second, by
that of Pneumatics. As they occupy only a very subordinate place in the
Philosophical Transactions, it will not be necessary for our purpose to divide
Pneumatics into two separate sections.
I. Galileo may be considered as the founder of this science; for he was the
first person
that supposed the air to have weight. This truth was established by
* Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 277.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 1.
+ Phil. Trans. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 87.
CHAP. V.]
411
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
his pupil Torricelli; and Pascal showed how the barometer might be applied
to the mensuration of heights. Mr. Boyle seems to have been the first person
who determined the law of the elasticity of air, by direct experiment. Its
weight was nearly determined both by Boyle and Hauksbee; though perhaps
Sir George Shuckburgh's determination is the only one that can be securely
relied on.,
The number of elastic fluids, at present known, amounts to about 24. But.
as in their mechanical properties they all resemble atmospheric air very closely,
that fluid has been chosen, by mechanical experimenters, as the one upon which
almost all their trials have been made; because it is most easily procured, and
always exactly in the same state of purity.
phere.
The atmosphere is an invisible fluid, which surrounds the earth to a height The atmost
considerably exceeding that of the highest mountain. It presses the same in all
directions, as is the case with water. A stratum of air is pressed upon by all
the air above it. When a body is plunged into air, it loses a portion of its
weight, equal to that of the air displaced.
1
Hence we have the
1448 fathom, or as
According to the experiments of Sir George Shuckburgh, at the temperature weight of air.
of 60°, and when the barometer stands at 30 inches, a cubic inch of atmos-
pherical air weighs 0.305 grains. Hence 100 cubic inches weigh 30.5 grains.
It has been observed, that at the temperature of 32°, when a barometer is ele-
vated 1.448 fathoms, the mercury sinks th of an inch.
weight of air at 32 to that of mercury, as inch to
T: 104 256, or as 1: 10425 6. But the density of mercury at 32° has been
considered as 14.019. Hence it is easy to compare the weight of air and of water
with each other at 32°. It follows, from the preceding numbers, that air at that
temperature is of the weight of water. But Sir George Shuckburgh's
method appears susceptible of greater accuracy than this, and therefore more to
'be depended on.
The elasticity of air is such, that its bulk is always inversely as the pressure;
as was first determined by Mr. Boyle. Let b, b+P be the compressing forces
of air; D and D' its density under these pressures; E and E' its elasticities under
the same circumstances; s and s' the spaces occupied: then this law gives us
the following analogies :
1. b: b + p :: s′ : s
2. D: D'
:: s': s
3. b:b+ PD: D'
4. E: E
::bb + P
5. E: E
:: D: D'
This property of air has furnished the best means hitherto thought of, as well Method of
as in most cases the most convenient, of ascertaining the height of mountains. heights by the
3 G 2
measuring
barometer.
412
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
It was first shown by Pascal, that a barometer, when carried to the top of a
mountain, descends. The quantity of descent was soon perceived to depend
upon the height, and hence it naturally occurred as a measure of that height,
The first person that attempted to put this method in practice in Scotland, was
Professor Sinclair, of Glasgow, so well known in the 17th century for some absurd
speculations which he published. He carried a barometer to the top of Tinto, and
estimated the height of that mountain simply by the Rule of Three: a method
incapable of leading to any accurate result. Dr. Halley soon after showed the
application of logarithms to the mensuration of heights by the barometer, and
gave formulas; which, from ignorance of the effect of heat on the bulk of air
and mercury, were not capable of giving accurate results, except at particular
temperatures. These rules were put to the test of experiment in Switzerland,
and shown to be inaccurate; and no less than three methods were proposed, by
three different foreign mathematicians: namely, Mariotte, whose method was an-
tecedent to that of Dr. Halley; Cassini, whose method was published in the Me-
moires of the French Academy for 1705; and Scheutzer, whose experiments were
made in 1709, in Switzerland. Notwithstanding all these attempts, the method
still remained imperfect till Mr. Deluc, with that assiduity which has charac-
terized his labours, during the long period which he has devoted to philosophy,
with so much credit to himself and advantage to the world, made a set of very
laborious experiments, to determine the correction for the temperature. These
experiments brought the method much nearer to perfection. Deluc's formulas
were adapted to the English measures, by Dr. Maskelyne; and Dr. Horsley
published very simple fomulas, founded on them; by means of which, the
height of mountains might be determined by the barometer. Sir George Shuck-
burgh and General Roy set themselves, about the same time, to ascertain the
accuracy of Deluc's corrections; and to determine the effect of heat upon air
and upon mercury, with the utmost possible exactness. In consequence of the
labours of these distinguished experimenters, the method has been brought to a
degree of precision which answers all the purposes required. When the air is
still, the error, if the observations be carefully made, will not exceed a foot or
two on a height of 4 or 5000 feet; which is as near the truth as we can well be
expected to reach. Mr. Playfair published an excellent paper on this subject,
in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
The formulas followed in this country are nearly the same with those given
by Dr. Horsley, only corrected by the subsequent improvements of Shuckburgh
and Roy. De Laplace has lately given a much more complicated formula,
taking in the diminution of gravity, and some other corrections which we omit
in this country. It has the appearance of being more correct than the British
method; but in fact the only advantage it has over that method is in being
much more complicated, and of course more difficult. Mr. Playfair, in order
CHAP. V.]
413
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
to compare them, took one of the Pyrenean mountains, which is given as the
foundation of the French calculation, and calculating its height by the British
formulas, the difference was only about half a foot; which, in a height of 8
or 9,000 feet, may be fairly estimated as of no importance whatever. The
French seem to have adopted this new method, though inferior to ours, merely
that they might not be beholden to England for the foundation of so important
a thing as the mensuration of heights by the barometer.
I shall now give the method as at present practised in this country as briefly
as possible. It has been demonstrated that the densities of the air at different
heights follow a geometrical progression, supposing the heights to follow an
arithmetical. Hence to find the height of a mountain we have only to deter-
mine the height of the barometer at the bottom and at the top, these heights
representing the densities. Take the logarithms of these heights, and subtract
the one from the other, and multiply the remainder by m, the product is the
height in fathoms. Let the height of the barometer at the bottom of the moun-
tain be b, and the height of it at the top ß, then the height of the mountain is
equal to m (L.b L.B.) Now it has been ascertained by experiment that when
the thermometer stands at 32° m is equal to 10,000. Therefore when the ther-
mometer stands at 32° the rule is this. From the logarithm of the height of the
barometer at the bottom of the hill subtract the logarithm of its height at the
top, reckoning the first four figures of both of these logarithms integers, the
remainder gives the height of the mountain in fathoms, and of course if we
multiply by 6 we have the height in feet.
But this method is accurate only when the thermometer stands at 32°. At
all other temperatures two corrections are necessary, one for the temperature of
the mercury, and another for the temperature of the air. To observe the tem-
perature of the mercury there is always a thermometer fixed to the barometer
used as near the mercury as possible. The correction for the mercury is thus
made. It has been observed that for every degree of cold (measured by Fahren-
heit's scale) the column of mercury is shorter than it ought to be by 0.000105.
Multiply 0·000105 by the number of degrees of cold, and let the product be
multiplied by the height of the barometer. This product gives us the correc-
tion which much be added to the height of the barometer. Let the accurate
height thus obtained be denoted by G'.
The correction for the temperature of the air is thus made. Observe the
temperature of the air by means of a thermometer at the bottom of the hill, and
then at the top; let these be t and t; add them together, and divide the sum
by 2. If the quotient be 32° no correction is necessary. If not, subtract 32, and
multiply the remainder by 0-00244 (the mean of the change in the bulk of air
occasioned by one degree of Fahrenheit according to the experiments of Shuck-
414
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Height of the
Atmosphere.
Steam,
Steam engine.
Thus
burgh and Roy.) This expressed symbolically is (+32) 0.00244.
it
appears that at all other temperatures besides 32° the height of the mountain
is obtained by this formula (1 + (+32) 0.00245). This very simple
formula gives us the height in fathoms by reckoning the first four figures of the
logarithms integers.
If the atmosphere were homogeneous its height would be 26062.5 feet, which
is nearly five miles. But we are certain that it greatly exceeds that height. It
begins to refract light at the height of about 50 miles. At the height of three
miles the barometer stands at 15 inches, while its mean height at the sea shore
is 30 inches. So that at that height we have passed through one half of the
atmosphere in point of quantity.
Sir Isaac Newton first demonstrated, that the particles of air repel cach other
with forces inversely as their distance from each other. This property obviously
gives us the law of the elasticity and density of the atmosphere under different
pressures, and at different heights.
There is another elastic fluid besides air, which requires to be mentioned
here, in consequence of its great importance as a moving power; we mean
steam, or the vapour of boiling water. This elastic fluid possesses all the
mechanical properties of air, but it differs in one essential particular: the ap-
plication of cold makes it lose its elasticity, and converts it into water. Mr.
Watt found that a cubic inch of water is converted into a cubic foot of steam,
or its bulk by this change is increased 1798 times. Hence steam is to air nearly
as 5 to 11, or more accurately, if the specific gravity of air be reckoned 1, then
that of steam will be 0.467.
The elasticity of steam increases with the temperature; at 212° it is equal to
that of the atmosphere, or capable of balancing a column of mercury 30 inches
high. According to the common opinion the elasticity of steam doubles for
every 30° of additional heat; so that at 242° it is equal to that of two atmos-
pheres. But Mr. Dalton's experiments give the increase of elasticity some-
what less than this. According to him, at the temperature of 242°, the elasti-
city of steam is capable only of balancing a column of mercury 51 inches
high. According to the ordinary opinion, if the elasticity of steam at 212° be
1, and its elasticity at any other temperature (†) be y; then y = (1·0234) t
or Log. y = t − 212 × Log. 1·0234.
t-212
t- 212
Steam is employed as a moving power in the important mechanical engine
known by the name of the steam engine. The first hint of this engine was
given by the Marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions. But as far
as we know, the first steam engine was constructed by Captain Savery. New-
comen greatly improved it by introducing the method of condensing the steam
5
CHAP. V.]
415
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
in the cylinder. But the great improver of it, the person to whom we are in-
debted for the general introduction of it into our mines and manufactories, is
the celebrated Mr. Watt of Birmingham. He was employed, at Glasgow, to
put in order a model of Newcomen's engine belonging to the university. He
perceived the defects of this model, and, in endeavouring to correct them, gra-
dually determined the properties of steam, and contrived his own engine, which
may be considered as the finest example of mechanical invention upon a large
scale that has ever been exhibited. So admirably indeed are the motions of this
machine contrived, that they bear a closer resemblance to the motions of living
bodies than to that of ordinary machines.
In Newcomen's engine the pressure did not exceed 7lbs. upon every square
inch; in Watt's it amounts to 12lbs. Let the radius of the piston be s, then its
surface is Пs², and of course the whole pressure upon the piston in lbs. is 121s².
Let L be the length of a stroke of the engine, as the best engines work both in
going down and in coming up, to obtain the work done in lbs. we must multi-
ply 1211s² by 2L. The product, or 241s2L, is the work done per stroke. If we
multiply this by the number of strokes in a minute, we get the work done per
minute in lbs. Mr. Watt estimates the amount of the work done by his engines
by calling them machines of so many horse power, supposing that a horse is
capable of raising 33,000lbs. to the height of one foot in a minute.
An engine of 40 horse power burns 11,000lbs. of Staffordshire coals in 24
hours, which amounts to 275lbs. for every horse power. For every bushel (or
84lbs.) of Newcastle coals consumed by such an engine it will raise 30 millions
of lbs. one foot high, or it will drive 1,000 cotton spindles with all the requi-
site machinery.
II. The second part of Pneumatics, considers elastic fluids as a power to put
bodies in motion. Its theory is still so imperfect that a few general observations
are all that we can offer.
at sea.
Air is the power which moves ships at sea. It acts by striking against the Motion of ships
sails of the vessel; and every thing depends upon the direction of the sails, and
upon the shape of the vessel. The shape and position of the vessel are of im-
portance, chiefly because the resistance of the water to the ship's motion
depends on them. Maclaurin first demonstrated, that when a ship's sails are
properly trimmed it may be made to move faster than the wind.
The resistance of the air to the motion of the sails of a wind-mill, has been
found rather greater than the square of the velocity.
But the most important moving force, among the elastic fluids, is the air Gunpowder.
generated by the inflammation of gunpowder. We do not know who the
inventor of gunpowder was. It is mentioned by Friar Bacon, and its compo-
sítion described in such a way, as to lead to the supposition that he had dis-
416
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Dr. Hutton's
experiments.
covered it himself. It is said to have been first openly manufactured for sale by
Swartz, a German, to whom the credit of the invention, on that account, has
been sometimes given. When gunpowder was first used, in the art of war,
cannot be determined. Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, does not appear to
have been acquainted with this application of it. Barbour, in his Life of
Robert Bruce, informs us that guns were first used by the English, in the year
1320, in the beginning of the reign of Edward the Third. There is reason to
believe that cannons were used at the battle of Cressy, which was fought in
1346. It is said, that there is a piece of ordnance at Amberg, in Germany, on
which is inscribed the year 1303. All these circumstances combined, render it
almost certain that gunpowder began to be applied to the purposes of war at
the very commencement of the 14th century.
Count Saluces first showed, that air is extricated from gunpowder when it is
fired. But it is to the experiments of Robins that we owe the first accurate
information on the subject. He found that the air, extricated from gunpowder
by combustion, occupies 250 times the space of the powder. He supposed the
heat of burning gunpowder to be 1000°. By this heat, air is expanded four
times. Hence it follows, that the elasticity of air, just extricated from gun-
powder, is 1000 times greater than that of common air; or capable of sustain-
ing a column of mercury 2500 feet high. But, from Count Rumford's expe-
riments, there is reason to conclude that the elasticity of air, from gunpowder,
is ten times greater than this, or capable of supporting a column of mercury
25,000 feet high.
But the air extracted from gunpowder exerts this prodigious effect only for
an instant. It loses heat at a great rate; and as its bulk increases by expelling
the ball, its capacity for heat increases at the same time, which must contribute
still more to lower its temperature. Hence the effect which it exerts upon the
ball, while moving along the barrel, is diminishing constantly at a great rate.
The best experiments made upon this subject are those of Dr. Hutton, of Wool-
wich. They were made upon a sufficiently large scale. We shall therefore give
a short summary of them in this place.
Dr. Hutton, in his experiments, employed a one-pounder. The velocity was
a maximum when the powder employed amounted to half the weight of the
ball, and was then 2000 feet per second. But the velocity depends, in some
measure, upon the length of the piece; for the shorter the piece the less the
velocity. If the weight of the powder be r, and that of the ball в, then the
accelerating force is. As we do not know the elasticity, let us suppose this
quantity, multiplied by an indeterminate quantity m; and let L be the length
of the gun, not occupied by the charge. By the principles of Dynamics, for-
B
6
CHAP. V.j
417.
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
=v².
merly explained, we have 2gs = v. Substituting the preceding quantities in
this equation, we get
2m r
B
=
L². Instead of 2 let us put c², c being 1700
feet per second, and we have (since +) 2m × + × £= c², or which is the
P
=
B
same thing m L = c². Hence L=
C²
and m =
m
17002
L
17002
riments L was 2.5 feet, hence m = 2.5
original equation, we obtain
4PL
5B
3400
P
PL
2(1700)* PL
2.5
X
In Dr. Hutton's expe-
Substituting this value of m in the
X =², v
v², which gives us = 1700
B
VEL. Hence, v being the initial velocity, we have always
10:0′ :: N/ ✔
B
B
B
is ;
We must not fill the gun with powder beyond a certain point, otherwise the
effect is diminished. The initial velocity is the greater the longer the gun
but the advantage is small after the piece has reached a certain length. The
range, by theory, ought to increase with the powder, and to be proportional
to the square of the velocity. But, in reality, it is only as the square root of the
velocity. No advantage is gained by increasing the weight of the gun, or by
altering the wadding, or by ramming the powder hard, or leaving it loose, or
by firing it in different places; but the windage, or the difference between the
diameter of the ball and that of the piece, occasions a very great disadvantage.
When the difference amounts toth, the loss amounts to about d. Besides,
when the windage is considerable, the direction is uncertain.
The loss from windage may be estimated as the square of the empty space
between the ball and the piece. The change of direction in the ball may be
owing to various causes, as the windage, the resistance of the air, the weight
of one side of the ball being greater than that of the other, &c. The deviation
in Dr. Hutton's experiments, owing no doubt to all these united causes, amount-
ed to 15 degrees.
The penetration of balls into wood was found to be as the logarithms of their
velocity. A very odd and unaccountable coincidence.
The resistance of the air was found to increase as the square of the velocity.
A ball of the diameter 1.905 inches, when moving with the velocity of 1000
feet per second, was resisted by a force equal to 350 ounces. Its own weight
was about 16 ounces, so that the resistance was 20 times the weight of the ball.
Had it moved with double the velocity, the resistance would have been 80 times
the weight of the ball. Let d be the diameter of the ball, v the velocity,
the resistance of the air. We have 22 X 1000: dv²:: 350 r. Hence
2' =
350d²²
4000
3 H
418
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers ou
paeumatics In
the Transac-
tions.
Barometer,
Alensuration
of beights.
III. The papers on pneumatics, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount.
to 57. But of these there are no fewer than 34 that may be considered as of
little or no value. Even among the remaining 23, the importance of several
may be fairly questioned. It is needless, therefore, to observe, that pneumatics
occupies a very subordinate place in the Philosophical Transactions. A few
remarks on some of the more important papers is all that will be necessary here.
1. The barometer was an instrument that proceeded directly from the Torri-
cellian experiment, and is now so familiarly known to every body, that it is
viewed without surprise... But, at the time when the Royal Society was founded,
this was far from being the case. Accordingly, we find many papers on it in
the early volumes of the Transactions; some endeavouring to account for its
rising and falling, and some describing improvements in it. Thus we have
observations on the barometer, by Dr. Beal;* the wheel barometer, by Dr.
Hook:† on the capillary attraction, observable in narrow tubes, by Huygens
and Wallis ;§ a contrivance for measuring the height of the mercury in the ba-
rometer, by a circle on one of the weather plates, by Dr. Derham,|| and by Mr.
Gray; the marine barometer, by Hooke ;** a new barometer, by Mr. Cas-
well, of Oxford;++ and some others, which it is needless to mention, because
it has been found that the common barometer, well purged of air, and accu-
rately divided into inches and decimals, yields as good a method of measuring
the variation as any other, while it is free from several inconveniences to which
they are liable.
{
2. Several of the Members of the Royal Society ascertained, by experiment,
that air is compressed into half its bulk, by the pressure of a perpendicular
column of Thames water, 33 feet high.‡‡
3. In the Philosophical Transactions, for 1686,§§ we have Dr. Halley's
paper on the method of measuring heights by the barometer. He shows, that
the heights are as the logarithms of the heights of the mercury; and gives two
tables, showing the altitude of the place according to the height of the mer-
cury, and the heights of the mercury at given altitudes. These are remarkable,
as being the first tables of the kind that ever were published; and though
Halley's method, from his not being aware of the corrections necessary for the
temperature, was necessarily inaccurate, yet his paper deserves to be remem-
bered, as the first proper commencement of the method of measuring heights by
the barometer. He ascribes the variations in the height of the barometer in this
* Phil. Trans. 1666. Vol. I. p. 153.
Phil: Trans. 1672. Vol. VII. p. 5027.
Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 4.5.
** Phil. Trans. 1701, Vol. XXII. p. 791.
Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 2192 and 2239.
+ Phil. Trans. 1666. Vol. I. p. 218.
§ Phil. Trans. 1672, Vol. VII. p. 5160.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 176.
++ Phil. Trans. 1704. Vol. XXIV. p. 1597.
§§ Vol. XVI. p. 104.
3
CHAP. V.]
419
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
paper to variable winds. Dr. Halley carried a barometer to the top of Snow-
don, and observed its height, and afterwards at the bottom of that mountain,
and he proposes the difference which he found, namely, 3-8 inches, to serve as
a standard in other cases, the height of Snowdon having been determined geome-
trically to be 1240 yards.*
4. Dr. Papin relates an experiment, from which he deduces the velocity with
which air rushes into a vacuum, or rather the method of calculating that ve-
locity. He makes it 1305 feet in a second. But his numbers are not quite
accurate. Besides, we know that this velocity must vary with the temperature,
an element which at that time could not be introduced into the calculus.
+
5. Dr. Wallis published an elaborate paper on the resistance of air to bodies.
moving in it. But he founds the whole of his reasoning upon the principle
that the resistance is proportional to the velocity; a principle which is erro-
neous, Newton having demonstrated that the resistance is as the square of the
velocity. This error vitiates his whole reasoning, and destroys the value of his
paper.
6. Dr. Derham, by experiments made at the monument, found the mercury in
the barometer to sinkth of an inch by an ascent of 82 feet.§ The experiment
is not susceptible of accuracy, because the height corresponding to th inch
varies with the temperature of the air. As Derham's experiment was made in
September, we may conceive the thermometer to have stood at 65°; in that case
the height ought to have been 93 feet. But Derham's barometer being a sim-
ple tube with slips of paper pasted on, the change in the height of the mercury
could not be estimated with much precision.
7. Mr. Hauksbee showed by an experiment made before the Royal Society,
in the month of May, that the weight of air is to that of water as 1 to 885.
This result makes air considerably lighter than it is in reality.
8. Dr. Desaguliers relates several experiments to estimate the resistance of the
air to falling bodies, by measuring the time taken by bodies of very different
densities to fall from the same height. ¶
9. In the Transactions for 1728, Dr. Scheuchzer of Switzerland gives a long
historical account of the attempts made before that time to determine proper
formulas for measuring heights by the barometer. The paper is only valuable.
as an historical document.**
10. Mr. Boyle's air pump continued in general use till about the year 1751,
when Mr. Smeaton contrived one upon a much better principle, and capable of
carrying exhaustion much farther. He has published a detailed account of this
* Phil, Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX, p. 582.
Phil. Trans. 1687, Vol. XVI. p. 269.
Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2221.
** Vol. XXXV. p. 537.
+ Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI. p. 193.
Phil. Trans. 1687. Vol. XX. p. 2.
Phil. Trans. 1719. Vol. XXX. p. 1071, and 1075.
3 H 2
Зн
420
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
invention, which has been superseded by the still superior air pump of
Cuthberton.
;
11. Various methods have been thought of for measuring the velocity of the
wind; but none hitherto proposed answers the purpose completely. Mr.
Brice's method, when it can be practised, undoubtedly gives the truc velocity.
But unfortunately it is only at times that it can be employed. His method is to
measure the space passed over by the shadow of a cloud in a given time.†
忄
​12. In this paper we have Deluc's rules for measuring heights by the baro-
meter reduced to the English standard by Dr. Maskelyne. From the pub-
lication of this paper the mensuration of heights in this country with tolerable
accuracy may be dated.
13. Mr. Deluc gives a set of barometrical measurements of the mines in the
Hartz, and shows that they coincide with his rules.
1
14. The next paper we have to mention is entitled Observations made in
Savoy to ascertain the Heights of Mountains by means of the Barometer; being
an Examination of Mr. Deluc's Rules delivered in his Recherches sur la Mo-
dificutions de l'Atmosphere. This paper by Sir George Shuckburgh, is ex-
ceedingly valuable, and was one of the chief steps in bringing the method of
measuring heights by the barometer to its present precision. The specific gra-
vity of air, and the rate of its expansion by heat, are determined with great de-
licacy. It may be fairly considered as the most valuable of all Sir George's
publications. It is rivalled, however, by the nó less important paper of General
Roy, published in the same volume of the Transactions, and entitled Experi-
ments and Observations made in Britain, in order to obtain a Rule for mea-
suring Heights with the Barometer. In this paper the expansion of mercury
and air by heat are determined with the most rigid accuracy, and the heights
measured by the barometer were determined by the laborious, but precise mode
of levelling. It was General Roy chiefly that contrived the formulas for mea-
suring heights that have been already given in a previous part of this chapter.
The remarkable coincidence between the results obtained by Shuckburgh and
Roy could not fail to strike the most careless observer. Sir George published
a short comparison between his own experiments and those of General Roy,
in a subsequent volume, and pointed out their very close resemblance to each
other.**
15. The last paper we have to mention on this subject contains a set of
experiments on the resistance of air, by Mr Lovell Edgeworth, in which he
* Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 415.
+ Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 158.
Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 513.
* Phil. Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 681.
+ Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. 224.
p.
Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. 401.
p.
¶ Phil. Trans, 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 658.
4
5
CHAP. V.]
421
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-HYDRODYNAMICS.
shews that it depends upon the position of the bodies, and that it increases at
a greater rate than the surface of the bodies resisted.*
We may here add twelve papers, partly upon the force of gunpowder, partly
upon gunnery, and partly upon projectiles.
Experiments for improving the art of gunnery. By Sir Robert Moray. Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II.
p. 473.
Experiments at Woolwich, March 18, 1651, for trying the force of great guns. By Mr. Greaves.
Ibid. 1685. Vol. XV. p. 1090.
Solution of a problem of great use in gunnery. By E. Halley. Ibid. 1685. Vol. XVI. p. 3.
A proposition of general use in the art of gunnery, showing the rule of laying a mortar to pass in
order to strike any object above or below the horizon. By E. Halley. Ibid. 1695. Vol. XIX. p. 68.
Some propositions respecting the parabolic motion of projectiles, written in 1710. By Brook
Taylor, LL.D. Ibid. 1721. Vol. XXXI. p. 151.
Report of the Committee of the Royal Society appointed to examine some questions in gunnery,
Ibid. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 172.
An account of a book, entitled, New Principles of Gunnery, containing the determination of the
force of gunpowder, and an investigation of the resisting power of the air to swift and slow motions.
By Benjamin Robins. Ibid. 1743. Vol. XLII. p. 437.
The motion of projectiles near the earth's surface considered, independent of the properties of
the conic sections. By Mr. Thomas Simpson. Ibid. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 137.
Observations on the height to which rockets ascend. By Mr. Benj. Robins. Ibid. 1749. Vol.
XLVI. p. 131 and 578.
The force of fired gunpowder, and the initial velocities of cannon balls, determined by experi-
ments; from which is also deduced the relation of the initial velocity to the weight of the shot, and
the quantity of powder. By Mr. Charles Hutton of the Military Academy at Woolwich. Ibid.
1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 50.
New experiments on gunpowder. By Benj. Thompson, Esq. Ibid. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 229.
Experiments to determine the force of fired gunpowder. By Benjamin Count of Rumford. Ibid.
1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 222,
'
CHAP. VI.
OF ACOUSTICS.
By Acoustics is meant that branch of science which treats of sound: a very
curious and important part of mechanical philosophy. Though it occupies but
a very subordinate place in the Philosophical Transactions.
Sound is produced by the vibrations of hard and elastic bodies; and, in com- Production of
Phil. Trans. 1783. Vol. LXXIII. p. 136.
sound,
422
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers on
mon cases, is conveyed to the ear by the vibrations of the air. But water,
metals, wood, and all similar bodies, are equally capable of being the vehicles
of sound. From the experiments made by Dr. Derham, compared with those
of the French academicians in 1738, it has been concluded that sound is pro-
pagated through air at the rate of 1,130 feet in a second of time, and it is sen-
sibly affected by the direction and violence of the winds that happen to blow.
Theory gives the rate of the propagation of sound through air only 946 feet in
a second. There was therefore a discordancy between theory and observation
which could not be accounted for. La Place lately suggested that this discor-
dancy might be occasioned by the heat evolved during the undulations into
which the air is thrown. This heat must increase its elasticity, and of course
the velocity of its motion. This is probably the real cause of the acceleration.
It is certain that heat must be evolved though we have no means of estimating
the quantity experimentally.
The theory of sound in different bodies was first given by Newton. Its velo-
city in air was settled by Derham and the French academicians. To Chladni
we are indebted for some curious experiments on its propagation through other
bodies. The vibrations of a string were first explained by Dr. Brook Taylor,
and much more completely by D'Alembert. To Euler, D. Bernoulli, La
Grange, and La Place, we are likewise indebtea for much curious information
on the same subject.
A string stretched by the same weight performs all its vibrations in the same
time. Let t be the time of one vibration, w the weight of an inch of string in
grains, f the force of tension, L the length of the string, g the force of gravity
พ
equal to 386 inches; then t = 21√ cor
or t = 21
gf
211
formula for determining the number of vibrations
number of vibrations in a second be n, then n =
τυ
This is an accurate
386 ƒ'
in a musical string. If the
√386ƒ. Hence it appears that
2L √W
the number of vibrations is inversely as the length. If the length remains the
same, the number of vibrations increases as the square root of the force of
tension.
√
If v denote the velocity of air rushing into a vacuum, e its elasticity, d its
density, then = Hence it is obvious that the velocity of hydrogen gas
must be much greater than that of common air, and that sound must be propa-
gated much more rapidly through hydrogen gas than common air.
The number of papers on acoustics, in the Philosophical Transactions,
acoustics in the amounts to 25, of which there are seven that we may pass over as of little or
no value. A very few observations on the remainder is all that we can venture
to make.
Transactions.
CHAP. VI.]
423
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ACOUSTICS.
1. The first paper we shall mention gives an account of the speaking trumpet,
invented by Sir Samuel Moreland.* This trumpet was soon after improved by
Mr. John Conyers.†
2. In the next paper Dr. Wallis gives us an account of a discovery in
acoustics, made by Mr. William Noble, of Oxford, in the year 1674. The
discovery was this. If the string A be an upper octave to B. and therefore in
unison with its two halves, when A is struck, each of the halves of в vibrates,
but the middle point remains at rest. The same thing happens in similar
cases.‡
B
3. In the next paper we have a dissertation on the trumpet, by Mr. Roberts,
and a reason assigned for the defective notes in it.§
4. We have two curious papers by Dr. Wallis. In the first he gives an ac-
count of the divisions of the monochord on mathematical principles. In the
next he gives an explanation of the defects of the organ;¶ defects which have
been remedied by a late improvement of that instrument by Mr. Liston.
5. Hauksbee found by experiment that the sound of a bell was nearly doubled
by doubling the density of the air,** and that it was very much diminished by
rarifying the air.tt He found likewise that sound is not propagated through a
vacuum, but that it passes readily through water.‡‡
6. In the next paper Mr. Salmon gives the exact comparative length of the
strings which sound the different notes of music.§§
7. The next paper which we have to mention is the most important on the sub-
ject of acoustics in the Philosophical Transactions. It is by Dr. Derham, and
gives an account of the experiments that had been made before his time, in
order to determine the velocity of sound through air. He then relates his own
experiments on the subject, which appear to have been made with great care.
The result was, that sound moves at the rate of 1142 feet in a second; that the
rate is not altered by the state of the air, nor the situation of the place; but
that a favourable wind accelerates, while an unfavourable ind retards the
motion of sound. || ||
8. The next paper on the subject of acoustics is by Guido Grandi, and con-
tains an elaborate discussion respecting the propagation of sounds, and hypo-
thetic demonstrations of their motion in hyperbolic curves. 11
9. The next paper contains Dr. Brook Taylor's discoveries respecting tense
strings, and his theory founded on them. He demonstrates that the curvature of
* Phil. Trans. 1672. Vol. VI. p. 3056.
Phil. Trans. 1677. Vol. XII. p. 839.
|| Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. SO.
** Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 433.
Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 367.
Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 2..
+ Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 1027.
§ Phil. Trans. 1692. Vol. XVII. P. 559.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 249.
++ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV.
p. 1904.
§ Phil. Traus. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 2072.
qq Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 270.
124
[BOOK III
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
vibrating strings is as the distance of the straight; that the velocity is the same;
that every part performs its motion with the same velocity; and finds the velo-
city, the force, &c. being given.*
10. The next paper is a very curious and entertaining one, by the Hon.
Daines Barrington, entitled Experiments and Observations on the singing of
Birds. It contains the most complete collection of facts upon the subject that
has ever appeared, and does great credit both to the assiduity and the musical
ear of the author. We shall content ourselves with transcribing his table, ex-
hibiting the comparative musical powers of the different singing birds, in which
the number 20 denotes the point of absolute perfection.


Mellowneas Sprightly Plaintive
of tone.
notes.
notes.
Compass. Execution.
Nightingale,....
Skylark,
Woodlark,
·
19
14
4
19
18
**
19
19
19
4
18
18
4
17
12
8
Titlark,.
Linnet,.
Goldfinch,
•
12
12
12
12
12
"
•
12
16
12
16
18
4
19
12
12
D
•
●
Chaffinch,
Greenfinch,..
Hedge Sparrow,.
Redpoll,.
4
12
4
8
8
•
•
4
4
6
6
OP
6
4
Aberdavine, (or Siskin),
2
4
0
4
4
0
4
0
4
4
-
•
•
Thrush...
4
Blackbird,..
4
Robin,...
16
12
Wren,.
0
Reed Sparrow,
Black Cap, or Norfolk Mock Nightingale,..
14
242
12
402002
4
4
2
2
12
12
4
4
2
2
14
14
11. The next paper which occurs on the subject of acoustics is by Mr. Ca-
allo, and is entitled On the Temperature of those Musical Instruments in
which the Tones, Keys, or Frets, are fixed; as in the Harpsichord, Organ,
Guitar, &c. This paper contains a curious account of the music of the an-
cients, and comparison of it with that of the moderns.
+
12. The last paper on acoustics which we have to mention is by Dr. Young.
It is entitled Outlines of Experiments and Inquiries respecting Sound and Light.§
This is a very important paper, and contains a pretty full outline of the whole of
acoustics. But it is so long that we are under the necessity for want of room
of satisfying ourselves with merely mentioning it, and referring our readers for
full information on the subject to the paper itself.
*Phil. Trans. 1713. Vól. XXVIII. p. 26.
Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 238.
p.
+ Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. 249.
Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. LC. p. 106.
*
CHAP. VII.]
426
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-NAVIGATION.
CHAP. VII.
OF NAVIGATION.
UNDER the term Navigation, we mean to arrange the papers in the Philoso-
phical Transactions respecting the tides. This subject is usually considered as
a branch of astronomy, because the theory of the tides depends upon astronomi-
cal principles. We would have followed the same arrangement, had there not
been a few papers in the Transactions professedly on the subject of navigation,
which though they would not have afforded matter for a separate chapter, could
not with propriety have been omitted. On that account we have joined them
with the papers relative to the tides, and shall notice them of course in this
chapter.
tides.
The relation between the tides and the moon has been observed from the re- Theory of the
motest ages; but Descartes seems to have been the first who attempted to ac-
count for this relation. According to him the moon gravitates upon the waters
over which she is vertical. But waters pressed down at one place necessarily
rise in another. Hence the tides. This explanation is not only inconsistent
with the philosophy of Descartes, but also contrary to the phenomena of the
tides, and of course incorrect. Galileo had recourse to the rotatory motion of
the earth round its axis, and its annual motion round the sun, for an explana-
tion. When these two motions coincided, the waters rose; when they opposed
each other, the waters fell. This explanation leaves the action of the moon en-
tirely out of view, and it would occasion high water always at noon and mid-
night, and low water at the rising and setting of the sun, which consequences
being contrary to fact, destroy the theory. Wallis approached much nearer to
the true explanation, though he did not reach it. He observed that it was the
centre of gravity of the earth and moon that in fact moved round the earth, and
he shows how the sun and moon acting together increase the tides, and how,
when they act in opposition to each other, they diminish them. Newton in fine
gave the real theory of the tides in his Principia, a theory which was almost
immediately adopted by all philosophers. Three very elaborate dissertations on
the tides by Maclaurin, Daniel Bernoulli, and Euler, jointly gained the prize of
the French Academy in 1738. Since that time the subject has been treated of
much in detail, and with the profoundest skill by La Place, in the Memoires of
the French Academy for the years 1775, 1789, and 1790; and still more lately
in his Mechanique Caleste. But notwithstanding the profound sagacity of this
consummate mathematician, he has not been able to apply his discussions to the
3 I
426
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Phenomena of
the tides.
sea, as it exists in nature; but to a hypothetical sea of a determinate depth, and
covering the whole earth.
Before proceeding to the papers contained in the Philosophical Transactions,
it will be proper to give a short sketch of the phenomena of the tides, and of
the Newtonian explanation of them, founded on the united action of the sun
and moon.
There is a tide every 6 hours and 12 minutes, or the interval between high
water and high water is 12 hours and 24 minutes. The time from the tide of
one day to the corresponding tide of the next day is 24 hours and 48 minutes.
Now this is exactly equal to the time of the moon's diurnal revolution round
the earth. The high water then makes a revolution round the globe in 24 hours
and 48 minutes. Hence we are certain that it is not a current, but an undula-
tion. A current, moving with such rapidity, would sweep every thing before
it.* Small seas are not affected by the tides. In the Caspian and Baltic they
are insensible. In the Mediterranean they do not exceed a foot.
The tides rise highest at the new and full moons, not exactly at the full and
change, but 37 hours after these; or it is the third tide after the new and full
moon, which is the greatest. Such tides in this country are called spring tides.
The spring tides are not always equal in magnitude: they are always greatest
when the diameter of the moon is greatest. The smallest tides happen at the
quarters, and are called neap tides. At the equinoxes the tides are cæteris
paribus greatest; but the difference is not considerable. It is always high
water at every particular place when the moon is in the meridian of that place,
or directly under the meridian.
Newton explained the tides by the attraction of the sun and moon elevating
somewhat the waters of the ocean. At the new and full moon, the sun and
moon act in conjunction, and of course produce the greatest effect; while at
the quarters they act in opposition, and of course diminish the effect which
would otherwise be produced. The effect of the sun is much smaller than that
of the moon, because he is much farther off. If gravity at the surface of the
carth be 1, then the sun's action on the waters may be demontrated to be
128000 of gravity. Now the centrifugal force, at the surface of the earth,
isth part of that of gravity, and raises the water 54692 feet. We have
therefore this proportion, which gives us the effect of the sun in raising the
waters of the ocean in feet 12868200: 289:: 54692:12. So that the tide pro-
duced by the sun is 12 feet. The spring tide is to the neap tide as 9 to 5.
Now let s be the solar tide, and the lunar tide, we have 1 =
H
75
4.2 feet.
2
* Had Bernardin St. Pierre attended to this simple consideration, he never would have proposed
his explanation of the tides by the melting of the ice at the North Pole.
CHAP. VII.]
427
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-NAVIGATION.
So that the tide produced by the moon amounts to 4.2 feet. Hence the spring
tides ought to be 5 4 feet, and the neap tides 3 feet. This agrees pretty well
with what happens in the open sea; but the effect is greatly increased by the
shores, and by a variety of local circumstances; so that in many harbours the
tides are greatly beyond these numbers. At London, and at Leith, the spring
tides are about 16 feet; at Brest they are 21 feet; and at Bristol no less than
48 feet.
The tides round Great Britain are derivative, and not occasioned by the
direct action of the sun and moon. They start at Ushant from the tide of the
ocean, and move in two separate undulations. The first, which passes through
St. George's Channel, takes 24 hours to go round by the North of Scotland, and
come round to Dover; the second, passes up the English Channel, and reaches
Dover in 12 hours.
Transaction>
The papers on the tides, in the Philosophical Transactions, including a few Papers in the
upon other subjects connected with navigation, amount to 48. But of these on the tides.
there are 33 which are either of no importance, or cannot with propriety be
noticed in a general view. We shall make a few observations on the remaining
15, or at least the chief of them.
1. The first paper we shall mention is by Sir Robert Moray, and gives an
account of an irregularity in the tide at Berneray, in Long Island, on the west
coast of Scotland. For four days, at the quarters, the tide runs east for 12
hours, both flow and ebb, and west 12 hours. At other times the flow is east,
the ebb west.*
2. The next paper deserving notice, is Dr. Wallis's ingenious hypothesis, to
account for the tides.† As this hypothesis is now universally abandoned, it is
not necessary to give any further account of it than what has been stated at the
beginning of this chapter. In a subsequent volume of the Transactions, some
animadversions are made on it by Mr. Childrey.‡
3. The next paper we shall mention, is a pretty full account of Witsen's
Naval Architecture and Conduct;§ a work written in Dutch, and giving a most
elaborate and learned account of ships, ancient and modern; of the improve-
ments in naval architecture; and the modes practised at the time by the most
considerable civilized states of Europe. In the same volume, occurs an account
of Meibomius's Treatise on the Vessels of the Ancients; a subject not yet
made out in a very satisfactory manner, notwithstanding the pains that have
been bestowed upon it.
4. Mr. Flamsteed published a correct table, showing the time of high water
at London bridge, for every day of the year; which, though now so common
* Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. p. 53.
Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 2061.
H Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 3064.
+ Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. p. 263.
§ Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 3006.
312
428
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
as not to be worth transcribing, yet at that period was of considerable impor-
tance, because the errors in the almanacs amounted usually to about two hours.*
Mr. Flamsteed published a similar table, for the year 1684; and gave at the
same time a table, by means of which it could be accommodated to most parts
in Britain, and to some of those in France and Holland.†·
5. The next paper we shall mention, is a very good popular explanation of
the tides, according to the Newtonian principles, by Dr. Halley. It is re-
markable, because it was written and presented to King James II., along with
a copy of the Principia, when that book was first published.
6. The next paper that we shall notice, is by Mr. Parks, and gives an
account of an easy practical method of dividing the nautical meridian in Mer-
cator's projection. This paper is remarkable likewise for containing demon-
strations of some of the most striking properties of the catenaria.§
7. In the next paper we have a set of experiments, made to measure the
velocity with which the tide moves in Lambeth Reach, in the Thames, during
every time of tide. The experiments are by Mr. Henry de Saumarez. They
are curious, but too long to transcribe. It appears, that when the tide is flow-
ing with the greatest velocity, during spring tides, the rate is not quite two
miles in the hour; and during the whole of the ebb, the velocity is still less.
8. The next paper gives an account of some very singular circumstances
which attend the tides in the river Forth. There exist in that river certain
irregular motions, called leakies by the common people. When the river is
flowing, before high water it intermits and ebbs for a considerable time, after
which it resumes its former course, and flows till high water: and in ebbing,
before low water the river flows again for some time, and then ebbs till low
water. The leakey begins at Queensferry, nine miles above Leith, at neap tide
and low water, and goes to the house of Maner, 25 miles above Queensferry
by water, but only four by land. At neap tide and high water, as also at spring
tide and low water, the leakey extends as far as Craigforth, three miles above
Stirling; which is nearly as far as the tide ascends up the river. At Queens-
ferry there are no leakies at neaps and springs at high water, nor springs at
low water; they begin between Barrowstoness and the mouth of the river
Carron, about 10 miles above Queensferry. I
9. Captain Cook gave a table of the height to which the tides rise in different.
harbours of New Zealand and New Holland. The least was 44 feet, the great-
est 16 feet.** He observed, that at the spring tides, the evening tide upon the
coast of New Holland was considerably greater than the morning tide. In the
* Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 10.
Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 445,
|| Phil. Trans. 1726. Vol. XXXIV. p. 69.
** Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 357.
+ Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIV. p. 458.
§ Phil. Trans. 1715. Vol. XXIX, p. 331.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1750. Vol. XLVI. p. 412.
3
CHAP. VIII.]
429
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
Endeavour river the evening spring tide was nine feet, the morning scarcely
seven feet.**
10. In the Adriatic Sea the spring tides amount to between three and four
feet; the neap tides scarcely exceed three inches, according to the observations
of Toaldo. The tides in that sea are highest in winter.†
11. The last paper we shall mention is by Major Rennel, giving an account
of a current which sets in towards the Scilly Islands, from the south; and which
he conceives occasioned the loss of Sir Cloudesley Shovel, and several ships of his
fleet. This current sets eastward along the north coast of Spain, passes along
the west coast of France, and thence crosses the mouth of the British Channel
towards the Scilly Islands. It is only dangerous after continued westerly winds,
and ought to be known to seamen in order to be guarded against.‡
CHAP. VIII.
OF ELECTRICITY.
chiefly culti
Society.
THIS science, as far as the Royal Society is concerned, differs from every This science
other. It originated after the establishment of the Royal Society; and almost vated by Fel-
every electrical discovery of importance was made by Members of the Royal lows of the
Society, and is to be found registered in the Transactions. We would not be
understood to assert, that all who have made discoveries in electricity were
natives of Britain, though the greatest number of them certainly were; but
merely that they were Members of the Royal Society. The whole science of
electricity then, as far as we are acquainted with it, being to be found in the
Philosophical Transactions, we may follow a different plan with respect to it from
what we have done with the preceding sciences, and trace the progress of dis-
covery pretty accurately by following the order of the papers.
in the Trans-
The papers on electricity, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount to 211. Papers on it
But of these there are 25 which I consider as of no value; there are seven merely actious.
giving an account of death, produced by lightning; and 21 giving descriptions.
of houses and ships struck with lightning. These papers, though they have
their utility in some points of view, cannot well be considered, when we mean
merely to trace the progress of the science. Though there is one example in
* Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. P. 4.4.7.
+ Phil. Trans. 1793. Vol. LXXXIII. p. 182.
+ Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 144..
430
[BOOK III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Hanksbee,
the Transactions of death by lightning being brought forward to prove a very
important electrical theory.
The ancients knew that amber, (electrum,) when rubbed, acquired the pro-
perty of attracting light bodies to it; and this property they distinguished by
the name of electricity. Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in his book on Magnetism,
published about the beginning of the 17th century, gives us a catalogue of
bodies possessing the same property. Some facts also were observed by Boyle.
Such was the state of the subject at the beginning of the 18th century. It
could not be called a science, but merely the collection of a few insulated facts.
The first experimenter on electricity was Mr. Hauksbee, and he made some
discoveries of importance, though he did not suspect at first that electricity was
the agent which he employed. In the year 1705, he found that when mercury
is shaken in glass vessels it produced light, (a fact known before,) and that
when the air is rarified to at least one half, the light is very vivid. He ascer-
tained, likewise, that it was the friction of the mercury against the glass, or the
air, (for he could not determine which) that occasioned the light.* Soon
after, he ascertained that light was produced when the following bodies were
rubbed against each other in vacuo; namely, amber against flannel, glass
against flannel, glass against oyster shells, woollen against woollen, and glass
against glass. Glass, he found, when rubbed against glass in the open air, or
under water, likewise produced light; but that was not the case with any of the
other bodies tried.†
Thus he determined that many bodies, under certain circumstances, have the
property of emitting light; but he did not suspect that this light was connected
with electricity. Still he continued his experiments, and found that when an
exhausted glass globe was rubbed with the hand, a vivid light was produced;
that mercury agitated in a varnished vessel, under an exhausted receiver, pro-
duced light; that loaf sugar, when broke, emitted light; that a lump of calo-
mel, broken in the same way, also occasioned light. At first he suspected that
this light was owing to a particular quality in the glass. When air was let into
the glass globe the light diminished; but if the friction was continued, and a
person brought his finger near the globe, light appeared on the point of the
finger.‡
At last Mr. Hauksbee recognised the electricity of glass by friction. He found
that a glass tube, when rubbed, attracted brass leaf, &c., and gave sparks. When
the tube was exhausted of air, the light emitted was increased; but it lost the
attracting power. On admitting the air, the attracting power returned. He
employed a pretty large glass cylinder, turned by a winch, and rubbed by the
Phil. Trans. Vol. XXIV. p. 2129.
Phil Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2277.
+ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV.
p. 2165.
CHAP. VIII.]
431
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
hand, and found the effects the same. In this may be recognised the first rudi-
ments of the electrical machine. Strings of linen, suspended all round, were
attracted towards the axis of the cylinder.* Soon afterwards Mr. Hauksbee found,
that after the threads were attracted by the glass, they were repelled on making
a finger approach them. The same thing happened if the strings were sus-
pended within the glass, and the finger without. When an exhausted glass
was brought near a rubbed tube, and turned round, light appeared in it. He
next found that the approach of paper, &c., to an excited tube, or filling it
with sand, prevented it from attracting light bodies. When an exhausted
glass is brought near an excited tube, it is not necessary to move the exhausted
vessel in order to produce light, but the light is stronger if it be moved.§.
About this time an electrical paper was published, by Dr. Wall, which de-
serves to be mentioned, though it interrupts the detail of Hauksbee's discoveries.
Dr. Wall found that amber, diamond, gum lac, and sealing-wax become lumin-
ous when rubbed; and he affirms that all electric bodies do the same.
Thus a
second general property of electric bodies came to be generally known; namely,
that they become luminous as well as attract light bodies. Dr. Wall compares
the crackling of these excited bodies, and the flashes emitted by them, to thun-
der and lightning.||
Mr. Hauksbee next found that sealing-wax, rosin, and sulphur, coating a
cylinder of wood, could be excited by friction. The electricity was increased
by heat. Bodies attracted by such excited cylinders he found to be repelled
by sealing-wax and amber, without rubbing. Mr. Hauksbee next lined a
globe with sealing-wax, and found, that when exhausted and rubbed it became
luminous within. This globe was found to attract even when exhausted.** This
experiment was repeated with some alterations: one half of the inside of the
globe was lined with pitch, when the globe was exhausted, and the pitched
part rubbed, the hand was seen luminous through the pitch.++ If sulphur, or
wax, be substituted for pitch, the experiment succeeds equally well. Brass
cannot be excited by friction.§§
++
Such are the electrical discoveries made by Mr. Hauksbee. They are of no
great importance indeed in themselves; but they constituted the beginning of
the science, and, by drawing the attention of philosophers to that particular
subject, were doubtless of considerable service in promoting electrical investiga-
tions. The next electrical experimenter, who appears upon the stage, was Mr.
Stephen Gray, and his discoveries were much more important than those of Gray.
* Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2327.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 82.
Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 69.
** Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 219.
+ Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 439.
+ Phil. Trans. 1707. Vol. XXV. p. 2372.
Phil. Trans. 1707. Vol. XXV. p. 2313.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1708. Vol. XXVI. p. 87.
++ Phil. Trans. 1709. Vol. XXVI. p. 391.
$ Phil. Trans. 1711. Vol. XXVII. p. 328.
6
432
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Divides bodies
into electrics
and non elec
trics.
Conductors
and non con-
ductors.
Dufay.
Hauksbee. So important indeed were they that he may lay claim, in a great
measure, to have established the science of electricity upon a sure, foundation,
and to have constituted it, in some measure, what it is at this day. It is re-
markable that no biographical memoirs remain of a man to whom electricity
lies under such obligations. From some observations made by Desaguliers, it
appears that his character was very particular, and by no means amiable.
In his first paper, Mr. Gray describes a set of experiments, made in order to
determine what bodies may be excited by friction. He found that hair, feathers,
silk, linen, woollen, paper, leather, firwood shavings, parchment, and gold
beater's leaf, became electrical when rubbed with the hand.* Soon after, he
found that metals cannot be excited by friction. Thus he divided all the bodies
in nature into two classes; namely, electrics, or those which can be excited by
friction, and non electrics, or those which cannot be excited by friction.
When a tube is excited, it communicates its electricity to cork, fir, ivory, pack-
thread, iron, brass, gold, silver, copper, tin, stones, bricks, different kinds of
wood, animals, and water. If one end of any of these bodies be inserted into
the excited glass tube, or held near it, the other end (though the body be 1,000
feet long) attracts and repels precisely like the excited tube itself, provided the
body thus placed be suspended by silk or hair, but not if by linen or metal.†
Water also may be rendered electrical by insulating a dish of it, and bringing
an excited tube near it. Water is attracted by an excited tube when brought
sufficiently near. An excited conductor will excite another insulated conductor
though at some distance. Thus Mr. Gray discovered three fundamental and
very important laws in the science of electricity; namely, that non electrics
may be excited by being brought into the neighbourhood of excited electrics;
that non electrics are conductors of electricity; that electrics are non conductors,
and may be employed to insulate conductors so as to enable them to carry the
electric energy to a very considerable distance. These discoveries do much
credit both to the sagacity and industry of Mr. Gray. His next discovery was
that sulphur, wax, and several other resins, when melted, become electric in
cooling, and retain their electricity for months. Excited electrics attract equally
in vacuo, and in the open air.
We must here interrupt the detail of Mr. Gray's discoveries to mention an
important paper by M. Dufay, containing two great discoveries in electricity.
1. That electrical bodies when excited attract those that are not excited, com-
Two kinds of municate electricity to them, and then repel them. 2. That there are two kinds
of electricity, the resinous and the vitreous; the first belonging to amber, copal,
lac, silk, thread, paper, &c.; the second to glass, rock crystal, precious stones,
electricity.
Phil. Trans. 1720. Vol. XXXI. p. 104.
Phil. Trans. 1731. Vol. XXXVII. p. 227.
Phil. Trans. 1732. Vol. XXXVII. p. 285.
+ Phil. Trans. 1731. Vol. XXXVII. p. 81.
Phil. Trans. 1732. Vol. XXXVII. p. 397.
CHAP. VIII.]
433
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
hair, wool, &c. Bodies having the same electricity, when excited, repel; having
different electricities, they attract. Bodies communicate their own electricity to
conductors. When the finger is brought near an excited conductor a spark and
snap are perceived.
+
Dufay's important experiments were repeated by Mr. Gray. He found that
knobs gave stronger sparks than points. He draws as a conclusion from his
observations that electrical fire is the same thing as thunder and lightning.†
Wood cannot be so fully excited by communication as metal. An excited con-
ductor, when brought in contact with an insulated conductor, divides its electri-
city with it. The last paper communicated by Mr. Gray, on the subject of
electricity, is a fanciful one, describing the revolution of small bodies round
great electrics like the planets round the sun.§ This paper was dictated to Dr.
Cromwell Mortimer, by Mr. Gray, while lying on his death bed. He died in
February, 1736, before he had time to finish his experiments. Had he lived to
examine the subject completely, he would no doubt have abandoned his opinions
respecting these fanciful revolutions, which do not exist in nature.
The next experimenter on electricity, who enters upon the field, is Mr. Wheler.
Wheler, who had been in the habit of making experiments on the subject in
company
with Mr. Gray. His paper was published in 1738, but he informs us
that the experiments which it contains were made in 1732. It contains two
facts which, if they had been published in 1732, would have been new; namely,
1. That bodies excited by the same electric repel the electric and each other.
2. That bodies excited by friction repel each other. These observations had
been already published by Dufay, who is entitled to the credit of them. For
posthumous claims of this kind never can be admitted unless they are supported
by much better evidence than the mere assertions of the posthumous publisher.
In a subsequent paper, Mr. Wheler gives an account of his observations on the
supposed circular revolutions of balls round electrics described by Mr. Gray,
and shows that they were the effect of the volution of the experimenter, who
held the strings that supported these revolving balls. I
When electricity was laid down by Gray and Wheler, it was taken up by Desaguliers,
Dr. Desaguliers, who published no fewer than 13 papers upon the subject. His
discoveries were not of much importance; but his papers possessed value, be-
cause he arranged all the facts discovered by his predecessors in a luminous
order, and thus facilitated the means of becoming acquainted with them. To
his papers, likewise, we owe the introduction of various terms into electricity,
which have since become technical. He divides all substances into two classes;
namely, electrics, which can be excited by friction, and conductors, which can-
* Phil. Trans. 1734. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 258.
Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX. p. 166.
|| Phil. Trans. 1739. Vol. XLI. p. 98.
† Phil. Trans. 1785. Vol. XXXIX. p. 16.
Phil. Trans. 1736. Vol. XXXIX. P. 400.
Phil. Trans. 1739. Vol. XLI. p. 112 and 118
3 К
434
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Electricity
used to kindle
not be excited by friction. Electrics insulate, conductors do not. These facts
had been discovered by Gray; but had not been placed by him in so clear a
point of view. Desaguliers gives a list of electrics and of conductors. When
an electric touches or approaches very near a conductor, it communicates part
of its electricity. Hence the reason of the spark which is perceived. Desagu-
liers confirmed Dufay's discovery of the resinous and vitreous electricities.*
Electrics, when in contact with conductors, as water, cannot be excited. From
this fact, Desaguliers explains why glass tubes cannot easily be excited in moist
weather. The most important discovery of Desaguliers was that air is an elec-
tric. From this fact, he endeavours to account for the rise of vapours on elec-
trical principles.‡
Electricity began about this time to be employed as the means of setting fire
combustibles. to combustibles, and several amusing and popular experiments were contrived,
which contributed not a little to give the science celebrity, and to draw to it
the general attention. Mr. Hollman gives us an account of a set of experi-
ments of this kind made at Leyden. Electricity was employed to set fire to
gunpowder, to pitch, to sulphur, and to scaling-wax, previously well heated.
Alcohol also was kindled in the same manner. Dr. Miles kindled phosphorus
by an electric spark.|| These experiments were repeated with some variations
by Bozes. I
Watson.
Dr. Watson, afterwards Sir William Watson, first appeared upon the field as
an electrician in 1745. He prosecuted the subject with much ardour and suc-
cess for a long period of years, and is indebted to it chiefly for the high reputa-
tion which he acquired. For though his botanical papers do him credit, they
would not of themselves have been sufficient to give him celebrity. In his first
paper, relative to this science, he gives an account of the method of firing
bodies by electricity, and explains it very neatly and precisely.** In his second
paper he shows that ice is electric, draws a parallel between electricity and
light, and remarks that cold does not diminish the spark.†† In a subsequent
paper, Dr. Watson describes an electrical machine, proves that the flame of
alcohol, and the vapour of oil of turpentine, are conductors of electricity. He
Leyden phial. likewise gives an account of the Leyden phial, which had been accidentally
discovered a little before by Muschenbroeck, by means of which electricity
could be accumulated in such quantities as to produce effects that filled all
Europe with astonishment. Dr. Watson endeavours, though without success,
to give a theory of this phial. He affirms, that all bodies, in their natural state,
* Phil. Trans. 1739. Vol XLI. p. 186, 193, 196, 198, 200, 209, 634, 637, 639, 661.
+ Phil. Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 14.
§ Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII. p. 239.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1745. Vol. XLIII. p. 419.
Phil. Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 140.
|| Phil. Trans. 1745. Vol. XLIII. p. 290.
** Phil. Trans. 1745. Vol. XLIII. p. 481.
++ Phil. Trans. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 41; and 1747. Vol. XLIV. P. 695.
3
CHAP. VIII.]
435
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
contain a certain quantity of electricity. When the quantity of it is accumu-
lated, and increases beyond the due proportion, it has a tendency to fly off;
and is carried off by conductors in proportion to their size, supposing them in-
sulated. Hence the attractions and repulsions observed in excited bodies are
explained in a satisfactory manner.*
Dr. Watson's next paper, which is a very long one, contains a great deal of
very curious information. He describes experiments made to settle the relative
goodness of conductors. He describes a set of trials made by himself, and seve-
ral other Members of the Royal Society, to determine how far electrical shocks
can be conveyed by means of conductors, and whether any sensible time elapses
during the motion of the electricity through very long conductors. They made
the shock pass across the Thames at Westminster, the circuit being completed
by means of wire carried along the side of the bridge held in the hand of the
experimenters on each side of the river, and an iron rod was dipped by each into
the water which served to unite the two experimenters.
They contrived by means of wires to make the shock pass through a circuit
of two miles, and in one case of nearly six miles. No interval of time was per-
ceived to elapse during the passage of the electricity through this long circuit.
Hence, as far as experiment goes, we must conclude the shock to be instantane-
In this paper there occurs also the first mention of Dr. Franklin, and of
his theory of positive and negative electricity. Dr. Watson informs us, that a
similar theory had occurred to himself, and that he had communicated a sketch
of it to the Royal Society before any information of Dr. Franklin's peculiar
opinions on the subject had reached the country.†
ous.
It was about this period that Dr. Franklin became known to the world as a Frankbe.
philosopher, and he stands indebted for his celebrity to his ingenious experi-
ments and speculations on electricity. Dr. Franklin is one of the most eminent
men that the 18th century, so fruitful in men of genius, has produced. He was
born in Boston, in New England, afterwards settled in Philadelphia as a printer,
and spent a great many years in London. But he has left a biographical ac-
count of himself, written with his own hand, one of the most interesting docu-
ments of the kind ever laid before the public. This book being in the hands of
every reader, renders it unnecessary for us to take up a portion of room which
we can but ill spare with an abstract of his life.
The first of Dr. Franklin's letters is dated 1747, and is to Mr. Peter Collin-
son. They were speedily translated into all the languages of Europe; and the
particular view of the subject, which he took, very soon gained currency in the
science, and came to be distinguished by the name of the Franklinian theory of
electricity. His discoveries were very numerous, but the most important of
* Phil. Trans. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 704.
+ Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 49 and 491.
3 K 2
436
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Identity of
lightning and
electricity.
them were the three following: 1. What Dufay considered as two distinct
species of electricities, the vitreous and resinous, Dr. Franklin conceived to be
two different states of the same electricity. All substances, according to him,
in their natural state, contain a certain quantity of electricity. They may be
excited two ways, either by increasing the natural quantity, or by diminishing
it. If a man standing upon wax rub a glass tube, both the tube and the man
are excited, and give a spark to any other person presenting his hand within a
certain distance of them. If the man approach the tube, a still stronger spark
will pass between them, and the electricity of both will in consequence become
insensible. Hence it appears that in this case the electricity had divided itself
unequally between the tube and the man, that the one contained more than the
usual quantity, and the other less. A variety of circumstances, which it would
be tedious to enumerate, led him to conclude, that the tube contained more
than its usual quantity, and the man less. Hence he said that the tube was
electrified positively, or plus; and the man negatively, or minus. What Dufay
called vitreous electricity, Dr. Franklin called positive; and what Dufay called
resinous, he termed negative. This, which constitutes the foundation of the
present theory of electricity, is usually called the Franklinian theory. It be-
longs, however, equally to Dr. Watson, as he had communicated it to the
Royal Society before Dr. Franklin's peculiar opinions on the subject reached
this country.
2. Dr. Franklin's second discovery is by far his greatest, and the one for
which he will be indebted for his celebrity among posterity. He demonstrated
the identity of common electricity and lightning. This identity had been pre-
viously suspected by different electricians, but no means had been thought of
to determine the truth or the falsehood of the opinion. Dr. Franklin drew up
a catalogue of the points of resemblance between electricity and lightning, and
pointed out a method of putting the hypothesis of their identity to the test of
experiment. The experiment was first tried, and its truth ascertained, in
France; but he himself thought of a method of trying it in Philadelphia,
long before any accounts of the success of the experiment in France had time
to reach him. Seeing a thunder storm approach, he went out into the fields
with his son, and raised a boy's kite, which he made by means of a silk hand-
kerchief stretched over two cross sticks; to the end of the string was attached
a key, and from the key there passed a silk string, by which he kept the kite
in his hand. He took it for granted that as soon as the string was wetted by
the rain, it would conduct the electricity to the key, from which, by taking
sparks, he could easily verify his doctrine, and establish the identity of light-
ning and electricity. At first, no signs of electricity appeared, and the anxiety
of the experimenter may be easily conceived. A very promising cloud passed
over the kite without producing any effect. At last, perceiving the down stand
.
CHAP VIII.]
437
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
Leyden phial
upright from the string, he began to conceive hopes, and applying his hand to
the key was gratified with a spark. Abundance of sparks were soon procured,
and he easily repeated the usual experiments, and verified the identity of elec-
tricity and lightning. He soon after crected an apparatus in his own house, at
Philadelphia, for the purpose of collecting electricity from the clouds; and that
he might lose no opportunity of making experiments with it, he contrived a set
of bells, which, by their ringing, always gave him notice whenever his appa-
ratus was sufficiently loaded with electricity for his purpose. He conceived,
likewise, a method of protecting houses from the effects of thunder storms,
founded on this discovery. This was nothing else than a pointed metallic con-
ductor, elevated a little higher than the building, and terminating in the moist.
earth, or rather in the nearest water. He examined the state of the electricity
during a thunder storm, and found it sometimes negative and sometimes positive.
3. His third discovery was the analysis of the Leyden phial, which at that Analysis of the
time excited the astonishment of electricians, and contributed most materially
to the popularity which the science of electricity acquired. If a glass jar be
coated within and without with any conducting substance, to within a certain
distance of the top; if it be half filled for instance with water, or mercury, or
iron filings, while the outside is coated with tinfoil, in that case the phial is
capable of receiving a charge. If you connect the inside coating with the con-
ductor of an electrical machine, while the outside coating is in contact with the
hand, or with some conducting substance, and drive the machine, a considerable
quantity of electricity is accumulated in the jar. If you now bring the inside.
coating in contact with the outside by means of a conductor, a snap is heard,
and if the conductor is an animal, a shock is received. The charge is now gone,
and the glass jar is in the state in which it was before the experiment was made.
By uniting together a number of such jars, an electrical battery is formed, and
by charging all these at once a shock is produced great enough to kill small
animals, and to melt metallic wires. Such is the Leyden phial, concerning
which nothing accurate was known till Dr. Franklin explained it. He demon-
strated, that the electricity is neither accumulated in the inside coating, nor in
the outside coating, but in the glass itself. He coated a jar in the inside, by
filling it to a certain height with water, then charged it, and lifting up the jar
poured out the water. This water was found to possess no marks of electricity.
The jar still retained its charge, and fresh water being poured in, gave the same
shock that it would have done if the original water had not been displaced. In
the same way he removed the outside coating of tinfoil from a jar after charging
it, and coated it again without affecting the charge in the smallest degree. He
next showed that a jar cannot be charged unless its outside coating be in con-
tact with a conductor, or very near one; and that, for every spark of electricity
which enters into the inside of the glass, an equal quantity of electricity leaves
438
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Le Monnier.
Nollet.
the outside. The jar therefore contains just the same quantity of electricity
which it did at first. But this electricity is distributed in a different manner.
More than the usual quantity is accumulated in the inside, and less than the
usual quantity on the outside. The inside is charged plus, and the outside
minus; and as glass is a non-conductor of electricity, the surplus cannot pass
from the inside to the outside through the glass. But it immediately discharges
itself through any conducting substance. Hence the snap, and hence the reason
that the electricity disappears. Such was the luminous and satisfactory expla-
nation of the Leyden phial; which served essentially to confirm the Franklinian
theory of plus and minus electricity, though that theory was founded on other
arguments.
We may here notice M. Le Monnier, whose experiments, though of no great
consequence in themselves, yet attracted considerable attention at first, and are
detailed at considerable length in the Philosophical Transactions. In the first
paper his electrical machine is described; which appears to have been more
powerful than any machine at that time employed in England. We have also a
long list of his experiments; none of which is new, except his killing a sparrow
by means of a charged Leyden phial.* In a subsequent paper, Le Monnier
relates his experiments on the passage of electricity through water and through
wires, in order to determine the velocity of its motion. But, like the British
electricians who preceded him in these experiments, he was unable to perceive
the elapse of any time during the passage of electricity through the longest
circuit which he employed. He determines, from his experiments, that con-
ductors receive electricity in proportion to their surface, but that length has
greater effect than breadth.† But these opinions were soon after examined and
refuted by Dr. Watson.‡
Mr. Cook, in a subsequent paper, informs us that new flannel acquires the
property of sparkling by wearing, but loses it on being washed. He ascribes
the circumstance to the sulphur which new flannel contains.§
We now come to the Abbé Nollet, a most active and ingenious electrician,
who prosecuted the study with unremitting attention for more than 30 years,
and was even at the expence of a journey through Italy, to see with his own
eyes a set of electrical experiments, which he had unsuccessfully attempted to
repeat. He persisted in his theory with the most persevering obstinacy, against
all the arguments brought forward by his antagonists, in which number may be
reckoned almost all the eminent electrical philosophers of Europe. It is no
easy matter to form a very adequate idea of this theory, which has been long
since abandoned by every person. When an electric is excited, electricity flows
*Ph.l. Trans. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 247.
Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 388.
+ Phil. Trans. 1746. Vol. XLIV. p. 290.
Phil. Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 457; and Vol. XLV. p. 391.
CHAP. VIII.]
439
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
to it from all quarters, and when thus affluent (as he termed it) it drives light
bodies before it. Hence the reason why excited bodies attract. When the
electricity is effluent, the light bodies are of course driven from the electric,
which in that state appears to repel. He conceived every electric to be possessed
of two different kinds of pores, one for the emission of the electric matter, and
the other for its reception.
We have in the Transactions the result of a great number of experiments,
made by Nollet, on the effect produced by electricity on the flowing of
water through capillary tubes; on the evaporation of liquids; the transpiration
of vegetables; and the respiration of animals. He found that electricity makes
water flow from capillary tubes with an acceleration inversely as the bore; that
it promotes the evaporation of liquids; the transpiration of vegetables; and the
respiration of animals.* These last experiments have been often repeated since,
and the results drawn by the Abbé are not considered as established.
It may be proper to mention here a theory of electricity, proposed about this Ellicott.
time by Mr. Ellicott; though as this theory was not adopted, it attracted but
little attention. It was founded on the three following data. 1. Electrical
phenomena are produced by effluvia. 2. These effluvia repel each other.
3. They are attracted by all other matter. If we substitute the word fluid for
effluvia, these data are absolutely the same with those afterwards adopted by
Epinus and Cavendish, and made the basis of the only satisfactory theory of
electricity which has hitherto been proposed.
tricity.
Notwithstanding the great number of experiments made upon electricity in Medical Elec-
England, and the vast accumulation of new facts, little attention was paid by
British Philosophers to medical electricity, till a set of surprising experiments
made in Venice, and repeated with success at Leipsic, drew their attention to
this branch of the subject in a very particular manner. Signior Joannes Fran-
cisco Pivati, a person of eminence at Venice, published a pamphlet on the
subject in 1747. He concealed a quantity of balsam of Peru in a glass cylinder,
electrified with it a man who had a pain in his side, and who had previously
applied hyssop to it by the advice of his physician. This man when he went
home sweated and fell asleep, and the power of the balsam was so dispersed that
even his clothes, the bed, and the chamber, all smelled of it. When he combed
his head he found that the balsam had penetrated his hair, so that the very comb
was perfumed. Next day Signior Pivati electrified a man in health in the
same manner, who knew nothing of what had been done before. On going
into company half an hour after, he found a gradual warmth diffused through
his body, and he became more lively and cheerful than before. The company
were surprised at an odour, and could not conceive whence it proceeded; but
* Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 187.
+ Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. P 195,
440
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
he was conscious that it issued out of his body, and could not account for it,
not being aware that it could be owing to the previous electrization performed
on him by Signior Pivati. These and several other similar cases described by
Pivati, induced Mr. Winkler, Professor of Philosophy at Leipsic, to repeat
them, and his experiments were attended with considerable success. When
sulphur was confined in a glass globe, and the glass excited, fumes of sulphur
issued out, and were perceived at the distance of ten feet. The same thing suc-
ceeded when cinnamon was substituted for sulphur.*
The Abbé Nollet having attempted to repeat these experiments in vain, made
a journey through Italy, on purpose to see them repeated by the Italians them-
selves, and returned home convinced that the whole was a deception. Dr. Wat-
son, and the other British Electricians, endeavoured with equal want of success
to repeat the experiment of Mr. Winkler. They went so far as to request him to
send them some of his own glass globes and tubes, by means of which he had
made his experiments, together with specific directions how to proceed. But
though they obtained all this, and even tried methods which they thought
better calculated for diffusing odours than those described by Winkler, still
their trials were all unsuccessful. Hence we are entitled to consider the whole
account of this diffusion of odours by electricity as fabulous.† As to the me-
dical virtue of electricity, a great number of trials were made both in Britain
and on the continent. The diseases chiefly experimented on were paralysis,
deafness, blindness, St. Vitus's dance, and other similar affections. In some
cases the patients received considerable benefit. But in general no advantage
whatever was obtained. What happens in all cases of new medicines was
equally observable here. Those physicians who first recommended electricity
as a medicine, and who had the strongest belief in its good effects, were sure to
perform the greatest cures; while those who had no great opinion of its efficacy,
tried it in vain in cases exactly similar to those which were cured by their con-
temporaries. This shows clearly that the good effects which electricity pro-
duces are owing entirely to the faith of the patient. For in medicine as well as
in religion, faith is essential for receiving a cure.
Mr. Bose of Wittemberg, in a paper published about this time, informs us
that glass vessels which have been used for distillation are more readily and
powerfully excited than any others. Mr. Bose's success must have been owing
to some accidental circumstances, and not to the use to which the vessels had
been put. For I have often tried the experiment with glass retorts which had
been repeatedly used for chemical purposes, and which had in some cases been
* Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 262, and 270.
† Phil. Trans. 1750. Vol. XLVI. p. 348;
1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 231; and 1750. Vol. XLVI. p. 368.
Phil. Trans. 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 189,
CHAP. VIII.]
441
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
exposed to a red heat, but never found any of them superior to retorts which
had never been used at all.
It was at this period that Dr. Franklin made his first appearance as a writer
in the Philosophical Transactions. Dr. Watson gave an account of his treatise
on electricity, and praised it highly.* In this treatise Dr. Franklin first explains
the efficacy of points in drawing off electricity. In a subsequent paper Dr.
Franklin gives an explanation of the comazants which appear burning upon a
ship's mast before she is struck with lightning. He describes the melting of
wire, and of tin foil by electricity. It is plain, from what he says in this paper,
that he employed a cushion as a rubber to his electrical machine, and that he
coated his Leyden phials with tin foil.†
In the next paper Dr. Watson describes a set of experiments which he had
made to determine the passage of electricity through a vacuum. He shows that
it passes through a vacuum of any length, and therefore infers, that were it not
for the air, electricity could not be accumulated in electrics. It has been since
demonstrated by the experiments of Mr. Morgan, that a perfect Torricellian
vacuum is a non-conductor of electricity, but that the admission of a very small
quantity of air renders it a conductor. The quantity of air present may in some
measure be guessed at from the colour of the electric light. When the quantity
of air is very small, the light is green; as the quantity of air increases the light
changes to blue, to indigo, and at last to purple. Thus it appears that air in
its usual state of density is a non conductor, rarified air is a conductor, but
when in a state of extreme rarification it becomes a non-conductor again.
When electricity moves through rarified air light is always visible. Hence, no
doubt, originate many of those luminous appearances so frequent at a certain
height above the surface of the earth.
The next paper which appears in the Transactions deserves notice, merely Ecles.
because it is the production of Mr. Eeles. He explained thunder upon the
same principles as Franklin had done before him, and he promises to explain
evaporation, the reflection and refraction of light and gravitation upon the prin-
ciples of electricity. Mr. Eeles afterwards published a separate work on this
subject, in which he accuses the Royal Society of allowing the members to steal
discoveries from his papers. These accusations are very apt to be made by
speculative men, and the more common-place their speculations are, the more
readily do they indulge themselves in such accusations; because there is a
greater probability of their being anticipated by other persons.
Mr. Canton was one of the most successful experimenters of that golden age Canton,
* Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 202.
Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 362.
Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 524.
+ Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII. p. 289.
§ Phil. Trans. 1785. Vol. LXXV, p. 272.
3 L
442
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Death of Pro-
fessor Rich-
mau,
of electricity in England. He was the first successful repeater of Dr. Frank-
lin's method of drawing lightning from thunder clouds by means of a kite.
But he did not stop here, but continued his experiments upon the electricity of
clouds for a considerable period. He observed them sometimes negative, and
sometimes positive. He supposed that rarified air gave out electricity to the
clouds, while condensed air abstracted it from them. He found that glass when
rubbed becomes positive or negative, according to the smoothness or roughness
of its surface, and according to the kind of rubber employed. He was capable
of electrifying air positively or negatively at pleasure.* Mazeas made a set of
continued experiments on the electricity of the air. In general it is sensible,
but weak; it is not affected by winds, but much increased by stormy clouds.†
Dr. Lining, of Charlestown, in South Carolina, in imitation of Dr. Franklin,
sent up a kite into a thunder cloud, and by that means dissipated the
lightning +
The event connected with electricity, which drew the greatest attention of
mankind in general, was the death of Professor Richman, at Petersburg, on
the 6th of August, 1753, by a thunder clap, which was supposed to have been
attracted towards his apartment by an apparatus which he had constructed to
observe the degree of electricity of the clouds. Richman was a Swede, born at
Pernau, on the 11th of July, 1711. He studied in the universities of Halle and
Jena, and made mathematics and philosophy his principal objects. He was
made a member of the Imperial Academy in 1735, extraordinary professor in
1741, and at last in 1745, ordinary professor of experimental philosophy. He
was occupied with a work on electricity, and was in consequence very assiduous
in observing the degree of electricity in the air during thunder storms. For this
purpose he had constructed in his chamber what he called an electrical gnomon.
It consisted of a metallic rod fixed in a glass vessel. To this rod was attached a
linen thread, the elevation of which, marked on an accompanying quadrant, the
degree of electricity which the rod received. This rod was connected by means
of a chain totally surrounded by electrics, with a metal rod passing through a
perforated bottle, and fixed upon the roof of the house. During a thunder
storm, the electricity collected by this elevated rod was expected to excite the
gnomon, and the effect was measured by the elevation of the linen thread upon
the quadrant.
The day of his death, Professor Richman had attended an ordinary meeting
of the Academy, and hearing some thunder claps at a considerable distance, he
hastened home in order to make some observations by means of his gnomon, and
he carried with him the engraver Sokolow, who had the charge of the figures for
* Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 350 ; and 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 780.
† Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 377.
Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 7.57.
CHAP. VIII.]
4.43
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
his projected work, that in consequence of seeing the effects of his gnomon, he
might be the better able to represent them upon paper. The linen thread
marked 4° upon the quadrant, and the Professor was describing the dangerous
effects which might result from its rising so high as 45°, when a terrible clap of
thunder alarmed all the inhabitants of Petersburg. His gnomon was broken in
pieces, and a ball of fire leaped from the rod to the Professor's head, who was
standing at about a foot distance, and stooping towards the apparatus. He
immediately fell backwards upon a chest, and was instantly dead. Sokolow was
stupified by the shock, and the fragments of the red hot wires were thrown upon
his coat, but he was not otherwise injured. The door and part of the ceiling
near the conducting chain were rent. There can be little doubt that the light-
ning must have been conducted to that particular room in preference by the Pro-
fessor's apparatus. But in all probability the thunder would have struck his
house if no apparatus whatever had been present; and either he himself or some
one else of the family might have fallen victims. There are two very particular
accounts of Professor Richman's death in the Philosophical Transactions, the
first and best by Dr. Watson,* the other translated from the German.†
The next experimenter who appears on the stage is Mr. Delaval. To him Delavat.
we are indebted for several notable discoveries. He found that the oxides of
metals are non-conductors, a curious circumstance which has since been gene-
ralized by Mr. Davy. Powdered dry Portland stone (granular limestone) is
a non-conductor: the residue after the complete combustion of animal or vege-
table substances is a non-conductor. Portland stone, and tobacco pipes, become
non-conductors, when just so hot as to be handled; when hotter or colder they
conduct. These last facts were afterwards explained in a satisfactory manner
by Mr. Canton. Tobacco-pipe conducts only in consequence of its moisture;
hence when heated so as to be rendered dry, it becomes a non-conductor; when
heated red hot, the hot air conducts the electricity; when cooled, the pipe
absorbs moisture and becomes a conductor again.§ Mr. Delaval found that
Iceland crystal in some cases becomes a non-conductor, and capable of being
excited by friction. When moderately heated it always became a conductor.
But these experiments did not succeed with Bergman, who repeated them with
great care; he found Iceland crystal a conductor in all cases, to what degree
soever of cold it was exposed.
It is now time to mention Mr. Wilson, who occupied so conspicuous a figure wilsoa
on the stage of the Royal Society for a considerable number of years, chiefly on
account of the obstinacy with which he opposed the use of pointed thunder
* Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 765.
+ Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 61.
Phil. Trans. 1759. Vol. LI. p. 83; and 1761. Vol. LII. p. 353.
Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 457.
| Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII. p. 97.
3 L 2
444
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Miscellaneous
experiments.
rods for the protection of buildings, and maintained the superiority of balls over
points. It was by his obstinacy and improper conduct that he introduced those
unhappy divisions which had so unfortunate an effect upon the Royal Society,
and were so disgraceful to the cause of science and philosophy. Mr. Wilson's
best paper appears to be the one which he wrote on the tourmalin. This is a
crystalized mineral, very common in primitive mountains in every part of the
earth, but at that time brought chiefly, if not entirely, from the East Indies.
Its electrical properties are mentioned by Theophrastus, but doubted by Pliny.
When the tourmalin is heated to a certain temperature, it becomes always
strongly electric; but loses that property either by being too much heated, or
by being allowed to cool. Mr. Wilson described the phenomena with con-
siderable accuracy. The subject was afterwards further investigated by pinus,
and an excellent paper on the tourmalin was written by Bergman. Mr. Wil-
son likewise observed that when two electrics are rubbed together, the one al-
ways becomes electrified plus, and the other minus. The harder of the two,
according to him, becomes usually plus, the softer minus.* When insulated
silver and glass are rubbed, the silver becomes minus, the glass plus.† Mr.
Wilson found some other crystalized minerals to possess the electrical properties
of the tourmalin. He describes them as having the hardness of the topaz, and
as being red, and some of them inclining to orange. They were no doubt
varieties of tourmalin, which the imperfect state of mineralogy did not enable
Mr. Wilson to recognise.
+
+
I shall here mention some miscellaneous electrical observations which were
made about this time, and which do not well admit of being arranged under
distinct heads. Symmers observed that stockings of different colours, black and
white silk, black and white worsted, black silk and white worsted, &c. when
worn together on the leg become strongly electrical, the black minus, and the
white plus. They cohere together with considerable force, and when forcibly
separated emit sparks.§ Bergman, from a set of experiments, concluded that
water is a very imperfect conductor, when compared with metal. He shows
too that ice is a conductor, though it conducts worse than water. It was
afterwards ascertained that ice when cooled down to 14° becomes a non-con-
ductor. Mr. Canton observed that when glass is dipped into mercury and taken
out again, it is electrified plus, and the mercury minus. This curious obser-
vation may be considered as the commencement of a set of investigations after-
wards carried to a very considerable length by Volta, and which terminated in
the discovery of the galvanic battery. Mr. Kinnersley, of Philadelphia, in
-J
*Phil. Trans. 1759. Vol. LI. p. 308.
Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 443.
Phil. Trans. 1760. Vol. LI. p. 907.
+ Phil. Trans. 1760 Vol. LI. P. 896.
§ Phil. Trans. 1759. Vol. LI. p. 340; and 390,
¶ Phil. Trans. 1762. Vol. LII. p. 457.
2
CHAP. VIII.]
445
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
North America, who had been the original associate of Dr. Franklin, in elec-
trical experiments, continued afterwards to prosecute the subject by himself,
and published a curious paper in the Philosophical Transactions. The follow-
ing are the most important of his experiments. A coated flask containing
boiling water cannot be charged, the electricity passing off with the steam;
but when the water gets cold, the flask may be charged as usual. A person in
a negative state of electricity standing upon an electric, and holding up a long
sharp needle out of doors in the dark, observes light upon the point of it. No
heat is produced by electrizing a thermometer, nor by passing shocks through
large wire. But small wire is heated red hot, expanded, and melted."
*
Dr. Priestley did not make his appearance in public till the year 1767, when he Priestley,
published his History of Electricity: a work which is rather carelessly and has-
tily executed, but which nevertheless must have been of advantage to the science.
Almost the whole of his historical facts are taken from the Philosophical Trans-
actions, which may be considered as the great storehouse of electrical infor-
mation. For the English Electricians of that time, not satisfied with their own
original papers, though numerous and important, introduced into the Trans-
actions detailed accounts of all the important books on electricity, which made
their appearance abroad. Dr. Priestley at the end of his history gives us a
number of original experiments of his own. The most important of all his
electrical discoveries was that charcoal is a conductor of electricity, and so good
a conductor that it vies even with the metals themselves. This is a curious and
unexpected analogy between the metals and charcoal, and chemistry furnishes
us with several others no less striking and important. When the conducting
power of charcoal was tried by succeeding electricians it was found to vary in
the most unaccountable manner, sometimes scarcely conducting at all, some-
times imperfectly, and sometimes remarkably well. This diversity indicates a
difference in the nature of different specimens of charcoal. Hence we may be
assured that charcoal is a compound, and that it often varies in the proportion
of some one or other of its ingredients.
Dr. Priestley's electrical papers in the Philosophical Transactions are not of
much importance. The following are the facts which he establishes. He
describes coloured circles produced by receiving shocks from 21 square feet of
glass on metal plates.† Mr. Canton had previously produced the same colours
by melting wires upon glass plates, and the subject was long after carried a
great deal further by Van Marum, assisted by his great Teylerian machine.
When an electrical battery is discharged, if light bodies be placed near the elec-
trical circuit, they are moved. This motion Dr. Priestley ascribes to what he
calls the force of the lateral explosion, and he conceives it to depend upon the
* Phil. Trans. 1763. Vol. LIII. p. $1.
† Phil. Trans, 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 68.
446
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Remaining
papers in the
sudden elasticity given to the air.* Finally, Dr. Priestley found that a long
circuit conducts much worse than a short circuit, even when the conductors are
the same. And that when the circuit contains an imperfect conductor a spark
passes to bodies near, yet no electricity is communicated.‡
The remaining papers on electricity in the Philosophical Transactions are of
so miscellaneous a nature that it is impossible to connect them into any regular
detail. We shall therefore divide the remainder of this chapter into three
parts. In the first we shall give a short outline of the principal facts contained
in the various papers; in the second we shall give a sketch of that part of elec-
tricity which is called galvanism, and which makes its appearance for the first
time in the last of the volumes of the Transactions which comes under our re-
view. In the last part we shall give a view of the theory of electricity as it has
been established by a most important paper published by Mr. Cavendish in the
Philosophical Transactions, and by Epinus in a work which made its appear-
ance rather before the publication of Mr. Cavendish's paper, but which Mr.
Cavendish assures us he had not seen till after his paper was drawn up, and
ready to be presented to the Society.
I. There are about 38 papers on electricity still remaining, which it would be
Transactions. improper to pass over in silence, as they contain each at least something that
deserves to be remembered. The following is the shortest account of them
which it is in our power to give.
1. Fogs are usually electric. During winter the air is often in an excited
state. Ronayne. Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 137.
2. Dr. Priestley gives a description of Henley's electrometer, then newly con-
trived. It is a semicircle of ivory divided into degrees, and attached to a piece
of brass which is fixed into the principal conductor of the machine. From
the centre of the semicircle a piece of pith ball is suspended by a very light
piece of wood so contrived as to be very moveable about the centre. When
the machine is driven the pith ball is repelled, and marks upon the semicircle
the degree of repulsion which it sustains by the height to which it rises. Ibid.
p. 359.
3. Charcoal, being examined by Mr. Kennersley, was found to vary in its con-
ducting power. Oak, beech, and maple charcoal, he found to conduct well,
but the charcoal from the pine would not conduct at all. A line drawn upon
paper by a black lead pencil conducted pretty well. Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol.
LXIII. p. 38.
4. The Board of Ordnance having consulted the Royal Society about the
best mode of securing the powder magazine, at Purfleet, from the effects of
* Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 57.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 192.
+ Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 63.
3
CHAP. VIII.]
447
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
lightning, the Society appointed Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Watson, Dr. Franklin,
Mr. Robertson, and Mr. Wilson, a committee to examine the building, and re-
port upon it; these gentlemen went accordingly, and the first four recom-
mended the erecting of pointed conductors in particular parts of the building,
as a incans which they thought would afford complete security.* Mr. Wilson
dissented from the other gentlemen, being of opinion that the conductors ought
not to be pointed but blunt, because pointed conductors solicit and draw down
the lightning which might otherwise pass by. He published a long paper on
the subject, assigning a great variety of reasons for his preference. It was this
dissent of Mr. Wilson which produced the controversy between the electricians
of the Royal Society respecting the comparative merits of pointed and blunt
conductors; a controversy which continued for a number of years, and a
variety of papers in support of both sides of the question made their successive
appearance in the Philosophical Transactions. Indeed it occupies almost the
exclusive attention of the writers on electricity for several successive volumes of
that work.
5. The next paper deserving notice is by Mr. Walsh on the electric proper-
ties of the torpedo. This gentleman went to Rochelle on purpose to examine
the extraordinary shocks which it was known the torpedo was capable of giving.
The result of his examination was that these shocks were purely electrical. It
was found upon examination that the fish possessed a peculiar set of organs
constructed for the express purpose of communicating these shocks. These
organs were dissected and described by Mr. John Hunter. Phil. Trans. 1773.
Vol. LXIII. p. 461.
6. Mr. Nairne gives a set of experiments showing that the shock is dimi-
nished by lengthening the circuit, and demonstrating the superiority of points
over balls as conductors. Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV.
p. 79.
7. Mr. Henley proceeds on the same side, and gives a set of experiments
showing that pointed conductors ought to be preferred to blunt ones for securing
buildings. Ibid. p. 133.
8. The next paper by Mr. Henley is a very long and curious one. He shows
that the vapour of water is a conductor of electricity, that when the flame of a
candle is introduced into the circuit, and a charged Leyden phial discharged
through it, the flame always inclines towards the negative side. He gives a
great many curious experiments showing the superiority of points to balls as con-
ductors. He made likewise a set of experiments to determine the relative con-
ducting power of the different metals by the quantity of a wire of each of a
given size melted by equal electrical shocks passed through them. He found
* Phil. Trans, 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 42.
+ Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 49.
448
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Shock of the
torpedo ex-
plained.
the metals as conductors to hold the following order. Gold, brass, copper
silvered, silver, iron. Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 389.
9. Mr. Walsh's observations and experiments on the torpedo, seemed to leave
no doubt that the shock which it gave was the effect of electricity. But there
were several circumstances that required explanation. The shock was given
though the fish was under water, yet it could not be made to pass through a
chain, no light was ever observed, and it never was sufficient to produce any
divergence in the lightest cork balls. These difficulties induced Mr. Cavendish
to make a kind of artificial torpedo, by means of which, and a large glass bat-
tery, he was enabled to imitate the natural torpedo very closely. He demon-
strates, that the length through which the electricity is able to make its way in
air depends upon the degree to which the battery is charged. Four jars charged
only half as high as two jars will give the same intensity of shock, but the
electricity will only pass through half the interval of air. This paper, like all
the other papers of Mr. Cavendish, contains a great deal of very curious mat-
ter, and all the experiments are made with the utmost exactness.
We may
mention a few of the most striking facts. Metals conduct 400,000,000 times.
better than water; sea water conducts 100 times better than fresh water; and
water saturated with salt 720 times better than fresh water. The human
body is a better conductor than fresh water. Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI.
p. 196.
10. A pyed bullock was struck with lightning; the white hair came off, the
red remained unchanged. Ibid. p. 493.
11. We have in this paper a description of Volta's electrophorus, with an
explanation of it by Mr. Henley. Ibid. p. 513.
12. In this paper we have a set of experiments, by Mr. Swift, showing the
superiority of pointed conductors in securing buildings against lightning. Phil.
Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 155.
13. And in this we have a vindication of Mr. Wilson's opinion respecting
blunt conductors, by Dr. Musgrave. Ibid. p. 801.
14. Dr. Higgins proposes amalgam of zinc as a substitute for amalgam of tin,
for electrical excitation. The amalgam at present usually employed, is amal-
gam of zinc with a certain quantity of amalgam of tin mixed with it. Ibid.
p. 861.
15. Mr. Wilson, who still retained his original opinions, gives us here a long
set of experiments, to demonstrate that points are struck in preference to balls,
and therefore, that pointed conductors are not so good as blunt ones. Ibid.
p. 999.
16. Dr. Ingenhousz, who was the contriver of some very amusing experiments,
both electrical and chemical, gives us, in this paper, a method of lighting a
CHAP. VIII.]
449
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
candle by means of electricity. Surround a wire with cotton, roll it in pow-
dered resin, discharge a small vial through it; the resin takes fire and will light
a candle. Phil. Trans. 1778. Vol. LXVIII. p. 1022.
17. Dr. Ingenhousz, in the Bakerian lecture, gives an ingenious theory of
the electrophorus of Volta, upon the Franklinian theory of positive and nega-
tive electricity. Ibid. p. 1027.
18. This theory is confirmed
city cannot pass through glass.
19. The plate-glass machine, which has since been carried to such perfection
by Mr. Cuthbertson, was proposed by Dr. Ingenhousz. He even constructed
one of varnished pasteboard discs. Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 659.
20. Mr. Nairne shows that electricity shortens wire; and that copper conducts
better than iron. Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 334.
by Henley; who shows, likewise, that electri-
Ibid. p. 1049.
21. We are more indebted to Mr. Volta than to any other philosopher of the
present age for the introduction of new and important electrical apparatus.
In this paper he gives us an account of his condenser; a very useful instrument
for detecting the presence of small quantities of electricity. By means of it,
Lavoisier, La Place, and himself, succeeded in ascertaining the existence of
negative electricity in the vapour of water, the smoke of burning coals, the air
produced by the solution of iron in weak sulphuric acid, &c. Phil. Trans.
1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 237.
22. Mr. Nairne gives an example of a wire shortened by lightning. Phil.
Trans. 1783. Vol. LXXIII. p. 223.
23. The next paper that comes to be noticed is a description of that very
useful and sensible electrical instrument, the gold-leaf electrometer, of Mr.
Bennet. The contriver gives also some very curious experiments in proof of its
sensibility. Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 26.
return-
24. In the year 1787, as James Lauder was driving a cart from the bridge Lord Stan-
at Coldstream, in Berwickshire, both he and his horses were killed by light-stroke ex-
ning. Yet it appeared from the accurate account of the whole, drawn up by emplified.
Mr. Brydone, and sent to the Royal Society, that there was no discharge of
thunder from a thunder cloud that was not at some miles distance. Lord
Stanhope explained the accident in a very satisfactory manner, by the theory
of the returning stroke, which he had first given in the year 1779. He con-
ceives, that when a large cloud is charged with electricity, it drives out a con-
siderable portion of the usual electricity from the stratum of air in its neigh-
bourhood. When this cloud is discharged, the electricity returns into the
portion of air from which it had been driven, by the influence of the electricity
in the cloud; and it may return with such violence, and in such quantity, as
to destroy the life of any person who may be exposed to its action. Lord
Stanhope gives satisfactory proofs that this must have been the way in which
3 M
450
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Account of
galvanism.
Galvani's
discovery.
James Lauder and his horses were killed. Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII.
p. 130..
25. In this paper Mr. Cavallo points out several defects in Bennet's doubler;
and gives various other ways of detecting the presence of small quantities of
electricity. He attempts, likewise, to explain in what manner electricity is ac-
cumulated by friction. Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 1.
26. In this paper Dr. Gray endeavours to explain the way in which glass is
charged by the electrical fluid, and discharged. Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol.
LXXVIII. p. 121.
27. In this paper Mr. Cavallo gives a description of an instrument capable
of collecting together a diffused or little condensed quantity of electricity. He
considers it as an improvement upon Volta's condenser. Ibid. p. 255.
28. In this paper we have some curious experiments, by Mr. Nicholson, on
the excitation of electricity; on the luminous appearances of electricity; on
the action of points; and on what he calls compensated electricity. Some of
the remarks in this paper are of considerable value to the practical electrician.
Phil. Trans. 1789. Vol. LXXIX. p. 265.
29. Dr. Withering, in this paper, gives an account of some extraordinary
effects produced by lightning. Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX. p. 295.
30. In this paper, and another published afterwards, we have a journal of
the state of atmospherical electricity, kept for two whole years, at Knights-
bridge, near London, by Mr. John Read. The journal is very curious, but
not susceptible of abridgement. It deserves to be studied by meteorologists.
Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 185; and 1792. Vol. LXXXII. p. 225.
31. The last paper we have to mention is likewise by Mr. John Read; and
consists of a set of experiments made upon Mr. Bennet's doubler, in order to
determine its real utility in the investigation of the electricity of atmospheric air,
in different states of purity. Mr. Read found air rendered disagreeable by the
breathing of a great number of people strongly negative. Phil. Trans. 1794.
Vol. LXXXIV. p. 266.
II. The introduction of what is called the Galvanic Apparatus has constitu
ted an era in electricity, and has considerably altered the views of philosophers
respecting the nature and properties of the supposed eíectrical fluid. What is
called Galvanism took its name from Galvani, Professor of Anatomy, at
Bononia, in Italy, who first observed the phenomena, and published a book on
the subject in 1791. The discovery is said to have originated from an accident.
Some frogs newly skinned were lying in the dissecting room, in which also there
happened to be an electrifying machine. While the machine was at work,
some person accidentally touched the thigh of a frog with a probe, the conse-
quence was that the whole leg was thrown into convulsions. Galvani afterwards
discovered that the same convulsions may be produced by forming a chain of
CHAP. VIII.]
451
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
conducting substances between the outside of the muscles of the leg of a frog
and the crural nerve of the same leg. He explained the phenomenon by con-
ceiving the muscles to resemble a charged Leyden phial, having electricity
accumulated in the inside, while the outside was minus. The nerve he conceived
to be connected with the inside: when it was united with the outside by con-
ductors, the surplus electricity was discharged; and hence the motions of the
limb.
coveries.
Volta, to whose discoveries in this department of science we lie under such Volta's dis
obligations, was the first person who added any thing of importance to the
original discoveries of Galvani. His letters to Cavallo on the subject were
published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1793.* He found that
the convulsions were produced by touching two parts of the same nerve or
muscle, provided two metals be employed to form the electric circuit. These
observations destroyed the hypothesis of Galvani, and induced him to conclude
that the electricity was produced by the action of the two metals on each other.
An opinion which he investigated with much attention for seven years, and was
at last led, by means of it, to the fortunate discovery of the Galvanic pile.
Volta found, that when two metals in contact were made to touch different
parts of the tongue, a pretty strong acid taste was perceived. The metals
which were found to act most powerfully after repeated trials, were zinc and
silver.
In the same year, 1793, appeared Dr. Fowler's Essay on Galvanism. He
found that the contractions may be excited by making the metals touch under
water, even at a distance from the animal. He succeeded in exciting the heart
to contract; but could not produce the same effect upon the stomach and intes-
tines. He found, that when the two metals were applied to the eye, or, what
was better, when they were thrust up between the teeth and the lips, and then
made to touch, a flash of light is perceived.
Dr. Wells published a valuable paper on the subject in 1795. He found
that one metal and a piece of charcoal might be substituted for two metals; and
that even one metal would answer if it had been previously rubbed with another
metal. He objected to Volta's hypothesis; and conceived the phenomena to
depend upon electricity accumulated in the muscles.
Fabroni soon after wrote a curious paper on the subject of galvanism; the
object of which was to show that the whole depended upon the chemical action
of the metals on each other. He affirmed that when two metals were placed in
contact with liquids, certain chemical changes were produced, owing entirely
to the presence and the action of the metals.
It would be tedious and uninteresting to give an account of the numerous
* Vol. LXXXIII. p. 10.
3M 2
452
[BOOK III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
papers on the subject of galvanism which made their appearance in Germany,
during the ten years which elapsed between the original discovery of Galvani,
and that of the Galvanic pile, by Volta. They are so numerous and intricate
as scarcely to admit of generalization; and often so inconsistent with one an-
other, that no great degree of confidence can be put in their accuracy. The
most voluminous writers on the subject were Humboldt, Pfaff, and Ritter.
In the year 1800, Mr. Volta sent an account of his new-discovered Galvanic
pile to the Royal Society. Owing to the war, which at that time existed
between Britain and France, one portion of the paper came to the Royal
Society several months before any opportunity occurred of sending the re-
mainder. This delayed the publication of the discovery longer than would
otherwise have taken place, and, in consequence of that circumstance, the
apparatus was constructed, and various curious experiments made by different
persons in London, before the original paper was laid before the public. The
Voltaic pile. Galvanic pile, discovered by Volta, consisted of three conductors of electricity,
two perfect, and one imperfect, piled above each other in the same order, in
repeated sets. The perfect conductors were silver and zinc, or copper and
zinc; the imperfect, a piece of card or leather, soked in salt water, and a little
smaller than the metal plates. They were piled above each other in the follow-
ing order silver, zinc, card; silver, zinc, card, and so on, employing as many
sets as can conveniently stand above each other without risk of falling. The
greater the number, the more powerful the effects produced. If the finger of one
hand be made to touch the uppermost disc of metal, and the finger of the other
hand the undermost disc, a shock is perceived, similar to the shock of a Leyden
phial, or still more similar to an electrical battery weakly charged; and this
shock is repeated for a long time whenever the circuit is completed, by placing
the fingers as above mentioned.*
Discoveries of
Nicholson and
Carlisle.
of Cruick-
shanks.
The first British experimenters on this interesting subject were Messrs.
Nicholson and Carlisle. They discovered that the zinc end of the pile was
positive; and the silver, or copper end, negative. But the most important
discovery which they made, was the chemical action of the pile. When the
circuit is made by gold, or platinum wires, if a vessel of water be placed in this
circuit, and the wires be plunged into it, the water is decomposed with con-
siderable rapidity; oxygen gas being disengaged from the wire connected with
the positive extremity of the pile, and hydrogen gas from the wire connected
with the negative extremity. If the wires be of any other metal except gold, or
platinum, in that case the negative wire gives out hydrogen gas as usual; but
no gas is evolved from the positive, which undergoes a rapid oxydation.
The next experimenter was Mr. Cruickshanks, of Woolwich. He observed,
* Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. XC. p. 403,
2
CHAP. VIII.]
453
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
that the positive wire reddened the infusion of litmus, and the negative wire the
infusion of Brazil wood. Hence he concluded, that an acid was evolved at the
positive wire; and an alkali at the negative. The acid, from several circum-
stances, he conceived to be the nitric; and the alkali, ammonia; and he
explained their formation from the common air, or rather the azotic gas, which
was contained in a state of solution in the water that he employed. It was known
already, that when nascent oxygen gas comes in contact with azote, it forms
nitric acid; that nascent hydrogen, when it comes in contact with the same
azote, forms ammonia. Hence the evolution of these substances, in his expe-
riments, become evident. Mr. Cruickshanks found, likewise, that the negative
wire has the property of reviving metals held in solution by acid. He found all
liquids tried, which contained no oxygen in their composition, non-conductors.
But we lie under the greatest obligation to Mr. Cruickshanks for the change
which he made in the galvanic apparatus; substituting a wooden trough into
which the pairs of plates (previously soldered together) were cemented at regu-
lar intervals, and the intervening cells were filled with the imperfect conductor,
salt water for example, or water accumulated by means of an acid. This has
been gradually improved into the very convenient apparatus at present used in
this country; which, being familiarly known, we do not consider it as neces-
sary to describe.
The next experimenter was Dr. Henry, of Manchester. He decomposed of Henry.
ammonia by the galvanic energy, and found that more oxygen was given out
when the wires were plunged into sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acids, than
when plunged into pure water. The gases, as might have been expected, were
found by him to be non-conductors. We may here mention some curious facts
established by Colouel Haldane. He found that the pile does not act under
water, nor in vacuo, nor when surrounded with azotic gas; and that it is more
powerful than usual when surrounded with oxygen gas. But the two last
circumstances depend upon the nature of the perfect conductor employed.
We now come to Mr. Davy, whose first discoveries were of some importance, of Davy-
He found that the oxygen and hydrogen gases, obtained from the decomposition
of water, might be evolved in different vessels, at a considerable distance from
each other. He found, that if the water interposed between the plates be pure,
the pile does not act; that the action is proportional to the oxydation of the zinc;
that it is increased by acids; and when they are employed it acts even in vacuo.
A pile of zinc and charcoal possesses considerable energy. He constructed a
galvanic trough, consisting of two imperfect conductors; namely, nitrous acid,
and a solution of sulphuret of potash in water, and one metal. This trough,
indeed, did not retain its energy any great length of time, because the imperfect
conductors decomposed one another; but its action was quite sensible at first.
He even found that a trough might be constructed possessed of sensible energy
454
[Book III,
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
of Foureroy
and Vauquelin,
of Wollaston.
General law
discovered by
Davy.
without the presence of any metal whatever, substituting a piece of charcoal for
the metal.
The next experimenters that deserve to be mentioned are Fourcroy and
Vauquelin. They thought of substituting large square plates of zinc and cop-
per for the small discs that had been hitherto employed. The consequence of
this change was the discovery of several remarkable plienomena: the burning of
gold leaf, dutch leaf, tinfoil, iron wire, &c., and above all the combustion of
charcoal, with a degree of brilliancy that rivals the light of the sun. These
chemical effects were found to increase at a great rate with the size of the
plates; whereas the violence of the shocks depended more upon the number of
plates than upon their size. The different effects of a great number of small
plates, and of a small number of very large plates, has been lately placed in a
striking point of view, by a set of experiments published in a late volume
of the Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. Children. He found, that when the
circuit was composed of very good conductors, the great plates produced a very
powerful effect; but the intensity was so small, that the electricity was unable
to penetrate through imperfect conductors. He showed, that the quantity of
electricity increases with the size of the plates, while its intensity increases with
the number of pairs.
The next experimenter, who comes to be mentioned, is Dr. Wollaston. He
showed, that oxydation has the property of disengaging electricity; and hence
explained the way in which amalgam of zinc acts in increasing the energy of
an electric machine. He conceived that it became specdily oxydated by the
action of the air, and that during the change it evolved abundance of electricity,
which made its way to the prime conductor. He found, that a machine could
not be excited when surrounded with carbonic acid gas; a fact which he con-
sidered as corroborating his hypothesis respecting the use of the amalgam.
Finally, Dr. Wollaston succeeded in producing, by the common electrifying
machine, the decomposition of water, and other chemical decompositions,
which, till that time, were considered as peculiar to galvanic electricity. Thus
he removed the grounds which had induced many persons to consider electricity
and galvanism as two distinct species of energies.
But the great discovery respecting the agency of galvanism was made by
Mr. Davy, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, in a paper which
gained the prize proposed on galvanism by the French Emperor. This dis-
covery may be expressed in the following sentence: the galvanic energy has
the property of decomposing all compound substances, (supposing the battery
sufficiently powerful,) and the constituents arrange themselves round the wires,
passing from the two extremities of the battery, according to the following law:
oxygen and acids arrange themselves round the positive wire; hydrogen, alkalies,
earths, and metals, round the negative wire. From this very important dis-
CHAP. VIII.]
455
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
covery, Mr. Davy drew some very plausible inferences. Oxygen and acids,
since they are attracted towards the positive wire, are naturally negative; while,
on the other hand, hydrogen, alkalies, and metals, being attracted to the nega-
tive wire, are naturally positive. When two substances are chemically com-
bined, they are in different states of electricity; and the more completely oppo-
site these states are, the more intimately they are united. To separate the two
constituents of bodies from each other, we have only to bring them to the same
electrical state; and this is the effect which galvanism produces. Chemical
affinity is nothing else than the attraction which exists between bodies in
different states of electricity. The decomposition of the fixed alkalies, the alka-
line earths, and boracic acid, soon after accomplished by Mr. Davy, was the
natural consequence of his original discovery. These, though very striking
and important, are not to be compared, in point of value, to his original dis-
covery of the decomposing power of galvanism; which has made us acquainted
with a new power in nature, and put in our possession a much more efficient
chemical agent than any with which we were before acquainted. This is the
discovery which does Mr. Davy so much honour, and puts him on a level with
the small number of individuals, who have been fortunate enough to lay open
to the world a new law of nature. Mr. Davy's discoveries have been invidi-
ously compared with those of Newton; and have been affirmed to consist
entirely in insulated facts, unconnected with any general principle. The alle-
gation is unjust. The decomposition of the alkalies and boracic acid are insu-
lated facts; but Mr. Davy's great discovery is this general law, that galvanism
decomposes all compound bodies, and that the decomposition takes place in a
certain determinate manner.
III. The most rigid and satisfactory explanation of the phenomena of elec- Theory of
tricity, which has hitherto appeared in any language, is contained in a very electricity,
long, but most masterly paper of Mr. Cavendish, published in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions for 1771.* It is a very remarkable, and to me an unaccount-
able circumstance, that notwithstanding the great number of treatises on elec-
tricity which have appeared since the publication of this paper, which is, be-
yond dispute, the most important treatise on the subject that has ever been pub-
lished, no one, so far as I recollect, has ever taken the least notice of Mr.
Cavendish's labours, far less given a detailed account of his theory. Whether
this be owing to the mathematical dress in which Mr. Cavendish was obliged to
clothe his theory, or to the popular and elementary nature of the treatises which
have been published, I shall not pretend to determine; but at all events it is a
thing very much to be regretted. Mr. Cavendish's paper is so long, so con-
cise, and so mathematical, that it is quite impossible to give a full account of it
* Vol. LXI. p. 581.
456
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
in this place. I shall attempt merely to give a general outline of his theory.
This will be most perspicuously done in detached propositions. It may be
proper to mention, that the same theory is also given by Epinus, though not
in so complete a form as by Mr. Cavendish. It appears also that pinus's
treatise on the subject was published first.
1. A fluid exists in all bodies, distinguished by the name of the electric fluid.
2. Its particles repel each other with a force varying inversely as the square
of the distance. Mr. Cavendish was not acquainted with the rate of variation
when he wrote; but I consider it as established by the experiments of Coulomb.
3. They attract some other ingredient in all other bodies with a force varying
inversely as the square of the distance.
4. The electric fluid is dispersed through the pores of bodies; and, owing to
some unknown cause, it moves through them with various degrees of facility.
5. Through one set of bodies called conductors, and sometimes non electrics,
it moves with great facility; while through another set called electrics or non
conductors, it moves with great difficulty, or not at all.
6. The phenomena of electricity arise from the attractions and repulsions of
the electric fluid, and from its passage from one body to another.
7. Bodies are in their natural state when the repulsion of the electricity is
balanced by the attraction of the matter. In that case they are said to be satu-
rated with fluid. Two bodies in their natural state neither attract nor repel.
8. Redundant electricity is called positive or plus; deficient electricity is
called negative or minus.
9. When a body contains more than its natural proportion of electricity the
surplus is repelled till the body is reduced to its natural state.
10. When a body is less than saturated, the matter attracts fluid till it is
brought to its natural state.
11. This efflux or influx may be prevented either by surrounding the body
with substances through the pores of which the fluid cannot pass, or by the
body itself being of that nature.
12. When a body is over-saturated at one end, and under-saturated at the
other end, the fluid flows towards the under-saturated end till the equal distri-
bution is restored; because it is repelled by the over-charged, and attracted by
the under-charged end.
13. The same attractions and repulsions exist when two hodies, the one over-
charged the other under-charged, are separated by a non-conducting substance;
but in that case the flow cannot take place.
14. These bodies may contain such proportions of fluid and matter, that the
fluid shall have no tendency to enter or escape from them. The bodies in that
case are called neutral. Both ends cannot be neutral at once. Either may at-
tract or repel.
}
CHAP. VIII.]
457
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-ELECTRICITY.
15. Let us suppose two bodies A and B, in their natural state, containing the
fluid F, f; the matter м, m; and the matter attracting the fluid with a force z.
A tends towards в with a force = rmz + Mƒ± − Ffz. Now Fmz is manifestly
Mfz
equal to f. Consequently they ought to move towards each other with a
force =
Mfz. But as no such attraction is perceptible, it is obvious that it
must be opposed by some equal repulsion. Hence it follows that м must repel
m; or at least some part of м must repel m with a force equal to мfz.
*
16. When A and B contain the redundant matter ', m', they repel with a
force equal to m'm'z.
17. When a contains redundant fluid r', and в redundant matter m', they at-
tract with a force equal to r'm'z.
18. If either A or B be in its natural state, the bodies neither attract nor repel,
19. When A is over-charged, and в partly over-charged, partly under-charged,
A is attracted, repelled, or neutral to в according to the proportion and distance.
But when the fluid is unequally distributed in both bodies the phenomena be-
come more complicated.
B
20. If a when over-charged be brought near B, the fluid in в is driven
towards the side most remote from A, so that the side of в nearest a becomes
undercharged and is attracted. The fluid in в increases in density from the side
nearest a to the other extremity, and there is a point in it where this density is
natural. This is called the neutral point.
21. If an electrified body a be brought near another body в, then в becomes
electrified by position, and its electrical state is always opposite to that of A.
In this case it is obvious that nothing is communicated. Therefore it follows
that there is only one electrical fluid and not two, as is supposed by some
philosophers.
22. When an insulated body в is brought near an electrified body a, a spark
is observed to pass between them; в becomes electrified permanently, and the
electricity of a is diminished. This passage of the electric fluid from the one
body to the other is instantaneous.
23. When a body has imparted electricity to another, it constantly repels it,
because both are in the same state.
24. In the preceding case it is obvious that something is transferred from one
body to the other. The vivacity of the phenomena is proportional to the quan-
tity of fluid transferred. It is greatest when conductors are employed, because
the discharge is then most complete.
25. The action of electricity is not interrupted by the interposition of non
conductors, but only the passage of it from one body to another.
26. Strong electricity may exist in bodies without being sensible.
Such is a brief outline of the principal points in the theory of electricity.
For the demonstration of these propositions, and for a comparison of them with
the phenomena of nature, we refer to Mr. Cavendish's paper.
3 N
458
[Воск ПІ.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Phenomena,
CHAP. IX.
OF MAGNETISM.
ALTHOUGH magnetism is of more practical utility to mankind than electricity,
it cannot be said, as a science, to have made so much progress. Epinus
indeed has given us a mathematical explanation of it, founded on an hypothesis,
similar to his electrical. But the best treatise on magnetisni, which we have seen,
is contained in the supplement to the third edition of the Encyclopædia Britan-
nica, and was drawn up by the late Professor Robison, of Edinburgh. His
hypothesis is the same as that of Epinus, but he has given us many original
and valuable experiments of his own. We shall begin this chapter with a short
statement of the principal facts that have been discovered relative to magnetism,
and then give a short historical sketch of the discoveries belonging to the science
as far as we are acquainted with them.
By Magnetism is meant the property which certain metallic bodies have of
attracting and repelling bodies of the same nature with themselves, and of as-
suming a particular direction when suspended freely.
We are at present acquainted with four metals possessed of these properties;
namely, iron, nickel, cobalt, and chromium. But the three last of these metals
being very scarce, and it being difficult to procure them in a state of purity,
almost all the experiments on magnetism have been made with iron.
There is an ore of iron frequently met with which possesses the magnetic vir-
tues in a considerable degree. This ore is called magnetic iron ore, or some-
times loadstone; and it was by means of it that the magnetic virtue of iron
came first to be known. This ore, according to the analysis of Bucholz, is a
combination or mixture of the black and red oxides of iron, and usually con-
taining a portion of silica.
Pure iron is not susceptible of acquiring the permanent magnetic virtue. It
must be combined with a portion of carbon, phosphorus, or sulphur. When
saturated with any of these bodies, it becomes incapable of exhibiting the mag-
netic energy. For these curious facts we are indebted to Mr. Hatchett.
A bar of steel may be converted into a magnet, either by hammering it while
placed in a direction parallel to the axis of the earth, or simply by stroking it
with a magnet in the same direction.
A magnet has two poles, the north and the south. When the magnet is sus,
pended freely, the first turns towards the north, and the second towards the
south. Dissimilar poles attract, similar poles repel and from the experiments
of Lambert, Robison, and Coulomb, it appears that these attractions and repul
sions vary inversely as the square of the distance.
1
CHAP. IX.]
459
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MAGNETISM.
Every piece of iron, when brought near a magnet, becomes a magnet.
Soft iron retains the magnetic virtue only while in that situation. But hard
steel when once converted into a magnet continues so, though removed to a
distance from the magnet, to which it was originally indebted for the commu-
nication of that quality.
Magnets arrange themselves with respect to each other in a particular direc-
tion. Let a magnet, A, and a needle, в, fixed on a pivot, be placed near each
other, the magnet will cause the needle to assume a particular direction. The
force which the magnet thus exerts is called the directive force; the tendency of
the needle to assume a particular direction, is called its polarity.
The ratio of the directive to the attractive force is increased by diminishing
the length of B. Hence the polarity of a small magnet may continue when its
attraction is insensible.
The directive force causes a needle, when carried round a magnet, to arrange
itself as the tangent of a magnetic curve. When a needle is carried round two
magnets, it becomes a tangent to a compound magnetic curve.
When a needle is drawn out of its direction, the force which restores it is
proportional to the sine of the angle of inclination.
The power of magnets is increased by communicating magnetism to other
bars. Therefore they lose nothing by this communication; or nothing is trans-
ferred from one bar to the other.
The earth is a great magnet. Hence the reason why iron in the proper posi-
tion becomes magnetical.
The needle properly poised points to the north; but its direction in the same.
place is not fixed, but varies in an irregular manner. At one time at London,
for example, it points due north; from this it gradually deviates westwards, till
in the course of a series of years it points perhaps 25° west; here it becomes
stationary for some time, then begins to move eastward, and does not stop till it
has got as far to the east of the meridian, as it was west before. This variation
is called the declination of the needle. No satisfactory explanation has yet been
given of it; the hypothesis of Halley not having been received by the philo-
sophic world. The needle has likewise a diurnal variation, west in the morning
and east in the afternoon. This diurnal variation has been sufficiently accounted
for by the effect of the solar rays.
There is a certain great circle of the earth cutting the equator in two nodes,
and deviating about 10° from the equator. This great circle is called the mag-
netic equator. Its poles are at about latitude 80°. The north magnetic pole
seems to be in north latitude 80°, and west longitude from Greenwich 35°
or 40°.
A needle placed any where upon the magnetic equator remains horizontal;
but if it be north or south from this equator, it deviates from the horizontal
3 N 2
460
[BOOK HI.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
pass.
direction, dipping towards the nearest magnetic pole. This dip is called the
inclination of the needle. It is more regular than the declination, and has been
subjected to calculation. The dip increases at first rapidly, and afterwards more
slowly, as the latitude increases.
The magnetic intensity increases as we advance from the equator towards
the poles.
Such are the principal magnetical facts hitherto ascertained. Let us now take
a rapid view of the history of magnetism.
*
The ancients were acquainted with the attractive property of magnets, but
they were ignorant of their directive property. Nor do we know when this
property was discovered, or who first thought of applying it to the purposes of
Mariners' com- navigation. But we are certain that the compass was known and employed in
the year 1260. Its history is unknown, though it is supposed to have been
borrowed from the Arabians. Flavio Gioio, an inhabitant of Melphi, in Italy,
is said to have first suspended the needle on a pivot, and Dr. Wallis claims for
the English the first application of the convenient method, at presenti practised,
of having the needle attached to a card. But the evidence which he adduces in
favour of this opinion amounts to nothing at all. Various improvements on the
mariners' compass have been proposed by different persons in almost all the
nations of Europe; as by Middleton, in 1738; by Knight and Smeaton, 'in
1750; by Lahire, in 1716; by Mean, in 1731; by Buache, in 1782; by Le-
maire, in 1747; by Gaule, in 1777; by Coulomb, in 1780; not to mention
the improvements proposed by Cassini, Zecher, Van Swinden, &c. The first
dipping needle was made by Norman: Mitchell's dipping needle was improved
by Nairne, in 1772: Lorimer's needle for the dip and variation was constructed
in 1775; and Macculloch's sea compasses, in 1788.
Variation.
J
f
The variation is usually said to have been first discovered by Columbus; but
this can only mean that he first observed that the magnetic meridians, in different
longitudes, do not make the same angles with the meridians of longitude. The
discovery, that the needle varies in its declination in the same place, was made
in England; though the name of the discoverer is not accurately known. Ac-
cording to Wallis, it was made by Gellibrand, in 1645; according to Bond,
it was made by Mr. John Mair. The first person who collected observations on
the declination in different places, and made a chart representing them by
curves, was Dr. Halley, in 1700. Since that time another very complete one
was published by Mountain and Dodson, first in 1744, and afterwards in 1756.
Wilke made one in 1772; Lambert another, in 1779; and Churchman a very
complete one, in 1794. Various attempts have been made to reduce the decli-
nation to calculation; but none of them have been successful. There is a very
extraordinary paper in a late volume of the Transactions, which appears incon-
sistent with all our previous knowledge of the declination. It is a demonstration
1
CHAP. IX.]
461
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MAGNETISM.
that there has been no alteration in the variation of the compass in Jamaica for
these 140 years.
We know that both on the west and east side of Jamaica, the
variation has changed prodigiously within that time: and one can conceive no
reason why this should not have happened also in Jamaica.
riation.
The diurnal variation of the needle was discovered by Mr. George Graham, Diurnal Va
in 1724, and it was explained soon after in a satisfactory manner, by Canton.
Van Swinden and Coulomb have also given us explanations of it, but not so
satisfactory as that of Canton.
The dip of the needle was first observed by Norman, and little addition has Dip.
since been made to his hypothesis and collection of facts. From the united
observations which have been made in different times and places, it appears that
the dip is subject to much less variation than the declination. Some persons,
indeed, have supposed that the dip does not vary at all; but the very careful
observations of Gilpin, lately published, demonstrate, that at London it is at
present diminishing. The magnetic equator, as laid down by Wilke and Le-
monnier, is nearly the very same which has been lately deduced from the obser-
vations of Humboldt, by Biot. To Biot we are likewise indebted for a mathe-
matical hypothesis, (though not quite correct), and for a very good table of
observations.
It was Graham that first thought of measuring the magnetic intensity by the
vibrations of the needle; a method afterwards used by Coulomb, and considered
by many as invented by him. From the observations made by Humboldt, and
Gay Lussac, in this manner, Biot has deduced the variation of intensity in
different latitudes.
The magnetic laws were first generalized and explained by Dr. Gilbert, whose
book on magnetism, published in 1600, is one of the finest exemples of induc-
tive philosophy that has ever been presented to the world. It is the more re-
markable, because it preceded the Novum Organum of Bacon, in which the
inductive method of pholosophizing was first explained. Dr. Brook Taylor,
and afterwards Muschenbroeck, attempted without success to determine by ex-
periment the rate at which the magnetic attractions and repulsions vary. This
rate was successfully investigated by the subsequent experiments of Lambert,
Robison, and Coulomb. The nature of magnetic curves was first satisfactorily
explained by Lambert, Robison, and Playfair.
The first attempt to make artificial magnets, as far as I know, was by Sellers, Artificial mag-
in 1667.* There is said to be a paper on this subject by Reaumur in the nets.
Mcmoires of the French Academy for the year 1723. In the year 1730, Ser-
vington Savery succeeded in making them, and in showing them to be pre-
ferable to loadstones. Dr. Gowan Knight soon after made very powerful artifi-
Phil Trans. Vol. II. p. 478.
462
[Book III;
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions,
cial magnets. He concealed his method; but after his death it was published,
and said to consist in making up a paste of elutriated iron filings and linseed oil.
His experiments were published in 1744. Mr. Mitchell, of Cambridge, pub-
lished an improved method in 1750, and Mr. Canton another in 1751. An-
theaume's method was published, in the year 1760, in a separate treatise, but it
had appeared before in the Memoires of the French Academy for 1753. Æpinus
and Coulomb proposed good methods of making artificial magnets, but later
than any of those which have been already enumerated.
From the preceding statements it appears that almost all the discoveries rela-
tive to magnetism have been made in England. The most distinguished names
as discoverers are those of Gilbert, Norman, Gellibrand, Halley, Savery, Graham,
Knight, Mitchell, and Canton. Lambert, Epinus, and Coulomb, hold the
most distinguished place among foreigners.
The papers on magnetism, in the Philosophical Transactions, amount to
seventy-eight; but of these twenty-one may be passed over as trifling. The
following is a sketch of the topics treated of in the remaining papers, omitting
those that have been already noticed.
1. Colepress found that heat weakened the magnetic energy. Phil. Trans.
1667. Vol. II. p. 502.
2. Mr. Bond published a table of the variation of the needles, at London,
for the next 50 years. But his hypothesis turned out inaccurate. Ibid. p. 789.
3. Dr. Halley attempted to explain the declination of the needle by the
hypothesis of the earth being a great magnet with four poles, two in the north
and two in the south. The change of declination he accounted for, by sup-
posing the earth a hollow sphere enclosing another sphere at its centre. Each
sphere has two poles, and the internal has a slow rotatory motion west. This
ingenious hypothesis never gained much ground, and at present, we believe, has
no supporter. Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII. p. 208; and 1692. Vol. XVII.
p. 563.
4. An iron bar held in the proper direction becomes a magnet. Phil. Trans.
1685. Vol. XV. p. 1213.
5. Twisting a wire destroys its magnetism. Splitting a wire often inverts the
poles or destroys the polarity. The result is affected by the side of the wire laid
uppermost. Derham. Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 2136.
d2
1
d³
6. Dr. Brook Taylor made experiments to ascertain the law of magnetic at-
traction. At small distances it was nearly as 1
; but at greater distances as
or more. He gave four poles to a wire by touching it at one end, or at various
parts. Phil. Trans. 1715. Vol. XXIX. p. 294; and 1721. Vol. XXXI. p. 204.
7. Mr. Graham found the dip at London, in 1723, to be 74° 40'. In the
year 1747, he found it 73° 30'. In the year 1723, the needle made 100 vibra-
3
CHAP. IX.]
463
MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY.-MAGNETISM.
tions in 5′ 35" at London. Phil. Trans. 1725. Vol. XXXIII. p. 332; and
1748. Vol. XLV. p. 279.
8. Mr. Savery describes his method of making artificial magnets. Phil. Trans.
1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 295.
9. Captain Middleton observed that needles would not traverse in the neigh-
bourhood of ice, and that cold had the same effect; but they recovered their
qualities when heated. Phil. Trans. 1738. Vol. XL. p. 310.
10. The magnetic experiments of Dr. Gowan Knight are circumstantially
related. The only novelties which they exhibit are the great magnetic power
which the magnets employed possessed, and the facility with which a powerful
magnet reverses the poles of a smaller one. Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII.
p. 161, 361; and Vol. XLIV. p. 656.
11. The diurnal variation of the needle was first observed by Graham, then
by Celsius, then by Wargentine, Canton, &c. Phil. Trans. 1751. Vol. XLVII.
p. 126.
12. The diurnal variation is least in December, and greatest in June at Lon-
don. It is westward from eight in the morning till one or two o'clock, then
returns east again till the evening. Mr. Canton accounts for it in a satisfactory
manner by showing that heat diminishes the magnetic power of a needle. The
diurnal variation becomes irregular when an aurora borealis appears. The fol-
lowing table gives us the mean diurnal variation for each month of the year
1759, ás observed by Mr. Canton.
7' 8" | July..
August.
. 13′ 14″
January
February
.8 58
.12 19
March.
. 11
17
September
.. 11
43
April..
. 12
26
October.
.10
36
May.
. 13
0
November......
8.
9
June..
. 13 21
December...
6 58
Thus we see that it is greatest in June, and least in December. Phil. Trans.
1759. Vol. LI. p. 398.
13. Various tables of the variation occur in the Philosophical Transactions.
The following, not reckoning Halley's which has been already quoted, are the
most remarkable of these. MONTAINE. Phil. Trans. 1766, Vol. LVI. p. 216.
Ross. Ibid. p. 218. WALES. Ibid. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 467. Сook. Ibid.
1771. Vol. LXI. p. 422.
14. In the year 1772, the dip, at London, appears from the experiments of
Mr. Nairne to have been about 72° 18'. Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 476.
15. Mr. Hutchins gives us the dip in the year 1774, in different places. The
following are the principal:
464
[Book III.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
At Stromness
Long. 3° 20′ W.
Dip 75° 51′
Long. 69 W.
Dip 82 42
Lat. 51 20
Long. 82 30 W.
Dip 80 13
Lat, 58° 59'
Hudson's Straits Lat. 62 3
Moose Fort
Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 129.
16. A particular description of Dr. Gowan Knight's great magnetical maga-
zine is given, and likewise an account of the method which he employed in
making his artificial magnets. Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 591; and
1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 51.
17. Cavallo found that brass becomes magnetic by hammering, though it
contains no sensible quantity of iron. The magnetism is destroyed by heating
the brass red hot, or by partially melting it. Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI.
p. 62.
18. Cavallo shows that the magnetism of bodies may be best tried by putting
them on the surface of clean mercury, and then bringing a magnet near them.
Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 6.
19. Mr. Bennet proposes the suspension of a fine sewing needle by a spider's
thread in the glass of a gold leaf electrometer, as an excellent means of disco-
vering very minute quantities of magnetic attraction. Phil. Trans. 1792. Vol.
LXXXII. p. 81.
20. Mr. Macdonald gives us an account of the diurnal variation of the needle
in Sumatra. It was less than Mr. Canton observed it in Londoù, not exceeding
2' or 3'; but the whole variation of the needle at Fort Marlborough, in 1794,
was only 1° 8′ east. Mr. Macdonald considers the diurnal variation as a con-
firmation of Halley's hypothesis of the four magnetic poles of the earth. Phil.
Trans. 1796. Vol. LXXXVI. p. 340.
8'
21. The same gentleman has given us the diurnal variation at St. Helena.
He found it to be 3′ 55″ in November when the whole variation was 15° 48′ 341″
west. Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 397.
BOOK IV.
OF CHEMISTRY.
WE shall divide this Book into three Chapters. In the first we shall treat of
Chemistry, strictly so called; in the second, of Meteorology; and in the third,
of those Chemical Arts and Manufactures which are described in the Philoso-
phical Transactions.
CHAP. I.
OF CHEMISTRY.
science.
THE origin and primitive meaning of the word Chemistry are not accurately Origin of the
known. The science itself is of modern date, and scarcely preceded the origin
of the Royal Society. It sprung from a sect of fanatics, who occupied them- The alchy-
selves assiduously in endeavouring to convert the baser metals into gold and mists.
silver. These men, in the course of the numberless experiments which they
made upon the metals, and upon other bodies capable of bearing the heat of
their fires, or of altering the appearance of their metals, discovered a variety of
powerful agents hitherto unknown; and ascertained many curious and impor-
tant properties of the substances on which they experimented. These they
registered in their writings, in a language at once pedantic and obscure, and
thickly scattered with the most childish and ridiculous absurdities. Some of
these alchymists, as they were called, being medical men, began to think of
applying some of the preparations which had been thus discovered in medicine.
The effects of these new medicines, particularly the preparations of antimony,
the first chemical medicines brought into general use in Europe, were so power-
ful, as not only to draw the attention of the medical faculty, but even to occupy
the deliberations of whole kingdoms. Paracelsus, who carried these chemical Paracelsus.
medicines to an extravagant length, and who boasted that he was in possession
of one, capable of curing all diseases, and of prolonging life to an indefinite
30
466
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
[BOOK IV.
Boyle.
Hooke,
period; and who was peculiarly fitted, by his pomposity and chicanery, for
making a noise in the world, and laying the foundation of a new sect, first gave
public lectures on chemistry; and impressed mankind with an idea of the im-
portance of attending to the science for medical purposes, independent of the
grand alchymistical pursuit of making gold.
The sect established by Paracelsus did not long outlive the founder; but me-
dical chemistry, notwithstanding, continued to be valued, and chemical medi-
cines to be employed, by the most judicious and skilful physicians in Europe.
Various persons appeared in different countries, who distinguished themselves,
either by the extent of their views, by chemical discoveries useful in the arts, or by
contriving preparations of importance in medicine; such as Agricola, Libavius,
Van Helmont, &c. Small treatises on chemistry were even drawn up and pub-
lished; containing an account of the metals, of sulphur, of alkalies and acids,
of precious stones, of a few salts, and some rude attempts towards explaining
the constituents of the animal and vegetable kingdom. Still chemistry could
hardly be considered as constituting a distinct science; but, as depending upon
pharmacy and mining. It was chiefly cultivated in Germany, where pharmacy
and mining had been most attended to, and where they had been brought to the
greatest perfection.
Perhaps Mr. Boyle may be considered as the first person, neither connected
with pharmacy nor mining, who devoted a considerable degree of attention to
chemical pursuits. Mr. Boyle, though, in common with the literary men of
his age, he may be accused of credulity, was both very laborious and intelligent;
and his chemical pursuits, which were various and extensive, and intended solely
to develope the truth, without any regard to previously conceived opinions,
contributed essentially to set chemistry free from the trammels of absurdity and
superstition, in which it had been hitherto enveloped; and to recommend it to
philosophers as a science deserving to be studied, on account of the important
information which it was qualified to convey. His refutation of the alchy-
mistical opinions respecting the constituents of bodies, his observations on cold,
on the air, on phosphorus, and on ether, deserve particularly to be mentioned, as
doing him much honour. We have no regular account of any one substance, or
of any class of bodies, in Mr. Boyle, similar to those which at present are con-
sidered as belonging exclusively to the province of chemistry. Neither did he
attempt to systematize the phenomena, or to subject them to any hypothetical
explanation.
But his contemporary, Dr. Hooke, who had a particular predilection for
hypothesis, sketched, in his Microgaphia, a very beautiful theoretical explan-
ation of combustion; and promised to develope his doctrine more fully in a subse-
quent book: a promise which he never fulfilled; though in his Lampas, published
3
CHAP. I.]
467
CHEMISTRY.
about 20 years afterwards, he has given a very beautiful explanation of the way
in which a candle burns. Mayow, in his Essays, published at Oxford about ten
years after the Micrographia, embraced the hypothesis of Dr. Hooke, without
acknowledgement; but clogged it with so many absurd additions of his own,
as greatly to obscure its lustre and diminish its beauty. Mayow's first and
principal Essay contains some happy experiments on respiration and air, and
some fortunate conjectures respecting the combustion of the metals; but the
most valuable part of the whole, is the chapter on affinities; in which he
appears to have gone much farther than any other chemists of his day, and to
have anticipated some of the best established doctrines of his successors. Sir
Isaac Newton, to whom all the sciences lie under such great obligations, made Newton.
two most important contributions to chemistry, which constitute, as it were,
the foundation stones of its two great divisions. The first, was pointing out a
method of graduating thermometers, so as to be comparable with each other
in whatever part of the world observations with them are made. The second,
was by pointing out the nature of chemical affinity, and showing that it con-
sisted in an attraction, by which, the constituents of bodies were drawn towards
each other, and kept united. Thus destroying the previous hypothesis of the
hooks, and points, and rings, and wedges, by means of which the different
constituents of bodies were conceived to be kept together.
Such were the chemical views and improvements of the British philosophers
during the latter part of the 17th century. The German philosophers, with
views less enlightened and correct, but much better acquainted with mining and
pharmacy, or what may be called the rudiments of chemical analysis, took a
different and less philosophical road; but a road so pleasing and spacious, that
it captivated the fancy of all the chemists in Europe, and contributed very
much to the popularity and the advancement of the science. John Joachim
Beccher, the contriver of the first chemical theory, which gained celebrity, and Beccher.
constituted it a separate and independent science, was born at Spires, in the
year 1625, and seems to have been of Jewish extraction. He was first a Pro-
fessor of Medicine, then Physician to the Elector of Mentz; and afterwards to
the Elector of Bavaria. Towards the end of his life he went to England, and
died in London, in great poverty, in the year 1682. The greatest part of his
time was spent, as he informs us in the preface to one of his books, in going
down into mines, and examining the structure of the earth, and the changes
which the minerals gradually underwent. A slight inspection of his writings
is sufficient to show that he had paid very little attention to the mathematical
sciences, for he falls into mistakes which a very slight acquaintance with the
principles of mechanical philosophy would have enabled him to avoid. His
great work, in which he developes his chemical theory, was his Physica Sub-
302
468
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Stahl.
terranea, published at Frankfort, in 1669. The book is curious in a minera
logical point of view, and would deserve the perusal of some of the keen theo-
retic geologists of the present day. Beccher's theory, stripped of every thing
but the naked statement, may be expressed in the following sentence: besides
water and air,* there are three other substances, called earths, which enter
into the composition of bodies; namely, the fusible, or vitrifiable earth; the
inflammable, or sulphurcous; and the mercurial. By the intimate combination
of earths with water is formed a universal acid, from which proceed all other
acid bodies: stones are produced by the combination of certain earths: metals,
by the combination of all the three earths, in proportions, which vary according
to the metal.
Ernest Stahl adopted the chemical theory of Beccher, and improved it so
much that the reputation of the master was lost in the celebrity of the disciple;
and the theory was ever after distinguished by the name of the Stahlian Theory.
Stahl was a German, first Physician to the King of Prussia, and Professor of
Medicine and of Chemistry. He was born in 1660, and seems to have been
actuated, from his very infancy, by a violent passion for chemistry. At the age
of 15, he could repeat by heart the whole of the Chemica Philosophica of Ber-
nerus, at that time the most popular book on the subject. Stahl discarded the
mercurial earth of Beccher, and to his inflammable earth he gave the name of
phlogiston, and made it the foundation of his doctrine of combustion, which
constitutes the fundamental part of his chemical theory. Phlogiston, according
to him, constitutes a constituent of all combustible bodies: during combustion
the phlogiston makes its escape, and is the cause of the heat and the light which
accompany combustion. What remains after the combustion is at an end is the
other constituent of the combustible body. For example, sulphur, when burnt,
leaves behind it a quantity of sulphuric acid. Hence sulphur is composed of
sulphuric acid and phlogiston. The Stahlian theory hung so well together,
and was supported by such plausible and satisfactory experiments, that it was
almost immediately embraced by the chemical world, and for a period of more
than 50 years, from its original propagation, the sole object of chemists seems
to have been to confirm and extend it.
The chemistry of Stahl, as it was cultivated in Germany, and France, and
other countries of Europe, scarcely aspired beyond the bounds within which it
had been circumscribed by its original founder. A few important facts indeed
were added, but they were either connected with medical preparations, or
attracted attention solely as objects of curiosity. The great and tempting field
* I am not quite clear about Beccher's opinions relative to water and air. They do not appear
consistent.
CHAP. I.J
469
CHEMISTRY.
of Philosophical Chemistry lay unexplored, when it was entered upon with
ardour by Dr. Cullen, who first perceived its value, and whose genius and in- Cullen.
dustry, had they not been turned into another channel, would in all probability
have been crowned with the richest discoveries. But though Dr. Cullen soon
abandoned his chemical pursuits for those of medicine, he was fortunate enough
to have initiated into the science a man, whose discoveries formed an era in
Chemistry, and who first struck out a new and brilliant path, which was after-
wards fully laid open and traversed with so much eclat by the British Philoso-
phers who followed his career.
This fortunate pupil of Dr. Cullen was Dr. Joseph Black, who was born at Black.
Bourdeaux, in France, in the year 1728. His father was a native of Belfast,
but of a Scottish family, and he resided at the time of his son's birth at Bour-
deaux, where he was engaged in the wine trade. As soon as he had reached the
age of 12, young Black was sent to Belfast, that he might have the advantage
of a grammar school education; and four years after, or in the year 1746, he
was sent to the University of Glasgow. Here he got acquainted with Dr. Cul-
len, who was at that time Lecturer on Chemistry in the University of Glasgow,
became enamoured with the science, and the zealous assistant and friend of his
master. Young Black, having made choice of medicine as the profession best
suited to his views, went to Edinburgh in 1750, to finish his education. At
that time the professors entertained different opinions about the action of lithon-
thriptic medicines, particularly lime-water; and the students as usual entered
cagerly into the controversy. It seems to have been this circumstance which
first led Mr. Black to investigate the cause of the difference between lime-stone
and quick-lime, and to examine the nature and properties of magnesia. These
investigations appear to have been completed about the end of the year 1752 or
1753. The result he first sketched in his inaugural dissertation, and afterwards
detailed at full length in his Essay on Magnesia, published a few years after-
wards. Lime-stone he demonstrated to be a compound of lime, and an aerial
substance, to which he gave the name of fired air. This fixed air has the
property also of combining with the alkalies, and with magnesia. When these
bodies contain it, they are in what was called at that time their mild state, and
they effervesce, when placed in contact with acids; because all acids displace
the fixed air, and drive it away. The alkalies, lime, and magnesia, when de-
prived of this fixed air, are in their caustic state. This important discovery
constituted the commencement of the investigation of gaseous bodies. Its accu-
racy was at first disputed in Germany, where Meyer had advanced another and
more complicated explanation. But after some controversy the hypothesis of
Meyer was laid aside, and the explanation of Dr. Black finally acceded to.
When Dr. Cullen was removed to Edinburgh, in 1756, Dr. Black was ap-
pointed his successor as Professor of Anatomy, and Lecturer on Chemistry, in
470
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
the University of Glasgow. Not considering himself as fully qualified to fill
the anatomical chair, he was induced to change tasks with the Professor of
Medicine. While in Glasgow, therefore, his chief business was delivering lec-
tures on the institutes of medicine. His reputation as a Professor increased
every year, and he became a favourite practitioner in that rich and active city.
It was between the years 1759 and 1762, that he brought to maturity his im-
portant speculations concerning heat, which had occupied his attention at
intervals from the very first dawn of his philosophical investigations. Besides
constituting the foundation of every thing philosophical at present known
respecting heat, we are indebted to these speculations for the steam engine, the
most brilliant and valuable present ever made by the sciences to the arts. Dr.
Black's discovery may be summed up in the following proposition. When a
solid body is converted into a fluid, there enters into it, and unites with it, a
quantity of heat, the presence of which is not indicated by the thermometer :
on the other hand, when a fluid body is converted into a solid, a quantity of
heat separates from it, the presence of which was not before indicated by the
thermometer. The heat which thus combines, or disengages itself, Dr. Black
called latent heat, because its presence is not indicated by the thermometer.
In the year 1766, when Dr. Cullen was made Professor of Medicine, in the
University of Edinburgh, Dr. Black was appointed his successor in the che-
mical chair. This situation he filled for more than 30 years with uncommon
success. His lectures were remarkably perspicuous, and delivered with such
ease, and in so pleasing a manner, totally free from affectation, as to produce
universal delight. At last, on the 26th of November, 1799, he expired, in the
seventy-first year of his
of his age, precisely in the way that he had often wished might
happen. Being at table, with his usual fare, some bread, a few prunes, and a
measured quantity of milk diluted with water, he set the cup down on his knees
which were joined together, and kept it steady with his hand in the manner of
a person perfectly at ease; and in this attitude he expired without spilling a
drop, and without a writhe on his countenance, as if an experiment had been
required to shew to his friends the facility with which he departed. His servant
opened the door to tell him that some one had left his name, but getting no
answer he stepped about half way towards him, and seeing him sitting in that
easy posture, supporting his bason of milk with one hand, he thought that he
had dropped asleep, which sometimes happened after his meals. He went back
and shut the door, but before he went down stairs some anxiety made him return,
and look at his master. Even then he was satisfied, and turned to go away,
but returning again, and coming close up to him, he found him without
life.
Dr. Black's discoveries were all made before he reached the age of 34. Partly
from indolence, and partly from want of health, he never attempted to prose-
CHAP. I.J
471
CHEMISTRY.
cute the vast and tempting career which he had laid open. But the subject
was soon after taken up by Mr. Henry Cavendish, and prosecuted with a degree Cavendish.
of precision and success, which has searcely ever been equalled, and never sur-
passed. His first dissertation was upon the fixed air of Dr. Black, or carbonic
acid gas, as it was afterwards called; and upon hydrogen gas. He ascertained
the properties of both these aerial bodies with remarkable precision; and though
this paper, published in the Transactions for 1765, may be considered as the
first dissertation on gaseous bodies ever published, every property was deter-
mided with the utmost exactness. Of hydrogen gas, Mr. Cavendish may be
considered as the discoverer. It had indeed been collected by former chemists,
and its inflammability exhibited, but all its other properties remained unknown
till they were discovered by Mr. Cavendish. Some of the properties of carbonic
acid had been previously determined by Dr. Black, but Mr. Cavendish's addi-
tions were of the utmost consequence. To this important dissertation likewise
we are indebted, in some measure, for the apparatus by means of which Che-
mists have been enabled to investigate the nature of gaseous bodies, though
this apparatus was very much improved by the subsequent labours of Dr.
Priestley.
Mr. Cavendish's next discovery was a very important one; no less than the
constituents of which water is composed. He ascertained that when two mea-
sures of hydrogen gas, and one of oxygen gas, are set on fire, they burn with
an explosion, and in place of them is found a quantity of water, just equal to
them in weight. Hence it was concluded that water is a compound of oxygen
and hydrogen, in the proportion of one measure of the first to two of the second,
or that it is composed of about 74 parts by weight of oxygen, and one part of
hydrogen, Mr. Watt had previously drawn the same conclusion from the expe-
riments of Dr. Priestley and Mr. Warltire; but his opinions were unknown to
Mr. Cavendish, when he laid his paper on the subject before the Royal Society.
Mr. Cavendish's next discovery was the composition of atmospherical air, which
he demonstrated to be a mixture of nearly 21 measures of oxygen gas, and 79
measures of azotic gas. He found also that these proportions were not liable to
any variation, and that the supposed differences observed by Dr. Ingenhouz, and
others, were owing to errors committed in making the experiments.
Mr. Cavendish's last, and perhaps his greatest, chemical discovery, was the
composition of nitrous acid, which he showed to be a compound of one part by
weight of azote, and about 2 parts of oxygen. During the last part of
his life, he appears to have in a great measure relinquished his chemical pursuits.
He was a decided enemy to the French new chemical nomenclature, and wrote
a dissertation to expose its imperfections, which he was persuaded not to pub-
lish, on the supposition that the new nomenclature could not be permanent.
A supposition very likely to be verified. Mr. Cavendish died in the year 1810,
472
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Priestley.
in a very advanced age, leaving behind him an immense fortune. He was never
married, and in his domestic habits was very particular.
Dr. Priestley, who began his chemical career a few years later than Mr. Ca-
vendish, was as rapid and precipitate, as the latter was cautious and slow. But
from his splendid talents and happy turn of mind, he contributed no less essen-
tially to the progress of the science, and certainly more than any other British
Philosopher of his time to its popularity. No man ever entered upon the study
of chemistry with more disadvantages than Dr. Priestley, and yet few men have
occupied a more dignified station in it, or contributed a greater number of new
and important facts. He was an obscure dissenting clergyman, struggling with
a very limited income, unsuccessful as a preacher from a defect in his voice;
unacceptable to his hearers on account of his theological opinions, which in-
volved him in almost perpetual controversy, loaded with a family, ignorant of
chemistry, unacquainted with the necessary apparatus, and so situated that he
could not conveniently procure information. These circumstances in his
situation, which seemed to present an insurmountable bar to his entering upon
experimental investigations, were probably in a great measure the causes of his
splendid success. The career which he selected was new, and he entered upon
it free from those prejudices which warped the mind, and limited the views of
those who had been regularly bred to the science. His invention was set to
work to contrive new and appropriate and cheap instruments of investigation.
His profession ensured his temperance and sobriety, his family and limited
income stimulated his activity, while his controversial discussions kept up his
spirits, and inflamed his vanity and love of celebrity. Add to all this a facility
of expressing himself, and of writing, which he had acquired by the practice of
teaching, and of early composition; an activity of mind, and an ardour of
curiosity which it was impossible to damp; a sagacity capable of overcoming
every obstacle; and a turn for observation which enabled him to profit by all
the phenomena that presented themselves to his view. His habits of regularity
were such that every thing was registered as soon as observed. He was perfectly
sincere and unaffected, and the discovery of truth seems in every case to have
been his real and undisguised object.
The events of Dr. Priestley's life are recent and well known. Indeed a par-
ticular account of them has been lately laid before the public, partly drawn up
by himself, and partly by his son. The errors into which he fell, and which
drew upon him so much obloquy, ought rather, I think, to be ascribed to the
simplicity of his character, and to his almost total ignorance of human nature,
than to any thing radically wrong either in his disposition or his under-
standing.
Joseph Priestley was born in 1733, at Fieldhead, about six miles from Leeds,
in Yorkshire. His father was a dresser of woollen cloth. Our author, who
5
CHAP. I.]
473
CHEMISTRY.
was the eldest son, lost his mother in 1739, when he was only six years of
age, and after that period he was taken home, and supported by a sister of his
father. She was a respectable dissenter, and her house was visited by the dis-
senting clergy in the neighbourhood. Joseph was educated at a public school,
and at 16 had made considerable progress in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Hav-
ing shown a passion for books at a very early age, his aunt had hopes of his
becoming a dissenting clergyman, which she considered as the most respectable
of all professions; and he himself entered very eagerly into her views. But
his health declining about this period, his aunt became apprehensive that public
speaking would not suit him. In consequence of these apprehensions he turned
his thoughts to trade, and learned French, Italian, and German, without a
master. But getting stronger soon afterwards, his former plan of becoming a
clergyman was resumed, and in 1752 he was sent to the Academy of Daventry,
to study under Mr. Ashworth; after having, as he informs us, made some pro-
gress in mechanical philosophy and metaphysics, and learned Chaldee, Syriac,
and Arabic. At Daventry he spent three years, engaged keenly in theological
studies, and there he wrote some of his earliest tracts on religion. After leaving
Daventry he settled at Needham, in Suffolk, as assistant in a small, obscure,
dissenting meeting-house, where his income did not exceed thirty pounds a
year. His hearers fell off in consequence of his religious opinions, which
speedily began to deviate from the rigid system of Calvinism, in which he had
been educated; and he was partly supported by money, procured from charit-
able funds, by means of Dr. Benson and Dr. Kippis. Though several vacan-
cies occurred in his neighbourhood, he was considered as too contemptible to
be permitted to supply them. Even the dissenting clergy, who lived near
him, considered it as a degradation to associate with him. In 1758 he went to
Sheffield, as a candidate for a vacant meeting-house; but was rejected. Mr.
Haines, however, procured him a meeting-house at Nantwich, in Cheshire.
Here he kept a school, and taught privately besides, and by that means improved
his income. He taught the school from seven in the morning till four in the
afternoon, and he taught privately from four to seven; so that his time it would
appear was completely occupied: yet he contrived to find leisure to write his
Grammar, and some other tracts. In 1761 he succeeded Dr. Aiken, as Teacher
of Languages in the dissenting academy, at Warrington. In this situation
he continued six years, and wrote several of his works, especially his History
of Electricity, which first brought him into notice as an experimental philoso-
pher, and procured him celebrity. In 1767, he removed from Warrington to a
dissenting meeting-house, at Leeds. Here he continued six years, wrote many
books, and commenced his great chemical career, which soon drew universal
attention, and raised him to the first rank among British philosophers. He
3 P
474
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
was led accidentally to think of pneumatic chemistry, by living in the imme-
diate vicinity of a brewery.
In consequence probably of the celebrity which he had acquired, the Earl of
Shelburn (afterwards Marquis of Lansdown) engaged him to live with him,
at a salary of 250 pounds a year. But, in consequence of circumstances not
very well understood, they soon parted, and Dr. Priestley settled in a dissenting
meeting-house, at Birmingham. The writings which he published on theology
and politics, in consequence of the unfortunate turn which the minds of men
took after the commencement of the French revolution, gradually drew upon
him the obloquy of the well-wishers to the British government. He himself
affirmed that the minds of the people of Birmingham were artificially excited.
Be that as it may, a riot took place in 1791, his house was burnt down, and
he narrowly escaped with his life. He went to London, and settled at Hackney;
but the obloquy still continuing, and some of his oldest friends refusing to
associate with him, he left England in 1795, and settled in Northumberland,
in America. Here he continued actively engaged in his literary pursuits, and
amply supported by the liberality of his patrons in England; and here he died
in 1804, a few hours after he had arranged all his literary concerns, inspected
some proof sheets of his last theological work, and given instructions to his son
how it should be printed.
Dr. Priestley's chemical career was rendered illustrious by a great number of
important discoveries, chiefly of gaseous bodies and their properties. He dis-
covered oxygen gas, nitrous gas, nitrous oxyde gas, nitrous vapour, carbonic
oxyde gas, sulphurous acid gas, fluoric acid gas, muriatic acid gas, ammoniacal
gas. He ascertained various properties of carbureted hydrogen gas, azotic gas,
and hydrogen gas. His experiments may in general be sufficiently relied on for
accuracy; but we look in vain in them for that precise chemical knowledge,
which distinguished the experiments of some of his contemporaries. He never
attempted to determine the constituents of his gases, nor their specific gravity,
nor any other numerical results. He was not even in possession of the means
of determining the purity of those gaseous bodies which he examined. This is
the more extraordinary, as he was himself the discoverer of some of the best
means which are at present in our power. The revolution in chemical theory,
produced by Lavoisier, and the greater parade of accuracy which appeared in
the writings of the French chemists, and which gave them for a time a prc-
ponderancy in the chemical world to which they were not entitled, contributed
materially to injure Dr. Priestley's reputation towards the latter part of his life.
At one time, perhaps his reputation as a chemist stood higher than bis intrinsic
merit entitled him to rank; but certainly afterwards he sunk as much too low.
Black, Cavendish, and Priestley, were the three men who pointed out the
CHAP. I.]
475
CHEMISTRY.
importance of chemistry, and showed the great part which it acts in the phe-
nomena of nature; who drew to it the attention of the philosophic world, and
gave it that popularity which it has ever since enjoyed. But while they were
running their great chemical career in Britain, two men appeared in Sweden
not less eminent, and who contributed as essentially to the progress and improve-
ment of the science. These men were Bergman and Scheele.
Torbern Bergman was born in 1735, at Catherinberg, in West Gothland. Bergman,
His father was receiver of the revenues in that province, a post neither very
lucrative nor respectable; which induced him to urge his son to assume the
profession of law or divinity. Young Bergman accordingly went to the Uni-
versity of Upsal with that intention, and commenced his studies under the in-
spection of a friend. But he very soon testified a dislike for both the professions
recommended by his father, while he manifested a violent passion for mathe-
matics and philosophy. His friend remonstrated, pointed out the absurdity of
his choice, told him that law and divinity were the roads to profit and prefer-
ment, while mathematics and philosophy had nothing but celebrity to bestow
upon their votaries. Our young philosopher listened to these remonstrances in
silence; but still persevered in his favourite pursuits. His friend deprived him
of his books, restricted his studies, and left him only to chuse between law and
divinity. This restraint almost proved fatal. Bergman's health declined: it
was found necessary for him to leave the University and return home. His
relations, finding it in vain to struggle with his inclination, at last indulged it,
and left him at liberty to pursue those studies of which he was so enamoured.
At that time Linnæus, after having surmounted obstacles sufficient to have
crushed an ordinary man, was in the height of his glory, and was revered every
where as the patriarch of natural history. He had infused the enthusiasm which
actuated his own breast into the minds of his pupils; and, at Upsal, every
student was a natural historian. Bergman in particular attached himself to
Linnæus, and bestowed much pains on botany and entomology. On his return
to the University, he imparted to Linnæus his discoveries respecting leeches,
who sent them, with a very flattering panegyric, to the Academy of Stockholm.
Vidi et obstupui.
In the year 1761, Bergman was appointed Teacher of Mathematics and Na-
tural Philosophy, at Upsal. He was in this situation in 1767, when Wallerius,
the Professor of Chemistry, resigned his chair. Bergman, though it does not
appear that before that time he had paid any particular attention to chemistry,
offered himself as a candidate for the vacant professorship. But Wallerius had
other plans. There was a relation of his own whom he wished to succeed him,
and the Professors at Upsal had so much influence, that few doubted but he
would accomplish his plan.
Bergman, to show himself qualified for the place to which he aspired, pub-
3P 2
476
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
lished two Dissertations on Alum, which were attacked by Wallerius in a style
of acrimony unworthy of his reputation. Gustavus IV., afterwards King of
Sweden, was at that time Prince Royal, and Chancellor of the University. The
character and abilities of this extraordinary man, and the zeal with which he
sometimes supported men of science, are well known. Fortunately for che-
mistry, and for the reputation of Sweden, Gustavus took the part of Bergman,
on the recommendation, it is said, of Von Swab, and he was so keen on the
subject, that he supported his cause in person before the Senate. Wallerius and
his party were baffled by the influence of this prince, and Bergman got the
chair. He filled it with the greatest glory for 17 years; and, during that period,
his numerous publications entirely altered the state of chemistry. He intro-
duced an order, a perspicuity, an exactness, which were unknown before, and
which contributed more than any thing else to the subsequent rapid progress of
the science. To Bergman we are indebted for the invention of the method of
analysing mineral waters, and mineral bodies in general, such as is practised at
present. Some feeble attempts indeed had been made by Boyle, Duclos, and
some succeeding chemists, to determine the constituents of mineral waters.
Macbride had been more successful, and had explained the cause of the brisk-
ness of certain acidulous waters, by showing that they contained carbonic acid
gas in solution. But these efforts of preceding chemists vanish into nothing,
when contrasted with the exact and truly admirable labours of Bergman, who
not only determined the constituents of mineral waters, but pointed out the
method of imitating them with exactness. Margraaff had made some essays
towards the analysis of minerals by solution; but they are insignificant when
compared with the labours of Bergman, who gave detailed analyses of the pre-
cious stones, and described, at large, the method of determining the constituents
of all the metallic ores. It is true that the methods of Bergman have been
greatly improved and altered; and the science is chiefly indebted to Klaproth
for these ameliorations. He has devoted a long life to this important object;
and has given us the analysis of a greater number of minerals than all the other
chemists of Europe united together. But this does not detract from the merit
of Bergman, to whom the place of founder of this most important department
of chemistry unquestionably belongs.
Bergman's first care, after obtaining the chemical chair, was to collect all
the different chemical substances, and form them into a cabinet. Another cabi-
net contained the minerals of Sweden, arranged according to the places from
which they were obtained; while a third cabinet was filled with the models of
the different instruments employed in chemistry, and in the manufactures de-
pending on it. These were designed for the instruction of his pupils, whom
he encouraged and inspired with that enthusiastic ardour which is necessary for
those who devote themselves to the improvement of the sciences. One day he
3
CHAP. I.J
477
CHEMISTRY.
was told of a young man who resided in the house of an apothecary, at Upsal,
and who was reproached for neglecting the duties of his profession, while he
devoted the whole of his time to the study of chemistry. Bergman's curiosity
was excited. He paid the young man a visit, and was astonished at the know-
ledge which he displayed, and at the profound researches in which he was en-
gaged, notwithstanding the poverty under which he laboured, and the restraint
under which his situation placed him. He encouraged his ardour, and made
him his favourite pupil and friend. This young man was Scheele, one of the
most extraordinary chemists that ever existed.
Charles William Scheele was born in 1742, in Stralsund, the capital of Scheele.
Swedish Pomerania, where his father was a tradesman. Young Scheele, at a very
early period of his life, showed a strong inclination to learn pharmacy, and was
accordingly bound an apprentice to Mr. Bauch, an apothecary at Gottenburg,
with whom he lived about eight years. Here he first felt the impulse of that
genius which afterwards made him so conspicuous. He durst not indeed
devote himself openly to chemical experiments; but he contrived to make him-
self master of the science by dedicating those hours to study which were assigned
him for sleep. According to the testimony of Mr. Grunberg, his fellow ap-
prentice, he was of a very reserved and serious disposition, but uncommonly
diligent. He attended very minutely to all the processes, reflected on them
while alone, especially during the night time, and read every thing relating to
the subject in the writings of Neuman, Lemery, Kunkel, and Stahl. Kunkel's
Laboratory was his favourite book. He used secretly, during the night time,
to repeat experiments out of it. On one of these occasions, as he was em-
ployed in making pyrophorus, another apprentice, without his knowledge, put
some fulminating powder into the mixture. The consequence was a violent
explosion; the whole family was thrown into confusion, and our young chemist
was severely chastised.*
From Gottenburg, Scheele went to Malmo, and two years after to Stock-
holm. In 1773 he went to Upsal, and resided for some time in the house of
Mr. Loock. Here Bergman first found him, saw his merit and encouraged it,
adopted his opinions, defended him with zeal, and took upon himself the charge
of publishing his treatises. He gave him free access to his laboratory, and pro-
cured him a salary from the Swedish Academy. Encouraged by this magnani-
mous conduct, the genius of Scheele, though unassisted by education, or by
wealth, burst forth with the most brilliant lustre, and produced a suite of dis-
coveries which at once astonished and enlightened the world. He ascertained
the nature of manganese; discovered the existence and the singular properties
* The late Mr. Driander, who lived at Gottenburg at the time, used to say that the house in
which Schecle served his apprenticeship was a common dram shop.
478
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of oxymuriatic acid; and gave a theory of the composition of muriatic acid,
which promises fair to be the true one. He discovered a new earth, which was
afterwards called barytes; and he determined the constituents of the volatile
alkali. All these brilliant discoveries are related in one paper, published about
the year 1772. He discovered and ascertained the properties of arsenic acid,
oxalic acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, citric acid, fluoric acid, gallic acid,
prussic acid, tungstic acid, molybdic acid, lactic acid, and uric acid. He
ascertained the nature of plumbago, and molybdena; analysed fluor spar,
which had eluded the researches of Margraaff, and all preceding chemists; and
determined the constituents of tungstate of lime. His two essays on the prussic
acid are particularly interesting, and display the resources of his mind, and his
patient industry, in a very remarkable point of view. His different papers on
animal and vegetable substances are particularly interesting, and replete with
valuable and accurate information.
Scheele and Bergman cannot well be compared together. Their zeal indeed
for the science, their candour, their love of truth, and their industry, were
equal but Bergman was distinguished by the extent of his views, and by the
plans which he formed for the general improvement of the science; Scheele, by
the skill with which he conducted particular analyses, and the acuteness with
which he distinguished substances by their properties. Bergman's views were
general; Schecle's were particular. Bergman was the man for drawing the
outline; but Scheele understood best how to fill it up. On one occasion in-
deed, I mean in his treatise on fire, Scheele attempted the very difficult and
general subject of combustion; but his attempt was not crowned with success.
However, the acuteness with which he treated it deserves our admiration; and
the vast number of new and important facts, which he brought forward in sup-
port of his hypothesis, is truly astonishing, and perhaps could not have been
brought together by any other man than Scheele. He discovered oxygen gas,
and ascertained the composition of the atmosphere, without any knowledge of
what had been previously done by Priestley. His views respecting the nature
of atmospheric air were much more correct than those of Priestley; and his
experiments on vegetation and respiration, founded on these views, were pos-
sessed of considerable value.
Chemistry was deprived of these two illustrious philosophers, Bergman and
Scheele, almost at the same time. Bergman died in 1784, at the baths of
Medwi, in the forty-ninth year of his age, crowned with glory, after a life
spent in the most laborious industry. His works have been published in six
octavo volumes; the first four of which were given to the world by himself, and
the last two were collected and published after his death.
In 1775, on the death of Mr. Pohlen, apothecary at Koping, Scheele was
appointed by the Medical College to succeed him; and, in 1777, the widow
CHAP. I.)
479
CHEMISTRY.
sold him the shop and business; but they still continued house-keeping at their
joint expence. In this situation he continued till his death, which happened
in 1786, when he was only 44 years of age. For about six months previous
to his death, he had been severely afflicted with the gout. When he began to
perceive that his end was approaching, he was induced, from a principle of
gratitude, to marry the widow of his predecessor. The ceremony was per-
formed on the 19th of May, while Scheele lay on his death bed. On the 21st,
he left her by his will the whole of his property, and on the same day on which
he had so tenderly provided for her he died.
The exertions of the British and Swedish chemists had developed a prodigi-
ous number of new facts, for which Stahl's theory had not provided, and which
therefore it was unable to explain in a satisfactory manner. Its defects and im-
perfections in consequence came to be universally felt, and various attempts
were made in different quarters to amend and improve it. Mr. Lavoisier fol-
lowed a different plan, and after about 18 years of most assiduous application
to the science, succeeded in overturning the Stahlian theory altogether, and
established at the same time a new school, which, aided by the fury of the
French revolution, domineered for more than 15 years over the science with the
most absolute and insolent sway.
Lavoisier was born at Paris in 1743, and his father, who was opulent, spared Lavoisier.
no expence in his education. His taste for the sciences was decided, and the
progress which he made in them extremely rapid. When only 21 years of age,
he obtained the prize offered by government for the best essay on lighting the
streets of Paris. In the year 1768, he was admitted a Member of the Academy
of Sciences. At that time he was become conscious of his own strength, but
hesitated to which of the sciences he should devote his attention. Mathematics.
at first caught his fancy; but the brilliant discoveries of Dr. Black and the
British chemists, as he informs us himself, decided him to make choice of
chemistry. In 1772, he published a volume of essays, in which he gives an
historical view of the progress of the science, and finishes with an elaborate
defence of Dr. Black's discoveries respecting fixed air. Iis great wealth, his
situation, his excellent education, his mathematical precision, his general views,
and his persevering industry, all contributed to ensure his success.
son of the Stahlian theory with the discoveries of the British philosophers
soon satisfied him that it was insufficient to explain the appearances of chemistry.
And he devoted the whole of his attention to the invention of another theory
which might be more satisfactory. On this account his efforts were not directed
towards the discovery of new substances, but towards a more accurate know-
ledge of those that had been already discovered. He repeated the experiments
of the British and Swedish chemists with greater attention than they had paid
to the numerical results; and he frequently varied the methods of his predeces-
5
A compari-
480
[Book IV
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Lavoiserian
theory.
sors, or contrived new ones better calculated to attain his objects. He ascer-
tained the constituents of sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and carbonic acid;
of the metallic oxides; of alcohol, oils, and sugar; determined the ultimate
ingredients in animal and vegetable substances; and finally established this
general law of nature, that in all cases of combustion oxygen unites with the
burning body. There is a clearness and precision in his reasoning, and an air
of accuracy in his experiments, which contribute very much to give us a confi-
dence in them. He was fond of drawing general conclusions, and sometimes
was very happy in his deductions, though at other times he has evidently failed.
His speculations respecting heat are neither very satisfactory nor intelligible,
and bear striking marks of having originated from imperfect accounts respect-
ing the opinions of Dr. Black on the subject delivered in his lectures. His
theory respecting the acidifying principle was very plausible when he first pro-
posed it; but it has not been verified by subsequent discoveries, and indeed can-
not be admitted unless we alter and restrict the meaning of the word acid more
than has hitherto been done. His experiments on respiration and perspiration
not having been completed, we cannot judge of them with propriety. They
certainly possess considerable merit, though the methods employed were neither
the best nor the simplest that might have been thought of.
All the papers of Lavoisier, written on chemical subjects, were published in
the Memoires of the French Academy, except his first volumes of essays above-
mentioned. In the year 1789, he published a kind of general view of all that
he had done, under the title of Elements of Chemistry, a work which can
scarcely be praised too highly, whether we consider the arrangement or the
matter. The third part indeed contains the description of various expensive
and useless pieces of machinery; but they were well calculated to impose upon
the ignorant, and thereby to augment the effect which he wanted to produce.
During the horrors of the dictatorship of Robespierre, Lavoisier forsaw that
he should be stripped of his fortune, and informed La Lande (to whom we are
indebted for the only account of him hitherto published) that he intended to
support himself by commencing apothecary. But he was accused of defraud-
ing the public revenue, thrown into prison, and on the 8th of May, 1794, suf-
fered on the scaffold at the age of 51. As a philosopher, Lavoisier must always
rank in the first class; and those who knew him best bestow no less praise on
him as a man.
a man. He was mild, sociable, obliging, and extremely active: his
manners were plain and unaffected: he was the patron of men of science, and
equally attentive to the wants of the poor.
Mr. Lavoisier's particular opinions began to attract attention as early as the
year 1780, and some of the older French chemists took umbrage at his threaten-
ing to overturn the doctrine of phlogiston. Macquer in particular, who had
acquired considerable celebrity, chiefly by the elegance of his writings, declared
СНАР. 1.]
481
CHEMISTRY.
that if Mr. Lavoisier were to succeed in his plans he would rather renounce the
science altogether than adopt the new opinions. Indeed the objections to the
Lavoiserian theory were so striking and important, that no person, even in
France, far less in any other country of Europe, was disposed to embrace it.
But Mr. Cavendish's two great discoveries, of the constituents of water and
nitrous acid, enabled Mr. Lavoisier to answer all the objections brought against
him in the most triumphant manner. In these answers he was assisted by De la
Place, and nothing that Lavoisier ever did is more admirable than the acuteness
and ingenuity which he displayed on this occasion. At last, at a meeting of
the Academy in 1785, Berthollet, who, after Lavoisier, was the most celebrated Berthollet.
chemist in France, induced partly by the force of Mr. Lavoisier's arguments,
and partly by his own experiments on orymuriatic acid, renounced the doctrine
of phlogiston, and declared himself a convert to the Lavoiserian theory. Four- Foreroy,
croy, at that time Professor of Chemistry at the King's Garden in Paris, and
who, by his activity and the elegance of his manner as a lecturer, had also ob-
tained a high reputation, followed the example of Berthollet, and united him-
self with Lavoisier. Guyton Morveau, who at that time resided in Dijon, and Morveau.
was the editor of the chemical part of the Encyclopedie Methodique, and pos-
sessed likewise of considerable celebrity, was prevailed upon, during a visit
which he made to Paris in 1787, to follow the example of these celebrated men,
and declare himself a convert to the Lavoiserian doctrines.
clature.
Lavoisier, who was not less of a politician than a philosopher, and who
aspired to the honour of being the founder of a new theory which should bear
his name, and alter the whole face of the science, resolved to spare no labour
nor expence to accomplish his objects. Three Herculean labours were under-
taken at the same time, all of them well calculated to attain the object in view,
and all of them accomplished with consummate skill and address. 1. The New nomen-
language of chemistry was far from precise; it had been formed at different
times, by different persons, and from different motives. But as most of the terms
had been contrived by persons under the influence of the Stahlian theory, they
were ill adapted to express the Lavoiserian opinions, and opposed nearly an in-
surmountable bar to their ever being generally received by the chemical world.
Fortunately the defects of the nomenclature were universally felt, and attempts
had been already made by various chemists, as for example by Bergman and
Morveau, to contrive a new one better adapted to the state of the science.
Lavoisier, pointing out the deplorable state of the nomenclature, proposed to
fabricate a new one better adapted for his purpose, and for his opinions.
To construct this nomenclature, he associated with himself Berthollet, Four-
croy, and Morveau, the new converts to his opinions. They accordingly con-
trived a new nomenclature, founded entirely on the Lavoiserian theory, which
was published in 1787, under the title of the New French Chemical Nomen-
Q
482
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
-The Annales
de Chimie.
clature; a title which, by pleasing the vanity of the French Nation, and giving
them importance in their own eyes, contributed more than any thing to spread
the Lavoiserian opinions, or, as they delighted to call them, the new French
theory, through the whole kingdom of France. This new chemical nomen-
clature was undoubtedly possessed of great merit, and adapted with the utmost
sagacity to the state of the science in the year 1787; and if the science had
stopped short in that state, it might have been considered as unexceptionable.
But as this nomenclature was of necessity adapted only to the opinions enter-
tained in 1787, as the science at that period was only in an infant state, as many
of the opinions entertained by Lavoisier and his associates must have been im-
perfect, or even erroneous, and as new facts must be perpetually occurring, for
which no systematic nomenclature can provide, it is obvious that every con-
trivance of the sort must be imperfect, and that its imperfections must become
more and more conspicuous as the science advances. This has been the fate of
the French nomenclature. It is already exceedingly ill adapted for expressing
the present state of the science, and its imperfections must of necessity become
more glaring every day. So that in no great number of years it will be abso-
lutely necessary either to discard it entirely, or to alter it altogether. Indeed,
the establishment of a new nomenclature in any science ought to be considered
as high treason against our ancestors, as it is nothing less than an attempt to
render their writings unintelligible, to annihilate their discoveries, and to claim
the whole as our own property.
2. Though the new nomenclature was thus contrived and published, a much
more difficult task remained; namely, to prevail upon the chemical world to
embrace it, and discard the old and familiar terms. Even in France it was
opposed by different individuals, all of them keen, and some of them possessed
of celebrity, while in the other nations of Europe the prejudice against it might
be considered as strong, if not invincible. The method fallen upon by Lavoi-
sier and his associates, to overcome this difficulty, was exceedingly ingenious,
and well calculated to answer the purpose. A journal was established, pub-
lished once a month, and edited by the united body of the French Antiphlo-
gistic Chemists, as they termed themselves. This journal contained all the
chemical papers which they published, and notices respecting almost all the
writings of importance which appeared on the subject in every country in
Europe, and the new nomenclature only was employed. This obliged all the
French chemists at least to make themselves acquainted with the new nomen-
clature, as it was by means of this journal,, the Annales de Chimie, that they
got acquainted with the improvements in the science. The celebrity of the
editors, and the valuable matter which the journal contained, secured it the
attention of all chemists in every country in Europe. So that in a short space
of time the new nomenclature became generally known and understood over the
1
CHAP. I.]
183
CHEMISTRY.
whole civilized world. If to this we add the fervour of the French Revolution,
and the violent passion for innovation which at that time seized not only
France, but every country of Europe, so that even England herself, notwith-
standing the excellence of her government, and the steady attachment to old
customs and opinions which characterize her people, was in danger of being
involved in the vortex of revolution, we shall not be surprized that the
new nomenclature made its way so speedily through every country in Eu-
rope, which at any other period of history would have been difficult, if not
impossible.
phlogiston.
3. The third- means which Lavoisier had recourse to in order to establish his
theory, was not less efficacious than the preceding, while it was highly neces-
sary for the speedy propagation of his opinions. Mr. Kirwan had acquired a Kirwan.
high and merited reputation by his essays on affinity, on sulphureted hydrogen,
on the constituents of the salts, and the strength of acids, and by his system
of mineralogy. He published an elaborate defence of the doctrine of phlogiston, His defence of
founded almost entirely on the experiments of the German chemists, and on
those of Dr. Priestley. His object was to prove that all combustible substances
contain a common inflammable principle, and this inflammable principle he
conceived to be hydrogen. According to this doctrine, hydrogen is a consti-
tuent of charcoal, sulphur, phosphorus, and of all the metals, and during com-
bustion it separates from these bodies, and enters into new combinations. This
modification of the phlogistic theory was favourably received by the most emi-
nent chemists in Europe, and there seems to have been a general tendency in
Britain, Germany, and Sweden, to adopt it. It occurred to Mr. Lavoisier and
his associates, that a satisfactory refutation of this theory, associated as it was
with the greatest names in Europe, would be a death blow to the doctrine of
phlogiston, and would give an eclat to the French theory, as they were fond of
calling it, which would render it invincible.
Accordingly, Mr. Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston was translated into French, Refuted.
and the different sections parcelled out among the apostles of the new system,
that they might write a refutation of each. Lavoisier took charge of four sec-
tions, Berthollet of three, Fourcroy of three, Morveau of two, and Monge of
onc. The book was then published with a refutation at the end of each section.
The effect was precisely what might have been expected. The experiments of
the French chemists appeared so accurate, their reasoning so precise, and their
refutation so complete, that Mr. Kirwan himself, with that candour which dis-
tinguishes superior minds, acknowledged himself overcome, and embraced the
doctrine of his adversaries.
mists relin-
This victory drove all the British chemists out of the field. Dr. Black had British Che-
been long inactive as an experimenter; but he adopted the theory of Lavoisier, quish the study.
and taught it in his lectures. Dr. Priestley still continued to adhere to his old
3 Q 2
484
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
New British
chemists.
opinions, and to write in support of them; but he was obliged to leave the
country with diminished reputation and diminished activity. Mr. Cavendish
had published a vindication of the phlogistic theory, which it was impossible to
refute, and which the French chemists were wise enough not to notice. He
had even written an essay against the French Nomenclature, which he was pre-
vailed upon not to publish. But finding the current setting in strongly in
favour of the Lavoiserian theory, he relinquished the study of chemistry alto-
gether, and betook himself to his old pursuits, connected with mathematics
and mechanical philosophy. For some years Britain contained scarcely an
active chemist, except Dr. Crawford, whose celebrity depended upon another
branch of the science; and Dr. Austin, who trode nearly in the footsteps.
of the French chemists. All our information was drawn from France. The
very books, by means of which the elements of the science were acquired, were
all translations from that language.
By degrees, however, a new race of chemists arose, founded at first, as one
may say, on the French School, and moulded after their model. Dr. Pearson
led the way by his translation of the French Nomenclature, and by the various
valuable papers which he published in the Philosophical Transactions. By de-
grees the reverence, almost approaching to absurdity, which was paid to the
French School, wore off, and the natural genius and invention of British Phi-
losophers began to appear. It would be scarcely consistent with propriety to
particularize the discoveries which have been the result of this happy revolution,
and which have restored Great Britain to the first rank among the improvers of
chemistry which she formerly held, as the celebrated men to whom we are in-
debted for them are still alive, and actively engaged in extending the bounds of
the science. But we may mention that three distinct schools, (if we may use
the expression) have been established by three gentlemen, certainly not the
least celebrated among British chemists. These are, Dr. Wollaston, who pos-
sesses an uncommon neatness of hand, and who has invented a very ingenious
method of determining the properties and constituents of very minute quantities
of matter. This is attended with several great advantages; it requires but little
apparatus, and therefore the experiments may be performed in almost any situa-
tion; it saves a great deal of time and a great deal of expence; while the nu-
merous discoveries made by Dr. Wollaston demonstrate the precision of which
his method is susceptible. The second of these schools has been established by
Mr. Davy, whose galvanic discoveries and analyses of the alkalies have con-
stituted a new era in the science, and furnished us with a totally new method
of experimenting. Mr. Davy is the most active as well as celebrated chemist
in Great Britain, and many more discoveries may be expected from him. The
third school has been established by Mr. Dalton, who has not yet obtained that
degree of celebrity in this country to which he is entitled, and which he will
5
CHAP. I.]
485
CHEMISTRY.
infallibly acquire. His atomic theory is one of the greatest steps that the science
has hitherto made; and it appears to be established by the most indisputable
evidence. We could with much pleasure to ourselves, and with advantage to
the science, descant upon the discoveries and the ingenuity of Mr. Tennant,
Dr. Henry, Mr. Hatchett, Mr. Smithson, Mr. Gregor, Mr. Brande, Mr. How-
ard, Dr Marcet, &c. all of them Members of the Royal Society, and active
and successful chemists, were we not withheld by a regard to our limits, and by
the impropriety of discussing the merits of living philosophers.
ever.
mists.
The German chemists did not yield with the same facility as the British. German che-
They considered the credit of their country as in some measure connected with
the Stahlian theory, and therefore defended it with much obstinacy. And
when they were beat out of their strong holds, they invented new theories, or
new modifications of the old, which they defended with as much pertinacity as
But the champions of phlogiston in Germany were not equal in abilities.
to their French opponents. Wiglieb was a laborious, but seems to have been
a weak man. His experiments cannot be implicitly relied on. Gren possessed
greater abilities, but he was always occupied with so many things at the same
time, that he never had leisure to prosecute his ideas. Klaproth, the most emi-
nent of the German chemists, never engaged in the controversy. About the
year 1791, he repeated the fundamental experiments before the Berlin Academy,
and adopted in consequence the theory of Lavoisier. Since the ardour of the
controversy has been at an end in Germany, a new race of chemists has arisen
in the North of Germany, who have been of the greatest service to the science,
and have contributed a multitude of laborious and difficult experiments. The
chief of these, after Klaproth, who still holds the first place, are Bucholz,
whose analyses are remarkably correct; Richter and Rose, both lately dead;
Gehlen, Trommsdorf, and John. But the French invasion of Prussia, and the
introduction of the French system of police, has had a most deleterious effect
upon the state of science in the North of Germany.
mists.
In Sweden, the death of Bergman and Scheele, which happened about the Swedish che-
time of the introduction of the Lavoiserian theory into the science, produced a
kind of interregnum in chemistry; and the chemists, who afterwards appeared,
seem to have early embraced the Antiphlogistic Creed. The chief of them were
Hielm, Gadolin, Ekeberg, and, above all, Berzelius, who has distinguished him-
self eminently in both the departments which have been embraced by Davy and
Dalton.
mista.
The horrors of the dictatorship of Robespierre at first scattered the French French che-
chemists, and filled them with terror and dismay. But after his death, they
again collected and resumed their labours, and, except Lavoisier and Vander-
monde, who was rather a mathematician than a chemist, their number was still
complete. Since that period several new chemists of first rate abilities, and
486
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
who have acquired high and deserved reputations, have been added to their
number. Since Lavoisier's death they have not paid much attention to theory,
but endeavoured, by new experiments, to enlarge the bounds of the science;
and render those parts already known more complete: except Berthollet, whose
acute genius has always given him a tendency to theory. One of his most
valuable papers, in a theoretic point of view, is his essay on sulphureted hydro-
gen, and his account of the hydrosulphurets. His work on chemical affinity
possesses great merit; though he has perhaps carried some of his doctrines
rather too far, especially his opinions respecting carbonic oxide, and the inde-
finite proportions in which bodies may combine. Even his fundamental doc-
trine respecting the non-existence of elective attraction has been called in
question, and the experiments, by means of which he overturned it, have been
repeated by Mr. Davy, as he informed me himself, without success. Thenard
also, and Gay Lussac, have dipped pretty deep into theory, and have followed
the routes laid open by Davy and by Dalton, with much ingenuity and success.
Their late work would have done them more credit if they had been less anxious
to show their priority to Davy in minute particulars of no great consequence,
and to point out trifling mistakes into which first discoverers are almost always
sure to fall. One of the most active and illustrious of all the French chemists
is Vauquelin. He has never speculated upon any theoretical subject whatever,
but devoted himself to mineral, vegetable, and animal analyses; the number of
of which, published by him, is prodigious, and his accuracy as an experimenter
has never been surpassed. It would be easy to dwell upon the merits of a good
many other French chemists; but the same reasons that induced us to be silent
respecting living British chemists, equally forbid us to touch upon those in
France.
The chemical papers in the Philosophical Transactions, down to the end of
Transactions, the year 1800, amount to 406. But of these there are no fewer than 118,
occurring chiefly in the earlier volumes, that may be passed over as useless or
trifling. Of the 288 papers that remain, it will be impossible to give either a
particular, or a full account. The following observations are all that we can
with propriety venture upon. The papers are of so miscellaneous a nature as
to be hardly susceptible of arrangement. However, as every arrangement, even
though imperfect, is better than none at all, we shall venture to throw the
papers under the following heads.
Damps.
I. GASSES. The papers on this subject in the Philosophical Transactions are
curious in an historical point of view. We see the first rude notions on these
bodies gradually improving, till this branch of the science acquired the per-
fection and the beauty which it has now reached. The papers on the subject in
the Transactions amount to about 30. We shall merely state the object of the
chief of them. What are called damps, in coal-pits and other mines, are now
CHAP. I.]
487
CHEMISTRY.
known to be various species of gases, chiefly carbureted hydrogen, and carbonic
acid. We have various papers on them in the early volumes of the Transactions,
by Mr. Jessop and Mr. Beaumont. There are four kinds of damps in mines,
Mr. Jessop says, namely, 1. The common (obviously carbonic acid gas.) 2. The
peas blossom, so called from its smell, and concerning the nature of which no-
thing accurate is known. 3. The bag; this is described as a visible round ball,
hanging at the top of the mine, which if it be broken, disperses itself and suffo-
cates all the miners. We know nothing about its nature. 4. The fire damp,
which has been examined repeatedly from coal-pits, and found to be carbureted
hydrogen.* We have some curioust and rather important experiments on air,
by Mr. Boyle, and by Huygens and Papin. Among other facts, Huygens and
Papin found that air, produced by the combustion of gunpowder, amounted to
4th of the weight of the powder.‡ Hauksbee afterwards made some experiments
on this subject, the result of which was, that one grain weight of gun-
powder yielded one cubic inch of air, ths of which was slowly imbibed by
water.&
Mr. Hauksbee made a curious set of experiments on the change produced
upon air, by passing it through red hot iron and brass. He found that it was
incapable of supporting the lives of animals plunged in it. The reason was, that
he had deprived it of its oxygen, and converted it into azote. Brass heated to
212° produced no change upon air.||
Mr. Greenwood, Professor of Mathematics, at Cambridge, in New England,
gives some striking proofs of the fatal effects of damp (carbonic acid gas) upon
the lives of persons exposed to it. Sir James Lowther, in the year 1733, col-
lected the fire damp (carbureted hydrogen) from a coal-mine, in bladders, and
set it on fire for the amusement of his friends.** He even brought bladders
filled with it to London, and exhibited the combustion before the Royal
Society. This induced Mr. John Maud to collect the hydrogen gas, which Hydrogen gas-
escapes during the solution of iron filings in diluted sulphuric acid, and exhibit
its combustion in like manner before the Society. This experiment deserves
attention, as being probably the first attempt ever made in England, to make
experiments upon pure hydrogen gas.++ The same year Mr. Clayton, in imi-
tation of Sir John Lowther, collected the gas which is produced during the
distillation of pit-coal, and showed its combustibility. This is considered at
* Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. X. p. 391 and 450..
‡ Phil. Trans. 1675. Vol. X. p. 467, 533, 514.
+ Phil. Collect. No. I. p. 6.
§ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 1806, 1807; and 1707. Vol. XXV. p. 2409.
Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 199.
** Phil. Trans. 1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 109.
.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1729. Vol. XXXVI. p. 184. -
++ Phil. Trans. 1736. Vol. XXXIX. p. 282.
483
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
present as chiefly consisting of carbureted hydrogen, and is employed for light-
ing manufactories under the name of gas lights.*
The experiments of Dr. Hales had by this time laid open a vast field to ex-
perimental philosophers, respecting the air contained in different bodies. Dr.
Brownrig seems to have been one of the first who availed himself of these new
views to explain several phenomena hitherto unaccounted for. He demonstrated
that Spa water contains half its bulk of an air in which animals cannot live :
the same, he thinks, as choak damp. His experiments and observations were of
considerable importance, though they vanish into nothing when compared with
the experiments which Mr. Cavendish soon after communicated, on hydrogen
Carbonic acid gas and carbonic acid. He ascertained the specific gravity and combustibility
of the first, and determined the quantity yielded during the solution of different
metals in acid. He likewise ascertained the specific gravity of the second, and
its absorbability by water. He determined the gas, produced during fermenta-
tion, to be carbonic acid; while putrefaction he found to evolve an inflammable
gas. The investigation of the properties of carbonic acid, thus begun, could
not stop here. Mr. Lane showed, that when in solution in water, it has the
property of dissolving iron, and concluded that chalybeats commonly consist of
this solution; an opinion fully verified by succeeding observations.§
gus.
+
The unhealthy effects produced by marshes, especially in warm climates,
have been long known, and many attempts were made by physicians to account
for the fact. Dr. Priestley threw some light upon the subject, by showing that
putrid water rapidly absorbs the oxygen of the atmosphere.||
Fontana gives us a valuable set of trials upon the breathing of hydrogen gas,
and shows, that when diluted with common air, it occasions no inconvenience;
but when perfectly pure it cannot be breathed without occasioning death. I
Dr. Ingenhousz, who resided for some years in London, was the contriver of
a variety of curious experiments, both electrical and chemical, rather calculated
to amuse, than to improve the science. He shows that ether speedily is con-
verted into an elastic fluid; that when a drop of it is let into a tube filled with
common air, or with oxygen gas, the mixture explodes with great violence
when brought in contact with a burning body. He even attempts, on this ex-
periment, to found a theory of gunpowder; but his effort was not attended with
success.*
**
Fontana examined airs extracted from different kinds of water. They con-
* Phil. Trans. 1739. Vol. XLI. p. 59.
Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. p. 141.
Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 90.
** Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 376.
+ Phil. Trans. 1765. Vol. LV. p. 218.
§ Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 216.
q Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 337.
CHAP. I.J
489
CHEMISTRY.
sisted partly of carbonic acid, and partly of air having a greater proportion of
oxygen gas than common air. He shows that the atmospherical air is but little
variable in the proportion of its constituents.* Dr. Ingenhousz, on the other
hand, endeavoured to prove that the air over the sea contained more oxygen
than the air over the land; but his conclusions were deduced from faulty expe-
riments. To this philosopher we are indebted for another curious and impor-
tant remark. He found that the conferva rivularis, when put into boiled water
and exposed to the action of the solar rays, gave out oxygen gas‡
When nitrous gas and common air are mixed, they become reddish yellow,
and diminish in bulk if the experiment be made over water. The diminution
is much greater if nitrous gas and oxygen gas be mixed together. It bears
some relation to the proportion of oxygen in the air examined, always being
greater as it increases. This was first observed by Dr. Priestley, and employed
by him under the name of eudiometer, as a means of determining the purity of audiometer.
air. Priestley's method was adopted by Fontana, Ingenhousz, and by chemists
in general. But there was a striking want of correspondence in the results ob-
tained, indicating a defect in the methods employed. This induced Mr. Caven-
dish to make a very exact set of experiments on the subject. He pointed out
the method of making the observations in such a way as to obtain uniform re-
sults, and determined atmospherical air to be a compound of very nearly 21
measures of oxygen gas, and 79 of azotic gas. §
Dr. Darwin demonstrated, by a set of experiments, that whenever air ex-
pands, its temperature sinks. This subject is now very well understood. The
diminution of temperature is owing to the increased capacity of air for heat,
which keeps pace with the expansion.
Mr. Milner made a curious set of experiments on the effect of passing nitric
acid and nitrous gas through red hot iron. It was decomposed, and when the
process was conducted slowly, nothing was obtained but azotic gas. When
nitrous oxyde gas was passed in this manner, he observed symptoms of the for-
mation of ammonia. This led him to attempt to reverse the experiment, and
to try to produce nitrous gas by passing ammonia through red hot black oxide
of manganese. The experiment was attended with the wished for success. He
obtained nitrous gas likewise by passing ammonia through red hot calcined
green sulphate of iron. But he could not succeed with red lead, or with alum.¶
It is said that advantage of this experiment was taken by the French chemists,
during the fervour of the revolution, to procure nitric acid for the manufacture
of gunpowder. But the story does not seem entitled to much credit.
Mr. Smithson Tennant was the first person that succeeded in decomposing
* Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 433.
Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 426.
Phil. Traps. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 43.
+ Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX.
p. 354.
₫ Phil. Trans. 1783. Vol. LXXIII. p. 106.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1789. Vol. LXXIX.
p. 300,
3 R
490
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
New sub-
stances.
carbonic acid, and separating charcoal from it. Ilis method was to pass phos-
phorus through red hot marble. A black powder was obtained consisting chiefly
of a mixture of phosphate of lime and charcoal.* These experiments were
confirmed by Dr. Pearson, who, by similar processes, decomposed carbonate of
potash, of soda, of lime, of barytes, and of magnesia, and obtained charcoal
from them all. Dr. Pearson's paper is remarkable for containing the first ac-
count of phosphuret of lime, and of its singular properties. He was the dis-
coverer of this substance.+
To Dr. Pearson likewise we are indebted for a set of accurate experiments on
the nature of the gases obtained by passing electric shocks through water. The
experiments were made with the assistance of Mr. Cuthbertson; the gases were
found to be pure oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of two measures of
the latter to one of the former. These experiments confirmed Mr. Cavendish's
discovery of the composition of water. ‡
+
The last paper we have to mention on this subject is a very valuable one by
Dr. Henry, of Manchester, accounting for the expansion of carbureted hydro-
gen gas by electricity, observed by Dr. Austin. This expansion is owing to the
decomposition of the water held in solution by the gas, the oxygen of which
unites to the carbon of the inflammable gas, and forms carbonic acid, while the
hydrogen assumes the elastic form, and occasions the great expansion.§
II. NEW SUBSTANCES. The number of chemical substances has been con-
stantly increasing ever since the origin of the science, owing to the increased
analytical and synthetical skill of practical chemists. A great many of these
substances were originally described in papers published in the Philosophical
Transactions. We shall give a catalogue of the most important of them.
1. Formic acid first observed by Mr. Hulse and Dr. Fisher, in 1671. Phil.
Trans. Vol. V. p. 2063.
2. Baldwin's phosphorus (nitrate of lime heated) presented by him to King
Charles II. in 1677. Phil. Trans. Vol. XI. p. 788.
3. A catalogue of shining substances is given. They are Baldwin's phos-
phorus, Bolonian stone,|| (sulphate of barytes) phosphorus smaragdinus, (fluor
spar) and common phosphorus. Phil. Trans. 1677. Vol. XII. p. 867.
4. Dr. Slare makes a set of experiments on common phosphorus, observes its
combustibility, the acid formed, and the orange residue left behind. Phil.
Collect. No. III. p. 48; No. IV. p. 84; and Phil. Trans. 1683. Vol. XIII.
p. 289.
串
​5. Mr. Boyle left his method of preparing phosphorus sealed up with the
* Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 182,
Phil. Trans. 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 142,
See Phil. Collect. No. III. p. 77.
† Phil. Trans. 1792. Vol. LXXXII. p. 289.
Phil. Trans. 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 401.
C?
CHAP. I.]
491
CHEMISTRY.
Royal Society in 1680. It was opened after his death, and published in 1693.
It is as follows. Evaporate human urine to dryness, mix the residue with thrice
its weight of sand, and distill with an intense heat. Phil. Trans. Vol. XVII.
p. 583.
6. Grew describes the properties of sulphate of magnesia,
be peculiar, and that its base is neither lime nor an alkali.
Vol. XIX. p. 76.
proves its nature to
Phil. Trans. 1695.
7. Brown describes the method of obtaining sulphate of magnesia from sea
water, and mentions muriate of magnesia, describing several of its properties.
Phil. Trans. 1723. Vol. XXXII. p. 348.
8. The method of making Prussian blue, described by Dr. Woodward. Mr.
Brown shows that iron is a necessary ingredient, and describes the colour given
by prussiate of potash to other metallic solutions. Phil. Traus. 1724, Vol.
XXXIII. pp. 15, 17.
9. Newman first ascertained the properties of camphor. He obtained a cam-
phor from oil of thyme, which Mr. Brown showed to differ in its properties
from oriental camphor. Phil. Trans. 1725. Vol. XXXIII. pp. 321, 361; and
1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 202.
10. Frobenius, in an absurd, pompous paper, describes the properties of sul-
phuric ether; the combustion of phosphorus, and the properties of its acid.
Phil. Trans. 1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 283; and 1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 55.
11. Boerhaave converted mercury into black oxide by exposing it for some
months to the temperature of 180°. He likewise formed it by agitating the
mercury. In a stronger heat he obtained red oxide. Phil. Trans. 1733. Vol.
XXXVIII. p. 145; and 1736. Vol. XXXIX. p. 343.
12. Geoffroy describes the method of obtaining Seignette's salt and boracic
acid, by mixing borax and sulphuric acid. Of this last process he was the in-
Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX. p. 37.
ventor.
13. Frobenius's process for making ether described. It is nearly the com-
mon process. Phil. Trans. 1741. Vol. XLI. p. 864.
14. Seehl gives two processes for procuring sulphurous acid, by distilling a
mixture of sulphuret of potash and sulphuric acid. The product should con-
tain sulphureted hydrogen. Phil. Trans. 1744. Vol. XLIII. p. 1.
15. The first account of platina by Ch. Wood, Brownrig, and Watson.
Phil. Trans. 1750. Vol. XLVI. p. 584.
16. Dr. Lewis published two admirable papers on platina, in which he de-
monstrates it to be a peculiar metal, and determines its properties. Phil. Trans.
1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 638; and 1757. Vol. L. p. 148.
In
17. Dr. Heberden found carbonate of soda on the Peake of Teneriffe.
this paper soda and potash are distinguished from each other, and a set of ex-
།
3 R2
492
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Apparatus.
periments by Mr. Cavendish is given showing that potash has a stronger affinity
than soda for the three mineral acids. Phil. Trans. 1765. Vol. LV. p. 57.
18. Dr. Monro, in an elaborate paper on the subject, demonstrated, that
there are different species of vegetable acids; and that the acids of amber and
benzoin differ from all the rest, and possess peculiar properties. Phil. Trans.
1767. Vol. LVII. p. 479.
19. Lord Glenbervie describes the properties of the blue substance found in
peat mosses (phosphate of iron.) Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 181.
20. Canton's pyrophorus is described. It consists of calcined oyster-shells
and flowers of sulphur mixed, and heated to redness in a crucible. Ibid. p. 337.
21. Fontana gives an account of the poison of the viper, and the vegetable
poison called tacunas. They are similar in their action, kill when mixed with
the blood, but not when applied to the nerves. They prevent the blood from
coagulating. They kill also when swallowed in considerable quantity. Lauro-
cerasus water kills instantly when swallowed; but not when mixed with the
blood, or applied to the nerves. Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 163.
22. Swediauer proves that ambergris is the hardened excrement of a species
of whale. Phil. Trans. 1783. Vol. LXXIII. p. 226.
23. Wedgewood shows that blackwad, a mineral that takes fire when mixed
with linseed oil, is a mixture of oxides of iron and manganese. Ibid. p. 284.
24. Dr. Pearson gives us a curious set of experiments on white lac, and on
an acid which it contains, and to which he has given the name of laccic acid.
Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 383.
ser.
25. The properties of strontian, then newly discovered, are given by Schmeis-
Phil. Trans. 1794. Vol. LXXXIV. p. 418.
26. Mr. Tennant ascertained the existence of a kind of limestone, composed
of carbonates of lime and of magnesia united. Dolomite is a limestone of this
kind. He showed that this lime when used in considerable quantities is injuri-
ous to vegetation, because the magnesia does not absorb carbonic acid, and con-
tinues to act upon the plants. The walls and cathedral of York are built with
this limestone. Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 305.
27. Mr. Howard describes the properties of a new fulminating mercury,
which he discovered by dissolving a little mercury in a considerable portion of
nitric acid, and pouring the solution into alcohol. It possesses some very singu-
lar properties. Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. XC. p. 204.
III. APPARATUS. Under this head we do not mean to notice slight improve-
ments in chemical apparatus; but only the introduction of new and important
instruments, or new methods. This will reduce the number of papers to a very
few. The following are the chief:
1. The common mercurial thermometer is incapable of measuring heats
CHAP. I.]
493
CHEMISTRY,
higher than the boiling point of mercury; which renders it useless for a great
variety of chemical purposes. This has turned the attention of philosophers to
the contrivance of instruments capable of measuring the fusing points of the
different metals, and other high temperatures. The expansion which rods of
metal undergo when exposed to heat is one of the simplest methods, and there-
fore was first had recourse to. Dr. Mortimer describes a thermometer of this
kind made in the year 1734 by Mr. Jackson, and gives us an engraving of it,
and the fusing point of some of the metals, as antimony, tin, and lead.* But
this instrument, which was made of a bar of iron, never came into general use.
Indeed the ease with which iron is altered by heat would soon make it quite use-
less. Morveau has lately made a similar instrument, but substituted platinum
for iron.
2. It has always been an object of some consequence to get thermometers so
contrived as to indicate the greatest heat or cold which has taken place during
the observer's absence. Lord Charles Cavendish contrived several such instru-
ments;† but as more convenient ones have been invented since, it is unnecessary
to give an account of his Lordship's inventions here.
3. One of the most valuable improvements in chemical apparatus, which has
taken place in modern times, is the union of a number of receivers commu-
nicating with each other, known by the name of Woulfe's apparatus. An
account of this apparatus is given by the inventor himself in the Philosophical
Transactions. It has since been improved in various ways, especially by con-
necting it with a pneumatic trough, by which means the gaseous products are
observed and collected.
4. Dr. Nooth's apparatus for impregnating water with carbonic acid deserves
to be mentioned on account of its ingenuity, though it has been entirely
superseded by other contrivances, which answer the purpose much better.
5. No precise method being followed by workmen for graduating thermome-
ters, it was found that they often differed from each other several degrees. To
prevent this Mr. Cavendish suggested the propriety of appointing a committee
of the Royal Society, to consider the best means of graduating these important
instruments correctly. Accordingly Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Heberden, Mr. Au-
bert, Mr. Deluc, Dr. Maskelyne, Dr. Horsley, and Mr. Planta, were appoint-
ed a committee for that purpose. After considering the subject thoroughly,
they published a most excellent report, giving specific directions for the proper
graduation of thermometers. This report is not susceptible of abridgement.
But deserves to be studied carefully by all thermometer makers, and by all those
who use these instruments.||
* Phil Trans. 1747. Vol. XLIV. p. 484.
Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 517.
Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 816,
† Phil. Trans. 1757. Vol. L. p. 300.
Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 59.
494
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Maydew.
Juices of
plants.
6. Mr. Wedgewood, by a happy application of clay pieces baked with pecu-
liar care, simply in a red heat, contrived a pyrometer which measured high de-
grees of heat in such a manner that the result of different trials could be com-
pared together. The clay pieces contracted according to the heat, and the
degree of contraction was measured by dipping the pieces between two brass
rules graduated, and inclining towards each other. We have no less than three
papers on this important subject by Mr. Wedgewood in the Transactions.*
Since his death the instrument unfortunately has been laid aside. The pieces
manufactured by his sons were found not to agree with each other. This in-
duced them to give over manufacturing them. And though various attempts
have been made by other persons to imitate the process of Wedgewood, no one
has hitherto succeeded. Sir James Hall has been occupied with the subject for
several years, and from his perseverance and sagacity we have every reason to
look for the happiest results.
7. The last instrument we shall mention is a bottle contrived by Schmeisser,
for the purpose of taking the specific gravity of liquids. It does not appear
to be so convenient as a simple glass bottle with a glass stopper ground to it, and
perforated with a small hole.
IV. ANALYSES. These are so numerous that we cannot specify them all.
Some of the oldest attempts of that kind, being the most curious in a historical
point of view, deserve to be mentioned.
1. What in this country is called maydew, is a sweet excrementitious sub-
stance from the Aphides, insects which in such great numbers haunt the leaves
of trees. Mr. Henshaw from a quantity of this substance extracted a salt, which
he says had the shape of rock petre, by which probably he means common salt.‡
2. Beccher extracted iron from clay, by heating it with linseed oil. This
was considered at the time as a demonstration of the transmutation of one
substance into another.§
3. Mr. Boyle first pointed out the method of detecting the presence of com-
mon salt in water by means of nitrate of silver.
4. Dr. Lister published a long paper in an early volume of the Transactions,
containing some curious and important observations on the constituents of the
juices of plants. Among other things it contains a minute description of the
method of making bird-lime from the bark of the holly. I
5. Redi gives a valuable table of the ashes and salts obtained from various
vegetables by combustion.**
* Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 305; and 1784. Vol. LXXIV. p. 358; and 1786. Vol.
LXXVI. p. 390.
+ Phil. Trans. 1793. Vol. LXXXIII. p. 164.
§ Phil. Trans. 1671. Vol. VI. p. 2231.
ག
Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 365.
Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. p. 36.
|| Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 627.
** Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 281.
CHAP. I.]
495
CHEMISTRY.
6. Dr. Slare endeavours to prove that the waters of Spa and Pyrmont contain
no acid. It is needless to say that his arguments are wholly inadequate to prove
his position.*
7. We have a curious paper by Dr. Hales on the constituents of various
purging waters near London, obtained by evaporation. Though it is far from
being an exact analysis of these waters, yet the paper possesses value, and is
greatly superior to any of the efforts that had preceded it.†
8. Dr. Rutty gives an account of the waters of Amlwck, in the Isle of An-
glesey, and of Hartfell Spa, at Moffat, and of several other waters, containing
sulphate of iron.‡
9. But the first accurate analysis of a mineral water, which occurs in the
Philosophical Transactions, is that of Rathbone Place, London, by Mr. Caven-
dish. He found it to contain abundance of carbonates of lime and magnesia,
sulphate of magnesia and common salt. He demonstrated that the carbonates
were kept in solution by an excess of carbonic acid. He found in it also some
ammonia.§
10. Dr. Monro shows that the waters of Castleloed are sulphureous; and
that those of Pitkeathly contain sea salt, muriate of lime, and muriate of
magnesia.||
11. Dr. Fordyce shows, that, in what is called auriferous pyrites, the gold
is in a native state; and that vitreous silver ore is a sulphuret of silver. I
12. Dr. Fordyce proposes to examine copper ores by dissolving them in an
acid, and precipitating the copper by a metal.**
13. Dr. Withering gives us the analysis of two minerals, distinguished in the
North of England by the names of Rowley ragstone, and toadstone, and which
from his description appear to be varieties of greenstone. The Rowley ragstone
was composed of
Silica..
Alumina
47+
324
Oxide of iron.
20
100
The toadstone was composed of
Silica.
.. 63.5
Oxide of iron.
Lime...
Alumina.
. 16.0
7.5
14.8
101.8
*
* Phil. Trans. 1713. Vol. XXVIII. p. 247; and 1717. Vol. XXX.
† Phil. Trans. 1750. Vol. XLVI. p. 416.
§ Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 92.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 527.
p. 564.
Phil. Trans. 1760. Vol. LI. p. 470.
Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII.
p. 15.
** Phil. Trans. 1780. Vol. LXX. p. 30.
496
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
As no analysis of this rock has been made by any modern chemist, we do not
know how far the preceding proportions can be relied upon.
14. By the same chemist we have the first accurate analysis of carbonate of
barytes, of which he was the discoverer, and of sulphate of barytes. The first
he found a compound of
Barytes..
Carbonic acid..
..786
20.8
Sulphate of barytes..... 0.6
100.0
The second of
Barytes...
Sulphuric acid.
..67·2
32.8
100.0
These results agree very nearly with the best and most recent analysis of these
salts.†
15. Elliot shows that common salt decomposes soap of lead in alcohol, but
not in water.‡
16. Hassenfratz shows that sulphureted hydrogen is formed by passing by-
drogen gas over melted sulphur.§
17. Dr. Austin gives some curious examples of the artificial formation of
ammonia, and gives the constituents of that substance, nearly in the same pro-
portion as they had been before determined by Berthollet.||
18. In a subsequent paper Dr. Austin endeavoured to demonstrate that heavy
inflammable air (carbureted hydrogen) is a compound of hydrogen and azote. ¶ I
But his opinion was afterwards overturned by the more accurate experiments of
Dr. Henry of Manchester.
19. Mr. Wedgewood, in an elaborate analysis of a mineral from Sydney Cove,
in New Holland, announced the discovery of a new earth, to which Mr. Kir-
wan afterwards gave the name of Sydneia. Its peculiar character was solubility
in muriatic acid, but in no other acid.** This supposed discovery was after-
wards refuted by the more accurate experiments of Klaproth and Hatchett.
The experiments of Mr. Hatchett could leave no doubt, as they were made
upon a part of the very same specimen which Mr. Wedgewood had received
from Sir Joseph Banks.
* Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. p. 327.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 155.
|| Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 379.
** Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX. p. 306.
+ Phil. Trans. 1784. Vol. LXXIV. p. 293.
§ Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 305.
Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX p. 51.
1
CHAP. I.]
497
CHEMISTRY.
20. Dr. Pearson made a set of experiments on James's powder, and showed
that it was a mixture of phosphate of lime and oxide of antimony; but that the
proportions of these constituents varied considerably in different specimens.*
The subject was afterwards resumed and investigated with much precision, by
Mr. Chenevix.
21. Mr. Smithson made an elaborate set of experiments on the tabasheer, a
concretion obtained from the bamboo. The result of his experiments demon-
strated it to consist chiefly of silica. But there were some differences between
its properties and those of pure silica, which were accounted for by the subse-
quent experiments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, who found it a compound of
silica and potash.
22. Dr. Pearson gives an elaborate set of experiments on wootz, a metal
from Bombay, which he shows to be a species of steel made directly from the
ore, without ever having been in the state of soft iron.t
23. The next paper that requires to be mentioned is a most excellent one by
Mr. Hatchett, on the molybdate of lead; containing not only the analysis of
this curious ore, but a very valuable set of experiments on the molybdic acid
itself. The molybdate of lead he found composed of
Oxide of lead...
Molybdic acid...
Oxide of iron.
Silica..
…..58·40
..38:00
2.08
0.28
98.76
24. Mr. Tennant made a set of curious experiments on the diamond, and
showed it to be composed of pure carbon. These experiments have been con-
firmed by all the subsequent labours of chemists on this difficult but curious
subject.||
25. The next paper which we shall notice is an examination of urinary and
gouty calculi, by Dr. Wollaston. It is by far the most valuable paper which
has hitherto appeared on the subject; not even excepting the very long and
elaborate papers of Fourcroy and Vauquelin. Dr. Wollaston discovered a va-
riety of new ingredients in these bodies. He discovered the presence of phos-
phate of magnesia and ammonia, of oxalate of lime, and calculi composed of
phosphate of lime alone. Gouty concretions he found to consist of urate of
soda. It is quite unaccountable that this important paper was never noticed
by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, though they went over the very same ground.
* Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 317.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 322.
| Phil. Trans. 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 123.
Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 368.
§ Phil. Trans. 1796. Vol. LXXXVI. p. 285.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1797. Vol. LXXXVII. p. 386.
3
S
498
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Processes.
Refining gold
by antimony.
White vitriol.
26. There is a curious paper by Crell, on the analysis of boracic acid. His
method appears very preposterous, and not calculated to attain his object. Yet
the substance which he extracted bears so many analogies to the boracium,
which has been recently ascertained to be the basis of this acid, that it is diffi-
cult to refuse him the honour of having first recognised it. The subject de-
serves to be examined anew. It would even be worth while to repeat his expe-
riments, in order to discover the way in which the oxymuriatic acid acted on
the boracic acid.*
27. The last papers we shall mention are two excellent ones, by Mr. Hatchett,
on the constituents of shells, bones, and zoophites. Shells he found composed
of carbonate of lime and animal matter; crusts, of carbonate of lime, some
phosphate of lime, and an animal matter; bones, of phosphate of lime, a little
carbonate, and animal matter. Some zoophites resembled shells; some crusts,
in their composition; and some, like horns and hoofs, were composed almost
entirely of animal matter, without any interposed salt.†
V. PROCESSES. Under this name we may
we may arrange certain branches of
chemistry, which are treated of in the Transactions considerably in detail. We
shall only give a small number of examples; for it would extend this chapter
to too great a length to mention the whole.
1. Dr. Goddard, who was one of the most eminent chemists in the Royal
Society, at its first institution, made a set of experiments to determine the good-
ness of the method of refining gold by melting it with antimony. The result
was a constant loss of about th of the gold. This method is tedious, and
less profitable than the common process of cupellation, which is always em-
ployed by the moderns to free gold from the baser metals. To free it from
silver, the only method is the process of quartation, or alloying with a consider-
able proportion of silver, and subsequent solution in nitric acid. The pure
gold remains in the state of a fine powder.
2. There is a paper by Dr. Lister, in the Transactions for 1699, in which he
complains of the ignorance of chemists respecting white vitriol. Nothing more
was known, he says, than that it was obtained from a species of lead ore.§
Neuman first showed that this salt contained zinc; and Brandt, some time
after, proved that it was a compound of sulphuric acid and oxide of zinc.|| It
is obtained, not from an ore of lead, but an ore of zinc. Though the ore in
question, blende, is almost always in company with lead ore, and hence doubt-
less arose the mistake.
* Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 56.
+ Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 554; and 1800. Vol. XC. p. 327.
Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 953.
§ Phil. Trans. Vol. XXI. p. 331.
|| Pott published a dissertation on the subject in 1743, in which he points out the constituents of
the salt, and claims the facts stated as a discovery of his own.
CHAP. I.]
490
CHEMISTRY.
3. Dr. Krieg gives us an account of the process for making smalt; a sort of smalt.
blue pigment, employed for painting stone ware, for giving a blue colour to
glass, and other well-known purposes. It is prepared at Schneeberg, in Ger-
many, from an ore of cobalt, which is found in considerable quantity in those
parts. The ore is powdered, and then roasted in a furnace, to drive off the
arsenic and sulphur with which it is mixed. The roasted ore is mixed with
potash and pounded flints, and melted into a blue glass, which is afterwards
reduced to a very fine powder, and sold under the name of smalt.*
4. In the Transactions for 1748, there is a long paper by Dr. Mitchell, on Potash.
the preparation and uses of various kinds of potash. The methods employed
in different countries to obtain this alkali, from the ashes of vegetables, are dis-
tinctly detailed. So that the paper is of some value on that account. It de-
serves to be remarked, that in this paper potash and soda are confounded toge-
ther. Of course the difference between them was unknown in London in the
year 1748.+
5. The Hudson's Bay Indians dye a bright yellow with the roots of helleborus
trifolius; and red, with gallium tinctorium. The leaves of the cascalote tree
dye the finest and most lasting black.‡
6. Mr. Jackson, in a paper of considerable length, gives us the method of Isinglass.
preparing isinglass employed by the Russians. It is now well known to be
only the dried sounds of the sturgeon. Mr. Jackson's name ought not to be
passed over without some notice. He was originally an apothecary, on Tower-
hill, and amassed a large fortune by teaching the London brewers the method
of substituting other and cheaper ingredients for malt and hops in the manufac-
ture of porter. By this unfortunate and wicked practice, he destroyed the
goodness of our national liquor for ever. He afterwards set up as a petty-fogging
justice, in Woolwich; and when his infamous practices became too notorious
he retired to Tottenham, where he persisted in the same trade till the time of his
death in 1801.
7. The method of making ice in India, about the latitude of the tropic of Cancer, Ice.
or a little farther north, is very ingenious. In that country it hardly ever freezes
naturally. They dig pits in the ground about two feet deep, which they line with
dried sugar canes, or Indian corn. On this they place very shallow dishes, made
of unglazed and very porous earthen-ware, and filled with soft water, that has
been boiled. They are deposited in the evening, and, in consequence of the
evaporation from the outside of the dishes, a considerable part of the water is
found frozen next morning. The ice is collected before sun-rise, and rammed
* Phil. Trans. 1704. Vol. XXIV. p. 1753.
Forster. Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 54.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. XLV. p. 541.
§ Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 1.
3 s 2
500
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Red cabbage.
Ink.
Iron..
into a cellar under ground, and lined with straw, where, in consequence of its
own accumulated cold, it freezes into a solid mass.*
8. It is well known to chemists that one of the most delicate tests of the pre-
sence of acid or alkaline substances, is the change of colour produced by thein
upon vegetable blue colours: acids changing them into red, and alkalies to
green. Various colours have been chosen for the purpose, as violets, mallows,
litmus, &c. But these (except litmus, which is not affected by alkalies,) can
only be procured at certain seasons of the year. Mr. Watt, therefore, con-
ferred a benefit on chemists by proposing, as a substitute, the infusion of red
cabbage leaves, which can be procured with great facility in winter, and which
is affected as easily both by acids and alkalies as any vegetable infusion whatever.†
9. From a set of experiments, by Sir Charles Blagden, it appears that the
inks employed in writing, from the 9th century to the present time, were com-
posed of the same ingredients as our present writing ink. Sir Charles suggested
a very ingenious way of restoring colour to those ancient manuscripts which
had become so pale as scarcely to be legible. Touch the writing with a diluted
acid, and then with a solution of prussiate of potash. If any iron remain, the
letters will become of an intense blue colour.t
10. Dr. Beddoes has given us an interesting account of the process of con-
verting cast into malleable iron, by means of the reverberating furnace, now
commonly practised in this country. In about half an hour the metal melted.
It was then stirred by a workman, the flame being let off and on at intervals,
in order to regulate the heat properly. By this stirring, it was gradually
brought into a state like sand. In about an hour the mass began to heave, and
a deep blue flame to cover its surface. And though the flame had been kept off
for some time, the iron manifestly became hotter than it had been before. By
degrees it collected in lumps, the heaving and blue flame ceased, it no longer
stuck to the iron tool employed to stir it. The workman, therefore, considering
the change as accomplished, stopped the process. The iron was taken and
hammered, or rather rolled out into bars.§ The theory of the process of con-
verting cast iron into malleable iron is still imperfect, notwithstanding the labours
of chemists to throw light on the subject. The experiments of Bergman and
of the French chemists prove that cast iron contains charcoal and oxygen.
Now, if these be the only foreign bodies, and if they exist in the proper pro-
portion, the preceding operation admits of an easy explanation. We have only
to conceive that the oxygen and carbon unite, and form carbonic oxide. This
accounts for the heaving of the iron, and for the blue flame upon the surface,
* Barker. Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 252.
Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol LXXVII. p. 451.
↑ Phil. Trans. 1784. Vol. LXXIV. P. 419.
₫ Phil. Trans. 1791. Vol. LXXXI. p. 173..
3.
CHAP. I.J
501
CHEMISTRY.
and for the change from cast iron into malleable iron. But the manufacture of
iron still stands in need of a set of chemical experiments to elucidate it. The
present would be a favourable time to make them. For being in some measure
deprived of Swedish iron, and British iron not being proper for making steel,
some experiments are necessary in order to ascertain the reason of this curious
distinction. I think Dr. Beddoes's experiments leave no doubt that the gas,
extricated from cast iron, is carbonic oxide; and it appears to be extricated at
a very low temperature.*
11. What is called cast steel is nothing else than steel which has undergone
the process of steelification twice over, and has become in consequence more
fusible than common steel. It is employed for making a great variety of cutting
instruments; and when heated to the temperature at which iron welds, it runs
under the hammer like sand. Hence it was considered as incapable of being
welded to soft iron; but Sir Thomas Frankland, upon making the experiment,
found that when iron is heated to a welding heat, and cast steel to a white heat,
they may be readily welded together.†
VI. NEW EXPERIMENTS. Notwithstanding the many chemical papers already
noticed, there remain a great number not susceptible of being reduced under
any one general head, and many of them of great value. It will be impossible
to notice them all, or even the greater number of them. I shall therefore
satisfy myself with pointing out a few of those which seem entitled to the great-
est attention.
1. The methods of producing artificial cold, by the solution of salts in water, Artificial cold.
were first put in practice by Mr. Boyle. He used pounded sal ammoniac, and
usually dissolved about a pound at a time, in four times its weight of water.‡
The subject was carried much farther by Fahrenheit; and a number of curious
experiments, made by him and by Boerhaave, may be seen in the first volume
of Boerhaave's Chemistry. But it is to Mr. Walker, of Oxford, that we are
indebted for the most complete and instructive set of experiments on the subject
hitherto published. He was able, by a judicious combination of freezing mix-
tures, to congeal mercury even in summer.§ To Mr. Cavendish, likewise, we
are indebted for some most important facts respecting the congelation of mer-
cury and the mineral acids. To Sir Charles Blagden we owe some curious
facts respecting the effect of salts to lower the freezing point of water: ¶ aud a
very complete history of the discovery of the congelation of mercury.**
* Phil. Trans. 1792. Vol. LXXXII. p. 257.
Phil. Trans. 1666. Vol. I. p. 255.
† Phil. Trans. 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 296.
₫ Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol LXXVII. p. 282; 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 395; 1789. Vol. LXXIX.
p. 199; 1795. Vol. LXXXV. p. 270.
Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 241; 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 166.
Phil. Trans. 1788. Vol. LXXVIII. p. 277.
** Phil. Trans. 1783. Vol. LXXIII, p. 329,
502
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Light.
Oils inflamed
by nitric acid.
2. The emission of light from luminous bodies has long puzzled philosophers,
The two means of accounting for it have been mentioned in a former part of
this work, under the head of Optics. Some modern authors, who have revived
the Huygenian system, which explains light by the undulations of an elastic
fluid, have affirmed, that the quantity of light emitted depends in all cases
upon the temperature of the luminous body. Not recollecting that many bodies
shine without any sensible elevation of temperature, and that when the tem-
perature is artificially raised, the bodies soon cease to shine. This is the case
with those luminous creatures that inhabit the sea. Fish and wood, likewise,
often become luminous without any increase of temperature. Mr. Boyle made
some experiments which help to explain the shining of those bodies. He found
that they lost their light in vacuo, and recovered it again on the introduction
of air. The subject was afterwards carried much farther by the experiments
of Cantont and Hulme.†
3. Dr. Halley found that water, of about the temperature of 40°, expands
th part when heated to the boiling point: mercury, by the same heat, ex-
pands onlyd part of its bulk: and alcohol, when raised from that tempera-
ture to its own boiling point, expands th of its bulk.§
4. Dr. Slare made a very extensive set of experiments on the effect produced
by nitric acid when poured upon oils. The following were set on fire by it:
Oil of carui seeds.
cloves.
sassafras.
guaiacum.
Oil of box.
Oil of hartshorn.
camphor.
Jamaica pepper.
cinnamon.
man's scull.
hoofs.
human blood.
The following occasioned a violent effervescence, but without any visible
combustion.
Oil of cummin.
fennel.
Oil of wormwood.
angelica.
hyssop.
Oil of rue.
sage.
savin.
lemons.
oranges.
nutmegs.
dill.
bay.
juniper.
thyme.
lavender.
rosemary.
penny royal.
The following were not affected by nitric acid.
Oils of amber, petroleum, Barbadoes tar, bees' wax.
Spirit of wine also burns, and so does balsam of sulphur, (solution of sulphur
in oil of turpentine.)||
* Phil. Trans. 1667. Vol. II. p. 581; 1672. Vol. VII.
p. 5108.
+ Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 446.
f Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 650.
Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. XC. p. 161.
Phil. Trans. 1694. Vol. XVIII. p. 200.
CHAP. I.]
503
CHEMISTRY.
5. The phosphorescence of fluor spar, when exposed to heat, is noticed by
Sir Robert Southwell, in 1698. When the fact was discovered we cannot say ;
but this is the first time we have met with it.*
6. Hauksbee observed that the shining of phosphorus is increased by rarify-
ing the air. This deserves to be noticed, because it has been announced of
late years as a modern discovery.
7. Hanckewitz found that phosphorus is soluble in ether, and that when a
little of the solution is poured upon water, the surface becomes luminous in the
dark. This also has been announced as a modern discovery. Hanckewitz like-
wise ascertained that phosphoric acid is heavier than the phosphorus from which
it was obtained; that it is very fixed; and that, when strongly heated, it assumes
the appearance of glass.‡
8. The curious fact, that blackening the bulb of a thermometer makes it,
when exposed to the rays of the sun, rise higher than when its bulb is left clean,
was discovered in the year 1772, by Dr. Watson, the present Bishop of Lan-
daff. He exposed a thermometer to the sun it rose to 108°. He then black-
ened the bulb with China ink; it rose in consequence to 118°.§
9. Dr. Higgins discovered that when moist pounded nitrate of copper is
wrapped up in tinfoil, the tin acts with such violence upon the salt that actual
combustion is produced. The experiment is a very striking one.
10. Mr. Keir accidentally discovered that when glass is allowed to cool
slowly in the pots, it crystallizes. He describes the crystals with great accuracy,
and infers, from his observations, that basalt is probably a species of lava:¶ an
opinion zealously maintained by many geologists, and under a modified form by
the Huttonians, who extend it to greenstone; and Sir James Hall's experiments
are considered as decisive proofs of the truth of their opinion.
11. Sir George Shuckburgh, with his usual accuracy, made a set of experi- Boiling point
ments to determine the boiling points of water, at different heights of the ba- of water,
rometer. The following were the first which he made:
Boiling point | Height of
barometer.
213.5° 25.75 inches..
Height of
barometer.
of water.
30.21 inches..
28.60.
..210.4
24.03...
26.61...
207.3
23.91...
Boiling point
of water.
.205.1°
201·2
201·1
Afterwards, with a very delicate thermometer, made by Ramsden, capable
* Phil. Trans. Vol. XX. p. 963.
Phil. Trans. 1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 58.
Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII p. 137.
+ Phil. Trans. 1705. Vol. XXIV. p. 1865.
§ Phil. Trans. 1772. Vol. LXII. p. 40.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI, p. 530.
1
504
BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
of measuring to the fiftieth part of a degree, he constructed the following
table:
Correction
of the boiling
point of water.
1°.72
Height of
barometer.
Correction
of the boiling
point of water.
Height of
barometer.
26 inches...
7°.09
29
29 inches..
26.5..
6.18
29.5....
— 0 ·85
27
5 .27
30
0·00
27.5..
4 .37
30.5...
+0.85
28
28.5..
3.48
2.59
31
+169
Sulphureted
bydrogen gas.
This table must be of considerable service to thermometer makers.*
12. Cavallo points out an easy method of freezing water in a tube, by drop-
ping ether on it. The great effect of ether in producing cold, by its rapid eva-
poration, was originally observed by Dr. Cullen. Ether may be purified by
agitation in water. By this agitation it seems to lose a portion of alcohol,
with which it is usually united. Mercury expands Toth parts per degree
of Fahrenheit's thermometrical barometer.t
13. It would be improper to omit mentioning Mr. Kirwan's curious experi-
ments on sulphureted hydrogen gas. He pointed out its acid properties,
its combination with alkalies, its effect on metals, and many other im-
portant particulars. In the same paper, likewise, he gave an account of
phosphoreted hydrogen gas; of which he was one of the original discoverers.
This paper is perhaps the most valuable that Mr. Kirwan has produced during
the whole course of his distinguished chemical career.‡
14. Neither can we omit mentioning the important labours of Sir Charles
Blagden, and Mr. Gilpin, in determining the specific gravities of various mix-
tures of alcohol and water, in order to regulate the method of levying the duty
on spirits. These experiments possess an uncommon degree of accuracy, and
are the most valuable that have hitherto been presented to the world. They are
so long that it would be impossible even to give the slightest account of them in
this place.§
15. The most complete set of experiments hitherto made on the production
of light from bodies by heat, attrition, &c., is by Mr. Thomas Wedgwood.||
They are too numerous to be detailed here; but we would advise those philo-
Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 362.
Phil. Trans. 1786. Vol. LXXVI. p. 118.
+ Phil. Trans. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 501.
§ Phil. Trans. 1790. Vol. LXXX. p. 821; 1792. Vol. LXXXII. pp. 425, 439; 1794. Vol. LXXXIV.
p. 275.
Phil. Trans. 1792. Vol. LXXXII. p. 28 and 270.
CHAP. II.]
505
CHEMISTRY.-METEOROLOGY.
sophers, who are endeavouring to draw conclusions respecting light from the
theory of its being the undulations of an elastic fluid, to study the experiments
of Mr. Wedgewood and some others, that have been already mentioned in this
chapter.
16. There are several papers by Count Rumford, which would deserve particu-
lar notice, if we had any more room to spare. For example, the experiments by
which he demonstrated that heat does not alter the weight of bodies; the expe-
riments made to show that the chemical effects, usually ascribed to the action of
light, are owing to the temperature produced by the light, and take place
whenever that temperature is produced by any other means. But we have
already extended this chapter much beyond our original intention. We must,
therefore, reluctantly omit the particular mention of these, and many other
papers, of first rate merit. Indeed there is perhaps no other work that contains
so rich a collection of chemical papers as the Philosophical Transactions.
CHAP. II.
OF METEOROLOGY.
THE object of Meteorology is to ascertain the changes which take place in object.
the atmosphere, upon which the weather of every country, and of course the
comforts of the inhabitants, entirely depend. These changes are owing, partly
to electrical, but chiefly to chemical causes; and cannot, therefore, be fully
explained till we be thoroughly acquainted with the constituents of the atmos-
phere, and with the chemical action of these constituents upon each other.
Since the discovery of the different meteorological instruments, which took
place in the 17th century, though they were only brought to a state of tolerable
perfection in the 18th century, and some still continue extremely defective, a'
vast number of meteorological observations have been made, and registers of the
weather kept in many places, for a long series of years, with a view to discover
some empyrical rules to determine the changes of the weather, on the supposi-
tion that these changes obey some regular, though unknown, laws, and that the
same changes, after a certain number of years, return again in exactly the same
order. But, though several meteorologists, Toaldo for example, have been
sanguine in their belief that they had detected such a period, and have generally
pitched upon one of about 18 years, yet, observation has not confirmed their
hypothesis; and we are still as far as ever from being able to predict what sort
5
ST
506
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Papers in the
Transactions,
Weight of the
atmosphere.
of the barome-
ter,
of weather is likely to happen during the ensuing year. Indeed, if we consider
that the weather must be influenced, to a certain degree, by the face of the
country, and that this face is perpetually changing by the draining of marshes,
the cutting down or growing up of woods, and by the improvements which are
taking place in the cultivation of most civilized countries, we cannot expect that
the weather, in such countries, should observe any regular order. It must alter,
in some degree, with the country. Accordingly it has been always observed
that the climate is ameliorated with the progress of cultivation.
The number of papers on meteorological subjects, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, amounts to 281; but of these there is a considerable proportion con-
sisting of bare diaries of the weather in particular spots, or of insulated meteo-
rological observations, which, though they may all have their utility, and be
of service towards constructing a system of meteorology, cannot with propriety
be noticed in a work of this kind. We must confine ourselves to those papers
alone, which either attempt to explain some important branch of meteorology,.
or which make us acquainted with new and important meteorological facts.
All the meteorological papers in the Transactions, which can with propriety be
mentioned, will be included under the following general heads.
I. Weight of THE ATMOSPHERE. The weight of the atmosphere remained un-
known till the time of Galileo, and was demonstrated by the barometer first
constructed by Torricelli. The height of the mercury, in the barometer tube,
measures the weight of the atmosphere, because this mercurial column just
balances that weight. Now it was soon observed, that though à barometer be
Rise and fall kept always in the same place, its height did not continue stationary. Some-
times it fell, sometimes it rose. These changes were sometimes slow, sometimes
rapid. It was soon observed, that they depended in some measure upon the
latitude of the place. Under the equator they are barely perceptible; but they
increase as we advance to either pole, till at the latitude of 60° the range of
the barometer exceeds three inches. At the level of the sea, in every latitude,
the mean height of the barometer is very near 30 inches. The height diminishes
of course as the height of the situation increases; and, as most inhabited places
are higher than the level of the sea, the mean height of the barometer in most
places is under 30 inches. The range of the barometer in Jamaica, which lies
within the torrid zone, though considerably north of the equator, is only 0·3
inches, according to the observations of Sir William Beeston, Governor of that
island.*
accounted for.
Dr. Halley, who embraced a greater variety of studies than almost any other
man of his time, published a valuable paper, in which he endeavoured to
account for the range of the barometer by the variable winds. His explanation
* Phil. Trans. 1696. Vol. XIX. p. 225.
CHAP. II.]
507
CHEMISTRY.-METEOROLOGY.
is perhaps the most satisfactory that has hitherto been offered to the public. In
the torrid zone the wind blows regularly all the year round in the same direc-
tion: hence the weight of the atmosphere cannot vary much, and accordingly
the range of the barometer is small.
of the barometer is small. Sometimes indeed, in the case of hurri-
canes, it sinks extremely low, but soon rises again, and this only happens about
once in two years. In any country from which the wind blows in different
directions at the same time, the barometer must necessarily fall. Thus if it
blows a south wind in Scotland, and a north wind in France, the atmosphere
over England will be attenuated, and the barometer will fall. On the contrary,
if the winds blow from different directions towards any country, the barometer
must rise. Hence the reason why it generally rises in this country when it
blows a north-east wind. The south-west wind blowing almost perpetually in
the Atlantic Ocean, the north-east is sure to be checked by it, and this will oc-
casion an accumulation of air over Great Britain. The greater range
in
northern than in more southern climates seems to depend upon the greater
violence with which the wind blows in these northern regions."
*
Such is a sketch of Dr. Halley's ingenious explanation. Many phenomena.
might be mentioned which confirm this view of the subject. For example, the
well known fact, that whenever the barometer falls suddenly we are always cer-
tain of a storm of wind; not always indeed in the place where the observation
is made, but within the distance of a few hundred miles at most. The only
other paper on this subject, which requires to be mentioned, is a mathematical
dissertation by Gersten, to explain the rising and falling of the barometer, and
particularly why the barometer sinks when the wind blows from the south-west.
He endeavours to demonstrate, that air is dilated by tremulous motion, and that
this dilatation is greatest when a wind blows contrary to the natural current of
the air, which is towards the west. This dilatation, he conceives, diminishes
the weight of the air, and therefore accounts for the sinking of the barometer
when a south-west wind blows. This explanation is neither very intelligible
nor satisfactory. Indeed the most provoking of all books are mathematical ones
founded upon erroneous data. The reasoning may be perfectly legitimate and
demonstrative, yet the whole leads only to error.
II. TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the air is liable to as great or rather Temperature.
to greater changes than the weight of the atmosphere, and it obviously depends
upon the influence of the sun. Hence the reason why it is greatest in summer,
why the temperature is highest at the equator, and why it diminishes as we ad-
vance towards the poles. It depends not upon the sun's action on the air,
which being transparent receives no increase of temperature from the sun's rays,
but upon his action upon the earth, which communicates the temperature it has
*Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI. p. 104.
Phil. Trans. 1793. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 43.
3 T2
508
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Evaporation.
received to the air. Hence the reason that the heat diminishes as we ascend in
the atmosphere, the thermometer sinking about one degree for every 280 feet of
ascent. Hence also the reason why the temperature of islands is much more
equable than that of continents in the same latitude, the surrounding ocean
preventing them from being either heated or cooled beyond a certain point.
豆​,
In Great Britain the mean temperature diminishes nearly a degree for every
degree of latitude. But when places are situated on the sea coast, the rule does
not hold. The winter becomes milder and the summer colder. Thus for ex-
ample, the difference between the latitudes of London and Edinburgh is nearly
44°, but the difference between the mean temperature of the two cities is only
3°. The winter in Edinburgh is warmer than the winter in London; the mean
difference in favour of Edinburgh is 3°; but on the other hand, the mean sum-
mer heat in London is 6° greater than in Edinburgh.* It is probable that in
those parts of Scotland, which are further from the sea than Edinburgh, the
winters will be colder, and the summers warmer.
There is only one paper on temperature in the Philosophical Transactions
which requires to be noticed, and that is an attempt by Dr. Thomas Heberden
to determine the rate at which the temperature diminishes as we ascend in the
atmosphere. His observations were made in Teneriffe, and the result was that
the thermometer sinks a degree for every 190 feet of elevation. This is consi-
derably more than the result obtained by General Roy, from experiments made
chiefly at Edinburgh, and with great care. He found that one degree of dimi-
nution of heat was equivalent to an elevation of 280 feet.
III. EVAPORATION. That vapour is constantly rising from the surface of
water, and the moist surface of the earth, and that vegetables exhale a great
portion of moisture has been long known. Dr. Halley was the first person who
made accurate experiments on the subject. He showed, by an experiment ex-
hibited before the Royal Society, that water kept at the highest summer tempe-
rature of London (which we may suppose about 75°) loses from its surface
f
th
of an inch in thickness in 12 hours. Were the evaporation to continue at this
rate all the year round for 12 hours every day, it would amount in a year to
36.5 inches. Now it is a curious, though no doubt an accidental circumstance,
that this estimate coincides almost exactly with the experiments made by Dr.
Dobson, at Liverpool, for an interval of four years, to determine the quantity
evaporated from the surface of water. His mean result was 36.78 inches.§
Mr. Hunt, the Operator of the Royal Society, made a set of experiments, the
result of which was that water when left in a still place, and excluded from the
action of the sun and wind, evaporates only a quantity amounting to eight
* Roebuck. Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 459.
+ Phil. Trans. 1687. Vol. XVI. p. 366.
+ Phil. Trans. 1765. Vol. LV. p. 126.
§ Phil. Trans. 1777. Vol. LXVII. p. 241.
CHAP. II.]
509
CHEMISTRY.-METEOROLOGY,
cubic inches in a year.* This striking difference shows us the great effect of
the wind in increasing the quantity of vapour raised. It acts, as Dr. Halley
pointed out, by preventing the vapour from stagnating on the surface of the
water. For a stratum of vapour effectually prevents all additional evaporation
till it is itself removed.
From the quantity of vapour which thus rises from the surface of the sea and
the land, Dr. Halley accounts, in a satisfactory manner, for the origin of
springs and rivers, and shows the reason why, notwithstanding the great quan-
tity of water which flows into the Mediterranean Sea, it never overflows its
banks; the evaporation being more than sufficient to compensate for all the
water which it receives.
From the most exact experiments hitherto made it appears that the annual
evaporation from the surface of the earth, in England, amounts to 30 inches,
and from the surface of the sea which borders on it 36 inches. We shall not
err much if we take 35 inches as the mean quantity evaporated from the whole
surface of the earth during the course of a year.
There is a curious experiment by Count Rumford, somewhat connected with
this subject, which may be mentioned here, as a proof of the different disposi-
tion of various bodies to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. He left in a
damp place for a given time the same weights of wool and of cotton. The
wool absorbed 16 per cent. of its weight of moisture, the cotton only eight per
cent.†
IV. RAIN. There are a great many papers in the Philosophical Transac- Rains
tions giving the mean quantity of rain which falls in different places during a
year.
It would be tedious to transcribe all these accounts; but we shall give
one or two by way of specimen.
+
At Townley, in Lancashire, from a mean of 15 years observations by Mr.
Townley, the annual fall of rain amounts to 41 62 inches. At Upminster, in
41·62
Essex, from a mean of 18 years observations by Dr. Derham, the annual fall of
rain amounts to only 1979 inches.§ Dr. Derham has also given us the mean
quantity of rain which fell at Paris for 15 years from the observations of
M. De la Hire. It amounted to 20 19 inches, which differs but little from the
fall at Upminster.
A very curious discovery, respecting the quantity of rain which falls at dif-
ferent heights, was made by the late Dr. Heberden. Two rain
Two rain gages fixed up.
in London about the distance of a mile from each other, made by the same
artist with the same care, being compared together, it was found that the quan-
tity of rain collected by the one was constantly greater than what was collected
*Phil. Trans. 1694. Vol. XVIII. p. 183.
Phil. Trans. 1694. Vol. XVIII. p. 51.
† Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 249.
§ Phil. Trans. 1714. Vol. XXIX, p. 130.
510
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Dew.
in the other. No other cause being perceptible, it was conjectured that this
difference might depend upon the difference in height of each, the one being
placed above the tops of the chimneys, and the other lower down. To deter-
mine this, two gages were placed in a garden nearly in the same spot, but the
one considerably higher than the other. The same difference was found between
them as in the former case. A rain gage was placed on the top of Westminster
Abbey. The following were the quantities of rain collected in each of these
situations during the course of a year.
Low down.
Inches.
22.608
House top.
Inches.
18.139.
Westminster Abbey.
Inches.
12.099.
Thus it appears that nearly twice as much rain was collected in the gage
placed near the ground as in the one upon the top of Westminster Abbey.*
This difference seems to be connected rather with the proximity to the ground
than with the quantity of atmosphere through which the rain falls. For Mr.
Barrington having placed a rain gage on the top of Rennig, a mountain in
Wales, and another at its bottom, nearly the same quantity of rain was col-
lected in each.†
V. DEw. Dew is nothing else than a portion of the vapour formerly sus-
pended in the atmosphere, condensed by means of the cold of the evening. It
has been observed with surprise that when a number of bodies are exposed toge-
ther to the dew, some are quite wetted with it while others remain dry. This
circumstance probably depends upon the goodness of the body as a conductor
of heat. Good conductors will part with their heat more readily, and will
therefore evaporate the dew again, whereas it will remain upon bad conductors,
which will not so easily part with their heat. If this explanation be the true
one, it follows that bodies exposed to the dew and dry, must have a lower tem-
perature than those which remain moist. The following table by Dr. Stocke,
exhibits the relative quantity of dew remaining upon a variety of bodies:‡
Bodies.
Glass.
Polished brass.
Rough brass.
•
•
Lattin or iron tinned...
Ditto rough.
Ditto smooth...
Ditto rusty
Quicksilver.
Smooth tin..
Rough lead.
Effect.
Much dew.
Very little.
A little more.
•
A little.
Very much.
Bodies.
Polished lead.
Silver.
Silver gilded.
Blue porcelain.
A stone slab..
Basket of Indian cane.
•
Smooth white oaken plank...
Scarce any.
None.
None.
Ditto black....
None.
Smooth fir plank.
Much.
Effect.
.. A little.
None.
None.
None.
Much.
A little.
Very much.
Much less.
Little.
Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 359.
Phil. Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 112.
+ Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 294.
CHAP. II.]
511
CHEMISTRY.-METEOROLOGY.
If these experiments be accurate, it is obvious that the goodness of the bodies.
as conductors of heat will not account for the phenomenon. Perhaps we must
look for it in the goodness of the bodies as conductors of electricity.
accounted for,
VI. WINDS. The winds in those parts of the ocean which lie within the Wind.
tropics, and which are open both to the north and south, blow all the year nearly
in the same direction, and are known by the name of the trade winds. But in
the Indian Ocean, which is partly shut up on the south by New Holland, and
wholly on the north by the continent of Asia, the winds shift every six months,
blowing one half of the year in the usual direction of the trade winds, and the
other half of the year in the opposite direction. These winds are known by the
name of Monsoons. We have two elaborate explanations of the cause of these Trade winds
regular winds in the Philosophical Transactions. The first by Dr. Halley, who
gives a very minute and exact description both of the trade winds and monsoons;
and accounts for them by the action of the sun's rays in rarifying the atmosphere,
which occasions a motion of the whole westward, and a current from the north
and south to supply the air thus moving.* The second is by Mr. Hadley, who
explains the trade winds by the diurnal motion of the earth. The air which
comes from the north and south to supply the place of the rarified air, which
has ascended in the torrid zone, not having acquired the same velocity of rota-
tion with that part of the earth which constitutes the torrid zone, the high
parts of the earth strike against it, and of course occasion an east wind. Both
causes, no doubt, contribute to produce the trade wind, but if we consider the
slowness of the motion of the air southwards, we cannot suppose that the cause
assigned by Hadley can produce any great effect.
On the west coast of Africa, between the equator and north latitude 15°, Harmattan.
there is an extraordinary wind which blows several times a year from the north
east, sometimes for four or five days together, and sometimes for fourteen or
fifteen. It is always accompanied by a considerable fog, so that the sun is hardly
visible. The matter of this fog deposites itself upon substances, and gives them
a white appearance. This wind is extremely dry. No dew falls during its con-
tinuance, and evaporation goes on with more than twice its usual rapidity.
Wood shrinks, and ships become leaky. The scarf skin falls off. This wind is
in other respects remarkably healthy. But by its drying qualities it injures, or
even destroys, the vegetation of plants. It appears to proceed from that part
of Africa which lies in 15° north latitude, and 25° cast longitude, where accord-
ing to Ptolemy, the mountains of Caphas are situated ‡
+
+
What is called the Gulf stream, is a current obviously occasioned by the Gulf stream.
trade winds; it sets in through the Gulf of Florida, and moves along the coast
* Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI. p. 153.
Phil. Trans. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 46.
+ Phil. Trans. 1735. Vol. XXXIX, p. 58.
3
512
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Aurora Borea.
lis.
of North America with considerable velocity. Sir Charles Blagden crossed it
in 1776, about north latitude 33°. In that place it was about 20 leagues broad,
and at least six degrees hotter than the surrounding ocean.*
VII. AURORA BOREALIS. The name aurora borealis was given by Gassendi
to an appearance familiar, we presume, to most of our readers. Streaks of light
which appear during the night in the serene sky, and which, altering their po-
sition and form with surprizing rapidity, afford a beautiful and amusing spec-
tacle. They are much more brilliant in countries situated nearer the pole than
Britain; and their brilliancy seems to depend on that situation, and not on the
coldness of the winter. For in Hudson's Bay, though the winter is incompa-
rably more severe than in England, the Aurora Borealis is not so brilliant. Si-
milar appearances were seen by Captain Cook in the southern polar regions,
and called by him Aurora Australis. Mention is made of these appearances by
some of the ancients, and they were fancifully compared to fiery spears and
swords, and to armies of men combating in the sky. Thus at the death of
Cæsar they made their appearance, and were considered as portending that tra-
gical event. They were still more brilliant before the siege of Jerusalem, by
Titus Vespasian, and are minutely described by the Jewish historians, and con-
ceived by them to have been warnings sent from heaven of the approaching fate
of Jerusalem, and of the destruction of the Jewish nation. They are minutely
described by Cambden and Stow, as having made their appearance in the year
1574, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and several subsequent appearances
of them are noticed by the writers in the Low Countries, and in France; espe-
cially a very brilliant Aurora Borealis seen all over France in the year 1621, on
the 2d of February, is described by Gassendi. A minute account of a very
brilliant Aurora, which appeared on the 6th of March 1716, is described by Dr.
Halley with much more accuracy than any description that had been given of
preceding Auroras. He shows that they must be at a great height above the
earth's surface; and endeavours to account for them by conceiving them to be
connected with magnetic effluvia, which he supposed issued out at the magnetic
poles of the earth, and circulated in the magnetic curves. That they may
have some connection with magnetism may be true; for Canton observed that
they always affected the diurnal variation of the needle. But the magnetic
curves are no proofs of the circulation of a fluid through the poles of magnets.
They are merely the consequence of the mutual attractions of the two poles.
The small filings of iron are converted each into a temporary magnet, and in
consequence of the mutual attractions, each assumes a particular position which
constitute together the magnetic curve.
Since Dr. Halley's description, the Aurora Borealis has been exceedingly com-
Phil. Trans. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 334.
+ Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 406.
CHAP. III.]
513
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
mon, and a great many subsequent descriptions of it occur in the Philosophical
Transactions. But it is not worth while to give a particular account of these
papers, as they throw no additional light whatever on the nature of the pheno-
menon. It seems to be connected with electricity, and may in some measure
depend upon the facility with which electrical light passes through highly rari-
fied air. There is one observation, however, occurring in the Philosophical
Transactions, which deserves to be stated. Mr. Winn says, that the Aurora
Borealis is constantly succeeded by a south-west wind, with rain. The gale, he
says, begins about three hours after the Aurora.*
There occur in the Philosophical Transactions a great many accounts of fire Fire balls.
balls seen in the atmosphere, and it appears demonstrated by the observations
made, that they must have been often seen at the height of more than forty
miles above the surface of the earth. These fire balls are considered at present
as connected with the numerous stony bodies which so frequently fall from the
sky. Various attempts have been made to account for them; but hitherto no
explanation in the least degree satisfactory has been offered. On this account it
does not seem necessary to take up room, which is precious to us for other pur-
poses, with a dry detail of a number of similar phenomena that do not admit of
a rational explanation.
CHAP. III.
OF CHEMICAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
Transactions.
THE papers on these subjects which occur in the Philosophical Transactions Papers in the
amount to 87. But of these there are 48 that may be passed over as of very
little value. We shall, in this chapter, give some account of the more impor-
tant among the remaining 39 papers. For the whole of even these are not of
such consequence as to be entitled to particular notice.
1. The first paper we shall mention contains a receipt by Mr. A. Kircher,
for staining white marble so as to represent different pictures on it that shall
sink to a considerable depth. The ingredients are nitrate of silver, and nitro-
muriate of gold, and these liquids are to be laid on day after day till they sink
to the requisite depth.†
2. Mr. Ball describes the method employed in his time in Italy for preserving
* Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 128.
† Phil. Trans. 1665. Vol. I. 125.
P.
3 U
514
[Воок IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Salt making.
Vinegar ma-
king.
Smelting iron.
ice during summer, and now well understood in Britain. It consists in con-
triving the ice house so that no water shall lodge in it, and lining it well with
chaff or straw; which, being bad conductors, prevent the heat from penetrating
and melting the ice.*
3. We have a particular description of the method followed in France of
making bay salt by the heat of the sun. The sea water is let into square com-
partments, having a great surface and very shallow. Here it gradually evapo-
rates away by the heat of the summer, and as it becomes more concentrated, it
is advanced to compartments at a greater distance from the mouth. Here the
salt gradually crystallizes, and is taken out from the bottom. It is in large, very
hard, but somewhat dark-coloured crystals; because it is not quite free from the
mud in the bottom of the square where the crystals are deposited.†
The method of making salt in Cheshire by boiling down their brine, obtained
either from salt springs, or from rock salt dissolved in water, is also described.
It is unnecessary to enter into details, as the process is nothing more than simply
boiling the brine to dryness in an open pan. The same may be said of the salt
made from the salt springs in Worcestershire.§
It may be proper to notice here Dr. Brownrig's Treatise on Salt Making, of
which a particular account is given in the Philosophical Transactions. It was
written in order to improve the process of salt making in Great Britain, and,
though not free from mistakes, contains a great deal of valuable information,
and certainly is well entitled to the attention of the manufacturers of salt.
4. The method followed in France for making vinegar is detailed in an early
volume of the Philosophical Transactions. From the System of Chemistry,
published by the Dijon Academy, we learn that this method is still practised in
various parts of France. The method is as follows. Two large casks are taken,
open at
top; into the bottom of each is put a trivet, about a foot high, on
which vine twigs are laid; then the casks are filled with rape, or the dried foot
stalks of grapes. Wine is poured into one cask half way up, into the other
nearly to the top; and the wine is alternately poured from the one cask to the
other every day. In about twelve days the wine is converted into vinegar. I
5. One of the oldest manufactories of cast iron in England is in the forest of
Dean, in Glocestershire. We have an account of the method of smelting the
ore in that work in an early volume of the Transactions.
We may presume,
though Mr. Powle, to whom we owe the account, takes no notice of the cir-
cumstance, that limestone was employed in the process as it is at present; for it
is not likely that without its assistance the iron would have separated from the
* Phil. Trans. 1666. Vol. I. p. 139.
Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1060.
Phil. Trans. 1748. Vol. XLV. p. 351.
† Phil. Trans. 1669. Vol. IV. p. 1025.
Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 1059.
¶ Phil. Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 2002.
CHAP. III.]
515
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
clay with which it mixed. Unless, indeed, the ore had contained the requisite
proportion of limestone, which may possibly have been the case. The ore is first
roasted, by which it loses about a third of its weight. It is then mixed with
charcoal and limestone, and put into the blast furnace, where it is gradually
reduced to the state of cast iron by the united action of the heat and charcoal ;
and the clay being reduced to liquid glass by means of the lime, the iron tum-
bles down to the bottom in a liquid state, and is let out and cast into pigs.*
same.
5. We have a description of the method of making white lead, by Sir Phili- White lead..
berto Vernati, which differs in some particulars from the methods employed in
our best manufactories at present, though the nature of the process is still the
The lead, in thin slips, or rolled up in such a way that the rolls do not
touch, is placed above small pots, containing vinegar, and standing in horse-
dung or wet oak bark; the heat volatilizes the vinegar, which slowly corrodes
the lead, and converts it into carbonate on the surface. The carbonate is rubbed
off, ground fine, and by a great deal of washing with water, is freed from the
part which still continues in the state of lead, and then it is fit for use. Unless
the lead used be very pure, or at least free from copper, it will not make white
lead. This is the reason why many manufacturers fail in the process.
6. Alum began to be manufactured in Great Britain during the reign of Alum.
Queen Elizabeth. There are two kinds of mineral from which it is prepared
in this country. 1. The slate clay, or rather shale of old coal pits. Two very
extensive alum works are carried on near Glasgow from this material, which
seems to be richer in the constituents of alum than the common ore of alum, as
it is called. 2. Alum slate, which is the common ingredient employed in most
countries for the manufacture of this salt. It occurs in great abundance on the
east coast of Yorkshire, and, as far as we know, the only alum works at pre-
sent in existence in England are situated in that quarter. We do not know the
constituents of alum slate exactly, no regular analysis having been made; but
there can be no doubt that it contains alumina, iron, and sulphur; besides other
ingredients. There is a description of the mode followed in the making of
alum in the Yorkshire alum-works, in the year 1678, published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions by Mr. Colwall; and the same method nearly is still fol
lowed. The alum slate is first burnt in a smothered fire, and, according to Mr.
Colwall, much depends upon the way in which the burning is conducted. If
the slate, after being burnt, has a black or a red colour, it is a proof that the
process has been improperly conducted. The colour ought to be white. The
burnt slate is put into pits, and water let on it. This water is pumped from one
pit to another till it is conceived to be sufficiently impregnated with the soluble
parts of the slate. It is then boiled down considerably, and mixed with kelp
† Phil. Trans. 1678, Vol. XII. p. 935.
* Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 931.
Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XXII. p. 1052.
3 U 2
516
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Copperas.
Malt.
dissolved in water, or stale urine. An effervescence takes place because the
liquor contains an excess of sulphuric acid. The whole is then allowed to re-
main till the sediment (consisting of suboxysulphate of iron) subsides. The
clear liquid is then drawn off, boiled down sufficiently, and poured into the
vessel in which the alum is to crystallize. The crystals of alum, at the time
when Mr. Colwall wrote, were again dissolved and crystallized afresh. Such is
the process as described by Mr. Colwall. Alum is a triple salt composed of
sulphuric acid, alumina and potash, or ammonia. The alum-slate supplies the
first two of these constituents; the kelp or the urine the other. At present
muriate of potash, and sulphate of potash, are usually employed by the alum-
makers.
7. Copperas, or sulphate of iron, is a salt very much employed for a variety
of purposes.
It is one of the chief ingredients in the mixture which constitutes
writing ink, and it is an essential article in dyeing black. It is usually prepared
from pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, which being placed in pits, and exposed
for years to the action of the sun and rain, gradually combines with oxygen,
and becomes, in some measure, soluble in the water. This water contains a
great excess of acid. It is put into leaden boilers, and mixed with abundance
of iron. Heat is applied, and the evaporation continued till it has dissolved
enough of iron, and is sufficiently concentrated. It is then let off, and allowed
to crystallize.* Manufacturers prefer the darkest and most opaque specimens.
It is supposed that they contain less acid, though this does not appear to be
established by any satisfactory evidence.
8. In the same volume of the Transactions with the preceding details we have
an account of the process followed in Scotland for making malt described by
Sir Robert Moray. The very same method continued nearly unaltered till
within these 30 years; but it has been improved since. Sir Robert says that
there are two kinds of barley sown in Scotland, one kind with four rows on the
ear, and another with two rows. In reality there are three varieties known in
Scotland. 1. The two rowed, called barley; 2. The four rowed, called bear ;
3. The six rowed, called big. The first, which has the largest grains, answers
much better for malt than either of the other two varieties. Sir Robert's pro-
cess is as follows: The barley is steeped in water for three days, then thrown
out upon the floor, and the water allowed to drain off. Next it is made up into
a heap called the coming heap, and upon the management of it a great deal de-
pends.
Here it heats and the roots spring out. As soon as they appear the
grain is to be spread upon the floor about five inches deep, and turned over
every four or five hours for several days, till it has been converted into malt
(till the acrospire extends nearly to the end of the barley corn.) It is then to
*Colwall. Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. p. 1056.
CHAP. III.]
517
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTUrbs.
be collected into one heap, and left till it becomes so hot that the hand can
scarcely bear the temperature. After this it is to be cooled by spreading it on
the floor, and finally dried upon the kiln.*
9. In a subsequent volume of the Transactions we have an imperfect account Brass
of the method of making brass in England by Mr. Povey. This method of
making brass was known both to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dr. Watson
has shown that it was distinguished among the Latin writers by the name of
orichalcum. For many years the process was confined to Germany, where thou-
sands of workmen were continually employed in making this useful alloy. Like
all the other metallurgic processes it was gradually imported from Germany to
Britain, and at present our manufacturers make it of a superior quality to the
brass of any other nation. Brass is a compound of copper and zine; nearly in
the proportion of three parts of copper, and one part of zinc; but it is liable
to a good deal of variation in the proportion. The ore of zinc called calamine,
(which is an oxide) previously roasted, and as pure as possible, is taken and
mixed with the requisite proportions of granular copper and charcoal powder.
This mixture is put into large crucibles, and let down with tongs into a wind
The zinc is
furnace, eight feet deep. Here it remains for eight or ten hours.
gradually reduced by the action of the charcoal to the metallic state, and com-
bines readily with the grains of copper. At last the furnace is raised to a heat
sufficiently high to melt the whole, and then the brass is poured out into moulds
and cast into sheets.
10. The next process we shall mention is the conversion of iron into steel, Steel.
which occupied a good deal of the attention of the early Members of the Royal
Society. Dr. Lister gives us the process described by Agricola, in his treatise
De Re Metallica; which probably was still followed when Dr. Lister wrote.
It consisted in filling a crucible with powder of charcoal, heating it red hot in
a smith's forge, putting into it a mixture of pieces of iron and some stone that
readily melts, urging the fire till this mixture is brought into fusion, and then
putting into it the iron bars which are to be converted into steel, and boiling
them for some time in the melted mass. They are afterwards taken out, ham-
mered into bars, and quenched while red hot in cold water. The method at
present followed is much simpler and better. Steel, as has been ascertained bv
experiment, is a compound of iron and carbon. Bars of Swedish iron (which
alone make good steel) are inclosed in oblong stone vessels, filled with charcoal,
and kept about eight days in a red heat. They imbibe the requisite quantity of
carbon, and are thus converted into steel. When the process is twice repeated
p.
* Phil. Trans. 1678. Vol. XII. 1069.
Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 865.
Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII.
P.
795.
9
518
[BOOK IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Coal tar.
Diving beli.
the steel becomes more fusible, and is known by the name of cast steel, becausé
it is melted and cast into moulds.
11. Most of our readers are probably acquainted with the tar, extracted by
Lord Dundonald from pit-coal, with the application of it to the bottoms of
ships, and with the expensive works which he erected for the manufacture of it.
But it does not appear to be known that the same thing had been practised as
early as the year 1697. This, however, appears from a paper published in the
Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. Martin Ele, the inventor of the process.
Instead of coal, he employed bituminous shale, which was ground to powder
and boiled in large caldrons of water. The stony matter fell to the bottom,
and the melted tar or pitch swam on the surface. He even mentions an oil
which may be obtained and used as a substitute for oil of turpentine. Such an
oil is at present got from coals, and used by japanners as a substitute for that
essential oil.*
12. The diving bell is a very old invention; but it was greatly improved by
a very simple addition made to it by Dr. Halley. He contrived a large diving
bell of wood, in the form of a truncated cone, three feet diameter above, and
five below, with a glass window in the top to let in the light. It was so
balanced with lead that it would sink empty, with its mouth perpendicularly
downwards, so as to retain all the air which it contained. There was a cock at
the top of the machine to let out the hot air, that had been breathed, when
requisite. A couple of barrels were fixed to a rope, and so loaded with lead
that they could be let down alternately empty, in a perpendicular direction.
There was an open hole in the bottom to let in the water as the barrel descended,
and a long tube in the top, which hung down below the bottom of the barrel,
and through which of course no air could escape till it was lifted up. When a
barrel was let down, a man in the bell lifted up this tube, and let the air of the
barrel into the bell; it was then drawn up, and the other barrel let down and
emptied of the air in the same manner. By this constant supply it was possible
to remain below as long as the divers pleased, without inconvenience. By
means of a long tube, fitted to a leaden cap, a diver could go to a distance
from the bell and yet be supplied with air sufficient for the purposes of respira
tion.+ Some improvements were afterwards made upon Dr. Halley's ingenious
invention by Mr. Triewald.‡
13. Nothing is more striking than a comparison of the present state of most
of the chemical manufactures of Great Britain, with what it was 70 or 80 years
*Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 544.
Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 492; and 1721. Vol. XXXI, P. 177.
Phil. Trans. 1736. Vol. XXXIX. p. 377.
CHAP. III.]
519
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
་
ago. The present superiority is surprising. The article we are to metion here
affords a good example of it. In the year 1728, no tin-plate was manufactured Tin-plate
in Great Britain: notwithstanding the greatness of the consumption of that useful-
article, the whole of it was imported from Germany. The manufacture had
been recently introduced into France by the Germans, and Reaumur considered
it as of sufficient consequence to bestow a great deal of pains on it, and to pub-
lish an account of the process in the Memoires of the French Academy. This
account Dr. Rutty, at that time Secretary to the Royal Society, translated into
English, and published it in the Philosophical Transactions.* The process
was very simple. Iron was hammered out into plates of the requisite thickness,
steeped in a sour infusion of rye for about two days, to remove the vitriform
oxide which covered the outside of the iron, and prevented the tin from adher-
ing. The plates were then scoured and put into clean water till the moment.
they were to be tinned. The tin was melted in a crucible, larger and deeper
than the iron plates, so that the plates could be plunged wholly under the tin.
It was requisite that the tin should possess a certain degree of heat only; other-
wise the process did not succeed. The surface of the tin was covered with a
coat of suet, that had been previously heated, which gave it a black appear-
ance. When the manufacture was introduced into England, about the middle
of the last century, an improvement was made in it which at once gave the
English tin-plate a decided superiority over the German. Instead of hammer-
ing out the iron plates, they were rolled out, to the requisite size and thinness.
This made them much smoother, and consequently the tin-plate more beautiful,
and it prevented the inequality between the smoothness of the two sides, which
occasioned a striking blemish in the German tin-plate.
14. The making of sal ammoniac is another chemical manufacture which has Sal ammoniae.
been introduced into Great Britain within these sixty years. It was first begun
in Edinburgh by the late Dr. Hutton and Mr. Davy, according to a process
which they contrived while attending the University in that city. Dr. Hutton
from the University of Edinburgh went to Paris, while in the meantime Mr.
Davy set the process on foot, and admitted Dr. Hutton a partner on his return.
Before that period all the sal ammoniac used for the various purposes to which
it is applied in the arts was brought from Egypt. In the year 1760, the
Egyptian method of making sal ammoniac was published in the Philosophical
Transactions, by Linnæus, from an account sent him by Hasselquist at that
time in Egypt. In Egypt fuel is so scarce that they burn the dung of their
cattle as a substitute, and it is from the soot of this dung that the salt is made.
They make it only during the spring when the cattle feed
upon fresh
grass. At
no other season of the year will the dung answer their purpose. This soot is
* Phil. Trans. 1728. Vol. XXXV. p. 630.
† Phil. Trans. 1760. Vol. LI. p. 504.
1
520
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Salop.
Tokay mine.
put into globular glasses having a neck open at top, and arranged by 50 on the
top of a furnace. The fire is kindled below them, and is at first gentle, but on
the third day they make it very intense. The sal ammoniac sublimes and coats
the upper part of the glasses. The cakes are obtained by breaking these glasses.
Such is the process as described by Hasselquist. But there is reason to suspect
that it is imperfect. As no source presents itself whence the muriatic acid, one
of the constituents of sal ammoniac, could be obtained; unless indeed we were
to conceive the salt to exist ready formed in the soot, which is highly improba-
ble. The method followed in Britain, and we presume in every manufactory
of sal ammoniac in Europe, is to mix sulphate of ammonia and common salt
in glass vessels, and apply heat. A double decomposition takes place, sal am-
moniac sublimes, and glauber's salt remains behind in the bottom of the glass.
The difficulty of the process consists in the procuring of sulphate of ammonia.
It exists ready formed in the soot of our chimneys, proceeding from the pit coal
employed as an article of fuel; and this is the source from which it is usually
obtained.
15. Among the nourishing and agreeable articles of food prepared from the
vegetable kingdom, salop has always held a distinguished rank. It is usually
imported from Persia, and is known to consist merely of the bulbs of different
species of orchis dried in a particular way. Mr. Moult has given us a method
of preparing these bulbs, which he says from experience answers perfectly well.
The plant is to be dug up when the seed is ripe, and the stalk going to fall.
The fresh bulb is to be cleaned, and freed from its skin, by dipping it in warm
water, and rubbing it with a coarse cloth. The bulbs thus prepared are ar-
ranged on a tin plate, and introduced into an oven of the heat requisite for
baking bread, left in it for ten minutes, and then taken out. They have lost.
their milky appearance, and acquired a semi-transparency. They are then to be
dried slowly, either by simple exposure to the air, or by a moderate artificial
heat.* The use of the oven seems to be to destroy the life of the bulb, and thus
prevent it from growing instead of drying.
16. The last paper which we shall mention relating to chemical manufac-
tures, is an account of Tokay wine by Lord Glenbervie. Tokay is a village
which lies in Hungary at the confluence of the rivers Bodrog and Theis. The
hills round it occupy the space of about 12 miles, and all of them produce the
grapes from which Tokay wine is made. They are all white grapes. The vint-
age is as late as possible, because the frosts of September are considered as of
service to the flavour. The consequence is that many of the grapes are shrivel-
led at the time of pulling them, and look like half dried resins. These shrivel-
led grapes are carefully picked out, and thrown into a perforated cask. The
Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 1.
CHAP. III.]
521
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
are
juice that flows out in consequence of the pressure of their own weight is ferment-
ed by itself, and constitutes that kind of wine which at Tokay is known by the
name of essence. It is thick and clammy, and is chiefly used to mix with the other
sorts. Upon the shrivelled grapes thus deprived of a part of their juice, the
juice of the unshrivelled grapes is poured, and the whole is subjected to pres-
sure. The juice thus expressed constitutes, when fermented, the wine called
auspruch, which is the kind of Tokay usually exported, and in fact the best.
More juice of fresh grapes is poured upon the shrivelled grapes, and they
strongly squeezed by the hands. The juice thus obtained, when fermented,
constitutes the wine called masslasch; it is of rather inferior quality, but when
mixed with a portion of essence it becomes as good as the auspruch. The
common people mix all the grapes together at once, and make a species of
wine which is usually drunk in the country, and constitutes the vin du pays.
The following, according to Lord Glenbervie, are the best rules for judging of
the qualities of Tokay wine. 1. The colour should neither be reddish nor very
pale, but a light silver. 2. In trying it, you should not swallow it immediately,
but only wet your palate, and the tip of the tongue. If it discovers any acri-
mony to the tongue it is not good. The taste ought to be soft and mild. 3. It
should, when poured out, form globules in the glass, and have an oily appear-
ance. 4. When genuine, the strongest is always of the best quality. 5. When
swallowed it should have an astringent taste in the mouth, which they call the
taste of the root. Tokay wine has a strong aromatic flavour, quite peculiar, by
which it is easily distinguished from all other wine. It keeps a very long period.
Lord Glenbervic drank of some that had been above 80 years in a cellar in
Vienna.*
* Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 292.
3 X
520
[Book IV.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Salop.
Tokay mine.
put into globular glasses having a neck open at top, and arranged by 50 on the
top of a furnace. The fire is kindled below them, and is at first gentle, but on
the third day they make it very intense. The sal ammoniac sublimes and coats
the upper part of the glasses. The cakes are obtained by breaking these glasses.
Such is the process as described by Hasselquist. But there is reason to suspect
that it is imperfect. As no source presents itself whence the muriatic acid, one
of the constituents of sal ammoniac, could be obtained; unless indeed we were
to conceive the salt to exist ready formed in the soot, which is highly improba-
ble. The method followed in Britain, and we presume in every manufactory
of sal ammoniac in Europe, is to mix sulphate of ammonia and common salt
in glass vessels, and apply heat. A double decomposition takes place, sal am-
moniac sublimes, and glauber's salt remains behind in the bottom of the glass.
The difficulty of the process consists in the procuring of sulphate of ammonia.
It exists ready formed in the soot of our chimneys, proceeding from the pit coal
employed as an article of fuel; and this is the source from which it is usually
obtained.
15. Among the nourishing and agreeable articles of food prepared from the
vegetable kingdom, salop has always held a distinguished rank. It is usually
imported from Persia, and is known to consist merely of the bulbs of different
species of orchis dried in a particular way. Mr. Moult has given us a method
of preparing these bulbs, which he says from experience answers perfectly well.
The plant is to be dug up when the seed is ripe, and the stalk. going to fall.
The fresh bulb is to be cleaned, and freed from its skin, by dipping it in warm
water, and rubbing it with a coarse cloth. The bulbs thus prepared are ar-
ranged on a tin plate, and introduced into an oven of the heat requisite for
baking bread, left in it for ten minutes, and then taken out. They have lost
their milky appearance, and acquired a semi-transparency. They are then to be
dried slowly, either by simple exposure to the air, or by a moderate artificial
heat.* The use of the oven seems to be to destroy the life of the bulb, and thus
prevent it from growing instead of drying.
16. The last paper which we shall mention relating to chemical manufac-
tures, is an account of Tokay wine by Lord Glenbervie. Tokay is a village
which lies in Hungary at the confluence of the rivers Bodrog and Theis. The
hills round it occupy the space of about 12 miles, and all of them produce the
grapes from which Tokay wine is made. They are all white grapes. The vint-
age is as late as possible, because the frosts of September are considered as of
service to the flavour. The consequence is that many of the grapes are shrivel-
led at the time of pulling them, and look like half dried resins. These shrivel-
led grapes are carefully picked out, and thrown into a perforated cask. The
* Phil. Trans. 1769. Vol. LIX. p. 1.
CHAP. III.]
521
CHEMISTRY.-ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
juice that flows out in consequence of the pressure of their own weight is ferment-
ed by itself, and constitutes that kind of wine which at Tokay is known by the
name of essence. It is thick and clammy, and is chiefly used to mix with the other
sorts. Upon the shrivelled grapes thus deprived of a part of their juice, the
juice of the unshrivelled grapes is poured, and the whole is subjected to pres-
sure. The juice thus expressed constitutes, when fermented, the wine called
auspruch, which is the kind of Tokay usually exported, and in fact the best.
More juice of fresh grapes is poured upon the shrivelled grapes, and they are
strongly squeezed by the hands. The juice thus obtained, when fermented,
constitutes the wine called masslasch; it is of rather inferior quality, but when
mixed with a portion of essence it becomes as good as the auspruch. The
common people mix all the grapes together at once, and make a species of
wine which is usually drunk in the country, and constitutes the vin du pays.
The following, according to Lord Glenbervie, are the best rules for judging of
the qualities of Tokay wine. 1. The colour should neither be reddish nor very
pale, but a light silver. 2. In trying it, you should not swallow it immediately,
but only wet your palate, and the tip of the tongue. If it discovers any acri-
mony to the tongue it is not good. The taste ought to be soft and mild. 3. It
should, when poured out, form globules in the glass, and have an oily appear-
ance. 4. When genuine, the strongest is always of the best quality. 5. When
swallowed it should have an astringent taste in the mouth, which they call the
taste of the root. Tokay wine has a strong aromatic flavour, quite peculiar, by
which it is easily distinguished from all other wine. It keeps a very long period.
Lord Glenbervie drank of some that had been above 80 years in a cellar in
Vienna.*
* Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 292.
}
3 X
BOOK V.
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous topics comprehended under the divi-
sions in the preceding books, the subjects treated of in the Philosophical Trans-
actions are of so various a nature, that it was not possible, without using vio-
lence, to include the whole of them under any of the great branches into which
natural science has been divided. On that account we have thought it better
to throw several detached subjects together under the comprehensive title of mis-
cellaneous. To some of these, names may be given; others are so unconnected,
that they will not admit of any common title, while they are not of sufficient im-
portance to constitute separate chapters. We shall divide this book into four
chapters, in which we shall treat respectively of Weights and Measures, of Poli-
tical Arithmetic, of Antiquities, and of Miscellaneous Articles, so far as these
subjects occupy a place in the Philosophical Transactions.
CHAP. I,
OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
THE diversity of weights and measures in different countries occasion not a
little inconvenience to scientific men; as it is necessary, before it be possible to
reap any advantage from experiments in which weights or measures are con-
cerned, to reduce them to some common standard. The uncertainty of the
weights and measures employed by the ancient nations have rendered many of
their experiments and observations useless to the moderns. To remedy these de-
fects as much as possible, two things have occupied a good deal of the attention
of men of science; namely, to determine some unalterable standard of weights
and measures, which may be determined with exactness, which may be had re-
course to at all times, and by means of which the weights and the measures at
present in use, supposing them hereafter to be lost, may be recovered and
3 x 2
524
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Standard
weights and
Measures.
Old English
weights.
Troy weight.
Avoirdupois
n eight.
ascertained with perfect accuracy. And, secondly, to compare the weights and
measures used by different nations together, and determine how much they differ
from each other.
With respect to the first of these particulars, the French, when they esta-
blished their revolutionary weights and measures, had recourse to the ten mil-
lionth part of the distance between the north pole and the equator as their stand-
ard fundamental measure, to which they gave the name of metre, and from
which all their other measures and weights are deduced. Now the length of a
metre has been ascertained to be equal to 39 37 100 English inches. The me-
thod adopted by Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn is easier, and seems suscep-
tible of much greater accuracy. It has this great advantage, that it furnishes a
method of recovering the English weights and measures with perfect accuracy
if they should hereafter be lost. He determined that the difference between two
pendulums vibrating 42 and 84 times in a minute of mean time in the latitude of
London, at 113 feet above the level of the sea, in the temperature of 60°, and
when the barometer is at 30 inches, is 59-89358 inches of parliamentary
standard. A cubic inch of distilled water, when the barometer is at 29.5 inches,
and the thermometer at 60°, weighs according to a mean of Sir George Shuck-
burgh's experiments 252.506 grains troy; and in vacuo 252-806 grains.*
We shall now state the points respecting the weights and measures of differ-
ent nations which are to be found in the Philosophical Transactions.
Before the conquest the standard English weight was the sterling penny,
which was declared equal to 32 grains of dry wheat. Twenty of these pennies
were equal to an ounce, 12 ounces to a pound, 8 pounds were a gallon of wine,
and 8 of these gallons made a London bushel, which is the 8th part of a quar-
ter. These weights and measures were confirmed by William the Conqueror,
and by succeeding kings, and they continued till the reign of Henry VII.
From the experiments of Mr. Norris, it appears that 32 grains of dry wheat of
ordinary size weigh very nearly 22 troy grains. Hence it follows that the
Saxon pound of 240 penny weights continued down to the time of Henry VII.
weighed 5400 of our present troy grains. From this it is easy to deduce the
weight of the gallon, bushel, and quarter.
Henry VII, for what reason does not appear, altered the old pound, and
substituted in place of it the present troy pound, and the old pound was finally
abolished by Henry VIII. who states, in the act of parliament by which he
establishes the troy pound, that it is ounce heavier than the old pound. The
present troy pound consists of 5760 grains, and is divided in the same way as.
the old pound.+
When the avoirdupois weight, at present in use for almost all articles in this
* Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. 133.
p.
Phil. Trans. 1775.. Vol. LXV. 48.
p.
CHAP. I.]
525
MISCELLANEOUS.-WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
country, was introduced, does not appear. Nor is it easy to conceive how the
term avoirdupois (literally, to have weight) was introduced. It is first em-
ployed in some acts of parliament, in the time of Edward III., relative to
weights and measures. Neither is it known when the present difference be-
tween the wine and ale gallon originated; but they were recognised by act of
parliament soon after the establishment of the excise on ale and beer. By the
report of the Committee of the House of Commons, in 1759, it appears that
the avoirdupois pound weighs 7002 troy grains. It would appear, though there
are different opinions on the subject, that avoirdupois weight was first made
legal by Henry VIII. Every body knows that the avoirdupois pound is divided
into 16 ounces; and the ounce into 16 drachms.
Mr. Barlow has endeavoured to show that a cubic foot of water is the foun-
dation of the English weights. It weighs 62 lbs, and constitutes the bushel.
Eight bushels make a quarter, and four quarters make a ton. So that a ton is
62 × 32 = 2000lbs; and the word quarter was used to denote the fourth
part of a ton.*
Mr. Reynardson, in a long and learned paper published in the Philosophical
Transactions, in the year 1749, endeavours to prove that the avoirdupois was
the ancient English standard. But he does not appear to have established that
the weights used before the time of Henry VIII. were the avoirdupois; but only
that the word avoirdupois occurs in our laws, relating to weights and measures,
as early as the reign of Edward III. And the subsequent observations of Mr.
Norris seem to have established the difference of the Saxon, or original British
pound, both from the troy and the avoirdupois.
Standard weights and measures are kept at the Exchequer, at the Tower, and
at the Mint. A set was made for the House of Commons, and another for the
Royal Society. These have been very carefully and accurately compared with
each other, first by Mr. Graham, and afterwards by Sir George Shuckburgh
Evelyn,§ and the results recorded: but it does not seem necessary to specify
them here; it will be sufficient to refer the reader to the papers themselves, for
minute information upon this curious subject.
+
The yard, which is the English standard measure, is said to have been taken
from the arm of Henry I. It is divided into three feet, and every foot into
twelve inches.
The French weights before the revolution, or rather the Paris weights, which French
were always used by philosophers, were the following:
weights.
*Phil. Trans. 1740. Vol. XLI. p. 457.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1743. Vol. XLII. p. 541.
+ Phil. Trans. 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 54.
Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 133.
526
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
24 grains = I denier, or scruple.
3 deniers = 1 gros.
8 gros
= 1 ounce.
Roman mea-
sures.
Greek and
Roman money.
8 ounces = 1 marc.
= 1 pound.
2 marcs
Their measures of length were lines, inches, feet, toises. We have two
papers in the Philosophical Transactions comparing the French with the
English weights and measures.
It appears from a very exact measurement, made by Dr. Maskelyne, that at
the temperature of 61°, the Paris toise is equal to 76-7344 English inches.*
From the experiments of the Royal Society, it appears that the Paris pound,
of two marcs, or sixteen ounces, weighs 7560 grains troy. From these data
it is easy to determine the proportion between all the other French weights and
measures.
From a paper, by Mr. Martin Folkes, it appears that the ancient Roman
foot, as determined by measures still remaining in the city of Rome, was equal
to 0.967 of the English foot; while the Grecian foot was equal to 1.006 of the
English foot. These measures were afterwards determined with greater pre-
cision by Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn. He found the ancient Roman foot
=116063 English inches; the Grecian foot = 12.09 English inches.§
+
In the year 1771, Mr. Raper published, in the Philosophical Transactions,
a very curious dissertation on the ancient Greek and Roman money, which
comes to be mentioned here, because these coins were used as weights as well as
coins; and from them, therefore, we derive the only means which we possess
of determining the weights of these ancient nations. The Attic coins were all
silver during the existence of the republic. They coined copper, indeed,
during the Pelopennesian war, but it was soon cried down again. The first, or
standard coin, was the drachm. The mina contained 100 drachms; the talent
60 minas: and these were not only coins but weights. The drachm was divided
into six oboles. The drachm was equal to half a Persian daric. The philippic,
a gold coin of Philip, of Macedon, is conceived to have been equal to the daric
in weight. Mr. Raper, from a number of philippics which he weighed, shows
that the weight of one was at least 133 grains troy; and hence concludes that
the Attic drachm weighed 664 grains.
Silver was first coined at Rome, in the 485th year of the city, five years
before the first Punic war; and the denarius was made to pass for ten pounds
*Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 274.
Phil. Trans. 1738. Vol. XXXIX. p. 262.
5
† Phil. Trans. 1742. Vol. XLII. p. 185.
Phil. Trans. 1798. Vol. LXXXVIII. p. 133.
CHAP. I.]
527
MISCELLANEOUS.-WEIGHTS and Measures.
of copper, the quinarius for five, and the sesterce for two and a half; but the
weight of the as was reduced in the first Punic war, when the republic, being
unable to defray its expences, resolved to coin six asses out of the pound; by
which they gained five parts, and paid their debts. The stamp of the as was a
double-faced Janus on one side, and the prow of a ship on the other: on the
triens and quadrans, a boat. After this, when they were pressed by Hannibal,
the as was reduced to one ounce; and the silver denarius made to pass for six-
teen asses; the quinarius for eight; and the sesterce for four and the republic
gained one half. But, in the pay of the army, the soldier received a silver de-
narius for ten asses: The stamp of the silver money was a chariot and a pair,
or a chariot and four horses: whence they were called bigati and quadrigati.
The as was soon after reduced to half an ounce, by the Papirian law. What is
now called the victoriat was coined under the Clodian law; before which it was
imported from Illyricum, as merchandize. Its stamp is a Victory, whence it
takes its name. The gold money was coined sixty years after the silver, and the
scruple passed for 20 sesterces; which, as the sesterce was reckoned at that
time (2 asses), made the pound of gold worth 900 silver denarii (of 16 asses
each). It was afterwards thought proper to coin 40 pieces out of the pound
of gold; and the weight was by degrees diminished to 45 in the pound. Such
is the account given by Pliny of the Roman coinage. It was afterwards entirely
altered by Constantine. The Roman coins were not, like the Greek, used as
weights on the contrary, they depended upon the Roman weights. From a
number of gold coins, weighed by Mr. Raper, and from many corroborating
circumstances, he concludes that the Roman pound was equal to 5040 troy
grains.* If this be the true weight of the Roman pound, it follows, that the
ancient Saxon pound, which weighed 5400 troy grains, was not the Roman
pound as has been conjectured; but considerably heavier.
and measares,
The last paper in the Transactions, on the subject of weights and measures, Jewish weights
is an account of an essay by Dr. Cumberland, upon the Jewish weights and
measures. He endeavours to prove, and his proofs seem conclusive, that the
ancient Egyptian cubit is the same as the modern. There is every reason to
believe that the Jews borrowed their weights and measures from the Egyptians.
Now the present Egyptian cubit is 219 English inches. Hence it is easy to
deduce all the other Jewish measures, whose relation to the cubit is known. He
endeavours to prove that the epha was equal to 4th of the ardub, or cube of the
Egyptian cubit; so that it held 74 gallons and half a pint, or was nearly
equal to the English cubic foot, which (of water) weighs nearly 1000 avoirdu-
pois ounces. Hence it is easy to deduce the measures of capacity, whose rela-
* Phil. Trans. 1771. Vol. LXI. p. 462.
523
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY:
tion to the epha is known. The shekel, he determines as equal to half an ounce
avoirdupois. The value of the coin called the shekel was, he says, two shil-
lings and four pence halfpenny. Hence we may deduce all the weights and
coins.*
Healthiness
of Loudon.
CHAP. II.
OF POLITICAL ARITHMETIC.
THIS subject might, without impropriety, have been discussed under the head
of Mathematics; but we left it out, partly because mathematics was too much
crowded with important articles, and partly because several of the most curious
papers in the Philosophical Transactions do not take a mathematical view of
the subject. We mean to restrict the term Political Arithmetic here within
much narrower limits than it usually bears. The papers in the Philosophical
Transactions relate simply to the population of different places; and some of
them touch upon the causes of the population. As to the doctrine of annuities,
founded on the probability of human life, that is a doctrine purely mathematical,
depending upon the theory of compound interest, and cannot with propriety be
touched upon here.
One of the very first things that strike one is the surprizing difference in the
healthiness of London at present, notwithstanding its great increase of popula-
tion, and what it was during the 17th century. At present the number of
inhabitants in London, and the contiguous villages, which in fact make a part
of it, is 1,090,000. We do not know exactly what it was in the 17th century;
but, as it has been increasing ever since, and, as in the year 1753, the number
of inhabitants did non exceed 750,000,† we shall not probably err very much
if we reckon the inhabitants of London at the revolution, in 1688, about half
a million. Yet, in the years 1685, 1686, and 1687, the births and deaths were
to each other as follows:
1685...
1686...
1687...
Births.
..14730....
..14694...
.. 14951.
Deaths.
..23222
22609
21460.
So that at this period the deaths exceeded the births by no less a quantity
* Phil. Trans. 1686. Vol. XVI. p. 33.
+ Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 788.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1685. Vol. XV. p. 1245; and Vol. XVII. p. 445.
CHAP. II.]
599
MISCELLANEOUS.-POLITICAL ARITHMETIC.
*
Great Britain.
than 7639, or more than one half of the whole births. At present, the number
of births exceed that of deaths. This must be owing to the different mode of
living, and the improvements in the width of the streets, and in cleanliness.
The same improvements having taken place in every part of Great Britain, it
is probable that the value of human life is rather increased in this island.
We had no very accurate means of estimating the population of Great Bri- Population of
tain, previous to the late returns made to Parliament, in the years 1802 and
1811, so that the estimates made are probably incorrect. But there can be no
doubt that the population of the island has been constantly on the increase, at
least since the revolution, and probably for a long period before it. In the
year 1755, Brakenridge reckoned the whole inhabitants of England at 6 mil-
lions; while Forster reckoned them at 74 millions.† The last, notwithstand-
ing the plausible arguments of Brakenridge to the contrary, was probably
nearest the truth. At present, the population is above 10 millions. It has in-
creased (at least the population of Great Britain) 1,600,000 within the last 10
years. And supposing the whole population of Great Britain to be 12 millions,
which is not very far from the truth, then it follows that, at the present rate of
increase, the number of inhabitants doubles in 70 years. This is a degree of
rapidity which no body was aware of before the late parliamentary returns. It
ought to check that spirit of despondency which some of our political writers
are apt to indulge. Great Britain is at present in such a state that, with fru-
gality and wisdom, we could continue a contest with all Europe for 50 years to
come, without any material injury to the nation. Indeed, in some points of
view, the present state of exclusion from the continent may be considered as
advantageous. To those politicians indeed, who consider money as the only
article of value in a nation, nothing can be said: but, to those wiser men, who
regard the moral principles and spirit of a nation as of more consequence than
wealth, it may afford consolation to consider that, by this exclusion, our young
men of fortune are prevented from imbibing the profligate principles which are
so common on the continent, and which they were imbibing with such eager-
ness, that a few years of peace would have brought Great Britain to the state of
profligacy so glaring in France; or to the state of imbecility and meanness so
deplorable among the higher ranks in Spain.
Between the years 1740 and 1750, the number of inhabitants in Bristol, as
ascertained with a good deal of accuracy by Mr. Browning, was 43,692.
Since that period the population has increased considerably, but not in the same
proportion as that of several other towns in Great Britain. Various causes have
checked the rapid increase of trade in Bristol; the chief probably is, that the
Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 268.
Phil. Trans. 1753. Vol. XLVIII. p. 217.
+ Phil. Trans. 1757. Vol. L. p. 457.
3 Y
530
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
trade of the town has got into the hands of a few rich merchants, who do
not encourage the adventurous spirit of young men destitute of fortune, upon
whom the increase of most places in trade and wealth, and consequently in
population, depends. Bristol. was formerly the second town in Great Britain.
in point of population; now it is exceeded by nine or ten. Two of the most
remarkable examples of increase of population are Liverpool and Sheffield,
Liverpool, in Queen Elizabeth's time, was hardly inhabited at all: at present
its population is not much short of 100,000. Sheffield, in Queen Elizabeth's
time, did not contain more than 2000 inhabitants: its present population ex-
ceeds 53,000. In the year 1773, the number of inhabitants in Manchester,
from an actual survey, was 27,246. By the returns made to Parliament, in
1811, they amount to about 100,000; and if we include Salford, which in
reality constitutes a part of the town, as much as Southwark does of London,
the present population of Manchester is about 128,000.
Chester is one of the oldest towns in Great Britain. From the name, and
from many other circumstances, there can be no doubt that it was a Roman
station. It has long been resorted to as an agreeable retirement for persons of
small incomes, both on account of the comparative cheapness of the place, and
the agreeableness of the country. There is another inducement of no less in-
portance, of which perhaps people in general are not aware. From a compa-
rison of the bills of mortality at Chester with those in other places, Dr. Hay-
garth has shown that it is one of the healthiest spots in Great Britain.*
Dr. White, by comparing the births in York, between 1728 and 1735, with
those between 1770 and 1776, has shown that the city has increased prodigi-
ously in healthiness. At the former period the burials exceeded the births by
98 annually. The average number of burials being 498. At the latter period
the births exceeded the burials by 214 annually. The decrease of burials had
amounted to 44 annually, and the increase of births to 74% annually. He
shows that at the period when he wrote, York rather exceeded the healthiness
of any great town of which registers had been published, the deaths being only
I in 284, while in Vienna they were 1 in 194, and in London 1 in 20. Liver-
pool and Manchester approached nearest to York in point of healthiness; the
deaths in the former being 1 in 27, and the latter 1 in 28.†
It appears, from a paper by Mr. Panton, that the population in the Isle of
Anglesey had increased in the year 1773. But his statements are not sufficient
to give us any exact data on the subject. He conceives that the increase may
be owing to the substitution of potatoes for herrings as an article of food, a
notion too vague to merit any serious attention.‡
* Phil. Trans. 1774. Vol. LXIV. p. 67; Vol. LXV. p. 85; and Vol. LXVIII. p. 131.
Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII, p. 35.
Phil. Trans. 1773. Vol. LXIII. p. 180.
3
CHAP. II.]
531
MISCELLANEOUS.-POLITICAL ARITHMETIC.
Madeira,
We have a very exact account of the population of Madeira in the year 1767, Population of
by Dr. Thomas Heberden, from an actual survey which he caused to be made,
on purpose to ascertain the point. The result was as follows:-In the year
1743, the number of inhabitants amounted to 53,057, in the year 1767 to
64,614. Hence it follows that the increase is 1.0082 per cent. per annum, and
the numbers in the island double every 84 years.*
Holland,
In the year 1738, a curious book was published by Mr. Kersseboom on the Population of
number of people in Holland and West Friesland, as also in Haarleın, Gauda,
and the Hague; a particular account of which is given in several papers in the
Philosophical Transactions. We shall give the number of inhabitants in Hol-
land and West Friesland, and in different cities, according to this author.f
Inhabitants.
Holland and West Friesland 980,000 | Gauda..
Amsterdam...
Haarlem.
241,000 Hague.
50,500 London.
Inhabitants.
20,000
41,500
..653,600
He is at much pains to prove that the number of inhabitants in Paris is
greater than in London. But his proofs are unsatisfactory, and were triumph-
antly refuted by Mr. Maitland At present the number of inhabitants in
London approaches to double the number of the inhabitants in Paris. In
travelling through Britain and France, the state of the towns is no less strik-
ingly different than that of the country. In Britain every town abounds with
new houses, and buildings are every where rising in great abundance: in
France the houses in every town are old, and hardly such a thing as a new
house is any where to be seen. More new houses have been built in London
alone within these 12 years than in all France for 50 years back.
Dr. Price, in a curious paper which he published in the Philosophical
Transactions for the year 1775, gives strong reasons for believing that there is a
prodigious preponderancy in favour of the country above the most healthy
cities. In Manchester, for example, the number of deaths is one in 28; but
in the neighbouring country only one in 56 dies. He has brought evidence
that nearly the same disproportion holds in other cases. From a pretty long
table given by Dr. Price, in this paper, it appears that the number of male
births to that of females is as 20 to 19 very nearly. But, in some measure to
counteract this, the chance of life in females is greater than in males.§
It may
be supposed perhaps that the risk which females run from parturition counter-
balances this greater chance of life. But from the observations of Dr. Bland,
*Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 461.
Phil. Trans. 1738. Vol. XL. p. 407.
+ Phil. Trans. 1738. Vol. XL. p. 401
Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 421.
3Y2
532
[BOOK V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
made at the Westminster Dispensatory, it appears that the deaths from parturi-
tion amount only to one in 270.*
We shall finish this part of our subject with noticing a curious paper by Dr.
Arbuthnot, the celebrated satirical writer, and associate of Swift and Pope, in
which he demonstrates, that the constant equality kept up between the sexes is
an unanswerable argument in favour of the existence of a Divine Providence.
For the chances are so much against this equality, that it could not be sup-
posed to take place unless it were so ordered by the will of the Divine Being,
for the express purpose of preventing the possibility of the extinction of the
human species.t
Cæsar's expe
dition into
Britain,
CHAP. III.
OF ANTIQUITIES.
THERE are no fewer than 120 papers in the Philosophical Transactions on the
subject of antiquities. But the greater number of them consist of descriptions
of coins, urns, baths, &c. which do not appear of sufficient importance to merit
notice here. The papers which we shall notice are of a different kind, and de-
serve attention, either in a historical point of view, or as connected with the
progress of science, and the improvement of human knowledge.
1. The first paper we shall mention is a curious one by Dr. Halley to deter-
mine the time and the place of Cæsar's first landing in Britain. The only
authors who treat of the subject are, Cæsar himself in the 4th Book of his
Commentaries, and Dion Cassius in his 39th Book. From the circumstances
mentioned by Cæsar, Dr. Halley shows that the day of the landing was the
26th of August in the afternoon, in the year 55, before the beginning of the
Christian æra. The Portus Icius from which he sailed agrees best with Calais.
From the distances between different places and the British coast, mentioned by
Ptolemy and other ancient writers, Dr. Halley thinks that no other place but
Calais will suit. But no great stress can be put on such determinations. Davila,
who is a modern historian, and who having spent the greater part of his life in
France, ought to have been better informed, says, that the distance between
Britain and Calais is 30 leagues, whereas it does not exceed 26 English miles.
Now if Davila, who lived almost on the spot, could fall into so great an error,
what confidence can be put in Ptolemy, who lived at so great a distance as
* Phil Trans. 1781. Vol. LXXI. p. 355.
+ Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 186.
CHAP. III.]
533
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUIT ES
Egypt. Cæsar indeed says, that the distance was 30 miles; and his determina-
tion, as he possessed a military eye, and as he sailed over the space, may be re-
lied on as nearly exact. Now the distance between Calais and Dover is just
284 Roman miles, which agrees sufficiently well with Cæsar's estimate, and
seems to settle the point pretty correctly. From the wind with which Cæsar
sailed, from the time of the day, and the direction of the tide, together with
the description which he gives, it seems quite certain that he first made land at
the cliffs of Dover; but that the Britons preventing him from coming on shore
in that place, he sailed round the North Foreland, and landed about eight
miles from Dover in the Downs. The only difficulty attending this opinion is
Dion Cassius's account of the place where the Britons skirmished with Cæsar,
ES TO Tεvayn, which is commonly translated among the marshes. Dr. Halley re-
moves this difficulty by translating the phrase at the water's edge, which le
shows satisfactorily that it will bear.*
2. We have three papers in an early volume of the Philosophical Transactions, Ruins of Pal-
giving an account of the ruins of Tadmor or Palmyra, a city built in a kind of myra.
Oasis, in the desert of Arabia, about 150 miles from Aleppo, and 60 from the
river Euphrates. There is every reason to believe that it was built by Solomon,
who is said (1 Kings IX. 18, and 2 Chron. VIII. 6,) to have founded a city
of that name (77) in the desert. It did not probably remain long in pos-
session of the Jews, and doubtless fell successively under the Babylonian, the
Persian, and the Grecian monarchies; till at last when the Roman conquests were
stopped by the Parthians, being a kind of frontier town, it was allowed to re-
tain its liberty; and during this period it seems to have acquired considerable
wealth and grandeur. But when Trajan took possession of Ctesiphon, the ca-
pital of the Parthian empire, the inhabitants of Palmyra, being surrounded on
all sides by the Roman empire, submitted themselves to the emperor Adrian
about the year 130, when he made his progress through Syria into Egypt.
Adrian being pleased with the situation and the place, thought proper to re-
build and adorn it, and probably presented it with some of those marble and
porphyry columns, which have been so much admired by all who have visited
its ruins.
From the time of Adrian to that of Aurelian, Palmyra continued to flourish
and increase in wealth and power. When the Emperor Valerian was taken
prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, Odænathus, one of the lords of Palmyra,
was able, while Gallienus neglected his duty both to his father and country, to
bring a powerful army into the field, to recover Mesopotamia from the Persians,
and to penetrate as far as Ctesiphon. Gallienus reckoned the service thus per-
formed so important, that he considered himself as obliged to give Odænathus
*Phil. Trans. 1691. Vol. XVII. p. 495.
534
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Age of Homer.
a share in the empire. Being murdered soon after, together with his son Hero-
cles, and dying with the title of Augustus, his widow Zenobia took upon her-
self the government of the East, iu right of her son Waballathus, then a minor,
and managed it to admiration. Gallienus being soon after murdered, she seized
upon the government of Egypt, and held it during the short reign of the Em-
peror Claudius Gothicus. But when Aurelian was advanced to the imperial
dignity, he refused to allow Waballathus to bear the title of Augustus, though
he permitted him to continue his authority under the name of Vice Cæsaris.
But Zenobia refusing to accept of any thing less than a participation of the
empire, Aureliau marched against her, defeated her forces, and shut her up and
besieged her in Palmyra. The city speedily surrendered, Zenobia and her sou
flying were taken, and the celebrated Longinus, her minister, was put to death.
Aurelian spared the city, and leaving a small garrison in it, marched back to
Rome. But the inhabitants, believing he would not again return, murdered
the garrison, and set up for themselves. Aurelian, though by this time he had
got into Europe, marched directly back, collected an army on his way, besieged
the city, took it by storm, and gave it up to be plundered by his troops.
The city never recovered this disaster. For though Aurelian does not appear
to have burnt it, but merely to have demolished its walls, yet it never afterwards
made any figure in history. When it was finally destroyed we do not know;
though it might probably be during the wars of the Saracens. The destruction
seems to have been sudden and complete. At present it is inhabited by about
40 families, who occupy sorry huts within the precincts of the ancient palaces
no better than pig-sties. The ruins have remained without much dilapidation,
except what proceeded from the superstition of the Mahometans, because it is
too far off from every other city to make it worth while to carry off the stones
for building. As to the description of the ruins, which appear to be very fine,
we refer the reader to the papers in the Transactions,* and to various books of
travels in which they are particularly described and figured.
3. The oldest profane poets in existence are Hesiod and Homer, who are ge-
nerally considered as nearly contemporaries, though Hesiod is allowed to have
the precedence in point of antiquity by a few years. Homer's poems were un-
known in Greece till they were brought to Athens by Solon, who seems to have
met with them in some of the Grecian cities of Asia. We are informed by Ci-
cero, that it was Pisistratus who first arranged the writings of Homer in the
order in which we find them at present. Now Pisistratus, according to Scali-
ger, seized the chief government of Athens in the 50th Olympiad, or 577 years
before the commencement of the Christian æra. The Oxford marble places the
commencement of his reign at 557 years before Christ, a date which agrees well
* Phil. Trans. 1695. Vol. XIX. p. 83, 129, and 100
CHAP. III.J
535
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUITIES,
with the account given by Plutarch. In what year he digested the poems of
Homer we do not know; but it certainly was not before that period, as Solon
did not return to Athens till Pisistratus was preparing to assume the government.
of the city. Thus it appears that the period when Homer became known as a
poet in Greece was not earlier than 557 years before the commencement of the
Christian æra. Homer himself certainly lived before that period, and a circum-
stance related by Laertius would lead us to believe that he preceded it a consi-
derable time. According to that writer, Solon made use of the following lines
of Homer, to prove that the Athenians had a right to the island of Salamis
Αίας δ' ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος ἀγεν δυοκαίδεκα νέας,
Στῆσε δ᾽ ἀγων, ἵν᾿ Αθηναίων ίσταντο φάλαγγες.
Now it is not consistent with common sense, to suppose that he would bring
such a proof from the writings of a contemporary poet: or that it would have
been listened to with patience, if he had.
As to the exact period when Homer lived, nothing very satisfactory is known.
Velleius Paterculus places him 920 years before the commencement of the Chris-
tian æra. Herodotus, a much older authority, places him four hundred years
before his own time, or about 831 years before the Christian æra. Petavius
places Homer 1000 years before the commencement of the Christian æra, and
Sir Isaac Newton places Hesiod 879 years before the same æra, while Mr. Cos-
tard brings down Homer to within 557 years of the Christian æra, which seems
too low, if we attend to the circumstances above mentioned. Sir Isaac Newton,
and astronomical writers in general, have been led to fix upon the above period
for the age of Hesiod, because in one of his poems he mentions that the star
Arcturus rose achronically 60 days after the winter solstice. But several cir-
cumstances prevent this from marking a very precise period. The winter sols-
fice could not be very exactly known in Hesiod's time, and the difference of a
day or two would make a very material alteration in the period to which Hesiod
refers. By rising achronically must mean not strictly rising the instant the sun
sets; because the stars are never visible at that period: it must mean rising at
such an interval after sunset as will admit the stars to be seen. Now this gives
such a latitude to the poet that we have no means of even guessing how long it
might be. Upon the whole, the period assigned by Newton seems as likely to
be correct as any other. At any rate we are certain that Homer lived before the
year 557 before Christ, and that his poems have been known and admired ever
since, or for a period of 2369 years. *
4. The famous pillar composed of a single mass of stone, usually called Pom-Pompey's Pil.
lar.
Phil. Trans. 1754. Vol. XLVIII.
p. 441.
536
[BOOK V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Visit to the
written moun-
tains.
pey's Pillar, situated about a mile from the walls of Alexandria, in Egypt, has
been commonly considered as having been erected to the memory of Pompey.
The remarks of Mr. Wortley Montague, proving this opinion to be inaccurate,
therefore deserve to be noticed. The following are the measurements of the
different parts of this immense pillar, as ascertained by Mr. Montague.
Capital of the pillar 9 feet, 7 inches.
The shaft..
The base..
..66
14
5
94
The pedestal . .
10 feet, 5 inches.
Height from the ground 92
Its diameter.
•
0
9
1
Mr. Montague was surprised to find the pedestal so inferior to the pillar itself.
It was composed of small and great stones of different sorts, and was of bad and
weak masonry. Taking out a stone he found that this pedestal was hollow, and
after the labour of many days he made a hole in it large enough to let him in.
He found that the pillar stood upon a reversed obelisk, 5 feet square, and 4 feet
and 1 inch thick. This obelisk was covered with hieroglyphics reversed, a
proof that it had been used for the purpose of supporting the pillar when these
were no longer the sacred characters of Egypt.
Observing that the cement or mortar, which closes the small separation of the
shaft from the base, was quite destroyed in one part, Mr. Montague was cu
rious to see if any thing was made use of to fasten or tie the shaft to the base.
He soon saw that there was something, and being desirous to know if it was
lead, he introduced a pretty large hanger, in order if possible to cut off a part
of the grapple. He then discovered a dark spot at the distance of more than a
foot, within the circumference of the pillar, and by striking it with the hanger,
he discovered that it was something stuck fast to the base. After striking it se-
veral times he detached it from its place, and found it to be a medal of Vespa-
sian in fine order. On one side was this inscription ΑΛΤ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒΑ. ΟΛΕΣΠ.
The reverse is Victoria gradiens; dextra spicas, sinis. palmam. From this me-
dal, which he conceived must have been placed where he found it at the time
the pillar was erected, Mr. Montague concludes that it was erected during the
time of Vespasian, and no doubt in honour of that emperor. This lateness of
the erection accounts for the silence of Strabo, which would have been singular
had the pillar been erected in memory of Pompey.*
5. Mr. Wortley Montague, whose singular character is well known, spent a
great part of his time in eastern countries, and was as well acquainted with He-
brew, Arabic, and Persian, as with his own language. On that account his
journey from Cairo to the written mountains, undertaken on purpose to trace
the rout of the Israelites out of Egypt, deserves considerable attention. Few
* Phil. Trans. 1767. Vol. LVII. p. 438.
6
CHAP. III.]
537
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUITIES.
people were, by knowledge of the language, so well qualified for the task, and
he seems to have been at the requisite pains. His account of his journey is
somewhat confused; but such as it is we shall mention the most striking parti-
culars which it contains.
He set out from Cairo by the road known by the name of Tauriche Beni
Israel, Road of the Children of Israel. After about 20 hours travelling at
the rate of three miles an hour, he passed by an opening in the mountains on
the right hand, the mountains Maxatree. There are two roads, one to the
northward of this, which the Mecca pilgrims go; and one to the south between
the mountains. But this last road is seldom travelled, because it does not lead
to Suez. The children of Israel are said to have taken the most northerly road.
From Suez, Mr. Montague went to Tor, by sea. At Suez the tide flows six
feet, at spring tides nine feet, and sometimes, when the south wind blows strong,
twelve feet. It is high water when the moon is in the meridian. The Egyptian
shore of the red sea, from Badeah to opposite Tor, is all mountainous and steep,
and at Elim, the northernmost point of the bay of Tor, ends the ridge of moun-
tains which begin on the eastern shore of this western branch at Karondel.
From this place Mr. Montague crossed the plain in about eight hours, and
entered the mountains of Sinai. They are, he says, of granite of different co-
lours. He observed some writings upon the mountains which he did not exa-
mine particularly, conceiving them to be, comparatively speaking, modern.
He gives us an account of the print of the foot of Mahomet's camel observed on
the mountain, so famous among the Mahometans. It is, he says, a very cu-
rious lusus naturæ, and bears evident marks of having never been touched by
man. For the coat of granite is entire and unbroken in every part. What he
means by the coat of granite it is difficult to say. But surely it is not incon-
ceivable that a piece of granite cut above 1200 years ago, and exposed ever
since to the action of the weather, may have acquired the very same appearance
as any other part of the mountain.
He never,
Mr. Montague next describes Meribah, the place where Moses smote the rock,
and procured water for the Israelites. He says it is surprisingly striking. He
examined the lips of its mouths, and found that no chissel had ever worked there.
The channel is plainly worn by the course of the water, and the bare inspection
of it is sufficient to convince any one that it is not the work of man.
he says, met with any thing like this, except that at Jerusalem, and the two
cracks in the rock which Moses struck twice. Mr. Montague, from his en-
quiries and observations, considers it as certain that the present Sharme is the
Midian of the Old Testament, and Meenah El Dzahab, Eziongeber.
There are two roads from Mount Sinai to Jerusalem; the one through Pha-
ran; the other by the way of Dzahab. The first is eleven days' journey; but
the second is longer, because it is more mountainous. He set out from Mount
3 Z
538
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Sinai, by the way of
t'atacombs of
Rome.
Scheich Salem, and after passing Mahomet's stone, came
to a beautiful valley. Here, he says, he discovered the manna upon which the
children of Israel fed. Soon after he came to the rock which Moses struck
twice, and from which proceeds a river. This river runs by a number of ruins
which Mr. Montague considers as the ancient Kadesh Barnea. This is the
river which Eratosthenes supposed to be formed by the Arabian lakes, not being
acquainted with its miraculous source.
From this place Mr. Montague went down a large valley to the west towards
the sea, and passed the head of a valley, a part of the Desert of Sin, which
separates the mountains of Pharan from those which run along the coast, and
the same plain which they had passed from Tor. Here they came to the writ-
ten mountains. On examining the characters which covered these mountains,
he was greatly disappointed at finding them every where interspersed with
figures of men and beasts, which convinced him that they were not written by
the Israelites. Neither could they have been written by the Mahometans. For
the religious opinions of both prevent them from making figures of men or
animals. He thinks it probable that they were engraven by the first Jewish
converts to Christianity, when probably pilgrimages from Jerusalem to Mount
Sinai were fashionable and frequent. The characters he conceives to be those
that were used by the Jews at the time of our Saviour. There are a few Greek,
Arabic, and Saracen, inscriptions on the same mountains, which merely say
such a one was here at such a time. Probably the others, which cannot be
made out, allude to the same thing. So that they are in reality not worth the
trouble of decyphering.
From the appearance of the country, and from the names of the places, which
all allude to the wonderful event; as, Tauriche Beni Israel, road of the children
of Israel; Attacah, deliverance; Badeah, new thing or miracle; Bachorel
Polsum, sea of destruction; Mr. Montague is convinced that the Israelites
entered the sea at Badeah, and no where else. The current too sets from this
place, where he encamped, towards the opposite shore into the pool Birque
Pharaone, Pool of Pharaoh, where the tradition is that his host was drowned;
a current formed, he supposes, by the falling and rushing of one watery wall
on the other, and driving it down.*
6. The catacombs at Rome and Naples have long been the admiration of
antiquarians. They are long galleries under ground, extending an immense
way, from which others proceed, some of them merely niches, others in the
form of small rooms or chapels. We have an account of the catacombs at
Rome in an early volume of the Transactions, by Mr. John Monro. From his
description it would appear that they extended a great many miles, and that the
Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI, p. 40.
CHAP. III.]
539
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUITIES.
whole of Rome, and a considerable space round it, was hollow underneath. In
his time the Roman Catholic priests were continually employed in digging into
these repositories, alleging that the bodies of a great number of Christian
martyrs had been deposited there. Aphial, together with the letters Xp, which
they translated pro Christo, was the mark of a martyr, and whenever they found
them they carried the accompanying relics to the palace. There were two opi-
nions entertained respecting the origin of these catacombs, both of which are
too extravagant to be credited. The first is, that they were dug by the primitive
Christians as places of refuge in times of persecution. That they held their
meetings in them when it was unlawful for them to meet any where else; and
that in them they were in the habit of depositing the bodies of their dead. But
the vastness of the catacombs is an insuperable objection to the admission of
this account, as it was impossible for any person to have dug them, without the
knowledge of government, who would not have permitted the Christians to
undertake such a work. Besides had the catacombs been dug so recently as
after the introduction of the Christian religion, the work would have been too
notorious to have escaped the notice of historians. The other opinion is, that
they were the puteoli into which the Romans were accustomed to throw the
dead bodies of their slaves, to save the expence of burning them. But the
immence size of the catacombs is inconsistent with such an opinion. The
digging of them would be more expensive than burning the dead bodies of
their slaves for many years. Besides, the care with which the bodies were de-
posited, and the small rooms or chapels so common in them, show a much
greater degree of care and attention than would have been bestowed upon places
intended for depositing the bodies of slaves. The puteoli were nothing else than
deep pits into which the bodies of the slaves were carelessly thrown. The cata-
combs must have been dug at an early period, since no account of them is to be
traced in history. They must have been dug at a time when it was customary
to bury and not to burn the dead, and therefore before the period of the Roman
power.
*
Cornwall.
7. In the county of Cornwall there are a great many conical tumuli known Barrows in
by the name of barrows. They differ in height from 4 feet to 30, and in
breath from 15 to 130. Some of them have a circle of stones at the top, others
at the bottom. Some are surrounded with a ditch, while others are without that
accompaniment. They are all composed of artificial earth, and have a small
pit at their centre filled with black fat earth. The general opinion entertained
was, that they were ancient tombs, and this opinion was verified by Dr. Wil-
liams, who digging into a large one found under three flat stones, near one of
the borders of the barrow, a large urn of baked earth, filled with half burnt
Phil. Trans. 1700. Vol. XXII. p. 649.
3 z 2
540
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Herculaneum,
bones and ashes. At what period these barrows were raised we have no means
of knowing. There is some reason to suspect that Cornwall was never in the
possession of the Romans. It long maintained its independency against the
Saxons; but at last became tributary to them, though without intermixing
much. Hence it would appear, that this county continued to be inhabited by
the original inhabitants. But on account of their connection with the Phoni-
cians and the Greeks, who traded to Cornwall for tin, they might easily adopt
the custom of burning the dead which prevailed in these nations.*
8. About the year 1713, the city of Herculaneum, which is supposed to have
been buried under the lava of mount Vesuvius during the reign of Titus Vespa-
sian, was discovered almost under the town of Portici, where the king of Na-
ples had a summer palace, and about half a mile from the sea side. The origi-
nal entrance was by the town well, a perpendicular pit of considerable depth,
at the bottom of which there was a passage that led into the city. The king of
Naples employed workmen to dig their way into this subterranean city, which
they did with great labour and difficulty. As the whole was filled with lava
which required to be removed before they could make any observations on the
nature of the buildings. There are no fewer than 14 papers in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions, giving an account of the discoveries made in Herculaneum,
during the first fifty years of digging; and as the labour was continued long
after, and as the Prince of Wales took some charge of unrolling and decypher-
ing the manuscripts, a book has been lately published in this country, giving
an account of what has been done since the publication of the papers in the
Transactions. A very short notice of some of the discoveries is all that will be
expected here.
It would appear that the inhabitants of the city had time to save themselves,
though they were obliged to leave their furniture behind them, as very few
skeletons were discovered. Some few however were met with. Particularly
one in a running posture at the door of a house, with a purse of silver coin in
his hand, completely inclosed in lava. If we consider the slowness with which
the lava from a volcano moves, the existence of a skeleton in such an attitude
must appear extraordinary. The man must have been instantaneously sur-
rounded with the lava, while in the act of making his escape: and the lava
must have been too cold to melt silver; for the coins were found unaltered in a
hollow under the left hand of the skeleton.
A great many pictures were found (about 1,500 in all) all painted on stucco
in water colours in fresco. The colours were remarkably beautiful, and ap-
peared as fresh as when newly painted. The greater number of these pictures
were poorly executed, being compared, by some of those who describe them,
* Phil. Trans. 1740. Vol. XLI, p. 465.
CHAP. III.]
541
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUITIES.
to the modern pictures on Chinese screens. A few were tolerably well done,
and two or three are praised as excellent. One of the best is a picture of The-
seus, after having slain the Minotaur, with that monster dead at his feet, and
the children, whose life he had saved, returning him thanks for his exertions in
their favour. There is another, representing a groupe of characters, and de-
scribing some solemn and melancholy scene, as the accusation of Virginia, by
the Decemvir Appius Claudius, which is also described as very fine.
A considerable number of statues were also found in most of the ruins, very
much mutilated, though some entire, and of exquisite workmanship. A great
number of ancient utensils were also dug out and described. Among other
articles ink-stands, with pens in them. The pens were of wood, and had no
slit in them like our modern pens, because the ancients did not join their letters
as we do, but wrote them all separate. Their mode of writing must have been
very tedious.
But the discovery, which excited the greatest attention and expectation, was
made in an apartment of a palace, into which the workmen made their way.
It was about 150 rolls of papyrus, as black as charcoal, and all sticking toge-
ther, which proved on examination to be so many ancient books. For a long
time all attempts to unroll these manuscripts, and of course to form any con-
ception of their contents, failed. At last, the King of Naples was advised to
send for Father Antonio, a writer in the Vatican, as the only man capable of
executing so difficult a task. This man contrived a kind of machine for the
purpose, and with infinite pains and patience, succeeded in unrolling one roll.
It was a Greek treatise on musick, by an author named Philodemus, abusing it
as enervating the mind, and injuring the moral dispositions. Another treatise
on rhetoric, by the same author, was also unrolled. Father Antonio copied
fac similes of these two treatises, with all the defects arising from the injury
which the papyrus had sustained. These defects being single words were easily
supplied, and the books were published. Unfortunately they are of no great
value; and though several other rolls have since been decyphered, the public
has hitherto been disappointed in their expectation of recovering any of the lost
works of some of the celebrated authors of antiquity.
*
Greece.
9. Much has been done by the admirers of the fine arts, in this country, to Antiquitier of
make us acquainted with the antiquities of Athens; which, next to those of
Rome, seem to be the most deserving of study of any that exist. Indeed during
the latter part of the last century, a great many Grecian antiquities have been
brought to this country; and a considerable change has no doubt been pro-
* Phil. Trans. 1740. Vol. XLI. p. 484, 489, 193; 1749. Vol. XLVI. p. 14; 1751. Vol. XLVII
p. 131, 150; 1754. Vol. XLVIII. p. 634, 821; 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 112, 490; 1757. Vol. L
p. 49, 88, 619.
?
549
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
duced by the dilapidations of the Turks. But the antiquities of Athens are
composed of so bulky and so solid materials, that a considerable part of them
must still remain. We have a short account of the most remarkable particulars
to be seen in Greece, in an early volume of the Philosophical Transactions, by
Mr. Vernon, who travelled over-land from Venice to Smyrna. It may be worth
while to notice some of the most remarkable particulars that he describes, that
we may have an opportunity of knowing the changes which have taken place
in that country, since about the year 1675, when that journey was probably
made.
At Spalatro, in Dalmatia, Dioclesian's palace, to which he retired after re-
siguing the empire, was still remaining. It is represented as an immense build-
ing, as large as the whole town of Spalatro, which was built out of its ruins,
and took its name from that circumstance. Within it was an entire temple of
Jupiter, of eight sides, with noble porphyry pillars, and admirable cornices.
In Athens, the temple of Minerva is represented as very entire; but being
situated within the castle of Athens, in which was a Turkish garrison, it was
difficult to examine it with exactness. The length of the cella, or body of the
temple without, is 168 English feet; the breadth 71 feet. The portico, of the
Doric order, which runs round it, has 8 pillars in front, and 17 on the sides;
its length is 230 feet. The shaft of the pillars is 19 feet in circumference: the
intercolumnium 14 of the diameter of the pillars. The temple of Theseus was
likewise entire; though much less, yet built after the same model. The length
of its cella is 73 feet; its breadth 26. The whole length of the portico which
goes round it 123 feet. It is a Doric building, as is that of Minerva, and both
are of white marble. About the cornice, on the outside of the temple of
Minerva, is a basso relievo of men on horseback, others in chariots, and a whole
procession of people going to a sacrifice, of very curious sculpture. On the
front is the history of the birth of Minerva. In the temple of Theseus, at the
west end, is the battle of the Centaurs; and at the east end, there seems to be
a continuation of the same story. There is a temple of Hercules, a round build-
ing, only six feet diameter; but of neat architecture. The pillars are of the
Corinthian order, supporting an architrave and piaze, wherein are done the
labours of Hercules, in relievo. The top is one single stone, wrought like a
shield, with a flower on the outside which rises like a plume of feathers. The
tower of Andronicus Cirrhestes was still standing. It is an octagon, with the
figures of the eight Winds, which are large, and of good workmanship; and the
names of the Winds remain legible in fair Greek characters, each pointing to
its own quarter of the heavens. Several other ancient buildings are described,
but these are the principal.
Thebes is still a large town, about 50 miles from Athens; but contains few
antiquities except a portion of the old wall, and one gate, which, it is said,
CHAP. III.]
543
MISCELLANEOUS.-ANTIQUITIES.
were spared by Alexander the Great when he destroyed the town. Sparta is
quite forsaken: Mestra, four miles distant from it, being the town which is
inhabited. Large ruins are seen there about almost all the walls; several towers
and foundations of temples, with pillars and chapiters, being demolished. A
theatre remains pretty entire. The city might have been about five miles in
compass, and about a quarter of a mile from the river Eurotas. The plain of
Sparta and Laconia is about 80 miles long, well watered, and very fruitful.
But the plain of Calamatta, anciently Messene, is rather richer. Alpheus is by
far the largest river in Greece. Arcadia is a pleasant champaign, and full of
cattle; but encompassed with rugged hills.*
10. The custom which prevailed among the ancient Egyptians of embalming Mummies.
their dead, and the mummies which, in such great numbers have been brought
from that country, are well known. A great number of these mummies have
been examined at various times, and, from the whole, it appears clear that the
methods of embalming were not always the same. In the case of a mummy be-
longing to the Royal Society, and examined at London, in 1763, by Dr. Had-
ley, it appears that the body had, in the first place, been reduced to the state of
a skeleton, all except the feet. It seems then to have been kept for some time in
boiling pitch. Finally, it was wrapped round with fillets of linen, dipped in
melted pitch, and in some gummy substance, and all the cavities were filled with
melted pitch which had been poured in. The bones had been penetrated with
the pitch, and many of their cavities filled with it. This pitch burned with an
aromatic odour, and was evidently a vegetable production, and probably a
mixture of various ingredients. When burned, it left behind it a considerable
quantity of fixed alkali. The nails of the toes were entire, and below one of
the feet, there was a bulbous root, quite fresh looking. Dr. Hadley does not
say what this root was.†
11. Mr. Swinton, who has published in the Philosophical Transactions a Ancient coin.
great many descriptions of ancient coins, has mentioned one which deserves par-
ticular notice. It belonged to Mr. Godwyn, Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
On one side, is the veiled head of a woman, with the Greek word BAXIMI££A£;
and on the reverse, the name MAITIAOE, in the exergue. He shows, that
Philistidis was Queen of Malta and Gozo, and that the coin must have been
struck before the Carthaginians came into the possession of these islands, and
while they were possessed by the Grecks and Phoenicians.
12. There is another very curious paper by Mr. Swinton, in which he gives Numerals of
an account of the numeral characters used by the ancient inhabitants of Sidon; Sidon
* Phil. Trans. 1676. Vol. XI. p. 575.
‡ Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. SO,
† Phil. Trans. 1761. Vol. LIV. p. 1.
544
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Newton.
which he made out from the Sidonian coins, in consequence of their great
similarity to the Palmyrenc numerals, which were known. We are under the
necessity of referring to the paper itself, as it would be impossible to make the
numerals intelligible without engravings.*
Chronology of 13. We shall conclude this chapter with a few words on the chronology of
Sir Isaac Newton; concerning which there are three papers in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, one written by Sir Isaac himself, and two by Dr. Halley.
Sir Isaac informs us, that at the request of a very great personage, (probably
Queen Caroline,) he drew up a compend of chronology, with which subject
he had been accustomed to amuse himself at Cambridge, when tired with other
studies. At the request of this person a copy of the Newtonian Chronology
was given to the Abbé Conti, a noble Venetian, at that time in London, on the
express stipulation that the Abbé should keep it secret, as it was not meant for
publication. But when he went to Paris, he communicated copies of it to
different persons. P. Souciet translated it into French, and published it with
a refutation at the end, though Newton had expressly refused to give his con-
sent to any such publication. In this refutation, Newton himself is treated
with very little ceremony, and even turned into ridicule. When a copy of this
book was sent to Newton, he was hurt at the treatment, and at the improper
conduct of the French translator and refuter, who had published his paper
which never had been intended for publication, not only without leave, but
in spite of an express prohibition. On that account, Newton's paper, in which
he points out the mistakes of the French translator, and vindicates his own
system, is written with considerable severity. Nor does he spare the character
of the Abbé Conti himself, to whose improper conduct the publication was
owing. He had assumed the character, he said, of Newton's friend, and had
pretended to mediate in the dispute between him and Leibnitz; but, in reality,
had been a partizan of Leibnitz: and that singular man endeavoured, in con-
sequence, to involve Newton in new disputes about occult qualities, universal
gravity, the sensorium of God, space, time, vacuum, atoms, the perfection of
the world, supramundane intelligence, and mathematical problems. And what
he has been doing in Italy, concludes Newton, may be understood by the dis-
putes raised there by one of his friends, who denies many of my optical expe-
riments, though they have been all tried in France with success. But I
hope that these things, and the perpetual motion, will be the last efforts of this
kind.f
Dr. Halley took up the subject after Newton's death, and displayed upon it.
his usual learning and acuteness, pointing out abundance of mistakes, into which
*Phil. Trans. 1758. Vol. L. p. 791.
+ Phil. Trans. 1725. Vol. XXXIII. p. 315.
+
· CHAP. IV]
545
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
P. Souciet had fallen, and showing that the Newtonian conclusions had not
been drawn from loose or inadequate data.*
By the Newtonian calculation, the expedition of the Argonauts, upon which
the whole of his chronology is founded, happened 955 years before Christ but
from other data, he places that expedition 937 years before Christ. It is at
present the general opinion that this date crowds the subsequent events rather
too closely upon each other; and therefore the ordinary chronology, which
places the Argonautic expedition 1250 years before the commencement of the
Christian era, is at present followed. It is about half between the Newtonian
date and that of Souciet.
}
?
CHAP. IV.
OF MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
BESIDES the subjects treated of already in the preceding chapters, there are a
few others of so miscellaneous a nature, that they cannot be included under any
single head. We shall notice the chief of them in this chapter.
I. Printing.
We have three papers on the discovery of printing in the Philosophical
Transactions. As the subject is curious, and the authors appear to have been
at considerable pains in collecting information, we shall state here the substance
of their opinions.
Printing was discovered at Haarlem, in Holland, by Coster, and the first book
was printed in the year 1430. It was a Dutch piece of theology, printed
only on one side of the page, and in imitation of manuscript. The first
attempts at printing were upon loose leaves, and the printed part was ac-
companied with cuts, somewhat in the manner of our present ballads. Coster's
method was to cut out the letters upon a wooden block. He took for an ap-
prentice John Fust, and bound him to secrecy. But Fust ran away with his
master's materials, and set up for himself at Mentz. He had a servant called
Peter Schoeffer, who first invented separate metal types. Fust, upon seeing
them was so delighted, that he gave Schoeffer his daughter in marriage, and
made him his partner. The first book they printed is said to have been Cicero
de Officiis, which bears the date of 1465. But other books are mentioned with
* Phil. Trans. 1727. Vol. XXXIV. p. 205; and Vol. XXXV. p. 296.
4 A
546
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
earlier dates, 1457, 1442. They printed a number of bibles, in imitation of
manuscript, and Fust carried them to Paris for sale. The Parisians, upon com-
paring together the different copies, were confounded at the exact similarity
they bore to each other in every part; a similarity so great, that the most exact
copyist could not have attained it. They accused Fust of being possessed of
some diabolical art. This at once obliged him to discover the secret; and gave
origin to the story of Dr. Faustus.
After the discovery of the art of printing, thus brought about at Paris, it
quickly made its way over the whole of Europe. The first book printed in
England, is said to have been Rufinus on the Creed; printed at Oxford, in
1468.
At first the impression was taken off with a list, coiled up, as the card makers
use at this day. But when they came to use single types, they employed
stronger paper, with vellum and parchment. At last the press was introduced,
and brought gradually to its present state. The same observation applies to
the ink at first, the common writing ink was employed, and the printing ink,
of lamp-black and oil, at present used, was introduced by degrees. Rolling
press printing was not used in England till the time of King James the First;
and then it was brought from Antwerp by the industrious John Speed.*
II. The Stylus and Paper of the Ancients.
A number of the instruments used by the ancients for writing, called styli,
having been discovered near the wall of Antoninus Pius, in Scotland, Sir John
Clerk was induced, in consequence, to write a learned dissertation on the
subject.
These styli were pointed instruments of some length, made of gold, silver,
brass, iron, or bone. They were always flat at the other end, for the purpose
of rubbing out what had been written, in order to correct it. These styli were
sometimes used by way of daggers. Thus, Julius Cæsar is said to have wounded
Cassius in the arm graphio; and Caligula contrived to get his enemies mur-
dered, when they came into the Senate House, graphiis. With these styli the
ancients wrote upon tablets of wax, or plates of lead.
The papers first used for writing on by the ancients were made of bark of
trees, or skins, or were such as were called pugillares. The oldest were the
inner barks of trees, called liber in Latin, hence the name for a book. The
papyrust also, or the thin pellicles of the cyperus papyrus, may be considered
as nearly similar. The skins were dressed either like glove leather or parchment.
The first sort was commonly used by the Jews, for writing the law of Moses on
* Phil. Trans. 1703. Vol. XXIII. p. 1416, 1507; and 1707. Vol. XXV. p. 2397.
† It was called Aibaos, by the Greeks. Hence their books got the name of ßibão,
CHAP. IV.]
547
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
it; and, from the rolling up of these skins, comes the word volumen. Parch-
ment is said to have been invented by Eumenes, King of Pergamus, when
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of papyrus from Egypt. The pugillares
are mentioned by Homer; they consisted of pieces of wood, ivory, or skin,
covered over with wax. The Greeks, during the time of the empire, in-
vented the method of making paper from cotton. Paper, from linen rags, is an
European invention of the middle ages; but the exact time is unknown. Charters
granted by Edward III. written upon paper, still exist.
The ink of the ancients was of various kinds, but usually black, and this was
made sometimes from soot, sometimes from the liquor of the cuttle fish. They
used red ink for the titles of their chapters; hence the titles of the Roman laws
are called rubricæ. Their purpura, obtained from a species of murex, was
much in vogue with the Bysantine writers, and called by them xuvabapis. The
term purple was given by the Romans to all very splendid colours.*
III. Hatching of Chickens at Cairo.
At Cairo, in Egypt, chickens are hatched by means of artificial heat, in
great numbers at a time. They have a double row of ovens, about 28 in num-
ber, in which the hatching is conducted. Each oven consists of two compart-
ments, one above another. The lower compartment is on a level with the
ground. It is covered with mats, and the eggs are laid upon these in two
layers, one above another, except just under the hearths, where three eggs are
laid above one another. The fire is lighted on hearths, in the upper ovens, and
is so proportioned that the temperature is kept as near as possible at 105°. The
eggs are kept 14 days in the lower ovens, and are carefully turned and shifted
every day, in order to give to all the same degree of heat. The fires are then
allowed to go out, and the eggs are shifted into the upper ovens, the holes of
which are stopped up with flax, and the eggs are turned four times a day;
about the 21st day the chickens are hatched. They are put into the under
oven on the mats, which have a quantity of bran under them to dry the chickens.
The first day they eat not. Next day they are carried away by women, and
afterwards fed with corn. The proprietor of the ovens has one third of the
chickens for his trouble, and two thirds go to the owners of the eggs.†
IV. Encaustic Painting.
There is a species of painting mentioned by Pliny, and some other ancient
writers, under the name of encaustic painting, which was conceived to have
been lost by the moderns. Count Caylus, a celebrated antiquary, and a great
patron of the arts, made experiments in order to revive it, and succeeded. His
* Phil. Trans. 1731. Vol. XXXVII. p. 157.
† Phil. Trans. 1677. Vol. XII. p. 923.
4A3
548
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
method, as described by the Abbé Mazeas, was as follows. The cloth or wood
to be painted is waxed, by only rubbing it simply with a piece of bee's wax.
It is then rubbed over with Spanish white, after which the picture is painted in
the usual way with water colours. When the picture is dry it is brought near
the fire, by which the wax melts, and absorbs all the colours.* This descrip-
tion is so concise that it is not quite sufficient to satisfy those who wish to make
the requisite trials. On that account Mr. Colebrooke made a set of experiments
on the subject, some of which were attended with considerable success. But
for the particulars we refer to his paper on the subject.†
V. Teaching the Deaf and Dumb to speak.
This very important art was first contrived by Dr. Wallis, whose versatile
talents and industry displayed themselves in so many ways, and gave birth to so
many admirable inventions. He has himself given us an account of the method
which he practised. The person, on whom he began the trial, was Mr. Daniel
Whalley, who had once been able to speak, but having lost his hearing when
only five years of age, he had gradually in consequence left off speaking, and
forgotten all language. The task of teaching a deaf person to speak consists of
two parts, quite independent of each other, and rendered on that account more
difficult. The first consists in teaching the scholar the position of the tongue,
and other organs of speech, in pronouncing the different sounds; the second in
making him acquainted with the meaning of words, and with the use of lan-
guage. The commencement of both of these parts is most difficult. The posi-
tion of the organs is explained as precisely as possible by signs, and when a par-
ticular sound is once attained, the scholar by frequent repetition is prevented
from forgetting it. In explaining the meaning of words Dr. Wallis arranged
the most material words in classes, and pointed out their meaning, either by
showing the objects of which they were the names, or by some other equivalent
means. In about two months Mr. Whalley was able to pronounce most words,
and to understand an English book on common subjects. He was on the 21st
of May, 1662; present at a meeting of the Royal Society, and in their presence
and to their great satisfaction, pronounced, distinctly enough, such words as by
the company were proposed to him; and though not altogether with the usual
tone and accent, yet so as to be easily understood. He did the same thing be-
fore King Charles II, Prince Rupert, and several of the nobility. In the space
of one year, which was the whole time of his stay with Dr. Wallis, he had
read over a great part of the English Bible, and had attained so much skill,
as to be able to express himself intelligibly in ordinary affairs, to understand
→ Phil. Trans. 1755. Vol. XLIX. p. 652.
† Phil. Trans. 1759. Vol. LI.
p. 40.
¿CHAP. IV.]
549
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
letters written to him,, and to write answers to them, though not elegantly, yet
so as to be understood, and in the presence of foreigners he pronounced the
most difficult words of their language that could be proposed to him."
:
VI. The Romansh Language.
*
We have a curious paper by Mr. Planta on the Romansh language, which,
he informs us, is still used with little or no alteration by the inhabitants of the
Grisons. About 400 years before the commencement of the Christian era, the
Gauls overran the north of Italy, and treated the nobility of the country with
such harshness, that they thought proper to emigrate with the best part of their
effects, and their dependants; and making their way into the mountains of the
Alps, settled in the vallies of the Grisons, where they were well received by the
aborigines of the country. At subsequent periods other inhabitants of Italy
emigrated to the same country, during the civil wars and other convulsions into
which Italy was repeatedly thrown. This occasioned the two dialects, which
still continue in the country, namely the Cialover, and the Ladin.
Mr. Planta gives strong reasons for concluding that the inhabitants of the
Grisons, called Rhætia by the Romans, from Rhætus the leader of the original
emigrants, were never conquered, or intermingled with any foreign power.
Though the Princes of the Merovingian race, and the Emperors of Germany,
held them under a nominal subjection, they were in fact governed by native
bishops and dukes, who were merely nominated by these foreign princes, and
who at last treated their subjects with so much cruelty, that a league was formed.
by a number of old men, clad in the grey cloth of their country (hence the
name Grisons) to resist and throw off their tyranny. The league was success-
ful, and was soon after followed by two others of a similar nature and
effect.
The language used all over France was of the same nature with that of the
Grisons, and known by the same name. It made its way into England, and in-
consequence of the conquest of William I, became the prevailing language. It
would seem also that it made its way equally into Italy and Spain, and that it
was the real parent of the French, Italian, and Spanish languages, which were
gradually formed out of it by the refinements and the writings of the various
countries. While in the country of the Grisons, no such refinements having
taken place, the language still retains the very same state that it was in nine cen-
turies ago. Mr. Planta thinks that the Romansh was likewise the origin of the
Lingua Franca, or language used in the intercourse between the Europeans and
Eastern nations.t
* Phil, Trans. 1670. Vol. V. p. 1087; and 1698. Vol. XX. p. 353.
+ Phil. Trans. 1776. Vol. LXVI. p. 129.
550
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
VII. Of Mozart, a remarkable Infant Musician.
Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was born at Saltz-
burg, in Bavaria, on the 17th of January, 1756. At the age of four he was
not only capable of executing lessons on his favourite instrument, the harpsi-
chord, but composed some in an easy style and taste, which were very much ad-
mired. His extraordinary musical talents soon reached the ears of the Empress
Dowager, who used to place him on her knees, while he played on the harpsi-
chord. At seven years of age his father carried him to Paris, where he was so
much admired, that a drawing was made of him. From Paris he came to Lon-
don, and continued in England about a year. During this time Mr. Barring-
ton got acquainted with him, and made several trials of his musical powers.
He carried to him a manuscript duet, which was composed by an English gen-
tleman to some favourite words in Metastasio's opera of Demopoonte. The
whole score was in five parts; namely, accompaniments for a first and second
violin, the two vocal parts, and a base. The score was no sooner put upon his
desk than he began to play the symphony in a most masterly manner, as well as
in the time and style which corresponded with the intention of the composer.
The symphony ended, he took the upper part, leaving the under one to his fa-
ther. His voice, in the tone of it, was thin and infantine, but nothing could
exceed the masterly manner in which he sang. His father was once or twice
out, on which occasions the son looked back upon him with some anger, point-
ing out to him his mistakes, and setting him right. He not only did complete
justice to the duet by singing his own part in the truest taste, and with the
greatest precision; but he also threw in the accompaniments of the two violins
wherever they were most necessary. It is well known that none but the most
capital musicians are capable of accompanying in this superior style.
Mr. Barrington hearing that he was often visited with musical ideas, to which
even in the middle of the night he would give utterance on his harpsichord, re-
quested the boy to give him an extempore love song. Mozart looked back with
much archness, continuing to sit at his harpsichord, and immediately began
five or six lines of a jargon recitative, proper to introduce a love song. He then
played a symphony which might correspond with an air composed to the single
word Assetto. It had a first and a second part, and together with the sympho-
nies was of the length that opera songs generally last. If this extempore com-
position was not amazingly capital, yet it was really above mediocrity, and
showed most extraordinary readiness of invention. Mr. Barrington next re-
quested an extempore song of rage, which was also complied with, and in the
middle of it the boy had worked himself up to such a pitch, that he beat the
harpsichord like a person possessed, rising sometimes in his chair. The word
he pitched upon for this second extempore composition, was perfido.
CHAP. IV.]
551
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
In the year 1769, Mozart was at Saltzburg. The Prince of Saltzburg not
crediting that such masterly compositions, as several oratorios that went by his
name, were really those of a child, shut him up for a week, during which he
was not permitted to see any one, and was left only with music paper, and the
words of an oratorio. During this short time he composed a very capital ora-
torio, which was most highly approved on being performed.*
VIII. Of Crotch, another Infant Musician.
William Crotch was born at Norwich, in 1775. His father, by trade a car-
penter, having a passion for music, of which however he had no knowledge,
undertook to build an organ, on which he learned to play two or three common
tunes, with which and such chords as were pleasing to his ear, he used to try
the perfection of his instrument. About Christmas, 1776, when the child was
only a year and a half old, he discovered a great inclination for music, by leay-
ing even his food to attend to it, when the organ was playing; and about mid-
summer, 1777, he would touch the key note of his particular favourite tunes in
order to persuade his father to play them. Soon after this, as he was unable to
name the tunes, he would play the two or three first notes of them when he
thought the key note did not sufficiently explain which he wished to have played.
It seems to have been owing to his having heard the superior performance of
Mrs. Lulman, a musical lady who came to try his father's organ, and who not
only played on it, but sang to her own accompaniment, that he first attempted
to play a tune himself. That evening in passing through the dining room he
screamed and struggled violently to go to the organ, in which when he was in-
dulged, he eagerly beat down the keys with his little fists. Next day being left
with his brother, a youth of 14, in the dining room, he would not let him rest
till he blew the bellows of the organ, while he sat on his knees and beat down
the keys at first promiscuously; but presently with one hand he played enough
of God Save the King to awaken the curiosity of his father; who being in a
garret, which was his workshop, hastened down stairs to inform himself who
was playing this tune on the organ. When he found it was the child, he could
hardly believe what he heard and saw. At this time he was exactly two years
and three weeks old. Next day he made himself master of the treble of the
second part, and the day after he attempted the base. In the beginning of
November, 1777, he played both the treble and base of " Hope, thou nurse of
young desire."
On the parents relating this extraordinary circumstance to some of their
neighbours, they were laughed at, and advised by no means to repeat such
* Phil. Trans. 1770. Vol. LX. p. 54..
552
[Book V.
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
:
marvellous stories, as they would only expose them to ridicule. However, a few
days after, Mr. Crotch being ill and unable to go out to work, Mr. Paul, a mas-
ter weaver, by whom he was employed, passing accidentally by the door, and
hearing the organ, fancied that he had been deceived, and that Mr. Crotch had
staid at home in order to divert himself on his favourite instrument. Fully pre-
possessed with this idea, he entered the house, and suddenly opening the dining
room door, saw the child playing on the organ while his brother was blowing
the bellows. Mr. Paul thought the performance so extraordinary, that he im-
mediately brought two or three of the neighbours to hear it, who propagating
the news, a crowd of near 100 people came the next day to hear the young
performer, and on the following days a still greater number flocked to the house
from all quarters of the city. Till at length the child's parents were forced to
limit his exhibition to certain days and hours, in order to lessen his fatigue,
and exempt themselves from the inconvenience of constant attendance on the
curious multitude.
Dr. Burney, to whom we are indebted for the preceding account, enters into
particulars relative to the performance of this infant musician, and accounts for
the defects which he displayed by the bad models from which he had copied.*
CONCLUSION.
We have now taken a view of the contents of the Philosophical Transactions
down to the end of the year 1800. The following short recapitulation will give
the reader some idea of the relative space occupied by the departments of science
in this voluminous and important work.
The papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount to 4166. They are
distributed as follows.
No. of
Papers.
No. of
Papers.
No. of
Papers.
1. Botany.
. 107
•
11. Mining.
29
20. Navigation.
48
2. Vegetable Physiology 82
12. Geography and Topo-
21. Electricity. .
. 211
3. Agriculture...
44
graphy...
67
22. Magnetism.
71
4. Zoology...
5. Anatomy.
.290
131
13. Mathematics
208
23. Chemistry.
406
•
•
14. Astronomy.
་
. 416
24. Metcorology
281
6. Comparative Anatomy 90
7. Physiology.... ..220
8. Medicine and Surgery 478
9. Mineralogy.
15. Optics...
. 137
25. Chemical arts. ...... 87
16. Dynamics..
17. Mechanics.
40
51
26. Weights and Measures 12
27. Political Arithmetic.. 39
38
18. Hydrodynamics
·
120
28. Antiquities....
120
10. Geognosy...
..251
19. Acoustics..
26
29. Miscellaneous.
66
From this table it appears, that Medicine, Astronomy, and Chemistry, are the
sciences which furnish the greatest number of papers; though Electricity is the
science which is most completely developed.
* Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX, p. 189.
2
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
e
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No. I.
Charter of the Royal Society.
CAROLUS secundus, Dei gratia Angliæ, Scotia, Franciæ, & Hiberniæ, rex, fidei defensor, &c. om-
"nibus, ad quos hæ literæ nostræ patentes pervenerint, salutem. Diu multumque apud nos statuimus,
"ut imperii fines, sic etiam artes atque scientias ipsas promovere. Favemus itaque omnibus disciplinis,
particulari autem gratia indulgemus philosophicis studiis, præsertim iis, quæ solidis experimentis co-
"nantur aut novam extundere philosophiam, aut expolire veterem. Ut igitur inclarescant apud nostros hujus-
❝modi studia, quæ nusquam terrarum adhuc satis emicuerunt; utque nos tandem universus literarum orbis
"non solum fidei defensorem, sed etiam veritatis omnimodæ & cultorem ubique & patronum semper ag-
"noscat: Sciatis, quod nos de gratia nostra speciali ac ex certa scientia & mero motu nostris ordinavi-
"mus constituimus & concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris ordina-
"vimus constituimus & concedimus, quod de cætero in perpetuum erit societatis de præside concilio
" & sodalibus consistens, qui vocabuntur & nuncupabuntur Præses Concilium & Sodales Regalis Socie-
"tatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda (cujus quidem societatis nos ipsos fundatorem & patro-
"num per præsentes declaramus) & eandem societatem, per nomen Presidis Concilii & Sodalium Rega-
"lis Societatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda, unum corpus corporatum & politicum in re
"facto & nomine realiter & ad plenum pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris facimus ordinamus.
"creamus & constituimus per præscntcs, & quod per idem nomen habeant successionem perpetuam: Et
quod ipsi & corum successores (quorum studia ad rerum naturalium artiumque utilium scientias expe-
"rimentorum fide ulterius promovendas in Dei Creatoris gloriam, & generis humani commodum appli-
"canda sunt) per idem nome Præsidis Concilii & Sodalium Regalis Societatis Londini pro scientia
"naturali promovenda, sint & erunt perpetuis futuris temporibus personæ habiles & in lege capaces ad
"habendum perquirendum percipiendum & possidendum terras tenementa prata pascua pasturas libertates
"privilegia franchesias jurisdictiones & hereditamenta quæcunque sibi & successoribus suis in feodo &
"perpetuitate, vel pro termino vitæ vitarum vel annorum, seu aliter quocunque modo, ac etiam bona &
"catalla ac omnes alias res cujuscunque fuerint generis naturæ speciei sive qualitatis (statuto De aliena-
❝tione in manum mortuam non obstante) necnon ad dandum concedendum & assignandum eadem terras
"tenementa & hereditamenta bona & catalla, & omnia facta et res necessarias faciendum & exequendum
"de & concernentia eadem, per nomen prædictum : Et quod per nomen Præsidis Concilii & Sodalium
"Regalis Societatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda prædictum placitare & implacitari, respon-
❝dere & respondcri, defendere & defendi, de cætero in perpetuum valeant & possint, in quibuscunque curiis
"placeis & locis, & coram quibuscunque judicibus & justiciariis & aliis personis & officiaris nostris heredum
" & successorum nostrorum, in omnibus & singulis actionibus, tum realibus tum personalibus, placitis
"sectis querelis causis materiis rebus & demandis quibuscunque, cujuscunque sint aut erunt generis na-
<c
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
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66
"turæ vel speciei, eisdem modo & forma, prout aliqui ligei nostri intra hoc regnum nostrum Angliæ;
personæ habiles & in lege capaces, aut ut aliquod corpus corporatum vel politicum intra hoc regnum
66 nostrum Angliæ, habcre perquirere recipere possidere dare & concedere, placitare & implacitari, res-
pondere & responderi, defendere & defendi, valeant & possint, valeat & possit: Et quod iidem præses
"consilium & sodales Regalis Societatis prædictæ & successores sui habeant in perpetuum commune
"sigillum, pro causis & negotiis suis & successorum suorum quibuscunque agendis deserviturum; &
"quod bene liceat & licebit eisdem præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ, & succes-
"soribus suis pro tempore existentibus, sigillum illud de tempore in tempus frangere mutare & de nova
"facere, prout eis melius fore videbitur experiri. Damus insuper & concedimus per præsentes præsidi
"concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ eorumque in perpetuum successoribus, in favoris nostri
"regii erga ipsos nostræque de ipsis peculiaris existimationis præsenti & futuris ætatibus testimonium,
"hæc honoris insignia sequentia, viz. In parmæ argentea angulo dextro tres leones nostros Anglicos;
" & pro crista galeam corona flosculis interstincta adornatam, cui supereminet aquila nativi coloris, altero
"pede scutum leonibus nostris insignitum tenens; telamones scutarios, duos canes sagaces albos, colla
"coronis cinctos (prout in margine luculentius videre est) a prædictis præside concilio & sodalibus ipso-
66 rumque successoribus, prout feret occasio, in perpetuum gestanda producenda possidenda. Et, quod
"intentio nostra regia meliorem sortiatur effectum, ac pro bono regimine & gubernatione prædictæ Re-
"galis Societatis de tempore in tempus, volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus
"nostris concedimus eisdem præsidi concilio concilio & sodalibus Societatis Regalis prædictæ & succes-
❝soribus suis, quod de cætero in perpetuum concilium prædictum erit & consistet ex viginti & una per-
"sonis (quarum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) &
"quod omnes & singulæ aliæ personæ, quæ intra duos menses proxime sequentes post datum præsentium
per præsidem & concilium, vel per aliquos undecem vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore
"existentem, vel ejus deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) vel per duas tertias partes vel plures præ-
« dictorum undecim vel plurium ; & in omni tempore sequenti per præsidem concilium & sodales, sive
per aliquos viginti & unum vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus de-
putatum, semper unum esse volumus) sive per duas tertias partes vel plures prædictorum viginti &
• unius vel plurium; in eandem societatem accipientur & admittentur ut membra Regalis Societatis
"prædictæ, & in registro per ipsos conservando annotatæ fuerint erunt vocabuntur & nuncupabuntur so-
dales Regalis Societatis prædictæ, quamdiu vixerint, nisi ob causam aliquam rationabilem, secundum
"statuta Regalis Societatis prædictæ condenda, quemvis eorum amoveri contigerit: quos quanto eminen-
❝tius omnis generis doctrinæ bonarumque literarum studio clarescant, quanto ardentius hujusce societatis
❝ honorem studia & emolumentum promoveri cupiant, quanto vitæ integritatæ morumque probitate ac
"pietate emineant, & fidelitate animique erga nos coronam & dignitatem nostram sincero affectu pol-
"leant; eo magis idoneos & dignos, qui in sodalium ejusdem societatis numerum adsciscantur, omnino
❝censeri volumus. Et, pro meliori executione voluntatis & concessionis nostræ in hac parte, assignavi-
"mus nominavimus constituimus & fecimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris
"assignamus nominamus constituimus & facimus, prædilectum & fidelem nobis WILLIELMUM Viceco-
"mitem BROUNCKER, cancellarium præcharissimæ consortis nostræ reginæ CATHARINE, esse primum
" & modernum præsidem Regalis Societatis prædicta; volentes quod prædictus WILLIELMUS vicecomes
"BROUNCKER in officio præsidis Regalis Societatis prædictæ a datu præsentium usque ad festum
"Sancti ANDREE proximum sequentem post datum præsentium continuabit, & quousque unus alius
"de concilio Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente ad officium illud debito modo electus
"præfectus & juratus fuerit, juxta ordinationem & provisiouem in his præsentibus inferius expressam &
declaratam (si prædictus WILLIELMUS vicecomes BROUNCKER tam diu vixerit) sacramento corporali
" in omnibus & per omnia officium illud tangentia bene & fideliter exequendum, secundum veram inten-
❝tionem harum præsentium, coram prædilecto & perquam fideli consanguineo & consiliario nostro
#6
I
• Sic in Authent. & aliquoties infra.
APPENDIX. No. I.
迨
​113
<c
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"EDWARDO comite CLARENDON cancellario nostro prædicto sacramentum prædictum administrare
"plenam potestatem & authoritatem damus & concedimus, in hæc verba sequentia, viz. I WILLIAM
"viscount BROUNCKER do promise to deal faithfully and honestly in all things belonging to the trust
"committed to me, as president of the Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge,
"during my employment in that capacity. So help me God. Assignavimus etiam constituimus & feci-
mus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris facimus dilectos nobis & fideles
"ROBERTUM MORAY militem unum a secretoribus nostris conciliis in regno nostro Scotia ROBERTUM
"BOYLE armigerum, WILLIELMUM BRERETON armigerum filium primogenitum baronis de BRERETON,
"KENELMUM DIGBY militem præcharissime matri nostræ MARIE reginæ cancellarium, GILBERTUM
"TALBOT militem jocalium nostrorum thesauratium, PAULUM NEILE militem unum ostiariorum ca-
"meræ privatæ nostræ, HENRICUM SLINGESBY armigerum unum generosorum prædictæ privatæ ca-
"meræ nostræ, WILLIELMUM PETTY militem, TIMOTHEUM CLARKE in medicinis doctorem, &
"unum medicorum nostrorum, JOHANNEM WILKINS in theologia doctorem, GEORGIUM ENT in medi-
"cinis doctorem, WILLIELMUM AERSKINE unum a poculis nostris, JONATHAN GODDARD in medicinis
"doctorem & professorem Collegii de Gresham, WILLIELMUM BALLE armigerum, MATTHEUM
"WREN armigerum, JOHANNEM EVELYN armigerum, THOMAM HENSHAW armigerum, DUDLY
"PALMER de Grey's-Inn in comitatu nostro Middlesexi armigerum, ABRAHAMUM HILL de London
armigerum, & HENRICUM OLDENBURG armigerum, una cum præside prædicto, fore & esse primos
" & modernos viginti & unum de concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ, continuandos in
"officiis concilii prædicti a datu præsentium usque ad prædictum festum sancti ANDREE apostoli proxi-
"mum sequentem, & deinde quousque aliae idoneæ personæ & habiles & sufficientes in officia prædicta
"electæ præfectæ et juratæ fuerint (si tam diu vixerint, aut pro aliqua justa & rationabili causa non
❝amotæ fuerint) sacramentis corporalibus coram præside pro tempore existente prædictæ Regalis So-
❝cietatis ad officia sua bene & fideliter in omnibus & per omnia officia illa tangentia exequendum prius
"præstandis, secundum formam & effectum prædicti sacramenti, matatis mutandis, præsidi Regalis So-
"cietatis prædictæ per cancellarium nostram Angliæ administrandi (cui quidem præsidi pro tempore
"existenti sacramenta prædicta administrare personis prædictis, & aliis quibuscunque in posterum de
"tempore in tempus in concilium prædictum eligendis, plenam potestatem & authoritatem pro nobis he-
"redibus & successoribus nostris damus & concedimus per præsentes) & quod eædem personæ sic, ut
"præfertur, ad concilium prædictæ Regalis Societatis electæ præfectæ & juratæ, & in posterum eligendæ
"præficiendæ & jurande de tempore in tempus, erunt & existent auxiliantes consulentes & assistentes
“in omnibus materiis rebus & negotiis, meliores regulationem gubernationem & directionem prædictæ
Regalis Societatis, & cujuslibet membri ejusdem, tangentibus seu concernentibus. Concedimus etiam
"praesidi concilio & sodalibus Societatis prædictæ & eorum in perpetuum successoribus, quod ipsi &
successores corum, seu aliqui novem vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel
"ejus deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) conventus seu congregationes de seipsis pro experimento-
"rum & rerum naturalium cognitione & indagine aliisque negotiis ad Societatem prædictam spectantibus,
"quoties & quando opus fuerit, licite facere & habere possint in collegio sive aula sive alio loco com-
" modo intra civitatem nostram Londini, vel in aliquo alio loco commodo intra decem milliaria ab eadem
"civitate nostra. Et ulterius volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris
"concedimus præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædicte & successoribus suis, quod
præses concilium & sodales Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existentes, sive aliqui triginta &
unus vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse vo-
❝lumus) seu major pars prædictorum triginta & unius vel plurium, de tempore in tempus perpetuis fu-
"turis temporibus potestatem & authoritatem habeant & habebunt nominandi & eligendi, & quod eli-
gere & nominare possint & valeant, quolibet anno in prædicto festo sancti Andreæ, unum de concilio
CC
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66
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• Sie in Authent.
* Sic in Authent,
a 2
iv
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
66
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66
"6
"prædictæ Regalis Societatis pro tempore existente, qui sit & erit præses Regalis Societatis prædictæ
usque ad festum sancti Andreæ apostoli exinde proximum sequentem (si tam diu vixerit, aut interim.
pro aliqua justa & rationabili causa non amotus fuerit) & exinde, quousque unus alius in officium præ-
"sidis Regalis Socictatis prædictae electus præfectus & nominatus fuerit; quodque ille postquam sic, ut
"præfertur, electus & nominatus fuerit in officium præsidis Regalis Societatis prædictæ, antequam ad
"officium illud admittatur, sacramentum corporale coram concilio ejusdem Regalis Societatis, aut ali-
quibus septem vel pluribus corum, ad oflicium illud recte bene & fideliter in omnibus officium illud
"tangentibus exequendum præstabit, secundum formam & effectum prædicti sacramenti, mutatis mu-
"tandis (cui quidem concilio, aut aliquibus septem vel pluribus corum, sacramentum prædictum adminis-
trare pro
nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris plenam potestatem & authoritatem de tempore in tem-
"pus, quotiescunque præsidem eligere opus fuerit, damus & concedimus per præsentes) & quod post hujus-
" modi sacramentum sic, ut præfertur, præstitum officium præsidis Regalis Societatis prædictæ usque ad
"festum sancti Andreæ apostoli exinde proximum sequentem excqui valeat & possit : & si contigerit præsi-
"dem Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existentem aliquo tempore, quamdiu fuerit in officio præsidis
"ejusdem Regalis Societatis, obire, decedere, vel ab officio suo amoveri; quod tunc & toties bene liceat &
"licebit concilio Regalis Societatis prædictæ eorumque in perpetuum successoribus, sive aliquibus undecim
"vel pluribus eorum, convenire vel congregari ad eligendum unum de prædicto numero concilii prædicti
"in præsidem Regalis Societatis prædicta; & quod ille, qui per concilium prædictum, vel per prædictos.
"undecim vel plures, vel per majorem partem prædictorum undecim & plurium, electus fuerit &
juratus, ut præfertur, officium illud habeat & exerceat durante residuo ejusdem anni, quousque alius
"ad officium illud debito modo electus & juratus fuerit, sacramento corporali in forma supra specificata
prius præstando; & sie toties quoties casus sic acciderit. Et ulterius volumus, quod quandocunque.
" contigerit aliquem vel aliquos de concilio Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente mori, vel
"ab officio illo amoveri, vel decedere; quos quidem de concilio Regalis Societatis prædictæ & eorum
"quemlibet pro male se gerendis aut aliqua alia rationabili causa amobiles esse volumus, ad beneplacitum
"præsidis & cæterorum de concilio prædicto (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus depu-
"tatum, unum esse volumus) vel majoris partis eorundem : quod tunc & toties bene liceat & licebit
"præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictae eorumque in perpetuum successoribus,
"vel aliquibus viginti uni vel pluribus eorundem (quorum præsidem Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro
"tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) vel majori parti prædictorum viginti &
"unius vel plurium, unum alium vel plures alios de sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ, loco sive locis
ipsius vel ipsorum sic mortuorum decedentium vel amotorum, ad supplendum prædictum numerum vi-
"ginti & unius personarum de concilio Regalis Societatis prædictæ nominare eligere & præficere: &
quod illi sive ille sic in officio illo electi & præfecti idem officium habeat & habeant usque ad festum
"sancti Andreæ apostoli tunc proximum sequentem, & exinde, quousque unus alius vel plures alii electus
"præfectus & nominatus fuerit electi præfecti & nominati fuerint; sacramento corporali ad officium
"illud in omnibus & per omnia officium illud tangentia coram præside & concilio Regalis Societatis præ-
"dictæ, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus
"deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) bene & fideliter exequendum, secundum veram intentionem
præsentium, prius præstando. Et ulterius volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus
"nostris concedimus præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis & successoribus
"suis, quod ipsi & successores sui, sive aliqui triginta & unus vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro
"tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) sive major pars prædictorum tri-
"ginta & unius vel plurium quolibet anno, in prædicto festo sancti Andreæ apostoli, plenam potestatem
" & authoritatem habeant & habebunt eligendi nominandi præficiendi & mutandi decem de sodalibus
"Regalis Societatis prædictæ, ad supplendum loca & officia decem prædicti numeri viginti & unius de
"concilio Regalis Societatis prædicta; quoniam regiam voluntatem nostram esse declaramus, ac per
præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribas nostris concedimus, quod decem de concilio prædicto,
66
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APPENDIX. No. I.
66.
" & non amplius, per præsidem concilium & sodales Regalis Societatis prædictae annuatim mutati &
"amoti fucrint. Volumus etiam, & pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris concedimus præfatis
"præsidi concilio & sodalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis, & successoribus suis in perpetuum, quod si
"contigerit præsidem ejusdem Regalis Societatis pro tempore existentem ægritudine vel infirmitate de-
❝tineri, vel in servitio nostro heredum vel successorum nostrorum versari, vel aliter esse occupatum, ita
"quod necessariis negotiis ejusdem Regalis Societatis officium præsidis tangentibus attendere non po-
"terit; quod tunc & toties bene liceat & licebit eidem præsidi sic detento versato vel occupato unum de
"concilio prædicta Regalis Societatis pro tempore existente, fore & esse deputatum ejusdem præsidis,
"nominare & appunctuare: qui quidem deputatus, in officio deputati præsidis prædicti sic faciendus &
❝ constituendus, sit & erit deputatus ejusdem præsidis de tempore in tempus, toties quoties prædictus
præses sic abesse contigerit, durante toto tempore, quo prædictus præses in officio præsidis continua-
“verit; nisi interim prædictus præses Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existens unum alium de
"prædicto concilio ejus deputatum fecerit & constituerit: & quod quilibet hujusmodi deputatus præ-
"dicti præsidis sic, ut præfertur, faciendus & constituendus omnia & singula, quæ ad officium præsidis
"prædictæ Regalis Societatis pertinent seu pertinere debent, vel per prædictum præsidem virtute harum
"literarum nostrarum patentium limitata & appunctuata fore facienda & exquenda de tempore in
"tempus, toties quoties prædictus præses sic abesse contigerit, durante tali tempore, quo deputatus præ-
"dicti praesidis continuaverit, facere & exequi valeat & possit, vigore harum literarum nostrarum paten-
❝tium, adeo plene libere & integre, ac in tam amplis modo & forma, prout præses prædictus, si præ-
"sens esset, illa facere & exequi valeret & posset; sacramento corporali supra sancta Dei evangelia in
"forma & effectu supra specificatis per hujusmodi deputatum ad omnia & singula, quæ ad officium præ-
"sidis pertinent, bene & fideliter exequendum, coram præfato concilio prædictæ Regalis Societatis, vel
"aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum, prius præstando; & sic toties quoties casus sic acciderit: cui
quidem concilio, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum pro tempore existente, sacramentum præ-
"dictum administrare potestatem & authoritatem, quoties casus sic acciderit, damus & concedimus per
"præsentes, absque brevi commissione sive ulteriori warranto in ea parte a nobis heredibus vel successo-
"ribus nostris procurando seu obtinendo. Et ulterius volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus &
"successoribus nostris concedimus præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ &
"successoribus suis, quod ipsi & successores sui de cætero in perpetuum habeant & habebunt unum the-
"saurarium, duos secretarios, curatores experimentorum duos vel plures, clericum unum vel plures, & præ-
"terea duos servientes ad clavas qui de tempore in tempus super præsidem attendant; quodque prædicti the-
"saurarius secretarii curatores clericus vel clerici & servientes ad clavas per præsidem concilium & sodales
Regalis Societatis prædictæ, sive per aliquos triginta & unum vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro
❝tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) vel per majorem partem prædictorum tri-
ginta & unius vel plurium, eligendi & nominandi, antequam ad officia sua speciali & respectiva exequen--
❝dum admittantur, sacramenta sua corporalia in forma & effectu supra specificatis, coram præside vel ejus
"deputato, & concilio ejusdem Regalis Societatis, aut aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum, officia sua se--
"paralia & respectiva in omnibus illa tangentibus recte bene & fideliter exequendum præstabunt ; &
quod post hujusmodi sacramenta sic, ut præfertur, præstita officia sua respectiva exerccant & utantur :
quibus quidem præsidi & concilio, aut aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum, sacramenta predicta de
"tempore in tempus administrare prædictis separalibus & respectivis officiariis & successoribus suis ple-
nam potestatem & authoritatem damus & concedimus per præsentes: & assignavimus nominavimus
"elegimus creavimus constituimus & fecimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus
"nostris assignamus nominamus eligimus creamus constituimus & facimus, dilectos subditos nostros
"prædictum WILLIELMUM BALLE armigerum fore & esse primum & modernum thesaurarium, & esse
prædictum 3 JOHANNEM WILKINS & HENRICUM OLDENBURG fore & esse primos & modernos secre--
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
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"tarios prædictæ Regalis Societatis, continuandos in eisdem officiis usque ad prædictum festum sancti An-
"dreæ apostoli proximum sequentem post datum præsentium : quodque de tempore in tempus & ad omnia
tempora in prædicto festo sancti Andreæ apostoli (si non fuerit dies dominicus, & si fuerit dies dominicus,
"tunc die proximo sequente) præses concilium & sodales prædictæ Regalis Societatis pro tempore
"existentes, sive aliqui triginta & unus vel plures eorum (quorum presidem pro tempore exis-
tentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) sive major pars prædictorum triginta & unius
"vel plurium, probos & discretos viros de tempore in tempus in thesaurarium & secretarios, qui sunt &
"erunt de numero concilii Regalis Societatis prædictæ, eligere nominare & præficere valeant & possint ;
quodque illi, qui in separalia & respectiva officia prædicta sic, ut præfertur, electi præfecti & jurati fuerint,
"officia illa respectiva exercere & gaudere possint & valeant usque ad prædictum festum sncti Andreæ
"extunc proximum sequentem, sacramentis suis prædictis sic, ut præfertur, prius præstandis ; & sic to-
"ties quoties casus sic acciderit: Et si contigerit electiones prædictas præsidis concilii thesaurarii secre-
"tariorum, vel alicujus vel aliquorum eorum, in festo sancti Andreæ prædicto commode fieri vel perfici
"non posse, damus & concedimus prædictis præsidi concilio & sodalibus, & successoribus corum in per-
petuum, quod ipsi, vel aliqui triginta & unus vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore exis-
“tentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) vel major pars prædictorum triginta & unius vel plu-
❝rium, licite possint nominare & assignare unum alium diem, quam proxime ad festum sancti Andreæ
❝ prædictum commodé fieri poterit, pro electionibus prædictis faciendis vel perficiendis; & sic de die in
"diem, donec prædictæ electiones perficiantur: Et si contigerit aliquem vel aliquos officiariorum præ-
"dictorum ejusdem Regalis Societatis obire, decedere, vel ab officiis suis respectivis amoveri ; quod tunc
" & toties bene liceat & licebit præsidi concilio & sodalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis, & eorum suc-
“cessoribus in perpetuum, sive aliquibus viginti & uni vel pluribus eorum (quorum præsidem pro tem-
pore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) seu majori parti prædictorum viginti &
"unius vel plurium, alium vel alios in officium sive officia illarum personarum sic defunctarum deceden-
“tium sive amotarum eligere & præficere ; & quod ille sive illi sic electus & præfectus electi & præfecti
"officia prædicta respectiva habeant & exerceant durante residuo ejusdem anni, & quousque alius sive
alii ad officia illa respectiva debito modo electus & juratus fuerit electi & jurati fuerint ; & sic toties
*quoties casus sic acciderit. Et insuper volumus, ac de gratia nostra speciali ac ex certa scientia &
"mero motu nostris concedimus præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ, & suc-
❝cessoribus suis in perpetuum, quod preses & concilium prædictæ Regalis Societatis pro tempore ex-
"istentes (præmissa semper in conventibus extraordinariis omnium membrorum concilii prædicti debita
"scu legitima summonitione vel citatione) sive aliqui novem vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro
"tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) pariter congregare & assemblare possint
"& valeant in collegio sive aula sive alio loco conveniente intra civitatem nostram Londini, vel in aliquo
❝ alio loco conveniente intra decem milliaria ab eadem civitate nostra; & quod ipsi sic congregati & as-
semblati, sive major pars eorum, habebunt & habeant plenam authoritatem potestatem & facultatem
"de tempore in tempus condendi constituendi ordinandi faciendi & stabiliendi hujusmodi leges statuta
"jura ordinationes & constitutiones, quæ eis, aut eorum majori parti, bona salubria utilia honesta & ne-
cessaria juxta corum sanas discretiones fore videbuntur, pro meliori gubernatione regulatione & direc-
"tione Regalis Societatis praedictae & cujuslibet membri ejusdem, omniaque ad gubernationem res
"bona facultates redditus terras tenementa hereditamenta & negotia Regalis Societatis prædictæ spec-
"tantia agendi & faciendi ; quæ omnia & singula leges statuta jura ordinationes & constitutiones sic, ut
præfertur, facienda volumus, & per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris firmiter in-
jungendo præcipimus & mandamus, quod de tempore in tempus inviolabiliter observata fuerint, secun-
"dum tenorem & effectum eorundem ita tamen, quod prædictæ leges statuta jura ordinationes & con-
❝stitutiones sic, ut præfertur, facienda, & eorum quælibet, sint rationabilia, & non sint repugnantia nec
contraria legibus consuetudinibus juribus sive statutis hujus regni nostri Angliæ. Et ulterius de ampli-
❝ori gratia nostra speciali ac ex certa scientia & mero motu nostris dedimus & concessimus, ac per præ-
tr
3
APPENDIX. No. I.
vii
"sentes pro nobis heredibus & snccessoribus nostris damus & concedimus, præfatis præsidi concilio & so-
"dalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis, & successoribus suis in perpetuum, sive aliquibus viginti & uni vel
"pluribus eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, semper unum esse vo-
«lumus) seu majori parti prædictorum viginti & unius vel plurium, plenam potestatem & authoritatem
"de tempore in tempus eligendi nominandi & constituendi unum vel plures typographos sive impressores,
" & chalcographos seu sculptores, & ipsi vel ipsis per scriptum communi sigillo prædictæ Regalis Socie-
"tatis sigillatum, & manu præsidis pro tempore existentis signatum, facultatem concedendi, ut impri-
"mant tales res materias & negotia prædictam Regalem Societatem tangentia vel concernentia, quales
"prædicto typographo vel impressori, chalcographo seu sculptori, vel typographis vel impressoribus,
"chalcographis vel sculptoribus, de tempore in tempus per præsidem & concilium prædictæ Regalis So-
❝cietatis, vel aliquos septem vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus de-
putatum, unum esse volumus) vel per majorem partem prædictorum septem vel plurium, commissæ
"fuerint; sacramentis suis corporalibus, antequam ad officia sua exercenda admittantur, coram præside
" & concilio pro tempore existente, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum, in forma & effectu ultimis '
"specificatis, prius præstandis; quibus quidem præsidi & concilio, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus
"" eorum, sacramenta prædicta administrare plenam potestatem & authoritatem damus & concedimus
per præsentes. Et ulterius, quod prædicti præses concilium & sodales prædictæ Regalis Societatis in
"philosophicis suis studiis meliorem sortiantur effectum, de ampliori gratia nostra speciali ac ex certa
"scientia & mero motu nostris dedimus & concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & succes-
❝soribus nostris damus & concedimus, prædictis præsidi concilio & sodalibus prædictæ Regalis So-
"cietatis, & successoribus suis in perpetuum, quod ipsi & successores sui, sive aliqui novem vel plures
← eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum esse volumus) sive major
pars prædictorum novem vel plurium, de tempore in tempus, habeant & habebunt plenam potestatem
" & authoritatem de tempore in tempus, & ad talia tempestiva tempora, secundum eorum discretionem,
per assignatum vel assignatos suos requirere capere & recipere cadavera talium personarum, quæ mor-
"tem manu carnificis passæ fuerunt, & ea anatomizare, in tam amplis modo & forma, & ad omnes inten-
"tiones & proposita, prout præsidens Collegii Medicorum & Societatis Chirurgorum civitatis nostrae
"London (quibuscunque nominibus duæ prædictae corporationes insignitæ fuerint) eisdem cadaveribus
"usi vel gavisi fuerunt, aut uti vel gaudere valeant & possint. Et ulterius, pro melioratione experimen-
"torum artium & scientiarum prædictæ Regalis Societatis, de abundantiori gratia nostra speciali ac ex
"certa scientia & mero motu nostris dedimus & concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus
" & successoribus nostris damus & concedimus, præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus prædictæ
"Regalis Societatis, & successoribus suis in perpetuum, quod ipsi & successores sui, sive aliqui
novem vel plures eorum (quorum præsidem pro tempore existentem, vel ejus deputatum, unum
❝volumus) sive major pars prædictorum novem vel plurium, de tempore in tempus habeant & habebunt
plenam potestatem & authoritatem per literas vel epistolas, sub manu prædicti præsidis vel ejus depu-
tati, in præsentia concilii vel aliquorum septem vel plurium eorum, & in nomine Regalis Societatis,
"mutuis intelligentiis fruentur & negotiis cum omnibus & omnimodis peregrinis & alienis, utrum pri-
vatis vel collegiatis, corporatis vel politicis, absque aliqua molestatione interruptione vel inquietate 3
"quacunque: proviso tamen, quod hæc indulgentia nostra sic, ut præfertur, concessa ad ulteriorem non
"extendatur usum, quam particulare beneficium & interesse prædictæ Regalis Societatis in materiis seu
"rebus philosophicis mathematicis aut mechanicis. Et ulterius dedimus & concessimus, ac per præ-
sentes pro nobis heredibus & successoribus nostris damus & concedimus, præfatis præsidi concilio &
sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ, & successoribus suis in perpetuum, sive præsidi & concilio Re-
"galis Societatis prædictæ, vel majori parti eorum, plenam potestatem & authoritatem erigendi edifi-
"candi & extruendi, aut erigi ædificari & extrui faciendi vel causandi, intra civitatem nostram Londini,
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Sic in Authent
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vili
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
"vel decem milliaria ab cadem, unum vel plura collegium vel collegia cujuscunque modi & qualitatis,
66
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•
pro habitatione assemblatione & congregatione prædictorum præsidis concilii & sodalium prædictæ
Regalis Societatis & successorum suorum, ad negotia sua & alias res eandem Regalem Societatem con-
cernentes ordinandum & disponendum. Et ulterius volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus &
"successoribus nostris ordinamus constituimus & appunctuamus, quod si aliqui abusus vel discrepantiæ
"in posterum orientur & accident de gubernatione aut aliis rebus vel negotiis predictae Regalis So-
❝cietatis, unde ejusdem constitutioni stabilimini & studiorum progressui vel rebus & negotiis aliqua in-
feratur injuria vel impedimentum ; quod tunc & toties per præsentes pro nobis heredibus & successo-
"ribus nostris authorizamus nominamus assignamus & constituimus præfatum prædilectum & perqual
"fidelem consanguineum & consiliarium nostrum EDWARDUM comitem de CLARENDON cancellarium
"nostrum regni nostri Angliæ, per seipsum durante vita sua, & post ejus mortem tunc archiepiscopum
Cantuariensem, cancellarium vel custodem privati sigilli, episcopum Londinensem, & duos principales
"secretarios pro tempore existentes, aut aliquos quatuor vel plures eorum, easdem discrepantias &
"abusus reconciliare componere & reducere. Et ulterius volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis herc-
* dibus & successoribus nostris firmiter injungendo præcipimus & mandamus omnibus & singulis justi-
"tiariis, majoribus, aldermannis, vicecomitibus, ballivis, constabulariis, & aliis officiariis ministris &
“subditis nostris heredum & successorum nostrorum quibuscunque, quod de tempore in tempus sint
"auxiliantes & assistentes prædictis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædicta, eorumque
"in perpetuum successoribus, in omnibus & per omnia, secundum veram intentionem harum literarum
nostrarum patentium. Eo, quod expressa mentio de vero valore annuo, vel de certitudine præmisso-
rum sive eorum alicujus, aut de aliis donis sive concessionibus per nos seu per aliquem progenitorum
"sive prædecessorum nostrorum præfatis præsidi concilio & sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ ante
"hæc tempora factis, in præsentibus minime facta existit, aut aliquo statuto actu ordinatione provisione
"proclamatione sive restrictione in contrarium inde antehac habitis factis editis ordinatis sive provisis, aut
aliqua alia re causa vel materia quacunque, in aliquo non obstante. In cujus rei testimonium has literas.
"nostras fieri fecimus patentes. Teste me ipso apud Westmonasterium, vicesimo secundo die Aprilis,
anno regni nostri decimo quinto.
<<
66
"Per breve de privato sigillo.
No. II.
"HOWARD."
Patent granting Chelsea to the Royal Society, together with some additional privileges
.cc
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CAROLUS
and powers.
AROLUS SECUNDUS Dei gratia Angliæ Scotia Franciæ et Hiberniæ Rex, fidei Defensor, &c. omni-
bus, ad quos hæ Literæ nostræ patentes pervenerint, salutem. SCIATIS, quod nos de gratia nostra
"speciali ac ex certa scientia et mero motu nostris dedimus et concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis
"heredibus et successoribus nostris damus et concedimus, dilectis et fidelibus nostris Præsidi Concilio
"et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda, et successoribus suis in per-
petuum, totam illam peciam terræ arabilis vocatam Teamshott, continentem per æstimationem viginti
acras, jacentem inter viam nostram ducentem a Westmonasterio versus Chelsey ex parte borcali et
"occidentali; et peciam prati continentem per æstimationem quatuor acras, parcellam octodecim
"acrarum prati nuper in tenura Comitis Nottinghamiensis, vel assignatorum suorum, ex parte australi;
❝ac clausum prati vocatum Stonebridge Close ex parte orientali; et peciam terrae arabilis nuper in oc-
<6
APPENDIX. No. II.
ix
cupatione THOME EVANS, vel assignatorum suorum, ex parte occidentali; per particularia inde men-
*tionata esse annualis redditus, sive valoris, viginti trium solidorum et quatuor denariorum: Nec non
*totum illum prædictum clausum prati vocatum Stony Bridge Close, continentem per æstimationem
* quatuor acras, nuper in occupatione JOHANNIS DEAKEз, vel assignatorum suorum, jacentem inter
❝rivum vocatum Le Common Sewer ex parte orientali; et prædictam peciam terræ vocatam Teamshott
"ex parte occidentali; et pontem vocatum Stony Bridge ex parte boreali; per particularia inde mentio-
"náta esse annualis redditus, sive valoris, viginti solidorum: Nec non totam illam unam peciam terræ ara-
bilis in communi campó vocato East Field, continentem per æstimationem tres acras, nuper in occu-
"patione THOME FRANCES, vel assignatorum suorum, jacentem inter predictam peciam terræ vocatanı
Teamshott ex parte orientali; peciam terræ arabilis nuper in tenura Comitis Lincolniensis, vel assigna-
torum suorum, ex parté occidentali; parcellam prati de Earles Court Land ex parte australi; et viam
"nostram ducentem a Westmonasterio versus Chelsey prædictam ex parte boreali et occidentali; per
"particularia inde mentionata esse annualis redditus, sive valoris, quatuor solidorum (quæ quidem præ-
"missa sunt aut olim fuerunt parcella terræ nostræ in Chelsey, existentis parcellæ terræ Dominicalis
Manerii de Chelsey prædicta, ac nuper fuerunt parcella possessionum JOHANNIS nuper Ducis Nor-
"thumbriæ; et quæ nuper per præcharissimum avum nostrum beatæ memoriæ JACOBUM Regem per
"Literas suas patentes, gerentes datum apud Westmonasterium octavo die Maii, anno regni sui Angliæ
❝ octavo et Scotia quadragesimo tertio, concessa fuerunt, aut mentionata esse concessa, Præposito et
"Sociis Collegii Regis JACOBI in Chelsey prope London ex fundatione ejusdem JACOBI Regis Angliæ,
"et successoribus suis in perpetuum; tenendum de præfato JACOBO Rege, ut de manerio suo de East
"Greenwich in comitatu Cantiæ, per fidelitatem tantum, in libero et communi soccagio, et non in capite,
"C nec per
servitium militare): Ac etiam omnia et singula domus ædificia structuras boscos subboscos ar-
"bores, ac totam terram fundam et solum eorundem boscorum subboscorum et arborum, ac omnia aliz
jura jurisdictiones franchesias privilegia libertates proficua commoditates advantagia emolumenta et
"hereditamenta nostra quæcunque, cum corum pertinentiis universis, cujuscunque sint generis naturæ
"seu speciei, seu quibuscunque nominibus sciantur censeantur nuncupentur seu cognoscantur, scituata
"jacentia et existentia provenientia crescentia renovantia sive emergentia infra comitatum villas campos
"loca sive hamlettas prædicta, vel alibi ubicunque, prædictis terris et cæteris præmissis vel alicui inde
"parcellæ quoquo modo spectantia': Necnon. reversionem et reversiones omnium et singulorum præ-
missorum superius per præsentes præconcessorum, et cujuslibet inde parcellæ, dependentes vel expec-
"tantes de in vel super aliquam dimissionem vel concessionem pro termino vel terminis vitæ vel vitarum
"vel annorum, aut aliter de præmissis superius per præsentes præconcessis seu de aliqua inde parcella
quoquo modo factam, existentem de recordo vel non de recordo: Necnon omnia et singula redditus et
"annualia proficua quæcunque reservata super quibuscunque dimissionibus vel concessionibus de et su-
per præmissa per præsentes præconcessa, vel de et super aliquam inde parcellam. DEDIMUS etiam et
"concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris damus et concedimus, præ-
"fatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda, et suc-
"cessoribus suis in perpetuum, quod ipsi et eorum successores de cætero in perpetuum habeant teneant
"et gaudeant, ac haberc tenere et gaudere valeant et possint, infra præmissa superius per præsentes
præconcessa, ac infra quamlibet inde parcellam, tot tanta talia eadem hujusmodi et consimilia jura ju-
"risdictiones libertates franchesias consuetudines privilegia proficua commoditates advantagia emolumenta
et hereditamenta quæcunque, quot quanta qualia et quæ, ac adeo plene libere et integre, ac in tam
"amplis modo et forma, prout prædictus JOHANNES nuper Dux Northumbriæ, aut prædictus Præpositus
"et Socii Collegii Regis JACOBI in Chelsey prope London ex fundatione ejusdem JACOBI Regis Angliæ,
aut aliquis alius sive aliqui alii, prædicta terras tenementa et cætera præmissa cum suis pertinentiis, aut
aliquam inde parcellam, unquam antehac habentes possidentes aut seisiti inde existentes, habens possi-
60
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HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
«
፡፡
""
"dens aut seisitus inde exstens, unquam habuerunt tenuerunt usi vel gavisi fuerunt, habuit te-
"nuit usus vel gavisus fuit, seu habere tenere uti vel gaudere debuerunt aut debuit, in præmissis
"superius per præsentes præconcessis, aut aliqua inde parcella, ratione vel prætextu alicujus chartæ
"doni concessionis vel confirmationis per nos seu aliquem progenitorum vel antecessorum nostro-
(C rum nuper Regum vel Reginarum Angliæ antehac habitorum factorum vel concessorum seu confirma-
"torum, aut ratione vel prætextu alicujus actus Parliamenti vel aliquorum actuum Parliamentorum, aut
❝ratione vel prætextu alicujus legitimæ præscriptionis usus seu consuetudinis antehac habitorum seu
“usitatorum, aut aliter quocunque legali modo jure seu titulo, ac adeo plene libere et integre, ac in tam
"amplis mod et forma, prout nos aut aliquis progenitorum vel antecessorum nostrorum nuper Regum
"vel Reginarum Angliæ prædicta terras tenementa et cætera præmissa, aut aliquam inde parcellam, ha-
"buimus et gavisi fuimus aut habuerunt et gavisi fuerunt, seu habere et gaudere debuimus aut habere et
❝ gaudere debuerunt aut debuit. DAMUS ulterius, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus
"nostris concedimus, præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis Londini pro scientia natu-
"rali promovenda, et eorum successoribus, omnia et singula præmissa superius per præsentes præcon-
cessa, cum eorum pertinentiis universis, adeo plene libere et integre, ac in tam amplis modo et forma,
prout ea omnia et singula præmissa, aut aliqui inde parcella, ad manus nostras, seu ad manus aliquorum
"progenitorum vel antecessorum nostrorum nuper Regum vel Reginarum Angliæ, ratione vel prætextu
"dissolutionis vel sursum redditionis alicujus nuper monasterii prioratus sive hospitalis, aut ratione vel
prætextu alicujus actus Parliamenti vel aliquorum actuum Parliamentorum, aut ratione alicujus at-
"tincturæ sive forisfacturæ, aut ratione alicujus excambii vel perquisiti, aut alicujus doni vel concessionis,
"aut ratione eschaetæ, aut quocunque alio legali modo jure seu titulo devenerunt seu devenire debuerunt,
"ac in manibus nostris jam existunt seu existere debent vel debuerunt: habendum tenendum et gauden-
"dum prædicta terras tenementa et hereditamenta, ac cætera omnia et singula præmissa superius per
præsentes præconcessa, cum eorum pertinentiis universis, præfato Præsidi Concilio et Sòdalibus Rega-
❝lis Societatis Londini pro scientia naturali promovenda, et successoribus suis in perpetuum; tenendum
"de nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris, ut de manerio nostro de East Greenwich in comitatu nostro
"Cantiæ, per fidelitatem tantum, in libero et communi soccagio, et non in capite, nec per servitium mi-
"litare; ac reddendum annuatim nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris de et pro prædicta terra arabili
"vocata Teamshott viginti tres solidos et quatuor denarios, ac de et pro prædicto clauso prati vocato
"Stony Bridge Close viginti solidos, ac de et pro prædicta pecia terræ arabilis in communi campo vo-
"cato East Field quatuor solidos legalis monetæ Angliæ, ad festa Sancti MICHAELIS Archangeli et An-
"nunciationis beatæ MARIE Virginis, ad receptam Scaccarii nostri Westmonasterii heredum et succes-
"sorum nostrorum, seu ad manus Ballivorum, seu Receptorum præmissorum pro tempore existente,' per
"æquales portiones annuatim solvendas in perpetuum. ET ULTERIUS de uberiori gratia nostra speciali
ac ex certa scientia et mero motu nostris volumus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus
"nostris concedimus præfato Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ et successoribus
"suis, quod nos heredes et successores nostri de cætero in perpetuum annuatim, et de tempore in tem-
"pus, exonerabimus acquietabimus et indempnes conservabimus, tam præfatos Præsidem Concilium et
"Sodales Regalis Societatis prædictæ et successores suos, quam prædicta terras tenementa et cætera
"omnia et singula præmissa superius expressa et specificata ac per præsentes præconcessa, et quamlibet
❝inde parcellam, cum eorum pertinentiis universis, de et ab omnibus et omnimodis corrodiis redditibus
"feodis servitiis annuitatibus pensionibus portionibus ac denariorum summis ac oneribus quibuscunque de
"præmissis, seu aliqua inde parcella, nobis heredibus vel successoribus nostris exeuntibus vel solvendis,
❝vel superinde versus nos heredes vel successores nostros oneratis vel onerandis; præterquam de redditi-
"bus servitiis et tenuris superius in his præsentibus nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris reservatis, ac
"præterquam de dimissionibus et concessionibus de præmissis seu de aliqua inde parcella antehac factis,
"ac conventionibus et conditionibus in iisdem existentibus, ac conventionibus et oneribus, quæ aliquis
66
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k
› Sic in Authent. et passim infra.
APPENDIX. No. II.
xi
66
..
"firmarius seu aliqui firmarii præmissorum ratione indenturarum et dimissionum suarum facere et ex-
"onerare tenetur scu tenentur. VOLUMUS etiam, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus
"nostris firmiter injungendo præcipimus, tam Commissionariis pro thesauro nostro, Thesaurario, Came-
rario, Subthesaurario, et Baronibus Scaccarii nostri heredum et successorum nostrorum pro tempore ex-
❝istente, quam omnibus et singulis Auditoribus, et aliis officiariis, et ministris nostris heredum et succes-
sorum nostrorum quibuscunque pro tempore existente; quod ipsi et eorum quilibet super solam demon-
"strationem harum Literarum nostrarum patentium, vel irrotulamenti earundem, absque aliquo alio
"brevi seu warranto a nobis heredibus vel successoribus nostris quoquo modo impetrando seu prosequendo,
"plenam integram debitamque allocationem et exonerationem manifestam de et ab omnibus et omnimodis
hujusmodi corrodiis redditibus feodis pensionibus portionibus et denariorun summis ac oneribus quibus-
cunque (præterquam de´servitiis redditibus tenuris ac arreragiis reoditus ac cæteris præmissis in his
"præsentibus, ut præfertur, rescrvatis, et per præfatos Præsidem Concilium et Sodales Regalis Societatis
prædictæ et successores suos solubilibus fiendis¹ seu performandis) de præmissis per præsentes præcon-
"cessis, seu de aliqua inde parte vel parcella, nobis heredibus vel successoribus nostris exeuntibus seu
"solvendis, vel superinde versus nos heredes vel successores nostros oneratis seu onerandis, præfatis Præ-
"sidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ et successoribus suis facicnt, et de tempore in
"5 tempus
fieri causabunt: Et hæ Literæ nostræ patentes, vel irrotulamentum earundem, erunt de tem-
"pore in tempus, tam dictis Commissionariis pro Thesauro nostro, Thesaurario, Cancellario, et Baronibus
"Scaccarii nostri heredum et successorum nostrorum pro tempore existente, quam omnibus et singulis
"Auditoribus, et aliis officiariis, et ministris nostris heredum et successorum nostrorum quibuscunque
" pro tempore existente, sufficiens warrantum et exoneratio in hac parte. ET CUM NOS per Literas nos-
"tras patentes, gerentes datum apud Westmonasterium vicesimo secundo die Aprilis, anno regni nostri
❝decimo quinto, Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ factas, inter alia concessimus
"præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis, et successoribus suis in perpetuum,
"quod si contigerit Præsidem ejusdem Regalis Societatis pro tempore existente ægritudine vel infirmi-
"tate detineri, vel in servitio nostro heredum vel successorum nostrorum versari, vel aliter esse occupa-
"tum, ita quod necessariis negotiis ejusdem Regalis Societatis officium Presidis tangentibus attendere
non poterit; quod tunc et toties bene liceat et licebit eidem Præsidi sic detento versato vel occupato
unum de Concilio prædictæ Regalis Societatis pro tempore existente, fore et esse Deputatum ejusdem
"Præsidis, nominare et appunctuare: qui quidem Deputatus, in officio Deputati Præsidis prædicti sic
"faciendus et constituendus, sit et esset Deputatus ejusdem Præsidis de tempore in tempus, toties quo-
"ties predictus Præses sic abesse contigerit, durante toto tempore, quo prædictus Præses in officio præ-
"sidis continuaverit; nisi interim prædictus Præses Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente
"unum alium de prædicto Concilio ejus Deputatum fecerit et constituerit: Et quod quilibet, hujusmodi
"Deputatus prædicti Præsidis sic, ut præfertur, faciendus et constituendus omnia et singula, quæ ad offi-
"cium Præsidis prædictæ Regalis Societatis pertinent seu pertinere debent, vel per prædictum Præsidem
"virtute istarum Literarum nostrarum patentium limitata et appunctuata fore facienda et exequenda
"de tempore in tempus, toties quoties prædictus Præses sic abesse contigerit, durante tali tempore, quo
"Deputatus prædicti Præsidis continuaverit, facere et exequi valeat et possit, vigore istarum Literarum
"nostrarum patentium, adeo plene libere et integre, ac in tam amplis modo et forma, prout Præses præ-
"dictus, si præsens esset, illa facere et exequi valeat et possit; sacramento corporali super sancta Dei
"Evangelia, in forma et effectu in eisdem Literis nostris patentibus specificatis, per hujusmodi Deputa-
"tum ad omnia et singula, quæ ad officium Præsidis pertinent, bene et fideliter excquendum, coram
"præfato Concilio prædictæ Regalis Societatis, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus corum, prius præstando;
"et sic toties quoties casus sic acciderit: cui quidem Concilio, vel aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum
pro tempore existente, sacramentum prædictum administrare potestatem, et authoritatem, quoties casus
<<
A
C
› Bis in Authent.
Sie in Authent.
b 2
xii
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
66
(6
"sic acciderit, dedimus et concessimus per easdem Literas nostras patentes, absque brevi commissione
"sive ulteriori warranto in ea parte a nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris procurandis seu obtinendis :
"Ac quod ipsi et successores eorum, seu aliqui novem vel plures eorum (quorum Presidem pro tempore
"existente, vel ejus deputatum, semper unum esse volumus) conventus seu congregationes de seipsis pro
"experimentorum et rerum naturalium cognitione et indagine aliisque negotiis ad Societatem prædictam
"spectantibus, quoties et quando opus fuerit, licite facere et habere possint in collegio sive aula sive alio
"loco commodo intra civitatem nostram London, vel in aliquo alio loco commodo intra decem milliaria
"ab eadem civitate nostra: Et cum diversa et varia res potestates libertates et privilegia in iisdem Literis
"nostris patentibus præfato Præsidi Concilio ac Sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædictæ concessa, virtute
"istarum Literarum nostrarum patentium, non sunt exercenda facienda performanda seu exequenda,
"nisi per prædictum Præsidem et Concilium, aut aliquos septem vel plures corum: Et cum ulterius per
"prædictas Literas nostras patentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris dedimus et concessimus
"Præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus prædictae Regalis Societatis, et successoribus suis in perpetuum,
"sive aliquibus viginti et uni vel pluribus eorum (quorum Præsidem pro tempore existente, vel ejus De-
putatum, semper unum esse volumus) seu majori parti prædictorum viginti et unius vel plurium, ple-
❝nam potestatem et authoritatem de tempore in tempus eligendi nominandi et constituendi unum vel
plures Typographos sive Impressores, et Chalcographos seu Sculptores, et ipsi vel ipsis per scriptum
"communi Sigillo prædictæ Regalis Societatis sigillatum, et manu Præsidis pro tempore existente sig-
natum, facultatem concedendi, ut imprimant tales res materias et negotia prædictam Regalem So-
"cietatem tangentia vel concernentia, quales prædictis Typographo vel Impressori, Chalcographo vel
Sculptori, vel Typographis vel Impressoribus, Chalcographis vel Sculptoribus, de tempore in tempus
66 per Præsidem et Concilium prædictæ Regalis Societatis, vel aliquos septem vel plures eorum (quorum
"Præsidem pro tempore existente, vel ejus Deputatum, unum esse volumus) vel per majorem partem
prædictorum septem vel plurium commissa fuerint; sacramentis suis corporalibus, antequam ad
"officia sua exercenda admittantur, coram Præside et Concilio pro tempore existente, vel aliquibus
septem vel pluribus eorum, prius præstandis; cui quidem Præsidi et Concilio, vel aliquibus septem vel
"pluribus eorum pro tempore existente, sacramenta prædicta administrare plenam potestatem et autho-
"ritatem dedimus et concessimus per prædictas Literas nostras patentes; prout in eisdem Literis nostris
"patentibus, relatione inde habita, plenius liquet et apparet: Nos, de abundantiori gratia nostra speciali
ac ex certa scientia et mero motu nostris, DEDIMUS et concessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis here-
"dibus et successoribus nostris damus et concedimus, præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus prædictæ
"Regalis Societatis, et successoribus suis in perpetuum, quod de cætero in perpetuum, si contigerit Præsi-
"dem ejusdem Regalis Societatis pro tempore existente ægritudine vel infirmitate detineri, vel in servitio
"nostro heredum vel successorum nostrorum versari, vel aliter esse occupatum, ita quod necessariis nogo-
“tiis ejusdem Regalis Societatis officium Præsidis tangentibus attendere non poterit ; quod tunc et toties
"bene liceat et licebit eidem Præsidi sic detento versato vel occupato unum de Concilio prædictæ Rega-
"lis Societatis pro tempore existente, fore et esse Deputatum ejusdem Præsidis, nominare et appunc-
"tuare; qui quidem Deputatus, in officio Deputati Præsidis prædicti sic faciendus et constituendus, sit et
"erit Deputatus ejusdem Præsidis de tempore in tempus, toties quoties prædictus Præses sic abesse conti-
"gerit, durante toto tempore, quo prædictus Præses in officio Præsidis continuaverit, etiamsi interim
"Præses Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente unum alium vel plures alios de prædicto
"Concilio ejus Deputatum et Deputatos fecerit et constituerit; cui quidem Præsidi pro tempore ex-
"istente duos vel plures de prædicto Concilio ejus Deputatos ipso et eodem tempore facere et constituere
potestatem et authoritatem, quoties ei placuerit, damus et concedimus per præsentes pro nobis here-
“dibus et successoribus nostris: Et quod quilibet hujusmodi Deputatus et Deputati prædicti Præsidis sic,
"ut præfertur, faciendi et constituendi omnia et singula, quae ad officium Præsidis prædictæ Regalis So-
4
46
"
¹
* Sic in Authent,
APPENDIX. No. II.
xiii
''
66
CC
::
"cietatis pertinent seu pertinere debent, vel per prædictum Præsidem virtute prædictarum Literarum noc-
"trarum patentium, vel præsentium, limitata et appunctuata fore¹ facienda et exequenda de tempore in
tempus, toties quoties prædictus Praeses sic abesse contigerit, durante tali tempore, quo Deputatus et
"Deputati prædicti Præsidis continuaverit et continuaverint, facere et exequi valeat et possit valeant et
possint, vigore harum Literarum nostrarum patentium, adeo plene libere et integre, ac in tam amplis
❝modo et forma, prout Præses prædictus, si præsens esset, illa facere et exequi valeret et posset; sacra-
"mento corporali super sancta Dei Evangelia, in forma et effectu in eisdem Literis nostris patentibus
"specificatis, per hujusmodi Deputatum et Deputatos ad omnia et singula, quæ ad officium Præsidis per-
"tinent, bene et fideliter exequendum, coram præfato Concilio prædictæ Regalis Societatis, vel aliquibus
"quinque vel pluribus eorum, prius præstando; et sic toties quoties casus sic acciderit: cui quidem Con-
"cilio, vel aliquibus quinque vel pluribus eorum pro tempore existente, sacramentum, prædictum admi-
"nistrare potestatem et authoritatem quoties casus sic acciderit, damus et concedimus per præsentes,
absque brevi commissione sive ulteriori warranto in ca parte a nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris
"procurandis seu obtinendis: Ac ulterius, quod de cætero in perpetuum ipsi et successores eorum, seu
" aliqui novem vel plures eorum (quorum Præsidem pro tempore existente, vel ejus Deputatum, semper
unum esse volumus) conventus seu congregationes de seipsis pro experimentorum et rerum naturalium
cognitione et indagine aliisque negotiis ad Societatem prædictam spectantibus quoties et quando opus
"fuerit, licite facere et habere possint in collegio sive aula sive alio loco commodo infra regnum nostrum
Angliæ Ac ulterius, quod omnia et singula res potestates libertates et privilegia in prædictis Literis nos-
"tris patentibus præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis prædicta concessa, virtute
❝istarum Literarum nostrarum patentium, quæ non sunt exercenda facienda performanda seu exe-
"quenda, nisi per prædictum Præsidem et Consilium, aut aliquos, septem vel plures eorum; de cætero
"in perpetuum exerceri fieri performari seu exequi possint et valeant per prædictum Præsidem et Conci-
"lium, aut aliquos quinque vel plures eorum. AC ULTERIUS de uberiori gratia nostra dedimus et con-
❝cessimus, ac per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris damus et concedimus, præfatis
"Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus prædictæ Regalis Societatis, et successoribus suis in perpetuum, quod de
"cætero in perpetuum bene liceat et licebit Præsidi Regalis Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente,
"de tempore in tempus eligere nominare et constituere aliquem vel aliquos Typographum sive Impres-
sorem, Typographos sive Impressores, et Chalcographum seu Sculptorem, Chalcographos seu Sculptores,
et ipsi vel ipsis facultatem concedere, ut imprimant tales res materias et negotia prædictam Regalem
"Societatem tangentia vel concernentia, quales prædictis Typographo vel Impressori, Chalcographo scu
"Sculptori, vel Typographis vel Impressoribus, Chalcographis vel Sculptoribus, de tempore in tempus per
"Præsidem et Concilium prædictæ Regalis Societatis, vel aliquos quinque vel plures eorum (quorum
"Præsidem pro tempore existente, vel ejus Deputatum, unum esse volumus) vel per majorem partein
"prædictorum quinque vel plurium commissæ fuerint; sacramentis suis corporalibus, antequam ad officia
"sua exercenda admittantur, coram Præside et Concilio pro tempore existente, vel aliquibus quinque vel
pluribus eorum, prius præstandis; et sic toties quoties casus sic acciderit: cui quidem Præsidi et Con-
"cilio pro tempore existente, vel aliquibus quinque vel pluribus eorum, sacramenta prædicta administrare
"plenam potestatem et authoritatem damus et concedimus per præsentes. ET ULTERIUS volumus, ac
per præsentes pro nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris concedimus præfatis Præsidi Concilio et Soda-
"libus Regalis Societatis prædictæ et successoribus suis, quod hæ Literæ nostræ patentes, vel irrotula-
"mentum earundem, stabunt et erunt in omnibus et per omnia bonæ firmæ validæ sufficientes et effec-
"tuales in lege ad omnes respectus proposita constructiones et intentiones erga et contra nos heredes et
"successores nostros, tam in omnibus curiis nostris, quam alibi infra regnum nostrum Angliæ, absque ali-
"quibus confirmationibus licentiis vel tolerationibus de nobis heredibus vel successoribus nostris quoquo,
" modo in posterum procurandis aut obtinendis. NON OBSTANTE male nominando vel male recitando.
66
44
(C
+
3 Sic in Authent.
Xiv
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
કર
46
I
"aut non recitando prædicta terras tenementa et cætara præmissa, vel aliquam inde parcellam. Et non
"obstante non inveniendo officium aut inquisitionem præmissorum, aut alicujus inde parcellæ, per quæ
"titulus noster inveniri debuit, ante confectionem harum Literarum nostrarum patentium. Et non obstante
"male recitando vel non recitando aliquam dimissionem vel concessionem de præmissis vel de aliqua inde
"parcella factam, existentem de recordo vel non de recordo. Et non obstante male nominando vel non
"nominando aliquam villam hamletam parochiam locum vel comitatum, in quibus præmissa vel aliqua
"inde parcella existunt vel existit. Et non obstante, quod de nobis tenentium firmariorum sive occupa-
"torum præmissorum, vel alicujus inde parcellæ, plena vera et certa non fit mentio. Et non obstante
"aliquibus defectibus de certitudine vel computatione aut declaratione veri annui valoris præmissorum,
❝aut alicujus inde parcelle; aut annualis redditus reservati de et super præmissis, vel de et super aliqua
"inde parcella, in his Literis nostris patentibus expressis et contentis. Et non obstante statuto in Par-
❝liamento Domini HENRICI nuper Regis Angliæ sexti progenitoris nostri, anno regni sui decimo oc-
"tavo, facto et edito. Et non obstante aliquibus aliis defectis, in non certe nominando naturam genus
"speciei' quantitatem aut qualitatem præmissorum, aut alicujus inde parcellæ. Er non obstante statuto
"de terris et tenementis ad manum mortuam non ponendis; aut aliquo alio statuto actu ordinatione
"proclamatione provisione sive restrictione in contrarium inde antehac habitis factis editis ordinatis seu
provisis, in aliquo non obstante. SALVO tamen ANDREE COLE Armigero et omnibus aliis personis
"quibuscunque, præterquam nos heredes et successores nostros, talia jus clameum interesse et demanda
quæcunque; qualia ipse vel ipsi seu eorum aliquis habet seu habeant, aut de jure habere debent,4 de
"et in præmissis, seu aliqua parte vel parcella inde. ET ULTERIUS volumus, et per præsentes pro
"nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris ordinamus et firmiter injungendo præcipimus, quod Præses
"Societatis prædictæ pro tempore existente, et Deputati ejus, antequam ipsi aut eorum aliqui ad execu-
❝tionem officii illius admittantur, tam sacramentum corporale communiter vocatum The oath of obe-
"dience, quam sacramentum corporale communiter vocatum The oath of supremacy, super sacrosanctis
"Dei Evangeliis præstabunt, et eorum quilibet præstabit, coram Concilio ejusdem Societatis, aut aliqui-
"bus septem vel pluribus eorum; cui quidem Concilio, aut aliquibus septem vel pluribus eorum, sacra-
menta prædicta administrare pro nobis heredibus et successoribus nostris plenam potestatem et autho-
ritatem de tempore in tempus, quotiescunque opus fuerit, damus et concedimus per præsentes. PRO-
viso semper, et voluntas et intentio nostra regia est, quod terræ et præmissa prædicta per præsentes,
"ut præfertur, concessa, seu eorum aliqua, non alienabúntur vel vendentur alicui personæ sive aliquibus
personis quibuscunque, aliquo in præsentibus contento in contrarium inde non obstante. Eo, quod
expressa mentio de vero valore annuo vel de certitudine præmissorum sive eorum alicujus, aut de aliis
❝donis sive concessionibus per nos seu per aliquem progenitorum sive prædecessorum nostrorum præfa-
"tis Præsidi Concilio et Sodalibus Regalis Societatis de London, et successoribus, ante hæc tempora
"factis, in præsentibus minime facta existit; aut aliquo statuto actu ordinatione provisione proclamatione
"sive restrictione in contrarium inde antehac habitis factis editis ordinatis sive provisis, aut aliqua alia re
causa vel materia quacunque, in aliquo non obstante. IN CUJUS rei testimonium has Literas nostras
"fieri fecimus patentes. TESTE Me ipso apud Westmonasterium, octavo die Aprilis, anno regni nostri
" vicesimo primo.
"Per breve de privato sigillo.
66
66
"
'Sic in Authent.
1
› Sic ibid.
* Sie ibid.
• Sie ibid.
"PIGOTT."
APPENDIX. No. III.
XV
No. III.
Minutes of the Royal Society respecting Sir Isaac Newton.
1671. Dec. 23. The Lord Bishop of Sarum proposed for candidate Mr. Isaac Newton, Professor of
Mathematics at Cambridge.
January 11. Mr. Isaac Newton was elected. At that meeting mention was made of his improvement
of telescopes, by contracting them, and that that, which himself had sent thither to be examined, had
been seen by the King, and considered, also by the President, Sir Robert Murray, Sir Paul Neile, Dr.
Christopher Wren, and Mr. Hook, at Whitehall; and that they had so good an opinion of it, as that they
concluded a description, and scheme of it, should be sent by the Secretary, in a letter on purpose, to Mr.
Huygins at Paris, thereby to secure this contrivance to the author, who had also written a letter to Mr.
Oldenburgh from Cambridge, (Jan. 6, 1671,) altering and enlarging the description of his instrument,
which had been sent from hence for his review, before it should go abroad. This description was read,
and ordered to be entered in the register-book, together with the scheme. (Vide Phil. Trans. No. 80
-83.)
The Curator said he did endeavour to make such a telescope himself, and to find out a metal not ob-
noxious to tarnishing. It was ordered that a letter should be wrote by the Secretary to Mr. Newton, to
signify to him his election, and also to thank him for the communication of his telescope, and to assure
him, that the Society would take care that all right should be done him in the matter of this invention.
January 18. Mr. Newton's new telescope was examined and applauded.
25. Mr. Oldenburgh read a letter of Mr. Newton's, written to him from Cambridge January
18, concerning an intimation, 1st, Of a way of preparing a fit metalline matter for reflecting concaves;
2dly, of a considerable philosophical discovery he intends to send to this Society, to be considered and
examined.
February 1. There was again produced the four-foot telescope of Mr. Newton's, which was now bet-
ter than the last time.
February 8. The third letter from Mr. Newton from Cambridge, of Feb. 6, about his discovery of
the nature of light, refractions, and colours; importing that light (and colours) was not a similar, but he-
terogeneous thing, consisting of difform rays, which had essentially different refractions, abstracted from
bodies they pass through: and that colours are produced from such and such rays, whereof some in their
own nature are disposed to be red, others blue, others purple, &c. and that whiteness is nothing else but a
mixture of all sorts of colours, or that it is produced by all sorts of colours blended together. (Vide Phil.
Trans. No. LXXX.)
Ordered, that the author be solemnly thanked, in the name of the Society, for this very ingenious dis-
course, and be made acquainted that the Society think very fit, if he consents, to have it forthwith
printed, as well for the greater conveniency of having it well considered by philosophers, as for securing
the considerable notices thereof to the author against the arrogations of others. Ordered also, that the
discourse be entered in the register-book, and that the Bishop of Salisbury, Mr. Boyle, and Mr. Hook, be
desired to pursue, and consider it, and bring in a report of it to the Society.
1672. March 28. There was read a letter of Mr. Newton's, written to Mr. Oldenburgh from Cam-
bridge, (March 26,) containing some more particulars relating to his new telescope, especially the propor-
tions of the apertures, and changes for several lengths of that sort of telescope. (Phil. Trans. No.
LXXXII.)
3
xvi
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
April 4. The Secretary read a letter of Mr. Newton's, written to him from Cambridge, March 30,
concerning his answers to the difficulties objected by Mons. --, about his reflecting telescope, as
also to the queries of Mons. Denys concerning the same; together with his proposal of a way of using,
instead of a little oval metal in that telescope, a crystal figured like a triangular prism. (Phil. Trans. No.
LXXXII.) Ordered, that the Curator take care to make such a crystalline prism for the design mentioned,
and to try the same.
May 15. Mr. Hook made some experiments relating to Mr. Newton's theory of light and colours,
which he was desired to bring in writing to be registered.
May 22. Mr. Hook made some more experiments with two prisms, confirming what Mr. Newton
hath written in his discourse about light and colours, viz. that the rays of light being separated by one.
prism into distinct colours, the refractions made by another prism doth not alter these colours. (Phil.
Trans. No. LXXXIII.)
A
1675. Nov. 18. Mr. Newton offering to send to the Society, in a letter dated November 13, a dis-
course of his about colours, when it shall be thought convenient, the Society ordered the Secretary to thank
him for his offer, and to desire him to send that discourse as soon as he pleased.
December 9. There was produced a manuscript of Mr. Newton's, touching his theory of light and co-
lours, containing partly an hypothesis to explain the properties of light, by him discoursed of in his former
papers, and partly the principal phoenomena of the various colours exhibited by thin plates or bubbles,
esteemed by him to be of a more difficult consideration, yet to depend also on the said properties of light.
Of the hypothesis there was read only the first part, giving an account of the refraction, reflexion, trans-
parency and opacity: the second part, explaining colours, was referred to the next meeting.
December 16. The sequel of his hypothesis, which was began to be read the last day, was read to the
end. To which Mr. Hook said, that the main of it was contained in his Micrography, which Mr. New-
ton, in some particulars, had only carried further.
January 20. Read a letter of Mr. Newton's, written to Mr. Oldenburgh, December 21, 1675, stating
the difference betwixt his hypothesis and that of Mr. Hook, in his Micrography; the result of which is,
that he (Mr. Newton) had nothing in common with Mr. Hook: but a supposition that Ether is a medium
susceptible of vibrations; of which supposition Mr. Newton saith he makes quite a different use; Mr.
Hook supposing it light itself, which Mr. Newton does not. Besides, that he explains very differently
from Mr. Hook the manner of refraction and reflexion, and the nature and production of colours in all
cases, and even in the colours of transparent substances. Mr. Newton says he explains every thing in a
way so differing from Mr. Hook, that the experiments he grounds his discourse upon destroy all Mr.
Hook saith about them. And that the two main experiments, without which the manner of production
of those colours is not to be found out, were not only unknown to Mr. Hook, when he wrote his Microgra-
phy; but even last spring, as he understood by mentioning them to the said Mr. Hook. Read the begin-
ning of Mr. Newton's discourse, containing such observations as conduce to further discoveries, for com-
compleating his theory of light and colours, especially as to the constitution of natural bodies, on which
their colour and transparency depend; in which discourse he first describes the principal of his observa-
tions, and then considers, and makes use of them.
January 20. At this time were read the first 15 observations, which did so well please the company,
that they ordered the Secretary to desire the author would permit them to be published; together with
the rest, which they presumed did correspond to those that had now been read to them.
January 27. Mr. Newton's letter of January 5 was read, wherein he acknowledges the favour of the
Society, in the kind acceptance of his late papers, and declares that he knows not how to deny any thing
which they desire should be done; only he desires, that the printing his observations upon colours may
be suspended a while, because he has some thoughts of writing another set of observations, for determining
the manner of production of colours by the prism; which observations, he says, ought to precede those
now in our hands, and will do best to be joined with them.
4
APPENDIX. No. III.
xvii
February 3. The reading Mr. Newton's discourse was continued, viz. that part wherein he explains
the simplest of colours by the more compounded.
February 10. There was read the last part of Mr. Newton's discourse, wherein is considered, in nine
propositions, how the phenomena of thin transparent plates stand related to those of all natural bodies, in
which he inquires after their constitutions, whereby they reflect some rays more copiously than others.
1684. December 10. Mr. Halley gave an account that he had lately seen Mr. Newton at Cambridge,
and that he had shewed him a curious treatise de Motu Corporum; which, upon his desire, he said, was
promised to be sent to the Society to be entered upon their register. Mr. Halley was desired to put Mr.
Newton in mind of his promise, for securing his invention to himself, till such time as he can be at leisure
to publish it. Mr. Paget was desired to join with Mr. Halley.
February 25. A letter was read from Mr. Newton concerning his willingness to promote a philosophi-
cal meeting at Cambridge, the entering in our register his notions about motion, and his intentions to fit
them suddenly for the press.
1686. April 28. Dr. Vincent presented the Society with a MS. treatise, entitled Philosophiæ naturalis
Principia mathematica, and dedicated to the Society by Mr. Is. Newton; wherein he gives a mathema-
tical demonstration of the Copernican hypothesis, as proposed by Kepler, and makes out all the pheno-
mena of the celestial motions, by the only supposition of a gravitation towards the centre of the sun, de-
creasing as the squares of the distances therefrom reciprocally.
May 19. Ordered, that Mr. Newton's book be printed forthwith, in a 4to. of a fair letter; and that
a letter be written to him to signify the Society's resolution, and to desire his opinion as to the print,
volume, cutts, &c.
June 2. Ordered that Mr. Newton's book be printed, and that Mr. Edm. Halley shall undertake the
business of looking after it, and printing it at his own charge; which he engaged to do. (Vide Journal
of Council.)
January 26. Ordered, that Mr. Newton be consulted, whether he designs to treat of the opposition of
the medium to bodies moving in it, in his treatise de Motu Corporum now in the press.
1692. February 1. There was produced Mr. Newton's and Dr. Gregory's quadrature of curve lines;
both which will be printed in Dr. Wallis's Latin edition of his Algebra. It was chiefly a proposition sent
to Dr. Gregory from Mr. Newton, much about the time, Dr. Gregory says, he discovered it himself;
being a method of squaring all curve lines, that are expressible in any binomial. Mr. Newton has
subjoined a like rule, when it cannot be expressed under a trinomial; and mentioned that his process
will go on ad infinitum; and square the curve, when the ordinate cannot be expressed without an infinite
series.
1694. July 4. Ordered, that a letter be written to Mr. Newton, praying that he will please to com-
municate to the Society, in order to be printed, his Treatise of Light and Colours; and what other mathe-
matical or physical treatises he has ready by him.
October 31. Dr. Halley said that Mr. Newton had lately told him, that there was reason to conclude,
that the bulk of the earth did grow and increase in magnitude, by the perpetual accession of new parti-
cles, attracted out of the ether, by its gravitating power: and he supposed, and proposed to the Society,
that this increase of the moles of the earth would occasion an acceleration of the moon's motion, she
being, at this time, attracted by a stronger vis centripeta than in remote ages.
A letter from Mr. Leibnitz to Mr. Bridges was read, wherein he recommends to the Society to use
their endeavours to induce Mr. Newton to publish his farther thoughts and improvements on the subject
of his late book, Principia Philosophiae mathematica, and his other physical and mathematical discove-
ries; lest by his death they should happen to be lost.
1703. November 4. Sir Isaac Newton chosen of the Council and President the same day.
February 16. The President presented his book of Opticks to the Society; Mr. Halley was desired to
xviii
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
peruse it; and to give an abstract of it; and the Society gave the President thanks for the book, and for
being pleased to publish it.
1711. April 5. Mr. Keill observed that, in the Leipswick Acta Eruditorum for the year 1705, there is
an unfair account given of Sir Isaac Newton's Discourse of Quadratures, asserting the method of demon-
stration by him there made use of, to Mr. Leibnitz, &c. Upon which the President gave a short account
of that matter, with the particular time of his first mentioning or discovering his invention, referring to
some letters published by Dr. Wallis; upon which Mr. Keil was desired to draw up an account of the
matter in dispute, and set it in a just light.
May 24. A letter from Mr. John Keil to Dr. Sloane was produced and read, relating to the dispute
concerning the priority of invention of the arithmetick of fluxions, between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr.
Leibnitz, wherein Mr. Keil asserts the President's claim, &c. A copy of this letter was ordered to be
sent to Mr. Leibnitz, and Dr. Sloane was desired to draw up a letter to accompany it, before it was made
public in the Transactions, which should not be till after the receipt of Mr. Leibnitz's answer.
1711. January 31. A letter from Mons. Leibnitz to Dr. Sloane was read, in which he complains of
Mr. Keil's unfair dealing with him in his last letter, relating to the dispute between him and Sir Isaac
Newton;
the letter was delivered to the President to consider the contents thereof.
March 11. Upon account of Mons. Leibnitz's letter to Dr. Sloane, concerning the disputes formerly
mentioned, a committee was appointed by the Society to inspect the letters and papers relating thereto,
viz. Dr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Hill, Dr. Halley, Mr. Jones, Mr. Machin, and Mr. Burnet, who were to make
their report to the Society.
1712. April 24. The Committee, appointed to inspect the papers, letters, and books of the Society, ont
account of the dispute between Mr. Leibnitz and Mr. Keil, delivered in their report, which was read as
follows:
"We have consulted the letters and letter-books in the custody of the Royal Society, and those
found amongst the papers of Mr. John Collins, dated between the years 1669 and 1677 inclusive, and
shewed them to such as knew and avowed the hands of Mr. Barrow, Mr. Collins, Mr. Oldenburgh, and
Mr. Leibnitz, and compared those of Mr. Gregory with one another, and with copies of some of them
taken in the hand of Mr. Collins, and have extracted from them what relates to the matter referred to
us, all which extracts herewith delivered to you, we believe to be genuine and authentic; and by these
letters and papers we find, 1st, That Mr. Leibnitz was in London in the beginning of the year 1673, and
went thence in or about March, to Paris, where he kept a correspondence with Mr. Collins, by means of
Mr. Oldenburgh, till about September, 1676, and then returned by London and Amsterdam to Hanover,
and that Mr. Collins was very free in communicating to able mathematicians what he had received from
Mr. Newton and Mr. Gregory. 2dly, That when Mr. Leibnitz was the first time in London, he con-
tended for the invention of another differential method, properly so called; and notwithstanding that he
was shown by Dr. Pell, that it was Newton's method, he persisted in maintaining it to be his own
invention, by reason that he found it by himself, without knowing what Newton had done before,
and had much improved it; and we find no mention of his having any other differential method than
Newton's, before his letter of June 21, 1677, which was a year after a copy of Mr. Newton's letter of
December 10, 1672 had been sent to Paris, to be communicated to him, and above four years after Mr.
Collins began to communicate that letter to his correspondents; in which letter the method of fluxions
was sufficiently described to any intelligent person. 3dly, That by Mr. Newton's letter of June 13, 1676, it
appears, that he had the method of fluxions above five years before the writing of that letter; and by
his Analysis per Operationes numero terminorum infinitas, communicated by Dr. Barrow to Mr. Collins.
in July, 1669, we find that he had invented the method before that time. 4thly, That the differential
method is one and the same with the method of fluxions, excepting the nanie and mode of notation, Mr.
Leibnitz calling these quantities differences, which Mr. Newton calls moments, or fluxions, and marking
2
APPENDIX. No. III.
xix
them with the letter d, a mark not used by Mr. Newton. We therefore take the proper question to be, not
who invented this or that method, but who was the first inventor of the method; and we believe that those
who had reputed Mr. Leibnitz the first inventor, know little or nothing of his correspondence with Mr.
Collins and Mr. Oldenburgh, long before, nor of Mr. Newton's having that method above fifteen years
before Mr. Leibnitz began to publish it in the Acta Eruditorum of Leipswick."
"For which reasons we reckon Mr. Newton the first inventor, and are of opinion that Mr Keil, in as-
serting the same, has been no way injurious to Mr. Leibnitz; and we submit to the judgment of the So-
ciety, whether the extract of the letters and papers, now presented, together with what is extant to
the same purpose in Dr. Wallis's third volume, may not deserve to be made public."
To which report the Society agreed nem. con. and ordered that the whole matter from the beginning,
with the extracts of all the letters relating thereto, and Mr. Keil and Mr. Leibnitz's letters, be published
with all convenient speed that may be, together with the report of the said Committee.
Ordered, that Dr. Halley, Mr. Jones, and Mr. Machin, be desired to take care of the said impression,
(which they promised,) and Mr. Jones, to make an estimate of the charges, against the next meeting.
1713. January 8. Some copies of the book intituled Commercium Epistolicum, &c. printed by the
Society's order being brought, the President ordered one to be delivered to each person of the Committee,
appointed for that purpose, to examine it before its publication."
€ 2
C
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxi
No. IV.
List of the Fellows of the Royal Society from its first Institution, to the
year 1812, in the order of their Election.
THE FIRST PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, NAMED BY HIS MAJESTY'S
CHARTER, DATED 22d APRIL, 1663.

BORN.
1620
DIED.
April 5, 1684 William Lord Viscount Brouncker, President
July 4, 1673 Sir Robert Moray, Kt.
Dec. 31, 1691 Robert Boyle, Esq.
1697
Feb. 25, 1627
July 11, 1603
June 11, 1665
May 16, 1623
Dec. 16, 1687
1614 Nov. 19, 1672
1604 Oct. 13, 1689
March 24, 1675
William Brereton, Esq.-afterwards Lord Brereton.
Sir Kenelme Digby, Kt.
Sir Gilbert Talbot, Kt.
Sir Paule Neile, Kt.
Henry Slingesby, Esq.-expelled June 24, 1675.
Sir William Petty, Kt.
Timothy Clarke, M. D.
John Wilkins, D. D.—afterwards Bishop of Chester.
George Ent, M. D.—afterwards Sir George Ent, Kt.
William Erskine, Esq.
Jonathan Goddart, M. D. Prof. Med. Gresh.
William Balle, Esq. Treasurer.
Matthew Wren, Esq.
John Evelyn, Esq.
1617
Aug. 20, 1629
Oct. 31, 1620
1617
1602
June 11, 1672
Feb. 27, 1706
1699
Sept.
1677 Henry Oldenburg, Esq. Secretary.
Thomas Henshaw, Esq.
1666 Dudley Palmer, Esq.
Abraham Hill, Esq.
Which Council did, at a Meeting held May 20, 1663, by virtue of the power given them by the
charter for two months, declare the following Persons Members of the Society.
1690 James Lord Annesley-afterwards Earl of Anglesey.
John Alleyn, Esq.
May 23, 1617 May 18, 1692
Elias Ashmole, Esq.
John Austen, Esq.
Nov. 3, 1625
1697
John Aubrey, Esq.
1620
1687
George Duke of Buckingham.
Oct. 10, 1698
Oct. 20,
1685
George Lord Berkeley-afterwards Earl of Berkeley.
Robert Lord Bruce-afterwards Earl of Aylesbury.
Richard Boyle, Esq.
Oct.
1622 Sept. 5, 1681
1630 May 4, 1677
Thomas Bayne, M.D.—afterwards Kt.
Isaac Barrow, B. D.-afterwards D.D.
Peter Balle, M.D.
John Brook, Esq.-afterwards Sir John Brook, Bart.
David Bruce, M.D.-expelled Nov. 18, 1675.
3
· xxii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
DIED.
1608 April 19, 1669
Jan. 25, 1640
1619
A
Aug. 18, 1707
1707
Nov. 11, 1671
1690
Oct. 12, 1684
1676
1680
1617 Nov. 23, 1684
1615 March 28, 1669
1631
1701
1618 Jan. 6, 1689
1673
1621 Sept. 5,
1680
Oct. 14, 1677
1620 April 18, 1674
George Bate, M. D.
William Lord Cavendish-afterwards Duke of Devonshire:
Walter Charleton, M. D.
Edward Cotton, D. D. Archdeacon of Cornwall.
Daniel Colwall, Esq.
John Clayton, Esq.-afterwards Sir John Clayton, Kt.
Thomas Coxe, M.D.
William Croone, M. D.
John Earl of Crawford and Lindsay.
Henry Marquis of Dorchester.
William Earl of Devonshire.
Sir John Denham, Knight of the Bath.
Mr. John Dryden, the poet.
Seth, Lord Bishop of Exeter-afterwards of Salisbury.
Andrew Ellis, Esq.
Sir Francis Feane, Knight of the Bath.
Sir John Finch, Kt.
Mons. Le Febure.
Francis Glisson, M. D.
John Graunt, Esq.
1670
Christopher Lord Hatton.
Charles Howard, Esq.
William Hoare, M. D.
1673 Sir Robert Harley, Kt.
Nathaniel Henshaw, M.D.
1615 Jan. 24, 1697
James Hayes, Esq.-afterwards Kt.
William Holder, D.D.
1690
Theodore Haake, Esq.
William Hammond, Esq.
John Hoskyns, Esq.-afterwards Bart,
July 18, 1635 March 3, 1702 Robert Hooke, M. A.-afterwards LL. D.
Richard Jones, Esq.-afterwards Earl of Ranclaugh
1680 Alexander, Earl of Kincardin.
1678 Sir Andrew King, Kt.
John Lord Lucas.
James Long, Esq.-afterwards Bart.
Anthony Lowther, Esq.
1695 John, Lord Viscount Massarene.
Sir Anthony Morgan, Kt.
1695 Christopher Merret, M. D.
1614
Dec. 15,
1681
Dec. 7, 1637 Aug. 25, 1670
1622 Oct. 31, 1679
June
James, Earl of Northampton.
Sir Thomas Nott, Kt.-expelled Nov. 18, 1675.
William Neile, Esq.
Jaspar Needham, M. D.
Sir William Persall, Kt.
Sir Richard Powle, Knight of the Bath.
1682 Sir Robert Paston, Knight of the Bath-afterwards Earl of
Yarmouth.
Sir Peter Pett, Kt.-expelled Nov. 18, 1675
1714 Walter Pope, M.D.
March 1, 1610 Dec. 12, 1685 John Pell, D. D.
Peter Pett, Esq.
Henry Powle, Esq.
Thomas Povey, Esq.
Henry Proby, Esq.
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxiii


BORN.
DIED.
Dec, 24, 1686
July 27, 11625
May 28, 1672
1618 July 26, 1693
April 12, 1678
1636 Sept. 11, 1702
1636 May 20, 1718
Philip Packer, Esq.
William Quatremaine, M.D.
Edward, Earl of Sandwich.
Sir James Shaen, Kt.
Charles Scarburgh, M. D.-afterwards Sir C. Scarburgh, Kt.
Thomas Stanley, Esq.
George Smyth, M. D.
Alex. Stanhope, Esq.-withdrawn March 8, 1681.
Robert Southwell, Esq.-afterwards Sir Robert Southwell, Kt.
William Schroter, Esq.
Thomas Sprat, M. A.—afterwards D. D. and Bishop of Ro
chester.
Christopher Terne, M. D.
Samuel Tuke, Esq.-afterwards Kt.
Cornelius Vermuyden, Esq.-afterwards Kt.
Dec. 29, 1707 Sir Cyril Wyche, Kt.
Sir Peter Wyche, Kt.
1616
1703
John Wallis, D. D.
1606 Oct. 31,
1631 Sept. 3,
1636 July 3,
1687
Edmund Waller, Esq.
1701
Joseph Williamson, Esq.-afterwards Kt.
1672
Francis Willughby, Esq.
William Winde, Esq.
John Winthrop, Esq,
Thomas Wren, M.D.
Oct. 20, 1632 Feb. 25,
1723
Christopher Wren, LL. D.-afterwards Kt.
Edmund Wylde, Esq.-
May 11, 1684
Daniel Whistler, M.D.
1615
April 14, 1629
Sept. 17, 1615
Dec. 15, 1679
Dec. 4, 1679
April 9,
Sir Edward Bysshe, Kt.
Sir John Birkenhead, Kt.
1695
1670
Mons. Christian Huygens, of Zulichem.
Mons. Samuel Sorbiere.
The two months during which the Council of the Royal Society were empowered to nominate
Members being expired, the Society proceeded from time to time to elect by virtue of their
Charter.
ELECTED.
ADMITTER
July 1, 1663
1663
July 1
July 8
15
92
15
22
22
29
Jan. 6, 1664
Aug. 5, 1663
Dec. 30
BORN.
DIED,
Jan. 20, 1610
March 2, 1674
1673
May 3, 1681
1700
1630 May 14, 1714
May 30, 1670
1683
Sir Justinian Isham, Bart.
Henry Power, M. D.
Alexander Fraizer, M. D.; afterwards Kt.
Mons. Victor Beaufort Vabres de Fresars
Sir Edward Horley, Knight of the Bath
Henry Ford, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Sir John Talbot, Kt.
Edward Waterhouse, Esq.
::
:::::::
Antony Ashley Cooper, Ld. Ashley; afterwards Aug. 5
Earl of Shaftesbury
Oct. 25, 1698
Sir John Pettus, Bart.
1620
June 14, 1704
Ralph Bathurst, M. D.; afterwards D.D. and
Dean of Wells.
aud}
19
Aug. 19
xxiv
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
1695
Feb. 20, 1605 Nov. 30, 1675
1700
Sept. 18, 1643
March 17, 1714
{Mr. Gilbert
Expelled Nov.
1621
18, 1675
1687
BORN.
DIED.
Mr. John Beal; afterwards D. D.
1685 Archibald, Earl of Argyle
1594 April, 1678
Jane 5, 1675
1621 Nov. 11, 1675
Thomas Coxe, Esq.
Francis Potter, B. D.
William Gomeldon, Senior.
Henry Earl of Peterborough
Thomas Willis, M. D.
Sir Ellis Leighton, Kt.
John Creed, Esq.
Charles Viscount Dungarvan
Sir John Lowther, Bart.
Edward Smyth, Esq.
John Earl of Tweedale
Mr. Roger William's
Bishop et Burnet; afterwards D. D. and March 23
of Sarum
Mr. James Carkes
•
ELECTED,
ADMITTED,
Oct. 28, 1663
Nov. 4
Nov. 4, 1663
11
11
11
18.
18
18
Oct. 24, 1667
Dec. 9
Dec. 16, 1663
16
Jan. 6
27
16
Jan. 13
27
June 8, 1664
Feb. 3
Feb. 3, 1663
17
Feb. 11, 1688
1614
March 30, 1664
April 20
May 25
April 20, 1664
June 1
June
1
15
Nov.
Nov. 30
23
Monsieur Joannes Hevelius
Monsieur Isaacus Vessius, DD.
1687
Henry More, D. D.
Thomas Neale, Esq.
James Hoare, Esq.
William Godolphin, Esq.; afterwards Sir
Wm. Godolphin, Kt,
John Newburgh, Esq.
Samuel Woodford, Esq.
::
:
•
2
16
1621
1709
Sir Robert Atkyns, Kt.
Sir John Cutler, Kt.
March 7, 1664
1630 July 28, 1714
Nicholas Bagenall, Esq.
Nov. 9
23
16
23
Thomas Thynne, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
Esq.; afterwards Bart.
and afterwards Viscount Weymouth
30
1679
John Harvey, Esq.
Dec. 7
1636 Oct. 4, 1680
Jos, Glanvill, A. M.; afterwards B. D.
Thomas Rolt, Esq.
14
Dec. 14
14
Sir Nicholas Stanning, Kt.
21
March t
Sir Wm. Portman, Kt. Bart. and Kt.
the Bath
28
Jan. 4
March 26, 1688
1685
Sir Winston Churchill, Kt.
4
King Charles the II. (Patron)
Jan. 9.
1701
{ James II. (Patron)
James, Duke of York; afterwards King
George, Duke of Albermarle
18
May 22, 1636 April 23, 1687
Ferdinand Albert, Duke of Brunswick
Dec. 19, 1674
SEdward, Earl of Clarendon, Lord High
Chancellor
}
25
Feb. 8
25
Dec. 29, 1680
William, Lord Viscount Stafford
Col. Thomas Blunt
Jan. 18
Feb. 8
May 16, 1703
Samuel Pepys, Esq.
15
Jan 25
Feb. 8
15
Philip Carteret, Esq.; afterwards Sir Philip
Carteret, Kt.
}
22
March 1
1597 Nov. 9, 1677
March 29, 1665
1596
March 8, 1681
1630 Feb. 26, 1686
1611
Jan. 19, 1730
June 18, 1683
October, 1675
1624 April 11, 1686
Sept. 16, 1622 August
August 1677
1602 May 5, 1671
Withdrawn
Gilbert Sheldon, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury
Daniel Coxe, M. D...
Richard Sterne, Lord Archbishop of York
Humphry Henchman, Lord Bishop of London
John Dolben, D. D. Dean of Westminster;
afterwards Bishop of Rochester, and at
last Archbishop of York
Richard, Earl of Dorset
Sir Richard Corbett, Kt.
Sir Theodore de Vaux, Kt.
Edward, Earl of Manchester
Sir William Hayward
Malachy Thruston, M. D.
•
May 3
May 9
3
10
24
17
24
24
Charles, Earl of Carlisle
June 14
•
1671
Mons. Hughes Louis de Lionne, son of
Mons. de Lionne, Sec, of State in France
Mons. Vital Damas, agent of the French
merchants
28
June 28
28
28
Here the Meetings of the Society were interrupted by the calamity of the Plague, but began again on the 14th
March, 1664.
APPENDIX. No. IV.
XXV
ADMITTED.
April 4, 1666
March 28
BORN.
DIED.
ELECTED.
Captain George Cock
March 21, 166
William Harrington, Esq.
John Copplestone, Esq.
May 9, 1666
May 20, 1713
John Lord Yester; afterwards Marquis of
Tweedale
May 23
1691
Mons. Adrian Auzout
April 27, 1680
1841
March 20, 1688
June 27
June 13
27
1629
Thomas Crisp, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Samuel Parker, A. M.; afterwards D. D. af-
terwards Bishop of Oxford
Edward Nelthorpe, Esq.
May 29, 1709 Mr. Edmond King; afterwards M. D. and
July 17, 1685
Jan. 24, 1674
May 8, 1701
July 12, 1628
Jan. 11, 1683
1628
Nov. 16, 1700
Feb. 12, 1614 July 16, 1686
Sir E. King, Kt.
David, Lord Viscount Stormont
Joho, Lord Robartes; afterwards Lord
Privy Seal, afterwards Earl of Radnor
Benjamin Laney, Lord Bishop of Lincola;
afterwards of Ely
Mr. Nicholas Mercator
S Robert, Earl of Lindsey, Lord Great Cham-
berlain of England
Heury Howard, of Norfolk; afterwards
Earl of Norwich and Earl Marshal, at last
Duke of Norfolk
Paul Rycaut, Esq.; afterwards Sir P. Ry-
caut, Kt.
Thomas Lake, Esq.
John Pearson, D. D.; afterwards Lord Bi-
shop of Chester
Sir Clifford Clifton, Kt.
Aug. 29
Nov. 14
Aug. 29
21
•
Nov. 25, 1669
23
Nov. 28, 1666
Dec. 12
Feb. 14, 1667
March 14
March 7, 1667
April 25
March 28
Mons. Ismael Bullialdus
#
April 4
1616
1687
Mons. Pierre Pettit
Francis Smethwick, Esq.
May 16
Philip Skippon, Esq.; afterwards Sir P.
Skippon, Kt.
P.
May 16
16
Thomas Harley, Esq.
Sir Baruard Gascon, Kt.
30
June 20
1691
Walter Needbam, M. D.
June 20
April 6, 1671
Sir William Curtius, Kt, and Bart.
Oct. 3
March 8, 1681
Sept 24, 1710
Dec. 25, 1681
Nicholas Oudart, Esq.
Jaques du Moulin, M. D.
Expelled
Sir Maurice Berkley, Kt.
Col. Bullen Reymer
June 24, 1675, Richard Lower, M. D.
died 1691
March 5, 1624 Nov. 10, 1683
Nov. 29, 1628
Withdrawn
Mr. John Collins
Sir Nicholas Stewart, Bart.
Mons. Theodore de Beringhen
Henry Clerke, M. D.
Jan. 17, 170 John Wray, M. D.-Johannes Raius
William Aglionby, M. D.
Mons. Leyonbergb, Swedish President
William Soame, Esq.
f Sir Charles Berkley, K. B.; afterwards Ld,
Dursley, at last Earl of Berkley
17
17
:
Nov. 7, 1667
Oct. 17
:
24
:
:
24
21
24
Nov. 7
Nov. 7
7
14
•
21
21
21
Count Charles of Ubaldini, of Montefeltri
Ld.
28
28
30
·
1642
Aug. 27, 1708
1683
1684
July 10, 1814
1635
April 6, 1686
Dec. 8, 1688
1711
Expelled
June 24, 1675
June 8, 1626 Oct. 16, 1695
John Downs, M. D.
Edward Brown, M. D.; afterwards Presi-
i-}
dent of the College of Physicians
Edward, Lord Conway
Sir Maurice Eustace
Charles Hotham, Esq.
William, Earl of Strafford
Thomas Allen, M. D.
William Le Hunt, Esq.
Esay Ward, A. M.
Flower, Esq.
Don Antonio Alvares da Cunha
Arthur, Earl of Anglesey
Sir Erasmus Hardy, Bart.
Thomas Flatman, Esq.
Benjamin Woodroffe, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
John Colwall, Esq.
Dec. 5
12
Dec. 5
12
Jan. 2
Jan. 2
:
9
Feb. 6.
Feb. 6
13
13
13
20
20
April 9, 1668
•
23
·30
7
14
4
May 7, 1868
7
21
d
xxvi
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
1691
Mr. James Gregory
{ Mr. James Arderne, A. M. ; afterwards D.I
{Mr.
and Dean of Chester
Peter Courthope, Esq.
Expelled Nov.
DIED.
18, 1675
1675
Colonel Thomas Collepepyr, Esq.
ELECTED.
May 28, 1668
June 11
ADMITTED,
June 25, 1668
11
D.D.}
18
18
18
Nov. 26
Edward Howard, Esq. of Norfolk
Maurice, Lord Viscount Fitzharding
•
Sir Kingsmill Lucy, Bart.
Aug. 6
Nov. 5
26
26
5
30
1632
1704
John Lock, Esq.
26
Daniel Finch, Esq.
1703
Edward Chamberlayne, Esq.; afterwards
Dec. 3
Dec. 3
LL. D.
Sir John Banks, Bart.
10
31
Dec.
1704
Colonel Silas Titus
Jan. 14
James Hoare, jun. Esq.
21
Feb. 18, 1674
1641
Jan.
1697
Anthony Horneck, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
28
March 4, 1668
1635
1673
Oct. 12, 1673
George Morley, Lord Bishop of Winchester
George Castle, M.D.
Unknown
•
Feb. 4
Feb. 4
1627
Nov. 29, 1694
Sig. Marcellus Malpighi
March 4
Edward Jeffreys, Esq.
Oct. 28, 1669
Nov. 4, 1669
25
1641
1724
Thomas Barrington, Esq.
Don Gaspar Merez de Souza, Professor of
Mathematics, in the University of Coimbra
{Dr. Hirbanus Hiaerne; afterwards Archbi-}
shop to the King of Sweden
1598 April 22, 1672 Mons. George Stiernhielm, Præses Collegii
June 17, 1723
Antiquitatis, Stockholm
Mons. Gustavus Helmfeld
Mons. Andreas Monceaux
Sir John Williams, Kt. and Bart.
Sir Philip Mathews
Nov. 18
18
Dec. 9
Dec. 2
April 21, 1670
April 21, 1670
Dec. 15
March 23
Nov. 30, 1671
Robert Redding, Esq.; afterwards Sir R.
Esq.; afterwards Sir R.
Redding, Bart.
Nov.
Nov. 2, 1671
30
1711
Mr. Martin Lyster; afterwards M. D.
1711
Dec. 25, 1642
1629
Jane 8, 1625
1637
March 20, 1727
1672
Nov. 22, 1694
Sept. 14, 1712
1676
ton, Kt. and P. R. S.
Joannes Dominicus Cassini
April 2, 1701
Henry, Lord Howard, of Castle Riding; af-
terwards Earl of Arundel, at last Duke of
Norfolk
Nehemiah Grew, M. D.
Mr. Isaac Newton ; afterwards Sir I. New-Jan. 11
Sir Frechville Hollis
John Tillotson, D. D. Dean of Canterbury;
afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury
Francis Vernon, Esq.
Feb. 18, 1674
30
18
25
March 14, 1671
May, 22, 1672
June 12, 1672
Oct. 30
Oct. 30
Nov.
1689
Thomas Howard, of Norfolk, second son of
the Earl Marshal; afterwards called Lord
Howard
Nov. 6
Nov. 6
1694
June 23, 1646
Nov. 14, 1716
Mons. Gothofredus Gulielmus Leibnitz
1660
July 13, 1698
Edward Bernard, B. D. Professor of Astro- April 9, 1673
nomy, Oxon
Charles, Lord Herbert, eldest son to the
Marquis of Worcester; afterwards stiled
Marquis of Worcester
John Stafford Howard, Esq. son of the Lord Nov. 6
June 4
Viscount Stafford
Sir Justinian Isham, Bart.
July 23, 1718
Sir John Lawrence, Kt. Alderman of London
Sir Richard Ford, Kt. Alderman of London
27
Dec. 1, 1673
Sir Thomas Player, Kt. Chamberlain of
London
of}
Nov. 27
1
Rowland Winn, Esq
1
Mr. Andrew Birch; afterwards M. D.
1
Feb. 3, 1717
Francis Robartes, Esq.
Dec. 1
Feb. 5
1675
Colonel Giles Strangeways
Doctor John Le Gassick
diensis
"Renatus Franciscus Slusius, Canonicus Leo-
Henry Jenkes, M. A. Profes. of Rhet. at Nov. 30, 1674
Gresh. College; afterwards D. D.
Unknown
1697
1615
1681
Sir Jonas Moore, Kt.
Dec. 23, 1721
Sir Paul Whichcote, Bart.
1685
Daniel Milles, B. D.
Edmond Castell, D. D.
•
Dec. 3
Jan. 14
Dec. 3, 1674
Feb. 11
Unknown
Jan, 28
1
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxvii
BORN.
1656
DIED.
1680
Sir Philip Percivale, Bart.
ELECTED.
Feb. 18, 1674
April 5, 1695 George, Lord Viscount Halifax ; afterwards Nov. 30, 1675
June 15, 1631
Nov. 10, 1721
April 21, 1710
1688
1639
June 21, 1632
D.
Earl, and afterwards Marquis
John Mapletoft, M, D.; afterwards D, D.
Captain Henry Sheers
Henry Hall, Esq.
Sig. Franciscus Fravagino
Sir Richard Edgecumbe, Bart,
Sir Thomas Clutterbuck, Kt.
Oct. 28, 1681 Mr. John King, Rhetorick Professor, at Gre-
1680
1645
Dec. 31,
1680 or 82
1719
1679
BORN.
DIED.
sham College, M. B.
Sir George Croke, Kt.
Dr. Christ. Adolphus Baldwin
Mr. John Flamsteed, Astronomer Royal
George Ent, Esq.
Feb. 10
ADMITTED,
April 29, 1675
Dec. 2
Feb. 10
May 18, 1676
Nov. 30, 1676 Nov. 30
Feb. 8
Feb. 8
Feb. 13, 1678
..
· •
(The minutes of four Meetings are wanting here.)
Mr. Oliver Hill
ADMITTED.
FLECTED.
Mr.
Wyndham
Dec. 6, 1677
1635
1641
April 8, 1702
April 30, 1696
Thomas Gale, D. D.; afterwards Dean of York
Robert Plott, LL. D.
Dec. 6, 1677
6
1702
Thomas Smith, B. D.; afterwards D. D.
6
Sir Peter Colleton, Kt.
John Herbert, Esq.
{George Wheeler, Esq.; afterwards Sir Geo.}
Wheeler, D. D. Bart.
1699 Sir James Langham, Bart.
Mons. Theodorus Kerckringi us
1693 Walter Chetwynd, Esq.
1625
July 3, 1707
Edmond Dickenson, D. M.
Joseph Lane, Esq.
Francis Aston, Esq.
1679 John Mayow, M. D.
John Bemde, Esq.
Sept.
1696 William Perry, A. M.
Mr. David Hannisius, Bibliothecarius Bruns.
Mr. Dethlevus Cluverus
Nov. 8, 1656 Jau. 25, 1742 Mr. Edmond Halley; afterwards LL. D.
1629
Savill. Prof. and Astro. Royal
Mr. Joseph Maxon
Nov. 14, 1710 Mons. Ezekiel de Spanheim, Envoy of Bran-
denburgh
Thomas Sheridan, Esq.
Sir William Waller
Aug. 1, 1708
Edward Tyson, M. D.
1625
1695 Henry Paman, M. D.
William Naper, Esq.
13
Jan. 3
Jan. 17
31
Nov. 30, 1678
Nov. 30, 1678
30
30
.D.}
Nov. 30
Feb.
Feb. 6, 1679
30
March 13
Feb. 13
20
Dec. 1
•
Sig. Jo. Ambrosius Sarotti, Nob. Ven.
William Bridgman, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Pigot, Fellow of Wadbam College
Dec. 18
Mons. John Christian Heusch, M. D. Physi- Jan. 29, 1680
cian to the Elector Palatine
Dec. 18, 1679
4
March 18
July 13, 1681
1632
1656
1647
Mr. Thomas Firmin
Mr. John Houghton
1723 Mons. Antonine Van Leuwenhoeck
Mr. Peter Perkins
Jonas Moore, Esq.
1715 Robert Nelson, Esq.
•
Andrew Clenche, M. D.
John Wood, Esq.
1683 Dr. Jacobus Pighius Veronensis, Professor
1708
of Anatomy, at Padua
Dionisius Papin, M. D.
Frederick Slare, M. D.
April 9, 1685 Robert Wood, LL. D. Master of Christ's
1 Hospital
Sir Anthony Deane, Kt.
1728 Hugh Chamberlen, M. D.
1686 Sir John Percivale, Bart.
1660
1637
1700
Roger Meredith, Esq. Prof. of Civil Law,
Gresh.; afterwards Master in Chancery
John Rogers, M. A.
Mr. Oliver Salusbury
Dr. Russell
..
Feb. 5, 1679
26
5
Feb. 5
March 11
April
5
March 25, 1680
1
Nov. 30, 1695
•
•
•
29
Unknown
Unknown
April 6, 1681
:
April 22, 1680
£9
Dec. 16
Nov. 2, 1631
30
May 4
July 13
uly
d 2
xxviii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
DIED.
Richard Waller, Esq.
April 27, 1705 Jeremy Sambrooke, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Braddon
Mr. Goodwyn
Joannes Philippus Jordis, M. D. Francfort.
Sir Patience Ward, Kt. Alderman of London
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
April 27, 1681 May 4, 1681
June 1
27
Unknown
Henry Eve, Esq.
Nov. 9
Nov. 28
Mr. William Payne, A. M.
23
1644
July 30, 1718
William Penn, Esq.
Jan, 25, 1726
Sir Rowland Guynne, Kt.
23
Mr. Jodocus Crull
Jan. 30, 1733
Mr. Francis Lodwick
Richard Robinson, M. D.
•
8888888
23
30
30
30
1630
1701
Sig. Gregorio Leti
30
Mr. Isaac Dorislaus
Sept. 25, 1693
Mons. Henry Justell
Dec. 7
Dec. 7
Mr. Samuel Blackburne
14
Sidi Hamet Ben Hamet Ben Haddu Ottor,
Ambassador from Morocco
April 26, 1682
Jan. 7, 1726
Walter Mills, M. D.
John Turner, Esq.
July 12
Nov. 8
Nov. 1, 1682
15
Edward Paget, M. A.
May 20, 1660
May 22, 1729
Marc. Antonio Principe Borghese
29
Don Joseppe de Faria, Envoy from the
King of Portugal
they
30
30
1643
Dec. 25, 1712
Sir John Chardin, Kt.
30
Withdrawn
Nov. 12, 1707
Oxford
Oct. 1686
Mr. William Gould
1635
Nov. 12, 1713
Dec. 23, 1721
1690
Oct. 19, 1728
March 29, 1748
Oct. 31, 1709
1713
April 16, 1660 Jan. 11, 1753
Mons. Conrad van Beuninghen, Envoy from
the States General
Robert Pitt, M. D. Prof. of Anatomy, at
Edward Haynes, Esq.
Edward Wetenhall, Lord Bishop of Cork
and Rosse, and afterwards of Kilmore
Allen Moulin, M. D.
Charles Willughby, M. D.
Nathaniel Vincent, D. D.
Mr. Arthur Bailey
William Musgrave, LL. D.
Mons. Fremont d'Ablancourt
James Monson, Esq.
Richard Beaumont, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Baker
Alexander Pitfield, Esq.
Tancred Robinson, M. D.
Henry, Earl of Clarendon
•
John, Lord Vaughan; afterwards Earl of
1 Carberry
Dec. 1
1
Jan. 21, 1685
Hans Sloane, M. D.; afterwards Sir H.
Sloane, Bart. and P. R. S.
H.
Benjamin Von Münchausen
Jan. 22, 173
Thomas, Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery
May 13
Mons. Esprit Cabart de Villermont
Dec. 13
Dec. 13
20
May 2, 1683
May 9, 1683
July 4
18
July 25
25
25
Nov. 30
Dec. 5
.
19
March 19, 1684
Nov. 12
Dec. 1, 1684
19
Mr. John Beaumont
Mr. Charles Leigh, M. A.; afterwards M. D.
Sir Richard Bulkley, Kt.
Sir Robert Gordon, Kt.
Nov. 25
Feb. 3, 1686
Nov. 25, 1685-
Feb. 3
1656
1698
William Molyneux, Esq.
1718
St. George Ash, A. M.; afterwards D. D.
and Lord Bishop of Clogher, at last Lord
Bishop of Derry
June 2, 1686
Thomas Molyneaux, Esq.; afterwards M. D.
John Harwood, A. M.; afterwards LL, D.
Clopton Havers, M. D.
Nov. 3
3
17
March 2
Dec. 15
D
Mears, Esq.
Dee. 8
1646
1641
May 10, 1753
April 11, 1706
1715
1742 or 3
Sylvius, M. D. of Dublin
Mons. Jean Weichard Valvasor, Liber. Baro.
of Carniola
William Wotton, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
Benjamin Middleton, Esq.
Mr. Nicholaus Facio de Duillier
Mons. Joannes Nicholaus Pechlin, M. D.
Mons. Raymond Vieussens, M. D.
Mons. Js. Adamus Stampfer, of Stiria
Adair, Esq.
Clayton, Esq.
::
March 9, 1687
Dec. 14
Nov. 30, 1688
•
•
Feb. 1, 1687;
Jan. 18
May 2, 1688
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxix

JORN,
1660
DIED.
1708
April 4, 1718
Mr. Edward Stillingfleet
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Dec. 18, 1689
4
July 10, 1658
Oct. 2, 1667
1638
Charles Gresham, M. A. Rhet. Prof. Gresh, Col.
Mynheer Nicholaus Witsen, Burgomaster of Nov. 30, 1639
Amsterdam
William Stanley, D. D.; afterwards Dean}
of St. Asaph
Joseph Raphson, A. M.
Mr. George Moult
Sig. Jacomo Grandi, of Venice
1691
April 8, 1709
Sir Godfrey Copley, Kt, and Bart.
Thomas Day, Esq.
Nov.
Nov. 1, 1730
Mons, Lewis Ferdinand Count Marsigli
Feb. 3, 1716Alex. Torriano, M. A.; afterwards LL. D
1716
Prof. Ast, Gresh,
Sir William Trumball, Kt.
Dec. 1, 1690
Nov. 30, 1691
Nov. 30
⋅ D.}
Jan. 27, 1691
Nov. 30, 1692
April 4, 1691
Nov. 30, 1692
Charles Isaac, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Mons. John Theodore Heinson, of Hanover
Edward Lany, M. A. Prof. of Divinity,
Gresh. College; afterwards D. D.
Edward Southwell, Esq.
Jonathan Blackwell, Esq.
.
:
·
30
30
April 5, 1693
Dec. 14, 1692
Unknown
Do.
:
John Woodward, M. D. Prof. Med. Gresh. Nov. 30, 1693
1667
Aug. 9, 1728
Oct. 12, 1708
David Gregory, M. D.
Lord George Douglas ..
Sept. 8, 1650
1707
Joannes Dolceus, M. D.
Mr. Ralph Lane
1630
1714
George Viscount Tarbat
Louis Paule, M. D.
1665
April 25, 1728
College
1660
Dec. 22, 1718
Aug. 3, 1723
April 2, 1729
May 3, 1644
June 14, 1704
Aug. 9, 1744
1742 or 3
1706
Robert Briggs, M. A. Prof. Ast. Gresh. Coll,
Thomas Kirke, Esq.
John Henley, Esq.
Charles Bodvill, Earl of Radnor
Sir Thomas Willoughby, Bart.; afterwards
Lord Middleton
Georgius Franck de Franckenaw, Prof. of
Med. Wittenburg
Christopher Wren, Jun. Esq. eldest son of Sir
Christopher
Jan, 25
Nov. 30, 1693
30
30
$0
Nov. 30, 1693
of } }
Nov. 30, 1694
James Brydges, Esq.; afterwards Duke of
Chandos
John Jackson, Esq.
Patrick Gordon, A. M.
Sig. Dominico Bottini, M, D.
Mr. Samuel Doody
April 4, 1718 Mr. James Petiver, Apothecary to the Char-
ter-house
Bernard Connor, M. D.
Sig. Tommaso Del Bene
Rt. Hon. Charles Montague, Esq.; after-
wards Lord Halifax, at last Earl of Halifax
Mr. Richard Bentley; afterwards D. D
Mr. Moyses Pujolas
Edward Smyth, D. D. Dean of St. Patrick's;
afterwards Lord Bishop of Down and
Connor
Mons. Pomponius Baron de Scarlotti
Sig. Vincentio Viviani, of Florence
Sig. Fornassari, of Bononia
Orlando Bridgeman, Esq.; afterwards Sir
Oct. 23, 1695
Nov. 27
Nov, 27, 1695
27
27
1665
1698
27
30
30
April 16, 1661
Jan. 27, 166
May 19, 1715
July 14, 1742
30
•
30
Dec. 18
Nov. 4, 1720
April 29, 1696
April 29, 1696
April 5, 1622 Sept. 23, 1703
Aug. 14, 1721
Sir}
William Byrd, Esq.
29
29
Sept. 7, 1719
John Harris, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
Sig. Bon Figlilio
1649
1713
Godofridus Bidloo, M. D. Prof. of Anatomy
in the University of Leyden
Jan. 21, 1701
Jan. 22, 1733
Thomas Foley, Jun. Esq, of Whitley; after-
wards Lord Foley
July 15
July 22, 1696
Ralph Lowardes, Esq.
Mr.
Chadwick
Mr. Philip Ryley
Sig. Francisco Spoleto, M. Prof. Pa.
April 17, 1751
Henry Petty, Esq.; afterwards Viscount
Shellburne, at last Earl of Shellburne
Mr. Charles Bernard; afterwards Sergeant
Nov. 30
Nov. 30
Dec. 16
Surgeon
O. Bridgeman, Kt.
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
DIED.
HORN.
Dec. 4, 1664
Sept. 13, 1735
Nov. 16, 1739
John Newey, A. M.
M.D.
William Cockburn, M. D.
March 17, 1738
Hugh Howard, Esq.
John Hutton, M. D.
May 26, 1667
1673
Nov. 27, 1754
Sept. 15, 1707
Mr. Abram de Moivre
George Stepney, Esq.
1723
1658
Feb. 10, 1677
1665
Sept. 13, 1725
April 15, 1755
1721
Ralph Thoresby, Esq.
Sept. 27, 1655
Nov. 19, 1759
July 12, 1710
Mons. Jacques Basnage de Beauval
Mons. Jacques Cassini
Matthew Prior, Esq.
Sir Berkeley Lucy, Bart.
Sig. Dominico Guglielmini
Orlando Bridgeman, Esq.
Maurice Emmett, Esq.
John Fryer, M. D.
Robert Molesworth, Esq.; afterwards Lord
1656 May 30, 1725, of Swords
1663
Feb. 13, 1672
1708
Jan. 6, 1731
March 21, 1748
4
Mons. Balthasar Becker, M. D.
Sign. Georgio Baglivi
Mons Estienne Francois Geoffrey
George Lord Reay
{James, Lord Viscount Seafield; afterwards?
of Finlater
Edward Norris, M. D.
John Stanley, Esq.; afterwards Sir John
Stanley, Kt. and Bart.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Nov. 30, 1696
Dec. 2
Nov. 30, 1696
Nov. 30
30, 1697
30, 1697
30
March 23
:
:
March 23
March 30, 1698
Nov. 16
March 23, 4697
April 6, 1698
Lord}
July 6, 1698
Nov. 9
July 6
Nov. 9
16
9
30
16
1575
1732
July 6, 1700
1724
Jan. 3, 1634
Withdrawn
May 21, 1707
}
Sir Philip Sydenham, Bart.
1671
Aug. 29, 1721
April 8, 1710
Mons. Christ. Leyon Crona
David Krieg., M. D.
Mr. Williams
Mr. William Cooper, Surgeon
Thomas Browne, M. D.
Martin Bowes, Esq.
Mr. Paul Bussiere
Mons. Pierre Silvester
Mons. Jo. Burchard Menkenius
:
John, Viscount Lonsdale, Lord Privy Seal
Mr. James Pound, M. B. .
Mr. James Cunningham
March 18, 1715 Mr. Otto Sperling, of Copenhagen
1725
Abraham Cyprianus, M. D.
Charles du Bois, Esq.
:
(John Keill, M. A.; afterwards M. D. Sav.
Prof. of Astron.
}
Sir John Percivale, Bart.; afterwards Lord
Percivale, at last Earl of Egmont
Oct. 9, 1731
Thomas Isted, Esq.
Jan. 16, 1744
Edward Haistwell, Esq.
1652
April 26,1716
April 19, 1
John, Lord Somers, Lord Chancellor
30
1722
Anthony Hammond, Esq.
Jan. 24, 1637
Charles, Lord Spencer; afterwards Earl of
Sunderland
June 29, 170 Charles, Earl of Dorset
arl of z
30
June 6, 1705
Oct. 30, 1700
Jan 11
•
Mr. R. Shirley
•
•
Jan. 11, 1698
March 7, 1733
George Worth, Esq.
Mr. Agricola
1710
1710
:
:
:
•
•
Nov. 30, 1699
IL
Feb. I 1
Dec. 6, 1699
•
May 22, 1700
Dec. 20, 1699
July 30, 1713
Nov. 30, 1700
Dec. 11, 1700
Feb. 26
M. D. Sav.
May 27, 1714
Feb. 25, 1701
Nov. 30. 1701 /
Ciril Arthington, Esq.
Mr. Michael Le Oassor
March 2, 1707
Jan. 4, 1747
April 12, 1743
1723
Sept. 2, 1724
James Drake, M. D.
John Shadwell, M. D. since Sir J. Shadwell, Kt.
Mr. George Cheyne; afterwards M. D.
M. De la Pryme
Robert Thompson, Esq.
Mr. Vernon
John Chamberlayne, Esq.
John Lowthorp, M. A.
::
Dec. 31
Jan. 14
21
Dec. 3
May 6, 1702
March 18
May 6, 1702
May 13
Nov. 30
20
Nov. 30
Mr. James Young
Mr. Ludlow
Mons. Jean Chardelon
1657
Aug. 5, 1580
April 5, 1735
Mr. Wm. Derham
Dec. 12, 1764
John Hickes, Esq.
Johannes Philippus Breynius, M. D. of Danzig May 2, 1703
Joseph Morland, M. D.
Nov. 30
April 13, 1721 Sir Matthew Dudley, Bart.
30
Feb. 3, 1703
Jan. 26
•
Dec. 8
Jan. 26
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxxi
HORN.
UTED,
Aug. 11, 1673
Feb. 16, 1754
March 27, 1716
1672
May 3, 1661
Dec. 9, 1652
Aug. 2, 1672
June 25, 1755
1738
Jan. 28, 1730
Dec. 30, 1723
June 23, 1733
1653
Oct. 28, 1708
Withdrawn
John Morton, M. A.
Richard Mead, M. D.
Robert Areskyne, M. D.
William Oliver, M. D.
Joseph Shaw, Esq.
Mr. James Hodgson
•
.
Philip Stubs, M. A.; afterwards B. D.
Sign. Antonio Valisnieri
Augustus Quirinus Rivinius, M. D. Prof.
of Med. in the University of Leipzig
Joannes Jacobus Scheuchzerus, M. D.
Sign. Emanuel Timone, M. D.
Mr. P. Boothe
Russell Robartes, Esq.
Prince George of Denmark
Mr. Samuel Morland
John Fuller, Esq.
• "
Mar. 12, 1706 William Fellowes, Esq.
1673
Jan. 20, 1731
1681
Feb. 27, 173
27,173
•
•
:
•
Andrew Tooke, M. A. Prof, of Geom. G
Coll.
Annesley
Walter Clavell, Esq.
John Arbuthnot, M. D.
resh.
•
·
1651 Jan. 25, 1733
1650
May 7, 1729
Feb. 14, 1727
Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Kt.
John Mortimer, Esq.
ELECTED.
癰
​•
ADMITTED.
Nov. 30, 1703
30
Jan. 5
20
Dec. 15
Feb. 23
Nov. 30, 1704
May 31,1704
June 28
Dec. 6
June 8, 1709
•
Nov. 30, 1704
30
*
Dec. 30
13
Nov. 30, 1705
3, 1703
•
Nov. 30
1729
1721
D'Acre Barrett Lennard, Esq.
Mr. Francis Hawksbee
John Thorpe, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
Heury Worsley, Esq.
Wm. King, Lord Archbishop of Dublin
Wm. Nicolson, Lord Bishop of Carlisle; af-
terwards Lord Bishop of Derry, at last
Archbishop of Cassill
Mr. Buys, Esq. of Holland
Wm. Burnett, Esq.
(Mr. Philip Bisse; afterwards D. D. and
Lord Bishop of St. David's, at last Lord
Bishop of Hereford
Captain Thomas Savery
30
Dec. 5
5
#
Feb. 13, 1706
Feb. 13
Wm. Cowper, Esq. Lord Keeper; after- April 3
wards Earl Cowper
Charles, Lord Viscount Townshend
Jan. 21, 1707
•
April 10, 1706
Mous. Le Compte de Briançon, Envoy from
the Duke of Savoy
Oct. 10, 1723
1674
June 21, 1738
May 23, 1743
John, Lord Powlet
Aug.
1676
Aug. 28, 1731
Charles, Earl of Orrery
Mons. Jean Christoph. Facio de Duillier
Oct. 25, 1709
March 11, 1711
Mous. Antoiue Marquis de Guiscard
July 8, 1711
Jan. 18, 1719
Oct. 26, 1654
1671
Feb. 20, 1720
April 2, 1742
July 6, 1726
Nov. 24, 1745
•
Feb. 12, 1738
Nov. 20, 1714
Feb. 11, 1719
States?
Mons, Van Vrijberge, Envoy from the States
General
Samuel Garth, M. D.; afterwards Kt.
Sign. Gallucci
Sign. Giovanni Maria Lancisi, M. D.
James Douglas, M. D.
Mr. Humphrey Wanley
Robert Shippen, M. A. since D. D.
Col. Francis Nicholson
Mr. James Sherrard
Thomas Forster, Esq.
John Knight, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Frankland
William Frankland, Esq.
Rowland Holt, Esq.
Mr. Benjamin Morland
John, Duke of Roxburgh
James, Duke of Montrose
.
•
•
•
June 26
3
June 5
12
12
19
Nov. 20
Dec. 4
4
May 14, 1707
Dec. 4
Dec. 4, 1706
18
18
18
March 19,1707
June 11, 1707
•
April 2
March 26
1658
1742 or 3
Jan. 7, 1742
June 19, 1726
May 28
June 11
11
Sir Thomas Trevor, Kt. Lord Chief Justice
of Common Pleas: afterwards Ld. Trevor
Mr. Thomas Ayres
Dec.
1
Feb. 25
Dec. 1
James Venables, Esq.
Jan. 28
Nov. 26, 1746
1715
May 26, 1759
Thomas Hoy, M. D. Med. Prof. Reg. Oxon
Henry Plumptre, M. D.
Benjamin Pratt, D. D.
Mr. Thomas Woodford
Dec. 1
· •
April 7, 1708
1708
April 7, 1708
•
Nov. 10
xxxii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
DIED.
Dr. Mills, Greek Prof, of Oxford
Sir David Hamilton, Kt. M. D.
Williams
:
SJohn Bridges, Esq. Commissioner of the
June 9, 1736
Sir George Markham, Bart.
Aug. 28, 1721
1724
Jan. 31, 1719-20
Jan 28, 1713
Jan. 9, 1724
March 27, 1732
April 10, 1655 March 13, 1740
Jan 24, 1679
Jan. 10, 1654
Aug. 12, 1740
July 29, 1715
1742 or 3
Dec. 2, 1758
Customs
sir. Thomas Whalley
Thomas, Earl of Stamford
Philip, Earl of Chesterfield
ELECTED.
e}
.
May 12, 1708
Nov. 30
(Sign, Francisco Comaro, Venetian Ambas-
sador
Mons. Jean Rodrigue Lavater, M. D.
William Fellows, Esq.
Robert Balle, Esq.
Mr. Richard Tighe
Sir Edward Lawrence, Kt.
Richard Foley, Esq.
Sign. Michael Angelo Tilli, M. D. Bot.
Prof. Pisan.
Bot.
Mr. Owen Lloyd, Keeper of the Ashmol.
Mus. at Oxford, signed his name so in the
Charter book
Mr. Charles Nicholas Ayres
Archibald Hutcheson, Esq.
Count Lorenzo Magalotti, Counsellor of
State to the Grand Duke of Tuscany
Henry Cressener, M. A.
S Henry Newton, LL. ; afterwards Sir
D)
Newton, Kt.
Leopold, M. D. of Lubeck
Sign. Guido Graudi, of Florence
Robert Hunter, Esq.
Samuel Tufnell, Esq.
Sign. Vendramin Bianchi, President from
Venice
:
ADMITTED.
April 14, 1708
May 5
June 15, 1709
Nov. 10, 1708
Dec. 15
Nov. 30
•
May 4, 1709
Nov. 22, 1710
June 8, 1709
May 18
May 4, 1709
•
May 11
H.
H.}
Nov. 8, 1711
4
May 18, 1709
11
1742 or 3
Nov. 8, 1710
April 9, 1754
Aug. 3, 1712
Mons. Christian Wolfius
Joshua Barnes, Greek Professor, at Cambridge
Owen Brigstock, Esq.
Nov. 15, 1710
30
30
June 9, 1751
Nov. 19, 1724
Mr. John Machin, Prof. Astronomy, Gresham
Mr. Joseph Tanner
30
30
Aug. 23, 1683
Nov. 15, 1761
July 13, 1727
30
Feb, 25, 1758
Mr. Samuel Hill
Nov. 30, 171I
1718
1679
1746
Dec. 13, 1711
Nov. 30, 1711
Nov. 2, 1722
•
Feb. 25, 1713
April 12,1752,
Withdrawn
1638
1745
July 3, 1749
April 28, 1732
July 27, 1758
May 21, 1724
Nov. 30, 1731
1728
May 10, 1720
Sign. Joannes Poleni, Prof. of Astron. Padua
Mr. Alexander Geekie, Surgeon
Mr. Philbert Collet
{Mons. Charles Count Gyllenberg, Envoy
from
Alexander Sandilands, M. D.
Sir Marmaduke Wyvil, Bart.
Mr. Linda
Walter Douglas, Esq.
Prus-}
Mons, Louis Frid. Bonet, the King of Prus-
sia's Minister
Mr. Fettiplace Bellers
Mr. William Cheselden, Surgeon
Mr. John Craig
William Jones, Esq.
Roger Cotes, M. A. Plum. Pr. Ast. Cambrig.
Thomas Greene, Esq.
(Sir Thomas Parker, Lord Chief Justice; af-
terwards Earl of Macclesfield
Lord Viscount Duplin; afterwards Earl of?
Kinoul
Robt. Lord Harley; afterwards Earl of Oxford
Brook Taylor, LL.B.; afterwards LL. D.
John Friend, M. D.
Thomas Spratt, M. A. Archdeacon of Ro-
chester; afterwards Bishop of Rofons
SJohn Fortescue Aland, Esq.; afterwards
Sir J. Fortescue Aland, Kt.
:
30
April 17, 1712
Nov. 30
Nov. 30
May 2, 1714
Dec. 13, 1711
March 20, 1712 Oct. 23, 1712
March 27
April 3
March 27
1670
Dec. 19, 1746
Sept. 24, 1729
May
1
March 27
July 4, 1744
27
April 10
March 1752
(Sign. Pietro Grimani, Venetian Ambassador
afterwards Doge of Venice
Oct. 23
Dec. 1
Peter Le Neve, Esq. Norrøy King of Arms
Mr. John Kempe
Thomas Pellet, M. D.
Dec. 5, 1661
1676
3
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxxiii

-BORN.
DIED.
1742 or 3
Sign, Rinaldo de Duliolo, Med. Prof. Bonon.
Richard Richardson, D. M.
March 27, 1733 Richard Myddleton Massey, M. D.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
•
Feb. 19, 1712
Thomas Rawlinson, Esq.
19
•
Thomas Bower, M. D.
Nov. 13
1742 or 3
April 13, 1728
Sign. Josephus Averinus, Prof, Jur, of Pisa
Samuel Molyneux, Esq.
Dec. 1, 1712
Dec. 1
Aug. 7, 1667
Jau. 1, 1748
Mons, Jean Bernoulli, Math. Prof. Basil.
Aug. 15, 1761
Nov. 4, 1782
Cant.
May 8, 1740
John Inglis, M. D.
Dec. 13, 1662
1667
March 2, 1729
1723
1742 or 3
William Tempest, Esq.
Mr. Patrick Blair; afterwards M. D.
S Mr. Richard Bradley; afterwards Bot. Prof.
Sign. Joannes Antonius Count Baldini
SSign. Francesco Bianchini, signed Franc.)
Blanchinus
Louis d'Aumont de Rochebaron Duc d'Aumont
Mons. Pierre de Mellarede, Minister of the
Duke of Savoy
S Mons. Kreienberg, Minister of the Elector of
Hanover
Mons. Iver Baron Rosenkrantz, Minister ofį
the King of Denmark
Richard Barrett, Esq.
of}
1
Prof. Dec.
1
1
Jan. 22
Jan. 29
29
29
May 21, 1713
June 11
May 21, 1713
Dec. 9, 1719
Charles Oliphant, M. D.
Mr. George Tollett
Jan. 14
•
June 25
1741
Mons. Daniel Ernest Jablouski
Jan. 20, 1760
Mr. John Colson; afterwards Luc. Prof. Cant.
Mr. William Brattle
March 11
Col. John Leveret
Edmond Turner, Esq.
Sept. 10, 1719
Robert Keck, Esq.
Thomas Bromfield, M. D.
Mons. Nicholas Bernoulli, JU. M. D.
March 25, 1714
25
1759
า
Math. Professor Patav. dein Juris Prof.
Basil
Prince Alexander de Mensicoff
July 29, 1714
Oct. 29, 1690
1654
June 28, 1754
Dec. 22, 1722
April 5, 1755
Martin Folkes, Esq.; afterwards P. R. S.
Mons. Pierre Varignon
Nov. 11
March 1744
Richard Rawlinson, M. A. ; afterwards LL. D.
SJohn Theophilus Desaguliers, M. A.; after-
Oct, 28
wards LL. D.
John George Steigertahl, M. D. his Majesty's Nov. 11
Physician
esty's}
Nov, 18
July 1, 1730
1742 or 3
Thomas Jett, Esq.
30
Dec. 2
Alexander Stuart, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Watkins
Nov. 30
30
Thomas Hodges, Esq.
June 9, 1715 June 16, 1715
1742
Mr. Wilhel. Jacobus Gravesende
16
March 23, 1638 Feb. 22, 1731
Mons. Frederick Ruysh, M. D.
Mons. Levinus Vincent, of Haarlem
Mons. Marpurgher
George, Lord Newborough; afterwards Earl
of Cholmondelley
Mons. Jacques Eugene d'Allonville,
Dec. 7, 1733
July 14, 1671
Aug. 8, 1685
Oct. 27, 1678
Sept. 10, 1732
March 9, 1752
Oct. 7, 1719
Mons. Claude Joseph Geoffroy
Mons. Pierre Remonde de Montmort
valier de Louville
J657
1729
1656
. 1743
May
1774
30
Che-}
John Sherlock, Esq.
Mr. Pembertou
{James, Lord Paisley; afterwards Earl of Nov. 10
Abercorne
Sign. Nicolo Trou, Venețian Ambassador
Michael Bernardus Valentini, Prof. of Me-
dicine in the University of Giessen
Me-}
Sign. Antoni, Comes de Comitibus of Venice
Mr. John Godfrey
John Moore, Esq.
Mons. Justus van Effen
Mons. Francois Wicardel, Chev. de Fleury,
son to the Sicilian Ambassador
Bruno Tozzi, Abbas Vallumbrosanu s
Henry Nicholson, M, D,
*
John Churchill Wicksted, Esq.
Mr.
Cartwright
Nov 17
17
17
Nov. 30
Nov. 24
Dec. 8
Unknown
April 5, 1716
April 12, 1716
xxxiv
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
}
BORN.
DIED.
1697
Sept. 7, 1677
April 1, 1722
July 6, 1740
June 12, 1765
June 19, 1762
Feb. 15, 1744
June 25, 1744
1750
lotto
Otto Christop. Count Volkra, Imperial Envoy
Mons. Le Baron d'Iscaut
Mons. le Marquis de Monte Leon
Sir Joseph Hodges, Bart.
Sign. Antonio Maria Salvini, of Florence
Claudius Amyand, Esq.
Col. John Guise; afterwards Lieut.-General
Sign. Joseph Marquis d'Oroi, of Bologua
Mr. William Simon
Mr. Robert Paul
John Hadley, Esq.
Samuel Scheurer, D. D. Professor of Bern
Roger Gale, Esq.
..
Dr. Joh. Aug. Hugo, his Majesty's Physican
Sign. Luigi Antonio Muratori, Library
keeper to the Grand Duke of Tuscany
March 22, 1750 James Jurin, M.D. afterwards President
of the College of Physicians
Mr. Henry Barham
July 8, 1721
Feb. 1, 1735
May 5, 1725
1765
Jan.
4, 1761
July 16, 1749
Walter Jeffreys, Esq.
Edmond Littlehales, M. D.
Orlando Gee, Esq.
Elihu Yale, Esq.
Robert Walsted, M. D.
William Wagstaffe, M. D.
William Stukeley, M. D.
Stephen Hales, B. D.
John, Duke of Montague
James Mickleton, Esq.
:
:
::
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
April 19, 1716
April 19, 1717
Nov. 30, 1716 Feb. 27
March 21
March 28, 1717
Nov. 14
·
Nov. 30
Jan, 10, 1716
Dec. 6
March 28, 1717
April 4
11
Nov. 21
·
21
30
March 3
Dec. 12
Nov. 30
March 20, 1718
March 27
Nov. 20
•
Feb. 15, 1721
July 3, 1718
Oct. 22, 1729
John Whiteside, M. A.
Oct. 30, 1718
Sign, Ludovicus a Ripa
Caleb Colesworth, M. D.
1692 July 13, 1762
1682 April 21, 1739
Oct. 31, 1738
James Bradley, M. A. since Professor of
Astronomy Oxford, and Ast. Royal
Nicholas Sanderson, M. A. Professor Math.
Cambridge
of}
Nov. 6
}
May 21, 1719
Mr. Robert Gay
1722
1688
May 29, 1737
Jan. 16, 1733
Sir Thomas Bury, Lord Chief Baron of the
Exchequer
Charles Cadogan, Esq. since Lord Cadogan
John Conduitt, Esq.
Dec. I
April 9
Dec. 4, 1718
James Campbell, M. D.
1
William Stephens, M. D.
·
Samuel Crawys, Esq.
11
April 12, 1733
Mons. Thomas Fantet de Languy
Mr. Thomas Bates
Dec. 11
•
Jan. 8
Mr. John Bamber, since M. D.
John Hollier, M.D.
July 13, 1737
Sir Wilfrid Lawson, Bart.
July 8, 1686 April 22, 1758
Mr. William Beckett .
Dec. 11
22
May 14, 1719
Jan 15, 1718
Dec. 18
Mons Antoine de Jussieu, M. D.
1742 or 3
Sign. Pietro Antonio Michaellotti, of Venice
Mons. Lenck, of Leipsic
Mr. John Bellers
Feb. 5
Feb. 12, 1719
1688
Feb. 2, 1768
1743
Feb. 22, 1736
Robert Smith, M. A. Plum. Prof. Astron.
Camb. since LL. D.
May 21, 1718
Mons. John George Keyssler, of Hanover
Sir John Meres, Bart.
March 12
Feb. 12, 1719
May 14
Mr. Dalrymple
Dec. 14, 1751
Lord James Cavendish
•
April 9,1719
April 16
1743
April 9, 1742
1746
Sept. 17, 1730
Mr. John Bushby
James Hill, Esq.
Mr. Isaac Rand
Moses Williams, M. A.
John Strackey, Esq.
Mons. Albert Henri de Salengre, Auditor
{Mons.
Surveyor of the Bank of Holland
Mr. Colin M'Laurin, Prof. Math. Aber-
deen; afterwards Prof. Math. Edinburgh.
John Georges, Esq.
Charles Bale, M. D.
16
#
30
Nov. 5
•
•
•
Dec. 3
May 11, 1721
Dec. 10, 1719
Aug. 12, 1728
Oliver St. John, Esq.
George Stanley, Esq.
Charles Stuart, M. D.
William Sherrard, LL, D.
1
•
Nov. 5
Nov. 30
Feb. 25
30
March 3
17
3
April 7, 1720
APPENDIX. No. IV.
XXXV
BORN.
DIRD.
Feb. 25, 1720
8, 1744
Dec. 8,
March
Jeffrey Palmer, Esq.
Abel Ketelbey, Esq.
Richard Manningham, M. D. since Sir R.
Manningham, Kt.
1759
Ejected June
9, 1757
John Warburton, Esq.
William Mathew, Esq.
Sign. J. Baptista Recanati
Oct. 31, 1734
Oct. 27, 1727
1690
June 29, 1774
Ejected June?
9, 17575
June 10, 1730
Feb. 26, 1762
1739
William, Lord North and Grey
SHenry Heathcote, Esq. son of Sir Gilbert
{Heathcote
Zachary Pearce, M. A. since D. D. and Bi-
shop of Rochester
Alexander Cuming, Esq. since Sir Alexander
Comyns, Bart.
William Rutty, M. A.
David Papillon, Esq.
Samuel Sanders, Esq.
Mr. Henry Beighton
Sir Thomas Dereham, Bart.
Peter Des Maizeaux, Esq.
Mons. Henricus Hoffman
::
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
March 10, 1719
Feb. 25, 1719
10
March 10
24
24
March 10, 1720
June 30, 1720
March 31
April 7
June 30
July 7
7
7
Oct. 27
Nov. 30
Nov. 3
Jan. 25, 1721
March 2
June 8
Nov. 10,1720
Nov. 30
June 25, 1743
Mr. John Douglas, Surgeon
Dec.
8
April 9, 1771
Henry Pemberton, M. D.; afterwards Med.
s Med.?
8
Prof. Gresh,
1675
Nov. 16, 1751
Mr. George Graham
March 9
March 16
March 14, 1740
Sept. 26, 1728
1682
April 9, 1726
Sept. 16, 1743
1758
Jan. 1734
Aug. 12, 1729
June 8, 1735
Oct. 27, 1731
S Conrad Sprengell, M. D. since Sir C. Spren
gell, Kt.
Richard Hale, M. D.
Sir Th. Hewett, Kt.
Sir George Savile, Bart.
Paul Dudley, Esq.
William Barrowby, M. D.
John Beale, M. L.
John Wolhouse, Esq.
William Western, Esq.
Mr. John Brown
Talbot, Earl of Sussex
Thomas Miles, M. A.
Thomas Slater Bacon, Esq.
Richard Lucas, M. A.
Dec. 9, 1767
Dec. 9, 1681
Nov. 10, 1751
Mons. Abram Vater
Dr. Musgrave
1736
Oct. 13, 1758
Feb. 16, 1767
Dec. 21, 1733
Samuel Morland, M. A.
July 6, 1766
Charles Taylor, Esq.
Richard Molesworth, Esq.; afterwards Lord
William Sloane, jun. Esq.
Samuel Harris, M. A.
•
Spren-?
23
Mr. William East
16
:
: :
Nov. 2, 1721
Nov. 2
•
Nov.
Jan.
30, 1721
11
Nov. 9
28
•
:
Nov.
30
Feb. 1
Dec. 7
Feb.
1
Feb. 15
March 15
May
3, 1722
May 3
March 29, 1721
March 15
May 24, 1722
May
31, 1722
Nov. 1
Feb. 28
May 24
Jan. 10
Nov. 1
Dec. 13
March 17, 1764 George, Lord Parker, since Earl of Maccles-
and P. R. S.
Oct. 25
Nov.
April 25, 1695
1753
Richard, Earl of Burlington
25
Aug. 25, 1747
Mr. Ambrose Dikins, Sergeant Surgeon
Robert Hucks, Esq.
Nov. 1
Nov.
8
Mons. Philip Julius Bornemann
Nov.
8, 1723
May 8, 1670
Feb. 25, 1682
1698
1654
May 11, 1726
Dec. 5, 1771
1778
Dec. 25, 1732
Charles, Duke of St. Albans
30
Sign. Jean Baptista Morgagni
30
Charles, Duke of Queensborough
8
William, Earl of Yarmouth
30
July 14, 1763
Sir John Evelyn, Bart.
Jan. 17
Oct. 11, 1769
John White, Esq.
Feb.
Jan.
28,1722
24
Nicolo Alerbe d'Aragona, Prince de Cassano
March 21
Dr. Le Duc
Gebhard D'Anteny, Esq.
May 2, 1723
May 23, 1723
West Fenton, Esq.
Simon Degge, Esq.
1673
1742
John Armstrong, Esq.; afterwards Survey-
or general of the Ordnance
Nov. 21
May 16
23
*
Philip Glover, Esq.
9
•
1677
May 19, 1734
Nov. 6, 1728
Dec. 27, 1774
Sir James Thornill, Kt.
May 9
Hewer Edgley Hewer, Esq.
June 27
Francis Wollaston, Esq.
April 2, 1724
Feb. 27, 1723
July
Sept. 1697
8
July 10, 1767
TT
Mr. Alexander Munro; afterwards M. D.
Prof. Anat. Edinburgh
1743
Isaac de Sequeyra Samuda, M, D.
€ 2
Joct.
Oct. 24, 172
xxxvi
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED.
May 21, 1744
1742 or 3
1726
Oct. 17, 1758
Henry Jones, M. A.
Dr. Dominico Ferrari
Dr. Antonius Deidier, of Montpellier
Sign, Conte Giulio Carlo de Fagnini
Ralph Ord, Esq.
Gilbert Burnet, M. A.
:
-
Mr. John Ward, Rhet. Prof, Gresh. LL. D.
Benjamin Holloway, LL. B.
Robert, Lord Romney
Edward Vernon, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
Anthony Ellys, M. A.; afterwards Bishop
of St. Davids
Nov. 28, 1724
Mr. John Meres
Mr. John Byron
March 22, 1761
Jan. 17, 1761
Feb. 12, 1778
1701
Ang. 8, 1750
Aug. 27, 1760
April 4, 1688 Sept. 12, 1768
Jan.
1, 1735
Jan. 3, 1731
March 1750-1
1702
Robert Ord, Esq.; afterwards Lord Chief?
Baron, Scotland
Charles, Duke of Richmond
Smart Lethieullier, Esq.
Mons. Nicolaus Cruquius
Mons. Joseph Nicolas de l'Isle
John Kendall, Esq.
Mr. John Dobyns, Surgeon
•
:
:
SFrancis, Earl of Dalkeith, since Duke of
Buccleugh
Mons. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
John Gaspar Scheuchzer, M. D.
Ralph Leicester, Esq.
ELECTED.
Nov. 14, 1723
30
..
21
March 12
•
Feb. 6
March 12
:
•
ADMITTED.
June 18, 1724
Dec. 12, 1728
19
Nov. 4, 1725
Dec, 19, 1723
June 18, 1724
March 19, 1723
April 2, 1724
2
March 19, 1723
5
19
*
April 2, 1724
June 25, 1723
March 19
May 7, 1724 May 14, 1724
May 14, 1686
Sept. 16, 1786
April 10, 1729
14
Dec. 22, 1684
April 5, 1747
S Mons. Joannes Jacob. Dillenius, M.D. Prof.
Bot. Oxon
Prof.
June 25
June 25
June 29, 1744
Mr. John Eames
Oct. 26, 1753
Sir Littleton Powis
March 16, 1732
Mons. Joannes Adolphus Jacobeus
Joseph Danvers, Esq. since Sir J. Danvers, Bart, Nov. 30
Oct. 22
Nov. 19
Dec. 10
Aug. 28, 1773
Mr. John Ranby, since Chr. Reg.
4
10
Stephen Chase, M. D. ..
10.
May 23, 1727
John Diodate, M.D.
10
Sept. 20, 1758
Don Antonio Galvaon, Envoy from Portugal
Thomas Hill, Esq.
April 15, 1725
April 29, 1726
15
May 13
May 27, 1761
Robert Nesbitt, M. D.
Nathan Hickman, M. A.; afterwards M. D.
Mr. Roby of New England
Richard Poley, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Hunt
April 22
May 6
April 22, 1728
May 2, 1725
Withdrawn
1742 or 35
Mr. Edmond Stone
April 22
Mons. Andreas Henry de Cronhelm
22
1681
May 22, 1742
Feb 20, 1759
Sept. 16, 1769
March 26, 1742
Sign. Maurice Antonio Capeller
Taylor White, Esq.
George Lewis Teissier, since M. D).
D...
April 29
Nov. 4
May 6
Nov. 18
James Theobald, Esq.
25
Dec. 11, 1762
Charles de la Faye, Esq.
25
Mons. Gaspar Newman
Dec.
9
May 15, 1734
Robert Houstoun, M. D.
Mr. Silvanus Bevan
Feb. 10
Dec. 16
March 16, 1770
1728
Sir Brook Bridges, Bart.
March 25, 1752
Temple Stanyan, Esq.
March 20,
1742 or 3
June 30, 1743
1742 or 3
Oct. 14, 1726
March 17, 1760
Feb. 23, 1774
April
1763
1768
(Sidi Mohoinmed Ben Ali Abgali, Ambass-
sador from the Emperor of Morocco
Richard Hassell, Esq.
John Jeffreys, Esq.
Edmund Allen, Esq.
Kingsmill Eyre, Esq.
Robert Johnston Ketelby, Esq.
Henry Walther Gerdes, D. D. of Denmark
Thomas Palmer, Esq.
:
:
(Sir Jeffrey Gilbert, Lord Chief Baron of the
Exchequer
Richard Beard, M. D.
Charles Stanhope, Esq.
James Hargrave, M. A.
Dr. Zabdiel Boylston
Edward Rudge, Esq.
Edward Pawlet, Esq.
Withdrawn 1754|Mr. James Stirling
·
:
March 24, 1726
May 12
March 31, 1726
May 12
·
.
•
:
Д
:
May 12
}
May 26
July 7
May, 16, 1728
Oct. 27, 1726
Nov. 3
July 7
Nov. 10
10
Dec.
Nov. 30
May 19
12
June 30
May 26
19
19
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxxvii
BORY,
DIED.
ELECTED.
1698
Sept. 10, 1761
Mons. Bernard Forrest de Belidor
May 8, 1749
Richard Graham, Jun. Esq.
Nov. 17, 1726
Nov. 14, 1754
Mr. Thomas White
ADMITTED.
Nov. 24, 1726
Jan. 12
Richard Holland, M. D.
30
26
March 4, 1761
Dr. Meyer Schamberg
12
March 3, 1777
William Billiers, Esq.; afterwards Sir W.
Billiers, Kt.
SThomas Robinson, Esq.; afterwards Sir T.)
Robinson, Bart.
W.?
Dec. 22
Feb. 2, 1727
March 23, 1753
flon. Thomas Trevor, Esq.; afterwards Ld.
Trevor
March 9
April 13, 1726
Joseph Andrews, Esq.
March 16
Mr. Cyriacus Ahlers
16
•
Mary 10, 1739
John Hollings, M. D.
16
Feb. 1, 1755
Aug. 12, 1757
July 2, 1772
Jan. 13, 1734
April 9, 1773
John Fuller, Jun. Esq.
Mous le Baron de Mamsbergh
Benjamin Hoadley, Esq.; afterwards M. D.
James West, Esq.; afterwards P. R. S.
16
16
March 9
16
E. Hughes, Esq.
Nov. 23, 1727
William Ffolkes, Esq.
Sept. 12, 1699
Jan. 29, 1768
June
Mr. John Martyn; afterwards Prof. Bot, )
March 30, 1727
April 20
March 30
{Cambridge
1735
Mr. John Harper
9, 1726
30
Dr. Cyrillus, Prof. of Physic, at Naples
Charles Lamotte, M. A.
June 22, 1727
Feb. 15
Philip Henry Zollman, Esq.
Jan. 18
1757
Aug. 17, 1699
Feb. 12, 1752
May 23, 1734
Nov. 6, 1777
April 25, 1772
May 16, 1742
April 28, 1783
Walter Cary, Esq.
Dr. Bernard de Jussieu
Theodore Jacobson, Esq.
William Carr, Esq.
Francis Clifton, M. D.
Lord Charles Cavendish
Philemon Lloyd, Esq.
Mr. Benjamin Robins
Oct. 26
June 29
June 8
22
Nov. 9
Nov. 16
Sir Robert Pye, Bart.
Jan. 11
Jan. 18
Oct. 14, 1734
Hon. Henry Colepeper Fairfax, Esq.
Nov. 10, 1683
Oct. 15, 1743
Oct
1727
Oct. 25, 1760
Nov. 22, 1751
Lord Hope, Son of the Earl of Hopetoun
Erasmus Philips, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
King George I., Patron
Feb. 8
April 23, 1730
15
Feb. 8, 1727
May 9
George, Prince of Wales
15
King George II., Patron
July 11
Mr. Stephen Horseman
Feb. 15
Feb. 29, 1728
March 1769
Mr. Thomas Pocock, M. A.
Wm. Hanbury, Esq.
22
Nov. 21
•
May 2, 1728
June 20
Mr. Robert Gray
Jan. 14, 1778
May 9, 1767
May 16, 1770
1756
Mr. William Dugood
Frank Nicholls, M. D. Anat. Prof. Oxon
Samuel Clarke, Esq.
Sign. Jac. Barthol. Beccari, of Bologna
Granville Wheller, Esq.
Mons. Chs. Freder. Weichman
Mons. John Daniel Schoepflin, Prof. of His-
tory in the University of Strasburg
Mons. Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis
Mr. John Senex
S Ericus Burman, Prof. Ast, in the University
of Upsal
Cromwell Mortimer, M. D. since Sec. R. S.
(Mr. Adrianus Van Royen, M. D. Prof.
Bot. Leyd.
Mr. Paul de Saint Hyacinthe, of Paris ..
May 2
9
•
•
16
•
16
June 27
Oct. 17
Sept. 8, 1694
Sept. 28, 1698
1692
Aug. 7, 1771
July 27, 1759
Dec. 30, 1740
Nov. 3, 1729
Jan. 7, 1752
1705
Feb. 28, 1779
1665
Sept. 20, 1674
May 1, 1736
Mr. Albertus Seba
June 13, 1761
Mr. Edward Nourse
July
4
July 4
Prof.}
June 27
Oct. 24
Oct. 31
31
:
Feb. 15, 1739
Sign. Eustachio Manfredi, of Bologna
July 22, 1734
Sept. 27, 1764
1694
Aug. 11, 1769
Peter, Lord King, Lord Chancellor
John Trevor, Esq.; afterwards Lord Trevor
Mr. Peter Collinson
Nov. 14
Dec.
5
Nov. 21
Dec. 12
Mr. Joh. Geo. Liebknecht, of Giessen
Mr. Samuel Palmer
12
Jan. 31, 1707
March 31, 1751
Cassem Aga Algiada, Ambassador from Tripoly
Frederick, Prince of Wales
Jan. 9
17
Ejected
June 9, 1757ƒ
Dec. 21, 1754
April 2, 1697 July 21, 1773
John, Lord Delawar; afterwards Earl ..
Thomas, Lord Viscount Gage
Mons, Sauveur Francois Morand
19
Nov. 26, 1730
1
:
::
Nov, 25, 1731
Jan.
9
May 8,1729
xxxviii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN,
DIED.
Mons. René Jacques de Grangeot, Surgeon
at Paris
Abbe Joseph Privat de Molieres
George Heathcote, Esq.
Daniel Wray, Esq.
Jan. 16, 1763
Mr. David Durand
T677
May 12, 1742
June
1768
1679
May 19, 1763
Dr. Theophilus Lobb
Dec. 29, 1783
Aug. 15, 1685
Feb. 27, 1759
Jan. 6, 1730
Sept. 14, 1698 July 16, 1739
1681
Dec. 16, 1770
Mons. Jacobus Theodorus Klein, of Danzig
Joseph Atwell, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
Robert Mather, Esq.
•
Mons. Charles François de Cisternay du Fay
Mr. John Horsley
Roger Long, D. D.
Hon. James d'Arcy, heir to Lord d'Arcy
Geo. Carpenter, Esq. since Lord G. Carpenter
Mr. John Swinton, M. A.; afterwards B. D.
Mr. James Gibbs, Architect
John Guilielm Abruz, M. D. of Hanover
Rolserius
1683
Aug. 5, 1754
Oct. 3, 1755
Sir John Clerk, Bart.
D
Mr. Peter Kinch, M. A.
Nov. 7, 1756
March 12, 1737
Mr. Johu Freke
Mr. Wm. Green, Surgeon
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Jan 16, 1728
Jan. 23, 1728
Nov. 26, 1730
March 13, 1728
13
March 6
March 20, 1729 March 27, 1729
May 8
1.
•
June 5
Oct. 16
•
May 22
March 31, 1737
April 23, 1730
May 15, 1729
Juve 12
Nov: 20
Nov. 20, 1738
May 24
Nov. 6
Oct, 16
Nov. 6
Nov.
6, 1729
Conr. D. Alev à Dehn, Count of the Roman
Empire
6
March 30, 1664 April 20, 1750
May 15, 1740
Frederic de Thom, Legatus Brunsvico Guelferibyt..
Father Joanne Baptista Carbone, at Lisbon
D. Jeau Lewis Petit
Mr. Ephraim Chambers
Nov. 20
Joannes Henricus Heucherus, M. D. Prof. of
Anat, and Bot. at the University of Wit-
tenberg
Andreas Michael Ramsay, Eques. Sti Lazari
Dr. Paul Antonio Rolli
Dec. 11
Dec.
April 17, 1732
Jonathan Gouldsmyth, M. D.
Jan. 15
Jan.
29
2=8
13
Oct. 29, 1693
Nov. 22, 1786
Edward Wilmot, M. D.; afterwards Bt. and
Med. Reg.
and
}
Littleton Brown, M. A.
Aug. 4, 1749
Henry, Lord Colerane
Jan.
8
Feb.
220
29
22
19
March 17, 1764
Sept. 17, 1764
Dec. 18, 1771
William Oliver, M. D.
Thomas Walker, M. A.; afterwards LL. D.
Mr. Philip Miller
22
·
Jan. 29
29
Sept. 14, 1762
Mr. Ambrose Godfrey Hanckewitz
Jacob. de Castro Sarmento, M. D.
·
Feb. 5
Feb. 5
12
1704
Jan. 5, 1780
Feb. 10, 1755
Mons. de Montesquieu
Pierce Dod, M. D.
D. Joh. Sigism. August. Frobenius, M.D.
D. Joannes Henricus Hampe, M. D.
Robert More, Esq.
12
•
12
*
19
26
March 19
Mr. Melchior de Ruischer
Aug. 7, 1754
Wm. Bogdani, Esq.
April 2, 1783
Wm. Dixon, Esq.
Aug. 18, 1698
Oct. 26, 1765
Jan. 11, , 1757
Dec. 31, 1668
Sept. 23, 1738
the April 23, 1730
Samuel Klingenstierna, Prof. Math. at the
University of Upsal
Pere Ludovic, Castell, S. P.
H. Berenger de Beaufarn
Henry Dry
Arch. Patoun
Herman Boerhaave, M. D.
Wm. Græme, M. D.
Simon Degge, Esq.
Thomas Anson, Esq.
Ejected June)
30, 1757)
James Justice, Esq.
:
:
:
80
May 21, 1730
7
7
May 14
May
Dec.
7, 1731
9
Oct. 22
Oct. 18, 1705
Sept. 19, 1683
1698
Nov. 23,
1731
Oct. 22, 1783
April 18, 1758
Nov. 29, 1782
John Allen, M. D.
Laurent Garcin, M. D.
Jeremiah Cray, Esq.
Joseph Banks, Esq.
Colin Campbell, Esq.
Mr. George Campbell
Mr. Ger. Fred. Muller
Dr. Lawrence Heister
Dr. John Amman
•
•
•
vis-}
S Hon. Coote Molesworth, M. D. Son of Vis-
count Molesworth
..
Dec. 10
Oct. 26, 1782
May 27, 1731
13
Feb. 25, 1730
Nov.
•
Jan.
•
7, 1734
7, 1730
17
March 18
March 25, 1731
25
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xxxix
BORN.
DIED.
June
1, 1792
Hon. Benedict Leonard Calvert, Brother to
Lord Baltimore
ELECTED.
March 25, 1731
April 19, 1781
Sir Joseph Ayloffe, Bart.
Dr. Hieron Giuntivi, of Florence
Hon. Wm. Count Bentinck
Nov.
1691 Aug.
July
8, 1747
Mr. Martin Friewald
2, 1742
Robt. James Lord Petre
Win. Fellows, Esq.
Dec.
8, 1708 Aug. 18, 1765
1700 |Jan.
12, 1749
Aug. 12, 1711 Jan. 22, 1767
His Royal Highness Francis Duke of Lor-
rain; afterwards Emperor of Germany
Philip, Count Kinsky, his Imperial Majes-
ty's Ambassador
Charles, Lord Baltimore
Hon. Benjamin Bathurst, eldest Son of Lord
Bathurst
ADMITTED,
May
27
•
July 1
Oct. 28
Nov. 4
Nov.
Dee.
4, 1731.
9
18
Nov. 25
25
Dec. 9
Jan. 27
March 2
Mons. Lewis de la Nanze, of the Academy
des Belles Lettres, at Paris
Edward Barry, M. D.; afterwards Bart.
July 25, 1700 Sept. 7, 1776 Mr. Jacob Serenius; afterwards D. D. and
Oct.
July 15, 1756
July 17, 1769
6, 1765
Bishop of Strengnes, in Sweden
Sir James Edwards, Bart.
Robt. Barker, M. D.
Thomas Lee Dunimer, Esq.
John Robartes, Esq.; afterwards E. of Radnor
|Mr. John Gray
Baron Pfüitschner, Director of Experimental
Philosophy, at Nancy, and in the Univer-
sity of Ponta Mousson
Nov. 24, 1680 Nov. 30, 1742 Baron Joannes Baptista Bassand, his Impe-
rial Majesty's Physician
Fayrer Hall, Esq.
May 7, 1777 Rose Fuller, M D.
Jean Patrice Piers de Girardin
William, Earl Cowper
·
Jan. 27
Feb. 3
May 17, 1759
and?
Feb. 17,1731
March 2,1732
March 9, 1732 March 30, 1731
March 16
16
23
23
23
30
April
6
Sept. 18, 1764
April 20
27
May
May
+
25
1735
James, Earl of Stathmore
25
·
Dec. 24, 1749
John, Earl of Craufurd
June 15
June 29
March 12, 1737
Wm. Fullerton, M. D.
22
20
John Frederick Weidler, Prof. Math.
{ Wittenburg
Nov. 9
1739 Mr. Vincent Bacon, Surgeon
9
Nov. 16
Conde de Montigo, Spanish Embassador
16
May T
Feb,
1706 Feb.
11, 1657 |Jan.
July
6, 1785
Mr. John Belchier, Surgeon
23
Dec.
7
9, 1757
14, 1733
Mons. Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle
Wm. Houstoun, M. D.
Jan.
13
•
Mr. Stephen Gray
25
March 15
Sign. Carol. Taglini, Prof. of Philosophy, in
Philosophy, in
Feb. 1
1714
the University of Pisa
William, Lord Viscount Bateman
•
Nov.
7, 1759
Edward Hody, M. D...
•
George Douglas, M. D.
22
March 8
15
Dec. 20, 1753
March 22, 1782
Mr. Wm. Maitland
April 12, 1733
22
April 19, 1733
1707 Oct.
12, 1768
1749
Mr. Mark Catesby
June 25, 1767
1678 Dec. 1, 1750
of?
(James, Lord Aberdour; afterwards Earl of
Morton, and P. R. S.
Godfrey Sellius, of Danzig, LL. D.
Charles Frederick, Esq.; afterwards K. B.
Christianus Ludovicus Gersten, from Giessen
in Bessem Darmstadt
Ejected June
S
9, 1757
April 18, 1757
Feb. 24, 1701 |Dec. 10, 1742
Dec. ▲, , 1711 Oct. 22, 1751
April 13, 1758
July 30, 1757
Nov. 29, 1759
Dr. John Gabriel Doppelmayer, Prof. Ast.
at Nürenberg
19
26
May 3
Henry David, Lord Cardross; afterwards Jan.
Earl of Buchan
Mons. l'Abbe Joan de la Grive, a Paris
Sign. Ludovicus a Ripa, Prof, Ast. a Padua
Father Joannes Crivelli, at Venice
Francis Joseph Hunauld, M. D.
His Highness Wm. Prince of Orange
|Mr. Alex. Ouchterlony, Merchant
John Winthorp, Esq. of New England
Edward Harrington, M. D.
10
Jan. 24
24
Feb. 14
March 7
7
March 7
21
April 4, 1734 April 25, 1724
Mr. Browne Langrish, Surgeon; afterwards? May
M. D.
Mons. Le Protti, first Physician to the Pope
Thomas Shaw, D. D.
Father Didacus de Revillas, at Rome
16
June 13
Oct, 31
26
May 3
24
•
Oct. 25
31
Nov. 1
Dec.
1
xl
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED.
Stephen Williams, M. D.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Dec.
8, 1761
Nov. 19, 1763
Mynheer Hop, Envoy from the States General
James Spilmau, Esq.
Oct. 24, 1734
31
Nov. 14, 1734
John Stevens, Esq. Surgeon to the Prince of
Wales
Oct. 31
Sept. 19, 1662 March 14, 1743
Sept. 19, 1761
George Peter Domeke, of Hall in Saxony
Abbe Jean Paul Bignon
Nov. 7
Nov. 21
Petrus Van Muschenbrock, Prof. Math. in
the University of Utrecht
John Hamilton, Esq.
in}
14
21
21
Feb. 10, 1740
1678 Feb. 20, 1771
1700 Aug. 23, 1782
Nov. 19, 1700 |April 24, 1770
|John Lord King
Jan. 9
May
1, 1735
Jean Jacques d'Outous de Mairan
[Henricus Lodovicus du Hamel du Monceau
Abbe Jean Antoine Nollet
23
Monsignor Celestina Galliani, Archbishop of
the Salonica and Cappelan Major of the
kingdom of Naples
Mr. Peter Sainthill, Surgeon
Feb.
6
Feb. 20, 1734
Dec.
Dec.
12, 1781
Mr. John Chandler
6
27, 1753
Sir Marmaduke Wyvill, Bart,
13
•
George Hadley, Esq
Nov. 23, 1705 Jan.
9,1766
9, 1766
SThos. Birch, M. A.; afterwards D. D. and
S. R. S.
Feb. 6
27
and?
20
27
Nov.
18, 1766
Thomas Lord Southwell
March 13, 1735 March 27, 1735
Thomas, Lord Lovell; afterwards Earl of
Leicester
of}
27
Feb.
20, 1750
Win. Freeman, Esq.
:
April 17
Feb. 28, 1704 Sept.
11, 1760
Mons. Louis Godin
May
19, 1751
Martin Clare, M. A.
24
Sumuel Clarke, Esq.
•
Feb. 27, 1754
[Lord Viscount Tyrconnel
•
Mr. Moreton Gilkes, Surgeon
Alvaro Lopes Suasso, Esq.
April 17
24
24
17
Jan.
May
26, 1743
8, 1735
July 2, 1698
Aug. 15, 1714
Nov. 27, 1701
Nov. 18, 1738
Feb. 22,1780
March 7, 1786
April 25, 1744
Withdrawn
May 10, 1751
June 1, 1757
George Tilson, Esq
•
May 22
afterwards Duke of Modena
Francois Marie de Este, Prince of Modena ; Nov.
6
Nov. 6
Philip, Earl Stanhope
Jan. 22
of Upsal
Mr. Jonathan Fawconer, Lapidary
Andreas Celsius, Prof. Ast, at the University Jan.
Antonio Cocchi, M. D. Prof. Anat, at Florence
S Don Diego de Mendoca Corte Real, one of
his Portuguese Majesty's Privy Council
Jacobus lattica, Physician to the Prince of
Modena
29
29
Feb.
5
Feb. 12
of}
Sept.
Jan. 28, 1771
1747
July 26, 1767
his Majesty's Household at Hanover
Andrew Mitchell, Esq.; afterwards K. B.
Mr. Benjamin Cooke, Surgeon
Sir Daniel Molyneaux, Bart
Hon. Edw. Legge, Son to the Earl of Dartmouth
Paul Gottlieb Werlhof, M. D. Physician to
12
19
26
March 4
t°}
4
March 11
July
7, 1755 Sir John de Lange, Kt.
Roger Jones, M. D.
April 15, 1736
March 11, 1736
1
Aug. 30, 1757
David Hartley, M. A.
March 2, 1743
James, Duke of Hamilton
April
25
8
Marco Antonio de Azevedo Coutinho, Ple-
nipotentiary from Portugal
e-May 6
1695
Withdrawn
1769, died
1770
}
June
6, 1786
Nov. 28, 1686
Feb. 10, 1762
Jan.
Henry Hilsall, Esq.
Mr. Francis Drake, Surgeon
(Sir Hugh Smithson, Bart.; afterwards Duke)
of Northumberland
John Philip Seip, M. D. Physician to the
Prince of Waldeck
Sign. Francesco Algarotti, of Venice
Robt. Bankes, Anatomy Prof. Cantab.
2, 1755 Sir James Lowther, Bart.
Feb. 11, 1755
May 7, 1770
Dec. 5, 1783
June 14, 1768
(Sign. Cervi, M. D. President of the Royal
Academy of Physic in Spain
The Marquis Scipio Maffei, of Verona
Moses da Costa, Esq.
:
George Lloyd, Esq.
Mr. James Short
..
•
27
July
1, 1737
Dec. 15, 1736
•
June 10
July
1
10
Jan. 27
8
April 19, 1739
Nov. 11
Royal}
25
Dec. 9
Jau
27, 1736
23
Feb. 10
10
Feb. 17
March 24, 1737 April 27, 1798
5
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xli
Feb. 20, 1770
Sept. 27, 1743
BORN.
Nov.
DIED.
1782
James Barrow, Esq.; afterwards Sir James,
and P. R. S.
Captain Christopher Middleton
[Henry Popple, Esq.
Dec,
May
May 13, 1713 May
7, 1780
George Lewis Scott, Esq.
15, 1762
Robert Taylor, M. D.
17, 1765
Mous. Alexis Claude Claraut
+
Jan.
8, 174
William, Earl of Essex
1 of Apamea
Edward Smith, Esq.
Stephanus Evodius Assemanni, Archbishop Jau.
John Peter Bernard, M. A. at Leyden
Thomas Stack, M. D.
ELECTED,
ADMITTED.
April 7, 1737 April 21, 1737
7
25
21
May 12
May 5
June 23
Dec.
12
7,1752
¡Oct. 27
Nov. 23, 1737
Nov. 17
March 2
19
19
19
Jan. 26
26
26
April 26, 1704 June 2, 1780
Nov.
Mr. Petrus Filenius, Prof. of the Oriental
Languages in the University of Abo; af-
terwards D. D. and Bishop of Linkeping in
Sweden
20
April 20, 1738
21, 1753
Nicholas Mann, Esq.
26
1704 Oct.
5,1777
f Dr. John Andrew Segner, Prof. Math, at the
University of Gottingen
26
March 30, 1742
Addison Hutton, M. D.
Lewis Way, Esq.
July 22, 1717
1705 April 27, 1782
May 16, 1698 Jan. 24, 1771
Edward, Earl of Daruley
John, Earl of Loudoun
Capt. Wm. Walker
f Mr. Philip Naudé, Prof. Math, in the Royal
College of Joachimsthal (Berlin)
Feb.
9
Feb. 16, 1737
9
16
9
June 15, 1738
9
Feb.
23, 1737
23
March 16
23
1680 Dec. 29, 1780
Gilbert Kennedy, M. D.
Sept.
9, 1745
1782
James Gambier, Esq.
Mr. John Maude
•
23
March 31, 1748
March 23, 1738
April 20
April 20,1738
27
May 4
June 1
1
Dr. Antonius Franciscus Gorius, Florentinus
Rev. Mr. Matthias Belius, of Hungary
April 2, 1711 March 7, 1775 Job Baster, M. D.
Andrew Cantwell, M. D. of Paris
Mr. Richard Davies; afterwards M. D.
Joseph Rogers, M. D.
1772 Mr. John Ellicott, Watchmaker
Herman Bernard, M. D. of Berlin
Don Francisco Xavier de Menezes, Count
da Erïeeyra, Director of the Royal Aca-
demy of History in Portugal
R
אפ
June
15
•
Oct. 26
Nov. 2
Nov.
16
2
ca-
9
9
March 1
1688 Oct. 17, 1757 Dr. Renalus Antonius Ferchault de Reaumur
Dr. Stephanus de Fourmont, Prof. Regius
Linguæ Arabicæ at Paris
{Wm. Browne, M. D.; afterwards Sir Wm. Feb. 15
Browne, Ki.
Mons. Francois Xavier de Bon, Marquis de
St. Hilaire, President of the Royal So-
ciety of Sciences at Montpellier
15
Oct.
11, 1776
Samuel Mead, Esq.
March S
15
April 9, 1747
John Myddleton, Esq.
Ang. 12, 1768
John Huxham, M, D.
8
April 5, 1739
22
Nov. 20, 1715 April 2, 1799
Mons, le Monnier, of Paris (Astronomer)
5
June 23, 1748
Henry Rowe, Esq.
12
Dr. Joseph de Montagny, Prof. of Metaphy June
Metaphys
7
sics in the Academy of Lausanne
June 21, 1703 Dec.
April 30, 1762
Oct. 16, 1708 Dec. 12, 1777
July
March 1709 May
1, 1762
Nov. 6, 1713 March 23, 1789
11, 1780
Mons. Joseph Lieutaud, M. D.
21
John Sawbridge, Esq.
28
March 20, 1739
2, 1753
Sept.
May 1740
Sept. 6, 1700 Aug. 21, 1768
Sept. 19, 1756
Oct. 1746
7,1707 April
Dr. Albertus Haller; afterwards Baron
John Peter Stehelin, M. A.
William, Duke of Portland
Thomas, Duke of Leeds
Mr. John Van Rixtel
Mr. Thomas Haselden
Dr. Claude Nic. Le Cat
Robert, Lord Raymond
Westby Gill, Esq.
Nov.
1
8
Nov. 22
Dec.
20, 1740
20
Feb. 12, 1739
20
Jan. 10
Jan. 17
•
31
Feb.
7
Feb.
14
7
14
•
1788
Mons. George Louis le Clerc de Buffon; af-
terwards Count
7
Ejected June
April 14, 1759
9, 1757 ƒ
Dec. 17, 1777 James Hawley, M. D.
Feb. 12, 1752 Charles Lockyer, Esq.
Thomas, Lord Lovell; afterwards Earl of
Leicester
March 6
Jan. 29, 1740
John, Earl of Sandwich
20
May 22
:
May 1, 1740
15
15
June 5
xlii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED.
May 15, 1782
Sebastian Joseph de Carvalho e Mello, En-
voy from Portugal; afterwards Conte de
Oeyros, and at last Marchese de Pombal
Josephus de Panicis, M. D. Prof. Physic, in
the University of Rome
Samuel Skinner, Esq.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
May 15, 1740 June
5, 1740
}
June 5
19
Oct. 23
Henry Stuart Stevens, Esq.
Oct.
23
Feb. 19
Jan.
Nov. 20, 1683 Feb.
8, 1763
Peter Davall, Esq.
23
Nov. 6
15, 1766
Mons. Jean Hellot
23
Sign. Eustachio Zanotti, Prof. Ast, a Bologna
Rev. Monsigneur Giulio Sachetti, at Rome
(Rev. Mousigneur Michael Angelo Giaco-2
metti, of Pistoria
Nov.
6
6
6
Rev. Mr. Thos. Hunt; afterwards D. D.
Heb. Prof. Oxou
13
March 19
May
3, 1695 Dec. 27, 1771 Dr. Henry Pitot
IS
Jos. de Seystres, Marquis de Caumont
Rev. John Copping, Dean of Clogher in Ireland
Dr. Joannes Jallabert, Prof. of Experiment-
13
13
Nov. 20
13
Sept. 5, 1711
March 10, 1707
Jan.
Dec.
April 15, 1788
8, 1777
1742
17, 1756
al Philosophy and Mathematics, Geneva
Hon. Richard Arundell, son of Lord Arun-
dell, of Trerice
Thomas, Lord Foley
George Martini, M. D.
20
27
27
Dec.
11
.
Ds. Johannes Nathaniel Lieberkulm, M. D.
Ds. Joannes Paulus Grand-jean de Fouchy;"
afterwards Secretary of the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences of Paris
18
18
Oct. 22, 1708 Sept. 22, 1742
Dec. 25, 1777
Charles Chauncy, M. D.
May 16, 1790
Jan.
6, 1692
Sept. 14, 1713
Dec. 25, 1777
March 21, 1742
Frederick Lewis Norden, Captain in the
Danish Navy
Benito de Moura Portuga, of Lisbon
Hon. Philip York; afterwards E. of Hardwicke Jan.
Daniel de Superville, M. D. Archiater to the }
Margrave of Bayreuth
Ds. Franciscus Maria Zanotti
Ds. Francois de Bremond
Jan.
8
Nov.
12, 1741
29
Feb.
12, 1740
Feb. 5
29
5
Feb. 12
26
26
Nov. 25, 1774
Mr. Henry Baker
March 12
March 19
Aug. 8, 1794
Count Jerom de Salis
19
26, 1741
Shallet Turner, Esq.
26, 1741 April
April 9
May 10, 1787
Withdrawn
Mr. Wm. Watson; afterwards M. D. at last Kt. April 9
16
Feb. 15, 1749,
April 4, 177
Francis Philip Duval, M. D.
16
James Parsons, M. D.
May
Ralph Knight, Esq.
28
JJohn Welin, Philosophy Prof. in the Uni-
Uni-}
versity of Abo
1662 Feb. 16, 1749 George Holmes, Esq.
Dec.
8, 1756
Withdrawn
Jan. 7, 1767
•
f Mons. Pierre de Vigny, Member of the
Royal Academy of Architecture at Paris
Wm. Lord Harrington; afterwards Earl of
Mr. John Robertson
Withdrawn 1752 Wm. Battie, M. D.
Edward Milward, M. D.
Father Thomas Le Seur, a Rome
Father Francis Jacquier, a Rome
28
Nov. 12
Dec. 10
10
10
∞ ∞ ∞ 200 C E E
7
May 14
Sept. 30, 1710 Jan.
17
March 11
Dec.
Jan. 7
17
Jan. 14
14
21
March 6, 1751
Henry, Lord Viscount Lonsdale
21
Nov. 26, 1767
Sept.
John Lock, Esq.
Feb. 4
March 11
Feb. 11
•
15, 1765
Richard Pococke, LL. D; afterwards Bp.
of Ossory, and since of Meath
11
18
1771
John, Duke of Bedford
March 11
Oct. 30, 1778
Sidney Stafford Smythe, Esq.; afterwards
Lord Chief Baron and Kt,
11
Nov. 18, 1797
Samuel Reynardson, Esq.
11
April 10, 1782
Thomas Wilbraham, LL. D.; afterwards M. D.
Michael Russell, Jun. Esq.
18
·
March 25, 1742 May
William Bristow, Esq.
Mr. Jerry Pierce, Surgeon at Bath
25
April 1, 1742
March 18, 1741
25
6
Nov. 25.
*
25
June
1, 1759
James Nibell, M. D.
April 1
Feb. 12, 1784
(Jeremiah Milles, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
1
April &
and Dean of Exeter
William Nicholas, Esq.
June 17
Jobn Thomas Batt, M, A.; afterwards M. D.
8
Dec. 9
3
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xliii
June
BORN.
DIED.
1714 April 18, 1794
Charles Pratt, Esq.; afterwards Lord Cam-
den and Ld. Chancellor, at last El. Camden
Nathaniel Bliss, M. A.; afterwards Sav. P.
G. and Ast, Royal
Mr. James Horne
Wm. Brownrigg, M. D.
•
(Samuel Lisle, D. D. Archdeacon of Canter-
bury; afterwards Ld. Bp. of Norwich
John Lawry, M. A.
Charles Mason, B. D. Prof. Woodw. Can-
tab.;
afterwards D. D.
Nov. 28, 1700 Sept.
2, 1764
Jan.
1800
Oct.
3, 1749
Withdrawn
June 4, 1767
Dec. 18, 1770
July 15, 1757
Mr. Thomas Bayes
Withdrawn 1773
Walter Bowmau, Esq.
1746
1751 Mr. Peter Coste, of Paris
1743 Thomas Lediard, Esq.
•
Dr. Chrisfrid Kirch, of Berlin
Hon. Henry Finch, brother to the Earl of
2 Aylesford
ELECTED,
ADMITTED.
April
8, 174 April 29, 1742
May 20
Jan.
13, 1743
20
May 27
20
June 17
Nov.
18
17
4
24
Feb.
23, 1743
"}
Oct.
28
June
9
Nov. Ą
4
Nov. 11, 1742
25
S Mons. Michael Fourmont, the younger, Prof.?
of the Oriental languages at Paris
Prof.
4
25
Dec. 4
Withdrawn 1753 Wm. Talbot, Esq.
Jan 10, 1794 Clifton Wintringham, M. D.; afterwards Bart.
John Phillips, Esq.: afterwards Bart,
16
Dec. 16
Jan. 13
16
•
23
13
23
•
Dec. 22, 1768
Charles Lyttelton, LL. D.; afterwards Bi- Jan.
shop of Carlisle
27
April 28, 1743
Oct.
5,1771
Thomas Rutherford, B. D.; afterwards D. {
D. and Prof. Theo. Cant,
27
May
5
Wilhelmus Wilhelmius, M. A. of Rotterdam
27
Feb.
Jan.
7, 1762
James Creed, Esq.; afterwards Sir
Feb.
10
March 8,1742
25, 1749
James Lever, Esq.
10
Feb. 17
Mr. Henry Henrickson, of Copenhagen
10
1779 Peter Newcome, M. A.
Francis Hoskins Eyles Stiles, Esq.; after-
wards Bart.
24
March 11
March 10
17
Francis Chute, Esq.
April
1745
George Shelvocke, Esq.
1786
Abbe de Gua de Malves, Prof. Philosophy
10
May 12, 1743
10
March 17, 1742
10
in the College Royal at Paris
Matthew Sarayva, M. D. Chev, of the order
of Christ at Rio de Janeiro
Mr. Roger Paman
April 21, 1743
May 12
May 19, 1743
Sept. 3, 1710 May
Feb.
12, 1784
Mons. Abraham Trembley
19
June 20, 1745
12, 1763
Rev. Henry Miles, D. D.
1786
Solomon Dayrolle, Esq.
:::
June
9
16, 1743
16
Nov. 17
May
1768
Daniel Rich, Esq.
16
Jan.
19
Feb. 28, 1751
William, Earl of Stafford
16
June 23
•
1694
March 13, 1720
May 30, 1778
April 9, 1793
Mons. Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire
Mr. Charles Bonnet, of Geneva
Nov.
3
17
Mons. Jean Masson, Chev. de Bessé
Mr. Joseph Ames
Dec. 8
15
Jan.
9, 1750 Henry, Earl of Pembroke
Robt. Clayton, Lord Bishop of Corke; af-
terwards of Clogher
Nov. 22, 1706 Oct. 20, 1758 Charles, Duke of Marlborough
Mons. le Marquis de Lockmaria, of Paris
{H. F. Baron de Solenthal, Ambassador from}
Denmark
15
50 1910
Dec. 22
Jan. 12
12
12
222 2
Oct.
30, 1746
March 8,173
Dec. 10, 1747
Jan. 17, 1709 Aug.
1706 May
22, 1773
1778
4, 1789
Geo. Lyttleton, Esq. since Baron Ld. Lyttleton
Hon. Wm. Pitt, Esq. since Earl of Chatham
Wm. Wyndham, Esq.
26
Jan. 31, 1754
26
May 15, 1755
26
April 26, 1744
Feb.
7, 1766
Joseph Lawrentius Bruni, M.D), of Turin
Col. Wm. Sotheby
Feb. 23
March 1, 1743
March 8
8
15
15
1720 June 20,1793
Dec. 30, 1791
1761
Mr. John Nickols Jun. Merchant
Sir John Rawden, Bart.; afterwards Lord
Rawden, afterwards Earl of Moira
Hon. Chas. Hop. Weir, brother to the Earl
of Hopton
Abbe Claude Sallier, of Paris, keeper of the
King's Library
April 12, 1744 May 24, 1744
26
May 10
Jan. 24
May 18, 1755
Mr. Roger Pickering
10
..
May 24
Sign. Petro Andrea Capello, Ambassador
June 7
Feb. 7
from Venice
1682 July
May
7, 1764 William, Earl of Bath
Nov. 15
Nov. 22
1777 Rev. John Nixon, M. A.
15
f2
xliv
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
DORN.
DIED.
Joh. Benjamin Fischer, of Livonia
1795 Mons. Secondat de Montesquieu
Withdrawn1771 Swithin Adee, M. D.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Nov. 15, 1744
Dec.
6
6
•
May 16, 1745

Mons. de Boffrand, First Architect to the
King of France
Jan.
10
Nov. 13, 1770
March
1708 Aug. 24, 1764
1717 Sept.
Jan. 21, 1755
Aug.
June
Dec. 15, 1757
7, 1799
Mons. Henry Francois Le Dran, Secretary
to the Royal Academy of Surg. at Paris
Hon. Heur Bilson Legge, Esq.
Benjamin Keen, Esq.; afterwards K. B.
Mons. le Monnier, M. D.
10
10
June 10, 1746
31
Feb.
7, 1744
Feb. 7
Hugh, Lord Willoughby, of Parkham
14
Feb.
28, 1744
17, 1754
Samuel Hickman, Esq.
John Merrill, Esq.
March 7
21
May 30, 1745
April 4
9, 1772
Gowin Knight, M. B.
[Peter Wyche, Esq.
Jan. 15, 1708 Oct.
11, 1791
1710 Nov.
1667 July
Feb:
17, 1756
Nov. 19, 1763
Withdrawn
Oct. 31, 1751
Withdrawn
June 16, 1757
Wm. Saunders, M. D. .
Wm. Mace, Esq. Prof. Rhet. Gresh. J. C.
Wm. Bedford, M. D.; afterwards Director\
of the Mathemat. Class of the Royal Acad.
Sign, Giovan. Francisco Mauro Melchier
Salvemini da Castiglione, of Lausanne;
afterwards Director of the Royal Academy
of Sciences, Berlin
The Baron de Hardenberg, of Hanover
Robt. Hoblyn, Esq.
April 25, 1745 May 2
May 2
9
2
16
23
30
30
June 13
30
June 13
13
Oct.
24
20, 1752
2, 1802
April 14, 1761
John Christopher Vepusch, Mus. D.
Welbore Ellis, Esq.; afterwards Lord Mendip
Mr. Noah Sherwood, Surgeon
13
June 20, 1748
20
Nov. 10, 1745
20
June 27
Jan.
21, 1781
Wm. Lewis, M. D.
Oct.
31
April 10, 1407
April 23, 1697
Jan.
10, 1782
June
May
6, 1762
John Pringle; afterwards Bart, and P. R. S.
George Anson, Esq.; afterwards Lord
31
Nov. 14, 1746
Dec. 5
June 19, 1745
22, 1761
Mr. Thomas Simpson
5
Dec. 19, 1746
Edward Montague, Esq.
12
April 24
Mr. Wm. Arderon
12
(Hon. John Hamilton, Capt. son of the Earl
Dec. 18, 1755
March 13
17
of Abercorn
1714 May
Dec. 11, 1781
Jau.
10, 1756
Oct. 1774
1694 March 6, 1754
April 26, 1695 July 18, 1769
7, 1766
Rev. Patrick Murdoch; afterwards D. D.
Abbe Guyon, of Paris
Duke of Newcastle
fRt. Hon. Henry Pelham, brother to Hollis,
Christopherus Jacobus Trew, M. D.
Samuel Squire, M. A. Archdeacon of Bath;
;}
afterwards D. D. and Bp. of St. David's
Mr. Tycho Hoffman, of Denmark
Sir Francis Dashwood, Bart. ;
Lord Le Despencer
Sign. Giovanni Giacomo Marinoni, Prof.
Ast. at Vienna
Prof.}
20
20
17
April 10, 1746
17
May
8
17
May 15
29
29
afterwards
June 19
Jan. 29, 1747
Edward Milles, Esq.
19
Oct. 23
March 29, 1780
Jan. 2, 1706-7 Nov. 16, 1762
Francis Blake, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
Jolin, Earl of Cork and Orrery
19
Nov. 20
Oct. 23
Jan. 24, 1750
Oct.
31, 1770
Mr. Lewis de Beaufort, of Leipzig
Sir Peter Thompson, Kt.
23
1784
Matt. Robinson, Esq.; afterwards Ld. Rokeby
John, Lord Viscount Castlemain, since Earl
1 of Tilney
Nov. 20
27
Nov. 27, 1746
April 30, 1747
Earl Dec.
11
Dec. 18, 1746
1716 July
5, 1795
Don Antonio de Ulloa
11
Dr.
Oct. 11, 1758
1703 May 18, 1770 Dhannes Henricus Winckler, Prof. Nat. Jan.
Sept. 10, 1713 Dec. 30, 1781
Phil, at the University of Leipzig
Benjamin Prideaux, Esq.
11
18
8
John Claphane, M. D.
8
May
4, 17-19
Mr. Turberville Needham
22
May 25
March 2, 1787
(Mons. Johannes Nicolaus Sebastian Alle
mand, of Leyden
Alle-
22
1802
April 15, 1707 Sept., 1783
Mr. Daniel Peter Layard, Surgeon, since M. D.
Mr. Leonhard Euler
22
Jan. 29, 1746
22
Wm. Faquier, Esq.
29
Feb. 5
Nov. 11, 1719
July 18, 1804
Peter Holford, Esq. Father of the Society, Feb.
since the death of Ld. Mendip, Feb. 2, 1802
12
19
1707 March 2, 1797
Hon. Horatio Walpole
19
26
July 22, 1802
Wm. Parker, M. A.
19
March 19
Dec. 121797
Mr. Alexander Mac Farlane, of Jamaica
Richard Brocklesby, M. D.
19
26
March 5
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xlv
Dec. 31, 1804
SURN.
Oct.
DIED.
3, 1769 The Marchese Anthony Nicolini, of Florence
Hon. Charles Hamilton, brother to the late
Sept. 18, 1786
Earl of Abercorn
The Marchese Reinuccini, of Florence
Joshua Iremonger, Father of the Society, Į
since the death of Mr.Holford, July 18, 1804
Benjamin Bosanquet, M. A.
ELECTED.
March 26, 1747
ADMITTED.
March 26, 1747
26
April 2
26
April 30
May 21
May
June 13
LI
David Ravaud, M. A.
21
18
Dec.
3,1696 Sept. 4, 1787
Samuel Christianus Hollman, Prof, at the
1 University of Gottingen
21
Mons. Johanus Baptista, de la Chapelle of Paris June
18
Dec. 12, 1776
April 27, 1724 Jan.
April 20, 1720 Feb.
Nov.
11, 1784
22, 1794
8, 1789
Oct.
1711 May
July
1707 Jan.
1698 Dec.
Dec.
Sept.
9, 1795
Withdrawn?
June
4, 1717 Feb. 10, 17635
Nov. 22, 1728
July
1723 Feb.
Oct.
of Newcastle, Solenthal
John Silvester, M. D.; afterwards Sir John, Kt. Nov.
Abbe Gurianni Baptista Passeri, of Pesara
Thomas, Lord Parker; afterwards Earl of
rl of
Macclesfield
Ferdinand Philip, Duke of Sagon and Prince July 2
Henry Earl of Lincoln; afterwards Duke
July
2, 1717
22
Dec. 10
12
Nov. 19
12
19
26
Jan. 9, 1784
Mr. Emanuel Mendes da Costa
Charles Fred. Margrave of Baden Dourlack
Sir George Savil, Bart.
26
26
Dec. 10
Dec. 17
10
17
25, 1776
Richard, Viscount Fitzwilliam
17
Jao. 7
14, 1773
James, Lord Tyrawly
Jan. 7
14
+
10, 1789
Mr. Pierre Lyonet, of Hague
14
*
5, 1755
William, Duke of Devonshire
21
28
13, 1762
Henry Reade, Esq.
21
Feb. 25
2, 1780
Mynheer Munck, of Middelburg in Zealand
George Scott, Esq.
21
March 10
May
5, 1713
•
April 8, 1788
William Young, Esq. since Bart.
10
1749
Count P. Czernicheu, Min. Plenip, from Russia
Christopher Count de Manteufell, Minister
of State to the King of Poland
10
Jan.
19
24, 1748
Chevalier Ossorio, Envoy Ext. from Sardinia
Hugh Campbell, Esq.
April 21
Feb.
16
May 19
May 26
Wm. Lee, Esq.
26
Nov. 3
Rev. Mr. Griffith Hughes
June 9
Junc 9
Aug. 10, 1755
Rt. Hon. Sir Wm. Yonge, Bart. K. B.
Withdrawn 1754 Rice Charleton, M. A.
23
30
Nov.
3
Nov. 17
July
9, 1781 Mr. Robt. Dingley, Merchant
Charles Joye, Esq. (not admitted)
3
10
17
July
March
3, 1753
Mr. James Simson, of Dublin, Merchant
John Hill, Esq.
17
Dec.
8
Dec.
22
•
1768
John Mitchell, M. D.
15
22
Jan. 21, 1701 |Feb.
4, 1774
Mons Charles Maria de la Condamine
15
May 12, 1763
Nov. 16, 1717
Aug.
Jan.
1690
Sir Thomas Burnett, Kt.
1783 Mons. Jean le Roud D'Alembert
Wm. Windham Ashe, Esq.
2, 1762 Charles Feake, M. D.
Nicholas Munckley, M. D.
Mr. Gabriel Cramer, Prof. Math, Geneva
5, 1782 Abraham Dixon, Esq.
Mons. de Mont Audouin, of Nantes
Oct. 30, 1770 Samuel Cornish, Esq. afterwards Bart.
1754 {
Mr. Claudius Gros de Bozé, of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris
22
Feb.
13, 1748
22
•
Jan. 19
Nov.
2,1749
26
Feb.
9.1748
26
2
Feb.
9, 1748
9
16
March 9
March 16, 1748
April 6, 1749
March 24, 1778
Mr. Samuel Sharp, Surgeon
13
A
May 25, 1749
Dec. 26, 1797
John Wilkes, Esq.
13
4
May 21, 1787
William Mitford, Esq.
13
April 20
1694
1768
Mons. Jean Baptiste Boyer, M. D. of Paris
20
·
Peter Paul Molinelli, M. D. Prof. of Phy-
sic in the University of Bologna
20
Portugal
Antonio Freyero d'Andrade, Envoy from May
4
June 15
May 7, 1700 June 18, 1772
Gerard Van Sweiten, M. D.
4
9, 1776
May 12, 1706 Feb. 19, 1767
Feb. 25, 1763
July 21, 1694 Nov. 17, 1768
Dcc.
James Porter, Esq. Ambass. Constantinople, Į
11
Jao. 13, 1763
1
since Sir
Mons. Franciscus Boissier Sauvage de la Croix
Rev. Mr. John Williamson; afterwards D. D.
Thomas, Duke of Newcastle
25
June 15
May 27, 1756
Oct. 26
1678 April 28, 1770
Sir John Ligonier, K. B.; afterwards Lord
Ligonier
Chevalier de Baillou, of Florence
The Duke de Medina Sidonia
26
26
March 22, 1753-
•
Nov.
xlvi
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
DIED.
DORN.
Ejected June
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
9, 1757
Hon. James Oglethorpe, Licut.-General
Nov.
9, 1749 Nov. 16, 1749
Jan.
Oct.
June
5, 1713 July
25, 1683 May
25,1683
1712 May
April
21, 1770
Philip Carteret Webb, Esq.
9
16
+
6, 1773
Don Jorge Juan
9
16
6, 1757
Charles, Duke of Grafton
23
28, 1790
1 of Montague
George, Earl of Cardigan; afterwards Duke
uke? Dec. 7
Dec. 14
8, 1763
James, Earl of Waldegrave
14
Feb.
8
Chevalier St. George, of Paris
Jan.
11
Aug.
Dec.
1710 May
Feb. 10, 1698 Aug.
May 31,1711 March 8,1797
9, 1779
Nathan Alcock, M. D.
25
17, 1801
Wm. Heberden, M. D.
25
Feb.
1, 1749
Mr. George Bell, Surgeon
25
11
15, 1758
Mons. Pierre Bouguer
25
{
Jan. 21, 1806
Feb.
1752
Nov. 4, 1705 Oct. 31, 1783
Mons. Samuel Formey, Secretary to the
Royal Academy of Scieuces, Berlin
Anthony Askew, M. B.
Mr. Henry Ellis, Father of the Society since
the death of Mr. Iremonger, Dec. 31,
1804, but the Elect, of Baden older Memb.
Chevalier Charles de Folard, of Paris
Louis Elizabeth de la Vergue, Compte de
Tressau, Lieut.-General of the armies of
France
the
25
Feb.
1
8
8
22
8
8
Jan. 21, 170
Feb.
Nov. 22, 1765
14, 1760
Isaac Townsend, Esq. Admiral of the White
|Isaac Hawkins Brown, Esq.
22
March 1
22
April 5, 1750
June 21, 1754
Charles Tough, M. A.
22
March 1, 1749
Lewis Jean le Thieullier, M. D. of Paris
Mr. Nicholas Struych, of Amsterdam
James Mounsey, M. D.
22
22
March 8
9, 1762
July
4,1680
Jan. 29, 1700
Feb.
31, 1772
20, 1756
July 31, 1718 March 22, 1772
Jan.
Nov. 30, 1765
March 17, 1782
2, 169 Aug.
July
Nov. 25, 1797
Sept. 29, 1714 Aug. 21, 1773
Thomas Hayter, Lord Bishop of Norwich;
afterwards of London
Mons. Antoine Joseph de Sallier d'Argenville
Mr. Daniel Bernoulli
{Joannes Mendez Saquet Barbosa, Physician
to the King of Portugal
Rev. Mr. Wm. Borlase; afterwards D. D.
Edw. Wortly Montague, Junr. Esq.
Richard Roderick, M. A.
Mr. John Canton
• 28
Jan. 19, 1764
22
Jan. 29, 1750
22
May
10
22
May
3, 1750
10
..
17
Oct.
31, 1751
31
Feb. 7, 1750
June 21
Oct. 25
Dec.
9, 1760
Charles Walmesley, Pere Benedict à Paris
Mons. François David Herrissant, M. D.
Abbe Guasco, of Piermont
Henry, Lord Viscount Downe
Mr. Joseph Warner, Surgeon
Nov.
1
1
Dec.
6
6
Dec. 13
April 20, 1770
Hon. Charles Yorke; (afterwards Lord
Chancellor,) second Son to the Lord
Chancellor
13
20
June 17, 1714 Sept.
May 11, 1722 April
4, 1781
7, 1781
Mons. Cæsar François Cassini de Thury
Peter Camper, M. D.
Jan. 17
17
Nov. 10, 1785
John Bacon, Esq.
24
April 18, 1751
June 23, 1766
Isaac Pacatus Shard, Esq.
24
Jan. 31, 1750
March 2, 1756
Robert Watson, M. D.
May 2, 1779
Mr. William Mountaine
June 27, 1787
Sir Thomas Heathcote, Bart.
Sign. Marsilius Venturi, of Parma, First
Physician to the Queen Dowager of Spain
May 16, 1751
June 6
14, 1751
Feb.
April 18
une 13
Feb. 7
•
March 14
June 14, 1787
Mr. Israel Mauduit, Merchant
13
20
Joseph Brookesbank, Esq.
13
20
Joachim Tozé, Fidalgo de Silveria, Envoy
from Portugal
Oct. 31
April 23
May 13, 1730 July
1, 1782
Charles, Marquis of Rockingham
Nov. 7
Dec. 5
Junc
6, 1788 | Mr. Benjamin Wilson
Dec. 5
12
May 17, 1718
Aug.
2,1776
Matthew Maty, M. D.
Feb.
10, 1799
Charles Morton, M. D.
19
Jan. 16, 1752
Jan.
9, 1752
23
ustus, Jo, Torkos, M. D. of Presburg
16
•
March 18, 1774
ir Matthew Fetherstonhaugh, Bart.
Feb.
13
Richard Russell, M. D.
13
Feb. 20
Jan.
11, 1753
March 22, 1800
lons. Joseph de Guignes
20
'homas Steavens, Esq.
March 5
April
of Edinburgh
'eter Shaw, M. D.
$ pt.
June
1766
March 15, 1763
(Robt. Whyte, M. D. Prof. Med. University April 16
Sir Richard Hoare, Kt. Alderman of London
oannes Cieorgius Huber, M. D. of Basel
9, 1707
4, 1694 Dec. 16, 1774 tons. François Quesnay
•
April 23, 1752
16
June 18
May
7
18
7
28
APPENDIX. No. IV.
xlvii
BORN.
DIED.
Mr. Wm, Mazeas, Librarian to the Duke
Noailles
Mr. Arthur Pond, Portrait Painter
John Hyde, Esq.
Sept. 9, 1758
1802
Charles Moss, D). D.; afterwards Bp. of St
David's, and then Bp. of Bath and Wells)
Peter Burrell, Junr. Esq.
Withdrawn 1765 Wm. Cadogan, M. D. of Bristol
•
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
of May 28, 1752
28
June
4, 1752
28
4
28
4
28
Nov. 9
23
16
Sept. 21, 1784
Richard Hazard, Esq.
June 4
Henry Pacey, Esq.
4
Jun
Wm. Brakenridge, D. D.
Nov. 9
Nov. 16
1702
1762
Mons. Jean Baptiste Faget, of the Academy
of Surgery, Paris
Dec. 14
1784
May
17, 1792
1768
Jan. 10, 1794
April 21, 1782
Nov. 9, 1721 June 23, 1770
April
Sir James Caldwell, Bart.
Noah Thomas, M. A.; since M. D., since Sir
N. Thomas, Kt.
Hugh, Earl of Marchmont
John, Earl of Clanricarde
Mark Akenside, M. D.
Francis Faquier, Esq.
Charles Petley, Esq.
Mons. Bellin, Engineer of the Navy of France
21
Feb.
8,1753
Wm. Allix, Esq.
Jan. 25, 1753
1
.
25
1
Feb.
1
•
∞ x
8
8
15
15
99
•
22
Feb.
6, 1755
22
1701 Jan.
3, 1778
S Paul Jaques Malouin, Physician to the
Queen of France
}
March 1
Don Joseph Hortega
8
Nov.
1724 Oct.
May
1775
Caleb Hardinge, M. D.
15
May
3, 1753
28, 1792
|
Mr. John Smeaton
15
March 22
7,1770
Peter Gabreș, M. D. of Hague
15
Sepr. 16, 1777
Simon, Earl Harcourt
15
April 12
Withdrawn 1771
Wm. Price, Esq.
22
March 29
March, 1693
May 13, 1707
March 23, 1754
Jan.
10, 1778
Mr. John James Wetstein, Prof. Philo, Amster. April 5
Charles Linnæus, M. D. Prof. Botany in
the University of Upsala; afterwards
Von Linne, Kt. of the Polar Star
May
3
1802
1786
Joseph Hoare, B. D.; afterwards D. D.
Princp. of Jesus Coll. Oxford, Preben-
Princp. of
dary, Westminster
Richard Green, D. D.
24
Jan. 31, 1754
g!
June
7, 1753
Nov. 17, 1723 Dec.
19, 1802
Samuel Wegg, Esq.
31
7
The Chevalier Richard Wall, Ambass. from Spain
31
7
Dec.
24, 1770
Wm. Northey, Esq.
June 21
March 21, 1754
June 19, 1763
Robt. Symmer, Esq.
1691 March 6, 1764
S Philip, Lord Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor;
afterwards Earl of Hardwicke
Dec.
Nov. 15
6
Dec.
6, 1753
Oct. 21, 1761
Wm. Lock, Esq.
Feb.
7, 1754 Feb. 14, 1754
July
Sept.
Oct.
5, 1761
John Girle, Esq.
7
14
6, 1761
James Postlethwayt, Esq.
7
28
1776
Mr. John Ellis
14
28
Sept. 27, 1774
Sholto Charles, Ld. Aberdour; since El. Morton
21
28
Jan. 21, 1787
Gustavus Brander, Esq.
March 7
March 14
May 23, 1775
Lewis Crusius, M. A, since D. D.
7
14
1776
Bartholomew Hammond, Esq.
14
21
May 21, 1771
Anthony, Earl of Shaftsbury
28
May 16
SJohn, Lord Viscount Castlecomer; after-
wards Earl of Wandesford
April 4
Withdrawn1770 John Cooksey, M. A.
4
April 25
Richard Blacow, M. A.
4
25
Mons. R. Caumont, M. D. Physician to the
King of France
May
9
May 16
Jan.
8, 1771 Gregory Sharpe, LL. D.
9
Dec. 5
Father John Chevalier, Ord, Orat. Pres. at
Lisbon
23
1778
Matthew Raper, Esq.
30
June 27, 1777
March 11, 1711 March 6, 1796
Guillaume Thomas Raynal
30
June
Dec. 12, 1782
Charles Gray, Esq.
June. 13
5, 1754
Nov. 21, 1755
George Lewis, Esq.
13
Aug.
1760
the Rolls
May
Rev. Caspar Wetstein, Chaplain to her
R. II. the Princess Dowager of Wales
July 25, 1801 William, Earl of Dartmouth
Nov. 13, 1764Rt. Hon. Sir Thomas Clarke, Kt, Master
8, 1766 Mr. Samuel Chandler; afterwards D. D.
John Hudson, Esq.
June 24, 1782 John Blair, LL. D.
July 4
Nov. 7
April 24, 1754
Nov. 7
21.
of?
Jan.
9, 1755
Dec.
5
Dec.
12, 1754
5
Jan.
Dec. 12
9, 1755 Jan. 16, 1755
xlviii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
ELECTED.
BORN.
DIED.
ADMITTED.
Nov. 23, 1757
Mr. Lewis Jean Marie Daubenton
Mr. James Dodson
•
Jau, 9, 1755
16
Jan. 23, 1753
1757
James Dawkins, Esq.
23
Wm. Henry, D. D.
•
Dec. 22, 1760
Wm. Hirst, M. A.
Feb. 20
20
June
6,1765
Aug. 16, 1775
April 18, 1774
Apul 11, 1715 May
8, 1762
Mr. Josiah Colebrooke
March 13
March 20, 1755
Roger Pettiward, D. D.
13
April 17
SCharles Fred. Hundertmark, M. D. Prof.
of Physic at Leipzig
13
Mons, Martin Hubner, Prof. History, at the
University of Copenhagen
20
Count Cyrille Rausaumousky, President of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences, at
St. Petersburgh
April 24
Oct. e, 1716 May 27, 1781
Aug. 22, 1728
Withdrawn 1795
Jan. 27, 1764
July 18, 1685 July 17, 1755 Mons. Jean Claude Adrian Helvetius, M. D.
Mons. Ottavio Antonio Bayardi, of Naples
Sign. Camillo Paderni, Keeper of the Mu-
seum Herculaneum
Nathaniel Forster, D. D.
Johannes Baptista Beccaria, Proff. Exp.
Philosophy, in the University of Turin
James, Lord Viscount Charlemont; since Earl
Rev. Henry Owen, M. D.
24
24
Mu-}
24
May 1
May
15
29
29
Feb.
1, 1759
Junc
12
Robt, Hunter Morris, Esq.
Rodolph de Valltravers, Esq.
12
Feb.
15, 1755
12
June
19
Jan. 20, 1716 April 30, 1795
Feb. 22, 1734-5 Dec. 29, 1806
Jean Jaques Barthelemy, Keeper of the
12
King of France's Cabinet of Medals
Charles, Duke of Richmond
Dec.
11
Jan.
8, 1756
Peter Ascanius, M. D. of Norway
11
Chevalier de Jacour
Jan.
8, 1756
Mons. de Bougainville
Father Guiseppe Maria Pancrazzi, of Naples
1733 March 20, 1769 John Albert Schlosser, M. D. of Utrecht
Mons. John Andreas Peysonnel, M. D.
27, 1792 Shukburgb Ashby, Esq.
8
15
223
Feb.
5
Jan.
March 18
March 25
July 26, 1764
June 29, 1782
Mons. Daviel Surgeon to the King of France
Charlton Wollaston, Esq.; afterwards M. D.
Keane Fitzgerald, Esq.
18
25
April
25
I
James Jurin, Esq.
April 1
May 6
Jan. 17, 1706 April 17, 1790
Nov. 28, 1768
Benjamin Franklin, Esq.; afterwards LL. D.
Alexander Russell, M. D.
29
Nov. 24, 1757
. •
May
6
May
13, 1756
Jan, 20, 1790
John Howard, Esq.
13
20
Jacob Fred. Lantsheer, LL. D. of Middleburg
13
Feb.
5, 1761
July 26, 1762
John Kidby, M. A.
June 3
June 17, 1756
Sept. 19, 180-1
肇
​Thomas Brand, Esq.; afterwards Thomas
Brand Holis
John Gregory, M. D.
Xaverius Manetti, M. D.
Count Maffeo, of Udina in the Venetian State
Thomas Percival, Esq.
3
Nov. 4
July
Jan.
8
17, 1765
11
11
25
The Abbot Rudolphino Venuti, of Rome
March 17, 1757
March 24, 1795
Mons. Martinho de Mello e Castro, Envoy
from Portugal; afterwards Secretary of
State in Portugal
April 21
May 26, 1757
Oct.
5, 1771
March 31, 1767
Alexander Thislethwayte, Esq.
Thomas Lisle, D. D.
21
April 28
May
5
Dec.
8
Dec. 18, 1759
Mr. Isaac Romnilly, Merchant
Nov. 16, 1793
Robert, Lord Romney
12
May
19
19
26
Jan.
April 14, 1720 Dec.
1708
Sept. 8, 1717
Charles Grave Hudson, Esq.; afterwards Bart,
Dec. 24, 1779 Corbyn Morris, Esq.
Nov. 22, 1784 Father Paul Frisi, Prof. of Ethics, in
Il Cavaliere Paulo Celesia, Minister from Genoa
John Upton, Esq.
19
26
19
26
Mr. George Dionysius Ehret
Dr. Vitaliano Donati, of Turin
University of Pisa
19
26
19
in the
June
9
16
June 30
16
23
1773
Thomas Hollis, Esq.
30
Nov. 10
Sepi.
April 3, 1694 July
Aug. 2, 1711 Jan.
March 7, 1719 Nov.
1, 1761
George Matthias Bose, Prof. Nat. Philosophy
30
in the University of Wittenburg
23, 1773
Mr. George Edwards
Nov. 10
17
2, 1784
Charles Rogers, Esq.
17
24
10, 1806
Don Joano, Duke de Bragança
17
Dec.
8, 1758
Philip Barton, LL. D.
24
March 9, 1759
Mr. Lorenz Natter, of Bibench, in Swabia
Robt. Bootle, Esq.
24
June 21, 1757
Dec. 8
Dec. 15
1
APPENDIX, No. IV.
xlix
March 31, 1791
Withdrawn 1774
Wm. Man Godschall, Esq.
S Philip Fred. Gmelin, M. D. Prof, Bot, and
Chemistry, in the University of Tubingen
John Ross, D. D.; afterwards Bp. of Exeter
Francis, Earl of Huntingdon
BORN.
DIED.
George Wegg, Esq.
Dec.
1802
May
Aug. 14, 1792
March 13, 1728 Oct. 4, 1789
April 18, 1804
9, 1768
Nov.
1797
Nov.
3, 1769
April 2, 1797
July 28, 1904
Father Theodore de Almeyda, Ord. Orator.
at Lisbon
John de Schuvaloff, Grand Chamberlain and
actual Privy Councellor to the Fanpress of
Russia
Robt. Lambe, LL. D. Dean of Peterborough ;
and afterwards Bishop of Peterborough
Mr. Richard Grindall, Surgeon
Giovanin Joannes Marsili, M. D. of Venice
Charles Allioni, M. D. of Turin
Ralph, Earl Verney
George Forster Tufnell, Esq.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
Feb.
9, 1758
16
May 31,1759
16
23
March 16, 1758
March 2
16
9
Oct.
6, 1732
Oct. 27, 1714
1811
S Nevil Maskelyne, M. A.; since Ast. Royal
and D. D.
27
16
April 6
6
April 13
G
13
6
20
May 25
22
20
Feb.
Nov.
2, 1788
James Stuart, Esq.
27
25
5, 1764
John Hadley, M. A. Chem. Prof. Cantab.
Amyas Bushe, Esq.
May 25
Dec. It
June 15
Jan.
Feb. 24, 1806
20, 1759
Jaa.
Aug. 20, 1761
1795
Edward Hooper, Esq.
Philip Venuti, of Leghorn
•
Jan. 13, 1796
1696 March 30, 1763
|
Dec. 23, 1775
Sir Thomas Drury, Bart.
Thomas Gisborne, M. D.
(Joseph Ignatio de Torres, J. V. D. Physi
cian to the Royal Family of Spain
John Anderson, Prof. Nat. Phil. Glascow
Sign. Marco Antonio Foscarini, Nobile
netian; afterwards Doge of Venice
John Carafa, Duke de Noia, of Naples
Joseph Salvador, Esq.
Erasinus Saunders, D. D.
Edward Wright, M. D.
•
V
ve-}
Nov.
16
Nov. 23
16
Dec.
21
•
Dec. 7
Jan.
18, 1759
Feb.
1, 1759 June 28
March S
15
20
March 22
29
April 5
May 31
June 14
Edward Delaval, Esq.
April 29, 1799
John Lloyd, M. B.
May 27, 1780 John Lewis Petit, M. A.; afterwards M. D.
Wilkinson Blanchard; M. B; afterwards M. D.
S David Van Royen, Prof. Bot. in the Uni-
versity of Leiden
Nov. 8
22
April 24, 1760
Jau. 24
Dec. 6
6
Jan. 15, 1761
Uni-}
6
Nov. 1709
March 15, 1713
May 15, 1782
Sign. Eustachio Zanotti, of Bologna
Jan. 10, 1760
March 21, 1702
M. Nicolas Louis de la Caille
17
Mons. Pereira, of Paris
Jan. 24
The Count de Saluce, of Turin
Feb. 21
April 3, 1783
David de Gorter, M. D.
21
Sept. 15, 1772
Samuel Dyer, Esq.
March 6
1805
Israel Wilkes, Esq.
6
April 24, 1760
March 13
Dr. Tissot, of Lausanne
20
May 14, 1702
1781
SJohn Bernard, M. D. Prof. Physic, in the
27
University of Dauay
Dec.
Dec.
Oct.
6, 1722
10, 1731 Feb.
April 21, 1793
July
15, 1771
Gerard Meerman, LL. D.
April 24
James Comyn, Esq.
24
June 19
24, 1810
Hon. Henry Cavendish
•
John Michell, B. D.
May 1
June 12
May
8
Feb. 5, 1761
•
4, 1780
July 24, 1788
Samuel Musgrave, M. A.
King George III., Patron
Thomas Ryves, Esq.
12
Nov. 17
• •
20
Nov. 26
Sept. 17, 1767
Edward, Duke of York
27
1789
Oct. 1802
John Gideon Loten, Esq.
Nicholas de Himsel, M. D. of Riga
Oct. 31, 1765 William, Duke of Cumberland
Giam. Baptista Albertini, Prince de San Sa-
verino, Envoy from the King of the Two
Sicilies
Benedict Ferner, Pr. As. Upsal
97
Dec. 11, 1760
27
Dec.
4
II
11
Aug.
28, 1801
Roger Baldwin, M. A.
18
Jan.
15, 1761
1710 Dec.
10, 1792
May 18, 1711
June 16, 1728
April 7, 1725
Feb.
12, 1787
Mr. Jean Joseph Le Sue, of Paris, Surgeon
Roger Boscowick, S. J. S.
18
Jan.
15, 1761
Feb.
23,1792
Mr. Joshua Reynolds, since Kt.
15
Aug.
3, 1806
Mr. Michael Adanson, of Paris
22
Oct.
28, 1805
Daniel Dumaresq, D. D.
Feb.
CT
29
May 12, 1763
2
Mr. John Alex, Genevois, of Burtigny in
Switzerland
19
SA
I
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
Dec.
April 18, 1802
Dec. 17, 1770
March 3, 1792
George Eckersall, Esq.
Robert Adam, Esq.
1707 Nov. 30, 1761
DIED.
1, 1803
May 31,1765
March 13, 1796
Hugh Hamilton, Prof. Nat, Phil. Dublin;
afterwards Dean of Armagh, since Lord
Bp. of Clonfert; afterwards of Ossory
Dutch Church in Austin Friars
sir. Henry Van Haemstede, Minister of the
Richard Wilbraham Bootle, Esq.
Erasmus Darwin, M. D.
•
•
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
Feb. 19, 1761 Jan. 20, 1763
March 12
April 2
April 2, 1761
30
9
1779
May 23, 1793
Oct.
2, 1761
June 14, 1791
Mr. John Dolland, Optician
Dom. Martin Panzano, F. S. A.
Mr. Wm. Hudson, Apothecary
William, Duke of Devonshire
Joseph Geartner, M. D. of Stutgard
Thomas Wood, LL. D.
23
May 7
28
30
June 11
11
.
·
June 11
D
Νον. 5
Nov. 12
12
•
April 29, 1762
•
12
19
Nov. 26, 1761
Thomas Heberden, M. D.
Dec.
10
Oct. 2, 1778
June 15, 1809
Washington, Earl Ferrers
May 13, 1762
May 29, 1785
|
corge Baker, M D.; since Sir G. Baker, Bart. Feb.
Andrew Coltec Ducarel, LL. D.
4, 1762 Feb.
4
18
1709 Nov. 30, 1781
Aug.
Feb.
1793
Mr. Charles White, Surgeon, at Manchester
Theodore Tronchin, M. D. Prof. Med. Geneva
Johan Lulofs, Prof. Ast. Ludg. Bat.
Robt. Burrow, Esq.
18
18
March 18
18
6, 1795
1715 Sept. 9, 1798
Jan. 29, 1763
Charles Dodgson, M. A.; afterwards Lord
Bp. of Ossory, and then Ld. Bp. of Elphin
Fran. Ilen. the Marquis de Turbilly
Ludov. Paul Abeille, Secretary of the Aca
demy of Agriculture at Rennes
Owen Salusbury Brereton, Esq.
Aca-}
Lethraborg, July
John Lewis Count Holstein, of Lethraborg,
in Denmark
18
March 25
April 1
Dec. 16
22
22
June 17
1
Nov. 25
Jan.
2, 1772
Wm. Fitzherbert, Esq.
Nov. 11
Sept.
Sept.
9,1765
Robt. Webb, Esq.
7, 1766
Thomas Tyndall, Esq.
===
June 27, 1765
Jan.
13, 1763
25
Feb., 1730 Oct.
13, 1801
SMr. Rd. Pulteney, Apothecary; afterwards
{M. D.
afterwards
25
1802
Samuel Felton, Esq.
Dec. 9
May 12
Dec. 16, 1762
Joshua Platt
Dec. 26, 1776
John Baptist Bohadsch, M. D. of Prag.
John Anthony Helvetius, of Amsterdam
Dec. 16, 1716 Feb. 26, 1798 Ludov. Jul. Duke de Nivernois
April 19, 1701 July 30, 1769
George Wollaston, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
S Andreas Elias Büchner, President of the
Imperial. Academiæ Naturæ Curiosorum
Lorenzo Morosini, Venetian Ambassador
Antonio Matani, M. D. of Pisa
Lawrence Theodore Gronovius, of Leyden
Thomas Hornsby, M. A. Sav. Prof. Ast.
Anthony Shepherd, B. D.; since D. D. and
Plum. Prof. Math.
1784 Joseph Raulin, M. D. of Paris
S
June 21, 1779
1778
June 15, 1795
..
Withdrawn 1795 Edward Waring, M. A.; since M. D.
23
23
Feb. 10, 1763
Jan.
27
Feb.
17
March 10
March 17
10
10
April 21
June 16
21
18
May 12
and
and
June 2
1803
Prof. Math.
Jonathan Watson, Esq.
9
16
Feb.
Dec.
Dec.
Sept. 18, 1737
Nov. 4, 1735 April 15, 1806
1710 Nov. 16, 1776
July 11, 1732 April 4, 1807
8, 1785
Matthew Duane, Esq.
9
16
21, 1780
James Harris, Esq.
23
Dec. 15
26, 1780
John Fothergill, M. D.
Charles Hyacinth Anthony, Duke de Gallean
John Turton, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
Mr. James Ferguson
Nov. 10
17
3952
23
Nov. 24
March 5, 1767
24
Dec.
8
1704
1772
Jan. 24, 1781
Mr. Joseph Jerome le François de la Lande
Mons. Charles Duclos, Secretary of the Aca-
demie François
24
Jan.
12, 1764
Mr. Thomas Yeoman
12
Jan.
Oct. 9, 1735
S Charles Wm. Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince)
of Brunswick; afterwards Duke of Brun.
Count Simon Stratico, Prof. in the Univer-
sity of Padua
19
19, 1764
19
19
Aug. 25, 1699 May
4, 1768
Aug. 18, 1783
Jan. 19, 1775
March 19, 1727 June 20, 1807
Nov. 1783
Feb. 24, 169 Sept. 9, 1770
Mons. Charles Etienne Louis Camus
26
Benjamin Kennicott, D. D.
Feb.
William Samuel Powell, D. D.
Mons. Ferd. Berthoud, of Paris, Clockmaker
Sidney Swinney, D. D.
Bernard Siegfried Albinus, M. D. Prof. Anat.
in the University of Leyden
№ 2365
16
Feb. 23
16
March 15
16
16
Feb. 23
23
བབ
17
Feb. 10, 1763
April 14
5
APPENDIX. No. IV.
ᏞᎥ
BORN.
1718 Jan.
5, 1790
Oct.
1793
June
Jan.
22, 1797
22, 1773
Nov. 18, 1741
Oct.
23, 1769
Sept. 25, 1792
May 29, 1791
DIED.
1705 Nov. 29, 1780
the?
Hieron. Dav. Caubius, Prof. Chem, in the
University of Leyden
Jacob Christ. Schaffer, D. D. Pastor at Ratisbon
Wills, Earl of Hillsborough; afterwards
ards}
Marquis of Devonshire
Rich, Warren, M. D.; afterwards Med. Reg.
Charles Lloyd, Esq.
Louis Marie Jos, d'Albert d'Ailly, Duke de
Picquigny; afterwards Duc de Chaulnes S
Eliab Harisey, Esq.
Adam Gottlob Moltke, Count de Bregentwed
Frederick Christian Meuschen, of Ilague
Michael Morris, M. D.
FLECTED.
Feb. 23, 1761
23
∞ ∞
ADMITTED.
March 8
July
5, 1761
8
May 3
8
April 5
15
March 29
29
April 12
April
5
5
5
12
Dec.
22, 1788
Mr. Percivall Pott, Surgeon
5
May
10
14
1796
Naphtali Franks, Esq.
May 3
10
Feb. 28, 1724
|Dec.
2, 1805
Dec.
16, 1790
Mr. Joseph Bernard, Marquis de Chabert
John Campbell, Esq.
10
March 21, 1794
17
May 21,1764
Feb. 28, 1736
May
13, 1782
Daniel Charles Solander, M. D.
Junc 7
June
21
Peter Simon Pallas, of Berlin, M. D.
7
Feb. 24, 1711
Dec.
15, 1770
John, Earl of Egmont
21
26
Jan.
23, 1785
Jan.
13, 1795
Ralph Willett, Esq.
Matthew Stewart, D. D. Prof. Math. Uui-}
versity of Edinburgh
Mons. Jean Baptiste de Feronce, Ministr.
Uni-
21
21
Dec.
6
28
Plenip, from the Duke of Brunsvig Lunen,
Sir John Webb, Bart.
28
6
John Wilkinson, M. D.
28
Nov.
15
Oct. 21, 1771 |Fane Wm. Sharpe, Esq.
July
Samuel Glasse, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
55
July
5
12
Sept. 22, 1717 Dec.
1718 July
July 2, 1734 July
June 26, 1730
13, 1783
Peter Wargentin, Secretary to the Academy
of Sciences at Stockholm, and Kt, of the
Polar Star
12
16, 1794
16, 1790
Jolin Roebuck, M.D.
12
March 24, 1791
John Francis Cigna, M. D. of Turin
Nov. 22
1718 Aug.
Nov.
22,1782
13, 1787
Jan. 19, 1735
1790
Charles Messior, of Paris
Robert, Lord Trevor; afterwards Viscount
Hampden
Henry Stebbing, D. D.
John George Henry Count de Werthern
John Nicoll, Esq.
Dec. 6
13
Dec. 20, 1764
Jan. 21, 1765 Jan.
$1,1765
Feb. 14
28
March 7
Aug. 30, 1804
Thomas Percivall, Esq.; since M. D.
Edward Stanley, Esq.
March 7
June 6
7
March 14
Oct.
Oct.
July
1782 Jan.
30, 1789
Jolin Morgau, M. D. of Philadelphia
7
4,1787
Compte Jo. Baptiste Carburi, Prof. Med. Turin
Richard Jebb, M. D.; since Sir R. Jebb, Bart.
21
April 18
28
18
10, 1786
March 9, 1735 July
(Mons. Jean Baptiste Jaques Elie de Beau- April 25
mont, Avocat a Parlement de Paris
Mr. Thorbern Bergman; afterwards Prof.
Chemistry, at the University of Upsal,
and Kt, of the Order of Wasa
9, 1784
Withdrawn 1804 Mr. William Harrison
Peter Canvane, M. D. of Bath
Marchio Dominicus Caraccioli, Envoy from
the King of the Two Sicilies
25
May 9
May 16
16
May 15, 1766
July 17, 1789
23
June
6, 1765
Dec. 15, 1782
Oct. 22, 1728 March 9, 1795
John Cuthbert, Esq.
June 13
20
March 7, 1779
Henry Houghton, Esq.; since Bart,
John Tennent, M. D. of New York
Sir John Mordaunt Cope, Bart.
13
20
•
13
20
20
24
John Bentinck, Esq.
20
27
John Lewin, Esq.
20
20
David, Lord Cardross; afterwards El, of Buchan
Hon. Matthias Barne wall
27
Nor. ་
27
Dec.
Sept.
4,1791Mr. Daniel Hopkins, of Huntingdon, Su
geon; afterwards M. D.
Sur-
27
Feb. 6, 1766
Dec. 20, 1786 Jan.
Dec.
1809 John Mauritius Count de Bruhl
1790
Nov. 26, 1771
1710 Nov.
3, 1787
April 1791
Dec. 25, 1809
Nov. 7
Nov. 21, 1765
Count Sigesmond de Redern, Curator of the
Academy of Sciences at Berlin
the
14
John Bevis, M. D.
21
Dec.
5
Robert Lowth, D. D.; afterwards Bp.
Oxford, and afterwards of London
21
1720 April 7, 1783
Jan. 16, 1790
Mr. Richard Price; since D. D.
Richard Kaye, LL. B.; since LL. D. and
Dean of Lincoln and Bart.
Christian Mayer, S. J. Ast. Elect. Palat.
Mr. John Landen
Dec.
and?
LA LO
5
Dec. 12
5
March 6, 1766
19
Jan 16, 1766 April 24
g2
lii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN,
May
1779
DIED.
June 28, 1797 George Keate, Esq.
{Mr. Charles Daniel Trudaine de Montigny,
Paris
John Mills, Esq.
Jno. Winthorpe, Esq. Prof. Math, and Nat.
Philo. in Harvard College at Cambridge,
in New England
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Jan. 23, 1766 Feb.
6, 1766
23
Feb.
13
April 24
20
Nov. 19, 1718 Nov.
4, 1785
Mr. Pierre Jean Grosley, of the Acad. des
Inser, at Paris
20
Feb.
7, 1768
Tyringham Stephens, Esq.
March 13
March 20
Wm. Grame, Esq. Commander in Chief
the Venetian Land Forces
hief of
13
Dec.
1, 1803
Thomas Altle, Esq.
20
20
Sept. 17, 1781
John Letch, M. D.
20
April 10
1782
Mons. l'Abbe François Gabriel Coyer
20
April 10, 1777
March 19, 1799
John Strange, Esq.
April 10
April 24, 1766
1802
Donald Monro, M. D.
24
May 1
Withdrawn 1802
Samuel Harper, M. A.
24
1
Feb.
TJ'
1743, O. S.
5, 1790
Arthur Lee, M. D.
1796
Wm. Webber, Esq.
Mr. David Riz
+
March 24, 1733 Feb.
1785
1803
Jan.
5, 1798
1803
Dec. 20, 1732
Jan. 31, IS08
Nov.
April 14, 1758 Oct. 30, 1809
Expelled May}
6, 1804 Joseph Priestley, LL. D.
April
17, 1732 Feb. 12, 1798
March 1,1797
Sept. 21, 1725 Dec. 26, 1793
Feb. 19, 1803
Nov.
Thomas Forster, M. A.
Wm. Hamilton, Esq. Envoy Ext. to Naples ;
afterwards K. B. and Privy Counsellor
His Majesty Stanislaus Augustus King of Poland Dec.
Jan.
Mr. Henry Putman, Minister of the Dutch
ich}
Church in Austin Friars
Brownlow, Earl of Exeter
Allan Pollok, M.D.
John Zephan Holwell, Esq.
Anthony Tissington, Esq.
Mr. Peter Woulfe
Feb. 14, 1730 Oct. 16, 1793 Mr. John Hunter
1779 Sir James Naesmith, Bart.
Thomas Anguish, Esq.
Joseph Banks, Esq.; afterwards P.R. S. May
{Jose
and Bart. K. B.
Edward Hasted, Esq.
24
1
Feb.
12, 1767
8
May
8, 1766
Mr. Dionysius Williams
8
Leonard Morse, Esq.
15
June 12
Michael Lort, B. D.; since D. D.
15
May 15
29
Nov. 10, 1768
Wm. Henry Duke of Portland
June 5
June 12, 1766
5
Nov. 6
5
June 19
12
Jan. 28, 1768
19
Nov. 13, 1766
}
Nov.
6
14, 1771
11
8, 1767 Jan. 29,1767
15
Feb. 12
22
D
Jan. 29
29
Feb. 5
29
5
•
Feb. 5
•
March 12
Feb. 19
12
52
Sir Thomas Fludyer
12
March 5
*
Dec.
1, 1786
John Hope, M. D.
12
Nov.
9, 1776
Richard Eyre, D. D.
19
Feb.
26,1767
1771
June, 1726 Dec.
2,1726 Dec.
16, 1798
Thomas Pennant, Esq.
Frederick, Lord Baltimore
•
John Mytton, Esq.
26
March 19
26
5
26
12
Oct. 14, 1786
John Martin Butt, M. D. of Jamaica
Rd. Wright, M. A.; afterwards M. D.
Joshua Kirby, Esq.
26
March 19
April 2
26
9
June 30, 1790
Wm. Roy, Esq.; afterwards Major-General
26
9
Aug. 11, 1788
Edward, Earl Winterton
April 2
9
Sept. 1808
Steddy Grinfield, Esq.
1786
John Malliet, Esq.
Oct. 30, 1793
Mr. Henry Watsou, Surgeon
222
9
9
9
April 29, 1788
John Parker, Jun. Esq; afterwards Lord
Borringdou
9
June 4
Dec. 12, 1786 |
William James, Esq.
9
April 30
Samuel Horsley, M. A.; afterwards LL. D.
Oct.
June
4, 1806
May 23, 1718 March 30, 1783
Feb. 17, 1798
17, 1798
April 16, 1807
5,1723 July 18, 1790
Wm. Hunter, M. D.
(Mr. Francis Geach, of Plymouth, Surgeon
afterwards M. D.
and Lord Bp. of St. David's, afterwards
of Rochester, since of St. Asaph
9
30
30
May 7
May
7
Edward King, Esq.
Adam Smith, LL. D.
Robert Mylne, Esq.
14
•
•
May 21
21
::
May 27, 1773
21
June 4, 1767
Oct. 11, 1780
Anthony Chamier, Esq.
28
4
Jan
21, 1800
George Stevens, Esq.
28
18
Hon. Chas. Dillon; afterwards C. Dillou Lee
Robert Weston, Esq.
28
July 2
28
June 25
Hon. Daines Barrington
June 4
18
+
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lii
BORN,
March 15, 1745
DIED.
SCharles Howard, Jun. Esq.; afterwards El.
ELECTED,
ADMITTED.
of Surry, at last Duke of Norfolk
El.}
June 18, 1767 April 14, 1768
Feb.
1790 Daniel Minet, Eq
18
Nov. 12, 1767
Mr. Charles L'Epinasse
July 9
July 9
May 11, 1743
Aug. 28
Sept. 8, 1741 f
Sept. 6, 1746
Feb. 1, 1776
July 24, 1785
Mr. James Dargent
Aug. 31, 1786
1785 Mr. George Witchell
Rd. Henry Alex. Bennet, Esq.
Wm. Watson, Jun. M. B.; since M. D. and
Kt (name in the Charter-book, between
Bennett and Lord Greville)
Sept. 9, 1801 Owen Manning, B. D.
George Lord Greville; afterwards El. of Warwick
William, Earl of Radnor
Rd. Huck, M. D.; since Rd. Saunders, M. D.
Charles Moore, Esq.
. ·
Chas. Howard, Sen. Esq.; since Duke of Norfolk
9
May 19, 1768
Dec. 10
Dec.
17, 1767
10
May
19, 1763
10
Jan.
21
17
7
17
Feb. 18
Feb. 18, 1768
25
25
May 12
March 17
March 21
24
April 14
Nov.
April 25, 1785
Jan.
4, 1775
Mr. Daniel Harris
24
14
Mr. James Horsfall
April 14
May 5
2, 1803
Richard Penneck, A. M.
14
April 28
Nov. 12, 1775
Christopher Nugent, M. D.
14
28
·
Mr. John Lodge Cowley
14
20
•
Aug.
Feb.
7, 1783
8,1784
Mr. John James Majendie, since D. D.
John Darker, Esq.
21
May
19
May
5
12
Thomas Dundas, Esq.; afterwards Bart, and
Lord Dundas
and}
ها
5
Feb. 16, 1769
July 29, 1795
John Heathcote, Esq.
12
Feb. 19, 1784
Thomas Morell, D. D.
June 16
June 23, 1768
Jan. 29, 1749 March 13, 1808
Christian VII., King of Denmark
Sept. 1
1797
Thomas Emlyn, Esq.
Nov.
10
Nov.
1725
1774
Robert Lord Clive
24
April 13,1769
Feb. 8, 1807
Jan. 10, 1729 Feb. 10, 1799
1710 Nov. 15, 1783
Thomas Lashley, M. D. of Barbadoes
Mr. Lazarus Spallanzani, of Modena
Joseph Etienne Bertier, Órd. Ora. of Paris
Richard Watson, M. A.; afterwards D. I).
and Prof. Div. Cant, afterwards Lord Bi-
shop of Landaff
24
Nov. 25, 1754
June
2
Feb.
2,1769 April 27, 1769
Sept. 10, 1781 Mr. John Caverhill; afterwards M. D.
9
March 16
Richard Hill Waring, Esq.
16
23
James Greive, M. D.
23
2
Dec. 30, 1800
S Thomas Dimsdale, M. D. Baron of the Em-
pire of Russia
March 16
May
11
John Corham Huxham, M. A.
16
April 13
Francis Wollaston, LL. B.
April 13
20
June
March 17, 1810 Mr. Wm. Sharp, Surgeon
Sept. 7, 1799
Ejected Dec.
7, 1775)
April 29, 1726 Aug. 13, 1784
Sept.
Nov.
1, 1777
1734 July 5, 1807
Aug. 23, 1809
March 12, 1780
The Prince de Masserano
Mr. Timothy Lane
Topham Beauclerk, Esq.
20
27
Thaddaeus Joseph Count de Burzynski, Se-May 11
Jan. 25, 1770-
nator of Poland
John Ingenhousz, M. D.
25
March 21.]
1771
Mr. Rudolph Erick Raspe
June
1
John François Clement Morand, M. D.
1
Wu). Wyatt, M. A.
8
April 26, 1770
*
1904
John Ibbetson, Esq.
Nov.
Jan.
16
Jan. 18
11, 1770 May 10
Jan. 18
•
Wm. Farr, M. D. of Plymouth
March 1
June 3.1779
४
March 22, 1770
1774
Mr. Wm. Hewson
8
15
June
1778
James Welsh, M. D. of Winchester
15
March 4, 1773
Andrew Joseph Planta, M. A.
15
March 22, 1770
Sept.
1, 1795 Francis Russell, Esq.
15
Nov. 12, 1772
Justin Macarthy, Esq.
April 5
Mr. David Bayford, Surgeon; afterwards M. D.
Heny Jerome de Salis, M. A.; afterwards D. D. May
Withdrawn 1784 Charles Collignon, M. D.
Nov. 25, 1791
June
William Pitcairn, M. D.
10
1, 1784
Thomas Dickson, M. D.
ဍ = =
26
May 10, 1770
3
Nov. 26, 1772
3
May 17, 1770
10
17
1789
{
1790
Jan. 12, 1726 Dec. 10, 1779
1789
Charles Douglas, Esq.; afterwards. Bart, and
Rear Admiral of the Blue Squadron
Peter Jonas Bergius, M. D. of Stockholm
Chas, Le Roy, M. D. Prof Phys, at Montpeiller
Thomas Healde, M. D.; afterwards Prof.)
Me!, Gresh.
1779 Edward Thomas, M. A.
Isaac Hawkins Browne, Esq.
17
24
31
ان
March 9, 1795 Jobu Walsh, Esq.
June 21
June 29
21
July 5
July
5
Nov. 15
Nov.
بر
92
liv
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Oct.
April
1743
Dec.
12, 1793
DORN,
DIED.
Aug. 1778 Samuel Wells Thomson, D. D.
John Arbuthnot, Esq.
July 24, 1737 June 19, 1808
3, 1787
Nov.
Aug. 15, 1786
Mr. Robert Erskine, Engineer
Alexander Dalrymple, Esq.
John Wynn Baker, Esq.
John Glen King, M A.
Thomas Tyrwhitt, Esq.
Mr. Samuel Howard, Surgeon
11, 1790 Marmaduke Tunstall, Esq.
Francis Maseres, Esq.
•
•
8, 1770 Nov. 22,1770
Dec. 20
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Nov.
22
Jan.
31, 1771 Feb.
7, 1771
Feb.
14
March 14
14
21
Feb. 28
28
"
May
9
March 14
March 21
April 11
April 18
May 2
May 16
John Paradise, Esq.
2
9
·
Dec. 22, 1714
Jan.
16, 1787
Paul Henry Matty, M. A.
16
30
April 21, 1807
Rev. Mr. George Walker
30
Dec. 5
{
SFather Martin Poczobut, Warsaw, Astron.
to the King of Poland
Astron.
30
Nov.
20, 1809
John Philip de Limbourg, M. D. of Spaa
Philip Stevens, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
30
.
June 6
June 13
James Petty, Esq.
6
Feb.
6,1772
Aug. 10, 1740
July
11, 1807
Johu Frere, Esq.
6
June 20, 1771
Feb. 7, 1724
Jan.
13, 1800
Sept.
1774
His Serene Highness, Peter Duke of Courland
Sir Wm. Duncan, Bart. Med. Reg.
Nov. 7
14
Sept. 18, 1740
Aug.
22, 1808
Benjamin Way, Esq.
Dec. 5
Dec. 12
1748 Oct.
10, 1792
Hon. Constantine John Phipps; since Lor
Mulgrave
12
12
Richard Cope Hopton, Esq.
12
Feb.
27, 1772
Richard Paul Jodrell, Esq.
Jan.
9, 1772 Jan.
23
April 30
May 11, 1730}
Oct. 19, 1805 Alexander Aubert, Esq.
9
16
Benjamin Booth, Esq.
9
16
Cyril Jackson, Esq.; afterwards D. D. and
Dean of Christ Church, Oxford
16
Feb. 13
1804
Nathaniel Pigott, Esq.
16
June 4
May 12, 1749
Nov. 8, 1782 Dec.
Oct. 22, 1729 Dec.
April 23, 1809
Hon. Charles Francis Greville
Feb.
13
Feb. 27
25, 1800
John Carnac, Esq.
20
Dec. 10
16, 1798
Mr. John Reinhold Forster; afterwards LL. D.
Martin Folkes, Esq.; afterwards Bart,
27
March 5
April 2
May 13, 1790
Expelled Nov.
15, 1787
Philip Van Swinden, Jun, M. A.
2
May
14, 1772
Thomas Pownall, Esq.
9
7.
April 27, 1794
William Jones, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
30
14.
Francis Milman, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
and Bart.
M. D.
May
7
Dec.
5,1776
Richard Warburton Lytton, Esq.
May
9, 1742
Wm. Philip Perrin, Esq.
8888
28
June
4, 1772
28
25
Mr. Tesser Samuel Kuckhan
June 4
Marcus Antonius Leopoldus Caldanus, Prof.
Physie in the University of Padua
April 17, 1748
Isaac Gossett, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
Charles Blagden, M. D.; afterwards Kt.
18
25
25
Nov. 12
1803
Edward Poore, Esq.
•
D
June
Aug.
12, 1795
John Greg, Esq.
July 9
9
19
Feb.
10, 1795
1781
Kenneth, Earl of Scaforth
Nov. 12
Nov. 19, 1772
1801
Humphry Jackson, Esq.
19
26
Charles, Lord Viscount Mahon; afterwards
Aug. 3, 1753
Earl of Stanhope
afterwards?
19
Jan.
12, 1795
John Lauder, Esq.
Sept. 3, 1801
Hon. John Yorke
Dec. 24
Feb. 18,1773
Dec. 24, 1772
April 29, 1773
Dr. John Bethume
18
Jan. 31, 1788
July 15, 1751
1802
March 21, 1796 Wm. Benson Earle, Esq.
Ashton Lever, Esq.; since Sir A. Lever, Kt.
Thomas Butterworth Bayley, Esq.
18
May 1, 1777
18
March 4, 1773
Heneage, Lord Guernsey; afterwards
of Aylesford
Bari }
25
11
March 4
May 20
Patrick Brydone, Esq.
4
March 11
Wm. Falconer, M. D.
18
July
Jan. 29, 1751
Jan.
1750 March 9, 1781
9, 1776
John Ives, Esq.
25
April 22
Alexander Lord Polwarth
April 1
29
Jan. 31, 1799
Francis, Marquis of Carmarthen; afterwards
March 3, 1774
Duke of Leeds
May 30, 1751 June
July
12, 1799
Other, Earl of Plymouth
22
May 6, 1773
23, 1795
Peter Livius, Esq.
29
July
1
Richard Blyke, Esq.
29
May
13
Mr. Wm. Henly, Linen Draper
May 20
June 10
Edward Bancroft, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
20
10
June
3, 1781 Thomas Dummer, Esq.
27
March 24, 177A
APPENDIX. No. IV.
Iv
Feb, 21, 1744
Feb.
BORN.
DIED,
Nov. 1807
Jan. 15, 1795
Sept. 18, 1750
Jan. 1730 April 15, 1791
1710 July
6, 1785
Oct. 25, 1787
Never admitted
ELECTED,
John Smith, Esq.; afterwards Sir J. Smith, Bart. May 27, 1773
Sir Lucius O'Brien, Bart.
Thomas Frankland, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
Alexander Garden, M. D.
Mr. Jacob de Stehelin, Secretary to the
Imperial Acad. of Sciences at St. Pe-
tersburg
Mr. Jean Baptiste Le Roy, Parisiensis
Mr. Jean Audre de Luc, Genevensis
Jacob Preston, Esq.
Sir Watkin Wm. Wynue, Bart.
John Coakley Lettsom, M. D.
Jeremiah Dixon, Esq.
Jan. 12, 1781 John Lind, Esq.
Charles Burney, Mus. D.
Mr. Joseph Planta
5, 1807 General Pasquale de Paoli
John Mervin Nooth, M. D.
Foreigners.
ADMITTED.
June 10, 1773
June 23, 1774
27
June 10
Jan.
27
10
May
15, 1783
10
10
10
17
Jan. 27, 1774
17
Nov. 18
Nov. 25, 1773
18
Jan.
9.1777
25
Dec.
9.1773
Dec. 16
23
Feb. 17, 1774
Feb. 24, 1774
March 3
March 17
3
24
Oct.
Aug.
1735 Jan.
Nov. 4, 1722 |Feb.
30, 1784
Michael Teighe, M. D.
10
3, 1800
Sir Wm. Musgrave, Bart.
17
17
April 14
1790
Mr. John Hyacinth de Magalhaens or Magellan
Arthur Young, Esq.
April 21
21
28
28
March 14, 1808
Philip Duval, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
May 12
Feb.
9. 1775
>
May 11, 1789
Richard Michell, Esq.
12
May
19, 1774
March 16, 1799
Win. Gould, M. A.; afterwards D. D.
19
June
16
Withdrawn 1796
Mr. Murdoch Mackenzie, Sen.
John Ellis, Esq.
19
9
19
9
1802
Granado Pigott, Esq.
June
2
•
Jan. 11, 1778
July
5, 1720 Sept. 22, 1798
July 1809
July 24, 1791
Mr. Pierre Poissonuier, M. D. of Paris
Mr. Anthony Geo. Eckhardt, at Hague
Le Chevalier Ignace de Born
2
June
2
June
9, 1774
2
Feb. 22, 1789
Feb.
5, 1804
James Walker, M. B.
Patrick Geo. Crafurd, Esq.
Withdrawn 1794 Richard Twiss, Esq.
Mr. Charles Hutton; afterwards LL, D.
Withdrawn1797 Francis Duroure, Esq.
Withdrawn 1800 John Bagnall, Esq.
9
Nov. 10
9
10
9
June 16
16
Nov. 10
Nov. 10
17
1790 Robert Salusbury Cotton, Esq.
24
Dec. 8
Dec.
Jan. 11.1750
27
John Willett Adye, Esq.
John Lloyd, Esq.
8
·
15
00:30 10
8
March 16, 1775
Aug. 23, 1751
Oct. 12, 1723
Aug.
Sept.
April 22, 1797
11, 1804
Sir Geo. Shuckburgh, Bart,
22
Jan. 12
May 11
Dec.
5, 1776
1809
Alexander Hunter, M. D.
Feb.
2,1775
1809
Robt. Melville, Esq.; afterwards General
Jeremiah Milles, Esq.
16
23
Feb.
23, 1775
March 9
June 21, 1733 Oct.
8, 1785 Sir John Cullum, Bart.
Withdrawn 1795|Richard Gough, Esq.
March 2
30
•
9
June 29
Sept. 15, 1789
Sir Robt. Barker, Kt.; afterwards Bart.
Maxwell Garthshore, M. D.
16
March 23
23
30
March 13, 1805
Sir Walter Rawlinson, Kt.
30
May 4
Dec. 16, 1783
Dec. 21, 1799
Wm. James, Esq.; since Sir Wm. James, Bart.
James Napier, Esq.; since Sir J. Napier, Kt.
Mr. Wm. Hey, Surgeon of Leeds
SO
4
30
April 6
30
June 18, 1778
Lewis Duteus, M. A.
April 27
April 17, 1777
May
1791Wm. Constable, Esq.
May +
May 11
June 27, 1740
Mr. Thomas Henry, Apothecary at Manchester
SMr. John Latham, Surgeon, of Dartford ;
afterwards M. D.
18
;
25
July 6
March 27, 1786
Sir Abraham Hume, Bart.
April
1794 James Bruce, Esq.
Sept. 23,1743
Dec. 12, 1787
June 13, 1724 Nov. 19, 1803
Aug. 22, 1794
Jan. 6, 1800
March 7, 1801
1787
Mr. Robt, Sterling, Surgeon, of Colchester
Mr. George Lewis Le Sage, of Geneva
Chev. Achille Pierre Dionis Du Sejour
Wm. Jones, A. B; afterwards A. M.
John Call, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
John Pitt, Esq. ..
Mr. John' Obadiah Justamond, Surgeou
George Finch Hatton, Esq.
June
June 15
1
•
1
1
22
Jan.
9, 1777
Nov.
9
Jan.
25, 1776
9
Dec.
7, 1775
Dec. 14
Jan.
11, 1776
7
Feb. 29
•
·
14
March 14
Jan.
11, 1776
14
1802 George Fordyce, M. D.
Oct. 27, 1728 Feb.
Sept. 28, 1744
Mr. Charles Coombe, Apothecary; after-
wards M. D.
John Elliot, Esq.; afterwards Admiral
Robert Ker, Esq.
14, 1779 James Cook, Esq. Captain in the Royal Navy
Hou. Charles Marshama afterwards Lord March 14
Romney, afterwards Earl
11
Jan. 18
18
Jan.
9, 1777
25
April 25, 1776-
Feb. 15
Feb. 22
29.
March 7
28
Ivi
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED.
ELECTED.
ADMITTON.
Samuel Prime, Esq.
March 21, 1776 March 28, 1776
June 23, 1716 Jan.
1, 1789 {
wards Lord Grantley
Rt. Hon. Sir Fletcher Norton, KL.; after- April 18
March
8, 1796
|Sir Wm. Chambers, Kt. of the Polar Star
Wm. Cooper, D. D.
25
25
May
Nov.
2
7
May
6, 1786
John Taylor, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
May 9
June 20
Sept. 26, 1752
Owen Putland Meyrick, Esq.
9
Feb.
6, 1777
.
John Alleyne, Esq.
16
May 23, 1776
Sir John Chetwode, Bart.
16
23
John Stewart, Esq.
28
Nov. 21
April 30, 1783
George Stinton, D. D.
23
June 6
July
3, 1787
Wm. Calderwood, Esq.
June 6
13
Feb. 19, 1742
Prince Abondio Rezzonico, of Rome
Nov.
9, 1736
1805
M. Jean Baptiste Gasper Dausse de Villoe
son, of Paris
Villoe-}
6
Don Pedro Davila, Madrid
6
1807
George Atwood, M. A.
13
Nov. 13, 1776
Nov.
Aug.
Dec.
8, 1781
Thomas Crofts, M. A.
13
20
1806
Mr. Edw. Nairne, Mathamat. Instrument-maker
20
27
6, 1785
Samuel Hemming, M. A.
20
27
Dec.
4, 1739 April 19, 1802
Dec.
Henry, Viscount Palmerston
Nov.
7
Nov. །
29, 1798
Mr. Wm. Wales
7
14
Nov. 10, 1755
Philip, Earl of Chesterfield
Dec.
19
Feb. 6,1777
Oct.
2, 17
IT'
Nov. 28, 1754
Aug.
Jan.
7, 1787
Wm. Russell, Esq.
Jan.
9.1777 Jan, 16
11, 1794
Sept.
Aug. 26, 1738 Dec.
1791
Mr. George Forster; afterwards M. D.
Sir Herbert Mackworth, Bart.
9
Feb. 6
9
March 6
22, 1789
1802
April 26, 1794
George Nassau Clavering, Earl Cowper
Richard, Lord Grosvenor; afterwards Earl
Wm. Brown, Esq.
Feb. 13
13
6
20
Feb. 27
1798
Molyneux, Lord Shuldham
March 13
Dec. 11
July
Jan. 26, 1724 Dec.
28, 1787
Edward Bridgen, Esq.
13
April 10
15, 1784
Nath. Matthew Wolf, M. D. of Dantzig
M.
John Osborn, Esq.
April 10
17
24
Mar 29
April 9,1744}
Robert Shuttleworth, Esq.
24
8ܢ May
Anthony Hamilton, D. D.
May
1
15
Gustavus Adam Baron Nolcken, Envoy
from the King of Sweden
8
June 19
Feb.
March 13, 1749
March 16, 1749
Feb. 6, 1726 July
May 17, 1736
Aug.
1790 Wm. Cullen, M. D. Prof. Physic at Edinburgh
Charles Anderson Pelham, Esq.; afterwards
Lord Yarborough
Jan. 2, 1301
March 27, 1793
July 11, 1719 Nov. 11, 1797
Feb. 12, 1797
Edw. Ld. Amiens; afterwards El. of Aldborough
John Peachey, Esq.; afterwards Lord Selsey
Mr. John Mudge, Surgeon, of Plymouth
Cassimer Gomez Ortega, M. D. of Madrid
Mr. Joseph Toaldo, Prof. Ast, at Padua
Thomas White, Esq.
George Samuel Wegg, Esq.
2, 1805 Patrick Russell, M.D.
James Lind, M. D.
Hon. Archibald Campbell Frazer
1, 1784 Matthew Dobson, M. D. of Liverpool
Mr. John Wyatt, Surgeon ..
Henry Chas. Englefield, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
Henry Partridge, Esq.
S Hon. Robt. Boyle Walsingham; afterwards
Walsingham; afterwards}
March 1736
1780
2
Lord Walsingham
Thomas de Grey, Jun. Esq.
March 18, 1740
2, 1796
May
March 2, 1749 April 10, 1803
Wm. Wright, M. D.
James Watson, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Rev. Chas. Peter Layard, M. A. after-
wards D. D. and Dean of Bristol
Wade Toby Caulfield, Esq.
8
8
Dec. 18
29
June 12
29
12
29
June 5
5
19
Nov.
6
Nov. 13
20
27
Dec. 18
Dec.
Jan.
8, 1778
Jan.
8, 1778
15
Feb. 12
12
Feb. 19
12
19
19
26
March 5
Feb. 10, 1780
12
12
52 2
Nov. 19, 1778
Feb.
3, 1780
March 19, 1778
26
May
7
April 2
April 9
Oct.
May
17, 1782
Joseph Nash, Esq.
2
30
•
1780
Thomas Cave, Esq.; afterwards Bart,
Benjamin Heath, M. A.
9
May 21
30
21
Nov. 11, 1792
Robt. Banks Hodgkinson, Esq.
30
21
Oct. 20, 1800
Wm. Augustus Howard, M. D.
March 9, 1780
Joseph Else, Esq. Surgeon
May 14
14
21
21
Lancelot Shadwell, Esq.
June 4
Nov. 5
1805
Sir Rich. Worsley, Bart.; afterwards Rt. Hon.
Alexander Hay, M. D.
18
26
18
June 25
May 18, 1807
John Douglas, D. D. ; afterwards Ld. Bp.
of Carlisle, afterwards of Salisbury
25
Nov. 19
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lvii
BORN.
DIED.
1789
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
Rev. Win. Preston, M. A.; afterwards Ld."
Bishop of Killala, afterwards of Leighlin June 25, 1778 July
and Ferns
Withdrawn1804 Rev. John Lockman, D. D.
Anthony Fothergill, M. D. of Northampton
John Alstroemer, Esq.
•
Hon. Thomas Francis Wenman, Brother to
Viscount Wenman
Henry Dawkins, Esq.
Oct.
4, 1786
Nov. 18, 1745 April
8, 1796
Aug. 29, 1751
March 21, 1748
April 24, 1799
Dec. 27, 1806
May
Sept. 27,1781
4, 1780
John Joshua Lord Carysfort; afterwards Earl
Wm. Seward, Esq.
Edward Whitaker Gray, M. D.
Rev. Michael Tyson, B. D.
John Jebb, M. D.
Rev. Robt. Richardson, D. D.
Never admitted. Samuel Farr, M. D.
Expelled
•
Mr. Thomas Vage; afterwards M. D,
April 7, 1791} Henry Dagge, Esq.
:
9, 1778
25
Nov. 5
12
Nov. 19
May 13, 1779
Nov. 12, 1778
Dec. 21
·
Jan. 21, 1779
March 18, 1779
Feb.
Feb.
11
4
18
11
March 4
11
4
18
Feb. 25
•
25
March 11
•
25
25
4
March 11
April 15
Lieut. James Glenie
18
March 24, 1786
Jan.
6, 1752 Aug. 19, 1803
Jan.
Robt. Bromfield, M. D.
John Topham, Esq.
April 15
Jan. 18, 1781
April 22, 1779
15
May
13
1,1805
George Buxton, M. D.
2+2
6
(Benjamin Thompson, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
and Count of Rumford of the Holy Roman
Empire
22
Feb.
1, 1807
Sir Ralph Payne, K. B.; afterwards Lord
Lavington
29
April 29
James Carmichael Smyth, M. D.
May
6
May
13
J
press of Russia
Mr. Joseph Poli
John Rogerson, M. D. Physician to the Em
Cm-}
6
13
6
April 11, 1799
March 31, 1714
Feb. 14, 1728
March 28, 1725
Feb.
Oct.
Oct.
Feb. 13, 1808
18, 1788
Withdrawn1808
Mr. John Whitehurst
13
May 13, 1779
1, 1780
Major-Gen. Chas. Rainsford; afterwards Gen.
Josias Dupré, Esq.
13
June 3
June
3
10
·
8, 1795
Andrew Kippis, D. D.
17
24
Wm. Fullarton, Esq.
17
Dec. 16
March 19, 1794
Hon. James Murray
24
16
March 6, 1743
1728
Samuel Foart Simmons, M. D.
Nov.
4
Nov. 11
April
1803
1803
John Henniker, Esq.; afterwards Bart, and
last Lord
11
18
John Grant, Esq.
11
Dec.
16
•
John Jennings, Esq.
18
23
John Wilmot, Esq.
18
16
a
March 30, 1749 Dec.
Jan.
21, 1809
Mr. Tiberius Cavallo
Dec.
9
Jan. 27, 1780
22, 1790
Hugh Hamersley, Esq.
16
Feb.
17
Mr. Bernardo de Beluga
Jan. 20, 1780
Nov. 25, 1743
Aug. 25, 1805
Feb. 24, 1736
Jan.
May
1745
Aug.
1, 1735
Withdrawn 1781|Hon. Edw. Onslow, son of Lord Onslow
Wm. Henry, Duke of Gloucester
5, 1806 Christian Frederick Charles Alexander Mar-
grave of Anspach and Bayreuth
John, Earl of Upper Ossory
Richard Kirwin, Esq.
March 1, 1780 Lieut.-Gen. Thomas Desaguliers
27
3
Feb. 10
10
10
17
April 2, 1789
24
24
John Silvester, Esq.
March 2
Sept. 4, 1797
Robt. Marsham, Sen. Esq.
9
July
2, 1801
Robt. Edw. Lord Petre
April 6
March 2, 1780
Died before
admissiou.
March 2
May 31, 1781
March 8
Sept.
1, 1758
George John Viscount Althorpe; afterwards
6
April 20, 1780
Earl Spencer
1796
Mr. Chas, de Casaux, of Grenada
13
April 6, 1786
Mr. Pierre Moultou, of Geneva
27
Feb. 28, 1801
Lieut.-Colonel John Duroure
May 25
May
June I
4, 1780
John Ord, Esq.
June
1
15
July 29, 1756
Joseph Lewis de Podmaniczky, Seigneur
d'Aszod Foldrár
8
Isaac Milner, M. A.; afterwards D. D, and
Dean of Carlisle
15
Dec. 14
June 30, 1755
John, Duke of Athol
Nov.
9
Feb.
8, 1781
Lucas Pepys, M. D., Physician Extraordi-
nary to his Majesty; afterwards Bart.
Nov. 16, 1780
June, 1713
Mr. Philip Hurlock, Surgeon
16
23
Henry Penton, Esq.
16
Dec. 14
Paul Prince Daschkaw, of the Russian Empire
John Haygarth, M. B. of Chester
Feb.
8, 1781
May 10, 1798
h
lviii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
April 18, 1753
DIED.
George Young, Esq. Captain in the Royal
Navy; afterwards Kt.
John Lee, M. D. of Bath
(George, Lord De Ferrars; afterwards Earl
of Leicester
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Feb. 15, 1781 March 8, 1781
15
15
Feb. 7, 1782
March 15, 1781
May 22, 1751
1784
James King, Esq. Capt, in the Royal Navy,
March 1
8
LL. D.
Aug.
17, 1782
Nov. 22
Dec. 2, 1735 Feb.
Dec. 7,1742}
Thomas Pattinson Yeats, Esq.
8
21, 1783
The Rev. John Lightfoot, A. M.
James Rennell, Esq.
88
22
22
29
15
May
22, 1790
Thomas Davies, Esq. Capt. in the Royal Ar
tillery; afterwards Col. Lieut.-Maj. Gen. S
Wm. Franks, Esq.
8
22
8
22
Oct. 30, 1805
Mr. Rich. Brown Cheston, Surgeon, Gloucester
Welbore Ellis Agar, Esq.
15
April 5
22
5
April 13, 1788
Dec. 12, 1789
Oct.
3, 1755
Jan.
2, 1728
Peter Calvert, LL. D.
Anthony de Weselinch oven, Esq. of Brussels
George, Viscount Lewisham; afterwards Earl} May
of Dartmouth
Lewis Charles Maria, Count of Barbiano
and Belgisioso of the Holy Roman Empire,
Envoy and Minster Plenipotentiary from
the Emperor
29
5
April 5
GO
3
June 14
to
May 10
30
May 19, 1738 May 14, 1782
Richard Parry Price, Esq.
3
10
Thomas Bowdler, M. D.
10
24
Jan.
July 31, 1783
3, 1809
Richard Shepherd, B. D.; afterwards D. D.
James Price, A. M.; afterwards M. D.
Henry Fly, A. M.; afterwards D. D.
Wm. Vyse, LL. D.
10
31
10
17
10
17
Henry Revell Reynolds, M. D.
June 30, 1782
Thomas Blackburne, M. D.
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq.
::::
17
31
17
24
June 14
July 5
Feb. 28, 1782
March 12, 1763
Sept. 1, 1739
Patrick Dugud Leslie, M. D. of Durham
Joseph Windham, Esq.
Nov. 8
April 25
8
Nov. 15, 1781
Rev. Francis Henry Egerton
8
Jan. 24, 1782
Nov.
1738
1803 Paul Jodrell, Esq.; afterwards M. D. and Kt.
Mr. Wm. Herschell; afterwards LL. D.
Theodore Forbes Leith, M. D.
15
10
Dec.
6
May 30
20
Jan. 24
Sept. 11, 1757 April 20, 1802
Hon. Geo. Augustus North; afterwards Ld. Jan.
Rev. Wm. Coxe, M. A.
17, 1782
March 7
North and Earl of Guilford
Feb.
14
Feb. 21
Jan. 19, 1761
1807
Peter Maria Augustus Broussonet, M. D. of
Montpelier; afterwards Prof. Bot. at
Montpelier, and Member of the Institute(
14
21
Institute
March
May
1728 Feb.
17, 1795
of France
Heury Beaufoy, Esq.
21
1, 1808
Sir Jas. Peachey, Bart.; afterwards Ld. Selsey
Roger Wilbraham, Esq.
28
28
March 14
28
21
Aug.
1730
1803
Nov. 30, 1735
1788
Aug. 10, 1793
April 17, 1809
Aug.
Feb. 14, 1798
7, 1807
Jan.
Aug.
1, 1792
duah;
Nov. 16, 1754
Sept. 24, 1742
1805
3, 1795
Frederick, Earl of Bristol, Lord Bp. of Derry
Samuel Greigg, Esq. Vice Adm. in the Rus-
sian Navy, Kt. of the Orders of Alex.
Nevsky, St. George, and St. Ann
David Pitcairn, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
Matthew Guthrie, M. D. Physician to the
Imperial Land Cadett Corps of Nobles at
St. Petersburg
John Gunning, Esq. Surgeon Extraordinary
to his Majesty
Barnard Christian Anker, Esq. of Christiana
Henry Penruddocke Wyndham, Esq.
Mr. Josiah Wedgewood, Potter to her Majesty
Thomas Hollingbery, D. D. Archdeacon
D.D. of
Chichester
Wm. Marsden, Esq.
•
Matthew Raper, Esq.
Oct. 18, 1793 John Wilson, Esq.; afterwards Kt. and one
1of the Justices of the Court of Com. Pleas
John Law, Lord Bp. of Clonfert and Kilmac-
afterwards of Killala, since of Elphin
John, Lord Sheffield
Dec. 25, 1807 Brownlow, Lord Brownlow
28
14
March 14
Joseph Hurlock, Esq.
14
April 11
Daniel Braithwaite, Esq.
14
11
April 11
18
11
June
6
25
May
2
Nov. 17
May
8, 1783
Jan.
9, 1783
8
16
Feb. 13
*}
23
18
23
6
March 6
March 13
13
May
1
20
March 27
April 3
May
1
May 8
15
Gideon Fournier, Esq.
15
22
APPENDIX. No. IV,
lix
BORN.
Jane
DIED.
8, 1806
Jan.
8, 1795
Aug. 29, 1810
Jan. 18, 1744
Thomas Barnard, Lord Bp. of Killaloe and May
Kilfenora; afterwards of Limerick
Francis d'Aquino, Prince of Caramanico,
Kt. of the Orders of St. Januarios and
Malta, Envoy Ext. and Minister Plenip.
from the King of the Two Sicilies
Christopher Wm. de Dreyer, Kt of the Order
of Dannebrog, Envoy Extraordinary from
the King of Denmark
The Rev. Wm. Tooke, Minister of the En-
glish Church at St. Petersburg
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
5, 1783
29, 1783 June
June 5
เด
19
19
5
Feb. 26, 1784
เว
Capt. Thomas Hyde Page, one of his Ma-July 10
July 10, 1783
Feb. 19, 1784 Feb. 19, 1784
jesty's Engineers; afterwards Kt.
John, Earl of Breadalbane
Oct.
1805
George Lord Kinnaird
19
·
1786
The Rev. Thomas Gresley, D. D.
April 29
July
6, 1754 Oct.
8, 1808
Mr. John Sheldon, Surgeon, Prof. Anat, to
the Royal Academy
to
29
28
26
May 6
6
James, Farl of Salisbury; afterwards Marquis May 13
13
Rt. Hon. Sir George Yonge, Bart.
13
13
2
Busick Harwood, M. B.; afterwards Prof. Į
Anat, in the University of Cambridge
27
Nov.
11
Feb.
4, 1795
George, Viscount Mount Edgecumbe; after-June 10
June 17
wards Earl
Henry Hugh Hoare, Esq.
17
Nov. 25
Marchese Lewis Malaspina de Sanuazaro,
24
of Milan
John Sinclair, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
24
Nov. 18
Feb.
4, 1810 Caleb Whitefoord, Esq.
Alex. Duke of Gordon
24
July }
24
Feb. 10, 1783
Dec. 10, 1724 Feb.
16, 1799
Charles Theodor, Elector Palatine, Duke of Aug. 12
Bavaria
Nov.
14, 1807
Thomas Potter, Esq.
Dec. 16
Dec. 23, 1784
Gilbert Blane, M. D.
23
Jan.
13, 1785
Smithson Tennant, Esq.
Sept. 3, 1793 John, Earl of Buckinghamshire
George, Earl of Morton
Jan. 13, 1785
Feb. 3
Feb. 10
17
Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury
3
24
10
March 3
Rev. George Pretymau, D. D.; afterwards
Lord Bishop of Lincoln
afterwards?
Aaron Graham, Esq.
March 17
17
April 7
Robert Hallifax, M. D.
April 21
7
25
May
9, 1790 The Rev. Charles Godfrey Woide, M. A.
21
28
•
1793 Lieut. Col. Robt. Pringle
28
May 12
March
1790 Stayner Holford, Esq.
May 12
June 2
Dec. 2, 1759
James Edward Smith, Esq.; afterwards M. D.
1789 Rev. Osmund Beauvoir, D. D.
26
May 26
June
9
Nov. 10
Jan.
8, 1802
Robert Udny, Esq.
16
10
Richard Neave, Esq. Governor of the Bank
16
10
of England; afterwards Bart.
May
8, 1790
The Rev. Henry Usher, D. D. Prof. Ast, in
Dublin College
Nov. 24
James Watt, Esq.
24
Jan. 12, 1786
1741 Oct.
6, 1799
Wm. Withering, Â1. D.
24
Sept. 14, 1728 Aug. 17, 1809
Samuel Galton, Jun. Esq.
John Henniker, Major, Esq.; afterwards
Lord Henniker
Matthew Boulton, Esq.
24
March 9
Dec. 8
Jan.
12
James Keir, Esq.
8
Jan. 26, 1791
15
Dec. 22, 1785
Oct.
6, 1730 Nov.
Jan.
April 5, 1799
July
Jan. 29, 1809
5, 1800
1806
Rev. Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, M. A.
Rich. Joseph Sulivan, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
John Hunter, M. D.
15
22
Dec. 22
Jan.
19, 1786
Jan.
12, 1786
19
Mr. Jesse Ramsden, Matham. Instrument-maker
Charles George Lord Arden
12
19
19
26
1, 1809
James Bucknall Viscount Grimston
Feb. 2
Feb. 16
Alex. Thomsou, Esq. Accomptant General
and Master in Chancery; afterwards Kt.
and Baron of the Exchequer
The Rev. Thomas Parkinson, M. A.
9
23
23
March 16
March 9, 1801 John Holliday, Esq.
1740
Rev. Henry Whitfield, D.
D.
March 9
16
9
SO
Rev. John Barlow Seale, M. A.
Withdrawn 1790 Wm. Thomson, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
Rt. Hon. Wm. Eden; afterwards Ld. Auckland
April 20, 1786 John Goodricke, Esq.
9
23
16
April 3, 1788
23
Died before
April 6
admission.
h 2
lx
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED.
ELECTED.
Not admitted.
Col, Charles Vallancey
May
4, 1786
Sept. 29, 1799
Richard Molesworth, Esq.
4
ADMITTED.
May 11, 1786
Philip d'Auvergne, Esq. Capt. in the Royal)
Navy, afterwards Prince successor of
Bouillon
=
11
18
July 29, 1795
June
Adair Crawford, M. D.
11
18
3, 1800
Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart.
18
June 22
Wm. Finch Palmer, Esq.
18
1
•
Sept 23, 1735
Rev. Tho-, Martin, B. D. Prof. Bot. Camb.
18
15
Rev. John Hewett, M. A.
25
May 25
George, Duke of Marlborough
25
Jane 15
Rev. Abram Rees, D. D. ..
June 1
15
Edmund Turner, Esq.
15
99
Withdrawn1800
Dec
Wm. Young, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
Rev. Samuel Vince, M. A.
SForbes M'Bean, Esq. Col. in the Royal
Regt. of Artillery; afterwards Lieut.-Gen. S
Rev. John Oldershaw, M. A.
.
Rev. Francis John Hyde Wollaston, M. A.
Rev. Wm. Rose, M. A.
4, 1792 Sir Wm. Fordyce, Kt.
Arthur Piggott, Esq.; afterwards Kt.
Wm. Morton Pitt, Esq.
·
Jan. 11, 1787 Jan. 25, 1787
15
22
22
29
Nov.
Nov.
9
Nov.
23
16
Dec.
21
23
14
23
7
18
25
25
Feb. 22
May 6, 1756
June 14, 1800
Jan.
Henry, Lord Middleton
Mr. Everard Home, Surgeon
4, 1801
May
2, 1762
21
1
Feb. 15
22
Sir George Leonard Staunton, Bart.
Hon. Thomas Erskine; afterwards Lord
Rich. Authony Salisbury, Esq.
Jan. 24, 1809 James, Earl of Fife
Louis Pinto de Sousa Cautinho, Kt. of the
Orders of Christ. and Malta, Envoy Ext.
and Minister Plenip. from the Queen of
Portugal
15
22
22
Jan. 10, 1788
March 15
April 19, 1787
29
March 29
April 19
May 17
Sir Thomas Gerry Callum, Bart.
19
April 26
James Louis Macie, Esq.; afterwards J. Smithson
Francis Ld. Rowden; afterwards Earl of Moira May
Craven Ord, Esq.
19
26
3
May 17
3
10
Dec. 23, 1753
Jan. 22, 1803 John Crisp, Esq.
Aug. 25, 1742
Feb.
7, 1796
1744
Jan. 30, 1745 April 21, 1804
Withdrawn1797
1708
Feb. 16, 1727
Jan.
Baron Nicolas Vay de Vaja, of Hungary
Wm. Parsons, Esq.
3, 1805{Alexander, Lord Loughborough ; afterwards
Orl
8, 1730 Feb. 18,1799
of Rosslyn
Thos. Boothby Parkyns, Esq.; afterwards
Lord Rancliffe
George Trenchard Goodenough, Esq.
Rev. Richard Relham, M. A.
Robt. Waring Darwin, M. D.
Hugh, Duke of Northumberland
John Sibthorp, M. D. Prof. Botany, Oxford
George Hardinge, Esq.
M.D.
(Florens Laurentius Fridericus Crell, M. D.
Prof. Medicine in the University of
Helmstadt
Jean Rodolphe Perronet, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
Kt, of the Order of St. Michael
Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
Member of the Academy at Paris
Anton. Maria Lorgoa, Coll. of Engineers
in the Venetian Service, and Kt. of the
Orders of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus
Thos. Bugge, Prof. Ast. in the University
of Copenhagen
Nicholas Joseph de Jacquin, M. D. Prof.
Chemistry and Botany in the Universi-
ty of Vienna
John Hedwig, M. D. of Leipzig
Eugenius Bulgarius, Archbp, of Cherson
Theodore Augustine Mann, Secretary of
the Imperial and Royal Academy of
Brussels
Mr. Wm. Blizard, Surgeon; afterwards Kt.
Win. Bentinck, Esq. Capt. in the Royal Navy
Ernestus, Duke of Saxe Gotha and Attenburg
John Ash, M. D.
3
10
17
24
June 14
Nov. 8
Nov. 15
22
Dec. 6
22
6
Dec. 6
13
6
13
6
20
6
13
Jan. 17, 1788 Jan. 24, 1788
Feb. 21
April 3
March 6
3
6
3
April 3
May
}
On the Foreign List.
April 3
Dec.
6, 1792
3
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lxi
BORN.
Aug. 7, 1726 Nov.
Nov. 11, 1743
Jan. 21, 1799
Aug. 26, 1745 May
8, 1791
DIED.
6, 1790
James Bowdoin, Esq. President of the
American Acad. of Arts and Sciences
Charles Peter Thumberg, M. D. Prof. Me-
dicine and Botany, in the University of
Upsala, and Kt, of the Order of Wasa
Horace Benedict de Saussure, Member of
the Great Council of Geneva
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, Member of
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris
On the Foreign List.
April 3, 1788 Dec.
6, 1792
July
21, 1798
James Adair, Esq.
10
June
8, 1788
1797
Robt. Augustus Johnson, Esq.
17
May
1
Reginald Pole Carew, Esq.
24
22
Rev. Wm. Pearce, D. D. Master of the Temple May
1
8
Richard Brooke Supple, Esq.; afterwards
1
8
Sir R. Brooke de Capell Brooke, Bart.
Martin Wall, M. D. Clinical Prof. Oxford
8
June 5
1802
Philip Rasleigh, Esq.
•
Lieut. John Finlay, of the Corps of Royal
Engineers
29
Dec. 18
June
5
Nov. 20
George, Earl of Glasgow
5
June 12
Charles Wilkins, Esq.
12
12
March 19, 1804
Rt. Hon. Sir Richard Pepper Arden, Kt.
Master of the Rolls; afterwards Lord Al-
vanley, and Chief Justice in Com. Pleas
Jan. 16, 1794 Edward Gibbon, Esq.
Nov. 13
Nov. 20
27
Aug. 12, 1762
Aug. 16, 1763
Nov.
George, Prince of Wales
Frederick, Duke of York
Jan. 26, 1789
26
7, 1745 Sept 18, 1790 Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland
26
John Gillies, LL. D.
29
Feb.
5, 1789
Mr. Edward Jenner, Surgeon, at Glonces-
ter; afterwards M. D.
Glouces-
Feb. 26
May
7
George Shaw, M. D.
26
March 5
Richard, Viscount Fitzwilliam
March 5
19
1799
Rev. Abraham Bennet
19
May 28
1809
S Rev. Jonathan Davies, D. D. Master of Eton
College
April 2
Dec. 17
Sept. 2, 1725 May 27, 1795
Ewall Frederic Count de Hertsberg, Mi-)
March 23, 1749
June 30, 1748
1804
Sept. 6, 1732 April 18, 1796
1747
1729
Sept. 27, 1719 June 20, 1800
Feb. 27, 1717 Aug. 22, 1791
nister of State to the King of Prussia,
and Member of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin
Claude Louis Berthollet, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris
Pierre Simon de la Place, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris
Jean Dominique Compte de Cassini, Di-
rector of the Royal Observatory, and
Member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, Paris
Adrien Marie Le Gendre, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris
Pierre Francois André Méchain, Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, Astronome Hydrogrophe de la
Marine
John Charles Wilcke, Secretary to the
Royal Acad. of Sciences at Stockholm
John Elert Bode, Astronomer and Mem-
ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Berlin
Christian Gottlieb Heyne, Prof. in the
University, and Secretary of the Royal
Society of Gottingen
Abraham Gotthelf Kestner, Prof. Math.
in the University of Gottingen
John David Michaeles, Prof. in the Uni-
versity of Gottingen, Kt, of the Order
of the Polar Star
The Rev. Samuel Goodenough, LL.D.; af-
terwards Dean of Rochester, since Bishop
of Carlisle
On the Foreign List.
April 30
May 14
May 21, 1789
Samson, Lord Eardley
Nov. 5
Dec.
(Col. Robt. Morse, of the Royal Corps of
12
24
17
George Rogers, Esq. Commissioner of the Navy
Robert Wood, Esq.
19
Nov. 19
19
Dec. 24
lxii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
DIED.
Feb, 23, 1753 Sept. 7, 1801
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Arthur, Earl of Hilsborough, afterwards Jan. 22, 1790 Feb. 11, 1790
Marquis of Downshire
The Rev. Richard Fisher, M. A.; afterwards} Feb.
Feb. 11
Belward
1803
Mark Beaufoy, Esq.
John Reeves, Esq.
Sir Wm. Green, Bart. Major General and April 29
Chief Royal Engineer of Great Britain
11
18
25
March 18
March 25
June
3
John Thomas Stanley, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
20
May 13
Wm. Elford, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
29
13
Charles Warren, Esq.
29
6
Wm. Morgan, Esq.
May 6
13
Frederick Augustus Barnard, Esq.
13
June 3
Matthew Baillie, M. D.
June 3
10
Joseph Jekyll, Esq.
3
17
Hon. George Keith Elphinstone, Capt. in the
24
Nov. 4
Royal Navy; afterwards Lord Keith
Philip Metcalfe, Esq.
Nov. 4
Dec. 16
James Robertson, M. D.; afterwards Ro
Ros
11
Nov. 18
bertsou Barclay
Philip, Earl of Hardwicke
25
March 31, 1791
The Rev. Richard Farmer, D. D. Canon Re-
Sept.
8, 1797
sidentiary of St. Paul's, and Master of Feb. 17, 1791 Feb. 24
Emanuel College, Cambridge
Wm. Heberden, Jun. Esq.; afterwards M. D.
24
March 3
Oct.
1, 1737 Jan.
3, 1805 Charles Townley, Esq.
March 10
24
George Pocock, Esq.
10
17
Lewis Alexander Grant, Esq.
George Best, Esq.
10
April 7
17
March 24
July
14, 1804
Col. Norman Macleod; afterwards Major-Gen.
John Spranger, Esq. Master in Chancery
24
31
24
May 5
Oct. 12, 1736
1794
Michael, Prince Poniatowsky, Archbishop
of Gnesen, and Primate of Poland
Cypriano Ribeiro Freire, Kt. of the Order of
St. Jago, Chargé d'Affaires of Portugal
Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq.
31
April 7
31
-7
31
May 5
1805
July
Jan. 29, 1802
6, 1799
May 20, 1804 Fowler Walker, Esq.
William Frazer, Esq.; afterwards Bart.
George Chalmers, Esq...
John Hawkins, Esq.
Abraham D'Aubant, Esq. Lieut.-Col. in the
Royal Corps of Engineers; afterwards
Lieut.-Gen.
Thomas Walker, Esq. Accomptant General
and Master in Chancery
31
Nov. 10
April 14
May 5
May 5
12.
5
19
5
Nov. 10
5
June 2
Sir James Eyre, Kt. Lord Chief Baron of
the Court of Exchequer
of}
5
Dec. 15
Louis de la Grange, Member of the Royal】
Academy of Sciences, Patis
Alessandro Volta, Prof. Nat. Philosophy
in the University of Pavia
Antonio Scarpa, Prof. Anat. in the Uni-
versity of Pavia
Marc Auguste Pictet, Prof. Nat. Philoso-
phy at Geneva
Jean Baptiste Joseph de Lambre, of Pa-
ris; afterwards Member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, Paris
Simon L'Huilier, Citizen of Geneva
On the Foreign List.
John Bruce, Esq. Prof. Philosophy in the
ther
University of Edinburgh
Richard Stanley, Esq.
George Pearson, M. D.
1795 The Rev. John Seally, LL, D.
Davies Giddy, Esq.
Sir Cecil Bisshopp, Bart.; afterwards Lord
Zouch
Joseph Huddart, Esq.
John Turnbull, Esq.
May
5
June 18, 1801
26
26
June
2, 1791
2
June 23
30
30
Nov. 17
Nov. 17
April 19, 1792
17
Nov. 24, 1791
17
24
17
24
Heury Norton Willis, Esq.
Dec. 15
Jan. 12, 1792
Aug. 25, 1793
James Six, Esq.
Jan. 19, 1792
Feb. 16
Charles Long, Esq.
Feb. 2
16
July 30, 1800
Rt. Hon. Frederick Montagu
16
March 8
July
1803
The Rev. Stephen Weston, B. D.
The Rev. Thomas Hussey, D. D.
March 1
8
8
15
.....
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lxiii
count and Earl
BORN.
DIED.
The Rev. Leonard Chappelow, M. A.
The Rev. James Stanier Clarke
Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart.
John Komarzewski, Lieut.-Gen, in the Po-
lish Army, Kt. of the Orders of St. Stanis-
laus, and St. Alexander Newski
March 31, 1806 George, Lord Macartney; afterwards Vis-
ELECTED.
Feb. 15, 1792
ADMITTED.
Feb. 22,1792
May 10
April 19
26
3
May 10
17
June 7
June 21
Wm. Bosville, Esq.
7
14
Samuel Davies, Esq. of Bhagalpur, in the
East Indies
28
Feb. 26, 1807
The Rev. Richard Dickson Shackleford, D. D.
28
June 28, 1792
Rev. Archibald Allison, B. LL. Preb, of Sarum Nov. 15
David Pennant, Esq.
15
Dec. 6
Jan.
1807
Samuel Solly, Esq.
28
6
Aug. 31, 1805
James Currie, M. D.
Dec.
20
May 2, 1793
Sir John Ingilby, Bart.
Feb.
7, 1793
March 7
(Sir John Scott, Kt. his Majesty's Attorney
General; afterwards Lord Eldon, and Ld.
High Chancellor
14
Oct. 14, 1757
June 1806
Andrew Douglas, Esq.
Dec.
1739 Dec. 20, 1807
July
1, 1744 Feb. 24, 1799
1752
Sir Wm. Scott, Kt. his Majesty's Advocate-Gen,
{Charles
Charles Abbot, Esq.; afterwards Rt. Hon.
and Speaker of the House of Commons
Richard Richards, Esq.
Francis Stephens, Esq. Commissioner of the
Victualling Office
Don Joseph Mendoza y Rios, Captain in the
Spanish Navy
Gottfried Charles Lichtenberg, Prof. of
Natural Philosophy in the University
of Gottingen
John Frederic Blumenback, M. D. Prof.
Med, in the University of Gottingen
Robert Stearne Tighe, Esq.
Wm. Saunders, M. D.
Wm. Hyde Wollaston, M. D. of Huntingdon
Mr. Samuel Bosanquet, Jun.
June 14, 1808
Sir John Day, Kt.
Sept. 22, 1794
John Far Abbot, Esq.
Rt. Hon. Lord Frederick Campbell
Wm. Charles Wells, M. D.
Richard Wilson Greatheed, Esq.
Aug. 18, 1797 Harvey, Viscount Mount Morres
George Gostling, Esq.
Rev. Thomas Watkins
Hon. Frederic North
On the For.
Sir John Mitford, Kt. his Majesty's Solici-
tor-Gen.; afterwards Ld. Reddesdale, and
Lord Chancellor of Ireland
List.
14
14
March 20, 1794
Feb. 21, 1793
14
28
March 7
7
Jan. 12, 1797
March 14
the April 11
May
2
11
18
May
2
May 9
16
9
March 6, 1794
June
6
June 13, 1793
6
Jan.
16, 1794
20
Nov. 7
Nov. 14, 1793
7
14
21
Dec.
12
March 6, 1794
Dec. 19, 1793
12
19
Jan. 23, 1794
Feb. 6
March 20, 1794
Feb. 13
March 6
April 3
S James Earle, Esq. Surgeon Ext. to his Ma-
jesty's Household; afterwards Kt.
Ma-}
6
March 20
Thomas Plumer, Esq.
6
April 10
Rt. Hon. Sir Wm. Wynne, Kt. Dean of the
6
March 20
Arches
1794
Rt. Hon. John Hely Hutshinson, Secretary
of State in Ireland
18
27
(Sir John Henslow, Kt. First Surveyor of the
Royal Navy
20
27
Mr. John Godfrey Schmeisser
20
27
SThos Keate, Esq. Surgeon to her Majesty and
27
to his R. H. the Prince of Wales
April 3
John Walker, Esq.
27
3
Hon. Robt. Fulk Greville
John Gottlieb Walter, M. D. Professor
of Anatomy, and Member of the Aca-
demy of Sciences, Berlin
July 16, 1800 Bryan Edwards, Esq.
On the :
April 3
10
F. List.
May 1
John Grieve, M. D.
Hon. Robt. Banks Jenkinson; afterwards
afterwards
22 2
June 26
5
19
Lord Hawkesbury
Mr. Thomas Young; afterwards M. D. ..
Francis Humberston Mackenzie, Esq.;
terwards Lord Seaforth
June 19
26
26
May 14, 1795
¡Dec.
1808 Peter Peirson, Esq.
July
3
Nov. 6, 1794
Ixiv
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
1802
BORN.
DIED.
March 28, 1807
Robert Aldersey, Esq.
Nathanael Hulme, M. D.
Lewis Majendie, Esq.
Matthew Martin, Esq.
Major Alexander Dirom
Jolin Symmons, Esq.
Wm. Sotheby, Esq.
John Blackburne, Esq.
ELECTED.
July
3, 1794 Jan.
ADMITTED.
8, 1795
3
July 10, 1794
3
Nov. 13
10
Not admitted,
10
10
Nov. 13
Nov. 13
May 21, 1795
20
•
Nov. 27, 1794
Lieut.-Col. Patrick Ross
Dec. 11
Dec. 18
Jacob, Earl of Radnor
Feb. 12, 1795
Feb. 26, 1795
May 19, 1798 Hugh Gillan, M. D.
12
19
George, Viscount Morpeth
26
March 5
John, Lord Borringdon
26
5
(Rt. Hon. Sylvester Douglas; afterwards
Lord Glenbervie
March 5
12
Matthew Montague, Esq.
12
26
Christopher Pegge, M. D. Reader of Anat.
at Christ Church, Oxford; afterwards Kt. J
Thomas James Mathias, Esq.
19
April 16
19
March 26
March 23, 1804 Rev. Benjamin Hutchinson, M. A.
19
April 23
Samuel Young, Esq.
26
23
Rev. Geo. Heath, D. D.
26
Dec. 17
Wm. Blane, Esq.
April 16
24
(Gregorio Fontana, Prof. Mathematics in)
the University of Pavia
Barnaba Oriani, Astronomer in the Royal
Observatory at Milan
April 8, 1732 June 20, 1796
1811
1803
David Rittenhouse, Esq. President of the
American Philosophical Society at Phi-
ladelphia
Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber,
M. D. President of the Imperial Acad.
Naturæ Curiosorum, and Prof. Medi-
cine in the University of Erlangen
Alberto Fortis, Prof. Natural History in
the University of Padua
Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin
August. Ferdinand von Veltheim, of
Harbke; afterwards Count
Sept. 11, 1801
Archibald Hamilton, Esq.
Dec.
5, 1797 Henry Crathorne, Esq.
Rev. Abraham Robertson, M. A.
On the Foreign List.
16
Joba Campbell, Esq.; afterwards Ld. Cawdor
Wm. Petrie, Esq.
Matt. Smith, Esq. Major of the Tower of London
George Smith Gibbes, M. A.; afterwards M. D.
Joseph Correa de Serra, LL. D. Secretary
of the Royal Acad. of Sciences, Lisbon}
Rev. Wm. Langford, D. D.
23
23
April 30
30
May 21
June 4
June 4
Nov. 19
19
Feb. 18, 1796
March 3
25
Nov. 26
26
Feb. 25, 1796
June
5, 1751
April 21, 1800
Feb.
Wm. Larkins, Esq.
1809
Lieut.-Gen, Thomas Osbert Mordaunt
Mr. John Abernethy, Surgeon
Glocester Wilson, Esq.
March 10
17
Dec. 22
April 14
April 21
14
21
14
21
28
June 15, 1797
May
5
June 9, 1796
5
May 26
26
June
2
June 2
Jan.
26, 1797
Nov. 10
Nov.
17, 1790
10
24
17
24
17
24
17
Dec.
8
24
8
24
8
Dec. 22
•
Jan. 26, 1797
22
Jan. 14, 1797
26
Feb. 2
12
May 4
Feb. 9
March 2
March 30
9
16
4
9
16
Jan. 15, 1776
Rev. Wm. Lax, M. A. Lawndes's Prof.
Astronomy, Cambridge
Edw. Riou, Esq. Captain in the Royal Navy
John Dalrymple, Esq. Admiral of the Blue
Benjamin Hyett, Esq.
April 2, 1801
Oct. 10, 1798
Charles Shaw Le Fevre, Esq.
Feb.
4, 1807 Wm. Latham, Esq.
George Holme Summer, Esq.
Samuel Rogers, Esq.
Rev. Wm. Hawley, M. A.
Robt. Smith, Esq.
George, Viscount Valentia
Rev. John Hellins
•.
數​伽
​Christopher Robt. Pemberton, M. D.
His Highness Prince Wm, of Glocester
Robt. Capper, Esq,
Samuel Lysons, Esq.
Withdrawn 1809 Sir Andrew Snape Hamond, Bart. Comptrol-
Jer of the Royal Navy
Charles Hatchett, Esq.
George Aust, Esq.
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lxv
BORN,
DIED.
ELECTED.
ADMITTED,
Edward Adolphus, Duke of Somerset
March 9, 1797
March 23, 1797
Bartholomew Parr, M. D. of Exeter
Samuel Ferris, M. I).
23
March 26, 1801
30
April 1797
Feb. 13, 1806
Rev. Stephen Eaton, M. A. Archdeacon
Middlesex
April 27
May 4
June 1 1731
John Townley, Esq.
May 4
11
26
Nov. 7, 1754
Frederick Charles William, Hereditary
11
Prince of Wirtemberg
Sir John St. Aubyn, Bart.
18
May 25
George Ellis, Esq.
18
June
Rev. Daniel Lysons, M. A.
25
Nov.
1805 {
Jan.
Henry Browne, Esq.
Hon. Kobt. Clifford
Wm. Battine, LL. D.
June 26, 1800 Mr. Win. Cruikshank
Charles Freeman, Esq.
Isaak Titsingh, Esq.
James Brodie, Esq.
John Spalding, Esq.
Rev. George Whitmore, B. D.
George, Earl of Egremont
(John Heaviside, Esq. Surgeon Extraordinary
to his Majesty
Rev. Robt. Holmes, D. D.; afterwards Dean
of Winchester
Thomas Greene, Esq.
John Rennie, Esq.
1808 John Ryan, Esq.
Mr. Stephen Lec
March 17, 1803
Oct. 1750
Alexander Duncan, Esq.
Prince Demetri Gallitzin
Adam Afzelius, M. D. Demonstrator of
Bot. in the University of Upsula
John Jerome Schroeter Oberamtmann,
Lilienthal in the Dutchy of Bremen
of
Martin Van Marum, M. D. Sec. of the So-
ciety of Sciences of Harlem
25
•
June 1
29
1
15
15
July 6
::::
99
Nov. 9
July 6
6
July 6
Nov. 23
Dec.
Jan. 11, 1798
7
April 19
14
Dec. 21, 1797
an}
14
Feb. 15, 1798
March 22, 1798
March 29
29
April 19
•
April 19
26
19
26
19
26
On the For. List.
19
May
3
Aug. 17, 1755
Lieut.-Col. Wm. Paterson
May
10
Philip Hills, Esq.
June T
17
Not admitted,
re-elect. 1799
Finlay Fergusson, Esq.
21
June 28
Captain Wm. Mudge, of the Royal Artillery
Samuel Jackson, Esq.
28
Nov.
8
Nov. 8
15
Sept. 20, 1803 Nicholas Gay, Esq.
Henry Gregg, Esq.
15
Dec. 6
22
Not admitted.
Benjamin Hobhouse, Esq. M. P.
Edward Howard, Esq.
Jan.
William Drummond, Esq.
April 4
13
17, 1799 Jan. 31, 1799
April 11
Feb. 21, 1799
Edward Hynde East, Esq.
11
25
•
James Clark, M. D. .
11
18
Philip Hills, Esq.
18
25
Home Popham, Esq. Captain in the Royal Navy
18
25
Archibald Blair, Esq.
May
2
May
9
Nov.
1805 Hon. Reginald Cocks
23
Feb.
6, 1800
Abraham Mills, Esq.
30
June
6, 1799
•
Joseph Sabine, Esq.
1806 Count Apollos Mussin Puschkin
1805 Sir David Carnegie, Bart, M. P.
Edward Roberts, M. D.
John, Marquis of Bute
Nov. 7
Nov. 14
·
14
91
Jan. 15,
15, 1801
Dec.
12
Dec. 19, 1799
::
12
Jan.
23, 1800
•
Thomas Jones, Esq. M. P.
Jan.
9, 1800
16
John Corse Scott, Esq.
16
April 3
Frederick Morton, Lord Henley
Feb. 6
Feb. 13
Pelham, since Earl of Chichester
(Rt. Hon. Thomas Pelham; afterwards Lord April 24
May 8
Alexander Crichton, M. D.
May
8
15
May
1, 1804 Henry, Earl of Exeter; afterwards Marquis
8
June 12
Lieut.-Colonel John Macdonald
15
Caleb Hillier Parry, M. D.
Gibbs Walker Jordan, Esq.
f Charles Morice Pole, Esq. Rear-Admiral of
of }
the Red; afterwards Bart.
Robt. Lord Carrington
Sir John Cox Hippisley, Bart.
James Meyrick, Esq.
29
29
June 12
122 2 120
May 22
June 19
12
29
12
12
19
26
Lxvi
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BORN.
DIED,
Jan. 31, 1774
Wm. George Maton, M. B.; afterwards M. D.
Charles Dickinson, Esq.
Rev. Wm. Douglas, Canon Resid. of Salisbury
{Codrington Edmund Carrington, Esq.; af-}
terwards Kt.
Jan. 22, 1809 Lieut.-Colonel Michael Symes
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
June 26, 1800
Nov. 27
July
3, 1800
Dec.
11
Dec. 18
April 16, 1801
18
Jan. 15
18
8
Arthur, Eart of Mountnorris
Rev. Herbert Marsh, B. D.
Samuel Turner, Esq.
Sir Walter Stirling, Bart.
Richard Cherrevix, Esq.
John Ellis, Esq.
Rev. Edward Balme, M. A.
Edmund Antrobus, Esq.
George Isted, Esq.
Gitlin Wilson, Esq.
18
8
Jan.
8, 1801
29
15
22
Matthew Smith, Esq. Capt. in the Royal Navy
Feb. 26
March 12
March 5
26
*
12
20 CT
5
12
April 16
March 26
26
April 16
April 16
30
16
May 7
Wm. Long, Esq. Master of the Royal Col-
16
lege of Surgeons
April 30
Martin Davy, M. D.
23
June 18
(John Latham, M. D. Physician Extraordi-
nary to his R. H. the Prince of Wales
Rev. John Hailstone, M. A. Woodward,
Prof. Cambridge
April 30
May 7
May 7
June
4
Sept. 9,1754
John Lloyd Williams, Esq.
Roger Elliot Roberts, Esq.
Lieut.-Col. James Willoughby Gordon
Rev. Robt. Nixor, B. D.
Warren Hastings, Esq.
Rt. Hon. Charles Yorke
Rev. Edward Forster, M. A.
Robert Wissett, Esq.
Mr. Astley Cooper, Surgeon
Hon. George Knox
Charles Burney, Jun. LL. D.
James Louis Compte de Bournon
Maximilian Joseph, Elector Palatine, Duke
of Bavaria
John Liptrap, Esq.
Mr. James Ware, Surgeon
Richard Fowler, M. D.
Sir Edward Knatchbull, Bart.
Wm. Bligh, Esq. Capt. in the Royal Navy
21
June
3, 1802
21
25, 1801
June 4
11
11
Dec. 16, 1802
11
June 18, 1801
章
​Edward Ash, M. D.
18
25
25.
Nov. 5
Nov. 12
26:
Dec. 10
Dec. 24
•
24
Jan.
•
14, 1802
Feb. 18, 1802
Feb. 25
25
March 18
25
4
25
Duke?
March 4
4
18
11
18-
•
April
May 6
May 13
1807 Langford Millington, Esq.
Alexander, Marquis of Douglas
William, Eart of Mansfield
6
13.
::
20
June 3
20
20
3
Wm. Cruickshank, Esq. Prof. Chemistry in
the Royal Academy at Woolwich
June 24
Nov. 4
$
Tor
2,1803 George Biggin, Esq.
John Trotter, Esq.
July 1
8
July 8
8
Gilbert, Lord Minto
Mr. John Pearson, Surgeon
Lord Webb Seymour
Henry Robt. Viscount Castlereagh
Dawson Turner, Esq.
Robert Woodhouse, A. M.
Edward Hilliard, E-q.
John, Lord de Blaquiere
Hon, Fulk Greville Upton
Rev. Matthew Raine, D. D.
Rev. Thomas Rackett, M. A.
John, Earl of Glandore
Henry Brougham, Jun. Esq.
John Spencer Smith, Esq.
Mr. Thomas Blizard, Surgeon
Rev. John Brinkley, M. A.
James Forbes, Esq.
Nov. 11
Nov. 25
Nov. 10, 1803
Dec: 9
Feb. 24
16
Jan. 27
23
Feb. 3
·
23
3
·
Jan. 13, 1803 Jan. 27
•
Feb. 10
March 3
17
Feb. 24
17
March 10
•
24
24
:::
March 3
March 8, 1804
10
March 17, 1803
10
17
17
May 26
24
March 31
24
31
S Charles William Viscount Charleville; af
31
March 20, 1806
terwards Earl
Sir George Thomas Staunton, Bart.
April 28
May 19, 1803
Mr. James Wilson, Surgeon
May 19
26
the Royal Institution of Great Britain
SHumphry Davy, Esq. Prof. Chemistry to
Nov. 17
Nov. 24
Richard Gregory, Esq.
24
March 22, 1801
2
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lxvii
BORN.
Aug. 21, 1778
Feb. 15, 1768
DIED.
Lewis Weston Dillwyn, Esq.
George Isaac Huntingford, Lord Bishop of
1 Gloucester
Carsten Anker, Esq.
Thomas Bayly Howell, Esq.
Mr. Anthony Carlisle, Surgeon
Valentine Conolly, Esq.
ELECTED.
Feb.
ADMITTED.
2, 1804 Feb. 26, 1804
23
March 15
March 1
8
8
April 12
8
March 15
15
22
April 12
April 19
Oct.
9, 1778
June 14, 1754
Oct. 11, 1759
1778
John Viscount Kirkwall
[Joseph Piazzi, Astronomer Royal at
Palerno
Francis Bareu Von Zach, Col, and Direc-
tor of the Observatory at Seeberg, near
Gotha
Wm. Olbers, M. D. of Bremen
Frederick Gauss, Ph. D. of Brunswick;
afterwards Prof. Mathamatics in the
University of Gottingen
Andrew Hutchinson, M. B.
On the Foreign List.
12
Rev. Robt. Nares, M. A. Canon Residen- May 10
tiary and Archdeacon of Litchfield
Robert Robertson, Esq. Physician to Green-
Charles Short, Esq.
1wich Hospital
Thomas Harrison, Esq.
Sir Thomas Hanmer, Bart.
Rev. Francis Wrangham, M. A.
Col. Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner
Thomas Hope, Esq.
•
James Cockshutt, Esq.
March 23, 1810 Thomas Finch, Esq.
Sir Edward Winnington, Bart. elected Jan.
26
May
3
31
17
June
7
31
14
June 7
7
21
Nov. 15
Nov. 15
May
9, 1805
'Dec.
6
Dec. 18, 1804
6
Jan. 10, 1805
6
April 4
13
Jan. 24
10, but he had died the day before
Mr. Olans Warberg, Prof. Ast. and Member Jan. 10, 1805 Jan. 17
of the Board of Longitude, Copenhagen
June 27, 1763
Edward Rudge, Esq.
31
Feb. 15
George Paulett Morris, M. D.
Feb. 14
28
Hon, Lieut.-Col. Wm. Blaquiere
21
28
Robt. Fergusson, Esq.
March 7
•
Hon. Lieut.-Col. Thomas Win. Fermor
Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq.
14
April 25
March 28
21
21
•
Robert Holford, Esq.
28
May 2
Wm. Smith, Esq. one of the Barons of the
Exchequer in Ireland
April 25
Hon. John Cust; afterwards Lord Brownlow
May 2
May 30
Frederick William, Earl of Bristol
23
June 13
Stephen Peter Rigaud, Esq.
William Babington, M. D.
Thomas Murdoch, Esq.
30
20
June 13
July 4
Dec. 19
July
4
John Barrow, Esq.
4
4
Wilbraham, Earl of Dysart
Nov. 7
Edward Loveden Loveden, Esq.
14
Feb.
6, 1806
Joseph Whidbey, Esq.
21
Dec.
12, 1805
{Nathaniel
Empire
John Guillemard, Esq.
Nathaniel Dimsdale, Baron of the Russian
Rev. Wm. Holwell Carr, B. D.
21
12
Jan.
16, 1806
Jan. 23, 1806
16
Feb. 6
Mr. Honoratus Leigh Thomas, Surgeon
16
Jan. 23
•
Sir Charles Warre Malet, Bart.
23
23
•
William Smith, Esq. M. P.
Rt. Hon. John Forster
Feb. 13
Feb. 20
20
27
Robert Wigram, Esq.
27
March 6
·
James Horsburgb, Esq.
March 13
$0
Sir Richard Clayton, Bart.
20
Not admitted.
Sir John Nichol, Kt. his Majesty's Advocate
General
20
March S
James Henry Arnold, Esq. Chancellor of the
Diocese of Worcester
20
21
George Cuvier, Member of the Institute of)
France
Bernard Germaine Etienne Lacepede,
Member of the Institute of France
Pierre Prevost, Prof. Philos. at Geneva
Charles Harding, Prof, of Astronomy in
the University of Gottingen
John Griffiths, Esq.
On the For. List
April 17
May I
May 15
i 2
lxviii
LIST OF THE FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BORN.
DIED.
Major Edward Moor
-
ELECTED,
ADMITTED.
May
1, 1806 June 5, 1806
Francis Buchannan, M. D.
John Kearney, Lord Bishop of Ossory
Sir James Hall, Bart.
Richard Sharp, Esq.
•
Wu, Higgins, Esq. Prof. of Chemistry
the Dublin Society
Charles Stirling, Esq. Rear Adm. of the White
1
May 15
15
22
22
Junc
5
June 12
Nov.
6
12
19
William Penn, Esq.
Nov. 13
Not admitted.
Thomas Reid, Esq.
Dec. 18
Jan.
8, 1801
•
Philip Henry, Viscount Mahon
Jan.
8, 1807
15
Henry Cline, Esq.
15
Feb.
5
Ilon. Major-General John Leslic
22
19
SJohn Playtair, Esq. Prof. Nat. Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh
Feb. 5
June
1, 1809
George Frederick Stratton, Esq.
5
Feb.
26, 1807
George Harrison, Esq.
5
March 5
Thomas Burgess, Lord Bishop of St. David's
19
12
John Pond, Esq.
26
5
George Billas Greenough, Esq.
March 5
12
William Garrow, Esq.
5
12
Taylor Combe, Esq.
5
12
John George Children, Esq.
12
19
William Gell, Esq.
William Hodgson, Esq.
William Jacob, Esq.
George, Earl of Winchilsea
William Blake, Esq.
·
•
April 16
April 23
23
May 14
23
May 7
28
28
Richard Horsman Solly, Esq.
7
14
14
28
Major-General Robert Nicholson
June 4
June 11
Col. David Humphries
11
Mr. Wm. Allen
Nov. 19
Nov. 26.
Lewis Hayes Petit, Esq.
Dec. 10
Dec. 17.
Charles Brandon Trye, Esq.
17
May
4, 1809-
James Peter Auriol, Esq.
Jan. 14, 1808
Jan.
21, 1808
Alexander Hamilton, Esq. Prof. of Oriental
Languages, in the East India Company'
College at Hertford
John William, Earl of Bridgewater
Wm. Hasledine Pepys, Esq.
Robert Bree, M. D.
14
21
28
28
Feb.
4
Feb. 11
18
St. Andrew Lord St. John. of Bletso
18.
25
Sept. 11, 1764
Mr. John Mason Good
William Watson, Esq.
George, Earl of Aberdeen
John Goldingham, Esq.
Alexander Marcet, M. D.
Edward Astle, Esq.
Thomas, Earl of Selkirk.
Wm. Henry White, Esq.
Colin Chisholm, M. D.
Richard, Earl of Mount Edgcombe
March 24
.
May 19
Wm. Johnstone Hope, Esq. Captain in the
Royal Navy
24
April 7
31.
7
April 7
28
28
May 26
June 2
May 5
June 2
16
2
16
July 7
June 15, 1809
Nov. 10
Nov. 24, 1808
•
24
George Ducket, Esq.
: :
Dec. 8
Déc. 19, 1809
Jerome de Salis,. Esq.
15
19
Alexander Macleay, Esq.
Jan. 19, 1809 Feb.
2
Lieut.-Col, John Rowley, of the Royal Engineers Feb.
9
16
Henry Warburton, Esq.
16.
March 2
William Henry, M. D.
23
Robert Willan, M.D.
23
2
Francis Augustus, Lord Heathfield
Charles Frederick Barnwell, Esq.
John Gillon, Esq.
John Anthony Noguier, Esq.
Mr. William Thomas Brand
Peter Leopold, Earl Cowper
John Smith, Esq.
James Burney, Esq. Capt, in the Royal Navy
Robert Bingley, Esq. King's Assay Master
in the Mint,
Lord Amelius Beauclerc, Captain in the
Royal Navy
.
:::
:
::
March 2
9-
April 13
13
S Died before
23
:
admission.
April 13
27
•
13
May 11
11
20
June 1
June 8
May 18
Not admitted.
Master?
22
Nov.
9
Dec. 7
APPENDIX. No. IV.
lxix
BORN,
DIED.
Charles Hoare, Esq.
John, Earl of St. Vincent
Charles Konig, Esq.
George Canning, Esq.
Mr. Benjamin Brodie, Surgeon
ELECTED.
ADMITTED.
Dec. 21, 1809 March 8, 1810
21
Jan. 25
Jan. 18, 1810 Feb. }
Feb.
15
8
22
Sir Richard Bickerton, Bart. Vice-Adm. of
22
March 15
the Red
Sir Henry Halford, Bart.
March 8
15
George Tuthill, A. M.
15
22
Mr. Edward Troughton, Opticiau
15
22
Joseph Cotton, Esq.
15
og
S Bowyer Edward Sparke, Lord Bishop of
15
April 5
Chester
John, Earl of Darnley
22
5
Sir George Shee, Bart.
May 10
June 21
Lieut.-Col. Thomas Brisbane
10
ƒ Thomas Charles Hope, M. D. Prot, of Che-
30
mistry in the University of Edinburgh
Edward Stracey, Esq.
June
7
June 21
Edward Thornton, Esq.
7
ES
·
Daniel Moore, Esq.
28
July
5
William A. Cadell, Esq.
28
May
9, 1911-
William Viscount Lowther
John Wilson Croker, Esq. Secretary of
July 5
July
12
5
Nov. 22, 1810
IN IN DIDN
5
Jan. 31, 1811
5
July 12, 1810
Nov. 22, 1811
Feb. 14
:
Admiralty
Rev. Robert Hodgson
George Ridge, Esq.
William Wix, Esq.
Richard Wharton, Esq. M. P.
22
Sir Alexander Johnston, Kt.
Nov. 22
Dec. 20
Hon. William Beauchamp Lyon, M. P.
Dec.
6
March 14
James Robertson, Esq.
13
May
•
John Baker, Esq.
13
Dec. 20
Lord Viscount Milton
Jan.
·
17,1811 April 25
Rt. Hon. Isaac Corry
Feb. 21
March 28
James Macartney, Esq.
Rev. Wm. Dealtry
Rev. John Kaye
Sir Frederick Baker, Bart.
John Carstairs, Esq.
Walter Wade, M.D.
Rev. Richard Dixon
Thomas Thomson, M. D.
William Congreve, Esq.
Henry, Marquis of Lansdown
Robert Chalone, Esq. M. P.
Thomas Egan, M. D.
John Dent, Esq. M. P.
John Elliot, Esq.
John Proctor Anderdon, Esq.
George Hibbert, Esq. M. P.
Henry Ellis, Esq, LL. B.
Rear Adm. Sir Wm. Sidney Smith, K. S.
Thomas Hoblyn, Esq.
Rev. Thomas Sampson, D. D. F. S. A.
Rev. George Rowley, A. M.
William Ford Stevenson, Esq.
21
14
28
་
March 7
•
•
April 4
14
March 23
14
28
14
21.
April 4
•
28
Nov. 7
·
28
•
April 25
*
April 4
Dec.
5
4
4
May 16
June
13.
16
May 30
28
30
30
June 27
30
13.
:
June 13
27
July +
July
Nov. 14
f
Nov. 7
Dec. 19
21
5
Henry Richard Lord Holland
Edward Hawke Locker, Esq.
Robert Brown, Esq.
William Franks, Esq.
John Randolph, Lord Bishop of London
Rev. Henry Hasted
William Jackson Hooker
·
Charles Henry Parry, M. D.
Dec.
3
12
19
.
12
Jan.
23, 1519
19
23
19
9
Jan.
•
9, 1812
9
23
Feb. 20
lxx
No. V.
Alphabetical List of the Fellows of the Royal Society, with the dates of their
Election, as references to the Chronological List.
PATRONS.
KING CHARLES II.
KING JAMES II.
KING GEORGE I.
KING GEORGE II.
KING GEORGE III.
1664
1685
•
1727
1727
1766
Alleyn, J. Esq.
The PRESIDENT, COUNCIL, and FELLOWS, elected at its first Institution in 1663.
Annesley, James, Ld.
Ashmole, E. Esq.
Aubrey, J. Esq.
Austen, J. Esq.
Balle, P. M.D.
Balle, W. Esq.
Barrow, J. B.D.
Bate, G. M.D.
Bayne, T. M.D.
Berkeley, George, Ld.
Birkenhead, Sir J. Kt.
Boyle, Rob. Esq.
Boyle, Rich. Esq.
Brereton, W. Esq.
Brook, J. Esq.
Brouncker, William, Ld. Visc.
Bruce, Robert, Ld.
Bruce, D. M.D.
Buckingham, George, Duke of.
Bysshe, Sir E. Kt.
Cavendish, William, Ld.
Charleton, W. M.D.
Clarke, T. M.D.
Clayton, J. Esq.
Colwall, D. Esq.
Cotton, E. D.D.
Cox, T. M.D.
Croone, W. M.D.
Finch, Sir J. Kt.
Glisson, F. M.D.
Goddart, J. M.D.
Graunt, J. Esq.
Haake, T. Esq.
Hammond, W. Esq.
Hatton, Christopher, Lď,
Harley, Sir R. Kt.
Hayes, J. Esq.
Henshaw, T. Esq.
Henshaw, N. M.D.
Hill, A. Esq.
Hoare, W. M.D.
Holder, W. D.Q.
Hooke, R. M.A.
Hoskyns, J. Esq.
Howard, C. Esq.
Huygens, Mons. C.
Jones, R. Esq.
Kincardin, Alexander, Earl of.
King, Sir A. Kt.
Long, J. Esq.
Lowther, A. Esq.
Lucas, Ld. J.
Crawford and Lindsay, John, Earl of. Massarene, Ld. Visc. John.
Denham, Sir J. K.B.
Devonshire, William, Earl of.
Digby, Sir K. Kt.
Dorchester, Henry, Marquis of.
Dryden, Mr. J.
Ellis, A. Esq.
Ent, G. M.D.
Erskine, W. Esq.
Evelyn, J. Esq.
Fane, Sir F. K.B.
Febure, Mons. Le.
Merret, C. M.D.
Moray, Sir R. Kt.
Morgan, Sir A. Kt.
Needham, J, M.D.
Neile, Sir P. Kt.
Neile, W. Esq.
Northampton, James, Earl of.
Nott, Sir T. Kt.
Oldenberg, H. Esq.
Packer, P. Esq.
Palmer, D. Esq.
Paston, Sir R. K.B.
Pell, J. D.D.
Persal, Sir W. Kt.
Pett, Sir P. Kt.
Pett, P. Esq.
Petty, Sir W. Kt.
Pope, W. M.D.
Povey, T. Esq.
Powle, Sir R. K.B.
Powle, H. Esq.
Proby, H. Esq.
Quatremaine, W. M.D.
Sandwich, Edward, Earl of.
Searburgh, E. M.D.
Schroter, W. Esq.
Seth, Bp.
Shaen, Sir J. Kt.
Sliugesby, H. Esq.
Smyth, G. M.D.
Stanhope, A. Esq.
Stanley, T. Esq.
Sorbiere, Mons, S.
Southwell, R. Esq.
Spratt, T. M.A.
Talbot, Sir G. Kt.
Terne, C. M.D.
Tuke, S. Esq.
Vermuyden, C. Esq.
Waller, E. Esq.
Wallis, J. D.D.
Whistler, D. M.D.
Wilkins, J. M.D.
Williamson, J. Esq.
Willughby, F. Esq.
Winde, W. Esq.
Winthrop, J. Esq.
Wren, M. Esq.
Wren, T. M.D.
Wren, C. LL.D
Wyche, Sir C. Kt.
Wyche, Sir P. Kt.
Wylde, E. Esq.
APPENDIX. No. V.
lxxi
Abbot, G. Esq.
Abbot, J. F. Esq.
Abeille, L. Paul
1762
After which the Society proceeded from time to time to elect Fellows by virtue of their Charter.
1793 | Arthington, C. Esq.
1793 Arundell, Hon. Richard,
Ascanius, P. M.D.
1701
Barrington, Hon. Daines,
1767
1740
Barrow, J. Esq.
1737
1755
Barrow, J. Esq.
1805
Aberdeen, George, Earl of,
1808
Ash, St. G. A.M.
1686
•
Barrowby, W. M.D.
1721
Aberdour, James, Ld.
1733
Ash, J. M.D.
1787
Barthelemy, Mr. J. J.
1755
Aberdour, S. Charles, Ld.
1754
Asb, E. M.D.
1801
Barton, P. LL.D.
1757
Abernethy, Mr. J..
1796
•
Ashby, S. Esq.
1756
Barry, E. M.D.
1731
•
Ablancourt, Mons. F. d',
1684
Ashe, W. W. Esq.
1748
Bassand, Baron J. B.
1732
Abruz, J. G. M.D.
1729
Askew, A. M.B.
1749
Baster, J. M. D.
1738
•
Adair, J. Esq.
1788
Assemanni, S. E. Archbp.
1737
Bateman, W. Ld. Visc.
1732
Adair,
Esq.
1688
Astle, E. Esq.
1808
Bates, Mr. T.
1718
Adam, R. Esq.
1761
Aston, F. Esq.
1678
Bath, William, Earl of,
1744
Adanson, Mr. M.
1761
Athol, J. Duke of,
1780
Bathurst, R. M.D.
1663
Adee, S. M.D.
1744
Atkyns, Sir R. Kt.
1664
Bathurst, Hon. B.
1731
Adye, J. W. Esq.
1774
Atwell, J. M.A.
1729
Batt, J. T. M.A.
1742
·
Afzelius, A. M.D.
1798
Atwood, G. M.A.
1776
·
Battie, W. M.D.
1741
Agar, W, E. Esq.
1781
Aubant, Abraham, D', Esq.
1791
Battine, W. LL.D.
1797
Aglionby, W. M.D.
1667
Aubert, A. Esq.
1772
Bavaria, M. Joseph, Duke of, 1802
Agricola, Mr.
1698
Aubyn, Sir J. Saint, Bart.
1797
Bayardi, Mons. Ö. A.
1755
•
Ahlers, Mr. C.
1726
Audouin, Mons. de Mont,
1748
Bayes, Mr. T.
1742
Akenside, M. M.D.
1753
Aumont, Louis d' Aumont de
Bayford, Mr. D.
1770
Aland, J. F. Esq.
1712
Rochebaroo, Duc d',
1713
Bayley, T. B. Esq.
1773
Albans, Charles, Duke of St.
1722
Auriol, J. P. Esq.
1808
Beal, Sir J.
1663
Albemarle, George, Duke of,
1664
Aust, G. Esq.
1797
Beale, J. M. L.
1721
Albinus, B. S. M.D.
1764 Auvergne, Philip d',
1786
Beard, R. M.D.
1726
Alcock, N. M.D.
1749
Auzout, Mons. A.
1666
Beauclerc, Lord Amelius,
1809
Aldersey, R. Esq.
1794
Averinus, Sig. J.
1712
Beauclerk, T. Esq.
1770
Alembert, Mons. J. le Roud d', 1748
1748 | Ayloffe, Sir J. Bart.
1731
Beaufarn, H. B. de,
1730
Algarotti, Sig, F.
1736
•
Ayres, Mr. T.
1707
Beaufort, Mr. Lewis de,
1746
Allemand, Mons. J. N. S.
"
1746
Ayres, Mr. C. N.
1708
Beaufort, Mons. V.
1663
Allen, T. M.D.
1667
Beaufoy, M. Esq.
1790
Allen, E. Esq,
1726
Babington, W. M.D.
1805
Beaufoy, H. E-q.
1782
Allen, J. M.D.
Allen, Mr. W.
Alleyne, J. Esq.
1736
Bacon, T. S. Esq.
1721
•
Beaumont, R. Esq.
1684
1807
Bacon, Mr. V.
1731
Beaumont, Mr. J.
1685
·
1776
Bacon, J. Esq.
1750
Beaumont,
Mons. J. B.
J.
Allioni, C. M.D.
1758
Baden, Dourlack, Ch. Frede-
Elie de,
1765
•
Allison, Rev, A. B.LL.
1792
rick, Margrave of,
1747
a *
Beauval, Mons. J. Basnage
de, 1697
Allix, W. Esq.
1753
Baganell, N. Esq.
1664
Beauvoir, Rev. O. D.D.
1785
+
Allonville, Mons. J. E, de',
1715
Baglivi, Sig. G.
1698
Beccari, Sig. J. B.
1728
Almeyda, Father Theodore d',
1758
Bagnall, J. Esq.
1774
Beccaria, Mr, J. R.
1755
•
•
Alstroemer, J, Esq.
1778
Bailey, Mr. A.
1683
Becker, Mons. B. M.D.
1698
Althorpe, G. J. Visc.
1780
•
Baillie, M. M.D.
1790
Beckett, Mr. W.
1868
·
Altle, T. Esq.
1766
Baillon, Chev. de,
1719
Bedford, Johu, Duke of,
1741
Ames, Mr. J.
1743
Baker, Mr. T.
168-1
Bedford, W. M.D.
1745
Amiens, Edward, Ld.
1777 Baker, Mr. H.
1740
Beighton, Mr. II.
1720
Amman, Dr. J.
1730
Baker, G. MD.
1764
Belchier, Mr. J.
1732
Amyand, C. Esq.
1716
•
Baker, J. W. Esq.
1771
Belidor, Mons. B. Forrest de, 1726
Anderdon, J. P. Esq.
1811
Baker, J. Esq.
1810
Belius, Rev. M.
1738
Anderson, Mr. J.
1759
Baker, Sir F. Bart.
1811
Bell, Mr. G.
1749
Andrade, A. F. d',
Andrews, J. Esq.
•
Anglesey, Arthur, Earl of,
Anguish, T. Esq.
1749
•
Baldini, Sig. J. A. Count,
1712
Bellers, Mr. F.
1711
+
1726
Baldwin, Dr. C. A.
1676
•
Bellers, Mr. J.
1718
1668
Baldwin, R. M.A.
1760
Bellio, Mons.
1753
1766
•
Bale, C. M.D.
1709
Beluga, Mr. Bernardo de,
1780
Anker, B. C. Esq.
1782
Balle, R. Esq.
1708
Bemde, J. Esq.
1678
Anker, C. Esq.
1804
Balme, Rev. E. M.A.
1801
Bennet, R. H. A. Esq.
1767
*
Annesley, Mr.
1704
Baltimore, Charles, Ld.
1731
Bennet, Rev. A.
1789
Anson, T. Esq.
1730
Baltimore, Frederick, Ld.
1767
Bentinck, Hon. W. Count,
1731
Anson, G. Esq.
1745
Bamber, Mr. J.
1718
Bentinck, J. Esq.
1765
Anspach and Bayreuth, Alex-
Bancroft, E. M.B.
1773
Bentinck, Capt. W.
1787
ander, Margrave of,
1780
Bankes, Mr. R.
1786
Bentley, Mr. R.
1695
Anteny, Gebhard d', Esq.
1723 Banks, Sir J. Bart.
1668
Bergius, P. J. M.D.
1770
Antrobus, E. Esq.
1801
Banks, J. Esq.
1730
Bergman, Mr. T.
1765
Arbuthnot, J. M.D.
1704
Banks, J. Esq.
1766
Beringhen, Mons. Theodore
Arbuthnot, J. Esq.
Arden, C. George, Ld.
Arden, Rt. Hon. Sir R. Pep-
per, Kt.
Arderne, Mr. J. A.M.
Arderon, Mr. W. ..
1770
•
Barbiano, Lewis, Count of,
1781
de,
1667
1786
Barbosa, J. M. S. M.D.
1750
Berkley, Sir M. Kt.
1667
Barham, Mr. H.
1717
Berkley Sir C. K.B.
1667
•
1788
Barker, R. M.D.
1732
Bernard, E. BD.
1673
•
•
1745
Areskyne, R. M.D.
1703
Argenville, Mons, A. J. de Sa-
1668 Barker, Sir R. Kt.
Barnard, Dr. T. Bp.
Barnard, F. A. Esq.
Barnes, Mr. J.
1775
Bernard, Mr, C.
1696
1783
鲁
​Bernard, J. P. M.A.
1737
1790
+
*
Bernard, II. M.D.
1738
1710
Bernard, J. M.D.
1760
•
liers d',
1750
Argyle, Archibald, Earl of, 1663
Barnewall, Hon. B.
Barnwell, C. F. Esq.
1765
Bernoulli, Mons. J.
1712
Arinstrong, J. Esq.
1723
Barrett, R. Esq.
Arnold, J. II. Esq.
1806
Barrington, T. Esq.
1809
1713 Bernoulli, Mr. D.
1669
Bernoulli, Mons, N. M.D.
1713
1756
Berthier, Mr. J. E,
1763
lxxii
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F. R. S.
Berthollet, Mons. C. L.
Berthoud, Mons. F.
Best, G. Esq.
Bethune, Dr. J.
*
Beuninghen, Mous. Conrad
Bevan, Mr. S.
Van,
Bevis, J. M.D.
Bianchi, Sig. V.
1789
Boylston, Dr. Z.
1726
•
Burnet, Mr. G.
1663
1764
•
Bozé Mr. C. Gros de,
1719
•
Burnet, G. M.A.
1723
•
1791
+
Braddon, Mr...
1681
•
•
Burnett, W. Esq.
1700
1773
Bradley, Mr. R.
1712
Burnett, Sir T. Kt.
1748
Bradley, J. M.A.
1718
Burney, C. Mus. D.
1773
1682
Bragança, Don Joano, Duke de, 1757
Burney, C. LI.D.
1802
.
1725
.
Braithwaite, D. Esq.
1782
Burney, Capt. J.
1809
•
1765
Brakenridge, W. D.D.
1752
Burrell, P. Esq.
1752
1710
Brand, T. Esq.
1756
Burrow, R. Esq.
1762
Biggin, G. Esq.
Bianchini, Sig. F.
Bickerton, Sir R. Bart,
Bidloo, G. M.D.
Bignon, Abbe J. Paul,
1712
Brand, Mr. W. T.
1809
Bury, Sir T.
1781
1810
Brander, G. Esq.
1754 Burzynski, T. Joseph, Count
1696
Brattle, Mr. W.
1713
de,
1769
1802
Bredalbane, John, Earl of,
1784 | Boshby, Mr. J.
1719
1734
Bree, R. M.D.
1808
Bushe, A. Esq.
1758
•
Billiers, W. Esq.
1726
Bregentwed, A. G. Molthe
Bussiere, Mr. P.
1699
Bingley, R. Esq.
Birch, Mr. A.
Birch, T. M. A.
Bisse, Mr. P.
•
Bisshopp, Sir C. Bart.
Blackburne, Mr. S.
Blackburne, T. M.D.
Blackburne, J. Esq.
Blackwell, J. Esq.
Blacow, R. M.A...
Blagden, C. M.D.
Blair, Mr. P.
Blair, J. LL.D.
1809
•
Count de,
1761
Bute, John, Marquis of,
1799
1673
Bremond, Ds. François de,
1740
Butt, J. M. M.D.
1767
1734 Brereton, O. S. Esq.
1762
Buxton, G. M.D.
1779
•
.
1706 Brynius, J. P. M.D.
1703
Buys, Mr.
1706
•
1791
Briançon, Mons. le Compte de, 1706 | Byrd, W. Esq.
1696
1681
Bridgemao, O. Esq.
1696
Byron, Mr. J.
1723
•
1781
Bridgeman, O. Esq.
1697
•
1794 Bridgen, E. Esq.
1777
•
Cadell, W. A. Esq.
1810
1692 | Bridges, J. Esq.
1708
D
Cadogan, C. Esq.
1718
1754
Bridges, Sir B. Bart.
1726 | Cadogan, W. M.D.
1752
1772
Bridgewater, J. Wm., Earl of 1808
Cailie, M. N. Louis de la,
1760
1712 Bridgman, W. Esq.
1679
Caldanus, M. A. L. M.D.
1772
Blair, A. Esq.
1799
•
Blake, F. E q.
Blake, W. Esq.
Blane, G. M.D.
1807
1755 Briggs, R. M.A.
1716 Brinkley, Rev. J. M.A.
Brisbane, Lieut.-Col. T.
1693
Calderwood, W. Esq.
1776
Brigstock, O. Esq.
1710
Caldwell, Sir J. Bart.
1752
1803
Call, J. Esq.
1775
•
1810
Calvert, Hon. B. L.
1731
Blanchard, W. M.B.
:
1759
1784
Bristol, Frederick, Earl of, Bp.
Bristol, F. William, Earl of,
1782
| Calvert, P. LL.D.
1781
1805 Campbell, J. M.D.
1718
Blane, W. Esq.
1795
Bristow, W. Esq.
•
1742 | Campbell, Mr. G.
1730
Blaquiere, John, Lord de,
•
1803
Brocklesby, R. M.D.
1746
Campbell, C. Esq.
1730
Blaquiere, Hou, Lieut.-Col. W. 1805
Brodie, J.” Esq.
1797
Campbell, 1. Esq.
1740
Bligh, Capt, W.
1801
•
Brodie, Mr. B.
1810
Campbell, J. Esq.
1760
Bliss, N. M.A.
1742
Bromfield, T. M.D.
1713
Campbell, Rt. Hon. Frederick
Blizard, Mr. W.
1787
Bromfield, R. M.D.
1779
Ld.
1793
Blizard, Mr. T.
1803
Brookesbank, J. Esq.
1751
Campbell, J. Esq.
1795
Blumenback, J. F. M.D.
1793
Brougham, H. Esq.
1803
Camper, P. M.D..
1750
Blunt, C 1. T.
1664
Brown, E. M.D.
1667
•
Camus, Mons. C. E. Louis,
1764
Blyke, R. Esq.
1773
Brown, Mr. J.
1721
Canning, G. Esq.
1810
Bode, J. E.
1789
Brown, L. M.A.
1729
Canton, Mr. J.
1749
Boerhaave, H. M.D.
•
1730
Brown, I. H. Esq.
1749
Cantwell, A. M.D.
1738
Boffrand, Mons. De,
1744
Brown, W. Esq.
1777
Canvane, P. M.D.
1765
Bogdani, W. Esq.
Bohadsch, J. B. M.D.
Bois, Charles du, Esq.
Bon, Mons. F. Xavier de,
Bonet, Mons, L. F.
Bon Figlilio, Sig.
1729
•
Brown, R. Esq
1811
Capeller, Sig. M. A.
1725
1762
•
•
Browne, T. M.D.
1699
Capello, Sig. P. A.
1744
1770
• •
•
Browne, W. M.D.
1738
Capper, R. Esq.
1797
1738
•
Browne, J. H. Esq.
1770
Caraccioli, Mr. Marc. Dom.
1765
1711
•
Browne, II. Esq.
1797
•
Caramanico, Francis, Prince
1696
Brownlow, Ld.
1783
nf,
1783
Bonnet, Mr. C.
1743
Brownrigg, W. M.D.
1742
Carbone, Father J. B.
1729
Booth, B. Esq.
1772
Broussonet, P. M. Augustus,
1782
Carbura, Compte J. Baptiste,
1765
Boothe, Mr. P.
1703
Bruce, J. Esq.
1776
Cardigan, George, Earl of,
1749
..
Bootle, R. Esq.
1737
Bruce, J. Esq.
1791
Cardross, H. David, Ld.
1733
•
Bootle, R. W. Eq.
1761
Bruhl, J. Mauritius, Count de, 1765
Cardross, David, Ld.
1765
•
Borghese, Mark Aut. Principe,
1682
Bruni, J. L. M.D.
1743
Car w, R. P. Esq.
1788
•
Borlase, Rev. Mr. W.
1750
Brunswick, F. Albert, Duke of, 1664
Carkes, Mr. J.
1663
Born, Le Chev. Ignace de,
1774
Brunswick, C. W. Ferdinand,
Carlisle, Charles, Earl of,
1665
Bornemann, Mons. P. J.
1722
•
Hereditary Prince of,
1764
Carlisle, Mr. A.
1804
Borringdon, John, Ld.
1795
Brydges, J. Esq.
1694
•
Carmarthen, Francis, Marquis
Bosanquet, Mr. S.
1793
Brydone, P. Esq.
1773
•
of,
1773
•
Bose, Mr. G. M.
1757
Buchannan, F. M D.
1806
Caruac, J. Esq.
1772
Bosville, W. Esq.
1792
Büchner, Mr. A. E.
1767
Carnegio, Sir D. Bart.
1799
Bottine, Sig. D. M.D.
1695
Buckinghamshire, John, Earl
Carpenter, G. Esq.
1729
Bongainville, Mons. de,
1756
•
of,
1785
•
Carr, W. Esq.
1727
Bouguer, Mons. P.
1749
Buffon, Mons, G. L. Le Clerc
Carr, Rev. W. H. B D.
1806
Boulton, M. Esq.
1785
de,
1739
•
Carrington, Robert, Ld.
1800
Bournon, J. Lewis, Compte de, 1802
Bugge, Mr. T.
1788
Carrington, C. E. Esq.
1800
Bowdler, T. M.D.
1781
Bulgarius, E. Archbp.
1788
Carstairs, J. Esq.
1811
Bowdowin, J. Esq.
1788
•
Bulkley, Sir R. Kt.
1685
Carteret, P. Esq.
1664
Bower, T. M,0.
1712
Bullialdus, Mons. J.
1667
Cartwright, Mr.
1716
Bowe, M. Esq.
1699
Burgess, T. Bp.
1807
Carvalho e Mello, S. Joseph
de, 1740
Bowman, W. Esq.
1742
Burlington, Richard, Earl of, 1722
Boyer, Mons, J, B. M.D.
1749
Burman, Mr. E.
1728
Cary, W. Esq.
Carysfort, J. Joshua, Ld.
1787
1779
•
4
APPENDIX. No. V.
Ixxiii
Casaux, Mr. Charles de,
1780 | Clarke, Rt. Hon. Sir Thomas,
Cowper, G. N. Clavering,
Cassano, N. Alerbe d'Aragona,
Kt.
1754
Earl,
1777
Principe de,
1722
Clarke, Rev. J. S.
1792
Cowper, P. Leopold, Earl,
1809
Cassom, Aga Algiada,
1728
Clavell, W. Esq.
1704
Coxe, T. Esq.
1653
Cussini, J. D.
1627
Clayton,
Esq.
1688
Coxe, D. M.Ï).
1565
Cassini, Mons. J.
1697
Clayton, Dr. R. Bp.
1743
Coxe, Rev. W. M.A.
1782
Cassini, J. Dominique, Compte
Clayton, Sir R. Bart.
•
1806 | Coyer, Mons. l'Abbe, F. Gi.
1766
de,
1789
Clenche, A. M.D.
1680
Cracherone, Rev. C. Mer-
Castell, E. D.D.
1674
Clerk, Sir J. Bart.
1729
•
daunt, M.A,
1765
•
Castell, Pere L.
Castiglione, Sig. Salvemini da,
Castle, G. M.D.
Castlecomer, John, Ld. Visc.
Castlemain, John, Ld. Visc.
Castlereagh, H. R. Visc,
Cat, Dr. G. Nic. Le,
Catesby, Mr. M.
Caulfield, W. T. Esq.
•
Caumont, Mons. R. M.D.
Cavallo, Mr. T.
Cave, T. Esq.
Cavendish, Ld. James,
Cavendish, Ld. Charles,
1768
Clerke, H. M.D.
1745 | Clifford, Hon. R.
1669 Clifton, F. M.D.
1754 | Cline, II. Esq.
1746 | Clive, Robert, Ed.
1802 Clutterbuck, Sir T. Kt.
Cluverius, Mr. D.
Cocchi, A. M.D.
1667
Crafurd, P. G. Esq.
1774
1797
Craig, Mr. J.
1711
>
1727
Cramer, Mr. G.
1748
•
1807
Crathorne, II. Esq.
170.5
1768
•
Craufurd, John, Earl of,
1732
1676
•
Crawford, A. M.D.
1786
·
1739
1678
J
Crawys, S. Esq.
1718
1733
1735
·
•
Cray, J. faq.
1730
1778 | Cock, Capt. C.
.
1662
Creed, J. Esq.
1663
1754
1779
1778
Cockburn, W. M.D.
Cocks, Hon. R.
Cockshutt, J. Esq.
•
1698 | Creed, J. Esq.
1742
1799
Crell, F. L. Fridericus, M.D. 1788
1804
Cresyner, II. 1.4.
1709
+
1719
1727
Colebrooke, Mr. J.
Colerane, Henry, Ld.
1755
Crichton, A. M.D.
1800
1729
Crip, T. Esq.
1666
Cavendish, Hon. Henry,
1760
•
Colesworth, C, M.D.
1718
Crisp, J. Esq.
1738
↑
Caverhill, Mr. J.
1769
Collepepyr, Col. T.
1668
Crivelli, Father J.
1733
Celesia, Il Cavaliére, P.
1757
Collet, Mr. P.
1711
Crofts, T. M.A.
1776
Celsius, Mons. A.
1735
Colleton, Sir P. Kt.
1677
Croke, Sir G. Kr.
1676
Cervi, Sig. M.D.
1736
Collignon, C. M.D.
1770
Croker, J. W. Esq.
1810
Chabert, Mr. J. Bernard, Mar-
Collins, Mr. J.
1667
Cronhelm, Mons. A. Henry de, 1725
qui, de,
1764
Collinson, Mr. P.
1728
Cruikshank, Mr. W.
1197
Chadwick, Mr.
1696
Colson, Mr. J.
1713
Cruikshank, Mr. W.
1802
Chalmers, G. Esq.
1791
•
Colwell, J. E-q.
1668
Crull, Mr. J.
1681
Chalone, R. Esq.
1811
Comaro, Sig. F.
170s
Cruquius, Mons, N.
1723
Chamberlayne, E. Esq.
1663
Combe, T. Laq.
1807
Crusins, L. M.A.
1754
•
Chamberlayne, J. Esq.
1702
Comitibus, Sig. Antonio Comes
Cullen, W. M.D.
1777
Chamberlen, II. M.D.
1681
de,
1715
Cullum, Sir J. Bart,
1775
Chambers, Mr. E.
1729
Comyn, J. Esq.
1760
Collum, Sir T. G. Bart.
1787
Chambers, Sir W.
1776
Condamine, Mons. C. Maria
Cumberland, William, Duke
Chamier, A. Esq.
1767
de la,
1743
of,
1760
•
•
Chandler, Mr. J.
1734
Conduitt, J. Esq.
1718
Cumberland, II. Frederick,
Chandler, Mr. S.
Chapelle, Mons. J. Baptista
de la,
1754
Congreve, W. Esq.
Connor, B. M.D.
1811
1695
Duke of,
1789
Cuming, A. Esq.
1720
1747
•
Conolly, V. Esq.
1804
Cunha, Don Aot. Alv da,
1669
Chapelow, Rev. L. M.A.
1792
•
Constable, W. Esq.
1775
Cunningham, Mr. J.
1699
Chardelon, Mons. J.
1702
Conway, Edward, Ld.
1667
Currie, J. M.D.
1792
.
Chardin, Sir J. Kt.
1682
Cook, Capt. J.
1776
Curtius, Sir W. Kt, and Bart.
1667
Charlemont, James, Ld. Visc.
1755
Cooke, Mr. B.
1735
Cust, Hon. J.
1505
·
Charleton, R. M.A.
1748
Cooksey, J. M.A.
1754
Cuthbert, J. Esq.
1765
•
•
D
Charleville, C. W. Visc.
1803
Coombe, Mr. C.
1776
Cutler, Sir J. Kt.
1664
Chase, S. M.D.
1721
Chaumont, Jos. de Seystres,
Cooper, A. S. Ld. Ashley,
Cooper, Mr. W.
1663
Cuvier, Mr. G.
1806
•
1698
Cyprianus, A. M.D.
1700
Marquis de,
1740 | Cooper, W. D.D.
•
1776
Cyrillus, Dr.
1726
•
Chauncy, C. M.D.
1740
Cooper, Mr. A.
1802
Cz ruicheu, Count P.
1747
Chenevix, R. Esq,
1801
Cope, Sir J. M. Bart.
1765
Cheselden, Mr. W.
1711
Copley, Sir G. Kt, and Bart.
1691
Dagge, I. Esq.
1779
Chesterfield, Philip, Tart of,
1708
Copping, Rev. J.
1740
Dalkeith, Francis, Earl of
1723
•
•
Chesterfield, Philip, Earl of,
Cheston, Mr. R. B.
1776 | Copplestone, J,
J. Esq.
1666
Dalrymple, Mr.
1718
•
1781
•
Corbett, Sir R. Kt.
1665
Dalrymple, A. Esq.
1771
Chetwode, Sig. J. Bart.
1776
Cork and Orrery, John, Earl
Dalrymple, Adın, J.
1796
•
Chetwynd, W. Esq.
1677
of,
Chevalier, Father, J.
1751
Cornish, S. Esq.
Choyne, Mr. G.
Chishohn, C. M.D.
1701 Corry, Hon. Isaac,
•
1803 Costa, Moses da, Esq.
1746 Danvers, J. Eq.
1718 Dargent, Mr. J.
1811
Darker, J. Esq.
1736 Darnley, Edward, Eail of,
1724
•
•
1768
•
1769
1737
Children, J. G. Esq.
1807 Costa, Mr. E. Mendes da,
1747
Darnley, John, Farl of,
1810
Churchill, Sir W, Kt.
166-4 Coste, Mr. P.
1712
Dartmouth, William, Earl of,
1754
•
Chụte, F. Esq.
1742
Cotes, R. M.A.
1711
Darwin, R. W. M.D.
1788
Cigna, J. F. M,D).
1764
Cotton, R. S. Esq.
1774
Darwin, E. M.D.
1761
Clanricarde, John, Earl of,
1753
Cotton, J. Esq.
1810
4
Dashkaw, Paul, Prince,
1781
Claphane, J. M.D.
1744
Courland, His Serene Highness
Dashwood, Sir F. Bart..
1746
·
Claraut, Mons, A, C.
1737
Peter, Duke of,
1771
Daubenton, Mr. L. J. M.
1755
Clare, M. M.A.
1753
Courthope, P. Esq.
1669
Davall, P. Esq.
1740
Clarenden, Henry, Earl of,
1684 Coutinho, M. Antonio de Aze
Daviel, Mons.
1756
Clarendon, Edward, Earl of,
1664
vedo,
1736
Davies, Mr. R.
1738
Clark, J. M.D.
1799
Clarke, 8. Esq.
Clarke, S. Esq.
Cowley, Mr. J. L.
1728 | Cowper, W. Esq.
•
1785 | Cowper, William, Earl,
•
1763 Davies, Capt. T.
1781
1706
Davies, Rev. J. D.D.
1789
1732 Davies, S. Esq.
1792
k
lxxiv
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F.R. S.
Davila, Don Pedro,
Davy, M. M.D.
1801
*
Davy, Fl. E-q.
1803
·
1776 | Dreyer, C. Wm. de,
Drummond, W. Esq.
Drury, Sir T. Bart.
1783 | Erïceyra, Don Francisco Xa-
1799
1758
vier de Menezes, Count da, 1758
Erskine, Mr.
1771
Dawkins, J. Esq.
Dawkins, H. Esq.
Day, T. Esq.
Day, Sir J. Kt.
Dayrolle, S. Esq.
Dealtry, Rev. W.
Deane, Sir A. Kt.
D'Arcy, Hon. James,
Degge, S. Esq.
Degge, S. Esq.
Denn, C. D. Alev à
Deidier, Dr. A.
1755
Dry, II.
•
1730 | Erskine, Hon. T.
1787
1778
Duane, M. Esq.
1768 | Essex, William, Earl of,
1737
1691
•
Duc, Dr. Le,
1722
..
•
Euler, Mr. L.
1740
E
1739
•
Ducarel, A. C. LL.D.
1762
Eustace, Sir M.
1667
•
1743
•
+
Ducket, G. Esq.
•
1808
Eve, II. Esq.
1681
1811
Duclos, Mons,
་
1764
Evelyn, Sir J. Bart.
1722
1651
Dudley, Sir M. Bart,
1703
Exeter, Brownlow, Earl of, 1767
1729
·
Dudley, P. Esq.
1721
Exeter, Henry, Earl of,
1800
1723
a
Dugood, Mr. W.
1728
Eyre, K. Esq.
1726
1730
Daillier, Mr. N. F. de,
1087
Eyre, R. D.D.
1767
1729
Duillier, Mons. G. C. Facio
Eyre, Sir J. Kt.
1791
1723
de,
1706
Delaval, E. Esq.
1759
Duliolo, Sig. R. de,
1712
Faget, Mons. J. B.
1752
Delawar, John, Ld.
1728
Dumaresq, D. D.D.
1761
Fagnini, Sig. Con te iulio
Del Bene, Sig. T.
1695
Dumas, Mons. V.
1665
Carlo de,
1723
Denmark, Prince George of,
1704
Dummer, T. Lee, Esq.
1732
Fahrenheit, Mons. D. G.
1724
Denmark, Christian VII., King
Dummer, T. Esq.
1773
•
Fairfax, Hon, H. C.
1727
of.
1769
•
Duncan, Sir W. Bart.
1771
Falconer, W. M.D.
1773
Dent, J. Isq.
1811
Dundas, T. Esq.
1768
Faquier, W. Esq.
1746
Dereham, Sir T. Bart,
1720
Dungarvan, Charles, Visc.
1663
Faquier, F. Esq.
1753
Derham, Mr. W.
1702
Duplio, Ld. Visc.
•
1712
Faria, Don Jos. de,
1682
Desagulers, J. T. M.A.
1714
Dupré, J. Esq.
·
•
1779
Farmer, Rev. R. D.D.
1791
Desaguliers, Lieut.-Gen, T.
1780
Devonshire, William, Duke of,
1747
Durand, Mr. D).
Duroure, F. Esq.
·
1728
Farr, W. M.D.
1770
•
•
1774
Farr, S. M.D.
1779
Devonshire, William, Duke of,
1761
Dutens, L. M.A.
1775
•
Fawconor, Mr. J.
1785
Dickenson, 1. D.M.
1677
Duval, F. P. M.D.
1741
Fay, Mons. C. F. di Cister-
Dickinson, C. Fsq.
1800
Duval, P. M.A.
1774
nay du,
1729
Dikins, Mr A.
1722 | Dyer, S. Esq.
1760
Faye, Charles, de la, Esq.
1725
Dickson, T. M.D.
1770
Dysart, Wilbraham, Earl of,
1805
Feake, C. M.D.
1748
Dillenius, Mous. J. J. M.D.
1724
Fellowes, W. Esq.
1704
Dilion, Hon. Charles
1767
Eames, Mr. J.
1724 Fellows, W. Esq.
1708
Dillwyn, L. W. Esq.
1804
Eardley, Samson, Ld.
1789
·
Fellows, W. Esq.
1731
Dimsdale, Baron T.
1769
Earle, W. B. Esq.
1773
•
Felton, S. Esq.
1762
Dimsdale, Baron N.
Dingley, Mr. R.
Diodate, J. M.D.
Dirom, Major A.
Dixon, W. Esq.
1805
•
Earle, J. Esq.
1794
Fenton, W. Esq.
1723
•
·
1748
Last, Mr. W.
1720 Ferguson, Mr. J.
1763
1724
• •
East, E. H. Esq.
1799
1794
•
·
*
Eaton, Rev. S. M.A.
1797
a
Fergusson, F. Esq.
Fergusson, R. Esq.
1798
1805
1729
Eckersall, G. Esq.
1761
Fermor, Hon. Lieut.-Col. T.
Dixon, A. Esq.
Dixon, J. Esq.
1748
Eckhardt, Mr. A. G.
1774
W.
1805
•
•
1773
•
Eden, Rt. Hon. W.
1786
Ferner, Benedict,
1760
•
Dixon, Rev. R.
Dobson, M. M.D.
Dobyns, Mr. J.
Dod, P. M.D.
1811
•
Edgcombe, Richard, Earl of
Feronce, Mons. J. Baptiste de, 1764
1778
Mount,
1808
Ferrari, Dr. D.
1723
1723
Edgecumbe, Sir R. Bart.
1676
Ferrars, George, Ld. de,
1781
1729
Edgecumbe, Geo. Visc. Mount,
1784
Ferrers, Washington, Earl,
1761
Dodgson, C. M.A.
1762
•
Edgeworth, R. L. Esq.
1781
Ferris, S. M.D.
1797
Dodson, Mr. J.
1755
Edwards, Sir J. Bart.
1731
Fetherstonbaugh, Sir M. Bart.
1752
Dolben, J. D.d.
1665
Edwards, Mr. G.
1757
Fevre, C. Shaw Le, Esq.
1796
Dolceus, J. M.D.
1692
Edwards, B. Esq.
•
•
1794
Ffolkes, W. Esq.
1226
Dolland, Mr. J.
1761
Effen, Mons. J. Van,
•
1715
Fidalgo de Silveria, J. Toze,
1751
Domeke, Mr. G. P.
1734
Egan, T. M.D.
1811
Fife, James, Earl of,
1787
•
Donati, Dr. V.
1757
Egerton, Rev. F. II.
1781
Filenius, Mr. P.
1737
•
Doody, Mr. S.
1695
Egmont, John, Earl of,
1764
Finch, D. Lsq.
1668
•
Dopplemayer, Dr. J. G.
1733
Egremont, George, Earl of,
1797
Finch, Hon. Henry,
1742
•
Borislaus, Mr. I.
1681
Ehret, Mr. G. D.
1757
Finch, T. Esq.
1804
Dorset, Richard, Earl of,
1665
Elford, W. Esq.
1790
Finley, Licut. J.
1788
•
Dorset, Charles, Earl of,
1698
Ellicott, Mr. J.
1738
Firmin, Mr. T.
1680
D
Douglas, Ld. G.
1692
•
Elliot, J. Esq.
1776
Fischer, Mr. J. B.
1744
Douglas, J. M.D.
1706
Elliot, J. Esq.
1811
Fisher, Rev. R. M.A.
1790
Douglas, C. E-q.
1770
Ellis, W. Esq.
1745
Fitzgerald, K. Esq.
1756
Douglas, W. Esq.
1711 | Ellis, Mr. H.
•
2
•
1749
Fitzharding, Maurice, Ld.
Douglas, Mr. J.
1720
Ellis, Mr. J.
·
•
Douglas, G. M.D.
1732
·
Ellis, J. Esq.
Douglas, J. D.D.
1778
Ellis, G. Esq.
Douglas, A. Esq.
1793
Ellis, J. Esq.
Douglas, Rt. Hon. S.
1795
Ellis, II. Esq.
Douglas, Rev. W...
1800
Elphinstone, Hon, G. Keith,
Douglas, Alexander, Marquis
Ellys, A. M.A.
of,
1802
Else, J. Esq.
Downe, Henry, Ld. Visc.
1750
Emlyn, T. Esq.
Downs, J. M.D.
1669
Emmett, M. Esq.
Drake, J. M.D.
1701
Drake, Mr. F.
1736
Ent, G. Esq.
Dran, Mons. II. François Le, 1744
1754
Visc.
1668
•
1774
Fitzherbert, W. Esq.
1762
1797
Fitzwilliam, Richard, Visc.
1747
1801
·
Fitzwilliam, Richard, Visc.
1789
1811
Flamsteed, Mr. J,
1676
-
1790
Flatman, T. Esq.
1668
1723
•
·
Flower,
Esq.
1667
1778
Fludyer, Sir T.
1767
1768
Fly, H. A.M.
1781
1697
Folard, Chev. Charles de,
1749
Englefield, H. C. Esq.
Epiuasse, Mr. Charles L',
•
1778
Foley, T. Esq.
1696
1676 Foley, R. Esq.
1708
1767
Foley, Thomas, Ld.
1740
2
APPENDIX. No. V.
lxxv
1732
Gay, N. Esq.
·
1803
Geach, Mr. F.
Folkes, M. Esq.
Folkes, M. Esq.
Fontana, M. G.
Fontenelle, Mons. B. le Bo-
vier de,
Forbes, J. Esq.
1714 Gassick, Dr. John Le,
1772 | Gaubius, Mr. II. D.
1795 | Gauss, F. Ph.D.
Gay, Mr. R.
1673 | Grant, J. Esq.
1764 Grant, L. A. Esq.
1804
•
1718
Gravesende, Mr. W. J.
Gray, Mr. R.
1798 Gray, Mr. J.
•
1779
1791
-
1715
1728
1732
•
•
•
1767 | Gray, Mr. S.
1732
Ford, H. Esq.
Ford, Sir R. Kt.
1663
Geartner, J. M.D.
1761
Gray, C. Esq.
1754
•
1673
Gee, O. Esq.
1717
Gray, E. W. M.D.
1779
Fordyce, G. M.D.
1776
Geckie, Mr. A.
1710
Greatheed, R. W. Esq.
1793
Fordyce, Sir W. Kt.
1787
Gell, W. Esq.
1807
Green, Mr. W.
1729
Formey, Mons. S.
1749
Gendre, A. Marie Le,
•
1789
Green, R. D.D.
1753
Fornassari, Sig.
Forster, T. Esq.
Forster, Mr. J. R.
1772
•
• •
1696 | Genevois, Mr. J. A.
1706 | Geoffrey, Mons. E. F.
Geoffroy, Mons, C. J.
1761
•
Green, Sir W. Bart.
1790
1898
•
*
Greene, T. Esq.
1711
•
•
1704
Greene, T. Esq.
1798
·
Forster, Mr. D.Ð.
1755
George, Chevalier St.
•
1749
Greenough, G. B. Esq.
1807
Forster, T. M.A.
Forster, Mr. G.
Forster, Rev. E. M.A.
Forster, Rt. Hon. J.
1766
Georges, J. Esq.
1777
Gerdes, H. W. D.D.
1801
•
Gersten, Mr. C. L.
1806
Fortis, Mr. A.
1795
•
Gibbes, G. S. M.A.
Foscarini, Sig. M. Ant.
1759
Gibbon, E. Esq.
•
Fothergill, J. M.D.
1763
Gibbs, Mr. J.
..
Fothergill, A. M.D.
1778
Giddy, D. Esq.
1719 | Greg, J. Esq.
Gregg, H. Eq.
1733 | Gregory, Mr. J.
Giacometti, Rev. Mons. Mic. A. 1740
•
Gregory, D. M.D.
1796 | Gregory, J. M.D.
1788 Gregory, R. Esq.
17:9 | Greigg, Adm. S.
Greive, J. M.D.
1772
1726
1798
1668
•
1692
-
1756
•
1803
1782
1791
1769
Fouchy, Ds. J. P. Grand-Jean
Gilbert, Sir J.
1726 | Gresham, C. M.A.
1688
de,
1740
..
Gilkes, Mr. M.
1735 | Gresley, Rev. T. D.D.
1784
Fourmont, Dr. Steph. de,
1738
Gill, W. Esq.
1739
Greville, George, Ld.
1767
Fourmont, Mons, M.
1742
Gillan, H. M.D.
1795
Greville, Hon, C. F.
1772
Fournier, G. Esq.
1783
Gillies, J. LL.D.
1789
Greville, Hon, R. F.
1791
Fowler, R. M.D.
Fraizer, A. M.D.
Frank, G. M.D.
Frankland, Mr. T.
Frankland, W. Esq.
Frankland, T. Esq.
Franklin, B. Esq.
Franks, N. Esq.
Franks, W. Esq.
Franks, W. Esq.
Fravagino, Sig. F.
Frazer, Hon. A. C.
Frazer, W. Esq.
Frederick, C. 199.
Freeman, W. Esq.
Freeman, C. Esq.
Freire, C. R. Kİ.
Freke, Mr. J.
Frere, J. Esq.
1802
Gillon, J. Esq.
1809
Grew, N. M.D.
1671
1663
Girardin, J. P. Piers de,
1732 | Grey, Thomas de, Esq.
1778
1693
Girle, J. Esq.
1754
Grieve, J. M.D.
1794
1707
Gisborne, T. M.D.
1758
Griffiths, J. Esq.
1806
1707
•
Giuntini, Dr. H.
1731
Grimani, Sig. P.
1712
1773
Glandore, John, Earl of,
1803
Grimston, J. Bucknall, Visc.
1786
1756
•
Glanvill, J. A.M.
1664 | Grindall, Mr. K.
1758
·
1764
Glasgow, George, Earl of,
1788
•
Grinfield, S. Esq.
1767
•
•
1781
Glasse, S. M.A.
1811
Glenie, Lieut. J.
1779
1764 Grive, Mons. l'Abbe Joan de
la,
1738
1675
Glocester, W. Henry, Duke of, 1788
Gronovius, Mr. L. T.
1763
1778 | Glocester, Ilis Highness Prince
Grosley, Mr. P. J.
1766
1791
William of,
1797
Grosvenor, Richard, Ld.
1777
1733
1
Glover, P. Esq.
1723
Guasco, Abbe,
1750
1735
Gmelin, P. F. M.D.
1758
•
Guernsey, Heneage, Ld.
1773
1797
Godfrey, Mr. J.
1715
Guglielmini, Sig, D.
1697-
•
Godin, Mons. L.
•
1771
Friend, J. M.D.
Friewald, Mr. M.
1731
#
Frisi, Father P.
Frobenius, D. J. S. A. M.D.
1757
•
1791
1729 | Godolphin, W. Esq.
Godschall, W. M. Esq.
1712 | Goldingham, J. Esq.
Gomeldon, W.
Good, Mr. J. M.
•
1735
Guignes, Mons, Jos, de,
1752
·
1664
·
Guillemard, J. Esq.
1806
1758
Guiscard, Mons. A. Marquis de, 1706
•
1808
Guise, Col, J.
1716
•
1663
Gunning, J. Isq.
1752
1808
Guthrie, M. M.D.
1782
❤
1729 Goodenough, G. T. Esq.
1787
•
Guynne, Sir R. Kt.
1681
Fryer, J. M. D.
1697
•
Goodenough, Rev. S. LL.D.
1789
Guyon, Abbe,
1746
Fullarton, W. Esq.
1779 Goodricke, J. Esq.
1786
Gyllenberg, Mons. C. Count,.
1711
Fuller, J. Eq.
1704 Goodwyn, Mr.
1681
Fuller, J. Esq.
1726 Gordon, Sir R. Kt.
1686
Hadley, J. Esq.
1716
Fuller, R. M.D.
1732 Gordon, P. A.M.
1694
Hadley, G. Esq.
1734
Fullerton, W. M.D.
1732 Gardon, Alexander, Duke of,
1784
Hadley, J. M.A.
1758
✔
Gordon, Lieut. Col. J. W.
1801
Haemstede, Mr. H. Van,
1761
•
Gabrey, P. M.D.
•
1753
Gorius, Dr. A. F.
1738
•
Hailstone, Rev. J. M.A.
1801
-
Gage, Thomas, Ld. Visc.
1728 Gorter, David de, M.D.
1760
Haistwell, E. Esq.
1698
Cale, T. D.D.
1677
Gosling, G. Esq.
1793
Пale, R. M.D.
1720
Gale, R. Esq.
1717
Gossett, I. M.A.
1772
•
Hales, S. B. D.
1717
•
Gallean, C. 11. Anthony, Duke
Gough, R. Esq.
1775
Halford, Sir II. Bart.
1810
de,
1763
Gould, Mr. W.
1683
Halifax, George, Ld. Vise.
1675
Gallini, Mens. C. Archbp.
1734
Gould, W. M.A.
1771
•
Hall, H. Esq.
1675
Gallitzin, Prince Demetri,
1798
Gouldsmith, J. M.D.
1729
Hall, Sir J. Bart.
1806
Gallucci, Sig.
1706
Græme, W. M.D.
1730
•
Hall, F. Esq.
1732
•
Galton, S. Esq
1785 Grame, W. Esq.
1766
Haller, Dr. A.
1739.
Galvaon, Don A.
►
1725 Grafton, Charles, Duke of,
1749
Halley, Mr. E.
1678
Gambier, J. Esq.
Garcin, L. M.D.
Garden, A. M.D.
Garrow, W. Esq.
Garth, S. M.D.
Garthshore, M. M.D.
Gaseon, Sir B. Kt.
•
1738 | Graham, Mr. G.
1720
Hallifax, R. M.D.
1785.
1730
Graham, R. Esq.
1726
Hammersley, H. Esq.
1779.
1773 | Graham, A. Esq.
1785
Hamet, Sidi Ben Hammet Ben
1807
Grandi, Sig. J.
1690
Haddu Ottor,
1628
1706
Grandi, Sig. G.
1709
Hamilton, Sir D. Kt, M.D.
1708
•
1775
Grauge, Mons. Louis de la,
1791
•
Hamilton, J. Esq.
1734
1667
Grangeot, Mons. R. Jacques de, 1728
Hamilton, James, Duke of,
1736-
Ixxvi
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F. R. S.
Hamilton, Hon. John,
Hamilton, Hon. Charles,
Hamilton, Mr. H.
Hamilton, W. Esq.
Hamilton, A. D.D.
1745
Hellat, Mons. J.
1740 | Mollingberg, T. D.D.
1789
..
1747
Helmfeld, Mons, G,
1670
Hollings, J. M.D.
..
1726
1761
Helvetius, Mons, J. C. A. M.D. 1755
·
Hollis, Sir F.
•
1671
1766
Helvetius, J. A.
1763
Hollis, T. Esq.
1757
1777
Hemming, S. M.A.
1776
Hollman, M. S. C.
1747
liamilton, A. Esq.
1795
Henchman, Dr. H. Bp.
·
1665
Holloway, B. LL.B.
1723
Hamilton, A. Esq
1808 | Henley, J. Esq.
1693
Holmes, "G. Esq.
1741
Hammond, A. Esq.
1698
Hammond, B. Esq.
1754
Haminond, Sir A, Snape, Bart.
1797
Henley, F. Morton, Ld.
Henly, Mr. W.
Heurickson, Mr. II.
1780
Holmes, Rev. R. D.D.
1797
1773
·
Holstein, J. Lewis, Count,
1762
1742
IIolt, R. Esq.
1707
Hampe, D. J. H. M.D.
1729
Henniker, J. Esq.
1779
Holwell, J. Z. Esq.
1767
Hanbury, W. Esq.
1728
Henniker, J. Esq.
1785
•
Home, Mr. E.
1787
·
Hanckewitz, Mr. A. G.
1729
Henry, W. D.D.
1755
Hooker, Mr. W. J.
1812
Hanmer, Sir T. Bart.
1804
Henry, Mr. T.
1775
Hooper, E. Esq.
1759
Hannisius, Mr. D...
1678
Henry, W. M.D.
1809
Hop, Mynheer,
1734
Harcourt, Simon, Earl of,
1753
•
Henshaw, Sir J. Kt.
1794
Hope, Ld.
1727
Hardenberg, The Barog de,
1745
Herbert, Charles, Ld.
1673
•
Hope, J. M.D.
1767
Harding, Mr. C.
1806
Herbert, J. Esq.
1677
Hope, T. Esq.
1804
Hardinge, C. M.D.
1743
Hardinge, G. Esq.
1758
Hardwicke, Philip, Ld.
Hardwicke, P. Earl of,
1790
Ilardy, Sir E. Bart.
1669
Hargrave, J. M.A.
1726
Herschell, Mr. W.
1781
1753 | de,1789
Hertsberg, E. Frederic Count de, 1789
Heucherus, J. H. M.D.
1729
Heusch, Mous. J. C. M.D. 1680
Hevelius, Mons. J.
Herrissant, Mons. F. D. M.D. 1750
Hope, Capt. W. J.
Hope, T. C. M.D.
Hopkins, Mr. D.
1808
1810
1765
•
Hopton, R. C. Esq.
1771
•
•
Horley, Sir E. K.B.
1663
1664
Horne, Mr. J.
1742
Harisey, E. Esq.
1761
Hewer, H. E. Esq.
1723
Horneck, A. M.A.
16.68
Harley, Robert, Ld.
Harper, Mr. J.
Harper, S. M.A.
Harrington, W. Esq.
Harrington, E. M.D.
Harrington, William, Ld.
Harris, S. M.A.
Harris, J. Esq.
1712
Hewett, Sir T. Kt.
1721
Hornsby, T. M.A.
1763
1726
Hewett, Rev. J. M.A.
1736
Horsburgh, J. Esq.
1806
1766
•
Hewson, Mr. W.
1770
Horseman, Mr. S.
1727
1662
Hey, Mr. W.
1775
Horsfall, Mr. J.
1768
1734
Ileyne, C. G.
1789
Horsley, Mr. J.
1729
1741
Hiaerne, Dr. II.
1669
•
Horsley, S. M.A.
1767
1722
Hibbert, G. Esq.
1811
•
Hortega, Don, J.
1753
•
1763
Hickes, J. Esq.
1703
Hotham, C. Esq.
1667
Harris, Mr. D.
Harrison, Mr. W.
Harrison, T. Esq.
1768
Hickman, N. M.A.
1725
Houghton, Mr. J.
1680
1765
Hickman, S. Esq.
1804 Higgins, W. Esq.
•
1744 Houghton, H. Esq.
1765
Harrison, G. Esq.
Hartley, D. M.A.
Harvey, J. Esq.
Harwood, J. A.M.
Harwood, B. M.B.
Haselden, Mr. T.
Hassell, R. Esq.
Hasted, E. Esq.
Hasted, Rev. H.
Hastings, W. Esq.
Hatchett, C. Esq.
Hatton, G. F. Esq.
Havers, C. M.D.
1807
Hill, Mr. O.
1677
1736
Hill, Mr. S.
1711
•
1806 Houstoun, R. M.D.
Houstoun, W. M.D.
Howard, H. of Norfolk,
1725
1732
1666
1664
Hill, J. Esq.
1719
Howard, E. Esq.
1668
•
·
1686
Hill, T. Esq.
1725
Howard, Henry, Ld.
.1672
•
1784
Hill, J. Esq.
1748
Howard, T. of Norfolk,
1672
1739
Hilliard, E. Esq.
1802
Howard, J. S. Esq.
1673
1726
Hills, P. Esq.
1799
Howard, H. Esq.
1696
•
1766
Hilsall, II. Esq.
1736
Howard, J. Esq.
1756
•
7
་
1812 Hilsborough, Wills, Earl of,
1764
Howard, C. Esq.
1767
•
1801
Hilsborough, Arthur, Earl of,
1790
Howard, C. Esq.
1768
·
1797
Ilimsel, Nic. de, M.D.
1760
Howard, Mr. S.
1771
1775
Hippisley, Sir J. Cox, Bart.
1800
Howard, W. A. M.D.
1778
·
1686
Hirst, W. M.A.
1755
Howard, E. Esq.
1799
Hankins, J. Esq.
Hawk-bee, Mr. F.
Hawley, J. M.D.
·
1791 | Hoadley, B. Esq.
1726
Howell, T. B. Esq.
1904
1705
Hoare, J. Esq.
1661
•
Hoy, T. M.D.
1707
·
1740
Hoare, J. Esq.
•
1668
Huber, J. G. M.D.
1752
A
Hawley, Rev. W, M.A.
Hay, A. M.D.
Haygarth, J. M.B.
Haynes, E. Esq.
Hayter, Dr. T. Bp.
Hayward, Sir W.
Hazard, R. Esq.
Healde, T. M,D.
Heath, R. M.A.
Heath, Rev. G. D.D.
Heathcote, Sir G, Kt.
1796
Hoare, Sir R. Kt.
1752
Hubner, Mons. M.
1755
.
1778
Hoare, J. B.D.
1753
10
Huck, R. M.D.
1768
1780
Hoare, II. Hugh, Esq.
1784
•
•
Hucks, R. Esq.
1722
1683
Hoare, Sir R. C. Bart.
1792
•
Huddart, J. Esq.
1791
•
•
•
1749
Hoare, C. Esq.
1809
.
Hudson, J. Esq.
1754
1665
Hobhouse, B. Esq.
1798
•
Hudson, C. G. Esq.
1757
1770
•
1752 Hoblyn, R. Fsq.
Hoblyn, T, Esq.
1778 Hodges, T. Esq.
•
1745
Hudson, Mr. W.
1761
1810
.
Hughes, E. Esq.
1715 | Hughes, Rev. Mr. G.
1786
1748
1705 Hodges, Sir J. Bart.
1716 | Hugo, Dr. J. A.
1717
•
1705
Hodgkinson, R. B. Esq.
1778
Hulme, M. M.D.
• •
4
1794
Heathcote, H. Esq.
1720
Hodgson, Mr. J.
1703
Huilier, Mr Simon Le,
1791
•
•
Heathcote, C. Esq.
1728
Hodgson, W. Esq.
1807
Hume, Sir A. Bart,
1775
•
·
Heathcote, Sir T. Bart.
1751
Hodgson, Rev. R.
1810
Heathente, J. Eq.
1768
Hody, E. M.D.
Heathfield, F. Augustus, Ld.
1809
Hoffman, Mons. II.
•
Heaviside, J. Esq.
1797
Hoffipan, Mr. T.
Heberden, W. M.D.
Heberdeo, T. M.D.
Heborden, W. Esq.
Hedwig, J. M.D.
Heiuson, Mons, J. T.
Heister, Dr. L.
1749
Holford, P. Esq.
#
1761
Holford, S. Esq.
•
•
1791
Holford, R. Esq.
•
Hellins, Rev. J.
•
·
•
1730
1796 Hollier, J. M.D.
1788 Holland, R. M.İ).
1692 | Holland, H. Richard, Ld.
Holliday, J. Esq.
•
•
1811
•
1718 Hunter, J. M.D.
Hunt, Rev. T.
1805 | Hunter, R. Esq.
1726
Hunter, Mr. J.
Hunter, W. M.D.
1786 Hunter, A. M.D.
1720
1746
•
Hunt, William Le, Esq.
1746
Hunt, Mr. T.
1785
Humphries, Col. D.
1732 Honauld, F. J. M D,
Ilundertmark, C. F. M.D.
1807
1733
"
1755
1667
1725
1740
1709
1767
1767
•
1775
1786
•
APPENDIX. No. V.
lxxvii
Huntingford, Dr. G. I. Bp.
Hurlock, Mr. P.
Hurlock, J. Esq.
Hussey, R. T. D.D.
Hutcheson, A. Esq.
Hutchinson, Rev. B. M.A.
Hutchinson, A. M.B.
Hutchinson, Rt. Hon. J. H.
1782❘ Justell, Mons. II.
1792 Justice, J. Esq.
1708
1804 | Jussieu, Dr. Bernard de,
1780 Justamond, Mr. J. O.
1727
Lany, E. M.A.
1692
1775
Larkins, W. Esq.
1790
1681
Lashley, T. M.D.
1768
1730
Latham, Mr. J.
1775
Latham, W. Esq.
1796
1795 Kaye, R. LL.B.
1765
+
Latham, J. M.D.
1801
*
1804 Kaye, Rev. J.
1811
Lauder, J. Esq.
1772
1794 Kearney, Dr. J. Bp.
1806
Lavater, Mons, J. R. M.D.
1708
Hutton, J. M.D.
1697
•
Keate, G. Esq.
1766
Lavoisier, Mons. A. L.
1783
•
Hutton, A. M.D,
1737
Keate, T. Esq.
1794
Law, Dr. J. Bp.
1783
•
Hutton, Mr. C.
1774
Keck, R. Esq.
1713
Huxham, J. M.D.
1739
Keen, B. Esq.
1744
Huxham, J. C. M.A.
1769
Keill, J. M.A.
1700
Lawry, J. M. A.
Hyacinthe, Mr. Paul de St.
1728
Keir, J. Esq.
1785
Hyett, B. Esq.
1796
Kempe, Mr. J.
1712
•
Lawrence, Sir J. Kt.
Lawrence, Sir E. Kt,
Lawson, Sir W, Bart,
Lax, Rev. W. M.A.
1673
1708
1742
•
1718
•
1798
•
Hyde, J. Esq.
1752
Kendall, J. Esq.
1723
Layard, Mr. D. P.
1746
Kennedy, G. M.D.
1737
Layard, Rev. C. P. M.A.
1778
Iattica, Mons. J.
1735
Kennicott, B. D.D.
1764
Lediard, T. Esq.
1742
•
Ibbetson, J. Esq.
Ingenhousz, J. M.D.
1709
· •
Ker, R. Esq.
1770
Lee, A. M.D.
1766
1769
•
Kerckringius, Mons. T.
1677
Lee, W. Esq.
1748
=
Ingilby, Sir J. Bart.
1793
Kestner, Mr. A. G.
1789
Lee, G. M.D.
1781
Inglis, J. M.D.
1712
Ketelbey, A. Esq.
1719
Lee, Mr. S.
1798
Iremonger, Mr. J.
1747
Ketelby, R. J. Esq.
1726
Leeds, Thoma-, Duke of,
1739
Isaac, C. Esq.
1692 Keyssler, Mons. J. G.
1718
Legge, Hon. E.
1735
Iscaut, Mons. Le Baron d',
1716
Kidby, J. M.A.
1756
•
•
Lægge, Hon. H. B.
1744
Isham, Sir J. Bart.
1663
Kinch, P. M.A.
1729
Leibnitz, Mons. G. G.
1673
•
·
•
Isham, Sir J. Bart.
1673
King, Mr. E.
1666
►
Leicester, R. Esq.
1724
Isle, Mons. J. Nicolas de l',
1723
King, Mr. J.
1676
Leigh, Mr. C.
1685
Isted, T. Esq.
1698
King, Dr. W. Archbp.
1705
Leighton, Sir E. Kt,
1663
1sted, G. Esq.
Ives, J. Esq.
1801 King, Peter, Ld.
1773 King, John, Ld.
King, F. Esq.
1728
Leith, T. F. M.D.
1781
•
1734
Lenck, Mons.
1718
1767
Lennard, D'Acre, B. Esq.
1705
Jablouski, Mons. D. E.
1713 King, J. G. M.A.
1771
Leopold, M.D.
1709
▼
Jackson, J. Esq.
1694 King, Capt. J.
1781
Leslie, P. D. M.D.
1781
Jackson, C. Esq.
1772
Kinnaird, George, Ld.
1784
Leslie, Hon. J.
1807
Jackson, H. Esq.
1772 Kinsky, Philip, Count,
1731
Letch, J. M.D.
1766
M
Jackson, S. Esq.
1798 Kippis, A. D.D.
1779
Lethieullier, S. Esq.
1723
Jacob, W. Esq.
1807
Kirby, J. Esq.
1767
Leti, Sig. G.
1681
Jacobeus, Mons. J. A.
Jacobson, T. Esq.
Jacour, Chev. de,
Jacquier, Father Francis,
Jacquin, N. Joseph de,
Jallabert, Dr. J.
1724 | Kirch, Dr. C.
1742
Lettsom, J. C. M.D.
1773
1727
Kirke, T. Esq.
1693
Leuwenhoeck, Mons. A. Vau, 1680
•
1756
Kirkwall, John Visc.
1804
Lever, J. Esq.
1742
1741
Kirwin, R. Esq.
1780
Lever, A. Esq.
1773
•
1788
Klaproth, M. M. H.
1795
Leveret, Col. J.
1713
1740 Klein, Mons. J. T.
1728
Lewin, J. Esq.
1765
James, W. Esq.
1767
Klingenstierna, S.
1730
Lewis, G. Esq.
1754
James, W. Esq.
1775
Knatchbull, Sir E. Bart.
1802
Lewis, W. M.D.
1745
Jebb, R. M.D.
1765 Knight, J. Esq.
1706
Lewisham, George, Visc.
1781
Jebb, J. M.D.
1779 Knight, R. Esq.
1741
Leyonbergh, Mons.
1667
•
Jeffreys, E. Esq.
1669
Knight, G. M.D.
1745
Leyon Crona, Mons. C.
1701
Jeffreys, W. Esq.
1717
Knight, T. A. Esq.
1805
Lichtenberg, Mr. G. C.
1798
Jeffreys, J. Esq.
1726 Knox, Hon. G.
1802
Lieberkulm, Ds. J. N. M.D.
1740
Jekyll, J. Esq.
Jenkes, H. M.A.
Jenkinson, Hon. R. B.
Jenner, Mr. E.
Jennings, J. Esq.
1790
Komarzewski, Lieut.-Gen. J.
1792
Liebknecht, Mr. J. G.
1728
:
•
1674 Konig, C. Esq.
1810
Lieutaud, Mons, J. M.D.
1789
+
1794
Kreienberg, Mons.
1713
•
•
Lightfoot, Rev. J. M.A,
1781
1789
Krieg, D. M.D.
1698
Ligonier, Sir J. K.B.
1749
•
1779
Kuckhan, Mr. T. S.
1772
Limbourg, J. Philip de,
1771
•
+
Jett, T. Esq.
1714
Lincoln, Henry, Larl of,
1747
Jodrell, R. P. Esq.
1772 Lacepede, Mons. B. G. E.
1306
Lind, J. Esq.
1773
•
Jodrell, P. Esq.
1781
Lake, T. Esq.
1667
•
Lind, J. M.D.
1777
John, Oliver St. Esq.
1719
Lambe, R. LL.D.
1758
•
Linda, Mr.
1711
►
John, St. Andrew, Lord St.
1808
Lambert, A. B. Esq.
1791
Lindsey, Robert, Larl of,
1664
Johnson, R. A. Esq.
1788
Lambre, Mr. J. B. Joseph de,
1791
Linnæus, C. M.D.
1753
•
Johnston, Sir A. Kt.
1810
Lamotte, C. M.A.
1727
•
Lionne, Mons. H. L. de,
1665
Jones, W. Esq.
1711
Lancisi, Sig. G. M. M.D.
1706
Liptrap, J.
Esq.
1802
Jones, H. M.A.
1723
Lande, Mr. J. J. le François de la, 1763
Lisle, S. D.D.
1742
Jones, R. M.D.
1736
Lane, J. Esq.
1677
Lisle, T. D.D.
1757
►
Jones, W. Esq.
1772 Lane, Mr. R.
Jones, W. A.B.
1775
Lane, Mr. T.
1692 | Littlehales, E. M.D.
1770
1717
Livius, P. Esq.
1773
.
Jones, T. Esq.
1800
Laney, Dr. B. Bp.
1666 | Lloyd, Mr. O.
1708
Jordan, G. W. Esq.
1800
Jordis, J. P. M.D.
1681
Lange, Sir John de, Kt,
Langford, Rev. W. D.D.
1735
Lloyd, P. Esq.
1727
1796 Lloyd, G. Esq.
1736
Joye, C. Esq.
1748 Langham, Sir J. Bart.
1677
Lloyd, J. M.B.
1759
•
•
•
Juan, Don J.
1749 Langrish, Mr. B.
1734
Lloyd, C. Esq.
1764
Jurin, J. M.D.
1717
Languy, Mons. T. Fantet de,
1718
Lloyd, J. Esq.
1774
Jurin, J. Esq.
1756
Lansdown, Henry, Marquis of,
1811
Lobb, Mr. T.
1728
Jussicu, Mons. Antoine de, M.D. 1718
Lantsheer, J. F. LL.D.
1756
Lobkowitz, F. P. Prince,
1747
1
lxxviii
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F.R. S.
Lock, J. Esq.
Lock, J. Esq.
1663
•
1741
Lock, W. Esq.
1754
Locker, E. H. Esq.
1811
Lockman, Rev. J. D.D.
1778
Manfredi, Sig. E.
Malves, Abbe de Gua de,
Munsberg, Mons. le Baron de,
Manchester, Edward, Earl of,
Manetti, X. M.D.
•
1742, Michaeles, Mr. J. D.
1726
Michaellotti, Sig. P. A.
1665 Michell, J. B.D.
1756 | Michell, R. Esq.
1728
1789
1718
1760
1774
•
•
Lockmaria, Mons. le Marquis de, 1743
Manu, N. Esq.
1737
Mickletou, J. Esq.
Middleton, B. Esq.
1718
1687
Lockyer, C. Esq.
1740
Mann, Mons. T. A.
1788
Middleton, Capt. C.
1737
Lodwick, Mr. F.
1681
•
Manning, O. B.D.
1767
Middleton, Henry, Ld.
1787
Long, R. D.D.
1729
Manningham, R. M.D.
1719
Miles, T. M.A.
1712
•
Long, C. Esq.
1792
Mansfield, William, Earl of,
1802
Miles, Rev. H. D.D.
1743
Long, W. Esq.
1801
Manteufell, Christ. Count de,
1748 | Miller, Mr. P.
1729
•
Lonsdale, John Visc.
1699
Mapletoft, J. M.D.
1675
Milles, D. B.D.
1674
Lonsdale, Henry, Ld. Visc.
1741
Mareet, A. M.D.
1808
Milles, J. M.D.
1742
Lorgna, Col. A. M.
1788
Marchmont, Hugh, Earl of,
1753
Milles, E. Esq.
1746
Lorrain, His Royal Highness
Marinoni, Sig, G. G.
1745
Milles, J. Esq.
1775
Francis Duke of,
1731
Markham, Sir G. Bart,
1708
Millington, L. Esq.
1802
Lort, M. B.D.
1766
Marlborough, Charles, Duke
Millman, F. M.B.
1772
Loten, J. G. Esq.
1760
of,
1743 | Milner, I. M.A.
1780
Loughborough, Alexander, Ld. 1787
Marlborough, George, Duke of,
1786
Mills, W. M.D.
1682
•
Loudoun, John, Earl of,
1737 | Marpurgher, Mons.
1715
Mills, Dr.
1708
.
Loveden, E. L. Esq.
1805
•
Marsden, W. Esq.
•
1783
Mills, J. Esq.
1766
•
Lovell, Thomas, L.
•
1735
Marsh, Rev. II. B.D.
1801
•
Mills, A. Esq.
1799
Lovell, Thomas, Ld.
Lowardes, R. Esq.
Lower, R. M.D.
Lowth, R. D.D.
1739
Marsham, Hon. C.
1776 | Milton, Ld. Visc.
1811
1691
Marsham, R. Esq.
1780
Milward, E. M.D.
1741
•
1667
Marsigli, Mons. L. F. Count,
1691
Minet, D. Esq.
1767
•
1765
Marsili, G. J. M、D.
1758
Minto, Gilbert, Ld.
1802
•
Lowther, Sir J. Bart.
1663
Martin, Rev. T. B.D.
1786
Mitchell, A. Esq.
1735
Lowther, Sir J. Bart.
1736
Martin, M. Esq.
1794 Mitchell, J. M.D.
1748
Lowther, William, Visc.
1810 | Martini, G. M.D.
1740 Mitford, W. Esq.
1749
Lowthorpe, J. M.A.
1702
Martyn, Mr. J.
1727
Mitford, Sir J. Kt.
1794
Luc, Mr. J. Andre de,
1773
Marum, M. Van, M.D.
1798
Modena, F. M. d'Este, Prince
Lucas, R. M. A.
1721
Maseres, F. Esq.
1771
of,
1735
Lucy, Sir K. Bart,
1668
Maskelyne, NM.A.
·
1758
Mohommed, Sidi Ben Ali Ab-
Lucy, Sir B. Bart.
1697
Mason, C. B‚D.
1742
•
gali,
1726
Ludlow, Mr.
1702
Lulofs, Mr. J.
•
Masserano, Priuce de,
1770
Moivre, Mr. Abram de,
.1697
•
1762
#
Massey, R. M. M.D.
1712
·
Molesworth, R. Esq.
1697
•
Lyon, Hon. W. B.
1810
•
Masson, Mons. J.
1743 Molesworth, R. Esq.
1721
Lyonet, Mr. P.
Lysons, S. Esq.
1747
Matani, A. M.D.
1763
•
Molesworth, Hʊn. C.
1730
1797
Matber, R. Esq.
1729
•
Molesworth, R. Esq.
1786
Lysons, Rev. D. M.A.
1797
Mathew, W. Esq.
1719
Molieres, Abbe J. Privat de,
1728
Lyster, Mr. M.
1671
Mathew3, Sir P.
•
1670
Molinelli, P. P. M.D.
1749
•
Lyttleton, C. LL.D.
Lyttleton, G. Esq.
Lytton, R. W. Esq.
Macarthy, J. Esq.
Macartney, George, Ld.
a
Macartney, J. Esq.
Machin, Mr. J.
Macie, J. L. Esq.
M'Bean, Col. F.
Macdonald, Lieut.-Col. J.
Mace, W. Esq.
Mac Farlane, Mr. A.
Mackenzie, Mr. M.
Mackenzie, F. H. Esq.
Mackworth, Sir H. Bart.
1742 Mathias, T. J. Esq.
1743 Maton, W. G. M.B.
1772 Maty, M. M.D.
Matty, P. H. M.A.
1770 Maude, Mr. J.
1792 Mauduit, Mr. I.
Mayer, C. S.J.
Mayow, J. M.D.
1811
1786
1795
Molyneaux, T. Esq.
1686
1800
.
#
Molyneaux, Sir D. Bart.
1735
*
1750
Molyneux, W. Esq.
1686
•
1771
Molyneux, S. Esq.
1712
•
1738
•
Monceau, H. L. du Hamel du, 1734
1751
Monceaux, Mons. A.
1670
·
1766 Monnier, Mons. le,
1739
1678
Monnier, Mous. le, M.D.
1744
•
..
1800
Mazeas, Mr. W.
•
1752
Monro, D. M.D.
1766
1745
Mead, R. M.D.
1703
Monson, J. Esq.
1684
1746
Mead, S. Esq.
1738
Montagny, Dr. Joseph de,
1739
•
•
•
1710
Mears,
>
Esq.
1686
Montagu, Rt. Hon. Frederick,
1792
1787
•
Méchain, Mons. P. F. Andre,
1789
1789
Montague, Rt. Hon. Charles,
1695
1774
•
Medina Sidonia, Duke de,
1749
Montague, John, Duke f,
1717
1794
Meerman, G. LL.D.
1760
Montague, E. Esq.
1745
་
1777
· •
Mellarede, Mons. Pierre de,
1713
Montague, E. W. Esq.
1750
M'Laurin, Mr. C.
1719
4
Mello e Castro, Mons. Mar-
Montague, M. Esq.
1795
•
Macleay, A. Esq.
1809
tinho de,
1757
Monte Leon, Mons. Le. Mar-
Macleod, Col. N.
1791
•
Melville, R. Esq.
1775
quis de,
1716
Maffei, Marquis Scipio,
1736
Mendoça Corte Real, Don
Montesquieu, Mons. de,
1729
Magalhaens, or Magelhan, Mr.
Diego de,
1735
Montesquieu, Mons. Secondat,
J. Hyacinth de,
Magalotti, Count L.
1709
1774 | Mendoza, Don Joseph y Rios,
Menkenius, Mons. J. B.
1793
de,
1744
1699
Montigny, Mr. C. D. Trudaine
Mahon, Charles, L:. Visc.
Mahon, P. Henry, Visc.
1472 Mensicoff, Prince Alexander
de,
1766
1807
de,
··
1714
Montigo, Conde de,
1732
Mairan, J. J. d'Outous de,
1734
Mercator, Mr. N.
1666
Montmort, Mons. P. Rhe-
Maitland, Mr. W..
1733
Mereditb, R. Esq.
1681
monde de,
1715
Maizeaux, Peter des, Esq.
1720 Meres, Sir J. Bart.
1718
Montrose, James, Duke of,
1707
Majendie, Mr. J. J.
1768
Meres, Mr. J.
1723 Moor, Major, E.
1806
Majendie, L. Esq.
1794
Merrill, J. Esq.
1744
Moore, H. D.D.
1064
Malaspina, Marchese Lewis,
1784
Messier, Mr. C.
1764
Moore, Sir J. Kt.
1674
Malet, Sir C. W. Bart.
•
1806
Metcalfe, P. Esq.
1790
Moore, J. Esq.
1680
·
Malliet, J. Esq
1767
Meuschen, Mr. F. C.
1764
Moore, J. Esq.
1715
•
Malonio, Mons. P. J.
Malpighi, Sig. M.
•
1753
Meyrick, O. P. Esq.
1776
Moore, C. Esq.
1768
1668
Meyrick, J. Esq.
•
1800 Moore, D. Esq.
1810
APPENDIX. No. V.
lxxix
Morand, Mons. S. F...
Morand, J. F. C. M.D.
Mordaunt, Lieut.-Gen. T. O.
More, R. Esq.
Morell, T. D.D.
Morgagni, Sig. J. B.
Morgan, W. Esq.
Morgan, J. M.D.
Morland, J. M.D.
Morland, Mr. S.
Morland, Mr. B.
Morland, S. M.A.
Morley, Dr. G. Bp.
Morosini, Mr. L.
*
Morpeth, George, Visc.
1728 | Neve, Peter Le, Esq.
1769
Newborough, George, Lả.
1796 Newburgh, J. Esq.
1729
1768
1712
Palmer, T. Esq.
1726
:
1715
Palmer, Mr. S.
1729
1661
Palmer, W. F. Esq.
1786
•
1790
Newcastle, Thomas, Duke of,
Newcome, P. M.A.
1722 | Newey, Mr. J. A.M.
Newman, Mons. G.
1749
Palmerston, Heury, Visc.
1776
•
1742
Paman, H. M.D.
1679
1696
Paman, Mr. R.
1743
1725
Pancrazzi, Father G. M.
1756
1765
Newton, Mr. J.
1671
•
Panicis, Jos, de, M.D.
1740
1703
Newton, H. LL.D.
1709
•
•
Panzano, Ds. M. F.S. A
1761
•
1704
Nichol, Sir J. Kt,
1806
•
Paoli, Gen. Pasquale de,
1774
1707
•
Nicholas, W. Esq.
1742
·
Papillon, D. Esq.
1720
•
ค
1722
•
Nicholls, F. M.D.
1728
Papin, D. M.D.
1680
•
•
1668
Nicholson, Col. F.
1706
Paradise, J. Esq.
1771
•
•
1763
•
Nicholson, H. M.D.
1716
Parker, S. A.M.
1666
1795
Nicholson, Major-Gen. R.
1807
Parker, Sir T.
1712
•
Morris, R. H. Esq.
Morris, C. Esq.
1755
Nickols, Mr. J.
1743
Parker, George, Bd.
1722
·
1757
Nicolini, Tae Marchese An-
Parker, W. M.A.
1746
Morris, M. M.D.
Morris, G. P. M.D.
Morse, L. Esq.
Morse, Col. R.
Mortimer, J. Esq.
Mortimer, C. M.D.
Morton, J. M.A.
Morton, C. M.D.
•
1764
tony,
1741
Parker, Thomas, Ld.
1747
1805 Nicoll, J. Esq.
1765
Parker, J. Esq.
1767
1766
Nicolson, Dr. W. Bp.
1705
Parkinson, Rev. T. M.A.
1786
1789
Nibell, J. M.D.
1742
Parkyns, T. B. Esq.
1787
1705
Nivernois, L. Jul. Duke de,
1763
Parr, B. M.D.
1797
1728
•
Nixon, Rev. J. M.A.
1744
·
Parry, C. H. M.D.
1800
1703
Nixon, Rev. R. B.D.
1801
Parry, C. H. M.D.
1812
1752
Noguier, J. A. Esq.
1809
Parsons, J. M.D.
1741
Morton, George, Earl of,
1785
Noia, J. Carafa, Duke de,
1759
Parsons, W. Esq.
1787
Morveau, L. B. Guyton de,
1788
Nolcken, G. A. Baron,
1777
Partridge, H. Esq.
1778
Moss, C. D.D.
1752
量
​Nollet, Abbe, J. A.
1734
Passeri, Abbe G. B.
1747
•
Moulin, Jaques de,
1667
Nooth, J. M. M.D.
1774
Paterson, Lieut.-Col. W.
1793
J
Moult, Mr. G.
1689
Norden, Capt. F. L.
1740
Patoun, A.
1730
Moultou, Mr. P.
1780
Norris, E. M.D.
1698
Paul, Mr. R.
1716
•
Mounsey, J, M,D.
1749
North and Grey, William, Ld.
1720
Paule, L. M.D.
1692
Mountaine, Mr. W.
1750
North, Hon. G. A.
1782
Pawlet, E. Esq.
1726
Mount Morres, Harvey, Visc.
1793
North, Hon. F.
1794
Payne, Mr. W. A.M.
1681
Mountnorris, Arthur, Earl of,
1800
Northey, W. Esq.
1753
Payne, Sir R. K. B.
1779
.
reau de.
Moupertuis, Mons. P. L. Mo-
Moxon, Mr. J.
Mudge, Mr. J.
•
Mudge, Capt. W.
Muller, Mr. G. F.
Münchausen, B. Von,
Munck, Mynheer,
Munckley, N. M.D.
Munro, Mr. A.
Muratori, Sig, L. A.
Murdoch, Rev. P.
Murdoch, T. Esq.
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke
Peachey, J. Esq.
1777
1728
of,
1788
Peachey, Sir J, Bart,
1782
•
•
1678
Norton, Rt. Hon. Sir F. Kt.
1776
Pearce, Z. M.A.
1720
1777
Nourse, Mr. E,
1728
•
•
•
Pearce, Rev. W. D.D.
1788
1798
Nugent, C. M.D.
1768
•
Pearson, J. D.D.
1667
1730
Pearson, G. M.D.
1791
•
1685
· .
•
Oassor, Mr. M. Le,
1701
Pearson, Mr. J.
1803
1747
Oberantmano, Mr. Schroeter,
1798
Pechlin, J. N. M.D.
1689
1748
O'Brien, Sir L. Bart.
1773
Pegge, C. M.D.
1795
•
1723
Oglethorpe, Hon. James,
1749
Peirson, P. Esq.
1794
•
1717
Olbers, W. M.D.
1804
.
Pellett, T. M.D.
1712
•
1745
Oldershaw, Rev. J. M.A.
1786
Pelham, Rt. Hon. Ileury,
1746
會
​1805
Oliphant, C. M.D.
1713
Pelham, C. A. Esq.
1777
Murray, Hon, J.
Musgrave, W. LL.D.
Musgrave, Dr.
Musgrave, S. M.A.
•
1792
Oliver, W. M.D.
1703
•
Pelham, Rt. Hon. T.
1800
Muschenbrock, P. Van,
1734 | Oliver, W. M.D.
1729
Pemberton, Mr.
1715
1684
Onslow, Hon. E.
1780
Pemberton, II. M.D.
1720
1721
Orange, His Highness William,
Pemberton, C. R. M.D.
1796
1760
Prince of,
1733
Pembroke, Henry, Earl of,
1743
los,
Musgrave, Sir W. Bart.
Mussin Puschkin, Count Apol-
Myddleton, J. Esq.
1774
Ord, Ralph, Esq.
1723
Pembroke and Montgomery,
Ord, Rob. Esq.
1723
•
Thomas, Earl of,
1695
1799 | Ord, J. Esq.
1780
•
•
Penn, W. Esq.
1681
Mylne, R. Esq.
Mytton, J. Esq.
1738 | Ord, C. Esq.
1767
1767
Oriani, Mr. B.
Oroi, Sig. J. Marquis d',
Orrery, Charles, Earl of,
1787
•
Penn, W. Esq.
1806
•
1795
Pennant, T. Esq.
1767
·
1716
Pennant, D. Esq.
1792
•
1706
•
Penneck, R. A.M.
1768
Naesmith, Sir J, Bart,
1767 Ortega, C. G. M.D.
1777
Penton, H. Esq.
1780
•
Nairne, Mr. E,
1776
Osborn, J. Esq.
1777
Pepys, S. Esq.
1664
Naper, W. Esq.
1679
D
• •
Ossorio, Chev,
1748
Pepys, L. M.D.
1780
Napier, J. Esq.
1775
·
Ouchterlony, Mr. A.
1733
Pepys, W. II. Esq.
1808
•
Nares, Rev. R. M.A,
1804
1
Oudart, N. Esq.
1667
Percival, T. Esq.
1756
·
Nash, J. Esq.
1778 Owen, Rev. H. M.D.
1755
Percivale, Sir P. Bart,
1674
Natter, Mr. L.
1757
Percivale, Sir J. Bart.
1681
Naudé, Mr. P.
1737
Pacey, II. Esq.
1752
Percivale, Sir J. Bart,
1701
Nauze, Mons. Lewis de la,
1731
Paderni, Sig. C.
1755
Percivall, T. Esq.
1765
Neale, T. Esq.
1664
•
Page, Capt. T. II.
1783
Pereira, Mons.
•
1760
Neave, R. Esq.
1785
Paget, E. M.A.
1682
Perkins, Mr. P.
1680
Needham, W. M.D.
1667
Paisley, James, Ld.
1715
Perrin, W. P. Esq.
1772
Needham, Mr. T.
Nelson, R. Esq.
Nelthorpe, E. Esq.
Nesbitt, R. M.D.
•
1746
Palatine, C. Theodore, Elec-
Perronet, Mons. J. R.
1788
1680
tor of,
1784
Perry, W. A. M.
1678
1666
Pallas, P. S. M.D.
1764
Peterborough, Henry, Earl of, 1663
•
1725 Palmer, J. Esq.
1719
Petit, Ds. J. L.
A
1729
lxxx
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F. R. S.
Petit, J. L. M.A.
1759
+
Pott, Mr. P.
1764 | Reyner, Col. B.
1667
Petit, L. H. Esq.
1807
Potter, F. B.D.
1663 Reynardson, S. Esq.
1741
•
Petiver, Mr. J.
1695
Potter, T. Esq.
1784 | Reynolds, Mr. J.
1761
Petley, C. Esq.
1758
Pound, Mr. J. M.B.
1699
Reynolds, H. R. M.D.
1781
Petre, R. James, Ld.
1731
Powell, W. S. D.D.
1764
Rezzonico, Prince Abondio,
1776
Petre, Edward, Ld.
1780 Power, H. M.D.
1669
Rich, D. Esq.
1743
Petre, W. Esq.
1795
Powis, Sir L.
1724
·
•
Richards, R. Esq.
1793
Pettit, Mons. P.
1667
Powlet, John, Ld.
1706
Richardson, R. M.D.
1712
Pettiward, R. D.D.
1755
Pownall, T. Esq.
1772
•
Richardson, Rev. R. D.D.
1779
Pettus, Sir J. Bart,
1663
Pratt, B. D.D.
1708
•
Richmond, Charles, Duke of,
1723
Petty, H. Esq.
1696
Pratt, C. Esq.
1742 | Richmond, Charles, Duke of,
1755
Petty, J. Esq.
1771
Preston, J. Esq.
•
1773
Peysonnel, Mons. J. A.
Ridge, G. Esq.
1810
1756
Preston, Rev. Ŵ. M.A.
1778
Rigaud, S. P. Esq.
1805
Pfäitschner, Baron,
1732
Pretyman, Rev. G. D.D.
1785
Riou, Capt. E.
1796
Philips, E. Esq.
1727
•
Prevost, Mr. P.
•
1806
Ripa, Sig. Ludovicus a,
1718
•
Phillips, J. Esq.
1742
•
Price, W. Esq.
1753
Ripa, Sig. Ludovicus a,
1733
•
Phipps, Hon. C. J.
1771
Price, Mr. R.
1765
Rittenhouse, D. Esq.
1795
Piazzi, Mr. J.
1804
Price, R. P. Esq.
1781
Pickering, Mr. R.
1744
Price, J. A.M.
1781
Rivinus, A. Q. M.D.
Rixtel, Mr. J. Van.
1703
•
1739
Picquigny, L. M. Jos. d'Al-
Prideaux, B. Esq.
1746 | Riz, Mr. D.
1766
■
bert d'Ailly, Duke de,
1764
Priestley, J. LL.D.
1766
Robartes, John, Ld.
1666
• +
Pictet, Mr. M.A.
1791
Prime, S. Esq.
1776
Robartes, F. Esq.
1673
Pierce, Mr. J.
1742
Pringle, J. Esq.
1745
Robartes, R. Esq.
1703
Piggott, A. Esq.
1787
Pringle. Lieut.-Col, R.
1785
Robartes, J. Esq.
1732
Pighius, Dr. J.
1680
Prior, M. Esq.
1697
Roberts, F. M.D.
1799
Pigot, Mr. T.
1679
Protti, Mons. Le,
Pigott, N. Esq.
1772
Pryme, Mous. da la,
1701
1734 Roberts, R. E. Esq.
Robertson, Mr. J.
1801
1741
Pigott, G. Esq.
1774
Pujolas, Mr. M.
1695 Robertson, J. M.D.
1790
Pinto, Chev. Louis,
Pitcairn, W. M.D.
Pitcairn, D. M.B.
Pitfield, A. Esq.
1787
Pulteney, Mr. R.
1762
Robertson, Rev. A. M.A.
1795
1770❘ Putman, Mr. H.
1767
Robertson, R. Esq.
1804
1782 Pye, Sir R. Bart.
1727
Bobertson, J. Esq.
1810
1684
· •
Robins, Mr. B.
1727
Pitot, Dr. H.
Pitt, R. M.D.
Pitt, Hon. W.
Pitt, J. Esq.
Pitt, W. M. Esq.
1740
Queensborough, Charles, Duke
Robinson, R. M.D.
1681
1682
of,
1722
Robinson, T. M.D.
1684
1743 Quesnay, Mons. F.
1752
Robinson, T. Esq.
1726
1775
Robinson, M. Esq.
1746
1787
Rackett, Rev. T. M.A.
1803
Roby, Mr.
1725
Place, P. Simon de la,
Planta, A. J. M.A.
Planta, Mr. J.
1789
Radnor, C. Bodvill, Earl of,
1693
Rockingham, Charles, Mar-
1770 Radnor, William, Farl of,
1767
quis of,
1751
1774
Radnor, Jacob, Earl of,
1795
Roderick, R. M.A.
1750
Platt, J.
•
1762
Raine, Rev. M. D.D.
1803
Roebuck, J. M.D.
1764
Player, Sir T. Kt.
1673
•
Rainsford, Major Gen. C.
·
1779
Rogers, J. M.A.
1681
Playfair, J. Esq.
Plott, R. LL.D.
1807
Ramsay, And. Mic. E.S.L.
1729
Rogers, J. M.D.
1738
1677
Ramsden, Mr. J.
1786
Rogers, C. Esq.
1757
Plumer, T. Esq.
1794
Plumptre, H. M.D.
1707
Ranby, Mr. J.
Raud, Mr. I.
•
1724
Rogers, G. Esq.
1789
1719
Rogers, S. Esq.
1796
Plymouth, Other, Earl of,
1773 | Randolph, Ld. John, Bp.
1811
Rogerson, J. M.D.
1779
Pocock, T. M.A.
1727
Raper, M. Esq.
1754 | Rolli, Dr. P. A.
1729
Pocock, G. Esq.
1791
Raper, M. Esq.
•
D
1783
Rolserius, D.
1720
Pococke, R. LL.D.
1741
Raphson, J. M.A.
1689
Polt, T. Esq.
..
•
1664
Poczobut, Father M.
1771
Rasleigh, P. Esq.
·
1788
Romilly, Mr I.
1757
Podmaniczky, Joseph Lewis
Raspe, Mr. R. E.
1769
·
Romuey, Robert, Ld.
1723
de,
1780
Raulin, J. M.D.
1763
Romney, Robert, Ld.
1757
Poissonnier, Mr. P. M.D.
1774
Poland, Stanislaus Augustus,
Ravaud, D. M.A.
1747
·
Ransaumousky, Count Cyrille, 1755
Rosenkrantz, Mons, I. Baron, 1713
Rose, Rev. W. M.A.
1786
King of,
1766
Rawden, Sir J. Bart.
1744
Ross, J. D.D.
1758
Pole, C. M. Esq.
1800
Rawlinson, T. Esq.
1712
Ross, Licut.-Col. P.
1794
•
Poleni, Sig. J.
1710
•
Rawlinson, R. M.A.
1714
Poley, R. Esq.
1725
Rawlinson, Sir W. Kt.
1775
Rowden, Francis, Ld.
Rowe, II. Esq.
1787
•
W
1739
Poli, Mr. J.
1779
Raymond, Robert, Ld.
Pollok, A. M.D.
1767
Raynal, Mr. G. T...
1739 | Rowley, Lieut.-Col. J.
1754 Rowley, Rev. G.
1809
1811
•
Polwarth, Alexander, Ld.
1773
·
Reade, H. Esq.
1747
Roxburgh, John, Duke of,
1707
Pond, Mr. A.
1752
Reanmer, Dr. R. A.
Fer-
Roy, W. Esq.
1767
•
Pond, J. Esq.
1807
chault de,
1738
Roy, Mr. J. Baptiste Le,
1773
Poniatowsky, Michael, Prince, 1791
Reay, Ld. George,
1698
Royen, Adrianus Van,
1728
Poore, E. Esq.
1772
Recanati, Sig. J. B.
1720
Royen, David Van,
1759
•
Popham, Capt. H.
1799 | Redding, R. Esq.
1671
Rudge, E. Esq.
1726
Popple, H. Esq.
1737
•
Redern, Count Sigesmund de,
1765
Rudge, E. Esq.
1805
Porter, J. Esq.
1749
Rees, Rev. A, D.D.
1786
Ruischer, Mr. Melchior de,
1729
Portland, William, Duke of,
1739
Reeves, J. Esq.
1790
•
Russell, Dr.
1681
Portland, Wm. Henry, Duke
Reid, T. Esq.
1806
Russell, M. Esq.
1742
of,
1766
Reinuccini, The Marchese,
1747
Russell, R. M.D.
1752
Portman, Sir W. Kt. Bart.
W.i
Relham, Rev. R. M.A.
1787
Russell, A. M.D.
1750
and K.B.
1664
Rennell, J. Esq.
1781
Russell, F. Esq.
1770
Portuga, Benito de Moura,
1740
Rennie, J. Esq.
1798
Russell, W. Esq.
1777
•
Postlethwayt, J. Esq.
1754
Revillas, Father Didacus de,
1734
Russell, P. M.D.
17774
APPENDIX. No. V.
Ixxxi
Rutherford, T. B.D.
Rutty, W. M.A.
Ruy-h, Mons. F. M.D.
Ryan, J. Esq.
Rycaut, P. Esq.
་
1742, Seur, Father Thomas Le,
1741
Solander, D. C. M.D.
1784
•
1720
Seward, W.
Esq.
1779
Solenthal, H. F. Baron de,
1743
..
+
1715
Seymour, Ld. Webb,
1802
Solly, S. Esq.
1792
•
→
1798
Shackleford, Rev. R. D. D.D.
R.D.
1792
Solly, R. II. Esq.
1707
•
1666
Shadwell, J. M.D.
1701
Somers, John, Ld.
1698
Ryley, Mr. P.
Ryves, T. Esq.
1696
Shadwell, L. Esq.
1778
Somerset, E. Adolphus, Duke
1760 Shaftesbury, Anhtony, Earl
of,
1797
of,
1754
Sotheby, Col. W.
w..
1743
•
•
..
Sabine, J. Esq.
Sachetti, Rev. Mons. G.
Sage, Mr. G. Lewis Le,
Sainthill, Mr. P.
Salengre, Mons. A. Henri de,
Salis, Count Jerom de,
Salis, H. Jerom de, M. A.
Salis, Jerom de, Esq.
Salisbury, Mr. O.
Salisbury, James, Earl of,
Salisbury, R. A. Esq.
Sharp, R. Esq.
1740 | Sharpe, G. LL.D.
1770 | Sharpe, F. W. Esq.
Shaw, J. Esq.
►
1799
Shaftesbury, Anthony, Earl of,
1785
Sotheby, W. Esq.
1794
*
1740
Shard, I. P. Esq.
1750
•
Southwell, E. Esq.
1692
1775
Sharp, Mr. S.
1749
Southwell, Thomas, Ld.
1735
1734
Sharp, Mr. W.
1769
Souza, Don Gasp. Mer. de,
1669
1719
1806 Spalding, J. Esq.
1797
1754 Spallanzani, Mr. L.
1768
•
1808
1703
1764 | Spanheim, Mons. E. de,
Sparke, Dr. B. E. Bp.
1679
1810
1681
Shaw, T. D.D.
1784
Shaw, P. M.D.
1752
1787
Shaw, G. M.D.
Sallier, Abbe C.
1744
Shee, Sir G. Bart,
Saluce, Count de,
Salvador, J. Esq.
1760
D
Sheers, Capt. H.
1734 Spencer, Charles, Ld.
Sperling, Mr. O.
1789 | Spilman, J. Esq.
1810 | Spoleto, Sig. F.
1675 Spranger, J. Esq.
1698
1700
1734
•
1696
1791
•
1759
Sheffield, Joha, Ld.
1783
Spratt, T. M. A.
1712
Salvini, Sig. A. M.
1716
Sheldon, Dr. G. Abp.
1664
Sprengell, C. M.D.
1720
Simbrooke, J. Esq.
1681
Sheldon, Mr. J.
1784
Squire, S. M. A.
1746
Sampson, Rev. T.
1811
Shelvocke, G. Esq.
•
1742
Stack, T. M.D.
1737
San.uda, I. de Sequeyra, M.D. 1723
Shepherd, A. B.D.
1763
Stafford, William, Ld. Visc.
1664
Sall
es, S. Esq.
•
1720
Shepherd, R. B.D.
1781
Stafford, William, Earl of,
1743
Sanderson, N. M.A.
1718
•
Sheridan, T. Esq.
1679
Stamford, Thomas, Earl of,
1708
Sandilands, A. M.D
1711
→
Sherlock, J. Esq.
1715
Stampfer, Mons. J. A.
1688
Sandwich, John, Earl of,
1739
Sherrard, Mr. J.
1706 | Stanhope, C. Esq.
1720
Sarayva, M
M.D.
1743
Sherrard, W. LL.D.
1719 Stanhope, Philip, Earl,
1735
Sarmento, J. de Castro, M.D. 1729
Sherwood, Mr. N.
•
1745 Stanley, W. D.D...
1689
Sarotti, Sig. J. A.
1679
Shippen, R. M.A.
1706
Stanley, J. Esq.
1698
Saunders, W. M.D.
1745
Shirley, Mr. R.
1698
Stanley, G. Esq.
1719
Saunders, F. D.D.
1759 Short, Mr. J.
· *
1737 Stanley, E. Esq.
1765
Saunders, W. M.D.
1793
Short, C. Esq.
1804
Stauley, J. T. Esq.
1790
Saussure, H. Benedict de,
1788
Sauvage de la Croix, Mons.
Shuckburgh, Sir G. Bart,
Shuldam, Molyneux, Ld.
*
1774 Stanley, R. Esq.
1791
1777
Stanning, Sir N. Kt.
1664
F. B.
1749
Shuttleworth, R. Esq.
1777
Stanyan, T.
1726
Saverino, G. B. Albertini,
Prince de San,
1760
Sibthorp, J. M.D.
Silvester, Mons, P.
1788
Stathmore, James, Earl of.
1732
..
1699 Staunton, Sir G. L. Bart,
1787
Savery, Capt. T.
|
1706 Silvester, J. M.D.
1747
Staunton, Sir G. T. Bart.
1803
•
Savil, Sir G. Bart.
1747
•
Silvester, J. Esq.
1780
Steavens, T. Esq.
1752
Savile, Sir G. Bart.
1721
•
Simon, Mr. W.
1716
Stebbing, H. D.D.
1765
Sawbridge, J. Esq.
Saxe Gotha, Ernestus, Duke of, 1787
Scarlotti, Mons. Pomponius,
1739
Simmons, S. F. M.D.
1779
Stebelin, J. P. M.A.
1739
Simpson, Mr. T.
1745 Stehelin, Mr. Jacob de,
1773
Simson, Mr. J.
1748 Steigertahl, J. G. M.D.
1714
Baron de,
Scarpa, Mr. A.
Schæfer, J. C. D.D.
Schamberg, Dr. M.
Scheuchzer, J. G. M.D.
Scheuchzerus, J. J. M.D.
Scheurer, S. D.D.
•
Schlosser, J. A. M.D.
Schmeisser, Mr. J. G.
•
Schoepflin, Mons. J. D.
Schreber, J. C. Daniel Von,
Schuvaloff, John de,
1696
1791
•
1764
•
•
1726
•
1724
1703
•
Sloan e, H. M.D.
1717
Sinclair, J. Esq.
1784 Stephens, W. M.D.
1718
Six, J. Esq.
Skinner, S. Esq.
Skippon, P. Esq.
Slare, F. M.D.
1792 Stephens, T. Esq.
1766
1680
•
Sloane, W. Esq.
1756 Slusiu, R. F. Con. Leod.
1740 Stephens, F. Esq.
1667
Stepney, G. Esq.
Sterling, Mr. R.
1685 Sterne, Dr. R. Abp.
1722 Stevens, J. Esq.
1613 Stevens, H. S. Esq.
1793
1697
1775
1665
1734
1740
1794
Smeaton, Mr. J.
1753
Stevens, G.
1767
•
1728
Smethwick, F. Esq.
1667
•
=
Stevens, P. Esq.
1771
•
1757
Smith, T. B.D.
1677
Stevenson, W. F. Esq.
1811
1758 Smith, R. M.A.
1718
Stewart, Sir N. Bart.
1667
Scott, G. L. Esq.
.
•
1737
Smith, E. Esq.
1737
Stewart, M. D.D.
1764
Scott, G. Esq.
•
1747 Smith, A. LL.D.
1767
Stewart, J. Esq.
1776
Scott, Sir J. Kt.
•
1793
Smith, J. Esq.
1773
Stiernhielm, Mons. G.
1669
•
Scott, Sir W. Kt.
1793
Smith, J. E. Esq.
•
1785
Scott, J. C. Esq.
1800
Smith, M. Esq.
Seafield, Ld. Visc. James,
Seaforth, Kenneth, Earl of,
1698
Smith, R. Esq.
1772 Smith, Capt. M.
1801 Stirling, Mr. J.
Seale, Rev. J.B. M.A.
Seally, Rev. J. LL.D.
1786
Smith, J. Esq.
Stiles, F. H. E. Esq.
1795 | Stillingßeet, Mr. E.
1796
Stinton, &, D.D.
1803 Stirling, Sir W. Bart.
1742
1688
•
1776
1726
1801
1791 Smith, W. Esq.
1805 Stirling, Adm. C.
1806
Seba, Mr. A.
..
1728
Smith, W. Esq.
1806 Stone, Mr. E.
1785
Segner, Dr. J. A.
1737
Smith, J. Esq.
1809 Stormont, David, Ld. Visc.
1666
Seip, J. P. M.D.
·
1736
Smith, Adm. Sir W. Sidney,
1811 Stracey, E Esq.
1810
Sejour, Chev, A. P. Dionis du,
1775
Smithson, Sir H. Bart.
1736
Strackey, J. Esq.
1719
•
Selkirk, Thomas, Earl of,
1808
Smyth, E. Esq.
Sellius, G. LL.D.
1733
Smyth, E. D.D.
1663 Strafford, William, Earl of,
1695 Strange, J. Esq.
1667
1766
Senex, Mr. J.
1728
Smyth, J. C. M.D.
1779
Strangeways, Col. G.
1673
Serenius, M. J.
1731
Smythe, S. S. Esq.
1741
Stratico, Count Simon,
1764
Serra, J. Correa de, LL.D.
1798 Soame, W. Esq.
1667
Stratton, &. F. Esq.
1807
lxxxii
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE F. R. S.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
Struych, Mr. N.
Stuart, A. Esq.
Stuart, C. M.D.
Stuart, J. Esq.
Stubs, P. M.A.
Stukeley, W. M.D.
Snasso, A. L. Esq.
Sne, Mr. J. Joseph Le,
Sulivan, R. J. Esq.
Summer, G. HI. Esq.
Superville, Daniel de, M.D.
Supple, R. B. Esq.
Sussex, Talbot, Earl of,
Sweiten, G. Van, M.D.
Swinden, Philip Van, M.A.
Swinney, S. D.D.
Swinton, Mr. J. M.A.
Sydenham, Sir P. Bart.
Sylvius,
M.D.
Symes, Lieut.-Col. M.
Symmer, R. Esq.
Symmons, J, Esq.
Taglini, Sig, C.
Talbot, Sir J. Kt.
Talbot, W. Esq.
·
Tanner, Mr. J.
Tarbat, Geo. Visc.
Taylor, B. LL.B...
Taylor, C. Esq.
Taylor, R. M.D.
Taylor, J. Esq.
Peighe, M. M.D.
Teissier, Mr. G. L.
Tempest, W. Esq.
Tennant, S. Esq.
•
1760 Trevor, Sir T. Kt.
1796
1740
1785 | Trevor, Hon. T.
Trevor, J. Esq.
Trevor, Robert, Ld.
1788 | Trew, C. J. M.D.
1721 Tronchin, T. M.D.
1749 Trotter, J. Esq.
1772 | Trou, Sig. N.
Turbilly, F. Hon, the Marquis
de,
1749 | Tough, C. M.A.
1749 | Vigoy, Mons. Pierre de,
1741
#4
1714 Townley, C. Esq.
1791
霉
​Villermont, Mons. E. Carbat de,1685
1719
Townley, J. Esq.
1797
Villocson, Mous. J. B. G.
1758
Townsend, I. Esq.
1749
Dansse de,
1776
•
1703
Townshend, Charles, Ld. Visc. 1706
Vince, Rev. S. M.A.
1786
1717
Tozzi, B.
1715
Vincent, N. D.D.
1683
1735 | Trembley, Mons. A.
1743
Vincent, Mons. L.
1715
1707
·
Vincent, John, Earl of St.,
1809
1726
•
Viviani, Sig. V.
1696
1728
Volkra, O. C. Count,
1716
1764
Volta, Mr. A.
1791
17:6
·
•
Voltaire, Mons. F. M. Arouct
1762
de,
1743
1802
Vrijberge, Mons. Van,
1706
1719
Vyse, W. LL.D.
1781
1764 Trouton, Mr. E.
1810
1729
Trumball, Sir W. Kt.
1692
Wade, W. M.D.
1811
1700 | Trye, C. B. E-q.
1687 Tufnell, S. Esq.
1807
Wagstaffe, W. M.D.
1717
1709
Waldegrave, James, Earl of,
1749
1800 | Tufnell, G. F. Esq.
1753 Tunstall, M. Esq.
1758 Wales, George, Prince of,
1727
1771
1794
Wales, Frederick, Prince of,
Wales, Mr. W.
1728
1776
•
1762
Wales, George, Prince of,
1789
1782 | Turnbull, J.
Turnbull, J. Esq.
1791 | Walker, T. M.A.
1729
1663
Turner, J. Esq.
1682
D
Walker, Capt. W.
1737
1742
Turner, E. Esq.
1713
Walker, Rev. G.
1771
1710
Turner, S. Esq.
1741
·
Walker, J. M.B.
1774
..
..
1692
Turner, E. Esq.
•
1786
Walker, F. Esq.
1791
1712 | Turner, S. Esq.
1801
Walker, T. Esq.
1791
1722
Turner, D. Esq.
1802
Walker, J. Esq.
1794
1737
Turner, Col. T. H.
1804
Wall, Chev. Richard,
1753
1776
Turton, J. M.B.
1762
Wall, M. M.D.
1789
1774
Tuthill, G. A.M.
1810
Waller, Sir W.
1679
1725
Tweedale, John, Earl of,
1663
Waller, R. Esq.
1681
1712
Twiss, R. Esq.
1774 | Walmesley, Pere C.
1750
1785
Tyndall, T. Esq.
1762
Walpole, Hon. Horatio,
1746
Tennent, J. M.D.
1765
Tyrawly, James, Ld.
1747
Walsh, J. Esq.
1770
Theobald, J. Esq.
1725
Tyrconnel, Ld. Visc.
1735 Walsingham, Hon. R. B.
1778
Thicullier, L. Jean le, M.D.
1749
Tyrwhitt, T. Esq.
1771
•
Walsted, R. M.D.
1717
Thistlethwayte, A. Esq.
1757
Tyson, E. M.D.
1679
Walter, J. G. M.D.
1794
Thom, Mr. Frederick de,
1729
Tyson, Rev. M. B.D.
1779
Wanley, Mr. H.
1706
Thomas, N. M.A.
1753
Warberg, Mr. O.
1805
d
Thomas, E. AI.A.
1770
Ubaldini, Count Charles, of,
1667
Warburton, J. Esq.
1719
Thomas, Mr. H. L.
Thompson, R. Esq.
Thompson, Sir P. Kt.
Thompson, B. Esq.
Thomson, S. W. D.D.
Thomson, W. M.B.
1806 Udina, Maffeo, Count of,
1756
:
1702 Udny, R. Esq.
Warburton, H. Esq.
1785 | Ward, E. A.M.
1809
•
1667
•
1746 Ulloa, Don Antonio de,
1746 | Ward, Sir P. Kt.
1691
:
1779
Upper Ossory, John, Earl of,
1780
Ward, Mr. J.
1723
•
•
1770 Upton, J. Esq.
1757
Ware, Mr. J.
1802
1786 Upton, Hon. F. Greville,
1803
Wargentin, P. Kt.
1764
•
Thomson, A. Esq.
..
1786 Usher, Rev. II. D.D. ..
1785
Waring, E. M.A.
1763
Thomson, T. M.D.
Thoresby, R. Esq.
Thornhill, Sir J. Kt.
Thornton, E. Esq.
Thorpe, J. M.B.
Thruston, M. M.D.
Thumberg, C. P. M.D.
1811
•
Waring, R. H. Esq.
1769
1697
•
Vage, Mr. T.
1779
•
Warner, Mr. J.
1750
1723
Valentia, George, Visc.
1796
Warren, R. M.D.
1764
•
1810 Valentini, M. B.
1715
Warren, C. Esq.
1790
1705
•
Valisnieri, Sig. A.
1703
1665 Vallancey, Col. C.
1786
Waterhouse, E. Esq.
Watkins, Mr. T.
•
1663
÷
•
1714
1788
Valtravers, Radolph de, Esq. 1755
Thury, Mons. C. F. Cassini de, 1750
Valvasor, Mons. J. W.
1687
Thynne, T. Esq.
1664
Varignon, Mons. P.
Watkins, Rev. T.
Watson, Mr. W.
1714 Watson, R. M.D.
1794
•
1741
1750
Tighe, Mr. R.
1708
Vater, Mons. A,
1721
Watson, J. Esq.
1763
·
Tighe, R. S. Esq.
1793
Vaughan, John, Ld.
1685
Watson, Mr. II.
1767
Tilli, Sig. M. A. M.D.
1708
Vaux, Sir T. de,
1665
Watson, W. M.B.
1767
Tillotson, J. D.D.
1671
Vay de Vaja, Baron Nicolas,
1787
Watson, R. M.A.
1769
Tilson, G. Esq.
1735 Veltheim, A. F. Von,
1795
Watson, J. Esq.
1778
Timone, Sig. E. M.D.
1703
Venables, J. Esq.
1707
Watson, W. Esq.
1808
Ti-sington, A. Esq.
Tissot, Dr.
Titsingh, I. Esq.
Titus, Col. S.
Toaldo, Mr. J.
Tollett, M. G.
Tooke, A. M.A.
Tooke, Rev. W.
1767
Venturi, Sig. M.
1751
Watt, J. Esq.
1785
1760 Venuti, The Abbot Rudolphino, 1757
Way, L. Esq.
1737
1797
Venuti, Mr. P.
1759
Way, B. Esq.
1771
1668
•
Vepusch, J. G. Mus. D.
1745
Webb, P. C. Esq.
1749
1777
•
Vergue, L. Elizabeth de la,
Webb, R. Esq.
1762
1713
•
Compte de Tressan,
1749
Webb, Sir J. Bart.
1764
1704
Verney, Ralph, Earl,
1758
Webber, W. Esq.
1766
•
1783 Vernon, F. Esq.
1672
Webster, Sir G. Bart.
1786
·
•
Topham, J. Esq.
1779
•
Vernon, Mr.
Torkos, J. J. M.D.
Torres, J. Ignatio de,
Terriano, A. M.A.
1752
Vernon, E. M.A.
1758
· ·
Vessius, Mon³. I. D.D.
1691
Vieussens, Mons, R. M.D.
1702 | Wedgewood, Mr. J.
1723 Wegg, 8. Esq.
Wegg, G. Esq.
1688 Wegg, G. S. Esq.
1783
1759
1664
1758
1777
APPENDIX. No. V.
lxxxiii
Weichman, Mons. C, F.
1728
Williams, M. M.A.
1719
Worsley, H. Esq.
1705
Weidler, Mr. J. F.
1732
Williams, S. M.D.
1734
Worsley, Sir R. Bart.
1778
Weir, Hon. C. H.
1744
Williams, Mr. D.
1766
Worth, G. Esq.
1648
West, J. Esq.
Welin, Mr. J.
Wells, W. C. M.D.
Welsh, J. M.D.
Wenman, Hon, T. F.
Werlhof, P. G. M.D.
Werthern, J. G. Henry, Count de,1765
Wesclinchoven, Anthony de, Esq.1781
Western, W. Esq.
Weston, R. Esq.
Weston, Rev. S. B.D.
Wetenhall, Dr. E. Bp.
Wetstein, Mr. J. J.
Wetstein, Rev. C.
Whalley, Mr. T,
Wharton, R. Esq.
Wheeler, G. Esq.
Wheller, G. Esq.
Whidbey, J. Esq.
White, J. Esq.
White, T. Esq.
White, Mr. T.
White, Mr. C.
White, T. Esq.
White, W. H. Esq.
Whitefoord, C. Esq.
Whitehurst, Mr. J,
Whiteside, J. M.A.
Whitfield, Rev. H. D.D.
Whitmore, Rev. G. B.D.
Whyte, R. M.D.
•
•
1741
• *
Williams, J. L. Esq.
1801
Wotton, W. M.A.
1687
1793
Williamson, Rev. J.
1749
Woulfe, Mr. P.
1767
•
1770
Willis, T. M.D.
1663
rangham, Rev. F. M.A,
1804
1779
Willis, H. N. Esq.
1791
Wray, J. M.D).
1667
1735
Willoughby, Sir T. Bart,
1693
Wray, D. 1.q.
1729
·
Willoughby, Hugh, Ld.
1744
Wren, C. Esq.
1693
•
Willughby, C. M.D.
1683
Wright, E. M.D.
1759
.
J
1726
Wilmot, E. M.D.
1729
Wright, R. M.A.
1767
1721
Wilmot, J. Esq.
1779
•
Wright, W. M.D,
1778
1767
Wilson, Mr. B.
1751
•
Wyatt, W. M.A.
1769
1792
•
·
Wilson, J. Esq.
1783
•
Wyatt, Mr. J.
1778
1683
Wilson, G. Esq.
1796
Wyche, P. Esq.
1745
1753
•
Wilson, G. Esq.
1801
Wyndham, Mr.
1677
1754 | Wilson, Mr. J.
1803
Wyndham, W. Esq.
1743
•
•
1709
Winchilsea, George, Earl of,
1807
Wyndham, H. P. Esq.
1783
•
•
1810
Winckler, Dr. J. H.
1746
Wynne, Sir W. W. Bart.
1773
痛
​1677
Windham, J. Esq.
1781
Wynne, Rt. Hon. Sir W, Kt.
1794
1728
Winn, R. Esq.
1673
Wyvil, Sir M. Bart.
1711
1805
Winnington, Sir E. Bart.
1804
Wyvill, Sir M. Bart.
1734
1722
Winterton, Edward, Earl,
1767
1725
•
Winthorp, J. Esq.
1734
Yale, E. Esq.
1717
*
1726
Winthorpe, J. Esq.
1766
Yarmouth, William, Earl of,
1722
1762
·
Wintringham, C. M.D.
1742
Yeats, T. P. Esq.
1781
1777
Wirtemberg, F. C. William,
Yeoman, Mr. T.
1764
1808
Hereditary Prince of,
1797
Yester, John, Ld.
1666
1784
.
Wissett, R. Esq.
1801
Yonge, Rt. Hon. Sir W. Dart.
1779
Witchell, Mr. G.
1767
K. B.
1748
•
1718
•
Withering, W. M.D.
1785
Yonge, Rt. Hon. Sir G.
1784
•
1786
1797
Wix, W. Esq.
1752
Witsen, Mynheer N.
Woide, Rev. C. G. M.A.
1689
Young, Mr. J.
1702
1810
•
Young, W. Esq.
1747
1785
Young, A. Esq.
1774
Wicardel, Mons. F.
1715
Wolf, N. M. M.D.
1777
Young, Capt. G. Esq.
1781
Wichcote, Sir P. Bart.
1674
Wolfius, Mons. C.
•
1710
Young, W. Esq.
1786
Wicksted, J. C. Esq.
1716
Wolhouse, J. Esq.
1721
❤
Young, Mr. T.
1794
•
Wigram, R. Esq.
1806
•
Wollaston, F. Esq.
1728
Young, S. Esq.
1795
•
Wilcke, J. C.
Wilbraham, T. LL.D.
Wilbraham, R. Esq.
Wilhelmipus, W. M.
1741
曲
​Wollaston, C. Esq.
1756 York, James, Duke of,
1664
1782
Wollaston, G. M.A.
1763
York, Hon. Philip,
1740
1789
•
Wollaston, F. LL.B.
1769
York, Edward, Duke of,
1760
1742
Wollaston, Rev. F. J. Hyde,
M.A.1786
York, Frederick, Duke of,
1789
Wilkes, J. Esq.
1749
•
Wollaston, W. II. M.D.
1793
Yorke, Hon. Charles,
1750
Wilkes, I. Esq.
1760
Wood, J. Esq.
1680
Yorke, Hon. John,
1779
Wilkins, C Esq.
Wilkinson, J. M.D.
Willan, R. M.D.
Willett, R. Esq.
Williams, Mr. R.
► •
Williams, Sir J. Kt, and Bart.
1788
•
Wood, R. LL.D,
1681
Yorke, Rt. Hon. Charles,
1801
1764
•
Wood, T. LL.D.
1761
1809
•
Wood, R. Esq.
1789
Zach, F. Baron Van,
1804
1764
•
Woodford, S. Esq.
•
1664
Zanotti, Sig. E.
1740
1663
Woodford, Mr. T.
1708
Zanotti, Ds. F. M.
1740
1670
Williams, Mr.
Williams, Mr.
•
Woodhouse, R. A.M,
)698 Woodroffe, B. M.A.
1802
•
Zanotti, Sig. E.
1760
1668
•
Zollman, P. H. Esq.
1727
1708 Woodward, J. M. D.
1699
INDEX.
A
ABERRATION of the fixed stars, 345
Absorbents, 107
Abstinence from food, 141
Acoustics, 421
Ælian, 71
Aerostatics, 410
Ætna, 200
Agriculture, 63
Air, weight of, 411
Albatenius, 317
Albinus, Bernard Siegfried, 104
Albumen of seeds, 51
Alchymists, 465
Aldrovandus, 71
Alexandrian school, 249
Amphibia, 77
Analyses, 494
Alum, 515
Analysis of the ancients, 243
Anatomical nomenclature, 112
Anatomy, 96
papers in the Transactions, 109
comparative, 112
papers on, in the Transactions, 114
Angle, trisection of an, 245
Animals, arrangement of, 70
Annales de Chinnie, 482
Antheræ, 49
Ants, 90
Aphides, 93
Apis Willughbiella, 90
Apollonius, 250
Apparatus, chemical, 192
Arabians, botany among, 19
mcdicine among, 158
Arabian numerals, introduction of, 253
Archimedes, 245
Aristarchus, 313
Aristotle, 70
Aristyllus, 313
Arithmetic, political, 528
of infinites, 273
Artedi, Peter, 78
Arts and manufactures, chemical, 513
Ascites cured by injection, 176
Asclepiades, 155
Ascellius, Casper, 107
Astronomy, 312
Atmosphere, 411
weight of, 506
Aurora Borealis, 512
Balance, 391
Bark, 55
B
spring of watches, 339
Barometer, rise and fall of, 506
Barrow, Dr. Isaac, 257
Barrows in Cornwall, 539
Bartholine, Thomas, 108
Bath waters, temperature of, 204
Baubins, 21
Beccher, John Joachim, 467
Belemnites, 191
Bergman, Torbern, 475
Berkeley, Bishop; attacks fluxions, 297
Berthollet, Mr., 481
Bile, action of, 144
Biquadratics, solution of, 258
Birds, 75
Black, Dr. Joseph, 469
Blasius, 113
Blasting by gunpowder, 220
Blind boy restored to sight, 136
Blisters in fever, with cough, 168
Blood, circulation of, 100, 105
force of its motion, 122
nature of, 123
quantity of in animals, 121
transfusion of, 124
Blood vessels, 104
Bones, 101
regeneration of, 178
Boston, strata at, 214
Botanical papers in the Transactions, 21
Botany, 17
origin of, 18
systematic, 28
Bovey coal, 188
Bouguer, 372
Boyle, Mr. Robert, 398, 466
Bradley, Dr. James, 314
Brain, 106
lxxxvi
INDEX.
Brass, 517
Briggs, Henry, 261
Bristol, inhabitants of, 529
Britain, population of, 529
Brown, Dr. John, 163
Buds, 48
Burning glasses, 373
Cube, doubling the, 244
Cubic equations, solution of, 257
Cullen, Dr. William, 469
Curves, orders of, 271
Cycloid, history of, 265
D
Calamine, 222
Calculi, urinary, 497
Callet, 263
C
Camels, rate at which they travel, 228
Camphor, 491
effect of, 168
Cantharides, 165
Canton, Mr.; electrical discoveries of, 441
Capillary attraction, 403
Carbonic acid gas, 488
Cardan, 258
Cassini, 331
Catacombs at Rome, 538
Caverns, 215
Cavalleri, Bonaventure, 264
Cavendish, Henry, 471
Cæsalpinus, 20
Cæsar's expedition into Britain, 532
Celsus, 97, 157
Chatodon rostratus, 80
Chemistry, 465
Chesnut, Spanish, whether indigenous in Eng-
land, 68
Chickens, hatching of, at Cairo, 547
Clerks of the Royal Society, 15
Coal-pits, burning, 203
tar, 517
Coccus, 96
Coffee, introduction of in England, 67
Coin, ancient, 543
Cold, artificial, 501
water in fevers, 165
Collision of bodies, 387
Colour, explained, 366
persons incapable of distinguishing, 383
Combustion, spontaneous, 166
Commentators, botanical, 19
Commercium epistolicum, 293
Conic sections, 244
Cooke's method of preserving the health of his
crew, , 169
Copernicus, 318
Copperas, 516
Coral islands, 211
Cornwall, farming in, 64
tin mines in, 221
Cotes, Mr., 307
Cotiledons, 52
Cowper, William, 103
Crab, 92
Crotch, William, 551
Dalton, Mr. John, 481
Damps in mines, 487
Darwin, Dr., 163
Daubenton, Mr., 113'
Davy, Mr. Humphrey, 481
Deaf and dumb taught to speak, 549
Deafness cured, 177
Degree of the earth measured by Eratosthenes,
314
Delaval, Mr., electrical discoveries of, 443
Deluge, 206
Density of the earth, 352
Desaguliers, Dr., his papers on electricity, 433
Descartes, René, 270.-His optics, 363.-His
theory of the solar system, 340
Dettonville, a name of Pascal, 269
Devonshiring, what, 65
Dew, 510
Differential calculus of Leibnitz, 291
Digestion, 142
Dillenius, Mr., 26
Diamond mines, 221
Diamonds, discovery of in Brazil, 182
specific gravity of, 183
Diophantus, 251
Dioptrics, 362
Dioscorides, 18
Dip of the needle, 461
Diving bell, 517
Dogmatists, 151
Dollond, John, 379
Dolomite, 492
Douglas, James, 103
Drill plough, 65
Dropsy cured by friction, 168
Drowning, 128
Dufay, Mr., 432
Duhamel de Monceau, 45
Dynamics, 384
Earth, density of, 352
figure of, 354
theories of, 185
Earthquakes, 196
E
cause of, 197
Eels, journeys of, 80
Elden hole, 216
Electricity, 429
medical, 439
theory of, 455
Ellis, Mr. John, 84
Empyrics, 154
INDEX.
lxxxvii
England, size of, 226
Erasistratus, 153
Eratosthenes, 250, 313
Ether, 491
Evaporation, 508
Euclid, 249
Eudiometer, 489
Evelyn's sylva, 64
Euler, Leonard, 372
Eustachius, 99
Eye, experiments on, 140, 380
Fabricius, 88
F
ab Aquapendente, 100
Falkland islands, 232
Falopius, 99
Fecundation of plants, 49
Females, why more numerous than males, 150
Fermat, Pierre de, 267
Ferrari, Louis, 258
Filaments, 48
Fire balls, 513
Fishes, 78
fecundity of, 80
Flamsteed, John, 334
Fleas, 92
Fluctionary calculus, 288
Fluid, what, 399
Foei of optical glasses, 376
Foetus, nourishment of, 148
Food of plants, 56
Formations, 217
Formic acid, 490
Fourcroy, Mr. de, 480
Fractions, continued, 274
Franklin, Dr. Benjamin; his electrical disco-
veries, 435
Friction, 393
Fuller's earth in Bedfordshire, 182
Gærtner, 20
Galen, 97, 157
Galileo, 326
G
Galvanism, account of, 450
Gases, 486
Gay-Lussac, 486
Gellibrand, Henry, 262
Wernerian, sketch of, 217
Generation, 145
Geognosy, 185
Geography, 224
Geology, 185
Gerbert, 253
Gesner, 20
Giant's Causeway, 214
Gold, method of refining by antimony, 498
Grafting of fruit trees, 69
Gravity, 386
Gray, Mr. Stephen, 431
Greece, antiquities of, 541
Gregory, James, 289
Gregory, St. Vincent, 329
Grew, Nehemiah, 44
Grimaldi, discoveries of, 361
Gualtieri, 83
Guldin, Father, 263
Gulf stream, 511
Gunpowder, 415
H
Hales, Dr. Stephen, 45
Haller, Dr., 102
Halley, Dr. Edmond, 335
his theory of the earth, 207
Harmattan, 511
Harriot, Thomas, 259
Harvey, Dr., 100
Hauksbee, Mr. Francis, 430
Hauyan mineralogy, 180
Heat, animal, 128
from the sun, 376
Hedwig, 46
Heights, mensuration of, 411
Herculaneum, 540
Herophilus, 153
Herschel, Dr. William, 356
new planet discovered by, 357
Highlands of Scotland, farming in, 66
Hills, height of, 209
Hipparchus, 314
Hippocrates, 97, 151, 241
his physiology and practice, 152
Holland, population of, 531
Homer, age of, 534
Hooke, Dr. Robert, 332, 466
How, 22
Hudson's Bay, 229
Hungary, mines in, 220
Hutton, Dr., 263
Huygens, Christian, 328
Hydatids, 86
Hydraulics, 405
machines, 406
Hydrodynamics, 397
Hydrogen gas, 487
Hydrometers, 400
Hydrostatics, 397, 399
Jackson, Mr., 499
Jail distemper, 167
I J
Ice, how made in India, 499
Icehouse, 513
Ichneumon fly, 90
n 2
lxxxviii
INDEX.
Lymphatics, 108
Lyncurium, what, 181
Indian corn, culture of, 66
Indivisibles, method of, 2641
Infusoria, 86
Injections, anatomical, 106
Inoculation for the small-pox, 171
Insects, 88
Intestines, wounds of cured, 178
Johnston, 72
Iron, found in Siberia, 216
manufacture of, 500
smelting of, 514
Swedish, 223
Irritability of plants, 63
Isinglass, making of, 499
Isthmus between Britain and France, 211
K
Kanguroo, organs of, 149
Kepler, John, 324
I
King's (Mr. Edward) theory of the earth, 207
Kirwan, Dr. Richard, 483
his defence of phlogiston, 483
Klaproth, Martin Henry, 485
Knight, Mr. Andrew, 47
L
Lacteals, 107
Lambert, 373
Latitudes and longitudes, table of, 224
Lavoisier, Mr., 479
theory of, 480
Lead, native, 185
white, 515
Leaves of plants, 56
functions of, 61
Leibnitz, Godfrey William, 289
his dispute with Newton, 291
Lemonnier, M., 438
Lens of the eye, extraction of, 177
Leonardo of Pisa, 255
Leyden phial explained, 434, 437
Maclaurin, Colin, 300
M
Madder, reddens bones, 143
Magnesia, sulphate and muriate of, 491
Magnetic metals, 458
Magnetism, 458
papers on in the Transactions, 462
Magnets, artificial, 461
Malpighi, 44
Malt, 516
Mammalia, 71
Maps, construction of, 227
Marble, formation of, 212
staining of, 513
Mariners' compass, 460
Martini, 83
Mathematics, 239
May fly, 92
papers on in the Transactions, 30.1
Mechanical philosophy, 311
Mechanics, 390
Medicine, 150
division of, 154
Mendip coal mines, 213
Mercator, 274
Mercator's projection, 227
Mercury, fulminating, 492
Merret, Dr., 22
Meteorology, 505
Methodists, 156
Methodus incrementorum, 302
Micrometer, 330
Microscope, 362
Mineralogy, 179.
Mining, 219
Mirbel, 47
Mollusca, 82
Money, Greek and Roman, 526
Monro, Alexander, 101
Morison, Robert, 28
Morveau, Guyton de, 481
Mosses, 194
Mouffet, Dr., 88
Mozart, 550
Mummies, 543
Lever, 391, 396
Light, nature of, 382
Lightning, identity of, with electricity, 436
Lime tree, whether indigenous in England, 68
Linnæus, Charles, 34, 73
Liquids, 397
Lister, Dr. Martin, 83
Lithotomy, improvement in, 176
Living bodies capable of bearing a high tempe-
rature, 130
Load, what, 222
Loci, geometrical, 244
Logarithms, 260
London, healthiness of, 528
Lower, Dr., 106
Lucas de Borgo, 256
Mundinus, 98
Muscles, 103
Muscular motion, 104, 137
Napier, John, 260
Natural history, 17
Navigation, 425
Necklace tubes, 56
N
Negroes, colour of, 129
}
M
INDEX.
lxxxix
Neil, Mr. William, 274
Nephrotomy, case of, 169
Nerves, 106
structure of, 132
unite again when cut, 131
Nervous system, 131
New substances, 490
Newton, Sir Isaac, 277, 467
his discoveries respecting light, 365;
attacked, 368
his optics, 369
his chronology, 544
his theory of the solar system, 340
Nitric acid, its action on oils, 502
Nollet, Abbé, his electrical opinions, 438
Nomenclature, new chemical, 481
North American Indians, 231
Nourishment, 141
Nutation of the earth's axis, 347
Polybius, 153
Polypus, 87
Pompey's pillar, 535
Porisms, 243
Porous tubes, 56
Potash, manufacture of, 499
Precious stones, catalogue of, 183
Presidents of the Royal Society, 13
Priestley, Dr. Joseph, 472
his electrical discoveries, 445
Principia of Newton, 342
Printing, 545
Processes, 498
Prussian blue, 491
Ptolemy, 315
Pulley, 391
Purbach, 255
Putrifaction stopped by bark, 175
Pyrometer, Wedgewood's, 494
Pyrophori, 490
Okey hole, 215
Optics, 359
Oryctognosy, 179
Ovarium, 49
P
Paduan school of anatomy, 99
Painting, encaustic, 547
Palmyra, ruins of, 533
Paper of the ancients, 546
Paracelsus, 160, 465
Partial differences, 303
Pascal, Blaise, 268
Patagonians, 232
Peat, origin of, 195
Pendulums, 395
Pennant, Mr., 74
Petiver, Mr., 23
Petrifactions; bones, 192
shells and zoophites, 189
vegetable, 186
Phosphorus, 490
Photometry, 372
Physiology, 119
Pith, 54
Rain, 509
Rainbow, 364
Ramus, Peter, 258
Ray, John, 30, 73
method of, 32
R
Red cabbage used as a test, 500
Reflection explained, 370
Refraction, 378
law of, 362; explained, 370
Regiomontanus, 256
Respiration, 126
Richman, Professor, death of, 442
Rivers, motion of, 406
Rivinus, Augustus Quirinus, 34
Roberval, Gilles Personnier de, 266
Robins, Benjamin, 298
Roemer, 331
Romansh language, 549
Royal Society, origin of, 1
first members of, 2
Rudbeck, Olaus, 108
S
Planets, density of, 358
diameters of, 358
distances from the sun, 358
quantity of matter in, 358
Plants, anatomy of, 43
Platinum, 491
Plato, 242
Pliny, 18, 71
Plukenct, 22
Pneumatics, 410
Pneumatists, 156
Poison, 133
Poland, salt mines in, 221
Pullen, 49
Saffron, culture of, 66
Sal ammoniac, 519
Salop, 520
Salt making, 514
Sap, 57
true, 63
Scarobaus melolontha, 91
Scheele, Charles William, 477
Schehallien, experiments on, 353
Screw, 392
Sea, temperature of, 204
saltness of, 208
Secretaries of the Royal Society, 13
Seeds, 48, 51, 5%
53
XC
INDEX.
Serpents, fascinating power of, 77
Sexual organs of plants, 48
Shells, 82
Sherard, Dr., 26
Sherwin, 262
Sidon, numerals of, 543
Singing birds, 424
Siren lacertina, 77
Skin, action of, 129
Sleep, 132
Sloane, Sir Hans, 24
Small-pox, 165
Smalt, method of preparing, 499
Solway moss, irruption of, 195
Sound, 422
Species (different) of animals, whether they can
breed, 149
Specific gravity, 401
of men, 140
Spectacles, discovery of, 360
Spiders, 90
Springs, hot, 204
Stahl, Ernest, 162, 468
Stanhope, Lord; his returning stroke, 449
Steam, 414
engine, 414
Steel, 517
Stigma, 49
Stone, palliative treatment for, 175
Strontian, 492
Style, 49
Stylus of the ancients, 546
Sulphureted hydrogen gas, 504
Surgery, 150
Swammerdam,
113
Sydenham, Dr., 164
Sydneia, 496
Tartaglia, Nicolo, 257
Taylor, Dr. Brook, 302
T
Telescope, discovery of, 360
achromatic, 362, 381
Temperature, 507
Termites, 94
Themison, 156
Thenard, 486
Theophrastus, 18
Thermometer, 492
Thibet, 233
Thoracic duct, 108
Tides, 425
Timocharis, 313
Tin, native, 184
mines in Cornwall, 221
plate, 519
Tokay wine, 520
Topography, 224
Torpor, 133
Tourneforte, Joseph Pitton, 33
method of, 34
Trachea cut through and healed, 170
Tracheæ, 55
false, 55
Transactions, (Philosophical) editors of, 7
Transpiration of plants, 58
Transylvania, mines in, 220
Treasurers of the Royal Society, 15
Trees, growth of, 67
Tycho Brahé, 320
Tyrian purple dye, 87
V
Variation of the compass, voyage to determine,
by Halley, 337
of the needle, 460
diurnal, 461
Variations, method of, 303
Vauquelin, 486
Vegetable acids, 492
Venereal disease, 173
174
supposed the leprosy of the ancients,
Ventilator, 167
Venus, transits of, 350
Vesalius, Andrew, 99
Vessels of plants, 55
Vesuvius, 201
Vieta, 258
Vieussens, Raymond, 107
Vinegar making, 514
Viper, poison of, 492
Vision, 135
explained, 360
Vitellus of seeds, 52
Vitriol, (white) composition of, 498
Vlacq, Adrian, 262
Volcanoes, 200
Volta's discoveries, 451
Voltaic pile, 452.-Discoveries by Nicholson and
Carlisle, ibid.-Cruickshanks, ibid.-Henry,
453.-Davy, 453, 454.-Fourcroy and Vau-
quelin, 454.-Wollaston, ibid.
Wallis, Dr. John, 271
Watches, 392
W
Water, compressible, 402
503
its boiling point under various pressures,
Watson, Sir William, electrical discoverics of,
434
Wedge, 392
Weights and measures, 523
avoirdupois, 524
French, 525
Jewish, 527
Tourmaline, 184
Old English, 524.
INDEX.
Weights and measures, Roman, 526
Wood, 54
Troy, 524
Wernerian oryctognosy, 180
Wharton, 109
Wheat seed, produce of, 68
Wheele and axle, 391
Wheler, Mr., papers on electricity, 433
White lac, 492
Willis, Dr. Thomas, 106
Willughby, Francis, 72
Wilson, Mr., electrical opinions of, 443
Winds, 511
trade, 511
Winslow, 101
Wollaston, Dr. William Hyde, 484
petrified, 188
Woodward, Dr., 206
tion, 58
Worms, 82
experiments of, on transpira-
his theory of the earth, 206
Woulfe's apparatus, 493
Written mountains, visit to, 536
Ꮓ
Zirchnitzer Sea, 228
Zoology, 69
Zoophites, 84
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