|× ſae ae ：） gºtº º aº"A § C ſº sº * Prº ** * * * |# PRIVATE LIBRARY —O F- D0CTORS BACKUS. **aſs º ------- ------ ºššíºsłºść ?ºº ºl º - - Sºciº º Jº º Gaºzº. A i.02 & 9: - ºn tºº jº 3. § e. # § -- #Iſº |- tº º º Fº Fº 2.63 i.t à ; % -> IN ; * -. :§: ºº § : § : :3.* t5.%§º t É 4 : f; (§ º sº i j * zºº .*** º%ºt E Q->f 3. C . *. ; §o 3 } *>>. *: C ac º º gº º G º º º E - º ſ > [. ºf T *, nºt - [-. 2. *** * > d x; G N § º # § # ;§ſ § º i §:ººº i º$2.G$. ºU ºÉC- 2- s §§§ 1, I F. ºº º ă s !- -: - --- l*. >§ 5.§•º Pºd-i §9T.&-º«)2.tº .t ºt-y :;º ºs # Ö * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * sº s s º w w w w is a º ºs & s - a - e = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -º includinuintinuuluuluulu.tulutilitantinuºuntinuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuunſ; sº 3. º AºS - §§e à ºð (3 ºffe à ºð (3 º $º: sº 2 ***, ºf R" Hº & Sºběšº * …” §§ C zavrº º cºs sº - ºx- *R* , º, § º ºCº [ſº tº O. R& º o 2 Öº §§§ {&ößK3 º º -- Vºc e. & *...*& Q. º w * . . £o * > †sº *K. £333;º Ş. º §*-ºs. º w. *U sº ºSEº º §§º º §§§ o o > * ~~) Kºº AG. | O 5 , Q_2?, ?, PROGRESS THE M00ern B00k of Knowledge AN AMERICAN HOME EDUCATOR TEN GREAT BOOKS IN ONE VOLUME i THE CULMINATION OF CENTURIES OF HUMAN EFFORT Showing the Newest Conditions of Industry, Commerce, Invention, Science, Art, Literature, Philosophy, Etc., Etc. INCLUDING ALSO SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, COMPUTATION, CORRESPONDENCE, POINTs OF LAW AND LEGAL FORMS, PENMANSHIP AND SHORTHAND | i º SuPPLEMENTED BY REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTs EDITOR-IN-CHIEF FERDIN AND ELLSWORTH CARY, A. M. HISTORIAN AND BIOGRAPHER ASSISTED BY MORTON MACCORMAC, A. M. EDWARD J. DAHMS President of MacCormac School of Correspondence Attorney and Counsellor at Law A. N. PALMER Editor of the Western Penman 2. AND A CORPS OF SELECTED SPECIALISTS | Superbly Embellished with Hundreds of Phototype Engravings, - Adding Beauty and .Value to the Work 3). * 4. */ / 2. - 27- 27 2-z- CopyRIGHT 1904 BY FERDINAND ELLSWORTH CARY All rights reserved -ºººs INTRODUCTION HIS volume might well be entitled, “THE WORLD UP-TO-DATE,” for such is the true scope of its contents. It sets before the reader in a nutshell all important things which have been achieved by various nations for the social, moral, material and intellectual uplifting of mankind. No field of modern research has been left untouched; no arena of activity has been neglected; no portion of the globe has been overlooked or forgotten when gathering facts for this, the most concise and yet comprehensive work ever offered the public. For brevity, it is much like the History of America which one of our great historians was recently asked to write. Upon asking the size required, the publishers, with a keen knowledge of the wants and needs of the American people in this busy age, replied. “Give us a history in ten thousand words and we will pay you one hundred thousand dollars.” - In the shop, on the railroad, in the store, on the farm, in the factory, the counting room, the society meeting, in casual contact on the bustling street, in the seclusion of the fireside and amid the whirl of mighty mechanism, interrogations—subjective or objective—constantly confront the individual, all of which are correctly answered here. New conditions in every sphere of effort have superseded the old; new problems have arisen requiring new solutions in order to assure success. New ideas, new plans— all must be worked out, and herein are found ways and means to this end. This volume, therefore, comprehending as it does all branches of knowledge, appeals directly to the actual and vital needs of every class of men and women. It can, in fact, be called a complete modern library, available to transform the home, at will, into a veritable school for practical instruction. The publishers have embellished these pages with photographs secured at an expense of thousands of dollars, and in some cases even at the risk of human life. The interior of the factory, the scientist at work in his laboratory, the different processes of manu- facturing, splendid views of nature in her sublimest moods, new methods of mining, and, in fact, every subject susceptible of being photographed are here presented to the eye, with the aid of the camera, and grandly supplement the text matter. I confidently believe that this volume will prove of practical use in everyday life to all who study its pages. THE AUTHOR. 413758 THE OPEN AIR CURE FOR CONSUMPTION –LEYSEN, SWITZERLAND. Night quarters for men. Each person is supplied with a hot water bottle for the feet. TEN GREAT B00KS IN ONE VOLUME BOOk | MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Achievements of the world's most ingenious minds — wondrous ad vance in every department of universal knowledge - - - 23 to 132 BOOk || WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Manifesting prodigious strides in all lines of human endeavor—A century's accomplishment in a decade - - - - - - - 133 to 256 BOOk || VIVID ARRAY OF FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS Objects famous the world over – Impressive scenes far and near— Peculiarities and products distinguishing widely separated localities — - - - - - - - - - - - - - 257 to 374 BOOk IV A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING information that enriches the mind and enlivens the heart - 375 to 45c BOOk V SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS Reading that makes one wiser and happier - - - - - 45, to 511 w: 8 TEN GREAT BOOKS IN ONE VOLUME, BOOk VI FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS Pages pithy with useful information - - - 51 I to 536 BOOk VII HOW TO DO BUSINESS Self-instruction in Book-keeping—Short Methods of Computation— Points of Law and Legal Forms—Business and Social Correspondence —Spelling and Punctuation - - - - - - 537 to 628 BOOk VIII COMPLETE SCHOOL OF PENN1ANSHIP AT HONAE Self-instruction in Modern Writing—The Successful Plan—How to Develop Muscular Action—Preparatory Motions, Drills, etc., 629 to 650 BOOk IX COMPLETE SCHOOL OF SHORTHAND AT HONTE Lessons for mastering the most modern system—Future Prospects of Shorthand—Typewriting - - - - - - - - 652 to 664 BOOk X ONE HUNDRED WAYS TO MAKE MONEY Getting on in the world—The cause of failure—If not a success, why?—How to be promoted —The secret of material success, etc, etc. - - - - - - - - - - - 665 to 673 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE, INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 5 NEW DISCOVERIES IN THE FIELD or.” ILLUSTRATIONs . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 MEDICINE AND SURGERY . . . 64 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS . . . . . 675 MICROBEs . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 CONSUMPTION . . . . . . . . . . 65 BOOK 1.-MODERN INVENTIONS AND VIOLET LIGHT . . . . . . . . . 65 DISCOVERIES. LIQUID AIR IN THE TREATMENT OF ULCERs Achievements of the World's Most Ingenious Twº". * - - - - - - . Minds—Wondrous Advance in Every Hydrophobia . . . . tº Department of Universal APPENDICITIS - - - - . 68 Knowledge. DIPHTHERIA . . . . . . . . . . . 68 SHIPS OF THE AIR . . . . . . . . . 23 SUPRARENALIN . . . . . . . . . . . 70 DuMont Rounds THE EIFFEL ToweR . , 23 ACETYLENE GAS . . . . . . . . . 70 MoMSTROUS BALLOON . . . . . . . . # WONDERFUL MOVING PICTURES . . . 72 LANGLEY FLYING MACHINE . . . . . 27 THE LARGEST AND FASTEST TROLLEY AUTOMOBILES AND THEIR DEVELOP- CAR . . . . . . . . s . . . 74 MENT . . . . . . . . . . . 28 A SPEED OF 110 MILES AN Hour . . . 74 ELECTRIC IICTOR . . . . . . . . 28 - EDISON’s SWIFT TROLLEY CAR . . . . 75 GAso. Nº MoTOR . . . . . . . . . 29 TRACKLESS TROLLEYs . . . . . . . . 75 STEAM MoTOR . . . . . . . . . . 30 BREAD SUPPLIED FROM THE ATMOS- MESSAGES WITHOUT WIRES . . . . .. 32 PHERE . . . . . . . . . . 77 THE COPIERER . . . . . . . . . , 33 NITRATES ESSENTIAL TO WIHEAT-GROWTH 77 THE HERTZLAN WAVE . . . . . . 33 SCIENCE WILL GIVE BREAD TO ALL . . 77 ROENTGEN X-RAY - . . . . . , 35 NIAGARA. WATER-BOWER . . . . . . 78 #. . . . . . . . . . . ; LIQUID AIR-ITs wonDERFUL POWER 81 #: {...” OIL . . . . . . . 37 METHOD OF MAKING IT . . . . . . . . . 81 #: §. . . . . . . . . §§ VASTLY MORE POWERFUL THAN COM- - • * * * * * * : PRESSED AIR . . . . . . . . . 81 PRODUCTION OF X-RAY . . . . . . . 38 TEMPERATURE, 312 DEGREES BELOW ZERO 81 NEW WONDERS OF THE ELECTRICAL MAY BE USED FOR FUEL AND MOTIVE WORLD . . . . . . . . . . ; POWER . . . . . . . . . . . 81 THE DYNAMo . . . . . . . . . . . $4 NEw PRocess of MAKING STAINED THE TROLLEY CAR MoTOR . . . . . . 44 GLASS" WINDOWS . . . . . . 85 THE TELEPHONE . . . . . . . . . 44 A Mos AIC OF COLORED GLASS . . . . 86 THE INCANDEscENT LIGHT . . . . 45 STAINING 86, 87 £. *"Nº cannons - - - : A. very Diſºry Process ". ". . . ‘. ." 87 N.T.A.”.”.”.." . . . . . . ... à NEW METHODS OF MAKING PORCELAIN 88 SENDING Pictures over WIRE . . . . 51 THE LOCALITY OF ITs HIGHEST DEVELOP- TRANSMITTING SPEECH BY LIGHT BEAMS 51 kaolº, Poncil. IN CA; , . . . . ; LATEsº OF MODERN WAR- 52 fin. Processor MANursorun. . . . . §§ LYDDITE - - - - - - - - - - - ; "TEMPERATURE IN THE KILNs. . . . . . 89 - - - - - - - - - - - - "THE PAINTING AND GILDING . . . . . 89 §º..." " . . . . . . ; “THE POTTERY DISTRICTs of AMERICA. . . 90 -- - º, +...'..... " A NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING WHITE THE “DUM-DUM” BULLET . . . . . . 54 Torpedoes AND MINEs . . . . . . . 55 LEAD . . . . . . . . . . . 91 THE GATLING AND HotchKiss GUNS . . 56 AN. QED INPºtºx. . . . . . . . . ºl THE ARMSTRONG AND MAXIM GUNS . . 56 THE DUTCH PROCESS . . . . . . . 91 THE SEARCHLIGHT . . . . . . . 57 THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD . . . . . , 91. MAKING of ARMoR PLATE . . . . . . 58 MARVELOUS METALS RECENTLY DIS. Six NEw BATTLESHIPs . . . . . . . 63 COWERED . . . . . . . . . . 92 A SLOT MACHINE THAT TAKES PHO- RADIUM AND POLONIUM THRow OUT TOGRAPHS . . . . . . . . . . 63 LIGHT THAT SHINES THROUGH IRoN - 93 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS "MARVELOUS METALS RECENTLY DIS- COVERED.—Continued. PAGE RADIUM's UTILITIEs . . . . . . . 93 Wom AN SCIENTIST's ACHIEVEMENT . . 93 RADIUM's MIGHTY EXPLOSIVE POWER . . 93 BUT Two POUNDS OF RADIUM IN THE WORLD . . . . . . . . . . . 93 VALUE $1,000,000 PER Pound . . . . 93 RADIOGRAPH OF A MoUSE . . . . . . 93 THE PROPERTIES AND POSSIBLE USES OF POLONIUM . . . . . . . . . . 93 SNAP-SHOTS OF THE HUMAN VOICE . 94 CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY - - - - - - 94 M. MARAGE'S SCHEME . . - - 94 PHOTOGRAPHING AIR CURRENTS . . . 94 THE SOLAR FURNACE–POWER FROM THE SUN . . . . . . . . . . 95 FOR STEAM ENGINES . . . . . . . 95 FOR PUMPING PLANTS . . . . . 95 FOR SMELTING ORES AND MINERALS 95 FOR HOUSEHOLD USE . . . . . . 96 FOR STORING HEAT AND POWER . . . 96 A TELEGRAPH MACHINE THAT PRINTS 96 THE PAGE-PRINTING TELEGRAPH . . . 97 MANNER AND RAPIDITY OF ITS OPERATION 97 TIN MAKING IN THE TWENTIETH CEN- TURY . . . . . . . . . . . 98 THE OLD METHOD . . . . . . . . . 98 How THE TINNING MACHINE WORKS 98 THE BRANNER . . . . . . . . . 99 THE COATING PROCESS . . . . . . . 101 SUBMARINE NAVIGATION SCORES NEW TRIUMPHS . . . . . . . . . 102 THE “GYMNOTE” ... . . . . . ... 103 THE “HOLLAND” . . . . ... 103 “THE ARGONAUT” . . . . ... 104 TORPED0 BOATS . . . . . . . . ... 104 SAVING SHIPS AND LIVES AT SEA ... 105 THE HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE - - ... 106 THE LIGHTHOUSE . . . ... 106 THE ICEBERG . . . . . ... 107 THE THERMOPILE . . . ... 107 THE LIFE BUOY - • *, * ... 108 THE BREECHES BUOY - ... 109 THE MINOT'S LEDGE BEACON . . 110 THE PHONOGRAPH . . . . . . . . . 110 PHILOSOPHY OF ITS OPERATION . 111 DISCOVERY AND INVENTION . 111 THE HORSELESS VEHICLE . 112 DIFFERENT KINDS OF MOTIVE Power . 112 RECORD SPEED of A STEAM AUTOMobiLE . 113 THE BUNSEN BURNER . . . . . . . 113 INVENTIONS MINIMIZING FARM LABOR 117 THE BINDER . . . . . . . . . . . 119 THE HUSKER AND SHREDDER . . . 119 THE SEWING MACHINE . . . . . . . 121 INVENTORS OF SEWING MACHINES . 121 THE KNITTING MACHINE . . . . . . 122 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE MoDERN UPRIGHT ROTARY KNITTER . 123 THE SEMI-AUTOMATIC PIANO PLAYER 124 "THE SPYGMOGRAPH . . . . . . . . 125 HOW THE PULSE KEEPs A RECORD OF ITS OWN BEATINgs . . . . . . . . 125 - PAGE THE SPIROGRAPH . . . . . . . . . 125 HOW THE ACTION OF THE LUNGS RECORD RESPIRATION - - - . . . 125 PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE USE OF THE CAMERA . . . . . . . . 127 THE TELEPHOTOGRAPH - - - . 127 TAKING PICTURES OF THE HEAVENS . 128 THE SPECTRUM - - - - - . 129 ELECTROGRAPH . . . . . . . . 129 EOOK II.-WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. Manifesting Prodigious Strides in All Lines of Human Endeavor—A Century’s Accomplishment in a Decade. THE WORLD'S GREATEST MEAT MART . 133 600 ACRES OF BUSINESS . . . . . . 133 200 MILES OF RAILROAD TRACKS . 134 GOVERNMENT INSPECTORS OF MEATS . 136 PORK TESTED BY THE MICROSCOPE . 136 PROCESS OF SLAUGHTERING AND DRESSING 138 NOTHING WASTED . . . . . . . . 140 REFRIGERATION . . . . . . . . . 144 HOG-KILLING AND DRESSING . 144 SHEEP-KILLING . . . . . . . . . . 147 CONSTRUCTION OF THE SRYSCRAPER 150 BUILDING WALLS FROM THE UPPEP STORIES DOWNWARD . . . . . . . . . . 150 OLD AND NEW STYLE FOUNDATIONS . 152 THE ARCHITECTURAL IRON WORKER . 152 FIREPROOFING . . . . . . . . . . 157 MARVELOUS DEVELOPMENT OF PRINT- ING APPARATUS . . . . . . 158 FIRST USE OF MOVABLE TYPES . . . . 158 BLAEW’s IMPROVED PRESS . . . 158 FIRST CAST-IRON PRINTING PRESS AND FIRST LEVERS USED . . . . 158 FIRST PRESS WITHOUT A SCREW . 158 FIRST FLAT-BED CYLINDER PRESS . 160 SCREW AND LEVERS REPLACED BY TOGGLE JOINT IN PETER SMITH's INVENTION 160 RUST's IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENT . 160 HOE'S IMPROVEMENTS . . . . . . . 160 RAILROAD ENCIRCLING THE GLOBE . 161 $400,000,000 ON THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 161 ON THE RUSSIAN SIDE . . . . . . . 162 TUNNEL UNDER THE SEA . . . . 163 ON THE AMERICAN SIDE . . . . . 163 UP-TO-DATE DREDGING MACHINES . 164 THE DIPPER DREDGE . . . . . . . 165 THE CLAM-SHELL DREDGE . . . . 165 MAMMOTH CATERING ENTERPRISES - 166 COOKING AND CANNING FOR THE MARKET . 166 FIFTY ACRES OF FLOOR SPACE USED BY ONE CONCERN . . . . . . . 166 AUSTRALIA’S GREAT RAILWAY PROJ- ECT . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 BONUS OF 90,000,000 ACRES OF LAND . 172 DIFFICULTIES OF BUILDING RAILROAD ACROSS AUSTRALIA. . . . . . . 172 BIGGEST SHIPS AFLOAT . . 173 THE “CELTIC” . . . . . . . . . 173 THE STEAM TURBINE . . . . . . , 173 TABLE OF CONTENTS 11 PAGE BIGGEST SHIPS AFLOAT.—Continued. THE “WIPER” AND “COBRA” - - - 174 THE “ARROW" . . . . . . . . . . . 174 THE “MINNESOTA” . . . . . . . . 174 LARGEST VESSEL EVER BUILT IN AMERICA 174 EGG CANDLING BY MACHINERY . 176 EVOLVING NEW KINDS OF WHEAT . . .177 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY DAILY NEWSPAPER . . . . . . . . 179 HOW MADE UP . . . . . . . . . . 179 HOW SENT OUT . . . . . . . 179 THE ASSOCIATED PRESS - - . 180 LOCAL NEWS AND THE REPORTERs . 181 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES IN THE NEWSPAPER MAN . . . . . . . . . . . 181 REPORTING A FIRE - . 182 “SCOOP” ON A SUICIDE . 182 THE CITY EDITOR . . . . . . . 182 THE COPY READER AND PROOFREADERs . 183 THE COMPOSING ROOM. . . . . . . 183 THE LINOTYPE . . . . . . . . 183 STEREOTYPING . . . . . . . . 185 THE PRESS ROOM . 185 THE PRESSES . . . . . . . . . 186 FEEDING PAPER FROM GREAT ROLLs . 186 FROM THE PRESS Room. To THE READER . 186 MAKING THE ILLUSTRATIONS . . . 187 THE ADVERTISING DEPARTMENT THE ONLY SOURCE OF PROFIT . . . . . . . .188 THE “SOO'S” GREAT POWER CANAL . 189 LAKE SUPERIOR GIVES THE “SOO” CANAL 200,000 HoRSE-PoWER . . . 189 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL . . 189 LARG TRACT OF NEW LAND MADE THROUGH EXCAVATION . . . . . 190 "THE WORLTY'S STUPENDOUS GRANARY 190 GREAT INJREASE IN CAPACITY OF MANU- FACTURE . . . . . . . . . . 190 MECHANICAL PROCESSES OF A GREAT FLOUR MILL . . . . . . . . . . . 191 DECREASE IN PRICE OF FLOUR . . . . 192 THE NEW MONSTER ELEVATORs . . 193 THE MODERN TERMINAL ELEVATOR . 193 OUTSIDE STORAGE TANKS... . . . . . . 194 STATE SUPERVISION OF TERMINAL GRAIN MARKETs . . . . . . . . . . 195 GRAIN PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES, IN BUSHELS, FOR CERTAIN YEARs . 196 rtAILWAYS THE ARTERIES OF COM- MERCE . . . . . . . . . . . 197 IMPROVEMENT IN THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . 197 MODERN TRAIN EQUIPMENT . . . . 197 RAILWAYS ABROAD . . . . . . . 198 CREAT TUNNELS OF THE WORLD . 199 THE HOOSAC TUNNEL . . . . . 199 Bosno N AND NEw York TUNNELs . 199 THE CHICAGO TUNNEL FOR CONDUITs . . 200 'THE PARIS METROPOLITAN RAILWAY TUN- NEL . . . . . . . . . . . 200 THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL . . . 200 RAILROAD 31 MILEs LoNg CostING $52,000,000 . . . . . . . . . 200 THE ARLBERG TUNNEL . . . . . . 201 PAGE GREAT TUNNELS OF THE WORLD.— Continued. MT. CENIS TUNNEL . . . . . . . . 202 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL . . . . . 202 SCIENCE THE BENEFACTOR OF THE FARMER . . . . . . . . . . 203 PROTEIN AN ESSENTIAL IN CATTLE FEED . 203 PATENT MEDICINAL STOCK FOODS . 204 THE IoWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Ex- PERIMENT . . . . . . . . . 204 BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN . . . . . 205 POULTRY KILLING BY MACHINERY . . 206 THE FATTENING ROOM . . . . . . . 206 THE KILLING FLOOR . . . . . . . . 207 THE SCALDING PROCESS . . . . . . . 207 HOW GLASS IS MADE TO-DAY. . . . 208 MELTING THE SILICATES . . . . . . . 208 FINISHING LENSES . . . . . . . . 208 MAKING THERMOMETER TUBES . . 208 IRRIGATION OF THE NILE REGION . 209 Monum ENTAL DAM AT Assou AN . . 209 BARRAGE AT AssioUT—2,750 FEET LoNG— 111 ARCHED OPENINGs . . . . . . 210 ARMY OF WORKERs . . . . . . . . 212 OLD SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION . . . . . 212 THE DAM AT SIUT, WITH 100 SLUICE GATES . . . . . . . . . . . 213 OLIVE CULTURE ON AN EXTENSIVE SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . 213 RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES IN CLI- MATE AND SOIL . . . . . . . 213 ORIGIN OF THE OLIVE IN CALIFoRNIA . 213 THE OLIVE TREE MORE VALUABLE WHEN OLD . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 THE WORLD's BIGGEST OLIVE ORCHARD- 120,000 TREES . . . . . . . . 214 TEN TIMES LARGER THAN SPAIN’s GREAT- EST . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 MAMMOTH SICILIAN OLIVE TREE . 214 GATHERING THE CROP . . . . . 215 BILLOWY EXPANSE OF SILVER GRAY . . 214 HOW RUBBER IS MADE TO-DAY . 216 THE PROCESS OF KNEADING . 216 THE PROCESS OF MIXING . 216 THE PROCESS OF CoMPRESSING . 216 THE PROCESS OF VULCANIZING . . 216 OLD METHOD of VULCANIzING IlubBER BELTS. . . . . . . . . . . . 217 RUBBER HOSE . . . . . . . . . . 21'ſ HOW SALT IS PRODUCED . . . .218 THE MANISTEE (MICHIGAN) SALT WELL . .218 PUMPING 2,400 BARRELs of BRINE IN 24 HOURS . . . . . . . . . . .218 THE “GRAINER” - - - - . 218 THE WACUUM METHOD . . . . . . . . 219 COMPRESSED AIR DRILLS BREAKING P.CKED SALT . . . . . . . . . 219 STEAM PLow TURNS UP SALT CRUST EIGHT INCHES THICK . . . . , 220 HIGH-GTRADE TOBACCO GROWN UNDER MAMMOTH TENTS . . . . . 220 ExTRA FINE QUALITY BRINGs 43 CENTS PER Pound ExTRA . . . . . . 220 ONE HUNDRED AND NINETY-SIX TENT PoSTS TO THE ACRE . . . . . . 220 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGH-GRADE ToBAcco GRowN UNDER" MAMMOTH TENTS.—Continued. TWO THOUSAND POUNDS OF TobAcco AGE PER ACRE PRICE 68 CENTS PER POUND . . . . . . . . . 221 THE ORDINARY METHOD OF CULTIVATING TOBACCO . . . . . . . . . . . .222 MONSTER SHIP CANALS 223 THE PANAMA CANAL PROJECT 223 THE NICARAGUAN ROUTE . . . . 223 THE SUEZ CANAL–100 MILES LONG— CoST $100,000,000 . . . 223 THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL . . . 225 THE KILE CANAL–125 MILES OF ExCA- VATION.—CoST $120,000,000 226 GREAT STRIDES IN THE OIL INDUSTRY 227 TEXAS OIL DISCOVERIES STIMULATE THE USE OF OIL FOR FUEL . . . 227 STORY OF THE TEXAS OIL, H EVER 228 THE NEWSPAPER MAN's SPECULATION 229 POOR PEOPLE MADE RICH IN A NIGHT 230 A STORAGE TANK HOLDING 500,000 GAL- LONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 DRILLING FOR OIL 230 THE MODERN PIANO 231 MAKING LEAD PENCILS 233 COMPOSITION OF THE “LEADS”. 233 GRAPHITE - - - 233 GERMAN PIPE CLAY 233 PROCESS OF MIXING . . . . . . . 234 DIFFERENT KINDs of Wood For PENCILS 234 CUTTING CEDAR STRIPS . . . . 234 FILLING THE STRIPS WITH LEAD 234 THE FINISHING PROCESS 234 ARTIFICIAL ICE - - - - 235 THE PRINCIPLE OF REFRIGERATION . 235 WARMTH TAKEN FROM THE WATER BY ANHYDROUS AMMONIA - . 236 THE CAN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . 236 THE HOLDEN SYSTEM-ICE MADE FOR 50 CENTS PER TON . . . . . . 236 THE STILL, THE ABSORBER, THE CONDENS- ER AND THE INTERCHANGER . . . . 236 PROCESS OF MARING ANHYDROUS AM- IMONIA . . . . . . . . . . . 236 THE ICE MACHINE AND ITS OPERATION 237 CEMENT AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR IRON IN BUILDING . . . . . . . . 237 COMPRESSED AIR.—WHAT IT MEANS TO THE WORLD . . . . . . . . 237 PNEUMATIC TUBES . . . . . . . . . 237 Its SERVICE IN GREAT Hotels AND STORES 238 ITS RELATION To NEWSPAPER WORK . 238 Useful IN THE Post OFFICE DEPARTMENT 238 CLEANING FURNITURE CARPETS AND RAIL- WAY COACHES . . . . . . . 239 For MoTIVE Power . . . . . . . . 239 SUGAR CANE IN SUGAR MAKING AND PAPER MAKING . . . . . . . 239 AREA OF CANE GROWTH IN LOUISIANA AND METHOD OF PLANTING . . . . 239 Process of MARING SUGAR . . . . . 240 SEPARATING THE SUGAR FROM THE MO- LAsses . . . . . . . . . . . 240 PAPER FROM THE SUGAR CANE . 241 - PAGR, MINING COAL AND MAKING COKE . . 241 FATALITIES IN COAL MINING . . . . . 241 COAL INDISPENSABLE . -- - . 241 THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF CoAL . 242 OUTPUT OF COAL IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IN THE UNITED STATES . - - 243 THE TWO DEEPEST COAL MINES . 243 PENNSYLVANIA’s COAL PRODUCTION . 243 THE DISCOVERY OF COAL . . . . 243 AREA OF ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS COAL . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 THE PROCESS OF MINING COAL . 243 GUARDING AGAINST FIRE-DAMP . 244 SORTING COAL - - - - . 244 THE “BREAKER” - . 244 COAL TRANSPORTATION . 244 THE MANUFACTURE OF COKE . . 245 NEW METHOD OF FATTENING POULTRY 245 POULTRY FEEDING 2,000 YEARS AGO . 245 FATTENING GEESE - - - . 245 MACHINE AND TROUGH FEEDING , 246 PROFIT IN FATTENING FOWLS . . 246 IRON AND STEEL MANUEACTURING , 247 THE CUPOLA MAN . . . . . . . . .247 THE CUPOLA . . . . . . . . . . .247 THE “TU YERE” - . 247 CHARGING THE CUPOLA - - - . 248 CHEMICALLY PURE IRON VALUELESS . 249 MAKING PIG. IRON DIRECT FROM THE IRON ORE . . . . . . . . . . 249 STEEL ROLLING . . . . . . . . 249 SILR COCOONS AND THE SILK IN- DUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . 250 THE SILK MOTH AND THE SILK WORM - 250 THE SILK COCOON . . . . . . . 250 REELING THE COCOON INTO RAW SILK . 251 SPINNING IN THE FACTORY-10,000 REVO- LUTIONS PER MINUTE . . . . 253 DYEING AND SPOOLING THE SKEIN'S . 253 BEET SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCIAL VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . ANNUAL IMPORT of . SUGAR INTO THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . GREAT GAIN FOR THE FARMERS POSS1.3LE CoST of A BEET SUGAR FACTOTY AND EX- PENSE OF RUNNING... . . . . . . DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH THROUGH THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY --- SUGAR BEETs, A PROFITABLE CROP NEW INVENTIONS IN FLOOR COVER- ING . - - - - - - - - - MATTING LINOLEUM . PAPYROLITH - - - - - - - o - CARPETS FROM NEW RAGS AND REMNANTS ORIENTAL CARPETING . - - - - ELEVATED RAILROADS 254 254 254 254 . 254 254 255 . 255 . 255 255 255 . 255 . 256 Book III-vivid ARRAY of FACTs con- CERNING DIEFERENT INATIONS. Objects Famous the World Cver—Impressive Scenes Far and Near—Peculiarities and Products Distinguishing - Widely Separated Localities. TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 - PAGE A CENTURY OF EXPLORATION . . . . 257 VOLCANOES IN CENTRAL AMERICA . . 257 SOUTH AMERICA - - - - - - . 258 THE AMAZON AND LA PLATA . 258 EQUADOR . . - - . 258 ARGENTINA - - - - - - - - . 258 THE BALDWIN-ZIEGLER EXPLORATION . 259 THE POLAR REGIONS . . . . . . . 259 RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES . 260 GROSS RECEIPTS OF ALL THE SYSTEMS . 260 OPERATING EXPENSEs - - - - . 260 NUMBER OF PASSENGERS CARRIED . 260 CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES . 261 FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION . 262 CONGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . .263 THE PRESIDENT . . . . . . . . . 265 THE JUDICIARY . . . . . . . . . . 265 HOME RULE . . . . . . . . . . . 267 STATE SOVEREIGNTY . . . . . . . . 268 CoNSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEEs . . . . 269 LEGISLATION . . . . . . . . . . . 269 QUALIFICATIONS FOR OFFICE . . 269 TREASON . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 IMPEACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . 270 PATENT LAWTS OF THE UNITED STATES 270 PATENTS AND THEIR CONDITIONS . . . 270 APPLICATIONS FOR PATENTS . . 270 ASSIGNMENT OF PATENTS . . . . . . 272 CAVEATS . . . . . - - . 272 PATENT FEES . . . . . . . . . . 272 THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW . 272 INTER-STATE CoMMERCE CoMMISSION . . 272 DISCRIMINATION IN RATES - . 273 LEGAL ACTIONS AGAINST RAILROADS . 273 REBATES AND POOLING . . . . . . . 273 CIVIL SERVICE REGULATIONS . 274 CIVIL SERVICE ExAMINATIONS . 275 THE ILLINOIS CIVIL SERVICE LAW . 275 THE UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE 277 NUMBER OF POST OFFICES AND EMPLOYES 277 RECEIPTs, ExPENSES AND AMoUNT OF MAIL 277 POSTMASTER GENERAL's OFFICE . . 277 SALARIES OF PostMASTERs . . - . 278 CITY MAIL DELIVERY - - - - - . 278 THE MARINE POSTAL SERVICE . 278 RURAL DELIVERY SERVICE . . . 278 RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE . . . . 278 THE “FAST MAIL” . . . . . 279 MAIL BAGs - - - - - - . 279 ForwardING MAIL IN ALASKA . 280 Money ORDERs . . . . . . . . . . 281 DEAD LETTER OFFICE . . . . . . . . 282 MAIL PACKAGES . . - . 282 OCEAN POST OFFICES . . . . . 282 UNDESIRABLE IMMIGRANTS, AND STSA TISTICS OF IMMIGRATION . 283 PENALTY OF UNDUE HospitaLITY . . 283 ONE THous AND IMMIGRANTs DAILY . . 284 NoT PROUD OF COUNTRYMEN - . 284 GREATEST IMMIGRATION ON RECORD . . 284 OVER-SUPPLY IN THE GREAT CITIES . . .284 UNDER-SUPPLY ON THE FARMS . . . . 284 STATIstics of IMMIGRATION º 285 RECLAIMING OF ARID AMERICA . . . . . 285 • 286 ALKALI PLAINS OF COLORADO . . . ARTIFICIAL CANAL - - PAGE 285 TAPPING THE COLORADO RIVER . . . . . 286 CoNGRESS PROMOTES IRRIGATION . . 287 “UNCLE SAM” AND NUT CULTURE . 287 THE GOVERNMENT'S FARM . . . . . 287 THE PECAN AND PERSIAN WALNUT . 287 THE JORDAN ALMOND . - . 288 THE ENGLISH WALNUT . 288 PROFIT IN PECANS . . . . . . . . . THE COCOANUT PALM . . . WHAT THE WEATHER MAN DOES . . 288 288 289 A SCIENCE OF TENDENCIES . . .289 STORM CoNDITIONS . . . . . . 289 AREA COVERED BY THE SIGNAL SERVICE . 290 MILLIONS OF DOLLARS SAVEd YEARLY . . 290 THE GALVESTON HURRICANE . . . 292 WARNING OF COLD WAVE PREVENTS Loss .. 292 FROST WARNINGs - . 292 GREAT FLOODS OF 1897 . 292 THE THERMOMETER . 292 THE BAROMETER . 292 THE BAROGRAPH . 292 THE ANEMOMETER . - . 292 THE TELETHERMOMETER . . 292 THE HYGROMETER . . 292 THE ANEMOSCOPE . - - . 292 IPOSTAGE STAME PRINTING . .293 NUMBFR PRINTED DALLY . , 293 NUMBER LOST - - . .293 THE GUMMING PROCESS - - . 294 STAMPS USED IN THE PHILIPPINES . . 294 STAMPS USED IN HAWAII AND PORTO RICO LEGISLATION TOUCHING POSTAGE . . . HOW THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES TRAVELS OVER THE 294 294 COUNTRY . . . . . . . 295 EXTREME PRECAUTIONS . - - . 295 PRESIDENT'S PRIVATE SECRETARY . 296 INSTRUCTIONS TO RAILROAD MEN . 296 THE RIGHT OF WAY . . . . . . . . 296 THE RAILROAD TELEGRAPH OPERATOR AND LINEMAN - - - - . 296 PROVISIONING THE TRAIN . 296 THE WHITE HOUSE MESSENGERS . 297 HOW AND WHERE THE WORLD GETS ITS MEAT . . . . . . . . . NUMBER OF CATTLE IN THE WORLD . NUMBER OF SHEEP AND SWINE IN THE WoRLD - - - - - - - - - - CATTLE IN TEXAS, KANSAS, NEBRASKA 297 . .297 297 AND ILLINOIs. . . . . . . . . 297 SHEEP IN WYOMING, MonTANA AND NEW MEXICO . . . . . . . . . . .298 HOGS IN IoWA, ILLINOIS, MIssouri AND NEBRASKA - - - - - - - . .298 KILLING AND PACKING CENTERS . 298 CHICAGO UNION STOCK YARDS . . .298 GREATEST SINGLE BUSINEss IN THEWoRLD 298 LARGEST RANCH IN AMERICA . . . . . . .299 THE FAMOUS CATTLE WOMAN . . .299 WESTERN FARMS OF GREAT EXTENT .. 299 AVERAGE SIZE of FARMs IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . 299 14 TABLE OF CONTENTs WESTERN FARMS OF GREAT EXTENT. —Continued. A FARM RANCH LARGER THAN THE STATE PAGE OF CONNECTICUT . . . . . . . . .300 THE “X. I. T.” FARM EMPLOYs 200 Cow- BOYS AND 50 FARM-HANDS . 300 LARGEST FARM IN THE SOUTHWEST . 301 FIFTY BINDERS AND 100 MEN AT WORK IN ONE FIELD . . . . . . . . . . .301 FINEST FARM IN THE UNITED STATES . . .301 CONDUCTED LARGELY BY TELEPHONE . 301 ALFALFA IN ONE TRACT - . 301 FARM OF ROCKEFELLER . . . . . . . 302 ExTENSIVE RANCHES IN THE GREAT GRAIN BELTS . . . . . . . . . . . 302 BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA . . 303 THE CALAVERAS GROVE . . . . 303 THE RED WOOD FORESTs . . . . . . . .304 TEN SEPARATE GIANT FORESTS-AREA 260 MILES LONG . . . . . . . . . 304 FIVE HUNDRED TREES ToweRING SKYWARD 304 A TREE 4,000 YEARS OLD . . . . .304 THE BIG TREES' ENEMY . . 304 THE MARIPOSA GROVE . . . . . . .304 WHERE WARIOUS AMERICAN INDUS- TRIES ARE MAINLY CARRIED ON . . . . . . . . . . . . .305 COLLARS AND CUFFS . . - . 305 OYSTER CANNING . . . . . . 305 GLOVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 CoRE . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 BRASSWARE . . . . . . . . . 305 CARPETS . . - - - - - . 305 JEWELRY . . . . . . . . . 305 SILVERWARE . . . . . . . . 305 THE SLAUGHTERING INDUSTRY . 305 PLATED AND BRITANNIA WARE . 305 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS . 305 SILK MAKING . . . . . . . 305 IRON AND STEEL . . . . 305 POTTERY . . . . . . 305 FUR-HAT INDUSTRY . 306 GLASS . . . . . 306 CoTTON GOODS . . 306 Boots AND SHOES . . . . . . 306 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES-AT HOME AND ABROAD 306 NUMBER OF PUPILS . . . . . . . . .306 VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY . 306 ExPENDITURES FOR COMMON SCHOOLS . . 306 ExPENSE of SCHOOLS PER CAPITA . . . .306 SCHOOLS IN THE NEW ISLAND POSSESSIONS 306 ARMY OF TEACHERS . . . . . . . 306 UNDER SPANISH RULE . . . . . 307 School, ATTENDANCE COMPULSORY IN THE PHILIPPINES . . . . . . . . . 307 Schools IN THE ARCHIPELAGo . . . . 307 FILIPINo TEACHERS . . . . . . . . 307 AMERICAN SCHOOL BOOKS SENT TO THE PHILIPPINES . . . . . . . . . . 307 FILIPINos’ DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE . . 307 GAMES OF THE YOUNG FILIPINOS . . 308 FIRST FILIPINo GRAMMAR . . . . . . .308 THE TANGALOG ALPHABET . . . . . . 308 HOW THE UNITED STATES GOVERN- MENT EDUCATES THE INDIAN 309 METHOD LIKELY to Sport, THE INDIAN . . 309 P HOW THE UNITED STATES GOVERN- MENT EDUCATES THE INDIAN. AGR —Continued. WRETCHED CONDITIONs on SoME RESERVA- TIONS . - - - - - - - 309 AN ANOMALOUS STATE of THINGs . . * 309 CAPABLE OF SELF-SUPPORT . . . . . . 310 CHOCOLATE MAKING IN AMERICA . . .310 INTRODUCTION of NUT IN SPAIN . . 310 CHOCOLATE SPREADS THROUGH EuroPE 310 PURITANs BRING IT To MAssachusetts BAY . . - - - - - - - 310 FIRST CHOCOLATE MILL IN AMERICA 311 CoNSUMPTION of CHocoLATE AND Cocoa IN THE UNITED STATEs . . . . . .311 CHOCoLATE MILL AT MILTON, MAssachu- SETTS . . . . . . . . . . . 311 THE Cocoa TREE AND NUTs . . . . 311 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING Cocoa . 311 CoCOA SHELLs . . . . . . . 311 GRINDING THE CRACKED Cocoa . 312 MoLDING THE CAREs . - - - . . 312 SWEETENING AND FLAvoRING . . . . . 312 THE CINNAMON TREE AND ITS CUL- TURE . . . . . . . . . . . .312 THE MOST SUITABLE Soil . . . . 312 APPEARANCE of THE TREE . . . . . . 312 ALASKA . . . . . . . . . . . 313 THE YUKON RIVER . . . . . . 313 VAST EXTENT OF ALAskA . 313 TRADE OF ALAskA . . . . . . . 313 THE ISLAND of KADIAK . . . . . . . .314 TEMPERATURE AND PRODUCTs . . 314 SEAL AND WALRUS HUNTING . 314 BREEDING GROUNDs of THE SEAL . 314 ILLEGAL HUNTING . . . . . . . . .315 JoINT AGREEMENT witH GREAT BRITAIN .. 315 PELAGIC SEALING . - - - - - . 315 WALRUs HUNTING BY THE Eskimos . 315 FLORIDA'S PRODUCTS AND PLEASURE RESORTS . . . . . . . . . . .316 Four HUNDRED MILEs of OCEAN BEACH . 316 NoRTHERN CAPITAL MAKEs IMPRovement. 316 ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE “Ponce de LEoN" 316 PALATIAL Houses of ENTERTAINMENT .. 316 THE “Roy AL PoſNCIANA” . . 316 PALM BEACH - - - - . 319 PRODIGAL ExPENDITURE . . . . . .319 ORANGE GROVES AND PINEAPPLE FIELDs . .319 THE FLORIDA TRUCK-GARDENs . 319 SPONGE FACTORY AT KEY WEST . . 319 MAKING MONEY AT THE MINT . 322 CoPPER CENTs FIRST Money CoINED . 322 SILVER DOLLARs AND Gold EAGLES . 322 No GoLD EAGLEs CoINEd For 33 YEARs .. 322 PERIODs of CEssation IN CERTAIN Coin- AGES . . . . . . . . . . .322 SAN FRANCIsco, DENVER AND CARson CITY MINTs . . . . . . 322 THE WEIGHING Roomſ . . . . . . . .322 THE DEPOSIT MELTING Roomſ . . . . . .322 ASSAYING . . . . . . . . . . 323 THE ROLLING Roomſ . . . . . . . 323 THE ADJUSTING ROOM - - - - . 323 THE CLEANING Room . . . . . . 323 THE PREsses . . . . . . . - . 323 THE COUNTING . . . . . 323 TABLE OF CONTENTS 15 PAGE PAGE NINE GREAT WONDERS OF AMERICA . 324 MATRIMONY IN ENGLAND . . . . . . 337 SALARIES PAID BY THE UNITED WHAT THE WIFE KNows ANd DOES . . 337 STATES GOVERNMENT . . . . 325 How THE HUSBAND AND WIFE Work . . 338 PRESIDENT, WICE-PRESIDENT AND CABINET 325 A BOND OF COMMON INTEREST . . . 338 MEMBERs QF CoNGRESS . . . . . . . .333 SCOTLAND'S MODEL TOWN . . . . . 338 #... *.*.**** . . . . ; CANADA AND ITs GoyFRNMINT . . . .333 §. C º - - - - - - - 325 THE Dom INION of CANADA . . . . . 339 UPREME UOUR - - " ... ITS ExTENT AND POPULATION . . . . 339 POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT . . . . 325 MANITOBA . . . . . . . . . . . 339 *...*. APPOINTEEs . . . . . . ; RELIGIOUS CREEDs . . . . . . . . . 339 RMY 5. - - - - - - - - - - 326 THE CANADIAN GoverNMENT . . . . . 339 NAVY OFFICERS . - - - - - - - - THE CANADIAN SENATE AND HOUSE OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT CoMMONs . . . . . . . . . . .340 FISHERIES . . . . . . . ; THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS . . . . 340 CRUISE OF THE “ALBATROSS” . . . . . : THE SUPREME AND EXCHEQUER COURTS .. 340 CRUISE OF THE “GORGON”. . . . . . . . 329 THE PROVINCIAL Courts . . . . . . .340 THE SIGSBEE TRAWLING DEVICE . . . . .329 THE GOVERNOR GENERAL . . . . . 340 SPECIES OF FISH . . . . . . . . . 330 THE JUDICIARY.. . . . . . . . . .340 GERMANY–THE GOVERNMENT OF . . 326 CANADA'S LONG BRIDGE-SPAN . . . . 341 ORGANIZATION OF THE GERMAN CONFED- THE GREAT ST. LAWRENCE . . . . . . 341- thrºnix, Goºsſes; . . . . . SINKING OF THE CAISSON . . . . . . 341 HE IMPERIAL VERNMENT . . . . . THE IMPERIAL CouncIL . . . . . . . 327 FRANCE–GOVERNMENT OF . . . . . .342 THE IMPERIAL CROWN . . . . . . . 327 THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY . . . . . . 342 THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR . . . . . 328 METHODS OF ELECTION . . . . . . . 343 LAWS OF THE EMPIRE . . . . . . . . 328 THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET . . . 343 JUDICIARY OF THE EMPIRE . . . 328 §: sº AND CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES #: MOVING BOATS BY CABLE ON THE *...*c...ºre . . . . . . . . ELBE . . . . . . . . . . . 328 FAVORITISM AND SUBSIDY. . . . . . . 344 FACTS ABOUT THE ELBE . . . . , 328 THE JUDICIARY . . . . . . . . . . .344 § !. - - - - - - - - - - - § CENTRALIZATION OF Power . . . . . . . 345 AVAGABILITY . . . . . . . . . . THE CANTON AND THE COMMUNE . . . 345 BUYING HUMAN HAIR IN GERMANY . 330 METHODS OF THE HAIR BUYERs . . . . 330 RUSSIA-GOVERNMENT OF . . . . . $46 PRICE OF A HEAD OF HAIR . . . . . . 330 §: .* - - - - - - - - - - - : MOUNTAIN CLIMBING IN SWITZERLAND 331 ERFDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . NATIONALITY OF THOSE KILLED . 331 PETER THE GREAT . . . . . . . . . 347 CAUSEs of ACCIDENTS 332 A. ONE-MAN POWER . . . . . . . . 347 - - - - - THE COMMITTEE OF MINISTERs . . . , 347 GREAT BRITAIN–GOVERNMENT OF . . 332 THE COUNCIL of STATE . . . . . . . .347 A LIBERAL RULE . . . . . . . . 332 THE SENATE . . . . . . . . . . . .347 FATE OF CERTAIN EARLY MONARCHs . . 333 REGULATION OF DOMESTIC AFFAIRs IN THE THE CABINET . . . . . . . . . . 333 “MIR” . . . . . . . . . . . .348 PARLIAMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 334 DIRE PENALTIES . . . . . . . . . .348 THE JUDICIARY . 334 > - - - - - - - - MARRIAGES IN RUSSIA . . . . .348 IN A KING'S KITCHEN AND PLATE RUSSIA’S SUPPLY OF PLATINUM DI- ROOMS . . . . . . . . . . .335 MINISHING 349 KITCHEN’s CostLY FINISH . . . . . . .335 - - - - - - THE CLERK AND THE CHEF . . . . . .335 FACTS ABOUT NEW GUINEA . . . . . 350 MANAGEMENT . 335 THE LARGEST ISLAND ON THE GLOBE . . 350 Kitches Knives, Forks, Pots Asp, PANs #5 THE CINCHONA TREE IN PERU. . . .351 FORKS AND Spoons of MAssive SILVER . 335 PRODUCTION OF OPIUM IN CHINA, MoWEY IN PLATE, CoPPER AND IRoN UTEN- INDIA AND PERSIA. - 351 SILS . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 A PROBLEM IN THE POLITICS OF EASTERN PLATE EQUAL IN VALUE To 18 Tons of ASIA . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 SoVEREIGNs . . . . . . . . . . .335 THE POPPY . . . . . . . . . 351 SOLID Gold SET of GEORGE IV . . . . .335 ExTRACTION OF RAW OPIUM . . . . . 353 GOLD DISH of ALExANDER THE GREAT . . .335 THE FINISHED PRODUCT . . . . . . .353 A FAMOUS ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVE . . . .336 BoILING OPIUM BALLs . . . . . . . 353 TWENTY-ONE YEARs on THE Road . . . .336 THE MARKET PRICE . . . . . . . . 353 TWO MILLION MILES RUN . . . . . . .336 A CUSTOM PECULIAR TO NEW ZEALAND 354 NUMBER of Round TRIPs . . . . . . .336 SHEEP CLEANED AccordLNG TO LAw . . 354 SPEED PER Hour ... . . . . . . . . 336 THE wool INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA. 354 CONSUMPTION of CoAL AND WATER . . . .336 FEEDING IN DRY SEASONS . . . . . .354 WHAT FOGS COST LONDON . . . . . 337 THE SHEEP STATIONS . . . . . . 354 AMOUNT of SMokE DALLY . . . . . 337 SHEARING BY MACHINEBY . . . . . . .354 16 - TABLE OF CONTENTS - PAGE) PAGE THE CANNIBAL TREE OF AUSTRALIA 356 HOW MUSIC IS PRINTED . . . . . . 384 WORSHIPED AS THE “DEVIL TREE" . . . 356 WOMAN IN MUSIC PRINTING . . . . 384 LACE-MAKING IN PARAGUAY . . . . .357 DIFFERENT METHODs 1N, alsTING . . . 384 DESIGNS TAKEN FROM SPIDERS’ WEBS . . .357 The Music PRINTER’s “Case - - : CHINESE RICE PAPER . . . . . . . .357 .*... . . . . . . . . . . . ; CHINESE WEDDINGS . . . . . . . . . 359 ENGRAVING Music . . . . . . . . . 385 ELEPHANTS USED FOR PLOWING IN THE PROCESS OF PRINTING . . . . . 385 INDIA. . . . . . . . . . . . 361 HOW THE MODERN THEATER IS CON- WHERE CERTAIN THINGS COME DUCTED . . . . . . . . 386 FROM . . . . . . . . . . 362-363 THE THEATER A. WORKHOUSE . . . . . 386 THE DELHI DURBAR OF 1903 . . . . .365 §."....” - - - - - - - - - . - N - - - - - - - THº º ...,' ' ' ' ' ' § THE SCENIC ARTIST, PROPERTY MAN, #. "...". HEOP p : 368 ELECTRICIAN AND STAGE CARPENTEI 387 EIGHT AND AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS THE ORCHESTRA LEADER . . . . . . 388 TRAVELERS CLIMB TO THE TOP OF ASSIGNIMENT OF PARTS 388 -- -> - wn - 1. - - - - - - - CHEOPS” . . . . . . . . . . 368 UP IN THE “FLIES” . . . . . . . . 389 SCENES OF GREAT FINANCIAL PANICS 368 STAGE PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 389 SCENES OF GREAT FLOODS . . . . . 369 HOW LIQUORS ARE DISTILLED . . . 390 SCENES OF TEN TERRIELE PLAGUES - 370 THE MANUFACTURE OF WHISKY . . . . 390 THE GREAT FAMINES OF HISTORY . . 370 ºsmº Pº: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; THE CULTURE OF TAPIOCA . . . . . 371 Fºrmentation - - . - - - - - - - 391 COTTON CULTURE . . . . . . . . . 372 DISTILLATION - - - - - . . . . . .391 SELF-PERPETUATED IN ANCIENT TIMES . 372 THE OLD STILL . . . . . . . 392 VARIETIEs of Cotton IN AMERICA . . . . 372 THE MODERN STILL . . . . . . . . 392 BRAZILIAN COTTON . . .” --- - - . 372 ADULTERATION AND IMPOSITION . . . . .393 A. THREAD 160 MILES LONG . . . . . 373 A TINY TYPEWRITER - - - - - - - - 393 CoTTON PICKING . . . . . ... ' ' ' ' # ITS SIMPLICITY OF DESIGN . . . . . . .394 GREAT VALUE IN COTTON SEED . . . . 37 ITS MECHANICAL OPERATION . . . . . 394 - IA D - Book Iv.—A.THousand. THINGs well ...". "...' ...”.” WORTH RNOWING. TURE S NUFAC- 394 Information That Enriches the Mind and THE ZAPOTE TREE–“CHICLE” . . . . .395 Enlivens the Heart. TEA AND COFFEE CULTURE . . . . . .396 FIRE FIGHTING TO-DAY. . . . . . . 375 #.". ..". of TEA-DRINKERs . . *. FREQUENCY OF FIRES IN AMERICAN CITIES 375 *RANº Parº. º: IA. . . . . §§ GLASGow’s SUPERB FIRE-ENGINE HOUSE . 378 º 3. … Yº...” "E USSIA . JAvA 396 VALUE OF TIME IN FIRE FIGHTING . . . 378 . é. - .*. RAZIL AND JAVA . 397 CHICAGO's FIRE DEPARTMENT . . . . 378 Fºw ". IS UFROWN . . . . . . . 397 THE ELECTRIC FIRE ALARM SERVICE . . 378 º: Ic ºp ......... A............. FIRE FIGHTING IN LONDON . . . . . . 379 º A. A Phoducing Countries . . .399 START IN TEN SECONDS AFTER THE ALARM 379 º §ºs, Firisa Piocess . . . : THE FIRE-HORSEs . . . . . . . . . . 379 - - - - ELECTRICITY FOR FIRE ENGINES . . . . 380 ºng . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40% Equipm ENT For FIRE FIGHTING . . . . .380 HOW TO PRES” tWE NATURAL FLOWERS 402 THE SCALING LADDERs . . . . . 380 1 --> A * : * ~ OF AIR-TIGHT Box . . . . 402 CoMPRESSED-AIR EXTENSION LADDERS . . 380 S. ...,v1.10N AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE | THE WATER ToweR, SEARCHLIGHT AND FLOWERS . . . . . . . . . . 402 RoPEGUN . . . . . . . . . . 380 i. º - - co - - - - - - ; r ION OF H'O -- - - WHAT A POUND OF COAL CAN DO . . 381 ETENTION OF FORM AND UOLOR 40 GATHERING CORR. . . . . . . . . . 403 ITS Wonderful PotentIAL ENERGY . 381 PE - - ELING FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSEs . . 403 THINGS ALMOST INCREDIBLE . . . 381 P P 403 THE CYCLONE . . . . . . . . . . . .382 RESSING INTO PLATES . . . . . . . 40 ITS PATHWAY. . . . . . . . . . . .382 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF CHICKENS 404 Its EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . .382 ANTIQUITY OF THIS MODE of INCUBATION 404 - Its CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 382 METHOD OF HEATING INCUBATOR . . . . 404 * ENLARGEMENT of THE STORM SPACE . . .382 TEMPERATURE FOR INCUBATION . . . . 404 THE HoRN CARD . . . . . . . . . 382 TURNING OF EGGS AND ALTERING THEIR tº “How THE CYCLoNE ForMs, DEVELops AND LOCATION . . . . . . . . . . 405 ºtº AdvancEs . . . . . . . . . . .383 THE BROODER . . . . . . . . . . 405 *** - Two CLOUDS UNITE . . . . . . . . . 383 HOW CELLULOID IS MADE . . . . . 405 º Houses, BARNS, HAYSTACKS AND TREES GRINDING GUN Cotton . . 405 tº Swept UP . . . . . . . . . . . 383 A SUBSTITUTE FOR Ivory AND PORCELAIN 406 º: . . - : ". TABLE OF CONTENTS 17 THRASHING WATERMELONS SEEDS . . . . . . . . THE THRASHING MACHINE . SELLING THE SEEDs . . . EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY AND MEAT . . . . THE FORCE OF INDUCTION ELECTRICAL TENSION . - - - - - - HEADACHE DUE TO METEOROLOGICAL DIS- F O R ON MILK PAGE . 406 . 406 . 406 407 . 407 407 TURBANCES - - - - - . 408 ATHLETIC SPORTS OF TO-DAY . . 408 FOOT BALL - - " - - - . 408 BASE BALL . . 410 GOLF . . . . . 410 BASKET BALL . 412 WATER SPORTS . . . . . . . . . . 412 UNCLE SAM'S “SPECIAL DELIVERY” BOYS . . . . . . . . . . 413 WAGES . - - - . 413 AGES . . . . . . . . . . . 413 RULES GoverNING THEIR WoRK . . . 413 NUMBER OF Boys, AND THEIR DELIVERIES MONTHLY . . . . . . . . 413 AREA COVERED, AND METHOD of Work . 414 NUMBER DELIVERED PER DAY . . . 414 BATHING FOR HEALTH AND BEAUTY . 415 HoT BATH For CLEANLINEss, CoLD BATH FOR TONIC . . . . . . . . 415 TEMPERATURE OF BATH . . 415 SHOWER BATH . 415 HOT BATH's - . 415 CHILDREN’s BATHs . 415 CoLD PACK . 416 TEPID BATH - - - - . 416 OUR SCHOOLBOY SOLDIERS . 416 NUMBER of MILITARY INSTITUTEs . 416 MINIATURE MILITARY Posts . 416 THE CADET’s FIRST LEsson . 416 THE MANUAL of ARMs.. . 417 HEALTH AND MUSCLE . 417 THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLEs . . 417 ExERCISE I - - - . 418 EXERCISE II . 418 EXERCISE III . 418 ExERCISE IV . - - . 418 A GENERAL ExERCISER . 419 LIME IN AGRICULTURE . . 419 ERADICATES DISEASE . - - . 419 PRODUCES CARBONIC ACID GAs . . 419 FATAL To WoRMs, SLUgs AND DANGERous LARVAE . . . . . . . . 419 DESTROYS THE SEEDs of WEEDs . 420 IN THE MINE WITH THE MINER . 420 A HAZARDous Occupation . 420 WAGEs . - - - - - - - . 420 AMOUNT MINED BY EACH MINER . 420 THE MINER's Home, CLOTHING AND Food 420 THE “BREAKERBox” . . . . . . . . 421 A DAY ON THE FARM WITH THE FARMER . . . . . . . . . 421 AVERAGE SIZE of FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . 422 NEW METHOD of FARM AND RANCH MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . 422 Fºx's BELONGING TO INDIANs . . . . 422 PAGE A DAY ON THE FARM WITH THE FARMER.—Continued. WAGES OF FARM LABORERS . . . . . . 423 UP-To-DATE METHODS OF FARMING . . . 423 IMPROVEMENT IN ROADS . . . . . 423 IMPROVEMENT IN MAIL AND TELEPHONE FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . 423 BUGS COSTLIER THAN BATTLESHIPS . 423 CAUSE A YEARLY Loss To CROPS . . . 423 A DAY WITH THE STOKER, ON SHIP- BOARD . . . . . . . . . . . 424 HOW SUMMONED TO HIS TASK . 424 A SLAVE OF THE TOWERING BOILERS . 424 FEEDING THE ROARING FURNACE . . 424 “CLEANING” THE FIREs . . . . . . 424 A Double RELIEF AND ExTRA RATION . . 424 THE COAL BUNKERS AND THE “TRIMMER” 425 CoAL CONSUMED ON A SINGLE VOYAGE . 425 A DAY WITH THE BRAKEMAN ON THE TRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . 425 FREIGHT BRAKEMAN . 425 THE RED FLAG . . 425 COUPLING THE CARs - - - - . 425 ASSEMBLING AND CHANGING CARS . . 425 THE PASSENGER BRAKEMAN . 425 FLAGGING - - - - - - . 425 A DAY IN THE CIGAR FACTORY . 426 BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURE . . . . . . . 426 MACHINES FOR CIGAR MAKING . . . . 426 PROCESS OF MARING CIGARS BY HAND . 426 THE CIGAR MAKER's Tools . . . . . 426 A DAY WITH THE CHAUFFEUR . . 428 QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK . . 428 PROMOTIONS IN AUTOMOBILE FACTORIES . 428 A WHOLESOME OUTDOOR LIFE . . . 428 GOOD CHAUFFEURS SCARCE — SALARIES AMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 DEMAND FOR “AUTOs” ExCEEDs SUPPLY . 429 A DAY IN THE TELEGRAPH OFFICE WITH THE OPERATOR . 430 THE FARM BOY’s FOND AMBITION . 430 As A STUDENT IN THE OPERATOR'S OFFICE 430 A QUICK EAR ESSENTIAL . . . . . 430 THE BEGINNER's PROGRESS IN STUDY. . 430 EXPERT OPERATORS BORN, NOT MADE . 430 A FULL-FLEDGED TELEGRAPHER . 431 TELEGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING . . . 431 SALARIES OF OPERATORS AND TRAIN DIS- PATCHERS . . . . . . . . 431 A DAY ON AN OCEAN LINER WITH THE STEWARD . . . . . . . . . 432 THE CREW AND PASSENGER LIST . 432 NUMBER OF ASSISTANTS . . 432 FLOUR CONSUMED . . . . . . . . 432 MEAT, FISH AND GAME Consumed . . 432 A DAY ON THE TROLLEY CAR WITH ITS CREW . . . . . . . . . . . 433 LONG HOURS AND “SPLIT” RUNS . . . 433 THE CONDUCTOR . . . . - . 434 SALARY . - - - - - - - - . 434 WoRK AND LENGTH of SERVICE . - 434 THE MOTORMAN's TASK . . . . . . . 434 AN APPRENTICESHIP IN THE SHops—THE PILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 WAGES OF MOTORMEN . . . . . . . 434 18 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE A DAY IN THE FIELD WITH WOMEN WORKERS . . . . . . . . . 435 SCENE AT EVENING TIME . . . . 435 LONG ISLAND'S WOMEN FARM HANDs . . 435 PLANTING AND PICKING PERIOD . . 435 FARM WOMEN'S WAGES . . . . . 435 A DAY AT THE THROTTLE WITH THE ENGINEER . . . . . . . . . 436 THE ENGINEER’s APPRENTICESHIP . 436 FIRING ENGINES IN THE “YARD’’ . . . 436 THE FIREMAN's DUTY ON THE “RUN” . 436 PROMOTED TO BE ENGINEER OF A SWITCH ENGINE . . . . . . . . . . . 437 FIRST TRIPS AS ROAD ENGINEER, WITH A PILOT . . . . . . . . . . . 437 BECOMES FREIGHT ENGINEER . . . . 437 FINALLY RUNS A PASSENGER ENGINE . . 437 A DAY ON THE LOCOMOTIVE WITH THE FIREMAN . . . . . . . . . . 437 HOW THE FIREMAN BEGINS . 437 A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION . 437 DETAILS OF THE FIREMAN'S WORK . . 437 TWO SYSTEMS OF FIRING . . . . 438 SEES THAT THE COAL Is WELL IGNITED 438 APPROACHING A STOPPING POINT . 438 THE ENGINEER’s ASSISTANT . . . 438 TRAVEL BY NIGHT . . . . . . . . . 438 THE OLD-TIME INN . . . . . . . . 438 A JOURNEY FROM EDINBURGH TO LONDON .. 439 INTRODUCTION OF THE MAIL COACH . 439 EXIT OF THE MAIL COACH . . 439 THE NIGHT EXPRESS - - . 439 ADVENT OF SLEEPING CARs . . . . 440 A NEW TYPE OF PASSENGER LOCOMO- TIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 EFFECT OF ADOPTING THE TRAILER . . . 441 UANADA—HER LUMBER INDUSTRY . . 442 LUMBERING NEXT TO AGRICULTURE . . 442 A “WOODEN COUNTRY” - - - - . 442 THE GIGANTIC DOUGLAS FIR TREE . . 444 FLUMES SHOOTING LOGS FROM MoUNTAIN TOPS . . . . . . . . . . 444 SAWMILLs . . . . . . . . . . . 444 FIVE KINDS OF HANDS . 445 HANDLING SAW-LOGs . . . 445 THE CANADIAN MAPLE . . . 445 AGRICULTURE IN CANADA . . . . . 445 SOIL IN UPPER CANADA . - . . . 445 GENERAL PRACTICE - - . . . 445 INDIAN CORN . . . . . . . . . 445 LOWER CANADA . . . . . . . . 446 ALONG THE ST. LAWRENCE . . 446 SWAMP LANDS . . . . . 446 "WHEAT CROP . . . . . . . 446 PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS TO POPULATION .. 446 NEW APPLICATION OF THE GRAIN PRODUCT 446 “ExPERIMENTAL FARMS’’ . . . . 446 THE DAIRY PRODUCT . - - . 446 A Double. ADVANTAGE . . . . 447 DISTRIBUTION OF SEED-GRAIN . . . 447 t}STRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING . 447 A NATIVE OF AFRICA . . . . . . . . 447 AN OMNIVOROUs BIRD . 447 POLYGAMOUS . . . . . . . . . 448 THE INCUBATION . . . . . . . . . 448 THE EGGSHELL . . . . . . . . . . 448 PAGR, OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING.- Continued. OSTRICH FARMING . . . . . . . . . 448 VALUE OF THE FEATHERS . . . . . . 448 YIELD OF FEATHERS . . . . . . . 448 NATURE AND SPEED OF THE OSTRICH . 448 LOGGING IN THE NORTHWEST . . 449 IN THE EARLY DAYS . . . . . . . . 449 THE OLD-TIME LUMBERING CAMP . . . 449 THE SLEEPING QUARTERS . . . . . . 449 THE MODERN LOGGING OUTFIT . 449 ICING THE ROAD RUTS . 449 FELLING WITH THE SAW . . . . . . 450 BOOK W.—SOLID FOOD FOR, SOUND MINIDS. Reading That Makes One Wiser and Happier. THE COUNTRY BOY'S CHANCES IN A LARGE CITY . . . . . . . . 451 YEARNING FOR CITY LIFE . . . . . 451 GROWING NEED OF “HELP” on THE FARM . 451 CAUSES OF OVER-SUPPLY OF CITY “HELP” 451 FARMING REGIONS SUPPLY REDUBLIC'S GREAT MEN . . . . . . . . . 452 THE VALUE AND CHARM OF A GOOD LETTER. . . . . . . . . 452 SCRIBBLING LETTERS COMMON . . . . 452 THE LETTER A MESSENG: R OF ITS WRITER 452 THE HEART SPEAKS IN IT. . . . . . . 452 SPONTANEITY IN LETTER-WRITING . . . 453 THE COURTESIES OF LIFE . . . . . 453 AMENITIES OF HOME LIFE . . . . . . 453 FAMILY TRAINING . . . . . . . . 453 SINCERITY AND Kispliness . . . . . .454 THE HIGH SCHOOL’S PART IN EDUCA- TION . - - - - - 455 ATTENDANCE AT THE SCHOOLS . . . . 455 THOUGHTS ABOUT HOME . . . . . . 456 WHAT HOME MEANS . . . . . . . . 456 THE WORD “Home” . . . . . . . . 456 MOTHER . . . . . . . . . . . 456 WHAT MAKES AN IDEAL Homſ E . . . . 457 DUTY OF FATHER AND MOTHER . 457 ORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 MUSIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 NATURE's MELODIOUS Soun DS . . . . . 458 MODERN METHODS OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION . . . . - 458 THE PUBLIC BUSINESS SCHOOL . 458 THE TERM OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . 458 A MODEL OFFICE . . . . . . . 459 AIDS TO PROGRESS IN STUDY . . . . . 459 THE SCHOOL CORRESPONDENCE . . . . 459 SPARKS OF SCIENCE . . . . . . . . 460 SOLAR LIGHT . . . . . . . . . , 460 A BEAM OF SUN WAVES . . . . . 460 THE COLOR, RED . . . . . . . . . 460 LEAVES OF A TREE OR BLADES OF GRASS . 460 THE PAN.SY. . . . . . . . . . . . 460 OCEAN CABLES IN WAR TIME . 461 TWELVE CABLES UNDER THE ATLANTIC . . 461 THE GERMAN CABLE . . . . . . . . 461 THE FRENCH CABLE FROM BREST . , , 46? TABLE OF CONTENTS 19 PAGE OCEAN CABLES IN WAR TIME.-Con- tinued. BRITISH CABLEs LANDING AT CORNWALL AND CoNNAUGHT . . . . . . . . 462 CUTTING CABLES IN THE SPANISH-AMERI- CAN WAR . . . . . . . . . 462 POINTS OF LAW . . . . . . . . . . 462 CIVIL LAW . . . . . . . . . . 462 CRIMINAL LAW . . . . . 462 POLICE ARRESTs . - - - - - - . 463 FORCIBLE ENTRANCE ON WARRANTS . . 463 FELONY . . . . . . . . . . . 463 GRAND AND PETIT LARCENY . 463 ARSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 DRUNKENNESS No ExCUSE FOR CRIME . . 463 AsSISTANCE COMPULSORY ON POLICEMAN'S APPEAL . . . . . . . . . . 463 Forge'RY . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 MURDER . . . . . . 463 PERJURY . - . . . . . . . 463 THE HABIT OF BEING LATE . . 463 A PUNCTUAL PRINCE . . . . . . . . 463 UTILIZATION OF THE EARTH'S INTE- RIOR HEAT . . . . . 465 INTENSE HEAT IN DEEP HOLES . . 465 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE 1,000 FEET DOWN 465 EARTH-HEAT UNIVERSAL SOURCE OF POWER 466 SAVING THE FORESTS . . . . . . . 466 DISTRIBUTION OF MOISTURE DEPENDENT ON FORESTS . . . . . . . . 466 FORESTs PREVENT FILoods AND DROUGHT . 466 LESSEN THE NECESSITY FOR IRRIGATION .. 466 DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS BY FIRE . . 467 THE RAINFALL AND DISTRIBUTION OF FOR- ESTS . . . . . . . . . . 467 THE WORLD'S WATER POWER . 468 NIAGARA FALLs - - - . 468 A GREAT Power House . . . . . . 468 VARIOUS USEs For THE Power THUS DE- VELOPED - - . . 468 A NEW CITY . . . . . . . . . 469 SENDING WATER Power over LoNg Dis- TANCES . . . . . . . . . 469 PoWER GENERATED BY CANON WATER . . 470 PoWER FROM THE AMERICAN RIVER . . 470 ELECTRICITY FOR SAN FRANCISCO GENER- ATED 152 MILES DISTANT . 470 THE STUDY OF OTHER WORLDS , 470 IMMEASURABLE SPACE . . . . . 470 PROBLEMs Not YET Solved . . . 471 PLANET's VISIBLE To THE NAKED EYE . . 471 THE CoPERNICAN SystEM . , 471 KEPLER AND THE TIDEs . . . . 472 GALILEO AND THE TELEscope . . 472 NEWToN AND GRAVITATION . 473 ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTs . - . 473 GREATEST TELEscope IN THE World . 473 WoRKINGs of THE TELEscope . . 475 THE SoLAR SYSTEM . 475 THE SUN - . . . . . . . . . 475 SIZE AND DISTANCE of THE SUN FROM THE EARTH . - . 476 LIGHT of THE SUN . 476 NUMBER of PLANETs . . . 476 MERCURY . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 VENUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 THE EARTH . . . . . . . . . . . 477 PAGE THE STUDY OF OTHER WORLDS.—Con- tinued. THE Moon . . . . . . . . . . . 477 THE MOON.—DIAMETER AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH . . . . . . . 478 ECLIPSEs . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 EBB AND FLOW of TIDEs . . . . . . 478 MARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 JUPITER . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 SATURN - - - - - - . 480 URANUS - . . . . . . . . . 480 NEPTUNE - - - - - - - . 481 THE ASTEROIDs . . . . . . . . . . 481 METEORs . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 COMETs . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 THE FIXED STARs . . . . . . . . . 481 THE NEBULAR THEORY . . . . . . . 482 THE MILKY WAY . . . . . . . 482 LABOR UNIONS AND ARBITRATION . . 482 STRENGTH OF THE UNIONS . . 482 DEMAND FOR RECOGNITION OF THE UNION 482 THE ANTHRACITE COAL STRIKE OF 1902 . 482 PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT.'s ARBITRATION PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 CONSERVATIVE LABOR LEADERs AVERSE To STRIKEs . . . . . . . . . . . 482 LOCAL BOARDS OF ARBITRATION . . . . 483 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES of THE SAFE LABor LEADER OF TO-DAY - . 483 STATISTICS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 483 PROPORTION OF SUCCESSFUL AND UN SUC- CESSFUL STRIKES . 483 LABOR'S GAINS . . . . . . . 484 TRUSTS AND TRUST METHODS . . . . . 484 AN ILLEGAL TRUST - . 484 BIG CORPORATIONS . - - - - . 484 SPECIAL PRIVILEGEs GRANTED BY ENACT- MENT . - - - - - - . 484 Power of THE Monopoly . . . . . 484 VENAL LEGISLATION - - - . 485 THE STANDARD OIL CoMPANY . . 485 THE BEEF TRUST . . . . . . . . . 485 A GOOD TRUST . . . . . . . . . . 485 TRUSTS WIDELY PowerFUL . . . . . 485 THE SPECULATOR'S TRAITS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . 486 HARD WORK ALONE BRINGS SUCCESS . 486 THE GREATEST SPECULATOR IN WALL STREET - - - - - - . 486 SPECULATORS WHO HAVE FALLEN . . . 487 SPECULATION SOMETIMES A DISEASE . . 487 TWO GREAT BUSINESS BODIES . 487 THE NEW YORK STOCK ExCHANGE . . . 487 ORIGINALLY A CONVENIENT MARKET FOR SECURITIES . - - - - . 487 STOCK-GAMBLING AGENCY . . . . . . 488 MARGINS . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 SELLING “SHORT" . . . . . . . . . 489 “BULLS” AND “BEARs” - SLUMPs . . . 489 “PUTs”. ANL, “CALLs” - . 489-491 THE “Pool.” . . . . . . . . . . . 491 THE “CURB” . . . . . . . . . . . 491 THE “ROOM TRADER” . . . . . . . . 491 A “CORNER” . . . . . . . . . . . 491 CANARDs . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 OTHER STOCK Exchanges . . . . . . 491 THE CHICAGO BoARD OF TRADE . . 491 20 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE TWO GREAT BUSINESS BODIES.–Con- tinued. - “FUTURES” . . . . . . . . . . . 491 THE MONTHS COMMONLY USED FOR OP- TIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 ODD MOTIONS AND SIGNALS . . . . . 494 SCENES IN THE “PIT” . . . . . . . 494 INTERNATIONAL LAW . . . 494 CONFEDERATIONS, REPUBLICs AND EMPIRES 494 FLAG OF TRUCE, RED CRoss, TREATMENT OF PRISONERs . . . . . . . . . 495 TRIBUNALS FOR ENFORCEMENT OF TREA- TIES . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 AMBASSADORS AND CONSULs . . . . . 496 ARBITRATION, MEDIATION AND INTERVEN- TION . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION AT THE HAGUE . . . . . . . . . . . 497 *OLITICAL ECONOMY . . . . . . . . 497 FOUNDATION OF THE SCIENCE . . . . . 497 WEALTH . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 VALUE AND PRICE . . . . . . . . . 498 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION . . . . 498 “PROTECTION,” AND THE “BALANCE OF TRADE” . . . . . . . . . . . 498 FREE TRADE . . . . . . . . . . . 499 NATIONS LIKE INDIVIDUALS IN TRADE . . 499 IMPORTS AND EXPORTs . . . . . . . 499 A DIVERSITY OF OCCUPATIONs . . . . 500 PROSPERITY . . . . . . . . . . . 501 TARIFF FOR REVENUE ONLY . . . . . 502 THE PROPER CIRCULATING MEDIUM. . . 502 INTRINSIC VALUE—CREDIT . . . . . . 503 PANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 TARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION . . 504. “NATURAL SELECTION” . . . . . . . 504 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST . . . . . . 504 No TWO BEINGS ALIKE . . . . . . . 504 TOES AND TEETH . . . . . . . . . 505 ATAVIC FORMs . . . . . . . . . . 505 EVOLUTION NOT ATHEISTIC . . . . . . . 505 COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM . . . . 506 TWO CLASSES OF SOCIALISTS . . . . . 506 CAUSES OF SOCIALISM . . . . . . . 506 SINGLE TAx . . . . . . . . . . . 507 LAND THE ONLY SOURCE OF WEALTH . . 507 TAMMANY HALL . . . . . . . . . . 508 AN ASSOCIATION FOR ILLICIT GAIN . . . 508 COLLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 508 THE TAx FUND . . . . . . . . . . . 509 BOOK WI.-FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS. Pages Gleaming with Gems of Instruction and Imparting to the Inquiring Mind that Knowledge Which Is Power. BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR . . . . 511 SLEEPING FLOWERS . . . . . . . . 512 THE LILAC . . . . . . . . . . 512 EXPOSED TO FUMES OF ETHER . . . . 512 THE CLEANEST CITY IN THE WORLD . 512 CoST OF CLEANING - . 512 CLEANING THE ALLEYs . . . . . . . . 512 ToTAL AMoUNT of GARBAGE . . . . . 513 P POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES . AGE 513 As COMPARED WITH RUSSIA . . . . . 513 SPREAD OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE . 513 “CUP DEFENDERS’ WORTHLESS FOR CRUISING . . . . . . . . . 513 RACING MACHINES COSTLY . . 514 LACK OF SPACE BELOW DECK . 514 THE OLD-FASHIONED YACHT - . 514 OWNERSHIP OF LAND IN AMERICA . 514 NEW YORK'S MOVING STAIRWAYS . 515 A FARM WORKED BY CRAZY FOLK . 515 STRAIT JACKETs . . . . . . . . 515 REASON RETURNS . . 515 RESTRAINTS - . 516 A UNIQUE REPORT. . 516 COINS OF THE BIBLE . . 516 THE SHEREL . - - - - . 516 MONEY OF EGYPT AND CANAAN . 517 RINGS AS MONEY . . . . e. . 517 THE BEKA - . 517 PEANUTS . . - . 517 WHERE GROWN . - - - - - . 517 PEANUT FACTORIES IN NORFOLK . . 517 CLEANING . - . 517 SORTING . . . . . . . . . . 518 “SHIPS,” “EAGLES” AND “CHIPs” . 518 A PECULIAR OIL . . . . . . 518 LARGEST APARTMENT HOUSE IN THE WORLD . . . . . . . . . . . 518 CHRONOLOGY OF ELECTRICAL DISCOV- ERIES . . . . . . . . . . . 519 THE ELECTRIC CURRENT . . 519 ARC LIGHT - . 519 INDUCTION . - - - . 519 FIRST ELECTRIC ROAD . 519 INVENTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE . 519 A SYSTEM OF • TELEGRAPHY . 519 ZINC-COPPER BATTERY . 519 SHORT SUBMARINE CABLE . 519 FIRST MORSE TELEGRAPH LINE . 519 METHOD OF PRINTING BY TELEGRAPH . 519 AUTOMATIC REPEATERS - . 519 FIRST LONG SUBMARINE CABLE . 519 FIRST SUCCESSFUL ATLANTIC CABLE . 519 SYSTEM OF ELECTROLYTIC CoPPER REFIN- ING . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 STEARN's DUPLEx TELEGRAPH SYSTEM . 519 EDISON'S QUADRUPLEX SYSTEM . 519 FIRST MODERN ELECTRIC ROAD . 519 CoNTINUOUS-CURRENT DYNAMO . . 519 FIRST TELEPHONE EXCHANGE . . 519 EDISON'S INCANDESCENT LAMP . . 519 FIRST CENTRAL LIGHTING STATION . 519 INVENTION OF STORAGE BATTERY . 519 FIRST PRACTICABLE TROLLEY LINE . 519 FIRST EUROPEAN ELECTRIC ROAD . 519 First ELECTRYC CARs on ELEVATED RoAds 519 FIRST LONG-DISTANCE, HIGH-VoITAGE PoWER-TRANSMISSION PLANT 519 INVENTION OF THE TELAUTOGRAPH . . 519 HEAVY TRAINS FIRST MoVED BY ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE . . . . . . . 519 DISCOVERY OF X-RAY . . . . . . 519 GENERAL USE OF ROAD AUTOMOBILE , 519 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY . . . . . . . 519 * ----" TABLE OF CONTENTS 21 - PAGE. oLD CLocks AND watchEs—con.” tinued. THE WATER CLOCK . . . . . . . . THE SALADIN of EGYPT TO THE EMPEROR FREDERIC - - - - - - - - - THE STRAssBURG AND PADUA CLOCKS . ELI TERRY'S WOODEN CLOCK . . . . WATCHES . . . . . . - WHAT CRIME COSTS THE PEOPLE . . HISTORY OF THE WEEPING WILLOW . THE BEGINNING OF CERTAIN THINGS . THE TAHITIANS” FIRST GLIMPSE OF NAILS - - - - - - - - - - - THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD . . . A THousAND ForMs of RELIGIOUs WoR- SHIP . . . . . . Four GREAT DIVISIONs . . . . . . . NUMERICAL STRENGTH OF CHRISTIANITY COMPARED WITH PAGANISM . . . . CURIOSITIES OF THE BIBLE . . . . . SHORTEST AND LONGEST VERSEs . . . . NUMBER OF CHAPTERs, WoRDS AND LET- TERS - - - - - - - - - - - - THE WORLD'S NEWSPAPERS . . . . . OLDEST NEWSPAPER IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . LARGEST BELL IN THE WORLD . . . LARGEST THEATER IN THE WORLD . HIGHEST VOLCANO IN THE WORLD . . LARGEST CAVERN IN THE WORLD . . GROWTH OF THE GREAT POWERS . ENGLISH-SPEAKING RACEs . . . . . . LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS - - - - - - - - - NUMBER OF LOCOMOTIVES BUILT IN 1902 . INCREASED Cost of CoNSTRUCTION . . . TOTAL NUMBER OF LocoMotives AND CARs - - - - - - 526 526 527 527 527 528 528 528 529 530 530 530 530 530 530 530 530 530 531 531 531 531 . 531 532 532 FAGE CHRONOLOGY OF ELECTRICAL DIS- COVERIES.–Continued. TRANsATLANTIC TELEPHONY . . . . . 519 Edison's IMPROVED STORAGE BATTERY . . 520 DERIVATION OF WORDS STANDING FOR MONEY ......................... 520 PECUNIARY . . . . . . . - . 520 Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 NAMED FROM WEIGH . . . . . . . 520 CoIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 THE Pound . . . . . . . . . . . 520 THE RUPEE . . . . . . . . . . . 520 THE SOVEREIGN . . . . . . . . . 520 THE DO).LAR . . . . . . . . . 520 THE SHILLING . . . . . . . . . 520 STERLING . . . . . . . . . . . 520 HOW SPECTACLES ARE MADE .......... 520 THE WHITE LENs . . . . . . . . . 520 THE PROCESS OF GRINDING . . . . . 521 THE PROCESS OF SHAP118 g . . . . 521 BEVELING . . . . . - - - . . 521 Focus ING - - - - - - - - . 521 NUMBERING . . . . . . . . . . . 521 THE OLDEST NEWSPAPER IN THE WORLD . . . . . . . . . . . 521 PEKING GAZETTE . . - . . . 521 THE OLDEST MANUSCRIPT IN EXIST- ENCE - - - - - - - - - - - 522 FAMILIAR MAXIMS AND THEIR OR- IGIN . . . . . . . . . . . 522 SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . . . . . 522 WASHINGTON, IRVING . . . . . . . 522 GENERAL HENRY LEE . . . . . . . 523 DRYDEN - - . . . . . . . . 523 NATIANIEL LEE AND MATTHEW PRYOR . . . . . . . . . . 523 CowPER AND THOMAS & KEMPIs . . . . 523 MILTON . . . . . . . . . . . 523 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN . . . . . . . 523 Al3OUT WATER . . . . . . . . . . 523 FokIND IN Four DISTINCT FORMs . . . 523 IN THE FoRM of VAPOR . . . . . . . 523 THAMES WATER ON SHIPBOARD BECOMES PUTRID, THEN PURE . . . . . . 524 WATER FROM THE RHONE . . . . . . 524 CROTON WATER . . . . . . . . . 524 SPRING WATERS IN Portugaſ. . . . . . 524 WELL WATER IN EDINBURGH . . . . 524 ODD EFFECT of IRON IN WATER . . . . 524 WATER ContamINATED BY LEAD . . . . 524 'I'HE DEADLY SNARES OF INDIA......... 524 ANNUAL AMoUNT PAID For SNARE-KILL- ING . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 THE CHAIN WIPER. . . . . . . . . 524 THE CARPET SNARE, WHIP SNARE AND EYE SNARE . . . . . . . . . 525 THE Cobra . . . . . . . . . . 525 FATAL SNARE-BITEs of A SINGLE YEAR . 525 ſ?LD CLOCKS AND WATCHES ............. 525 THE MAN IN THE CUsTom House, . . 525 A REMARKABLE CLock IN PRAGUE . . . 525 A WonderFUL CLock IN VENICE . . . . 525 AN OLD JAPANESE TIMEKEEPER . . . . 526 THE CLock AT GENEVA THAT ExCELLED ALL OTHERs . . . . . . . . . 526 532 532 IN 1902 . . . . . . . . . . . 532 ToTAL MILEAGE of TRACK . . . . . . 532 TOLD IN FIGURES . . . . . . . . . 532 THE NEW YORK RAPID TRANSIT TUNNEL . 532 AGRICULTURE IN COLORADO . . . . . 532 HUNDREDs of MILLION's EAT. No MEAT .. 533 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANs . . 533 VICTIMS OF ELECTRIC CARs . . . . 533 PERCENTAGE OF SHOTS THAT HIT . , , 533 HIGH WAGES . . . . . . . . . . 533 THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PRE- CIOUS METALS . . . . . . . 533 UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . 533 ONLY COUNTRIES SHOWING Loss . . . 533 North AMERICA . . . . . . . . 533 AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA . . . 533 EUROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 SouTH AMERICA . . . . . . . . . 533 CENTRAL AMERICA . . . . . . . . . 533 ASIA - - - 533 ToTAL NUMBER OF FINE OUNCEs of GOLD AND SILVER . . . . . . . . GOLD AND SILVER ExPorts AND IMPORTs OF PRINCIPAL Countries . . . . . INCREASE IN THE GOLD STOCKS OF WA- BIOUS COUNTRIES . . . . . . . . 534 534 534 22 TABLE OF CONTENTS - P BOOK WII.-HOW TO DO BUSINESS SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING . . SINGLE ENTRY . . . . . . . . . . Double ENTRY . . - - - - - - How TO CLOSE A LEDGER . . . . . . COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC . . . . . FARMERS’ SHORT RULES IN ARITHMETIC DISCOUNT . . . . . . . . . - SIMPLE PARTNERSHIP . . . . . LAW WITHOUT A LAWYER . . . EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER . . . . How To SETTLE DIFFICULTIES WITHOUT 539 539 553 563 568 573 . 580 . 580 . 581 581 GOING TO LAW . . . . . . . 581 AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS . . . . 582 WHO MAY MAKE CoNTRACTs . . . . . 583 LAW GoverNING THE LEGALITY OF CON- TRACTs . . . . . . . . . . . 584 CoRPORATIONs . . . . . . . . . 585 How To WRITE NOTEs, CHECKs AND DRAFTs . . . . . . . . . . . 586 ENDorse:MENTs . . . . . . . . . . 591 WILLs—How MADE . . . . . . 595 MARRIAGE LAWS AND CONTRACT . 597 BREACH OF PROMISE . . . . . . . 597 ANTE-NUPTIAL CONTRACTS . . 597 DIvorce . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 THE RIGHT OF MARRIED WOMEN TO OWN PROPERTY . . . . . . . . . 597 LAW GoverNING LosT NOTEs . . . . . 598 SHORT FORM OF MORTGAGE . 599 CHATTEL MORTGAGE . . 600 WARRANTY DEED . . - - . 602 LEASE FOR PROPERTY . . . . . 603 IAW REGARDING HIRED HELP . 604 LAW REGARDING FARM ANIMALs . 604 Law ABOUT DOGs . . . . . . . . . 605 Law REGARDING OVERHANGING TREES . . 605 AGE PAGE SELF-INSTRUCTION IN LETTER-WRIT- IN - - - - - - - - - - - - 607 A SILENT WITNESS . . . . . . . . 607 BUSINESS LETTERS . . . . 608 THE ADDRESS . . . . . . . . . . 609 BODY OF LETTER . . . . . . . . . 610 ORDERING GOODS ON CREDIT . . . 614 LETTER REQUESTING PAYMENT . . . . 615 PLACING THE ACCOUNT FOR COLLECTION .. 616 MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS . . . . . . 617 LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION . . 618 LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION . . . . . . 619 WEDDING INVITATIONS . - . . . 621 SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION . . . . 623 Good ENGLISH FoR Polite SocIETY . . . 623 CAPITAL LETTERs—WHEN TO USE THEM 624 RULEs of PUNCTUATION . . . . . . 625 BOOK VIII.-A COMPLETE SCHOOL OF IPIENIMAINSEIIR AT IBIOME SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING . 631 MUSCULAR" Move MENT . . . . . . . 631 PREPARATORY MOTION . . . . . . . 636 DRILLS - - - - - - - - - - - 635-650 IBOOK IX.-A COMPLETE SCHOOL OF SHORTHAND AT IFIOME SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRIT- ING . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 DRILLS . 653-664 BOOK X.—ONE HUNDRED WAYS TO IMAIKE IMONEY MISCELLANEOUs METHODs . . 665-667 WOMAN'S WORK - 667-670 MoNEY IN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES . 670 MISCELLANEOUS WAYS TO GAIN RICHES . 671 SALARIED Positions . . . . . . . . 678 - - - WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROGRESS OF THE WORLD. FLYING MACHINES F OR many years the world of science has been watching Paris expecting to hear the news that one of the many in- ventors there had at last succeeded in mak- ing a machine that would fly in the air without using a gas bag or balloon to hold it up—a real airship that could navigate in the air by its own power. Flights of a few minutes' duration by Henri Farman and M. Delagrange under the most favorable conditions were chronicled, but these were not considered as any more than “getting near” to solving the problem. At intervals a report would come from a farm near Dayton, Ohio, that two brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, had made suc- cessful flights with their flying machine, one report saying that they had gone twen- ty-three miles in one flight, but as the farm FIRST EXPERIMENT RUNNING Down HILL. was inclosed by a high board fence and everything was carried on in secret, the report could not be verified. - The usefulness of an airship in times of war was recognized by all the governments at about the same time, and the War De- partment of the United States called upon all inventors to furnish flying machines and about forty responded. The tests, how- ever, were so severe that only three were able to stand them, and these contracted to furnish machines to the Government, viz., Capt. T. S. Baldwin, A. M. Herring and Wright brothers. These three machines assembled at Fort Myer, Virginia, to show what they could do, and Capt. Baldwin and Mr. Herring made successful flights of several minutes. Mr. Orville Wright, in the airship built by HOLDING WITH ROPES AGAINST THE WIND. CONQUERING THE AIR. - Wright Bros.' Aeroplane in full flight. This photograph was taken when Mr. Orville Yºğ. was establishing the world's record of over 38 miles in 1 hour and 14 Inlinutes. - -- WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS himself and his brother, Wilbur, surprised not only the army officers and the few spec- tators who were watching the experiments, but astonished the whole world by staying up in the air 57 minutes and 31 seconds and traveling 36 miles, and again in the evening of the same day he made another flight of 38 1/2 miles in one hour, 2 min- utes and 15 seconds. These two flights smashed all records to pieces, as the long- est previous time was 29 minutes and 55 seconds held by Delagrange, a Frenchman. Mr. Wright, however, was not content with these two record breaking feats, and AFTER THE MACHINE HAD BEEN RELEASED immediately after landing from his long- est voyage, he took as a passenger Lieut. Lamm of the U. S. Army with him for a brief sail of 6 minutes and 26 seconds. A few days after Mr. Wright broke his own record by making a speed of 38.75 miles per hour, ascended 250 feet in the air and stayed up 1 hour and 14 minutes. Since then, in May, 1909, Wilbur Wright made one flight of 75 miles at Lemaus, in France, the greatest distance ever covered by an aeroplane. This remarkable demonstration of the Wright brothers' machine is justly to be considered as one of the biggest achieve- ments in human history. It signified the conquest of the air—the solution of a problem which had baffled the ingenious human mind for thousands of years. Not only had a machine capable of navigating the atmospheric ocean been constructed, but its operation was shown to be both easy and safe. A spectator at the record breaking trip of the Wright brothers' aeroplane said: “The first impression conveyed to my mind on seeing the Wright flying machine in the air, was naturally one of wonder and astonishment. This sensation by no means wore off or diminished in intensity even after watching the aeroplane pursue its course around the circular track for many minutes. The attention, however, diverts itself in a great measure to the ease with which the contrivance is navi- gated. This is nothing less than marvel- ous. The machine travels through the air much as an automobile runs over the solid earth. Occasionally the wings waver slightly as the levers are readjusted for balance, and as the machine makes a turn, the outer side is seen to be much more el- evated than the inner, but on straight stretches the aerial vehicle goes along as steadily as any motor car on an asphalt road. “As it passed over my head the huge mechanical bird presented an aspect posi- tively awe-inspiring. Far in front project the two small horizontal planes, one above the other, which are so controlled as to cause the machine to ascend or descend at the will of the aviator. The latter sits quite a little distance over to one side of the middle of the lower of the two great WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS planes, so as to balance the weight of the motor, which is on his right. The vertical rudder is in the rear. “The flying machine descended as lightly and gracefully as a bird, after making the ASCENDING. Showing the Wright Bros.' Aeroplane rising high in the air, like a bird. flight, and there was no apparent reason. why he should not have been able to stay up longer if he had chosen to do so.” The Wright brothers are entitled to the first place in the world’s history as having solved the problem of aerial navigation with their aeroplane. The success of the Wright Brothers was not the result of chance or luck in stumbling over some hitherto unknown or discarded principle, but was the direct result of hard study and work. When the Wright brothers were quite young they began to study and experi- ment in aeronautics. After they had been at work for a long time they made their first machine. This they took out on their Ohio farm near Dayton and holding it in their hands, ran down hill against the wind. The current of air flowing up the hill upheld the machine while gravity fur- mished the requisite propulsion. The picture herewith shows them at work on their first machine. As time went on and the studies continued, changes in the machine were resolved on, and a new ma- chine was taken out on the meadow, held in position until the wind would catch it, then the model would be released and the boys would follow it until it came to earth again. Then the motor was added, and the carriage or basket seat for the oper- ator, every detail of which was studied and perfected to such a degree that failure was impossible, and the weeks, months and years of struggle saw these young men the conquerors of the air and the most shining lights of aviation. The Wright brothers claim that their machine is built primarily for strength, lightness being made a secondary consid- eration. To navigate it successfully in the air requires a great deal of practice, for just as a young bird is obliged to learn how to employ its wings by painstaking EREAR VIEW. The Wright Bros.' Aeroplane making a slight curve. Photo taken after it had passed. effort, so must the operator of this machine acquire the art of flying gradually. A few months after their great success in America, the Wright brothers went to Paris, France, and took that country by WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS storm, winning all of the prizes which the various French aerial associations had put up for the aeroplane which should go the ZEPPELIN’S DIRIGIBLE WAR BALLOON. The big air-ship is being held by soldiers while gas is taken on from a tank wagon. The wings at the side are for ascending and descending. longest distance in an allotted space of time. Hundreds of thousands of people came daily to see the maneuvers of the wonderful craft, among the visitors being practically all of the crowned heads of Europe. As a matter of fact, the Wright brothers and their aeroplane caused far more excitement and furore in Europe than they had in their own country, and both of them were decorated by the French government. As a recognition by the American government a bill was passed through Congress by which two gold med- als were struck and in the spring of 1909, when they returned to their native country, President Taft presented the medals. Aeronautic societies all over the world also presented them with medals in recognition of their wonderful achievements. We give our readers herewith several pictures of the Wright machine taken in its flight through the air both here and in foreign lands. These pictures show better than any description we could give how thoroughly the question of aerial naviga- tion has been solved. COUNT ZEPPELIN'S WAR BALLOON. So that the reader may understand the difference between a dirigible balloon and an aeroplane, we give here with short defi- nitions taken from the dictionary. A dirigible balloon—one that may be di- rected or controlled, such as by steering. Aeroplane—a flying machine using no gas or air-bags to keep it afloat. It will be seen, therefore, that one is a balloon with motive power and steering apparatus, while the other is simply a contrivance that will fly in the air with nothing to keep it afloat BRITISH WAR BALLOON. WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS but its own peculiar construction and power. The great German war balloon invented by Count Von Zeppelin is probably the most formidable instrument of war of re- cent times. That this great German in- ventor has a practical airship has been dem- onstrated beyond the least shadow of doubt when he traveled nearly 400 miles and stayed in the air 12 hours. On this Inelin- ing almost half a million dollars to build. England and France and all the other great nations are hard at work perfecting their ships and getting ready for “sky bat- tles” which scientists declare will form a most important part of future wars. All of these preparations are carried on with the greatest-secrecy, and the only informa- tion that can be had is when they send out their ships on experimental trips. GERMAN WAR BALLOONS PRACTICING FLEET FORMATIONS NEAR BERLIN. orable trip he carried 26 men all-told, mostly officers and men of the German army. The dimensions and construction of the Zeppelin airship is given in another part of this book. The Zeppelin airship is not only the largest and most powerful machine in the world, but is also the most expensive, cost- Our photographer has caught some good pictures of these various trial trips, which show the variety of lines along which the various nations are working. “DREADNAUGHTS.” The latest and most powerful fighting ships that have been added to the navies. of the world powers are called “Dread- WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS naughts,” the first one built being called that name. At the time this gigantic fighting machine was launched the naval architects doubted its practicability, but later events proved this was a mistake, and the new type of battleships is being built by every nation. The number of ships of this kind under construction in the spring of 1909 is as fol- lows: United States 4, England 8, Ger- many 8, Russia 2, Spain 2, France 3, Italy 1, Japan 2, Australia 1, Canada 1. (The last two mentioned will be delivered to England when completed.) Here are the figures of one of these fighting monsters recently delivered by the builders. The vessel has a displacement of 16,500 tons length, 410 feet; beam, 79 feet 6 inches; draught, 27 feet. The armament consists of four 12-inch and ten 9.2-inch guns, eighteen 5.3-inch, six 3-pounders, six pompom tubes on the broadside and one submerged tube astern. All these are eighteen inches in diameter. Ahead she can fire two 12-inch and four 9.2-inch guns; on the broadside, four 12- inch guns and four 9.2-inch guns. Her machinery consists of two sets of four-cylinder vertical triple-expansion en- gines, driving two propellers, with a speed of 18 knots per hour. The armor amidships over the machin- ery and other parts is twelve-inch, taper- ing to six-inch in the bow and four inches at the stern. Above this and extending to the upper deck, the armor is eight inches thick, while forward and aft are the usual bulkheads, also eight inches thick. Within them are placed the barbettes, which are mainly of twelve-inch armor, while the mountings of the 9.2-inch guns are pro- tected by armored barbettes with hoods of heavy plating. House of LIQUID STONE. Thomas Edison, the wizard of elec- tricity, has succeeded in making it possi- ble to erect a solid concrete house in a single day at a cost of about $1,000 each, The one-day house owes its existence to the invention of iron molds, made of three-quarter-inch cast iron, nickel plated and polished inside. Early in the morn- ing these steel castings are taken to the vacant lot where it is desired to erect a house, clamped together with bolts, thus forming a house of iron with hollow walls. The workmen now mix the concrete, one part cement, three parts sand, and three parts of quarter-inch crushed stone. A derrick raises the mixture to the top of the frame work, which is complete from cellar to rooftree, the various parts being held together by trusses and dowel pins. The concrete is pumped into the top of the molds continuously by compressed air, using two cylinders, and there must be no halt during this operation or a disfiguring line will appear. These queerest of builders keep pouring in the house until it overflows at the top. In twelve hours the house has been poured inside the iron frame—rooms, floors, stairs, window casings, fire-places, mantel and even the bath tub. In six days the iron frame is unbolted and removed; in an- other eight days the concrete is completely hardened and the house is ready for occu- pation. Strips of wood around the edges of the floors on which to tack down carpets, and some more around the walls for picture moldings, are put in place in the iron work before the house is poured in. The tiling around the fire-place and in the chimneys, the gas and water pipes are WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS also stuck in the same way in the concrete walls; furnaces and heating pipes are also cast with the walls, so there is no plumbing bill. This house is fire-proof and water-proof and vermin-proof, and to insure greater strength, twisted iron rods are set in the walls. Children may attack the banis- ters of this concrete house even with hatchets to their hearts' content, and it will not hurt the house one bit. Any type of architecture may be fol- lowed in making the original molds, which are estimated to cost from $20,000 to $30,000 per set. These are, however, prac- tically indestructible and any number of houses can be made from the same molds at about $1,000 each. This concrete house has a cellar, is two stories high and contains seven rooms. There is no fire insurance necessary. To clean the house all that is necessary is to take up the carpets, remove the furniture and turn on the hose. The pipes for the steam heat of this concrete house are so well insulated that only one-quarter of the usual amount of coal is necessary to heat the house thoroughly. - LARGEST SHIPS AFLOAT, In the last few years the building of large ships has seen wonderful advance- ment. In 1904 the Baltic was constructed, 726 feet long. In 1908 the Lusitania and Mauretania, each 785 feet long, and in 1909 a great ship building firm in Ireland laid the keel for the steamship Olympic to be 840 feet long, 100 feet broad, and 75 feet deep, with a draught of 37 1-2 feet and a displacement of 50,000 tons. The Olympic will have 90,000 horse-power, and it is expected to develop a speed of 21 knots an hour. In 1908 and 1909 the Lusitania and Mauretania broke all rec- ords for ocean travel, making the Atlantic trip in 4 days and 15 hours. These floating palaces are equipped with everything that the human mind can conceive, many of the innovations never having been heard of before. Each boat is provided with a series of passenger elevators for traveling between the decks. One of the decks contains stores of all descriptions where passengers may purchase such goods as they may wish–Turkish baths, gymnasiums, and a daily paper is published night and morn- ing; the news is procured via the wireless telegraph system which is installed on each boat. It would take a whole volume to tell of the gorgeous fittings, furniture, and other wonderful improvements in these floating palaces. They cost over $6,000,000 each to build, and when running at top speed consume over 1,000 tons of coal every 24 hours. LUSITANIA AND MAURETANIA NEAR BROOKLYN BRIDGE, N. Y. This bridge took 13 years to complete From Tower to Tower the span is 1,595 feet. and cost fifteen and a half million dollars. E O O Lºk I MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE WORLD'S MOST INGENIOUS MINDS—WONDROUS ADVANCE IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE. SHIPS OF THE AIR HE name of M. Alberto Santos-Du- kite flying, aeroplanes, balloons with wings mont, the son planter, will go down in history as that of the man who solved the riddle that for centuries perplexed scientists —that of success- fully navigating the skies. In the past ten years more ad- vance has been made in the solution of the problem of aerial navigation than in the whole century since the Montgolfier brothers invented the bal- loon. With the ex- periments of San- tos-Dumont, in which he showed the dirigibility of his airship, it is be- lieved that the prob- lem has passed the of a Brazilian coffee guesswork stage and SANTOS-DUMONT, Inventor of the Airship. and balloons with propellers. Some few in- ventors were able to make flights of short distances by means of a series of planes which al- lowed them to soar after the fashion of birds. Prominent among these inven- tors was Lilienthal, who lost his life in one of his experi- ments. The true story of the airship up to the present time lies in that of Alberto Santos-Du- m on tº, although somewhat success- ful flights have been made over London and New York by Leo Stevens in a dirigible balloon. Santos-Dumont was born in Brazil in 1873, and as a very young man became interested in aerial navigation. His first experiments were with spherical balloons, but he soon abandoned these for those of a cylindrical or cigar-shape, and now needs only further development along lines laid down by him to establish the commercial value of this great invention. For years students of aeronautics studied 23 24 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES his triumphant 8 u C C e S S Wa S gained with the fifth one which he constructed. He won his first large prize for successfully di- recting a ship about the Eiffel tower, in Paris, from St. Cloud and return. The balloon was 111 feet long by 20 feet in diameter. Paris has al- ways been the center of activity in aerial navigation, and a large club of aeronauts has helped to promote interest in the con- quest of the air. One of the members, M. Deutsch, in order to stimulate invention, offered a prize of 100,000 francs ($20,000) for a successful balloon trip over the above-mentioned course in 40 minutes. The daring navigator rounded the great SANTOS DUMONT'S FIRST BALLOON (SPHERICAL). SANTOS DUMONT'S WORKSHOP. structure at a distance of not more than 300 feet from it, and at a height of some 500 feet above the ground. Since this achievement the aeronaut has constructed other machines with which he has had only moderate success. One ship lodged on the chimney tops of Paris, while another fell into the sea in the Bay of Monaca. Never- theless, so great has been his success that his work so far eclipses all that of other experimenters. A BALLOON 419 FEET LONG. Count Von Zeppelin, of Berlin, is also an inventor of some note, and has within the past two years constructed several air- ships, among which was one of gigantic dimensions. This balloon, which was con- structed near Berlin, has a length of 419 feet, while that of Tissandier was only 91 feet in length, that of Dupuy de Lome, 118, feet, that of Haenlein, 132 feet, that of Giffard 144 feet, that of Schwarz, 154 feet, and that of Renard 165 feet. It will be seen that the airship of Count Von Zeppe- TMODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 25 lin is, therefore, nearly two and a half times as large as any previously con- structed. A cylinder, 37 feet in diameter, forms the main body of the balloon, the ends be- ing slightly elongated ogives in shape. The framework of this airship was made of aluminum and consists of 26 polygons of 24 sides each, placed 26 feet from each other, and held in position, perpendicular to the long axis of the balloon, by cross strips of aluminum. Each polygon is strength- ened by a network of alumi- num wire, which extends from a small central circle, in all directions, to the inner side of the polygon, just as spokes of a bicycle wheel ex- tend from the hub to the rim. Seven separate compart- ments are thus formed, and inside of each of these com- partments, as well as over the outside of the entire framework, is a net of strong but light-weight hemp cord. Into each of these compartments, inside the nets of aluminum wire and hempen cord, is placed a bal- loon, which is in no wise connected with any one of its fellows. Each of these seventeen bal- loons is filled separately, and if by any ac- cident any of them burst or leak, the carry- ing power and utility of the balloon as a whole are not endangered or sacrificed. Under the balloon and attached firmly to it by strong aluminum bars are two gondolas, also of aluminum. These gon- dolas are each 21 feet long, five feet wide, and three feet deep, and have under each of them large spiral springs, which pre- vent jarring the entire machine when land. ing after an ascension. The gondolas are connected by a bridge one foot wide, which is also firmly bound to the balloon by means of aluminum bars and ropes. By courtesy of the “Scientific American.” “SANTOS DUMONT'S NO. 1.” In each gondola is a motor of 15 horse- power. Benzine is used as fuel, as, despite its great inflammability and the danger from fire which its use engenders, it is found to be the most practicable. Con- nected with the motors are four large aluminum screws, similar to those of steamships, which serve to propel the bal- 3. 26 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES By courtesy of the “Scientific American.” BASKET OF “SANTOS DUMONT, NO. 1.” Showing Propeller and Motor. loon through the air. Two of these are placed at the forward end, at a point where the straight sides of the cylinder begin to converge toward the ogival and bow of the airship, and the other two are at a corre- sponding point at the rear. The balloon, or airship, is steered by a sort of rudder consist- ---------- - - ing of a framework covered with balloon cloth, and which can be moved to the right or left, or up and down. One of these is at either end of the balloon, and changes its course in the same way and on the same principle as does the rudder of a ship. A which slides along a rope is at- tached to the under- side of the gondolas weight and the bridge which connects them. If this weight be placed under the rear gondola the rear half of the balloon, being heavier than the fore, remains lower in the air, and the propelling screws being set in motion, the balloon moves forward, and, of course, rises. If the weight be moved forward the angle is changed until, when the weight reaches the center, the bal- loon moves in a straight line, and then, as the weight advances more and more the front becomes heavier than the back and the balloon de- scends. A rope reaching from the bow to the stern of the balloon, and hanging slack under it, combines with the weight in accomplishing the directing of the airship. The ship of Santos-Dumont, while not quite as long as that of Count Von Zeppe- lin, is constructed with as much care and of nearly the same material. SANTOS DUMONT'S NO. 9. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 27 THE LANGLEY FLYING IMACHINE. A balloon styled the “Langley flying machine” was constructed in the summer of 1903 under the supervision of experts in the employ of the United States government, who pronounced the basic theory on which it was planned infallible. The cost of designing and mak- ing it, together with the expense attending several experimental trips under disastrous conditions, was $72,000. The final test, September 12, 1903, re- sulted in a complete col- lapse of the airship, on account of a lack of rig- idity in its frame, and by reason of weakness in its propelling apparatus, in which strength had been sacrificed for the sake of lightness. THIRD SERIOUS DISASTER. The final wrecking was the third and most serious disaster which befell the By courtesy of the “Scientific American.” THE INTERIOR OF THE AERODOME, Showing Its Construction, the Inflated Balloon, and the Pennant with Mystic Letters. inventor. Three propellers had been pre- bearing his name, is planning a flying ma- viously broken during experiments, and chine weighing 15,000 pounds, constructed other parts were disabled while the secret of nickel steel, with two 500-horse-power tests in the Smithsonian Institute were engines. The lifting power of this machine being conducted. GATHMANN’s DESIGN. is centered in a heavy, revolving horizontal fan, the blades being shaped like a Maltese Louis Gathmann, who invented the gun cross. The cost is estimated at $136,000. 28 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES AUTOMOBILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT The age has arrived when the horse as a means of power for general traction is well on the wane. While it is not intended by this statement to convey the idea that the time will come when horses will no longer be used to draw vehicles, neverthe- less the development in the past decade of the automobile, or automatic vehicle, has attained such success that it is no longer a mere experiment. Today, upon the streets of any of our cities may be seen horseless carriages, trucks, wagons and fire engines, while in the country the traction engine and the automatic plow are gradually com- ing into use. Industrial science affords no more com- plex problem than the construction of a carriage which contains within itself all the elements of swift and safe transit for per- sons and goods. The development of the automobile has been slow until a compara- tively recent date. Briefly, and to avoid ancient history, let us take up the story of the horseless vehicle in its nearly perfect form. The principal motive powers for the motor vehicle to-day are electricity, gaso- line and steam, although there are several chemical and other agents, such as com- pressed air, which are in occasional use. In general, however, it may be stated that the last named have been dropped. The relative merits of the three systems now generally in use may be summarized as follows: THE EI.ECTRIC MOTOR. The greatest difficulty that is presented in the problem of driving a carriage by elec- tricity is that of the storage battery. For many years a great number of scientists have busied themselves striving after im- provements in the method of storing elec- tricity. The result of these experiments has shown that weight is a serious handicap. Nevertheless, so convenient is the electrical method that the electric motor probably is A FASHIONABLE AUTOMOBILE. the most successful, in its particular sphere, now in use on automobiles. The mechanical arrangement of the aver- age electric automobile consists of a bat- tery, or series of batteries, in which is stored sufficient electrical fluid to serve for a several hours' run. These storage bat- teries must be filled at some power station when run down, an operation that takes some time. It is customary in the large MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 29 cities, on automatic “bus” lines, to have a wire connection at the regular station of the “bus,” whereby the batteries may be kept constantly supplied. From the storage bat- teries run connecting wires to a motor usu- ally located ºn the rear axle of the vehicle, or in the hubs of the rear wheels. By the ordinary method of levers, the power is imparted to the motor, or thrown off at will. Very effective brakes, of neces- sity, make up a part of the complete auto- mobile. The best equipped ma- the piston is produced. The usual method consists of four cycles. The spark first ignites the gasoline, and this explodes, driv- ing forth the piston, which, in turn, re- cedes, driving out the spent gases, thus pre- paring the cylinder for exploding the next intake of gasoline and air. A correspond- ing operation is in process in the other cylinder, both being connected with same crank shaft. A water jacket is one of the essentials of this machine, to prevent too chines can come to a full stop from a high rate of speed in a very few feet. The steering gear is usually attached to the front wheels, and is operated by a hori- zontal lever near the front seat. However, some cabs steer by the rear wheels. The most up-to-date machines are equipped with elec- tric lights and bells. THE GASOLINE MOTOR. The motive power of the gaso- line automobile is derived through the constant explosion of gasoline and air combined in proper quan- tities, which in turn operates a piston and a fly wheel, and finally the wheels of the carriage. The greatest advance in this style of pleasure automobiles has been made in France, and from that country some of the best machines in present use in this country have been imported. The mechanical arrangement of the gasoline motor em- braces a tank for gasoline, a device for admitting air to the gasoline, a mixer or carburettor, an electric “sparker” which ignites the mixture under pressure, by means of which the explosion which drives By courtesy of the International Harvester Company of America. AUTOMOBILE MOWING MACHINE. At Work in a Field. high a temperature resulting from the constant explosions. Tremendous speed has been attained with this style of machine, a record of over eighty miles per hour having been made. Some of the difficulties attached to this method are the seeming impossibility of 30 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES readily regulating the speed from high to low gear; the constant jar and racket due to the exploding gasoline; the disagreeable odor that follows the machine; the serious difficulties arising from the delicate adjust- ment of the sparking apparatus, and acci- dents occurring from starting the fly wheel by hand. All of these defects, however, have been obviated in the latest improve- ments. Some of these machines cost as high as $10,000. - THE STEAM MOTOR. The steam machine is operated by a simple steam engine, the steam for which is generated by heat from oil or gasoline. Among the chief points in favor of this method are its comparative freedom from vibration or jar, its comparatively noiseless By courtesy of the Chicago Motor Vehicle Co. BACKING THE WHEEL OFF: A TWELVE-INCH BLOCK ONTO AN EGG, CRACKING THE SHELL WITHOUT SPILLING THE CONTENTS, AND THEN MOUNTING THE BLOCK. A Demonstration of Perfect Control. operation, and the universal knowledge of its propelling power. This vehicle is equipped with a burner, a boiler, cylinders and a chain connecting MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 31 the fly wheel with one of the axles of the wagon. As in the gasoline method, fuel for trips of over a hundred miles can be carried easily. Self-propelling vehicles are built scores of patterns. Some of the heavier drays use compressed air for motive power. In Paris the fire department is equipped with an electric automobile, and in other cities the chiefs use light vehicles in run- ning to fires. The Chicago Motor Vehicle Company is operat- in speed and turning even more easily than a team of horses. The mower is equipped with ball and roller bearings and is propelled by a motor which consists of two six-horse power gaso- line engines mounted tandem on a large pipe six inches in diameter and five feet long. The rear end of this pipe is secured to the mower frame in the place of the or- dinary draft tongue and the front end is supported by a steering wheel. The ma- ing a very successful gasoline street car. Ambulances, ammu- nition wagons, bi- cycles and light rail- way hand cars are driven by light gaso- line engines. Many feats of cross-country riding, mountain- climbing and the like have tested the aston- ishing capabilities of the automobile. Motive power for farm purposes is receiving more and more attention. The latest departure is an automobile mower which is just being put on the market by the Deering Harvester Company of Chicago, or, to be more accu- rate, the International Harvester Company, of which the Deering is now a part. Their experiments began in 1894 and they suc- ceeded in getting one of the machines ready for exhibition at the Paris Exposition, where it attracted much attention. In com- petition it worked perfectly, running at any º º By courtesy of the Chicago Motor Vehicle Co. CLIMBING A 25-PER-CENT GRADE LOADED. chine is guided by the wheel which the operator holds in his left hand. The levers at his right are for operating the cutting bar. Although this motor is designed for the mowing machine it can be used for other purposes. By taking off the cutting appar- atus it can be made to draw loads, grind feed, pump water and do many other useful things. 32 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES MESSAGES WITHOUT WIRES Possibly the most conspicuous of all the recent discoveries in science, and farthest reaching in its ultimate effect upon our ma- terial affairs, is that of the successful sys- tem of wireless telegraphy developed and established by the genius of the young in- ventor, Guglielmo Marconi. His first ex- periments resulted in communication at will without wires, over a distance of over 250 miles. The public had hardly become accustomed to this fact when the announce- ment was made upon the authority of the young inventor himself, verified by unmis- takable evidence, that on December 12, 1901, he had received signals across the At- lantic by the same system. The far reach- ing results of a system by which messages are transmitted without the preliminary stringing of wires or cables, by which ships º - may be spoken to in mid-ocean, far from The genius who Developed wireless Telegraphy. sight, by which distress signals can be sounded from sea to shore, and by means of which continents can be connected without the aid of cables, is almost too stupendous for realization. Let us consider the methods by which the sender of the wireless message operates. Those of us who are unfamiliar with electrical apparatus are accus- tomed to consider only such electrical streams as take their way along wires. But there are a great many other electrical streams unconfined by wires, which can be quite as telegraphic as if they were kept on paths of copper and steel. Discoveries of this nature were made as long ago as 1842, and others looking in the same direction followed. Marconi makes no claim to being the first to experiment along the lines which led to wire- less telegraphy, or the first to signal for distances, without wires. But in spite of his prºmpt a C- A. B. SALIGER, WITH RECEIVING knowledgment to other workers in his field, it has APPARATUS, remained for Marconi to perfect a commercial MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 33 system, and put it into practical working order over great distances. THE COEIERE.R. The first two essentials in wireless teleg- raphy are the vertical wire and the “co- herer,” which by its exqui- site sensitiveness makes it possible to register mes- sages as received. Before the development of the re- ceiving apparatus of Mar- coni, electricians learned how to develop electrical waves. These waves have long been utilized for sending mes- sages through wires. Mar- coni started with the as- sumption that inasmuch as electrical waves may pass through the ether, which fills all space, as readily as through wires, if these waves could be controlled they would convey mes- sages as easily as the wires. Then he undertook to make an instrument that would produce a peculiar kind of wave, and another apparatus which would receive and . register this wave at a distance from the first. GENERATING THE HERTZIAN WAVE. This wave is called the Hertzian. It is generated by a battery, and passing in bril- liant sparks between two brass balls, is radi- ated to space from a wire suspended on a tall pole. By the shutting off and turning of this peculiar current, the waves are so divided as to represent the dots and dashes of the ordinary Morse alphabet of teleg- º INTERIOR OF EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT THE FOOT OF raphy. The waves which come from the transmitter are received on a suspended wire elevated either by a mast, kite or bal- This wire is exactly similar to the one used in the transmitter, but by the time the waves have passed over a long distance, loon. \|| OAK STREET. they are so weak that they could not of themselves operate an ordinary telegraph instrument. For the necessity thus arising, Marconi found a remedy in his coherer. This instrument is a little tube of glass, about two inches long, and as large as a small lead pencil, in diameter. The ends are plugged with silver and nearly meet within the tube. In the space between the plugs there is a small quantity of nickel and silver filings, finely powdered. The filings 34 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES In his early experiments Marconi believed that in order to cover great distances, very high masts must be used; the greater the distance, the taller the mast. He thought the waves were hindered by the curvature of the earth, but his experiments have proven that very tall masts are not necessary. Now that the sensational and “nine days’ wonder” period follow- ing the invention of the wireless telegraph has passed, and the period of practical development and exten- sion has set in, we shall probably º MARCONI STATION. The Great Wireless Telegraphy Station at Glace Bay, Canada. Towers each 215 feet high, from which Mr. Marconi - - flashed the first wireless sentences. hear much less through the public prints about this really marvelous are jumbled together like the particles of a device, although, before we are fairly sand heap, and in that state they form a very poor conductor. When they receive an electrical wave, however, they cling to- gether as tightly as a solid conducting bridge that carries a current from a local battery to a receiving telegraphic sounder of common pattern. If it is connected at one end with the suspended wire and at the other end with the Morse instrument, there is a dot or dash printed, according to the signal that has been sent by the transmitter, miles away. Then a little tapper, actuated by the same current, strikes against the co- herer, and the particles of metal are jarred apart, or de-cohered, becoming instantly a poor conductor, and thus stopping the strong current from the home battery. Then another wave comes through space, down the suspended wire, into the coherer, drawing the particles together again, with the result that another dot or dash is printed. After these processes have con- tinued for some time, a complete message - - - - TEMPORARY EXPERIMENTAL STATIONº. may be picked out upon the tape. Showing Pole and Air Wires, - MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 35 aware of it, it will be in general and familiar use throughout the world. That wireless telegaphy has already been brought well within the realm of practical useful- ness is evidenced by the fact that the United States government is establishing a system for its own use in Alaska, and that nearly all the ocean steamship companies are equipping their vessels with wireless apparatus. That it is being taken up also as a new and promising field for the in- vestment of capital is evident from reports from the financial world, which state that already scores of companies have been organized for the purpose of operating an extensive system of both wireless telegraph and telephones throughout the United States, Canada and the old world. THE ROENTGEN X-RAY Science has recently discovered a “new thing under the sun” in the X-ray, or Roentgen ray, or cathode light, as it is sometimes called. This is a weird property of electricity, which enables one to see partly through solid objects, and has been of great service to science in locating dislo- cations, breaks in bones and bullets in human bodies, besides being put to other uses since its great power was discovered. As long ago as 1857, Dr. Heinrich Geiss- ler, a celebrated German scientist, who learned the trade of glassblower, made some glass tubes from which the air had been exhausted. The tubes were made of thin glass and in each end platinum wires passed through to the inside of the tube. These tubes are still known as Geissler's tubes, and for years have been used to illustrate the phenomenon which accompanies the dis- charge through them of highly rarefied gases and vapors. THE GEISSLER TUEES. These tubes vary in size from a small quarter-inch cylinder, three or four inches long, to tubes two inches in diameter and ten inches long. They are made in several shapes, to meet the needs or whims of the user. The platinum wires which lead into the tube are usually tipped with small spears or disks of platinum or aluminum. These tubes contain air in various degrees of rarefaction; that is, the air in some tubes is more completely exhausted than in oth- ers, and thus the tubes approach more nearly a perfect vacuum. When the ter- minals—the wires leading from the posi- tive and negative poles—of the secondary coil of an ordinary induction coil are con nected with these “electrodes”—the plati- num wires in the ends of the tube— and an electric current is sent over the wires, vari- ous colored light effects take place inside of the tube. These depend upon the degree of air rarefaction, and also of the kind of gas that is put into the tubes; for, some- times, after the air has been exhausted, the tube is filled with hydrogen, nitrogen, car- bonic acid gas and other gases. - THE INDUCTION COIL. The induction coil is an apparatus which has two coils of wires. The inside coil is made of thick, heavy wire, and the other coil, which entirely surrounds the inside coil, is made of thin wire. The inside coil is called the “primary” coil and has but 36 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES few turns of the heavy wire. The outside coil is called the “secondary” coil, and is made with many hundred turns of very fine wire. The two coils are not connected with each other in any way, but if a current is as we say, “the electro-motive force of the induced current will be higher than that of the primary current.” When this induced current is sent through a Geissler's tube, the tube is filled with different colored lights. If the degree - of rarefaction is not very high, lustrous layers of light, sepa- rated by dark bands, are produced throughout the tube. If the tube is filled with rarefied air the color of the bands will be a rosy red; if filled with nitrogen gas, an orange-yellow light will be pro- duced. Hydrogen gas will make a pale blu- ish color, and car- bonic acid gas will give a light that is a pale green. The bands of light that are seen in the tube are curved, and the concave surfaces are nearest the posi- tive electrode. These bands extend nearly the whole length of made to flow through the “primary” coil, it “induces” a current in the “secondary” coil. The battery connected with the prim- ary coil may produce a large current with little force. It will induce in the secondary coil a small current of very great force, or, By courtesy of W. Scheidel & Co., Chicago. BONES OF THE FOOT AS SEEN º A SHOE BY MEANS OF THE the tube, but between them and the negative electrode is a dark space, while immediately surrounding the negative electrode is a beautiful pale-blue glow. As the rarefaction in the tube is carried further and further, the light from the positive end of the tube tends more and more to fill the tube, although in general MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 37 receding from the negative end. At the same time the beautiful lavender glow from the negative end spreads more and more, filling more of the space around the nega- tive electrode. If the rarefaction is carried still higher, the positive light which now occupies a considerable part of the tube and takes more or less the shape of the enclosing vessel, divides up into any num- ber of cup-shaped layers at right angles to a line drawn through the center of the tube, the long way. These layers are separated from each other by darker in- tervals, and their concave sides are turned toward the positive electrode. Although the positive light changes with the in- creased rarefaction of the air, the nega- tive light remains substantially constant. The lavender light around the negative electrode is still the same, being uniform, but is more intense and spreads over more space. These rays from the negative pole shoot across the tube in straight lines, and striking upon the glass walls of the oppo- site side, produce a most brilliant fluores- cence. If a screen of mica be put in the path of these negative rays, it stops them, and the shadow of the screen is outlined on the glass walls of the tube, surrounded by a bright fluorescence. The negative is called the “anode,” and the negative electrode the “cathode.” Thus the name of cathode ray is given to the negative light in the Geissler tube. THE CROOKES TUBE. The Crookes tube, in outward appear- ance, is not different from a Geissler, but the air in the former is always exhausted to a much higher degree than in the latter. The exhaustion has been carried as high as 1-20,000,000 of an atmosphere. When it is remembered that one atmosphere will sus- tain a column of mercury thirty inches in height, and exerts a pressure of about fif- teen pounds to the square inch, one can but vaguely imagine the exceedingly small By courtesy of W. Scheidel & Co., Chicago. THE BONES OF THE FOOT, AS SHOWN BY THE X-RAY. quantity of air that is left in a tube so ex- hausted. When a magnet is brought near a Crookes tube, the positive light is rotated by the magnetic influence, but the cathode rays act differently. If the negative (cathode) end 38 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES of the tube is placed over the space between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, the lav- ender glow around the negative electrode, seemingly, will be drawn to one side, and an arch reaching from pole to pole in the tube will be made, with the concave face to- ward the two poles of the magnet. Now, the X-rays come from the cathode end of the tube, but they are not what we call cathode rays, for, it has been proved that a magnet has no influence on the X-rays, which pass straight through the magnetic field, even though the cathode rays are de- flected by the magnet. The X-rays will pass through a book or a board and brighten a phosphorescent screen, or they will go through leather, flesh, wood, paper, cloth, and other things that cannot be penetrated by ordinary light, and act upon a sensi- tive photographic plate. Sometimes the Crookes tube is of bulbed or globular shape, and sometimes it is shaped like a Geissler tube. When it is used to make an X-ray “shadowgraph,” the electric current is au- tomatically broken many times a second, and this increases the intensity of the light. THE SEIADOWGRAPH. Since the discovery of the power of the X-rays scientists have developed it greatly. Now, it is possible to watch a man’s heart beat through his body and clothing, or to take photographs of interior organs of the body or substances lodged in them. Of course, these photographs are only dimly outlined as their name, “shadowgraph,” would indicate. Yet they have been of great value in saving life and in directing surgical operations. When a shadowgraph is to be taken, the subject is stretched over a photographic plate holder containing a sensitive plate. Then the X-ray ma- chine is set to working, the rays pass through the body upon the plate within the holder and expose it after the fashion of picture taking. The rest of the process is just like that in finishing photographs. AIDVANCES IN APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF THE X-RAY. When the X-rays were discovered by Prof. Roentgen, of Würtzburg, there were very few pieces of apparatus suitable for the production of the rays. Since that time, manufacturers of both coils and static ma- chines have increased in number until now there are fully twenty reliable firms in this country alone. In Chicago, four or five good static machines are manufactured, and a larger number of good induction coils. Among the static machines those of C. F. Birtman & Co., and N. O. Nelson & Co., are not only beautiful to look upon but are efficient as energizers of the X-ray tubes. These machines are of the same general type. The X-ray furnished by these ma- chines is excellent for fluoroscopic examina- tion. The patient is placed near the X-ray tube so that the rays will pass through the body. The fluoroscopic screen will be lighted up by the X-rays that pass through the body of the patient. The thicker parts obstruct the ray more than the less dense parts, and thus a shadow is cast upon the fluoroscopic screen. This screen is ordin- arily closed in a hood which has a sor of oval aperture. The margin of this aperture is covered with lamb's fleece, and will ac- commodate that part of the face surround- ing the eyes. When the ravs are not in ac- tion, the operator will be looking into a perfectly black box, but as soon as the rays are generated, the screen is lighted up in the manner described above. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 39 Of the good induction coils in this city we shall mention those of Scheidel & Co., and the Western X-ray. These coils when attached to a 110 volt circuit will give a continuous spark of deafening sound over a gap of twelve inches or more, depending upon the size of the coil. The cirguit from the street is sent through a A great improvement of coils was achieved when the rotary mercury-spray in- terrupter was invented. The voltage cur- rent passes through this instrument along a spray of mercury, and is thus very rap- idly interrupted. Another style of interrupter, called the suitable resistance, so that the current will not be too strong. It then proceeds through an interrupter into the primary portion of the induction coil. This primary is composed of rather large wire, of a vari- able number of turns, depend- |ing upon the size of the in- duction coil. In the center of this primary are a great num- ber of straight iron wires, all cemented together into a cyl- inder. The secondary coil is composed of a great number of turns of very fine wire, the full length of the wire being many thousands of feet. All these turns have to be very carefully insulated from each other so that the spark cannot leap from one wire to the other, thus short-circuiting the machine. None of the currents from the street gets into the secondary wire, be- cause the latter is entirely insulated from the primary, but when the current in the primary is broken a current of very high voltage is generated in the secondary coil. It is this high voltage cur- rent which is carried by connective wires through the Crookes tube and energizes this and thus produces the X-ray. By courtesy of W. Scheidel & Co., Chicago. THE BONES OF A HAND AS SEEN BY THE X-RAY. electrolytic, is one of the most successful of the devices invented in this con- nection. The interrupter consists of a glass jar about half full of diluted sulphuric acid. The positive pole of the street current is connected with a German silver wire, which drips down into the 40 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES liquid within the glass tube, as seen in the the letter “L” The current on passing cut. The wire rests upon a small porcelain through the sulphuric acid, is interrupted By courtesy of W. Scheidel & Co., Chicago. BULLET, AS DETECTED BY THE X-RAY. cup in the negative end of the cell. The by the formation of small bubbles of gas, negative pole is a rod of lead shaped like and this interruption, which is very rapid, MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 41 produces a very high voltage current in the secondary portion of the induction coil. This is the only interrupter which can be used on an alternating current, and is therefore of great service where only this current is available. Another great improvement was required in Crookes tubes before the medical profes- sion could use the X-ray to advantage. The early tubes would stand very little current, because the terminals were not strong enough to withstand the immense heat ef- fects of the cathode ray. - As shown in a diagram of the inventor the cathode terminal is concave (hol- lowed), while the positive is a double ter- minal shaped like dick. The one near the center of the tube receives the bombard- ment of the cathode rays. These rays are sent out from the negative whenever the tube is in action, and because the cathode is concave, they are brought to focus at one point, at which point is placed the anode. The theory is now pretty well established that the X-rays are produced by the sudden stopping of the cathode rays at the anode. The X-rays are therefore produced at this point of bombardment, and they spread out, passing through the walls of the tube into the room. They are themselves entirely in- visible, but they have the property of mak- ing a few chemicals give out light in a very remarkable manner. The most approved chemical is the double salt, platino-cyanide of barium, which is spread upon a cloth in a pulverized condition. It was early discovered that the X-rays could penetrate light proof paper and fog a Photographic plate. If the hand is placed so that the X-rays can pass through it be- fore reaching the plate, the bones will ob. struct the rays more than the plate, and - that part of the plate beneath the bones will be less affected than the part next to the tis- sue. Thus by proper development of the plate an image of the bones of the hand will be seen. The same holds good for all other parts of the body. The usual method is to place the patiºnt on a suitable table in a re- clining position. The tube is so arranged that the rays will pass downward through the body of the patient. A photographic plate is then placed beneath that part which is to be photographed. With the earlier ap- paratus, a long exposure was required to take even a hand, but now very short expo- sures of the thickest parts of the body will be sufficient. The X-rays are used by the surgeon in detecting any fracture of the bones, dislocation of the joints, or the pres- ence of a foreign body. Formerly, it was a difficult operation to probe for a bullet, but now the projectile can be exactly located with the X-ray: Swallowed coins and pins, often a source of the greatest anxiety to parents, need not be so much feared. A metal object is readily located in any part of the child’s alimentary canal, and its pro- gress can be kept track of as it moves through the system. Many deformities seen in the arm and wrist due to incorrect reduction of a fracture are now without ex- cuse, because the X-ray will show wherever a bone is misplaced. But, of even greater interest is the use of the X-ray in the treatment of certain dis- eases. The X-ray cannot be expected to cure all diseases, and it certainly should never be tried excepting by those who have had experience in its use, but the number of diseases in which benefit has been de- rived from its use is constantly increasing. In no disease has it been more successful than in the treatment of Lupus. This is a 42 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES disease often affecting the face, producing a hideous raw surface on the cheek, and look- ing something like an ulcer, but only af. fecting the outer skin. Hundreds of such cases involving other parts of the body, as well as the face, have already been reported cured. Another disease which is justly dreaded is cancer. This is not a simple disease, but has many varieties, some of which have yielded remarkably to the X-ray treatment, while in others the treat- ment has produced little effect. “Smokers' £ancer” has yielded very well to the X-ray, and it is an interesting question whether the X-ray might not have prolonged the life of General Grant, had it been discovered and applied early in the progress of the disease. It has been applied to tumors in different parts of the body, and to swollen glands, but the treatment should always be Tunder the direction of a competent sur- geon, because in too many cases only an early operation will eradicate the dreaded growths. Rheumatism and cases of facial neuralgia have been benefitted by the rays. The most powerful X-ray tubes have been recently patented by R. Friedlander & Co., of Chicago. These tubes have the most powerful anodes, so that very strong currents can be sent through them without destroying them. The quantity of the X-rays produced therefore is remarkably increased. Another point of importance is the vacuum of the tube. The earliest tubes were non-adjustable in vacuum, and there- fore only one kind of X-ray could be gener- ated. In these improved tubes, however, the vacuum can be perfectly regulated, and as the kind of the X-ray depends upon this vacuum, the operator has at his disposal a great variety of rays. In the early stages of this new science, newspapers contained accounts of severe X-ray burns, and some of these accounts were not very much exaggerated, but as X-ray photographs are now taken with shorter exposures, this danger is overcome. A new danger, however, has appeared which affects more particularly the operator than the patient. It has been found that continued exposures to the X-ray will pro- duce a thickening and crusting of the skin which becomes at last very alarming. The finger nails are sloughed off, and large cracks in the skin will develop. When the patient is being treated continuously for a cancer or some other disease, the surround- ing tissue must be protected from the X-ray. It is then necessary to use a screen, which will protect both the operator and the patient. A very successful shield just placed on the market is an invention which has suitable openings to allow any amount of the rays desired to come out of the tube, according to the different sizes of the openings. The rays can be pro- jected into the mouth in treating a cancer of the tongue, or the back part of the mouth, while the patient’s face is success- fully shielded. A great number of other skin diseases have been successfully treated; even superfluous hair has been removed and pustules have yielded to the treatment. It is thus apparent how a purely scien- tific discovery has led to important ad- vancements in several different lines of in- dustry, and has been utilized in medicine in the treatment of numerous diseases which had been pronounced incurable. . . . MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 43 NEW WONDERS OF THE ELECTRICAL WORLD - *|| | | - º | º º | |% 2-4 º SN- º º ºſ º º º º º \" - §º | º º º - º º º º: º: |||}|º º - Ǻ º: t . | º º \º º BELL’S FIRST TELEPHONE. Something over a century ago, Benjamin Franklin drew from the clouds by means of his kite and door key, a spark from a cloud laden with electricity. Lightning, it was called then, and, in fact, that is what it was in miniature form, for lightning is simply one of the great phenomena of electricity. From the time of Franklin, to the present, the day of Edison, the Wizard, Gray, Bell, Tesla, Morse and Marconi, the development of this weird power has been marvelous. To-day one can ride in cars dri.en 130 miles an hour by electricity, or girdle the globe with a telegraph message, or talk across the Atlantic ocean on an electrical Wave without the aid of wires, to say noth- ing of being supplied with light, heat and all kinds of motive power from this un- known quantity. For, practically, un- known it is. Experts are only beginning to learn a little about it, and yet that little has produced wonders. If you rub rubber, resin, glass, vulcanite, amber, sealing wax or a number of other substances, it will be found that they will attract bits of paper. If you rub a cat's fur the wrong way briskly on a cold night, you will see sparks fly. If you shuffle your feet briskly along a Brussels carpet, and touch your finger to another person’s skin or to a piece of metal, a spark will leap from you. These are the simplest methods of developing electricity. The power of this THOMAS A. EDISON. All the world knows his career as newsboy, telegra- pher, inventor of electrical machinery and organizer of great business enterprises to utilize his discoveries and inventions. He is constantly working out new ideas in his laboratory at Orange, N. J. 44 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES invisible force when properly developed is immeasurable. It can be produced by chem- icals, and the belief is growing that it is ele- mental with all nature. This power, when created and stored away, is the agent by which the marvels of electrical genius are worked out. The most common of the uses to which electricity is put, aside from that of carry- ing telephone and telegraph messages, is that of generating power for motion. The trolley car has come to be well nigh uni- versal, while more and more is steam, as a direct motive power, giving way to elec- tricity. To generate electricity in great quantities the dynamo or generator is used. For door bells, most telephones, and sev- eral other uses, the galvanic battery serves the purpose. This, in its simplest form, consists of a glass or earthenware vessel, in which vitriol, sal ammoniac and similar chemicals act upon zinc and copper. The dynamo, as well as the static electrical machine, works on the frictional method. THE DYNAMO. The dynamo is a device arranged with a central revolving part which is generally operated by a belt driven by a steam engine. Pressing against the armature, or revolving part, are brushes of metal. The rapid revo- lution of the armature excites a flow of elec- tricity. This current may be controlled and sent in turn to trolley cars, to electric heating apparatus, to motors for running all sorts of electrical machinery, to electric light plants, or what not. THE TROLLEY-CAR, MOTOR. The trolley car is one of the most com- mon agents of the public, which uses elec- tricity. The principle on which they are operated is very simple. Located on the car is a motor—more often two motors, quite similar to the dynamo which gener. ates the electricity in the power house. Just as the revolution of the armature of the dynamo generates electricity, electricity when applied to the armatures of the mo: tors on the car, will cause them to revolve. The electricity comes traveling down the trolley wire and on contact with the trolley on the car, shoots down into the mechanism of the car. On the platforms of the car are the controllers—metal boxes with handles attached to them. These handles control the flow of the fluid into the motor, and allow it to flow at full speed, or direct its course forward or backward. Here the circuit can be broken entirely. Now the motorman wants to start the car. The trolley pole, with its metal wheel in contact with the overhead wire, has brought the current to the controlling box. The motorman switches his handle around a bit, the cur- rent flows down to the brushes of the motor, and the armature which is attached to the axle of the car begins to revolve. The elec- tricity, having done its work, passes out through a wire attached to the wheels, and flows along the rails into the ground, or back to the negative brush of the generator. As more speed is desired, the motorman throws the controller over a little further, and the car goes merrily on its way. facilitate the discharge of the electricity Or return. To after being used in the motor, wires of cop- per are run from the rails into the ground | THE TELEPHONE. The philosophy of the telephone is very similar to that of the phonograph, in so far as sound waves, impinging upon a thin sheet of metal, will cause it to vibrate. If | MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 43 the metal vibrates near a magnet it causes its force to fluctuate, and thus generate electrical impulses through a telephone wire, according to the sounds which are di- rected against the metal. The electrical energy, therefore, is directed from the re- ceiving end of the device. Many things are good conductors of these sound waves, but for convenience, wire is the best at present. The telephone consists of an electro- magnet, or, let us say, a coil of copper wire attached to a steel bar charged with mag- netism. Close to the bar is a thin sheet of iron or ferrotype. This contrivance is connected with the wire to carry the mes- sage and acts with the electrical generating device. Now when sounds are directed against the ferrotype, it causes a break in the current of electricity which is imparted to the wire. At the other end of the wire, a similar device is receiving these impulses by the alternate attraction and cessation of attraction of the plate by the magnet, and the sound is produced. THE INCANDESCENT AND ARC LIGHTS. - What should we do without the conven- ºnce of the modern electric lighting de- Vices? To-day, all that is necessary is to ºn a key or switch to flood darkness with light. Two kinds of lights are in common *—the incandescent and the are light. The former is used principally for offices and residences, while the latter is used * for streets, factories and big halls. The incandescent lamp has reached a nearly perfect stage through the efforts of Edison. It consists of a hollow glass bulb from which all air has been pumped, and which is then hermetically sealed. Within the globe is a filament of carbon attached * little vises of platinum wire, which in turn connect with the electric wires. The principle which produces the light is that carbon affords high resistance to the cur- rent of electricity as it passes over the fila- ment, and thus causes it to become incan- descent. The filament is made of the fiber of bamboo carbonized. The length of the wire is regulated by the resistance required. The life of the lamp depends upon the ab- º º | º V º - * º º º Tºº- FRANKLIN AND HIS KITE. sence of air in the bulb, and in order to exhaust the bulb thoroughly when it is be- ing manufactured, the exhausting process is carried on while the lamp is burning. A good lamp will last about 1,200 hours. When some substance shall be discovered that will not burn away when the electric current passes through it, and yet will give out as strong a light as carbon, then the 46 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES feeding mechanism of the arc light, with its clutches, magnets, coils and wires, will be dispensed with. The arc lamp, with its in- tricate machinery, is necessary because no substance has been found so cheap and ef- ficient as carbon. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CARBONS. When two pieces of carbon are held closely together, end to end, and a strong current of electricity is sent through them no light appears. But if the carbons are separated a short distance, an eighth of an inch, say, the current leaps across this space. Elec- tricity always chooses the easiest path. So long as the carbons are held closely to- gether, the current goes - about its business, but the instant the carbon points are drawn from each other the current * * GARDNER ELECTRIC ROCK DRILL. meets resistance, and in seeking to overcome this resistance, it generates heat. The heat soon causes the carbon points to glow, and the glow increases in intensity until the points become highly incandescent. In addi- tion, the space between the heated points is filled with white, hot particles of carbon fly- ing from the positive carbon to the negative carbon, and thus the electric arc is formed. The light is not made by the current of electricity itself, but is produced by the great heat generated because of the resist- ance made by setting up the air-space ob- stacle in the path of the current. Courtesy of Gardner Electric Drill and Machinery Co., Cleveland, O. About 85 per cent of the light of an arc lamp comes from the positive carbon, 10 per cent from the negative carbon, and 5 per cent from the flame between the points. As the carbons are exposed to the air they gradually burn away and the distance be- tween the points increases. In time, this distance becomes too great for the electric current to leap over, and the lights would die out if the carbons were not readjusted. The positive carbon burns away twice as fast as the negative carbon. In fact, a cer- tain amount of the waste from the positive carbon is deposited on the negative point, and in this way the negative carbon be- comes slightly pointed, and a crater-like hole is formed in the end of the opposite carbon. The heat generated by the leap- ing current is intense. When viewed through a smoky or colored glass, the points seem to be covered with little glob- ular lumps, which appear and disappear as though the carbons were melting. The heat between the points is great enough to melt platinum, clay, gran- ite and other substances, which can be melted only in the most intense heat, and in electric furnaces, by inclosing large car- bon rods in fire brick and “striking” an electric arc by means of a strong current. As the positive carbon wastes faster than the negative, it is placed above the negative carbon in the arc lamp and the clock work mechanism feeds it down, either continu- ously or at short intervals, so that the space between the points is always constant, and the lamp burns until the current is switched off or the carbons are consumed entirely. The regulating mechanism differs in the MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 47 various kinds of arc lamps, but all of them operate about as follows: The current, before it reaches the car- bons, passes through two electro-magnets, which control the feeding mechanism, and these two feeding or controlling mechan- isms oppose each other. The current which supplies the carbons passes through one of these magnets, while another current branches off, and, passing through the other magnet, joins the former current where it passes out of the lamp, but does not go through the carbons. Ordinarily, but a small portion of the current passes through the coil of the second magnet, for it has a higher resistance than the first. When the carbons burn away, the resistance caused by the increased distance between the points becomes greater. If the resistance becomes greater than the resistance in the coil of the second magnet, the electrical current, which always chooses the easiest path, switches itself into the second coil, and thus the total current through the lamp is un- changed. Were it not for this arrangement, a failure on the part of the feeding mechan- ism of one lamp to keep the carbons at the Proper distance apart would give so much current to that lamp that the other lamps in the circuit would be affected materially. The arrangement, however, not only pre- Vents one lamp from affecting the others in the same circuit, but by the opposite move- ments of the mechanisms controlled by the two magnets, the carbon points are read- justed and the are is brought back to its proper length. - The storage battery, whereby electricity * converted in such form that it may be carried about for use in automobiles, elec- tric launches, etc., serves as a great con- Venience. The great objection to it is its 48 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES weight. To many people there seems to be much mystery as to the real character of a storage battery. Let us explain it away. When two lead strips or plates are put into a bath of diluted sulphuric acid, and a current of electricity is passed through the solution from one plate to the other, a chemical action takes place. This and the wire, but in an opposite direction to the original or “charging” current. This current, however, will be of short duration, even though the charging current be considerable, because the surface only of the lead plates is affected by the chemical action, the first film of peroxide formed protecting the lead underneath from further º CENTRAL OFFICE, TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, CHICAGO. results in the formation of peroxide of lead, on one plate, and spongy lead on the other. Peroxide of lead is one form of a combina- tion of oxygen and lead. If the electrical current is discontinued and a wire is made to connect the plates, a second chemical ac- tion will occur. And this chemical action will send a current of electricity through the solution of sulphuric acid and the water oxidation. By repeating the process of charging and discharging, a practical stor- age cell can be made. Each “forming” tends to make the storage battery of greater capacity, for the “forming” eats into the lead, thus exposing more surface to be oxi- dized. The man who invented the storage battery was Gaston Plante, a Frenchman. He made the first one in 1859, but too MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 49 much time was required to “form” the lead plates, or electrodes, six months being neces- sary for the alternate chemical action which put the plates into what might be called good storage condition. By that time the lead was so badly corroded that it fell apart, and the six months’ labor was lost. Twenty years later, Camille Faure, another French- tice-shaped plates, and red lead was placed in the square openings. The loaded “grids” are placed in diluted sulphuric acid, and the charging current changes the red lead on one plate into spongy masses of metallic lead, and on the other, into a like spongy mass of peroxide of lead. Still another kind of battery is made of a Copyright, 1902, by F. A. Miller. ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT USED ON THE C., M. & ST. PAUL RY. TO DETECT OBJECTS EIGHT MILES DISTANT. man, discovered that by pasting the “ac- tive” coating on the sheets of lead in the shape of oxide of lead, a storage battery cºuld be made in a few days instead of months. His discovery caused considerable commotion in the electrical world. A further improvement came when the lead plates were molded into “grids” or lat- series of horizontal strips of rolled lead a half inch wide, with grooves cut in them. The growth of electrical experiments has brought about many marvelous phenomena. Attempts have been made to make Nature turn out of her course and produce results in many phases of life before the time for maturity. Thus experiments on eggs to 50 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES # THE PHOTOPHONE–THE LATEST SCIENTIFIC MIRACLE, Telephoning on a Ray of Light Without Wires MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 51 make them hatch quickly have resulted in fowls of abnormal size and monstrous shapes. In forcing vegetable growth the re- sult has been more favorable. Especially is this true in maturing seeds by electricity. By using glass cylinders covered with cop- per disks, through which the current will flow into moistened seeds within the cylin- ders, growth is stimulated. After this treat- ment the seeds are put in a germinating pan which consists of two plates, one within the other, the inner one being of porous clay. The seeds are placed in filter paper between these, and are kept at a heat of 48 degrees by an electrical device. The result has been very profitable, the growth being 30 per cent quicker. NIKOLA TESLA. Nikola Tesla, one of the greatest of modern electricians, has succeeded in throwing waves across space and directing the movements of miniature war vessels in a tank of water without the aid of wires. He is working on a method of producing and conducting light without wires. SENDING PICTURES OVER WIRE. Sending pictures over wire has been achieved by a method called telepantog- "aphy. By it fairly good pictures may be transmitted. The process consists in mak- ing a metal plate similar to that in half- tone engravings so formed that they may be bent around a cylinder. The transmitting machine by means of a needle-like affair, somewhat similar to a phonograph, traces along the lines of the plate and imparts a stimulus to a similar machine miles away, which, equipped with an inked needle, traces out a picture in replica of the en- graving at the sending end. TRANSIMITTING SPEECH BY LIGHT EEAMS. Experiments in the transmission of speech by means of light beams were first made by Professor Bell some time ago with an apparatus called the “Photophone.” The transmitter consisted of a plain mirror so arranged as to reflect the light upon a selenium cell in circuit with an ordinary re- ceiver at the opposite station. The mirror served as a telephone diaphragm, a resonat- ing chamber and mouthpiece being placed at the back. Speaking in the mouthpiece vibrated the mirror, the vibration altering the intensity of the beam of light. The changes in the light beam resulted in the selenium cell (acting with its well-known property of altering its electrical resistance under influence of light) setting up corre- sponding changes in the receiver circuit, and so producing vibrations in the receiver diaphragm like those communicated to the mirror of the transmitter. Professor Ruh- men, of Berlin, has improved somewhat on Bell’s device, but the same principle is re- tained and the system is successfully used on warships of the German navy. It would seem as though we now have the germ of a means of inter-planetary com- munication. 52 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES LATEST MACHINES OF MODERN WARFARE Two great wars of recent date, the one between the United States and Spain and that between the Boers and Great Britain, have served one purpose, if nothing else, that of showing how terrible can be the de- struction of modern inventions of war. The stride made in a century in the development of war vessels, guns, explosives and meth- ods of warfare has been marvelous. No longer do we hear of the frequent hand to hand conflict, of grappling chain and cut- lass on war vessels, and the practical use of the bayonet. One would fain believe that with the awful examples set, universal peace, as proposed by the Czar of Russia several years ago, might not be mere illu- sion. In use for land forces some of the sºreat- est improvements are the deadly machine guns, the rifle with great range, the high explosives, such as gun cotton, nitro-glycer. ine, smokeless powder, lyddite and cordite, and the cruel “dum-dum” bullet. These in- ventions almost preclude anything save long “VE},OX,” THE FASTEST DESTROYER AFLOAT, Speed, 33.64 knots MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 53 distance firing and a rare gallant charge by the cavalry. On sea the changes have been even more marvelous. No longer do we see the old wooden hulls of vessels pierced by common round shot from the simple old cannon, of smooth bore. Nowadays, elec- tricity operates nearly everything on ship- board, from lighting of cabins and search- lights to the propelling of torpedo-boats and firing of mines, guns and other weapons. So nearly perfect had armor plate been de- vised against the assault of ordinary explo- sives and gun charges, and so thick were the coatings of heavy hardened steel, that new devices were necessary to pierce them, and pierce them they do, at great distances and with tremendous force. LYIDIDITE. The explosives of high power that serve for force to drive the monster projectiles from the throats of the gigantic cannons of to-day, are numerous and terrific. One of the principal new inventions is lyddite—an explosive of the same class as dynamite, cordite, maximite, melinite, etc. Lyddite is a mixture of picric brought to a state of dense fusion. This acid is given off by the action of nitric acid on carbolic acid. When a charge of this potent explosive goes off there is a deafening report, the outer cover- ings of the lyddite shells are ground into fine pieces and everything for a great dis- tance around it is destroyed. This was used with deadly effect in the Boer, Japanese- Chinese and Soudan wars. During General Kitchener's campaign in the Soudan, a shell was dropped upon a temple of Mahdist worshippers and only twelve out of 120 there escaped alive. Cordite, discharged * twelve-inch shell into the Japanese flag. ship Matsushina, during the Chinese con flict, hurled a large gun from its mount- ing, fired a quantity of ammunition, dis- abled two other guns, and killed and wounded ninety officers and men. SIMIOIKELESS POWIDER. Smokeless powder has for its main prin- ciple the quality of exploding without giv- ing off a smoke, save a slight violet vapor that is hardly noticeable. This powder is made in long cylindrical strings and cut up into little pieces. In order to keep this ex- plosive oily and to prevent its igniting by friction from rough handling, it is shaken in a receptacle containing powdered black lead, or plumbago, thus receiving a coat of the stuff. Some kinds of smokeless powder resemble strips of slippery-elm bark. This is made in slabs a foot or more in length, and about a quarter of an inch in thick- ness. This kind of powder is much more safely handled than ordinary black powder and will burn readily and without danger if a match is applied to it. The flame is steady and the powder does not flash off with a great splutter. Some of the stuff is cut up in chip shape. This will stand ham- mering; in fact, it is loaded into shells with a great deal of hammering. Cordite, as its name signifies, is made in long stringy shapes. ~ NITRO-GLYCERINE. One of the best known of the terrible ex- plosives is nitro-glycerine. This is used frequently for deadly purposes, but is more often used in commerce, for blasting rocks, wells, etc. In color, this explosive is gen- erally a light yellow. It is odorless, has a sweet, pungent taste, and when placed on the skin will cause a headache. Its method of manufacture is somewhat as follows: 54 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Into a large tank called an “agitator” is stirred a quantity of nitric and sulphuric acids, in equal quantities. The stirring is done by means of automatic, revolving pad- dles. After there are 25 pounds of the mixture, 1,500 pounds of sweet glycerine are added. At once the mixture rises rap- idly in heat. Since it will explode at 90 degrees F., water pipes are provided about ing men must not be turned up for fear gravel might be gathered in them. THE “DUM-DUM’” BULLET. Progress in the matter of projectiles has taken two distinct directions, one toward ferocity, the other, oddly enough, toward gentleness in warfare. The aim in battle generally is simply to disable the enemy. There is not a gen- º eral desire to maim for life. Therefore, if a bullet cannot kill a man outright, it is better that it hurt him as little as pos- sible. This is the effect of some of the better smooth balls fired from the mod. ern small rifles. Men have even be en known to be pierced by such bullets with- out serious injury. On the other hand, such affairs as the “dum-dum” bullet are ONE OF NAPOLEON'S GUNS, IN THE KREMLIN, MOSCOW, RUSSIA. the agitator to keep the mixture cool. In carrying the stuff, there is great danger of spilling it, which would at once cause a terrible explosion. The life of the nitro- glycerine maker is only about five years at his work. As in the factories of other powders and explosives, great care is taken that no metals are worn. The clothing and shoes of the employes must be changed frequently, so that gritting dust will not accumulate in them. Even canvas shoes must be worn, and the trousers of the work- atrocities for cruel intent. This bullet is driven by charges of cordite. The inner part of the bullet is made of soft lead, but it has a thin outer sheath of hard nickel or copper. Its end is cleft downward for a short distance. Thus, when this bullet strikes its victim, man or beast, the soft lead expands while the covering breaks jaggedly, inflicting terribly painful wounds. Another monstrous invention is known as the base shell. This is a con- trivance for firing from a big cannon, the ball having a base separate from the head. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 55 This base is on ball bearings and is equipped with four scythe-like knives which fold up on the side of the ball until it is discharged. When the shell starts on its errand of carnage, the rifling of the gun starts the pointed part of the shell to re- volving, but the base stands stationary. The knives spring from their places and cover a diameter of 45 inches. It may be imagined what havoc these blades would built in the shape of a cigar, loaded with guncotton or dynamite in the point of the nose. Within the device is an electric storage battery attached to a propeller at the rear, which will drive the death-dealing machine boat through the water to the enemy's ship. When one of these torpedoes is to be discharged the electricity is turned on, the rudders adjusted so that the ma- chime will go in a given direction, and then º work in a close line of infantry. And, even then, the work of the shell is not complete, for when it strikes it explodes. Other pro- jectiles for naval warfare, weighing thou- sands of pounds, are made of hardened steel and will pierce the immense armor Plates of the battleships with apparent ease. Most of these explode after striking. TORPEDOES AND MINES. Torpedoes and mines are the dread of the navies of the world. The havoc they work is great and terrible. The former is SEA POWERS OF THE WORLD. 1. Great Britain. 4. United States. 2. France. 5. Germany. 3. Russia. 6. Italy. 7. Japan. it is shot out of a compressed air device toward the enemy. It travels with little noise and great speed, and when it strikes an object its cap discharges its load of dynamite and wrecks everything within touch. During both peace and war im- portant harbors are dotted over with sub- marine mines or bombs of great explosive force. These are connected with the shore by electricity so that they may be fired off at will many miles from the man who oper- ates them. Some, also, float upon the sur- face and go off on contact. For those fired 56 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES by electricity charts are made, showing the exact location of every one. By looking through a telescope the operator, miles away, can tell just when the enemy's vessel is over a certain mine. A switch is then turned, and the ship is blown to atoms. THE GATLING AND HOTCHIKISS GUNS. The machine gun works deadly havoc either from the crow’s nest or fighting top of a ship, or on the battlefield. Among the terrible engines of war those most promi- ment are the Gatling, Maxim and Hotchkiss after the first discharge. grooves into their chambers, and are ejected automatically as soon as discharged. About 1,200 shells a minute can be fired from a Gatling. The Maxim is entirely self-acting The cartridges are loaded into the gun on a belt, and all the gunner has to do is to pull the trigger for the first shot, and keep aim. The recoil is sufficient to open the breech, throw out the empty shells, admit a fresh shell, cock the gun and fire it again. A belt with 600 cartridges can run through the gun in a minute. STEAM YACHT *ARROW,” FASTEST CRAFT IN THE WORLD. Speed, 39.13 knots. guns. The first-named is constructed of a number of barrels joined together side by side so that at a distance the whole con- trivance looks like a big, stubby gun. Gen- erally about ten barrels make tºp one gun, and all revolve upon one central pivot. Each chamber has a separate lock which discharges the cartridge when the barrel reaches its proper position. The affair works by a crank and the cartridges are allowed to slide from a rack down through THE ARMSTRONG GUN. The largest calibered rapid-fire gun is the Armstrong, which uses 4% pounds of smokeless powder at a discharge, and throws a six-inch shell weighing 100 pounds with enough power to go through fifteen inches of wrought iron. Smaller guns of the same order throw forty-five- pound shells at the rate of fifteen a minute. The Hotchkiss and Driggs-Schroeder rapid- fire guns were invented by Americans and MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 57 were designed principally for the fighting- tops of war vessels. They are swung on pivots, so that they may be thrown in any direction. This gun is fired shot by shot, but 36 shells a minute can be sent off with great force. The gun- -L- made of lenses and reflectors that will collect and send out the light of a 25,000- candle-power electric arc lamp. They are constructed in cylindrical shape about a yard deep, and nearly of the same diam- ner steadies the gun by pressing a butt to his shoulder, like an ordinary fowling piece. He thus has his arms and hands free to aim the gun, load and fire it. THE SEARCHILIGHT. Of great modern use in warfare as well as in commercial marine service is the searchlight. Nowa- days, nearly every steam-driven vessel is equipped with one or more of the great lights. In war they are serviceable in lo- cating the enemy at night, in detecting the movement of torpedo boats, and in directing vessels by signals. In commerce they aid in signaling, in lighting the path of the vessel, and in rescuing people who fall overboard. They are used in light. houses, and even fire departments in the great cities use them to light up dark buildings where the firemen must go. Some of these lights throw * many miles. Generally they are - TYPICAL AMERICAN WARSHIP OF EARLY TIMES. - igate “Constitution” (“Old Ironsides"), built in 1809, reeling off 13% U. sº hour—a speed greater than that of the racing yachts of today. eter. In the back are silver-back reflect- ing lenses of great power, and powerful reflecting lenses are placed in the focus of the beam of the enclosed electric light. 58 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Both of these lenses collect and concentrate the light and throw it far out upon the night. The rays are kept so close together that nearly a mile away the width of the projected beam is only about fifty feet. The whole device is poised on a revolving ped- LAUNCHING OF THE ARMORED CRUISER “COLORAD.O.” Illustration shows vessel leaving “the ways” at Cramp's shipyard, Philadelphia, nature that In a SSGS of April 25, 1903. at sea.) estal and can be moved in any direction desired. One of the largest of these great searchlights was exhibited on the roof of the Manufacturers’ Building at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. (Opposite picture represents her completed and cruising It has since been installed in the observa- tory on the summit of Mount Lowe, Cali. fornia. It has a power of 3,000,000 candles, and throws a brilliant light 150 miles. Its huge reflecting lens weighs 800 pounds. This lens is three-quarters of an inch thick at the edges, and one - six- teenth in the center. The whole light weighs 6,000 pounds, is 11 feet high, and yet so delicately is it poised that a child can direct it at will. MAIKING OF AIRMOIR, PLATE. America makes by far the best armor plate in the world. The process of con- verting crude iron ore into the monster hun- dred-ton plates of steel, two feet thick, for the sides of battle- ships, is very interest- ing. At South Beth- lehem, Pennsylvania, is located the great modern plate-making plant. Here have been mastered so perfectly the great forces of metal so great as to seem almost immov- able are handled with great simplicity. After the combination of pure iron and carbon which makes steel has been blasted free from impurities, and the metal has been shaped into glowing ingots, the open MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 59 hearth system is resorted to to shape the great hot masses into proper form. The reason for using an open hearth is on account of the great heat generated for making the armor plates. iron is brought to the Sometimes pig together with the hot air of the hearth. This passage opens upon another open hearth just opposite from the one in use. The spare heat thus keeps both warm, and in order to save the heat these passages are furnace and there mixed with scrap steel or other ingredients, to turn it into steel. No other enclosure for the steel is needed than the bare walls of the furnaces. Here the steel is subjected to about 4,000 degrees of heat. This intense heat is obtained by first treating coal with a great heat in air- tight ovens, where there is but a limited supply of oxygen. This causes an in- tensely hot gas. This fiery gas passes through firebrick chan- nels that open upon the hearth where the steel is waiting. When the supply of fresh oxygen in the air meets this gas it bursts º rºyº into flames instantly. The combustion is ter. rific and the iron and carbon or scrap steel are converted instant- ly into a flaming mass, while a heat of sun- like force is thrown off. The spare gas from this furnace is car- ried off through another firebrick passage, THE LARGEST CRUISER IN ACTIVE SERVICE. U. S. S. “Colorado” at full speed. - th, 502 feet; beam, 59 feet 6 inches; speed, 22 knots; horse- º º º four 8-inch R. F. rifles, fourteen 6-inch, eighteen 14-pound- ºrs and twelve 3-pounders; cost, $3,780,000. used reversely every twenty minutes, each keeping warm for the other, when its turn comes. This method saves a great ex- pense. At South Bethlehem eight of these 60 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES THE U. S. CRUISER “GALVESTON.” Only Type of New Style Naval Vessel, with Sails for Motive Power. Class of six ships designed for “police protection” to the rapidly ex- tending interests of this country. Vessel is officially termed “an improved model of the ‘Raleigh' class of cruisers,” which were built when the craze for speed at any price was at its height, and is a “stayer” rather than a “flyer,” having coal capac- ity to steam 12,000 miles. This, with her sail auxiliary power, renders her independent of many coaling stations and fits the ship for longer voyages than is possible with any other type of the new navy. Description.—Speed, 16% knots per hour; length, 308 feet; beam, 43 feet; displacement, 3,400 tons; battery, ten 5-inch, eight 6-pounders, two 1-pounders, and two Colt rapid-fire guns. Sail area, 6.000 square feet of canvas. open-hearth furnaces are in use, four capable of handling forty tons of metal each, and the other four, half as much. When the proper heat has been secured and the melting and mixing of the steel has gone far enough, the fiery liquid is run off from the hearths into great caldrons which run on rails. Thence the metal is ladled off into molds that also run on tracks. When the steel is poured into the molds there is no splash- ing, for the metal runs gently through a tube into the mold, which fills up bottom first. This process is called bottom filling and prevents bubbles and other inequalities in the steel when finished. Further precautions against impurities from gas, etc., are taken by having the inner lining of the molds made of a sort of steel lath-work covered with sand. Thus the gas escapes from the hardening steel without mar- ring its grain. The hardening process differs from the old- style method of hammering by which many flaws were occa- sioned. At the Bethlehem works “fluid compression” is used—that is, a great weight from hydraulic presses is put upon the steel while it is yet hot. Sometimes, this pressure equals 7,000 tens. Great ingots from which guns and crankshafts for ves- MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 61 sels are to be constructed often weigh 120 tons and take days to cool off. After they are cool enough to handle, great traveling cranes, with which the works are equipped, pick them up and transport them to other furnaces where they are heated over again in a temperature of over a thousand degrees Fahrenheit. These metal clear through, and not simply a few inches from the surface, as was the case with the hammering method. This is much better, for it gives the proper strength to withstand the great forces brought to bear upon armor plates, gun barrels and crank- shafts. After several treatments of ex treme heat and pressure, the tempering is THE SWIFTEST BATTLESHIP AFLOAT.—U. S. S. “MAINE.” Namesake of the ship destroyed at Havana, February 15, 1898, when 254 lives were lost in the service of the country The new vessel embodies all improvements suggested by experience in actual battles of the last ten years, and is the leading ship of her class in the navies of the world. Description.—Speed, 19.95 knots per hour; length, 388 feet, beam, 72 feet 5 inches; displace- ment 12,500 tons, horsepower, 16,000; crew, 600; cost, $3,000,000; battery, four 12-inch rifles, six- teen 6-inch and twenty-four smaller guns, all of rapid fire. Ship was launched at Philadelphia, July 27, 1901. cranes are great heavy machines weighing about 175 tons, and needing 1,500-horse- Power to operate them. In the reheating process, great care must be exerted not to crack the ingot. Then another pressure of about 28,000,000 pounds is brought to bear on the metal in a hydraulic shaping press. This method of tempering hardens the finished by annealing, or by suddenly plunging into oil to prevent crystallizing. After this hardening it might seem that the steel turned out would be so hard that it could not be altered in shape. Science, however, provides great shears, buzz saws and lathes which will turn the steel into desired shapes. The saws are 84 inches in 62 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES diameter and are equipped with 76 in- serted teeth. This saw can run through a steel plate 33 feet long and two feet thick. Lathes for turning guns and crank- shafts for ships will turn great blanks and pare them as desired. Armor plates are shaped by being put under great hydraulic presses which exert tremendous power and seemingly poorest plates and test them. The testing is done on a special ground, and consists of firing heavy shells at the new armor from a short distance. Some- times, the armor is only slightly scratched; again, the balls go through cleanly. If the testing plate stands the ordeal, the whole batch is accepted for the armor of some A NEW NAVAL, NURSERY. The U. S. S. “Chesapeake.” Her value to the U. S. Naval Academy proven, the Government authorizes three more of her class. will bend the plates to fit the ship for which they are intended. These plates must undergo severe tests before they will be accepted for service in the navy. Government officers supervise all the work of casting and tempering to see that it is done right. These men select the warship. If two plates fail all the casting is thrown out at the cost of the contractor, and a new set must be made. The best armor plates have been devised after plans by Harvey and by Krupp, the great gun makers. The surface of the plates is gen- erally full of little odd seams and lines, but MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 63 this does not mar the impenetrability of them. SIX NEW BATTLESHIPS. Since the Spanish-American war there have been great advances in the building of warships. Many new craft have been added to our navy. Six new monster bat- tleships of the finest type have been pro- vided: the Alabama, Kearsarge, Kentucky, Illinois, Maine and Wisconsin. The meas- urements of the Kentucky and Kearsarge will serve to indicate the size of our new naval equipment. The water-line length is 368 feet; displacement, 11,525 tons; horse- power, 10,000; speed, 16 knots an hour; water-line armor belt, 16% inches; side armor above the belt, 6 inches; turret armor, 17 and 15 inches; conning tower, 10 inches; protective deck, 2% inches. The armament consists of a main battery of four 13-inch guns, a secondary battery of fourteen 5-inch, rapid-fire guns, and twenty 6-pound rapid-fire guns. The sub- main battery has four 8-inch guns. The main battery projectiles weigh 1,100 pounds, leave the muzzle with almost in- calculable energy, and have the penetrating power of piercing 34% inches of wrought iron. Experiments to disable a balloon in the air by rifle or field gun fire have been car- ried out by the Austrian army. A balloon 7,000 feet high was held at anchor, and the gunners, kept ignorant of the range, were told to disable it. Twenty-two shots were fired before the approximate range was found, and it was only at the sixty- fourth round that the balloon was hit, and that slightly, but the small rupture of the gas bag made it slowly descend. A SLOT MACHINE THAT TAKES PHOTOGRAPHS The latest thing in slot machines is one that will take your photograph, develop it, and present it to you in a frame, with a pin attached to the back affixing it to a garment—all in just two Iainutes, by the Watch. This is just now being installed in every railroad station of importance and in other public places where a harvest of nickels is to be gathered. In order to have your picture taken, you drop a nickel in the slot and then detach from the machine a handle, which retains “onnection with the apparatus by a wire. Then you sit down in a chair, still holding the handle, and observe yourself in a small mirror placed for that purpose in front of the machine. When you have the proper attitude and expression you press a button in the handle, and immediately a brilliant electric light is flashed upon you. At the same time a bell rings, and continues to ring while the exposure lasts. The exposure is only about two seconds, during which, of course, you are expected to remain perfectly still. You may then get up from the chair and relinquish the handle, inasmuch as the machine will do the rest. The plate which has been ex- posed is automatically immersed in a de- veloping bath, where it remains for five seconds. Out of this it slides into a fixing bath, where it lies for 25 seconds. Then it goes into a chemical wash for a few more seconds, and, emerging therefrom, is almost instantly presented to you, framed as aforesaid, and with a pin at the back. 64 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Of course, the plate is developed not as a negative, but as a positive. Furthermore, it is already contained in its little frame, with a pin attached, when it is put into the machine. Hence no time is lost supplying the frame with the portrait, and the latter is produced complete inside of two minutes. The chemical wash which succeeds the fix- ing bath is, of necessity, a prompt drier. This novelty is the invention of a Cleve- land, Ohio, genius. The price of the pic- tures is a nickel each. NEW DISCOVERIES IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY While progress has been made in the realm of mechanical and commercial dis- coveries and inventions, means have been devised through the aid of science to heal scientific branches, have forged ahead steadily until to-day thousands of people owe their lives to the march of progress in these scientific efforts. ULTRA. VIOLET RAYS OF LIGHT PERFORM WONDROUS CURES. the ailments of man and beast, long thought incurable. Men of medicine and surgery, spurred on by marvelous discoveries in the sphere of electricity, bacteriology and other MICROBES. It was comparatively only a few years ago that science learned that the common source of many diseases before attributable MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCO WERIES 65 to numerous causes was the existence of microbes or bacilli in the human system. These microbes are tiny animal creatures which feast on the healthy tissue of the body and waste it away. So far has science gone that bacteriologists have discovered that different kinds of microbes produce different kinds of diseases. They have even raised these animalculae, experimented with them, classified them, and by careful study have found treatment that in many cases will annihilate them. CONSUMPTION. The fight against tuberculosis or con- sumption of the lungs has been a hard and discouraging task. Numerous methods have been used with Scant success. One, of recent date, has been efficacious to some degree, and is the discovery of Dr. J. B. Mur- phy, of Chicago, who invented the Murphy button “for patching to- gether severed in- testines.” Dr. Murphy pierces a diseased lung with a hollow needle, injects a gas which causes the lung to collapse, and then allows that portion of the lung which is diseased to get to- gether. This makes the lung smaller, but through gradual use it will regain its for- ºmer size, DR. FINSEN’S TREATMENT – CONCEN- TRATED RAYS OF WIOLET LIGHT. Some diseases of the skin which are caused by bacteria are treated by light. Dr. Finsen, of Copenhagen, has perfected a method of concentrating violet rays of light, which, when cast on diseased tissue, seemingly penetrato it with bactericidal effect. Some of the experiments along this line are interesting. Dr. Finsen exposed a bacillus culture to bright sunshine and found that the light killed it in an hour and a half. The same work could be done by electric light in eight hours. He discov- ered that when the skin was full of blood the light took a longer time to penetrate. By courtesy of Dr. Zeigles º REDUCING LUXATION OF THE 11TH AND 12TH DORSAL VERTEBRAE, He proved this by putting a piece of sen sitized paper behind a man's ear and this, after a considerable exposure, was not affected by the light. When the blood was pressed away from the ear an exposure of 20 seconds turned the paper black. Fur- 66 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES ther experiments showed Dr. Finsen that blue rays of light would kill bacteria. In order, therefore, to concentrate these rays, he divided the lens, between the glasses of which he put a solution of bright blue, weak, ammoniacal copper sulphate. This served to absorb nearly all the rays except blue and violet, which were allowed to pass. These lenses are attached to the skin by rubber bands. Cool water is run over the glasses to prevent the heat of the rays from blistering the skin. The weight of the glass presses the blood away from the sur- face, and the violet rays quickly penetrate the skin and kill the germs. Smallpox, lupus or tuberculosis of the skin, and many other skin diseases have thus been cured. LIQUID AIR. We have described in another section of this book some of the marvelous attributes of liquid air. Its intense cold has the same property as great heat without causing a blister. Thus, naturally, the use of liquid air in some sorts of diseases where cauteriz- ing or burning away is necessary has shown marked success. Putrid flesh is killed and foreign growth is removed by its agency. Ulcers have been eaten out and facial erysipelas has been cured by driving away the heat from inflamed tissues through roll- ing a glass bulb filled with liquid air over the face. Frequently it takes the place of the surgeon's knife. THE X-RAY. Almost every one has heard of the use of the X-ray for surgery. Although the discovery of the Roentgen ray is only of recent date, already marvelous operations have been performed which would not have been possible without its aid. By means of skiagraphs, or shadow pictures, taken with this all-penetrating light, bullets, blood clots on the brain, broken bones and the like have been located, and thus operations have been rendered possible. F requently some foreign substance is present in the body of which no knowledge is had. Some times the skull is fractured slightly without the knowledge of the physician. The X-ray discovered these, as well as consumption in By courtesy of Dr. Zeigler REMOVING TUMQR ATTACHED TO 5TH, 6TH AND 7TH CERVICAL VERTEBRAE. No Anesthetics Used—No Pain Experienced. early stages, ruptures and enlargement of the heart, stomach and other organs. One case, brought to light some time ago, was that of a patient who suffered pains near his nose. An abscess had formed and the skiagraph discovered a small sack in the cavity back of his nose, containing 32 miniature teeth. In the fight against bacilli, serums are used. These in the main MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 67 are procured by taking the blood of an animal inoculated with some certain dis- ease. M. Pasteur has had remarkable suc- cess with his serum for preventing hydro- phobia and the plague. BUISSON'S CURE FOR, HYDROPHOBI.A. In the Pasteur institute for rabies great numbers of people have been successfully treated for hydrophobia. There is much cruelty, however, in the system, for in order to keep the serum fresh, small ani- mals, like rabbits, must be inoculated in large numbers. The Pasteur treatment does not cure hydrophobia; it simply pre- vents it. Some scientists believe that hydrophobia cannot be cured, yet there have been cures of the rabies in their last stages, under the Buisson system. It is well known that the system of sweating by violent exercise, or by Turkish baths, removes impurities from the body. This is the system discovered by the French physician, Dr. Buisson, al- though it is said the Arabs have long known By courtesy of the Lawrence Co. OPERATING CLINIC OF THE NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY DENTAL SCHOOL. Patients are treated free, for the practice the students get. of this primitive cure. Commonly these nomads swathe themselves in heavy blank- ets of camel hair to cure snake bites. Dr. Buisson was called to treat a patient who was affected with the rabies. He bled her, accidentally cut his own finger and wiped it incautiously upon a handkerchief wet 68 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES with the patient's saliva. Although he cauterized the wound, he was seized so violently with the disease that he thought death was near. Knowing that a vapor bath frequently brings on stupor, he went to a bathing establishment to die in peace. At 127 degrees, Fahrenheit, he found him- self cured accidentally. After experiment- ing, he found prevention easily possible when the treatment was used soon after the bite, and many marvelous cures have since By courtesy of the Lawrence Co. MICROSCOPIC ROOM. HARVEY MEDICAL COLLEGE. been effected, even when the patients were in the throes of madness. A simple method may be used where access to a vapor bath is not possible. Wrap the patient in a blanket and seat him on an open chair over a pan of water heated by a lamp. It is not known whether it is the sweating that opens the pores, letting the poisons out and thus effecting the cure, or whether the extreme heat kills the germs, or whether both com- bined produce the result. DIPHITEIERLA. Wonderful cures have been made in treating diphtheria by the use of antitoxin. This is a liquid taken from the glands in the neck of a horse which has been inocu- lated to a fever point with the disease. After the serum is allowed to stand a while the antitoxin comes to the surface and is skimmed off. When the liquid is injected into the patient’s blood an immediate cure is effected unless the subject is in the ex- treme stages. One evil effect from this treat- ment is a possible weakening of the ac- tion of the heart. APPENDICITIS. Appendicitis is a disease which is seem- ingly of recent origin, so much so that it is said to be fashionable to have operations per- formed for it. The disease is caused by the inflammation of the vermiform appen- dix, and the old name for it was inflamma- tion of the bowels, - from which many peo- ple died because of the crude methods then in vogue for treatment. Then the case was not considered one for surgery. The in- flammation due to foreign substances in the appendix went so far that it burst the bowels, and the poisons from the abscess were emptied into the abdominal cavity, thus causing death. To-day, upon the least sign of inflammation on the right side of the abdomen, near the hip, an investiga- tion is begun in connection with a small, MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 69 worm-like tube attached to the caecum— one of the intestines. It is less than half a foot long, and is about the diameter of a quill. This organ has no known use, closes by a rather imperfect valve, and, frequent- ly, in adult males and females, becomes inflamed by irritation from fecal secretions, such as result through taking foreign bodies into the system. Fruit seeds, bitten finger nails, buttons and worms will cause inflam- mation. Great pain accompanies this dis- ease, and any pains, swellings, tenderness, or rigidity of the right abdominal wall may indicate it. The sur- gical operation for ap- pendicitis starts with an incision of several inches in the inflamed quarter. The abscess is probed, sometimes, although not gener- ally. The contents of the abscess are washed out and foreign bodies are looked for. The tissues are washed with antiseptic solu- tions; then the intes- tine is drawn out of the cavity and the ap- pendix is removed, after which the intestine is cleansed, sewed up and put back. Then the outer cavity is closed, although some- times this is impossible at first, and an opening may be necessary for impurities to pass out. Great advance has been made in skin and bone grafting. Frequently, nowadays, We hear of several persons giving up por- OPERATING CLINIC, COOK COUNTY HOSPITAL, CHICAGO. tions of their skin to be grafted onto people who may have been severely burned. Some- times a person's own flesh is stripped away from an arm to supply the tissue for a new nose that is to take the place of one lost. In such cases it is often necessary to graft the skin onto the face, and still leave an end attached to the growing arm in order to keep the skin alive. Then after the grafting has set in well the skin may be removed from the arm. Bone grafting is similar. Generally, bones of the ox take the place of silver plates, so common here. tofore. These bones are decalcified, or have the lime taken from them by soaking in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid. This renders the bone like so much gristle, and it may be cut up into strips. The cavity that is to be filled with this bone is cleaned, 70° MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES the bone placed in it and the skin of the wound sewed up. Gradually, the bones grow in with the natural bone, become hard, and perform the functions of the human bones perfectly. SUPRARENALIN, THE LATEST AID TO SURGERY. The wonderful progress made in recent years in the use of new agencies and appli- ances by which to facilitate bloodless and painless surgical operations, is signalized anew by a remarkable discovery lately made which promises to become a boon to the world through its potency in mitigating human suffering. This discovery occurred in connection with the manufacture of bi-products at the Armour & Co. laboratories, where the chemists are now producing a substance called “suprarenalin.” It is one of the most precious articles in existence, being worth $7,000 a pound, and is so powerful that one part of it, dissolved in 100,000 parts of water, will show its presence when tested with chloride of iron. It has been found that the suprarenal gland of an animal—which is found about the kidneys, when reduced to a drug—pos- sesses wonderful astringent properties; so powerful that operations on the eye and nose may be performed without the Ross of any blood. With the addition of cocaine such operations are also painless. The great value of this to a surgeon will be appreciated when one realizes that in cut- ting around the eye he can have a perfectly clear field, and can do his work much more quickly, as a flow of blood would not only obscure the operation, but would make it necessary to stop frequently and wipe it away in order that he may see where he is cutting. The active principle has been iso- lated at the Armour laboratory, and has been named “suprarenalin,” a word that has not yet gotten into the dictionary. It takes 7,000 grains of the fresh granular substance to make one grain of the “supra- renalin.” However, it is very powerful, and solutions employed by surgeons in per- forming minor operations on the eye, ear and throat vary from 1-10,000 to 1-1,000 in strength. - “Suprarenalin” is also discovered to be the greatest stimulant known, and is now being used in the place of strychnia and other of the old remedies which were em- ployed hypodermically in cases of heart failure. ACETYLENE GAS, THE LATEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT Acetylene gas is given off when calcium carbide is put into water. Calcium, or cal- cium carbide, is a hard, porous, grayish material produced by fusing pulverized coke and air-slaked lime in an electrical furnace. One ton of this substance will make 11,000 feet of acetylene gas, which is equal in illuminating power to about 264,- 000 cubic feet of ordinary city illuminating gas. The method of making the calcium carbide is as follows: Two thousand pounds of lime and 1,500 pounds of coke are placed in an electrical furnace. The lime is crushed and pulver- ized by suitable machinery and is slowly air-slaked and then thoroughly mixed with the coke. In the bottom of the electrical furnace is a cast-iron crucible, and the bot. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 71 By courtesy of the Acetylene Apparatus M'f'g Co. TWENTY-LIGHT GENERATOR, CARBIDE CHARGE, 16 POUNDS. and lime are fused, producing the calcium carbide. The calcium remains unchanged in dry air, but if subjected to moisture it gives off a thick heavy gas which smells like garlic. This is acetylene. All that is necessary to do is to control it so that it may issue from a jet in suitable quantities, and then light it. The light given off is of a very brilliant and powerful greenish hue. This gas is highly explosive unless handled carefully. It is being used in great quantities, how- ever, and especially convenient is it on au- tomobiles, carriages, bicycles and for coun- try places where ordinary gas cannot be obtained. The lamp used for vehicles con- sists simply of a small reservoir, from which water is allowed to trickle upon a quantity of calcium carbide contained in another gas-tight receptacle. From this latter reservoir, leads a small pipe to the gas burner. A match is applied when the gas is generated, which is very quickly, tom is protected by a thick layer of powdered carbon, which is a good conductor of electricity, but a poor con- ductor of heat. This bottom plate forms one of the elec- trodes of the electric cable which conveys the electricity to the furnace. The other electrode of the cable is a large carbon “pencil,” attach- ed to the wires that run to an alternating electrical gener- ator. This pencil is let down into the mass in the crucible, and the electricity being turned on, something like an are light is formed. Intense heat is developed and the coke By courtesy of the Acetylene Apparatus M'fºg Co. ACETYLENE GAS GENERATOR, FOR A TOWN. 72 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES and for a few cents, a light may be carried for a long time. For more extensive acety- lene gas plants, this method is simply en- larged upon. WONDERFUL MOVING PICTURES Of recent years, great advances have been made in the art of perfecting magic lanterns. The greatest invention in this line and the one productive of the weirdest results is the device for reproducing, in picture form, the movements of life, so . naturally that one would believe the living objects portrayed were passing in review on the lantern screen. The first step in the discovery of the principle which underlies moving pictures was the invention of the zeotrope. This consisted of a disk, on the back of which were painted a number of pictures of some animal in various stages of motion. Un- derneath each picture was a narrow slit. The disk was a toy which was intended to be impaled on a pin so that it could be whirled around. By holding the picture side of the zeotrope near a mirror, and by looking through the slits as the disk was spun around, one could see a rapid succes- sion of pictures in the mirror, the animal apparently moving forward by jumps. In- asmuch as the pictures were painted from imaginary positions which were not always true to life, the method of movement some- times showed very odd phases. - Gradually, the idea of portraying motion grew with inventors, and a principle, in which great development was involved, came to light. That was the method of passing a strip of pictures between the light and the lens of the lantern, and by the use of a light shutter, to close the lens from the light for an instant, between each pic- ture. The most perfect cinematographs, or moving picture machines, now use this method of jerking pictures through a lan- term, letting them pause momentarily, and then closing off the light and moving on to the next picture. The result is a continu- ous picture of the objects in motion, giving the effect of the progression. When this idea was evolved the next im- portant thing to be discovered was a method for getting exact pictures of things in motion. One man, tried the scheme of standing a number of photograph cameras in a row, and taking numerous pictures of the animal, or object, as it moved by. The result was a great improvement, but natu- rally the cameras could not be placed closely enough together or operated rapidly enough to catch the motions accurately. Then came Edison with his kinetoscope, by which he took instantaneous pictures on long strips of film, at the rate of about 30 photo- graphs in a second. Thenceforth the mov- ing picture problem was comparatively easy. In this method, long strips of sensitive gelatine films are prepared after the man- ner of any photographic plate. They are very narrow, are from 70 to 600 feet long, and are wound on spools. These films are run through a photograph camera specially adapted for the work. It is arranged so - that only a tiny bit of the film is exposed at the focal point at a time. Then a shut- ter stops off the light, the film moves on an inch and is exposed, only to be shut off from MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 73 rapidly that about a thousand pictures can be taken in a minute, thus depicting mar- velously the actions ºf moving beings and things. The next thing ſo be done was to devise a magic lantern arrangement that would || practically duplicate the action of the shut- ter device on the camera, and also to develop the photographs taken on such long strips, ||without marring them. Several methods |have been adopted for this latter work. | Sometimes, the yards and yards of gelatine || are wound on windlasses and run through the enveloping chemicals bit by bit. At other times, the strips are wound on pegs| and the whole affair immersed at one time. It must be remembered that the | pictures taken are negatives, that is, |everything naturally light shows black in the negative, and vice versa. Therefore, pictures must be made that will show on the picture screen in their proper tones. In order to do this, other || |strips of the sensitive film are placed over the negatives and exposed and developed. When these last strips are dried they are run through the cinematograph machine, but with a very powerful light behind them. | The film is unwound and by means of the | same shutter device on the camera, the light is turned on and off as the picture is behind the lens or moving into position. The lens throws the picture in enlarged form on the screen placed on the wall. Be- cause of a phenomenon of optics called per- sistence of vision, the spectator sees the pic- ture for a brief instant after the light is shut off. Thus when the strip is run through, the series of pictures appears as one picture in constantly changing shapes, giving an imitation of life. 74 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES LARGEST AND FASTEST TROLLEY CAR 110 MILES AN HOUR. One frequently reads about trains going at the rate of 100 miles an hour, but few people have ever ridden at a speed of more than 75 or 80 miles. On a little railroad extending from the suburbs of Berlin to the town of Zossen, an electric car travels daily as fast as 110 miles an hour, which breaks all records for speed on the highways of steel. It is what we call a trolley car, but the little resistance to the air, when going along at the highest possible speed. - The car is divided into three compart. ments with seats extending transversely, while the motorman is separated from the passengers by a glass partition. What en- gineers call the three-phase system of elec- tricity is utilized for running the car and the two trailers which it has been hauling during the experiments. Instead of the current being conveyed by one or two wires to the motor, it ROAD-BED AND FEED-WIRE SYSTEM FOR HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC CARs. trolley system is installed on a very elab- orate scale, and the motive power which operates the car is simply enormous. The railroad on which runs this wonderful car is about 16 miles in length, and was built by the Prussian government for military purposes. A few months ago it was turned over to an association of electrical engineers and other experts, for the purpose of ascer- taining what speed could be developed by the electric current. Then a car was con- structed especially for the purpose, and when equipped with the necessary ma- chinery, weighed nearly one hundred tons. The body of the car is similar to many of those in use on railroads in the United States, with a vestibule at each end, and the roof and sides tapering in order to offer passes OVer a series of four, three of which are carried along the side of the railroad | upon posts. | These are known as high tension, and are capable of supporting a current of no less than 12,000 volts, owing to the system of conduction and insulation. The current passes through the trolley bar, which, as will be noticed, is a very elaborate affair, and thence through transformers to the motor. The motors are bolted upon the axles of the trucks beneath the car, each motor being large enough to run an ordinary factory, as it can generate fully 250 horse-power under ordinary conditions. Although these pon- derous pieces of machinery weigh no less than four and a half tons each, they move at the rate of 900 revolutions a minute, when a car is at full speed. It would be impossible to stop and start the car with the controller which the motorman uses on the MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 75 ordinary trolley system, so special appa- ratus had to be provided for this purpose. The electric switches and transformers are moved by compressed air, which really does the duty of the motorman. The inventor of this car claims that within a few years will come a complete EDTSON'S SWIFT TROLLEY CAR. In this country, the genius of Edison has recently resulted in the construction of an improved style of trolley car whose speed closely approximates that of the Prussian invention. Experiments made on a short line in New Jersey, built especially for such revolution of travel on rail, and that elec- tricity with cars of this type will make an average of one hundred miles an hour with as much ease as a speed of 50 miles an hour *, now made. Recent experiments with this car have proved conclusively that it can 80 at a speed of 110 miles an hour without *PParent danger, and with absolute free- dom from swaying motion, ELECTRIC (AR THAT RUNS 110 MILES PER HOUR. a test, indicated that 100 miles an hour could be made with absolute safety and per- fect comfort to passengers. TRACKLESS TROLLEYS. Among the novelties in electric propul- sion are trolley cars operated in some of the large American and European cities, with- out the aid of tracks, and large quantities of freight are transported in this manner. - TRANSCONTINENTAL, EXPRESS this train took its own picture, by opening the lens of the camera, that had RUNNING been made ready, as SIXTY MILES AN HOUR. it ran over the connecting mechanism on the track. 3. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 77 BREAD SUPPLIED Back in 1898, the scientific world was alarmed by the statement of Sir William Crookes to the effect that the bread supply of the world was threat- ened with exhaustion. Sensational as the remarkable analysis of the situa- tion was, nevertheless, the statement remains broadly true that unless some- thing develops to take the place of the rapidly diminishing supply of nitrog- enous fertilizers, the world’s wheat supply is sorely threatened by the fail- ing fertility of the soil. Summed up, the eminent scientist’s statement was that the world’s low average of less than thirteen bushels of wheat per acre means literal starvation for the rap- idly increasing nations of wheat eat- ers, unless aid comes. NITRATES ESSENTIAL To WHEAT GROWTH. Nitrates supply the fertile qualities of wheat growth, but what of the great and growing wheat areas that before long must starve for soil nutriment? The nitrate de- Posits of Chile are swiftly being depleted. The guano beds of the islands of the Pacific even now are cleaned up. The phosphatic beds of the South are strictly lim- ited. Fixed ni- trogen in refuse is thrown away with alarming prodigality. Now one hears the pre- diction that bare- ly 30 years hence it will take will necessitate the use FROM THE ATMOSPHERE MR. CHARLES S. BRADLEY. 3,200,000,000 bushels of wheat annually to feed the world. This, it is estimated, of 12,000,000 tons of nitrate of soda a year, over and above the 1,250,000 now used. But the nitrates in sight now promise a supply for only 50 years. The problem thus is serious in the extreme. Science, however, is coming to the res- cue. Spurred on by the timely warning of Sir William Crookes, scientists all over the world are endeavoring to develop artificial means of producing nitrogen in quantities sufficient not only to supply present needs, but to lay up goodly stores for the future. Be it known that there is nitrogen in super- abundance in the very atmosphere we 7s MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES breathe. On every square yard of the earth's surface nitrogen is pressing in the form of gas in the air, with a weight of seven tons. The question that is perplexing inventors is that of developing a means of “fixing,” or extracting it from the air at a little cost. Chilean nitrate costs $37.50 a ton, while commercial nitric acid costs $80 a ton. It is with the ceaseless power of Niagara Falls that enough electricity is de- rived to extract nitrogen from the air so ical combination with oxygen, and thereby become reduced to nitrous acid. With this knowledge Charles S. Bradley and D. R. Lovejoy have set to work and accomplished much toward the desired goal. After many experiments, they have succeeded at their plant at Niagara Falls in “fixing” nitrogen. The process consists of the production of a large number of elec- tric arcs, or flames, in a confined space, through which a regulated amount of air to be burned is passed from time to time. This air emerges from their apparatus laden with nitric oxides and peroxides, as the re- sult of the combustion, and is ready for col- lection and treatment. Many difficulties be- set the path of the sci- entists. An extremely long spark was neces- sary in order to burn the air. It was found General view of Arc Machine on left driven by Motor at the right, receiving its current from Niagara Power Plant. that nitrate of soda ought to be produced at not more than $25 a ton. Several inventors now have stepped for- ward in the unique quest for bread from the atmosphere and have erected experi- mental stations at Niagara Falls. As far back as 1785, Dr. Priestly noted the fact that when a spark of electricity was dis- charged through the atmosphere the air underwent a chemical change. Any one notices the change in the air after a thun- derstorm. The effect of electricity on the air is to enable nitrogen to unite in a chem- that static electricity— obtained from friction on glass—was not powerful enough to supply the are de- sired. The great power of Niagara was turned to their use and fair success re- sulted. MACHINERY FOR PRODUCIN G. NITROGEN OPERATED BY NIAGARA FALLS WATER-POWER. The device at last invented consists of a big box of metal six feet high and three feet in diameter. Within this box is a revolving cylinder or hollow shaft. There are openings in the box to admit air and to circulate it, and around its walls are modeRN INVENTions AND DISCOVERIES 79 fixed electrical contact points for the arcs, arranged in six rows of 23 points each. The negative pole of a 10,000-volt dynamo circuit is con- nected with the revolving hollow cylinder, which has contact projec- tions or fingers to touch the other contact points. The affair is set in motion, whirl- ing at a great rate; the arcs are formed and are broken rapidly, caus- ing a constant stream of electrical fire, and the air is “burned up.” A motor at the top of the box drives the cylinder at a speed of 300 to 500 revolutions a minute and air is forced through it at the rate of five cubic feet per are contact, per hour. The air leaves the treatment loaded with 2% per cent of oxides of nitrogen. At the bottom of the chamber are pockets to catch the decom- posed air and thence pipes lead away which carry the air and its gases to an absorption tower, where the process is completed. EIGHT-INCH 10,000-VOLT ARCS BURNING THE AIR. work to fertilize the wheat lands of the These gases when brought into contact world. Already nitrate of soda is being with caustic potash, form saltpeter; with used to strengthen land properties. It has caustic soda, they form nitrate of soda, been found from experiments that land The effects expected to be obtained will bearing 12 bushels of wheat to the acre, by - - VIEW SFIOWING TERMINALS USED FOR ARCING - º º AND BURNING THE AIR IN CHAMBER. º 80 MODERN INVENTIONs AND DISCOVERIES the nitrate of soda treatment, has produced 36 bushels an acre. SCIENCE WILL GIVE BREAD TO ALL. If this proportionate increase of produc- United States, aside from the stimulated growth in other parts of the world, will furnish adequate material for supplying “the staff of life” to generations untold. Thus science will be found to have re- º CHAMBER MOUNTED WITH ARCS. tion holds good in the course of future ex- perimentations, and there seems to be no reason to doubt that such will be the result, the immense wheat-bearing area of the sponded once more to the neéds of humanity in removing the cause of the grave appre- hensions which so seriously impressed the mind of Sir William Crookes. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 81 LIQUID AIR-ITS WONDERFUL POWER LIQUID AIR BOILING ON A BLOCK OF I.C.E. To Charles E. Tripler, a scientist of New York City, belongs the credit for hav- ing made liquid air familiar to the scien- tific world, cheapened its production, and applied it to practical commercial pur- p0Ses. It seems almost a contradiction in terms at first thought, and yet scientists have been able to liquefy not only air but many other gases, while they can also turn solids into liquid, and the resulting liquid into gases. It is all a matter of temperature and pressure. Tripler, however, was not the pioneer in experiments. Scientists had long observed that to compress a gas into a reduced vol. ume, raised its temperature greatly. The heat thus resulting was to be generated by the pressure applied, but experiments soon Proved it was not caused by the actual in- “rease of the heat of the whole body, but rather by the concentration of the heat of the entire mass into the smaller Space. Later experiments showed that if this gas under pressure was cooled, and then al- lowed to expand to its former volume, it would fall greatly in temperature, and in practice a drop of 200 degrees was ob- tained. In 1877, the first real headway was made by scientists in their efforts to liquefy air. The first real success in these experi- ments was made by Raoul Pictet, who sub- mitted oxygen gas to a great pressure, com- bined with intense cold, and produced a few drops of the clear liquid that soon evap- orated into the air after a few moments of violent bubbling. In 1892, there was a like success with nitrogen, the other constituent of air. About the same time Prof. Dewar, of England, performed the same experi- ments, and then succeeded in producing a small quantity of liquid air, or rather a sort of slush of air, water and ice. His PACKING LIQUID Air For simpºrt 82 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES º LIQUID AIR BOILING BY HEAT OF THE ATMOSPHERE. experiments aroused the utmost interest among scientists, but the cost of the appa- ratus and processes, which amounted to $3,000 for this first ounce of liquid air, limited it to laboratory experimentation. It was Prof. Tripler who discovered the means by which this wonderful product could be made with ease, at a cost of not more than 20 cents a gallon. Tripler's process comes as near being a practical form of the chimerical perpetual motion as can be conceived, as he utilized power generated by the liquid air itself to pro- duce more liquid air, and as the production from a given quantity is in each instance a larger quantity, there is a constant in- crease of the power at command. The apparatus for the manufacture of liquid air, in addition to the power plant, is an air compressor, and a barrel-shaped tank about 15 feet high, penetrated by a multitude of small pipes and valves, pro- tected by felt and canvas to keep out the heat. This contrivance is so arranged that the expanding air, which constantly grows cooler, passes about the pipes containing the working material. Air is placed under a pressure of 2,500 pounds to the square inch, and cooled to about 50 degrees by being passed in pipes through running water. From there it is conveyed to the receiver through two different sets of pipe, one containing the air to be liquefied, and the other the air that does the work of liquefying, both under the same heavy pres- sure. By opening a tap in the receiver, the air from the latter pipe rushes up and around all the pipes in the barrel-like space, expanding, reducing the pressure, taking up the heat wherever any can be found, DRAWING LIQUID AIR FROM THE LIQUEFIER. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 83 growing warmer, and gradually rising to the top of the space. While this process is in operation the air in the pipes has been gradually returning to the compresser, where it is again brought under pressure and cooled, only to be re- leased once more in the receiver, there to absorb more heat from the confined air in the pipes. So rapid is this process that the temperature of the air goes down 100 degrees every time it is thus chilled, and it takes only fifteen minutes to produce the desired result. At the expiration of the fifteen minutes the faucet at the bottom may be opened, and the liquid air, at a temperature of 312 degrees below zero, be- gins to flow from the pipes. Liquid air is of such an expanding nature that if confined it would explode. In order to preserve the product thus yielded, various devices have been prepared. One of the vessels used for carrying liquid air is a bulb of glass, which is surrounded by an outer vessel, of the same material, the two having a vacuum between them and joined by a common neck at the top. The Vacuum thus produced delays the passage of heat, so that the evaporation of the liquid in the inner tube is reduced to a minimum. In a shipment of nine hours, air packed in the above manner, loses less than one-third of its bulk. Liquid air is eleven and one-half times as powerful as compressed air, and yet it may be carried in a pasteboard box, while the heaviest steel tanks would be required to control as much energy in compressed air. In the meantime Prof. Tripler goes on experimenting with this wonderful air. Inventors of airships are seeking something that combines great power with lightness; submarine navigators want an economical motive power and air for the crews to breathe; deep-sea divers hope that some service may be rendered to their perilous profession by the use of casks of the liquid suited to their apparatus, and automobiles have been adapted to this power. By the use of liquid air, a rose may be frozen in its full form, or an egg may be made so solid that when broken, it will scatter like a powder. The surface of a frozen potato is as hard as stone and beautiful as ivory. Frozen butter may be pounded in a mortar until it is as fine as flour, and raw beefsteak will become pale and then break, like petri- fied wood. Mercury is frozen, and alcohol ROSES FROZEN WITH LIQUID AIR RENDERED BRITTLE AS GLASS. 84 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES is made stringy and white by this air, and steel bars, when dipped into this liquid, may be burned as readily as a piece of dry wood. ITS POSSIBLE USE IFOR FUEL AND PRO- PULSION. In the not distant future, liquid air may supplant some forms of fuel, for when mixed with any form of carbon, it burns rapidly or explodes. Thus it may be used in interior combustion engines, for in- stance, the gas engine. FULL RECOGNITION OF A GREAT DIS- COVERY. When, with its lightness and extreme potency, it shall be utilized in helping to solve the problem of practical aeronautics, and shall also be made to serve, with a suit- able motor, in propelling submarine craft, while at the same time supplying breathing air to the crew, through compression in storage tanks, then, indeed, will be fully recognized the great significance of the dis- covery of liquid air. DRIVING A NAIL WITH A HAMMER MADE OF MERCURY FROZEN BY LIQUID AIR. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 85 NEW PROCESS OF MAKING STAINED-GLASS WINDOWS In a short article of this description, it is possible to give only the bare outlines of the art of making stained-glass windows. To begin at the beginning, when the exact shape and subject of a window is decided apon, a water color sketch is prepared to scale, and then the working drawings and cartoon in full size are made. The draw- ings are done either in monochrome, char- coal, crayon, pencil, or bister, in wash or in color or pastel, according to the taste of the artist. The lead glazing lines are usually shown on the drawing, and for the guidance of the glass cutter a tracing of these lines is made on linen. Possibly, the most important, and certainly one of the most delicate func- tions in the making of a window, now fol- lows—that of choosing the glass itself, for on this depends to a great extent the final artistic results, as will be presently ex- plained. The artist stands by the cutter and chooses each tint, each sheet, and even indicates the particular part of each sheet most suitable for his purpose. For the color is not always even throughout the . By courtesy of the American art glass co., of glass. What to an inexperienced eye looks like a flaw, a splash of different color, or a mass of air bubbles, is produced inten- tionally in the manufacture of the glass, and eventually adds to the beauty of the window. When the various pieces are chosen, they are cut to shape on the linen tracing. A tracer now marks on the pieces of glass the main lines of the artist’s draw- ing. It is here that one may point out why stress is laid on the importance of the artist choosing his own glass, and not leaving it to the cutter. A prevalent idea is that a stained glass window is produced by painting white or ordinary glass with various colors, but it Chicago, 86 MODER W IMTVEWTIONS ALWI) DISCO WAEA IAES is not so. It is in reality a Mosaic of col- changed. The pigment used is chocolate- ored glass, shaped by a pigment of one color brown, in color, and is made of the same By courtesy of the American Art Glass Co., of Chicago. STAININD GLASS WINDOW-REPRESENTING A HUNTING SCENE. earths as the glass itself, with some iron or copper added to give opacity. The next process is to stick onto a sheet of plate glass, with hot wax, all pieces, placed in their proper order and position and the whole is then covered with a fairly thick pigment, and, while still wet, stippled to let the light through. When the pig- ment has dried, the lights and half tones are picked out and brushed away, here and there a shadow is strengthened with more pigment, and the work is ready for diapering and staining. The diapers, or patterns, are either painted on in thick opaque lines, or the existing paint is etched out with points, to the required de- sign (see illustration). Staining is painting the back of such portions of glass as may seem desirable with nitrate of silver, which, when suffi- ciently heated, changes to a brilliant yellow. It can be so manipulated as to give shades from pale lemon to deepest orange. The pieces of glass are now all dis- mounted and carefully laid in flat iron trays, the bottom of which con- tains a layer of white dry powder; the glass is so arranged that no two pieces touch. The trays are then placed in a kiln heated by powerful Bunsen burners, gradually brought to heat and as gradually cooled. The pigment which, as was pointed out, is made of the same earths as the only, and with the exception of what is glass on which it is painted, has become, by called staining, which will be presently ex- firing, part and parcel of the glass itself; plained, the color of the glass is in no way it is no longer paint, but actual glass. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 87. It is now ready for the glazier who, by means of the design or cartoon, puts the By courtesy of the American Art Glass Co., of Chicago. ARTISTIC WINDOW. different pieces in their proper places, and joins them together by means of grooved leads, and solder. Around the outside edge of the design, in order to bind the whole firmly together, is fixed a stronger piece of lead than that used to join the pieces of glass. Now follows a very dirty process—that of making the window proof against the weather. This is done by rubbing under the leads a cement made of whiting, oil, etc. The whole window on one side is smeared with this, but it is eventually all cleaned off, leaving a deposit under the leads which makes it water tight. Again the glazier takes it in hand and solders onto the lead cross-bars of galvanized iron at proper in- tervals. It is now ready for setting. The stone mullions of a window to be fitted with stained glass are grooved on one side deeper than on the other. The glass is slipped into the deeper groove first and then pulled back into the shallow one in the mul- lion opposite. The iron bars, called tee bars, are set into the stone on each side of the window holding the glass in place. The space between the outer lead of the glass and the stone work is now carefully filled in with cement, to prevent the rain beating through, and then the window is complete. 88 MODEBM, INVENTIONS AND DISUU VERIES NEW METHODS OF MAKING PORCELAN Porcelain ware, ac- cording to experts and connoisseurs, is brought to its highest develop- ment, artistically and mechanically, in the great imperial porce- lain factory near Meis- sen, Saxony, the oldest in Germany. It was in these immense works that the secret of the Chinese and Japanese “crackleware” was dis- covered, and now crackleware is made in Saxony as well as in - º º - - - - - - By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, East Liverpool, Ohio, KILN. the Orient. The The porcelain clay is first washed in a kaolin, or porcelain clay, from which the large wooden cylinder, which revolvos hori. porcelain paste is made in the Meissen fac- zontally, and then is run through a series - By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, East Liverpool, Ohio, "LAY DEPARTMENT. of vats and channels, into which the heavier substances mixed with the clay are precipi. tated. The feldspar and quartz are separated from all impurities by means of hammers, and are mixed with the clay. The mixed mass is passed through filter presses and kneading machines, in which the great iron arms and knuckles blend the ma- terials perfectly, and press out all the air bub- ºn - | tory, comes partly from underground pits, bles. The mass then is rammed into barrels and partly from open pits in the Saxon and stored for a long time, ten months at villages of Seilitz and Sornzig, and the least, in order to give the clay plasticity and feldspar comes from Norway. to make it more “workable.” In the molding MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 89 room, the plastic clay is formed into vases, urns, plaques, statuettes, busts, and other shapes, by modelers, who first make the clay model and then the plaster mold for those pieces which are duplicated and reduplicated, and are finished in plaster molds. Sometimes figures in groups are molded in sepa- rate pieces, and then fastened accord- ing to the model by means of the thin paste, or “slip,” as it is called. The porous plaster of the mold sucks out all the moisture, leaving the molded objects quite dry. A “bosser” puts on the finishing touches, correcting all faults in the plastic decorations. Then the articles are ready for the glazing. This is a very deli- cate and important process and one which requires much care and skill. They are first baked in a tempera- ture varying all the way from 1,400 to 1,800 de- --- º grees Fahrenheit, which hardens them, and leaves them porous and very brittle. They then are ready to be painted or fin- * - By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, East Liverpool, Ohio. DIPPERS GLAZING WARE. ished as white porcelain. In the glaz- ing room each article is carefully dipped into the glaze bath, a milk white fluid, which is composed of kaolin, quartz, feld- spar and limestone. As soon as the glazing mixture touches the porcelain all the colors painted on it by the artist disappear, for the glaze forms a powdery crust, which, however, fuses when exposed to a high heat, and the colors reappear. Those parts which are to remain unglazed are carefully cov- ered with a preparation which protects the surface, and the porcelain is put in- to the kiln. The kilns are circular in form and are built in three stories. The articles in the lowest com- partments are exposed to the highest heat, the temperature here reaching 2,912 degrees. The other stories are used to give the first baking. | | By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, East Liverpool, Ohio. HAND PAINTING AND GILDING .7 90 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES som E LIVE AMERICAN FACTORIES. Porcelain manufacturing in the United States is rapid- ly coming to the high standard reached by the foreign- ers. People have been slow to believe that good ware could be made in their own country, and any but Ameri- can manufacturers would have been discouraged by this is seeming non-appreciation of their fellow-countrymen, º, but with the vigor and vim character- - istic of the race, they have slowly but surely pushed to the front, and their wares are no longer ignored, but con- ceded to furnish some of the world’s best makes. The pottery districts of America are Trenton, N. J., and East Liverpool, Ohio. The latter, including the near surroundings, contains about - - two-thirds of the potteries of the United By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, East Liverpool, Ohio. States. PUTTING HANDLES ON CUPS, Through the courtesy of The Taylor, Smith & Taylor Company of EastLiverpool, Ohio, we are able to show some of the departments in their factory which illustrate the method used in making fine dinner By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor, By courtesy of Taylor, Smith & Taylor. East Liverpool, Ohio. East Liverpool, Ohio. KILN PLACING. A PRESSER. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 91. and toilet wares. Their model pottery is the envy of all, and every year is visited by man- A NEW PROCESS FOR A new process for the manufacture of white lead has been discovered by a chemist and mining engineer of Boston. This new process is what is known as the “electrolytic,” and, judging from recent tests, it will be able to compete with the best now in operation. In the “electrolytic” process, a solution of sodium nitrate contained in two com- partment cells, separated by porous dia- phragms, is decomposed by an electric cur- rent. The electrodes in these cells are lead and copper. At the positive electrode, lead nitrate is formed and dissolved, and sodium hydroxide collects, and is dissolved at the copper pole. These solutions are drawn off and mixed in the proper proportions, and sodium nitrate is reproduced and lead hydrate precipitated in the form of an amorphous powder. A solution of sodium carbonate is then mixed with the lead hydrate, when lead carbonate (white lead) and hydrate sodium are formed. This sodium hydrate may again be converted in- to the carbonate by passing carbonic acid into it. The sodium carbonate may be used again for the conversion of more lead hydrate into white lead. The nitrate reproduced in the second operation may be again used as in the first, and there is but a slight loss in the repeated service of these two *gents. During the past year, tests of the ufacturers from all the world to study their modern methods of producing porcelain. MAKING WHITE LEAD electrolytic pigment have been made, and in each instance it has proven itself equal to that manufactured by the Dutch. The new process is rapid, and requires only a small plant for a considerable output. It yields a good paint, with very little labor. AIN OLD INDUSTRY. The manufacture of white lead, which is the most important of all pigments, is a very old industry, the native carbonate, cerussie, having been used by the Romans. But as this mineral is restricted in its dis- tribution, the artificial product was in time brought into use. THE DUTCH PIROCESS. The so-called Dutch process of making white lead is the oldest known, reference being made to it as far back as 1622. With a few modifications, it is still in use, and yields a product which, for many purposes, is preferred by painters to the lead manu- factured by the numerous newer processes. It usually has more covering power, and a better color. The method consists in ex- posing sheet lead to the direct action of moisture, acetic acid vapors and carbon dioxide. Two other modes of manufacture are generally in vogue—the German, or Chamber process; and the French, or The- nard’s process. 92 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. MARVELOUS METALS RECENTLY DISCOVERED RADIUM AND POLONIUM THROW OUT LIGHT THAT SHINES THROUGH IRON, WOMAN SCIENTIST'S ACHIEVEMENT. VALUE OF RADIUM $1,000,000 PER POUND. A new metallic substance called radium has been discovered by a Polish woman, Madame Sklodowska Curie, who, with her husband, is engaged in scientific work in Paris. would probably destroy his eyesight, burn off his skin and even kill him. Now, before scientists have finished mar- veling at the new and mysterious metal, the Polish woman has added another to her RADIUM'S MIGHTY EXPLOSIVE POWER. The power of an ounce of radium is sufficient (according to Sir William Crookes) to lift the entire British and French navies from the water. Radium is a white crystalline powder, a combination of several metals, with an illuminating power that far eclipses the Roentgen or X-rays. Its rays travel almost as fast as sunlight and can pierce three feet of iron, burn through metallic cases and take photographs in closed trunks. Pro- fessor Curie, the husband of the discoverer, says that he would not venture into a room containing two pounds of radium, as it triumphs in chemistry, by the discovery of a still more wonderful element to which she has patriotically given the name of polon- ium, in compliment of her native country. In a much higher degree than radium it possesses the property of shining in the dark and, like radium, this strange sub- stance does not seem to exhaust itself or lose its luminous powers with the passage of time. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 93 Polonium is extracted from pitchblende, a black mineral found in Bohemia and here- tofore considered valueless, after uranium had been extracted from it. Uranium is most commonly used for imparting fine orange tints to glass and porcelain enamel. As yet too little is understood of the mar- velous properties of this new metal to pre- dict just what its uses will be in medicine, surgery and other sciences; but it is not improbable that it may be found to per- form the present functions of the Roentgen or X-rays far more powerfully and with- out their cumbrous apparatus. VALUE, $1,000,000 PER POUND. Its vast value, $1,000,000 a pound, must always keep it as a laboratory subject, but one that is pregnant with possibilities to the scientific world. BUT TWO POUNDS OF RADIUM IN THE WOIRLD. The total supply in the world is esti- mated at two pounds, which, if gathered to- gether, would contain enough potential energy to swing the globe from its orbit. It projects invisible elections—or scientific particles of matter—at the amazing rate of 1,200,000 miles per second. It neither tests nor destroys anything, but a plate of radium one inch square woulo shine suc- cessfully for a million years. RADIOGRAPH OF A MOUSE. William J. Hammer, an electrical en- gineer of New York, has made a series of photographs and radiographs by the light of radium. Among them is a radiograph of a mouse, taken by laying the animal di- rectly on the plate, which was then placed in the bottom of a trunk, wrapped in rugs and allowed to remain there twenty-four hours. IRADIUM'S UTILITIES. The future uses of radium are likely to be various and important. In connection with the treatment of blindness and cancer, great and beneficent results are confidently expected. The extremely limited supply thus far available restricts its application to industrial purposes; but is understood that a small fraction of an ounce, properly employed, would probably furnish a good light for several rooms, which would last, without renewal, for a hundred years. Cal- culations have been made indicating that the potential force inherent in one gramme of radium will raise 500 tons to the height of a mile. An ounce would therefore be sufficient to propel a 50-horse-power motor car at the rate of 30 miles an hour around the world. AN AMAZING TRANSFORMATION. The most recent discovery in connection with radium, through the experimentations with radium is that a dense vapor is thrown off by it, which is gradually transformed into helium and , afterward disappears. This antagonizes a basic idea in chemistry. The gas now found to emanate from it is measurable and weighable and can be bottled, but vanishes within a few weeks. It was at the moment of its disap- pearance that its spectrum was discovered by Prof. Ramsay to show the peculiar fea- tures of helium, which grew more manifest until the identity was established. This astounding transformation suggests the problem whether, if one metal can change into another of a different nature, a simi- lar transmutation, under certain conditions, may not likewise affect many other sub- stances in metallurgy. The latest predic- tion from scientific sources is that a species of radium will soon be obtainable from petroleum by certain processes now being pursued. 94 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES." SNAP-SHOTS OF THE HUMAN VOICE A French scientist, M. Marage, has in- vented a process by means of which it is bow possible to photograph the human voice. The actual vibrations of the air, made in speaking the vowel sounds, can be recorded and made visible by an ingenious use of chronophotography, or the analyz- ing of motions by means of instantaneous photographs. Every one is familiar with vibrating in unison with the sound waves, throw their images into a revolving mir- ror, which dissociates and causes them to appear in various forms, according to the sound. By means of the acetylene.flames, which are photogenic, she vibrations are re- corded on a ribbon of sensitized paper. - It has been found possible also to photo- graph the various functional movements of | CHRONOPHOTOGRAPH OF THE MOVEMENTS OF THE JAW. HOW THE VOICE LOOKS IN FORMING SOME OF THE PHOTOGRAPH OF AIR CURRENTS PASSING A CURVED OBJECT. VOWEL SOUNDS. an opposite and synthetic use of chrono- photography, the presenting of animated views of moving objects by means of the kinetoscope. M. Marage's scheme may be described as follows: the vibrations of the air set in motion by the voice are made to act upon the flames of acetylene gas, issuing from specially prepared burners. The flames, the body. Thus the motions of the lower jaw in the act of opening the mouth may be represented, as well as the movements of the ribs in respiration. Another ingenious use of chronophotography makes it possible to reproduce in visible form the action of air currents in their passage around an ob- struction, as shown in one of the accom- panying illustrations. … - MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 95 THE SOLAR FURNACE POWER FROM THE SUN. A wonderful new invention, running steam engines, smelting all kinds of ores 2nd minerals, heating and lighting houses and cooking all kinds of food, either day or night, by heat of the sun's rays, without fire, fuel or expense, is the Solar Furnace. STEAM ENGINES. For running steam engines the sun's rays are concentrated by stalled the expense is ended. On all pumping plants requiring over five horse- power, a steam engine is used, the steam being generated by the heat of the sun, as above stated. On plants of five horse- power or less, a “compression” engine with pump attached is used. No fire, fuel, steam, or water is used; nothing but sun- light and air. It is impossible for it to “blow up” or explode. It works auto- means of curved reflectors | onto a specially built high- pressure boiler, the heat be- ing so intense that the water is turned into steam very fast, two square yards of sunlight furnishing sufficient heat to develop one horse-power, the sunlight falling on a space 44 feet square, furnishing suf- ficient heat to run a 100 horse-power steam engine. Any engine can be used, but a specially built boiler is necessary. The reflector is mounted on a revolving base and moved by a clock-work attachment that keeps it in focus with the sun all day. PUMPING PLANTS. It is thought by some that the solar fur- nace will revolutionize the present irriga- tion system, especially in the Southwest, where water is scarce and fuel high. Any amount of water and fuel can be pumped from either deep or shallow wells; no fuel is required, and when a plant is once in- By courtesy of the Solar-Furnace and Power Co. SOLAR FURNACE (SIDE VIEW). matically, and no engineer is required. A small plant may be made to pump suf- ficient water for a large tract by having a reservoir and running the pump every day when the sun shines, using the water only as needed. SMELTING ORES AND MINERALS. Any and all kinds of minerals can be smelted, or literally “burned up,” if de- 96 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES sired. A single yard of sunlight will melt silver, gold, glass or wrought iron to a liquid, while two yards square of sunlight will develop heat of over 25,000 degrees, or more than one hundred times as hot as boil- ing water. By courtesy of the Solar Furnace and Power Co. SOLAR FURNACE (FRONT VIEW). HOUSEHOLD USE. A small plant can be installed oil the roof of the house at a cost of only a few dollars. Attached to the water hydrant it works automatically and carries steam down through pipes to the kitchen, where it is attached to a steam cooker cooking a dozen different kinds of food at the same time without fire, fuel or expense, and furnishing boiling water for the bath, the laundry and all other pur- poses. STORING HEAT AND POWER. Electric power is generated by a steam engine run by the solar furnace during the daytime and stored up in a storage battery to run machinery, and for heating, lighting, cooking and other purposes nights and cloudy days. The possibilities of the solar furnace are practically unlimited. A TELEGRAPH MACHINE THAT PRINTS Along with progress in other electrical devices has come the invention of a prac- tical printing telegraph machine. For years effort has been expended to produce a contrivance that would print automatic- ally from electrical impulses sent over a wire from a distance, but the devices have operated poorly. To be sure, the stock “ticker” serves its purpose in a measure, and when not out of order, is worthy of great commendation. The mechanism, however, is so complicated that the machine cannot be relied upon. Now comes from Australia a man named Donald Murray, who with great ingenuity, has perfected a device which to-day oper- ates in the offices of the Postal Telegraph Company in many cities, and before long probably will find its way over two conti- nents. Labor saving is not so much the result aimed at and reached in this instru- ment as the tremendous saving in wire. When it is considered that a single copper wire from New York to Chicago costs $60,- 000, that it rents for $12,000 a year, and that the Murray system can, on one line, do the business of two or three, the saving may be imagined readily. This device, the Page-Printing Tele- graph, is a series of instruments which au- tomatically receive upon a typewriter tele- grams sent over a single wire. There are four main instruments for sending and re- ceiving—two for each station. The send- -- MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 97 ing instruments consist of a transmitting perforator and a modified Wheatstone transmitter. The receiving devices are a receiving perforator and an automatic typewriting attachment. Upon receiving a message for trans- mission, the operator sends it through the perforator, which is much like a type- writer. This device punctures a tape with little dots at irregular intervals. The ar- rangement of these dots signifies certain letters. The perforator writes eighty-four characters. The tape is provided also with a central line of smaller punctures, which engage the teeth of feed-wheels in the ma- chines, thus insuring a steady flow as they are drawn through mechanically. After the message has been perforated on the tape, the tape is fed through the trans- mitter. This instrument is so arranged that two small rods press against the tape, held in place by small springs. When the rods are even with the perforations they push through for a moment and then are withdrawn automatically. These rods serve to make and break an electrical current. This current is imparted to the wire, trav- eling as irregular impulses according to the spacing of the perforations. These impulses pass as signals to the re- ceiving station. The process of receiving the message is similar to that of its trans- mission, excepting that the latter is done by hand, whereas the former results from electrical energy. To aid in the receiving operation, there is a local electrical circuit. On this line are a punching relay, a gov- erning relay, a vibrator, a receiving per- forator and the automatic typewriter. The message arrives on the wire and the impulses are transformed into the local re- ceiving circuit. Automatically, the punch- ing machine perforates the series of irregu- lar dots in the receiving tape. The tape is then fed into the typewriter, which is so arranged that the perforations cause the proper keys to be lifted and the message to be printed in commercial form. The speed of the system is remarkable. The ordinary Morse system permits of about 25 words a minute. Under similar conditions, the Page-Printing Telegraph transmits and receives about 130 words dur- ing the same interval. The perforators can receive messages faster than the typewrit- ing machine can translate them in commer- cial form, but this is no drawback, as the tape at the receiving station can be torn at certain intervals and fed into several ma- chines at once. The design of Murray's skilfully con- trived apparatus, filed November 28, 1899, in the United States Patent Office, indicates how striking is the contrast between its deli- cate simplicity of construction and its great importance to telegraphy. Since he per- fected the instrument, however, the inventor has made claim for 37 distinct improve- ments on its various parts, which are now covered by three separate patents. The value of the invention in facilitating the operations of the Postal Telegraph Cable Company, to which the ownership of the patent was assigned, cannot be overesti. mated. 98 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES TIN-MAKING IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Originally the method of tinning plates was the simple expedient of dipping them in a bath of molten tin and allowing the surplus metal to drain off; but about thirty or forty years ago, a Mr. Morewood, of TINNING MACHINE. which seize the plate as it comes up and roll off the surplus tin, leaving a smooth and even coating of the metal. Even this system has been improved, and to-day the rolls are submerged inside the By courtesy of the Scientific American. With Bennett Magnetic Catcher for removing tinned plates as they come from the rolls. South Wales, Great Britain, designed a tinning machine which has since revolu- tionized the tinning process. The system consists of placing at the surface of the pot a pair of very carefully turned steel rods, tinning pots in the hot metal and oil baths, and as the plates pass through, while the coating process is going on, it leaves a uni- form coating and a highly polished sur- face. In the manufacture of high-grade MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 99 roofing tin, the hand process of dipping is still maintained. In this hand-dipping process, known as the “ME Style,” the plates pass through four or five different pots filled respectively and above this on the discharging side are 12 inches of palm oil. The black plate is introduced into the tin pot through the hopper (A). This hopper holds a chem- ical fluid, the weight of which is less in specific gravity than the mol- By courtesy of the Scientific THE CUTTING AND DOUBLING SEHEARS. with metal or palm oil. The plates made by this process resist attacks of the atmos- phere more thoroughly than plates made in the “coke” tinning process. Recently, a new method of finishing has º ten tin, and which in combina- tion with the tin and iron, causes a galvanic action by which the iron and tin are quickly and thoroughly amal- gamated. The tinner pushes the plate downward with a pair of tongs over the curved guide bars until it is seized by the first pair of rolls known as the “feed rolls” marked (B) in the picture. By these it is drawn through the molten tin into the up- ward curved hopper (C), in which are run- ning two pairs of rolls (DD). The top pair is partly visible and partly immersed American. - - been introduced. In this method, the plates after coming out of the last old-style of “MF.” tinning bath, are immersed immediately in an oily substance, the tem- ºperature of which is below the melting point of the coating metal, and an instantaneous and uniform settling of the coating metal is thereby effected on all parts of the sheets alike, A sectional illustration of a modern tinning machine is here- with given, which shows very clearly its construction. The heavy cast-iron tin pot is carried in a brick setting, and the tin is kept molten by a furnace below the pot. In the bottom of the Pot is about 14 inches of the molten tin, By courtesy of the Scientific American. THE BRANNER. in the palm oil which covers the tin on this side of the machine. These rolls are held suspended in a machine frame and are regulated by means of screw-adjusted THE TIN HOUSE, WHERE BLOCK PLATES ARE COATED WITH TIN. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 101 By courtesy of the Scientific American. - PLACING BLOCK TIN. springs (E E). Upon the adjustment de- pends the thickness of the coating of tin given to the plate. As the plates come out of the rolls they are picked up by a mechanical figure with arms and fingers, which stands above the finishing pot, taking the place of a man. It seizes the plates as they rise through the rolls, swings them sidewise, comes to a stop automatically, drops the plate into a bran- ner, and comes back to its original point of action, repeating the operation in rapid nection. As the plates leave the tin pot, they have upon them a thin coating of oil which has to be removed. For this purpose they are put into a branner which is located conveniently at the side of the tinning machine. The branner consists of an inclosed wood and metal box, through which a series of carriers (C) are continu- ally traveling on an endless belt. The plate (B), as it comes from the tin- ning machine, is placed in a rack (A), which is so located that the plate will be caught up by the traveling racks (C), and by them carried through the ma- chine. The interior of the branner is filled with bran and slack lime and as the carrier travels, it forces the plate through the bran and lime, which cleans off the de- posit of palm oil. After the plate has passed through, it drops into what is known as the “duster,” where it is passed slowly through a rapidly revolving pair of sheep-covered rollers, which clean off the residue of the palm oil and impart a finish- succession. The “Bennett” device for ſ transferring the plates from the tinning pot to the bran- her consists of a revolving drum with the points of con- tact with the plates mag- netized by an electrical con- By courtesy of the Scientific American. SECTIONAL VIEW OF TINNING POT. 102 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES ing touch or polish to the plate. There are shows the beautiful finish for which tin three of these sheepskin rollers and by the plate is noted. - time the plate has passed through the set, it SUBMARINE NAVIGATION SCORES NEW TRIUMPHS The day has come when boats instead of results have come from their efforts. Such floating on top of the water may be so con- boats are of prime importance in the war tructed as to dive, swim and stay under equipments of Governments, and be the Assassin of THE SEA submarine boat “Holland” in action. Possible, results shown by practice, maneuvers in Narragan- gett Bay, when the submarine vessel approached close enough to the big cruiser “New York to Biow her out of the water. This was done under the penetrating glare of the fleet's searchlights, which failed to discover the “Holland” until the latter rose to the surface within 75 yards of the supposed enemy. This vessel proved so successful that six more are nearly completed for the U. S. Jovernment, and England has five in commission. The “Holland” is 54 feet long, and 10% feet wide. She contains a 50-horse power gasoline engine, for propulsion; five torpedoes for attack, and requires but nine tons of water ballast to submerge her in three minutes. Her speed is ten knots on the surface, and eight when running under water, the water, almost as long as the operators ing studied carefully by experts in the of them desire. Numerous men have been war departments of the nations. In fact at work on the idea and many practical many countries have already bought the MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 103 submarine devices and have added them to their navies. They are especially desir- able because, when supplied with a num- ber of torpedoes, they can go beneath the water, and destroy whole fleets of the enemy's ships. THE “GYMNOTE.” There has been considerable advance- ment along these lines in naval architec- ture in France. Gustave Zédé has done much, and in 1886, built an experimental boat called the “Gymnote.” This was con- structed something like a large White- head torpedo. It was 56.7 feet long, 5.9 feet in diameter, made of sheet-steel, cigar-shaped, and had a displacement of 30 tons. Driven, when submerged, at a speed of 7 knots an hour by an electrical propeller, and 9 knots above water, this craft proved that much might be done in submarine navigation. Both upright and horizontal rudders were used so that the boat might be steered straight ahead, or made to dive or ascend at will. The bat- teries would run the device four or five hours constantly. The boat was sunk by means of a heavy ballast attached to the keel of the boat, which was so arranged that it could be detached at a moment's notice. Buoyancy was secured by water- tight compartments, which also supplied compressed air for a crew of five men, when submerged. A long tube ran from the top of the Gymnote, upwards, to the surface of the water. This was equipped with a lens and reflecting mirror. By bend- ing these at right angles a picture of the whole horizon could be seen below. Thus Was the boat directed when under water. So successful were the experiments with this craft that the French government had Zédé work out another boat of greater di- mensions. This was named after the in- ventor, was 147 feet long, 10.75 feet in diameter, had a displacement of 260 tons and, like its predecessor, was cigar-shaped. It could run with a crew of 10 men at the rate of 14 knots on the surface, and 8.1% knots below. It was equipped to discharge torpedoes. - THE “EIOLLAND.” Other inventors have been at work on similar lines and some of the successful boats turned out have been the Peral, the Nordenfeldt, the Argonaut and the Hol- land. The last named has been used with some success in the United States Navy, and is the invention of John P. Holland. The idea of such a craft came to Holland when he was a teacher in Cork, Ireland, where he devoted his spare time to the study of navigation. As far back as 1862, he had made diagrams of a boat drafted on similar lines with the Holland. Holland taught school for six years after his arrival here, at Paterson, New Jersey, while he sought financial support to bring his plans before the government. In 1875, he sub- mitted plans to the United States officials, which provided for the construction of a cigar-shaped boat, 15 feet long, that would accommodate one man in a sitting posture who should propel the boat by treadle power. Much adverse criticism was meted out to these plans, but the boat was built and tried successfully in the Passa, river, near Paterson. So marked was its success that Holland gave up school-teaching and went to perfecting his new craft. J. Bres- lin, of Paterson, was his supporter. In time—by 1895—the Holland boat, much after the style of the best submarine de- 104 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES vices of the present, was completed, and demonstrated its ability to sub-navigate the Sea. A number of these boats have been built for the United States government at a cost of $175,000 each. THE “ARGOINAUT.” - - One odd craft for sub-sea work is the “Argonaut,” the invention of Simon Lake. It is constructed to float on the surface after the manner of a yacht, dive under water as a submarine navigator, and once under water, to avoid obstacles by being pro- pelled, like an automobile, on wheels along the bed of the ocean or river. This craft is equipped with three wheels, one of which is at the stern and moves so as to steer the boat in it operations. This wheel is also the rud- der when the boat is afloat. Only a little weight is necessary to keep the boat on the bottom. Like other vessels of its kind, it has adjustable ballast or weights on its keel. Water is let into the hold to start it down- ward, and when it is desirable to rise, the weights may be cast off. This vessel is 36 feet long, cigar shaped, with a blunt nose and pointed stern, and is fitted out with a 30-horse-power engine, which is used to drive the screw propeller, driving wheels, the electric dynamo, air compressor and derricks for hoisting wrecks. A steel tube rises like a mast out of the water when the vessel is not entirely submerged, and through this, air is taken in. The ship is equipped with a compass which is found to work well if kept away from the machinery. When the boat is closed up entirely for deep diving, the engines must be stopped for want of air, and then storage batteries operate the machinery. The engines run by gasoline fuel. Air sufficient to supply five men for 24 hours can be carried, and the supply can be increased by running up near the surface and taking in air through the mast tube. This craft is also equipped with a device for leaving the boat when it is under water. A compressed air compart- ment, with an air lock, is arranged so that by having a strong air pressure in this room, a hole in the bottom of the boat may be opened, and the air pressure being greater than that of the water when it presses to get in, divers can leave the boat and enter again without danger. This man- hole is intended for use in leaving the boat to explore wrecks, or in time of war, to pick up and cut cables, and for similar uses. This boat has made successful trips of over 1,000 miles under water. TORPEDO BOATS BUILT BY THE GOV- ERNMENT. The torpedo boats built by the United States Government are capable of steaming a maximum speed of 26 knots. The prin- cipal dimensions are, length, 170 feet; beam, 17 feet; draught, 5 feet 6 inches; and displacement, 180 tons. The engines are triple expansion and twin-screw, and capable of developing 3,200 indicated horse-power, when making 395 revolutions per minute. The armament of these boats consists of three torpedo tubes, four 1-pounder, quick- firing guns, four 18-inch Whitehead torpe- does, and 600 rounds of 1-pounder ammunition. In speed, tonnage and arma- ment, these craft almost rank with torpedo. boat destroyers. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 105 SAVING SHIPS AND LIFE AT SEA If one were able to look upon the many generally with a very reasonable degree of wrecks that are strewn upon the bed of the safety. But, with further research, greater oceans and lakes, he would readily compre- improvements in precautionary methods hend the value of the numerous devices that and devices will result. find their way to ma- rine bureaus and pat- ent offices, to prevent such maritime disas- ters. In 23 wrecks, alone, in the last cen- tury, nearly 8,000 lives were lost. A map of the Atlantic coast-line of the United States shows places where hundreds of good ships went down with all on board. In the old days when only the hardy mariner trav- ersed the seas, the loss of life was great. To- day, however, when the whole of mankind is inclined toward globe-trotting, and when every precaution is taken to avoid ca- lamity, the destruction of life and property is truly appalling. Naturally, scientists and inventors have been at work to solve the question of pre- venting wrecks. The result has been grati- fying in the extreme, and one may travel MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHTHOUSE. The most expensive beacon on the Eastern seaboard. 106 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES THE HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. Of prime importance is the protective system of the Hydrographic Office in Washington, and its branches. Here ex- perts study the currents of the oceans, riv- ers and lakes, plat and chart the spots where danger lies, and advise mariners of their discoveries. In conjunction with the weather bureau, warnings against winds, hurricanes and storms are given. One of the methods applied to rough seas is the reefs. These houses are equipped with the most modern apparatus for warning ships at sea. Great lamps revolve in their high turrets in the lighthouses, aided by power- ful prismatic lenses and brilliant reflectors, and sending out their light for many miles. Lightships also are anchored in dangerous places, and send forth their warnings. In many shallow waters, the bell-buoy tolls out its incessant alarm and at night, flares its Warning beacon, THE BREECHES BUOY. Life-saving expedients on the Eastern seaboard. old and familiar one, still in vogue, of pour- ing oil on the water. Many devices have been arranged to do this effectually, and every ship is now equipped with some bar- rel-shaped machine for letting oil slowly seep out to quiet the angry waves. - THE LIGHTHOUSE. Each year is adding to the number of lighthouses erected on rocky coasts and Collisions at sea and their accompanying disasters have caused learned men to study how to foretell the approach of dangerous objects. Often, in a fog, an iceberg or an- other vessel is encountered. The devices invented to prevent this are many. Wire- less telegraphy is of great service. Where two vessels are equipped with the Marconi system, it is possible to catch signals many MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 107 miles away, and to avoid the same patch in the sea. But this method has not come into general use. Moreover, it would not detect the presence of an iceberg. Conse- quently a instrument known as the ther- mopile, or heat detector, has come into use, in various shapes and kinds. tect the heat of a candle a quarter of a mile a Way. TELE THERMOPILE. The thermopile in use by ship masters is made up of a galvanometer for registering an electric current, and two or more wires of different degrees of sensitiveness when ºn THE ICEBERG. It is well known that an iceberg greatly chills the water in its vicinity. Similarly, a vessel with great steam-boilers sends out heat. If it is possible to know the tempera- ture of the water in which one's vessel is floating, and to detect some sudden change, either of heat or cold, it is easy to avoid a possible collision. Instruments have been made that are so delicate that they can de- subjected to heat or cold. Some of these different wires are made of copper, German silver, bismuth, antimony or selenium. These metals are arranged to hang over a ship’s side in such a manner as to feel a change in the temperature of the water. If an iceberg is near, the chill in the water will be noted, the current sent to the gal- vanometer, and a bell will be rung. If a steamer is near another bell will ring, de- 108 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES noting the approach of a heated object. Admiral Makaroff, of the Russian navy, has perfected a thermopile which is located in the keel of vessels. It consists of a tube so arranged that the water of the sea may run through it. The thermopile proper is suspended in this water, and if the temper- ature suddenly changes a danger bell is rung in the pilot house. Means have been employed to some ex- tent for transmitting warning through water. It is wel . known that water is a great conductor of sound. Divers can easily distin- guish the throbbing of a steamer's propeller, or paddle wheels, a mile, or more, away. Work has been done on devices to be placed in the keel of a vessel, consisting of a sensitive diaphragm which will record noises in the water. Another instrument used to detect sound for life-saving purposes, con- sists of an immense hood connected with a funnel, from which lead rubber tubes, adjusted to the listen- er's ears. This instrument can be re- volved in any direction, and so sensitive is it that distant noises not otherwise audible may be detected. More than this, there is a compass attached to the instrument, and arranged so that it will show the direction of the warning sound. - Possibly the greatest benefit to sailors would be some means for dispersing fogs, and experiments have been made which, ere long, will probably result in such a discov- Waves ºº * ** TYPICAL RANGE LIGHT. ery. Some scientists have been at work on the theory that the moisture in a fog may be condensed by an electrical discharge. To a small degree, this has proved effective. Professor Oliver Lodge, of Liverpool, by means of electrical discharges, cleared a room of thick turpentine smoke, and a res- ervoir, of magnesium smoke. In announc- ing his researches before the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, he advocated using the donkey engines on board ships, to generate electricity, to be dis- charged from poles on the masts. The means of saving life in wrecks are being Each year, new devices are invented, such as automatic davits for letting down life- boats, etc. improved. THE LIFE BUOY. A new life-buoy has been perfected which is so arranged that water is allowed to leak in through a crack and mix with a powder (calcic phosphide). When the buoy is in the water this powder ig- nites, producing a bright flame which runs out through a tube a foot or so above the water, and, for an hour or so, is visible many miles away. Another sort of buoy has a lighting device and also the means of carrying food and drink. Besides all these devices for preventing wrecks, there is ever a watchful eye on the lookout to protect the stray mariner from death, after his ship is wrecked. The United States Life Saving Service is a MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 109 credit to the nation. Its members, like their great brother order of life and prop- erty savers, the firemen, accomplish much in the saving of life that would be impos- sible, were it not for the great hardship these brave men undergo. Along the coasts of oceans and great lakes, extend lines of life saving stations, manned by hardy crews whose business it is to watch out for vessels in danger, or al- ready wrecked. Patrols of men walk the beaches, or spy out upon the waters from their watch stations, for a sign of distress. After the distress signal has been sight- ed, everything in the station is bustle. It may be that a big ship has crashed upon a reef or sand-bar, and is pounding herself to pieces in the angry waves. If the ship cannot be reached from land, the life-savers must clamber into their big boats and pull away to the res- cue. Often the savers, themselves, go down before the fury of the tempest, in trying to rescue their fellow men. But, more often, are the sailors, chilled through by the icy waves, brought safe to shore. THE BREECHES BUOY. If the use of a life-boat is impracticable, resort may be had to the breeches buoy. The savers are equipped with a coast gun— A sort of short cannon—in which is loaded *** - an iron pin fastened to a life line. The gun is fired off, the pin hurtles over the ship in distress, and the line is hauled in by the weary sailors until a block and tackle are taken on board. This tackle is at- tached to the mast, a rope is run through it to shore, and down this rope travels a pul- ley, to which is attached a heavy pair of leather breeches. The sailor gets into this buoy, and is drawn safely through the waves to shore. There are many methods Long Island Life Savers Running a Life-line to Stranded Ship. besides these, used by life savers, but these are the most important and most commonly used. Naturally, a life saving station is equipped with the latest kinds of improved boats, etc. The life boat now in most com- mon use is fitted in the bottom with self-act- ing valves, which empty it of any water that may dash over the sides. So perfect are these boats, that in practice tests, the savers frequently tip them over completely, 110 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES and they will right themselves, and drain off all the water, THE MINOT’S LEDGE BEACON. Among the Government lighthouses which serve their beneficent purpose on dangerous coasts, that at Minot's Ledge, Boston Harbor, is perhaps the most note- worthy. It has been twice destroyed, once in 1842 by a drifting ship striking it in a storm, and again in 1863, when a historical ABOUT THE Among the many recent inventions which hurricane swept the New England coast, The second “house” was supported on steel piles 13 inches in diameter, and after the light went out when the storm was at its worst, the huge beams were found twisted like twine, leaving no other evidence of the tragedy, which cost the lives of three per- sons living there. The present structure is built of masonry and cement, and promises to last for centuries. PHONOGRAPH wizard of electricity—Thomas A. Edison have emanated from the brain of the great º —is the phonograph. Most people have By courtesy of James I. Lyons, THE NEW UNIVERSAL ZONE-O-PHONE, OR TALKING MACHINE. The highest stage of development yet reached by mechanism in reproducing sound. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 111 seen these clever devices for recording and reproducing sound, but few are aware how the device operates, and fewer still know of its rapidly increasing value in commer- cial circles. One must know that sound is a series of vibrations, or waves of the air. When one talks, thousands of waves agitate the ether, the same as water is disturbed when a stone is dropped into it. Edison worked on the principle that these sound-waves were pow- erful enough to inscribe themselves in rec- ords, if given the proper opportunity. After a great many crude experiments, the phono- graph was the result. This instrument consists of a machine upon which revolves a wax cylinder. Ele- wated over the cylinder and moving along its distance as the machine is set in motion, is a funnel which gathers up the sound waves. At the end of this funnel is a small drum-like affair made of thin metal, upon which is fastened a tiny stylus or pen. When sound is directed into the funnel, it agitates the drum membrane, which in turn moves the stylus very slightly, and this in turn scratches a record of the waves into the wax of the cylinder. Each sound Wave has a peculiar motion unlike any other. Therefore when the cylinder has been revolved its entire distance and the pen has scratched the song into the wax, it should be a perfect record of that song only. Such is the case and now it remains to reproduce the sound. Another drum is attached which has a reproducing stylus similar to the recording one, but of a nature that will not scratch. This pen runs along into all the little scratches made in the record, and agitates the drum membrane in just the reverse manner that it was agitated when the Sounds were sent into the funnel at first. Naturally enough this agitation causes the metal drum to give off sounds that very closely imitate those that first went into the phonograph. The motive power to revolve the cylinder is generally developed from a small electric battery attached to it, al- though clock work will run one for a few minutes. THE STORY OF THE DISCOVERY. In 1888, Edison, in commenting on the origin of the phonograph, called attention to the well known effects of certain musical notes and chords, upon sand loosely sprinkled upon a sounding board. He . showed how the sand sifts itself into various geometric, curves, differing according to pitch and intensity. He alluded to the fine line of sand left high upon an ocean beach, as each breaker spends its force and then recedes. Continuing, he said: “Yet, well known as these phenomena are, they appar- ently never suggested until within a few years, that the sound waves set going by the human voice might be so directed as to trace an impression upon some solid sub- stance, with a nicety equal to that of the tide in recording its flow upon the sand beach. * * * “My own discovery that this could be done came to me almost accidentally, while I was engaged upon a machine intended to repeat Morse characters which were re- corded on paper. “In manipulating this paper, I found that when the indented paper was turned with great swiftness, it gave off a humming noise from the indentations, a musical, rhythmic sound resembling that of human talk heard indistinctly. “This led me to try fitting a diaphram to the machine.” 1.1% MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES DRIVING MECHANISM OF THE HORSELESS VEHICLE Torpedo boats have their machinery stowed away in the most ingenious manner, so as to get the most power concentrated in the least number of cubic feet possible. A watch is a marvelous example of what can be done in the way of packing machinery, but it is doubtful if the torpedo boat or the watch can show such ingenuity in nest- ing machinery as is shown in the modern steam or gas- oline automobile. When the power plant of the steam automobile is exposed to view there is disclosed a complete equipment of en- gine, boiler, furnace, water tank, pipes, valves, pumps and link motion, with all necessary adjusting devices, and all ar- ranged in space ridiculously disproportion- ate to the duty required of the engine and the power developed. There is more machinery in a gasoline a"tomobile, yet it is nested in space very little more than is required to house the steam engine and boiler. A casual glance is enough to impress one who has any love for machinery with the fact that the mechanism is of the highest order. Every member shows the high-class workmanship whic" entered into its making. Every part bea. witness to the skill and ingenious craft of its maker. It rep- resents the aris- tocracy of en- gine building. The automo- biles that are in daily use are steam, gasoline or electric motor ve hicles. There are a few experimen- it a l automobiles which use com- pressed air, but they are not nu- merous. A large proportion of the natty “ run a - bouts” in Chica- go are steam au- tos, but they use gasoline for fuel. The motor of such a machine is a horizontal engine of the ma- rine type, with plain slide valves, and ti link motion which was used by George Stephenson in the first half of the last cen- tury. The cylinders of this engine are of cast iron, but the other parts are of drop forgings, and the momentum of the vehicle takes the place of the momentum of a fly wheel. By courtesy of the “Motor Age.” LATEST THANG IN THE AUTOMOBILE LINE. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 113 It was with a steam automobile with an engine of this kind that the world's record for steam automobiles was broken, in Oc- tober, 1902, by making a mile in one min- ute and twenty-seven and one-fifth seconds. There was a steam pressure of 650 pounds to the square inch in the wire-wound cop- per boiler of the machine. “The cylinders of the engine—there are two of them—are two and a half inches in diameter, the engine has a stroke of three and a half inches and the steam is cut off at five-eighths stroke. “The water for the boiler is contained in a tank that holds twenty-seven gallons, and it is forced from this tank to the boiler by a pump attached to the cross-head of the engine. As the pump works all the time while the machine is running, it is neces- sary to provide means to shut off the water from the boiler when none is needed, and this is done by means of a by-pass and an automatic valve that shunt the water back to the tank when necessary. “The furnace of the boiler is a Bunsen The ordinary working steam pressure is 160 pounds. The engine weighs forty-seven pounds and is three and one-half indicated horse power. This is the engine used in the ordinary run abouts which weighs 650 pounds. The boiler is of the fire tube type. It is fourteen inches in diameter and thir- teen inches long, and it has 298 copper tubes, each one-half inch in diameter. The copper shell is seamless, with steel heads, and there are about 2,000 feet of steel piano wire wound, in two layers, around the boiler to strengthen the copper shell, which is only three thirty-seconds of an inch thick. The boiler is covered with an asbestos jacket that not only prevents the steel wire from rusting but prevents loss of heat by radiation. The boiler holds about five gallons of water, but carries, when in use, but three gallons. - By courtesy of Chicago Motor Vehicle Co. TWELVE PASSENGER, BRAKE, CANOPY AND CURTAINS. burner, for gasoline is the fuel. The burne, consists of 200 one-half inch copper tubes expanded between two steel plates. The tubes are for the air which is burned with the gasoline. In the steel plates are about fifty small holes for the gasoline vapor, which is taken in between the two plates through a mixing tube from the gasoline jet valve. The heat of the boiler is used to vaporize the gasoline and make it a gas. 114 MODERN IN VENTIONS" AND DISCOVERIES The top plate of the burner is four inches in diameter and the whole burner sits down four inches below the bottom of the boiler. “The fire is controlled entirely by the steam pressure, which actuates a copper diaphragm whose expansion or contraction opens and closes the needle valve that feeds the gasoline into the burners; the gasoline is under an air pressure of eighty pounds to the inch, so that it jets out in spurts. The diaphragm is normally set for 180 pounds of steam. When the pressure exceeds that amount the diaphragm moves and operates the valve, which reduces the flow of gasoline and thus lowers the flame under the boiler. If the pressure falls below the working standard the diaphragm moves the other way and more gasoline is fed to the fire. The boiler is provided with a safety valve, which blows off at 260 pounds pressure. Between the boiler and the throttle valve of the engine is a globe valve which can be opened and closed only by a key carried by the operator of the automobile. If it is de- sired to leave the rig the key shuts this lock valve and no steam can enter the engine's cylinders. “About five gallons of gasoline are car- ried in the reservoir, and as it takes one gal- lon to run ten to twelve miles, enough fuel for a sixty-mile run can be carried in the tank. The boiler evaporates about one gal- lon of water to the mile run. The speed of the machine is controlled by the throttle; the more steam the higher speed. The rear wheels are the drivers, which are driven through differential or compensating gears. This gearing permits the outer wheel to re- volve faster than the inside wheel in going around a curve. The engine drives a sprocket which transmits its motion to the differential gearing by means of a steel link belt, and the engine makes two and one-half revolutions to each turn of the gear. When running ten miles an hour the engine makes 300 revolutions. The brake is a double ac- tion band brake. Ball bearings are used on the engine as well as on the wheels, and the tires, of course, are pneumatic. The opera- tor has at hand the steering device, throttle valve, reversing lever and brake lever, and in front of him is a steam gauge and air gauge. “It will be noticed that the steam automo- bile uses gasoline for fuel and calls in com- pressed air as an agent to present the fuel to the flame in the best possible manner. In the automobiles operated by gasoline en- gines, the volatile child of petroleum is the fuel, but it is used without being first burned to raise steam. It is curious that while gasoline is the operating agency of the gasoline motor, water, electricity and com- pressed air are also necessary. The water is required to keep the cylinder of the gasoline engine cool; the electricity to make the sparks that explode the gasoline at the proper time, and the compressed air to en- able the operator to govern the supply of the fluid and gas. “There is a miniature waterworks sys- tem in a gasoline automobile. If it were not for water to cool the cylinder of the en- gine the piston would stick, and that would end its operation, for the time being at least. The water tank lies up pretty snug to the engine and the water is forced for- ward through a pipe to the front of the machine, where it passes through the radia. tor, which might be called the dashboard, It is placed in front so as to get the full effect of the air that rushes through it and cools the water. From the radiator the wa- ter passes back and performs its office of MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 115 cooling the cylinder of the engine. It then passes on and re-enters the reservoir to con- tinue its cycle of operations. “The gasoline tank is just above the en- gine cylinder and holds about five gallons of fluid. There is nothing particularly mysterious in the way the gasoline drives an engine. The fluid passes down a pipe jº A. Moºroº * º º --~~~~ 5 was ash º cylinder of the engine by the piston. Now this engine here is called a four-cycle en- gine, which means that the stroke which gives power comes every other revolution. “Now suppose the engine at rest. The forward movement of the piston sucks in the charge of air and vapor; when the piston goes back on its return stroke it compresses By courtesy of the Chicago Motor Vehicle Co. AUTO TRUCK WITH FROM 2 TO 4 TONS" CAPACITY. from the tank into a carburetor. This is what you might call a mechanism for vapor- izing the gasoline. In the carburetor of this machine there are eight screens, and the gasoline, trickling down, not only is vapor- ized, but is also mixed with air so as to form a proper mixture. This mixture of gasoline vapor and air is sucked into the that charge between the piston and cylinder head, and just when the charge is at its highest point of compression an electric spark flashes through it and explodes it. The explosion drives the piston forward, and at the same time the gasoline valve is closed, so that on the fourth stroke—that is, the next stroke backward—the exhaust 116 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES valve opens and the exploded gas leaves the cylinder and goes into the muffler. Then the next forward stroke sucks in a new charge and the same operations are re- peated. - “This motor here is what is called an air controlled motor—the air is compressed by a pump in and about the inlet valve which feeds the gasoline to the carburetor and the gas-air mixture to the cylinder. A pipe carries the compressed air forward to the person who is running the automobile. A button controls a valve at the forward end of the pipe in such a way that if it is com- pressed some of the air is released and the pressure is lowered. And this operates to move the valve so as to allow not only more gasoline to pass into the carburetor, but also more of the gas-air mixture to pass from the carburetor to the cylinder. “The electric sparks for igniting the charge in the cylinder are made by a little dynamo which is part of the outfit, but in starting the machine, however, the sparks come from an electric battery. When the machine is idle—that is, when the engine is in operation, but the automobile is stand- ing still—the fly-wheel of the engine makes about 100 revolutions per minute. On a good road the motor makes about 800 revo- lutions, going thirty miles an hour. The horse power of this engine, which is the style used on the ordinary runabouts, is eight and a half, and the automobile as it Courtesy of the Woods Motor Vehicle Co., Chicago. DIFFERENT STYLES OF AUTOMOBILES PASSING IN REVIEW. stands weighs 1,850 pounds. In its gaso- line tanks it carries about nine gallons of the fluid, which on good roads is good for a tour of from 125 to 140 miles. All parts of the engine are automatically oiled, and the mechanism as it stands there is a beau- tiful example of fine workmanship.” As compared with its competitors, the electric auto is simplicity itself. The driv- ing mechanism is a first-class electric motor; the energy comes from the storage batteries that are carried on the machine. The electric automobile is clean, simple, safe and more expensive than the other styles. Electricity from the battery passes through a controller, which, by making different combinations of batteries, feeds more or less electricity into the motor, and consequently decreases or increases the speed of the vehicle. For instance, an ordi- nary electric runabout, at the lowest speed, requires about twenty volts; second speed, forty volts; and third speed, eighty volts; which means that every one of the forty cells of the batteries is at work. An ordi- nary electric carriage will use from seven- teen to thirty amperes per hour. The average radius of the electric vehicle is forty miles per charge, that is, the average electric auto, with one charg. ing of its storage battery, will travel forty miles without requiring recharging. Some will go much farther—others not so far. º - º - MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 117 WNVENTIONS MINIMIZING FARM LABOR NEW YNVENTION DOES TEN MEN'S WORK WITH on E, AND Dou BLEs VALUR, Farm labor, like everything else, has un- dergone a great change during the last fifty years. Previous to that time, almost every- thing was done by hand. The sickle, scythe and cradle have been supplanted by inven. tions that would make the heads of our fore- fathers reel with amaze- ment. - The reaper, a ma- chine designed to har- West small grain such as wheat, oats, barley and By courtesy of the McCormick Division, International Harvester Co. BORING KNOTTER FRAMES. By courtesy of the McCormick Division, International Harvester Co. MANUFACTURING BINDER TWINE. rye, was invented in 1831 by Cyrus H. Mc- Cormick. Prior to that time wheat and other grains were gathered by hand with the cradle, which had superseded the reaping hook. Since its invention the im- portance of the reaping machine has been recog- nized by the world. During the years of the early development of the reaper the Hon. Wm. H. Seward said: “It moved the line of civilization westward thirty miles every year.” MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 119 The first reaping machine built by Mc- Cormick in 1831, and operated in the har- vest of that year, was the prototype of the harvesting machine industry that has grown to the stupendous proportions which characterize it at the present time. To-day more than 3,000,000 McCormick machines are in use through- out the world. Inas- much as each machine does the work of ten men, the McCormick machines in use are equivalent to an army of 30,000,000 men. These machines have multiplied the world's production of wheat many times, thus ban- ishing the fear of fam- ine, and making flour so abundant that the best bread is no longer a luxury. Harvesting ma- chines now embrace binders, reapers, head- ers, header-binders, rice binders, mowers, hay rakes, corn bind- ers and huskers and º shredders. The bind- tº sº er, the most improved type of harvesting ma- chine, will cut and bind 15 acres of wheat in a day of ten hours. The machine requires only one man to operate it, while the work it does is equivalent to the work of ten able bodied men. Moreover, the work done by the machine is in every way superior to that done by hand. – AUTOMATIC FEEDING OF COAL IN BOILER Room, McCORMICK SHIREDDING CORN. The introduction of the husker and shredder has greatly assisted the farmer in handling the corn crop. The machine husks the corn and shreds the fodder, leaves and HARVESTING MACHINE CO. husks into feed that is worth as much as timothy hay. By handling the corn crop with machines, the corn grower saves all of his crop—the ears as well as the stalks —thus practically doubling the value of the corn crop, inasmuch as the stalks in former years have gone to waste in the field. £20 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Chemical analysis has shown that nearly half the feeding value of the corn crop is in the fodder. This makes the hither- to neglected fodder crop the second most valuable one pro- duced in America—worth more than wheat, oats, cotton, hay, or any other crop, excepting the corn itself. The McCor- mick husker and shredder has made it possible to prepare the fodder at a minimum expense, so that practically the entire stalk is eaten by horses as well as cattle, and do well on it. Some of the statements made by practical dairymen, who have been feeding shredded fodder for years, seem almost incredible. They say that as a milk producer it is far superior to timothy hay, and many main- tain that it is better than clover, if fed with a well considered ration of grain to supply By courtesy of the McCormick Division, Interna"onal Harvester Co. SHREDDING CORN. the protein, in which fodder is somewhat deficient. Many of the leading dairy and stock men no longer grow hay, plowing up their meadows not needed for pasture and using shredded fodder as their sole forage crop, which enables them to make a large increase in their output of beef and butter. By courtesy of the McCormick Division, International Harvester Co. MAKING KNOTTER HOOKS AND BINDER NEEDLES. MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 121 THE SEWING MACHINE AND KNITTING MACHINE SAVING WOMAN'S LABOR AND LESSENING EXPENDITURE. HOW SEWING IS DONE TO-DAY. Among the many inventions which have come to the front in the last 50 years is that of the sewing machine. Compare, if you will, the time saved by the use of the modern, up-to-date sewing machine and the work done in the old manner, by hand. In the sewing machine as in many other inventions America leads the world. Not only is this true of the machine used in the family, but of machines used in manufac- turing, for stitching all kinds of textile fabrics and leather, including special ma- chines for buttonholes, eyelets, over-seam- ing, embroidery, etc. The idea of sewing by machinery had been cherished for a hundred years before the first successful machine was made. q Passing the records made by Thomas Saint, in 1790, and Duncan in 1804, both of England, and those of Dodge (1818) and Lye (1826), both of the United States, be- cause it does not appear that either of their inventions was of practical use, we find that, in 1830, Barthlemy Thimonnier pat- ented a sewing machine in France, which was so successful that, in 1841, 80 of them, made of wood, were in use for sewing army clothes at a shop in Paris. - Several sewing machines, having more or less merit, were constructed in the United States during the first half of the 19th cen- BEFoRE THE TIME of THE SEwing MACHINE. i22 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES tury, the nearest approach to success, prior to 1850, having been made by Walter Hunt, in 1832. No serious attempts were made by him to exploit his invention, nor was it of any benefit until Isaac M. Singer, in 1850, perfected the improvements neces- sary to make Hunt's product of real utility, and produced the first sewing machine hav- ing any practical value. In 1851, Allen B. Wilson took out patents for a sewing machine having a revolving hook for mak- ing the double lock-stitch. Other inventors closely followed, and we find that six dif- ferent manufacturers made about twenty- five hundred machines in 1853. None of these has survived, excepting Singer's and Wilson’s. The an- nual product of the machines developed from these inventions now runs into mil- lions, and they are º) sent to the remotest - - parts of the entire world. The most remarkable phase of this development has been the adaptation of sewing machines for special uses in a great variety of manufactures. In addition to machines of the best type for family sewing, a single manufacturing company makes more than 70 distinct classes, or types, of sewing machines for every stitching process used in manufac- ture; these classes are fitted with attach- ments, or devices, for special processes, and there are more than six hundred distinct varieties of Singer machines. There are machines making twelve, or more, seams at once; machines, also, that hemstitch and tuck; machines that ruffle and tuck; ma- chines for stitching books and boots, sewing on buttons and making the buttonholes; in - short, the American sewing machine of to- day stitches everything capable of needle perforation, from lace to leather. This development of special stitching appliances for factory operation has been of tremen- dous benefit to the world, because it has caused a great reduction in the cost to the consumer of many articles in common use. Because of this fact, the quantity of sew- ing done in the home has been greatly reduced, and the finished garment can often be bought for the former cost of the ma- terial. Thus, domestic burdens have been correspondingly lessened, and this result may fairly be claimed as due to the inven- tive genius and executive ability in the field of sewing-machine manufacture. THE RINITTING MACHINE. Much of the foregoing comment as to the effect of the sewing machine in lightening the task of the mistress of the household, as well as in lessening the expense incurred for clothing the family, may properly apply to the results attending the introduction of the knitting machine. The enterprise of knitting by machinery has already attained large proportions. Knitting is a branch of industry which may be termed the twin sister of sewing. The first device ever invented to replace hand work in knitting stockings was the stocking frame, contrived in 1589 by Wil- liam Lee, of Woodborough, in Nottingham- shire, England. The invention, limited in scope as it was, resulted in making the stocking trade one of the chief industries of the Midlands, for it was the precursor of many ingenious contrivances in this line. The modern, upright, rotary knitting machine has two cylinders or heads. Each head generally knits four threads at once, MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 123 and each thread, or the machinery necessary to knit it, is called a feed. One girl can attend to six cylinders. The needles used are the spring-beard, and they are placed in a mold in pairs, and leaded by having a composition consisting of equal parts of - cylinder apparatus of 22 inches diameter, 20-gauge, 4 feeds, knitting common hosiery, yarn, cotton and wool mixed, running 45 revolutions, has 920 needles, thus making 165,000 stitches per minute. A 16-inch cylinder, 20-gauge, 4 feeds, cotton yarn, KNITTING MACHINE FACTORY. Interior View, Showing Up-to-date Methods of Manufacturing Hosiery. into prominence during the last fifteen years. This industry has sprung Our grandmother's knitting needle is a weak competition with such an establishment as this. lead and tin poured around them. The gauge is determined by measuring the needles and counting the leads, when set in the cylinder. For instance, 14-gauge has 14 leads, or 28 needles, 3 inches in length, measured on the circumference. A single- has run 79 revolutions and made 212,532 stitches per minute. Usually, an 18-inch cylinder, 15-inch gauge, is run 45 revolu- tions; and a table of two heads turns off 160 pounds of knit cloth, per day of 11 hours. 124 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES THE SEMI-AUTOMATIC PIANO PLAYER The advance of civilization has brought with it a more numerous and critical music- lowing public. At the same time, in the press of modern business activity, the man of musical tastes does not often have the opportunity or necessary time for master- ing a musical instrument. Again, the be- ginner's appreciation of the art is often so advanced that his discordant and halting efforts are extremely painful to his sensitive ear. - In fact, he must suppress his loftiest inspirations by a most mechanical system of scales and finger exercises, before he can become even a fair player on such an in- strument as the piano. However, necessity is the mother of invention, and the modern semi-automatic players have now come to READY TO ATTACH THE PIANOLA TO THE PIANO. the rescue, by affording us all a ready means of playing the most difficult music with our own individual coloring and expression— this too without the necessity of any tedious preliminary practice. Such instru- ments are well known and already have their accepted place in the musical world. The principles on which wind instruments are auto- matically played are quite familiar to the general pub- lic, but we venture to say that few understand the workings of the semi-automatic piano player, and we therefore take pleasure in acquainting the public with the construction and important features of the Simplex piano player which is also illustrated here with. The Simplex piano player is characterized by the sim- plicity of its construction. One of the accompanying cuts shows the instrument in play- MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 125 ing position against the piano, its striker rods being in position over the keyboard, and its pedal lever connected to the loud or open pedal of the piano. The music rolls used are identically the same as those used on all self-playing organs and the like, because the Simplex HOW THE PULSE IS MADE TO Among the modern inventions which have been utilized in connection with the healing art, an instrument called the spyg- mograph is considered of much value. A skilled physician is often able to detect in the pulse of his patient certain characteris- tics besides the mere rate, which are highly significant as regards the condition of the circulatory system. The range of these in- dications has been greatly extended by the Spygmograph, an instrument invented by M. M. Chauveau and Marey, by which the pulse is made to write down a graphic representation of its action. The patient’s arm having been placed on a suitable support, a little stud covered with soft leather is lightly pressed against the artery by a spring. The stud is in con- tact with the shorter end of a very light lever, the other extremity of which is fur- nished with a point, which registers its is a pneumatically operated instrument. The music roll consists of a long sheet of paper provided with a series of perforations of such dimensions and loca- tions as to co-operate with the mechan- ism of the player to produce the desired music. KEEP A RECORD OF ITS BEATS movements on a cylinder of blackened metal, made to rotate and advance longi- tudinally by clockwork; or, the record is taken on strips of flat smoked glass. As the motion is much magnified by the lever, every variation in the pressure of the blood in the artery during the beat of the pulse is distinctly and faithfully indicated. From the line so traced, the physician may obtain infallible data for judging of the condition of the heart, the action of its valves, etc. It is marvelous to observe the manner in which the curves of this instru- ment change their form when certain drugs are administered. The change in some cases occurs immediately, so that the eye can detect by inspection of the spygmographic curve, almost the instant at which the drug was taken into the system, and the nature of its action on the heart. RESPIRATION REGISTERED IN CHARACTERS BY THE ACTION OF THE An instrument which is doing good ser- vice in the hands of medical investigators is the spirograph, in which the rise and fall of the chest in breathing are traced by the motions of a lever, as in the case of LUNGS the spygmograph. In this instrument a small pad, which presses on the chest, com- municates the movements to an elastic mem- brane, which like the skin of a drumhead, covers one end of a cylindrical box main- 126 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES tained in a fixed position relatively to the person of the patient. The air in the box is in communication, by means of a flexible tube, with the interior of a similarly closed box; the elastic membrane of the latter acts against the short end of a lever, which is made to register its movements, the com- pression of the air caused by the rise of the chest being conveyed to the second box through the flexible tube. The curves fur- nished by this instrument also give valuable indications, and exhibit marked changes under any influence in the least degree af- ſecting the respiratory system. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. From which some of the greatest physicians of the age have graduated. MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 127 PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE USE OF THE CAMERA Nearly every person is familiar with the photographer's studio and has had his or her picture taken many times. To most of them the mysteries of the dark room have been explained and many now own snap-shot cameras themselves with which they can take pictures. On the other hand, even those who are amateurs and have taken photographs realize the great strides being made in the science of photography, and what the result of the progress of the art means to the world. It can be imagined readily enough that new kinds of photo- graphic plates are being manufactured which will allow much more rapid expos- ure of moving objects. The development in the manufacture of sensitive paper upon which photographs are made has also been so great that, nowadays, nature and life are portrayed with remarkable accuracy. Let us look, however, at some of the remarkable things done in the realm of photography. THE TELEPHOTOGRAPH. The telephotograph, as its name signifies, is a picture of an object taken from a dis- tance. Most cameras are equipped only to take pictures of objects near at hand. When far off mountains and other inaccessible ob- jects are photographed, usually only small pictures with indistinct details are the result. To-day, however, it is possible to catch pictures as deftly and in as distinct detail as one can view an object from afar through a telescope. The device which per- mits telephotography is called a rack-and- pinion lens tube in which are fitted two lenses. One of these is the far-seer or negative lens and is the one that does the magnifying, while the other ordinary lens in front of the far-seeing concave lens does the photographing. Work may be done with this combination in the field, all that is necessary being to adjust the rack and pinion to get a good focus. One of the drawbacks to this kind of photography is that because of the smaller range a magni- fied picture covers, naturally less light is By courtesy of “Lawrence” Photographer. READY TO ASCEND TO MAKE AN ACTUAL ºf BD’S-EYE VIEW, 128 MODERN IN VENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES admitted and the exposure has to be longer. Therefore, it seriously retards taking pictures of moving objects. But as time goes on, the apparatus will be perfected and then one may attach it to a cinematograph camera. Then the actions of wild animals miles away can be accurately portrayed and studied. Birds can be caught in flight and battles can be photographed from afar and reproduced in life size. In delicate scientific work photography has stepped in and done marvelous things. By use of the X-ray apparatus we are enabled to take pictures, or “shadowgraphs,” of the human - º - º heart, ribs, stomach and other organs through the living body. º In astronomy, we have been able to discover what the dif- T ferent stars are made of and what kind of atmospheres sur- | round them. This kind of photography is done through tele- |-- scopes proper, and is a great deal like micro-photography, T which consists in taking pictures through microscopes. This º latter method consists simply in attaching a light, tight box, == with a very long bellows, to a microscope and photographic E lens. This is a good deal like a telephotograph camera, but rº is used mainly for taking pictures of diseased tissues, germs, º and minute animal and vegetable life, so that they may be Fº studied afterwards at leisure. – TAKING PICTURES OF THE HEAVENS. == Taking pictures of lightning, stars, comets, etc., has added much to the knowledge of the world. At the Harvard Astro- nomical Observatory in Cambridge some of the best work in this line has been done. The photographs of lightning are taken much the same as one takes snap-shots, only the camera is much bigger; in fact, it is a - great telescope itself, with a plateholder and |\ | sensitive plate attached at the small end—the A º eye-piece. In taking a picture of a flash of lightning great pains must be taken for one never knows just where to catch the lightning. Besides there is generally rain falling when one ſº wants to take such a picture, and this tends to spoil the scientific value of the picture, because the rain drops act as tiny prisms and break up the light. One of the best experiments in this direction has been in photographing the spectra By courtesy of “Lawrence” Photographer. f st d lightni PHOTOGRAPHIC TOWER or stars and lightning. USED TO MAKE BIRD’S-EYE VIEW, MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 129 THE SPECTRUM. A word about the spectrum. Heat any- thing to the point where it gives out light, and then pass a ray of this light through a prism of glass and a line of colored bands will result, ranging in some cases all the way from violet through blue, green and yellow, to red. That variegated strip is the spectrum, and the different series of these bands represents the elements in the substance examined. The most familiar spectrum is, of course, that of the sun when its rays are intercepted by the prismatic drops of a passing shower and produce a rainbow. The glass prisms hung as decora- tions from old-fashioned lamps also make spectra. But a photograph does not pro- duce colors, and lightning will not stay quiet to have its picture taken. How, then, can a spectrum of lightning be photo- sraphed . At the big end of the telescope a prism is attached, and by adjusting the camera at an angle, the refraction or turn- ing aside of the rays after they have entered the prism is thrown into the telescope. After a number of pictures have been taken, one or two may be of value. These plates are developed and the lines of the spectrum of the lightning will show. Here comes another difficulty, however, for yellow and red are not colors that can be absorbed readily by the photographic plate. There- fore the pictures of the spectrum will show only different degrees of blackness and whiteness, marked by little waves as the colors affected the plate. But these are still of great value, for, by comparing them with pictures of spectra of known lights, great discoveries have been made. ELECTROGRAPHS. Some of the peculiar properties of elec- tricity have been discovered by taking electrographs, or pictures of electric sparks. This is done by interposing a photographic plate, wrapped in a dark envelope, between two poles of a static electrical machine. The spark which jumps from the pole strikes the envelope, penetrates it, and leaps off the plate to the other pole. This ex- poses the plate and gives a picture. By studying these pictures scientists are enabled to learn much about the laws gov- erning electricity. One already arrived at is that it follows the line of least resist. By courtesy of “Lawrence” Photograp:. . . SETTING UP LARGEST CAMERA. ON EARTH, PREPARATORY TO MAKING EXPOSURE. ance, and that often it takes divergent paths in traveling. TuSE OF THE CAMERA. A photograph is not always a picture. The mere regard for the mechanism and chemistry of photography does not insure success in the art, for the results may be a composition far from pleasing to the eye. For instance, a straight front view of the end view of a building is always disagree- able because there can be no perspective. In photographing anything with height, breadth and depth, all the proportions 130 MODERN INTVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES should appear. A view from one corner is preferable to any other, although the best effect is seldom obtained by placing the camera directly opposite a corner. The photograph should show, if possible, more of the front than the end. Sometimes, where a street is very narrow, it is impos- sible to find the ideal position for a camera and in such cases the photographer is obliged to be content with the nearest pos- sible approach to that point. The position of the camera and its height with regard to the object to be photographed are of the utmost importance. - With regard to height, the choicest posi- tion is the level of the eyes. When, how- ever, the object to be delineated is so high that the only position of the camera from which the photograph can be taken at the height of the eyes, is so far away that half or nearly half the plate is lost in fore- ground, it may be preferable to make the exposure from a position nearly half as high as the object. By this means the dis- tance necessary to include the whole figure may be reduced nearly half, and the size of the object in the photograph may be nearly doubled. This is nearly always necessary with tall subjects, when a fixed-focus camera without a rising front or a swing back is employed. If, however, no place except the ground is available for the camera, the picture will be greatly improved, although considerably reduced in size, by cutting away from two- thirds to three-fourths of the foreground before mounting the print. In no case should the camera be above the center of the height of a building or tower. The picture improves the nearer the camera is brought to the height of the eyes, provided, of course, the whole of the structure is in- - - cluded. Next in importance to the position of the camera with regard to perspective and height, is its relation to light and shadow. A picture in which everything seen is brightly lighted, is rarely pleasing, and one in which the whole view is in shadow is even less attractive. Flatness in a picture is due to want of contrast; that is, to the absence of high lights in a shadow picture, or to that of shadows in one made from a position directly between the source of light and the object. In nearly all sat- isfactory photographs, including groups and portraits, there is a good blending of light and shade in considerable masses. A photograph mottled all over with shadows and flecks of light in nearly equal propor- tions is almost as objectionable as one that is light, or a shade flat. The more nearly the masses of shadow assume rough triangular forms, the better the picture; and the larger the triangles, so one, either of light or shadow, does not exceed one-half to two-thirds of the area of the plate, the more pleasing the effect. This is limited, of course, to buildings and landscapes. In taking a building it is best to have the front lighted, and the end in shadow. The perspective, of course, if the camera is placed as suggested, makes each side a triangle more or less regular and complete, according to the style of the architecture. Light and shadow in a picture are not wholly dependent upon sunshine and shadow. Dark objects serve the same pur- pose as shadows. A tree in foliage is al- ways dark. A mass of foliage, therefore, is as good—often better—in balancing a landscape than an actual shady side to some object; and a picture with a high, green hill or a mass of foliage sloping down from MoDERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 131 By courtesy of “Lawrence,” Photographer. BALLOON USED BY OUR PHOTOGRAPHER IN MAKING PHOTOGRAPHIC BIRD’S-EYE VIEWS FOR THIS WORK. - 132 MODERN INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES one corner to a point at or beyond the middle, is always picturesque. Water and sky are nearly always very light, and when they furnish triangles, make the picture complete. On the beach a dark building, a pile of rocks or wreckage, or even a group of people near enough to the camera almost to fill one end of the plate, enhances the beauty of the picture. If a group of people is utilized for the purpose, care should be exercised to have them in dark clothing. White attire defeats the principal purpose of utilizing a group in such a case. The best view of a crowd can be secured from a position overlooking it. A portrait should not be made with the camera very much below the chin of the subject. The level of the middle of the body greatly exaggerates the height of a person. Below is given an illustration of black and white attire. By courtesy of “Lawrence,” Photographer. ILLUSTRATING THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. A. magnificent and prosperous family ; one after the order advocated by President Roosevelt. E O C Lºk II WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS MANIFESTING PRODIGIOUS STRIDES IN ALL LINES OF HUMAN ENDEAVOR, A CENTURY'S ACCOMPLISHMENT IN A DECADE THE WORLD'S GREATEST MEAT MART T IS a recognized fact that the world’s I greatest meat mart is located at Chi- cago. There are other great stock yards and packing houses at Kansas City and Omaha, but they do not begin to compare with the stock yards in Chicago. - The Union Stock Yards are located 4% miles from the very heart of Chicago. Into these yards run 26 rail- roads that center in the metropolis of the west. The total area is a trifle over 600 acres, three hundred of which are paved with vitrified Wrick tiling, which makes the surface most substan- tial. Running through the pens are 25 miles of streets and alleys, 38 miles of water troughs and 60 miles of feeding troughs. In addition to these over a hundred miles of water, sewer and there are Courtesy of Armour & Co. DECOY GOAT LEADING SHEEP. drainage pipes. The total cost of the yards up to the date of this publication is in the neighborhood of $50,000,000. The stock yards were built in 1865, and the first day’s receipts of cattle, sheep and hogs numbered a trifle over 300. At the present writing, it is not an un- common thing to see 20,- 000 cattle, 30,000 sheep and 45,000 hogs in the yards at one time. The annual receipts of live stock are approximately as follows: 2,900,000 cattle, 155,000 calves, 9,325,000 hogs, 3,600,- 000 sheep, and about 130,000 horses and 10,- 000 mules. To bring this stock into market requires nearly 400,000 cars, which would make a train almost long enough to reach across the continent, from New York to San Fran- cisco. In the yards there are about 15,000 133 134 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS pens, of which 8,000 are roofed in for sheep and 3,000 pens, or “double decks,” for hogs. 200 MILES OF RAILROAD TRACKS. Inside the yards are grouped nearly a score of separate packing houses, all doing an enormous business. There is also a big GOVERNMENT INSPECTOR. office building known as the “Exchange Building,” which accommodates nearly 300 commission firms, the general offices of the stock yards company, a bank, and a branch of the Bureau of Animal Industry, of the United States Department of Agri- eulture. Surrounding the yards is a net- work of tracks comprising a total mileage of nearly 200 miles. If the visitor to Chicago wishes to wit: ness a busy scene, let him or her go to the stock yards between 5 and 9 o'clock any week-day morning, and they will see a great horde of people flocking to their daily work. Inside the yards alone there are regularly employed 33,410 men, women, boys and girls. The early morning is de- voted to the unloading of the live stock. After this is accomplished begins the sale. Soon after the sales are made, the stock is weighed to the purchaser, and if it is to be WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS “CITHOMA GIHJ, NI JLN.VI，I ĐNIXIOV， I JLSGIÐ? HV^T GHHAT, ¿O MAGITA GHAGH-S, CIHIGI 136 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS reshipped, is again loaded into cars and forwarded to its proper destination. GOVERNMENT INSPECTION OF MEATS. When the cattle, hogs and sheep are in the pens, the government inspectors step in and make a thorough inspection of all live stock received. Condemned animals have a tag fastened in their ears. These animals are slaughtered under the direction of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and, if the meat is found to be diseased, the carcass is condemned and goes into the tank. In addition to this inspection, the Government keeps a man in every packing house in the yards, whose duty it is to inspect all ani- mals slaughtered, and so thorough is the work done that an animal can be traced from the time it arrives at the yards until it reaches the retail butcher's shop, SECTION IN COOLER. PORK TESTED BY THE MICROSCOPE. Pork that is to be exported is subjected to a rigid microscopic inspection, and if found to contain disease of any kind, the carcass in which the disease is found is ordered “tanked” at once. All this work is done by a corps of expert microscopists, under the direction of the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Tiny bits of meat are cut from each carcass that is to be exported, and after being placed in a tin box, are labeled, and later, taken to the microscopic department, where an inspector (usually a woman) cuts the meat into jelly with a tiny pair of scissors, after which the pulpy mass is placed between two pieces of clear glass, pressed together, and then subjected to a powerful microscope. If the meat is diseased, the microscopist WO NDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 137 FILLING PAILS WITH LARD. SKINNING SHEEP. 10 138 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS will immediately discover it, and that car- cass will be condemned. In Chicago, there are 90 inspectors at work during the whole year. PROCESS OF SLAUGHTERING AND DIRESSING. In the great packing houses that abound within the yards, there is a familiar jest, house from beginning to end. The buyers of the concern purchase such cattle as are wanted for the day, which are driven from the pens over long runways, to the pens of the packing house, which is located near the slaughter house. Some of the packing houses have fat steers trained to lead the other cattle to the foot of the gangway, LOAD:NG INTO REFRIGERATOR CAR. that everything of the animals slaughtered except the squeal of the pigs is saved, and this is to-day literally true, for, that which once was loss is now made into various things. So complete is the utilization of that which was once waste, that the profits of a big packing house on its by-products amount to a small fortune each year. Let us follow the process of a typical packing there to turn and leave them, while the victims go on to their fate. From the gang- way there is an incline which leads into a small stall, or pen, directly opposite the killing floor. Above, on small platforms, the “knockers” run along, and with a small sledge-hammer, strike the cattle upon the head until they fall to the floor, stunned. Then the doors open automatically, and a WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 139 SEWING HAMS FOR EXPORT. By courtesy of Armour & Co. 140 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS moment later, the animal is dangling by the hind foot at the end of a long chain, which suspends the carcass high enough for the butcher to cut its throat. The heads are removed at the same time the carcass is drained of blood, and then in quick stages the hoofs, Shanks and entrails are removed. come the horn of commerce; the straight lengths of leg bone go to the cutlery makers for knife handles; the entrails become sausage casings and their contents make fertilizing material; the livers, hearts, tongues and tails, and the stomachs that become tripe, all are sold over the butchers' ROUGH FINISHING. The carcass is split down the backbone. It travels along on an endless chain, or trol- ley, is washed, and later taken into the great coolers to be chilled. NOTHING WASTED. Everything that pertains to a slaughtered beef is sold and put to use. The horns be- counters of the nation; the knuckle bones are ground up into meal for various uses; the blood is dried and sold as a powder for the bladders are dried and sold to druggists, tobacconists and others; the fat goes into oleomar- garine, and from the hoofs and feet and commercial purposes; WOMDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 142 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS other parts, come glue and oil and fertiliz- ing ingredients. Directly above the slaughter houses is a series of rooms full of bones and horns. The bones are boiled to get the fat of the Then marrow as well as to clean them. Germany, to be worked into knife handles, fan handles, tooth-brush handles, backs for nail brushes, sides for pen knives, and in- to button-hook handles, shirt studs, cuff buttons, and so on, ad infinitum. What is to become of the horns is still more aston- SKINNING CATTLE. they are dried and shaken about until they are smooth and clean as cotton spools. The knuckle bones are cut from them, and one room is filled with the ground-up pulver of these parts. The white and pretty bones are shipped to Connectiout, England and ishing. By heating them and then tapping them skillfully, the operators loosen the soft cellular filling which solidifies and strengthens each horn. The substance around this, between it and the inner sur- face of the horn, goes for glue; the rest - WO.WDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS *ANNING DEPARTMENT. - By courtesy of Armour & Co. "44 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS is ground up into bone meal. The horns are then sent to makers of horn goods, who, by cutting each horn skillfully and then pressing it between heavy rollers, manage to spread each into a flat ribbon. In this shape, it can be used in a thousand ways. The artificers who do this work cut each horn spirally, so that it becomes a tight curl capable of being straightened out. By a fog. As soon as it is cool, the sides of beef become firm, hard and almost appetiz- ing. Everywhere, except at the actual scene of slaughter, these houses and their work are clean and above criticism. HIOG IKILLING AND DIRESSING. The killing of hogs is done in a muleſ, more peculiar manner than the slaughter- - * * SLIDING ONTO RAIL. immense pressure the curve is taken out of it. Good horns sell for $100 per ton. REFRIGERATION. The refrigerating and cooling rooms are kept at a temperature of 36 degrees, yet, when the meat fresh from the slaughter is railroaded into such a room, the animal heat in it warms the room for a consider- able time, and fills it with steam as with ing of cattle. The hogs are run into a catching pen, from where they are caught up and forced upon a revolving wheel, where the butcher stabs them to the heart, and death is practically instantaneous. From the wheel the dead body swings along, to be loosened over a vat of scalding water, into which it is plunged. Here the bristles are loosened. Then a great rake scoops out a hog, and it falls upon a runway, where WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 145 TAKING OUT LEAF LARD. 146 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS a chain that is hooked to its nose pulls it through a steam scraper. The knives of this machine are set at every angle, and miss no part of the hide on the body. When out of reach of the scraper a num- ber of men pass the body along, to remove every bristle and speck that was missed. Then the body is washed with a hose, and its head is almost cut off. Next it is dis- emboweled. Then the lard is removed, the head is cut off, the tongue taken out, and the body is split and passed along to the cooling room. The blood is turned into albumen for photographers' uses, sold to sugar refiners or transformed into fertiliz- ing powder. The bristles go to brush makers, shoemakers and upholsterers. The fat is valuable in many forms, the intes- times become sausage casings, livers, lungs and hearts are made up into sausage meat, and parts of the meat of the heads made up into headcheese. The feet are canned or pickled, or worked up in the lard tanks. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 147 S.H.E.E.P. KILLING. The method used for killing sheep is similar to that heretofore described, except that they are suspended two by two on hooks that run along a continuous trolley line. As each pair passes the succession of men in wait- ing, a new step in the process is completed. The killer sticks the knives into their throats at the rate of 25 per minute, and the animals continue to pass through the hands of specialists at that rate of speed, until the carcass appears at the end of the trolley, spread apart with wooden braces, and ready for the refrigerating I’OOIm. One of the big packing houses, in 1901, did a busi- ness of $160,000,000, which is astonishing when one thinks that there are a score or more which do an enor- mous business. The markets for the products of these American packing houses, of which those of Chicago RUMPING AND BACKING, SHEEP KILLING, are but the largest of many great ones in western cities, are found the world over. It would be hard for any Euro- pean power to go to war with- out patronizing the American packing houses for their meats and supplies. During the Span- ish-American war the United States government drew on them heavily, and when Eng- land was fighting the Boers the American packers did an enormous business. " KILLING “IKOSHER” CATTLE. For Jewish customers, meat must be dressed with especial religious rites. In closing this article it is proper to mention a peculiar 148 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS feature of the yards, viz., the killing of cattle intended for the Jewish markets. For this purpose a “Kosherman” is in attendance, who, as a steer is thrown upon its back, with legs bound, takes a razor-like knife and makes a stroke forward and a half stroke backward up- on its throat. After the carcass is dressed it is hung up, and remains thus about four days, the rabbi washing it carefully each day. He then officially unarks it as fit for consump- tion by those of his faith. No country in the world, unless, possibly, South America, breeds mules so extensively as the United States, or regards their use- fulness so highly. Their value in some sec- tions of the country is manifested in the statement of a veterinary periodical, that PUTTING UP SAUSAGES. 100 mules were sold not long ago in Scott county, Kentucky, at $177 each. The perfection to which mule breeding has attained in this country, so far as de- velopment in size and strength is concerned, is shown by a recent advertisement offering 111. 11111111/ - - By courtesy of the Lawrence Photographing Ce, THE GREATEST HORSE MARKET IN THE WORLD. DEXTER PARK PAVILION, UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS for sale two black mules, three years old and 17 hands and 3 inches high. It is not uncommon in Pennsylvania and New Jersey to see teams of mules on heavy work which stand 16 and 17 hands in height. In no other part of the world are mules of this size bred. In most coun- tries large animals of this species are not re- garded with favor, 14 - hands being deemed the proper limit. The mule will dodouble the amount of heavy road hauling º THE LONGEST TAILED HORSE IN THE WORLD. This remarkable animal was bred in Lexington, Ky., and attracts great attention at stock shows in Europe. His tail is 19 feet long, mane 12 feet and forelock 8 feet. He is a chestnut and stands 15% hands. The last selling price for the horse was $20,000. and work on the farm that is possible for by the latter, and can be depended upon, the average horse, requires but two-thirds as a rule, for more than double the num- the food and half the attention demanded ber of years of service. scFNE ON A MULE FARM. 150 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS - CONSTRUCTION OF THE “SKY-SCRAPER” - FLATIRON BUILDING, NE W YORK CITY. Great has been the progress in building in the last decade. Time was when a ten- story office building would have been deemed an affront to Providence. But with the invention of the modern elevator and the rapid advance of land values in great cities, architects and contractors began seri- ously to study out methods for accommodat- ing great numbers of tenants in individual buildings. As long as buildings had to be constructed solely of brick and masonry there was a definite limit to their height, for, as the height grew so grew the weight of the walls and further altitude had to be sacrificed when it became impossible to fit the walls to carry the height without undue expenditure. At the junction of Fifth avenue, Broad- way and Twenty-third street, New York, stands a unique structure, probably the strongest ever erected. It is known as the “flatiron” building, and is the cumulative result of all that is known in the art of building. It is equipped with every con- venience that human ingenuity could devise. BUILDING WALLS FROM THE UPPER. STORIES DOWNWARD. Suddenly there appeared an engineer who solved the problem by propounding the idea of building steel structures after the fashion of gigantic bridges set on end, and to hang the walls on—that is, to make the girders and beams support the floors and walls, instead of making the walls sup- port everything. This was called Chi- cago construction, because it originated with a Chicago man. Building under this method each floor is absolutely inde- pendent so far as the walls and parti- tions are concerned, for the walls have WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 151 --- MONADNOCK BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILL. The largest office building in the West : 17 stories high, govering an entire block, facing four streets. Architects, Messrs. Holabird & Roche; builders. The , Geo., A. Fuller Co. Sixteen hydraulic elevators. Original cost $2,800,000. Occupants...T,000 (equal to the population of a smalf town) 24,000 people carried by elevators each day. 12 horizontal tubular boilers 1,800 horse power, aii equipped with smokeless furnaces. - 152 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS nothing but their own weight to carry in the height of each story. It is no un- common thing on “Chicago-construction” buildings for the contractor to begin his exterior work on the third, fifth or ninth story, leaving the first to be enclosed after every other floor has been walled in and plastered. This method of building is diametrically opposed to the old-fashioned solid-masonry construction, which begins at the very bottom with the foundation and rises to the roof, with the piers, exterior walls and partition walls going up to- gether. The contractor, building a sky- scraper according to “Chicago construc- tion,” shoots the steel frame-work up as rap- idly as possible, so as to get the roof on to protect the interior from the weather. With the frame-work up, he puts in the hollow tile partitions or builds the walls to suit his convenience. This method of building set all traditions, rules and time-honored customs of architects and builders at naught, for it ignored massive foundations, heavy piers, the use of thick walls to carry weight, and solid partition walls running from the foundation to the roof. When new tenants moved into old-fash- ioned buildings, the rearrangement of spaces to meet the tenants’ requirements frequently necessitated expensive altera- tions, for the partitions could not be moved without substituting some other form of supports for the floors above. Chicago's architectural engineers concluded that col- umns starting from the foundations could carry the floors as well as partitions, and would thus permit any arrangement of a floor without interfering with the construc- tion. High buildings required monstrous foun- dations and very thick walls under the solid masonry style of construction. The limited areas in the cramped business districts of the cities made it impossible to build 16- story buildings under old-fashioned meth- ods because the builder could not get “spread” for his foundations, and the original soil of Chicago was not adapted for carrying weights on small areas. THE ARCHITECTURAL IRON WORKER. This style of new building developed a new craft—that of the architectural iron worker—who is a mixture of a bridge builder and a sailor. He must be a rigger as well as an iron worker, and must be able to tread the beams high in the air with the confidence and nerve of a tight-rope dancer. The building up of the great structures in the business center provided another source of wonder and admiration for the gaping crowds that watched the daring workmen riveting together angles and beams hun- dreds of feet in the air. Many sailors left the lakes and became iron workers, and the craft grew until it became one of the largest and strongest of unions. OLD AND NEW STYLE FOUNDATIONS. In solid masonry construction the foun- dations are made of heavy stones piled on each other so that they are broad at the base and somewhat pyramidal in form. On the foundation the massive piers rise, well- nigh filling up all the space in a basement. Under present methods of construction a basement, so far as room is concerned, is as valuable as the other floors, for the slen. der columns shoot up from the foundations, occupying comparatively little space. In “Chicago construction,” the foundations are made of steel railroad rails or beams. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 155 º, º The largest building ever attem pted by a charitable or social #;"| º feet), and has a west frontage of 170 feet and aº". It is twenty - les are constructed of Wisconsin granite, and above them #."º"; fee? ai.is gray fire-brick. - 1- 154 jī’ONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS º sº HAVEMEYER BUILDING, NEW YORK CIT Y First a bed of concrete is laid, and on this is placed a layer of rails or beams set side by side. On this bottom layer an- other layer of rails or beams is laid, crossing the lower members of the foundation at right angles. On top of the rails a cast-iron plate is laid. This is the shoe for the steel column. THE COLUMNS. The column is always made of wrought steel shapes and it is of uni- form size for each of two stories, diminishing in size as it nears the roof. The floor beams are car- ried on the columns and the entire frame-work is riveted together with hot rivets, just as a bridge is. Architectural engineers say that if it were pos- sible to upset a building of the “Chicago-construc- tion” kind, the whole structure would tip over like a box and would not fall into pieces as a solid- masonry building would. An earthquake might rattle down some bricks, or loosen some partitions, but, according to claims made by Chicago build- ers, it would not throw down a Chicago sky- Scraper. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS By courtesy of the Lawrence Co. banquet at the Auditorium Hotel, tendered President McKinley, on His Last Visit to Chicago. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 157 FIREPROOFING. Every piece of exposed steel work is com- pletely surrounded with some fireproof material, such as blocks of tile, terra cotta or brick, and air spaces are left between the fireproofing material and the metal, for dead air is one of the poorest conductors of heat known. The hollow tile arches, placed sible to make them. The average thickness of the walls of a modern skyscraper runs from 16 to 18 inches, the walls carrying about the same thickness from the ground up. This is a radical departure from the old-fashioned construction, for the walls of the lower floors of 15 stories of solid masº onry would have to be at least three and a º ºf sº- - | ſ º H. º º ºº CHICAGO POSTOFFICE. between floor beams, are covered over with thick concrete, and this concrete is fire- proof. The partitions are of hollow tile, which is not only light as compared with brick, but is fireproof as well; and it is said that buildings of “Chicago construc- tion” are as nearly fireproof as it is pos- half feet thick, and would drop off about four inches for every two floors above the third. This thinness of walls in Chicago buildings has its disadvantages from the point of view of the architect, for it gives a “skimpy” look to the building, but to the ordinary man they are simply wonders. 158 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS MARVELOUS DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING APPARATUS The first meth- od of printing known was that of the Chinese which was done from en- graved blocks, a brush being rub- bed over the paper - ſe- Ssº laid upon the form OLD-STYLE SCREW PRESS. of type. As early as the 15th cen- tury, the principle of printing from forms upon a flat bed beneath a cylinder was understood and put to practical use. The presses, however, were wooden and rudely formed. FIRST USE OF MOVABLE TYPES. In the middle of that century Gutenberg printed a book from movable types. Two upright timbers with crosspieces of wood at the top and bottom constituted the outer frame of his press. Other crosspieces held the flat bed containing the type, and through still another intermediate slot passed a wooden screw, its lower end touch- ing the center of a platen of wood and screwing it down upon the type. The form was inked with a ball of leather stuffed with wool, upon which the paper was laid. On this paper a fragment of blanket was spread to make the platen smooth and soften the impression. The idea of the machine was based on the cheese and linen presses used in medieval house- holds. The type of the present time is practically identical with that used by Gutenberg in printing his Bible. For about 150 years the wooden press, operated with a screw and movable bar, was used without much modification. The forms, however, sometimes rested upon stone beds held in frames styled coffins, and were moved by hand. The platen was screwed up with the bar after each im- pression, in order to withdraw the printed sheet and hang it up for drying. BLAEW’S IMPROVED PRESS. About the year 1620 this press was first improved by a printer, of Amsterdam, named William Jensen Blaew. He ran the spindle of the screw through a square block guided in the wooden frame, and by cords or wires suspended the platen from this block, which prevented the platen from twisting and equalized the motion of the screw. This press was used in England and on the continent, and was nearly iden- tical with that operated by Benjamin Franklin when he worked as a journeyman in London. FIRST CAST IRON PRESS AND FIRST LEVERS USED. About the close of the 18th century it was found necessary, particularly in the printing of wood cuts, and because of the size of larger forms of type to secure greater power for the impression. This led the Earl of Stanhope to construct a frame of cast iron, and, to facilitate the manipula- tion of the screw, he added a combination of levers which enabled the pressman to bring more force to bear, with less exertion. FIRST PRESS WITHOUT. A. SCREW. Shortly after the year 1800, George Clymer, of Philadelphia, contrived an iron DOUBLE SEXTUPLE AND COLOR COMBINATION PRESS AND FOLDER. By courtesy of R. Hoe & Co. 96,000 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12-page Papers:48,000 18, 20, 22 or 24-page Papers; 72,000 fºunding Speed, per Hour, when printing in Black alone: 36,000 28 or 32-page Papers. 4 or 16-page Papers; § 160 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS machine without a screw. Over the platen was placed a long, heavy, cast-iron lever. One end of this was fastened to an upright of the frame, and the other end was raised and lowered by a combination of smaller levers operated by the pressman in a man- ner similar to that of the common hand press. A spindle or pin, attached at the top, to the center of the large cross lever, and properly balanced raised and lowered the platen when making the impression. This press was used in England. FIRST FILAT-BED' CYLINIDER PRESS. Friedrich Koenig, of Saxony, introduced the first press of the above description into use in England in 1812-13, and in 1814 he patented a continuously revolving cylinder press which printed one side of a paper at the rate of 800 sheets per hour. SCREWS AND LEVERS REPLACED BY TOGGLE JOINT IN PETER SMITH'S INVENTION. Peter Smith, of New York, who was as- sociated with R. Hoe & Co., contrived a cast-iron press in 1822, in which he re- placed the screw and levers with a toggle joint, which simplified the operation of the machine and rendered it more effective. RUST’S IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENT. Smith’s invention was greatly improved upon in 1827 by a device perfected by Samuel Rust, of New York, in which the frame was not all of cast-iron, but had the uprights hollowed for the introduction of wrought-iron bars fastened to the top and bottom of the casting. This feature greatly lessened the quantity of metal in the press, while adding to its strength. Rust’s patent was bought by Hoe & Co., who improved it materially and manufactured and sold it extensively. In this press (the Washington) by turn- ing a crank, with belts attached to a pulley upon its shaft, the bed is run out and in from under the platen on a track. The platen is raised by springs on each side, and a curved lever acting on a toggle joint im- presses it upon the form. A tympan frame covered with cloth and inclined so as to re- ceive the sheet of paper is attached to the bed. Another frame, the frisket, covered with a sheet of paper, is attached to the tympan. That portion of the sheet which would naturally receive an impression is cut away, as, otherwise, the chase and furni- ture would smear it. Over the sheet and tympan the “frisket” is turned down, and in making the impression all are folded to- gether. The machine has automatic inking rollers, which the pressman operates by a weight. The descent of the weight draws the rollers over the type and returns them to the inking cylinder, while the pressman places another sheet upon the tympan. Hoe & Co. also improved this press by providing a steam-driven apparatus, which distributes the ink on the rollers and makes them move over the type at will. - Fine books and cuts were commonly printed by the bed and platen method until 1850, the first steam-power, wooden press of this kind having been made by Daniel Treadwell, of Boston, in 1822. The next improved press of Hoe & Co. printed papers of four, six, eight, ten or twelve papers at the rate of 24,000 per hour and sixteen-page papers at 12,000 per hour, the odd pages being in every case ac- curately inserted and pasted in and the papers cut at the top and delivered folded. The machine is constructed in two parts, the cylinders in one portion being twice the length of those in the other. The short WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 161 cylinders are used for the supplements of the paper, when it is desired to print more than eight pages. The plates being secured on the cylinders, the paper enters from the two rolls into the two portions of the ma- chine, through each of which it is carried by two pairs of type and impression cylin- ders, and printed on both sides, after which the two broad ribbons or webs pass over turning bars and other devices, by which they are laid evenly, one over the other, and pasted together. The webs of paper then pass down over a triangular “former,” which folds them along the center margin. They are then taken over a cylinder, from which they receive the final fold, a revolv- ing blade within this cylinder projecting and thrusting the paper between folding rollers, while at the same moment a knife in the same severs the sheet and a rapidly re- volving mechanism resembling in its mo- tion the fingers of a hand causes their ac- curate disposal upon traveling belts, which conveys them on for final removal. What is known as the “Quadruple News- paper Press,” constructed in 1887, was de- veloped to a greater extent. The supple- ment portion of the press was increased in width, and by ingenious devices the press was made to produce eight-page papers at a running speed of 48,000 per hour; also 24,000 per hour, of eight, ten, twelve, four- teen or sixteen-page papers, cut at the top and pasted and folded, ready for the carrier or the mails. In 1889, R. Hoe & Co. made the “sex- tuple” machine, which occupied about eighteen months in construction, and is composed of 60,000 pieces. It is fed from three rolls, each being more than five feet wide. In a single hour it will use up twenty-six miles of this paper. It can print and fold 90,000 Heralds in an hour, which means 1,500 copies per minute, or twenty- five copies every second. The latest and most elaborate newspaper machine is the Octuple Perfecting Press with Folders, which prints from four rolls, each four pages wide; and gives (from the four deliveries) a running speed per hour, of 96,000 four, six or eight-page papers; 72,000 ten-page papers; 60,000 twelve-page papers; 48,000 fourteen or sixteen-page pa- pers; 42,000 eighteen-page papers; 36,000 twenty-page papers; and 24,000 twenty- four page papers. A RAILROAD ENCIRCLING THE GLOBE An American syndicate has offered to complete the building of the Siberian Transcontinental Railway, from its present terminus at Vladivostok in southeastern Si- beria to Cape Numiano, on Bering Strait. RUSSIA SPENDS $400,000,000 ON ROAD. Russia has already built 5,542 miles of the Siberian Railway, at a cost of $400,- 000,000. This has, of course, been a drain on the treasury, and on the physical re- sources of that frigid country, since the ser- vices of 70,000 men have been required for a period of nearly ten years. In connection with this enterprise, the American syndicate has figures giving every elevation, every grade and every item of engineering data necessary to the build- ing of a standard gauge railway from the northwestern terminus of the Canadian Pa- 162 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS cific Road at Edmonton or Quesnella, to Vladivostock, including the crossing of Bering Strait. This great, ambitious, Alexandrian scheme would encircle the earth with a double band of steel and the construction and operation of a railway system 20,000 miles in extent, traversing three conti- nents, with one terminus at Calais on the channel coast of France and the other at New York City. depth from 800 to 5,000 feet and occupies an area of 12,000 square miles, with a minimum width of thirty miles. This great body of water has a distinct ebb and flow and current, and its high alti- tude has made it peculiarly the home of vio- lent storms and intense cold. It was deter- mined at first to ferry the trains over this gap, and for that purpose a steel ice-crush- ing ferry boat was built at a cost of $1,000,- 000. TYPICAL RUSSIAN LOCOMOTIVE IN. URAL MOUNTAINS. ON THE RUSSIAN SIDE. On the Russian side the czar's engineers have made an accurate survey of the ground, and they have found no such ob- stacles along the route as those which have already been overcome in building to the present terminus; for instance, that at Lake Baikal. This is a great inland fresh water lake, 1,560 feet above sea level, in a clef of the Baikal Mountains. It ranges in But the incapacity of so cumbersome an arrangement soon became manifest, and the great thickness of the ice even further lim- ited its usefulness, so that it was decided to build around the south, and this is now being done. Bering Strait, between Capes Numiano, Siberia, and Prince of Wales, Alaska, is a fraction more than nineteen miles wide—a lesser distance than from Dover to Calais— WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 163 only one-fourth the width of the Yukon River, 1,200 miles above its mouth. TUINNEL UNIDER, SEA. The American project involves a tunnel for Bering Sea, which will not be nearly so difficult a matter as it would appear at square miles of grazing and farming and fruit lands would support almost the world, if they were employed. They have been opened and worked just sufficiently to dem- onstrate their value. The mines of the farther north and in the mountains are among the richest on earth in gold, copper. first glance. To begin with, the Diomede Islands would break the continuity of a tunnel twice, so that no section of it need be more than six or seven miles long. The czar spent $400,000,000 building 5,542 miles. The new road, to make con- nections at both ends, will be just about that length—perhaps 1,000 miles less. One inducement on the part of the czar to accept the syndicate's offer is the fact that there is no more fertile land anywhere than southeastern Siberia, and its millions of REMOVING BENDS IN RIVER, coal, platinum, silver, salt, iron, lead, zinc and tin. ON THE AMERICAN SIDE. On the American side, the wealth of Alaska and the Northwest Territory is just becoming apparent. There are hundreds of millions of acres of lands needing only that little impetus of the iron horse to develop them into the richest the world has ever known. While the summers are short, the days are twenty-four hours long, and vege- tation grows all those twenty-four hours. 164 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Illinois will not raise such wheat. Puget Sound never saw such vegetables, and Cali- fornia never dreamed of small fruits in such prodigal profusion as grow wild in the valleys of Alaska. The waters of Bering Sea and the Arctic and of the internal fresh water lakes and rivers will furnish enough fish to feed the world if need be, and the waters being ex- tremely cold, the northern fish are noted for to all the rivers and harbors within the country’s borders and one of Uncle Sam's biggest tasks is to dredge away the slime, ooze and formations which tend to fill up navigable waters. For this work great dredges are necessary. The machines which serve the government are similar to those that are used by individuals in digging artificial lakes or altering the land- scape in many ways. - º º HOW THE U. S. GOVERNMENT PROTECTS THE RIVER BANKS FROM WASHOUTS. -- º - º MISSISSIPPI RIVER, the delicacy of their flavor and the firmness of their meat. There is that other phase of the proposi- tion, however, that must appeal to all namely, the saving in time in traversing the earth or any portion of it. Within ten years one may girdle the earth within twenty days. UP-To-DATE DREDGING MACHINES The United States government is father Several varieties of dredges are used; one, the dipper dredge, which scoops out the mud as a man would with his curved hand; another, the clam-shell dredge, which goes down like an open clam-shell and comes out with it closed and the load inside; and third, the new hydraulic dredge, which thrusts its snout down into the mud, sucks it up and vomits it forth through a long WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 165 tube into a barge or upon the shore. The old-fashioned bucket-ladder-dredge has bee used very little of late years. - THE DIIPPER, DREDGE. The dipper dredge is comparatively a simple affair. It consists of a huge iron scoop at the end of a long arm and hung to a heavy derrick at the end of a barge. The arm is driven by a powerful engine and descends almost perpendicularly into the down into the mud and the scoop sinks into it. As soon as the derrick raises the arm the jaws of the dredge come together. When the load has been brought up, a simple device releases the jaws and the load falls out. Where streams are loaded with mud, or where canals are being dug in very soft mud, the hydraulic dredge cannot be im: proved upon as a digger. This dredge is º stream to be dredged. It is scraped along the bottom by means of a chain attached to the end of the arm, and when it is filled and is pulled to the surface the bottom of the scoop is opened by pulling a rope and loos- ening a pin. Then the load slides out. THE CLAMI-SEIELL DIREDGE. The clam-shell dredge is made of two separate scoops hinged together at the upper part. The arm of the dredge is shot HOW THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROTECTS ITS BANKS FROM WASHOUTS. º sº equipped with a suction pump, a powerful engine, a long, hollow arm which reaches down into the mud, and a cutter at the end of the arm supplied with steel knives which burrow into the soil and loosen the mud so that it can be drawn up easily by the suc- tion pump. The operation of this dredge is simple. When the barge is in position a big post is shoved down into the mud and the barge is 166 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS " _ _ _ . anchored to it. Then the spout is shoved down into the mud, the engines started and the cuter and pumps loosen and bring up the mud. When the mud has been brought to the surface it is often run directly into a mud scow, but sometimes it is carried through piping 1,000 feet or more, and dumped on shore. When one spot in a river has been scooped clean, the anchoring post, or “spud,” is drawn up and another post is set out behind by machinery, to force the barge along. So great is the capacity of these dredges for cutting and drawing up mud, that one of them pumped up more than 165,000 cubic yards of mud in twenty days. MAMMOTH CATERING ENTERPRISES By courtesy of Libby, McNeill & Libby, Chicago METHOD OF COOKING MEATS FOR CANNING. Monthly output, 10,000,000 cans. The methods of those great enterprises which catee to the appetite of millions of people throughout the world furnish an in- teresting study. To the multitudes who partake of the tempting products of these establishments, the extent and variety of their output is little understood, and the degree to which the delicacies therein manu- factured tend to lessen the culinary labors of the average household, especially in the summer season, is hardly realized, - - COOKING AND CANNING FOR THE IMARKET. Among the mammoth concerns which fill the world's mouth with skillfully contrived edibles, one, located in Chicago, may be taken as a representative plant, for the pur- pose of this article. FIFTY ACRES OF FLOOR SPACE USED BY ONE CONCERN. The cooking and canning facilities of this company cover a space of six acres and By courtesy of Libby, McNeill & Libby, Chicago HEADING AND SOLDERING CANNED MEATS, * - 168 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS include a floor area of fifty acres. The de- partment devoted to cutting meats has a capacity of disposing of 250 cattle per hour, and 15,000 cattle are slaughtered weekly in the plant. Its power- house refrigerator con- tains eighteen boilers, with a capacity of 750 tons per day. MONTHLY OUTPUT 10,000,000 CANS OF FOOD. The number of peo- - ple employed in the concern is 3,000 and PREPARING JEWISH MEATS. (KOSHER...) their annual earnings - A LUSCIOUS VARIETY OF APPETIZING amount to about $15,000. These toilers PIREPARATIONS. handle 10,000,000 cans of prepared meats, Among the specialties in delicatessen soups, etc., every month, which necessitates manufactured by this concern may be men- the use of 500,000 boxes of tin plate tioned the following: Veal loaf, Melrose annually. pate, luncheon loaf, lunch tongues, ham loaf, beef loaf, | chicken loaf, Vienna sausage, | club-house sau- sage, slic ed | smoked beef, | c or n e d be ef hash, potted and deviled meats, turkey and tongue, boneless | chicken, and ten varieties of |soups. These are put up in pack- ages running CANNING BEANS. By Courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Co. . -quar- The above-shown plant has a capacity of putting up 40,000 cans of beans per day. from one Q WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 169 ter of a pound to six pounds. This is but ity. Taken together, their product is one of several vast establishments engaged sufficient to supply the demand of the en- in the same industry, and in the same local- tire world for goods of this description. - - º TURTLES AS BROUGHT INTO TURTLES BEING PREPARED - º - By courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Co. BOTTLING PICKLES. 12 15,000,000 of bottles are here put up each year. 5 - --- º & DRAY-TEAM OF LIBBY, McNEIL & LIBBY- ONE OF THE G. º * A GREAT INDUSTRY-PICKING PEAS AT MOUNT MORRIS, ILLINOIS, By courtesy of the Detroit WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 171 *A. ſaesnptII sțųT, JO 90ttaen rođu II otſ\ Motryſ A^º） vIſIWIO'TOO HISILINIAI ‘RIGILSNIWALSGIAA AAGIN HVGIN ‘X’HGINNVO NOW’IVS 172 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS AUSTRALIA'S GREAT RAILWAY PROJECT HOW ONE OF THE GREAT COLONIES PROPOSES TO HELP HERSELF. Australia is the latest country to catch the transcontinental railway fever and, with an energy characteristic of pioneer lands, has taken the most direct way of get- ting what it wants. The Parliament of South Australia has formally invited capi- talists of Europe and America to bid for the contract of connecting the city of Ade- laide on the south coast with Palmerston on the north coast. BONUS OF 90,000,000 ACRES OF LAND. Ninety million acres of land along the right of way, with all the minerals and other sources of wealth they may contain, are offered as a bonus to the company that has the courage to undertake a project that will cost from $30,000,000 to $40,000,000, and to operate a railroad through twelve hundred miles of semi-desert land that has only one white inhabitant to every three square miles. But 90,000,000 acres of land, even in the most unpromising region on the earth's surface, may well be a temptation when it is offered at forty cents an acre; and capitalists are not so much afraid of big railway ventures now as they were before the Union Pacific was finished, thirty-five years ago. England is constructing the “Cape to Cairo” to connect Egypt with Cape Town, and Belgium, England and Germany will cross this line in the Congo country with a road running from the Atlantic to the In- dian Ocean. It is now possible for passen- gers to step on board a train in any Eu- ropean capital and steam away across Cen- tral Asia for Canton, China, over the Chinese-Eastern Railway. DIFFICULTIES OF BUILDING ACROSS AUSTRALIA. In many ways this proposed Australian railway line, when it comes to be built, will encounter the same difficulties that were met in the building of the Union and Cen- tral Pacific roads. There is no mountain system to be crossed and no great rivers to be bridged, but there are broad reaches of desert as hot as those of Arizona and so lit- tle known that the maps show blank spaces for hundreds of miles in extent. All Aus- tralia taken together is within 50,000 square miles as large as the United States. In the interior deserts ten states as big as Pennsylvania could be dropped down and lost. Although the distance to be covered is only 1,200 miles, or as far as from New York to the Mississippi River, the cost will be something enormous, and the returns must, for years, be a matter for conjecture rather than a matter that can be figured out. The bonus offered is about 15 per cent of the entire area of South Australia. The United States gave only 25,000,000 acres to the Union and Central Pacific for build- ing a road twice as long. It is confidently believed in Adelaide that Canton, China, is to be the great port of debarkation for European traffic to the east, and that Palmerston, South Australia, only ninety-six hours from Canton by fast steamer, is to become the great Australian seaport to connect with Europe. º WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 173 BIGGEST SHIPS AFLOAT Steamship records, both for speed and size, have been broken of recent years. THE CELTIC. One of the greatest steamships now in operation is the Celtic. This vessel is 700 feet long, 75 feet beam and 49 feet deep. She is equipped with twin screws and can Nearly 1,400 shell plates of an average size of 30x5 feet and about four tons' weight were used in the hull, and 13,000 more were used in other parts. The Celtic cost about $2,500,000. For certain kinds of trade it has been found that sailing vessels of great size are very profitable. As a result, two great six- develop seven- tº = teen knots an - hour. About 260 to n s of coal daily are neces- sary to run her. Compare with these dimensions the first ship of the White Star line, the old Oceanic, built in 1871, which was 420 feet long,41 feet beam, 31 feet deep, had an average speed of four teen - knots, and consumed sixty-five tons of coal a day. The speed of the Celtic is about 25 per cent greater than that of the Oceanic. She has nine decks, with complete accommoda- tions for 3,294 persons. It takes 350 people alone to look after the wants of the pas- sengers. The steerage accommodations are better than the best quarters for saloon pas- sengers a generation ago. The Celtic has eight double-ended boilers, each with four furnaces, to furnish power for the quad- ruple-expansion twin engines. She has four masts and two smoke-stacks. Over two mil- lion rivets were used in her construction. By courtesy of the “Scientific American.” THE “PREUSSEN,” THE WORLD'S LARGEST SAILING VESSEL. masted schooners and one seven-masted schooner have been lately built. In carry- ing lumber and the like these vessels have made a handsome return on the investment. It is a noticeable as well as important fact that they are built of steel. In fact, it is only by the substitution of steel for wood that seven-masters are possible. THE STEAM TURBINE. Speed as well as size has received the at- tention of the shipbuilder. In England, one of the interesting departures from or- dinary methods is the use of a steam tur- WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS bine in the King Edward VII, which was the first passenger steamer thus equipped. This departure seems destined to revolutionize marine transpor- tation. THE VIPER AND COBRA. As far back as 1894, the tur- bine showed great success in the two torpedo boats, Viper and Cobra. The former reached a speed of thirty-seven knots an hour. The King Edward VII. has made an average speed of over twenty knots. The weight of her machinery is sixty-six tons, which is about half as much as is required to develop equal horse-power in the pad- dle-wheel steamer. There is almost an entire absence of throbbing and pounding. THE ARROW. The Arrow, a vessel recently built for Charles R. Flint, of New York, has recently at- tained a speed of nearly fifty miles an hour. Her descrip- tion is as follows: Length, 130 feet; beam, 12 feet 6 inches; displacement, 66 tons; horse- power, 4,000. She can be stripped and converted into a torpedo boat at forty-eight hours’ notice. THE MINNESOTA. UARGEST VESSEL EVER BUILT IN AMERICA. The “Minnesota,” cargo and passenger ship, designed for the Pacific trade between Seat- WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 175 THE ARROW-THE FASTEST STEAM CRAFT AFLOAT. tle, Honolulu, and Yokohama, is the largest vessel ever built in America. In this vessel, the Eastern Shipbuilding Company, of New London, Connecticut, has embodied all the features of the great White Star liner, “Celtic.” The Minne- sota is of imposing appearance and is thus described: Length, 630 feet; depth, 56 feet; breadth, 76 feet 6 inches; displace- ment, 37,000 tons. Her engines are of 10,- 000 horse-power, supplied by steam from sixteen Niclausse water-tube boilers, which will drive the ship at a speed of fourteen knots per hour. While the Minnesota is designed prima- rily for freight, she will carry 172 first cabin passengers, 110 second cabin, 68 third cabin and 2,424 steerage passengers or troops, in addition to a crew of 250. The speed is fourteen knots and it is expected to average twelve knots with the heaviest cargoes and in the worst weather. In completeness of electric service, of cold storage and refrigerator plant, of laundry service, ventilation plant and life- saving appliances, the Minnesota is the most modern and up-to-date vessel yet launched. The dining saloons, the cabin, library and women's boudoirs, the state- rooms and toilet rooms are models of the latest discoveries in their respective lines. The “Minnesota” originated with J. J. Hill. A CABLE THAT GIRDLES HALF THE GLOBE. The linking-up of the new cable at Suva in the Fiji Islands makes one continuous British telegraph wire from Britain to Australia. 176 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS EGG CANDLING BY MACHINERY Egg candling by machinery is one of the modern wonders of the poultry world. In ancient times eggs were held up to the sun 3r some strong light, and thereby tested as to their freshness. This process was con- sidered very slow and far from satisfactory. would be rapid and would prove a success. In this, several Englishmen participated, but it was left for a “down-east” Yankee to devise a machine that would candle eggs, and do it with such rapidity that it was found necessary to have five women to re. PACKING 27,080 EGGS PER HOUR. At the Chicago Stock Yards, A few years ago, when the big packers of the country began to deal in eggs and poul- try, the necessity of an egg candling ma- chine dawned upon the more progressive dealers. Then a systematic appeal was made to inventors in all parts of the world to produce some kind of a machine that move the eggs after having passed through the inspection house. In 1892, a machine of this kind was put into one of the big packing houses at the Chicago stock yards, and within a week it was running so smoothly that 27,080 eggs were candled in an hour's time. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 177 The egg candler consists of a box or house, eight feet square and ten feet high. Through this runs a shallow trough. Inside the house are a set of rollers, which work in screw fashion, and over these rollers the eggs pass while being inspected. Under- neath the rollers is a set of powerful elec- tric arc lights. Two women stand at the feeding end of the candler, and pour eggs upon an endless belt that carries them in upon the rollers. As they roll along the inspector picks out the bad and broken eggs. The former he consigns to the “fer- tilizer” tank, and the latter, to an upper set of rollers which carries them out to a woman in waiting, who places them in a box marked “broken,” or, if they are badly cracked, breaks them into a can. The eggs that are broken into the can are stirred together, and when the can is filled, it is conveyed to the cooler, where the con- tents are frozen and, later, sold to bakeries. The good eggs are placed in cases and put into cold storage. It is not an infrequent thing for the packers to have 15,000,000 eggs in storage. EVOLVING NEW KINDS OF WHEAT In the rapid advance of scientific meth- ods of farming, not the least important re- sult is that obtained in breeding new kinds of grain suitable to the peculiarities of soil in the different sections of the country. Particular study in this line has been made by our agricultural colleges, and marvelous are some of the new species developed by careful and persistent experiments. The stronghold of these experiments is the Minnesota State Experiment Station associated with the agricultural school of the University of Minnesota. From the re- sults of the efforts made here, a revolution in the production of wheat is promised, if, in fact, it has not already been achieved. The purpose of the experiments was to develop new breeds of wheat. The new kinds of grain thus produced show a power of increase, both in yield and quality. By a process of breeding and careful selection a product has been evolved which not only Cºands every test of successfully withstand- ing climatic severity, but also shows the presence of every essential food quality. No longer is this development in the merely experimental stage. The new breeds have stood the test also of the farm, and the result will doubtless be a bettering of wheat harvesting, not only near the section where the experiments were carried on, but in the wheat area of the whole world; it will also result in the addition of great wealth to the farming districts. Millions of dollars are being added to the value of single sections of the wheat raising country, and a practical denial is given to a state- ment that ere long, there would not be enough wheat for the increased population of the world. The work at the Minnesota station began something over ten years ago. The purpose was not only to secure new breeds of su- perior wheat, but to secure enough of this superior breed to enable the farmers to profit by the practical use of it. The process followed necessitated remºv- ing the pollen from the flower of one grade of wheat to the stigma of the flower of ar, other. Two breeds of good character are 178 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS selected in the experiments, one for the father, the other for the mother of the new breed. About four o'clock in the morning, when the florets of the wheat open, the operation is performed, and then the head of the wheat is enveloped in a sack of tissue paper, in order to keep out insects. It may be that some of the good qualities of one wheat are mingled with the bad qualities of another, when the harvest of the new breeds is garnered. Painstaking work, how- ever, has finally resulted in new and much stronger varieties, and now that they have been secured, they will go on reproducing themselves, to the benefit of mankind. In the process of selection, only the hardiest grades were selected for new breeding. The best start in life is accorded the new wheat, and only the best of the new grades are kept. Some kinds were found to be too heavy and rank in growth, thus tend- ing to “lodging” or falling during periods of rain and much moisture. Others were found to be especially susceptible to wheat diseases. Still others showed a deficiency in food quality. In all, over 500 new grades were thrown out in the early tests, and less than a dozen were retained for the prac- tical farm tests. Something of the practical results of the experiments may be learned from the pro- lific qualities shown. In tests where the new breeds were grown side by side with old wheat, there was an increase in some cases of from eight to twelve bushels an acre. The new wheat that has been best tested so far, is called Minnesota No. 163, and shows an average yield of 42.7 bushels per acre. Of eight grades tested in small experiments, none averaged less than 19.5 bushels per acre, while the average of six breeds was 27 bushels, and the average of all averages showed 28.1 bushels. Tests made comparing the new breeds with Fife wheat—one of the old standard wheats—showed an increase of four and one-half bushels, and an increase of one and one-half bushels an acre was made over all wheats compared. From these tests it is concluded that the new breeds will excel the old by at least two bushels, although, when it is considered that under ordinary conditions the old breeds develop only about thirteen to fifteen bushels an acre, this seems too small. And yet, when it is further considered that in the Dakotas and Minnesota about 15,000,000 acres are an- nually under cultivation this increase means an additional yield of 30,000,000 bushels. At 75 cents a bushel, the annual increase in wealth to the farmers of three states only should be about $22,500,000. When all these things are considered, it may be readily seen that humanity is a gº eat gainer; for, not only is the greatest sºurce of food supply made more hardy, more certain and more safe, but the wealth of the world is certain shortly to be greatly enhanced. If this proportion of increased produc- tion be applied to the entire wheat-growing area of the country, the results to agri- culturists would be of almost incalculable benefit. - But the enhancement of the prosperity of the farmer through this multiplication of the profits of his labor is not the only cause for congratulation over the success of these experiments. As bread is verily the staff of life, and constitutes almost the main dependence of millions of lowly fam- ilies, whose lot is ever on the verge of want, whatever tends to maintain the supply of this great staple up to the utmost possible demand, at rates within the means of needy multitudes, will be hailed as a boon. WOWDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 179 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY DAILY NEWSPAPER HOW IT IS MADE UP AND SENT OUT. Among the forces that have worked for progress in civilization, none is of greater importance, and yet is more misunderstood, than the modern newspaper. In point of both literary and mechanical perfection, the American daily paper stands supreme. Not only does the metropolitan paper of the United States excel its foreign contempora- ries in both bulk and circulation, but it is almost entirely free from the blot of sub- sidy which smirches so many papers in Europe. Being untrammeled by any but self-imposed checks or hindrances, the American daily is the best exponent of the freedom of the press, and in its fearless at- titude in all matters, serves the public with a unique and honest loyalty. While every one is acquainted to a great extent with the salient points of American journalism as exemplified in any one of the many thousand papers constantly read in the American household, there is an aspect to the progress made in the last few years which to the average mind is most marvel- ous. This is that feature of the work which enables a journal to gather the news of the whole world, and to deliver it in printed form within a few hours of the date of the matter chronicled, to thousands upon thou- sands of subscribers in their homes, many of them hundreds of miles away. To the unprofessional mind, the work of this pub- lic servant seems lighted by a halo of mys- tery. There is, in truth, much about the up-to-date newspaper plant to mystify, but let us here unravel the mystery. For convenience a business-like news- paper plant is divided into a number of de- partments, usually as follows: editorial, circulation, advertising, general business, and mechanical. Each of these divisions is in charge of a superintendent, whose duty it is to see that the work of his department goes on with the utmost precision and ac- curacy. These superintendents in turn confer with each other or are instructed by a general manager, as to that ultimate com- bination of their forces which produces a perfect newspaper. About 600 people con- stitute the working force of the metropoli- tan daily. From start to finish, from office boy to publisher, speed is a requisite. This may be understood when it is known that 180 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS from the moment the gathering of a day’s news begins, until it is printed by the half million copies, and is speeding on its way, by fast mail, to be read by millions, but from six to twelve hours elapse. Let us note the process by which news is picked up and made of commercial value. THE WARIOUS STAFFS. At the head of the editorial department stands the managing editor, who is respon- sible for his department to the editor-in- chief and publisher, and to him are respon- sible the numerous city, associate and sub- editors, and reporters. In general, each of the staffs of a paper is made up of over twenty-five men. Those whose work it is to issue the evening editions come to work be- fore seven o'clock in the morning, relieving men already on duty. Until the last regular evening edition is printed and away, these men are on duty. Overlapping them and coming to work about noon, is the staff of men who issue the following morning's edi- tion. While following upon this other staff, comes the third force near midnight, work- ing until relieved by the next day's shift. Each of these staffs is divided in such a manner as most effectually to “cover” the news of the world, and to write and prepare all reading matter, aside from advertise- ments, that appear in the paper. In order to do this, a number of men are assigned to take care of all the news in certain “depart- ments,” such as finance, music, the drama, railroads, politics, leading editorials, the funny column, etc. The routine news of the days is gathered in two ways—that from out of town by mail or telegraph and from special news bureaus and correspond- ents, and the city news, through a corps of local reporters. The former work is under the care generally of the telegraph editor, and the latter, under the city editor. Telegraph news, while not always as in- teresting and valuable as important local news, yet plays a great part in every paper and relatively costs as much, and fre- quently more, than city news. The tele- graph editor is assisted by several experi- enced men called copy readers. Since prac- tically all the matter in the telegraph de- partment comes to hand in written form, the duty of these men is principally that of reading it to see that the matter conforms to the general policy of the paper, and to cor- rect any superficial errors. These men also write the large headings for the telegraph InGWS. - While the work of editing telegraph “copy” in a newspaper office is something of an easy task, the gathering of this news has reached such a stage of perfection that it may be truly called marvelous. In the main most papers rely upon some news bu- reau for their out-of-town service. Large papers, however, retain correspondents in many cities (frequently employes of other papers), who gather special items not car- ried by the bureaus. These correspondents are in constant touch with the paper by mail and telegraph, and aside from a few representatives in very important cities, are paid according to the amount of news printed. THE ASSOCIATED PRESS. So intricate is the business of a well equipped news bureau, that it will be worth while briefly to describe the most important one of the kind, The Associated Press. This association is a corporation, not for profit, and consists of a mutual organiza- tion of over 600 of the most influential WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 181 papers of the country. Its object is to gather the news of the whole world, and to serve its associated members therewith. In every large city in the world this organiza- tion is represented by an experienced news- paper man, whose duty it is to gather news worthy of national notice in the United States. Leased telegraph wire is spread across the country in every direction, con- necting the principal offices of this organi- zation. Special service is secured from the world’s greatest cables. In times of storm, when wires are damaged, the first ones re- paired are put in the service of this com- pany. Every effort is made to circumvent time. The service of foreign news bureaus is secured to amplify the work of special correspondence. Thus if a queen dies at Windsor, a king is crowned at London, a new dictator assumes power in one of the Tatin-American states, or a tribe of Afri- can savages swoops down upon a band of explorers, the news is flashed almost instant- ly to every newspaper in the association and shortly after appears in printed form for the edification of newspaper subscribers. In smaller cities this news is taken directly from the telegraph instrument by an expert operator, or is served to the newspaper as messages from one of the telegraph com- panies. In the large cities, where a number of papers are served, the association em- ploys a staff large enough to supply each paper with type-written manuscript. This is usually sent by pneumatic tubes which run underground long distances, and con- nect the several newspaper offices. LOCAL NEWS AND THE REPORTERS. The gathering of local news devolves upon the city editor and his corps of re- porters. By a simple method of keeping clippings of all notices of important events, to develop, and by carefully tracing down every clew that may lead to news, the gath- ering of actual happenings of importance in the way of news is reduced almost to clockwork precision. Every man connected with a newspaper is always on the alert for news. The reporters are assigned regu- larly to certain districts to gather whatever turns up in them. Police reporters are de- tailed to watch all accidents, crimes, fires, etc., that are reported at police stations. The society department keeps close touch with events of social importance. As in the telegraph news department, there is also a city news bureau in every large city. This bureau has a large corps of men covering routine work, such as courts, police sta- tions, city, county and state offices, etc. Thus it is that all papers print, practically, all the news worth printing. Of course, a certain paper, through the large acquaint- ance of its best men, may now and then secure exclusive news, called a “scoop,” but in the long run, one paper prints as many exclusive items as another. ESSENTIAL QUALITIES IN THE NEWS- PAPER MAN. Of the newspaper man, himself, it may be said that he is essentially a worker. All sorts of ideas and things are material for him to work upon. His occupation is to him the breath of life.. Above all, to succeed, this man must use his every opportunity to the best advantage. To the person who knows nothing of his labors, he appears simply as the genial critic, editor or reporter, with something of a halo about him, denoting that he lives a life free from care and always to be envied. While there are phases of this sort in the 182 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS º life of the newspaper writer, they are ex- ceptional, and the true basis upon which such men build their success is strenuous exertion. From beginning to end of his work day, he must be constantly on the alert for information that may develop into a “story” for his “sheet.” True, nowadays, the management of a great newspaper is so methodical that a great deal of the work of the reporter or editor is laid out for him by men in higher authority. Yet, every moment there is some call upon even the youngest of the craft to exercise judg- ment and caution and a discrimination that is not often necessary in other callings. To the powers that be in the realms of news, there is no such word as fail. If a rival journal has a piece of news exclu- sively, some one is responsible for its ab- sence from your paper. It does not matter how many exclusive “stories” a man may deliver, how many “scoops” he may secure for his paper, if he is beaten, they count for naught. If he cannot do as well always as men on rival papers, he will lose his posi- tion. And, further, the efficient newspaper worker must have perception and adapta- bility to handle a piece of news when he hears it. The well-equipped man is he who can write intelligently of a technical legal case as readily as of a midnight fire, of things financial with as much facility as of social matter. He must be able to grasp instantly the essential details of any occur- rence that may be of value as news. Such a man has a smattering of legal knowledge, of the fine arts, of medicine, to say nothing of the intricate mazes of politics and politi- cal jobbery, of the wickedness of the under world and a hundred and one other phases of human action. JREPORTING. A. FIRE, The actual course of a news story from the moment of the happening to the time it appears in print is something of a dra- matic affair. If it is a big fire, when the fire alarm sounds on the special bell in the newspaper office, the city editor locates the conflagration and dispatches from one to ten men, including artists and photog- raphers, to the scene. Generally these work under the direction of one man. Every detail possible is secured. The “office” is informed every few moments by telephone how the fire is progressing, and whether people are being burned or saved, etc. If the hour is late and occasions extreme haste, one man will telephone a connected story of the event to his office, and there it is amplified by an inside man. Pictures are taken and hurried back to headquarters for engraving. “SCOOP” ON A SUICIDE. If the story, instead of being common to other papers, is to appear exclusively in one paper, great secrecy is maintained. For instance, the writer overhears in a popular Chicago café, shortly after midnight, a con- versation between two army officers about the suicide of a well-known military man at a fashionable hotel, on the eve of his wedding. Such news is “hot,” and if true, would possibly be exclusive. Every effort is made to obtain the facts without arousing suspicion, and the next morning rival news- papers are filled with envy over a great “scoop.” THE CITY EDITOR. After the “copy” of a newspaper “story” has been prepared by the reporter it gen- erally passes through the hands of the city editor or one of his principal assistants, WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 183 who judges of its news value in order to decide how important a position it shall hold in the printed paper. THE COPY READER AND PROOFREADER. From him it is turned over to the copy readers, whose duty it is to correct all errors due to haste—for haste is the one great requisite in newspaper work. They also write the large headings and intersperse sub-headings throughout the article. From the copy readers’ desk the story travels to the typesetter, thence to the proofreader and back, in the shape of printed proof, to the editors and copy readers, who watch for errors which the proofreader may have overlooked. The course of the passage of the story through other processes will be found farther on, in the description of the other departments of the newspaper plant. THE composing Room. The composing room is the place where the typesetter, busy amid the hum of intri- cate machinery, puts into print the articles prepared by the advertising and editorial departments. The work done in setting the big display advertisements, which bring wealth to a newspaper, is done in much the same manner that typesetting was done years ago—by hand. This also is the case with most of the big headings of news articles. The setting of small advertise- ments and of the body of the paper is done, however, by machinery. THE LINOTYPE. The linotype machine which, as its name indicates, sets a line of type by machinery is one of the greatest inventions of the age. Its basic features were developed by Mer- genthaler. This machine does the work of many men, and with such speed and accu- racy that it is worthy of special notice. It has the appearance of a gigantic typewriter, and has for its main principle the auto- matic dropping of tiny brass molds for certain letters and figures, when certain keys are depressed. These molds are called matrices, and when a line of them has been set, they are flooded by a combination of molten lead and zinc, thus forming a line of type. The linotype operator sits before his key- board with his “copy” in front of him. With deft fingers he gently depresses the keys until he hears the warning of a bell, which tells him a line of matrices has been set. Then he presses on a lever at his side, the line is cast in metal, and a great arm reaches down, picks up the line of matrices and places them at the top of the machine for distribution. And here comes in one of the most delicate functions of the ma- chine. Each matrix or mold, besides bear- ing the imprint of a certain character, is grooved much in the same manner as is a Yale key. Each of these grooves and their combination signifies the character the matrix represents. At the top of the ma- chine is a distributing bar, which resembles a constantly revolving screw. After the line of type has been molded and the arm has delivered the line of matrices at the top of the machine, this distributing bar seizes them. They travel along on the screw until the grooves of the various matrices find their mates at little openings above the magazines which hold the mat- rices before use. Thus as each matrix is sifted from its mates by means of the grooves, it finds its way into the magazine for that letter, and is once more in read: ness to be released upon the pressure of its particular key. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 185 After an article or advertisement has been set up in type, it is hurried over to the “form” or “make-up” table, where it is assigned its particular place in the page of type, is locked up in a great chase, and is sent to be stereotyped preparatory to go- ing on the press. STEREOTYPING. The stereotype department is the out- come of the necessity for rapid printing on cylinder presses. When the old-style hand or flat presses are used, type is frequently used just as it is set. Where newspapers, however, are turned out by the half million copies daily, another method is necessary. As soon as the form of a page of type is delivered to the stereotype department, it is the duty of the workers there to cast a duplicate of it in type metal, but in the shape of a half cylinder. This shape is needed in order to fit on the cylinder rollers of the steam printing presses. The method of making this plate neces- sitates first the making of a mold which can be bent. This is done by taking an impression of the form in something that resembles papier maché. Thin layers of prepared tissue paper, with a sprinkling of a floury preparation between them, are placed on the page of type. Then the whole form is run through heavy steam rollers. This presses the paper well down into all the indentations of the type or illustrations in the page. In turn, this is run into a steam chest, where, in a very short time, the preparation is baked stiff. When the mold is removed, it resembles heavy paste- board, and is the exact facsimile of the page of type. This matrix can be bent readily and placed within a cylindrical chamber, when it is at once flooded with type metal. Almost before the metal is cool enough to have congealed, the stereo- typers have opened the molding chamber and have placed the semi-cylinder or plate upon an apparatus where all the imperfec- tions may be chiseled out and the rough edges planed off. This work is so rapid that in a well-ordered department the plates are delivered hot to the press room. Dif- ferent plants use somewhat different meth- ods, some sending the plates by elevators down to the press room, and some of them being located in the basement of the build- ing, adjoining the press room, receive the type forms from the composing room, and send them back by elevator. THE PRESS ROOM. Everything so far in the passage of the newspaper story from reporter to pressman has worked on rush orders and on schedule time. This is necessitated because the presses must be started at just the same moment every day. Great newspapers have subscription lists containing names of read- ers hundreds of miles from the city of printing. The papers to these readers must be sent over certain routes by fast mail trains, and to miss a train means that a rival newspaper will be read in many a town the next day, to the exclusion of its competitor. Thus in the editorial room an hour is set, a “dead line,” so to speak, after which nothing can be written which will appear in regular editions of the paper. So is it with the composing room. Certain pages must “go down” to the stereotype room at certain specified times. The whole process from writer to press in rush times is frequently less than half an hour, but this is not the constant speed of the plant. 42 186 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS THE PRESSES. Now, when the stereotyped plates are re- ceived at the press room the bustle begins in the great department of steam, machin- ery and noise. With almost lightning-like rapidity, the plates are clamped two on a cylinder of a press. The size of the paper to be printed regulates the speed of the press, as well as the number of cylinders to be used. Thus a great 20 or 24-page paper, coming from one press, means a dozen cylinders whirling. Before the cylinders have been clamped into place, orders have been issued as to the size of the paper. Great rolls of paper, on spindles like gigantic spools, have been rolled into place on traveling cranes, and grouped about the presses, ready for imme- diate use. Some of them are already in place in the presses, like several spools of thread in a sewing machine. When the plates are all in order a signal is given, every man gets out of the way of the dan- ger of crushed arms or legs in the immense rollers, and the steam is turned on by a great lever. FEEDING PATER FROM GREAT ROLLS. The paper is fed from the rolls on the spindles down between the revolving cylin- ders and smooth steel rolls. This causes the impression, and prints the newspaper. In guiding the paper through the rolls cloth tapes are necessary to prevent the paper from slipping. After the paper is printed it passes over certain knives, paste brushes and folders, which sever the paper from the continuous roll, paste the leaves in position, when this is necessary, and fold the paper ready for the street. All this is done so rapidly that it can be counted only by machinery. Papers with only a few pages can be run out, ready for de- livery, at the astounding rate of 48,009 an hour. An order was recently placed with R. Hoe & Co. for seven double octuple presses, equal to 28 quadruple machines, or 112 ordinary single-roll presses. These will print on eight rolls of paper the width of four newspaper pages, and when running to the full capacity the output from each will be equivalent to 200,000 eight-page sheets per hour. Eighteen hundred feet of printed webs of paper will pass through one of these machines every minute. The 16- plate cylinders each carry eight stereotyped plates, and 64 pages can be printed at will, in black or in colors. FROM THE PRESS ROOM TO THE READER. From the press room to the reader is comparatively as rapid as the other opera- tions of the plant. Bundles, of several hun- dred at a time, are seized from the presses and hurried by automatic devices—little traveling elevators and cars—to the deliv- ery room. Here crowds of newsboys and delivery men are eager to speed them on their way. Those papers that are to be read in the city of publication are hurried by fast wagons, elevated trains and street cars to every section, business or residen- tial, of the great metropolis. On the morn- ing newspaper this is done while the greater portion of the town still sleeps. The papers that are to be sent to suburban villages and distant towns take another course. The circulation department has already had pre- pared lists of all readers and dealers who get the paper. These lists indicate the post office address of subscribers, number of papers subscribed for and date of expi- ration of subscription. Long before the WONDERS OF IN DUSTRIAL PROGRESS 187 paper is printed, expert “mailers” have deftly pasted the little yellow slips from these lists on the wrappers in which the papers are to be mailed. This operation is done by means of a little machine called the “mailer,” which can be used by one hand and made to paste the slips very quickly. When the papers are received from the press room, the workmen in the mailing room seize bundles of them, count them out accurately and swiftly, wrap them, bundle them into United States mail bags, and hurry them off in wagons to catch the fast mail trains. MAKING THE IILUSTRATIONS. One of the great adjuncts to the latter- day journal is its illustrative features. A paper that does not print pictures, and many of them, is playing, as a rule, a losing game. This necessitates a photographic art and an engraving department. When an artist or photographer returns from an assignment to secure a certain picture for the columns of the paper, great speed is generally required. If it is a sketch, the artist has been working out his idea on the way to the office, in his cab or in the street car. In his studio, he rapidly makes the drawing of fire, wreck or person. Fine white Bristol board is used, and India ink leaves the lines black, for the engraver. The photographer, in case a photograph is to be used, has hurriedly developed his plate, and from it has had a picture printed on sensitized paper. Perhaps the artist must retouch this picture or redraw its fainter lines in ink. This is hurriedly done and the results are taken to the engraver. Here either of two methods may be used. One is the half-tone process, which is used Principally for photographs of persons, and the other is the zinc-line etching for black and white drawings, sketched by artists. In the latter method a “wet-plate” pho- tograph is made of the artist's work, pos- sibly of several sketches at once. This wet- plate photograph is much like the ordinary dry plate negative of the snap-shot photo- graph camera, excepting that the gelatine with which the glass is coated is yet wet when the picture is exposed. This gelatine is developed by ordinary photographic methods. Then the gelatine of several pic- tures is removed from the firs' glass used and pasted on heavy plate glass, a number of pictures in a group. After these have been dried hard by heat from a gas stove, this plate of pictures is enclosed in a frame with a sheet of zinc, sensitized after the manner of photographic paper. The plate is now exposed to the glare of an arc light. . The sensitized zinc receives the impression from the light and negative, and after it has been developed and eaten down by acids, and by machinery which routs out imperfections, we have engravings of the pictures first drawn or photographed, now ready for mounting on metal bases for the printed page. In half-tone work, the process is similar, but when the photo- graphs or artist’s drawings are being pho- tographed, fine screens intervene between the plate and the pictures, in order to give the mellowed shadings of the finer engrav- ings. - Besides the departments already de- scribed there are the distinctively business offices, without which no paper can thrive. The circulation department canvasses, schemes and plots to secure a large num- ber of readers for the paper. All sorts of devices are made use of. Prizes are of. fered, books and pictures are given away, 188 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS and great quantities of advertising matter are sent out by hand and by mail. Men are paid fabulous salaries for ideas to swell the circulation lists. THE ADVERTISING DEPARTMENT THE ONLY SOURCE OF PROFIT. Of equal importance is the advertising department, which secures the large and small advertisements that are printed in all great papers, and from which the publish- ers obtain their profits, or, at least, the means to operate the newspaper; for, be it known, few newspapers make great profits. In fact, many are run at a loss, to support political parties, or to give power to some great capitalist, or, possibly, even as playthings for rich people. The adver- tising department maintains a corps of solicitors and clerks to gain business for the paper. Argument is constantly used as to the great circulation of this particular jour- nal. Want advertisements, such as “ser- vants” wanted, or other similar business or domestic wants, have become such a great feature in the advertising department of the paper that, in large cities, branch º telephone offices are established all over town to facilitate their collection and transmission to headquarters. The adver- tisements of the great department stores frequently serve as the support of a news- paper. Big stores frequently use $25,000 worth of advertising in a single paper in a year. The expenses of running a newspaper plant are very great. It should be known that hardly any large paper ever makes any money from its subscription list. The paper on which the journal is printed near- ly always costs more than the printed papers bring in return. It is the advertis- ing which counts, and the circulation list counts in turn only as it can give greater publicity to the advertising and thus serve as the means of securing much advertising matter and high advertising rates. It is figured, generally, that if a plant can de- liver its publication without losing money on its selling price, it is in excellent con- dition. This, of course, is seldom the case with great Sunday papers, with their 50 and 60 pages of expensively-written and illustrated articles. FOUR O'CLOCK A. M.–NEWSBOYS WAITING FOR THE DAILY PAPERS. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 189 THE “SOO’S” GREAT POWER CANAL The largest power canal in the world is at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and is used for the operation of gigantic iron indus- tries. It provides for the reduction of 20,- U00,000 tons of iron ore at the very door of the mines. In the water power development at the “Soo” is realized the utilization of the nat- ural force inherent in the waters of Lake Superior. There they flow out over a sand- stone ledge about a half mile long, half a mile wide, with a fall of 20 feet. TAKE SUPERIOR, GIVES THE “SOO” CANAL 200,000 HORSE POWER. Lake Superior covers an area of about 36,000 square miles and is fed from a water-shed many times greater, the Sault Rapids being its only outlet. The quantity of the water discharged fluctuates, with the varying conditions of precipitation and evaporation, from about 3,600,000 to 7,- 000,000 cubic feet per minute, which, rush- ing over the Sault Rapids, represents an equivalent of from 130,000 to 260,000 horse power. Just south of the western entrance to the United States Ship Canal lies the intake to the power canal, about 950 feet wide. The total distance of the constructed water- way is about 13,000 feet, the width from the expanded intake entrance gradually les- sening to 200 feet, excavated to such a level that, when the full maximum power of the works is being used, water will flow at a uniform depth of 25 feet. - CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL. The entire construction of the canal has been carried on with a view to the greatest efficiency in delivering the energy of the water, and it is everlasting in durability. Throughout the intake the sides of the canal are retained by timber cribs securely placed and framed, rendering the sides of the waterway smooth and permanent. The timber construction is continued to a point just below the water, and covered with masonry construction. The canal sides through the rock formation are channeled out vertically, its walls and bed being smooth. All defects in stratification are remedied by masonry construction, of which the embankments also consist. The flow area of the canal differs with its different sections. The water will iſow 25 feet deep through the entire canal, and will attain a velocity of four and a half miles an hour. This will deliver, approxi- mately, 30,000 cubic feet of water every second to the turbines. The conduit terminates at the power house, which performs the function cf a dam, in which water wheels are so placed that the only escape for the water to the lower level is through them. The equipment consists of hydraulic and electric apparatus. Each hydraulic unit is composed of four new 33-inch American turbines, arranged in two parts on one shaft. Each pair is housed in one case and discharges into one draught tube. The in- stallation is of the horizontal, tandem type, the shaft and operating rigging peretrating the steel-plate bulkhead and coming out on the dynamo floor side. Each hydraulic unit, under normal conditions, equals 568 horse-power. Involved in the construction of this canal were 1,250,000 cubic yards of rock and 3,000,000 cubic yards of sand excavated and dredged. This material was all utilized 190 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS in reclaiming land under water, which is the property of the operating company. The material used consisted of 3,500,000 lineal feet of piles, 170,000 tons of con- crete and monolithic blocks, 90,000 cubic yards of sandstone masonry, 32,000 square yards of dry sandstone pavement, 260,000 barrels of cement, used in all masonry, and 24,000 square feet of iron roofing. LARGE TRACT OF NEW LAND MADE THROUGH EXCAVATION. Two hundred and sixty acres of land were reclaimed during the construction, be- ing filled in with the excavated material; 2,800 lineal feet of navigation docks were built; 22 miles of rails were laid and oper- ated. The excavation was carried on with an equipment of eight steam shovels, 24 locomotives and 350 four-yard dump-cars, all work being carried on night and day, excepting Sundays. The approximate cost of the entire right of way, canal, power-house, equipment, docks and appurtenant works, developing 57,000 horse power, is about $4,000,- 000. THE WORLD'S STUPENDOUS GRANARY Fifteen million barrels of flour is the annual output of the world's greatest gran- ary, at Minneapolis. For some time this city of the Northwest has been recognized as the largest primary wheat market of the world, and also the greatest milling center. Thousands of persons make annual trips to Minneapolis to see the great mills, and observe the process by which several train- loads of wheat are turned into flour in one day. But the methods of flour making have undergone so many radical changes within the past few years that men who were once experts in the business would now be novices. GREAT INCREASE IN CAPACITY OF FLOUIRING MILLS. The number of flouring mills in Minne- apolis is no greater than it was 20 years ago, but the present annual output of 15,- sº º º WHEAT FIELD, DAKOTA - WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 191 000,000 barrels exceeds that of 20 years ago by more than 650 per cent, and this in the face of the fact that some of the larger plants manufacture, in addition to their flour product, immense quantities of the different kinds of breakfast cereals now so --- - commonly used. The gain in capacity is due to the fact that most of the mills have been enlarged from time to time and equipped with the very best modern ma- chinery. LARGEST FLOUR MILL IN THE WORLD. As an illustration, the Pillsbury mill was constructed in 1880 with a daily capacity of 5,000 barrels, but it has been improved until its capacity is now 14,000 barrels. This is the largest flour mill in the world. * A MAMMOTH GRAIN ELEVATOR-"THE GREAT NORTHERN,” AT DULUTH. MECHANICAL PROCESS OF A GREAT FLOUR MILL. The flour mills of the present are a won- derful triumph of scientific industry, and when in full operation one of them seems 192 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS almost a thing of life. The wheat is shov- eled by machinery from the car into a large pit, from which it is taken into the endless machinery of the mill. It is then hurried on, this way and that, through secret pas- sages, from one side of the big mill to the other, now up, now down, through this machine and that, until finally every kernel is divided into as many component parts ducts a portion of the Mississippi upon a big wheel, and all the intricate machinery in the giant mill responds with a harmony that seems almost human. DECREASE IN THE PRICE OF FLOUR. Incidentally it may be mentioned that while the mills have been increasing their capacity and improving their processes the DUST COLLECTORS AND PURIFIERS, PILLSBURY “A” MILL, as the processes number, and each part drops into its own receptacle. It has been forced through all these by the mill's own machinery, without having been touched by human hands or seen by human eyes. No one is watching to see if it takes the proper course, or if any part of the machinery does its work; a lever is pulled which con- price of the product has been steadily de- creasing. In 1880 the average profit on a barrel of flour was about 75 cents, while now the millers think themselves fortunate when they figure up their profits and find that about 20 cents is realized after all ex- penses have been paid. It must not be inferred from this that - WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 193 the business of milling has reached a crisis, or that the meager profits on a barrel of flour, as compared with those of the early days, have affected the milling industry. The price of flour has been reduced through natural causes, but the reduction has been, perhaps, more than offset by the increased capacity of the mills through the introduc- tion of modern machinery. The lucrative- duced the price of grain carrying to ter- minal points in Mianesota nearly, if not quite, 66 per cent. But little more than ten years ago it cost twenty-six cents a hun- dred pounds to ship wheat from Min- neapolis to Chicago; to-day the same amount is carried for ten cents. Twenty years ago it cost from 15 to 18 cents a bushel to ship wheat from Duluth to Buf- GRINDING FLOUR, PILLSBURY “A” MILL. ness of all the large manufacturing indus- tries to-day depends upon the great volume of the output rather than upon the large percentages of profit. THE NEW MONSTER, ELEVATORS. Twenty years ago a car carried about four hundred bushels, but those now being built carry twelve hundred bushels. The building of new roads and improvements in methods of transportation have also re- falo; to-day a rate of three cents a bushel would be excessive. At that time a good cargo was 30,000 bushels; now those fig- ures may be multiplied by ten. A great grain market, created and fostered by an extensive system like that at Minneapolis, has made a radical change in the problem of storage construction. THE MODERN TERMINAL ELEVATOR, The modern terminal elevator, which is a child of necessity, has reached its present 194 WONDERS 04 4.NDUSTRIAL PROGRESS development through as many evolutions, per- haps, as those of the modern flour mill. There has been no change in recent years in the methods of oper- ating a terminal eleva- tor, except that in some cases electricity has been substituted for steam as power, and that in a few instances, the grain is conveyed by pneu- matic tubes instead of by cup-belts. But the shape and material of the structures have been completely revolution- ized. Some years ago, in this process of evolution, steel began to supplant wood as building material, and the Great Northern steel elevator of Duluth, which is capable * GRINDING FLOUR, PILLSBURY “A.” MILL. By courtesy of the “Scientific American.” BAKING BREAD IN ELECTRIC OVENS. of storing more grain under one roof than any other elevator in the world, is made wholly of steel. OUTSIDE STORAGE TANKS. == Cylindrical tanks for storage next began to be erected outside of and separate from the eleva- tor, instead of the long bins in the elo v at or proper. Some a re made of | steel, some of til- ing and some of cement. A wide, flat, rubber belt carries the grain from the upper story of the ele- wating plant, or WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 195 working house, to the tanks, and discharges it through a hole in the roof. When grain is shipped from a tank it is conveyed from the bottom of the structure through a subterranean passage to the elevator pit on a belt similar to the overhead belt which carries it to the tank. From the pit it is elevated to the shipping floor and spouted to a car. It is possible to keep grain making this circuit continu- ously, from the pit to the top of the “working house” by the cup-belt to the top of the tank by the horizon- tal belt, to the bottom of the tank by gravita- tion, and then to the elevator pit again by the un- derground pas- sage. Somtimes, e. damp grain is treated in this way to dry it. A conveying belt is three feet wide, and the stream of grain which falls upon its surface is from six to seven inches in diameter. A six-inch stream will empty a tank of about five thousand bushels of wheat in an hour. Each plant consists of a dozen of these tanks, more or less, and their capacity is about 100,000 bushels each. These are much more expensive than the old-style houses, but the extra expense is offset in a few years' time by the saving in insurance. Being strictly fireproof no in- surance is carried on the structure or its contents. Thus, while the mills have passed from the primitive to the modern era, and the methods of transportation have been im- proved, the elevators have kept pace with these improvements. STATE SUPERVISION OF TERMINAT, GRAIN MARKETS. In addition to the great industries al- TESTING FILOUR, PILLSBURY “A.” MILL. ready mentioned, Minnesota has a system of state supervision over the grain market at its terminal elevators, in which the grain dealers of the whole world are vitally in- terested. Other states adopt similar meas- ures, but do not compare in efficiency with this big cereal state of the northwest. Cer- tificates issued by Minnesota are accepted without question. In Illinois, the elevators are regulated by state commissioners. 196 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS THE GRAIN PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES, IN BUSHELS, FOR CERTAIN Indian Corn. Wheat. 1890 1,489,970,000 339,262,000 1895 2,151,138,580 467,102,947 1900 2,105,102,516 522,229,505 1901 2,111,107,411 531,645,723 533,472,076 2,412,110,376 PILLSBURY “A” M ILL THE LA RGEST BARRELS DAILY. From the following table, taken from the “Year Book of the Department of Agricul- ture,” may be seen the relative food values of flour, to- possessed by various grades gether with the refuse matter. egg as ša as Components. ###3 §3 ăţă ### Ecº- 3- 3-H E^* Water . . . . . . . . 12.75 11.75 12.25 12.85 Proteids . . . . . . 10.50 12.30 10.20 10.30 Ether Extract... 1.00 1.30 1.30 1.05 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . .50 .60 .90 .50 Moist, Gluten... 26.00 34.70 24.50 26.80 Dry Gluten. ... 10.00 13.10 9.25 10.20 Carbohydrates . 75.25 74.05 75.65 75.30 YEARS, IS AS FOLLOWS: Oats. 532,621,000 824,443,537 809,125,989 811,745,654 812,465,000 Barley. 67,168,344 87,072,744 58,925,833 59,634,156 60,474,001 Rye. 25,807,472 27,210,070 23,995,927 23,756,435 24,656.374 From the same authority are tabulated the following figures pertaining to a repre- sentative brand of self-raising flour. C #: gāº ?: on loonents. , ſº Lº Q = 5: Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.30 12.75 11.75 Proteids (factor 6.25). 10.10 10.50 12.30 Moist Gluten. . . . . . . . 27.00 26.00 34.70 Dry Gluten. . . . . . . . . 9.65 10.00 13.10 Ether Extracts. . . . . . . .70 1.00 1.30 Ash . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - 4.00 .50 .60 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . 72.90 75.25 74.99 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 197 RAILWAYS, THE ARTERIES OF COMMERCE IMPROVEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF RAILROADS. The entire steam-track mileage of rail- ways in the United States, in 1902, was 204,787. To this must be added 70,105 miles of second and side-track, making a total of 274,892 miles of track. In other parts of the world there were 300,000 miles more, which gives our own country about two-thirds of the entire mileage of the world. If the actual cost of construction and equipment, the production of the materials out of which the lines are built, the em- ployes engaged in railway operation, and the interests which depend for their pros- perity on the railway, are considered, it may be safely said that the planted the light ones of iron, and rock ballast is now used instead of sand, as here- tofore. Steel bridges span the streams, where once wooden structures sufficed. Iron culverts lessen the danger of being burned away, and curves and grades are straight- ened or leveled wherever such a thing is possible. In the mountainous district, tun- nels are being dug through the earth that the trains may not have to surmount steep grades. In the large cities the roads are being elevated or are already elevated, thus eliminating grade crossings, and the perfec- tion of various block and safety signals and railway is the greatest indus- trial factor in the world. In the handling of these great agencies of commerce, may be seen the handiwork of the skillful executive, and the able and efficient finan- cial management for which our American roads are noted. Then, too, ingenious inventors, are devoting their attention to the bringing for- ward of new ideas and new devices to pro- mote the construction of an up-to-date railroad. In every direction, East, West, North or South, old roads are being reconstructed and new ones are being built, with the ut- most care to assure the permanency of their tracks, the economy of their administration, and the comfort and safety of passengers. Heavy, ninety-pound steel rails have sup- By courtesy of the Chicago & Alton Railroad Company. THE FIRST COAL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVE. safety switch systems, helps to give addi- tional security to traffic and make high speed possible. MODERN TRAIN EQUIPMENT. Train equipment has improved with the increase in travel and the railway journey may now offer comforts and luxuries at a moderate price. But recently have the east- ern railroads put on “Twentieth Century” trains, which make the run from Chicago to New York, a distance of 940 miles, in 20 198 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS hours. Such trains are equipped with pal- ace sleeping and dining cars, drawing room and observation cars, a library, barber shop, cafe, card room and music room. These trains are lighted with electricity and are considered the most handsome and com- modious in the world. Modern, Up-to-Date Dining Car on the Ch RAILWAYS ABROAD. In every part of the world a spirit of energy rules in railway construction. On our own continent, our neighbors to the North and South are active. One transcon- tinental line crosses Canada, a second will soon be completed to Hudson Bay, and the Mexican Republic has, within a recent period, completed the construction of icago, Milwaukee & St. Paul System. 10,000 miles of railway within its borders. Surveys have also been made for an in- tercontinental railway to connect North and South America by way of the Isthmus of Panama. In South America, the Andes range of mountains has been a difficult ob- stacle for transatlantic lines to overcome, but already the moun- tains have been pene- trated and within the next five years the locomotive will be able to run from ocean to ocean. The Argentine Republic and Brazil have also been pene- trated with lines of railway, and even in Asia, the whole pol- itical and military sit- uation has been af- fected by the construc- tion of the Trans- Siberian railway, built by the Russian gov- ernment. Trains on the Si- berian railway are equipped as our own railways in America are, with sleeping and dining cars of Russian pattern. These trains also have bathrooms, gymnasiums and a church car, which travels with the train at intervals, in which priests hold services for the benefit of the faithful while º are speeding through the heart of Sla. WONDERS OF MINDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 199 GREAT TUNNELS While America possesses several ingeni- ously constructed bores in the earth for means of transit, it does not claim a reputa- tion for great tunnels. The greatest length of any tunnel in the United States is the Hoosac tunnel, four and three-quarter miles long. Most others do not much exceed a mile. It consumed 21 years to build the Hoosac tunnel and cost $15,000,000. Of late years, rapid transit in the great cities has be- come such a serious problem, that its solu- tion, in some cases, has lain in the construction of underground rail- ways, so that the city streets may be relieved of their great conges- tion. For years, the engineers of the world have been at work to de- vise the best methods to construct these tunnels. LONDON’S THREE TUINNELS. London has been suc- cessful already, and now possesses three great un- derground railway sys- tems, besides having in projection several oth- ers. The systems cost over $200,000,000 and were completed only after scores of con- tracts had been made and broken. The mileage of these systems is about 150 miles. BOSTON AND NEW YORK TUNNES. Boston has a very good system for short distances, and New York has under con- Tunnel extends three miles under Lake Michigan to Intake. taken 200 feet underground by flashlight. by means of compressed air. OF THE WORLD struction a system that will rival that of London. The New York undertaking is marvelous. Twenty-one miles of tunneling has to be done under the busy traffic of the most congested city of this continent. The streets are threaded with conduits, sewers and gas and water mains, and, sadly enough, one great disaster has occurred By courtesy or Tawrence & Co. SHIELD SHOWING MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING WATER CHANNELS FOR LARGE CITIES. This picture is The construction of the tunnel is made through an explosion which cost many lives, and wrecked some of the great buildings of New York. When the subway is completed, it is expected that the 21 miles can be traversed in about 18 minutes. The time required at present is over an hour. The bore is 50 feet wide, reaching almost from 200 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS curb to curb of the street above if, and is 17 feet high. It traverses the city from the post office building to Ninety-sixth street, and is so constructed that it will accommo- date four tracks. Two of these will be used for express trains, and two, for local. The cars will be equipped individually with mo- tors, and will be run by electricity. At cer- tain points the tunnel reaches near the sur- face, so that stations may admit people to the trains. Here the tunnel is flat-roofed, and is supported on pillars. From the post office to Thirty-third street there is one main tunnel, and at this point, it branches into two tunnels. At Forty-second street, the tunnels come together again, and so continue to the end. Enameled brick is used for lining the bore, electric lights, placed in niches in the wall, illuminate the place, and entrance to and exit from the tunnel are made by separate stairways. THE CHICAGO TUNINEL. Chicago is discussing at present the feasi- bility of subways for its crowded street car traffic. Already there is a bore constructed many feet below its principal thorough- fares, almost large enough to admit cars. This tunnel is to accommodate conduits for compressed air tubes for the transmission of mail and express packages, and for tele- graph, telephone, and electric light wires. It will probably be only a short time before the right will be given to widen this tunnel, and street cars will be run through it. PARIS METROPOLITAN RAILWAY TUN- INEIL. Of city tunnels, that which the Paris Metropolitan Railway built for its three transverse lines, all of which, one above the other, run under the Grand Opera House in Paris, is among the most notable. The stage portion of the “Opera” is 12 or 14 stories high, four or five of which are un- derground, and one wonders how much of a subterranean journey a passenger will be obliged to take to board a train on the neth- ermost of the transverse lines, that running from Autenil to La Madeline. The Alps are most notable for great tun- nels. There is the Arlberg, six and a half miles long; the Mount Cenis, seven and a quarter miles; St. Gothard, nine and a quarter miles, and Simplon, which will be 12% miles long when the builders get through the mountain. THE ST, GOTHARD TUNNEL. About 1855, when the people of the Alpine country tired of packing their goods by mules over the mountains, they resolved upon a tunnel. Work was begun, in 1857, with pick axes and crowbars. The work was done both in France and Italy, but so slow was the method that from two to eight feet a day, only, could be bored. After driving at the rocks for five years, a Frenchman, named Sommeiller, invented a drill that could bore a hole in 20 minutes which men could not dig in two hours. After that the work went on at a greater pace, and the tunnel was finished in 1871. RAILROAD THIRTY-ONE MILEs Long, COSTING $52,000,000. Communication by tunnel had hardly begun between France and Italy when work was begun on the St. Gothard railway. This necessitated more tunnels, and the re- sult was the most stupendous system in ex- istence today. The St. Gothard tunnel has its northern entrance near the small village of Goeschenen, Switzerland. It is 14,920 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 201 meters in length, and has a double roadway. It was finished about 1881, and the time consumed in its construction was eight years. This road, though a short one, was built at an expense of $52,000,000, passing through one of the most mountainous coun- tries of the world, crossing 14 viaducts, 115 bridges, and traversing 79 tunnels, with an aggregate length of about 31 miles. The railway follows the valley of the Reuss River, running southward from Lucerne, and rising gradually as it passes the jagged Spannorter, and the glacier of Schlossberg. Every mile of progress entails tedious as- cent, for the route lies past the Britenstock, Oberalphstock, and the Grosse Windgall, mountains, over 10,000 feet high. When the grade becomes too steep for the moun- tain-climbing locomotive, the road dives through the heart of the mountain and winds spirally upwards in constant ascent. In one of the tunnels, called the Pfaffnes- prung loop, a rise of 155 feet is attained, and the road then comes out upon a terrace, where the climbing is easier. Next comes the Wattinger tunnel, where another in- cline takes the road for an ascent of 75 feet. At this point the line turns upon itself in a long loop until the Liggestine tunnel is reached, and another ascent of 82 feet is made. Shortly, the great St. Gothard tun- nel is reached, and the road plunges through nine and a quarter miles of solid rock. From this point, gradually, it begins its downward course through the interiors of four mountains, at last reaching the plains more than 3,000 feet below. The tunnel of St. Gothard passes under a mile of solid earth, to say nothing of the Lake of Sella, which lies about two-thirds of a mile above its roof. Towering 6,000 feet above the tunnel, is the Kastlehorn. So great is the pressure of the earth on the tunnel that twice it crushed in. Now the roof and walls are held in place by huge arches of ma- sonry, 15 feet thick at the sides, and ten feet, at the roof. The building of the tun- nel took one year for each mile and the cost was $11,350,000. With the most improved MINE TUNNEL, COLORADO. drills, compressed air, etc., the workmen could progress only 14% feet in a day. THE ARLBERG TUNNEL. Another great bore through the Alps is the Arlberg. This is about as long as Mt. Cenis, six and a half miles, yet it took only about one-fourth of the time to build 14 202 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS it. It was begun in 1880, and progressed at the rate of 27% feet a day, finishing in 1884. This tannel facilitates trade in Aus- tro-Hungary by connecting the province of Won Arlberg, through the Arl mountain, with the rest of the Austrian Tyrol. Prince Torlonia built one of the earliest, Successful, European tunnels, between 1854 and 1876, over the route used by Emperor Claudius, of Rome. The old em- peror is said to have used 30,000 laborers, for 11 years, on this tunnel, to drain Lake Fucino, which at that time covered 48,000 acres of fertile land. Soon after it was first completed, however, it fell into ruins. Prince Torlonia rescued it at an expense of $4,800,000. It is three and a half miles long, and in some places, runs 400 feet below the surface of the ground. MIT. CENIS TUNINEL. Mt. Cenis Tunnel is situated 16 miles from Mt. Cenis between the province of Turin in Italy and the Department of La Savoie, in France, at the junction of the Graian with the Cottian Alps. Its total length is 40,084 feet or 7.6 miles. The elevation of the southern entrance above the sea is 4,237 feet; of the northern en- trance, 3,802 feet; of the terminating point, 4,247 feet. The tunnel is broad enough for two double lines of tracks. It was begun August 31, 1857, completed De- cember 26, 1870, and cost $1,500,000. The first tunnel built in the United States was that on the Union Canal, con- structed between 1818 and 1821. It was 450 feet wide, 20 feet high and 80 feet wide, but has since been made an open cut. Twenty months' building put through a noted subwater tunnel for the Grand Trunk Railway under the St. Clair river. This bore is 6,050 feet long, and cost $3,000,- 000. Many of the western railways of the United States have tunnels that they may well be proud of, although generally in this country, tunnels are avoided where pos- sible by making detours. The Great Northern Railway has a tunnel in Mon- tana over 6,000 feet long, and Mullen's tunnel, on the route of the Northern Pa- cific Railroad, strikes through the Conti- mental Divide of the Rocky Mountains. At Idaho Springs, Colorado, is being constructed, to facilitate mining operations, a tunnel which starts at the base of the mountain, and will penetrate the range at a depth of many thousand feet below the mines, which are worked far up toward the summit. Its course lies through about 86 of the best known and most productive gold and silver veins in Colorado. THE SIMPLON TUNNEL. As to the Simplon Tunnel, the longest in the world, The “Engineering Record.” says: “The northern terminus of the tun- nel is readily reached by railway from Geneva. Its purpose is to save about seventy-seven kilometers in the railway dis- tance between Paris and Milan, as com- pared with the Mont Cenis and St. Gothard routes. This saving is between seven and eight per cent of the total distance, and to effect it will involve the expenditure of 69,500,000 francs. “The total length of the main tunnel will be 19,770 kilometers; elevation of first portal, 686 meters; second portal, 634 meters; summit height of tunnel, 704 meters; summit height of mountain, 2,840 meters; surcharge of tunnel, 2,135 meters; maximum rock temperature, cent. degrees, 40. 0.” WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 203 SCIENCE THE BENEFACTOR OF THE FARMER wonDERFUL ACHIEVEMENT BY THE Iowa ExPERIMENT STATIONs. “How can I best feed my corn to increase its feeding value?” has been a leading ques- tion with thousands of farmers for years. The idea of marketing the grain on the hoof in the form of beef or pork, instead of in a bag, is not a new one, but while corn is conceded to be the greatest of all meat-forming cereals, there is something Jacking. In order to secure this something, the farmer mixes with his corn some con- centrated feed such as cottonseed meal, linseed meal, blood meal, gluten meal or gluten food. PROTEIN AN ESSENTIAL IN CATTLE IFEED. The element lacking in raw corn is nitro- gen, commonly termed “protein.” Protein is necessary to form bone, muscle, lean meat, tissue, the hair on animals and the feathers on fowls. It is most difficult to grow economically; hence the use of con- centrated feeds which contain from two to four times as much protein as corn in its raw state. The corn and other grains fed in connection with these concentrated feeds form what is known as the “balanced ra- tion,” the value of which was discovered in 1864 by Dr. Emil von Wolff, the emi- ment German scientist, who published, for the first time, standards based upon the di- gestible nutrients of feeding stuffs. It was Dr. Wolff's idea to determine the feeding ration that would supply in the correct pro- portions the carbonaceous, nitrogenous and fatty elements necessary to secure the best growth and development of our farm ani. mals, without the waste of any of the mu- trients. Farmers did not take kindly to the idea at first,-"nothing can improve corn,” they said; but the agricultural colleges proved that Dr. Wolff's methods were not only practical, but absolutely necessary to in- sure the greatest profit in the development of young, growing animals, and finishing cattle, hogs and sheep for market. To-day, thousands of progressive farmers use, and understand the value of, the “balanced ra- tion,” but, large as the growth of the idea appears, it is nothing compared with what the future will bring forth. The work of Dr. Wolff, aided by our own scientists, has been worth millions of dollars to the Amer- ican farmer, and these millions will be in- creased tenfold as the adoption of the bal- anced ration grows apace. When the hot winds of the summer of 1891 seared the growing corn and de- stroyed a large portion of the crop, the farmers and feeders were confronted with the most serious problem in the history of their business. A short corn crop, no grass, and a heavy demand for beef and pork, brought them face to face with an almost insurmountable difficulty, unless they could feed the grain then rapidly advancing in price, at a profit. Farmers who had adopt- ed the balanced ration began to think and figure more closely as to the probable value of concentrated feeds,-which of them con- 204 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS tained the highest percentage of digestible protein, -which of them would produce the greatest gains in flesh for the amount of feed consumed ! This sºrious study of the feeding question has undoubtedly re- sulted in greater progress and enlighten- ment during the year 1892 than in the pre- vious ten years combined. PATENT MEDICINAL STOCK FOODS. People who talk about the beef trust and complain about trust prices, have not the remotest idea of the trials and tribulations of the man who produces the beef. One of the greatest evils with which the farmer has to contend is the patented, medicinal stock-foods, manufactured at a cost of less than $30 per ton, and sold at prices rang- ing from $150 to $200 per ton, or more. These mixtures usually consist of the cheap- est of mill feeds, such as bran, low grade corn meal, wheat middlings, etc., to which has been added a small amount of sulphur, Epsom salts, charcoal, fenugreek and other drugs. The manufacturers claim that these mixtures will not only promote digestion and increase the appetite, but will cure every ill that the animal is heir to; the same mixture that is recommended to cure gapes in fowls is also recommended to cure hog cholera, and guaranteed to make cows give more milk. The makers of the so-called foods with all the force of the English lan- guage at their command, played upon the credulity of the farmer to such an extent that thousands bought heavily, hoping to make their corn crop of 1901 last longer and fatten the stock quicker, but in a major- ity of cases the result was the opposite from what was expected. Other disturbers of the farmers’ tranquillity were the scarcity of feed, and the high prices of animals suit- able for finishing at a profit. - THE IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT. In January, 1901, the question of feed- ing cattle in such a way that would net the farmer a profit became almost a national issue. To settle the question of feeds, and especially, medicinal stock foods, the Iowa College of Agriculture decided to plan and conduct a feeding test that would deter- mine the feeding value of the various con- centrated feeds, as well as the several makes and brands of stock foods on the market. It was the idea of its promoters to make this test the most extensive of its kind. There had been numerous other tests, but all had been on such a small scale as to be of"no practical value to the farmer. The test as planned was carried to a suc- cessful termination on a famous Western farm. From a herd of over 700 range steers, 220 representative animals were se- lected, and all were of as uniform quality as it was possible to get them. The bunch of 220 was divided into eleven lots of 20 head each placed in separate feed lots under conditions such as can be secured on any farm in the corn belt. Wheat straw was the “roughness,” and corn the only grain fed throughout the entire test. Lot No. 1 received a daily ration of corn and wheat-straw; the other lots were fed on concentrated feeds and medicated stock foods, as follows: Lot No. 2, linseed oil meal; lot No. 3, cottonseed meal; lot No. 4, glu- ten meal; lot No. 5, gluten feed; lot No. 6, germ oil meal; lot No. 7, blood meal; lot No. 8, Iowa stock food; lot No. 9, Inter- national stock food; lot No. 10, Standard stock food; and lot No. 11, corn and green pasture. The feeding test extended over a period of 94 days. The steers had previously been WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 205 fed a partial grain ration for several months, and were just good average ani- mals. At the conclusion of the test the cattle were sold on the Chicago market, and the results published by the Iowa experi- amenters in an official bulletin. In the table of profits as given by the bulletin, a wide variation is shown; the rations of gluten meal, and corn and wheat straw, returned a net profit of $3.50 per steer, more than was returned by the ration of corn and wheat straw alone; the gluten feed and corn returned a net profit of $3.11 more than the straight corn ration. The medi- cated stock foods proved to be a detriment to the feed of corn, the net profit, per steer, being from $1.40 to $8.16, less than was returned by the straight corn ration. There was an advantage of 97 cents per steer in feeding dried blood, 48 cents, in green pas- ture, and 36 cents, in oil meal. Cotton- seed meal resulted disastrously; after 42 days, several of the steers died suddenly, and the rest went blind and were mar- keted. - The test further proved that corn worth around 60 cents per bushel on the open mar- ket, actually returned a net value of 93 cents per bushel, when fed alone; $1.04 per bushel, when fed in connection with gluten meal; and $1.03 per bushel, when balanced with gluten feed; but the value was reduced 21 and 22% cents per bushel, when the medicated stock foods were used. Professor W. J. Kennedy, vice director of the Iowa station, and instructor in Ani- mal Husbandry, originated the experiment and with the aid of his assistants, Pro- fessor F. R. Marshall and R. J. Kinzer, a graduate student, had entire charge of the work. All are young men, yet in the “twenties,” and are enthusiastic in their work of teaching the farmer how to feed along scientific (common-sense) lines. Professor Kennedy says that this was undoubtedly the greatest feed- ing experiment ever undertaken in this or any other country. It proved that no matter how high or low the price of corn may be, its value may be increased by add- ing the by-products of the grain known as gluten meal and gluten feed. The farmer may now sell a portion of his corn crop, feed these “concentrates” liberally, and not only save a part of the money made by the sale of his own corn, but realize a greater profit from his fat cattle. This, though astonishing, is nevertheless a fact. BY-PRODUCTs of coPN. In the march of scientific progress, the farmer has received a good share of the benefits. Corn, the most versatile of all our farm crops, is made to yield nearly 100 separate and distinct products, of great value to art and science. Of these by-prod- ucts gluten meal is made by first soaking the grain; then, by mechanical devices, the different parts of the kernel are separated. First the germ is taken out, and then the bran, which is the husk of the corn, is sepa- rated from the gluten and starchy portions; the gluten and starch are then separated by a filter process; the starch, being the heavier, sinks to the bottom, while the gluten runs off, and is kiln-dried and ground into meal. Gluten feed is a mix- ture of gluten meal and fancy corn bran. Both of these products are highly concen- trated and contain a high percentage of digestible protein, the element lacking in raw corn. The farmer can buy in one ton of either of these feeds, as much flesh mate- rial as there is in three tons of corn, and at, 206 WOWDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS practically, the same price that a single top of grain will cost. Prominent feeders throughout the West consider the Odebolt test the greatest achievement in the history of the cattle industry. POULTRY KILLING BY MACHINERY Poultry-killing by machinery is the latest innovation made by the big packers at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago. In olden times the method used for slaughter- ing fowls was to catch them and wring ſº º KILLING 10,000 CBICKENS, 8,000 DUCKS AND 6,000 TURKEYS PER DAY. their necks or chop off their heads with an ax or large cleaver. To-day that process has been superseded by one that, while it may not seem humane, is by far the most rapid method ever introduced for killing chickens, ducks, geese or turkeys. THE FATTENING ROOM. In describing this twentieth-century method of slaughter, let us begin at the time when the chicken or turkey reaches the packing house. The fowls arrive in car --- º - . - º º to the lots and are at once transferred “feeding-room,” where they are kept for ninety days, to “fill out.” Then, if at the end of that period they are found to be fat enough to slaughter, the killing is begun. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 207 THE KILLING FLOOR. From the feeding room to the “killing floor” there is a chute through which the fowls are “shot” into a cage which acts as a receptacle on the floor below. Standing directly in front of this cage is a man whose duty is to lift the birds from the cage and place them upon an endless chain, which runs directly in front of him. In placing the fowl upon the endless chain it is turned upside down, both feet being placed in small prongs, spread a sufficient distance apart to make picking possible. Then a weighted tin can, which weighs about eight ounces, is attached to the bill of the fowl by a “snap.” The bird is still alive. This ends the man's duty at the cage, and the bird moves along to the next man, who sticks an awl into its gullet, which kills it. Then the blood drips down into the weighted can and later finds its way to the fertilizer works, where it is utilized. After this operation the bird continues on its way, passing en route 20 men, each of whom, in turn, removes a few of the feath- ers as it passes along. Eight of these men are stationed inside a great iron cage, and it is their duty to pick off the best feathers, which are saved and sold to pillow manu- facturers. - GIGANTIC ICEBERG OF NORTHERN GREENLAND, When the fowl has reached the end of the chain it is taken off by a man and passed over to an inspector. Should there still remain any small feathers upon it, it is taken to a hook which projects from the wall, and there gone over by a “cleaner.” At the conclusion of this operation, if the inspector is satisfied, it is placed upon the racks, and within a few minutes, is wheeled into the big coolers. This is what is known as the dry picking process. THE SCALDING IPROCESS. There is also a scalding process, which is operated upon a similar plan, only that after the bird has been “stuck,” it is drawn along on an endless chain, which carries it through a “scalding tub,” where the feath- ers are removed. It then goes into a “cool- ing tub,” and later, finds its way to the cooler. So rapid is this method of killing fowls that in a day of ten hours, 10,000 chickens, 8,000 ducks and 6,000 turkeys may be slaughtered. The average wages earned by men in this department are $1.75 per day. It is not an uncommon thing for the pack- ers to have 40,000 fowls in the “feed room” at one time. This enables the shippers to cool and pack to advantage. 208 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS - HOW GLASS IS Glass making has come to be one of the line arts. Not only is much of our domestic ware made of glass, but bric-a-brac costing thousands of dollars, exquisite colored win- dows, and even delicate scientific instru- ments come from the hands of the glass- maker. - MELTING THE SILICATES. The minerals used nowadays for glass manufacture consist principally of sili- cates, such as lime, potassium, lead and soda, and other ingredients are used, in- cluding phosphorous, magnesium, tin, iron and bismuth. These ingredients are mixed after a proper formula and are heated for weeks in great porcelain crucibles, spe- cially prepared for the occasion and ending their service with one baking. For weeks, a terrific heat is kept up within a great furnace, and this mixture is finally brought to its proper molten con- sistency. The master workman repeatedly tests the glass by means of a stirring pad- dle, through what is called the “glory” hole. When the mixture is just right, a large iron mold, which is to receive the fiery mass, is brought up ready for the pouring, and placed between the heating furnace and another furnace known as the “cooler.” The inside of this iron mold is dusted with a quantity of fine sand, to pre- vent the absorption of impurities from the iron by the glass. After these preparations have been made, a signal is given, a num- ber of workmen tear down the walls of the furnace, and by means of a huge pair of tongs on wheels, the crucible is lifted and drawn from the furnace. The workmen, MADE TO-DAY lest the glass lose too much of its haat, cover the crucible over with a mat of asbestos until it has been brought to the iron mold. The grappling irons on the crucible are changed so that by means of pressure on a bar, the pot may be overturned. The sec- ond signal is given, and gently, without great splutter or noise, the fiery liquid flows into the mold. This mold is covered by an iron lid, and a crane picks up the whole thing and run- ning it along a portable tramway, slides the cast glass into the cooling furnace. IFINISHING LIENSES. Gradually, during several weeks, the glass gives up its heat within this furnace. When it is removed, it looks more like sanded glass than a future object glass for a great telescope. Polishing now must be done until the lens becomes clear. Even then it is not ready for scientific uses, for, after the testings to which it is put, it must go back once more to the furnace for a bet- ter heating, and be perfected to anneal. The next cooling takes about two months. Then the real lens makers set to polishing it to a degree of extraordinary fineness. When the bare glass, free from serious flaw, reaches the hands of the lens maker it is worth about $5,000; when it leaves him it has grown in value very much—some- times as much as $25,000. MAKING THERMOMETER, TUISES. Of other kinds of glass manufacture, that of making thermometer tubes is very interesting. The heating of the glass is much the same as in other methods. The WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 209 furnaces are within a long corridor. At the right temperature, a workman plunges a blow pipe into the glass, attaching a small lump of the molten material to the end of it. This for some time is blown and whirled, until it grows to about the size of an apple. A little more glass is then added, and the lump is rolled and kneaded on an iron kneading board. When the proper amount of rolling has been done, another workman quickly attaches the end of his blow pipe to the glass, and runs rapidly backwards away from the other, down the corridor. Both men all the time blow fiercely into their pipes. In a trice they have a small glass tube about the size of one's finger, and perhaps 300 feet long, lying on the floor of the corridor. This can readily be broken up into desired lengths for use in thermometers, barometers and other scientific instruments. -- IRRIGATION OF THE NILE REGION BARRAGE AT ASSIOUT-2,750 FEET LONG. SOUTH OF UPSTREAM SIDE OF THE DA º º - - - º -- º sº º - ----- - º º - M AT ASSOUAN, FROM WEST BANK. Total length, 1% miles; maximum height above foundation, 130 feet; difference of water level above and below, 67 feet. The monumental dam at Assouan, which is by far the greatest achievement of its kind in ancient or modern times, forms a reservoir in the Nile valley capable of stor- ing 1,000,000,000 tons of water, practically creating a lake more than 140 miles long. The foundation stone was laid by the Duke of Connaught on February 12, 1899. At times fifteen thousand men have been em- ployed, and work has gone on day and Total weight of masonry, over 1,000,000 tons. night. At other times, when the Nile was in flood, labor had to be suspended for sev- eral weeks. One gains a clearer idea of the magni- tude of the task by recalling the first step taken; that was, to divert the channel and excavate in the rocky river-bed a trench one hundred feet wide and as many feet deep, in which to lay a concrete foundation for the massive piers. 210 WONDERS Olſ' INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS At its best, and controlled, the Nile is very generous, as befits the majesty of its three thousand miles. Joseph the Israelite drew some of his prosperity from it. Ozu of the irrigation canals he planned for Pharaoh's people is still in use. But in most moods the Nile is a sullen and incon- stant stream, and even in the days when Egypt was the granary of imperial Rome about 15 feet and throwing it at a high until, of recent years, the British recon. structed them. This work consists, in effect, of two brick arched viaducts cross- ing the Rossetta and Damietta branches of the Nile, having, together, 132 arches of 16-feet-four-inches-span, which were en- tirely closed by iron sluices during the sum- mer months, thus heading up the water : - there seems to have been no comprehensive attempt to govern it. Napoleon had a faint perception of the thing that needed to be done when he sug- gested a dam near Cairo. That, he real- ized, would double the cultivable area around the river's mouth. In the earlier portion of the 19th century two barrages were actually built at that spot by a French engineer—badly built, however, and useless THE GREAT DAM AT, ASSOUAN. Entrance to locks of navigation channel from the south. level into the six main-irrigation canals be- low Cairo. In the summer months the whole flow of the Nile is arrested and thrown into the aforesaid canals. The most important of the works con structed to enable the water stored up in the great reservoir to be utilized to the greatest advantage is the barrage across the Nile at Assiout, about 250 miles above Cairo, which was commenced by Sir John WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 211 Aird & Company in the winter of 1898, and completed in 1902. In general prin- ciple this work resembles the old barrage at the apex of the delta; but in details of construction there is no similarity, nor in material, as the old work is of brick and the new one is of stone. The total length of the structure is 2,750 feet, or rather more than half a mile, and it includes 111 arched openings of 16 four-inch spans, capable of being closed by steel sluice- gates 16 feet in hight. The object of the work is to improve the perennial irrigation of lands in Middle Egypt and the Fayoum, and to bring an additional area of about 300,000 acres under such irriga- tion by throwing more water at a higher level into the great Ibrahim- ick Canal, the intake of which is immediately above the barrage. The total length of the dam is about a mile and a quarter; the maximum height from the foundation is about 130 feet; the difference of level water above and below, 67 feet; and the total weight of masonry over 1,000,000 tons. Navigation is pro- vided for by a “ladder,” of four locks, each 260 feet long by 32 feet wide. As with the case of Assiout, the difficulties in dam construction are not in design, but in the carrying out of the works. When “rotten rock” in the bed was discovered, Sir Ben- jamin Baker frankly reported to Lord Cromer that he could not say what the extra cost and time involved by this and - º º THE NAVIGATION CHANNEL ENTRANCE LOCKS FROM THE NORTH. other unforeseen conditions would be, but that, however bad the conditions, the job could be done. He was told to go ahead with the work. - The first channel was successfully closed on May 17, 1899, the depth being about 30 feet and the velocity of the current about 15 miles an hour. In the case of another channel, the closing had to be helped by tipping in railway wagons them- selves, loaded with heavy stones and bound * º together with wire ropes, making a weight of about 50 tons—this great mass being necessary to resist displacement by the tor- rent. These rubble dams were well tested when the high Nile ran over them; and on work being resumed in November, after the fall of the river, water-tight sand-bag dams, or “sudds,” were made around the site of the dam foundation in the still waters above the rubble dams, and pumps were fixed to lay dry the bed of the river. This was the most exciting time in the early stage of the operations, for no one could predict whether it would be possible 212 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS LOOKING TO THE EAST ALONG THE TOP OF THE DAM. Regulating gear for sluices to the right. to dry the bed, or whether the water would come pouring through the fissured rocks in altogether overwhelming volumes. Twenty- four 12-inch centrifugal pumps were pro- vided to deal if necessary with one small channel; but, happily, the sand bags and gravel and sand embankments staunched the fissures in the rock and the interstices between the great bowlders covering the bottom of this channel, and a couple of twelve-inch pumps sufficed. ARMY OF WORKERS. The masonry of the dam is of local gran- ite, set in British, Portland-cement mortar. The interior is of rubble set by hand, with about 40 per cent of the bulk in cement mortar, four parts of sand to one of cement. All the face work is, of course, rock-faced ashlar, except the sluice linings, which are finely dressed. The maximum number of men employed on this dam was 11,000. OLD SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION. The old system of irrigation was little more than a high Nile flooding of different areas of land or basins surrounded by embankments. Less than a hundred years ago, perennial irrigation was first at- tempted to be introduced by cutting deep canals to convey the water to the lands when the Nile was at its low summer level. When the Nile rose, these canals had to be blocked by temporary earthen dams, or the current would have wrought destruction. As a result, they silted up, and had to be cleared of many millions of tons of mud each year by enforced labor, much misery and extortion resulting therefrom. Moreover, the old canals and the dams at the delta barely touched the surface of Egypt’s irrigation problem, the problem of avoiding drouth and making waste lands fertile. The great dams at Assouan and Siut, “inaugurated” in the summer of 1903, go to the bottom of things in more than one sense of the word. At Assouan, near the First Cataract, nearly six hundred miles from Cairo, the Nile is a mile wide. The dam is a quarter-mile wider, a great granite wall that rises ninety feet above the EARLY IRRIGATION IN EGYPT. Most primitive methods of farming prevail. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 213 level of low Nile, and is sixty feet wide at the top. When the river is in flood, its waters gush through one hundred and eighty mas- sive sluice-gates. In autumn the sluice- gates are closed until the reservoir thus formed is full, ready to be distributed through canals and ditches over the agri- cultural land on eifher side. In April and August, when the water is most wanted for the crops, the supply in the lower river is increased from the reservoir. THE DAM AT, SIUT. At Siut, about half-way between Assouan and Cairo, is a subsidiary dam a half-mile wide, with more than one hundred sluice- gates. Broadly speaking, the two reservoirs add $400,000,000 in land values to region covered by their operation. +1-2- va-vº- OLIVE CULTURE ON AN EXTENSIVE SCALE THE WORLD'S BIGGEST OLIVE ORCHARD. The United States has no rival as far as climate and other resources are concerned. In the West India Islands which we have acquired, in Samoa, in the Hawaiian Islands, and in the Philippines, can be produced every tropical product that has a commercial value. Hereafter, we may grow our own spices and tropical fruits, our coffee and our hemp, and numerous other peculiarly tropical productions, which are not produced in the United States proper. RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES IN CLIMATE AND SOIL. In our own country, between the Atlantic and the Pacific, from British America Orl the north, to Mexico on the south, we have such a variety of resources from the soil and the mountains, from the forests and the plains, as to make us almost absolutely independent of the world's markets, if by chance we should be isolated from them. It is true that no part of the United States is in the tropics, yet in Southern California and Florida the balmy climate makes the cultivation of most of the more important tropical plants possible. In Southern California is located the largest olive orchard in the world. There are also others that outclass the olive groves of the Mediterranean in size. Only in a limited area of central and southern California, and in New Mexico and Arizona, can the olive be produced, in this country. It is quite certain, therefore, that there will not be an over production. ORIGIN OF THE OLIVE IN CALIFORNIA. Olive orchards in Italy are looked upon as perpetual fountains of wealth. It is more than a hundred years since the first of these orchards was planted by the Span- ish mission fathers of California, who did so much to influence the early industries and life of that state when it was a part of Spanish Mexico. The success of their olive-tree cultivation proved the adapta- bility of the climate, and ever since that time the industry has been steadily grow- ing. From the olives that are grown in California is produced from 24 to 31 per cent of oil. They are richer and more palatable, when pickled, than are the im- ported green olives from Italy. The de- 214 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS mand for ripe olives is steadily on the increase, and in the year 1902 it was about 30 per cent more than in the preceding year. THE OLIVE TREE MORE WALUABLE WEIEN OLD. The older the olive tree becomes, the more valuable it is to its owner, because of its prolific bearing. The wood of olive trees is highly prized by cabinet makers, for it is exceedingly hard and susceptible to a high polish. THE WORLD'S BIGGEST OLIVE ORCHARD. This mammoth enterprise is located at Sylmar, twenty miles from Los Angeles, California, in a beautiful amphitheater in the Sierra Madre mountains. The ranch contains more than 120,000 trees. There are 1,200 acres under cultiva- tion, covering an area whose greatest length is three miles and whose breadth is two and one-half miles. Each acre contains 110 trees, and it is estimated will produce 2,000 gallons of olives yearly for the next 20 years. This amount will make 250 gallons of oil, which, at $2 per gallon, will make the revenue $500 per acre. There are forty miles of roads within the ranch. Two hun- dred and ten thousand dollars has been in- vested in the orchard and $15,000 in the factory. The crop of 1903 is valued at $225,000. TEN TIMES LARGER THAN SPAIN'S GREATEST. Although the olive tree has been culti- vated for more than 4,000 years, and olives have formed a staple food of some of the oldest races of earth, yet the young orchard at Sylmar is ten times as large as the largest olive orchard in Spain or the Holy Land. One hundred and fifty men are employed in gathering the olives in harvest time, which is throughout the months of Novem- ber, December, January, and on into Feb- ruary. The olive berries frequently weigh down the branches until they touch the ground. Two hundred pounds is a good average day's pick, at an average wage of about $1.50 per day. The Sylmar ranch was planted about 1894, and the trees yield about 50 pounds of olives each. An olive tree does not come into bearing until it is four or five years of age. As the trees are supposed to live 4,000 years, indeed, some of the trees on the Mount of Olives, in the Holy Land, are known to be over 3,000 years old—an olive orchard may be reckoned on permanently. BILLOWY EXPANSE OF SILVER GRAY. The big olive orchard at Sylmar presents a vision of surpassing loveliness. As far as the eye can reach it is one sweeping, bil- lowy expanse of silver gray. The olive trees themselves are not unlike willows in their graceful, somewhat drooping, sil- houette. The trees are arranged in orderly rows, and near at hand one sees the pecul- iarly beautiful shade known as olive green, which becomes a silver gray whenever a breath of wind discloses the under side of the leaf. In the distance the perspective reduces the size and assembles the trees, producing an effect much like a waving field of grain. The earth on the surface is always care- fully pulverized, and, consequently, the water has been drawn up by capillary at traction. There is a strong underground seepage from the surrounding hills. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 215 IMAMMOTH SICILIAN OLIVE TREES. In Sicily, olive trees have been known to attain enormous size, one having grown to the dimensions of 26 feet in circumference, with an expanse at the top of fully 150 feet. Italy produces, annually, 70,000,000 gal- lons of olive oil; Spain, 23,000,000, and the United States, about 7,000,000. The olive berry always grows on new wood, and, in order to increase the yield, the tree is “cut back” and new wood springs out, which bears fruit the second year. It is said that the roots of the olive tree extend as far into the earth as the branches rise above the soil. GATHERING THE CROP. The olives are carefully gathered in can- was buckets made for this purpose, and are brought to the factory in spring wagons, to keep them from bruising. The berries are gathered when ripe, although “ripe” olives are frequently “green” in color. After they reach the factory the olives are graded into “ones,” “twos,” or “threes,” according to size. They are then put into a solution of one pound of lye to ten gallons of water. This takes out the bitterness. Here they remain a week to ten days. Then the lye is soaked out by fresh running water, and if they are for table use they are put into a solution of brine, where they remain per- manently until bottled up or shipped away. The olives to be used for oil are gath- ered from the tree a good deal riper than those used for the table. The oil is ex- tracted by a series of “crushers” and hy- draulic presses, which are composed of materials that will not absorb odors, stone and metal being used as much as is possible. and finally screwed home. CRUSHING AND PRESSING. In Italy the olive fruit is crushed and pressed by a simple process. A platform of strong masonry is made about 40 inches high and ten feet long, the surface of the top being slightly hollowed. At the center a strong, vertical, wooden axis is erected, to which is affixed, at right angles to the platform, a millstone about 12 inches broad and weighing about 1,600 pounds. By means of a shaft and yoke beam, a donkey, or ox, slowly moves the stone around. The olives are emptied into the mill trough and crushed to pulp, one attendant constantly turning the mass over with a shovel. In half an hour about 200 pounds can be thus crushed. The thick pulp is then put into soft flat rush baskets, each having only a small aperture in the top, and these are ar- ranged in the press in layers, one above another, up to 15, mouth upwards. Wooden boards are then laid across, and then comes the strong cross beam of the press. To this is attached a strong wooden screw, worked by a lever in the hands of six or eight men, first slowly, then faster, The oil flows readily, and runs through a shoot into a hogshead below, filled up to four-fifths of its capacity with water, so that as the oil runs in, the heavy impurities may be de- posited and the soluble matter taken up by the water, leaving the oil to collect on the surface. The pulp is thus passed through the mill, two, three or four times, and the final residue, amounting to about 70 per cent of the original fruit, is mostly sold to the large oil works, where it is worked over again. Formerly, it was dis- posed of to the bakers for heating their OVenS. 216 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS HOW RUBBER IS MADE TO-DAY But two centuries have elapsed since rubber was known only as a curiosity; to- day it is in common use in nearly every industry and household. THE PROCESS OF KNEADING, The system by which crude rubber is brought down to merchantable condition, is a simple method of kneading by steam rollers. First the crude rubber is soaked in hot water for several hours. After this operation, it is cut up into pieces of con- venient size and run through a washer, which is a machine equipped with heavy corrugated steel rollers. Here it passes through and through until it is crushed and mangled, all the time being washed clean of bugs and other impurities, that get into the rubber tree. The rubber is very sticky and after the washer has completed its work, one sees nothing but a sticky mass in long sheets. These are allowed to dry and then are run through heavier rollers. THE PROCESS OF MIXIMG. After this process the rubber is run through the “mixers,” which consist of large hollow steel rollers having steam pipes inside of them, to furnish heat in the operation of mixing, and also a set of water pipes by which the rubber may be cooled when necessary. Through the rollers the rubber passes. So adhesive is it that it sticks fast to the rollers and has to be con- stantly cut off by means of a sharp knife, and thrown back, for another rolling. Great power is needed for this process because the sticky mixture retards the rollers. When the kneading is all but completed, a color- ing compound is added to the mass to give it the tint desired in certain kinds of uses for which it is intended. THE PROCESS OF COMPRESSING, After this, the rubber is run through four polished steel rollers, one above the other, and here it gets its proper thickness. These rollers or “calenders” are used also for crushing the rubber into cotton ducking, for making rubber cloth, etc. Manufactured rubber goods are made by this method of compression instead of by melting and pouring into molds. THE PROCESS OF VUILCANIZING. Charles Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanizing rubber, a process which con- sists in changing the chemical composition of rubber by heat, whereby its sticky and YOUNG RUBBER TREE. WUNDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 217. elastic properties are removed and the rub- ber is given greater durability. This process consists in submitting the rubber to a great pressure under heat, by means of hydraulic presses. Generally, about 2,000 pounds are brought to bear, and the presses are connected with steam so as to secure the desired heat. ODD METHOD OF VULCANIZING R.U.B.BET, BELTS. An odd method is employed to vulcanize rubber belts. A stretcher is used to take the stretch out of the belts. This is made up of two sets of heavy clamps, and a great hydraulic ram which exerts a pressure of 2,000 pounds to the square inch. In this manufacture, the belting has already been made by pressing the rubber into the cotton duck. This is now cut into strips of de- sired length, and the strips are laid, one over the other, until the thickness of the RUBBER TREE IN U. S. BARRACKS, AEY WEST. OVER 100 YEARS O.L.D. desired belt is obtained. Then a strip of thin, pure rubber is wrapped about the several folds. The whole belt may then be put into a steam press and vulcanized. R.U.B.BER HOSE. When rubber hose is made, a rubber tube is first slipped over a mandrill, and cotton- duck stripping is wrapped about it until the desired thickness is attained. Then, a thin sheet of rubber is rolled about it all. This is covered with strips and sent to the vulcanizing press. The press consists prin- cipally of an iron pipe which is thrust into the hose. Steam is admitted to the pipe and the hose is heated. When the process is over, compressed air is blown between the hose and the pipe to remove it. Fire- men's hose, with its cotton outside, is made by drawing a rubber tube within the cotton tubing, and then the whole is charged with steam. º º º - * º º - 21& WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS HOW SALT IS PRODUCED While salt is mined in many foreign countries, much of the supply of the United States comes from the wells of Kansas and New York, from Salt Lake, in Utah, and from Michigan, Louisiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Nevada and California. Salt blocks are often erected in the vicinity of forests where there are sawmills, so that the refuse from the mills may be used as fuel. THE MANISTEE (MICHIGAN) SALT WELL. One of the best equipped plants for salt manufacture is located near Manistee, Michigan. Under the great forest near Manistee is a stratum of salt nearly 30 feet thick, lying about 2,000 feet from the sur- face of the earth. PUMPING 2,400 BARRELS OF BRINE IN 24 HOUIRS. After a derrick has been built about 80 feet high, the process of manufacturing salt in this vicinity is some- º what as follows. A well is driven by means of pipes and a sand pump, until by the pressure of air pumps brine can be forced to the surface. This brine is pumped at the rate of about 2,400 barrels in 24 hours. As the brine is brought up it is stored in great cisterns. From these cisterns the brine is drawn to settlers, where it is subjected to a heat of 170 degrees F. Then it is allowed to cool and let the impurities settle. Gypsum is the principal impurity, and if it were Lot drawn off it would form a coating on the machinery of the plant and would clog it. THE “GRAINER,” The brine now is taken into a long box over what is called a “grainer.” This de- vice consists of a long, shallow tank in the bottom of which are several steam pipes. When the brine has been admitted to this the steam is turned on, the brine is heated and evaporation rapidly takes place. To assist in this operation paddles are at work stirring the brine. As rapidly as the brine cools, the salt forms at the bottom of the grainer, and in 24 hours a layer will be found nearly eight inches deep. From this point the salt is lifted by perforated shov- els to a runway, and as soon as it is drained, it is shoveled into cars and taken to the storage bins. One of the plants near Manistee has five By courtesy of the “Little Chronicle.” PLOWING SALT, WITH THE TEMPERATURE AT 140°. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS wells, three cisterns, each 100 feet long, 8 feet deep and 18 feet wide, and six settlers capable of holding 24,000 barrels of brine. These cisterns and settlers when filled hold enough brine to make 10,000 barrels of salt. THE WACU UMI METHOD. Another process for salt making is called the “vacuum-pan” method and consists in heating the brine in a large air-tight cylinder, where it is boiled by steam. The air pressure is removed to some extent in this boiler and at 150 degrees F. the evap- oration is very rapid. The grains of salt fall to the bottom of the cylinder, or “pan,” and by means of an endless-bucket belt the salt is taken automatically to bins for draining. After it has drained about 18 hours, it is stored away. Some plants have two pans working, one for day and one for night, for it is necessary to clean the pans every 12 hours. The capacity of each pan is 600 or 700 barrels of salt daily. COMPRESSED AIR DIRILLS BREAKING PACIKED SALT. Salt plants generally have a great supply of salt on hand. It is stored in great sheds several hundred feet long, and frequently become so hardly packed that it is difficult for the laborers to break it up. Coarse salt does not pack so tightly as the vacuum salt. The latter kind often gets as hard as a wall of marble. Then men must work at it with pickaxes, shovels and even compressed air drills. These drills are about ten inches in diameter and are mounted on trucks, so that they may be wheeled about easily. To bring down a quantity of packed salt, a row of holes is drilled about six feet into the wall, a few inches above the floor. Enough will then fall in to keep a gang of men packing for a number of days. 220 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS The following paragraph is taken from the “Little Chronicle,” of Chicago: STEAM PLOW TURNS UP SALT CRUST EIGHT INCHES THICIK. In the southern part of California, in a region known as the Colorado Desert, near the Colorado River, is a deposit of salt cov- ering 1,000 acres. It lies over 250 feet below sea level and was formed by salt springs. Over this area a crust of crystal- lized salt, eight inches thick, has formed so hard that it has to be turned up by a steam plow. A company has been taking out salt for fifteen years undisturbed, but last De- cember the United States got out an injunc tion against it for mining on public land. The suit is still pending in the courts. When the question is settled there will be great activity in the region. Only ten acres have been touched. A great drying and milling plant has been erected at Salton, an artesian well sunk, and a big town of Japanese and Indian workers built up. White men could not work in temperatures of 140 degrees over the glittering white field. The Indians wear colored goggles and suffer intolerable thirst, which the alka- line water of the single artesian well fails to quench. - HIGH-GRADE TOBACCO GROWN UNDER MAMMOTH TENTS A SHREWID YANIKEE’S SCHEME TO REVOLUTIONIZE THE TOBACCO IMARKET. In Connecticut is found a remarkable innovation in tobacco culture, consisting of a tent covering eight acres, devoted to this purpose. EXTRA FINE QUALITY BRINGS 43 CENTS PER, POUND EXTRA. There are others in the same district, and under these broad canopies Sumatra leaf tobacco is grown, so much finer in quality than that raised in the open fields that it commands 68 cents per pound, while the latter brings but 25 cents. In 1892, Ariel Mitchelson, of Tariff- ville, Connecticut, inaugurated the idea of growing tobacco under cover. At a cost of $250 per acre he tented 18 acres of his best tobacco land with cheesecloth and pro- duced a crop of Sumatra leaf far superior to any theretofore grown in the United States. First, posts, nine feet high, were put up, one rod apart, on spaces of tobacco land aggregating 18 acres. Over and be- tween the posts stringers and lines of gal- vanized wire run, and then cheesecloth was spread and drawn taut over all. ONE HUNDRED AND NINETY-SIX TENT- POSTS TO THE ACRE. The tents were of unexampled hugeness, and were very strong, for they were forti- fied 196 posts to the acre, and with an abundance of snap hooks, rings and cloth. In the tents, Sumatra leaf tobacco was planted, the rows being set out in the dif- ferent tents at different times, in order that the several crops would ripen one after the other. As soon as the plants began to grow the advantages of the cheesecloth covering began to manifest themselves. First, there was the freedom from in- sects; all the evil from that source was quite destroyed. "WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 22] The soil kept soft. It did not harden nor cake. In a word, the tents united all the ad- vantages of the open-air and of the hot- house. The plants had the hardy vigor of their out-door brothers, and at the same time they had the fineness that a hothouse's protection gives. By the time early sum- wer had arrived they had reached so great a height that their that was being paid at the time for leaf grown in the old way. And the tobacco itself compared well with the tobacco grown in the old way. It yielded 2,000 pounds to the acre—an un- precedented yield—and the leaves were of an unprecedented size, an unprecedented shape, and an unprecedented quality. Uni- versally they were admitted to excel the leaves touched the nine- foot roof. Men came from all quarters then to ad- mire them. Never had such Sumatra leaves been seen. They were from twenty to twenty- four inches long, thin and of the best imagin- able shape and size for wrappers, since each promised to yield two full cuts without waste. The Secretary of Agri- culture appeared, and could not praise enough the enterprise of Mr. Mitchelson. Companies for the growing of to- bacco in tents began to form and land began to be bought, and land values began to go up amazingly. TWO THOUSAND POUNDS OF TOBACCO PER ACRE, PRICE, 68 CENTS TeleR, IPOUND. Meanwhile the tobacco was harvested. The first trial field of a third of an acre yielded 700 pounds, and sold for $473.70, an average of 68 cents a pound. This price compared well with the 25 cents a pound METHOD of DRYING TOBACCO. - -- leaves that are grown in Sumatra itself. Sumatra does with America a business in cigar wrappers that amounts annually to $6,000,000. In Connecticut and in Massa- chusetts, since a way has been found to excel the imported crop, they expect now to take from Sumatra all that business. That is why tents are going up all over the Con- necticut and Massachusetts tobacco country —why green fields are coming to resemble great aggregations of colossal circuses. 222 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS The accompanying cut illustrates the method of planting tobacco in the tropics. It is not materially different from that followed in the United States. Although a perennial plant, tobacco is grown annually from seed. It flourishes best in tropics, but acclimatizes itself in any country. It is estimated that nearly 2,000,000 acres of the earth's surface are devoted to tobacco cuſture. Its cultivation is a matter of great care, requiring constant and experienced attention. The rich, moist soil which yields the best, is exhausted of its mineral con- stituents by tobacco in a greater degree than by any other plant. These minerals form the ashes of burning tobacco. It absorbs from the soil even the chlorine of common salt, which it does not require, and which injures it for use. GRADES OF LEAF. The leaves of the tobacco plant naturally grow in three grades. Those nearest thr roots are the strongest, since they have the first call upon the sap of the plant. Leaves half way up the stem are of medium strength, while the topmost are the mildest. About the beginning of September the crop is gathered. Sometimes leaves are PLANTING TOBACCO. gathered at intervals in order to obtain uniformity of quality. As a rule, the plant is cut down at once by severing the stem in the morning, and then is carefully laid on the ground and exposed to the heat of the sun during the day, the juicy, brittle leaves thus becoming wilted or placid, and bendable without breaking. Before even- ing, the leaves are carefully collected and stored in sheds. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 223 MONSTER SHIP CANALS. The necessity of a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans has long been apparent and great amounts have been expended in efforts to accomplish it. THE PANAMA CANAL PROJECT. From the standpoint of many expert scientific engineers the Panama route, which followed the course of the water- way connecting Colon on the Atlantic with Panama on the Pacific, was considered more feasible than that across Nicaragua, which was to run from Greytown on the At- lantic side to Brito on the Pacific, and in- || cluded the use of the San Juan river and Lake Nicaragua. On January 4, 1904, the French bondholders of the Panama route offered their plant to the United States for $40,000,000. It had already been cut about two-thirds of the way across the isthmus. The United States offered Colombia $10,- 000,000 upon the ratification of the Hay- Herran treaty, which gave the former the right to build the canal. This was re- jected by the Colombians and, on Novem- ber 6, 1903, the American government recognized the independence of Panama and entered into a treaty with the new republic which granted to the United States the control of the canal zone and authorized the Panama Company to sell HOW CANALS ARE MADE, its rights for the sum offered. On April 27, 1904, the title to the property was formally transferred to the United States. THE SUEZ UANAL. The Suez canal, connecting the Medi- terranean and Red seas, is 100 miles long and was constructed in ten years at a cost of $100,000,000. The idea of such an artificial waterway first came to Napoleon Bonaparte, but was given up when it was supposed that the Red Sea was thirty feet above the Mediterranean. In \841, when British scientists proved this to be an error, Ferdinand de Lesseps began to investigate the problem of a canal. In 1856, by per- mission of the Khedive of Egypt and the Sublime Porte, the Universal Company of the Maritime Suez Canal was formed. Half the capital for conducting the work was raised by popular subscription, mostly in France. The other half was raised by S00T „HO LIVMI ĐNIH Snae …? ICHTIGIGIHAA-NYIGIJLS,—IVNIVO （IGILVAA， In Nºw WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 225 the Khedive. Work was begun April 25, 1859, and on November 16, 1869, the canal was opened for navigation. The route of this canal includes Lake Menzaleh, Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes. Originally, the canal was from 150 to 300 feet wide at the surface of the water, and 72 feet wide at the bottom, with a minimum depth of 26 feet. In later years it has been con- siderably widened and deepened to 28 feet. backwards the water of the Chicago river that for years polluted Lake Michigan and Chicago's drinking-water supply with the filth of the city's sewers. For years the Chicago river served as a sewer for the city, draining every factory, slaughter house and cesspool of the district. Sanitary engineers believed that a wide canal connecting the Chicago river with the Desplaines river and thus flushing off the water through the º' The British government now owns the shares originally owned by the Khedive. From 486 vessels and $1,031,865 earned the first year of the canal’s history, its busi- ness has increased nearly twenty fold. THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. A work of recent construction and great importance is the Drainage Canal of Chi- cago. The purpose of this canal is to turn º - DRAINAGE CANAL VIEW AT LOCKPORT, ILLINOIS. Illinois river into the Mississippi would remove this great danger to health. From this canal some day will develop a great waterway from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, for, all that is needed is the further dredging of several streams along the route. The water from Lake Michigan flows up stream in the Chicago river and out through a cut that connects with the south branch of the river, to Lockport, 226 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PRO U 1, ESS Illinois, where, through a great dam and controlling works, it runs into the Des- plainos river, to Joliet, and through the Illinois river into the Mississippi. The cut is 160 feet wide, is constructed of mas- onry six feet thick, has a capacity of 600,- 000 cubic feet of water a minute, and will admit ocean vessels. The whole sewer system of Chicago is being reversed to flow into the canal. A great agitation was raised in towns along the Mississippi river when the sew- age of Chicago was turned into the canal, because of fear that it might contaminate the Mississippi, which furnishes the water supply for those cities. Bacteriologists, however, proved that there was no danger from this source. THE IRILE CANAL. One of the greatest ship canals of the old world, when completed, will be the IXile, connecting the Baltic with the Black Sea. Work was begun on this in 1898 by the Russian government. The route lies along the River Dnieper which flows into the Black Sea and connects this river with the Dwina river which empties into the Baltic sea at Riga. It begins at Riga, runs along the Dwina as far as Duneberg where it is connected with the Beresina by a great cut across country. Thence the Beresina and Dnieper complete the connection with the Black Sea. The total length of the line is about 1,000 miles and about 125 miles of the distance is through an artificial cut. The canal is 307 feet wide and about 30 feet deep, thus allowing vessels of greatest draught to pass from one sea to the other. The cost of the enterprise will be about $120,000,000, allowing for the use of con- vict labor by the Russian government. The whole canal will be under Russian sov- ereignty, thus being of great political sig- nificance. Seventeen large ports will be established along the line to enable vessels to make harbor when so desired. The route can be traversed in six days. JORINTH CANAL–GREECE. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 227 GREAT STRIDES IN The problem of cheap fuel for steam- ships, railways and great industrial plants calls particular attention to what has been achieved in the last few years towards the production of oil in the United States, and its use for steam-making purposes. Many years ago the discovery of oil in Ohio and THE OIL INDUSTRY will by a few men and were generally regu- lated upward. TEXAS OIL DISCOVERIES stimulate TEIF USE OF OIL FOR EUEL. With the discovery of oil in the Beau- mont district of Texas, however, came the movement to use oil for fuel in many locali º 011, FIELD the Central Western states, gave rise to the great industry of refining oils into ker- osene and lubricating oils. From year to year, oil was discovered in other states and in foreign countries, so that as an illumin- ant, it became a household word. But oil was still too expensive to be used in great quantities, and moreover, its output was so completely controlled by the Standard Oil Company, that prices could be regulated at NEAR LOS ANGELES, CALTFORNIA. ties, in place of coal and wood. This re- sulted from the cheap price at which prac- tically unlimited quantities could be se- cured. Thus many steamships which left Southern ports where little or no coal was obtainable except at a high price, equipped their furnaces for oil. The Southern Pa- cific Railway was probably in the van in this respect, and now uses oil almost exclusively in its engines throughout the 228 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Southwest. Many other instances of the great value of the oil industry to the Southwest can be recited. Breweries, mills, cotton presses and an almost endless chain of power plants now use oil. Naturally, the steam plants that furnish power to drill new oil wells, use oil from neighboring wells. There are many settlements through out the country to which the discovery of oil has brought much prosperity. Ohio thrives greatly from this industry, as do history of this little place, and of its great oil boom. STORY OF THE TEXAS OIL FEVER. Numerous reasons have been given for the discovery of the oil at Beaumont. Pos- sibly the most picturesque is that men drew 3onclusions that a stream of oil flowed un- der the great state and pointed, as proof, to the oil up north, at Corsicana, and to an oil pool that was constantly swirling - - - By courtesy of the Detroit Photograhic Co. OIL TEAM CROSSING THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. Indiana and sections of neighboring states. California has recently shown great oil de- posits, and so productive is the spout in northern Texas, at Corsicana, that a visitor views the town as an aggregation of im- mense derricks,—an oil well in every door- yard. But since Beaumont, away off in the southeastern corner of Texas, has made so noticeable a revival in oil well specula- tion, it may suffice to tell something of the in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, of the coast. Howbeit, in January, 1901, prospectors struck oil. The well proved to be of immense flow. At once the news of the discovery was noised about over the South. More prospectors came to the dis- trict, to drill, and before long, a thriving city took the place of the sluggish town of Beaumont. A boom struck the town. A short dis- WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 229 * tance away, on a small elevation known as Spindle Top Hill, derricks began to go up until a veritable forest of them appeared. The price of land mounted fabulously, as new oil wells “came in.” Fortunes were made in a day. The streets of the little town were thronged with visiting specula- tors, who were looking for chances of snap investments, or for opportunities to unload stock in any of the numerous oil companies that sprang up. One caught the speculative fever from the atmosphere. It may be well to relate some of the instances of lucky strokes made by the first specula- tors. As soon as the news came of the first oil struck, there was one man who had faith in the oil bearing properties of the district, but he had only $20 to his name. Nothing daunted, however, he gave that sum for the option on the purchase of a large plat of ground near where the oil was first dis- covered. Then, going to New Orleans, he interested several capitalists and expert en- gineers in the project, organized an oil com- pany, and after drilling some time, came upon a big “gusher.” A few months later, without having sold any oil worth men- tioning, the company sold the well to an- other company, for $1,250,000. Immedi- ately after this, drilling was begun on some of the land still retained, and another paying well was found. People of all sorts and means got the fever and invested their money in oil stock, or land. Oil companies by the hundreds were organized within a few months, some of them with no other idea than getting money out of guileless country people, for prettily engraved cer- tificates of worthless stock. Shares in companies were sold over the whole country, Some as low as ten cents a share. Rich and poor alike became enthusiasts. Even the street urchins speculated. The writer, one day during the boom, met a bootblack in Beaumont, who offered to sell to him for $800, stock which had cost him only $30, and upon being refused, sold it a few min- utes later, at the desired price. THE INEWSPAPER MAN'S SPECULATION. A young newspaper man who was well known to several stock promoters, was given an opportunity to buy stock of one of the companies before oil was struck. Not hav- ing the money he was given the stock on credit. Within two weeks, half this man's purchase was sold, and after paying for the whole purchase, he had several thou- sand dollars profit and the other half of his stock. This half of the stock was sold at a high price, but the company’s well proved to be only a “duster”—that is, a pocket of gas, but no oil—and the shares were not worth the paper they were printed On. The speculation in land went on at a tre- mendous rate. A few wise countrymen, who had barren lands which were not worth more than $2 an acre, sold them for as many thousands. There was little trou- ble taken to prove ownership, or to record purchases. Transactions involving the transfer of hundreds of thousands of dol- lars took place in hallways, and corner drug stores, or saloons. One case is known where a plot of land changed hands in a cigar store, for $15,000. A man was standing at the cigar counter lighting his cigar, when he overheard the deal. Casu- ally, he asked the purchaser what he would take for the land he had just bought. On being told $30,000, he snapped the land up as a bargain. 230 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS POOR PEOPLE MADE RICH IN A NIGHT. Many poor people who never knew what riches were, found themselves wealthy in a night. Some of these were thrifty and saved their money. Others spent it fool- ishly at New Orleans and large neighboring cities. Some of the land owners refused big prices for their lands, expecting still higher figures. Most of these were later disappointed to find their land valueless. But, aside from the unusual prosperity, of a short-lived nature, as a result of the oil boom, there was the serious and valu- able side of the enterprise. As a matter of fact, the wells near Beaumont are capable of giving far more oil than all other known wells. How long this will last, is not known. A STORAGE TANK HOLDING 500,000 GALLONS. Already the flow has been so enormous that the pressure has subsided to a great extent. Yet there are still many com- panies that have arranged big storage tanks, of 500,000-gallon capacity, in some in- stances, to receive the oil, have built pipe lines to the Gulf, and are arranging for tank line steamers to export the oil. A serious misfortune overtook these oil fields in 1902. A fire ignited the oil in one of the tanks, and the conflagration spread until all Spindle Top Hill was badly damaged. The damage, however, was re- paired. *RILLING FOR OIL. The actual drilling for the oil is an in- teresting work. Derricks, from 75 to 100 feet high, are built of wood. A drill at- tached to steel tubing, about 12 inches in diameter, is driven into the ground. The tubing is in sections, and as it gradually disappears into the ground, other tubing of slightly smaller diameter is fitted into it, and the drilling is continued. Thus, if the oil is not found until a great depth is reached, the diameter of the well is likely to be small. Samples of the earth and gravel through which the drill is bor. ti and ing are examined from time to tim º the proximity of oil can often be foretold very accurately. When the well does “come in,” the oil often bursts forth with great velocity, spouting, sometimes, over a hundred feet into the air. Then there is a hurry and bustle to fit onto the tubing a head with a stop cock in it, to regulate the flow of the oil, and to run it into storage tanks. One of the great advantages ens joyed by the Beaumont wells is, that so far, the oil flows of its own accord, and does not have to be pumped. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 281 THE MODERN PIANO lue most popular musical instrument to- day is the piano. Not many years ago it came under the head luxury, but the increasing cul- ture and education of the people have changed all this and made the piano an every day ne- cessity. Ten years ago there were manufac- tured in this country considerably less than 100,000 pianos. Last year (1902) there were manufactured 225,000. These figures tell the whole story. With the rapid development of the re- fining influences of life has come a demand for soulful music. The young girl’s educa- By courtesy of the Lawrence Co. By courtesy of the Lawrence Co. UP-TO-DATE METHOD OF MAKING PIANOS. tion is hardly considered complete without, at least, a moderate knowledge of the pi- a110. With such a demand there has come the supply, and the strife of competition has resulted in various im- provements in the man- ufacture of pianos that have kept the art of the builder thoroughly up to date. The old square piano has been almost entirely superseded dur- ing the past 15 or 20 years by the upright, and tonal qualities have been so vastly im- proved that the cheap- est piano, to-day, would rank well with the best of 20 years ago. By the introduction of a better quality of feet in GETTING MATERIAL READY FOR MAKING PIANOS. the hammer, by the use 232 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS of a large hammer and the production of a better wire, the musical quality of the piano tone has been improved even as it has been given greater volume. In order to bring the piano up to its pres- ent-day artistic worth, innumerable inven- tions have been patented, each ambitious manufacturer being º: constantly on the alert - - to devise a remedy for any suggested imperfec- tion. One of the latest important inventions relates to the keyboard, and in an exceedingly simple way makes such a thing as a “sticking key” an impossibility. The average pianist will be glad to learn that such an improve- ment exists because everybody has had more or less trouble on that score, caused by damp- ness or careless struction. This keyboard does away with all that difficulty, and by giving a firm, elastic touch, enables the performer to produce a more mu- sical tone. Among piano manufacturers this keyboard is considered one of the most marked improvements of late years. In the general construction of the piano there have lately been devised many im- provements. America produces finer pianos, and a far ºn tº tº º º By courtesy of Reed & sons, piano Mfg. Co. View of the interior of Cabinet Baby Grand Upright Piano; showing the action, keys, sounding board, mouse-proof pedal construction with patent grand metal plate in position ready for use, also patent wheel agraffe. greater number of them, than any other country in the world. - - A- By courtesy of Steger & Sons” Piano Mfg. Co. THE MOST DURABLE PIANO KEY MANUFACTURED. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 233 MAKING LEAD PENCILS COMPOSITION OF THE LEADS. The “leads” of lead pencils are made of a mixture of German pipe clay and “black lead”, which is not lead, but graphite. But the first pencils were made of real lead and the name has clung to “lead” pencils ever since. Graphite, or plumbago, is a nearly pure form of carbon and most of the pencils made in this country use the graphite mined at Ticonderoga, Vermont, where the | SORTING OUT GRAPHITE (PLUMBAGC). a number of tanks, collecting at the bottom of these reservoirs. It is packed in barrels in the form of dust and sent to the factory, where tens of thousands of lead pencils are turned out every day. The pulverized graphite is so fine that it really is dust; it is dingy in color, and smooth and oily to the touch. It is divided into various grades of fineness by floating it on water from one tank to another. The For making Lead Pencils. only graphite mine of any consequence in the United States is located. GRAPHITE. The graphite is taken in the lump from the mines and carried to the reducing mill, where it is ground or pulverized in stamp mills under water. The fine particles of graphite float away with the water through coarse dust sinks to the bottom of the first tank, the next finer, to the bottom of the next and so on down the line, the finest powder, for the finest pencils, settling in the last tank. GERMAN PIPE CLAY. In another series of tanks the German pipe clay, which is mixed with graphite to 16 2:34 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS secure the different grades of hardness, is graded in the same manner by floating. The finest clay is mixed with the finest graphite, and the hardness of the pencil is Secured by increasing the proportion of clay in the mixture. For medium grades seven parts, by weight, of clay are mixed with ten parts of graphite. PROCESS OF MIXIIMG. The mixing is done under a grinding mill similar to that used in mixing paint, and water is added to facilitate the mixing. The grinding stones are about two feet in diameter and only the upper one revolves. After the graphite and clay are ground to- gether the mixture is put into canvas bags and the water is squeezed out under hy- draulic press, leaving the mass the con- sistency of putty. This plastic material is placed in the forming press, which is a small iron cylinder in which a solid plunger or piston works up and down. A steel plate having a hole the size and shape of the “lead”, is put under the open end of the cullender, and the plunger, pressing down, forces the graphite through the hole, mak- ing a continuous thread or wire of graphite. As long as this thread is moist it is pli- able, but it becomes brittle when dry, so it is handled rapidly. It is cut in three-lead lengths, straightened out, and then hard- ened in a crucible over a coal fire. The leads when taken from the crucible are ready for the wood. DIFFERENT RINDS OF WOOD FOR PENCILS. Pine is used for cheap pencils, an ordi- nary quality of red cedar is used for better pencils, and nothing but Florida Key cedar is used in the best. CUTTING CEDAR STRIPS. The sawmills at Tampa, Florida, cut the cedar blocks about seven inches long, and these are sawed into strips wide enough for six pencils; but as pencils are made in halves, each strip is thick enough only for a half pencil. When these strips are re- ceived in the factory they are run through a machine which cuts in each one six grooves, round or square, and at the same time smooths the face of the wood. FILLING THE STRIPS WITH IIIEAD. The filling of the strips is done by girls. The first one takes a grooved strip of wood in her left hand and a bunch of leads in her right. She spreads the leads out fan shape, and with one motion fills the six grooves with leads. Next to her sits an- other girl who takes the filled strip, and quickly and neatly lays on it another grooved strip, which has just been given a coat of glue by a third girl. THE FINISHING PROCESS. - The filled and glued strips are piled up and put in a press to dry. The ends of the strips are evened off under a sandpaper wheel, and then the strips are fed into a machine which cuts out the individual pencils, shapes them and delivers them smooth and ready for the color polish in six streams. The color- ing is dome in liquid dyes, after the pencils have been sent through the varnish ma- chine. Then follows the stamping, finish- ing and counting. This latter work is done by quickly filling a board having 144 holes in it, thus counting out a gross of pen- cils. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 235 ARTIFICIAL ICE In this day of progress, when everything in nature is being reproduced by man, it is little wonder that the demand for ice has resulted in the discovery of methods of manufacturing it. While the natural ice crop is still depended upon for the the method of artificial refrigeration which will permit great ocean liners to store away tons of perishable food for transportation, without taking on a supply of ice. This same method also saves much time and ex- pense in all great, cold-storage plants, such tºy courtesy of the Smith-Vaile Co., Dayton, Ohio, MAKING ICE. greater portion of the civilized world’s ice supply, yet so far have the devices for ice making been perfected that artificial ice is now a strong competitor of the natural product in all large cities. But of even greater value than the sup- ply of man-made ice for domestic use is as egg houses, beef coolers and breweries, to say nothing of the plants which store thousands of spring chickens, turkeys, etc., from one year to another. THE PRINCIPLE OF REFRIGE-ATION. The principle upon which artificial ice is made and refrigeration produced is that 236 WONDERS of INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS of absorption of the heat in the surround- ing atmosphere. This is done in a number of ways. In making liquid air, which is the coldest substance known, the process consists in making use of the law of nature which imsists that compressing a gas warms it and then liberating it quickly cools it. Thus air is compressed and all the surplus warmth taken from it by spraying the pipes which contain it with cold water. Then when this cool and compressed air is liberated it expands with such rapidity that the warmth in the surrounding atmosphere is absorbed and a great cold is produced. This same principle is applied in a little different manner in the practical use of - - - - - - ammonia in making ice for commercial use. wARMTH TAKEN FROM THE water. The idea is that anhydrous ammonia, which freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit– so cold is it—upon being brought in con- tact with water, will take from the water its warmth. THE CAN SYSTEM. The ammonia method is the one most aniversally in use both in making cakes of ice and in keeping down the temperatures of cold storage warehouses. One method for using ammonia is called the can system. In its use, water in cans the size of the cakes of ice to be manufactured, is exposed to the ammonia circulating through coils of pipe laid in a tank of salt water. The am- monia absorbs the heat from the salt water and the salt water in turn freezes the water in the cans by absorbing its heat. Where storage rooms are to be cooled with making ice, the ammonia is pumped through pipes which run about the rooms and thus ab- sorb the warmth in the air at first hand. In this process the air around the pipes, of course, is the coldest in the room. Thus the moisture that may be contained in the air nearest the pipes will be precipitated on the outside of the ammonia pipes in the form of thick snow ice. ICE MADE FOR, 50 CENTS PER, TON. One of the most efficient methods for ice manufacture is called the Holden system. By its use ice can be made for 50 cents a ton in a very small plant as against a cost by the can system of nearly $2 a ton. THE PLANT INECESSARY. The plant necessary in this system con- sists of a device for circulating the am- monia without loss and the ice machine, The former consists of three vertical pipes, 12 inches in diameter, and 40 feet high. These are called the still, the absorber and the condenser. Besides these there are two shorter pipes called the interchanger and the cooler, while an ammonia pump furnishes the power for circulating the am- monia. PROCESS OF IMAKING ANIHYDROUS AMIMIONIA. - Strong ammonia liquor of 32 degrees, Bane intensity, is pumped through the in- terchanger to the stop of the still. In the interchanger, it is practically heated. In the still, which is a device full of pipes which break up the ammonia into small drops, the ammonia is heated by steam and allowed to trickle down, giving off, the while, a strong ammonia gas. This gas passes out to the top of the absorber which is filled with pipes carrying circulating water. Here the gas is converted into anhy- drous ammonia of exceedingly low temper- ature, and is ready to pass to the ice ma- chine to do its work in the making of ice. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 237 - THE ICE MACHINE AND ITS OPERATION. The ice machine consists of a hollow cylinder supported by hollow trunnions, the whole affair revolving in a tank of water. The anhydrous gas passing into this cylin- der through one trunnion creates a very low temperature which at once takes up the heat that is in the tank of water. All the time the cylinder is revolving a thin film of ammonia clings to its inside walls. On the outside the water changes to a coating of ice. This is removed by knives which scrape off the ice in the form of “spawls.” These “spawls” naturally rise to the top of A SUBSTITUTE FOR Cement as a substitute for iron is being tried with considerable success in the building world. For years it had been thought that nothing but iron could be used in the construction of buildings, but it re- mained for a Chicago architect to devise a cement which, it is claimed, will, in many instances at least, make an excellent sub- stitute for iron. This cement is made like ordinary ce- ment, but does not have for its ingredients the same amount of sand, water and cement the water in the tank, and as they accumu- late, are conveyed by a screw propeller to great presses. These presses are hydraulic and are so arranged that all the water and air which is carried to them with the “spawls” of ice are squeezed out, thus leav- ing blocks of ice clear and solid as crystal. After the ammonia gas has done its work, it passes out through the other trunnion of the ice cylinder, finds its way through the absorber, receiver, etc., and, mixing with the weaker ammonia water of the first op- erations, begins its journey again with the pump to the still. IRON IN BUILDING as that used in preparing mortar for the building of sidewalks. When a beam has been made of cement it is tested by being subjected to a weight placed anywhere be- tween the supports upon which the beam rests. In one of the big buildings recently erected at the University of Chicago, 60,- 000 square feet of cement flooring takes the place of the same number of feet of iron girders, and there are a number of 25-foot spans which have successfully stood all tests to which they have been subjected. COMPRESSED AIR-WHAT IT MEANS TO THE WORLD In this latter day, when every known method of time and labor saving is being tested and rapidly put into use, the value of compressed air has become so apparent that every large city, and many smaller places, are making some use of this power. Some of the larger cities use it as a means of transmission of majº packages, etc., about the city, from place to place. This type of pneumatic tube is the most ad- vanced and it is only of recent develop- ment. PNEUIMATIC TUEES. The most common use to which com- pressed air is put for carrying purposes is that in pneumatic tubes in the great stores, 238 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS hotels and newspaper offices. By means of brass tubes leading from a central station to every section of a store, or to the numerous rooms of a hotel, power is con- veyed. At the central station there is a pump which develops an air pressure of about 2 pounds to the square inch of pipe surface. For long distances and for great speed, where much use is made of the sys- tem, greater power is necessary. In each station where the tube is used there is a receiving and sending apparatus. Two pipes complete the circuit, one with air traveling away from the central station and the other with it rushing toward the home plant. The sending device differs according to the necessities of the occasion. Many plants which do not need heavy pressure simply have an opening in the tube covered by a lid. When it is desired to send something, a small leather or metal box, conical in shape, and with furry ends to make it fit closely to the tube, is opened, and the article is enclosed, after which the sending box is closed and dropped into the tube. It takes only a few minutes for this box to travel about a mile. When it reaches its destination it falls into a box which is provided with a door, and is so arranged that the power may be cut off before open- ing it to take out the carrier. Some re- ceivers simply have a lid held in place by a strong spring, so that when the carrier is forced against it, it gives way and the carrier falls out upon a desk. ITS SERVICE IN GREAT BIOTELS AND STORIES. By means of these pneumatic tubes money for payment of articles is carried in stores from sales clerk to cashier and the change and receipt for the purchases are returned. In hotels, mail is delivered over the entire building, sometimes over 15 floors or more. Newspapers, calling cards, etc., are also sent to guests. ITS RELATION TO NEWSPAPER WORE. In newspaper offices, these tubes play an invaluable part. All the copy for news matter, advertisements, etc., is “spouted” to the composing room with great rapidity, thus saving the bother of a host of mes- senger boys, as well as doing the work with- out loss of time. One feature of the news- paper work is the great pneumatic tube service in the large cities, in use by news- paper associations. - Such bureaus as the great Associated Press, which sends out tens of thousands of words of news matter daily, could never do so speedily were it not for the great serpentine tubes that wind about below the city pavements connecting its headquarters with every newspaper office which receives its service. By this means the “hottest” news is shot over to the newspapers in time for publication, where- as were messengers used, the delay might be vital. USEFUL IN THE POST OFFICE. Of late years the United States Post Office Department has been an active user of compressed air. Several cities are now served by pneumatic tubes and are able to send mail from postal headquarters to branch stations with very little loss of time. Packages weighing several pounds may also be sent. One of the greatest of these sys- tems will shortly be in operation in Chi- cago. The cost will be many millions of dollars, but the improved service in dis- patching mails and in collecting them will amply repay for the outlay. WOWDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 239 CLEANING FURNITURE, CARPETS AND RAILWAY COACHES. Aside from the use of compressed air in pneumatic tubes, this agent has been found valuable in many other capacities. One of the most common uses to-day is that in cleaning. A hose is attached to a com- pressed air pump and by means of a nozzle which may be opened or closed at will, a stream of compressed air is directed against upholstered furniture, carpets and many such articles that gather dust readily. The effect is a cleaning operation of marvelous rapidity. In this manner are the coaches of a railway cleaned after every trip. In the large cities it is no uncommon sight to see a van drive up to a large office build- ing. From this vehicle is unreeled a hose attached to a compressed air machine. The hose is pulled up through a window on, perhaps, the twentieth floor, and carpets are cleaned on the floor, and chairs, sofas, etc., are renovated. FOR IMOTIVE POWER. Compressed air serves many other pur- poses, where power is needed. By it lad- ders are raised or lowered, elevators and automobiles are operated and engines are run by this means. SUGAR CANE IN SUGAR MAKING AND PAPER MAKING The main development of the cane sugar industry began about 1885, although it had attained large proportions before the Civil War. Originally, the Jesuits brought cane from San Domingo in 1757. The ribbon cane now cultivated, however, was brought from the island of St. Eustatius to Georgia, whence it was introduced into Louisiana. Over 100 varieties of cane are being ex- perimented with at the Louisiana sugar experiment station at New Orleans. But two kinds are commonly cultivated in Louisiana—the Purple or Black Java and the Purple Striped Ribbon Cane, which were introduced about 1825. - AREA OF CANE GROWTH IN LOUISIANA, AND METHOD OF PILANTING. The area of cane in Louisiana is con- siderably more than 300,000 acres. From four to six tons of cane are necessary to plant an acre. It is common to plant a few acres, use the entire crop of the next year in planting a larger area, and take the entire crop of the third year to plant the whole plantation. Several sugar houses in Louisiana work from 1,000 to 1,500 tons of cane daily or 240 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS from 60,000 to 70,000 tons during the sea- son of from 60 to 90 days. The cane, which grows best in a sandy loam, does not seed. It produces a crop of 20 to 20 tons per acre. Where used only for sugar, the fod- der and tops, the bagasse from the mill and the ashes from the sugar house are carefully returned to the soil. In some localities, conveyed by a third carrier to the bagasse furnace, where it is consumed as fuel and supplies steam power and steam heat to the sugar house. The juice as it runs from the mill is strained and limed and passes into the clarifiers where the temperature is raised and the lighter impurities, coming to the - - - however, the waste is being utilized in a new way, as hereafter mentioned. PROCESS OF MAKING SUGAR. From the field cane is carried to a mov- ing platform which drops it end on into a chute abutting upon a three-roller mill giv- ing two pressures. A conveyor then takes the crushed cane to a second mill where it gets a final squeezing and is ejected in a pretty dry state (called bagasse). This is SUGAR CANE SUGAR ON THE LEVEE AT NEW ORLEANS. surface, are skimmed off, while the heavier sink to the bottom. The clear juice is then drawn off and sent to the boiling dºwn apparatus. There it is concentrated into a syrup which is boiled to a grain in the Vacuum pan. - SEPARATING THE SUGAR FROM THE MOLASSES. The contents of the pan are then sent to the centrifugal machines, which separate WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 241 the sugar from the molasses and the former is put into barrels. The latter undergoes another process before the final molasses is produced. PAPER MADE FROM SUGAR CANE. The manufacture of sugar cane into paper has taken practical form, PAPER FROM THE PRT.M LEAF. In this connection it may be stated that paper is also being made from the palm leaf found so plentifully in the Southern States. Mills are here and there going up and are converting into profit what was once considered a total waste. and mills for this purpose are being erected in various parts of Honolulu. The advent of crude petro- leum for fuel upon the plan- tations is making it of little value as a fuel. With the coming of the cane paper mill begins a new epoch in the paper trade. Experiments made with ba- gasse have proven that paper can be successfully manufac- tured from it. In the near future sugar-cane paper will be a strong competitor of its rival, “pulp,” or rag paper. By courtesy of the McCormick Division, International Harvester Co. CUTTING SUGAR CANE, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA. MINING COAL AND MAKING COKE Coal min- |ing is one of - the great in- Aldustries of the world. The recent strike in the anthra- MINER, AND CAR “NOT FILLED,” cite coal re- According to Operator. gions gave an impetus to coke making that will have a tendency to make this also one of the great industries of the present age. FATALITIES IN COAL MINING. Coal mining is hazardous, and the loss of life, by accident, in the mines of the United States averages eight per day. This is not to be wondered at, for, deep in the bowels of the earth, thousands upon thou- sands of men are working day and night, mining the coal which is an essential factor in the industrial activities of the world. * COAL INDISPENSABLE. With all the new forms of power that have been devised by ingenious inventors of WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS ONE OF THE BIG BREAKERS At Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania. late years, it has not yet proven possible to eliminate coal or even greatly to reduce its usage. Electric power, except in those isolated instances where it is generated by a water-fall, requires that great furnaces and boilers shall be employed to produce it. Electric light may partially supersede gas, and thus somewhat lessen coal con- sumption in this direction, but the coal must be burned to generate the power which drives the dynamos. The amount of wood burned for fuel has been greatly decreased, owing to the defor- esting of large areas, and a greater demand upon the coal bearing regions has resulted. The settlement of our vast prairie states, where cold rules throughout a long winter, has likewise shared in stimulating coal mining. To-day we note the enormous growth of manufacturing enterprises and the extension of railway systems. These alone mean much to the coal mining in- dustry. In days gone by, scientists ex- pressed alarm over the threatened exhaus- tion of the world's coal supply. And yet it appears true that the economical utiliza- tion of coal through improvements in power application, will more than counter- balance the increased consumption of this essential fuel, and after all, nature will preserve a balance in some way. THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF COAL. Everywhere are great fields of coal as yet untouched by the hand of the miner. Siberia and the Chinese Empire are note- worthy examples of this. Petroleum fields, yielding apparently limitless quantities of fuel oil, have been discovered in many parts of the world, and, except on the shores of the Caspian Sea, have hardly been used at all. Texas, the Mexican Peninsula, Lower California, Central Siberia, the East Indies, and the Mid-Australian Deserts, come into this category. Such natural forces, eternal and world-wide as the winds, the tides of the ocean and the heat of the sun, are attracting the atten- tion of great scientists as offering a rich supply of power for man's mechanical use as soon as science finds the way. Under such conditions as these, thus briefly outlined, it seems a needless anxiety MINER'S HOUSE Near Hazelton, Pennsylvania. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 243 to concern ourselves to-day, with the pos- sible exhaustion of the world’s fuel supply in the course of a dozen centuries. The first use of coal for industrial pur- poses in England was in the year 1234. After more than 100 years England still leads in the production of coal, being the only country exceeding the United States, in this respect. OUTPUT OF COAL IN GREAT BRITAINT AND IN THE UNITED STATES. The annual output of coal in Great Britain is more than 200,000,000 tons, while that of the United States is approxi- mately 195,000,000 tons. Our American mines, being of more recent development, have not penetrated so deep into the earth as some in the old world. THE TWO DEEPEST COAL MINES. The deepest coal mine known is near Tournay, Belgium, extending 3,542 feet into the earth. The deepest coal shaft in England is in the Dunkirk mine, of Lanca- shire, which is 2,824 feet deep. PENNSYLVANIA’S COAL PRODUCTION. Pennsylvania leads in the matter of coal production in the United States. Its total product is always more than half that of the entire American yield from all the mines, and exceeds annually 105,000,000 tons. So commanding is this industry in the Keystone State that the popular mind always associates the state with the product, and Pittsburg has gained the name of the “Smoky City” on account of the great manufactories and mines operating in its vicinity. THE DISCOVERY OF COAL. Coal was first discovered in the Schuyl- kill district in 1790. Thirty years later the first shipment was made to Philadelphia. Two kinds of coal are mined, anthracite and bituminous, or, more popularly speak- ing, hard and soft coal. AREA OF ANTHRACITE AND BITUMI- NOUS COAL. The area from which the former is pro. duced measures less than 500 square miles, and that of the soft coal, nearly 9,000 square miles, but the former excels the lat- ter in tonnage produced, and by its greater value per ton, which is more than double that of the latter. THE PROCESS OF MINING COAL. The process by which the coal is mined is an interesting one. Down deep in the earth stands a grimy miner. He is dressed in homespun clothes, and upon his head is a small cap, to which is attached a small lamp. This light throws a faint gleam around him and permits him to see the black walls against which his efforts are being directed. The lamp, which rests upon the peak of the cap of the miner, is the invention of Sir Humphrey Davy, and is so constructed as to prevent explosion. With pick and shovel the miner breaks down the coal, gradually enlarging the sub- terranean chamber in which he is working. At stated intervals, giant powder is used to blast out great chunks of coal, which fall around the shaft in great profusion. Min- ers, in most mines, are compelled to use both vertical shafts and horizontal tunnels, or “drifts,” in the course of their opera- tion. If the first opening is in the side of the hill then it will be some time before it will be necessary to sink a shaft. From the shaft the tunnels or drifts radiate in whatever direction the coal measurers lie, and at different levels, so that work may be 244 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS carried on in many places at the same time. Tracks are laid in all these tunnels, or “drifts,” and on these little tram or dump cars are run back and forth to carry the coal to the surface. When they reach the shaft, they are placed on powerful elevators and brought to the surface of the earth. IIorses and mules are used in the United States to operate such cars, but in England women and children are employed to push these cars back and forth. In some places MINERS, WITH POWDER. locomotives, operated by compressed air, are substituted for mules and horses. GUARDING AGAINST FIRE-DAMP. One of the greatest dangers the coal miner has to guard against is the explosion of fire-damp, which may at any time be set off by a single tiny spark. It would therefore be impossible to use an engine that has a fire-box. The machinery of these engines is different from that of any other locomotives. The air supply is gained from great tanks carried over the driving wheels. These tanks have a storage capacity of 600 pounds to the square inch, from which 200 pounds working pressure is maintained upon the engine cylinders. The supply can be readily replenished with nozzles attached to high pressure pneumatic tubes, placed at points convenient for this purpose. When the coal reaches the surface, either by tunnel or shaft, it passes rapidly through a series of processes necessary to clean it, sort it into various sizes or grades for the market, and bring it to the railway cars by which it is to be shipped to its destina- tion. - SORTING COAL. In a great coal “breaker,” there is much noise and plenty of dust. There are rickety sheds, inclined planes, screens and chutes, without number. The loaded cars right from the mines reach the breaker high in the air, and are tilted so that they dump their cargo into chutes provided for that purpose. As the coal rattles down through the winding way provided for it, the various chutes sort the grades and sizes, and when it reaches the bottom it falls into bins or coal dumps and is ready for the market. THE “EREAKER,.” In preparing coal for the market, the “breaker-boy” plays an important part, for it is he who stands guard and removes each piece of slate from among the coal. The “breaker-boy,” or coal picker, gets his first lessons in mining by sorting out the slate. The miners in many of our mining districts are foreigners, with but little education, and it is this class of labor which forms one of the most difficult problems to deal with. COAL TRANSPORTATION. In the transportation of coal from mine to market, many of the great railways find WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 245 their greatest revenue. In Pennsylvania, are a number of railroads which control the output of the mines, and it was these roads that, during the strike of 1902, held out so long against the demands of the miners. Hundreds of trains are run daily from the coal fields to the great manufacturing cities of that region. THE MANUE ACTURE OF COIKE. Much of the coal output of the Keystone State is converted into coke for use in steel mills and manufactories. It is thus that the coke furnaces become a part of the coal industry, and they have accordingly grown to enormous proportions. The manufacture of coke is now in an almost perfect process. The mechanical ap- pliances used have been improved, so that, virtually, all the work from the mine to the "ailway car can be carried on by machinery. The coke is drawn from the furnaces where the coal has undergone the charring pro- cess, by an ingenious mechanism which works like a great iron hand, on the end of a long steel arm. This is carried on a heavy car, which runs back and forth on a railway track, in front of the row of furnaces. An engine mounted on the same car operates the gigantic hand. Afterward, the coke is raked into a long trough, where an endless chain or belt carries the product direct into cars, ready for shipment. Pennsylvania is in the lead, with a rec- ord of being able to furnish half of the total yield of coal for the United States, and practically all of the anthracite. Illi- nois follows, a close second, with a total of 20,000,000 tons of bituminous coal; and West Virginia is in third place. Other states in which the coal industry has as- sumed large proportions, are Ohio, Indiana, Virginia, Iowa, Missouri and Colorado. NEW METHOD OF FATTENING POULTRY Before entering into a description of the process of artificially feeding chickens, it will be necessary to understand properly the term “fattening.” The process is an ancient one. Pliny recorded the fact that the inhabitants of Delos engaged in it, and the luxurious Romans fed and fattened poultry. POULTRY FEEDING 2,000 YEARS AGO. The same process was followed in Italy 2,000 years ago. Fattening poultry is a very important industry in England, France and Belgium. In many places, whole families follow poultry fattening as a business. The word “fattening,” as used in this connection, is a misnomer. It im- plies fat or grease, whereas the results aimed at in chicken feeding are directly opposite. FATTENING GEESE. In the case of the goose, an abundance of fat or oil is the prime object to be at- tained. The food necessary to produce this is of a highly carbonaceous, or fat-pro- ducing nature; what is termed a very wide ration, has this particular effect. The basis of this feed is corn, which has a special tendency to deposit its fat or oil around the internal organs, as well as in layers under the skin. If the feeding be prolonged a sufficient length of time, it produces an ab- normal growth of the liver. This is not desired in chicken-fattening. Layers of fat should not be seen under the skin. 246 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS The poultry producers and middle men are awakening to the possibilities in poultry raising, and many new methods of fatten- ing are being tried. There are two ways of feeding, one by machine, and the other from a trough. The only difference in them is that in the latter, the birds, if left to their own inclination, will not consume half as much as they are able to digest and assimilate, and therefore do not take on flesh so rapidly. IMACHINE AND TROUGH FEEDING. The machine feeding is a very complete operation, and one that a 15-year-old boy, or a woman, can conduct successfully. The birds are cooped, five in a compartment, 20x30 inches in dimensions, there being a row of 50, or more, of these coops, with W- shaped slats for the bottom, and slat or wire fronts, with doors. If the chickens are to be fed from troughs, these are hung in front, and after morn- ing and night feeding, are removed and cleansed. In machine feeding, the feeder begins the night before by taking a suffi- cient quantity of sour milk, or buttermilk, and stirring into it what is known as gren- adier meal, until it reaches the consistency of thick cream. This is left to stand over night in order to start a slight fermention, when a diastase is formed that greatly aids digestion. In the morning the feeder, with a helper to hand him the birds, begins work. As the bird is handed to him he places it un- der his right elbow, to hold the legs and wings firm, and then opens the mandibles, at the same time depressing the tongue with one finger, to prevent injury, he inserts the tube into the bird’s throat. Then, drawing the neck straight, he slides the bird on the tube until, with his right hand on the crop, he feels the end of the tube touch his thumb. He then places his foot on the treadle and gives a slight pressure, when the crop is filled. The quantity is regulated by the age, adaptability and condition of the bird, one gill being an average for a three-pound bird. This feed- ing operation is perfectly harmless, and does not cause the birds the slightest pain or inconvenience. On the contrary, they soon learn to look forward to feeding time, the same as if at liberty on the farm, where they all assemble at the usual hour, at the customary feeding place. This feeding process is repeated morning and night for 21 days, when, after 24 hours' fasting, the bird is killed and dressed for market. PROFITS IN FATTENING FOWLS. The profits the fattener can expect to make are easily figured and are based on existing conditions. A three-pound bird, as it comes from the farm in August or September, usually sells for from 25 to 30 cents in the West, say 30 cents. This bird carries about six ounces of bone, and 18 ounces of offal, and after cooking, has 13 ounces of edible meat. Special feeding for 21 days at a cost of eight cents for feed, turns it out a five-and-a-half-pound bird, and now it carries 40 ounces of edible meat. If sold at the same price per pound paid for the common carcass, it would bring 35 cents, or quite a handsome profit on a three weeks' investment. There is no oc- casion, however, for selling it at any such price. There is an abundance of discrim- inating buyers who will gladly pay a good advance for fancy stock. In any event, the buyer is willing to pay as much per ounce WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 247 of edible meat in the finished bird as in the thin one, if not more. In that case he should pay 92 cents for the bird. He would then be getting precisely as much for his outlay as in buying the thin bird. IRON AND STEEL America, with its great mountains of iron ore, furnishes most of the steel of the world for bridges, high office buildings, railway rails, wire, and the manifold forms of steel and iron which, commercially bring thousands of dollars to the manufacturers. Let us see how crude iron ore changes its shape and quality at the hands of man. THE CUPOLA MAN. In an iron foundry the “cupola man” or “melter” is a person of considerable im- portance, for he “makes” the iron, and the presence of more or less of this or that metalloid in his pig iron, too much sulphur in his coke, too little air coming through the blast-pipe, or a heavy atmosphere, are circumstances beyond his control, which may turn all his plans to naught. THE CUPOLA. The cupola is the vertical, cylindrical- shaped furnace, in which the iron is melted from “pig” or scrap, to be cast in the sand molds, into all of the different forms and shapes taken by cast iron. The real bot- tom of the cupola is made of sand, and this sand bottom rests on a false bottom which is made of iron, and so swings on heavy hinges that it may be dropped, emptying the cinders on the floor of the foundry. This false bottom is held in place by a heavy piece of wood, which stands on the solid foundation that supports the legs This rule applies to all farm animals, The first question the butcher asks is how will the animal dress? What is the per- centage of meat to offal? Where this is not considered, economy is not practiced. MANUFACTURING of the cupola. The “tap-hole” of the cupola is the opening through which the molten metal runs into the “spout” and then into the ladle. It is generally about four feet above the floor of the foundry, for it must be high enough to clear a large ladle, to catch the iron. In the back of the cupola is the cinder hole. This hole is used to tap the cinder and to give the alarm should the molten metal rise to the “tuyere” line. THE TU YERE. “Tuyeres” are the openings for admit- ting the air blast into the cupola, and they are generally placed high enough from the bottom to give a bed of molten metal, weighing from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The air, driven by a revolving fan, is carried DRIVING NAILS BY MACHINERY 248 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS to the cupola through the blast pipe. Around the base of the cupola and on a line with the tuyeres, is the “wind box,” which carries the blast to the tuyere open- ings. The “charging floor” is a platform on which the coke, pig iron and scrap iron are piled, and on which the men stand when charging the cupola. The pig iron is usually broken into short pieces to facilitate handling, and to expose more surface to the heat. CHARGING THE CUPOLA. To charge a cupola is to place in it alternate layers of fuel and iron. Before charging, however, the cupola must be heated, and a fire of coke is started. The cupola man places on the bottom of the cupola a bed of coke and, frequently, a certain proportion of “hard coal in large lumps, with the coke. This bed is placed there as a reservoir, and is supplied, at in- tervals between charges of metal with fresh fuel. When this bed is burnt through and the cupola is heated, a fresh amount of coke By courtesy of the Detroit Photographic Co. UNLOADING ORE AND LOADING FUEL, LACKAWANNA ORE DOCKs, BUFFALO, NEW YORK, is thrown in through the charging door, and then a layer of pig iron, or a layer of pig iron and scrap iron, in varying proportions, is put on the coke. More coke is then thrown on top of the iron and then another layer of metal is put in, and these alter- nate charges of fuel and metal are put into WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 249 the cupola until it is full. Then the blast is turned on. When the iron becomes heated it gradually melts. There is a peep- hole, through which the cupola man can see when there is a quantity of molten iron, and when there is enough the tap-hole is opened and the liquid metal, throwing off a shower of sparks, flows out into ladles, to be poured into molds. The ladles vary in ca- pacity from 50 pounds for the smaller ones, to 12,000 pounds for the big clay lines, “bull” ladles, which are handled by traveling cranes and machinery. CHEMICALLY PURE IRON VATUELESS. Chemically pure iron is of no value to the foundryman, and it is of most use when mixed in certain quantities with metalloids such as manganese, carbon, silicon, sulphur and phosphorus. Carbon should exist in iron mixes to about 3 per cent. Sulphur should be present in very small quantities, and when there is too much in the mix, lime is mixed with the iron and coke in the cupola. The limestone takes up the superfluous sulphur, and renders the iron more fit for molding. MAKING PIG IRoN DIRECT FROM THE IRON ORE. In making pig iron direct from the iron ºre, much the same principle is used as just described. In that work, however, the ore, limestone and coke are placed in the “upola instead of the iron refined. When the supply of molten metal in that case is sufficient for a flow, the plug is knocked out ºf the tap-hole, and the molten metal runs ºut into a sand floor into “pigs.” The sand floor has been prepared in long troughs, not unlike plowed furrows, and when the hot metal has been run into them the sand is thrown over the top to help congeal it. In order to make the pigs in a form that can be handled readily, workmen walk about over the top of this hot bed of metal, their feet protected from the heat by great wooden shoes, or blocks of wood tied to the shoes, and with long handled hammers, strike the bars of cooling metal, breaking them up into convenient form for ship- ment. STEEL ROLLING. Sometimes the pig-iron mill is adjacent to the steel rolling mills, and in that event it is desirable to roll the metal while it is yet hot and thus save reheating. This is done by taking the liquid metal in little brick or clay line-carts or ladles to the great steel mixing blasts. These are like im- mense cupolas without any cover. The iron is poured into these great upright cylin- ders, with a quantity of “spiegel iron.” This is a combination of metalloids men- tioned before, being principally carbon, to give a certain quality of brittleness. The more carbon is mixed with iron, the more brittle it is. When the mix is proper and the combination has been blasted by a fierce blaze, it is run off into great ingots. When these ingots have been cooled a little, but are yet very hot and red, they are carried about through the different processes of manufacture. If it is steel rails that are to be made, the ingots are thrown into great series of heavy rollers, which reduce the width and thickness of the billets but lengthen them out and shape them properly. By the time the steel is cool, they are straightened and complete for doing their part in great railways for the transporta- tion of the world’s products. - 17 º 250 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS SILK COCOONS, AND THE SILK INDUSTRY The Illustrations in this article are furnished by the courtesy of Belding Bros. & Co. The art of reeling, or producing raw silk, has been carried on in China for ages, and so well did the orientals guard the secret of silk culture that the nature of the fibre was unknown in Europe for more than a thousand years after silk fabrics had been introduced there. China still takes the lead in the production of raw silk; but large quantities also - are obtained from Japan, India, France and Italy. Every silk article ever made or exhibited was origin- ally in the cocoon con- dition, and the fibre had to be put through a great variety of pro- cesses before it was finally ready to be woven into fabrics. The idea is quite com: mon that the silk threads or fibres as they come from the cocoon are ready for the weaving loom without further work or preparation, but the fibres, after coming from the cocoon, must be manufactured before they can become of any value. THE SILK MOTH AND THE SILK WORT'ſ. The little bright colored silk moth de- posits from 400 to 600 eggs, and then dis- appears and soon dies. The eggs, on being exposed to a temperature of 65 or 70 de- grees, hatch rapidly, each one producing a short brown worm, which, with a ravenous appetite, feeds upon the leaves of the mul- berry tree, consuming double its weight daily. In five weeks, it attains its full growth, having increased 8,000 times in weight. It is then three inches long, and as thick as a large, lead pencil. - THE SILK COCOON. The worm now seeks a convenient place FEEDING THE SILK WORM. - - to begin the formation of its cocoon, which is to protect it in the changes incident to caterpillar life. Having selected a site, it ejects from two small tubes near the mouth, a liquid, gummy substance which adheres to whatever may be within reach; thus an: chored, the next move of the body in the opposite direction draws out the silked fibre. The worm then turns over and over toward the center of the cocoon, and pays out the silked cable as it goes, until it has spun itself almost to death, and has built WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 251 COCOON.—END VIEW. (Enlarged.) around itself a cocoon of silked thread about a quarter of a mile long. Thus imprisoned, the insect remains, if undisturbed, for about 15 days, when the end of the cocoon is moistened, and it emerges in the form of a moth. This, how- ever, causes the fibre of the cocoon to be badly tangled and twisted, so that it is necessary to kill the insect before it comes from the cocoon. This is done about eight days after the cocoon has been finished, by exposing it to the direct rays of the sun at a temperature of 100 to 125 degrees. REELING THE COCOON INTO RAW SILK. The cocoons are now ready to be reeled into raw silk. This is a Very important opera- tion, as everything de- Pends upon the reeling, and the quality of the silk will be good or bad, according to the man- her in which it is done. making of the cocoons is carried on as a separate business, distinct from the raising of silk worms, the cocoons being sold out- right to the reeling establishments, which are known as “filatures.” If the reeling has been indifferently per- formed, the silk may not sell for more than $4 a pound, but if well reeled it may bring $6 to $7, and even more, depending upon the demand at the time. It is also a pe— culiar fact, that of two reelers, each reel- ing half a pound of cocoons of the same quality, one will be able to obtain but 6 or 6% ounces, and another will obtain 8 OunceS. The filaments of the cocoon are cemented together with a gum, and to dissolve this gum requires the aid of hot water. The cocoons are placed, from 6 to 10 at a time, in a basin of hot water, and sunk by the aid of a whisk broom below the surface, where they are allowed to remain from two to three minutes. This softens the gum and loosens the fibre; then, moving the whisk broom very lightly over the cocoons, the ends of the fibres will adhere to it and are easily found. The ends of the fibres from each cocoon in the basin are then collected together to form one thread, which is passed through a In silk countries the MOTH, 252 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS RAW SILK. First Process, Winding. guide eye and tied to one of the barbs of the reel, and the reeling begins. The reels are usually turned by hand, al- though, occasionally, electric power is used. The reel must be so far away from the basin that the gum of the fibres has a chance to dry and cool before it passes onto the reel, otherwise the fibres would become firmly cemented together. It is also im- portant that the reel should be moved at a certain uniform rate of speed. The whole operation is tedious and necessarily ex- pensive, as five ounces of well-reeled silk represents about ten hours' labor by an ex- pert reeler. The reels are usually about 70 inches in circumference and have a traverse rod which properly distributes the thread over a surface two or three inches wide. So fine are the fibres which come from the cocoons that they are almost invisible to an inex- perienced eye, and the reeler does not de- pend upon seeing them, but gets notice of a broken subdivision by discovering one of the cocoons at rest on the water, while the others are still in motion. This rupture must be instantly repaired if a uniform thread of raw silk is to be obtained. A supply of cocoons is kept close at hand so that as fast as the fibre in one is exhausted, another is put in its place. The ends are joined by a dexterous move- ment of the reeler, who carries the end of a reserve cocoon fibre to a point just below the guide eye, where the natural gummy substance found on the silk, assisted by the movement of the reel, causes adherence to the main thread. Thus no tying of knots takes place in a single fibre of the silk while reeling, al- though in case of a break in all of the fibres, which is not common, a fresh start must be made, and a small knot is made, hardly perceptible in the after stages which the silk passes through. The skeins of raw silk are reeled from one to several ounces, as de- sired, and, on being removed from the reels, are dried and neatly packed into books or bundles weighing from 5 to 10 pounds. These books are then packed and sold in bales containing 133 1-3 pounds each, which is the way in which the raw silk reaches this country. WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 253 THE TWISTING PROCESS. SPINNING IN THE FACTORY. On reaching the factories where the manufacture of this raw silk is carried on, the skeins are soaked in tepid soapsuds for several hours to soften the gum, after which they are placed on light “swifts” and wound off onto bobbins. This makes the raw silk soft and pliable and gives a certain lustre to it. These bobbins are placed upon pins projecting from the bobbin board of a doubling frame, and from two to ten threads, or even more, are drawn off col- lectively onto one bobbin, which is next placed upon a rapidly revolving spinning- frame spindle. The threads, while being drawn from the bobbins to the spindle, are given the requisite amount of twist. These spindles revolve so rapidly as to appear to be motionless, a speed of 10,000 revolutions a minute not being at all unusual. The thread is now drawn from the spindles and doubled and twisted, and for some purposes is again doubled and twisted, so that in an ordinary three-cord sewing silk it is quite possible to have 200 or even more of the original, gossamer threads which came from the cocoon, and the lightest grades of thread contain, at least, from 75 to 80 of the fibres. DYEING AND SPOOLING THE SIKEINS, The next operation is reeling the silk into hanks of skeins for dyeing, which is one of the most important of the various processes, and requires experience as well as knowledge. After being dyed the thread is wound on spools, as desired, this opera- tion being performed with great rapidity and accuracy by automatic machinery. The silk cocoons vary in color from a delicate white to a dark yellow, depending to a great extent on the food of the worm and the locality in which it grew. WEAVING SILK. 254 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS BEET SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCIAL VALUE SIGNIFICANT FIGURES PROMISING GREAT RESULTS-THE GERM OF A STUPENDOuS INDUSTRY. The United States imports yearly an amount of sugar valued at $100,000,000. Every fifteen years this quantity is doubled. We gather the following figures in this connection from a work entitled the “Amer- ican Sugar Industry:” “Taking the im- ports for 1895-6, say 1,720,000 long tons annually, to produce this quantity would require 920 factories, each working up 350 tons of beets during a campaign of 100 days of 24 hours. Each factory would need 2,000 to 2,500 acres of beets, or about 2,- 000,000 acres in all. As the crop should only be grown on the same ground every third year, three times as large an area would be needed. GREAT GAIN FOR THE FAIRMERS POS- SIBLE. At an average of only ten tons per acre, the total crop would approximate 20,000,- 000 tons. At only $4 per ton net for beets delivered to the factory, the farmers would receive $80,000,000 for this new crop. COST OF A BEET SUGAR, FACTORY AND EXPENSE OF RUNNING. Each factory would cost about $350,000 —in all over $300,000,000. For running each factory, the cost of labor and mate- rials, aside from beets, would be about $500 per day during the season, or $50,000 for the whole period, making the annual dis- tribution for labor and materials about $45- 000,000. DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH THROUGH TEIE BEET STUGAR IIMDUSTRY. Each of these 900 sugar mills means the yearly distribution in its immediate vicin- ity of $150,000 to $200,000, for 30,000 to 50,000 tons of beets; $50,000 to $75,000, for factory labor and supplies; $10,000 to $25,000, for repairs, salaries, etc. The profits and reserves remaining would be from $25,000 to $75,000. Under aver- age conditions it is safe to calculate on a yearly turn over by each factory equal in amount to its capital. The factories at Watsonville and Salinas, California, repre- sent an investment of from $1,000,000 to $3,000,000 each, and from them the farm- ers will receive $2,500,000 yearly for the necessary supply of beets. When the sugar beet was first cultivated in the late “seventies,” other crops paid better. The first factories were not well lo- cated, the beets were of poorer quality, and the price of wheat was high, making it more valuable to cultivate than beets. Then 11 per cent of sugar beets was con- sidered a fair average. Now the average is from 14 to 15 per cent, and from 18 to 24 per cent has been shown in tests. In 1884, the world’s production of beet sugar was 2,500,000 long tons. Since 1892, the aver. age yearly production has almost doubled. In 1898, nearly two-thirds of the sugar con- sumed in the world came from beets. sugar BEETS A PROFITABLE CROP. An acre of corn at the West yielding 40 bushels of grain, worth 15 cents a bushel. will buy about 100 pounds of granulated sugar at the grocery. The same acre, de- voted to sugar beets, will produce 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of refined sugar. Sugar beets yield $25 to $50 per acre, and leave a net profit of $10 to $25 per acre. - WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 255 NEW INVENTIONS IN FLOOR COVERINGS IMATTING. Emile Berliner, the inventor of many electrical and mechanical devices, in ex- perimenting with the matting on his floors, found that the dust filtered through it in a short time, and that if a break occurred it was almost always necessary to recover the entire floor. To remedy these defects, he conceived the idea of cutting the matting into small squares or other designs, and lay- ing them like parquet. The inventor took ordinary Chinese or Japanese matting and backed it up with linoleum paste, which has a tendency to strengthen the fibre. The squares were then pressed on heavy card- board, after which they were laid on the floor and fastened with a few tacks. A coat or two of varnish was then added, which en- hanced the brilliancy of the pattern, and made it possible to rub the floor with a damp cloth when it became dusty. As one square wears out, it can be easily removed and a new one inserted. LINOLEUIM. Waste cork, from the big factories, that turn out the various products of this ma- terial, is utilized in the making of linoleum. Perhaps the greatest linoleum manufactur- ing center in the world is Telmenhorst, Germany, which town is also the greatest cork center of Europe. PAPYROLITH. An innovation in the construction of floors was invented by one Otto Kraner, of Chemnitz, Germany, in 1896. It was a special preparation of paper pulp which the inventor called papyrolith. It was prepared as a dry powder, which was to be mixed with water. When this mixture was spread on a foundation of stone, cement or wood, it dried in a short time, after which it was planed and polished down to a smooth sur- face. The wearing qualities of a floor of this description are said to be remarkable. Some of the chief advantages claimed for papyrolith were the facts that it was solid and left the floor without a crevice; that it was a non-conductor of heat, and possessed a tendency to deaden noise. It was also said to be almost fireproof. Papyrolith never gained a foothold in the United States. CARIFETS FROM INEW IRAGS AND REMI- INANTS. There is a large concern in Pennsylvania which makes carpets from new rags and remnants. This firm gathers its materials from the big cotton weaving mills and from the large jobbing houses throughout the country and they are woven into carpets that sell for a good price. This carpet is woven in the same manner as the old-fash- ioned rag carpets, and the remnants after being cut into strips are sewed together by the country folk of the neighborhood about the factory. Some of these carpets are made in solid colors and the effect is excellent. On account of the rags being entirely new and strong, this texture is often as durable as the old time rag floor covering. ORIENTAL CARPETING. Undoubtedly the star innovation in car- pet floor covering was that made by Frank F. Hodges, who was originally a manufac- turer of straw goods in Boston, when he 256 WONDERS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS tried to introduce in 1892 a fabric which he termed “Oriental carpeting.” This fab- ric was woven to all intents and purposes after the manner of ordinary carpeting, but instead of the warp being of wool or jute fibre, it was made of twisted tissue paper. The opposition which this fabric met in the ELEWATED beginning was exceedingly strong and per- sistent, but after years of laborious and ex- pensive experimenting, Mr. Hodges was able to produce a fibre from which he has since successfully made rugs and carpet- ings which were durable, sanitary and very sightly. RAILROADS THE GREAT CURVE OF THE NEW YORK ELEVATED RATI ROAD. At its highest point, 116th Street and 8th Avenue. Among the means contrived within a recent period for facilitating urban travel. the elevated railroad is not the least impor- tant. Elevated railroads are most popular in the United States, tunnel railways being the more common means of intramural conveyance in the large cities of the old world. The latter method has recently been introduced, however, in New York. and will doubtless soon be in vogue in A steel structure upholds the track. Chicago and other large cities. The first elevated railroad in the United States was built in New York, in 1875. At present a large proportion of the passenger traffic within the respective limits of both of the above-named cities is conducted in this way. Four extensive lines are in operation in Chicago. What effect the advent of the tunnel system will have on these enterprises is a problem for the future to solve. E O O Lºk I I I VIVID ARRAY OF FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS Objects Famous the World Over—Impressive Scenes Far and Near—Peculiari- ties and Products Distinguishing Widely Separated Localities HE nineteenth century is notable for two phases of geographic re- search, which excels any of its predecessors. To-day the whole of North America, south of sub-arctic lat- itudes, has been carefully explored, and the 13 large areas in Northern British America, to which Dr. Dawson referred as unknown, some ten years ago, have passed out of that category or been greatly reduced in size by such work as Ogilvie has done on the upper Yukon, Low, in Labrador, and the Tyrrell Brothers, in the Barren Lands. - - - - - DARK SPOTS THAT THE LAST CENTURY WIPED OFF THE EARTH. Charts showing what the world did not know about geography in 1800; what has been discovered and what !s still in doubt. Next to Europe, North America is the best explored part of the world, al- though less than 60 years ago, more than half the continent was not so well known as most of Africa is to-day. It is only a question of time, when all the habitable territory of the United States and Canada will be as thor- oughly studied and mapped as that of European states. VOLCANOES IN CENTRAL AMERICA, That Central America still offers a large field to the explorer is shown by the fruitful work of Carl Sapper, who in his notable journey in recent years, has added to the map 81 volcanoes, of which 23 are still active. The long, 258 THE STORY OF A CENTURY OF EXPLORATION gentle slopes from the Central Mountains to the eastern coast of Central America, continually drenched by the Trade Wind rains, have a luxuriant and almost im- penetrable vegetation and are still very little known. SOUTH AMERICA. Most of the additions which the nine- teenth century made to South American ex- ploration are the work of European and and particularly to the last three decades, to explore these rivers, and we now have an excellent idea of all the large features of the drainage system of that region. ECUADOR. European explorers have made Ecuador better known that Colombia simply because they have been attracted to the Ecuadorian Andes as a specially inviting field. Polit- ical or military influences have mainly during the winter. Admiral Manakoff. North American explorers, many of them poorly equipped and paying their own way. Their most conspicuous service has been the mapping of the drainage and explora- tion in the northern and central parts of the Cordilleras. THE AMAZON AND LA PLATA. The Spaniards long ago revealed the courses of the Amazon and La Plata, but they paid little attention to smaller streams and tributaries. It was left to this century, PLOWING A PATH TO THE POLE. Quadruple Screw Ice-breaker “Errnack,” crushing her way through field ico. - - - This unique craft is an enlarged copy of an American lake ice-crusher, and was built by Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., for the Russian government, with the object of keeping the harbor of Kronstadt free for navigation Her success in the work prompted an attempt to reach the North Pole under invited exploration, so far as the states have participated in it. Thus the important wars, that Argentina waged, in 1879 and 1880, with the Indians of the South, and in 1884-1885, with those of the North, had the incidental result of making large parts of Patagonia and the Gran Chaco fairly well known. ARGENTINA. Explorations in South America are of very uneven merit. Many are only crude route surveys. Argentina is, by far, the FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 259 best mapped state for its geological and meteorological departments, and the staff of foreign professors in the higher schools placed exploration and mapping, after 1882, on a high plane. The Brazilian gov- ernment has never promoted scientific ex- ploration, and all official work in that line has been done by a few states, mainly by Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, and Para. Most of the far interior, away from the rivers, is still unknown. The Amazon basin is one of the largest Ul Il e X- plored a 1" e a S in the world; the upper Niger. It was indeed the dark continent. TIHE POLAR REGIONS. In Polar exploration, the nineteenth century did not excel that of former cen- turies, although it has added many new islands to the maps, attained the farthest point north, and, what is perhaps most im- portant, has perfected the art of living and traveling in comparative safety in the high latitudes. It may be that the Archipelago north of this continent will be considerably extended by later explorations, but there are good reasons for believing that the still unknown Arctic area contains no great land masses. The unknown part of the Antarctic regions is twice as large as Europe, and is DURING THE LONG ARCTIC NIGHT. for, although steamers sail regularly on the main stream and its many tributa- ries, the stretches between the rivers have not been visited. The inland parts of the Guianas and of the Cordilleran states from Venezuela to Bolivia are still in the crude and early stages of exploration. A hundred years ago the world knew lit- tle or nothing of Africa and had knowledge only of its coasts, Egypt, some of the Bar- bary Coast lands, bits of Senegambia, and now the largest unexplored area in the world. Every Arctic expert now believes that the attainment of the north pole is only a ques- tion of time; and it is probable that the century just opened will fully complete explorations of the entire world, which the century lately closed so wonderfully ad- vanced. The directors of the Baldwin-Ziegler expedition, which recently returned, report 260 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS that they succeeded in getting nearer to the pole by at least 400 miles than any previous explorers; but still they did not succeed in reaching the much coveted goal. RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES THEIR, AGENCY Railroading holds a position of importance in the United States which few people realize. As great distributers and circulators of wealth, the railroads of the United States which, in 1902, were 204,- 787 miles in extent, are absolutely unexcelled. In the popular mind a railroad corporation is always associated with the idea of abundant means. There are not many, however, who pause to calculate the part the va- rious railroad systems play in the economic affairs of the country. GROSS RECEIPTS OF ALL THE SYSTEMS. When it is realized that during the year 1901 the gross receipts of all the systems amounted to $1,589- 526,037 some slight idea can be had of the enormous activities which their op- eration represents. Of this amount enough was available after paying operation ex- penses to devote $156,746,536 to dividénds, and leave a balance of $87,764,781 to be carried to the surplus account. This avail- able fund was enough to give almost every man, woman and child in the United States $3. OPERATING EXPENSES. The operating expenses amounted to over $1,000,000,000. That colossal sum was distributed among the multitude of IN DISTRIBUTING WIEALTH, DINING ROOM ON THE PENNSYLVANIA LIMITED TRAIN. employes, among the various factories which provided equipment, and among the different interests which furnished sup- plies. In other words, the railroads ex- pended throughout the country enough to give every man, woman and child about $12 apiece. That one item alone gives some slight idea of what splendid dis- tributers of wealth the railroads are. TNUMBER OF PASSENGERS CARRIED. These immense sums were earned by transporting 607,278,112 passengers, and 1,089,226,440 tons of freight. The list of FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 261 passengers is equal to the population of China, the United States, the British Isles, and France and Germany combined. If the freight total were reduced to men, put- ting the average weight of man at 150 pounds, it would be equivalent to 145,229,- 686,000 men. In other words, the tonnage weight of freight for this one year very largely exceeded the combined weight of the entire population of the globe. These few figures will afford the reader some glimmering of the work accomplished by our various railroad systems. Every- body feels the effect of their operation, and everybody gathers benefits from their activity. There is no other line of en- terprise in our country which involves so much capital, so many men and such a tremendous aggregate of general busi- Iles S. THE CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES Since the birth of man there has been government of some form. Certain lines of conduct have been laid down for the individual, the family, the city and the country, -yes, even for the family of na- tions. These rules of conduct, or laws, SENATE CHAMBER, IN THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON. differ as much to-day, possibly, as at any time in the history of the world. We still find government of the selfish order, where the town, family, or even country, is ruled for the benefit of the few. In the main, however, the great benevolent idea of the 262 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS brotherhood of man has penetrated to most corners of the world, so that the dominating principle of civilized peoples is that the benefits of the few must be subordinate to the welfare of the many. And yet, there exist, practically, all forms of government, from the crude barbaric up, through despotic autocracy, to wisely self-governing systems of rule. By observing the present governmental methods of all nations, one look more closely into the methods of gov- erning the different peoples of the world. Contrary to the general impression the government of the United States of America is not founded on an instrument so marvelous as some people would think. The constitution of this country was by no means the inspiration of the brains of one set of men wrought to an excessively patriotic pitch by the exigencies of trying - THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. discovers a page out of almost every epoch of history. He finds the savage with his revolting ideas of family ties, the nomadic hordes, not unlike the Israelites of old, the despotism of the orient, the powerful yet narrow civic life of Russia, with its inane curb on public speech and the press, and the highest type of self government, in England and the United States. Let us times. This idea should at once be eradi- cated from the minds of those who think this great civic document was turned out at white heat in a flash. Nothing is farther from the truth. Great as the constitution is, it was con- sidered far from perfect at the time of its drafting. The downtrodden people of the thirteen colonies that struck for independ- FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 26: ence had long been gradually working out the measures of just such an instrument, in their daily life. Many of them, driven from their mother countries by persecu- tion, to enjoy freedom in America, found an enveloping mass of restricting laws. In- dividually, many of the people sought con- cessions from the different countries which ruled them, as the years went on. Grants of public lands to colonists generally con- ceded something of democratic government. So did the charter of the colonies from the English crown, as England gradually gained control over most of the new world. In spite of restrictions, the people at large fought hard for their democratic principles. Ideas were at variance in various districts, but in the main the aim was toward some- thing more near to self-government. The colonists insisted on councils from their number to confer with the crown-appointed governors, and held religiously to the right of their town meetings. Such incidents as the hiding of the charter in the old Charter Oak mark the spirit of those times. Naturally, this spirit, these experiences, the charters, town laws, petty constitutions, etc., would have an influence, great indeed, upon the framing of a document on which the federation of states was to be estab- lished. Such was the case. Discussion at the time of the constitutional convention, called in 1787, was rife. Many present clauses in the great constitution of to-day were called “royalistic,” toryistic and any- thing but democratic. The papers of that day discussed at great length propositions for the embodiment of certain features in the instrument. When the body of men who framed the constitution had completed their work, it was far from being what some of them had hoped for. In the end, session. it was a mass of concessions, paring here, curtailing there—in short an excellent document, but only such an one as was simply the outcome of the experience of the people. This was marked by the man- ner in which some of the states hesitated about becoming parties to the agreement under the constitution. Yet so well thrashed out was the experience of our forefathers that the constitution has with- stood assault or change except in but few particulars. And yet again, these few changes, such as the first ten amendments, commonly called the bill of rights, attest the spirit of democracy, concession and compromise, which brought forth the instrument. CONGRESS. The constitution is the highest law of the land. By its provisions the government of the United States is divided into three main branches—legislative, executive and judicial. The first has to do with the mak- ing of the laws for the United States as a whole. It is divided into two houses, the senate and the house of representatives, known jointly as Congress. The upper house is made up of a body of senators, two elected from each state, in such man- ner that one-third of the entire body is chosen every two years. These senators are chosen by the legislatures of their re- spective states, save where appointments are made by governors, to provide for emergencies when legislatures are not in Thus it will be seen that the senate represents the dominant party in the various states, and only indirectly is the servant of the people. The senate is an extremely conservative body, and acts as a salutary check against hasty legislation. Yet so widespread is the feeling that this 264 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS MEN ON PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE WATCHING THE TIME BALL ON THE NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON. Man in Naval observatory touching the clock which makes the ball on the Navy pepartment fall and gives the time to all America by Western Union Telegraph. The ball falls at noon each day. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 265 body is not truly democratic, that constant efforts have been made to elect its members by popular vote. The house of representatives is a much larger body, being made up of representa- tives elected directly by the people of the congressional districts of each state, accord- ing to population. These members serve two years. The two houses of congress are largely co-ordinate in their powers, although bills for appropriations can be introduced only in the lower house, while the senate has the power of ratifying treaties and ap- pointments made by the president. The executive branch has for its head the President of the United States. His term of office is four years, and while in general intent he is the popular choice of the ma- jority of the people of the country, yet the manner of his election by the electoral col- lege sometimes frustrates this idea. In voting indirectly for a president, the peo- ple of each state choose a number of electors equal to the number of representa- tives and senators of that state. It is the duty of these electors to meet at the capitals of their respective states, on a day ap- pointed by law, and to cast their votes for their choice for president and vice-presi- dent. These votes are sent to Washington and counted. The men receiving the high- est number of votes are elected to the two highest positions of the land. This method, in 1889, resulted in placing in the presi- dential chair Benjamin Harrison, when, as a matter of fact, the total count of the bal- lots of the whole country favored Grover Cleveland. Legally, placing an electors' man on a party ticket does not bind him to vote for any particular candidate, and while cases are known where men have violated their party faith, custom rules otherwise. The President’s duties are to enforce the laws of the land, to initiate legislation by sending a message to congress each term suggesting needed reforms, and to veto or approve new enactments. As the leader of his party, he is generally the dominating influence with the majorities of the two houses of congress. His veto power ef- fectually nullifies any given legislation unless overruled by a two-thirds vote in both houses. He is the commander-in-chief of the land and naval forces of the United States, and is accorded as much deference by foreign powers as the ruler of any other nation. In aid of his administration sev- eral departments were created—the de- partments of state, war, navy, treasury, the interior, agriculture, postoffice, and jus- tice, the heads of which make up his cabi- net. These men are his closest advisers, chosen by him with the approval of the senate, and, as specified in the constitution, are in line of succession to the presidency, in case of the accidental removal from office of the president and vice-president. These men undertake directly to manage the machinery of the several business de- partments of the government, such as the coining of money by direction of the secre- tary of the treasury, the management of the postal service by the postmaster general, etc. They are directly responsible to the President for their acts, and censure or request for resignation would lead to their relinquishment of office, although this is not compulsory, except on the demand of the senate. These men, besides conducting the departments of which they are the heads, serve a great purpose in being the frequent advisers of the president. Di- 18 266 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS- rectly responsible to the President, or to the heads of their respective departments, are the numerous employes of the United States government. TTEIE JUDICIAR.Y. The judicial department consists of the supreme court of the United States and its subordinate tribunals, which are entirely independent of the other two branches of laws are deemed unjust or unconstitutional, these courts are appealed to for interpreta. tion. While it is not the policy of the judiciary to set at naught the laws framed by the legislative department, or the acts of the executive, yet such action has many times been necessary, and thereby the sys- tem of checks and balances has been pre- served between the three branches of the The president needs Con- º Copyrighted 1903 by Clinedinst, Washington, D. C.’ UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT IN SESSION. the government, although co-ordinate with them. It is the business of these courts to determine the construction to be placed on all laws framed by the federal Congress, and on laws made by states and cities of the Union which may conflict with the con- stitution of the United States or laws made under it. The district, circuit and appel- late courts take up certain phases of judi- cial work for the federal government. If government. gress to pass beneficial laws; Congress needs the approval of the executive to make its laws effective; and then the judiciary determine the validity of the triple legisla- tion. So much for the organism of United States government. From the working of these co-ordinate branches, the constructions put upon the constitution and general enactments has sprung a body of laws. The fabric of these FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 267 laws is the result of experience throughout the states and municipalities of the coun- try. It should be borne in mind that the law of the land is divided quite markedly into three divisions: municipal law, which may be said to govern nearest home, in the towns and cities; state law, which is not effective outside the state and constitu- others have been worked out, and conse- quently should be treated first. EIOME RULE. It is a common latter-day saying among locally independent voters who still cling to the great parties in national affairs, that state or national politics should not intrude Printing money at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. finest engravers in the world, and are turned over to the printers. The plates are engraved by the When the money is printed it is sent to the Treasury under guard and deposited in the vaults. tional or federal law, which is law enacted by Congress, and is based on the constitu- tion of the United States. Although the last of these is the highest in point of authority, when authority is in question or there is a conflict of authority, the first in some respects is the basis upon which the themselves upon municipal or town affairs. This tells how closely the town or city gov- ernment, the home government, appeals to the tax-payer. And well is it that such is the case. The matter of preserving local order, making laws for the home district, collecting and disbursing taxes, and other 268 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS kindred affairs, should be kept strictly within local limits. So important is this self-government and so fully is it recog- nized on all sides that the state governments give charters to the cities empowering them to act in even wider circles than is usually their wont. Therefore we see it a pretty hard and fast custom that villages, towns, and cities are left to work out their own laws through the medium usually called police power—that is, the preserving of the peace and kindred duties of a government for the immediate welfare of the people. But there are some functions of the body politic that must be broad enough to pro- tect and govern not only the people of one town, but of all towns within the borders of a state. In the same way it is necessary to work for the welfare of the several town- ships in the various counties in the state. Therefore we see the state assuming its sovereign right of domain over all the counties within its jurisdiction and at the same time yielding certain powers to the counties as well as to the cities. Thus the city's charter allows it to grant street rail- way and other franchises, incur indebted- ness to build water and gas works, elect its officials and levy a tax for the maintenance of its government. In the same way the county elects officials to preside over the welfare of the townships within its borders, and fix taxes for the maintenance of the jails, hospitals, poor farms, courts, board of commissioners, etc. STATE SOVEREIGNTY. Lastly, within the state we observe the sovereignty of the state itself dominating yet by the will of the people all other law within the state. Thus the state taxes for the support of the state government which * is for the benefit of all the people within its borders. The state knows no superior. It is supreme, save where, upon signing the constitution of the United States, each state surrendered certain powers to the United States government. It was on the rock of state sovereignty that the ship of state was nearly wrecked on the occasion of the Civil War. Since then it has been an accepted fact that while every state of the Union is independent, a sovereign unto itself, yet it has delegated away voluntarily certain of its powers and these powers only the federal government may exercise. And yet the state protects its people in times of riot with its own militia and resents interfer- ence from outside sources. It cares for its unfortunate insane, punishes the criminals in its penitentiaries, enacts measures in its legislature for maintaining peace, order, and promoting education and commerce, etc., among its people. Thus we observe that as benefits from government are to affect greater numbers of widely spread people the governing powers are less con- centrated. - - Finally we come to the methods which bring about laws for the general welfare of the whole nation. Naturally, in a fed- eration of sovereign states it would be idle for the sovereign states to legislate for the whole. In most of the colonies demands had been made and granted for bills of rights by which the people were assured of certain jealously guarded principles of democracy. No such bill appeared in the constitution. Therefore in quick succes- sion followed a number of amendments in order to satisfy the public mind that the republic was not to become too strongly centralized. Thus the constitution now provides for the safety of the individual FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 269 in such precise terms that many a law framed by city or state when tried in the balances of the constitution, has been found wanting and declared void. . CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTIES. Under the constitution every man has the privilege of freedom of speech and of opin- ion through the press. The people may assemble and petition the government to redress wrongs. Every one is entitled to a speedy trial by jury, with immunity from excessive bail or cruel punishment. No person may be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime unless upon indictment by a grand jury, and no person can be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb for the same offense. The accused has the right to be confronted with the witnesses against him, the right to compel the ap- pearance of witnesses in his favor, and to have counsel for his defense. No slavery or involuntary servitude shall exist except as punishment for crime. All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens thereof. No state may abridge the right of vote because of race, color or pre- vious condition of servitude. These imme- diately foregoing provisions of the consti- tution do not and cannot secure to the negro, or any person, for that matter, the right to vote, for this is a matter which is still in the domain of, and controlled by, the sovereign states. Congress must meet at least once every year beginning on the first Monday in De- cember. Each state must respect the acts of other states. The states cannot nullify each other's laws or legal decisions. Con- gress has the power to admit new states to the Union as they may be desired. A state cannot exercise a function that has been delegated under the constitution to the fed- eral power, nor, in the main, does congress exercise any power not specifically given it under the constitution. However, there is a growing tendency for the central govern- ment to strengthen itself, and under the provision of the constitution which permits congress to make all laws necessary to carry out the meaning of the constitution, its powers are constantly growing. LEGISLATION. Congress cannot pass a law to punish an offense already committed. State laws in conflict with the constitution are void. Con- gress cannot lay any disabilities on the children of persons because those persons have been convicted of crimes or other mis- demeanors. Each state is entitled to two senators, the smallest having the same rights with the largest. Territorial dele- gates to congress have the right of debate but not of voting. QUALIFICATIONS FOR OFFICE. Congressmen must be 25 years old to be eligible; they serve two years, and may be re-elected. Senators must be 30 years old to be eligible; they serve six years, and may be re-elected. The president must be 35 years old to be eligible; he serves four years and may be re-elected. No presi- dent, however, has served more than two terms. The same qualifications are neces- sary in the vice-president. No naturalized citizen may become president or vice-presi- dent, but a male child born of American parents abroad is considered a native-born American, and has all the rights of Ameri- can citizenship, including eligibility to the presidency. The president has the right to pardon except in cases of impeachment. 270 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS The vice-president is, ex officio, president of the senate, but has no vote in that body except to decide a tie. TREASON. Treason against the federal government consists only in making war against it, aid- ing its enemies or adhering to them, and must be proved either by open confession in court or by two witnesses to an overt act. Officers of the government may not accept honors from a foreign court without the consent of congress. IIMPEACHIMIENT. The house of representatives has the sole right of impeachment, but the senate con- ducts the impeachment trial. Persons com- mitting crimes in one state may not have refuge in another. Silver coin is not legal tender in denominations less than one dol- lar in payments of over five dollars. Cop- per and nickel are not legal tender. The grand jury is a secret tribunal of 23 men. It hears one side of the case and an indict- ment by a vote of 12 of these men means that there is good reason for holding a trial. A unanimous vote by petty or trial jury is necessary to convict, Amendments to the constitution require a two-thirds majority vote in each house of congress and must be ratified by three-fourths of the legisla- tures of the states or by special conventions called for the purpose. When the president calls out the state militia it passes under the control of the federal government, and is under the command of the chief execu- tive. PATENT LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES The United States Patent Office issues patents under the seal of the government to any person who has invented any new and useful art, contrivance, manufacture or composition of matter, improvement, or the like, not already patented or known in this country, or not printed or described in any publication, local or foreign, prior to the discovery, and not on sale two years before the application for the patent, un- less such sale has been discontinued. Some of the ingenious inventions for which pat- ents are issued include busts, statues, re- liefs, designs for printing fabrics, new ornaments, patterns or new shapes of arti- cles for manufacture. PATENTS AND THEIR, CONDITIONS. The patent is an instrument granting to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, the ex- clusive right to his invention for a period of 17 years, within the jurisdiction of the United States. Joint patents are issued to two or more people who work on the same invention, and not single patents to each. Patents on foreign inventions for which foreign patents have been already allowed may be secured from this government, un- less the article patented abroad has been in use here more than two years prior to the time of application. Patents thus secured, however, expire at the end of the foreign patent-term which has the least unexpired time, if there are several patents, and in no case run over 17 years. APPLICATIONS FOR PATENTS. The Commissioner of Patents is the official to whom applications for patents must be directed. With the application FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 271 - ºspuooºi huºned rºao ºrių sąool *skºu 1044 v . uegº， qąļa papaaoro saeeſſatº sp tuo， stq）, • ºnderſ ære sp.roºeae ntºmeđ itſe ºrºq^a ººogo nuºntae *qq qe uuoo u s; xattuo， 272 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS must be filed a written description of the invention, with its manner of making, con- struction, compounding, or the like, made perfectly clear. In case it is a machine a model must be sent. Drawings also are required for certain inventions. An oath is required of all applicants, stating that they believe the invention new and original and that the applicants are the rightful discoverers. ASSIGNIMENT OF PATENTS. Assignments of patents may be made, or of an interest in a patent. This is done in writing, and the exclusive right to the patent for the whole or part of the United States may be thus granted. In case of errors, where more than rightful claims have been allowed to a patentee, the patent becomes invalid. But where papers are filed showing such errors, a re-issue will be granted. THE INTER-STATE Congress is empowered by the constitu- tion to regulate commerce between the sev- eral states, and in 1887, under this au- thority, passed the inter-state commerce law which is in force now and which con- trols and regulates our internal commerce. This law has for its object the enforcement of equitable dealings on the part of all common carriers with the public, and applies to all such carriers, whether by rail or water, as convey goods or passengers from one state, territory or district of the United States into another. The sovereign power of the states which on this point was delegated to congress, was not surrendered as regards traffic within the state. Conse- quently the states also have commerce laws CAWEATS. A caveat is a notice filed with the Patent Office by an inventor stating that he is working on an idea and that he wishes to prevent a patent issuing to any one else who may have the same idea. This costs $10, and protects the caveator from in- fringement for one year. - PATENT FEES. All patent fees are paid in advance and run as follows: Filing original applica- tion, $15. Designs, for three years and six months, $10; seven years, $15; 14 years, $30; each application for re-issue of patent, $30; filing disclaimer, $10; certi- fied copies of patent, etc., ten cents a hun- dred words; recording assignments, powers of attorney, etc., three hundred words or under, $1; under a thousand words, $2; over a thousand words, $3. coMMERCE LAW which govern traffic within their individual boundaries and have railroad commissions which act in a similar capacity to the inter- state commerce commission. THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE COMMIS- SIONT. This commission of the federal govern- ment is made up of five men empowered by the law to inquire into the methods by which carriers do business, and their rates of traffic charges. The law provides that all rates shall be just and reasonable and that there shall be no discrimination in favor of large shippers. Rates of traffic must be printed so that all shall be uniform under similar circumstances, on the same FACTS conceRNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 273 road. The books of the companies also must be opened at least once a year for inspection by the commission. Rebates to induce shipment by certain concerns are prohibited. Exceptions to the rules are made for carriage of property for the gov- ernment, charitable institutions, and dur- ing the time of fairs and expositions. Mileage at reduced rates may be issued in certain amounts, as well as excursion and commutation tickets. Reduced rates are allowed for clergymen and passes may be issued for officers of railroads. Passes, as such, however, are prohibited. DISCRIMINATION IN RATES, REBATES AND POOLING. And yet with law and commissioners to enforce the law, discrimination in traffic rates is frequent, and pooling, with unlaw- ful rebating and other sharp practices, is common. The Sherman anti-trust act is violated continually. Railway managers have been brought to account repeatedly by the commission for disregarding published tariffs by according lower rates to larger shippers. Grain rates applied to export business have been manipulated to such an extent that for a long time they have been demoralized, and little export grain has moved by rail at tariff rates. The same is true in the matter of dressed meats shipped by the great Chicago packing industries. All sorts of methods are used to control business by the railroads, and in order to grant special and illegal rates to secure big customers, roads have been known to go as far as paying a so-called agent to secure business for them, and the commission sup- posed to be paid this agent—sometimes amounting to 25 per cent of the freight charges—has been turned over at once by this agent to the shipper—an actual rebate. LEGAL ACTIONS AGAINST RAILROADS. While the inter-state commerce commis- sion has been able to discover gross wrongs, such as the merging of competitive roads so as to control traffic, it has been unable to redress many of these wrongs, or to pro- vide against their recurrence, because of the weakness and inadequacy of the law under which they operate. About the only thing that has been done is to ask the Attorney General of the United States to begin numerous actions in equity against rail- roads for violating the inter-state and anti- trust laws. These actions have fallen into three classes. One is that brought against the railroads in which preliminary injunc- tions were obtained which required them to apply tariff rates to traffic carried by them, and prohibited them from carrying on any inter-state traffic at any but the lawful published rates. Another case was the action against the great Chicago packers to prevent them from carrying on a beef trust or combination, which stopped all competi- tion. Another was one against the North- ern Securities Company and the several railroad companies which have been merged into it. 274 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT' NATIONS CIVIL SERVICE One hears a great deal about the civil service in these days, and of the laws that are being enacted to regulate it. This ser- vice comprises the departments of work under the various municipalities, counties, states and under the federal government. Men and women who work for a public body are said to be in the civil service. It is a well-known fact that politicians in general seek for patronage, or the power of appointing men to office, else they would not strive so hard to be elected, or pay such large sums in aid of certain political par- ties in campaign times. It can be readily seen that civil affairs in most departments can be conducted much more efficiently if employes who give satisfaction, and who have spent a long time in becoming ac- quainted with their work, are kept in office regardless of politics, instead of having all public business turned upside down at every election. The effort that has brought about this feeling and put it into practice is called civil service reform, and the laws enacted to carry it out are styled the civil service laws. The persons employed in the various civic offices of the country number hun- dreds of thousands. Under the United States government there is the postal ser- vice, with its thousands of clerks and car- riers, the treasury department, custom- house officials and employes, consular agents, pension clerks and many others. Civil offices in all the states hire great numbers of clerks and laborers, and the counties and cities and towns need police- men, and firemen, and clerks. Tn Presi- dent Jackson's time, “to the victors be: REGULATIONS longed the spoils,” and there was a general discharge of employes with every political change of administration. At such a time, the efficiency of the public departments fell to a very low degree. Many times money was paid by subordinates to get their ap- pointments, and much corruption followed. This was true up to a late date in the city of New York, under the control of Tam- many THall. IEGISLATION TO CORRECT ABUSES. Abuses went so far in the civil service of the country at large that in 1883 Con- gress passed laws limiting the appointing and removing power of elected officials. Many departments have since been brought under these laws, and further enactments have been made to hedge about the service. These laws provide for competitive exami- nations for applicants for positions, and for the promotion of employes through merit rather than influence. But influence still plays a largc part. Frequently, trusted officials meet with rebuke for disobeying the law in this respect, and there is oppor- tunity for great improvement along the line of clean service under the merit sys- tem. - QUALIFICATION FOR ELIGIBILITY. Notwithstanding the abuses which work against the law and service the movement for a merit system all over the country has had a salutary effect. The examinations are competitive, the highest on the list re- ceiving the appointment. Persons addicted to the habitual use of intoxicating liquors will not be accepted. Applicants must also be in good health, and must give proof of FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 275 good moral character. In many cases recommendations from well known officials are necessary. The examinations are not difficult, save in technical departments, where expert services are required. The following are some of the subjects on which applicants are examined: penman- ship, orthography, arithmetic, interest, dis- count, the fundamental rules of bookkeep- ing, the elements of geography, history of the government of the United States, the English language, letter writing, and the proper construction of sentences. THE III,INOIS CIVIL SERVICE LAW. To illustrate the system of civil service, the following extracts from the Illinois civil service law, which governs most of the de- partments of the civil service of Chicago, are given: No person shall be admitted to examina- tion for any position in the official service who is not a citizen of the United States, and who has not been an actual resident of the city of Chicago for at least one year next preceding the date of the examination. Unless otherwise provided in these rules, no person shall be admitted to examination for a position in the official service who is less than twenty years of age at the date of examination, except that applicants for positions of pages and messengers must not be less than 17 years of age at the date of examination. In special examinations for any place requiring technical, professional or scien- tific knowledge, or manual skill of a high order, the commission may wave the re- quirement of residence in the city of Chi- cago, fixed in Section 1 of this rule. Application for admission for examina- tion shall be made on blanks in such form and manner, and supported by such certifi- cates of persons acquainted with the appli- cant, as the commission may prescribe. These blanks will be furnished to appli- cants for examination. No question in any examination shall relate to political or religious opinions or affiliations, and no appointment or selection for an office, or employment within the scope of these rules, shall be in any manner affected or influenced by such opinions or affiliations. EXAMINATIONS. Examinations shall be held at such times and places as the commission shall desig- nate, and two weeks’ notice thereof shall be given, as provided by law. The subjects for the examination shall be designated from time to time by the commission and shall be such as the needs of the service require, and such as tend to prove the qualifications of the applicant for the office sought, and may include special tests of fitness for any particular place re- quiring technical, professional or scientific knowledge, or manual skill. Proficiency in any subject shall be credited in grading the standing of the per- son examined in proportion to the value of a knowledge of such subject in the branch or part of the service which the applicant seeks to enter, and also the applicant's physical qualifications and health. The relative weight of each subject shall be fixed by the commission for every examination. The name of no person shall be entered on a register of eligibles whose standing, upon a just grading in the examinations, shall average less than 70 per centum of complete proficiency in the subjects of the examination, taken as a whole, and of such 276 FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS minimum mark as may be fixed by the commission for any part thereof. All questions used in any examination shall be first approved by the commission. All examinations shall be conducted under the supervision of, and examination papers shall be marked under the regulation of, the commission. The same series of exami- nation papers shall not be used a second time. No examination papers and no examinations shall be subject to review by the Civil Service Commission, or any of its members, after the posting of the elig- ible list. All competitors who attain a general average of 70 per centum or over (and of such minimum mark as may be fixed by the commission for any part thereof) shall be eligible for appointment to the place for which they are examined, and their names shall be enrolled in the order of general average upon the proper registers, which shall be in such form as the commission shall prescribe, and shall be called the “Register of Eligibles.” Names shall remain upon the registers of eligibles for two years from the date of their enrollment unless sooner removed under authority contained in these rules, or by appointment. At the expiration of one year, the eligibles shall, upon a form prescribed by the commission, furnish new certificates of character. PROMOTIONS AND REMOVALS. All promotions in the classified service, unless herein otherwise provided, shall be from grade to grade, and shall be made upon voluntary, open, competitive exam- ination. Competition in such examinations shall be limited to the employes in the next lower grade of the same position, serving in the department in which the position exists, unless the Commission shall deem it for the interest of the service to admit competitive employes in other grades or other divisions, serving in that or other departments. No officer or employe in the classified service who shall have been appointed un- der these rules, and after examination, shall be removed or discharged except for cause, upon written charges and after an opportunity to be heard in his own de- fense. When a removal is deemed neces- sary, the appointing officer shall immedi- ately notify the Commission in writing of the grounds therefor. Such grounds shall be investigated by the Commission, and the accused person shall be given an oppor- tunity to be heard in his own defense, pro- vided, however, that such officer or em- ploye shall file a written request for in- vestigation within three days after the date of his removal. The finding and decision of the Commission shall be certified to the appointing officer and shall be forthwith enforced by said officer. Pending such in- vestigation, the appointing officer may sus- pend the accused for a reasonable period, not exceeding 30 days. Nothing in this section shall be construed to require such charges or investigation in cases of labor- ers or persons who have the custody of pub- lic money, for the safe keeping of which another person has given bonds. FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 277 THE UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE NUMBER OF POST-OFFICES AND EMI- PLOYES. One may gain some idea of the enormous work undertaken by the United States Post-Office department when it is known that it directs the operation of 74,000 post-offices and over 200,000 employes. RECEIPTS, EXPENSES AND AMOUNT OF MAIL. - The cost of running the department for one year is nearly $110,000,000, and the receipts are about as much—for, in spite of the excellent organization of the depart- ment, the government is so liberal in the matter of second-class postage that ex- penses are not always met by receipts. To indicate the enormous extent of this busi- ness, it may be said that, every minute of the day, about 12,000 messages are deliv- ered. The service is constantly growing and these figures will soon be eclipsed. The department handles about 7,000,000,- 000 pieces of mail annually, of which about one third are letters. This growth is in marked contrast with the meager showing of the department un- der Timothy Pickering, the first postmas- ter general. In his regime the work of a quarter of a year was represented by $63,- 000 in receipts and expenditures—an amount now excelled every five hours of the day. Little could one foresee in this simple beginning the smoothly-working system of to-day, with its lightning mail trains, its free rural and city deliveries, its special deliveries that rival the telegraph, *nd its gigantic money-order department. | Cancelºng postage stamps in the post office. This machine is a late invention, and is operatel by elec- tricity. It cancels from three to five thousand letters a minute. POSTMASTER GENERAL’S OFFICE. This great branch of the gº, ernment business machinery is divided into four sub-departments, each under the supervi- sion of an assistant postmaster general. These are: first, the branch hat has charge of the administration of the post- offices, carriers and clerical force and the actual management of the general work of the offices. This department expºnds an: nually about $40,000,000; secºnd, the branch for the transportation of the mails, which contracts with the railway compa- nies for service, etc., and costs about $35,- 000,000 a year to operate; thid, the 278 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS branch which keeps the financial accounts and furnishes stamps, postal cards, etc.; fourth, the branch which appoints over 70,000 postmasters and directs the force of inspectors. In addition, there is an au- diting bureau under the Treasury Depart- ment, employing over 500 clerks, which scrutinizes and audits all post-office ac- Counts. SALARIES OF PostMASTERs. The expenses and receipts of the numer- ous post-offices differ greatly, the New York receipts being tens of millions of dollars, with a great percentage of profit, while many of the small country offices do not sell $25 worth of stamps a year. The salaries of postmasters vary with their po- sitions. Those who are appointed by the President, about 4,000 in number, receive not less than $1,000 yearly, while the fourth-class offices, in which salaries are less than $1,000, number over 70,000 and are filled by appointment of the postmaster general. CITY MAIL IDELIVERY. Several departments of the service de- serve particular mention. The free city delivery system is one of these, employing over 140,000 carriers, at an annual ex- pense of more than $14,000,000. This ac- complishes the delivery of mail to the door of every resident of the larger cities, with- out the least inconvenience. The marine postal service on the great lakes involves the delivery of mail sent to and from sail- ors on moving vessels. The smoothness of the operation of this branch of the service can be best noticed at the mouth of the Detroit river, where during eight months of the year vessels pass every three and a half minutes of the day and night. This great fleet has a perfect mail service. All vessels are met and mail is collected and delivered, with the vessels in full motion. Water-tight bags are used for this pur- pose, as a safeguard in case the collector should have a “spill.” The letters are stamped on the back with the name of the vessel to which they are destined. IRUBAL IDELIVERY SERVICE. There is nothing perhaps so remarkable in the history of the post-office department as the free rural delivery service, but re- cently inaugurated. By means of this de- livery, farmers throughout many sections of the country receive their mail regularly, at stated intervals, without the necessity of calling for it at the postoffice, possibly many miles away. The rural delivery routes are rapidly increasing, and so pop- ular are they that, in many cases, to secure them, the farmers have paid for the grad- ing necessitated by the establishment of routes. Among the advantages derived from this service are larger postal receipts and a greater use of newspapers and magazines, which keeps the people better informed, and increases the value of land because of the better means of communication. Farmers also are able to keep in closer touch with market quotations, through the papers, thus enabling them to get the best prices for their produce. RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE. Most important of all branches of the service is the railway postoffice, which started in 1864, now employs about 10,000 men, and annually covers nearly 300,000,- 000 miles on about 174,000 miles of track. The mail handled by this branch of the service has of late doubled nearly every FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT' NATIONS 279 six years. In 1884, the mail distributed in railway postoffices amounted to 4,519,- 661,900; in 1898, 12,225,706,220; and at present, about 15,000,000,000 pieces are handled. So efficient is this service that mails are carried, sorted, pouched and de- livered to every point desired, without de- lay at the distributing point. The work is so exacting that clerks must be well versed in its requirements. Every office in a territory must be known to every clerk, and no forgetfulness or error in placing in the mail bag is permitted. Extremely stringent examinations are held for applicants for positions in the rail- way mail service, and so well has the clerk learned his lesson, that on an average, only one error is made in the sorting and de- livery of 10,428 pieces of mail. THE IRAST MAIL. Time is such a factor in the railway mail service that new trains are being con- stantly scheduled by the railway compa- nies, and all sorts of devices are used to secure the rapid transit of mails. Now, the fast mail train crosses the continent four hours ahead of any passenger trains, and often between Chicago and Omaha, a speed of from 80 to 90 miles an hour is at- tained. In this rapid race many smaller stations must necessarily be swiftly passed. The mail received by the railway mail cars at such points is taken on by an automatic device like a crooked arm, projecting from the open door of the cars, which, by pres- sure of a lever, will reach out, seize a bag of mail fastened to a post on the railway platform, and hurl it inside the car. Mail for these stations is dropped off generally by hand. The railway branch of the postal service is dangerous, as many as 75 employes hav- ing been killed and over 1,000 injured, in a single year. In this branch of the ser- vice, in order to save time in the final de- livery of mail at its destination in the large cities, men well informed as to these cities are on board the fast trains, who sort the mail into the pouches so well, that the lat- ter may be taken directly from the train to the numerous sub-stations in the cities. MAIL BAGS. It may well be imagined that a great many bags are necessary in the mail ser- vice. The great trend of bags is from the East westward, and from great business centers toward the country districts. Every year, nearly a million and a half bags are repaired and put into service, most of them through the New York postoffice. Nat- urally, some postoffices will accumulate more bags than they can use for return mails. Cincinnati and St. Touis are made distributing points from which a call for from 5,000 to 20,000 bags may be supplied at almost any time. Bags are supplied by contract. All sorts of them are in use, and of course the great- est demand is for new ones. The greatest flow of bags, after they get into service, is from the offices at Washington, Baltimore, New York, Chicago, Boston and Philadel- phia. The period of greatest activity is during the Christmas and New Year holi- days, when business firms and individuals are sending out great quantities of pack ages by mail. The bags containing these gradually return to the central stations late in January, and once more flow out in May, when the spring advertising season sets in. Of the numerous kinds of bags, there must be those for the mountain car- riers, the runner on snowshoes, knapsacks, 280 FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS and bags for the Alas- kan dog teams, and sad- dle bags for the pony express. One of the re- cent odd bags devised is a perforated affair, for transporting live queen bees to the islands of the Pacific. FORWARDING MAIL, IN ALASKA. It is interesting to know how the postoffice department delivers mail in the far-off, frozen fields of Alaska. Kotzebue is the farthest northern point at which deliveries are made, and this necessitates an overland journey of about a thousand miles. A train of six heavily coated Alaskan dogs draws the mail, the deerskin sleeping sacks of the mail car- riers, who travel in couples, and the food, Alaskan Mail Carrier and dogs at the Post Office Department, for exhibition at the St. Louis Exposition. Model for exhibition at the Louisiana Exposition at St. Louis. snowshoes, shotguns, cooking utensils, stove, etc. All this is loaded on a light sled, and, all told, weighs about 360 pounds. Fre- quently, raw winter winds must be encoun- tered and stops must be made to thaw out frozen feet, fingers or ears. Stops are also made at wayside native huts, to secure extra food in case the supply runs out. Sometimes it is necessary to bunk out on the snow. All sorts of difficulties are to be expected. The dogs are likely to fight. great snowdrifts fre- quently block the way, and sometimes direc. tions are lost. Arctic fogs are encountered, and the mercury some- times drops to 50 or 60 degrees below zero, FAUT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 281 When it is necessary to camp in the open, drink that is boiling hot when re- moved from the fire, is cold before it is used, and the fork often freezes to one's lips. Biscuits and doughnuts are often so hard that, actually, they have to be cut with an axe. The carriers meet many poor na- tives on the way. Sometimes, the supply of fish has failed, and natives who have been snowed in are compelled to cut up their skin boats for food. MONEY ORDER.S. The money-order division of the post- º: department is one of the greatest Opening dead letter packages in the Dead Letter Office of the Post Office Department. clearing houses in the world, and easily rivals the foremost banks. This is one of the greatest sources of convenience to the public. The system is so complete that money may be sent by it almost to any point in the world. By means of the inter- national money-order system, money is ex- changed between different countries. So º - All kinds of curious merchandise and periodicals, and even infernal machines, are received here and opened, When a large amount of merchandise is collected, it is placed in blind packages and sold at auction. great is the business of this division, that money orders numbering over 30,000,000 are issued in a year for amounts aggrega- ting about $210,000,000. This work ne- cessitates the employment of 350 people who do nothing but add up columns of figures all day. 282 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS THE DEAD-LETTER OFFICE. Many misdirected letters and packages cannot reach their destination. Often very odd methods are used to direct mail, pictures sometimes being used instead of writing. The postoffice department usually solves such riddles and delivers the nail to its proper destination. But about 20,000 letters, unclaimed, unaddressed or misdi- rected, are sent to the dead-letter office year- ly. Packages, even, reach great figures, often as many as 50,000 being sorted in the office. It saves millions of dollars for those interested by eventually remitting money and valuables to the sender, in cases where the person for whom they were intended cannot be found. This office often finds snakes, dynamite and other freakish things in unclaimed mail. IMAIL PACKAGES. Package carrying has grown to a great Even the express companies are volume. meeting serious competition at the hands of the postoffice department. In the west- ern hemisphere, at present, nearly a score of countries and colonies can be reached by package post, which will carry merchan- dise, etc., to the weight of 11 pounds. OCEAN POST-OFFICES. There were no uniform rates for foreign mails until 1874. Such rates as did exist were regulated largely by treaties with the separate countries. To-day, however, five cents will carry a letter the world round, until it finds. its owner. Sea “liners” have postoffices aboard similar to those on fast trains. Thus mail may be sorted en route, and given direct to local carriers in foreign countries, without having to go through land offices. Many tons of mails are car- ried between trains and the mail steamers in the harbor of New York, by the transfer boat, “Postmaster. General.” BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING WHERE U. S. GREENBACAS ARE MADF. - FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 283 UNDESIRABLE IMMIGRANTS AND STATISTICS OF IMMIGRATION Once upon a time a lady set up house- keeping in a very large mansion. Indeed there was so much unoccupied space in it, that she was quite pleased when a number of people came to live with her and she treated them so hospitably, that they sent back good reports to the various corners of men and women who did everything in their power to promote the welfare and hap- piness of the great family. THE PENALTY OF UNWISE HOSPITAL- ITY. At last a time came, however, when the lady with the big house, whose rooms were MAP OF EUROPE. - - North of Line Emigration to America has decreased in the last 10 years. South of Line Emigration has increased. COmes from. the earth from which they had come, and others were encouraged to move in also. The family grew and grew, and the new members who were being constantly added, took kindly to the laws and customs of their adopted mother, and in a little while after they came, it was always quite difficult to distinguish the new from the old. Nearly all who came were hard-working, earnest Black portion shows where the worst Italian element rapidly filling, began to wonder if she had not been a little too free in her hospitality, for she found it was being abused. People were coming in great numbers who did lit- tle or no work and who were very active in vice and crime. They would not take the trouble to learn the language spoken in their new home, and they would not mingle with the other residents, but kept by them- 284. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS selves and continued the evil, shiftless ways that had made them undesirable members of the communities they had left. 1,000 VICIOUS IMMIGRANTS DAILY. This allegory fitly applies to much of the immigration that is pressing down very hard on certain parts of the country. From Italy and Sicily are coming to us in great hordes, lawless, ignorant men and women, who have been taught just enough in their native land to enable them to pass the immi- grant inspection at Ellis Island. One mill- ion lira ($200,000) is spent annually on the education of the Neapolitans and Sicil- ians who intend to emigrate to the United States, in order to prevent their rejection by the American authorities. Of the 1,400 immigrants on the steamship Belgravia, which arrived here in December, 1902, 256 individuals whose names appeared on the ship's manifest, it was found upon a test investigation, had given fictitious addresses of alleged relatives and friends in this city who would be responsible for them. They resort to any means, dishonest or not, to slip into the country, and they are coming in at the rate of nearly 1,000 a day. NoT PROUD of THESE count RYMEN. The better class of Italians and Sicil- ians say they themselves would be glad to have their worthless countrymen excluded from the United States, because they bring their mother country into disrepute in the land of their adoption, by all sorts of crime and dishonesty. GREATEST IMMIGRATION ON RECORD. Germany, England, Ireland, Russia, Norway, Sweden and Denmark continue to send us great armies of men, women and children, but the great majority of the peo- ple from these countries are desirable, and are as welcome now as were their forefath- ers when they came long ago to help build the nation when the gracious lady of the Western Hemisphere first threw open her doors to the world. In the fiscal year ending July 1, 1903, 195,439 more immigrants came to our Trom the New York Herald. A SICILIAN IN NATIVE COSTUME. shores from Europe than during the pre- ceding twelve months. More than one-fourth of this entire European increase of emigration occurred within the narrow boundaries of Italy, in- cluding Sicily and Sardinia. OVER-STUPPLY IN THE GREAT CITIES. TJNIDER-STUPPLY ON THE FARMS. Meanwhile, as ignorant outcasts front the mother country continue to crowd into our already congested cities, a cry keeps FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 285 coming from the wheat-growing West for men to harvest the crops. Every year, in the fall, thousands of able- bodied immigrants are to be found suf- fering in over-packed tenements—chok- ing the labor-markets of great cities; while farmers, short of hands, are facing the loss of at least part of their crops because they cannot get labor. - We are indebted to the Little Chronicle, of Chicago, for the above article. STATISTICS OF IMMIGRATION. Tt is interesting to note the periods of fluctuation that mark the extent of immi- gration into the United States. There was a steady increase from the close of the Civil War until the panic of 1873. Then a de- crease took place, with no reaction until 1880. In 1882, the number of immigrants was 788,992, which is the maximum num- RECLAIMING OF IRRIGATION IMMIGRANTS. In the far southwestern portion of the United States, in the section drained by the Colorado river, the Nile of the western ber from 1867 up to 1902. The following table of figures shows the total number of immigrants arriving on our shores from 1867 until June 30, 1903: 1867 . . . . . 298,967|1886 . . . . . 334,203 1868 . . . . . 282, 189|1887 . . . . . 490,109 1869 . . . . . 352,569||1888 . . . . . 546,889 1870 . . . . . 387,203|1889 . . . . . 444,427 1871 . . . . . 321,350 1890 . . . . . 455,302 1872 . . . . . 404,806, 1891 . . . . . 360,319 1873 . . . . . 459,803|1892 . . . . . 623,084 1874 . . . . . 313,339||1893 . . . . . 502,917 1875 . . . . . 227,498|1894 . . . . . 285,631 1876 . . . . . 169,986, 1895 . . . . . 258,536 1877 . . . . . 141,857|1896 . . . . . 343,267 1878 . . . . . 138,469, 1897 . . . . . 230,832 1879 . . . . . 177,826, 1898 . . . . . 229,299 1880 . . . . . 457,257|1899 . . . . . 311,715 1881 . . . . . 669,431 1900 . . . . . 448,572 1882 . . . . . 788,992 1901 . . . . . 487,918 1883 . . . . . 603,322, 1902 . . . . . 496,534 1884. . . . . . 518,592, 1903 . . . . . 857,046 1885 . . . . . 395,346 ARID AMERICA continent, is progressing the great work of reclaiming the great southwest. ALKALI PLAINS OF COLORADO. Any one who has gone over this country knows too well the stifling heat of these, alkali plains. Probably no more desolate place exists than the Colorado Desert on the borders of California and Mexico. And | yet such is man’s persistence and ingenu- ity that these arid stretches of waste will soon bloom like oases. Irrigation has come to the rescue. The land in itself was fertile enough, and, in fact, the potentialities of the soil for everything known in agriculture are to-day wonderful. Further, the climate is such that with water, production will be boun- 286 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS tiful. And work is going fast apace. Ere long lands that were strewn with the bleaching bones of unfortunate pioneers who were lost in this trackless country, will manifest their richness. Here are moun- tains of iron, coal and salt, mines un- worked, whose ore would be worth a hun- dred dollars a ton at the smelter. Soon this is to be productive under the hand of advancing commercialism. ARTIFICIAL CANAL AND OLD RIVER PEDS. The railways have set the pace. the knowledge that Los With The land formerly was almost bare of vegetation, save that here and there were heavy growths of mesquite. But every- where this delta of sedimentary deposit had a soil deep and rich. Now, instead of the somber scenes of useless desolation are springing up vistas of green fields, bubbling creeks and pleasant homes. Wherever the water touches the soil the growth is phenom- enal. The climate is similar to that of Southern California and the greater part of the year is delightful. Vegetation springs to maturity almost in a single bound. Green Angeles, which, although in blossom itself, is but a short distance from the desert, would profit ere long from the de- velopment of this coun- try, railway magnates began pushing south- westward from Salt Lake City. Already the faith in the country has begun to reap rewards. But a short time ago, this natural bride of the Colorado river, this truly rich though seem- ingly valueless waste, was given the advant- ages of meager irrigation. The method was simple, Water was taken from the river near the Mexican border by means of a large artificial canal, and conducted through old river beds to the land to be watered. The old river beds needed very little done to them save cleaning of old brush in order to make them the channels of the system. For some 50 miles these river beds are used, and from them extends a system of lateral branches. - By courtesy of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R. Company. BOTTOMLESS LAKE–ROSWELL, NEW MEXICO. How Artesian wells near Roswell may be made a great power for good. corn is ready to eat in a double fortnight after planting. The date palm matures in five years. However, it is grain, alfalfa and live stock that will flourish most abun- dantly in this new paradise. Even Mexico will profit by the irrigation. Mexican lands have been purchased, water is taken to them by construction companies, and the canal system grows apace. TAPPING THE COLORADO RIVER, The water supply itself when rightly led is everlasting. The Colorado river at its FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 287 lowest stages carries enough water to irri- - gate 8,000,000 acres, and of these there are about 3,000,000 acres that can be thus improved simply by the force of gravity. One great engineering feat in connection with this wonderful land reclamation was that of tapping the Colorado. It was neces- sary to tap this stream so that there would be no danger of flooding the surrounding territory during high water season. This was done by selecting a spot where there was a natural heading in a hill of rock opposite the most powerful current in the river. Strong works of timber and stone were built here taking in the water at a depth of 9 feet below low level. This head- ing has already withstood heavy pressure successfully. CONGRESS PROMOTES IRRIGATION. After nine months of careful investiga- tion the Geographical Survey Department of the United States decided upon five irri- gation projects which are being developed under the terms of the arid-land reservation act of June, 1902. One of these projects is the Gunnison tunnel scheme which is expected to reclaim nearly 100,000 acres near Montrose, in Central Colorado. In Nevada it is also proposed to divert water from Lake Tahoe, California, and its outlet, the Truckee river, into the Humboldt Valley, and supply set- tlers in the vicinity of Remo. Two hundred thousand acres may be reclaimed here. Then there are 500,000 acres along Milk River, in Montana, and 200,000 acres at Tonto Creek, which will be reclaimed. In New Mexico artesian wells are be- ing bored for use as means of irrigation, and great tracts of barren wilderness are being redeemed to the service of agricul- ture. “UNCLE SAM” AND NUT CULTURE The Department of Agriculture at Wash- ington is pursuing the plan of distributing, oil special recommendation of congressmen for each donation, choice and desirable Varieties of seedlings, which people shall find it worth their while to plant. Extensive plantations of budded and grafted seedlings have been set out on the government’s experiment farm at Arling- ton, across the Potomac, and from this source the supply of trees required for dis- tribution is drawn. Targe quantities of tree seeds, such as those of the Kentucky coffee trees, and the “burr oak,” which bears the largest acorns produced by any Species of oak native to North America, are shipped free to applicants. In this way many bushels of paper-shelled pecan nuts, four times the ordinary size, and obtained from a few freak trees that are scattered through the “pecan belt,” have already been sent out for planting. THE PECAN AND PERSIAN WALNUT. Uncle Sam aims especially to encourage the cultivation of improved varieties of nut trees, such as the pecan, the Per- sian walnut, certain other kinds of valu. able wahnuts from Japan, and the hazel nut. Of the last named, otherwise known as the filbert, the government has secured a new species from Washington state, that grows on a tree sixty feet long, which, be: cause the stem is too slender to hold itself 288 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS upright, runs along the ground like a vine. The “vine” bears pods, in each of which are found two filberts, in place of the usual single one. THE JOIRDAN ALMOND. It has also procured “bud wood” of the veritable Jordan almond for the first time from Spain. Many millions of pounds of Jordan almonds are now imported into the United States annually. - The Department of Agriculture employs the services of half a dozen “agricultural explorers,” whose business it is to ransack every corner of the world, for whatever seems desirable in the way of new or val- uable plants. The same man who secured the Jordan almond, notwithstanding the obstacles thrown in his way by Spanish growers, sent over not long ago “bud wood” of some wonderful Persian walnuts, which are six times the size of ordinary ones, and deliciously flavored. The wood has been used for grafts on common walnut seed- lings, and already some thousands of the grafted trees are on hand. THE ENGLISH WALNUT. The growing of Persian (otherwise known as “English”) walnuts has become an important industry in Southern Cali- fornia during the last few years, the annual crop amounting to more than 2,000,000 pounds. There are other and valuable kinds of walnuts which the Department of Agricul- ture is propagating with the help of buds and grafts, and one of these is the so-called “Japanese walnut,” somewhat smaller than the Persian, with a pointed shell and a deliciously flavored, though more oily, ker- nel. There is also the “Siebold” walnut, from Japan, of which a large number of grafted seedlings have been raised. Its nuts are not large, but are of excellent qual- ity, and the husks containing them are borne in clusters somewhat like grapes. PROFIT IN PECANS. A grove of pecan trees will easily give in ten years an annual profit of $1,000 an acre. A full-grown pecan tree of the ordi- nary kind produces two barrels of nuts each season, worth $15 a barrel, wholesale. The cultivated chestnut is being grown in superior varieties. Improved by graft- ing, the nuts bid fair to be of giant size and exquisite flavor. THE COCOANUT PALM. The Department of Agriculture is doing its best to encourage the cultivation of the cocoanut palm in Florida, where large plan- tations are already in bearing. The kernels of 500 cocoanuts yield one hundredweight of oil, and it takes about 240 of the nuts to produce a hundredweight of copra, which is the dried kernel. The kernels of three average cocoanuts give one pound of the dried “meat.” About 40,000,000 cocoanuts are used for confectionery annually. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 289 WHAT THE WEATHER MAN DOES THE WEATHER BUREAU. SIGNAL STATION AT MOUNT WASHINGTON, NEW HAMPSHIRE. Everybody knows the weather man. Nearly every community formerly de- pended upon some local prophet to foretell the weather. Predictions and traditions of all sorts were heeded, but little study was given to the weather from a scientific point of view. Even to-day the weather man is made the butt of the jokes of the fireside. As a matter of fact, the weather bureau of the United States Department of Agri- culture instead of being a joke, testifies to its efficiency by issuing more than ten thou- sand weather bulletins daily, not including the forecasts printed in the newspapers. While weather prognostication frequently goes awry, the science (for science it is) of meteorology not only deserves commen- dation in its present stage of develop- ment, but has shown itself acceptable even by the most skeptical. A SCIENCE OF TENDENCIES. This science is one of the tenden- cies. Where other sciences are based on actual and existing facts, the work of the weather bureau has to do with the probable developments of atmos- pheric phenomena. The weather man, equipped with rain gauges, weather vanes, gauges for calculating the speed of wind, and an intricate system of communication with other weather men throughout the country, makes it his business to register conditions of the weather and to deduce from them the kind of weather likely to prevail at a certain time in any given locality. STORM CONDITIONS. A storm may be brewing around Med- icine Hat. The direction of the wind, the lowness of the barometer and other con- ditions may indicate clearly that the storm will slide down in a southeasterly direction and strike Chicago. Immediately the weather man from his eyrie, in the Audi- torium tower, in Chicago, for instance, sends out messages over the whole Central West warning mariners on the great lakes, as well as farmers who have perishable crops, that a storm is approaching. From an apparently unknown cause, a “low” barometer is noted in Kansas. The storm suddenly veers in that direction, and the Chicago weather man once more is the sub- ject of many jests. Such conditions constantly arise and it is only by the most careful observation that 290 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS all of them are noted, and proper deduc- tions made therefrom. As a matter of fact, however, so efficient has become this coun- try-wide service, that some weather prog- nosticators have to their credit as many as nine out of ten correct predictions. AREA COVERED BY THE SIGNAL SERV- ICE. The area embraced in the weather-bureau service extends from the Atlantic to the MILLIONS OF DOLLARS IN PROPERTY SAVED YEARLY. So complete is this service that every year millions of dollars' worth of property are effectually protected from damaging storms by timely signals. At nearly every port there is either a complete weather observatory, or a storm- signal station where a system of danger lights is displayed at night or flags by day, warning the navigator of approaching Pacific, from the north coast of South America northward to the extreme northern Canadian habitations. Records are care- fully made of cold waves, hot waves and storms. Bulletins are sent on postal cards printed by postmasters, from telegraphic reports, to outlying towns, for display in suitable places. Instrument at Weather Bureau, which records the direction and velocity of the wind, the sunlight, and the rainfall on the same sheet of paper. A late invention. storms. The shipping of the Atlantic sea- board is thus protected with greater cer- tainty than that on any other American coast. One reason for this is that, except those from the Gulf, nearly all the storms which sweep the Atlantic coast, originate in the Mississippi Valley, and the service of the weather bureau shows that they reach Prof. Garrett and his clerks preparing the weather maps which are sent out to all cities each day. These maps show the weather forecast for all the United States. 292 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS the Atlantic coast in about 24 hours. Hence a warning of the beginning of one of these valley storms, gives sufficient notice to be- Ware. THE GALVESTON HURRICANE AND TIDAL WAVE. Among the great storms which have been accurately forecasted is that which resulted in the tidal wave and hurricane that swept over Galveston, Texas, in 1900. This was detected in the ocean south of Porto Rico, on September 1 of that year. So timely was the warning that little or no loss of property occurred to the shipping interests of the open waters of the Gulf. The de- struction at Galveston was less than it would have been had no warning been re- ceived. WARNING OF COLD WAVE PREVENTS $3,500,000 LOSS. There is an instance on record where more than three and a half million dollars worth of property was saved by a warning of the advance of a single cold wave. The fruit interests of California profit much by these warnings. THE CRANBERRY CROP DEPENDENT ON FROST WARNINGS. Tlood-gates in the cranberry marshes of Wisconsin are regulated by the frost warm- ings of the weather bureau. Sugar grow- ers of Louisiana, orange growers of Florida, and truck gardeners in many quarters re- ceive timely warnings of frosts and protect their growing products. GREAT FLOODS OF 1897. It is frequently possible to foretell sev- eral days in advance the possible flooding of a river. High water is noted far up the stream, and residents in the low lands have time to save their chattels. During the great floods of 1897 so complete were the warning bulletins which predicted the sub- mergence of great districts that, it is esti- mated, $15,000,000 worth of live stock and removable property were saved. THE THERMOMETER AND BAROMETER. A word about the instruments in use by the weather bureau is here appropriate. Naturally the thermometer is of prime im- portance as it registers the degrees of heat and cold. The barometer indicates the pressure of the atmosphere and its changes and generally shows the origin of a storm or its direction. TEIE EAROGRAPH AND ANIEMIOMETER. The barograph is an automatic barometer which keeps perpetual record of changes in atmospheric pressure. The anemometer registers the speed of the wind; it is a small windmill connected with a dial. THE TELETHERMOMETER AND HYGROM- - IETER. The telethermometer is a combination of telegraph" and thermometer, registering automatically, inside of the signal office, the outside temperature as communicated by wire from the thermometer without. The hygrometer notes the humidity of the atmosphere and aids in forecasting rains. THE ANEMOSCOPE. The anemoscope, or weather vane, points in the direction of the wind. There is also a triple register, which notes the conditions of rain, wind and sunshine. This country is in the lead in the matter of practical weather bureaus, which is largely due to the great extent of our terri- tory. The government expends about $1," 000,000 annually upon this service. FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS POSTAGE-STAMP DEPARTMENT 20,800,000 PRINTED DAILY. The bureau of engraving and printing at Washington, D. C., strikes off about 20,800,000 stamps every day, and the daily shipments of stamps to the 70,000 or more postoffices throughout the United States run from 10,000,000 to 70,000,000. About Gumming Postage stamps in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. ing the little certificate that appears on the letters in the United States mails is a tre- mendous one. While billions of stamps are printed in a year, every detail of the big job is done by a force of about 200 men and WOIIlen. About two hundred thousand stamps are gummed each day. 100,000,000 stamps are always kept on hand ready for any emergency. The order sheet for stamps is an accu- rate barometer of industrial conditions in the United States, and the sale of stamps has jumped with leaps and bounds since 1900. The task of printing and distribut- BUT on E SHEET, of 400, LosT IN THREE YEARS. In the last three years only one sheet of stamp paper has been lost. Four hundred stamps are printed on a sheet, which goes through the hands of a couple of hundred employes. 294 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS The process of turning out a postage stamp is similar to that of printing a bank note. THE GUIMIMING PEROCESS. The method of applying the gum to the stamp sheets is entirely mechanical except in the counting. The sheets are fed into a hopper, where they pass between rollers, the lower set of which revolves in a vat of melted gum. This vat is directly over a heater which is regulated automatically with scientific accuracy. Over these gum rollers the stamps pass en a continuous chain, which carries them through wooden compartments heated by hot water pipes. When the sheets emerge the gum is dry, and they are ready for the counter. The basic principle of the gum, which the government manufactures, is cassava starch. The government has been printing its own postage stamp si --- --- º By courtesy of the Detroit Photographic Co. BRANDING A STEER. fed upon ground grain, grown and milled upon the ranch. Thirty expert cattle rais- ers are constantly employed to care for the blooded stock and as inany more work in the field. The cattle and horse barns are of steel and stone. Mr. Rockefeller is now irrigating the upland fields, and proposes to convert the 91,000 acres of pasture land into one gi- gantic alfalfa field, making the largest tract of alfalfa in the country. taxes on $50,000 worth of agricultural land may be counted by the dozen during the tax-paying time. It is an ordinary event in the freight offices of western railway companies to receive orders from farmers to place railway sidings in their farms dur- ing the fall for the shipment of grain. These orders are generally recognized and filled because the grain shipments are im- Inern Se. COWBOYS OF NEW MEXICO. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 303 BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA In the state of Califor- nia stand the oldest living things of the world — the ‘big trees.” THE CALAVIERAS GROVE About the middle of the last century, the Calaveras Grove of “Big Trees” was discovered, and after con- siderable examination by scientists, its members were classified as a bona fide species of the genus Sequoia. This species, with its kinsman, the Red- wood, has no close relatives on earth, although both re- semble the cypress. Only by comparison of the liv- ing trees with various fos- sils, was it discovered that the Sequoias belong to a very old family which dates back to the moist days of the Miocene pe— riod, when all vegetation grew abundantly. At that time, it is supposed, these trees covered much of Europe and America, well up toward the north pole. With the visitation of the glacial era, came the com- plete extinction of much vegetation, and when the ice receded, possibly, these very coast Redwoods and “Big Trees” fortunately were left uninjured. 304 FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS This was all thousands of years ago, and to-day, in the specially favorable localities where these old trees have stood for so many centuries, they impress us as almost the only survivors of a previous geological age. THE REDWOOD FOREST.S. In the seaward ravines and slopes of the coast range which traverses California, stand the forests of Redwood. From just over the Oregon line down into Monterey County, California, the members of the gigantic tree tribe thrive only so far inland as the sea fog always sweeps—about 20 miles. TEN SEPARATE FORESTS-AREA 260 IMILES LONG. On the slopes of the Sierras, scattered through the timber land of that region, in sheltered valleys, stand the ten separate forests of “Big Trees”—the only ones in the world. The area covered by these trees is not over 260 miles in length. In all, there are but a few hundred fairly large trees. FIVE HUNDRED TOWERING SKYWARD. Among these, the truly great ones do not number over 500. They are found set in mountain forests of great richness and grandeur. These forests are evergreen. The “Big Trees” are found in company with big Sugar and Yellow Pines, Firs and Cedars, which, themselves, rise from 175 to 200 feet in height. Above these tower, some hundred feet higher, the great crowns of the Calaveras Grove. A Sugar Pine ten feet through is a rarity, yet there are Sequoias of the Mariposa Grove 30 feet through, and many of them are 10 to 20 feet thick. Many of these trees when felled are big enough to accommodate a troop of cavalry on horseback. A TREE 4,000 YEARS OLD. As to the age of these giants there is some uncertainty. Through counting their rings, some, 2,200 years old, have been found. One, that fell before the wind, was 4,000 years old. It is supposed that some of the trees now standing are 5,000 years of age. In fact, it has been said of them that, barr- ing accidents, they are immortal. Part of this longevity is due to the fact that the Sequoias have a thick, fibrous bark that is all but fireproof, and thus affords protec. tion from the numerous fires that kill smaller trees and vegetation. Also this bark prevents to a great degree the deadly effects of fungus growth, which lodges in scarred trees and rots back into the wood. THE BIG TREES' ENEMY. One enemy has the Sequoia, and that is the lumberman, who is cutting down this noble tribe of trees for commercial use. By far the greater number are held in private ownership, although some of them are in forest reserves. THE MARIPOSA GROVE. The Mariposa Grove is owned by the state of California and is thus secure. But many other groves are rapidly falling. The trees do not multiply to any extent despite their superb strength. In the Calaveras Grove there are some trees 40 years old, but aside from these there is little sign of in- crease save in the limited area on the south fork of the Kaweah and the Tule rivers, where, although restricted, there is an abun- dant growth of trees of every age. Doubt- less, action will be taken ere long to pre- serve to future generations the finest speci- mens of the old sentinels of the age- FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 305 WHERE THE WARIOUS AMERICAN INDUSTRIES ARE MAINLY CARRIED ON The United States Census Bureau has issued a report indicating the places where many of the most important of American industries are concentrated. Measured by the value of products, these points are as follows: COLLARS AND CUFFS. More than 85 per cent of the collars and cuffs are made in Troy, New York. OYSTER-CANNING, More than 64 per cent of the canning of oysters is done in Baltimore. GLOWES. More than 54 per cent of the manufac- ture of gloves is carried on in the adjoining cities of Gloversville and Johnstown, New York. COI&E. More than 48 per cent of the coke sup- ply comes from the Connellsville district in Pennsylvania. IBRASSWAIR.E. More than 47 per cent of the brassware in the United States is made in Waterbury, Connecticut. CARIFETS. More than 45 per cent of the manufac- ture of carpets is carried on in Philadelphia. JEWELRY. More than 45 per cent of the manufac- ture of jewelry is carried on in Providence, Rhode Island, and the adjoining towns of Attleboro and North Attleboro, Massa- chusetts. SILVERWAIRE, More than 36 per cent of the silverware manufacture is done in Providence, Rhode Island. TMEAT IIMIDUSTRY. More than 35 per cent of the slaughtering and packing business is done in Chicago. PLATED AND BIRITANNIA WAR.E. More than 32 per cent of the plated and Britannia ware is made at Meriden, Con- necticut. AGRICULTURAL. IIMPLEMENTS. More than 24 per cent of the agricul- tural implements are made in Chicago. SILK. The whole of the silk manufacture in the United States is conducted in Paterson and West Hoboken, New Jersey. PACKING HOUSE EMPLOYES IN SOUTH OIMAHA. The number of wage earners engaged in slaughtering and meat packing in South Omaha, Nebraska, constitutes 90 per cent of the total number employed in all indus- tries in that city. - IRON AND STEEL. The iron and steel industry forms 89 per cent of all the industries in McKeesport, Pennsylvania. POTTERY. The pottery manufacture constitutes 87 per cent of all business in East Liverpool, Ohio, - 306 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS IFUR, BIATS. The fur hat industry forms 86 per cent of all manufactures in Bethel. Connecticut. GLASS. In Tarentum, Pennsylvania, the glass manufacture makes up 80 per cent of all business done there. COTTON GOODS. - In Fall River, Massachusetts, the manu- facture of cotton goods constitutes 80 per cent of all business done there. BOOTS AND SHOES. In Brockton, Massachusetts, the boot and shoe manufacture forms 77 per cent of all business done there. PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES-AT HOME AND ABROAD While the system of public schools in the United States has often been the subject of favorable comment, few people stop to con- sider the enormous work and the amount of money spent in this great public work. INTUIMBER, OF PUPILS. The annual report of the Commissioner of Labor shows that during the year ending June 30, 1902, the grand total of pupils in public and private schools of our coun- try was 17,299,230, an increase of 278,- 520 pupils over the preceding year. Of this number, 15,710,394 pupils were en- rolled in institutions supported by general and local taxes imposed by states and municipalities. VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY. The value of the property used for public school purposes was $756,043,089, an in- crease from $130,380,008 in 1870. EXPENDITURES FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. Expenditures for common school pur- poses, including elementary and secondary schools but excluding higher grades, amounted to $226,043,236, having risen from $64,396,666 in 1870. EXPENSE FOR SCIHOOLS PER, CAPITA. The expense for schools per capita of population increased from $1.64 in 1870 to $2.93 in 1902. The amount expended per capita varies much in different states. It is $4.65 in California, $5.30 in Nevada, $5.18 in Colorado, $4.93 in Massachusetts, and $4.60 in New York. The rural popu- lations generally expend less. The number of high schools supported by public money in 1901 was 6,318. SCHOOLS IN THE INEW ISLAND POSSES- SIONS. The recent extension of our national rule over some of the islands of the Orient in- volves the imparting of knowledge under governmental supervision to multitudes of untaught children in those far-away insular possessions. The expense of the new edu- cational system in the Philippines is mounting up to a high figure. A SMALL ARMY OF TEACHERS. “Uncle Sam” has already appointed a small army of teachers and has stationed them in all parts of the archipelago, with instructions to saturate the young barba- rians as thoroughly as possible with Ameri- FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 307 can ideas and information. Above all, they are to be taught English, and immense quantities of schoolbooks in that language —geographies, arithmetics, readers, etc.— have been shipped across the ocean for their use, together with slates and pencils, pens and copy-books, blackboards and chalk, maps and globes and other such apparatus ad libitum. TJNIDER SPANISH PruſII2. Under Spanish rule the educational sys- tem in the islands was exceedingly primi- tive. Girls were taught embroidery and needlework, but were not supposed to re- quire other knowledge. Schooling ordinarily ended with the tenth year of the pupil, and teachers were so poorly paid that their calling was looked down upon. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMPULSORY IN THE PHILIPPINES. The first act of the Philippine commis- sion when it turned its attention to the work of education was to make schooling com- pulsory, while free of cost, so as to bring it within reach of the laboring classes and the poor. School attendance is obligatory on all native children between the ages of six and twelve years. OPEN 1,500 SCHOOLS IN THE ARCHIPEL- AGO. Since then the archipelago has been di- vided into seventeen educational districts, with an American school superintendent in charge of each. One thousand American teachers for primary work have been ap- pointed and assigned to stations in the Various towns, with 200 additional teachers in higher branches. Besides these 3,400 Filipino teachers have received appoint- ments, and provision has been made for instruction in the English language in 1,500 schools, in which over 200,000 children are enrolled. Night schools for adults and others unable to attend during the day have been opened throughout the islands. - FILIPINO TEACHERS, The Filipino teachers get one-half the salaries of the American teachers, who are paid from $1,000 to $1,200 per annum. Trade schools in the large towns have been organized. A number of agricultural schools will soon be in operation, and, as a means of preparing the natives for employ- ment in the signal corps, telegraphy is now being taught. The Filipinos are to be educated in schools organized on the American plan. Rebellious natives may lay down their arms only to take them up again later, but the present generation is learning English and singing “The Star-Spangled Banner,” and will not be in the least disposed to indulge in insurrection. Already schoolhouses are being built everywhere and everybody tries to speak English. AMERICAN SCHOOL BOOKS-750,000 SENT TO THE PEIILIPPINES. American school-books to the number of 750,000 have already been shipped to the Philippines, together with enormous quan- tities of school supplies, including 20,000 modern school desks. At present most of the children have to sit on benches without backs. YEARN FOR, KNOWLEDGE. The Filipino children are noticeably bright and precocious, learn rapidly, and teach their parents English. One teacher reports that he can more easily govern 300 308 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS Filipino children than fifty young Ameri- CallS. GAMES OF THE YOUNG FILIPINOS. The native boys are most fond of foot- ball, leapfrog, pitching pennies and flying kites, introducing the element of gambling wherever possible. Of the games intro- duced by the American teachers they take most interest in baseball, hop-scotch and prisoner's base. The girls enjoy running games, song and dance games and jack- straws, but the American teachers have in- troduced among them blindman's-buff, hide- and-seek, jumping the rope, crack the whip and the dressing of dolls. FIRST FILIPINO GRAMMAR. The oddest of all educational volumes is the Filipino grammar—the first one to be issued—which has just made its appear- tion, thus: ance. It has three primitive, vowel sounds—a, i and u-which seem to be of European origin. The other vowel sounds —e and o-are used chiefly in printing and in words of Spanish origin, but they are pronounced like “i’’ and “u” respect- ively. THE TANGALOG ALPEIABET. The tangalog alphabet is an easy one. There are only 15 simple and two com- pound sounds, but quite enough for the vocabulary of a Filipino. Adjectives are generally formed by prefixing “ma” to the root. Comparison is expressed by duplica- “Mabuti,” good; “Mabubuti,” best. The same simple method is in use in expressing the various moods and tenses of verbs. Thus the root, “aral,” means study; “mag-aral,” to study; “mag-a-aral.” I study; “mag-a-aral aco,” I shall study. THE AMERICAN SOLDIERS WITH FILIPINO CHILDREN. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 309 HOW THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT EDUCATES The policy of the government in past years of selecting a few Indian youths from each tribe and removing them to dis- tant schools, there to be given, free of cost to the Indian, all the advantages that American youths pay for, either in money or work, seems in the end to turn out un- fortunately for the Indian himself. The youth is weaned from his old associations, and accustomed to a life of luxurious ease. After his education is completed, there re- mains no course open to him but to return to his old tribal relations, the very life that his training has unfitted him for. METHOD SPOILS THE INDIAN. The government does not provide a career for him as it does for graduates of West Point and Annapolis. All he can look for- ward to must come from his tribe. He re- turns to the reservation, where he is not even given land in severalty, in case he should wish to support himself by tilling the soil. He is not given any occupation or office; even his rations are dependent on his being recorded on the family ration ticket. To live in peace with the tribe, he must not appear to put on airs. If he tries to adopt the customs of civilization he is a THE INDIAN º GOVEl NMENT SCHOOL AT CARLISLE, PA., WHERE GOOD WORK IS BEING DONE. subject for ridicule and ostracism, until he submits and falls back into the old, filthy life of the tepee. WRETCHED CONDITIONS ON SOME RES- ERVATIONS. The miserable condition of the Indians on some of the reservations is a reproach to the American people. In some cases, the school facilities are not sufficient for more than one in ten of the children of school age. No churches or missionaries are pro- vided, and on Sundays the Indians play cards and the troops at the post play base- ball as well as cards. AN ANOMALOUS STATE OF THINGS. Sometimes very anomalous conditions exist, as when a troop of infantry is sta- 310 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS tioned on an extensive reservation to keep in control thousands of mounted braves; or when a cattle company pays pasturage for ten thousand head of stock on a reservation, and actually pastures forty thousand head; or when the rations are reduced in a year of drouth to half the quantities issued in pre- vious years, or when white settlers have taken out irrigating water from above the reservations, thus depriving the Indian irri- gators of the means of raising crops. CAPABLE OF SELF SUPPORT. Many more of the Indians are able and willing to become self-supporting if given land in severalty, and provided with means of irrigating it. As common laborers on railroad construction, they have proven ºuperior to the laborers from Europe. CHOCOLATE MAKING IN AMERICA Chocolate making has become one of the great industries of America. When, one day, shortly after the fall of his kingdom, ºf ººº- - COCOA. TREE. Montezuma raised a golden cup to his lips, for refreshment, he introduced a new drink to the world, and that beverage was choco- \ats CONQUERORS CARRY THE DARK-BROWN NUT HOME TO SPAIN. Bernard Diaz, one of the Spanish officers with Cortez, observed the monarch, and in the history he afterward wrote of the conquest of Mexico, he described the king's act and its effect. Thus it came about that when the Spaniards took ship for Cadiz, they bore with them not only a yellow metal but a dark-brown nut from which chocolate was made. KNOWLEDGE OF CHO.COLATE MAKING SPREADS THROUGH EUROPE. This knowledge of chocolate making by the Spaniards was kept a secret for many years, but it finally crossed the Pyrenees into France, and spread throughout Europe. The manner in which the fame of the bev- erage was diffused is interesting. In the refectories of the Spanish monasteries chocolate had become such a favorite bev- erage that the monks, wishing to remember their brothers in France in an especially friendly way, sent them presents of the cocoa beans. PURITANS BRING IT TO MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Thus it was that when the daughter of Philip III, went to Paris as the wife of TACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 311 Louis XIII., she bore with her from Madrid the news of the new drink from America. Next the Puritans took it with them to Massachusetts Bay. Since then, chocolate has become a household word in the length and breadth of the United States. JFIRST CHOCOLATE IMILT, IN AMERICA– 1765. The first chocolate mill was established at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1765. This mill, 15 years later, became the property of Dr. James Baker. Later, the establishment passed into the control of Walter Baker. Others afterward succeeded both Bakers, and a man named Pierce, in this concern. CONSUMPTION OF CHOCOLATE AND CO- COA. IN THE UNITED STATES. Tn 1860 there were consumed in the United States 1,181,054 pounds of choco- late and cocoa. In 1902, the consumption had grown to 48,785,688 pounds, a stu- pendous increase of 4,030 per cent in 42 years. During the same period, the popula- tion of the country increased only 151 per cent. But what of the product itself? CHOCOLATE MILL AT MILTON, MASSA- CHUSETTS. To drive down the hill from Milton, Mas- sachusetts, past the chocolate mills, is to inhale deep aromatic odors, that lead you to imagine that you are skirting the domains of “Araby the Blest.” Within the mills there is a “spick” and “spanness” that make the aroma even more delicious, for they seem to fill it with a fresh and whole- some cleanliness. The whole theory of the process in the mills is that the cocoa bean is a product of nature, and that what it needs is refining and purifying, just as gold needs refining to be brought to the pure ingot. THE COCOA TIREE AND NUTS. Chocolate is obtained from the cocoa tree, a tropical plant which reaches a height of between 20 and 30 feet. It bears pods about nine inches long, within which are closely packed the beans. These are about the size and shape of almonds, and of a brownish color, when dried. They come to market in burlap bags, and on the lower floors of the great mills, the first step in purification is taken by cleansing the beans from any dust or foreign particles that may have become attached to the shells. THE PROCESS OF MANUE ACTURE. Next comes the roasting, a most impor- tant operation, upon which depends to a great extent the flavor of the beans. Too little roasting leaves them crude and under- flavored, while too much tends to make them bitter. This process is carried on in the upper stories of the mills, the cleansed seeds being put into large cylindrical roast- ers, holding a ton each. These machines keep the seeds in constant motion over hot pipes, for about three hours. When they are “done to a turn” they are dropped through big hoppers to the floor below; there they are broken into small fragments. The shells, already loosened by the roasting process, are then removed by ingenious win- nowing machines, where the bean fragments are fanned within screens, and the light shells neatly separated from the solid frag- ments of the beans. COCOA SHELLS. The manipulation of these winnowing machines requires experience and care, for a workman may easily blow away his salary by admitting too much current to the fans. These shells, once separated, are ready to be 312 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS packed in boxes and placed on the market. Cocoa shells are well-known and widely used, making a palatable and inexpensive drink, with a slight ("avor of chocolate about it. GRINDING THE CRACIKED COCOA. The cracked cocoa, freed from the shells, is now destined to be turned into chocolate without further ado. This is accomplished by a process of grinding. From the win- nowing floor the cleaned fragments drop another story, again through capacious hoppers, down to the great grinding rooms. Stretching away in seemingly endless ranks, stand big, gleaming, intricate machines, which receive the cocoa beans as they are fed into the hoppers above, and grind them into a fine, smooth paste or thick liquid. IMOLDING THE CAIKES, As this liquid flows thickly out at the bottom of the burnished grinder, it falls, if it is to be a plain chocolate, into oblong molds, which give it the form familiar to housekeepers. It is now in the molds, but not yet molded. For that purpose, it must be carried into a room which seems to be nothing but noise. This is the room of the automatic molders. If the chocolate were pressed into the molds, it would mere- ly stick to the presser mold and all; so, instead, it is shaken in. The pasty lump of chocolate in its metal mold is put into a wooden tray on a table, which is shaken by steam, and makes the molds bob up and down in a most deafening manner. After the chocolate is fitted to the mold, it is car. ried off to the cooling rooms. SWEETENING AND FLAVORING. In making sweetened chocolate, pure sugar is added in a certain proportion, be- fore molding, and also the finest quality of vanilla beans, if it is to be vanilla choco- late. In the manufacture of breakfast cocoa, a portion of the oil of the chocolate bean is removed by hydraulic pressure, and the pressed mass remaining is ground into minute particles. This process is con- tinued until a high degree of fineness has been obtained. CINNAMON The cinnamon plant or tree is raised most readily from seeds, although the finer kinds are propagated in Ceylon by layers. The wood of the tree is light. The branches are thick and spreading, and shoot forth horizontally or inclining down- wards, with numerous oblong leaves grow- ing in pairs opposite to each other. The cinnamon berry is small and has the form of an olive, with a kernel. It adheres to a thick green and hexan- gular receptacle in the manner of an acorn. The peeling process commences early in May and continues until late in October. Two longitudinal slits are made in the bark, which is gradually loosened with the convex side of a knife, and then half of its cir- cumference usually comes off in one entire slip. The epidermis, together with the greenish pulpy matter immediately under it, is carefully scraped off. When suffi- ciently dry, it is made up into bundles weighing about 30 pounds each. Ceylon alone has 37,000 acres of land devoted to the cultivation of cinnamon. It is grown to some extent in China, and several species of the plant in a wild state are found in Java. FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 313 ALASKA Alaska is eight times as large as all New England. It has a coast line of 26,000 miles. It has the best yellow cedar in the world. It has the greatest salmon fisheries. It has cod banks that excel those of New- foundland. It has the largest river in the world. THE YUIKON, IRIVER, The Yukon is 20 miles wide, 700 miles from its mouth. With its tributaries, it is for this area $7,200,000. One Alaska com- pany alone has paid to the United States Government $7,000,000 in rentals and roy- alties. The value of Alaska salmon packed in 1901 was over $7,000,000. TRADE OF A LASIKA. The experience of the world shows great- er trade in the temperate zone than in the tropics. Annual exports to Alaska amount By courtesy of the Detroit Photographic Co. STAGE COACHES STARTING FOR THE MINES. navigable for 2,500 miles. It discharges one-third more water than the Mississippi. VAST EXTENT OF ALASKA. The territory of Alaska has an area of 829,529,000 acres, of which 272,000,000 acres lie within the temperate zone. In 1867, the United States Government paid 21 - to $1,000 per head. Annual imports from Alaska amount to $400 to $1,000 per head. Alaska is the American Sweden and Nor- way. It begins in a line within Southern England. Alaska does not extend as far north as Northern Norway. It is richer than Sweden and Norway. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS THE ISLAND OF KADIAIK. Kadiak, on the coast, is in the same latitude as Aberdeen, Scot- land. The lowest temperature over recorded at Kadiak was five degrees above zero. The average winter temperature at Kadiak is higher than at Washington, D. C. TEMPERATURE AND PRODUCTS. The lowest temperature ever re- corded at Dutch Ilarbor, Alaska, was nine degrees above zero. Dutch Harbor is in the latitude of Liverpool. Sitka has not cold weather enough in winter to sup- ply ice for the summer. Alaska is rich in minerals, lumber, fish- eries, furs and coal. The trade with Alaska is now nearly twice as great as with Hawaii. SEAL AND WALRUS HUNTING. Quite as much trouble has been caused between the United States and British governments over the indiscriminate hunting of seals in Alaskan territory as over any in- ternational question. One of the first laws enacted by this govern- ment after its purchase of Alaska from Russia, for $7,200,000, was aimed to prevent the slaughter of mink, marten and fur seal in that territory. BREEDING GROUNDS OF THE SEAL. The breeding grounds of the seal which is of commercial value are principally the Pribilof Is- lands of St. Paul and St. George. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 315 This land was leased by the Alaska Com- mission Company for $60,000 a year, and a commission, or royalty, of $2 on every fur seal taken. The company was limited to 100,000 seals a year. IILEGAL HUNTING. This arrangement made by the Treasury Department was considered very favorable until the great movement of settlers west tempted pelagic sealing or hunting for fur seals in the water. So rapidly did the herds of seal begin to diminish that officials were alarmed, and in 1886, the revenue cutter, Corwin, was sent to the territory and three British vessels were seized for illegal hunt- ing. This caused a great uproar, and a de- mand was made by Great Britain that the sailors be released. This was done, but, the next year, a similar proceeding followed. JOINT AGREEMENT WITH GREAT * BIRITAIN. After much discussion and legislation, a joint high commission was appointed be- tween Great Britain and the United States and the outcome of its work was a proposed set of regulations to protect the seals. These regulations, which were to continue in force until either party violated them, prohibited the killing (except by Indians) of seal with- in 60 miles of the Pribilof Islands at any time, and anywhere in the North Pacific from May 1 to July 1, of each year. This closed season allowed the seals time to cross from their winter quarters over the ocean to the Pribilof Islands to breed. Explosives and firearms (except shotguns) were pro- hibited in hunting. This stipulation, how- ever, was not ratified, and the United States government was forced to prevent sealing on the Pribilof Islands except by the North American Commercial Company and to de- mand papers showing a complete record of every sealskin brought into our ports. This was a hard blow to Canadian interests, and tended to suppress pelagic sealing. PELAGIC SEALING. In pelagic sealing, the hunters sail in schooners from our shores to Yokohama and thence bear down upon the animals in the sealing ground. The cry, “Sleepers”, is the warning given by the lookout on ship- board that seals are in sight. A boat is low- ered, provisioned for five days, and equipped with shotguns and shells. When the seals are espied they are asleep on their backs, with their flippers across their bel- lies. Stealthily, the hunters slip upon their quarry and shoot them asleep. Great quiet must be preserved until the killing begins, for, although the seals are almost blind, they have an acute hearing. At the Pribilof Islands, the government has built fences to confine the bull seals during breeding sea- SOInS. WALRUS HUNTING BY THE ESIKIIMOS. Walrus hunting is carried on in the Arc- tic seas by the Eskimos and is a very prof- itable but dangerous enterprise. The method pursued by these little people of the North is to cruise about the sea, and when a walrus is sighted, to lower a whaleboat with about six men in it. Gently they steal upon the unsuspecting walrus, and when they come within about 20 yards of the animal, it is harpooned. The harpoon has a handle attached at one end, and on the sharp end is a movable barb. To the barb is at- tached a rope, which jerks the barb to a horizontal position when the spear is buried in the animal. This prevents the harpoon from drawing out. Now the walrus is en- raged and tries to broak away. It swims 816 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS with all its might and the natives shoot it with bullets from a Winchester rifle. So thick skinned is the animal that one shot will not suffice, and six or seven shots are often necessary. All this time it swims strongly. Finally, it can be drawn near enough to the boat to be stabbed with a lance through the heart and lungs. It is then towed to the ship and hoisted on board by means of pulleys. Here it is cut up. These great animals have valuable tusks and blubber, and average about 1,800 pounds each, in weight. FLORIDA’S PRODUCTS AND PLEASURE RESORTS Northern people go to Florida, from No- vember to April, to spend money. Sun- shine, soft breezes, flowers, and singing birds are a vast improvement on raw winds, alternating frost and thaw, and mud and misery. FOUR HUNDRED MILES OF OCEAN IBEACH. The favorite resorts of Florida are on the east coast, where are the Halifax and Indian rivers, formed by flinging out an arm of sand into the great waters of the Atlantic and turning a section of the deep into an inland sea. The ocean beach of Florida, stretches north and south, more than 400 miles. NORTHERN CAPITAL MAKES IMPROVE- IMIENTS. Northern capital alone has made the im- provements which, in conjunction with nat- ural elements, constitute the attractive features of Florida's pleasure resorts. Most of the expenditure in this direction is rep- resented by capacious and superb hotels at various well-known points, which owe their construction to a single man. ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE “PONCE DE LEON.” At St. Augustine, this man of compre- hensive entertainment, built the Ponce de Leon, and when this luxurious and beauti- ful structure is opened for the season, the ancient town, over whose time-begrimed fortress the ensigns of three different na- tions have successively waved, celebrates the event with processions, the booming of cannon and a profusion of flags. IPALATIAL HIOUSES OF ENTERTAINMENT. The Alcazar and Cordova, at St. Augus- tine, owe their origin to the same man, and later he added the Ormond, on the Halifax, the Royal Poinciana and Breakers, at Palm Beach, the Royal Palm, at Miami, and the Colonial, over at Nassau—all sumptuous and palatial. THE “BOYAL POINCIANA.” The greatest, however, is the Royal Poin- ciana, at Palm Beach, a place which this modern Croesus has made the most beau- tiful spot on earth. On one side is Lake Worth, on the other the Atlantic, and over the stretch of sand between are groves of cocoanut palms and palmettos, avenues of Australian pine and oleanders, and gardens of glorious hued flowers. When all this tropical foliage is bathed in Florida sunshine, gleaming and glad; when the Neapolitan Orchestra goes out under the palms and the guests gather FACT's CONCEENING DIFFERENT NATIONS, 317 *pºurroguſ ore et doºd away qoſqa qnoqe kunsmpuſ queņrođom, try *VCIIHOT）， "¿LSGIAA AGIx{-A（HOLOV, I GIÐ NOBIS PALM BEACH, FLORIDA, AS IT APPEARS TO THE TOURIST. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 319 for the afternoon concert, and that heavenly music floats out upon the breezes which come in fresh and sweet from the sea; when the cocoanuts cling close to the strong stems above and great plumes of green sway across the blue beyond, their grateful shade sheltering the throngs of beautifully gowned women below, whose toilets are in pretty pink and purple of the flowers; the scene is certainly very fairylike. It has been called “Paradise” so often that the term is trite. But one could weave many a vision of fancy together and find them real- ized here. PALM BEACH. To see it is to understand why Palm Beach has become the center of attraction for that procession of wealth and aristoc- racy which moves southward in search of rest, pleasure or new excitement. Nearly the whole generation of millionaires flocks here. It dazes one to look over the list of names sometimes registered at Palm Beach —the Astors, the Wanderbilts, the Goulds, the Castellanes, the Manchesters, the Still- mans, the Benedicts, the Joneses, the Har- rimans, the Van Rensselaers, the Clarkes, the MacVeaghs, the Wanamakers, the Scho- fields, and a score or more of others. No- where else are so many millionaires housed and huddled together on one little strip of land. - PRODIGAL ExPENDITURE. Of course money flows like water. It hardly seems to be money, but is flung out with a freedom which is equaled only by the eagerness with which it was grasped in the making. At high tide, which was reached about the last of February this year, the Royal Poinciana had some 1,400 guests, and the daily income could hardly º º have averaged less than $10 per guest. Tho employes and help of the great establish- ment number 1,100 persons, and the cost of food alone is $2,200 per day. It nearly all comes from the North, and hence means little to Florida. Cars are sidetracked at the kitchen doors and the supplies go straight to the pantries and re- frigerators. The dining-room covers about two-thirds of an acre, seating 1,700 people, and the corridors and halls measure more than two miles. It is the largest hotel in the world. The railroad built by the owner of these mammoth hotels has opened up the garden spots of the east coast. THE ORANGE GROVES AND PINEAPPLE IFIELDS. The Indian River orange groves pro- duce the finest flavored fruit sent to mar- ket, and the pineapple fields on the same river, near Forts Pierce and Eden, are very prolific. One of the farmers of that sec- tion says that if he gets only two crops in five years it is still a profitable business. An acre of ground has yielded as high as $900. THE FLORIDA TRUCK GARDENS. At Miami the truck gardeners are rais- ing immense quantities of tomatoes and other vegetables. Corn in the ear and peas, beans, and tomatoes may be found ready for market in the beginning of April. A small limb on a grape-fruit tree often con- tains as much as 50 pounds of fruit. SPONGE FACTORY AT KEY WEST. Not the least interesting and important among the features of Florida production is the sponge industry, a representation of which appears in this connection. 820 FACTS COWCERNING DIFFERENT WATIONS *VCII （IOT） I NI SGHT ©idae. WOHNICI ONIMAO （10 „HO Cocoanut Raising, so profitable in India, as - COCOANUT PLANTATION. shown by the above illustration, is also one of the industries of Southern Florida. 322 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS MAKING MONEY AT THE MINT The United States mint was established by act of Congress April 2, 1792. COPPER CENTS, FIRST MONEY COINED. The first money, copper cents, was coined in 1793 in the building erected by the government on the east side of Seventh street, near Market street, Philadelphia. The first director of the mint was David Rittenhouse, LL. D., and among his suc- cessors have been Elias Boudinot, Robert Paterson, James Ross Snowden, James Pollock, Dr. Linderman and Col. Snowden. SILVER, DOLLARS AND GOLD EAGLES CAMIE NEXT. Silver dollars were the second money made, in 1794, and next gold eagles, in 1795. The first machinery, as well as metal used, came from England, and up to 1816 all work was done by horse or hand power. During five years of the mint's existence, work has been suspended owing to the prevalence of disease in the city. The present mint, on Chestnut street, near Broad, built of white marble, in the Grecian style, was finished in 1833. NO GOLD EAGLES COINED FOR 33 YEARS. No eagles were coined from 1805 to 1837, inclusive. - PERIODS OF CESSATION IN CERTAIN COINAGES. No half eagles were coined in 1816 or 1817; no quarter eagles before 1796, nor in 1800 or 1801, nor from 1809 to 1820, or in 1822, 1823, 1828 or 1841; no dollars from 1806 to 1838, except 1,000 in 1836; no half dollars from 1797 to 1800, nor in 1815; no quarters before 1796, none from 1798 to 1803, none from 1808 to 1814, and none in 1817-24-26-29 and 1830; no half dimes in 1798, 1799, 1804 and 1806 to 1828; no cents in 1815, a few specimens in 1823; no half cents in 1798, 1801, 1812 to 1824, 1827 to 1830, 1834, 1837 and 1840. A few half cents were struck every year from 1840 to 1857. The first $3 pieces were made in 1854. The silver dollar coinage of 412% grains, the 5-cent and 3-cent silver pieces and the bronze 2-cent piece ceased April 1, 1873. SAN FRANCISCO, DENVER AND CARSON CITY MINTS. The mints at Carson and San Francisco coin gold and silver only, and the Denver mint is confined to assaying and refining. THE WEIGHING ROOM. The first process of the mint is in the weighing room where all precious metal— gold from California, Georgia, Montana and Nova Scotia, and silver from Nevada and most of the world—is weighed. Here come, also, family plate and bricks of sil- ver, copper from Lake Superior and nickel from Pennsylvania. Tons of silver bricks are here, weighing from 100 to 150 pounds each. The largest weight used in the weighing room is 6,000 ounces; the smallest weight used in the mint is in the assaying room and weighs 1-1300 of an ounce. THE DEPOSIT MELTING ROOM. The metals for coining, including gold dust, grains of gold and crystalline lumps, next go to the deposit melting room, where they are placed in pots, and with a suitable flux, are melted and molded, FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 323 ASSAYING. Bits are cut off for assaying before the metal goes to the refiner and melter. For assaying, the small bit of gold is taken to the assayer's room, a dark department, with crucibles, kettles and pans. It is put into a black lead pot, melted and fluxed, stirred up to make a complete mixture and then cooled and rolled out. Then half a gramme is weighed, which is stamped 1000, and all the weights thereafter used are decimals of this, to the ten thousandth part. - Silver for the alloying is next added, and then lead for the cupellation; the whole is cupelled until the base metals are fused, the remaining bullion is beaten in a spiral, the silver dissolved out and the remaining gold determined by weight. Iron molds are used in the melting room, which are previously greased to prevent sticking and all the gold and silver used in the mint, in molten mass, are poured into these and speedily cooled. The long, thin, rich-colored bars resulting are called ingots. THE ROLLING ROOM. From the melting room the bars go to the rolling room, where 200 per hour pass through the mighty revolving jaws of each pair of rollers, coming forth with the exact thickness of a coin. In the same room with the rollers are nine cutting presses, which, with a con- tinual snap, snap, bite out 225 planchets of plain coin pieces in a minute. These planchets are taken in boxes to the anneal- ing furnaces, for the hard treatment they have received makes them brittle. They are heated in the furnaces to a red heat and, having become soft and pliable as leather, are taken out to cool. THE ADJUSTING ROOM. The planchets then go to the adjusting room, where they are weighed and in- spected. If too light, they are remelted; if a little too heavy, they are filed to the right weight; but if much too heavy, they, too. are remelted. THE CLEANING Roomſ. From the adjusting room the planchets go to the cleaning room, where with acid and heat they are thoroughly cleaned, and then dried with sawdust and peanut-roaster contrivances. They are then milled and have their edges turned up, after which they go to the presses. THE PRESSES. The presses are ten massive monsters, each capable of turning out over 100 coins per minute. The amount of pressure re- quired to make a perfect coin is from 20 to 80 tons, according to the size of the coin. The planchets are put in a brass tube, and with each impress are caught in two iron arms and placed on the lower die, which is in the bed of the press, corresponding to the upper die, and by the coming together of these two dies the coins are struck. As the planchet rests on the lower die, the upper descends and impresses it, and the two arms instantly catch the coin struck 2.1d throw it into a box beneath. NOW LEGAT, COINT. THE COUNTIIWG. At this moment it is a legal coin. The coins are then taken from the boxes and placed on grooved counting boards, similar to washboards, which hold a certain num- ber of coins. After this count they are poured into a drawer, out of which they are again counted, and placed in bags, ready for their mission of happiness or wretched- 116SS, 324 FACTS GONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS NINE GREAT WONDERS OF AMERICA Croton Aqueduct, in New York city. Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, largest park in the world. Lake Superior, the largest lake in the world. Washington Monument, Washington, D. C., 555 feet high. Yosemite Valley, California, 57 miles from Coulterville, which is from eight to ten miles long, and about one mile wide. It - Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, the largest cave in the world. Niagara Falls, with a sheet of water three-quarters of a mile wide and a fall of 175 feet. New York and Brooklyn Bridge. Nºw York AND BROOKLYN BRIDGE-VIEW FROM SouTH STREET, NEW YORK CITY. has very steep slopes, about 3,500 feet high, a perpendicular precipice 3,089 feet high, a rock, almost perpendicular, 3,270 feet high, and waterfalls from 700 to 1,000 feet high. “Flatiron” Building, New York FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 325 SALARIES PAID BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRESIDENT, VICE PRESIDENT AND GAB- - INET. President, $50,000; Vice-President, $8,000; Cabinet officers, $8,000 each. CONGRESS. United States Senators, $5,000 and mileage. Members of the House of Representa- tives, $5,000, with mileage. SUPREME COURT. Chief Justice, $10,500. Associate Justices, $10,000. TJ. S. CIRCUIT AND DISTRICT COURTS. Circuit Court Justices, $6,000. District Court Justices, $5,000. HEADS OF MINOR, IDEPARTMENTS. Superintendent Bureau of Engraving and Printing, $4,500; Public Printer, $4,500; Superintendent of Census, $6,000; Superintendent of Naval Observatory, $5,000; Superintendent of Signal Service, $4,000; Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000; Director of the Mint, $4,500; Commissioner of the General Land Office, $4,000; Commissioner of Pensions, $5,000; Commissioner of Labor, $5,000; Commis- sioner of Indian Affairs, $4,000; Commis- sioner of Education, $3,000; Commander of Marine Corps, $3,500; Superintendent of Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. United States Treasurer, $6,000; Reg- ister of the Treasury, $4,000; Comptroller, $4,000. POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. Four Assistant Postmaster-Generals, each $4,000; Chief Clerk, $2,500. IPOSTIMASTERS. Postmasters are divided into four classes and receive the following salaries: First class, $3,000 to $4,000 (except in New York city, where the salary is $8,000); second class, $2,000 to $3,000; third class, $1,000 to $2,000; fourth class, less than $1,000. Those in the first three classes are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate; those of fourth class are appointed by the Postmaster-General. IDIPL-71MATIC APPOINTEES. Ambassadors to France, Great Britain, Germany, Mexico and Russia, $17,500. Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary to Austro-Hungary, Brazil, China, Italy, Japan and Spain, $12,000; to the Argentine Republic, Belgium, Chili, Columbia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Peru, the Netherlands, Turkey and Venezuela, $10,000; to Denmark, Hayti, Paraguay and Uraguay, Portugal, Sweden and Nor- way, and Switzerland, $7,500; to Bolivia and Ecuador, $5,000, and to Greece, $6,500. Ministers Resident to Corea and Siam at $7,500, and to Persia, $5,000. Consuls General, four at $6,000 each; three at $5,000 each; six at $4,000 each, and eight at $2,000 to $3,500 each. Consuls, 72 at $1,000 to $3,500 each; ARMY OFFICERS. General, $13,500; Lieutenant General, $11,000; Major General, $7,500; Briga- dier General, $5,500; Colonel, $3,500; Lieutenant Colonel, $3,000; Major, $2,- 500; Captain, mounted, $2,000; Captain, not mounted, $1,800; Regimental Adju- tant, $1,800; Regimental Quartermaster, 326 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS $1,800; First Lieutenant, mounted, $1,- 600; First Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,- 500; Second Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; Second Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, $1,500. INAVY OFTEICERS. Admiral, $13,500; Vice-Admiral, $9,- 000; Rear-Admirals, $6,000; Commodores, $5,000; Captains, $4,500; Commanders, $3,500; Lieutenant-Commanders, $2,800; Lieutenants, $2,400; Masters, $1,800; Ensigns, $1,200; Midshipmen, $1,000; Cadet Midshipmen, $500; Mates, $900; Medical and Pay Directors, Medical and Pay Inspectors, and Chief Engineers, $4,- 400; Fleet Surgeons, Fleet Paymasters and Fleet Engineers, $4,400; Commander of Marine Corps, $3,500; Surgeons and Pay- masters, $2,800; Chaplains, $2,500. THE GOVERNMENT OF GERMANY What is commonly known as Germany is, in fact, a federation of numerous kingdoms, duchies and principalities. The country is generally thought of as representing abso- lutism in the person of the German Em- peror. This is hardly the case. ORGANIZATION OF THE GERMAN CON- FEDERACY. When Central Europe was ravaged by Napoleon, the numerous German states sought alliances with each other for protec- tion against the common enemy. For a long time Austria was the leader. At the time of the war of 1866, however, Prussia came forward, and Austria was relegated to the background. When Prussia emerged victorious from the Franco-Prussian War, in 1871, the coalition of states elected Wil- liam of Prussia its president and crowned him Emperor in the palace of the French king at Versailles. Shortly after this, a convention was called which framed a con- stitution. Three forces had been at work to bring about this empire, namely: the protection sought by the German kings and princes, the desire of the great Bismarck to make Prussia dominant, and the efforts of the small German rulers to perpetuate their rights to their individual thrones. The individual states that entered into the confederation yielded up much of their power to the imperial government. In fact, the coalition is not loose, but is a firm pact —an “indissoluble union of indestructible states.” The local laws mostly govern. In the courts of these states there is the usual system of local and superior courts in the several kingdoms. Aside from the manage- ment of their local affairs, the smaller states have reserved principally the right of rep- resentation. THE IMPERIAL GOVERNIMIENT. The imperial government consists of the Emperor and his officials, the Bundesrath, or federal council, similar to the United States senate, and the Reichstag, similar to the house of representatives. The latter is made up of about 400 members, elected by popular vote, for five years. Any citizen 25 years old can vote or be a candidate. Members receive no pay, but their transpor- tation is paid. The federal council is made up of ambassadors from the individual states, selected by their individual rulers, FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 327 with the aid of the local legislatures. Each state casts its votes according to the num- ber of its representatives, through one spokesman for each state. THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL. This body is perpetual, and must be con- voked by the Emperor, at the request of one-third of its members. The Imperial Chancellor is president of this council, and his vote decides in case of a tie. The concurrence of the Bundesrath in the legislation of the Reichstag is necessary to make such legislation valid, and the former ratifies or rejects treaties and exe- cutes laws, when no other provision has been made. Thus the council seems to have the actual sovereignty Aſ the Empire. Bills to be introduced in the Reichstag must have the support of 15 members. The Reichstag must be consulted on war, and neither house can ad- journ, save from day to day, unless the Emperor names a day of adjournment. The Emperor can also dissolve the lower house and order a new election within 60 days. When a bill affecting only a certain state is brought up in either house, only the representatives of the state affected by the bill vote upon it. THE IMPERIAL CROWN. The constitution makes the imperial crown heredi- tary with the oldest male member of the royal Prussian house. Thus a man is always on the throne, and Prussia has the greatest influence. This custom allows the Emperor to arrogate to himself much power and many privileges. The German people, moreover, are much im- pressed with the grandeur of the imperial throne, and the Emperor is absolute lord of 5,000,000 soldiers, and represents the Em. THE GERMAN EMPEROR. 328 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS pire in all foreign affairs. He controls 17 delegates in the council as king of Prussia, and only 14 more votes are necessary for legislation. Prussia also has an absolute veto power on questions relating to the army, navy, and imperial taxes. Experts prepare most bills for passage, and if they pass the council they are sent to the other house. Amendments to the con- stitution, instead of being referred to the people, are put through the council. Four- teen votes against an amendment will check it. Thus Prussia may stop legisla- tion harmful to her power, yet the smaller states can readily prevent encroachment. THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR. The Imperial Chancellor generally con- trols politics, and is the Emperor's prin- cipal adviser, being appointed and removed by him at will. He is the head of the Prussian delegation in the council, as well as president of that body. All acts, to be- come laws, must be signed by him. Bis- marck, the prime mover in the establish- ment of the Empire, was the greatest of Chancellors. LAWS OF THE EMPIRE. The Empire's laws take precedence over those of the component states, and are exe- cuted upon an unruly state by force of arms. Contributions, pro rata, from all the kingdoms may be called for in emergencies, but the ordinary taxing powers of the Em- pire are limited to customs, and to revenues on beer, tobacco, salt, sugar, and a few other commodities. Coinage is controlled by the Empire, as are the railroads and tele- graphs, although a few railways are owned by the kingdoms, which are also allowed to operate mints. The judiciary of the Empire includes an imperial supreme court made up of 18 judges appointed for life by the Emperor. An appeal to this tribunal from the superior courts of the kingdoms may be had. A code of criminal laws, another for commercial affairs, and a third, civil code, that governs the judiciary of all the kingdoms, have been established by the Empire. There is no bill of rights in the constitution, to guarantee to the individual certain privi- leges and immunities common in many countries. MOVING BOATS BY CABLE ON THE ELBE On the River Elbe an old method of moving boats is used which is not followed in any other part of the world. The stream is too swift to navigate in the usual way, and hence a chain 290 miles long is laid at its bottom. The boats are 180 feet long and are provided with 200-horse-power engines, which turn a drum fastened on the deck. - The chain comes in over the bow, passing along on rollers to the drum, around which it is wound three times. The chain is then carried to the stern, where it drops back into the water. The steamers tow five barges, containing 1,500 tons, and their only means of locomotion is by the chain wound around the drum, which is propelled by the engines on board the boats. º ºf FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 329 THF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT FISHERIES The United States Fish Commission and the steamship Albatross se- cure records of depths surround- ing the Hawaiian Group and the islands of the South Seas, and regularly send consign- ments to the main fish station at Washing- ton by vessels sailing round Cape Horn. CRUISE OF THE GORGON. Not since the British government cruiser “Gorgon” returned from its voyage in the interest of science, has any vessel been so thoroughly equipped to investigate the depths of the ocean and learn the character of its inhabitants. THE SIGSBEE TRAWLING DEVICE. By the use of the Sigsbee net (invented by Charles D. Sigsbee, Captain United - States Navy, late of the lost battle- ship Maine) it is possible to gather ºfflº “TRAWLING” ON THE FLOOR OF THE PACIFIC Five Miles Under the Ocean Surface 330 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS specimens at the astounding depth of five miles, and the construction of this device insures the capture of anything entering it, as it cannot be opened until drawn up to the ship. The value of this vessel's work is in- calculable to ichthyologists and navigators, teaching the former new forms of sub- marine life, and giving the latter soundings of dangerous shoals, hitherto uncharted by hydrographers. The Albatross touched at the Marquesas Group, the Paumotu Islands, the Society Islands, the Tonga Islands and many others. - THREE BIUNIDIRED AND FIFTY SPECIES OF FISH. The voyage resulted in the taking of 350 species of fish, of which 70 were new to science. Nearly all were good for food. Most of the fish caught by the natives of the islands are eaten raw. BUYING HUMAN HAIR IN GERMANY Every autumn the hair buyers of Ger- many start out from Berlin to purchase the luxuriant tresses of women and girls who live in the villages along the Spreewald. In this region the inhabitants, who are of Slavic origin, preserve the language and many of the customs of the ancient vandals. The women and girls wear their heavy masses of silky hair rolled in great coiffures on their heads, and are not averse to being shorn if the buyers offer a figure high enough. METHODS OF THE HAIR BUYERS. The women are fully aware that human hair is a desirable commodity, and they al- ways set a good price for their locks. The buyers are used to the business, however, and are good at driving a bargain, so there is a great deal of haggling before the pur- chase is finally concluded. The buyers, when commencing operations in a village, always first endeavor to put the inhabitants in a pleasant humor. They invite the vil- lagers to come to the inn, where the former act as hosts, and treat everybody to wine and Schnapps. After a day or two spent in establishing themselves as good fellows in the opinions of the townspeople, they be- gin work. They pick out the girls and women who have the best heads of hair, and offer them a low price for their locks. The women at once name a very exorbitant sum and then the trade is fairly begun. The women talk and argue until finally a compromise is reached, the price is agreed upon, and the village barber trims off the long, wavy locks and turns them over to the buyers. PRICE OF A HEAD OF HAIR. The price of a head of good hair depends upon its quality, luster and color, and upon the age of the person on whom it is grown. The hair of girls between the ages of 12 and 17 years is deemed most valuable. A good head of hair is worth all the way from $8 to $25. The hair thus obtained is exported all over the world. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 331 MOUNTAIN CLIMBING IN SWITZERLAND Perhaps the most striking fact brought but in a recent report of the Swiss Alpine Club, dealing with accidents in the Alps during the ten years from 1890 to 1901, is the relatively small number of deaths MOUNTAINEERING IN SWITZERLAND. caused from mountain climbing. Certain- ly most will learn with surprise that out of a total of 100,000 tourists who visit the Alps every year, a large proportion of whom climb the peaks, few lost their lives. NATIONALITY OF THOSE RILLED. Judged by this test, it would seem that, despite all its perils, moun- taineering is a less dangerous pas- time than many others—say, motor- ing, or cycling, for example—which are generally accounted much less hazardous. The figures given as to the nationality of those killed dur- ing a given period are also rather unexpected. The vast majority, it seems—190, to be precise—were Germans and Austrians, forty-eight were Swiss, twenty-three Italians, eighteen English or American and fifteen French. Most of the acci- dents occurred, too, in the eastern Alps—which helps, no doubt, to ex- plain the preponderance of the Ger- man-speaking climbers among the victims. It is somewhat surprising, none the less, to find that the latter out number so largely the English and Americans, and that these together in their turn are hardly more mu- merous than the French. Doubtless there is something in the explana- tion that British climbers, as a class, engage good guides, and in addition do their climbing as a rule at the time of the year most favorable for 332 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS mountaineering; also, perhaps, their ex- ceptional aptitude for the sport may go for something; but still the figures are sur- prising. What would be interesting to learn would be the proportion of lives lost to the total number of climbers in the case of each nationality. But this information is not supplied. CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS. As to the causes of accidents, they are catalogued as follows: 1, neglect to employ THE GOVERNMENT The abuses to which the thirteen original American colonies were subjected by the Tritish crown caused the Revolutionary good guides; 2, foolhardiness; 3, vanity and the spirit of emulation; 4, carelessness; 5, want of experience; 6, absentminded- ness; 7, false economy on food or neces- saries; 8, injudicious use of alcohol; 9, climbing at the wrong season—in the early spring or late autumn or winter. A suf- ficiently comprehensive list, it must be agreed. Yet even so, it is probably not exhaustive. Who can wonder at the peren- nial fascination of such sport? OF GREAT BRITAIN pomp and ceremony of royalty, the govern- ment of Great Britain is one of the most lib- eral in the world. It is monarchical almost - War, and impressed a deep-set opinion of the absolutism of the British government on the minds of many Americans. It is a fact, however, that with all the HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY. in name only, for although the crown of England passes to the oldest member of the reigning family, and with it the sovereignty over all the British Empire, yet its power is FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS limited so that the monarch cannot use co- ercion on subjects without great risk of rev- olution and dethronement. FATE OF CERTAIN EARLY MONARCHS. Although the government is a limited monarchy, it is almost a democracy, built upon an unwritten constitution of customs and on a parliament of two houses--the lords and the commons. These working through a cabinet and influenced somewhat by the king, carry out ultimately the will of the people. The constitution is the out- growth of centuries of struggle between parliament and the monarchs. In early times, the rulers were practically absolute, but when some of the more cruel ones were deposed, executed or judged insane and regents were appointed in their places, the people gradually acquired rights which they guarded jealously, and never per- mitted to be lost. Charles I. was deposed, and for a time Oliver Cromwell, as presi- dent of the great Commonwealth, governed in democratic form. Then came the mon- archy again, but as soon as James II. at- tempted to become an absolute monarch, he was deposed and William and Mary suc- ceeded. Since this time, the cabinet has played an important part in the govern- ment of Great Britain. At the time that George I. came to the throne, from a Ger- man family, he did not understand English, and, naturally, the cabinet was his main- stay. George III. tried to do away with this institution, but the people's action finally brought him back to using such advisers, and since then the cabinet has become a permanent fixture, though not mentioned legally as such, being simply the outgrowth of custom. THE CABINET. The cabinet is a body made up of from 15 to 20 of the chief ministers of the sev. eral portfolios or departments of the gov- ernment. In order that this system of cabinet government may work out most effectually, two rival parties are presup- posed. Each party, criticising the acts of the other and striving for supremacy, keeps the other on its metal. The ministers of the cabinet naturally belong to the party in power. Thus they control the situation well enough to pass any measures the ad- ministration may propose. When, through waning popularity, poor government, or for any similar reason, the cabinet party lacks sufficient support to pass its measures, it resigns the cabinet positions. There is the alternative of appealing to the public in. elections. If recourse is had to this method, the house of commons is first dissolved. If the members are returned by vote of their constituents, the administration is vindi- cated, and the bill in question is passed. In order to accomplish this, however, it becomes necessary sometimes, though very rarely, to coerce the house of lords. This is done by a threat from the king that he will create enough new peers to accomplish the desired legislation. From the foregoing it may be seen that the house of commons directly represents the people, and that when it comes to ap- pealing to the public at large in regard to measures that receive universal support, it surpasses the house of lords in power. In like manner it can be understood that the monarch, in order to be in perfect accord with his people, must coincide to a great degree with this branch of parliament. As before said, the cabinet is not recog- 334 FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS nized by law, but is the outgrowth of cus- tom, its origin having been a secret body of advisers of the crown. Naturally, in the beginning, the more powerful party in par- liament was sought out by the sovereign to aid him in securing legislation. The cab- inet of to-day, therefore, resigns when it no longer has the support of parliament, and thereupon the king calls to his aid the lead- ers of the opposite party. These he ap- points to the ministerial offices (the privy council) and from them he selects his cab- inet. This body has no authority save in that they are members of the privy council, and the premier who, also, is not recognized by law as such, gains his authority through being a minister, gen- erally, the minister of foreign affairs. PARLIAMENT. One of the strong points of the govern- ment is, that while the monarch has no veto power, yet so imbued are the people with the idea of royalty, and such is their re- spect for their sovereign, that they would not return members to parliament who would knowingly oppose his will. The ruler gives his advice and counsel to his cabinet, and receives their suggestions as to his ideas, and as a result, measures thus planned are sent through the houses of par- liament. When the houses are unanimous, legislation is unimpeded; when disagree- ment occurs, the methods before mentioned for vindicating the cabinet may be used, or a new ministry may be formed. This sys- tem presupposes that the king can do no wrong, and the ministry in power is made directly responsible for bad management. As the constitution is not a written in- strument, parliament is all-powerful. Its legislation is presumed to be constitu- tional, and courts do not pronounce upon its acts. THE JUDICIARY. The judiciary holds office for life and cannot be removed except for cause. Thus, in the main, its acts tend toward justice. It is entirely separated from the legislative and executive departments of the govern- ment, although to some extent it is ap- pointed. Should it interpret laws adverse to the wishes of parliament, that body would enact new laws which would nullify its decisions. The house of lords is a hereditary body. It has almost co-ordinate power with the house of commons, save that it cannot introduce or amend financial measures. The privy council is the official body that confers with the ruler and signs enactments. The king makes formal ap pointments, and the cabinet must have the support of the majority of parliament to hold office. Thus the commons, which is the most numerous body, may be said to choose the cabinet. When a new parlia- ment is chosen, the public, practically, chooses the new prime minister, for it has the leaders of the opposing party in mind when casting votes. All acts must be per- formed in the light of publicity, to gain favor, because there are two parties. Lastly, the English system necessitates the development of the individual leader, who can dominate his party, and thus make cabinet rule possible over sovereign and lords. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 335 IN A KING'S KITCHEN AND PLATE ROOMS The Royal kitchen of King Edward VII. is a room of considerable size, much larger in fact than the kitchens of many of the leading London restaurants, and scores of meals are prepared there every day. ITS COSTLY FINISH. It is fitted up throughout with black oak, for which George III. was responsible, he having expended $50,000 in this direction alone. Besides the kitchen proper, there are the confectionery room, the pastry room and the bakehouse. THE CLERIK AND THE CHEF. The clerk of the kitchen, who rejoices in a salary of $3,500 a year, is responsible for the conduct of these departments, and he has to deal with all the tradesmen who sup- ply the royal household. But the potentate of the kitchen is the chef, who also receives $3,500 a year, and under him are four master cooks, each of whom has control of a small army of assistants, while the con- fectionery department is ruled by two yeo- men with salaries of $1,500 and $1,250. ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT. Such a thing as unpunctuality is un- known in the king's kitchen. The most rigid economy is practiced, and such food as remains unconsumed is distributed among the poor, who apply at the castle gate every day. NINE MILLION TOLLARS IN PLATE, The king's kitchen hides something like $10,000 in copper and iron utensils and $9,000,000 in plate. Among the former should be mentioned the enormous meat screen of solid oak lined with metal, which is nearly 300 years old, and bears the im- perial badge of the house of Tudor—the portcullis and arms. Connoisseurs have sighed in vain for this meat screen, for its worth is inestimable. FOUR THOUSAND KITCHEN KNIVEs, 3,000 KITCHEN FORKS, AND 800 POTS AND PAN.S. Then, there are 4,000 knives, 3,000 forks and as many spoons, used for cooking and kitchen purposes. IEIGHT THOUSAND FORKS AND SIPOONS OF IMASSIVE SILVER. There are also 8,000 forks and spoons of massive silver for use at the royal table. There are 800 pots and pans, mostly of copper, and five scourers are solely em- ployed to keep them brightly burnished. PLATE EQUAL IN VALUE TO 18 TON'S OF SOVIEREIGNS. Not far away are the plate rooms, two in number, which, although they measure only 13 by 16 feet, hold treasures eighteen tons of sovereigns would not buy. SOLID GOLD SET OF GEORGE IV. The most valuable item in the storeroom is, of course, the famous service consisting of plates, dishes, tureens, epergnes and candelabra, all of solid gold, which were made by Roundelle & Bridge for George IV. This service is only used on state occasions. Equally famous is the emperor's service of silver gilt, the worth of which may be vaguely gleaned from the fact that each plate weighs a stone, and the epergnes two hundredweight apiece. GOLD DISH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. There is one gold dish of surpassing love- liness which is supposed to have been used 336 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS by Alexander the Great before the battle of Hydaspes, and for upward of six cen- turies it has reposed at Windsor. Another much-valued piece of plate is the silver gilt flagon three feet in height, which was recovered from an Armada wreck three cen- turies ago, while there is a table of solid silver, the surface of which measures nine feet square and is engraved with the four emblems of Great Britain. A FAMOUS ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVE The railways of Great Britain are widely reputed for substantial construction and skillful operation. So slight are the gradients and curves and so perfect is the mechanism of their equip- ROUND TRIPS NUMBER. 5,312. It recently completed its five thousand three hundred and twelfth round trip in addition to nearly 200 other trips that it has ment as to insure a com- bination of maximum speed and long endurance of engines. An illustra- tion of this is found in the record of “the Charles Dickens,” which is in many respects a notable locomotive. It is the rec- ord engine of England, and, incidentally, an example of what Brit- ish locomotives can do. Two MILLIon MILES RUN, This machine has just completed its second 1,000,000 miles. The ordinary lot of a railway engine is to run about 20,000 miles a year, so the record in this instance is practically equal to 100 years' service. TWENTY-ONE YEARS ON THE ROAD. But the “Charles Dickens” is only twenty-one years of age, having been turned out at Crewe in February, 1882. Its work has been to take an early train, starting at 8:30 in the morning, from Manchester to London, a distance of about 200 miles, re- turning from London the same day at 4 in the afternoon. A FAMOUS LOCOMOTIVE, THE “CHARLES DICKENS.” made, and it is significant that during the whole of its long journeyings, not a single passenger on the trains which it has hauled has suffered injury. SPEED 50% MILES AN HOUR. In the twenty-one years of its service the speed has gradually risen from forty-two to fifty and one-half miles an hour, and this in spite of the fact that the weight of the trains has been increased by an addition of heavy dining and corridor cars, and other weight-involving luxuries of modern travel. CONSUMPTION OF COAL, 27,436 TONS- OF WATER, 204,771 TONS. During its twenty-one years of service the engine has burned 27,486 tons of coal and FAUT'S UONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 337 has evaporated 204,771 tons of water, the consumption of coal averaging thirty-two pounds to the mile—a remarkably econom- ical performance. The engine has been laid up for repairs during this period only 12 per cent of the time, and the cost of its maintenance has been a fraction over 1 penny per mile. WHAT FOGS COST LONDON The words “Thicker than a London fog” have become proverbial, and were frequently used by persons who wish to describe a dark, gloomy and, perhaps, rainy (as well as foggy) day in the United States. In this line, it would be in- teresting to learn what the fogs cost Lon- don. TEN TONS OF SIMOKE DAILY. Every winter day each house in London throws into the atmosphere an average of ten tons of smoke-laden air, a total quan- tity of 5,000,000 tons of smoke-laden air for the inhabited houses of London per day, or, possibly, 7,000,000 tons per day, if we include factories. London loses one-sixth of its sunshine and daylight on account of this smoke. In MATRIMONY In England, a man's wife is in reality his partner, and whether or not the two are in harmony with each other in affection, they recognize in all material things that their fortunes are irrevocably bound together; that the interests of both are quite identical, and that each has just as strong a motive for making things go well as has the other, since they share equally the labor and the reward of labor. winter the loss amounts to one-half. The cost of clearing the air of London, either by electrically driven fans or other scientific methods, would probably be $30,000 a day, equivalent to a rate of 10d in the pound. The cost of caring for London's sewerage is about £600 per day. Fogs coST £3,000,000 A YEAR. On the other hand, a bad fog in London costs £5,000 a day, for additional gas alone. The yearly fogs cost, therefore, £3,000,000 to £5,000,000. A ten-penny rate would therefore be a very cheap and agreeable substitute for the smoke of London. The science of the twentieth century will give as satisfactory a solution to the question of smokes as that of the nineteenth century in the matter of sewage. IN ENGLAND WHAT THE WIFE KNOWS AND DOES. They may have their private disagree- ments, but they confront the world together. The wife takes the keenest interest in the most minute details of everything that af- fects her husband's welfare. She knows his income to a penny. She manages her household as a chancellor of the exchequer manages the nation's outlay, so that the an- nual budget shall not only avoid a deficit, 338 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS and shall accurately balance, but shall show a surplus. She will practice rigid economy, if necessary, and in doing so, she will feel that she is merely carrying out her share of the marriage contract. HUSBAND AND WIFE WORK TOGETHER. It is the man's part to make money; it is her part to help him save it. She plans nothing for herself apart from him; she cannot think of him as anything apart from her. If he is in political life, she enters into his ambitions with intelligence and zeal. She will write his letters for him and entertain his constituents; she will study the blue books and teach herself to understand the public questions with which he has to deal, so that she may discuss them: with him and follow his career intelligently, A BOND OF COMMON INTEREST. She belongs to him, in fact, as he belongs to her. There is not much display of senti- ment in an English household after the first year of married life has ended; but there is the bond of a common interest, which grows stronger every day and every year, and which gives to man and wife a unity of purpose and of feeling that will, beyond comparison, outlast the ties of mere emo- tionalism. - SCOTLAND'S MODEL TOWN On the banks of the winding Forth, a few miles from Falkirk, may be seen what is known as “The Model Village of Scot- land.” The name of this interesting little place is Dunmore. It was built long ago by the Earl of Dunmore for estate workers. It is now inhabited not only by this class, but also by salmon fishers and others, about fifty families, in all, going to make up the population. It has a village school, “a Smiddy” and a grocery shop. In the center of the village is a lovely open space in which is the proverbial vil- lage pump. The houses are built after old architectural designs, and are comprised of rooms and kitchens. At one end of the vil- lage is the open country, while at the other are seen the waters of the Firth of Forth. It is built off the main road, and is ap- proached by a beautifully kept carriage. way, constructed in a semicircular fashion, thus enabling visitors to drive around the village. Dunmore is in the unique posi- tion of having no public house. HISTORICAL FACTS. In the bog of Blair Drummond, near the Firth of Forth, a whale was unearthed in early times, which had been harpooned by means of an instrument made of the antlers of a stag. In the neighborhood of Falkirk, near the western extremity of the Firth of Forth, the sea formerly extended up the river Carron, far beyond the present head of the tide. The great Roman wall, named after Antonius, though begun by Agricola, extended from sea to sea, and the remains of it may still be seen near Dunglass, ris- ing 25 feet above the present level of the sea. In the east it terminates on the top of a cliff at Carriden, near Falkirk. I'A GTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 339 The territory comprising Canada was originally discovered by Sebastian Cabct in 1497, but its history dates only from 1534, when the French took possession. THE IDOIMINION OF CANADA. The Dominion of Canada includes the various provinces of North America for- merly known as Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec respectively), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Ed- ward Island, British Columbia, and the extensive regions long under the quasi- government of the Hudson Bay Company, now styled Manitoba, the Northwest Ter- ritories, the Yukon Territories, and Un- gava (a strip of coast from Ungava Bay to the Straits of Bell Isle); in fact, the whole of British North America except Newfoundland and Labrador. ITS EXTENT AND POPULATION. This territory, nearly as large as Eu- rope, stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and is estimated to contain a total area of 3,653,946 square miles, and a population of 5,371,315 souls, which, not- withstanding its diversity of origin, is fast being welded into one harmonious and homogeneous whole. - The first settlement, Quebec, was founded by the French in 1608. In 1759, Quebec succumbed to the British forces under General Wolfe, and in 1763, the whole territory of Canada became a pos- session of Great Britain by the treaty of Paris, of that year. Nova Scotia was ceded in 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht, the provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island be. CANADA AND ITS GOVERNMENT ing subsequently formed out of it. British Columbia, previously a part of the Hudson Bay Territory, was formed into a Crown colony in 1858, and was united to Van couver Island in 1866. The Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, by the British North America Act, which provided for the admission at any subsequent period, of the other prov- inces and territories of British North America. IMANITOIBA. Tn 1870, the Province of Manitoba was formed, and with the remainder of the Hudson Bay Territory, now called the Northwest Territories, was admitted into the Dominion. British Columbia followed in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in 1873, Newfoundland alone remaining a separate colony. The descendants of the French colonists reside chiefly in the Province of Quebec, and the majority of them still very gener- ally use the French language. RELIGIOUS CREEDS. A religious census of Canada was taken in 1901, showing the number of Roman Catholics to be 2,229,600; Methodists, 916,886; Church of England, 680,620; Baptists, 316,477; Congregationalists, 28,- 293; Presbyterians, 842,442; and Luther- ans, 92,524. THE CANADIAN GOVERNMENT. The executive government and authority are invested in the King, and exercised in his name by the Governor General, aided by a Privy Council. The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper 340 FAOTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS. House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons. THE SENATE. The Senate consists at present of 81 members, distributed between the various provinces, thus: for Ontario, 24; for Que- bec, 10; for Nova Scotia, 10; for New Brunswick, 4; for Prince Edward Island, 3; for British Columbia, 4; for Manitoba, 4; and for the Northwest Territories, 2. The members of the Senate are ap- pointed for life by the Crown, on the nom- ination of the ministry for the time being. Each nominee must be 30 years old, a resi- dent in the province for which he is ap- pointed, a natural-born or naturalized sub- ject of the King, and the owner of prop- erty amounting to $4,000. THE HOUSE OF COMIMIONS. This body is also composed of natural- born or naturalized subjects of the King. No property qualification is required, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. For electoral purposes, each province is divided into districts, each of which returns a member on a vote taken by ballot. The members of the House elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS. Each province has also a separate legis- lature and administration, with a Lieuter- --- - ant Governor, appointed by the Governor General. TEIE JUDICIARY. Justice in Canada is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed for life by the Gov- ernor General, from among the foremost men at the bar of the several provinces. THE SUPREME AND EXCHEQUER, COURTS. The Supreme Court of Canada is com- posed of a chief justice and five puisne judges, and holds three sessions in the year, at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, namely—the Exchequer Court of Canada—is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held any- where in Canada. THE PROVINCIAL COURTS. The provincial courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King's Bench, Court of Error and Appeals, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions and Divi- sion Courts. The present Governor General of Can- ada is the Right Honorable, the Earl of Minto, appointed in 1898, for five years, at a salary of £10,000 per year. Other interesting matter pertaining to Canada may be found under specific head. ings in this volume. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS. 34] CANADA'S LONG BRIDGE SPAN The bridge recently completed across the St. Lawrence river, six and a half miles south of Quebec, has the longest span in the world. THE GREAT ST. LAWIRENCE. The great St. Lawrence flows between high, rocky cliffs at that point, and varies according to the tide. The water is about 180 feet deep in the channel, and flows by at a swift rate. The channel is crossed with a suspended span and two cantilever arms, making the unsupported structure 1,800 feet long, which by far is the longest span in the world. It - is 200 feet longer than the span of the new East River bridge, New York. The length of anchor arms on each *- side of the main spans is 500 feet, with one approach span of 220 feet at each end, be- tween anchor piers and terminal abutments. The length of the structure, including abutments, is 3,300 feet. The substructure consists of two main piers, two anchor piers and two abutments. One of these anchor piers is founded on solid rock, and the other on hard blue clay. The sinking of the main caisson was a great engineering feat. At low tide the water is only ten feet deep around the two main Alers. SINKING OF THE CAISSON The caisson was sunk through a compact mass of granite bowlders, bound together with cobble stone and fine gravel. The penetration of the caisson was so slow that on some days the distance could not be re- corded; on other days it was scarcely more than four inches, although it bore a load on its roof of more than 20,000 tons. Owing to the immensity of this load, and its attendant danger, this method was finally abandoned, and concreting in the working chamber was begun. Progress by this method was rapid, and in 17 days the SHOOTING LACHINE RAPIDS, ST. LAWRENCE RIVER, pier was built. The caissons for the two main piers are each 150 feet long, 49 feet wide and 25 feet high. They are of south- ern pine. The caisson for the north pier was built on the north shore, about 4,000 feet east of the pier site; it was success- fully launched, towed into position, and made fast in a berth previously prepared, in the short space of 70 minutes. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS THE GOVERNMEN” OF FRANCE France, in its government, has been a mass of anomalies. From the extreme of monarchy to the extreme of theoretical re- publicanism, this country has swung back and forth repeatedly. Naturally, there- fore, the results of these mutations are to be found in its present government. When the aristocracy of France was put under the guillotine and the monarchy --- was snuffed out with Louis XVI., the masses, afraid to trust single persons, caused boards of management to be ap- pointed. When Napoleon came upon the scene, he dominated through numbers of trusty tools. Then came changes to republic and empire, with the constant and considerable pow- er of a great army always a fac- for in either kind of govern- ment. No study of the govern- ment of France is complete that does not take into considera- tion the great confidence placed in the army and the enormous power wielded by it. To-day, under the third republic, there is a constant struggle for su- premacy between the monarchi- cal and the republican idea of government, While France may be cºnsidered most ad- vanced in theoretical republi- canism, yet the long sway of aristocratie ideas militates against placid democracy. TH-6. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. The immediate forerunner of the present people toward republicanism, they framed form of government was a national as: sembly, elected to treat with Germany in 1871, after France had been humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War. This assembly found itself in control of the situation, and, while its members were largely monarchical in their views, seeing the tendency of the º COLUMN OF JULY. Commemorating the fall of the º: and the rise of the Republic ºr * rance. a meager constitution and put it into effect without reference to the people. FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 343 IMETHODS OF ELECTION. France has three branches of government —legislative, executive and judicial—yet they are so strongly centralized that they may not be compared with similar branches in other republican forms of government. For elective and administrative purposes, France is divided into 86 departments which are divided into 362 smaller dis- tricts, which are, in turn, divided into 2,899 cantons, and these are subdivided into still smaller divisions called communes, of which there are 36,170. A chamber of deputies, made up of 584 members elected for four years, and a senate whose members are elected for nine years, one-third retiring every three years, make up the legislative department. ELIGIBILITY TO OFFICE. Every male citizen 21 years old, who is not disqualified and who has lived six months in a commune, may vote. ties must be 25 years old; they receive $1,800 a year and have free transportation on all railroads. These men, generally, are retired merchants, doctors or farmers, and are of only ordinary attainments. Senators, to be eligible for that office, must be 43 years old; they receive the same sal- ary as the deputies. Ordinarily, their age is over 60 years. Deputies are elected directly from their districts, though some of these districts are large enough to elect two or more. The elections are held on Sunday. In case no candidate has a ma- jority of votes in an election, nor receives one-fourth the number of registered votes in his constituency, another election is called for two weeks later. Then a plu- rality elects, and in case of a tie, the oldest of the candidates is chosen. Senators are Depu- chosen by electoral colleges and come from the departments. These colleges are com- posed of members of the council general of the department and of the different councils of the districts of the department, senators and deputies of the department, and electors chosen from the municipal councils of the numerous communes of the department; retired professional men of the country towns are generally elected. The duties of the senate extend principally to advising with the President as to when the chamber of deputies shall be dissolved, and in sit- ting in his high court in case of impeach- ment for grave offenses against the state. In most instances, the senate is the inferior body of the legislature. THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET. The executive department is headed by the President who may never be a member of the royal family, and who is elected by the chamber and senate sitting in joint ses- His salary is $125,000 a year; he has a great retinue of servants, and has free use of the great “palais d’elysees” of Paris. He does not have the veto power on legislation, yet he may return bills for a second vote. He may adjourn the houses sion. for one month, may close a session that has lasted over five months, and by the consent of the senate may dissolve the chamber of deputies. The cabinet of the President is made up of the heads of 11 departments, such as war, finance, marine, etc., who re- ceive a salary of $12,000 a year. These advisers of the President are chosen gen- erally upon the recommendation of the presidents of the two houses They are members of the two houses and wield con siderable influence. The members of the cabinet frame legislation, sanction the acts 344 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS of the President, in order to make them valid, and speak in both houses, whether they are members of both or not. When they cannot control legislation, they resign and a new cabinet is chosen. Although the President is elected for seven years, and the life of the average cabinet is less than a year, yet the government is rather by the cabinet than by the President, who has lit- tle real power and is largely a luxurious figurehead. THE SENATE AND CHAMBER OF DEPU- TIES. IMODE OF LEGISLATION. When each annual session is begun in the chamber of deputies legislation is started by the choice, by lºt, of eleven bureaus, while the senate selects nine in the same manner. A committee for parliamentary initiative is chosen from these bureaus to serve one month, to which are referred all measures when presented. This committee decides whether they are worthy of con- sideration. It considers, a bill, has it printed and presents it to a subcommittee of the respective bureaus for further con- sideration along party lines. When the bill has been thrashed out to suit the views of the committee, it is presented before the house by a commissioner who reads it from a little gallery called a tribune, which is located just above and behind the desk of the president of the house. The speaker of the house, unlike the corresponding officer in the United States house of representa- tives, has little power. Parliamentary usages in France are very crude and mem- bers and even the president of a house will resort to trivialities, epithets and even vio- lence in open session. THE COUNCIL OF STATE. The council of state, a relic of the days of Napoleon, is another body. It is made up of professional men who simply give their opinions on profound subjects for legislation, but it is rarely followed. FAVORITISMI AND STUBSIDY. Favoritism and subsidy go hand in hand in the administration of affairs. Power in France is the main thing sought after by members of the government. The cabinet, in order to retain the good will of the cham- ber of deputies, upon whose whim it must stand or fall, deals out many favors in the way of offices, etc., to the minor members. The good will of the public also must be maintained in order to hold seats in the houses, and great sums of money, placed in the hands of the government for secret-serv- ice work, are frequently spent in bribing influential newspapers to support the officials of the administration. THE JUDICIARY. The judiciary of France differs widely from that of other countries. In her courts a man often is considered guilty until proved innocent. There is no grand jury, one judge sitting in private and deciding whether cases shall or shall not be brought to trial. The system of courts starts with the usual local justices of the peace, and ascends through courts of appeals to the final supreme court. The President, with the aid of the minister of justice, appoints the judges who, except the local justices, hold office during life. There is a special court made up of men of expert training to decide disputes within the administra- tion, or between citizens and officers. Many courts, whose jurisdiction covers cases where sentences of but three or four years imprisonment may be imposed, are made up of three judges, who sit without juries. Higher courts have the adjunct of twelve FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 345 jurors, who decide cases by a majority vote. Commercial cases are tried before special courts, made up of experts. CENTRALIZATION OF POWER. To show how centralized the whole gov- ernment of France is, it may be stated that even in local government the prefect or governor of each department is appointed by the President and is answerable to the cabinet. This officer is assisted by a gen- eral council elected for six years, and con- sists of one representative from each Can- ton. These govern schools, railroads, local courts and asylums. In like manner, the District or arrondissement, the next smaller division, has a subprefect appointed by the prefect of the Department, responsible to him, and really acting as his agent. The work of dividing the taxes among the Com- munes is done by a council, which is made up of a member elected from each of the Cantons. THE CANTON AND THE COMMUNE. The Canton is simply a small division for election and judicial purposes, and is a muster center of the army. The smallest division of the governmental system, the Commune, is roally the unit of French gov- ernment, as it is the most democratic of all. It elects its municipal council according to its population, and this council elects its mayor. But after the mayor is once elected, he immediately becomes the agent of the central government at Paris, and can be removed at will. Thus we see the possi- bility of the great central power exercising despotic will for a considerable period. Finally, however, elections occur, and other officials are put in who may reverse for a time the trend of affairs. While there is much knavery in French politics, the cen- tral government shows great enterprise in the matter of magnificent roads, bridges, public buildings, expositions and educa- tional institutions. From the American Review of Reviews. 23 ^ SCENE AT A STATION OF THE PARIS UNDERGROUND RAILWAx, 346 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS THE GOVERNMENT OF RUSSIA Extremes meet in Russia. In this gov- ernment we find absolutism or autocracy— government forced upon a people rather than made by them, and yet, in the sim- ple home life of the Russian peasant is democracy of the purest and most tena- cious type. The government of the Czar is imposed upon over 130,000,000 peo- ple, in a land that occupies one-seventh of the area of the globe, and includes the cold of two continents –Europe and Asia. THE MIR. The “Mir” is the funda- mental, or basic, principle of Russian life. This vil- lage life allows some free- dom in the ownership of land. The greater portion of the people of this great country, which probably will one day dominate civ- ilization, is of Slav origin. This race, in times when Europe was barb a ric, threatened all the southern end of it with their savage hordes. In later years, when robber chiefs arose to impress the Slavs in bond- age, they moved away, or when enslaved, insisted still upon their “mir” life. SEREDOM. At the time when most of Europe was emerging from the scourge of the feudal system, Russian nobles were only begin. ning to see the richness of the prize lying before FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 347 them, of unpaid labor by the peasantry of their country. They at once seized upon it, and in the serfdom that followed, the sys- tem of autocracy was developed which im- posed commands and edicts upon a simple race, which never knew self-made laws. PETER THE GREAT. Order was brought out of chaos by Peter the Great, who died in 1725, and the abso- lute monarchy which he established has re- mained, in its principal forms, up to the present day. Much of his work was ef- fected through the power of the Greek orthodox church, which had been the estab- lished church of Russia for many years. Peter deposed the patriarch who ruled the church, and appointed a holy synod to do his bidding in church matters. He also confiscuted the lands which the church had held. Through the church, the Czar thus wields an enormous power over the minds and souls of the people. It may readily seem that with the Czar dominating the synod, beliefs not in accord with his own would not be taught. A vast amount of ceremonial marks the church ritual, and through persecution, the common people are kept in spiritual subjection. A. ONE-MAIN POWER. Three other ministerial agents perform the will of the Czar among the people: a council of state, a senate, and a committee of ministers. There is with the three bodies no division of executive, legislative and ju- dicial duties, as in most countries. All government centers in the executive. The three divisions noted simply are mediums for the performance of duties, with a few special functions to aid in more thoroughly carrying out the anti-democratic and auro- cratic ideas of the Czar. Thus there is lo legislative branch of the government, but only a body which simply makes suggestions to the absolute executive, and sees that these suggestions are carried out under his will. Neither is there a judiciary department, for where there are no laws, there need be no department to interpret them. In other words, the Czar wills it, the Czar sees that his will is obeyed, and the Czar punishes in- fractions of his will. TIIB. COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS. The committee of ministers is made up of the heads of twelve departments ap- pointed by the Czar. They may not resign, for then, the Czar would not be implicitly obeyed. This body is simply to facilitate the direction of affairs through the depart- \ments of finance, war, foreign affairs, etc., and it is the duty of its members to explain the so-called laws and see that they are obeyed. - THE COUNCIL OF STATE. About sixty men make up the council of state, of whom twelve are heads of the vari- ous bureaus. This council considers the an: nual budget or expense account. Reports of the departments are read to this body and discussed, and special commissioners ap- pointed by the Czar look into the details of the recommendations of the ministers. Nihilism is fostered. In order to crush out these tendencies, the government in- vents worse tortures, and at no time is the Czar obeyed in the true spirit. THE SENATE. Through the senate, the people seem to have some power in making laws. This body is composed of high dignitaries ap- pointed by the Czar. Its members have in charge the execution of all commands of 348 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS the Czar. In intent the senate is simply servile to the ruler, although the laws that it passes sometimes have the semblance of a declaration of the national will. Ministers and governors of provinces are called before this body to report upon their actions. The senate is the last court of resort in Russia's feeble judicial system, although the council of state sometimes reviews its findings. The Russian people are, therefore, gov- erned under the rule of an imperious mon- arch. They are controlled through the following instrumentalities; the holy synod, in church matters, and in matters civil, through the twelve bureaus, the committee of ministers, the council of state and the senate. All sorts of work are done in all these bodies, the prime object of the govern- ment being to bring all rule into the sole person of the Czar. REGULATION OF DOMIESTIC AIFFAIRS IN THE “IMIR.” In the life of the “mir,” custom has gone to the other extreme. The home life is most democratic. Town meetings are MARRIAGES When the parents of a young Russian decide that a certain young damsel would make him a suitable wife, they keep their own counsel, and some evening, call unex- pectedly at her home and stay for supper. During the meal, they watch her narrowly. If she eats fast, she will work quickly; if she uses her plate neatly and plainly, she will be a cleanly, tidy housewife; if she talks little, she will be obedient and dutiful to her husband; if she prefers rye bread to white, she will be satisfied with her lot; if called, and matters of import to the village life are discussed freely. Decisions upon such matters are arrived at in so democratic a manner that they must be unanimous to be effective. Entire freedom is expressed by the heads of the families. The “mir,” or town, is all powerful in all matters that pertain directly to its domestic life. It is no branch of the rule of the Czar, and its officers are responsible to the people. If allowed to own land, and conduct their home life as they see fit, the people com- plain little of heavy burdens of taxation, and this is one thing in which the Czar de- sires obedience. DIRE PENALTIES. The severest penalties are meted out to people who rebel at the commands of the Czar. Assassination is often resorted to to punish infractions of orders; flogging, exile in Siberia and many other dire meth- ods are in vogue. Little wonder is it that with such examples before them, the people desire to rise up in rebellion. IN RUSSIA she does not gaze and stare, she may be trusted not to pry into her husband's busi- ness; and if she proceeds to clear away and wash up after the meal, she will be thrifty and careful with his money. A curious part of the marriage ceremony is that when the bride and groom enter the church, both make a dash for the platform on which stands the pulpit. The idea is that the one whose foot touches it first will outlive the other, and the children will take after that one in stature, health and beauty. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 349 SHORT SUPPLY OF PLATINUM IN RUSSIA AN ESSENTIAL IN ELECTRICAL WORK. - Platinum is growing very scarce. The production last year did not meet the de- mand, and hence a good deal of concern was manifest during the last part of 1902, as to what, if anything, would take platinum's place in the electrical world. It is beyond doubt that the supply is not increasing—if it is increasing at all—at anything like the same rate as the consumption; and if this condition is not rectified and the balance re- adjusted it is easy to foresee a time when enterprises which depend upon platinum will languish for want of the material which it will be impossible to secure in ade- quate quantities, even at famine prices. The metal is in great request in the man- ufacture of electrical engineering generally as well as for numerous other purposes for which no effective substitute has been found. Something like 95 per cent of the total amount produced in 1901 (13,800 pounds), as compared with 13,250 pounds for 1900, came from Russia, and while it is probable that scientific exploration of the whole of the Urals would lead to the dis- covery of other sources of supply, it is pretty clear that in the government of Perm little enough progress is being made in spite of the profitableness of the industry. Perhaps the sparseness of the distribution accounts largely for this. The metal is obtained from alluvial deposits of up to four or five zolotniks (the zolotnik is equal to 66 grains Troy) and more in 100 poods of sand (3,610 pounds). The thickness of the beds ranges from three feet to seven feet. The grains of metal are small in size, but sometimes nug- gets weighing a kilogram or more are un- earthed. The platinum is often accom- panied by other rare metals, such as iridium and osmium. It is sent to St. Petersburg in the crude state, and, al- though there are refineries in that city, very little is dealt with there, and, as the de- mand for the metal is almost entirely from abroad, the bulk is exported as it is received from the mines. It is said that we must look to New South Wales for the platinum of the future and it is there that exploration parties are now working. PLATINUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES. The production of platinum from do- mestic ores in the United States during 1902 amounted to 94 ounces, valued at $1,814, as compared with 1,408 ounces, valued at $27,526, in 1901, which was the largest quantity reported for any one year since the statistics of the production of the metal from domestic ores have been col- lected. In 1894 the production of plati- num from domestic ores was 100 ounces of crude platinum grains. This amount mainly comes from gold placer deposits in Trinity and Shasta counties, California. Of iridium, which is closely allied to plati- num, 20 ounces was obtained in 1902, and 253 ounces in 1901. The United States imported platinum in 1902 to the value of $2,088,980. The market price was about $19 per ounce. - 350 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS FACTS ABOUT NEW GUINEA THE LARGEST ISLAND ON THE GLOBE, Notwithstanding its immense seaboard, its proximity to the Australian Continent and the peculiarly interesting character of its plants and animals, New Guinea, the largest Island on the Globe, is the least known of all countries. Although it was discovered before Australia, geographers houses, building on piles on the shore, or in the water, digging out their boats from the solid trunks of trees. The great bulk of testimony goes to show that the natives are a race of industrious, well-to-do savages, fond of their wives, of whom they have but one, each, and their children, and suffi. - MAKING FISH NETS-NEW GUINEA. - * are still unable to define its coast line with precision, while their acquaintance with its interior is immensely less. The area of New Guinea has never been traversed. Our knowledge of the natives, gained mainly through missionaries, indicates that the Papuans approximate the character of the noble savage. Except where iron has been introduced by traders they live in stone ciently spirited to defend themselves, but showing no antipathy to white men when Once convinced of their friendliness. Rev. W. G. Lawes, a missionary traveler, found the village of Kalo laid out in streets and squares, which were swept daily by the women and kept scrupulously clean. It is probable that New Guinea is well suited to the cultivation of sugar cane, cotton, to FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 35i bacco and cocoanuts. The hilly districts, which comprise a considerable portion of w THE CINCHONA Several species of the cinchona tree are indigenous to Peru, and from the bark of one of them, Cinchona Calisaya, is ex- tracted the widely-known alkaloid called quinine. The cinchona tree grows to a medium height and is bare of branches and foliage except at its top. The natives climb the trunk, which is very smooth, and shave off the area of the island, have a salubrious climate. TREE IN PERU the bark with knives after the manner of the accompanying illustration. The tree derives its name from the wife of Count Chinchon, viceroy of Peru in the 17th century, who by its use was freed from an intermittent fever, and after her return to Spain, contributed to the general propa- gation of this remedy. PRODUCTION OF OPIUM IN CHINA, INDIA AND PERSIA PROCESS OF MANUE ACTURE. While opium has done much to alleviate the pains of humanity, it has also put into a dreamy stupor many a devotee of its in- sidious fumes. In international affairs, however, it has had a far different effect, for it has caused the shedding of English, French and Chinese blood in battle, and the diplomats of these three countries have used all of their skill in settling questions which have been raised over it. A PROBLEM IN THE POLITICS OF EAST- ERN ASIA. For many years opium has constituted a problem in the politics of Eastern Asia, in connection with the collection of taxes. In French Indo-China, it has long been con- tended that this drug is the chief cause of the difficulties with the native races, and that the famous pirates on whom the French made war were simply honest mer- chants, whose affairs were interfered with by the opium monopoly. Upon Great Britain is charged the re- sponsibility of the war between her and China, 40 years ago. It is claimed that the desire of the British to establish a monopoly of the opium trade brought on the hostilities, which ended in opium be- coming the curse of the Chinese empire. THE POPPY. Opium comes from the poppy, many of which flowers flourish in our own gardens. Soil and climate have a great influence on the chemical qualities of the various kinds of it which are found in Persia, China, and, more especially, in India, where for many years the English government has monopolized its culture, as in France, the government monopolizes the culture of to- bacco. PRODUCTION OF THE POPPY IN THE RE- GION OF THE GANGES. In all the immense and fertile valleys of the Ganges, nothing is asked of the earth - FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 353 except the poppy. Patna and Benares are distinguished by the richness and abun- dance of their harvests. The product of this culture in the province of Bengal, alone, is estimated at 15,400,000 pounds, which represents a value of nearly $30,- 000,000. - EXTRACTION OF RAW OFIUM. Opium is extracted from the matter which exudes from the green, unripened capsule of the poppy. This matter is gath- ered in little globular particles, of amber color, by means of a special instrument. It is then put into small earthen pots, which are carefully covered, and then transported to the laboratories of the English govern- ment, where it is made into balls about the size of “Dutch” cheese. These are covered by petals taken from the plant. After they have been dried, they are shipped to Cal- cutta, the market which supplies all Asia. THE FINISHED PRODUCT. From this raw opium is made the fin- ished product which is used by the smokers. The process is a most delicate one and one from which only the Chinese know how to get the best results. From Calcutta the opium is brought to the opium boiling es- tablishments. An ordinary “boiling” place usually contains four or five large boilers, and from 150 to 175 small furnaces, each having a basin constructed of masonry, and all ranged along in the form of a long bench. BOILING THE OPIUM BALLS. Immediately upon the receipt of a ship- ment of the raw opium balls they are cut in half, the raw material being drawn out with the fingers. That part which remains attached to the envelope or covering, is afterward secured by placing it in boiling water. When these preparations have been completed, the opium is placed in the basins with the water, where it is boiled for two hours and constantly stirred until it reaches the necessary consistency, which nothing but long practice can determine. The opium worker seats himself on the ground, and with the aid of a small instrument, works and kneads the mass before him, over and over. After a time the mass of opium is spread over the surface of the basin, which is tilted so that the direct heat of the fire is radiated against it. Under this influence, the ex- ternal surface of the opium loses part of its moisture, and then becomes softer. Then the basin is taken from the fire, and the cold air operating on the surface of the mass hardens it suddenly, while the part below retains its paste-like consistency. Then it is that the worker seizes the hardened crust and detaches it from the rest of the mass. Then, again, the basin is ex- posed to the fire, followed by the removal of a second, and sometimes a third, crust, which is later broken and placed in basins of water. After 24 hours, all the solid parts of the opium become separated, and the liquor is filtered and evaporated at the fire to a suitable consistency. The extract is then put into copper vessels and left to undergo fermentation, which removes from it all the acrid principles and permits it to acquire all of its necessary properties. THE MARKET PRICE. In its completed state, the opium pre- sents itself in a cake, brown in color, like molasses, and exhaling an aroma difficult to describe. Then it is placed in metal 354 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS boxes of various sizes, and at last, is ready for the market. The price ranges from $20 per pound upward, according to the country to which it is to be shipped. A CUSTOM PECULIAR TO NEW ZEALAND Sheep are cleansed by law in New Zea- land. In order to rid them of vermin, a matter which was likely to be neglected, parliament passed an act making a soaking process necessary. In accordance with this long waterways are constructed, and the animals are compelled to swim the full length of one of these courses, while men with poles push their heads under water as they pass. This immersion drowns the vermin and thoroughly renovates the wool, besides being a very wholesome and agree- able process for the sheep to undergo. - º DIPPING SHEEP AT OAMARU, NEW ZEALAND. THE WOOL INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA The 28,000 square miles of volcanic country in the western portion of Victoria, Australia, with its sweet and strong Kan- garoo grass, is considered the best sheep- growing region in the British colonies. FEEDING IN DRY SEASONS. The sheep in that section look after them- selves all the year round. In very dry sea- sons, however, a little hay is given to the young sheep when they are teething and cannot cut the dry grass. THE SHEEP STATIONS. The Victorian sheep stations are fenced with smooth wire, except in the volcanic country where stone walls are used. The paddocks average about 800 acres in ex- tent, although some are large enough to support 2,000 sheep. Some of the stations include 20,000 ewes, lambs and wethers, which are kept in separate flocks. S.HEARING BY MACHINERY. Where shearing is done by hand, one shearer is employed for each 2,000 sheep, and if an expert, he will average 80 head per day. In 1891, however, machinery was intro- duced for this purpose, and in the first two years of its use, 50,000,000 sheep were thus shorn. After shearing, the fleece is sorted, combed, bound, pressed and baled,—the bales being 2 feet 6 inches, by 2 feet 6 inches, by 4 feet, and weighing about 400 pounds. I'A0 TS CONCERNING DIFFERE! NT NATIONS 355 “A：BIGHINIHOVIN Ā™I GIGIGIHS ĐNIH VGIHS ar 356 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS THE CANNIBAL TREE OF AUSTRALIA One of the most wonderful forest trees in the world is the “Cannibal Tree,” of Aus- tralia, which grows up in the shape of a huge pineapple, and seldom attains a height of more than 11 feet. It has a series of broad, board-like leaves, growing in a driving one of their number up the leaves of the tree to the apex. The instant the victim touched the so-called “pistils” of the monster, the leaves instantly flew together like a trap, squeezing the life out of the intruder. Early travelers declare that the AUSTRALIAN WOOL TEAMS. fringe at the apex, which remind one of a gigantic Central American agave. When standing erect these broad, thick leaves hide a curious looking arrangement, which appears to perform the same fune- tions as those of the pistils in flowers. Naturally, these board-like leaves, which are from 10 to 12 feet long in the smaller specimens, and from 15 to 20 in the larger, hang to the ground, and are strong enough to bear a man's weight. WORSHIPED AS THE “DEVIL. T.R.E.E.” In aboriginal times, in the antipodean wilds, the natives worshiped the “Can- nibal Tree” under the name of “devil tree,” the chief part of the ceremony consisting of tree held its victim until every particle of flesh disappeared. On this account it is called the “Cannibal Tree,” appropriately. THE AGAVE. In the Central American Agave, men- tioned above, the apex of which is similar to that of the Cannibal Tree, the stem is short or altogether lacking, and the leaves are formed in a close rosette, mostly stiff and somewhat fleshy, the margins usually being armed with teeth, and the apex tipped with a more or less pungent spine. It flowers in spikes or panicles. Some species flower but once and die, others occasionally, while others flower from year to year. The num ber of species is about 150. - FAUT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 357 LACE MAKING IN PARAGUAY The art of lace making is well developed in Paraguay. It was taught the natives fully 200 years ago by the missionaries, and has been transmitted from generation to generation, until it is now quite general throughout the republic. Some towns are devoted to making a certain kind of lace. In one town of 8,000 or 9,000 inhabitants, almost all the women and children, and many of the men, make lace collarettes, handkerchiefs and ladies’ ties. Another town makes lace embroidery, and others, drawn thread work, such as centerpieces, tray mats, tea cloths, and doilies. DESIGNS TAKEN FROM SPIDER'S WEBS, The designs used for making the lace are taken from the curious webs of the semi- tropical spiders that are so numerous. On this account it is called “nanduti,” an In- dian name which means spider web. This industry may be of service to American trade. There is scarcely a dealer in Para- guay who would not purchase American goods, if it were not so difficult to get a draft on the United States. As yet the lace-making industry is not developed in this country, the “Zion” enterprise at Wau- kegan, Illinois, being the first attempt. CHINESE RICE PAPER Among the many unique products and peculiarities of Chinese ingenuity is the so-called rice paper. plexing to determine how such a name came It is somewhat per- IN CHINA. FAUT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS LAPIDARY-STONE CUTTER. to be applied to this article, as no element of rice is supposed to enter into its manu- facture. As in most warm climates, however, rice is cultivated to an extensive degree in China, and forms a considerable portion of the subsistence of its inhabitants. It would naturally be inferred that the \ Chinese rice paper would bear some rela- tion to rice itself, but on the contrary it is said to be made by cutting the pith of a large herb (Fatsia Papyrifera, akin to gin- seng) into one roll or sheet, which is flat- tened out under pressure. The Chinese use this paper for painting upon, and for the manufacture of fancy articles. MALAY EMPLOYES. CANTON.—EXAMINATION HALL The Examination Hall, or Kuong Yuin, as it is called, at Canton, contains 7,500 cells measuring four feet by three, and high enough to stand up in; the furniture consists of two boards, one for sitting and the other contrived to serve both for an eating table and writing desk. The cells are arranged around a number of open courts, receiving all their light and air from the central area, and exposed to the observation of the soldiers who guard the place, and watch that no one has the least in- tercourse with the imprisoned students. Confinement in this cramped position where it is impossible to lie down, is exceedingly irksome and is said FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 359 to cause the death of many old students, last succeeding. The characters on each side who are unable to go through the fatigue, side of the cells indicate the particular but who will enter the arena in hopes of at place for each student. ºf CANTON.—EYAMINATION HALL. CHINESE WEDDINGS A Chinese marriage is all ceremony—no The solemnity of a funeral prevails. talk, no levity, but much crying. After the exchange of presents, the bride is º º THE PRIVATE SEDAN CHAIR-CHINA. 360 FAUTS 00NCLI: NING D1 FFERENT NATIONS dressed with great care in a red gown; brocade or silk, if she can get it, her eyelashes are painted a deep black, and she wears a heavy red veil attached to a scarlet head dress, from which imitation pearls are pendent over the forehead. A feast is spread upon a table, to which the blushing bride is led by five of her best female friends. They are then seated at the table, but no one eats. The utmost silence pre- vails, when finally the mother leads off in a cry, the maids follow, and the bride echoes the chorus. Then all the bridesmaids leave the table, and the disconsolate mother takes a seat beside the chair of state, where the bride sits. The bridegroom now en- ters, with four of his best men. The men pick up the throne on which the bride sits, and, preceded by the bridegroom, form in procession and walk around the room, or into an adjoining parlor, signi- fying that the bridegroom is carrying her away to his own home. The guests then throw rice at the happy couple, a custom which we have borrowed from the heathen. - FAUT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS: 361 ELEPHANTS USED FOR PLOWING IN INDIA The use of a sledge hammer to drive a tack would appear scarcely more incongru- ous than the occasional practice of the Hin- doo husbandman of having an elephant draw his plow. The employment of this as elsewhere, when well trained, need not be asserted. Neither stump nor stone in the way of the plowshare could stop him, although the implement itself might give Way. -- ELEPHANT HUNTING OR KRAALLING IN CEYLON. The two tame ones are helping to capture the wild one between them. If he attempts to escape, they throw their trunks around him and hold him fast. powerful and sagacious animal in impor- tant work where heavy lifting is required, does not seem to detract from his dignity; but plowing appears a petty task for so noble a beast. That he does his duty, here 24 THE INDIAN PLOW. The plow, as it is in India, is a peculiar device, with a single handle and a very long beam. The farmers of the United States would utterly scorn it. The area which 362 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS can be turned up in a day with an elephant day's labor, he picks up the plow and car- is large, and the animal is remarkably ries it home in his mouth. In many ways handy in one respect. At the close of the the huge beast proves useful to his owner. DOMESTIC ELEPHANTS, WHERE CERTAIN THINGS CAME FROM Madder came from the East. Celery inated in Egypt. Tobacco is a native of originated in Germany. The onion orig- Virginia. The nettle is a native of Europe. OYSTER CATCHING, CEYLON. FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS The citron is a native of Greece. The pine is a native of America. The poppy came from North Africa; rye, from Siberia; barley, from the mountains of Himalaya; wheat, from Tartary; parsley, from Sar- dinia; the sunflower, from Peru, as, also, the potato; the parsnip, from Arabia; the cabbage, from England, although it grows wild in Siberia; millet came from India; the apple and pear, from Europe; spinach, from Arabia; the mulberry tree, from Persia; the horse chestnut, from Thibet; the cucumber, from the East Indies; the quince, from the Island of Crete; the radish, from China and Japan; peas, from Egypt; garden cress, from Egypt and the East; horse radish, from the south of Eu- rope; the Zealand flax shows its origin by its name. The coriander grows wild near the Mediterranean. The Jerusalem arti- choke is a Brazilian production. Hemp came from Persia and the East Indies. The tomato came from South America, but was known in England as early as 1587. Do- - º * º º a º º - 364 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS. *№ ºoooo joj punouă sţ–4 muſeovo o eqn go tºurayſ rºtiuſ atņ– estroo FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 365 doens, a Holland agriculturist, mentions the tomato in 1853, as “a vegetable to be - - BUDDHA’S TOOTH IN BUDDHA TEMPLE. This is most sacred; Buddhists come from all over the world to see it. ea en with pepper, salt and oil.” The bean came from Persia; the beet from Africa and Asia; cayenne pepper, from the West Indies; and the sweet potato, from tropical CINNAMON TREE, CEYLON. America, whence it was early introduced into Europe. THE DELHI DURBAR OF 1903 The coronation. Durbar at Delhi, India, in January, 1903, was in some ways the most imposing ceremonial of this genera- tion. The Viceroy made his state entry into Delhi on Monday, and the grand Dur- bar on Thursday, in honor of the accession of Edward VII., formed the climax of the gorgeous pageant. Down the Chandni Chowk, the “Silver Road,” which is the grandest of Indian streets, streamed a procession in which were included all the white rulers of India, and nearly every Indian Prince of sover- eign rank, Holkar and the Gaikwar being the only two important exceptions. All rode, as beseemed a grand Asiatic celebration, upon elephants, and every ele- phant carried a gold or silver howdah, often flashing with gems, and was clothed in cloth of gold or silver, which under that sky shone as in Europe even gold and silver cannot be persuaded to shine. The Englishmen were, of course, in the fullest uniform, and the princes, with the single exception of the Nizam, who was dressed in plain black, displayed those won- derful robes so seldom seen even in the East,-robes blazing with gold and gems, and embroideries almost more costly still. Everything was on a scale which impresses the Asiatic mind—elephants in endless lines, soldiers in armies, retinues in tens of thousands and myriads of delighted people, all assembled to hail in Asiatic fashion the accession of their British lord. There was but one distinctively Western 366 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT N.A TIONS ！！！！！！！--- -…--~~~~. --~~~~ -…-- ±）-& ſ） { ！ſ-ºy， ...------------- the vice-REGAL PRocession AT THE INDIAN DURBAR HEADED by Lord and Lady curzon FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 367 feature in the whole display. Beside the Viceroy in the same howdah, sat Lady Cur- zon, beside the Duke of Connaught, the THE GREAT Not least among the wonders of the world are the Pyramids of Egypt. These stupendous monuments of an ancient dynasty stand on the right bank of the Nile over against Old Cairo. The eye follows King's brother, and his Duchess, a thing not seen in Indian since Alexander re- treated from the Punjab. PYRAMIDS Arab proverb, “but time fears the Pyra- mids.” THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. The Pyramid of Cheops, or Khufu, the largest of the three, is estimated to cover *CHEOPS”—THE GREATEST OF THE PYRAMIDS. The Sphinx. with amazement the graded lines of the prodigious masses, showing in the light the profile of their rugged slopes, disposed in flights of fractured steps. They resemble mountains hewn into square blocks rather than structures raised by mortal hands, re- vealing at it were “the transition between the colossi of art and the giant works of nature.” “All things fear time,”—says the an area of over 12 acres, while its four triangular sides present altogether a sur- face of no less than 20 acres in extent. A quantity of material measuring 90,000,000 cubic feet was brought from great distances by way of the Nile, placed on the rocky foundations, raised to a height of over 500 feet, and adjusted with the greatest Care, 368 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS HEIGHT OF THE PYRAMIDS The Pyramid of Cheops, diminished by about 40 feet through the loss of its stone facing and the subsidence of its founda- tions, has a present height of 456 feet; that of Khephren, or Kephra, about 450 feet; while that of Mycerinus, or Menkera, has less than one-half of these elevations. There are several others on the plateau, of smaller dimensions. AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEEI. Those above named are known as the Pyramids of Gizeh, which is a village in the vicinity. They were constructed during he Memphite Dynasty, which began, ac- bording to different authorities, 4235, 3733 or 3666 years before Christ. TRAVELERS CLIMB TO THE TOP OF CHEOPS. Travelers often ascend the Pyramid of Cheops before dawn in order to contem- plate the morning sun lighting up the limit- less spaces of the desert in one direction, SCENES OF GREAT The remarkable monetary crises during the 19th century were as follows: 1814–In England, 240 banks sus- pended. 1825–In Manchester, amounted to £2,000,000. 1831–In Calcutta, the failures aggre- gated £15,000,000. 1837–In the United States, this was the time of the “wildcat” crisis; all banks closed. - - 1839—The Bank of England was saved by the Bank of France. The crisis was the failures and in another, the verdant plains with their dark groups of hamlets, and the silver lakelets left by the last overflow of the Nile. CLIMBING TO THE TOP OF THE PYRAMIDS- EGYPT. FINANCIAL PANICS severe also in France, where 93 companies failed for $20,000,000. 1844–In England, the government loaned to merchants; the Bank of England was reformed. 1847–In England, the failures amount- ed to $20,000,000; discount was 13 per cent. - 1857–In the United States, 7,200 houses failed for $111,000,000. 1866–In London occurred the Overend- Gurney crisis; failures exceeded over $100,000,000. FACTS cowCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 369 1869–September 24th of this year was Black Friday in New York (Wall street). 1873—Many banks failed and great commercial enterprises were driven to the wall in the United States. SCENES OF Nine years after Christ, the Thames overflowed and destroyed a number of the inhabitants living along its banks. An- other flood, A. D. 323, destroyed all the inhabitants in Ferne Island, seven miles southwest from Holy Island. In A. D. 3,535,000 people were lost in Cheshire by flood. An overflow of the Dee drowned 40 families in 415 A. D.; an inundation of the sea at Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex oc- curred in 575; an inundation took place at Edinburgh, which did great damage, A. D. 730; there was an inundation at Glas- gow, which drowned nearly 400 families, A. D. 738; also an inundation of the Tweed, which did immense damage, A. D. 836; an inundation of the Medway oc- curred A. D. 861; and another took place . at Southampton, which destroyed many people, A. D. 935; the Severn overflowed and drowned hundreds of cattle in 1046; the sea overflowed 4,000 acres of Earl Goodwin’s land, in Kent, since called Good- win Sands, in the year 1100; a great part of Flanders was overflowed by the sea in 1108; an inundation of the Thames for about six miles occurred at Lambeth in 1243; and another took place on the Dol- lert Sea in 1277. At Winchelsea, 300 houses were overthrown by the sea in 1280; 120 laymen, and several priests and women were drowned by an inundation at New 1893-95—The question of a silver or gold standard was greatly agitated, and the United States passed through a financial crisis which wrecked thousands of business firms and brought on general financial dis- aSler. GREAT FLOODS Castle-upon-Tyne in 1339. There was a flood at the Texel, which first raised the commerce of Amsterdam in 1400; the sea broke in at Dort, drowned 72 villages and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder Zee in 1421. In 1530 the Holland dykes broke and $400,000,000 worth of property was lost. In February, 1735, a flood oc- curred at Dagenham, and upon the coast of Essex, which carried away the sea walls and drowned several thousand sheep and cattle. Another, at Bilboa, in Spain, de- stroyed property valued at 3,000,000 livres, in April, 1762. At Naples, a flood carried away a whole village, and drowned 200 of the inhabitants, November 10, 1773. At Navarra, in Spain, in September, 1787, 2,000 people lost their lives, and all the buildings of several villages were carried away by currents from the mountains. A terrible inundation of the Liffey, in Ire- land, did considerable damage in Dublin and its environs on November 12, 1787. At Kirkwald, in Scotland, the breaking of the Dam-dykes, October 4, 1788, nearly destroyed the town. The melting of the snow caused floods almost throughout Eng- land, and the greater part of the bridges were either destroyed or damaged in Febru- ary, 1795. A flood occurred at St. Domingo, which destroyed 1,400 persons in October, 1800. The coast of Holland and Germany 370 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS was overflowed in November, 1801; there was a flood in Dublin and parts adjacent December 2 and 3, 1802. THE JOHNSTOWN FLOOD. The flood, in June, 1889, at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, was caused by the breaking of a dam on the upper waters of the Cone- maugh River. which confined a great lake on top of the Allegheny Mountains. Sev- eral small towns and the city of Johnstown were swept away, and 6,111 persons per- ished. The water in its passage to Johns- town descended about 250 feet. The theo- , retical velocity due to this descent would be about 127 feet per second, or between 86 and 87 miles an hour. According to the best accounts from 15 to 17 minutes were occupied in the passage to Johns- town, a distance of about 12 miles. Thus the average velocity could not have been far short of 50 miles an hour. The im- petus of such a mass of water was irresist- ible. As the flood burst through the dam it cut trees away as if they were stalks of mullein. THE GALVESTON FLOOD. In September, 1900, a hurricane along the southern coast of the United States reached the climax of its fury at or near Galveston, Texas, at 1 o'clock at night. It literally blew the Gulf waters over the island on which Galveston is situated, caus- ing a loss of life and property unparalleled by any similar disaster in the United States. The city of Galveston was well nigh anni- hilated, 7,000 lives being lost and $30,000,- 000 worth of property destroyed. This appears the more frightful in view of the fact that the population was less than 40,000. Thousands escaped by clinging to the wreckage of houses and ships, which the wind blew far inland on the high tide. About $1,000,000 was subscribed through- out the country for the relief of the suf- ferers from this disaster. SCENES OF TEN TERRIBLE PLAGUES During the years 1656 to 1871, there oc- curred ten great plagues, which are remark- able for the large number of lives destroyed. The dates and places are as follows: Dura- Deaths tion in per Date. Place. Deaths. Weeks. Week. 1656 Naples . . . . . . 380,000 38 13,600 1665 London . . . . . . 68,800 33 2,100 1720 Marseilles .... 39,100 36 1,100 Dura- Deaths Date. Place. Deaths, "... w. 1771 Moscow . . . . . . 87,800 32 2,700 1778 Constantinople 170,000 18 9,500 1798 Cairo . . . . . . . 88,000 25 3,500 1812 Constantinople144,000 13 11,100 1834 Cairo . . . . . . . 57,000 18 3,200 1835 Alexandria ... 14,900 17 900 1871 Buenos Ayres. 26,300 11 2,400 COUNTRIES SMITTEN BY THE GREAT FAMINES OF HISTORY Walford mentions 160 famines since the 11th century, namely: England, 57; Ire- iand, 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Ger- unany, 11; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been as follows: That in France, 1770, 48,000 victims; Ireland, 1847, 1,029,000 victims; and India, 1866, 1,450,000 victims, FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS 371 THE CULTURE OF TAPIOCA Tapioca is probably a native of Brazil, but is also largely cultivated in Peru, Guiana, Venezuela, the West Indies, South India and Malaysia. which is more productive than the sweet species, is propagated by cuttings from the ligneous part of the stem, planted in rich, dry soil. The tubers are ready for digging The bitter kind, in earthen ovens, some fresh manioc paste, which has fermented being always added. In the dry process the root is rasped by hand, and, after adding water, is pressed; after drying and sifting it is baked. The fecula deposit is washed three times and sun-dried. The collected starch, heated on iron plates, becomes partially cooked and - º "I APIOCA PLANTATION. Malayan, Peru. up in from six to twelve months, accord- ing to the variety. There are two modes of preparing the starch. In the wet method the grated root is placed in water for about five days, then kneaded with water, and pressed to extract the juice. The fecula is sifted and baked in small, hard, irregular lumps, constituting tapioca. The culture of tapioca is inexpensive and the product is highly remunerative, so that the growth of the plant is becoming very general throughout the tropics. agglomerates 72 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS. COTTON CULTURE Herodotus, surnamed the Father of His- tory, who was born B. C. 484, traveled through Europe, Asia and Africa, and when in India, saw and described the cot- ton plant. He says: “The wild trees in v.ARIETIEs of cotton IN AMERICA. In America are no less than 130 varieties of cotton. Among the chief commercial types is the “Gossypium Barbadense,” which is indigenous to the Lesser Antilles, 7-777 - | LOADING COTTON, NEW ORLEANs. that country bear for their fruit fleeces surpassing those of sheep in beauty and excellence, and the natives clothe them- selves in cloths made therefrom.” SELF PERPETUATED IN ANCIENT TIMES. In those ancient times the cotton plant perpetuated its own species through the dispersion of its seeds by the winds. The root of the plant is top-shaped, and pen- etrates very deeply into the earth. and is extensively cultivated in the United States, as well as in the West India Islands, Central America, Western Africa, Bour- bon, Egypt, Australia and the East Indies. BRAZILIAN COTTON. Another variety of cotton is cultivated very extensively in the coast region of Brazil. Just after the Civil War the cot- ton export from Brazil was over 100,000,- FACT'S CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS. 373 000 pounds per year. It afterwards fell to 50,- 000,000. Pernambuco, Para- hyba and Alagoas are the chief producers of cotton in Brazil, al- though its culture ex- tends as far south as Rio Grande do Sul. It requires little labor in that region, and a very limited capital is suffi- cient. The height of the spe- cies common to the United States varies from three to four feet, if cultivated as an annual, and from six to eight feet, if al- lowed to grow as a perennial. When in full leaf and flower, it is a most graceful look- ing plant. Yarns having the finest counts, as they are called, are all spun from Sea Islands, which belongs to this class. A TEIREAD 160 MILES LONG. A single pound of this cotton is often spun in a thread 160 miles long. PORTION OF LARGE SOUTHERN COTTON PLANTATION. ** º &º In the United States cotton is cultivated in North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor- gia, Florida, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ala- bama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. In the beginning of the 19th century South Carolina produced more cotton than any other state. Fifty years later, Ala- bama went to the front. Ten years later, Mississippi led, and in 1890, Texas was first, with 1,471,242 bales. COTTON PICKING. HAULING COTTON TO THE GIN. Late in July, or early in August, the cot- ton pods begin to show a few ripe open bolls, and the sacks and bas- kets are made ready for picking. Picking cot- ton must be done under a shining sun, and is very wearisome work. After being picked it must be carried to the gin house before the night dews touch it. 374 FACTS CONCERNING DIFFERENT NATIONS At present most of the cotton produced in the world is ginned by machinery. Gin- *… º BALEs of cotton. As IT is PICKED. ning consists in separating the cotton from the seeds. From 66 to 75 pounds of seeds are got from every 100 pounds of seed cot- ton. After this process, it is gathered into bundles and roughly baled. Then it goes to the “compressors,” where it undergoes, un- der enormous pressure, great reduction in bulk. After this, it is subjected to several important processes before being ready for commercial use. GREAT VALUE IN COTTON SEED. In no direction have modern processes for the utilization of so-called waste mate- rial produced larger or more gratifying re- sults than in the conversion of cotton seed into a valuable commodity. Forty years ago there was no use for cot- ton seed, the decaying accumulations of which were a menace to the health of Southern communities. In 1900, when 53 per cent of the seed produced was utilized, the planters received $28,632,000 for seed sold to the oil mills, and the value of the products of those mills was $41,411,000. IIalf (46,902,000 gallons) of the oil made in that year was exported. To invest an article with a value of millions of dollars which, 40 years ago, was deemed worthless, is certainly an achievement worthy of a place among the miracles of modern times, BIRMINGHAM, ALABAM.A. E O O Lºk IV” A THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING INFORMATION THAT ENRICHES THE MIND AND ENLIVENS THE HEART FIRE FIGHTING TO-DAY "Tº HE American system of fighting fire is considered the most perfect in That the American mind, mechanical devices and something to do with doubt. existence. which runs to machinery, has it, there can be no The Germans and French say that we ought to have the best fire departments in the world, because we have more fires than any other country, and, consequently, more experience in fighting them. Our force is nearly four ropean cities. In the first place, the wooden structures, common in earlier years, made our cities almost as vulnerable to fire as are the Chinese and Japanese towns of today, where fire sweeps away whole quar- ters almost periodically. The value of one - solid structure as a stay to fire has been shown over and over again in the last twenty years. In the second place, our cli- matic conditions fa. vor the fire fiend. In European countries, the temperature is comparatively equa- times that of Ger- many or France in proportion to the pop- ulation, and three times that of England. FREQUENCY or FIRES IN AMERICAN CITIES. There are several reasons why our Amer- ican cities should have more fires than Eu- Geo. Washington Fire Engine, Presented to the City of Alexandria, Va., by Geo. Washington. ble; here, we always have a tropical sum- mer and a rigorous winter. After a summer heat that dries everything to a tinder, we have sudden-cold calls for the lighting of every stove and fur. nace. The sudden overheating resultsin fires It may be also added, that European econom. 376 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING ists mention our pros- perity as a reason for our many fires; we bear, without com- plaint, a yearly fire loss that to Europeans, seems a wicked and un- necessary waste. Our American fire houses compare favorably with those of Europe, al- though some of the English cities provide better accommodations in the way of gym- nasiums and baths than any of our departments. - º º SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE ENGINE–ENGLISH STYLE – LONDON, ENGLAND, FIRE DEPARTMENT. COMBINATION COMPOUND BABCOCK CHAMPION CHEMICAL ENGINE AND HOSE WAGON, WITH DECK TURRET NOZZLES. By courtesy of the Fire Extinguisher Mfg Co. AMOSKEAG SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE ENGINE. BOSTON. MASS. *78 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING One difference between London and Chi- cago is that there the fire stations offer liv- ing accommodations to the wives and chil- dren of the married men. GLASGOW’S SUPERB FIRE-ENGINE IBIOUSE. Glasgow boasts of an even finer fire house than London can show. Its headquarters fire station, opened in 1898, is a six-story building, with a granite and marble front. The walls of the rooms where the en- gines and trucks stand are of highly pol- ished onyx and granite. The building contains a large sitting-room, billiard room, and gymnasium. The fire station cost $300,000, and is, probably, the finest in the world. VALTUE OF TIME IN IFIRE FIGHTING. There is no business in which the value of the stitch in time tells more than in fire fighting. The insignificant burning of a window curtain may, in two hours, become a blaze before which a thousand men and an equipment costing millions of dollars will stand helpless. Therefore the finest record of any department is likely to be found in the number of small fires put out before they become dangerous to property and life. CHICAGO’S FIRE DEPARTMENT. The last printed report of the Chicago fire department, which may be taken as typical of that in this country, shows that in 1901, out of a total of 5,135 fires, the loss, at 1,716 fires, was less than $10. At 1,334 fires, the loss was between $10 and $50; at 1,074 fires, the loss was between $100 and $1,000. On paper, the record of an ordinary day’s work by our fire department—the ex- tinguishing from ten to fifteen insignificant blazes, with a loss of from $10 to $25 a piece—looks insignificant. In reality, it is one to be proud of, for it shows that the vital elements of a perfect fire department —the ability to put out the blaze in as few seconds as possible, the ounce of prevention, has been attained. The $25 fire is not a spectacular affair, yet it is the one over which the fire department may really take pride. The gradual decrease in the average loss per fire attests the value of its work. In 1876-1880, the average loss at impor- tant fires was $2,786; in 1896-1901, it had fallen to $876. As already said, the first aim of a perfect fire department is to put out the fire as soon as possible; and to this end every important device introduced in the last thirty years has tended. First, find out where the fire is; second, get the ex- tinguishing apparatus there as fast as pos- sible; third, put out the fire, using any device that serves, with as little loss to property as possible. THE EIECTRIC FIRE ALARM SERVICE. In early times fire towers were used ex- tensively, but these gave way in 1873 to electricity, which became known as the electric fire alarm system. Chicago alone has something like 2,600 stations, or fire alarm boxes, attached to poles distributed throughout the city. Then there are hun- dreds of “watch service” fire call boxes which are located in private stores, manu- facturing establishments and at the big packing houses. The directions on each box, which are painted red and are sur. mounted by a red light, are: “Turn the Handle to Right Until Door Opens. Then pull inside Hook Once and Shut the Door.” The opening of the door A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 379 of the box rings a bell in the door, which is intended to notify anyone in the neighbor- hood, especially a policeman, that the box has been opened. When the inside lever is pulled down and let go, it sets in motion a certain clock work that ticks out the num- ber of the box three times in succession at headquarters. Not only that, but it makes a record upon a tape, showing the number of the box and the exact second at which the lever was pulled. An operator, who sits night and day beside the instrument at headquarters, notes the number and selects from a drawer a certain disk, which, when placed in the proper apparatus, causes the alarm to be rung in all houses throughout the city. The average time for sending out an alarm to all parts of the city is about ten seconds. FIRE FIGHTING IN LONDON. In London the signal from a street station sounds in the nearest fire- house. The objection to this is that that particular engine may be out, which might mean much before another engine could be notified. At headquarters, the moment an alarm is sent out which calls away an en- gine, a note is made of it upon a frame or chart, which shows at a glance the sign “out” opposite the engine's number. When the company returns to the house, the first thing the captain does is to report the re- turn of his company to headquarters. When an alarm is received at the engine house, all is orderly excitement. The chains fall down from in front of the horses, allowing them to run to their places in front of the engine or hose trucks, the men come sliding down the brass poles from the story above, and the collars are snapped around the horses' necks, and, by the time the signal stops, all is ready for a dash out of doors or a quiet return to quarters. AWAY IN TEN SECONDS FROM THE ALARM. The equipment that makes the departure of a fire engine from its house possible in- side of ten seconds after the first clang of the alarm bell, with steam up and its regu- lar crew, is the result of many inventions and persistent drill. As it is essential that no time be lost in getting up steam in the engine, steam is always maintained under a pressure of from five to twenty pounds in the engine boiler by means of a stationary boiler in the basement. This is connected with the engine by a pipe which is discon- nected automatically when the horses start off. At the same instant the fireman lights the fire under the engine boiler with a hand- ful of oil waste, and by the time it has gone two blocks, there is a blaze of hot coals and a head of steam to work with. Electricity drops the stall chains in front of the horses at the same time it begins to ring the alarm. The men, who sleep with one eye open, come down the poles faster than they could tumble down any staircase. THE FIRE BIORSES. The fire horses, two for light engines, and three when the machines weigh more than four tons—are trained as finely as the men. They are the pets of the house and of the neighborhood. Some of them learn in a week to run to their places at the signal; others require a month's training. The lessons are simple enough. A raw horse is made to feel the whip as he hears the signal bell. If he is an intelligent animal, the two so soon become synonymous that he starts for his place the instant the bell rings. Many horses seem to know quite as 380 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING well as the men, when the alarm is one that means business. They really seem to count the strokes. ELECTRICITY FOR FIRE ENGINES. It is highly probable that the days of the fire horse are numbered. Steam as a motive power for fire engines, although used in several American cities, and in many Eu- ropean ones, has never found favor in Chi- cago. The difficulty in getting up power quickly enough seems to be the trouble. Electricity, however, which is now used in Paris and Berlin, is pretty certain to dis- place the horse within the next few years. Its chief advantages are that it makes a quicker start possible than with horses, and that the same power which propels the ma- chine through the streets can be used for pumping-apparatus when the fire is reached. Moreover, no fire is needed, thus doing away with lots of smoke and noise that add to the confusion inseparable from any fire alarm. Another fact in favor of electricity is that if, as so often happens, there is no fire worth talking about, or one that can be put out with an extinguisher, there is no loss of fuel and labor. At pres- ent, every engine is expected to arrive at the fire with its own fire blazing hot. The cleanliness and neatness of an engine house that requires no boiler, handles no coal or ashes, and keeps no horses on its premises, may be imagined. Heretofore, it has been objected that if electrical apparatus gets out of order the men are helpless, and, for- merly, electricity was not so commonly used as at present; this may have had some force. TMODERN EQUIPMENT FOR FIRE-FIGHT- ING. The modern equipment for fire fighting consists of engines for pumping water, hose for distributing it at the fire, various sizes and lengths being used, according to need, ladders for getting up into buildings, life- lines, and nets into which people jump, if they have to. Each hose-cart also carries two chemical extinguishers, having a capacity of fifty gallons each. In the last five years an average of forty fires a year has been put out with the aid of these ex- tinguishers alone. The ladders are of various types, from small ones, to be car- ried by the firemen, to the extension ladders raised by a crank, which reach to a height of ninety feet, or to the sixth story of an ordinary building. COMPRESSED-AIR IXTENSION LADIDER, One of the most interesting novelties shown at the Paris Fire Congress of 1900 was an eighty-five-feet extension ladder from Frankfort, Germany, built on the telescope plan, and raised by compressed air to its full height in 25 seconds. THE SCALING LADIDERS. The scaling ladders used by firemen, to climb up the outside of a building where ordinary ladders fail, consist of long poles into which crosspieces, or rungs, are in- serted, by which a man may climb. At the end of each pole is a long spike-projection, to be thrust through the window sash. With a supply of such ladders trained firemen can get to the top of a building in an in- credibly short time. THE WATER TOWER, SEARCHLIGHT AND GUN. - It is largely a matter-of-practice period. In addition to all this apparatus, there must also be mentioned the water tower, which raises a hose nozzle to the level of the upper stories, a searchlight, for use upon dark A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 381 nights, and a gun, by which a rope may be sent up to the tops of buildings, In the fireboat Illinois, Chicago has the most powerful and effective fire fighter in the world. There is a boat in New York that approaches it in completeness and capacity to throw river water, yet nowhere has it an equal. The Illinois was built in the year 1888, and is the newest and most mod- ern fire boat that floats. The Illinois is 118 feet in length, twenty-four feet in depth, and has a hold depth of twelve and a half feet. To construct and fit it out cost about $100,000. In viewing it from some distance an uninitiated observer might well take it for an engine of destruction in- stead of saving warfare, for its big brass bores at the bow and stern suggest the shell- throwing howitzers we read about. The Illinois is throughout protected from fire, its exterior and interior being metal plated. The hull of the boat has two novel features suggested by its liability, in the winter sea- son, to meet ice obstructions. The prow does not extend down into the water the usual depth, while the bottom line of the vessel slopes upward, so that when the boat encounters ice in hurrying to the scene of a conflagration, it glides upon it, and its own weight carries down the ice. All the machinery of the Illinois is be- low the water line. There are six double cylinder engines, three of which supply the power of operating the great double pumps which rush the water through the stand pipes and hose lines. The other three en- gines run the electric dynamos and supply motive power to the boat. So powerful are the pumps of this boat that eleven streams of water may be thrown at one time, or a double stream may be shot up to a distance of one hundred and ninety feet. WHAT A POUND QF COAL CAN DO Considerable interest has been evinced as to what a pound of coal could do. An experienced engineer has taken the time to figure out the power in a pound of coal and the results of his calculations are as follows: TTS WONDERFUL POTENTIAL ENERGY. A pound of coal can produce sufficient Tower to pull a large express train a dis- tance of one-sixth of a mile, going at the rate of 50 miles an hour. A pound of aver- age coal contains about 10,000 heat units. This would be somewhat smaller in size than a man's fist. If this pound of coal could be burned completely and entirely under water, and all of its heat should go into the water, 625 pounds of water could be raised to the height of one foot. THINGS ALMOST INCREDIBLE, If the same pound of coal could be burned in water one foot deep, with a tem- perature of 64 degrees, and all the heat' from this coal should be imparted to the water, it would become 16 degrees hotter, thus being suitable for a bath. If adapted to mechanical work, the 10,000 heat units in one pound of coal would be equivalent to 236 horse power. This amount of potential energy is sufficient to haul a train of eight cars for a period of one fifth of a minute, or a distance of one sixth of a mile. It is also capable of drawing a cable train, in- 382 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING cluding the grip car and trailer, for a dis- tance of two miles, at the rate of nine miles an hour. It will also pull an electric car well filled with passengers for two miles and a half, at the rate of ten miles an hour. Compared with the work of a strong man, this pound of coal would do the work of five men for one minute. Another line of work in which the superiority of a pound of coal is shown beside the labor of a man, is that of Sawing wood. A man may consider him- self a swift sawyer by making sixty strokes a minute, each stroke of the blade having progressed five feet a minute, but a circular saw drawn by machinery, may be put through 70 times that distance, and saw 70. times as much wood. Still, this little pound of coal has the power to keep in operation 180 such saws. THE CYCLONE The general ideas on the subject of cy- clones are rather vague. Take a small butter pot, and set it down on your largest map of the world at about 20 degrees north latitude, anywhere in the Atlantic between two continents, say east of the West Indies. ITS PATHWAY. Then, with a piece of whalebone twice as long as from the butter pot to the North Pole, bent into a parabola, with one end at the pole, the other at the butter pot, mark out thus the path of the cyclone. The apex of the bent whalebone will be somewhere in the western United States. Imagine your butter pot to be revolving on its own center in the manner of the hands of a watch, at the rate 100 miles an hour. ITS EDGES. Its northwestern edge will be the danger- ous storm rim, blowing a hurricane, lashing the seas, and precipitating the rain; the other edges will be breezy, but not so stormy, as they contain less moist air. ITS CENTER. The center will be the low barometer and calm area, because here the air has less weight and is flowing upward. Now, move your pot slowly along the parabola, still supposing it to be turning. By the time you reach the center of the United States, exchange the pot for a saucer, with the same supposed conditions, only by this time, if wintry, a snow storm will take the place of the rain. Keep it moving circularly, and northward also along the parabola, and about Hudson Bay, change to a breakfast plate, and in Greenland, to a dinner plate, and about the 80th degree north, before the storm reaches the size of a buggy wheel, it breaks up. ENLARGEMENT OF THE STORM SPACE. Thus you see the space over which the storm travels enlarges as it passes north, the winds blow around its rim, and the calm center moves with it. THE HORN CARD. Mariners now carry what is called a horn-card, a transparent piece of flat cow’s horn, with a circle on it, inside which are several smaller circles, with arrows pointing as a watch's hands travel. When- ever the barometer changes and clouds scuá A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 383 by, this horn-card is placed on the chart at the ship's position. Knowing the wind's direction and the weight of the air, the horn-card tells whereabouts in the cyclone's course the ship is, and from this is reasoned how to sail to avoid its violence, or if un- avoidable, how to manage in it, and if possible to profit by it. HOW THE CYCLONE FORMS, DEVELOPS AND ADVANCES. The formation and development of a cy- clone is thus described by the intelligent observer of its progress, who furnished the accompanying illustration. “In the afternoon a cloud of smoke was noticed on the horizon a few miles away. Spiral puffs arose from time to time, and we wondered whose house was burning. Presently we noticed a cloud in the sky above the burning house, of the same color, only darker. “The cloud was quite a distance above, and entirely detached from the smoke below. While we looked a long finger suddenly de- scended from the upper cloud and touched the burning house,” and the two united and moved rap- idly forward. Then we knew there was no burning house, and that we had witnessed the formation of a cy- clone. Those who were nearer than we were told us that they first noticed a little whirl of dust, such as one often sees in a dusty road. Only a foot or two high at first, it usually scatters and disappears in a few minutes. This one did not. It rapidly grew larger and clung to the same spot. The cloud we saw in the sky did not come from anywhere. It suddenly formed in the sky above the little whirl of dust, grown larger by that time. TWO CLOUDS UNITE. “The two clouds moved forward at once on uniting. The long finger thickened at the top, forming an inverted cone. The lower cloud became absorbed in the upper, form- ing an immense, funnel-shaped, whirling By courtesy of “The Oaks.” A CYCLONE AS IT STRIKES, (From a photograph.) horror, of inky blackness. Flashes of light- ning constantly darted forth from its sides, and a sullen, thunderous roar was continu- ous. It moved with a swaying, graceful motion, rising and falling with the inequal- ities of the ground. It seemed to move slowly. A good horse could outrun it. As the long finger swayed back and forth what- ever it touched vanished. “Houses, barns, haystacks and trees, all 384 A T, UUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING were taken up by the suction of the cyclone. The whirling motion was so rapid the eye could not follow it, but the forward move- ment was so slow that anyone who saw it in time could easily get out of its way. Eor that reason few lives were lost. It lasted three-quarters of an hour, then it struck a slight shower cloud and dispersed. Its track was eighteen miles long and one- quarter mile wide. It came within a half mile of our home. The courageous photog- rapher who took the picture was handi- HOW MUSIC Millions sing popular songs, but few know what a page of music represents. Just to give an idea of the subject, it may be put down in the outset that an ordinary piece, of three sheets, selling for 10 cents, in- volves the use of more than 5,000 separate types. Chicago is one of the great music pub- lishing centers of the country, and its daily output ranges through all the grades of vocal and instrumental literature—from the symphony for a full orchestra, repro- duced for the first time from the manu- script of the Chicago composer, to the cheapest reprint of the newest thing in concert hall music. WOMAN IN MUSIC PRINTING. Woman is on an equality with man in this department of the publishing trade. She commands a man's wages for “com- position,” and, as the work is of the most delicate and perplexing kind, her patience and dexterity usually give her a marked superiority over the men of the guild. capped somewhat by his shrieking family clinging to him and trying to get him into the cyclone cave. “The photograph does not do justice to the ‘sitter,’ as at the moment of taking the shot it was passing over a plowed field, and the dust it kicked up destroyed the sym- metry of its funnel. There was no other cloud in the sky except the cyclone. We could see the blue sky above and on all sides of it all the time, in unique and startling contrast.” IS PRINTED DIFFERENT METHODS IN PRINTING. A composer with a piece of music to pub- lish has his choice among four kinds of printing. If he is rich, he may have the score engraved on copper and printed as if it were an expensive picture, or he may have it stamped in zinc, or it may be lithographed. But if he is bent on money- making and celebrity, he will go to the musical type-setter. THE MUSIC PRINTER'S CASE. The case of the music printer is divided into 700 boxes, one for each character, and the compositor must have learned her case perfectly or she will be able to make poor headway with her work. First, she sets the character for the clef, and the end of the staff. Then she inserts the sharps or flats of the signature, and spaces out the staff with short pieces of brass rule. Next, she pieces to get her figures and staff rules to indicate the time. - THE NOTES. Suppose the first note of the piece of music is a quarter-note in the second space, A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 385 with a sharp before it. The compositor puts in the sharp first and fills up the space with bits of brass rule to continue the staff; then she inserts the body of the quarter- note with two lines below, and above it puts the two types necessary to make the stem of the note, and to keep the staff unbroken. Sometimes five more separate types must be inserted. A measure of eight consecu- tive notes, three-four time and a tenor clef indicated, seem to contain ten characters. As a matter of fact, the number is 78, at the very least, and more if the measure has accidentals or complicated harmony. It takes about five years for an apprentice to learn the trade. It is not necessary to have musicians to set music type, yet in correct- ing proof it is the aim of the typesetters to know enough music to avoid errors. MUSIC TYPE. On this side of the Atlantic music type is made only in Philadelphia, and so great is its cost that it is never put to the wear and tear of the presses. As soon as the proof is corrected by the proofreader, the form of type is molded in wax and then an electrotype is cast from this matrix. After that comes the tedious work of dis- tributing the several thousand types, for the wax sticks in between and makes the sorting of the type difficult. LITHOGRAPHIC PROCESS OF ENGRAVING FOR, IMIUSIC. Next in importance is the lithographic process of engraving for music. A plate of A BIG On the House of Parliament in London is a clock, the striking part of which takes one-half a day to wind up. The clock has zinc is ruled off with the series of five lines of the staff. Then the music is copied in reverse on the zinc, and the engraver, with many separate dies and punches, stamps in the notes, bars and rests. When this is done and the plate is hammered straight, it is filled up with thick transfer ink. An etcher's proof is taken of this, and while the ink is yet wet, it is pressed upon a lithograph stone. From this point the work of printing is the same as that of a one- color lithograph, that is, the stone is kept wet and the ink adheres only to the char- acters of the music. - Sometimes, to avoid expense in printing small batches, music is printed direct from the stamped zinc sheets. In this case bees- wax is filled into the lines and dots for some depth, as otherwise there would be so much ink taken up by the indentations that the sheet music would be blurred. THE PROCESS OF PIRINTING. In printing the music, dampened paper is used. In the press, a heavy bed of iron supports the engraved plates with paper on them. By means of a big capstan wheel, this bed is moved in between two iron cylin- ders moving in the same direction. A heavy blanket of felt is wrapped about the upper roller, and the pressure causes the ink in the plate to be sucked up on the paper. These presses must be run by hand, and the plate inked and wiped off for each impres- sion. Thus the cost of printing is about half a cent a sheet. CLOCK four dials—one on each side of the square tower. See illustration on page 332 of this book. t;86 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING HOW THE MODERN THEATER IS CONDUCTED Something of the glamour of romance and mystery veils the world behind the foot- fights to those who have never lived within that mystic circle, but the life is anything but romantic and mysterious to the players and the workers. THE THEATER WORKHOUSE. On the contrary, while to the public a theater is a playhouse, it is, to those con- less plays, and selects the one he thinks will most please the public. THE MANAGER'S SELECTION OF A PLAY. These manuscripts are obtained either from the playwright direct, or from the playwright's agent. Accompanying each manuscript is a statement of the royalty to be paid for the plays used. This right of royalty sometimes costs the manager as nected with it, something of a workhouse. Either a mental or physical effort is re- quired almost every minute of one's work- ing hours. The ceaseless routine of duties necessary to the completion of each produc- tion commences at the desk of the man- ager, who reads the manuscripts of count- WHERE COSTUMES ARE MADE. much as $1,000 a week. There are plays that cost even more than that; but the aver- age cost is about $500 per week. THE STAGE DIRECTOR'S PREPARATIONS. After the manager has selected a play to follow any given production, the manu- scripts go immediately to the stage director, A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 38". who is the power behind the throne (foot- lights), and the autocrat of the world on and beneath the stage. It is his province to direct, and his duty to apportion, the various tasks involved in the mechanical construction and the mental preparation of a play. After having read the manuscript th THE SCENIC ARTIST, PROPERTY MAN, ELECTRICLAIN AND STAGE CAR- PENTER. This finished, he turns over the scene plot to the scenic artist, who immediately wrinkles his brows for an imaginative con- ception of an original interior or a fresh landscape. The stage director assigns the º By courtesy of Geo. R. Lawrence, Chicago. VIEW SHOWING PROSCENIUM ANT BOX ARRANGEMENT OF A MODERN THEATER. Illinois Theater, Chicago. stage director begins “to plot,” not like the villain in the play, but with pencil and paper. Using those business materials, he draws the scene plot, and several other minor plots, varying in number and im- portance according to the extent of the pro- duction. property plot to the property man, who be gins to get the hundred and one articles that are to be a part of the coming produc- tion. The light plot goes to the electrician, who at once begins planning the light effects for this particular play. Still an- other plot goes to the stage carpenter, who 388 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING. at once sets about with saw, hammer and but the part he would most like to play is nails to make such frames as are necessary, not always the part he could play best. As THE ORCHESTRA LEADER. to that, the stage director is the judge, and upon the correctness of his judgment fre- The “plotting” does not end here, for, the quently depends the success of the produc- leader of the orchestra, whose duty it is to tion. select the proper'charac- ter of music for each situation — something tremulous, for the tears, something lively, for laughter, and something heroic for the melodra- matic, is given a “plot.” ASSIGNIMENT OF PARTS. These plots having been formed and dis- tributed, the stage man- ager then proceeds to cast the play—that is, he mentally canvasses the individual talents of the members of the company and assigns to each one the part most suited to that person. Sometimes a player pos- sesses sufficient versa- tility to fill any role, but such versatility is rare. Good judgment in assigning the parts is therefore an indis- pensable attribute of a good stage manager. Not every player, to be sure, is invariably as- signed to the part he would most like to play, -: -º-º: º By courtesy of the Columbia. Theater, Chicago. WHERE SCENERY IS PAINTED, A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 389 UP IN THE “FLIES.” While the property man goes about the getting together of the “props” the scenic artists high up in the flies are busily work- ing upon the scenery for the coming pro- duction. The paints are “cooked” and the colors blended upon such canvases as are are the methods of the modern stage that a locomotive may be made to appear as if going through flames at a terrific rate of speed, while in fact it is absolutely station- ary. Flame is often made with cloth and colored lights. place of smoke. Steam is made to take the The ear, too, is deceived º By courtesy of the Columbia. Theater, Chicago. MODEL FOR STAGE SCENE. to be used. For each production there is an entirely new outfit, giving a freshness of scenic investiture to each play that is prac- tically impossible with traveling organiza- tions. MODERN FEATURES IN STAGE PRODUC- TION. In producing plays at the present time nothing is impossible. Lightning is made to go zig-zag across the stage at the will of the electrician, miniature lakes and foun- tains are the work of the stage carpenter and manager, and, in fact, so far advanced as well as the eye, and thus the most realis- tic effects are achieved. All this varied and elaborate procedure involves a large expenditure, which finds its return, with a very handsome margin of profit, in the patronage received from the theater loving public. The popular ten- dency to crowd before the footlights never seems to diminish, and if the plays are of the proper character, the amusement and edification obtained from witnessing his. trionic productions constitute a wholesome diversion. 390 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING HOW LIQUORS ARE DISTILLED Alcoholic liquors are made from mate- rials containing starch or sugar in sufficient quantities to cause fermentation. If, after fermentation, the liquor is subjected to dis- tillation it is called distilled liquor, and to this class belong whisky, brandy, rum, absinthe, etc. Brandy is made from fer- common spirits with juniper berries. Fre- quently other materials are used for flavor- ing, such as cardamon seed and oil of fennel. Liquors are made from brandy and alcohol by flavoring them with aromatic substances, such as orange peel, absinthe and anise; then the flavored liquid is dis- - TESTING LIQUORS IN THE BUREAU OF REVENUE. A sample of all liquors imported and exported is brought here and tested to decide the Revenue Tax to be placed thereon. mented grape juice. The best grades of cognac brandy are made from white French wines; inferior qualities are made from Spanish and Portuguese wines. Whisky is made from the fermented extract of rye, barley or corn. In Scotland and Ireland malted barley is used—sometimes alone, sometimes mixed with other grains. Bourbon whisky is made from rye and malted corn. Gin is produced by mixing tilled, and after distillation, it is colored with caramel and sweetened in most cases. THE MANUFACTURE OF WIBIISKY. The manufacture of whisky will serve as a type for the manufacture of other spirit- uous liquors. The first step in the process is the saccharifying of the grain—that is, turning the starch into sugar. The grain is mixed with malt and ground in a suit- able mill and then run into a mash tub, A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH ANO WING 391 where it is agitated with water at a tem- perature of 150 degrees Fahrenheit. THE MASHING PEROCESS. The mashing process is continued until the starch is changed entirely into malt sugar or maltose. This requires from one to five hours, according to the amount of grain in the mash. Malt contains a sub- stance known as “diastase,” which possesses the remarkable property of turning starch into maltose or malt sugar. It is for this reason that malt is added to the grain in the mash tub. Starch is changed by pro- longed boiling into dextrin, which does not ferment readily, while maltose ferments very easily. Great care, therefore, is taken during the mashing process that the dextrin formation is reduced to a minimum. This is done by keeping the temperature near 150 degrees during the whole process. “WORT.” The liquor obtained in the mash tub is called “wort.” When the wort is as strong as possible, it is drained off, and the grain is treated with a fresh supply of water and the wort so obtained is added to the first. The wort, on coming from the mash tub, must be cooled rapidly, otherwise an acid fermentation will set in which produces vinegar, and the presence of such substance is undesirable. The wort is cooled by al- lowing it to trickle over cold pipes, which are kept at a low temperature by some method of artificial refrigeration similar to that by which ice is manufactured. It takes about five hours to reduce the con- tents of the mash tub to a temperature of 60 degrees. FERMENTATION. The wort is now ready for fermentation. Fresh brewer's yeast, or softened com- pressed yeast, is added to the liquid, which is stored in wooden tanks in the cellar of the distillery. One gallon of brewer’s yeast, or a half pound of compressed yeast, is used for every 100 gallons of wort. In the early stages of fermentation the yeast cells grow without producing much alcohol. Later, the malt sugar ferments and alcohol is formed; carbon bioxide is generated after the sugar is formed; the dextrin gradually is changed to maltose, and this is then changed to alcohol by fermentation. Dur- ing fermentation the temperature gradually rises because of the chemical changes taking place. The temperature is kept near 93 degrees to get the best results. Fermenta- tion is complete when no more alcohol forms, and this takes from five to nine days. The yeast is skimmed off, and the fer- mented wort at once is subjected to distilla- tion. DISTILLATION. The object of distillation is to increase the percentage of alcohol in the liquor and at the same time to remove undesirable sub- stances from it. The undistilled liquor contains alcohol, water, solid matter, fusel By courtesy of the Sunny Brook Distillery Co., Chicago, THE FERMENTER. 392 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING oil and other substances. Alcohol boils at 172 degrees, water at 212 and fusel oil boils, some at 207, and some at higher temperatures. If a mixture of such liquids be boiled and the resulting vapors be cooled the process is called distillation. If the liquid which distills over and is condensed be collected in different portions or frac- tions, the first fraction will contain a larger percentage of alcohol than the original liquid, for the alcohol distills off at the lower temperature. The remaining frac- tions will contain more water and fusel oil. The first portion will not contain all of the alcohol, nor will it be entirely free from water and fusel oil, but if it is redistilled the percentage of alcohol will be greatly increased and the amount of water and fusel oil will be diminished correspond- ingly. THE OLD STILL. The old stills were based on this prin- ciple, and many such stills are used today in Scotland and Ireland. They consist of large flat-bottomed vessels of copper set in By courtesy of the Sunny Brook Distillery Co., Chicago. THE VAT. brickwork and heated underneath by direct firing. The still is connected at the top with a long spiral pipe called a “worm,” which passes through a tank of cold water, where the alcoholic vapors are cooled and the distillate is collected at the other end of the worm in a suitable tank. This method of distillation is wasteful of fuel and for that reason a number of devices have been introduced for reducing the cost of the product and increasing the quality. THE MODERN STILL. The improved stills are somewhat com- plicated in construction, and they are con- tinuous in action; that is, the liquor to be rectified is fed in a steady stream without interruption to the process and the rectified spirits are drawn off continuously. A standard still consists of two columns made of wood, copper lined, called respectively the “analyzer” and the “rectifier.” The analyzer is divided into a number of com- partments by perforated copper plates, sup: plied with valves opening upward. Small pipes pass through each plate, projecting about half an inch above each plate and reaching down into small copper pans placed on the plate below. From the analyzer the vapors enter the rectifier, which also is divided into compartments with perforated plates until near the top of the column, which is free from plates. There the finished spirit is held back and carried away to the condensing worm. The liquor to be distilled is pumped through a zigzag pipe which circulates through the rectifier. When it reaches the bottom of the rectifier, it is entirely changed into vapor. The vapor then goes to the analyzer, which is heated from below by steam. The water condenses and runs off at the bottom of the analyzer; the vapors of the alcohol A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 393 By courtesy of the Sunny Brook Distillery Co., Chicago. STOREROOM. pass into the rectifier, where they circulate through compartments, and as they ascend they are almost entirely freed from water and fusel oil. The vapor then passes through a condensing worm, where it is thoroughly cooled and liquefies, running into storage tanks. ADULTERATION AND IMPOSITION. There is much adulteration and imposi- tion in the manufacture of liquors. Some- times sulphuric acid, blue vitriol, ammonia and acetate of potassium are used. A good deal of it is made by mixing a little genuine liquor with coloring matter and different oils to add proper flavor. Prune juice is a favorite flavor with compounders, and an extract of tea and currants is used for rye whisky. In order to make certain liquors foam properly in imitation of the genuine, they are treated with a beading oil made from the oil of bitter almonds. Bourbon whisky is made, sometimes by adding fusel oil which has been treated with black oxide of manganese and the poisons just men- tioned. “Scotch” whisky is made by add- ing to a small quantity of real Scotch whisky, oil of birch and spirits. Cognac is made from spirits by flavoring with cocoa- nut oil and coloring with burnt sugar. A TINY TYPEWRITER The pocket typewriter is the very latest device to less- en the labor of newspaper men, detectives and any and all persons who need to take notes on any subject when the use of pencil and paper would be an inconvenience. This new invention makes it possible for one to take down conversation, speeches or any remarks that he may choose to record, without even re- moving his hands from his pocket. 26 - º By courtesy of the Lambert Typewriter Co. THE POCKET TYPEWRITER. 394 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING ITS SIMPLICITY OF DESIGN. The inventor of this little typewriter is Eugene McClean Long, son of the late Con- federate general, Long, of Charlottesville, Virginia. The feature of this unique little word recorder is its simplicity. Its casing is of hard rubber, and its interior, of alu- minum. The dimensions of the casing are four inches by three inches. ITS MECHANICAL OPERATION. In the casing are two little spools, that hold rolls of tape quite similar to the white paper in the ordinary ticker. By merely pressing four keys on one side of the casing and by the manipulation of a space key and a number indicator, anything that the human tongue utters can be put down in symbols. In designing this typewriter, the inventor first observed that an instrument must be constructed which would make a separate and distinct sign for each letter of the alphabet, and of such a mechanism that these signs would be produced with greater rapidity than the corresponding words can be written with the pencil. MAKING DIAMONDS BY ELECTRICITY The prospect of the manufacture of dia- monds by scientific means is now consid- ered so likely as to be predicted in a gov- ernment report. T. G. Martin, an expert agent of the census office, has written a long and interesting report on the electrical in- dustries of the United States, in which he makes mention of the attempt to make dia- monds by artificial means. In this report Martin recalls the fact that Moissan, the French inventor, pushed the employment of the electric are so far as to produce minute fragmentary diamonds in his furnaces, Moissan also noted the production of graphite from a diamond heated in the arc, and from the similar treatment of sugar charcoal purified by chlorine, and of purified wood charcoal. In fact, the investigations in this field tended to prove that diamonds are formed by the sudden cooling in mercury or lead, of molten iron saturated with carbon. With these experiments before them, the world's chemists are now cudgeling their brains to ascertain whether, in all our mod- ern electrical furnaces, diamonds may be produced. CHEWING GUM AND ITS MANUFACTURE Cleveland is said to be the headquarters of gum chewing and chewing gum. Prob- ably more gum is made in that city than in any other. Chicago, however, is headquar- ters for the chewing gum trust and has be- come a great distributing point. About half the annual product of the trust, The American Chicle Company, is handled in Chicago. The output of the chewing gum combination amounts annually to 8,400,- 000 boxes of 100 pieces each, which, at one cent a stick, costs the public over $8,000,- 000 a year for a total of about 4,000 tons of gum. This does not count the amount A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 395 of white and spruce gum made by druggists and makers outside of the trust. The first gum maker of prominence in this country was named Curtis. He founded a spruce gum factory in Portland, Maine, in 1835, which is still doing busi- ness. It is said that the ancient Egyptians chewed gum in the time of the Pharaohs and Cleopatra. THE ZAPOTE TREE-CHICLE. The gum sold today is made from a sub- stance called chicle, which exudes from the Zapote tree, a tropical fruit cultivated in Mexico and the Central American states. This fruit looks like a russet apple, tastes like custard, and when on ice, is like ice cream. The sap of the zapote tree is ob- tained by cutting a gash in the bark, and when it is boiled it assumes a heavy elastic quality not unlike rubber. Thomas Adams and his wife, of Brooklyn, on experiment- ing with it, learned that chicle would pro- duce “rubber gum,” and manufactured the celebrated “tutti frutti” gum, from which they made a fortune. Mr. Adams is now a director in the trust and was the first mil- lionaire who made his money in chewing- gum. William J. White, of Cleveland, is the second millionaire of the chewing-gum product. Formerly he used to peddle his own gum about the streets. In 1887, he brought out a gum flavored with pepper- mint which was very popular. Another man who has made a fortune is Dr. Bee- man, of Cleveland, who was formerly a druggist. One day his clerk, Miss Horton, suggested that pepsin be added to gum to aid in digestion. The idea caught well with the public and made the two rich, besides the man who promoted the busi- neSS. HOW CHEWING GUIM IS MADE Gum is made by boiling the chicle in a huge kettle of steam. First the raw chicle is shipped to this country very dirty and has to be cleaned. This is done by melting it down before it is sent to the gum fac- tories. When the gum is being boiled, at a certain stage, sugar, cream paste and oil of wintergreen or other flavoring extracts, are added. A revolving paddle keeps the stuff stirred up and it continues to cook until the critical time comes for it to be removed from the fire. It needs a “gum eye” in the cook to tell when the chicle has boiled long enough. If it boils too long the gum is too brittle; while if it is not boiled long enough, it is ticky and soft. It is said there are only twenty-five persons in the world who can boil gum just right, and that the chewing-gum millionaires had this faculty, which tended greatly toward their success. After being cooled the chicle is kneaded like bread, only that the finest pul- verized sugar is added instead of flour. When it is just thick enough the loaves are flattened out, cut up, and rolled through a machine. The sticks are then wrapped and are ready for market. The habit of chewing gum has become in recent years one of the most prevalent in- dulgences observable. It is safe to say that two-thirds of the boys and girls in attend- ance at the common schools chew gum con- tinually. While it is not a commendable practice, it is not open, fortunately, to the objections that pertain to the chewing of tobacco, or the use of certain other articles that satisfy the taste, but leave their effects upon the system in the shape of nervous disorders and other ailments. If the juvenile element must chew anything, by all means let it have gum. 396 A TEIOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING TEA AND COFFEE CULTURE England is a nation of tea drinkers, with little favor given to coffee. In fact tourists claim that it is the next thing to impossible to get a good cup of coffee in Great Britain. From the English comes the retort that the same condition regarding tea prevails in America. One thing is certain, Americans know how to brew excellent coffee, and hence that beverage has become very popu- lar with the people of the new world. FRANCE PREFERS COFFEE. France offers coffee as its favorite bever- age, with tea and chocolate in the order named. The French also practice adultera- tion, with the result that in many of the big restaurants where coffee is served the taste of that article cannot be detected. TEA. THE FAVORITE OF RUSSIA. The Russians are the greatest of all tea drinkers, obtaining their supply chiefly by caravans, into Siberia, from the Chinese provinces, where the best crop is produced. The Russian samovar, or tea-urn, is perpetually alight in every house- hold of the empire, and tea is served not only at every meal, but to every caller between meals, and on all sorts of sur- prising occasions. Even a business call at a bank or office is almost certain to bring the offer of a glass of scalding tea, to be taken while the errand is explained. Coffee culture extends over almost the whole of the tropical belt of the globe. The plant seems to bear greater climatic ex- tremes than most members of the vegetable kingdom, and thrives in localities differing as much as thirty degrees in average tem- perature. THE COFFEE TREE IN BRAZIL AND JAVA. In Brazil, there are 16 varieties of coffee growing wild. The limit of productiveness is about 30 years. After that time, the trees may live and continue to grow, but they yield little or no fruit. In Java, coffee trees, planted nearly a hundred years ago, are said to be in existence, being now about 40 feet high, with trunks a foot in diam- COFFEE PLANTATION, A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH. K. NOWING 397 eter; but they grow entirely wild and produce no berries. On an average, trees are replaced on the plantations every 20 years, and this pro- cess of replanting goes on constantly. EIOW COFFEE IS GROWIN. Coffee grows best on the uplands, usu- ally on the mountain side at an elevation of from fifteen hundred to forty-five hundred feet above the level of the sea. The trees are raised from the seeds in nurseries, and transplanted when about a year or eighteen months old. The plants are usually set at intervals of eight or ten feet. They begin to bear at the age of three or four years, and when six years old, may be said to be in full bearing. Taking one year with another, a tree in full bearing produces from two to three pounds per an- The plant is brought from the nursery. DRYING THE COFFEE. num. The average diameter of the trunk in full bearing trees is about the size of a man’s wrist. They bear a profusion of dark-green, glossy leaves, and the fruit or berry forms on the woody stems, usually at the base of these leaves. The berry, when ripe, is red in color, and much resembles a large cranberry. The two beans lie within, face to face, and surround- ing them are five successive layers of skin and pulp, which cover and protect the beans. COFFEE PICKING. Picking begins, in Java, in January, and lasts for three or four months. The chief part of the Ceylon crop is gath- ered from April to July. A small crop, chiefly of young cof- fee, is picked from September to Decem- ber. In Brazil, they commence gathering crops in April or May, and work con- 398 A THOUSAND THINGS WILL WORTH KNOWING *ætjooo etº， snawo eſtºu quan aqq uqſae uetu ºq）, "NO" IAGIO NI ONIXIOO （I.） VOIJL � A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 399 TEA NURSERY SHADED BY FERNS. tinuously until September. Women and children are largely employed in gathering the fruit, carrying it from the trees in baskets to the place where the preparation of the berries for market commences. PULPING AND DRYING. After the berries have been gathered, the first operation to which they are treated is called “pulping.” This means to remove the outer covering of skin and pulp from the beans themselves. The berries may be treated while in the soft state, or they may be permitted to dry, after which the dried husk is removed by a machine. When this process is chosen, the berries are spread upon the drying grounds of stone, mortar or cement, where they stay until the heat of the sun prepares them for the machine. It is a similar machine, differing only in de- tails to that which is used when the berries are to be treated in the soft state. Succes- sive cleanings, washings and dryings finally bring the coffee into a condition for ship- ment to the markets thousands of miles from the plantation where it is raised. PRINCIPAL TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. Tea in the Western Hemisphere does not figure very largely in a commercial sense, although in our own Southern states cer- tain experiments have been made which suggests that good tea could be cultivated, even though it might not be highly profit- able. TEA CULTIVATION. Japan, China, the Island of Formosa, India, and Ceylon are the principal tea pro- ducing countries. The tea plant is a species HOW TEA IS POWDERED BY THE FEET. 400 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING. of camellia, bearing a thick and glossy leaf, which, when green, has no tea flavor, or rather has a flavor very unlike the cured leaf known to us as tea. There is consider- able variety in the mode of cultivating, but the prevailing system is to plant in rows or four plants are placed to- gether in hills, which are usually as they grow larger about three feet apart, and about six feet apart. Three WEIGHING TEA CHESTS-85 POUNDS EACH. they fill nearly the whole original space left between the hills, thus making an almost continuous row. The plants are raised from the seed, and take from three to four years to mature sufficiently to yield the first crops. After that they are picked con- tinuously for many years. TEA PICKING. In the districts yielding the best variety of tea, the plants are covered, during the winter and early spring, with mats, which serve the double purpose of protecting them first from cold which might injure them, and, later, from the sun, which tends to make the leaf tough and injures the deli- cacy of the flavor. The first picking, which is considered the best, takes place, in Japan, during the last of April or the beginning of May; the second, a month later; while the third, which is often omitted, usually takes place during July. Left to themselves, the plants would probably grow to a considerable height, but they are trimmed and pruned down so that they are seldom more than three or four feet high. This results in a number of small branches, producing small and tender leaves, which are the only ones sought for, although in rapid picking different sized leaves would naturally be taken, together with a considerable quantity of stems and other trash, - A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING. 401 THE CURING AND FIRING PROCESS. From the field, the leaves are taken to buildings for the curing processes. The flat baskets in which the tea is brought from the fields are placed over the steaming ap- paratus for a few seconds, the steam per- GETTING DUST ouT OF TEA, - - - - - º - INSIDE A FACTORY ROLLER—FERMENTATION TO GET RID OF USELESS ELEMENTS. meating the mass and wilting the leaves. This gives them the dark-green color, and enables the leaf to be rolled and doubled up, so that there is less liability to crumble when fired. They are then thrown upon large paper pans beneath which a gentle FORCING MoſsTURE FROM THE LEAVES, 402 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING coal fire is maintained. They are roasted here for several hours, during which they are constantly rolled and stirred with the hands, so as to make the leaf as compact as possible. The tea is then placed in large baskets to await the sort- ing process. SORTING. The leaves are afterwards spread out be- fore the sorters, who with a pair of chop sticks, dexterously pick out the stems and coarse leaves, which are thrown aside as refuse. Then the rest is sifted and packed to be sent to the market. HOW TO PRESERVE NATURAL FLOWERS The process is a very simple one. The only articles necessary are a close box, a quantity of stick sulphur and a pan to use it in. Collect enough flowers to fill a half peck basket and then obtain a square wooden box, like those in which tea is packed. PREPARATION OF AIR-TIGHT BOX. Across the inside of the top of this tack two narrow strips of wood on opposite sides, upon which rest rods or strips for the bunches of flowers to hang from. The box must be air-tight; but as the burning sul- phur would very quickly consume the oxygen of the air contained in it, and ex- tinguish the fire, a hole or two must be bored, or a small door cut, in the lower part of one side. These may be closed or opened at will,—the former by means of plugs and the latter, with hinges. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE FLOWERS. Arrange the flowers in loose clusters of from two to a dozen, according to size; two dahlias, passion flowers or callas, four half- blown roses, or two or three full blown, a spray or two of fuchsias, ºr larkspur, pinks or lantanas, one or two camellias, a dozen forget-me-nots or lilies of the valles mi- gnonette and so on, according to the size. Hang each clºſeter, as tied, upon the rods, not touching each other. There will be room enough for about four rows. In an iron pan put a shovel partly full of clear, live coals, spreading them over the bottom, and place it on the bottom of the box. SULPHUR, FUMES. Then sprinkle over the whole surface about two ounces of crushed sulphur and the process is begun. Leave the holes, or little door, open for a few minutes, until all progresses favorably and there is an abun- dance of sulphur fumes, then close the box tightly and envelop it, top and bottom, with a blanket or piece of heavy, thick carpet and leave it undisturbed for 24 hours. THE EFFECT IN 24 HOURS. If all has gone well the flowers will ap- pear quite perfect in form, but bleached to a dull, creamy-white shade. This, upon exposing to a pure air in a dry place, they gradually lose, and assume their natural tints, although not so intense in shade as before the bleaching. RETENTION OF FORM AND COLOR. If the box has been made perfectly air- tight by sealing up all the edges, and has been kept in a dry room, the flowers thus treated, if tastefully arranged under a shade or in a recess, will retain their per- fection of form and color for any length of time. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING! 408 - GATHERING CORK The cork tree belongs to the class of oaks, and grows in the impenetrable forests of Spain, in the southwestern portion of France, in Algiers and in Senegambia. There are two trees, quercus suber and quercus occidentalis, that, from time to time, shed their bark or outer coating. This coating covers the cork of trade; but the bark shed by nature is not marketable, be- cause it does not contain any sap, which is necessary to retain the elasticity. PEELING FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES. Cork for industrial purposes is gained by peeling. After a tree is three years old, the peeling may commence; but cork of that age is of inferior quality, and the peeling would kill the tree. Trees of twenty years' growth give cork of a fair quality, improv- ing until the tree has gained the respectable age of 100 or 150 years, when the bark becomes hard and unwieldy. Circular in- cisions are made around the trunk of the tree, which are connected by perpendicular cuts, allowing the two half circles to be re- moved. Care must be taken not to disturb the fiber, or inner bark, which keeps the tree alive. PRESSING INTO PLATES. The peeling process can be repeated on the same tree at intervals of from eight to ten years, yielding cork plates from one to four inches in thickness. The half round cork pieces are pressed into plates while still moist from the tree. Then the rough coatings are removed, and the plates are immersed in boiling water for several min- utes and pressed again. After that they are piled in bundles, fastened by iron hoops, and are ready for the market. The raw material will sell from four to 70 cents per pound, according to the quality and thickness. The full-grown cork tree reaches a height of 70 feet, and a diameter of five feet. The quality of the cork de- pends very much upon the lay of the land, —that exposed to the greatest heat being the finest. Each tree yields cork of two dimensions,—the bark on the northern side of the tree being the thinnest. The imported tree is said to thrive in some portions of the United States, but the region of the Pyrenees supplies most of the world’s demand for the cork of commerce. The tree blossoms in April or May; the fruit ripens from September to January, falling on the ground as soon as ripe. The acorns are edible, and resemble chestnuts in taste. - Cork intended for the market is gener- ally stripped off a year or two before it would naturally come away. The cork of the first barking, which is removed usually when the tree is about twenty-five years old, is known as the virgin bark. The tak- ing of this bark rather promotes the health of the tree. The average yield of commer- cial cork is about 45 pounds to one tree. TJSES OF CORR. Aside from stopping bottles and casks, cork is used for floats of nets, swimming belts, etc., and for inner soles of shoes. The waste bits are made into linoleum. The Spanish black used by painters is made by burning cork in close vessels. 404 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF CHICKENS Although this art is not new, its present development is modern. It was practiced in Egypt as early as 1356. The heat neces- sary for incubation came from fermenting manure. Eggs were first hatched by the aid of fire, in 1770, by John Champion, of Berwick-on-Tweed, England. They were placed on a large round table in the center of a room through which passed two heated these the conditions aimed at were suitable heat, moisture and ventilation. METHOD OF HEATING INCUBATOR. The methods of heating have heretofore mainly been by warm air from a lamp, and by a tank of lamp-heated water. The eggs are carefully sorted, those laid in the latter part of the laying period being left out on By courtesy of the Axford Incubator Co., Chicago, Ill. THE MODERN INCUBATOR-NOTABLY A SAFETY LAMP AND A SYSTEM OF PRODUCING SUPERIOR POULTRY. flues, opening into an adjoining room where the keeper sat and the coal was kept. As large a proportion of the eggs were hatched by this process as in the natural way. Few improvements were made in egg incubation from 1800 until about 1870, when the fancy for raising Asiatic and Mediterranean breeds of poultry became strong in this country, and led to the con- trivance of scores of incubators. In all account of their deficient vitality. Ordi. nary incubators have a capacity for 600 eggs each, but some have been made which hatch thousands at once. TEMPERATURE FOR INCUBATION. The heat generated varies from 102 to 104 degrees. Under the hen, the heat is rarely as much as 100 degrees until the ninth or tenth day; her temperature is from A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 405 106 to 110 degrees, but that of the eggs seldom exceeds 103°. In order that the temperature of the eggs may reach 102°, the air in the incubator immediately over them is kept about 103° until the first half of the hatching term is reached. Then it is allowed to decrease gradually. By courtesy of the Axford Incubator Co. TWENTY DAYS UNDER A HEN. TURNING THE EGGS AND ALTERING TIHEIR LOCATION. The large end of the eggs, which con- tains the germ, is placed uppermost, and during the process the position of the eggs is ordinarily changed, and they are also turned twice a day. The period of artifi- cial incubation is 22 days. THE BROODER. After the incubator comes the brooder, a contrivance heated by the same method as the former. The warmth is sometimes ap- plied from the bottom, but generally from By courtesy of the Axford Incubator co, Chicago, Ill. TWENTY DAYS IN THE INCUBATOR. the side. In the brooder the incipient fowl is developed into a condition for self-sup- port, food and water being first given from two to three days after the hatch- Ing. HOW CELLULOID IS MADE Briefly defined, celluloid is a species of solidified collodion produced by dissolving gun cotton (pyroxylin) in camphor with the aid of heat and pressure. GRINDING GUN COTTON. The gun cotton is ground in water to a fine pulp in a machine similar to that used in grinding paper pulp. The pulp is then 406 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING subjected to powerful pressure in a perfor- ated vessel to extract the bulk of the mois- ture, but still leaving it slightly moist for the next operation. This consists in thor- oughly incorporating finely comminuted gum camphor with the moist gun cotton pulp. With this mixture any coloring mat- ters required can now be embodied. SUBJECTED TO POWERFUL PRESSURE. The next step is to subject the mass to powerful pressure in order to expel from it the remaining traces of moisture, and incidentally to effect also the more intimate contact of the camphor with the pulp. The dried and compressed mass is next placed in a mold, open at the top, into which fits a solid plunger. A heavy hydraulic pres- sure is brought to bear upon the plunger, and at the same time the mixture is heated by means of a steam jacket surrounding the vessel to a temperature of about 300 de- grees Fahrenheit. When the mass is taken out of the press it hardens, and so acquires the extraordinary toughness and elasticity which are the distinguishing characteris- tics of this remarkable production. A SUBSTITUTE FOR IVORY AND PORCE - LAIN. Celluloid is very largely useful as a sub- stitute for ivory, which is imitated with great success. Tortoise shell, malachite, mother of pearl, coral and other costly and elegant materials are also so successfully imitated that an expert can hardly detect the original from the copy. Celluloid is also used as a substitute for porcelain in the manufacture of dolls, which will stand a good deal of rough usage without breaking. Combined with linen it is used for shirt bosoms, cuffs and collars. THRASHING WATERMELONS FOR SEEDS Out in the West, where irrigation and sunshine combine to make the production of watermelons very successful, a novel indus- try has grown up, which is assuming huge proportions and promises a splendid rev- enue for the originators of the scheme. In the upper Arkansas valley, melons are grown for their seed, and great fields are yearly covered with the luscious green shapes, destined never to tickle a palate. The melons grow to large size and great perfection. When they are fully ripe they are harvested with as much precision as are the wheat and corn crops of the plains. THE THRASHING MACHINE. The thrashing machine with which the melons are handled is simple. It consists chiefly of a cylinder driven by horse power or by traction engine. Great wagonloads of melons are brought to the side of the machine, and one by one they are thrown with great force into its hungry mouth, to break against the teeth below. The whole is ground to a fine pulp and run out through a sieve, the rinds being thus separated from the inner portion of the melon. The rinds are left to rot on the prairie, and the juicy mixture stands in large vats until the process of fermentation takes place, sepa- rating the seeds from the pulp. The seeds are then spread out on boards to dry and are ready for the market. SELLING THE SEEDS. The farmers sell the seeds to eastern firms, and in good years clear from $12 to $15 an acre for their labor. The harvest time is late in summer and in early autumn, and attracts much attention. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 407 EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON MILK AND MEAT’ During serious electrical disturbances in the atmosphere, it is well known that beer may become “hard,” milk may go sour, and meat may frequently “turn.” Considerable speculation has arisen as to the cause of this. It has been suggested that an ozonized state of the air due to electric discharge has something to do with it, or that the forma- tion of nitrous acid in the air is responsible for the change. It is, however, not probable that the atmosphere undergoes any chem- 3cal change sufficient to account for the ex- tent to which certain foods “turn.” More- over, any important quantity of ozone or nitrous acid would be calculated to exert a preserving effect, as both are powerful antiseptics. It may be urged, again, that the phenom- enon is due to oxidation by means of ozone, but this can hardly be the case, in view of the large quantities of beer and milk that are soured, in relation to the very small quantity of ozone which a thunder- storm produces. In the case of meat, at any rate, the “turning” can scarcely be attrib- uted to the action of the ozone or of oxygen. The change is probably due not directly to chemical agencies, but, purely, to a disturbance of the electrical equilib- rium. THE FORCE OF INDUCTION. It is well known that an opposite elec- trical state is set by induction, so that an electrical condition of the atmosphere in- duces a similar condition, though opposite in character, in objects on the earth. Per- sons near whom a flash of lightning passes, frequently experience a severe shock by in- duction, although no lightning touches them; and in the celebrated experiment of Galvani, he showed a skinned frog in the neighborhood of an electrical machine, which, although dead, exhibited conclusive movements every time that a spark was drawn from the conductor. In the case of milk “turning,” or beer “hardening,” or of meat becoming tainted, it is probably, therefore, an instance of chemical convul- sion, or, it may be, of a stimulus given to bacteriological agencies set up by an oppo- site electric condition, induced by the dis- turbed electrical state of the atmosphere. Although these charges are most marked during a thunderstorm, yet, undoubtedly, they occur at other times, but not to the same degree, when there is no apparent elec- tric disturbance. FLECTRICAL TENSION. But even when the sky is clear, the at- mosphere may exhibit considerable elec- trical tension. The electroscope constantly shows that a conducting point elevated in the air is, as a rule, taking up a positive charge of electricity, the tension rising with the height of the point. This effect in- creases toward daybreak until it reaches a maximum some hours after sunrise. It then diminishes until it is weakest a few hours before sunset, when it again rises and attains a second maximum degree some hours after sunset, the second minimum oc- curring before daybreak. There are ac- cordingly constant changes of electrical tension going on, changes, however, which are more rapid and much more marked dur- ing a thunderstorm, and which are quite 408 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING powerful to exert an evil influence on cer- tain articles of food or drink susceptible to change, notably, meat, milk and beer or cider. HEADACHE, ETC., DUE TO METEOROLOGI- CAL DISTURBANCES. There is no doubt that the unfavorable effects on the feelings experienced by many individuals, such as headache, oppression and nervous distress, on the advent of a thunderstorm, have a similar foundation and are due to the same electrical differ- ences of potentiality, the effects passing away as the disturbed condition of the atmosphere changes, or the storm subsides. ATHLETIC SPORTS OF TO-DAY In the matter of athletic sports by which both exercise and enjoyment are obtained, America holds the lead. So important have exercises become to perfect the condition of the human body, that all colleges now main- tain departments of athletics in which sports are systematically taught. Great polo, lacrosse, basket-ball, rowing, running. jumping, pole-vaulting and many other sports are very enthusiastically followed in student life. IFOOT BALL. Foot ball is so well known that it is al- most needless to describe it at length, and rivalry is developed between the different teams of the various institutions. Probably the most popular sport in college circles of the present time is football, although base ball has long been considered the national sport. Golf, of late years, has assumed a position of great prominence, and tennis, FOOT BA*L–CHICAGO UNI º VERSITY. yet a few words may be said of the most complicated of the several games, Rugby foot ball. This game is played between opposing sides of eleven men each. These men fill positions as follows: Center rush, the man in the center of the “line;” right and left guard, men on either side of the A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 409 410 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNO WING center rush, who assist him in his work; right and left tackle, men who occupy posi- tions to the right and left of the guards, and right and left ends, who occupy posi- tions at the ends of the line of players, and next to the tackles. Behind the line and immediately back of the center, is the quar- ter-back, while near him are the right and left half-backs and behind them all the full back. Two elevens are drawn up face to face. One of the teams, by toss-up, has secured the ball, an oval-shaped affair, of pig's skin, which encloses an in- flated rubber bag. The object of the play is by a series of kicks, punts, rushes, or runs with the ball, to send it from the center of the foot ball field to the enemy's goalline. At the opposite ends of the field are sets of two high poles crossed by a central bar. These are the goal posts. When occasion presents, the ball may be kicked over this goal, thus making a score, but more generally the play is for a touchdown, that is, carrying the ball over the enemy's line and touching it down in that territory. Numerous trick plays and formations are used to send the ball from one end of the field to the other. The play is very rough at times, because of the scrambling to pre- vent the ball from being put in motion. To avoid danger, the players pad their clothing and use great head guards and shin guards of leather, and nose guards of rubber. Every year many players are seriously in- T --- º jured at the sport, and many people decry it as brutal. The players themselves, how- ever, its most ardent supporters, maintain it is a grand, healthful and not necessarily dangerous game. Great rivalry exists be- tween the teams of the great universities and colleges. The great football day of the year is “Thanksgiving day,” when every college team in the land plays great and ex- citing games. BASE BALL. What person does not know base ball? The smallest urchin seems born to a knowl- STEEPLE CHASE. edge of tossing and batting a ball. The national game is still so popular that sev- eral leagues, of many clubs each, are given good support in their public performances throughout the summer and fall months. GOLF. Golf has been the craze in fashionable circles of late years. This game consists of knocking a small gutta percha ball across specially prepared fields, called links. The course of the field is arranged with a num- ber of holes at greater or less distances from each other. The player, using one of a set of numerous kinds of specially prepared clubs, drives the ball from hole to hole, the one who covers the course in the fewest A THOUSAND THINGS WE), L WORTH KNOWING GOLF—THE FAVORITE GAME TO-DAY. 412 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING number of strikes, win- ning. In order to make the sport more exacting, hazards are interposed on the links. Huge banks of earth and grass called bunk- ers, ponds of water, and other hindrances so that where the ball will have to be driven far and swiftly, make - - CURLING. up these hazards. - BASKET BALL. Basket ball is a great indoor sport, played principally dur. ing the winter months. The game is to drive a large inflated ball by throwing and bouncing to the enemy's goal, which consists of a sort of basket suspended about nine feet in the air. This game is often very exciting and near- ly every college and athletic association has a team. The game is very popular in wom- en's colleges, which have teams of great merit. WATER SPORTS. - º Water sports con- A POPULAR WINTER SPORT. tinue to be followed by Ice Boats in a “Northeaster” on the Hudson River. athletes who live near The history of this pastime dates back to the 18th century, when Oliver - Booth built the first yacht of this character at Poughkeepsie, New York. In bodies of Water. The many respects the study of models is fully as interesting as that of the sea - boats, and one can easily understand its fascination when comparing the speed great Henley sculling of water craft with the ice boat—a comparison making the former seem like an - anchored scow, for records show that the fast express trains are often beaten matches on the Thames by the ice yachts in a stiff gale. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 418 river, of late years, have been par- ticipated in by American college teams, with victory frequently perching on the American banners. Swimming also is in great vogue, and many great contests are held in different places for speed and dis- tance. Water polo is a near adjunct of swimming. This game is played like ordi- nary polo, save that the ball is carried to the goal by men swimming in the water. UNCLE SAM'S “SPECIAL DELIVERY” BOY Almost everybody has seen the gray- uniformed messenger boys employed by the United States Post Office Department. Al- though it is not generally known, they are beset by the same trials and tribulations regarding wages, which vex those holding similar positions with business corporations. WAGES OF THE BOYS. Thirty dollars a month is all one of Uncle Sam's special delivery boys can earn, and this he must accumulate at the rate of eight cents for each letter delivered. Take, for instance, the Chicago post office. - THEIR, AGES. In that office the ages of the boys range from 14 to 19 years, the average being about 16. No examination is required to enter the service beyond the usual questions pertaining to character, etc. After a boy reaches the age of 18 he is permitted to take the examination for clerk, and scores of them are now filling such positions after having passed through the special delivery service. About 15 per cent of the boys em- ployed at present are colored. BULES GOVERNING THEIR. WoRK. They are governed by a military sounding set of rules, and it is expected of them that while on duty their conduct and manners shall be above reproach. The suspension System is employed for cases of derelictions, which are not serious enough to call for dis- charge. The training is considered excel- lent, especially by business men, by whom many of the boys are employed after they serve their apprenticeship with the govern- ment. Several former messenger boys are now holding responsible positions in banks, others still are working for the government in more lucrative positions, while a great many special delivery boys are to be found in most of the large wholesale and retail houses of the downtown district. The op- portunity for making valuable friends is great, and where a boy takes advantage of it he is apt to profit. NUIMBER OF BOYS AND THEIR, DELIVER- IES MONTHLY. Forty-five thousand special delivery let- ters are distributed over 190 square miles of Chicago territory every month. Twenty- five thousand of these go through the sta- tions and substations located in different parts of the city, and the remaining 20,000 are sent out direct from the postoffice. The rapid distribution of this bulk of important mail rests largely with 144 boys, who wear the caps and uniforms of the special deliv- ery department. The work of these mes- sengers makes it possible for the government to deliver a specially stamped letter to an address four miles from the postoffice within forty minutes after it has been received, 414 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING and they are responsible in a large meas- ure for the success of the department. AREA COWERED AND METHOD OF WORK. The government arranges that no mes- senger shall work more than his allotted amount. Thus a sufficient number of boys is employed to keep the aggregate returns from the special delivery service adequately distributed. These messengers work in shifts from 7 a. m. to 11 p. m. One shift is on duty until 3 o'clock and another han- dles the letters until the hour of closing at night. Whenever it is convenient or there is any chance of saving time, special deliv- ery letters are sent out to substations, to be conveyed to their destinations from that point. At 4 o’clock the last dispatch to outlying stations is sent out. At 5 o'clock another leaves the postoffice for more cen- trally located points. Then between 5 and 6 o'clock the entire city is covered by mes- sengers. After 6 o'clock the delivery boys cover seventy-five square miles, and at 9 o'clock the aggregate territory is reduced to twelve square miles. Between 6 and 11 p. m. there are but thirty-five messengers on duty, and on an ordinary night they handle 350 letters. On Saturday night the number is increased to about 500. It makes no difference what the condi- tion of the weather may be, these young- sters must deliver letters to any address as late as 11 o'clock. Within a radius of ten miles they are expected to use bicycles for transportation purposes, one of the require- ments for entering the service being that a boy shall own a bicycle in good condition and a full uniform, costing $12. DELIVER, 1,000 LETTERS A DAY. With more than 1,000 letters a day bearing special delivery stamps coming into the postoffice, it would be impossible to handle them if each boy were given but one on a trip. The result is that when a boy starts out he may have two, three or half a dozen letters to deliver and may make as much as 50 cents by traveling but a few blocks. But the aim of those in charge of the department is to make the earning ca- pacity of one boy no greater than that of another, and they endeavor to regulate dis- tances as best they can. Most special delivery letters are carried on bicycles, but in cases of extremely se- were or unpleasant weather the boys are furnished with money for car fare on lines which do not recognize the government's messengers to the extent of giving them free transportation privileges. Thus in an average day's work a boy will ride many miles on his bicycle, and also take several lengthy jaunts on steam or street Ca1‘S. The “first in first out” system is fol- lowed in the postoffice in sending out mes- sengers. Each boy is supplied with a pad- dle bearing his number. When he comes in from a trip he surrenders this to the man in charge, and it is placed on the bot- tom of a pile representing the boys who are in ahead of him. As soon as there is a letter to deliver the clerk takes a paddle from the top and calls the number printed on it. In this way the trips are kept straight and no one boy has an advantage over another. A THOUSAND THZNGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 415 BATHING FOR HEALTH AND BEAUTY Hardly anything is more beneficial to the human body than the right kind of a bath at the right time. There are at least a dozen different kinds of baths, and there are conditions of the body when eleven of them may be either of doubtful benefit or positive injury. HOT BATH FOR CLEANLINESS, COLD BATH FOR TONIC, Many persons who are physically strong and of regular habits go through life health- fully, taking just two kinds of baths—the hot bath at night for cleanliness and the cold morning plunge for a tonic. Such persons need no advice about bathing. In the case of children and the majority of adults the other eight or ten varieties of bath should be thoroughly understood. There is hardly any remedial agent so speedy and favorable in its action as the cold, tepid, warm, hot, plunge, shower, sponge, pack, foot, or sitz bath intelligently applied. TEMPERATURE OF THE BATH. It is mainly a question of temperature— temperature of the body and temperature of the bath. When the temperature of the body is normal and the general health is good, one may safely suit his fancy in the matter of baths, provided he keeps his skin clean and the pores unclogged. Most peo- ple know that a cold plunge is injurious only when it overtaxes the resisting power of the bather so that exhilarating reaction does not follow the otherwise beneficial shock. Anyone, however, healthy and strong, may remain in cold water so long that fatigue and even severe prostration result. THE SIBIOWER BATH.. Respecting the shower bath, the douche and other baths in which the nude body is exposed to currents of water, there seems to be much popular misinformation. All these baths are exaggerations of the cold plunge and should be used with caution. THE HOT AND WARM BATHS. The warm bath is relaxing, as there is no reaction. If prolonged it is enervating, and the same is true of the hot bath. A bath of a temperature above 110 degrees can be borne only a short time without in- juriously exciting the heart. CHILDREN'S BATHS. Systematic cold bathing is frequently beneficial to children who have a sluggish circulation, with a poor appetite and feeble digestion and who are addicted to colds, but these baths should not be show- ers or douches except when prescribed in specific instances by a physician. There will be sufficient shock an’ tonic effect if the child is sponged with cool water in a warm room for not more than five minutes at a time and then dried and gently rubbed. For children warm baths are valuable to bring blood to the surface when there are spasms, colic or congestion of some inner organ. If there is congestion in the brain, indicated by headache, warm or hot bath- ing of the extremities of the body will tend to relieve the pain and promote sleep. When the temperature of the body is 416 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING mormal, hot or cold baths will neither heighten nor lower it. But when the tem. perature is abnormally high—when there is fever—it inay be brought back toward the normal point by cold bathing. In the absence of medical advice, however, such treatment should be limited to a sponging of the entire body in water whose tempera- ture is not lower than 70 degrees. THE COLID PACK. The cold pack is more efficacious in cases of fever than cold sponging, but un- less ordered by a physician it should be used seldom, and then with caution. A folded sheet is dipped in water not colder than 85 degrees, and in this the body is wrapped from armpits to ankles, with a blanket for outer covering, and then left undisturbed for ten minutes. Then the patient is taken out of the wet sheet and enveloped in a blanket and allowed to re- main quiet. THE TEPID BATH. In bathing children no mistake is made in using the tepid bath, of about 95 degrees, which, after the child has been placed in it, may be cooled down to 90 or 85 degrees. On being taken from the bath the child should not be dressed at once, but wrapped in a bath blanket and left there for twenty minutes. This will prevent chilling. Proper bathing, according to the condi- tion of the body, is almost a fine art, and its value is so great as to make that art well worth intelligent study. OUR SCHOOLBOY SOLDIERS The American boy may or may not be a born soldier, but it is certainly true that he is being made into one on a large scale. Most of our privately endowed schools for boys throughout the United States include more or less of military life and discipline in their daily routine, and the system is steadily growing. NUMBER OF MILITARY INSTITUTES FOR JUVENILES. At present there are about 60 public and chartered military schools in this coun- try, and more than 100 private institutions of this kind. Some of the school military corps have actually become miniature ar- mies, proficient in the tactics of every branch of the service. MINIATURE MILITARY POSTS. Their headquarters are military posts, where the stars and stripes are raised at the boom of the sunrise gun. From the day when he dons his uniform until the final inspection at graduation time, the boy who goes to a military school leads a life of soldierly discipline. He learns the vocabu- lary of the army. He has his quarters in the barracks. He eats in a “mess-hall.” The drum-beat displaces the morning bell, and “reveille” is the rising signal. “Tattoo” warns him to prepare for the night, and at “taps” the day's routine is officially closed. THE CADET’S FIRST LESSON. The cadet's first lesson is how to carry himself, and he spends many hours in the awkward squad before he stands “toes out,” “head up” and “eyes front” to the satisfac- tion of the drill corporal. His fatigue and dress suits are made to fit without a wrinkle, and he must wear them so. His cap must be cocked at a right angle. His room A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 417 is regularly inspected, and any untidiness means a demerit mark in his superior's re- port. THE MANUAL OF ARMIS. Taught how to stand, how to walk and how to wear his clothing, he goes into an- other awkward squad to learn the manual of arms. Then, after he has got a number he is ready for real work. He is then required to spend two hours each day in drilling. HEALTH AND MUSCLE Well-developed men are to be envied. They invariably enjoy splendid health. There are many ways of exercise which do much to make the physically perfect man. Too often the abdominal muscles are neg- lected or exercised only perfunctorily. As a result, the blood in the abdominal region becomes sluggish, for blood does not flow with health-giving quickness unless it re- ceives aid from working muscles. Muscles that are dormant retard the blood's flow, and slowly moving blood does not properly purify the body. Therefore, when the blood in the abdominal region becomes sluggish, indigestion, constipation, biliousness and other and more serious abdominal compli- cations are the result. All of these ailments are more or less pronounced demands of the abdomen on its possessor to take proper care of it, and proper care means nothing more nor less than a few minutes' exercise of the abdom- inal muscles after getting up mornings, and before going to bed. The man who will give attention to his abdomen will be amply re- warded. Instead of suffering from indi- gestion, he will be blessed with a digestion that will compare favorably with that of an ostrich. He will forget what stomachache is like, his liver will refuse to make him bilious, and, in short, all the organs in the lower half of the trunk will perform their functions happily, as nature intended. Then, too, sturdy abdominal muscles contribute largely to the correct carriage of the body. If these muscles are not strong, the abdomen cannot be held in, and a pro- truding abdomen has a marked tendency to cave in the chest and twist the spine out of shape. In brief, a man who permits his abdomen to protrude, cannot stand erect, no matter how hard and long he may try. Every sane person admits that proper poise is absolutely and unequivocally necessary to good health; therefore, every well-bal- anced mind cannot disregard the necessity that the abdominal muscles, so necessary for correct carriage, should be sedulously exercised. Healthy abdominal muscles also help to develop the chest. When breathing, the further one can pull in the abdomen the greater will be the lung expansion. The stronger the abdominal muscles, the fur- ther in goes the stomach, the lungs drink in greater quantities of fresh air, and the blood is furnished with enlarged supplies of purifying oxygen. And everyone knows what oxygen does when it gets into the hu- man system. A man who exercises his abdominal mus- cles need not fear that, as he gets along in life, he will annex a “bay window.” Fat cannot accumulate in this region if daily exercise is indulged in. On the other hand, exercise will remove fat and restore to men 4.18 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING with abnormal abdomens their natural out- lines and proportions, Again, strong abdominal muscles are the best and safest protection against unex- pected blows “below the belt.” And last, but by no means least, he who gives dili- gent concern to the muscles under consid- eration will not become nervous under busi- ness stress or from other causes. EXERCISE I. Starting with the correct standing posi- tion, head up, shoulders back, chest out, ab- domen in, arms straight and at the sides of the body, knees and heels touching and toes at an angle of 60 degrees, grasp the left hand with the right, interlocking thumbs and placing the left fingers above the right. Raise the arms above the head, and while doing the exercise, keep them continually by the sides of the head. Bend the body at the hips and endeavor to reach the floor with the fingers. Exhale as you go down, inhale deeply as you come up slowly, and bend back as far as possible. Repeat until tired, then take up another exercise. As the body is bent downward, the lower front muscles of the abdomen and the muscles of the back are developed. As the body is bent backward, the muscles of the back of the abdomen are brought into play. EXERCISE II. Raise the arms over the head as before. Turn the upper part of the body noticeably to the right, and then bend the upper part of the body sidewise and down as low as possible. Alternate by doing this exercise to the left. The muscles in the sides of the abdomen are thus developed. EXERCISE III, This exercise is splendid for the solar plexus and the upper part of the abdomen. It quiets the nerves and strengthens the diaphragm and its muscles. Lie down on your back on the floor, bend the legs at the knees and draw them up, getting the heels as close to the hips as possible. Fold the arms over the chest, and then raise the head, shoulders and chest from the floor as high as you possibly can, striving hard and ever harder. When at the highest point, hold them thus for a moment, and then lie down and repeat. EXERCISE IV. Lie flat on your back on the floor. Put the hands flat under the hips and have the whole upper part of the body relaxed. Then kick with one leg as high as possible and then kick with the other. Alternately kick the legs, keeping both off the floor, and kick rapidly. Be sure to keep the legs straight When the legs descend from the highest point toward the floor, they should stop about six inches above the floor. This ex- ercise is unexcelled for the muscles in the central and lower portions of the abdomen. TWO SPLENDID EXERCISES, And now for two splendid exercises that will prevent varicose veins and build up legs capable of properly carrying the body. Sturdy legs are as necessary to a body as flawless wheels to a locomotive. Don’t ne- glect your legs and thereby put yourself in the way of dangers that may wreck both your legs and your good health. No. 1–Assume the correct standing po- sition. Relax the legs below the knees. Then alternately and rapidly, with the leg as- cending, bent at the knee, kick the knee up toward the chest, keeping the lower part of the leg well forward. Try hard to hit the knees against the chest. This exercise is beneficial for the so-called kicking muscles, the muscles of the upper leg and thigh. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 419 No. 2—This is excellent for the lower part of the upper leg. Start from the cor- rect standing position. Grasp a stick in the hands, and keep the arms straight and well in front of the body. With the knees and heels together and heels and toes touching the floor, sit down as low as you can. Do this part of the exercise as quickly as you like, but rise up slowly, keeping the upper part of the body erect, as in the correct standing position. A GENERAL EXERCISER. For a general exerciser of the entire front of the body—legs, abdomen, chest, arms, wrists and shoulders—lie flat on the abdomen, on the floor, face down. Be sure that the body is perfectly straight, the toes touching the floor and the feet close together. Then, with the palms of the hands flat on the floor and the elbows at the sides of the body, fully straighten the arms, and sup- port the body on hands and toes. The body must not be permitted to bend; keep it solid and straight. Hold it thus for a mo- ment, and then bend the arms and let the chest touch the floor. Repeat this until tired. These exercises, like many others, do much to make the physically perfect man and maintain general good health. The foregoing observations and instruc- tions are from the pen of Prof. Hamlin Barber, of Boston, Massachusetts. LIME IN AGRICULTURE The effects of lime, when applied to the soil, are partly mechanical and partly chem- ical. Upon deep alluvial clay soil it in- creases the crop of potatoes and renders them less waxy. Sprinkled over potatoes in a store heap it preserves them, and when scattered over the cut sets, it wonderfully increases their fertility. ERADICATES DISEASE IN TURNIPS. Lime eradicates the finger and toe dis- ease in turnips, and gives greater soundness to the bulbs. It gives when applied to meadow lands a larger produce of more nu- tritious grasses. It also exterminates coarse and sour grasses, destroys couch grass and acts powerfully upon rye grasses. Upon arable land it destroys weeds of various kinds. DECOMPOSES VEGETABLE MATTER, AND PRODUCES CARBONIC ACID GAS. It rapidly decomposes vegetable matter, producing a large amount of food for plants in the shape of carbonic acid gas. It de- stroys or neutralizes the acids in the soils: hence its adaptability to sour soils. It acts powerfully upon some of the inorganic parts of the soil, especially on the sulphate of iron found in pasty soils, and the sul- phate of magnesia and alumina. IS FATAL TO WORMS, SLUGS AND DAN- GEROUS IARVAE. It proves fatal to worms and slugs and the larvae of injurious insects, though fav- orable to the growth of shell bearers. SLAIKED IIIME FREES INITRO GEN FROM VEGETABLE IMATTER AND FEEDS PLAINTS WITH AMIMIONIA. Slaked lime added to vegetable matter causes it to give off its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Upon soils in which ammonia is combined with acids, it sets free the am- monia, which is seized upon by the plants. Its solubility in water causes it to sink into and ameliorate the subsoil. 420 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING DECOMPOSES GRANITE FRAGMENTS, OR TRAP ROCKS IN THE SOIL. When the soil contains fragments of granite or trap rocks, lime hastens their de- composition and liberates the silicates. PRODUCES. POTASH AND SODA IN THE SOIL. Its combination with the acids in the soil produces saline compounds, such as pot- ash and soda, etc. Strewn over plants, it destroys or drives away the turnip fly. Worked in with grass feeds, the beneficial effects of lime, chalk, marl and shell sand have long been visible. DESTROYS THE SEEDS OF WEEDS. Applied to the rot heap, lime effectually destroys the seeds of weeds. IN THE MINE WITH THE MINER A HAZARDous occupation. The life of the American miner is one of hazardous undertaking and constant dan- ger. When he bids his wife and children good-bye in the morning or at night, or whenever he starts for the mine, he knows not whether he shall ever see them again. INADEQUATE WAGES. The miner of the average mine is over- worked and underpaid. The miner in the bituminous coal fields is paid from 20 to 40 per cent higher wages than those doing similar work in the anthracite fields. The fact is that the minimum wage received by any class of adult mine workers in the soft coal mines is 26 1-4 cents per hour, while the minimum wage paid to boys is 121-2 cents per hour. In the anthracite coal mines, men performing precisely the same labor receive from 13 to 20 cents per hour, while boys are paid as low as 5 cents per hour, and rarely receive more than 8 cents per hour. The bituminous miner works a maximum of eight hours per day, which is two hours less than the men in the anthra- cite mines are required to work. More- over, the anthracite mine worker labors un- der the further disadvantage of being more liable to be killed or injured, the casualties being 50 per cent greater in anthracite than in the bituminous mines. AMOUNT MINED BY EACH MINER IN 1897, 1898, 1899 AND 1901. The average miner, whether he be in the anthracite or bituminous coal mine, is a hard worker. Statistics for the year 1897 show that 1,271 tons were mined by each miner, with an increase of 22 tons for 1898 and 98 tons for 1899. The increase was steady until 1901, when the average man mined 1,585 tons of coal. - For this amount of coal the miner is paid in the neighborhood of $1.85 per day, or for the number of working days in 1901, $368 per employe, or an average of $7.05 per week. Divide this among a family of from three to six people and what is the result Poorly clad children and empty stomachs about two-thirds of the time. THE MINER'S HOME, CLOTHING AND IFOOD. The miner who is thus paid is compelled to live in small, squalid hovels, which, in many instances, have but two rooms, and not infrequently but one large room, in - A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 421 which are housed a family of six or seven people. The clothing worn by these miners and their families is of the poorest quality imaginable, and very coarse. Their food consists of corn bread, with pork and corned beef for meat. Butter is never heard of, and the poorest grade of oleomargarine is used by them. THE “BREAKERBOY.” The “breakerboy” is the stepping stone to a full-fledged miner. Hardly has the boy reached the age of nine years before he is set to work in the big “breakers.” This A DAY ON THE FARM The economical and successful manage- ment of a 160-acre tract of farming land requires less business ability than manual labor, but to conduct upon a paying basis is made necessary by the large families and the cost of living. The average wages paid the “breakerboy” will not exceed 60 cents per day, and are frequently less. The number of days lost by the miners during 1902, when a strike was on, was 20,000,000, as compared with 733,802 in 1901, 4,878,102 in 1900, and 2,124,154 in 1899. The value of the output of coal for 1902 was in the neighborhood of $348,910,- 469. The foregoing article is the expression of John Mitchell, president of the United Mine Workers of America. WITH THE FARMER. are numerous farm ranches of large extent, whose owners are modern captains of in- dustry. These men are solving problems and carrying on enterprises upon their CRADLING GRAIN. The method of harvesting prior to the invention of the reaper. farms containing several thousand acres, the requirement is changed from muscular power to brain work. In the middle west farms worthy of the brains of great trust builders. come is quite as large. And in many instances their in- Those who have 422 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING spent a lifetime in one community in try- ing to get a fortune out of soil-tilling would be astonished at the magnitude of farming upon the plains of the southwest. AVERAGE SIZE OF FARMS IN THE UNIT- ED STATES. The average size of each of the five mil- lion farms in the United States is 146 acres. This small average is due to the 160-acre and 80-acre farms in New Eng- land and the south. region west of the Missouri river is no more like its predecessor, the ranch of a score of years ago, than is it similar to an old New England homestead. But the principal dif- ference is in the management. The west is rapidly filling in with homeseekers, who are in turn taking all the government lands open for homestead entry. Indian reserva- tions, formerly nothing but vast cattle ranches, are being thrown open to white set. tlement. By courtesy of the McCormick Division, International Harvester Co. WHEAT IN AVERAGE SIZE OF FARMS IN THE SOUTHWEST. Tn the western division there are larger farms than in any other portion of the United States, the average size being 1,000 acres in Oklahoma, western Kansas and Texas. In the Indian Territory the aver- age size of each Indian's holdings is 500 acres. The western division also shows a larger increase in the prices of land than in any other section. NEW METHODS OF FARM AND RANCH MANAGEMENT. Farming and ranching have changed greatly within recent years. The modern farm in Kansas, Oklahoma or any prairie THE STACK. FARMS BELONGING TO INDIANS. The Indians are given farms of their own and told to go to work. Fifteen thou- sand Indians were placed on their individ- ual allotments in 1901, and 1,300 farms were given away to white settlers. This rapid settlement of the West means a con- centration of farming and ranching inter- ests. The 1,000-acre farms are not being reduced in acreage, but are being turned over to expert managers. In the eastern and middle west states the farmer of to-day has anywhere from 100 to 300 acres of land under cultivation. To spend a day on an American farm is to learn much about where the enormous pro- A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 428 duct comes from which goes to feed the 80,000,000 inhabitants of the United States, in addition to furnishing a consid- erable part of the food product for the use of foreign nations. AVERAGE AMERICAN FAIRMER IN EASY CIRCUIMISTANCES. The American farmer of to-day, while in many instances not wealthy, is still com- fortably well off, and does not have to worry about where the next meal is coming from. He has a few cattle, owns several horses, and can go to town with as fine a turnout as any man of moderate means would de- sire. The farmer is quite an independent per- son, and when his work is done for the day, he goes into the house, gets out his country paper and enjoys its contents for an hour or two, smokes his pipe, and when it is time, goes to bed. In the morning he rises early, cares for his stock before breakfast, and when daylight comes, goes forth to work. WAGES OF FAIRMI LABOR.E.R.S. There was a time when the wages of the farm laborer were considerably more than they are at present. In olden days farm hands were paid $30 and $40 per month and “found.” To-day the wages average from $20 to $30, although in many of the western states, during harvest time, the pay for a short period ranges from $2 to $2.50 per day. TO-DAY'S METHODS OF FARMING. The farmer of to-day uses all of the mod- ern methods which a few years ago were unknown. He has the latest style of thresh- ing machine; his crops are cut by machin- ery, and, in fact, it has almost come to pass that his stock is fed by machinery. IIMIPIROVEMENT IN BOADS. Roads that in former years were made by hand are to-day “cut” and “graded” by machinery, and so quickly is the work done that really bad roads are fast passing out of mind. IMPROVEMENT IN IMAIL AND TELE- PHONE FACILITIES. Another innovation, the rural mail route service, enables the farmer to have his mail delivered at his house once or twice a day. The farming districts have also been con- nected with the city by telephone, which brings the American farmer in touch with all the world. These changes are doing much toward keeping the young men upon the farm instead of flocking to the city. BUGS COSTLIER THAN BATTLESHIPS HOW “UNCLE SAM” LoSES $358,000,000 EVERY YEAR BY INSECT PLAGUES THAT INFEST HIS GROWING CIROPS. The magnificent warships constructed within the last decade by the United States government and designed to protect our flag against enemies from without, have im- posed an enormous burden of expense upon the nation. But our people are ever con- fronted by insidious foes within, which in- flict upon the agricultural interests of the country losses aggregating far more in a single year than the cost of all the battle. 424 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING ships built by “Uncle Sam” from time im- memorial. These foes and these losses are thus specified: Cabbage worm . . . . . . . . . . . $ 5,000,000 Potato bug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000,000 San Jose scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000,000 Grain weevil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000,000 Apple worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000,000 Cotton worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000,000 Army worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000,000 Boll weevil (cotton) . . . . . . . 20,000,000 Boll worm (cotton) . . . . . . . 25,000,000 Hessian fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000,000 Grasshopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,000,000 Chinch bug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,000,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $358,000,000 A DAY WITH THE STOKER ON SHIP-BOARD The man who feeds the furnace of the marine boiler is summoned to his task at eight bells. A SLAVE OF THE TOWERING BOILERS. Hurriedly donning his working outfit, he descends many rungs of iron ladders un- til he reaches an iron platform on the bot- tom of the hold, where for four hours he must strive as the slave of the two or three towering boilers in front of him. Above him, through a circular opening, comes a current of fresh air, sent down by the big ventilator on deck. FEEDING THE ROARING FURNACE, With feet stretched wide apart on the sloppy platform, he seizes a shovel and throws wide open the doors of the roaring furnaces in turn, the vessel sometimes pitching violently. With tense muscles and a desperate sort of energy, he shovels in coal in great quantities, and occasionally rakes the surface of his fires. At intervals he pokes them with “slice” and “devil” to prevent clogging of the bars, until the fur- naces are in a fierce, white glow. CLEANING THE FIRES, When the stoker finds it necessary to “clean the fires,” he throws open the door of one furnace, while the others, at their ut- most blast, are supplying the needed motive power. Laboriously working his “slice” and “devil” into the innermost vitals of the raging mass, he pulls out a quantity of clinkers, blistering hot. This he at once dampens, causing a choking smoke. After repeating the process several times, until the furnace bars are clear of obstruction and the upward draught is perfect, he re- plenishes the somewhat enfeebled fire with more fuel, and applies himself to the other furnaces likewise. - All this requires incessant and intense exertion in the face of roasting heat, and involves an exhaustive strain upon the stoker. Instances have occurred in tropical climates where he was totally unable, when relieved, to climb on deck, but fell on the reeking floor, limp as a heap of wet rags. A DOUBLE RELIEF AND EXTRA RATION, On account of the severe requirements of his task the stoker has eight hours off, instead of the four hours which compose the sailors' relief period. It is not uncom- mon, also, for him to be favored with a bet- ter ration than the sailors get, in the shape of a mess from the galley called the “black A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 425 pot,” composed of remnants from the sa- loon passengers' fare. THE COAL BUINKERS AND THE “TRIM- IMIER.” The coal supply of the ship is stored in high bunkers, with water-tight doors open- ing into the stokehole. Out of these maga- zines the trimmer, also under a fearful strain, throws the coal to a point convenient for the stoker. Although not exposed to fiery heat, he has no cooling air-current from overhead, but must work in a close place, and with the aid of a safety lamp. COAL CONSUMED ON A SINGLE PASSAGE. Some ships use 3,000 tons of coal in a single passage, consuming from 20 to 30 tons per hour. A DAY WITH THE BRAKEMAN ON THE TRAIN On every freight train are two or more brakemen. The disagreeable features of their experience result mainly from severe weather, although they have much trouble with tramps. THE FREIGHT BRAKEMAN MUST BE “ON TOP.” In running on ascending grades or at a slow speed, the brakeman can ride under cover, but in descending grades or when running fast, he must be on top, ready to apply the brakes instantly. THE RED FLAG, When a train is unexpectedly stopped on the road, the rear-end brakeman takes his red flag or lantern and hurries back half a mile to give the stop signal to any train which may be following. COUPLING THE CARS. Another duty of the brakeman is to couple the cars, the uncoupling being gen- erally devolved on the freight conductors. Both these tasks are dangerous and result in the loss of many lives. ASSEMBLING AND CHANGING THE CARS. The brakeman is on hand promptly at the hour of preparation for departure, and has a brief period of lively work in assem- bling the cars from different tracks, chang- ing cars from the front to the rear or mid- dle of the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled. GETS GOOD THINGS TO EAT. During much of his trip-time in the pleasant months of the year, the freight brakeman has an opportunity to get ac- quainted with the farmers, from whom he buys good things at low prices and lives on fine fruits, vegetables, etc. THE PASSENGER BRAKEMAN. The passenger brakeman has to deal more or less with the public, and his chief duties are those of a porter. On the modern “lim- ited” trains his day’s work consists of a three hours' run without stop. FLAGGING AND FILIRTING. Occasionally the passenger brakeman must go back to “flag.” In former days he was credited with much flirting along the run, and he has not altogether outgrown it. If he does well he will become a con- ductor. 28 426 4 THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING! A DAY IN THE Havana and Manila tobaccos only are used exclusively for cigars, although great quantities raised elsewhere are devoted to this purpose. BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUEACTURE. The manufacture of cigars in the United States began in a small way in 1801; the first factory was built nine years later. Before the civil war this country produced less than 200,000,- 000 cigars; in 1875, 2,000,000,000; in 1892, 4,500,000,- 000. MACHINES FOR, CIGAR MAKING, In America ma- chinery is used for manufacturing ci- gars wherever possi- ble, and the molds for shaping them are made of hard wood, sometimes partially lined with tin, and of every conceivable size and form. PROCESS OF MAKING CIGARS BY HAND. Cigars are composed of three parts, the cone, or filler, the binder and the wrapper. All of the very best cigars are probably made by hand. The maker rolls together, TYPICAL, SCENE IN A CIGAR FACTORY. CIGAR FACTORY somewhat loosely, pieces of leaf placed lon gitudinally, and on this he places the bin der, around which he carefully winds the Wrapper. THE CIGARMAKER'S Tool,S. The only tools used by the cigarmaker are a short-bladed sharp knife, a vessel con- taining an emulsion of gum, and a square wooden disk, or cutting board. The maker, after molding his bunch of fillers inside the binder, shapes a portion of perfect leaf to form the wrapper. When he has rolled this around the binder he deftly trims the thick end with his knife, secures the taper end by gumming and the cigar is ready for sorting and packing. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING: 427 TYING UP CIGARS, SORTING THE GOOD TOBACCO FROM THE POOR. 428 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING A DAY WITH THE CHAUFFEUR Good chauffeurs are at a premium. They can name their own salaries and almost reg- ulate the hours they desire to work. The salaries of good chauffeurs run from $40 to $150 a month, which includes “find.” ABOVE THE COACHMAN. The position of the chauffeur is a pleas- ant one. He is so many degrees above the average coachman in the social scale that he is not to be considered in the same cate- gory. The coachman may become a chauf- feur, but it is not likely that the chauffeur ever will take the coachman's place. QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK. The position of chauffeur is one young men will find worth having. Their salaries depend upon their abilities. It does not require a machinist to operate an automo- bile, but the man who undertakes it must be practical. He must understand every piece of machinery connected with it, so that when anything goes wrong, he can deter- mine, by a quick examination, where the break has occurred. Then he can apply the necessary remedies and proceed as if noth- ing had happened. The position of chauf- feur at present is largely that of an “extra engineer,” when his employer is along. He sits beside the driver and watches him op- erate the brake, and when anything hap- pens, leaves his place to make the required examination. AUTOMOBILE FACTO- IRIES. PROMOTIONS IN There are scores of positions awaiting the bright, active young man in the agen- cies of the automobile factories, where by more enticing than mixing drugs. close application to work he can push him. - self into a foremost place. In one of the agencies in Chicago is a young colored man, a graduate of an eastern college and of a pharmaceutical institute, who concluded he wanted to try something He en- tered the local agency at $12 per week, studied the machines for six months with an energy that soon made him their master, and was advanced steadily until he is now getting $80 per month, in a position where work is a pleasure. CHAUFFEUR, MUST BE A YOUNG MAN. The chauffeur, to be successful, must be a young man; not too young, or he will lack discretion, but young enough to guarantee that every effort he makes will be felt, and that his employer will know he intends to make the business his for life. In the agen- cies he is employed to watch over the ma- chines, much as a mechanic goes over the parts of an engine. Whenever a purchaser calls, he may be sent out to “show off” the machine. CLERK SELLING THE MACHINE IS HIRED TO RUN IT. This occurs occasionally, but may hap- pen a dozen times a day. Then, when a machine is sold, the purchaser, if he intends to employ a chauffeur, usually requests the agent to direct him to a competent man to act in that capacity. Frequently it happens that the purchaser makes the offer directly to the young man handling the machine at the time, and he can name the terms or re- fuse, just as he pleases. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 429 This course is declared by agents to be thº best for a young man to pursue if he can get into an agency, because it affords him the opportunity to study his machine. The agents prefer it themselves, because it insures a measure of protection to them, as they have the satisfaction of knowing a man is going out with the machine who under- stands and has faith in it. Hardly a day passes that does not bring an application or two to each agency for an experienced chauffeur. Many of these are left unfilled, because the agent will not recommend men who are not in touch with the business and have some ambition to succeed in it. Still another course is offered, however, although not conceded to be satisfactory. Young men enter the employ of firms op- - erating automobiles for purposes of trans- portation. In working for such firms, how- ever, it is held he does not learn the ma- chine as he should, and when it breaks down, is more likely to call. for help than he is to get down and find out the trouble for himself. In connection with these firms, the union with which the drivers are affil- iated has established a wage scale ranging from $12 to $15 per week. A WIBIOLESOME OUTDOOR LIFE. In addition to considering the material phase of the chauffeur's situation, the life itself is not to be overlooked. It is largely outdoors in the open air that he spends his time. He sees the best parts of the city, the brightest side of life, as it were, as he speeds along the boulevards. In the coun- try he enjoys the best roads, although he may occasionally get stuck in a mudhole, and feel like saying what the golfer does when he finds his ball “bunkered.” He dresses for business, not like the dandified coachman, who gets his horses in readiness and then dons his best livery to make a good appearance. His livery is a good work- ing suit and a serviceable cap, with heavy visor, and a pair of goggles to shield his eyes from the wind and dust. His face is flushed with the roses of health and his life, if he takes interest in his work, is one to be envied. GOOD CHAUFFEURS SCARCE–SALARIES AMPLE. With all these inducements to the young American in this new occupation, automo- bile managers cannot understand why it is that first-class young men are so hard to get. They observe with considerable regret that Frenchmen are coming into the country and securing the best positions, in which they are paid salaries that the average business man would consider ample remuneration for one of his head clerks. These salaries await the young man who is toiling his life away indoors, over a desk, and for a paltry sum. Then, the field is broadening each year. IXEMAND FOR, “AUTOS" PLY. EXCEEDS SUP- The majority of the factories have ceased taking orders for this year, because they cannot fill them. Next year there will be hundreds of machines put on the streets and a larger number of chauffeurs will be required. The number in the city of Chi- cago alone has increased 1,700 per cent in three years, and the popularity of the ma- chines has become so great that it is be- lieved to be only a question of a short time when the number will be reckoned by thou- sands instead of hundreds. 430 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING A DAY IN THE TELEGRAPH OFFICE WITH THE OPERATOR THE FARM BOY7S FOIND AMIBITION. It is the ambition of most young men who reside upon the farm to become tele- graph operators. This desire usually has its inception soon after the farmer boy be- gins to make daily visits to the little rail- way depot, wherein is a young man who grasps a brass key and sends strange signs upon the wire, which, reaching a given point, take the form of messages and are delivered to the person or persons to whom they are addressed. As, day after day, the farmer boy watches the “city chap” handling the key, the more firm is his determination to learn telegraph- ing. After his courage has reached a cer- tain pitch, the young fellow approaches the regular operator, and, if things are favor- able, the young man is soon installed as “baggage master,” or “switch-light tender,” and given charge of a few other things about the depot. This work is done in re- turn for instruction in telegraphy. AS A STUDENT IN THE OPERATOR'S OF- FICE. If the young student, as is not an infre- quent occurrence, is quite apt, he learns readily, and within a few months is able to accept a small position at some “way- station,” where he earns a salary that ranges anywhere from $20 to $45 per month, but, more usually, from $25 to $35 per month. The ambition of the majority of telegraph operators is to become, some day, train dispatchers and handle railroad “divisions.” A QUICK EAR EssENTIAL. In learning telegraphy it is quite essen- tial that the student be young and have a quick ear for different sounds. When he first takes up telegraphy, he is given a sheet of paper, on which are written all of the characters of the Morse alphabet. In addi- tion to the letters, there are certain punctu- ation marks and numbers from one to nine, with a “naught,” which, with a figure one, makes ten. THE BEGINNER'S PROGRESS IN STUDY. Then the student begins to study the dots and dashes that have been placed before him. Upon investigation he finds that the letter “A” is composed of one dot and a dash, the dot being placed before the dash. Reverse this by placing the dash before the dot and you change the characters, making the letter “N.” In a similar manner, “Z” is three dots, space, one dot, while reversed, is one dot, space, three dots, making the character “&.” After the beginner has learned the telegraph alphabet by heart, he begins to practice making them upon the key. The tendency of all beginners is to grasp the key with too firm a hand, and they are wont to imagine within a very short time that they know more, and are better opera- tors, than those who are teaching them. In this the wise student soon finds out his mistake, and then he begins to learn much more than he ever did before about tele- graphing. EXPERT OPERATORS BORN, NOT MADE. Some operators—in fact, the most ex- pert press operators—are born, not made. It is as natural for some men to be tele- graph operators as it is for others to be great musicians. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 431 A FULL-FLEDGED TELEGRAPHER. Having mastered the alphabet, the stu- dent is set to practicing how to send differ- ent forms of messages, figures, etc. In the first stages he usually wants the message before him in order to be able to send it. After a time he is able to send from his head, and a little later, he is a full-fledged operator. The usual time required to learn to send and receive by sound is from six months to a year, according to the aptness of the student. Then it is that constant practice goes far toward making the suc- cessful operator. Once the art is learned, it can never pass from you, although your \ingers get what old-time telegraphers term “a little rusty,” still, they soon limber up and get back into their old-time speed. In telegraphing it is harder to learn to receive than to send. Perfect sending is only possible with long and constant prac- tice. If a person is nervous it will be shown in the work, for the sending will be “jerky.” TELEGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING. In this day of telegraphy, typewriters are as essential as were the pencil and pen a half century ago. In fact, it is almost compulsory in most offices that the person applying for a position as telegraph opera- tor must be able to use a typewriter. In the studying of telegraphy many students seek the telegraph school. This is a mistake, for it is a delusion and a snare. In many cases, the “professor” barely knows the Morse alphabet. To properly learn telegraphy, the best place for a student is in an office where he can get real “main line” practice. This, and this alone, helps to make the successful operator. In commercial offices, messenger boys are often permitted to learn, and they frequently make excellent operators. The salaries of messengers range from $10 to 20 per month. In the city department of a big commercial office, which is known to the profession as the “Met,” the salaries range from $25 to $60. In other branches and on heavy, first-class wires, the average sal- ary earned is from $70 to $85 for nine hours’ work. The salaries of railroad operators range from $25 to $60; that of the train dis- patcher from $75 to $100. The latter work in eight-hour shifts, and theirs is one of the most responsible tasks on the road. In handling the passenger trains, especially on a single track, the lives of the engineer, train crew and passengers are constantly in their hands. If a young man, or young woman, wishes to become a telegraph op- erator, let him or her get into a telegraph office where the before-mentioned “main line” practice can be secured. Telegraph- ing, while it offers many novelties, is a very trying position, and one that is hard to fill with satisfaction, for a petty error may often cause considerable trouble. FUTURE OF TYPEWRITING. The typewriter, as above stated, has be- come a necessity. Business and newspaper offices cannot do without this instrument. It is only a matter of time when type- writers will be in common and constant use in our schools and many residences. A prediction was made not long ago by a distinguished writer on social questions to this effect: “It is tolerably certain that the typewriter will soon be found in as com- mon use in families as are sewing machines now.” The bread and butter problem will naturally bring about this condition of do- mestic industry. 432 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING A DAY ON AN OCEAN LINER WITH THE STEWARD The steward of an ocean liner has a big job on his hands when he provisions the great ship for its round trip between the United States and Europe. This journey generally takes about twelve days, and with its great cargo of human freight, the vessel is nothing short of a floating city. The amount of edibles and drinkables, to say nothing of other provisions for the passen- gers' comfort, gives the steward food for thought. A. CREW OF 450 AND A PASSENGER, LIST OF 2,000. In the first place, the ship carries about 2,000 passengers, to say nothing of its big crew, 450 in number. ASSISTANTS INUIMBER, 150. To give an idea of the amount of work upon the steward’s shoulders, it may be stated that he requires 150 assistants. He must care for the needs of the passengers, and one of the principal needs is the pas- sengers' stomach supply. TRIP REQUIRES 200 BARRELS OF FLOUR. The amount of bread consumed on board, which the steward has to provide, is in itself startling. Over 200 barrels of flour are stored away to help supply the bread and pastry. Next to bread, of course, comes meat. In the old days the steward must needs carry his livestock along and kill it on board. This, however, is all done away with now, for, with the modern improve- ments have come excellent refrigerating plants, and each ship is equipped with a big one, where tons of meats can be stored away conveniently. PASSENGERS EAT 54,000 POUNDS OF FIRESFI IMEAT. Into these compartments, the day before the ship sails away, the steward must pack 20,000 pounds of beef, 14,000 pounds of lamb, 10,000 pounds of mutton, 500 pounds of veal and 500 pounds of pork. FIVE THOUSAND PIECES OF GAME NEEDEID. Game also is in demand, especially among the first-cabin passengers, and Mr. Steward must see that all his people's wants are gratified. Therefore he packs away a stock that exceeds by far the supply of the greatest hotels in the country. Here also he stores over 5,000 pieces of game, includ- ing 500 spring chickens, 500 capons, 200 roasting chickens, 300 fowls, 500 duck- lings, 50 goslings, 120 turkeys, 200 pheas- ants, 300 partridges, 800 squabs and 600 quails. FRESH FISH, 3,000 POUNDS–SALT FISH, 2,500 POUNDS. Altogether, the steward must pack away in the refrigerators about 3,000 pounds of fresh fish and 2,500 pounds of salt fish. About 30 barrels of herring, something like 15,000 in number, are also put away in the refrigerators. Besides these come 50 boxes of smoked fish, 500 pounds of lobsters, 400 tins of sardines, 500 pounds of turtles, 20,- 000 oysters and 10,000 clams. TRIP REQUIRES TOTAL ANNUAL EGG PRODUCT OF 277 HENS. Nor does this suffice. Eggs must be had in great numbers. The total annual prod- uct of 277 hens is consumed each trip. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 433 Mearly a ton and a half of oatmeal must be provided, most of which goes to the steer- age passengers. TWO TONS OF HAM–5,000 POUNDS OF BUTTEE. About two tons of ham and bacon are used. Butter, jams, jellies and marma- lades are shipped in enormous quantities. About 5,000 pounds of butter are used, and as much of jams and such sweets. SUGAR, 10,000 POUNDS—TEA, ONE TON.— A TON AND A HALF OF COFFEE. Of sugar, 10,000 pounds are packed away. Almost a ton of tea and about a ton and a half of coffee are taken on board by the steward and his assistants. POTATOES NEEDED, 46 TONS. Enormous tanks of milk are filled and carried over to supply the passengers. Veg- etables in great amount add to the stores. Of this latter commodity, 46 tons of pota- toes are shipped. DISHES ALMOST INNUMERABLE. Besides taking care of all this produce, the steward must see to the china and the utensils used to cook and serve the food in. There are 250 coffee pots and tea pots, 200 sugar bowls, 250 vegetable dishes, 100 but- ter dishes, besides 10,000 pieces of china for first and second cabin use, and 3,600 plates and 1,500 cups for third-class pas- Sengers. YEAR'S CONSUMPTION OF FOOD ABOARD. In the course of a year, the steward makes about ten round trips, and in that time he has ordered and served 540,000 pounds of meat, 50,700 head of poultry and game, 200,000 oysters, 25,000 eggs, 15,000 pounds of tea, 25,000 pounds of coffee, 50,000 pounds of butter, 200,000 oranges, and 2,000 barrels of flour. A DAY ON THE TROLLEY CAR, WITH ITS CREW- To wear a uniform is the sole ambition of many young men. There are two uni- formed men on electric trolley cars. One is the conductor; the other, the motorman. In olden times, there were no conductors or motormen as separate individuals; both were one and the same, in the person of the driver. The time was when there was no electricity, and the old familiar “bob- tailed” horse car wobbled along the public streets at an uncertain pace. To-day the modern trolley car bowls along our thoroughfares, and the ancient horse car has been relegated to the “bone- yard,” or cut up for scrap iron and kin- dling wood. LONG. HOURS AND “SPLIT’’ RUNS. In cities like Chicago, the working hours of motormen are long and tedious. They are compelled to get out very early in the morning, and are frequently obliged to work “split” runs, which have a tendency to deprive them of their natural amount of rest. This, of course, applies to the large cities, where the men are at their posts, on an average, ten hours each day. In order to give the reader an idea of what the duties of a conductor and motor- man are, we shall attempt only an outline; brief it must necessarily be, but sufficiently comprehensive to enable the casual reader to understand their daily routine. 434 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING THE CONDUCTOR. To secure the position of conductor, the applicant first visits the office of the street car company, where he fills out an applica- tion blank. This done, the applicant is placed on the “extra” list. In the mean- time, if his references have been found sat- isfactory, the “caller” is notified, and very soon the applicant is told to report for duty. When he puts in an appearance at the barns, he is placed in charge of a car and for several days makes trips under the di- rection of, or with, a “pilot.” of the pilot is to instruct the new conductor how to collect and ring up fares, issue trans- fers, and learn the various streets on which the line runs. 1HIS SALARY. When the pilot is satisfied that the new man understands the work he is expected to do, he so reports to the superintendent and is relieved from further duty with the new conductor, who then makes his first trip alone. The salary of electric car conduct- ors ranges from 19 to 28 cents per hour. This scale only applies to cities where their organization is perfect, and where the men stand together. The conductor must have $50 in cash to deposit before he makes his first trip. This is remitted when he leaves the service of the company. HIS WORK AND LENGTH OF SERVICE. The life of a conductor is anything but a pleasant one, as he is compelled to take considerable abuse which is heaped upon him by a class of passengers who are con- stantly on the alert to quarrel. Conductors do not, as a rule, remain more than four The duty. or six years with a street car company. They become dissatisfied and resign. THE MOTORMAN'S VIEXING TASK. The motorman, who is so often held responsible for accidents, has even a harder row to hoe than the conductor, for it is his duty to keep his car running on time, and in order to do so he often loses his temper on account of drivers of heavy truck wag- ons, who insist on holding the right of way, despite the fact that the motorman has sig- naled several times with the gong. The motorman must ever be on the alert to prevent accidents. The car may be mov- ing along at a moderate rate of speed, when, without warning, a man runs directly across the track, and if the moto-man does not act quickly, the man may be injured or killed. Again, a reckless driver of some vehicle may attempt to cut off the car, which sometimes results in a collision, and is the cause of heavy damages suits against the company. AN APPRENTICESHIP IN THE SHOPS– THE “PILOT.” Nervous, excitable men do not make good motormen. A steady man, with nerves that can withstand sudden and unexpected shocks, is the one who lasts longest in this capacity. In order to become competent for the position, one must generally serve an apprenticeship in the shops. Even in that case, a pilot is sent along for several days, as in the case of the new conductor. WAGES OF MOTORMEN. The wages of motormen at present are from 24 to 29 cents per hour. The work is hard, and therefore competent motormen are almost always in demand. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 435 A DAY IN THE FIELD WITH WOMEN WORKERS FEMALE FIELD TOILERS NUMBER. 450,000. Four hundred and fifty thousand women toil in the fields of this country. This large number of women laborers is distrib- uted over the United States, but the ma- jority are to be found in the East. In the vicinity of Jamaica, Long Island, the women in the fields are so numerous as to remind one of Austria or Italy. Every- where in the East are to be seen the brown- eyed women, busily working out in the sun, in the level fields. A SCENE AT EVENING TIME. At evening time, when the sun has sunk behind the trees of Woodhaven, the tourist may see before him many a scene suggested by Millet’s “Angelus,” the women with the hoe being much in evidence. LONG ISLAND’S WOMEN FARM HANDS– BIOW THEY ARE IHIRED, Long Island's women farm hands are mainly Poles, from Russian Poland. They work for American, Irish and German truck farmers, who hire them by the day. In harvest time, when a farmer needs women laborers, he lays in a stock of $1 bills, and passes the word to one of his men. The man stops the first Pole he meets, and points to a field. Few Poles speak English, but the sign is enough. The man's work is done. Next morning, at the farm gate, 50 women may be waiting. WHAT THEY DO. Women are employed for planting on- ions, for harvesting crops that are picked by hand, such as green peas, string beans, lima beans and tomatoes; for bunching rhu- barb and for weeding tender crops, like on- ions and young carrots, that cannot stand a cultivator. PLANTING AND PICKING TIME. In planting time, and in June and Sep- tember, when the first and second crops of peas are gathered, the outflocking of women is sudden. One may see as many as 50 at work in a plot of a few acres, where, the day before, there was not one. JUNE PEAS AND BABY CARRIAGES. In June, when green peas must be rushed to market, and every day's delay means monetary loss, the larger farmers need all the help they can get, and so even women with babies are set picking. Up and down the fields, between straight, green rows of vines, stand baby carriages, cov- ered with mosquito netting. While the mothers work, the babies sleep or take in the sunshine. CHILDREN PULLING IPODS. long, As soon as children are old enough to pull a pod they, too, are called into service, and at noon, when work stops, and the luncheon of rye bread, cheese and onions is eaten, the scene is festive. Groups gather by families under trees or shelters thatched with green bows. Sometimes, among Itali- ans or French laborers, there is singing. FARM WOMEN'S WAGES. The wages received by women farm hands are better than might be supposed. For filling a two-bushel bag of peas a picker gets 25 cents; for beans, half as much. At these 436 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING rates a good hand earns $1.50 per day. One reason for comparatively high earnings is curious. The old two-busheled bag has gradually shrunk in size, until now it holds only a bushel and a half. The farmers have tried to substitute the bushel as the unit of measure, but the women object, and the bag measure is still customary. A DAY AT THE THROTTLE WITH THE ENGINEER The locomotive engineer and the train dispatcher hold the two most responsible po- sitions on the railroad. The former clings to the throttle, while the latter sits before a train sheet in the dispatcher's office and regulates the running of the train on which the engineer sits in the cab, with his eye straight ahead. THE ENGINEER'S APIPRENTICESHIP. To become an engineer, one must pre- viously pass through a regular course of instruction. First, the apprentice who seeks to become an engineer goes to the mas- ter mechanic of the “division” and makes application for work. FIRST A WIPER IN THE ROUNDHOUSE. He is then placed in the roundhouse as a wiper. This duty consists in cleaning the engines as they come in. His salary ranges from $1.10 to $1.25 per day. “FIRING ENGINES” IN THE “YARD.” If the applicant shows ability, he is soon promoted to the task of “firing” engines. The next step is when the young “stoker,” as he is sometimes called, is placed on a switch engine in the yard, to act as extra fireman. In this capacity he may remain for several months; in fact, some serve from one to three years in the yard before they are permitted to run upon the road. After a time, however, the novice be- comes proficient enough to be given a trial on the road, under the watchful eye of a pilot. THE FIREMAN’S DUTY ON THE “RUN.” When one or two trips have been made in this way the fireman becomes a full-fledged knight of the scoop, and begins to draw a fireman's pay, which averages about $3.25 per hundred miles. The duty of a fireman is to keep up sufficient steam with which to run the engine, to keep a sharp lookout, when not otherwise engaged, for all track obstructions, and to ring the bell and take signals from the train crew. In addition to this, he is expected to keep his locomotive in splendid condition, and not infrequently does he clean the entire “jacket” every trip. A HARD AND HAZARDOUS TASK. The work is hard and hazardous. A broken rail may, without warning, cause a wreck and kill the fireman. Despite the dangers attached to this position, hundreds of applicants are ready to accept it when offered. STATIONARY ENGINEERS. In cities, stationary engineers are usually paid by the day, their salaries ranging from $3.25 to $4.50 per day. There are schools where engineering is taught, but the most successful engineers are those who have learned their trade by active service under A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 437 an old fireman or engineer. The stationary engineer also serves as fireman, unless it be where the engine and boiler are too large, in which case a fireman and an engineer are employed. PROMOTED TO SWITCH ENGINEER, When the fireman has run upon the road a certain length of time, he is promoted to be engineer of a switch engine, doing duty in the “yards.” Here he remains for, at least, one or two years before he is placed upon the road in charge of an engine. FIRST TRIPS AS ROAD ENGINEER, WITH PILOT. His first trips as engineer are under the direction of an old engineer, who acts as his pilot, and who teaches him the road in order that he may know the grades, the crossings where whistles are to be blown, and obtain any information that is neces- sary. FREIGHT ENGINEER. Then comes the time when he makes his first trip alone. That is a happy moment to the ambitious engineer. With his promo- tion comes a nice increase in salary he draws “freight-engineer” rates, which ar. about $4 per hundred miles. RUNS A PASSENGER ENGINE. After a time, he is placed upon a passen ger train, where, also, he gets an increase in salary, but at the same time, incurs more responsibility and more danger. A success- ful engineer averages about $160 per month. A DAY ON THE LOCOMOTIVE WITH THE FIREMAN HOW THE FIREMAN BEGINS. º º º ſ | § º º THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE-1830, The locomotive fireman usually serves an apprenticeship as an engine wiper in the roundhouse. Sometimes he also empties the clinker pits and performs other kinds of drudgery. If his work is satisfactory, - he is in course of time placed on the extra- fireman list. If he continues to make him- self useful, he is, after awhile, promoted to be a regular fireman. A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION. Many railroad companies require, on the part of their firemen, a good common-school education, and subject them to an examina- tion in certain branches. DETAILS OF THE FIREMAN'S WORK. When the fireman is about to make his regular trip, he reports at the roundhouse, draws the necessary supplies, and sees that the lubricators, lamps, oil cans, tank and sand boxes are filled. If he uses soft coal, he sees that it is broken and wet down; that 4.38 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING the cab and its fittings are wiped, the ash- pan cleaned, and that the grates are straight to keep the coal from dropping through. He then compares his watch with that of the engineer. TWO SYSTEMS OF FIRING, There are two systems of firing. In the banking system, used with coal having few clinkers, a large quantity of coal is placed in the rear of the firebox, so that the gases and hydro-carbons may be expelled and the coal may become coke. This is little used. The spreading system requires that the coal be broken into pieces about the size of a large apple. THE COAL WELL IGNITED. In starting, the fireman sees that the coal is well ignited, so that he need not open the firebox door until the train has gained considerable headway, and the lever has been hooked up, with consequent lighter pull from the exhaust. TRAVEL BY NIGHT In the leisurely days of old, armies went into winter quarters as the autumn waned and active operations were postponed until the next spring. Modern warfare is not reg- ulated by the almanac. Travel is, likewise, now continuous where once it was broken by the alternation of day and night. When men journeyed to or from London, by road wagons, they often spent days upon the road. THE OLD-TIME INN. Early or late in the evening, as conve- nience dictated, the traveler arrived at the door of his inn and was heartily welcomed. Boniface took him in, supplied him with IN APPROACHING A. STOPPING POINT. In approaching a stopping point, he shuts down the dampers, and if fresh coal has been recently applied he opens the blower and leaves the firebox door slightly ajar, to prevent the escape of smoke and gases. - THE ENGINEER'S ASSISTANT. The fireman is the engineer's assistant, and is liable in an emergency to assume the latter's duties, or to take charge of another engine. To a considerable extent, it has been the usage among railway systems to allow engineers to select their own firemen, as it is important that these two trainmen shall be on the best of terms. The selection is subject, however, in a general way, to the assent of the master mechanic. DIFFICULT AND DANGEROUS. The work of an engineer and fireman is difficult and dangerous, and requires keen vigilance, close assiduity and iron nerve. - - - º - - º -----> - - - - - * - º - - _ Chicago & Alton Railroad Company- SLEEPING CAR. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 439 PULLMAN SLEEPING CAR OF “PIONEER LIMITED”—CHICAGO & NORTH-WESTERN. R. R. good meat and drink, put him to bed in a four-poster, heavily curtained and valanced, aroused and breakfasted him in the morn- ing, and sent him on his way rejoicing in being able to travel in a civilized manner in a civilized country. A JOURNEY FROM EDINBURGH TO LON- DON. A journey from Edinburgh to London meant spending a week or more on the road, while travelers from near points often slept bile night on the way. In this country trips from New York to Chicago were almost unheard of, and even then they consumed weeks. Dwellers in the country and town alike were not all stay-at-home people, and even if travelers on pleasure or business were comparatively few, the necessities of com- merce kept the roads busy. INTRODUCTION OF THE MAIL COACH. The first great encroachment of travel on the hours of night came with the intro. duction of the mail-coach system. Then innkeepers of the old school had good rea- son to shake their heads and wonder what the world was coming to, as guests who once alighted and passed the night under their hospitable roofs refreshed themselves only during a brief interval, and then clam- bered into their uncomfortable seats to rat- tle through the livelong night. Night trav- eling by stage coach had its many charms, and the poetry of motion of the old English stage-coach was something everybody, or nearly everybody, hoped to enjoy. EXIT OF THE MAIL COACH. With the exit of the mail-coach and the entrance of the train, night traveling en- tered upon a new development; but for a very long time there was very little im- provement in the conditions of travel, save in the one item of speed. NIGHT EXPRESSES. Night expresses, rare at first, became nu- merous, and passengers many of whom By courtesy of Lawrence Co MODERN PRIVATE APARTMENT RAILROAD CAR. Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway System, 440 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING could remember the old methods of road travel, became accustomed to the idea of be- ing whirled from London to Edinburgh, or from London to Penzance, during the brief hours of a single night. Although an im- mensely increased speed was gained, little was done to provide in any special way for the comfort of passengers at night. They crowded themselves into their corners and slumbered uneasily through the weary hours, as the train thundered and roared through the sleeping country. ADVENT OF SLEEPING CARS. But at last, imported from America, where the great distances to be traversed acted as a stimulant to the ingenuity of in- ventors, there dawned upon railway man- agers the idea of sleeping berths, and sleep- ing cars have worked almost as a great a revolution in night travel for those who can afford them, as the coming of the railway has in the conditions of travel generally. Night travel need no longer be a thorn i* THE FIRST RAILWAY The London and South-Western Railway is experimenting with motor-coaches for the lighter suburban traffic. The coaches are fifty-six feet long, and are divided into two compartments, accommodating ten first-class and thirty-two third-class passen- gers, and one ton of luggage. The engine can attain a velocity of thirty miles an hour in thirty seconds, MOTOR IN ENGLAND. the flesh of the traveler who can engage a berth in a sleeper, and even for the much larger number who know nothing of sleep- ing berths, the immense improvements which recent years have brought in the con struction and fittings of railway carriages, and in their smoothness and rapidity of motion, have robbed night travel of much of its old discomfort and wearing fatigue. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING +41 A NEW TYPE OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE The accompanying cut shows a simple passenger locomotive, which is especially interesting as being of about the normal size attained by the eight-wheel engine be- fore it developed into the Atlantic type. The following are its dimensions and dis- tinguishing features: Cylinders, 19 by 28 inches; the boiler pressure is 200 pounds, and the driving wheels, 79 inches in diame- ter, give a tractive effort of 21,751 pounds. With these dimensions the eight-wheel en- gine would have had a grate area of about 29.16 square feet and a total heating sur- face of about 2352.8 square feet, of which 180 square feet would have been in the firebox and 2172 in the tubes. EFFECT OF ADOPTING THE TRAILER. By adopting the trailer, the grate area has been increased to 45.1 square feet, and the total heating surface to 2878.75 square feet, of which the tubes contain 2716.75 square feet and the fire-box 162 square feet, or, in other words, the increases have been 525.9 square feet in total heating sur- faces, and 15.94 square feet in grate area. The result, however, is a locomotive with much greater boiler capacity than could have been supplied to an eight-wheel engine with the same weight per driving axle. The main driving axle, by the way, is of nickel steel, the others being of iron. Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 by 28 inches Boiler, diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 inches Working pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 lbs. Fire-box, length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 inches Fire-box, width. . . . . . . . . . . . . 641/4 inches Heating surface, fire-box. . . . . . . 162 sq. ft. Total....... - - - - - - - - - - - - 2878.75 sq. ft. 2 ; - ºr º 3: º ºf 29 442 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL worth KNOWING Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2716.75 sq. ft. Grate area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45.1 sq. ft. Driving wheel, diameter, outside. . . .79 in. Engine truck wheels, diameter. ... 36 in. Weight on driving wheels. . . . .85,790 lbs. Total engine and tender, about.289,000 lbs. THE CANADIAN LUMBER INDUSTRY In early times the forests of Canada ex- tended in an almost unbroken stretch from the Atlantic ocean to the head of Lake Su- perior, a distance of 2,000 miles. LUMBERING NEXT TO AGRICULTURE. Next to agricultural pursuits, in which 56 per cent of the population are engaged, lumber is the most important industry of the Dominion. The capital invested in it represents $100,000,000, the annual out- put amounts to $100,000,000, and the an- nual wage list is more than $30,000,000. A “WOODEN COUNTRY.” The reputation of Canada as a “wooden country” rests primarily on the fame of its white pine in the province of Ontario. THE TIMBER OF QUEBEC. The chief lumber riches in the province of Quebec consist of spruce, with some pine and birch timber, and cover an area of 48,000 square miles. - NEW BRUNSWICK'S TIMBER LAND. In New Brunswick the area of timber land under license is 6,000 miles. FORESTS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. To British Columbia, however, belong the trees most admired in the lumber trade and out of it. Its red cedar is one of the most valuable of timbers. Its forest area is 285,000 square miles, or 182,400,000 acres, and it is really the timber province of Canada. MOUNTAINSIDE, DOWN A MEN BOATING 444 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING THE GIGANTIC DOUGLAS FIR TREE. Along the coast of British Columbia is grown its most valuable wood—the Doug- las fir—which has no competitor in length, strength and straightness. Some of the trees grow to a height of more than 300 feet, and have a circumference of over 50 fºot, thus approximating the size of the wood on the Pacific coast, where all these varieties are to be found. FLUMES SHOOTING LOGS FROM MOUN- TAIN TOPS. In British Columbia flumes are used to float logs from mountain tops to sawmills. The loggers nail boards together and come - BRITISH NAVAL DRY DOCK AT ESQUIMALT, BRITISH COLUMBIA Showing Water at Normal Level Before Receiving Ship for Repairs. colossal redwoods of California. The Doug- las fir is likely to prove a valuable paper making tree. British Columbia also contains species of spruce, hemlock, cottonwood, balsam, white pine and red cedar. The last named is, for general purposes, the most valuable down the same way, traveling sometimes a mile a minute. SAWIMILLS. In this province are 60 great sawmills, with a daily capacity of more than 3,000,- 000 feet of lumber. The yearly cut of British Columbia is 75,000,000 feet. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 445 In the depth of winter the mill owners, who lease the timber land from the govern- ment, send out large gangs of laborers to fell the huge pine and other trees, previ- ously marked by “explorers,” preparatory to making them into square timber or saw logs. FIVE RINDS OF HANDS. Five kinds of hands are necessary for the woods—the foreman, the hewer, the liner, the scorer and the road-cutter. To these should possibly be added another, the cook. - HANDLING SAW LOGS. If saw logs are being cut, they are hauled over cliffs and down ravines to the banks of the various tributaries of the prin cipal rivers, where, before the thaw sets in, millions of cubic feet of timber are col- lected. MONSTER, RAFTS. When the ice-bound streams are free in AGRICULTURE the spring, the logs, loosely joined together in rough rafts, are set adrift in the rivers, some of the rafts in New Brunswick cover- ing a space of ten acres. The method of camping, cutting the trees, getting them to the mills and work- ing them up into the various forms of mar- ketable lumber is substantially the same as that pursued in the timber regions of the United States, and described in the article entitled “Logging in the North- west.” THE CANADIAN IMAPLE. The maple (Acer), whose leaf is the em- blem of Canada, is a lofty tree, with par- ticularly luxuriant foliage. The wood is very close-grained and hard, highly orna- mental, and is esteemed for the beauty of its fibre. When polished it possesses a silky lustre. It is used for heavy furniture, cab- inet work, and for railway carriages, where strength is required. IN CANADA THE SOIL IN UPIPER, CANADA. In the vast plateau stretching westward through Upper Canada, on both sides of Lake Erie, farming is a comparatively easy vocation. The yield of wheat is abundant in the southern portion, but north of the wheat limit the land is poor and rocky. In the wheat region, cattle and dairy products also constitute large items in the farmer's receipts. THE GE1MERAL PRACTICE. It is the general practice to allow the land to remain for two years in artificial grasses and clover, to break it up in June, and sow wheat in autumn. The only for- midable foes encountered by the Canadian farmer in raising wheat are rust and mil- dew, which early sowing largely prevents. When these are absent, the comparatively high temperature of the autumn pushes forward the wheat plants, and produces a thick carpet of vegetation. INDIAN CORN. On the inferior lands some fine crops of Indian corn are grown, being planted in May and maturing about the middle of September. 446 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING LOWER CANADA. Much of the soil in Lower Canada is a dark-colored sandy loam. Timothy grass grows well on it, but the clovers only last one year. Oats, barley and potatoes are the staple crops in the island of Montreal and other parts. ALONG THE ST. LAWRENCE. There is a variable breadth of alluvial soil along the banks of the St. Lawrence Tiver, but for some miles west of Quebec little arable land is observable. The area of first-class farming land in Canada east is not extensive. THE SWAMP LANDS. The deposits of swamp muck found more or less in all parts of Canada, result from gradual accumulation of partially decom- posed vegetable matter—the remains of suc- cessive generations of plants, chiefly aquat- ic. These deposits furnish the farmer a lib- eral supply of plant food for his crops. If dug in autumn, thoroughly aired, exposed to the winter's frosts and then mixed with lime or marl and wood ashes, the compost is much valued as a fertilizer by the Cana- dian farmer. Marl, which is essentially carbonate of lime, is chiefly found in con- nection with the muck beds, and when read- ily obtained is the cheapest article which the farmer could use for the purpose. CANADA'S WHEAT CROP. The production of wheat in Canada for the year 1902 was 87,555,891 bushels. This amount gives the Dominion the ninth place in a list of 22 of the great wheat-producing countries of the world, the combined crop of which, in 1902, was 2,820,333,614 bushels. PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS TO POPULA- TION. The Canadian census of 1890 showed that the number of persons engaged in ag- ricultural pursuits in the Dominion of Canada—farmers and farmers' sons—was then 649,506. These and their families then made up 45 per cent of the entire pop- ulation of the country. NEW APPLICATION OF THE GRAIN PRODUCT. The very low prices which prevailed for wheat and the coarse grains for some years after the taking of the 1890 census, led a large number of farmers to turn their at- tention to more profitable methods of dis- posing of these crops than by their bulk sale in the markets. EXPERIMIENTAL FARMS. About that time a central experimental farm, with several branches, was established by the Dominion parliament for the pur- pose of making agricultural tests whose re- sults would enable the farmers to derive more profit from their labors. The experiments conducted at the gov- ernment farms demonstrated the fact that wheat, as well as other grains, might be made a greater source of profit by convert- ing them into beef and pork than by selling them in their crude state, and this course was pursued on numerous farms with pro- nounced success. THE DAIRY PRODUCT. The investigations made under govern- ment supervision also showed that the feed- ing of these grains, mixed with suitable succulent food, such as ensilage, to cows and converting their milk into cheese and butter was more profitable than selling the grain. In consequence of this, the dairy- ing industry grew very rapidly, and the de- mand for first-class dairy products became almost unlimited. A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 447 A DOUBLE ADVANTAGE. The Canadian farmers enjoyed a double advantage as a result of the change of meth- od, in that the elements of fertility taken from the land during the growth of their grain crops were largely restored to the soil by the barnyard manure. - Moreover, when buttermaking was car- ried on during the winter months, addi- tional employment was given to farm hands during that season, and the over- supply of grain fed to cattle and swine, reduced the excess on hand and tended to restore the equilibrium of the market. DISTRIBUTION OF SEED-GRAIN. The experimental farms not only tested the varieties of grains, but furnished the farmers proper seed samples for general growth, thereby improving the quantity and quality of the various cereals grown in Canada. These newer and more produc- tive sorts of grain are rapidly replacing some of the less prolific varieties formerly cultivated. OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FARMING The antiquity of the ostrich (Struthio Camelus) is attested by its mention in the Bible. Herodotus also refers to a custom of a certain desert tribe in Lybia, of making garments and shields from ostrich skins, and warriors from a very early period wore ostrich plumes in their helmets. A NATIVE OF AFRICA. The ostrich is a native of Africa, and is commonly distrib- uted over the bound- less was t e s and plains of Great Nam- aqua and Damara- land. From South- ern Algeria to the interior of Cape Col- ony, the bird is found wherever an open country with Karoo ſº or desert land suits its nature. The aver. age life of the ostrich is 60 years. AN OMINIVOROUS BIRD. In its wild state the ostrich is omnivo- rous. It greedily devours seeds, berries, fruit, grass, leaves, beetles, locusts, small RAISING OSTRICHES. 448 A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING birds and animals, snakes, lizards, sand, grit, bones, stones and pieces of metal. ITS NEST OF EGGS. According to the Arab, the complement of eggs on which the solitary ostrich sits at night for hatching its young, is 25 in num- ber, but few nests have been found contain- ing more than sixteen. Each egg weighs about 3% pounds. - POLY GAMOUS. The male ostriches are polygamous, and fight vigorously in the breeding season for the possession of the females. Each male ostrich associates with three or four hens, all of which lay their eggs in one large nest, scooped out in the sand, and relieve each other by turns at incubation. THE INCUBATIONº. The period of incubation is six weeks, and the male bird takes his regular turn in sitting on the eggs, late in the evening. The young run as soon as hatched. THE EGGSHELL, The shell being thick and strong, is used in various ways, but mainly as a vessel for water. Bush girls and Bakahari women, who belong to the wandering Beckuana tribes of the Kalahari district, carry from their dwellings to the fountains a kaross or net containing from 12 to 15 eggshells, with a small aperture at the end which, after filling with water, they stop up with grass. DOMESTICATION OF THE OSTRICH. More than a century ago many farmers at the Cape had tame ostriches on their farms, which fed at large and supplied their owners with plumes, which were made into brooms for driving away the mosquitoes. In 1859 the Acclimatisation Society of Paris offered premiums for the successful domestication of the ostrich in Algeria or Senegal, and for breeding ostriches in Eu- rope. From 1866 the new industry of os- trich farming spread and flourished throughout Cape Colony, although in 1865 there were less than 100 domesticated os- triches in Africa. VALUE OF THE FEATHERS. About twelve ostriches are able to subsist upon an acre of garden ground, sown with lucerne and well watered. Three pluck- ings from 15 ostriches, at intervals of 8 months, yielded the owner of one of these farms £240, which is at the rate of £120 a year, or £8 per bird. England and France pay to the Cape Colony farmers $8,000,000 a year for feathers, and buyers in the United States pay $2,000,000 a year. Loose stone walls, costing from a shilling to 18 pence per yard, or fences composed of four horizontal wires of galvanized iron, surround the ostrich enclosures. THE YIELD OF FEATHERS. A full grown male ostrich will yield about 90 first-class feathers, which will weigh one pound and sell for about £45. Second-class feathers are worth from £20 to £30 per pound. NATURE AND SPEED OF THE OSTRICH, The ostrich is a solitary bird, timid and shy in habit, but often headstrong. When at full speed and going before the wind, its pace is simply amazing, and it is said that no horse ever fairly ran one down. OSTRICH FARM IN CALIFORNIA, An enterprising man named Edwin Cawston established an ostrich farm about 10 years ago in Pasadena, California. In A THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING 449 a miniature park he has 100 mature os- triches, and several rooms full of incuba- tors. Mr. Cawston receives annually $10,- 000 as admission fees from spectators, and $3,000 a year from the sale of infant os- triches, which are sold at $25 each. LOGGING IN THE NORTHWEST-IN THE EARLY DAYS In the early days of this industry, espe- cially in the Maine and Minnesota pineries, where the modes of operation were identical, the logging party usually built their camp about the beginning of the fall season and then cut the main logging roads, which had to be straight, twelve or more feet wide, smooth and level. Whole trees, trimmed of their branches, were hauled, the bark be- ing removed from the under side so that it would slip easily on the snow. One end of the tree trunk was loaded on a bobsled, the other part being dragged along. In this way the tree was taken to the landing on the shores of the lake or river, where it was rolled off the sled and the sawyers cut it into logs, cutting a mark of ownership on the side of each log. The logs were then ready for the drivers, in the spring, to roll them into the water. THE OLD-TIME LUMBERING CAMP. The old camp, as it used to be built from 1848 to 1860, was simple but very handy. Two large trees, of the full length of the camp, were procured and placed about 20 feet apart and two base logs were cut for the ends. Each end was run up to a peak like the gable of a house, but each side slanted up as a roof, from the long base tree at the ground to the ridgepole. This roof, constructed with level stringers, was shingled. A chimney measuring about four by six feet formed of round poles and calked was built in the middle of the roof and the fire was directly underneath it in the middle of the room. THE FIREPLACE. Six stones were arranged, three at one end and three at the other, as the fireplace. Logs about eight feet long were laid and burned in a hole between the two rows of stones. When the hole was filled with live coals it was a fine oven for cooking meat or baking beans and bread. THE SLEEPING QUARTERS. The places for sleeping were next to the wall behind benches of hewn planks built near the fire, and the bed consisted of fir boughs laid on the ground. THE MODERN LOGGING OUTFIT. The modern logging outfit is different. Two bobsleds are placed one behind the other and are fastened by two chains crossed in the center. With a tackle and fall, logs are rolled up and loaded on these sleds, sometimes to the height of ten feet. Horses or oxen are used on the tackle, and a load takes from four ten thousand feet of logs. ICING THE ROAD RUTS. It is made possible to draw these very leavy loads by icing the ruts of the log- ging roads. At the beginning of the log- ging season, and whenever snowstorms or continued wearing makes it necessary, water 450. # THOUSAND THINGS WELL WORTH KNOWING * º A “SNOW LOCOMOTIVE,” USED TO DRAW LOGS DURING WINTER SEASON. tanks on runners are drawn along the roads, FELLING WITH THE SAW. supplying a small stream at each side. The Instead of chopping down the trees as in resulting narrow courses of ice bear up the the olden time, they are now sawed off at the sleds under the great weight. stump. A “SNOW LOCOMOTIVE,” SHOWING TRACTION (Dotted lines shaw position when in operation.) º º WHEEL RAISED, EOOLak V" SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS READING THAT MAKES ONE WISER AND HAPPIER A COUNTRY BOY'S CHANCES IN A LARGE CITY T a certain average age, begins the yearning for city life of the boy reared amid rural scenes. Then comes the “winter of discontent,” which too often ends in his utter undoing. The abandonment of agricultural pur- suits by the country youth, and his entrance upon a city career, are likely to furnish a cause of trouble both in city and country. GROWING NEED OF “HELP” ON THE FARM. Agriculture now, more than ever, needs the service of all those bred to the farm and thoroughly familiar with its daily rou- time. The summer of 1903 brought clamor- ous demands from numberless farms in the grain-growing states for help in caring for the waiting crops, and multitudes of farm- ers were only too willing to accept inferior Workers at from $2 to $3 per day to meet the requirements of harvesting. CROWD INTO THE CITY. On the other hand, hosts of farm lads, dissatisfied with the simple and unvarying course of farm life which, from distorted views, had become monotonous and irksome to them, plunged into the uncertainties of the already thronged cities, only to discover that their expectations were illusive and vain. So crowded have become the avenues of business endeavor by seekers after cler- ical employment that commercial enter- prises in the important centers of trade can arbitrarily fix the wages paid to applicants for work. The conditions are such that great commercial houses while ever compet- ing for patronage, never compete for help, as necessity compelled in case of the farm- ers before mentioned. CAUSES OF OVER-SUPPLY OF CITY. “HELP.” The natural increase in the city popula- tion from births, the constant accretions from country sources, the large extent to which women and girls have been substi- tuted for men and boys in stores, offices, factories and shops, and the endless output of graduates from the business colleges, have barred the way to “positions” against thousands of disappointed people. 452 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS ONLY THE FITTEST SURVIVE THE STRAIN. Unless the boy from the country is the possessor of rare qualities, city life is likely to prove to him a delusion and a snare. Only the fittest, in such a change, can sur- vive the strain. As a rule, the youth bred to city life is much more likely to succeed than his country competitor for a job, be- cause he is imbued with the push of the bustling mart, and is thoroughly familiar with the surroundings. He is, moreover, less liable to succumb to the temptations that hedge about him because he is safe- guarded by the attractions and restraints of home. - Let the country boy, except in rare in- stances, stay at home, at least until he has saved enough of his sure earnings to begin mature life in an independent way. Let the country boy remember that the country is better far than the great metropolis, for mental and moral development, and for the establishment of strong individual char- acter. The country, and the small town (not the city) give to the nation its tower- ing celebrities. What great scholars, ora- tors, theologians, scientists, lawyers, or statesmen have sprung from the environ- ments of a great municipality? Let the wise country boy be mindful of these things, and stay where he is until he has laid the foundation of a successful Career. VALUE AND CHARM OF A GOOD LETTER Letter writing will soon be numbered among the lost arts. It has come about through the increase in postal facilities that we have to write so many letters that we do not care to spend overmuch time on any one, or any series. The modern methods of travel which seem to have annihilated dis- tance, have given to correspondence less importance in our eyes than it formerly had. SCRIBBLING LETTERS COMMON. People no longer write letters; they scrib- ble them. But what others do in this con- nection is, or should be, nothing to you. It is your creed that all things should be done well. In letter-writing, particularly, you will take great pride and pleasure. Your letters stand for you. You do not enter a friend's house, utter half a dozen poorly ex- pressed commonplaces, and then depart. Nor should your letters show as little care. Representing you, they should show you at your best. The envoys of your love, your friendship and your interests, you should see to it that nothing about them is disap- pointing. THE LETTER A. MESSENGER OF TTS WRITER, Every one of them has need to be a worthy messenger, now to console, now to amuse, now merely to pass the time of day. There is no present so sweet to receive as a beautiful letter. In your letters trivialities may have ample room. To those you love, they are very pleasing, running over with SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 458 such little details as correspond with chat- tering, little details, the unimportant things that separation makes important. TTBIE BIEART, SPEAKS. Nothing more is required than that your heart should be in the matter. “The schol- ar sits down to write,” says Emerson, “and all his years of meditation do not furnish him with one good thought or happy expres- sion; but it is necessary to write a letter to a friend—and forthwith, troops of gentle thoughts invest themselves on every hand with chosen words.” GLOW OF AFTECTIONATE LETTER. An affectionate letter! What a glow it leaves in the heart! It is a disappointment when the postman passes the door. But to take pleasure in receiving letters is not con- sistent with a neglect in writing them. To be sure, they take up much time. But it seems very certain to you that the time is not wasted. It is so much pleasure that you can give away at the cost of a little red stamp. You make your letters members of your life. What you do, what you are, what you think, that you set down, and all else that comes into your head. Your letters are very intimate. A GOOD LETTER MIRRORS THE IMIND. A good letter is the mirror of the mind. It is something that flashes. It is an epi- gram. Herein lies not the least benefit of letter-writing—that many things must be set forth in so small a space. SPONTANEITY IN LETTER, WRITING. Letters are never so charming as when they are written spontaneously—when they arrive unexpectedly. Letter writing is hard work, and the mood for hard work is illusive. Practice writing; make your let- ters characteristic of yourself always. COURTESIES OF LIFE In the present scramble for wealth, posi- tion, rank and recognition, we are fast los- ing sight of the more important courtesies of life. The future of our families and, incidentally, the well-being of our old age depend more on our home existence than upon any advancement we may make in the different enterprises which occupy the minds of men. AMENITIES OF HOME LIFE. If some are indifferent enough to popular opinion to devote more time to the eivilities of their homes than is the general custom, let us recognize the fact that their judgment is nearer right than that of others who are more prominent. While we must acknowl- edge the great social good accomplished by those who strive in the interest of the pub- lic, we must admit that the most useful sphere for American mothers and, in most cases, daughters, too, is the home. FAMILY TRAINING. Primitively, woman was a helpmeet, a complement, not another self—the two par- ties to marriage filling their respective spheres, forming a perfect unit, and yet with each one's work impossible to the other. In spite of all contrary opinion, woman's high- est mission is to guard the sacred precincts of the home, for, before any other training 454 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS whatever, comes the family training, that preliminary training in which correct per- sonal habits, respectful treatment of elders and superiors, obedience to authority, cour- tesy and morality are inculcated. Freedom from home control in the young is painfully evident, showing the need of a closer watch and guard over the domestic circle, and the imbuing of offspring with a greater regard for parental authority and parental judg- ment. Children speak to their parents and act toward them in a manner that would have been shocking a few generations ago. Many parents fail to exact the courtesy due them from their children, fearing that the child may consider it a vain assumption of dignity. This negligence is followed by a less respectful demeanor toward father and mother and those in authority. Cour- tesy, or true politeness, is not a garb to be put off and on at will. On the other hand, it improves with use. If we daily maintain the courtesies in home life which we extend to associates and acquaintances, our politeness in social cir- cles would not savor so much of affectation. Chesterfield advised his son to use good grammar even when talking to his dog, in order to acquire the habit of correct expres- sion. It is well to observe this rule with all the minor attainments which go to make us agreeable. Unless we respect ourselves enough to practice the common civilities, we cannot be anything but brusque and im- polite. Our manners are often self-con- scious, crude and vulgar. “If they don’t like my way,” says one, “they can take the less of it.” Until such misdirected individ- uals enter into a circle the manners of which are more reserved and refined than their own, they have no realization of the fact that their ways are unacceptable, or that they are different from those of more agree- able people. Brusqueness is not always manifest in what one says, so much as in the manner of speaking of an ordinary matter, or in an abrupt entrance, a disrespectful or loung- ing attitude, or a noisy salutation. “Every heart knoweth its own bitterness,” says the Holy Writ. And it is an unpardonable fa- miliarity, and also a display of egotism, to inflict upon others a minute description of the details of one's own small affairs. SINCERITY AND IRINDLINESS. Anybody can recapitulate the troubles of the shop, of the kitchen, the nursery and the petty grievances of the neighborhood. We must learn to take human nature as we find it, and, at the same time, search for the brightest and best qualities among those with whom our lot is cast. Good will to our fellows and sincere motives should be the underlying principles which govern our in- tercourse with mankind. It is no hard task to cultivate a kindly feeling for others. There is no veneer that will stand the test of time. Our shallow courtesies may please for awhile, even if but occasionally as- sumed; but, in an unguarded moment our rougher self is revealed. The only solid ba- sis of true politeness is the possession of right principles and virtuous character, the leading of a true life. Natural kindliness of heart and sincerity of intention must be back of all our actions. Unfeigned courtesy is best acquired and maintained in the daily intercourse of our homes. SoLID Food For sound MINDS 455 THE HIGH SCHOOL AND ITS PART IN EDUCATION The American High School is an impor- tant factor in the educational work of to- day. In a state of the size of Illinois there are said to be 310 high schools. The same estimate holds good in other states, with the same number of inhabitants. NUMBER OF STUDIES TAUGHT IN II, LI- NOIS HIGH SCHOOLS. The number of study subjects offered in individual schools varies from 10 to 30. The total number of studies taught in the Illi- nois high schools is 49. Of these, eleven are termed constants—that is, they are taught in more than 75 per cent of the schools—and eight of them are taught in more than 85 per cent of the schools. These eleven branches in the order of their promi- nence, are algebra, geometry, physics, bot- any, Latin, English literature, zoology, physiology, general history, civic history and physiography. ºr sº Mathematics, literature, language and science, each has its place in almost every high school of the state. The belief that another constant is essential to the com- pleteness of this list is rapidly growing. The demand for manual training is gener- ally conceded, but there are as yet very few instances of its introduction. ATTENDANCE AT THE SCHOOLS. "he data in regard to attendance shows the total enrollment of the schools reporting to be 34,824. Of this number there are 11,- 773 boys and 23,051 girls. The total at- tendance of seniors is 4,390, with 1,655 boys and 2,735 girls. It is noted with en- thusiasm that, while the total percentage of boys attending high schools is but 33.8, the percentage increases to 37.5 for the senior class. Among teachers the number who are normal school graduates gives a percentage of 15.6, while the college graduates show a percentage of 54.4. The number of teachers who hold master's and doctor's degrees is large. These statistics constitute a fair average for other states, with the exception, pos- sibly, of New York and Pennsylvania. The following table shows the hours de- voted to each branch of study: Algebra . - 47,560 Geometry –Plane ............. 33,840 Geometry—Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,960 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,010 Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 3,540 Bookkeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,610 Descriptive geometry........... 63 English grammar. . . . . . . . . . ... . 480 English composition. . . . . . . . . . . 31,620 Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,860 English literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,170 Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,350 German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,540 French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,400 Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * ... 9,120 Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170. Swedish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 General history. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 30,410 English and American history. . . 21,600 Ancient history. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .o 95 Greek and Roman history....... 10,500 Mediaeval and modern history...." 670 French history................ 140 Civics º . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 15,200 Political economy............. 2,210 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - 38,660 456 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,840 Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,650 Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,070 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,530 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,740 Physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,880 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,390 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Commercial geography. . . . . . . . . 300 Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,320 Constitutional history. . . . . . . . . . 45 Drawing—Free-hand . . . . . . . . . . 9,630 Drawing—Mechanical . . 320 Elocution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Formal spelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 History of commerce. . . . . . . - - - - 260 Manual training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,120 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Physical culture. . . . . . . . . . . .... 420 Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Stenography and typewriting... 480 These figures comprehend all the high schools in the State of Illinois THOUGHTS ABOUT HOME The average theory of home life is that the happiness of home depends almost solely upon the wife and mother; that woman's first and highest mission is her home; that there are no clouds that ever overhang the home that sunbeams, bright and joyous, cannot penetrate. Love and reason, hope and aspiration, blend in a glorious, gor- geous rainbow of promise that arches the holy circle of home. WHAT BIOME MEANS. Home means much in this twentieth cen- tury; it means all that makes life really worth the living. It is the object to which all unselfish endeavor is directed. It is the one solitary spot in the desert of the world where all those principles taught us in childhood preserve their living green, and reach out of the twilight of the past into the sun-gold of the future, preserving unbrok- enly for generations to come the lessons therein taught. THE WORD HOME. Home is a word that we love to linger on. It brings around our hearts a confiding trust and repose. It has been said that there is no sweeter word in all the dialects of earth than the word home, unless it be the word “Mother,” and home always suggests her and clusters about it more happy and hallowed associations than any other place. Its impressions are the strongest, deepest and most ineffaceable. It me ºns life after death, the hereafter, to all who are blessed with offspring, in whom their own charac- teristics and energies are perpetuated. It is the golden chrysalis, wherefrom the hope of the future takes wings at last. The home life is the nucleus around which all life has its growth, and that its tone and coloring are transmitted not to one genera- tion alone, but to many generations, is an indisputable fact. MOTHER. Some writer has said that each member of the family contributes his or her share towards the making of the home, but the principal, presiding spirit is the wife and mother. She is, or should be, its life, heart and center. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 457 The mother holds the key of the soul, and she it is who stamps the coin of character for her sons and daughters. Then crown her queen of the home. We should make our homes as tasteful as possible and leau- tify them with all the adornments which na- ture and our purse can provide. We should adorn our grounds with those natural at- tractions which the Creator has so profusely spread around us, and especially should we adorn the family circle with noble traits and kindly inclinations, fill the atmosphere with affection and thus induce others to love rather than fear us. WHAT IMAIKES AN IDEAL EIOME? The ideal home is not made up simply of furniture and fixtures and decorations. The furnishing may be elaborate and luxurious, the decorations of the most artistic char- acter, the arrangements for comfort perfect in every respect. shine and warmth of love and affection it is not an ideal home; it is cold and dull and without life. It is marvelous, too, if the home lacks this element, how soon it will be manifest. The absence of it permeates the very atmosphere. There are homes, how- ever, whose memory is a perpetual joy, and to which we always turn with emotions of gladness and pleasure. Neither statuary nor paintings may grace niche or wall. They are plain and unpretentious, lacking everything but the necessaries of life. Yet they are filled with beauty because of the spirit of love and affection abiding therein. TUTY OF FATHER AND MOTHER. It is the duty of every father and mother to make the home attractive. Make the liv- ing rooms pleasant, give them the sunniest side of the house. The plant that lives in the shade is sickly and unsightly. Still, if it lacks the sun- motives and a higher life. ORIDER. One of the indisputable conditions of a pleasant home is the preservation of order. Have a place for everything and put every- thing in its place. “Order is heaven's first law.” We should cultivate a habit of read- ing, if we have it not. We need it as well as we need air and sunshine, sleep and food. How refreshing it is to be able to lose one's self, even for a short time, in places where nature reigns. EOOIKS. The humblest country boy or girl, kept at home by poverty and having to perform menial labor, may, if he will, with the aid of books, use the eyes and ears and brains of all men, everywhere and in all ages. To-day the whole world of thought is be- fore us and at our disposal, in every city and village, for a mere pittance. Every home should have a library. What bread and other articles of food are to the body books are to the mind, and, as the mind craves knowledge, its wants should be sup- plied or provided for with great care. A library always affords the choicest com- panionship. Some books are inspiring. Every page and sentence stirs us to higher Others inspire us with awe and veneration as we read them. Others are fragrant; they breathe the air of the mountain, the hillside, the valley, the home. Those who have a well- selected library may dine with kings and reason with philosophers, associate with poets and painters, and number the master thinkers of all ages among their personal friends. A home without books is a dreary, inhospitable place. A good book is always a genial companion. We should select our libraries with the greatest care, beginning them with the Bible, and making the poets 30 - 458 NOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS our especial friends, adding, each year, such books as may come within our reach. This is a sure means of refinement and educa- tion. MUSIC. The home is almost as incomplete at the present day without some musical instru- ment, as it would be without books. We should cultivate a taste for music, both in- strumental and vocal. Music is classed among the fine arts, and is taught as a science which all may learn. Music has a refining, inspiring and patriotic influence. IFrom the mother's lullaby to Mozart's requiem masses, in the masterpieces of IIaydn and Beethoven, we can mark the in- fluence of music. Who has not felt the quickening spirit while singing, or listening to, the sweet melody of the gospel hymns” Have we not the testimony of thousands that martial music thrills the soldier with a spirit of bravery on the field of bat- tle : It has been said that no great musician has ever been convicted of a great crime. Shakespeare, as also well known, makes me- lodious utterance a test of civilization. Be- sides bespeaking a soft voice for a woman, he says: “The man that hath no music in himself, nor is moved with a concord of sweet sounds is fit for treason, stratagems and spoils.” NATURE's MELODIous sounds. We are certainly a music loving people. Let us have it, then, in the home. Nature has done her part generously. She sings to us through warbling birds, and whispering pines, rearing waves and whistling winds. The least we can do is to join in the melody of nature, and by so doing, we add one more to the many bulwarks which should ever protect and surround the home. MODERN METHODS OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Commercial education is considered in these days to be a very important feature of the equipment of young men for business, and the development of the commercial training school has been very extensive. Not only have business colleges grown to a stage of high efficiency themselves, but as an outgrowth of them commercial courses have been introduced into the public and high schools, and some universities have es- tablished departments of commerce. THE PUBLIC BUSINESS-SCHOOL. The public business-school has become a very close competitor of the private insti- tution of the same character, and as a con- sequence, the privately conducted institution has been forced to avail itself of the most improved and scientific methods in every particular. THE TERM OF STUDY. The modern business college of the most advanced type instructs its pupils in book- keeping, shorthand, typewriting, business methods, commercial law, correspondence, and kindred subjects. The time required to complete the course is from four to eight months, varying with the adaptability of the student. One college announces that some of its particularly ambitious students have finished the complete course in from eight to ten weeks. It will thus be observed that the student SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS' 459 may advance as he chooses. There are no classes in which all do the same work. The system of instruction adjusts itself to the individual, and every attention is paid to the fact that the student is seeking at the earliest possible moment to devote himself to active business affairs. Each department of these schools is highly developed. In bookkeeping, for example, the fact is rec- ognized that under the high-pressure meth- ods of modern business, there is no time to train employes in business. The young man or woman who wishes to take a posi- tion must be ready to perform his or her duties at once. Consequently in the book- keeping course, each rule and the reason for it are carefully explained to the student. He is given school currency, notes, drafts, invoices, etc., and works on living business transactions, instead of spending weeks in the dry study of mere text-books. Every detail of a modern office is illus- trated, and students are given actual prac- tice in letter filing, letter-press copying, in- dexing and drawing up all kinds of business papers. The students are well grounded in arithmetic, and taught to be rapid and accurate in figure. They are also taught to write, not only speedily, but well. They take a course in common law, are drilled in letter-writing and spelling, obtain a com- plete understanding of the latest labor-sav- ing methods of accounting, and are trained to perform all the details and routine of office work. SHORTHAND, In teaching shorthand the students are usually divided into three grades. When the principles of shorthand have been mas- tered, speed in writing is attained through systematic practice under the supervision of a skilled and experienced teacher. This point, in the best schools, is reached in from three to five weeks. The grades are then as follows: 1. Where dictation is at the rate of from 30 to 90 words a minute. 2. Where the rate is from 90 to 110 words a minute. 3. Where the rate is from 110 to 125 words a minute. A MODEL OFFICE. Some of the colleges have introduced what 1s called a “model office,” where shorthand holds full sway. This office has every ap- pliance and convenience of a modern com- mercial office. Here are duplicated the ex- act conditions that obtain in the offices of the largest and most progressive business houses. AIDS TO PROGRESS IN STUDY. Among the facilities for study are the newest style of desks, new typewriters, with the very latest improvements, the lead- ing card-index systems, folio indices, letter presses, the mimeograph, the newest style— everything the student may be required to use later in actual business. All pupils reg- ularly devote a considerable period of their time to this work, familiarizing themselves with the details of office routine, and ob- taining a practical instead of a theoretical knowledge of business systems and meth- ods. THE SCHOOL CORRESPONDENCE. The school correspondence, as well as that of the employment department, is con- ducted in this office. The instructor, who is here the employer, in effect, gives each student, in turn, actual dictation. This is then transcribed, passed to the instructor for examination, and, if necessary, is cor- rected. The student then attends to the copying, indexing, cross-indexing and 460 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS mailing of the correspondence. It is a part of the plan of the more progressive schools to assist all their students to obtain positions. To do this effectively, a thor- oughly systematized employment depart- ment is maintained, which keeps in close touch with a large number of business firms, from which requests for employes are continually received. Banks and trust com- panies have regularly on file with these in- stitutions applications for the services of the particularly bright and capable. The tui- tion fees are moderate, and board may be obtained at a reasonably low rate. SPARKS OF SCIENCE ABOUT COLOR. Solar light is a compound substance, con- sisting of what is termed the seven pris- matic colors, namely: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These when properly separated comprise the colors of the rainbow, and when combined in a beam, are called white light. A BEAM OF SUN WAVES. A beam of waves from the sun is com- posed of a bundle of ethereal waves, and these waves are of different lengths. The length of a light-wave is the distance from its crest to a similar point on the next wave. The different lengths of waves produce the different colors to our vision. Those pro- ductive of red require 39,000, placed end ... to end, to make the length of an inch, and those productive of violet require about 57,500. THE COLOR, RED. “When we contemplate the beauty of the color we call red, as we see it in the rain- bow, the solar spectrum, in the red leaves of a blooming rose or elsewhere in nature or in art, let us remember that to produce this color, 477,000,000,000,000 of little ethe- real waves enter the eye and impinge on the retina in every second of timé; and in the same interval 700,000,000,000,000 of these waves enter our eyes, and produce in us the sensation we call violet. When 577,000,- 000,000,000 impinge on the retina they pro- duce the sensation of green, and the other colors between the red and the violet are all produced in the same manner. COMPOUNDS OF COLOIRS. A compound of red and green will pro- duce white light. Yellow and blue will do the same, and for the same reason, because they are complementary colors. NO SUBSTANCE HAS NATURAL COLOR. No substance which we see in nature or art has any natural color. What we popu- larly term the color of an object is pro- duced, and its color determined, solely by its power of absorption and reflection, and by these qualities alone. LEAVES OF A TREE OR BLADES OF . . . GRASS. - For this we will instance the leaves on a tree, the green grass, the beautiful flowers. A full sunbeam, with all its elements of color, is showered promiscuously on every- thing in nature, and the molecular construc- tion of this green leaf, for instance, or of the grass, is such that it absorbs all of the ethereal waves except those of a given length, and these it repels or reflects; the reflected waves, twining back and imping- SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 461 ing on the retina of the eye, produce in us the sensation of color, and that color is green. All the other waves are absorbed by the leaf, and produce heat instead of light. THE PAN.SY. The beautiful pansy absorbs all the rays ºf the solar beam except the shortest ones, that are capable of making themselves sen- sible to our visual organs, and these short waves are turned back by reflection, and, impinging on the retina of the eye, produce in us the sensation of violet; and so it is through all the range of colors. To repeat, every object in the natural world or the world of art teceives the full beam of ethe- real waves, or its full beam of colors, which are all the colors of the spectrum or rain- bow. It then selects such of these waves, as owing to their length and the position of their planes of vibration, it is unable to ab- sorb, reflects them back to the eye, and the length of these reflected waves determines the color of the object. The coloring matter that makes the pig- ment which to us is black, absorbs all of the Solar beam that falls upon it, and hence no color is reflected back to the eye; on the other hand the white paper on which we write absorbs none of these waves, but re- flecting the entire beam back to the eye, we have a compound of all of the colors, and this compound is white; hence we call the paper white. As before said, color is not inherent in anything. OCEAN CABLES IN WAR TIME TWELVE CABLES UNIDER THE ATLANTIC. Stretching across the Atlantic bed to-day are twelve cables, ten of them being Ameri- can and British, two being French, while one German cable has just been completed from the Azores. These cables are as fol- lows: Anglo-American, four cables, from the west of Ireland to Newfoundland; Commercial, three cables, from the west of Ireland to Nova Scotia, but passing New- foundland in shoal water; direct United States, one cable, from the west of Ireland to Nova Scotia, but passing Newfoundland in shoal water; one French cable, Pougier Quartier, from Brest to St. Pierre, also passing Newfoundland in shoal water; an- other French cable, Generale, from Brest to Cape Cod; and a German cable, from Em- den, via the Azores, to Cape Cod, both pass- ing Newfoundland in shoal water. THE GERMAN CABLE. As the German cable runs partly through Portuguese territory, it is regarded as un- reliable and practically valueless to Eng- land in time of war. There are two cables from Tisbon to Brazil via the Cape Verde Islands, but their connections are compli- cated, and they are deemed unreliable be- cause of the countries in which their termi- mals lie. No country at war with England would hesitate to strike at her cables, and would cut them, as well as those of the American companies. If the work were to be done by the American Navy, it would not hesitate to cut the cables owned in this 462 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS country, so as to completely sever England's communications with the western hemis- phere. THE FRENCH CABLE FROM BREST. In the case of France, it is pointed out that a warship at sea might pick up the I}rest cable (the location of which is known only to the French officials) and could thereby communicate with the home office, learn if war had been declared, and re- ceive precise instructions, repairing the French cable before departing to sever the enemy's wires. - PRITISH CABLES IANDING AT CORN- WALL AND CONNAUGHT. The British Navy is supposed to be com- POINTS Law is a rule for action established by a government or other competent authority to regulate justice and direct duty. Law may be between God and man either in natural or revealed form; or it may be be- ween man and man. The latter form is livided into several kinds: national or mu- nicipal, which may embrace constitutional, cannon or ecclesiastical laws; equity or common law, which embraces what might be called public or criminal laws; and pri- vate or civil laws, besides which there is still international law. CIVIL LAW. Civil law is the system which the people of a State enact for their welfare. This branch deals particularly with all things not criminal. In that it is private, it has to do with actions between individuals, such as indebtedness, actions on notes, mort- gages, etc., the adjustment on acquiring of petent to protect the cables landing at the Cornwall and Connaught coasts, while ca- ble cutting in deep water is only possible to experts on regular slow-going cable ships, whose movements would undoubtedly be watched by Great Britain. CUTTING CABLES IN THE SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR. Cable experts say that the difficulties met with by the American Navy in cutting ca- bles during the Spanish-American war were the result of inexperience, and that a man who knew his business would, on board a sea-going tug, have all of the Atlantic cables off Cape Canso completely at his mercy, and could finish the job in 48 hours. OF LAW titles, collections, marriage and divorce, and the like. Branches of the civil law are many, such as commercial law, which has to do principally with business affairs of commer- cial houses; insurance law, for regulating insurance companies; maritime law, for questions pertaining to affairs of the sea; military law, for armies; municipal law, for cities; sumptuary laws for people deal- ing in intoxicating liquors, etc. CRIMINAL LAW. Criminal law is generally punitive, where civil law exacts only a settlement. The state steps in to inflict a penalty on a male- factor who acts against the good of the pub- lic. Criminal carelessness is a crime, though accident is not. If a faulty boiler explodes, or a badly constructed building burns and causes loss of life, some one is liable to punishment for it. Yet a man may accidentally discharge a firearm and SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 463 kill some one, and not be held for it. Ignorance of the law is no excuse. You may not lawfully condone an of- fense by receiving back stolen property. POLICE AIRRESTS. Police are not authorized to make arrests without warrants duly sworn out before a magistrate, unless they personally know that an act has been committed that calls for the arrest. FORCIBLE ENTRANCE ON WARRANT. When a warrant has been sworn out for a man accused of crime, his house may be entered forcibly. EMBEZZLEMENT. Embezzling is theft by an officer, agent or servant of a corporation. FELONY. Felony is a high crime, the highest of the principal classes in which crimes are divided by statute. A grave crime exceeds in grade a misdemeanor. GRAND AND PETIT LARCENY. - Grand larceny involves over $25; petit larceny anything below that amount. AIRSON. Arson is the crime of feloniously setting fire to a building. DRUNKENNESS NO EXCUSE FOR, CRIME. Drunkenness is no legal excuse for com- mitting a crime, but when carried to the extent of delirium tremens, it may be ad- judged insanity. ASSISTANCE COMPULSORY ON POLICE- IMAN’S APIPEAL. Officers of the law are empowered to ap- peal for assistance, and anyone to whom they may appeal is in law bound to assist. FORGERY. Eorgery is the copying or signing the name of another with deceitful or fraudu- lent intention. IMIUIRDER. Murder in the first degree must have been premeditated, malicious and willful. Kill- ing in duels is murder. PER JURY. Willful false swearing is perjury. A false statement under oath, which is quali- fied as the belief of the affiant, does not constitute perjury. Subornation of perjury is a felony. THE HABIT OF BEING LATE Do people who are prone to be late ever realize the worry they cause to their friends? There are folks in this world who are absolutely punctual in being rigidly be- hindhand. Some of these make a point of being ten minutes late for everything; others are half an hour late; but they are So regular in their tardiness that it amounts to a mistimed punctuality, and when un- derstood by their friends, can usually be calculated on. A PUNCTUAL PRINCE. The present King of England founded his reputation as a leader of polite society when he was Prince of Wales by never be- ing late at an appointment. It is a pity that Americans do not follow his example in this respect, instead of worrying about 464 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS the pattern of his or her clothes, as some of them do. FEW LATE FOR A TRAIN. It is a notable thing that hardly anyone is late for a train; it is one of the rarest things in the world for a train to be missed. This, in itself, speaks volumes, for does it not show that even the most dilatory of mortals can be in time if they so choose? A NUISANCE AT THE THEATER. The same people, however, think nothing of coming into a theater after the play has begun. They will arrive long after the cur- tain has gone up, talk about programmes, argue as to who shall sit in a certain seat, divest themselves of cloaks and coats, and generally take some minutes to settle them- selves down, to the extreme annoyance of all the unfortunate beings around them. Their conduct is quite as disconcerting as that of the wearer of the matinee hat. LATE FOR, IDINNER. There are other people who are always late for dinner, whether at home or at a party. They make no apology whatever. We all know the people who sail in at a large dinner party 20 minutes after every- one else has arrived, and appear quite smil- ing and thoroughly pleased with themselves. They seem far from realizing that 18 hun- gry people have been waiting their advent, and that the host and hostess have been in an agony of suspense, for, all entertainers are not wise enough to go to dinner without waiting for such remiss guests. The late comers are quite oblivious of the fact that the culinary department has been watching minute by minute, while a good dinner was spoiling. From 20 to 30 people have been annoyed and upset by the selfishness of these tardy ones, who, quite unruffled, ig- nore the fact. Surely, it is quite permissible for the dinner to be served ten minutes after the appointed time, so that those who are cour- teous enough to arrive at the right hour may not be punished for the heedlessness of others less punctual. If a few more hostesses, for there are some who do, showed their sense in this way, lateness would go out of fashion. It is an odd thing that the people most accustomed to dine out are the most punct. ual, just as it is that the people who receive the largest number of invitations are the most punctilious in answering them. A PROBLEM OF 20 INVITATIONS. Suppose a lady sends out 20 invitations for a dinner party. She may invite six couples; then, four unattended gentlemen and four unattended ladies are needed to make her party complete. Every hostess knows bachelors or maids, widows or grass widows. Some of the invitations will be answered with true courtesy by return post; others will remain unanswered for days. The lady's table will accommodate but 20 guests; she likes to have her full comple- ment; but she cannot ask more than that number, in view of the possibility of some one declining, for, should all accept, the limit of her facilities would be reached. Now, it is no uncommon thing for the four odd gentlemen to answer, as every one should do, by return post, and for the four odd ladies to withhold their reply for a week. What is the position of the hostess? She is reluctant to invite other gentlemen for fear the original quartette will arrive. If by chance they ultimately decline, the attendance is much curtailed, and she may SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 465 not be able to get four equally suitable males, to say nothing of the fact that a delayed invitation is not regarded as com- plimentary. Many a hostess has been near- ly distracted by tardiness of replies to her invitations. A HOUSE PARTY. What applies to the dinner party applies to a house party. Every lady in the coun- try who entertains knows the worry and anxiety of arranging for a suitable little coterie of friends, one of whom may dis- appoint her at the last moment without any proper reason. Frtertaining is often a source of real perplexity and discom fort. THE DOCTOR. Busy people cannot afford to be tardy in their ordinary business affairs. Take the case of the doctor. He tries with the most punctilious care to keep his appointments; he allots 20 minutes to an old patient or half an hour to a new one, with careful regularity, and if his waiting room be- comes full, it is probably because some pa- tient arrived late, or some ailment has taken an unusually long time to diagnose, and thus the whole machinery is put out of gear. UTILIZATION OF THE BARTH'S INTERIOR HEAT Judging from present reports, the inter- nal heat of the earth may soon be utilized as a source of industrial power. Along these lines the British Association for the Advancement of Science is making a series of measurements of underground tempera- tures, and Prof. William Halleck, of Co- lumbia College, New York, says the plan is feasible. INTENSE HEAT IN DEEP HOLES. Recently, Prof. Halleck measured the temperature of some of the deep holes in the earth and found that there is a regular rise in temperature for every foot of depth, and in many regions intense heat is en- countered at no great distance from the earth's surface. Learned men claim that the moment we obtain such power, the in- dustrial map will be changed. - HOLES A MILE IN DEPTH. Some holes are 1,000 feet and others one mile in depth. Others are deep wells, which have been sunk in search of gas, oil, water, and even salt, which is found a mile below the surface in Silesia. In Corn- wall a zinc mine, 3,000 feet deep, extends out under the bed of the ocean nearly a mile from shore. In fact, men are crawling toward the center of the earth at the rate of several hundred feet a year. AN ARTIFICIAL HOLE 7,000 FEET DEEP. The greatest progress thus far has been made at Paruschowitz, in Silesia, where the deepest artificial hole is already 7,000 feet deep, or 400 feet more than a mile and a quarter. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE 1,000 FEET DOWN, 128 DEGREES. In this country a comparison has been made of the temperature in the various wells or holes at Pittsburg, Wheeling, Calu- met and Houghton, and the average tem- perature at a depth of one thousand feet was found to be 128 degrees. In France the temperature in the coal mines at a depth of 3,600 fee is 117 degrees. In short, it is 466 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS proved beyond doubt that although it varies in different localities, the heat of the earth grows gradually greater from the surface inward. EARTH-HEAT MAY BE A UNIVERSAL SOURCE OF POWER. Upon this Prof. Halleck bases his argu- ment for a new and universal source of power. Preparations are being made at Pittsburg and Wheeling for continued ex- periments along the line of belief that the earth's heat may be utilized for power, and the near future may contain some unlooked for surprises. SAVING THE FORESTS A problem of vital importance presents itself to the American people in the pres- ervation of its forests. For centuries, with the onward march of civilization, has been heard the sound of the ax, hewing away indiscriminately at the mighty trees of the country. While the damage from this on- slaught has not been irremediable, never- theless, some sections of formerly beautiful and valuable country present a sorry sight. The lesson has been learned in many places that the forest lands must be pro- tected. Several advantages of forest saving are apparent at once. If lumbermen chop away at our noble trees without plan or sci- entific knowledge, but a few years will pass until serious results will follow. In the first place a constant supply of lumber can- not be insured unless means are taken to prevent the felling of small trees, which are the beginnings of new forests. Without this young growth, future generations will be without lumber. DISTRIBUTION OF MOISTURE DEPEND- ENT ON FOREST.S. Inhabitants of sections which were for- merly well-wooded and now stand stripped of their timber, have discovered to their sorrow that the irrigation of the soil, even in a fertile country, depends greatly upon the forests. However much the forests may affect the rainfall itself, they have a power- ful influence in the distribution of its mois- ture. The regulation of the flow of streams is mainly insured by forests. The heavy masses of tangled roots and matted leaves of the forest lands collect the moisture, and hold it pent up for a long time. FORESTS PREVENT FILOODS AND DIROUTEI. This prevents great floods during spring thaws, and, conversely, prevents seasons of drouth by allowing this stored up water gradually to find its way to the brooks and rivers. Thus, streams valuable for water power are preserved in their natural vol- ume, and economic purposes are subserved. Compare the wildly-rushing, muddy- stream, rolling in the spring through tim: ber-stripped country, and the same stream dry, in the season when moisture is most needed in its valley for crop maturing, with that stream whose current is still regulated by kindly forests. This com- parison has gradually become so effective that much good is resulting from it. LESSENT THE INECESSITY FOR, IRRIGA- TION. As the tide of improvements moves fur- ther westward, the problem of developing SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 467 arid and waste lands is being studied more closely. In the great deserts, scientific irri- gation is already turning desolation into a paradise. Agriculture in the West depends more and more upon the forests. In many sections moisture depends upon storage res- ervoirs. These often give way through the breaking of dams. This can be obviated, but many others are stopped up with silt. This latter evil has only one remedy, the forest. Even the irrigation ditches receive their water from streams whose sources are in great forest reserves. When it is consid- ered that there are in this country nearly one hundred million acres of land, not yet under cultivation, which may be reclaimed by irrigation, and that this land will sup- port (wenty million souls, the possible bene- fit from the preservation of forests may be imagined. - NATIONAL FOREST RESERVIES. The United States Government has taken a hand in this great work, congress having passed an act March 3, 1891, establishing national forest reserves. From President Harrison down, each successive executive has designated many acres of forest land to be set aside. In some instances in the West, these reserves constitute the greater part of the whole territory of the State. In the whole United States there still remain nearly 1,000,000 square miles of timber land. Under the careful direction of the General Land Office, the United States Geo- logical Survey and the Division of Forestry of the United States Department of Agri- culture, much may be done with this tim- ber. There has been something of a hue and cry, due largely to selfish interests, against the establishing of the reservations. On some of the great public lands, sheep-graz- ing is an important and valuable industry. These sheep often stray through the forests in huge droves, trampling down the young tree growth and hardening the soil. Ruin to the woodland often follows, and that in itself would prevent further grazing. But the sheep herders overlooked this feature and fought against the reserves, fearing the exclusion of their sheep. When the true value of preserving the timber land was understood, and it became known that sheep could be grazed in small herds, the movement progressed rapidly. IXESTRUCTION OF FORESTS BY FIRE. Fire alone, it is estimated, causes a loss of $50,000,000 a year to forests. In thick- ly timbered country this is little thought of, for what is plentiful is regarded cheaply. But the tremendous economical importance of this great national resource is being brought home to the many. In such States as are made up of treeless plains, timber must be had for building, else the onward march of civilization will cease. * THE RAINFALL AND DISTRIBUTION OF IFORESTS. The distribution of forests in general cor- responds with that of rainfalls. The Pa- cific coast has perhaps the finest and heavi- est timber in the world. It is not the oldest States that have the smallest forests. Those that border on the Atlantic coast, with the exception of one, have a wooded area of more than 36 per cent of their entire terri- tory. Louisiana has 62 per cent; Alabama, 74 per cent, and Texas, 24 per cent; about two-thirds of the surface of the Gulf States (except Texas) is covered with timber. Iowa has only about 13 per cent, while North and South Dakota fall to 1 and 3 per 468 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS cent, respectively. Nebraska has 3 per cent, and Kansas 7 per cent. These smaller yields are on the treeless plains. Toward THE WORLD'S Of recent years there has been great prog- ress in the development of power from wa- terfalls. If the wasted waterfalls of the world were put to use driving electrical dy- namos, sufficient power would be generated to supply the mechanical needs of the whole world. This fact has been recognized and a movement is now on foot in every direc- tion to harness the wasted power, NIAGARA FALLS. Probably the greatest example of water- fall power is that at Niagara Falls. The chaining of the power of this great cataract is one of the most marvelous feats of me- chanical engineering ever accomplished. A little more than ten years ago ground was broken for a tunnel which was to convey the waste water of the falls. To-day this same waste power generates more electricity than is produced under any other single roof in the world. A GREAT POWER-HOUSE. This great power house is over 450 feet long, the main portion of it covering a wheel-pit 179 feet deep and 19 feet wide. Near the bottom of this pit are 10 turbines, each of 5,000 horse power, and each con- nected by a steel tube 166 feet long to a generator in the power house above. Each generator is capable of developing 5,000 horse power; thus the plant has 50,000 horse power. The water which furnishes this power is carried by means of a canal that taps the Niagara River one mile above the Rocky Mountains the timber grows heavier, and no States west of them have less than 10 per cent of woodland. WATER POWER the falls. The normal depth of the water in this canal is 12 feet. From it the water is led by penstocks directly to the wheel pit, and as it rushes upward it turns the tur- bines. After having performed its work. the water passes through a tunnel or tail- race built 200 feet below Niagara Falls and empties into the lower river. This tunnel is lined with brick from end to end. A GREATER POWER-BIOUSE. Another power house with a capacity of developing 55,000 horse power is also fed by this tunnel. A second wheel pit with eleven turbines has been constructed, thus generating 105,000 horse power at this sta- tion from the formerly wasted water power of Niagara Falls. VARIOUS USES FOR THE POWER THUS DEVELOPED. The electricity thus developed is put to many uses. Formerly it was intended only to serve the city of Buffalo with power. This, however, proved a very small portion of the work that devolved upon the plant. The Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo was furnished with electricity for its mar- velous electrical exhibits. Thus, no matter how beautiful or potent the effect of the presence of the electrical power at the ex- position, trace it as one might, the source of the energy was found miles and miles away down at Niagara Falls, where, day and night, through all the season, the mighty turbines and mammoth generators -- SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 469 were swirling at the rate of 250 revolutions per minute. To impress more fully the magic power of the falls it may be said it could not be duplicated if 600,000 men per- formed the hardest kind of physical labor. Yet the great current there flows on forever. A NEW CITY. Moreover, the supplying of light to Buf- falo and nearby towns and to the Exposi- tion was merely a phase of the early work of this great power plant. Around the falls has grown up a veritable city, with heat of marvelous intensity, and by the means of electrical furnaces in the neigh- borhood, a new substance called carborun- dum is manufactured. This substance is as hard as a diamond, and is used for abra- sive purposes, displacing emery wheels, etc. Great quantities of this cheap electric cur- rent are also used to reduce copper by the process of electrolysis, and a similar princi- ple follows in the production of bleaching powders, aluminum, and many other things - By courtesy of the Detroit Photographie Go- SOME OF THE GREAT MILLS THAT USE NIAGARA'S POWER. industries which derive their power from this current. Many of these industries de- pend upon processes in which chemical ac- tion is the chief factor. It would be noth- ing uncommon to run a cotton mill by this Power, for it would be simply a substitute for steam. But this tremendous power of electricity enables the development of a SENDING WATER POWER OVER LONG DISTANCES. Great power is also being developed from waste water at other places. Some of the most remarkable examples of sending power over long distances are found in the West- ern States. Late improvements have re- sulted in transmitting a current 150 miles 470 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS across the Rocky Mountains. Many cases are on record where pipe lines and flumes wind in and out through the mountains for many miles, gathering up waste water which finally plunges over turbines to de- velop electricity. By this method fuel, which formerly had to be packed zig-zag across the mountains on the backs of burros, at a heavy expense, is dispensed with. Work in the mountain mines thus can go on night and day in winter as well as sum- tner. POWER GENERATED BY CANON WATER. Near Salt Lake City power is generated by canon water, which passes from one power house to another, and after operat- ing goes on down to a third house. POWER FROM THE AMERICAN RIVER, Sacramento has power for its light and its trolley cars generated by the American THE STUDY OF PIAZZI SEARCHING THE HEAVENS. Although astronomy is at once the most beautiful and the most exact of the sci- ences, yet so little is really known of the limitless realms of the air, and so great are River 20 miles away. Many other cities in the West get heavy currents at long dis- tances, creeks being harnessed for this pur- pose. Rapids in many streams bring forth great power. Foreign companies have taken up the method, and send thousands of horse power many miles. ELECTRICITY FOR SAN FRANCISCO GENERATED 152 MILES AWAY. San Francisco is served with electricity generated in the Blue Lake region in Cali- fornia, 152 miles away. The waters of the Yuba River supply a current to Oakland, California, 145 miles away. VICTORIA FAILLS. Victoria Falls, in Central Africa, will sometime be harnessed and experts say that enough power could be transmitted to run all the machinery in the gold mines for the next twenty years. OTHER WORLDS the possibilities for discovery, that scientists are constantly at work searching the heav- ens to solve their great mysteries. IMMEASURABLE SPACE. Most startling of the things to consider in the study of the starry sky is its im: measurable space. The earth, we know, is only one seemingly infinitesimal speck in the harmony of the universe. Millions up- on millions of stars are traveling through- out space in some direction. Our solar sys- tem with its sun for a center, and its plan- ets, stars and satellites, is not the only one thus in motion. These systems, like the sun's, seem shootº SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 471 ing off wildly into space, but who knows whether, centuries upon centuries from now, these seemingly wild flights may not shape themselves into orbits, similar to that of the earth. Perhaps, in the end of all things, these worlds that go careering along in space may all unite, gathering size as they go, and eventually all burning up and leaving a black and starless sky. When we know that the stellar bodies are traveling in all directions, some of them at the fright- ful speed of 200 miles a second, we wonder what will be the outcome. A CIEVER, ILLUSTRATION. We are amazed at the immensity of space. One well known astronomer has used a very clever illustration to indicate the size of the universe. He describes all known space as about the size of the United States. Upon this he lays an ordinary lady's finger ring, as the comparative extent of the earth's orbit. An actual mile away from the ring, he states as the comparative distance of the first fixed star. The con- stellation of Lyra is about ten miles from the ring, flying along at the rate of three hundred million miles a year, and all the space from the Atlantic ocean to the Missis- sippi river is filled with constellations, stars and planets. What wonder that even the mind of the scientist is awe-stricken. PROBLEMIS NOT YET SOLVED. While we are wondering at the immen- sity of the universe, we are carried along into other problems which as yet the sci- entists have not solved. We know that fric- tion causes heat. We see this in the com- bustion of the shooting stars, which we know do not start out on their journeys already on fire, but are heated and burned up because of the friction of the atmosphere, as they tear along through the skies. If we can see this in the few stars that shoot to earth, how many are there that we do not see, and what immense heat is derived from this great friction of the stellar bodies? We know or think we know that such glowing bodies as the sun are combustible, because of the contraction of their parts by gravita- tion. Perhaps all bodies are contracting and throwing off some heat. Where then does all the heat go ' What becomes of the light also that has flown from the myriads of stars since the creation ? We know that light flies at the rate of 180,000 miles a second. Can it be possible that in the mill- ions of years since the earth began its for- mation, the light that first went off from the first sun has not reached the confines of space : 2LANETS VISIBLE TO THE NAIKED EYE. If these questions perplex us, what are we to say of the stars and planets which we can see with the naked eye 2 Is Mars inhabit- ed? Does Venus have an atmosphere like that of our earth & What of the moon, so close to us that we think we can distinguish craters of worn-out volcanoes, and the dry beds of old rivers and oceans ? What of the spots on the sun, – what causes them, - what is the corona about this body, and why does the sun seem so calm when it is a raging furnace' THE COPERNICAN SYSTEM. But while we leave astronomers to delve into the mysteries that remain, let us look into some of the things that we have learned concerning this science. The system of astronomy as now accepted is called the Copernican system, after Nicholas Koper- nik, or Copernicus, who, in 1543, breaking away from the ideas of the scientists that 472 8OLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS preceded him, revived those of Pythagoras. IIe saw the beautiful simplicity of consider- ing the sun the grand center about which revolve the earth and all the planets. He noticed how constantly, when we are riding swiftly, we forget our motion, and think that objects really stationary are gliding by us in the contrary direction. He applied this thought to the movements of the heav- enly bodies, and maintained that, instead of the stars revolving around the earth every 24 hours, the earth simply turns on its axis; that this produces the apparent daily revolution of the sun and stars, while the yearly motion of the earth about the sun, transferred in the same manner to that body, would account for its various movements. REPLER AND THE TIDES, Then came Kepler, who adopt- ed the Copernican theory, and whose observations upon the plan- et Mars cleared away many com- plications. He also remarked that gravity was a power existing between all bodies, and reasoned upon the tides being caused by the attraction of the moon for the waters. About this time, namely, the begin- ning of the seventeenth century, the tele- scope was invented and logarithms came into use. GALILEO AND THE TELESCOPE. Galileo, who had discovered the laws of the pendulum and of falling bodies, learned that a Dutch watchmaker had invented a contrivance for making distant objects ap- pear near. With his profound knowledge of optics and philosophical instruments, he instantly caught the idea, and soon had a telescope made that would enlarge things 30 times. With this telescope he looked at the moon, discovered its valleys and mountains, and watched the heavy shadows sweep over its plains. Near Jupiter he saw three bright stars, as he considered them, which were invisible to the naked eye. Shortly THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Plan showing the Movements of Planets around the Sun. after, he noticed those stars had changed their relative positions. Somewhat per- plexed, he waited three days for a fair night in which to resume his observations. When he looked again the stars had shifted. After much observation he discovered a fourth star, and finally found that they were all rapidly revolving around Jupiter, each in its elliptical orbit, with its own rate of motion, and all accompanying the planet in its journey around the sun. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 473 Here was a miniature Copernican system hung up in the sky for all to observe for themselves. Galileo met with the most bitter opposi- tion. A great many refused to look through the telescope, lest they might be- come the victims of the philosopher's magic. Some prated of the wickedness of digging out valleys in the fair face of the moon, while others doggedly clung to the theory they had held from their youth up. TNEWTON AND GRAVITATION. Then Newton promulgated his immortal discovery of the law of gravitation. Sub- sequent researches brought astronomy into prominence more and more. The spectroscope has revealed elements ex- isting in the vapors and compositions of the sun and of the heavenly bodies. Stars are now known to be suns, some bearing a great resemblance to our sun, and others differing materially. ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. Instruments for astronomical ob- servation have now been brought to a pitch of perfection scarcely ever dreamed of, and month by month dis- coveries are made and recorded, while calculations as to certain combinations can be made with almost miraculous accuracy. The transit of Venus, the approaches of comets, eclipses, and the movements of stars are now known precisely, and commented on long be- fore the events can take place. GREATEST TELESCOPE IN THE WORLD. And here it might be well to describe the greatest telescope in the world. This in- strument is known as the Yerkes telescope, and is located in the observatory of the astronomical department of the University of Chicago, on the shores of Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. Its huge 40-inch refracting lens is the largest in existence. Probably larger ones will not be made, because of lack of distinct vision, and because the great steel tubes which hold the lens would be likely to sag out of shape. The large glasses of the lenses were ground by Alvin Clark. The glass, proper, is made up of two lenses, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass, ranging in thickness from 34 of an inch to 2 inches, and poised 8 inches apart. Clark was engaged four years in polishing THE LICK OBSERVATORY. As Seen at a Distance. them and the last touches were done by his finger tips. The glasses weigh 500 pounds. Contrary to general opinion, small scratches and dust do not prevent clear vis- ion through this glass and no protection is placed over it. 31 474 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 36-INCH TELESCOPE, At the Lick Observatory. ſ SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 475 ITS MAMMOTH TUBE. The great tube of the telescope weighs 20 tons and is 65 feet long, yet so delicate is the mechanism, so perfect are the motors, and so carefully poised is the instrument, that it can be adjusted instantly. This monster eye is housed under a 90-foot dome, beneath which is a large floor, weighing 40 tons, which by means of electrical motors, can be lifted to a height even with the eye- piece of the telescope. The dome is also movable on a circular track, so that at the will of the operator the telescope may be trained through a great opening in the dome, upon any quarter of the heavens. Within the base of the telescope is a clock- work arrangement which keeps the tube moving steadily in the path of the star under study, as well as adjusting its work- ings. This telescope cost, together with the observatory, a half million dollars. With this remarkable instrument, it has been learned that a layer of carbon sur- rounds the sun, a thing hitherto unknown. By means of spider-webs drawn across the eye-piece of this instrument, the fifth satel- lite has been measured. Very good photo- graphs of the moon have been made, and it has been learned that some of the heat from the stars reaches the earth. WORKINGS OF THE TELESCOPE. The workings of the telescope are very in- teresting. In making measurements of stars, spider-webs are used. Spiders are kept for the purpose of spinning threads and the webs are strung in boxes arranged like lan- tern slides across the eye-piece. Distances have already been computed between the stars. Knowing the distance between the web and the stars, when the shadow of the star appears upon the webs, the size of the former can be ascertained. These webs are also used to catch the lights and colors of the stars, so that astronomers, knowing that certain minerals burn with a certain color, may classify the makeup of the stars. The telescope is arranged very aptly for taking photographs. A light shutter is placed at the end nearest the sky, and the photo- graphic plate is put at the eye-piece. THE SOLAR, SYSTEMI. The solar system consists of the sun, the center; the major planets, Vulcan (unde- termined), Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, the asteroids, or minor planets, the satel- lites or moons, which revolve around the several planets; meteors, shooting stars and comets. The stars called planets have cer- tain motions, going from East to West, from West to East, and sometimes again appear- ing quite motionless. This change of place from one side of the sun to another, has given them their title of “wanderers.” The planets and their satellites, the asteroids, comets and meteors, all circle around the sun in more or less regular orbits. There must also be families of comets that have not yet appeared to us, and whole systems of meteors as yet unseen. THE SUN. The sun is not solid, so far as we can tell. It is apparently a mass of white, hot vapor, and is enabled to shine by reason of its own light, which the planets and stars cannot do. They shine only by the sun’s reflected light. We might therefore con- clude that the sun is all gas, but through recent study by the spectrum, scientists have discovered that a number of elements exist in the sun in a vaporous state. Hydrogen is there, with other gases unknown to us, 476 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS and many metals. The sun is supposed to be spherical in shape, not flattened at the poles as our earth is, and to be composed of materials similar to those which constitute the earth, only that in the sun these mate- rials are still in a heated condition. ITS SIZE AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH. The sun's average distance from the earth is 91,500,000 miles. The volume of the sun is 1,253,000 times that of the earth, but its density is only about one-fourth that of the earth. The attraction of gravitation at the sun must be 27 times more than that of the earth's surface. A body dropped near the surface of the sun would fall 436 feet in the first second, and would then attain a velocity of ten miles a minute. ITS L1C HT. The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax candles held at a distance of one foot from the eye. It would require 800,000 full moons to produce a day as brilliant as one of cloudless sunshine. The amount of heat we receive annually is sufficient to melt a layer of ice 38 yards in thickness, extend- ing over the whole earth. Sun spots, as they are generally called, are hollows in the sun’s vapory substance, and are of enor- mous extent, and there are brilliant places near those spots, which are termed faculae. These spots have been observed to be chang- ing continuously, and passing from East to West across the sun, and then appearing again at the East, to go over the same space again. This fact has proved that the sun turns around upon its axis. Although it does not move, as we imagine, from East to West, around the earth, it does move. In fact, the sun has three motions: one on its axis, a motion about the center of grav- ity of the solar system, and a progressive movement toward the constellation Her- cules. NUMBER OF THE PLANETS. The ancients knew five of the planets, and named them Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In later years a great number were discovered, but the principal ones are eight in number, including our own earth, Uranus and Neptune. All the planets are spheroids and vary greatly in size. Comparing their size and magnitude, Sir John Herschel said: “Choose any well- leveled field, and on it place a globe two feet in diameter to represent the sun. Mer- cury will be represented by a grain of mus- tard seed on the circumference, with an orbit 164 feet in diameter; Venus is rep- resented by a pea, in a circle 284 feet in diameter; the earth also by a pea, in a cir- cle of 430 feet; Mars, a rather large pin's head, in a circle of 654 feet; Juno, Ceres, Vesta and Pallas, grains of sand in orbits of 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate sized orange, in a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange, in a circle four-fifths of a mile across, and Uranus, a full-sized cherry, or small plum, upon the circumference, more than a mile and a half in diameter.” MERCURY. The distance of Mercury from the sun is less than half that of our earth, and so it receives much more heat and light than do we. The sun viewed from that planet, if such a thing were possible, would appear seven times larger than from the earth. Mercury’s orbit is the most eccentric of any of the eight principal planets, so that, al though when in perihelion it approaches to within 28,000,000 miles, in aphenon, if &OLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 477 speeds away 15,000,000 miles further, or to the distance of 43,000,000 miles. Being so near the sun, its motion in its orbit is cor- respondingly rapid—30 miles a second. VENUS. Venus, the nearest planet to the earth, is somewhat smaller than our globe. It is both a morning and an evening star, and shines with great brilliancy. It can scarce- ly be doubted that Venus is surrounded by an atmosphere denser than our own. The observations made during successive transits seem to have established the fact that aqueous vapor exists around Venus and that water exists in it. THE EARTH, It seems rather strange to class our earth, which is dark and opaque, and which appears to us so vast, among the bright heavenly bodies. Nevertheless, it is one of the smallest of the principal planets of the solar system, and although we see in it no motion, while the orbs about us seem constantly changing their positions, sci- ence has shown that the earth revolves around the sun in an orbit of nearly 600,000,000 miles, at the tremendous rate of 18 miles a second, or 65,000 miles an hour. To other worlds our earth appears as a star does to us. In studying astronomy we must con- sider that it is a planet shining brightly in the heavens, held in its course by the invisible power of gravitation, and that in reality it is small and insignificant beside some of the mighty spheres that so gently shine upon us from distances almost incon- ceivable. Our earth, in fact, is only one atom in a universe of worlds, all firm and solid, and all, perhaps, equally well fitted to be the abode of human beings and ani- mals. THE MOON. The moon is the satellite of the earth. “Fancy,” says Lockyer, “a world without TRANSIT OF VENUS. ice, cloud, rain or snow; without rivers or streams, and therefore, without vegetation to support animal life; a world without twi- light, or any gradations between the fiercest sunshine and the blackest night; a world also without sound, for, as sound is carried by the air, the highest mountain on the air. less moon might be riven by an earthquake inaudibly.” 478 &OLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS ITS DIAMETER, AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH, The diameter of the moon is about 2,160 miles, and it is much less dense than our earth; therefore the force of gravity is less there than here. Its mean distance from us is 238,533 miles. It goes through cer- tain changes or phases about every 29 days, and while rotating on its own axis, it goes around the earth, so that we can see only one side of the moon, inasmuch as the two mo- tions occupy almost exactly the same length of time. Thus we generally see the same space of the moon, though at times there is a slight variation. The moon passes the sun periodically, and so if she moved in the plane of the ecliptic, there would be eclipses of the sun and moon twice a month. But NORTHERN LIGHTS. as the orbit is inclined somewhat, the moon escapes by moving north or south. ECLIPSES. There are eclipses of the sun and of the moon. The former occur at the time of the new moon and the latter at full moon. This can be understood readily when we remem. ber that the sun is eclipsed by the moon passing between us and the sun. The moon is eclipsed because the shadow of the earth falls upon her when it is opposite the sun, and therefore “full.” EBB AND FLOW OF THE TIDES. The ebb and flow of tidal water depend upon the moon to a great extent. Twice every day we have the tides, twelve hours apart, and the flow and ebb are merely ex- amples of the attraction of gravitation, SOLID FOOD AEOF SOUAVD MINDS 479 which is exercised on all bodies, whether among all nations. The Jews called it liquid or solid. “blazing,” and it bore in other languages MARS. a similar name. The orbit of this planet Mars appears to the naked eye as a is exterior to the earth's, as is proved by bright red star, rarely scintillating and it never appearing “horned” nor ever pass - By courtesy of Allen L. Cotton. THE MOON.—FROM A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN AT THE LICK OBSERVATORY. shining with a steady light which distin- ing across the sun's disk. Therefore, no guishes it from the fixed stars. Its ruddy transits of Mars can take place as do tran. appearance has led to its being celebrated sits of Venus and Mercury. Mars is most 480 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS like the earth of all the planets. There ap- pears to be a white or snowy region near its poles at varying periods, which would lead us to the conclusion, that the changes of atmosphere and the seasons are similar to our own; and as the inclination of the planet is nearly the same as that of the earth, this supposition may be accepted as a fact. Mars is attended by two satellites, or moons, discovered in 1877, both very small. . - JUPITOR. Jupiter is called the giant planet, and is 1,300 times larger than the earth. Its mean diameter is 86,500 miles, with 270,- 000 miles' circumference. Its inclination is very small, and therefore the changes of seasons are very slight. It has four satel- lites. These moons act, with respect to Ju- piter, very much as the latter acts with re- spect to the sun. Jupiter is the largest of the planets, and only Venus is brighter. It revolves at a distance of 476,000,000 miles from the gun and 390,000,000 miles from the earth, and its year is equal to nearly twelve of ours, while its day is scarcely ten hours long, showing a rapidity of motion more than 20 times that of the earth. ITS SUNLIGHT AND HEAT—DAYS AND NIGHTS. There is much less sunlight and heat on Jupiter than upon the earth, because it is so much farther away from the sun. There is but little difference in the length of the days and mights there, which are each of about five hours' duration. At the poles, the sun is visible for nearly six years, and then remains set for the same period. SATURN. Saturn is a great globe surrounded by a beautiful bright ring or series of rings, and … attended by eight satellites. It appears to have much the same constitution as Jupiter, but is enveloped in an atmosphere even denser. It revolves on an inclined axis and has seasons unequal in length. ITS RINGS. The rings of this planet are apparently broad, flat and thin, resembling roughly the horizon of the globe, and are supposed to be a close agglomeration of stars or satel- lites, revolving around the planet and en- circling it in a belt. The two outermost rings are very bright, the inner ring being darker and partially transparent, for the ball of Saturn can be perceived through it. Saturn, on account of its distance, shines with a feeble, pale, yellow light, which is steady and distinguishes it from the fixed Stars. - ITS ORBIT. Its orbit is so vast that its movements among the constellations may be traced read- ily through one's lifetime. It takes two years and a half to pass through a single sign of the zodiac; hence when once known, it may be found easily again. As the earth and Saturn occupy different portions of their orbit, the distances between them at different times may vary 200,000,000 miles. Tur ANU.S. Uranus was discovered by Herschel in 1781. It revolves at an enormous distance from the sun, namely, 1,753,000,000 miles. It takes about 84 of our years to go around the sun, and it possesses four moons. It is about four times larger than the earth in diameter, and about 40 times in volume. We can only speculate concerning its physical constitution, which is assumed to be simi- lar to that of Jupiter, while the changes of &OLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 481 temperature and seasons must vary im- mensely. NEPTUNE. Neptune is the far-off sentinel at the very outposts of the solar system. The existence of this planet was determined by calcula- tion before it had been seen at all. Uranus was observed to be disturbed in its orbit, moving sometimes faster than at other times, and even before Uranus had been discovered, Saturn and Jupiter had been seen to be affected by some other body in the system. Very little can be said con- cerning this planet, as its distance is too great for good observation. It has one moon, which moves about the planet in five days and 21 hours, and is of great size. THE ASTEROIDS. The asteroids are smaller planets circu- lating outside the orbit of Mars. They are all at distances from the sun ranging be- tween 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 miles, the periods of sidereal revolution ranging from 1,100 to 3,000 days. Consequently their years are from three to nine times as long as ours. Nearly 250 of these minor planets have been discovered. They are all very much smaller than the earth. IMETEOIRS. Meteors are small, erratic bodies, rushing through the planetary system and getting hot in the process. They appear in the at- mosphere surrounding our earth as “shoot- ing stars.” Some of these falling bodies have reached the earth. Such are called aérolites, or meteorites. Numbers, of course, are burned up before they reach us. They are of a metallic nature. On certain nights of August and November, it has been cal- culated that these meteors will appear. They fall from certain constellations, after which they are named, as Leonidas, from Leo, in the November displays. The star showers sometimes present the appearance of a beautiful display of rockets. Millions of them rush around the sun. COMETS. It has been lately suggested that there is a great degree of affinity between comets and meteors, in fact, that a comet is merely an aggregation of meteors. Comets have been supposed to be bodies of burning gas. Their mass is very great and their brilliant tails are many millions of miles in extent. In their orbits they differ greatly from the planets. While the latter are direct in their wanderings, comets are more irregu, lar and eccentric. When first seen, the comet resembles a faint spot of light upon the dark background of the sky. As it comes nearer, the brightness increases and the tail begins to show itself. The term comet signifies a hairy body. A comet con- sists usually of three parts, the nucleus, a bright point in the center of the head, the coma, a cloud-like mass surounding the nu- cleus, and the tail, which is a luminous train extending generally in a direction from the sun. It is not understood whether comets shine by their own or by reflected light. THE FIXED STARS. The fixed stars are those which apparent- ly remain immovable and shine with a shift- ing, twinkling light, although it is known now that they also are in motion. The num- ber of the stars is beyond our calculation. Those visible only in the telescope amount to millions. The stars visible to the un- aided eye are about 6,000, in number. There are more visible in the southern than in the northern hemispheres. 482 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS THE NEBULAR THEORY. The nebular hypothesis was put forward by Laplace, and by it he attempted to ac- count for the stellar system, which is sup- posed to have originated from an immense nebular cloud. This immense mass would rotate and contract and the outer portions would separate and develop into rings, like Saturn's Then the rings would break into separate portions, each portion condensing into a planet, or the small “bits” would travel around the sun like asteroids, and in this manner various systems would be formed. rings. THE MILKY WAY. The “milky way” is a whitish, vapory. looking belt, and is composed of multitudes of millions of suns, of which our own sun, itself, is one. They are so far removed from us that their light mingles and makes only a fleecy whiteness. An actual knowledge of the milky way is still beyond us. It is agreed, however, that the galaxy is not a continuous stream, but a series of luminous patches, great aggregations of stars illimit- able in numbers, and independent of each other. LABOR UNIONS AND ARBITRATION The wisest and most substantial men of affairs have but recently realized what or- ganized labor has learned, and what has been its marvelous progress, and they have profited thereby. STRENGTH OF THE UNIONS-DOUBLED , IN FOURTEEN YEARS. This advance in the labor movement is shown by a doubling of the membership of the unions since 1899, and a strengthening of their sense of responsibility. The best token of the latter change is seen in the numerous conferences and agreements now common between organized capital and or- ganized labo). THE DEMAND FOR RECOGNITION OF THE UNION. The demand most urgently presented by labor in the event of a controversy is that of recognition of the union. Capital is prone to reply to such a demand that it is meddling with matters of individual busi- ness, in which labor is entitled to no voice. THE ANTHERACITE COAL STRIKE OF 1902. A well known instance of this demand and response was a feature of the anthra. cite coal strike of 1902. This strike caused nearly $200,000,000 of loss to mines and miners. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S ARBITRATION PLAN. President Roosevelt brought to bear a power that resulted in arbitration and showed that all this expense and misery could have been prevented. CONSERVATIVE LABOR. LEADERS AVERSE TO STRIKES. Strikes are now commonly deprecated by the more conservative unions as bad, and as justifiable only in extremities. No longer do unionists cry against new machinery. Gradually scales of wages are being regu- lated by concessions on both sides. Sym- pathetic strikes, even in extreme cases, are less often countenanced than formerly. Pub. lic opinion has tended to modify the unions'. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 4 insistence that non-unionists be excluded from employment with their members, and most labor leaders are crying out against violence. It can be stated truthfully that, in the majority of instances where riots ac- company strikes, the assaults are commit- ted by other than union men. LOCAL BOARDS OF ARBITRATION. So dangerous to the common good are strikes and labor difficulties which tie up industry that legislatures and public spir- ited bodies on all sides have appointed boards of arbitration to settle disagree- ments. TSSENTIAL, QUALITIES OF THE SAFE LABOR LEADER OF TO-DAY. While many of the labor leaders in times past have been mere agitators, the time has now come when the man who stands at the head of a great labor organization must be a man known for wisdom, integrity and strength of purpose. There will be a feeling that unions are not responsible just so long as good men do not lead them. Many strikes have been needless and have resulted in no good. This has been due largely to poor leadership. There has been a constant strife between capital and labor, an extraordinarily de- structive one, and labor demands the best brains and absolute honesty in the men who direct its counsels. This only will wear down the prejudice against it, brought about by the traffic of dishonest dema- gogues. Such a man as the late P. M. Ar- thur furnished the true ideal of a union leader whose guidance was beneficent. STATISTICS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Statistics of the Department of Labor will show the terrible expense caused by labor disturbances in 15% years from January 1, 1881. The open struggles cost more than $285,000,000 and threw 3,714,406 per- Sons out of employment by reason of strikes. Each striker lost on an average $44, and 366,690 persons lost an average of $73 each by lockouts. Of the total loss of $285,000,- 000, two-thirds was borne by the employes and one-third by the employers. The losses in the anthracite coal strike of 1902 are appalling. The strike lasted over five months, during which time 183,- 500 miners and others were thrown out of work, and 105,000 women and 285,000 chil- dren were involved in suffering. Capital amounting to $511,500,000 invested in the mines lay idle without return. The mine owners daily lost, in price of coal they could have mined, $443,500. The loss in miners' wages was about $30,000,- 000, the loss to operators $69,000,000; that to merchants in mining towns, $23,000,000. The loss to mills and factories closed for lack of fuel was over $7,000,000; that to merchants in outside districts, $16,000,- 000; to railway lines, $34,000,000; the loss of business permanently abandoned amounted to $8,000,000; the cost of troops in the field was nearly $2,000,000; the cost of police to patrol the mines was $3,500,000; the amount lost in railway men's wages was $275,000; the cost of keeping and protecting non-union workers at the mines amounted to $545,000; the damage to mines and machinery by fire and by the flooding of mines was about $5,000,- 000. The total cost of this one disastrous strike in money alone was about $200,000,- 000. And this cannot account for the lives lost in the riots. PROPORTION OF SUCCESSFUL AND UN- SUCCESSFUL STRIKES. In most cases a strike causes only bitter. ness on both sides. Forty-four per cent of 484 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS strikes succeed, the same number fail, and the other 12 per cent are “draws.” LABOR'S GAINS. In the whole course of strikes the em- ployes have gained considerable advantage in wages and hours; but wisdom is now leading men away from this means of ad. justing grievances and beckoning them toward peaceful agreement and arbitra. tion. TRUSTS AND TRUST METHODS 1Much condemnation has been heaped apon trusts, their methods, and the men that control them. A great deal of this adverse criticism has been of an unintelli- gent nature, and is the result of an inade- quate knowledge of what trusts really are. AN IILEGAL TRUST. That corporation, body of men or society that monopolizes an industry or controls the great part ºf it, and puts restraint on legiti- mate competition is illegal, and has come to be known as a trust. Against these soul and body crushing organizations, political parties have fought, legislatures have en acted laws, and competing business men have turned their heaviest argument and ammunition. It should go without saying that a monopoly is not necessarily detri- mental to the best interests of the general public. BIG CORPORATION'S MAY BE JUST. It must be admitted that large corpora- tions which have cheapened methods of production, and even control every channel of trade in their particular line, can be just to the consumer. As a matter of fact, such corporations generally abuse their privileges, and for that reason the public mind has come to consider every capitalist, every big corporation, as a blot on the economy of the universe. After having warned the reader to beware of prejudice against capital simply because it is capital, and is powerful, let us examine the work. ings of the so-called trusts—the evil monop- olies. SPECIAL PRIVILEGES GRANTED BY ENACTMENT. Economists have said that monopolies could not live were they not granted special privileges, such as the right to lay gas or water pipes in a city's streets, to string wires, lay railway tracks, build pipe lines from state to state, and construct tunnels for pneumatic tubes, etc. POWER OF THE MONOPOLY. The power of the monopoly lies in the rights it possesses to the exclusion of com- petition. If only one gas company has the right to pipe a city, unless precaution of law is taken, it might be possible for that company to charge its patrons any price that would not be prohibitive of consump- tion. To-day we see much of the supply of every-day necessaries controlled by trusts. The tendency of the age is towards consoli- dation in order to reduce expense of pro- duction. When there is only one company in a country using material for an article of manufacture which it controls, it may refuse to pay more than a price which suits its convenience, yet it can also refuse to sel: its commodity unless it gets its own price SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 48i VENAL LEGISLATION, In order to bring about a perfect monop- oly of its trade, legislatures are frequently bribed to pass favorable laws. Tariffs that will favorably affect commodities controlled by the trust are secured in congress, as are bounties to foster infant industries. When all the separate companies in a cer- tain industry are brought together, the capi- tal thus consolidated is immense and can wield almost unlimited power. THE STANDARD OIL COMPANY. Take, for instance, the Standard Oil Company, with its enormous wealth. Rap- idly has this concern seized upon, practi- cally, the output of every oil well in the world. Through its immense business in- terests, it has been able to secure freight rebates, to control railroads, steamships, mines and banks, and to regulate the price of oil at will. If a small oil concern starts in business independent of the trust, oil will be sold by the trust so cheap that, event- ually, the rival of the trust must either succumb to the ruinous competition and fail, or else become absorbed in the trust. THE BEEF TRUST. Much comment has been made recently on the beef trust. Several big packing industries in Chicago, with their branches in other cities, control the meat trade of the world. This trust is almost the only buyer of the live stock of the United States. Railroads discriminate in its favor in freight rates, and so compact is the alli- ance that, if an independent butcher at- tempts competition, he is undersold until forced from business. Cases are known where, in order to kill competition, the members of the trust have sold meat at 1 cent a pound, until the individual competi- tor was ruined. In the same way this meat trust often refuses to take live stock at the prevailing market value, in order to glut the market and secure stock at very low figures. A GOOD TRUST. Occasionally a monopolizing company conducts its business in a legitimate man- ner, simply buying in the market at fair prices, and by economizing, allowing the public to share in its prosperity by selling goods at reasonable rates. Such good trusts do not fear publicity, and are a great bless- ing to business. More often, however, where a trust really controls its product, as in case of the hard and soft coal trusts, great harm may come to the public from its bad methods. The action of the hard coal trust in its stubborº, refusal to arbitrate the strike of its miners in 1902 wrought much evil. TRUSTS WIDELY POWERFUL. Some trusts, not content with controlling the business of a certain line in one coun- try, form international concerns, and influ- ence the commerce of the whole world. At present there are railway combinations con- trolling lines from coast to coast. The steel trust, capitalized at nearly a billion dollars, commands the situation in the American steel and wire trade. There is a shipbuild- ing trust, an egg trust, cereal combinations, a sugar trust, a tin-can trust, a carpet com- bination, a cattle-growers’ combination, a grain growers’ trust, a harvesting machine trust, as well as numerous others, the capi- tal of which amounts to many millions of dollars. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS * -- THE SPECULATOR'S TRAITS AND METHODS Of all modern occupations, one of the most picturesque is that of the speculator who makes fortunes in the great stock and grain exchanges of the world, loses them on an unfortunate turn, and with great for- titude and energy wins them back again. To the public that learns of this man and his life work, he appears with a certain glamor, but in general, he is considered merely a gamester, who bets on the turn of a market. - HARD WORK ALONE BRINGS SUCCESS. Men of such a grade, however, are hardly worthy the dignified name of speculators. True, the speculator has in him above every- thing the gambling instinct, but it is not by mere force of dollars and terrific gam- bling plusges, that the typical speculator wins isnmense fortunes. Here, as else- where, hard work only brings success. To the public it is only the spectacular side of the stock or grain market operator that ap- peals with force. But, back of the whirr of the grain pit or the stock post, must lie in- defavigable study and application, a re- sourcefulness almost matchless, and a knowledge not only of the men with and against whom one is trading, but of every fiber of the fabric of the commercial and financial world. CONDITIONS COVERING SPECULATION. To the speculator the insignificant hap- penings of a day may mean much. The values of speculative commodities may be affected by the slightest turn in public sen- timent over a political situation. A war cloud, even though it be as small as a man's hand, mav mean ruin or prosperity to him. These conditions all must be mastered both by a knowledge of them and their exact ef- fect on lasting conditions, and by a knowl- edge of what opposing forces may develop from them. THE GREATEST SPECULATOR, IN WALL STREET. Probably the greatest manipulator of stocks in celebrated Wall street is a gentle- man who has been twice a multi-millionaire, and once a bankrupt for millions. Some men of the stock market desire to be identi- fied closely with the companies whose stocks they manipulate, or buy and sell, up to hun- dreds of thousands of shares. Not so with this unique character. He is a manipulator pure and simple, one who by force of his large following of smaller speculators, and by his great foresight, can influence a mar- ket up or down by his plunges. To the lay- man, he simply bets on the rise or fall of the market quotations. To the initiated, how- ever, it is upon faith in his knowledge of conditions that will influence the prices of stocks and bonds, that he makes his win- nings. So far from being a stock gambler who bets on quotations, he can be called the one who makes quotations. Many times has he faced apparent defeat, and once he was ruined, as a result of trying to handle 1,000,000 bushels of wheat against his own judgment. At that time he showed the metal of which he was made. Falling from high life, he, a man used to luxury and the good things of the world, contented him. self with a simple country house until by the same sagacity that made him rich once, he again became the envy of all speculators. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 487 SPECULATORS WHO HAVE FAILLEN. There is another side of the speculator's life. While the fortunate ones are in the public eye and are heroes, there are others who have fallen in battle. It must be known, that while supply and demand and real intrinsic worth have much to do with the price at which the public buys and sells stocks, grains, cotton, etc., on the other hand, plunging, cornering a market and other kinds of manipulation, regardless of merit, may affect prices greatly. Thus we see times when one speculator, who is a “bull,” has caught his arch-enemy “short,” in such a manner that millions of dollars may be squeezed out of him. Men are prone to sell what they have not in their posses- sion, trusting to conditions to depress prices and permit them to buy in at lower figures. But often this plan goes awry. The long line of “ghosts” of the stock brokers’ offices, —men who have been buffeted in the fight, and who still haunt the scenes of their former victories, testifies to this. SPECULATION SOMETIMES A TISEASE. Speculation is in some people a disease in the blood that mounts to the head. Men may be cool and calculating in speculation; they may bravely withstand defeat and plan other great coups, but they cannot get away from the sound of the ticker, or the excite- ment of the market, after having won or lost a fortune. - TWO GREAT BUSINESS BODIES Stocks and bonds, - money-exchanges, boards of trade—these terms convey little meaning to the many. The general opinion prevails that dealings in the stock and grain markets savor of nothing but gambling. To much of the trading in the great exchanges of the world this stigma must attach. On the other hand, these great exchanges fill a needed want in commercial and financial life, for which America has of late years become so justly famous. Let us look into the character of the men and operations of these great markets, which send out their influence to every portion of the world. THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. Of greatest influence in the country, financially, from the point of view of the speculator, are the operations on the New York Stock Exchange. This famous bourse is located in the short but widely known New York thoroughfare—Wall street—and is an association, of limited membership, made up of men who gain a livelihood by buying and selling securities, such as stocks and bonds of the great railway and indus- trial corporations of the country. In the majority of cases, the sale of these securities is for third parties, who, recognizing that the stock exchange is the trading place where such investments can be made, com- mission these brokers to transact their busi- ness for them. ORIGINALLY A CONVENIENT MARKET PLACE FOR, SECURITIES. From this statement it may readily be drawn that in the beginning the stock ex- change served simply as a convenient mar- ket-place where the best bargains could be made in the matter of investment of idle earnings. Such was the case, and the prin- 4SS SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS cipal earnings of the brokers who were mem- bers of the exchange were from the commis- sions made from the sale or purchases of securities. STOCK-GAMBLING—$80,000 FOR MEMBER- SHIP. This condition has changed materially. Probably the greater number of the mem- stock transactions which has at times in- volved thousands of persons in ruinous losses, and even the whole country in panics. At the same time these methods have be- come so generally interwoven with the ideas of the American people that, in order to se- cure memberships on the New York Exchange and to be able to enter into this By courtesy of Lawrence & Co. GENERAL VIEW OF THE MERCHANTS’ LOAN & TRUST BANK, CHICAGO, SHOWING THE DAILY ROUTINE OF BUSINESS. This picture shows the most Modern Arrangements to facilitate Banking. bers now make the most money in direct speculation on the rise or fall in the price of securities listed on the exchange. This gradually has led to the charge of stock gambling which is often justly made against that great medium of financial transaction. It is this speculative side of speculative arena, men pay as much as $80, 000, and more, for memberships. A SPECIFIC CASE. In order more clearly to explain the na- ture of tra...sactions in stocks and bonds, a specific ca-e may be cited. Let us say that “A” has sule money at hand which he de- SOLID Food For Sound MINDS 489 sires to invest with a view to a good profit on his investment. He commissions a mem- ber of the exchange to buy for him a certain number of shares of a favorite stock or bond issue, at a stipulated price. The broker is paid his commission for transacting the nec- essary business and “A” becomes the owner of the shares. In case there is an advance in the value of the shares by reason of a betterment in the earnings of the corpora- tion, thus bringing about increased interest or dividends to the owner, “A” may desire to sell his possessions. In that case, the broker may be instructed to sell the stock and A makes a good profit on his investment. If, however, the earnings are sufficient for “A,” he may hold his stock indefinitely, for the dividends that accrue to him. This lat- ter proposition is the more legitimate side of the investment. it in To the speculator on the rise and fall i stock prices is due the business of buying on margins. This has entailed an operation called “selling short,” which is truly nothing but stock gambling. . --- “MARGINs.” Operations on “margins” are the same as those cited in A's transactions save that in- stead of buying or selling the stocks or bonds outright, the business is done on a margin—that is the customer puts up about 10 per cent of the value of the stock traded in, and the broker lends the money at a fair rate of interest with which to complete the business. Thus “A” is able to buy heavily on a small capital. The trouble that often befalls a marginal trader is that in an er- ratic rise or fall of prices, the value of a stock may drop below or rise above the mar- gin put up by the customer, in which event if more margins are not put up by him, the broker will close out the trade, and the cus- tomer loses the amount of the margin de- posited. “SELLING SEIORT.” Short sales constitute selling stocks or bonds that one does not possess, trusting that conditions in the market will result in a de- pression of prices which will enable the seller to buy in the stock or bonds at a figure lower than the price at which they were sold short, thus giving the seller an ultimate prof- it. This sale is a contract to deliver to B by A a certain number of shares at a given price. Margins are also put up on short sales so that in case prices advance instead of declining the broker who sells for A and consequently has lent money with which to complete the transaction may be indemni. fied in a rising market. “IBULLS’’ AND “BEARS”—SLUIMIIPS. It might be well to define a number of phrases commonly used in financial circles, namely: A “bull” is a person who favors an ad- vancing market or price of securities; the term is supposedly derived from the action of a bull in tossing things upward. A “bear” is one who favors lower prices; the term said to have resulted from the ac- tion of a bear in pressing its prey to the ground. A “slump” is a marked depression in prices. “PUTS.” A “put” is an option on stocks or grains which allows the seller of the “put” to de- liver to the buyer certain stocks or grain at a price stipulated some time before the transaction. The price named is generally much in favor of the seller and the option enables him to “put” the commodity to the purchaser at a price generally higher than 32 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 491 the market figures. This transaction is at the option of the seller. “CALLS.” “Calls” are options just the opposite to “puts,” enabling the buyer to demand the delivery of the commodity from the seller, generally at a lower price than the market figure. This transaction is at the option of the buyer. - THE “POOL.” A “pool” is an aggregation of specula- tors united to operate in certain stocks or In railway cir- cles a pool is a consolidation of interests by which certain earnings are made jointly by a number of roads and divided among the commodities on exchanges. individual members of the pool at certain periods. THE “CURB.” The “curb” is a market for commodities not listed on a regular exchange. This term derives its name largely from the fact that such trading was originally done on the street curb. THE “ROOM TRADER...” The “room trader” is a member of the exchange who buys and sells for himself more than for outside customers. A “CORINER,” A “corner” is a condition in the market when all the available supply of the article traded in, has been absorbed by a man or clique of men. This situation is generally brought on by very heavy short sales. The “shorts” can redeem their sales only from the crowd that has the “corner,” who are in- variably “bulls.” The “bulls” then proceed to push the price up fabulously and the shorts must pay the difference between the price at which they sold and the price set at the will of the bulls. This condition often brings on a panic and sometimes results in the bankruptcy of the “shorts.” CANARDs. It is no uncommon thing for the stock market to fluctuate violently on the merest rumor that tends toward financial depres- sion. Because of this panicky feeling that often exists in the investing public, specula- tors often willfully set about to invent ca- nards that will influence prices favorably to their operations. OTHER STOCK EXCHANGES. There are numerous other exchanges than that in Wall street, among which are those of Chicago and Philadelphia, the Mining Exchanges of Boston and Denver, and sev- eral other leading cities. In New Orleans, the Cotton Exchange is prominent for operations in the cotton market; the New York Cotton Exchange is also prominent in this trade. - THE CHICAGo BoARD of TRADE. Of as much influence, although of a dif- ferent character, is that exerted by the Chi- cago Board of Trade, an exchange on which are regulated the prices of the grains and provisions of the world. This exchange is governed largely after the same manner as the New York Stock Exchange, excepting that the contracts made thereon are by mem. bers of the board for delivery of certain amounts of grains or provisions at certain specified times. - - - “FUTURES.” This business is called trading in “fu- tures” or making contracts for future de- livery. At the outset it might be supposed that the future character of the transactions on 492 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS the Chicago Board of Trade and the several boards of trades in the principal cities pat- terned after it, were purely of a gambling type. Such, however, is not necessarily the CaSe. CHICAGO A DICTATOE. Chicago, from its location in the Middle West, the center of the great grain-bearing coun- try, and admirably equipp- ed with lake and rail connections for transport- ation, is in a position to dictate the movement of grain to a great extent. At Chicago, are also located the great stock yards and slaughtering houses from which the world receives its supply of meat pro- visions. Inasmuch as Chi- cago was a pioneer in the matter of grain handling the transactions on its board of trade gradually grew to proportions where they exerted an influence over the whole world. In this city are located the great elevators whence pours forth much of the supply of the world’s breadstuffs. Trading on the board of trade is done to a great extent in cash commodities, in which event the business is simply a purchase or sale similar to that over any counter. Pur- chases or sales for future delivery, however, are the life of the board, and constitute con- tracts for the delivery of grain before the last day of a specified month. THE MONTHS USED FOR, “OPTIONs.” The months of the greatest trading are those in which as a rule the grain of a har- vest is most freely delivered, i. e., Septem- ber and December for spring wheat, and May and July for winter wheat. Other months are traded in, but these show the NEW ORLEANS COTTON LEVEE. largest transactions. Corn is dealt in most heavily in December, May and July. The contracts for these future deliveries are called “options.” Sales for future delivery in almost every case are “short” sales. Oc- casionally, traders have the cash article in hand to deliver, and make sales for future SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 493 delivery when prices are high. If prices fall off, the short accounts may be “covered” without regard to holdings in hand, or the holdings may be delivered on the contracts, which is the usual course of trading. A TREMENDOTUS VOLUME OF TRANSAC- TION. Naturally there is tremendous business on the greatest of grain marts, purely from mendation. Through the methods of trad- ing in futures,-trading that may be strict- ly legitimate, the price of grains and pro- visions is regulated in such a manner that the grain grower and the provision dealer receive for their commodities a price far more equitable than could be obtained by scattered transactions through middlemen, ranging over the country. In the Chicago In a Pacific HARBor. Merchant ships in the carrying trade with the Orient discharging cargoes and refitting at Bre- merton. The economy of sail power, particularly on trading voyages, still keeps in commission many vessels of motley types, from the modest fore-and-aft schooner to the “clipper built" ships, which were once the pride of America, and controlled the tea trade of the world. a speculative point. To the uninitiated, such business may appear to be of a gamb- ling nature. There is, however, one impor- tant aspect in which it deserves much com- Board of Trade and other establishments that have sprung up after its model, center all news and information as to crops. Sta- tistics in these exchanges show with great 494 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS accuracy the probable supply and demand of the world. From these figures fair prices are set on the world's food supply. In case of great changes in supply and de- mand, or the conditions that regulate them, the quotations on the board of trade are first to feel the effects. Thus farmers may avail themselves of the best prices, and millers may readily contract for the wheat that they will turn into the next year's flour supply, knowing accurately the prices for sale and purchase. ODD MOTIONS AND SIGNALS. In the grain trade as well as in the stock market, there are in constant use a great number of odd phrases and signals, which mean much in great transactions, yet which convey little meaning to the public at large. Millions of dollars worth of grain change hands on the motion of a finger. Deals are: turned by the quick fling of an arm, and in general, so staunch to a bargain are the ope- rators that many a transaction is carried through to the end without a written agree- SCENIES IN THE “PIT.” ment of any kind. The scene in the pits of the Chicago Board of Trade when this wild trading is in full swing, resembles a mob of men in a stampede, all with arms in air and with seemingly no way to take them down. INTERNATIONAL LAW Between countries, as within them, there exists government which, while of the high- est type, is yet of an anomalous order. In- ternational law is the code under which this government of the family of nations oper rates. Ages ago the dominating principle that existed among barbaric tribes was one of selfishness, the principal purpose of each petty king being to despoil his neighbor. Thus warfare was rampant. CONFEDERATIONS, REPUBLICS AND EM- -11. PIRES. When government was evolved with the growth of civilization more altruistic ideas began to prevail both among individuals and nations. Certain rulers saw that it was to their advantage to ally themselves with neighboring governments; peace was better than war. This led gradually to confedera- tions, and later, to great republics and em- pires. We see in the coalition between the to this law, to enforce it. Grecian states against Xerxes' hordes of Persians this idea of common protection. Later, Rome gathered to itself the countries of the world. Then came the influence of Christian teaching to ameliorate barbaric conditions. These drifts in governmental life indi- cated the eventual trend toward more per- fect fraternity and altruism. In these crude agreements and treaties we see the tendency toward the more complex system of international law as we know it to-day. By law one understands a rule or man- date enunciated by a power able to enforce its orders. In the strict sense of the word there can be no international “law,” for, the enforcement of such laws presupposes a sovereignty above all governments subject Of course this does not exist, and in as much as every coun- try is jealous in the extreme, of its rights of SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 495 independence and sovereign power, submis- sion to the law by offenders is the only method of enforcement save by war. Yet in this late day commerce, the interests of trade and the interchange of citizenship be- twcen different countries, have united the most enlightened nations into a family. In this imaginary family laws are self im- posed, Governments, and through them their citizens, simply agree to preserve cer- tain fundamental principles laid down and understood, as beneficial to all mankind. All sorts of sources are tapped to make up this body of law. Common-custom agree- ments between nations such as treaties, pro- tocols, etc., conventions between nations, called to frame rules for international gov- ernment, resolutions by peace congresses, and the like, all give to this law certain au- thority. In custom we see embodied the ideas of equity. If armies and navies must go to war, let it be done in as humane a man- ner as possible. Custom also dictates a gen- eral Christian spirit. Where certain na- tions agree to do or not to do certain things by treaty, these agreements eventually have Some force and influence in similar direc- tions, with other nations. Where conven- tions of public spirited people or delegates from different nations meet, empowered to draft rules for general conduct, great weight is carried. THE FLAG OF TRUCE–RED CROSS- TREATMENT OF PRISONERS. Thus we see the flag of truce recognized generally between the armies of combating nations. Through this growth of a more kindly spirit we see better treatment of pris- oners and the recognition of the Red Cross of the hospital corps. All nations likewise Concur in numerous laws which are for the good of all. In this category falls the law that pirates are the foe of all mankind and shall be punished by death. No immunity is enjoyed by a pirate even if protected by a nation’s flag. - Naturally agreements or treaties between nations are expected to be observed, else they would not have been made. These agree- ments upon proper authority, become an in- tegral part of the law of the signatory na- tions. It is the duty of each nation which is a party to the treaty to obey it to the let- ter, to abrogate temporarily any of its laws which come in conflict with the compact, and to compel its citizens to uphold it. Thus two nations may make tariff agreements which bind them alone; or they may agree to deliver up certain malefactors, such as murderers and other criminals. In extreme cases of breach of treaty, war is the alter- native to protect the injured country's rights. Conventions occasionally are held by rep- resentative men of civilized nations, to dis- cuss conditions of the nations of the world. Present at these conferences, if they are of importance, are men delegated by govern- ments, many of them in power to draft laws favorable to their particular countries. Thus, certain , ules have been laid down for all nations which are beneficial to each alike, as in time of war. These rules can be broken only on penalty of severe punishment of the one guilty of the violation. Some of the international laws that have been drafted and held obligatory on civilized nations in- clude the recognition of the flag of truce and the hospital flag referred to. Others drafted have ruled that during war ship- ping of neutral countries, shall not be mo- lested; that privateering shall be abolished; that blockades, to be binding, must be in fact, and must be maintained by a force. - 496 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS large enough to prevent access to the ene- my's ports, and that murderous methods of warfare shall not be permitted. TRIBUNALS FOR ENFORCEMENT OF TREATIES. Naturally, tribunals must exist to en- force the rules of international conventions and treaties. Since international law en- ters into the body of the law of a land, its higher courts generally interpret it. Thus, in the United States the Supreme Court is the adjudicator of disputes over the law and in England the High Court of Ad- miralty generally acts. In order to be properly represented in the various countries of the world each govern- ment appoints diplomatic and consular forces to be present all the time in the prin- cipal capitals and cities of the other nations. An ambassador or minister is an official ap- pointed directly by the chief executive of a country to the court or head of the govern- ment of another nation. Generally these appointments are confirmed by legislative bodies. These men look after the interests of their sovereign or country, in the foreign state, the diplomatic agent taking care of governmental conditions, arranging treaties, etc., and the consular service taking note of commercial conditions and reporting them to the home country for the benefit of mer- chants and traders. The peculiar position of these officials abroad has laid down an- other law between nations that renders them and their families, houses, and public rec- ords inviolable in time of strife between countries. From this courtesy allowed by one sovereign power to another, there has grown up a fictitious notion that the sov- ereignty of a country follows its flag, and that, temporarily, the ship of a country floating its flag in a foreign port, or a dip- lomatic or consular residence, is actually the land of the country whose flag is flown. Such of course is not the case, but by agree- ment, ships and officials are given time to leave a country unmolested and in safety, even after war has been declared. AlMBASSADORS AND CONSUI.S. The duties of these officials are of great importance and of great variety. The min- isters often assume the duties of the con- suls, and the consuls or agents of one coun. try sometimes assume the duties of consuls or representatives of another country, when the latter’s officials have to abandon their places because of war. The consul looks after the prosperity of his country from abroad, sending reports that will show mer- chants the best way to meet competition in the country to which he is accredited. ARBITRATION, MEDITATION AND IN- TERVENTION. Arbitration, mediation and intervention are the methods by which disputes between countries are often brought to an end. Coun- tries are very jealous of their sovereign powers and seldom permit of interference of third parties in their troubles. Yet, some- times, third parties step in to suggest a ces- sation of warfare when the struggle is car- ried to a great and cruel extreme. Nations have to resort sometimes to war to clear the atmosphere of disturbances. It is the only way where combatants will not arbi- trate. Often, however, even after war, the warring nations will suggest committees to meet and arbitrate the questions at issue for them. This is generally done by each coun- try appointing one party and these choosing a third, the decisions of the joint body be- ing accepted. Some great disputes have been settled in this manner. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 497 Sometimes a nation watches an unequal struggle between two powers, too long pro- tracted. Then it may offer its good services between the struggling contestants in the hope of settling the disturbance. This is called mediation and, generally, is not un- kindly received, even though it is refused. The third form of intervention is where a powerful nation simply steps in, takes mat- ters in its own hands and enforces peace. This is intervention, such as the United States used in the war between Spain and Cuba. This method is seldom resorted to. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION AT THE EIAGUE. One of the most notable conventions for international law framing was that called POLITICAL Political economy is that branch of social science, or economy of the nation as a house- hold, which treats of the production of wealth and its application to the well-being of society. The word “political” is not used in the ordinary sense, but simply as it ap- plies to the body politic—the city or state. In other words, political economy is the sys- tematic arrangement of the laws which, under the present system of competition, govern the relations of man, whether indi- vidual or social, to the objects of his de- SlreS. FOUNDATION OF THE SCIENCE. The science is based on four elemental principles: 1. The unlimited desire of man for the development of nature's resources. 2. The conveniences and comforts of civ- ilized life, which are to be enjoyed only as the result of human labor. 3. The right of property in the fruits of labor, established the Peace Conference held at The Hague, at the instance of the Czar of Russia, in 1899. Here the question of universal dis- armament was discussed with the view to universal peace. The nations were by no means willing to disarm themselves. One agreement arrived at, however, was for a permanent peace or arbitration board for the settlement of all disputes between the signatory powers. Any of these nations which was a party to the agreement may now feel fully authorized to step in and aſk for a cessation of hostilities, although such action on the part of the United States gov- ernment in the late war between Great Brit- ain and the South African Republics was not well received. ECONOMY by individual exertion with the idea of ex- clusive possession, as a natural consequence. 4. The natural possibility and right of ex- change of the fruits of labor attending the right to property. All these things touch the sphere of man’s social life with its mani- fold and complicated relations, from which proceed the most powerful incitements to stimulate desire, to nerve up labor, to main- tain rights and to multiply and distribute the innumerable elements of wealth. The study of political economy delves into man’s wants, nature's resources, the statistics of human invention and industry, and the principles which should obtain in social re- lations. Self-interest is regarded as the uni- versal motive of human action, and in this study of prime interest, are the mutual rela- tions and intercourse of men as governed by that motive. It takes it for granted that labor is irksome in most cases, and that 498 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS every man is striving to obtain the utmost possible gratification with the least possible effort. WEALTH. Since wealth, the fruit of labor and de- sire, is the principal thing about which this science treats, a clear idea of what wealth is should be obtained at the outset. The term wealth embraces all useful things which can be appropriated and exchanged. This naturally combines utility, or fitness to gratify desire, and fitness to be seized and held in exclusive possession. It is an error to identify wealth with money. Money measures things, and to a certain extent is a medium of exchange for all things, but it makes up only a small part of wealth. It is desirable not for what it is, but for what it can purchase. It is also an error to regard as wealth such things as mortgages, bonds, stocks and the like. These are sim- ply indications of wealth which exists in another form. These are signs, not sub- stance. It is also an error to exclude from the list of the things that make up wealth, a song, speech, or other things that are not tangible or durable. VALUE AND PRICE. In distinction from wealth, we have a term “value,” which is only a vague way of expressing the desirability of an object. Value is purchasing power, or that quality which gives an object power to command other objects in exchange. Price is a term distinct from value, in that it has reference to a single article, money. To illustrate the difference between the terms value and price, it may be said there can be no general rise or fall of all values, but there may be a general rise or fall of prices, from the in- flation of currency, or some similar cause that affects money, which is the only object by which all things are compared. Value also is distinct from utility, for anything that gratifies a desire is of value, but some things of the highest utility, such as air, light, or water have no exchangeable value. Thus it may be said that value has two ele- ments, viz.: utility and cost, or the diffi- culty of obtainment measured by the amount of labor necessary to secure the ob- ject. IPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. From this point the study of political economy branches in several directions. Production and its methods and means, such as natural resources, labor, and capital, should be considered. The distribution of wealth such as property, wages, profits and rent, also come in for study. Then there follow the study of the exchange of wealth, of the laws which govern value, the rise and fall in prices, the stability of currency or money, the supply and demand which regu- late prices, and other similar conditions. There is also the influence of society at large, and of government, upon wealth, its method of production, etc. IPROTECTION AND THE TRADE.” “BALANCE OF From the study of this science it has been thought at times that a nation could be regu- lated the same as a household, by adjusting the getting and spending of the national wealth. Thus have arisen doctrines, now in the main discarded by economists, such as that of “the balance of trade,” which teaches that trade with any nation is profit- able only when more can be sold to that na- tion than is bought from it. The system of bounties upon special trades arose, and similarly, has grown up to the great system SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 499 of protection to native industry, which has marked the revenue policy of the United States for many years past. Following the laws and theories on this question, have arisen numerous schools of economists, who believe that their particular tenets consti- tute the cure for all ills. Among these schools are the socialists, the communists, the single-tax followers, and even the anarchists, who believe in no government. In the space permitted here, it is not pos- sible to treat of the details of the numerous laws which make up this science. subjects most important for consideration are the actual methods that have been put into use by governments, or have been made the rallying cry of some political party. . FREE TRADE. Free trade is a term expressing a princi- ple which has been used to a great extent as a party platform for the Democratic party in the United States. Trade consists in buying and selling. There is free trade when there is no in- terference with the natural course of buy- ing and selling, if such interference be in- tended to improve or otherwise to influence trade. It is necessary to keep this distinc- tion in view, because there are many laws not contrary to the spirit of free trade, which interfere with buying and selling. For instance, it is unlawful to deal in slaves, because we do not acknowledge the right of one human being to be the owner of another; it is unlawful to sell intoxicat- ing spirits without having obtained a li- cense, because the tax for the license brings revenue to the treasury, and intoxicating spirits are a commodity which it is advis- able to tax in preference to the common necessaries of life, or even harmless luxur- ies. Many of the last named cannot be Those brought into this country without paying customs duty. In some countries, however, this tax is for revenue merely, and is a re- straint on trade. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. The many attempts made by governments to regulate trade for the purpose of benefit- ing the communities over which they rule, may be divided into two great classes: the one prohibiting the exportation of commo- dities, and the other encouraging exporta- tion and prohibiting or discouraging im- portations. The former was the old rule in many countries. It was supposed that the wealth of the country depended on re- taining within its limits certain productions of native growth or industry, and their re- moval out of the country was prohibited or restrained. Until a late period, the expor- tation of machinery was prohibited in some countries, but this was an exceptional remnant of the old rule which had yielded to its converse, in which it was maintained that exportation is the source of wealth, and importation is a wasting of the nation's wealth. NATIONS LIKE INDIVIDUALS, IN TRADE. Nations are like individuals, making in trade, profit on what they buy and sell. Whatever communities import they pay for by exports. This can be shown by analysis in any class of national transactions. If we pay for the goods we import by bills of exchange, these bills represent goods export- ed, otherwise they would not be paid. If we pay for goods in money, it is the same thing. It is a sort of a dynamic law that ex- portation causes importation just as a va- cuum is filled up by air. As applied to the individual, and not to the nation, free trade is the right of every 300 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS man to do as he pleases with his capital and abilities; and as the general desire of man is to improve his condition, and in fact, the great majority are thoroughly devoted to this purpose, the interests of the nation at large cannot be in better hands than in those of men, who, in increasing their own wealth. are increasing the wealth of the public. Free trade expresses the principle that a nation's wealth and prosperity are best promoted by securing the utmost freedom for the ex- change of all commodities among its own people, and with the people of other coun- tries. In contradistinction with free trade, protection expresses the principle that in order to promote home industry, the impor- tation of certain articles from countries where they can be produced cheaper than at home, should be prohibited, or restricted by heavy duties. OPPOSING THEORIES. It is generally admitted by both parties that, theoretically, the presumption is in favor of free trade. For all economic pro- cesses and results in their general aspect, the law of free trade is most favorable. The right of property implies freedom for every one to do what he will with his own, providing he does not infringe upon the rights of others. Any law restricting the free exchange of one form of property for any other, or its free transfer from one place to another, is a violation of a natural, univer- sal, inherent right. The social instincts of men prompt them to the practical adoption of this principle of freedom of exchange. Free commercial intercourse between the nations of the earth tends evidently to es- tablish their mutual relations upon a basis: of peace and good will. But by the mutual exchange of values, different peoples become acquainted and assimilated with each other, and a feeling of interdependence creates a common interest, out of which grow the ties of abiding friendship. The nations of men are of one blood and constitute one family; and all the face of the earth, with its great diversity of resources and productions, is given to the one human race. In view of these things, we are justified in saying that the presumption is strongly in favor of free trade. On the advocates of protection, is thrown the burden of proof of the soundness of the principle of restriction. Let us look at some of the arguments, pro and con. It is said protection is necessary to secure that variety of industry and that balance of different industries which are essential to a people's prosperity. Every country has a great variety of resources, and the develop- ment of all its resources conduces to its greatest wealth. Among the population of every country there is a corresponding di- versity of native talent, and labor is most effective when every one has scope for doing that for which he is best fitted. The actual wants of men are equally diverse, and the highest happiness of a community depends upon the degree in which all are provided for. A DIVERSITY OF OCCUPATIONS. A diversity of occupations makes a home market for all sorts of products, saving cost of transportation, favoring division of labor, and binding all classes together by ties of mutual helpfulness and common interests. Varied industry favors the social and moral advancement of a people, quickening and broadening minds, enlarging hearts, and im- pelling to noblest action in the lines of recti- tude and benevolence. The advocates of the protective system strongly affirm that it is necessary to secure diversified industry. Foreign competition SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 501 crushes out the home production of all but the crudest and coarsest articles of manu- facture, and prevents the establishment of varied industry, unless the government in- terferes to restore the equilibrium by dis- couraging imports. Superior natural re- sources or more abundant capital, or cheap- er labor, or greater skill and better im- proved machinery, may enable manufactur- ers in another country to produce certain articles more cheaply than they can be pro- duced at home. If the way is open, the country having these advantages can, at first, control the marketing of these articles in a country less favored in this respect. Having once gained that control, it will do all in its power to keep it. INTRODUCTION OF A NEW INIDUSTRY. The introduction of a new manufacture is a matter of costly experiment, and indi- viduals should not be expected to bear the whole burden of carrying it on at their own loss, or great risk, until they are strong enough to compete with those who have had a long training and successful experience. It is contemplated that this burden will be but temporary, and will be more than com- pensated for by the greater ultimate benefits of a diversified industry fully established. Protection is needed to nurse our manufac- tures in their infancy, and to hasten their development. Foreign competition bears directly and hardly on the wages of labor. The general rate of wages in our country is higher than elsewhere. Protection is also said to be a necessary means of maintaining national independence. It is of the highest impor- tance that a nation in the time of war should be independent of foreign countries, with respect to supplies for subsistence, etc. The advantage of a home market for agricul- tural products presents a strong reason in favor of protection, because many products are perishable. It is also regarded, as be- fore stated, as favoring the fullest and best application of the principle of the division of labor. Protection is often advocated and used as a means of retaliation for commercial disabilities imposed by other nations. A foreign government bars out our products and, in turn, we refuse to receive theirs. Aside from these causes for the protec- tion policy, of which the Republican party in successive administrations of the United States government has been the best expo- ment, political policy may be pointed out as one favorable argument. The business community in this country has adjusted it- self to the protective tariff, and anything that threatens to disturb the present system causes alarm in manufacturing and other business centers, whether warranted or not. PROSPERITY. Gradually, a good many people have come to believe that inasmuch as great prosperity has followed the protective policy, it will continue so to do. Moreover, the revenues of the country have been so large from cus- toms duties that the country has greatly in- creased its national wealth, and on a similar scale the protection of certain industries has been so marked that, becoming monopolies, almost, of the entire trade in their particu- lar branches, they have dominated the world, and largely increased the influence of the United States. On the other hand, we have a goodly ar- ray of argument against protection. Fore- most, because what is known as the “Iowa idea,” formulated by a section of the party that has fostered protection, is that heavy tariffs, such as have been enforced for this 502 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS purpose, in reality foster trusts and monop- olies, by driving out foreign competition. This strikes at the root of protection. Akin to this idea is that of reciprocity, or trading with a friendly country on a free basis, but by treaty. Anti-protectionists argue that if it is good to exchange with certain friendly countries on a treaty basis, the same idea carried still further would be productive of further good. Protection introduces and fosters antag- onism between the different industries of the country. The idea of giving protection to every branch of industry is absurd. The theory implies special encouragement to the production of certain articles. But when government interferes to favor one industry by raising the price of all its products, it taxes all other interests. The unnatural stimulus given by protective legislation to a single industry leads to over production and consequent stagnation and failure. Protec- tion diminishes the legitimate revenues of the government, at the same time that it DUTIES FOR REVENUE ONLY. lays a heavy tax on the people. A govern- ment must be sustained by revenues derived from taxation. The imposition of equitable duties on imports is admitted by the advo- cates of free trade as a legitimate mode of raising a revenue. A strictly revenue tariff has no discouraging influence on trade, nor does it conflict with the free development of a nation's varied industries. But a protec- tive tariff has another end in view. That end would be most fully obtained by duties high enough to prevent altogether the im- portation of certain articles. The policy of protection in its applica- tion must be unstable, disturbing the course of industry by frequent changes. Protec- tion tends to demoralize national legislation. The so-called lobby influence at Washington has become proverbial. Protection tends also to corrupt the public morals and the public service. It offers a strong temptation to the violation of the law, by smuggling. THE PROPER, CIRCUILATING IMEDIUM. In the study of political economy, much attention has been given to the subject of money and currency. The country has seen great waves of change in ideas as to the proper circulating medium. Careful study will convince any one that, as we have said, the value of money lies not so much in its intrinsic merit or value, as in its utility as a measurer for exchange, and to some extent as a medium by which exchange is made. Gold has been in constant use by most coun- tries of importance, because, seemingly, its fluctuation in actual value as compared to the value of the things exchangeable for it, is less than that of any other precious metal. For an ideal measure of exchange several qualities are necessary. It should always bear the same relative value to other things —those things whose value is to be meas- ured by it; it should be in sufficiently large supply to serve as a medium, and of con- venient size and weight. These deter- mine its serviceability, both as a measure and as a medium of exchange. In the original state of trade, everyone simply bartered one thing against another. To-day, when most business is done on credit, we must have a third thing by which to measure one thing against the other. This, if it is acceptable to everyone, and has the qualities noted, will be good money. Naturally, supply and demand cause fluc- tuation in money as in other commodities. If the currency of a country is suddenly SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 503 inflated by heavy issues, it cannot be quick- ly absorbed, and falls off in its purchasing power. This was the harm done by the ex- cessive issues of greenback money, and it was this inflation, instability of value and medium power, that people objected to in the free coinage of silver. It was known that the price of silver fluctuated violently at times, and consequently it would not serve as a stable measure of exchange, for future contracts. The most ideal measure would be a composite of all values of all commodities, compared with each other, to serve as a unit. That is by comparing cloth, potatoes, gold, silver, coal, eggs, butter, etc., a unit could be arrived at which would never relatively change. This, however, is considered impracticable. INTRINSIC VALUE–CIREDIT. Intrinsic value is a good thing in money, for then it is not necessary to vouch that the measure of exchange when presented in exchange is of good value. As a matter of fact, governments, and private firms, to a great extent, simply use the dollar in the United States as a convenient way of meas- uring the exchange of goods, and often do millions of dollars worth of business with the actual exchange of only a few dollars. This is credit. The government does like- wise in monetary matters. Great issues of money are put out for the use of those who need a medium of exchange, but much of this is simply printed paper—in other words we do business on the credit of the government, which assures the final pay- ment for the paper in actual value. Faith in the government sustains this credit. PANICS. One of the most dramatic events in the history of any nation is a panic. This is purely a phase of political economics. It has to do with the expansion of credits to Sudh an extent that business is no longer safe, and fear, coming over the people who have granted credit, brings down ruin on financial and commercial undertakings. A panic is the direct result of over speculation. When times are good and everyone has plen- ty of wealth, and more than he needs, he seeks to find some way of investing it. He lends his wealth, gives credit, and enters enterprises of dubious character without hesitation. With so much money on hand, prices advance, people feel in good spirits and everything is boomed. Then the trend in this direction reaches its limit. Men who have borrowed against the future find that they have invested poorly, and have no means with which to reimburse their credit- ors. Creditors become frightened at the risk; everyone calls for a return of loans, and no one cares to give credit except at a greatly advanced interest. Inasmuch as the greater part of the business of the country is done on credit, this sudden contraction brings on a desire on the part of everybody to secure value or cash money for what they have in hand that is of value. No one, therefore, wants to buy; all desire to sell. Prices fall terribly. People who owe debts, when they have realized only a small sum for what they thought was very valuable, see that they cannot meet their obligations, because their wealth has diminished in price measure. Bankruptcies follow, and some. times the disaster spreads ruin over many. SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION We hear much idle chatter in these days about man's descent from the monkey, with- out always knowing just what idea the speaker really intends to convey. It has be- come such a common expression that it is used as a joke, when in reality the theory of evolution underlying it is one of the great- est discoveries of the last century. “NATURAL SELECTION.” Darwin gave to the scientific world a new idea when he issued his book entitled “Ori- gin of Species by Means of Natural Selec- tion.” Darwin, however, rarely used the word evolution. This more truly lies with- in the world of philosophy than within the world of science. Science must deal with facts, and philosophy may wander with hy- potheses into illimitable space. Thus Dar- win propounded the idea that he had col- lected evidence sufficient to make him be- lieve that certain species of animals, flow- ers, etc., might have originated from a com- mon ancestry in the same way that varieties have done, and, that inasmuch as we recog- nize the family resemblance of several va- rieties of dogs, the pug, the bull, the span- iel, the collie, etc., why not believe it possi- ble that the wolf and the fox may be dis- tantly related to the dog family' Or, as no two human beings are alike, why might not the horse and the zebra simply be different varieties? Why might they not originally have had a common ancestry, and through the same vicissitudes that change individ- uals, have been separated into species of their own 4 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. The doctrine of the survival of the fittest plays a great part in “natural selection.” While we know that the farmer carefully selects the best grades of wheat from which to raise his crops, the best apples from which to plant new orchards, and the best flowers from which to slip new varieties— we are not always so ready to accept the theory that nature may do for nature the same as man artificially does for nature. Herein lay much of Darwin's valuable in- formation. Through much investigation he saw that certain tendencies were toward the killing off of the weaklings. All the time, powerful agencies are at work selecting the best species to propagate further. Condi- tions of life prove that many creatures must fall in the struggle. Only the best protected birds and animals can survive the hard- ships of an extraordinary winter. Animals poorly equipped with feathers and fur must perish. Thus the best will be left to propa- gate and give their progeny the benefits of our inheritance from the strongest of pa- rents. Or, the struggle may be between enemies. One animal may be able to run faster, and another to fight more fiercely— this is what Darwin called natural selection. We know that climate makes a great dif- ference in plant and animal life. From these two ideas it is a short step to believe that a species we may call the cat, is simply the domesticated result of years and cen- turies of selection in one direction, while the tiger is the product of a diversified se- lection. NO TWO BEINGS ALIKE. That species are constantly subjected to slight variations, and that those variations may be cumulated by selective breeding, is a known fact. Every organic being has an SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 505 individuality of its own. No two persons are alike. Even the creases in a person's finger tips are such as to identify that per- son from another. Still, these variations ãre restricted to pretty well defined limits. The percentage of variation in the individ- ual form is small, and in the main the pro- geny is like the parent. While the changes are small enough not to be greatly important in character, still they serve as a basis for the production of permanent varieties. Let us watch the breeder of horses in his selec- tion of horses of great speed rather than strength, for race horses, and those of great power, for draft horses. And the same conditions prevail in selection in plant life. TOES AND TEETH. In our own lives, if we are careful, we can see wherein we do not use certain faculties, and thereby we lose them. For instance, by wearing tight shoes for centuries, the toes, especially the little toes, have gradually become deformed. Where once man had great prehensile power in his toes, he has little now. And this is all the more clear in the case of savage tribes in the wilds of the eastern hemisphere, which can use their toes for many purposes with great dexter- ity. Some have been discovered that can row boats with their feet. The inference is that, in many generations to come, not having need for little toes, they will grad- ually disappear. The same condition ob- tains with the teeth. These change their shape as their owners, through generations, change their method of eating. Gradually, the wisdom teeth seem to be disappearing. Sane philosophy builds up as well as de- duces from every observation. And here it may be well to speak of atavism, or that tendency of forms once common in a spe- cies to show themselves after having disap- peared through natural selection. Much study has led scientists to conclude that things will not simply originate of them- selves. Even evolution works out from some primal force that is constantly at work, changing naturally or artificially. There- fore, when odd formations are noted in life, some reason is deducible. These reasons, with evolution as the explanation, seem to be arrived at simply. Thus the appearance of strange formations is used to trace the origin of certain species, through many dif- ferent forms, back to one parent. ATAVIC FORMS. It seems a sharp jump thus to conclude that human beings are evolved from apes simply because the latter walk upright at times, have four limbs, are mammals, etc. As a matter of fact it is not necessary to believe this. Yet by comparison of two dis- tinct kinds of apes we find there is greater difference between them than there is be- tween their highest type and the lowest type of human. Frequently we find the pres- ence of some atavic form in mankind which, seemingly, has no business in the species. Many men have slight, scum-like, eyelids, or rather the beginnings of them. These are not common with man, but in many forms of animal life; especially in birds, this underlid is common. Now and then we hear of human beings equipped with stumps at the end of their spines, like the begin- nings of short tails. FvoluTION NOT ATHEISTIC. One of the greatest difficulties of the re- ligious man is to accept the doctrine of evo- lution because it seems to leave out God and the creation. Evolution is not neces- sarily atheistic. When looked at merely in its results as discovered in scientific facts, 33 506 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS there is no ambiguity in the thing which Darwin is thought to have proved—namely, that somehow, through the action of hered. ity, variation and natural selection, species have originated in much the same manner that individuals of various traits have sprung up in the same species. The diffi- culty comes when we launch out and try to inject into beliefs of the origin of things, ideas and doubts about the dependence or independence of creative origin and control from God. Some great authorities have tried to theorize on the subject, and find no working plan complete without God. Ma- chines do not make themselves or spring up out of the ground. And when we see a marvelous machine at work turning out steel needles from a block of steel, should we discredit the maker of the machine? Man is constantly at work changing the face of nature. He pulls up weeds from his gar- den, he changes the color of a flower; the mother, by loving care, saves her child's life from sickness. It may readily be con- ceived that Divine interference in nature may be one of wisdom rather than of power. If man may inject his plans into nature, there is no reason for saying that God may not do likewise. COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM In most civilized countries, the laws of the distribution of wealth are based on the recognition of private property. In view of inequalities which seem to spring out of the competitive system, a body of theories has grown up which has for its basis the abolition of private property, and a change such as shall establish society on another and possibly more equitable footing. To these theories the terms communism and so- cialism have been applied. TWO CLASSES OF SOCIALISTS. Letting the term socialism describe both, there may be said to be two classes. The supporters of the first are those who plan for a new order of things which would bring society to a voluntary association, or community, having all things in common holding. The other body of theorists would have the working classes, or somebody in their behalf, take possession of all property, to be administered for the general benefit of the country. They want to have the whole productive resources of the nation un- der the management of a general govern- ment, resting on universal, equal, and direct suffrage, by ballot." CAUSES RESULTING IN SOCIALISM. Without going into the merits of these theories, it may be said that they have sprung up largely because of the weakness exhibited by certain members of all com- munities. In the system of competition, all cannot survive the struggle; it is the strong- est and fittest man that wins success. Com- bination of capital has become so huge that labor has had to combine to almost as threat- ening proportions, to protect itself. Monop- olies control nearly all the sources of wealth. The world's meat supply is in the hands of a clique of men in Chicago. The railways and steamships of the world are fast closing together into gigantic trusts. Coal is held fast in the grip of a few men. Grain is SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 507 constantly being cornered by the great ele- vator speculators. Real estate is held tight. In this environment the man who is not equipped to fight with weapons of excep- tionally strong brain and body, must either become servile, or b, obliterated. At this point, socialism steps in to say that if the government controlled all resources as it does the postal department, there would be no excessively rich people nor yet any pau- pers. They hold that enough is a sufficiency for any person. Too much is bad, and with proper control of the sources of wealth, there would be no strikes, no famines in the midst of plenty, and no deaths from hunger. SINGLE TAX. Closely akin to socialism is the theory propounded by the late Henry George, and now the groundwork for the political action of a small but growing party. This theory, known as the single tax, is that all wealth comes from the ground. In the beginning the ground was as free as the air. Man used what he wanted of it, and left the rest for his neighbor. With the advancement of the property-rights theory, however, and its ac- tual operation, land has become the main source of monopoly. It is held that man always should have free access to the bene- fits of nature. Water and air are free, but land is now owned so that a man must pay for the right to exist upon it. Moreover, land is held by the single tax advocates to be of no value except as it comes in contact with man. Society gives it value. Labor is necessary to produce wealth from it. LAND THE ONLY SOURCE OF WEALTH. Inasmuch, therefore, as land is the one source of wealth, it should also be the one object of tax. In short, the single taxers say all land should be accessible to any one. If two people wanted the same piece of land, naturally, the one willing to forfeit something for its use, should be the one to have that use. All taxes, direct or indirect, should be abolished, and in their place, should be established a tax on land values. If land lay idle, it would be of no value. Then a poor man could step in and use it. Naturally, his use of it would make it of some value, and he would be taxed some- what. If the land was improved much and brought good results of labor, it would be- come so valuable that several persons might want it. Then the tax would increase. If someone wanted the land especially, he might pay the occupant a bonus to vacate, with something for his work in improving it. A system of this kind, it is argued, would dispense with all taxing bodies, assessors, etc., save one; would render trade as free between the nations as between the several states of the United States; would place the burden of taxation on property which is most valuable; would make monopolies pay taxes according to the benefits they acquire from nature, would make it unprofitable to hold land unused, for speculative purposes, and allow unused land to be utilized. Although the plausible theorizing of Henry George is held by a great majority of reputable thinkers to be visionary and chimerical, many of the ideas which he advocated are worthy of consideration, as they lead along profitable lines of reflection and investigation. 508 8OLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS TAMMANY HALL Political machinery has reached its per- fection in the matter of control of elections in the great society called Tammany Hall— the Democratic organization of New York City. Notorious as the most deftly man- aged as well as the most corruptly governed of the political rings in America, this so- ciety is nevertheless such a factor in the municipal affairs of New York City, and even in state affairs, that it is a foe worthy of the best steel Republicans and reformers can command. Tammany may again be forced from its position of strength by the election of a reform mayor of Greater New York, yet such is the impress made upon the civic life of that great city that a de- scription of Tammany’s methods are worth the while. AN ASSOCIATION FOR, ILLICIT GAIN. Be it known that Tammany Hall, while purporting to be organized as a representa- tive body of New York Democrats, for civic good, is in reality, an association for “graft,”—in other words, a society with the political purpose of keeping the Democratic party in power in the city offices of New York, and the object of obtaining money by illegal means from citizens of all classes. Money is the constant demand of the Tam- many men, and great have been the fortunes made from the ill-gotten pelf of “heeler” and “boss.” Tammany’s defeat in 1901 was not considered a permanent downfall, but was due to the overzealousness of its members to rob. As a political organization, this society probably has no equal. Through a system of representation that reaches down into the very gutters of the city's population, votes are controlled in an absolute manner. The leader of the organization is aided by 35 district leaders, who in turn control men throughout their districts, and these men control others, until great power is attained. Patronage is the watchword, although in times past, “graft,”—“blood-money,”—has more appropriately described the object of the system. In the low dives of iniquity of New York's streets, in the houses of disre- pute, gambling-hells, criminal resorts, and tough saloons, are hundreds of law-breakers. Shame though it be, Tammany Hall has not only protected these law-breakers in their crimes but has abetted them,-for money. In a word, the authorities in times past have sought office for the purpose of allowing wantonness, crime, and debauchery to go un- molested, and of reaping unholy profit from it. The ward “heelers” or underlings in Tammany are generally saloonkeepers, or the like, who can keep in close touch with the criminal classes. The dissolute woman, the thief, and the thug wish protection. The society wants money. From low to high the “coin” is handed up. Political bosses become millionaires, patrolmen in the po- lice force pay large sums to secure their po- sitions, and afterwards pronounce it a good investment. - COLLECTIONS. The “collections” do not cease with the wretches of the slums. The most money, in past regimes, that has flowed into the cof- fers of Tammany Hall has probably come from “respectable” citizens, moneyed men who desire contracts for supplies and pav ing, and concessions from the city, or wish to be immune from persecution. It is a well-known fact that millions of dollars have SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 500 been subscribed to Tammany by such men, in excess of all political needs. Who doubts where the money goes, when the leaders of the society suddenly grow richº THE TAx FUND. Another source of “graft” is the tax fund. The expenses for running New York's pub- lic offices in years past have frequently been as much as those for running the 15 next largest cities of the United States, com- bined. Delays of improvements have been made, double prices have been paid for sup- plies, and hundreds of men have been kept at work in public offices where they have not been necessary. This last form of “graft,” possibly has been the most common, al- though possibly, not as much money has been lost thereby. Taxes have been evaded by wealthy corporations, and have been “fixed for a consideration,” by officials paid and sworn to collect them for the city. Not only are methods employed to pro- tect officials but crime has been fostered by these powers. Frequently, during the last reign of Tammany, fallen women reported that they had been persecuted by blackmail- ers into resuming their vile lives, after they had tried to reform. Every attempt at re- form was met by exposure to employers. The police were hand in glove with thugs, and more than one case was reported where, through contact with such debauching methods, policemen and detectives turned criminals, having become so crafty that they could easily deceive their own brother offi- cers of the law. It pays Tammany men to be in power— that is, financially. Thus the ward “heeler” can levy from the criminal for immunity from arrest. The higher politician can get money from big corporations that infringe upon the city's ordinances, and the bosses themselves can steal public moneys. Such has been the history of Tammany’s past reigns. Is it to be wondered at that a suc- cessful attempt was made, in November, 1903, to bring these great forces together, in order to swing the power of office, and with it “graft,” once more into the hands of Tammany HOW GREAT BRITAIN LOOKS UPON TAMMANY. “It affords,” writes “Mr. W. S. Devery, ex-chief of police, hired a special train to take him and his followers to the state Democratic Convention at Saratoga after spending, it is said, $60,000 on a campaign to be made a delegate to that convention. “an illustration of what some men are willing to our American correspondent, invest for political place in New York City, expecting a good, if indirect, return for their money.” The car bears the words, “Wm. S. Devery, Tammany Delegate." A curious and characteristic point about the crowd is that there is not a single silk - hat among the throng; all wear hard or soft felt hats.”-London Times. 510 SOLID FOOD FOR SOUND MINDS 70% /* …£2-zº A- Zaza 2%-4. Aºzzez 2… < 22-242-zºne-2- Z%~ : * E O O Lºk V I FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS PAGES PITHY WITH USEFUL INFORMATION. BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR ULL RUN (first), July 21, 1861– North, General McDowell; killed, 481; South, General Beauregard; killed, 269. Shiloh, April 7, 1862– North, General U. S. Grant; killed, 1,735; South, General Albert Sidney Johnston; killed, 1,728. Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, May 31, and June 1, 1862—North, General George B. McClellan; killed, 890; South, General Joseph E. Johnston; killed, 2,800. Seven Days' Battle, June 25 to July 1, 1862—North, General McClellan; South, General Robert E. Lee; killed unknown. Second Bull Run, August 29-30, 1862 – North, General Pope; South, General Lee; no exact esti- mate. Antietam, September 16 and 17, 1862—North, General McClellan; killed, 2,010; South, General Lee; killed, 3,500. Corinth, October 3-4, 1862—North, Gen- eral Rosecrans; killed, 315; South, Gen- eral Van Dorn; killed, 1,423. Perryville, October 8, 1862—North, General Buel; killed, 820; South, General Bragg; killed, 1,800; Fredericksburg, December 11-15, 511 1862—North, General Burnside; killed, 1,128; South, General Lee; killed, 1,200. Murfreesboro, December 31, 1862; Janu- ary 1, 1863—North, General Rosecrans; killed, 1,474; South, General Johnston; killed, unknown. Chancellorsville, May 2 and 3, 1863—North, General Hooker; killed, 1,512; South, General Lee; killed, 1,581. Gettysburg, July 1, 2 and 3, 1863– North, General Meade; killed, 2,834; South, General Lee; killd, 3,500. Vicks- burg, July 3 and 4, 1863—North, General Grant; killed, 545; South, General Pem- berton; killed, unknown. Chickamauga, September, 19 to 23, 1863—North, General Thomas; killed, 1,644; South, General Bragg; killed, 2,389. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 23 to 25, 1863—North, General Grant; total loss, 4,000; South, General Bragg, total loss, 4,000. The Wilderness, May 5 to 7, 1864 —North, General Grant; killed, unknown; South, General Lee; killed, unknown. Spottsylvania, May 8 to 18, 1864—North, General Grant; killed, 2,261; South, Gen- 512 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS eral Lee; killed, unknown. Cold Harbor, June 1, 1864—North, General Grant; to- tal loss, 10,000; South, General Lee; total loss, 8,000; Franklin, November 30, 1864 —North, General Schofield; killed, 189; South, General Hood; killed, 1,750. Nash- ville, December 1 to 14, 1864—North, Gen. eral Thomas; total loss, 6,500; South, Gen- eral Hood; total loss, 23,000. Five Forks, April 1, 1865–North, General Grant; to- tal loss, 7,000; South, General Lee; total loss, 15,000. SLEEPING FLOWERS Flower growers have discovered how to produce lilacs in autumn. It is quite a nota- ble achievement, considering how pecul- iarly they are associated with the spring- time, and the way in which it is accom- plished is most curious and interesting. In a state of nature the lilac plant requires a period of rest before producing its flowers. That period is the winter, when the cold enforces repose. ExPoSED To FUMES OF ETHER. But it is found that the plant can be cheated into blossoming in autumn by ex- posing it to the fumes of ether, which put it to sleep for a little while, after which it proceeds to blossom luxuriantly. Florists grow the plants in pots, and in the fall place them, pots and all, in a large box which contains an uncorked bottle of ether. In this manner they are exposed to the ether vapor for 48 hours, the box being air. tight. Sometimes the operation is repeated a few days later. When they come out they are ready to start right in at blossoming, and the conservatory gardener obtains a fine crop of lilacs for the early winter trade. The process sometimes weakens the colors of the flowers, but this does not mat- ter in the case of lilacs, because the kind preferred by florists is the white. THE CLEANEST CITY IN THE WORLD Washington, D. C., said to be the clean- est city in the world, is kept in that condi- tion by the splendid system in vogue in the street cleaning department. COST OF CIEANING WITH 130 MACHINES. At the beginning of 1901, 130 sweeping machines were hired at $6.25 per month, with the understanding that they must be kept in repair, and become the property of the city at the expiration of the year. Previous to the use of these machines, 210 men with hand brooms cleaned a dirty area of 1,565,800 square yards, or 413,765,- 028 square yards per year, at a cost of $76,429.47. The same force using the ma- chines cleaned a total area of 515,992,920 square yards during the year at a cost of $79,704.46. Thus for the extra expense of $3,264.99 with the machines, an area of 102,227,892 square yards was cleaned in addition to the area previously gone over with hand brooms. CLEANING THE ALLEYS. The work of cleaning the alleys during the year was performed under a contract at 32; cents per thousand square yards. These FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 518 alleys are cleaned once a week, the schedule for each day being made at the beginning of the year. The total yearly area of 39,- 290,597 square yards was cleaned at a cost of $12,259.29. During the year, about 14 miles of unpaved streets were sprinkled daily, for 131 days, at a cost of $3,150.27. TOTAL AMOUNT OF GARBAGE. The total amount of garbage collected during the year amounted to 30,299 tons, on 10,299 tons of which a reduction was made at the rate of 50 cents per ton. This gave to the District of Columbia, with the fines, a total of $5,686.50, to be deducted from the contract rate, leaving a balance of $46,069 to be paid to the contractor. A big saving was made in this department, as the collection for the previous year cost $10,939 more. This year, in place of the former weekly collection, semi-weekly col- lections are being made, and in some sec- tions three collections are to be made a week. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES This country began the present century with 80,143,276 inhabitants. At the begin- ning of the nineteenth century there were 5,308,483 people. In the year 1810, the population was 7,239,881, an increase of 36.28 per cent; in 1820, the population was 9,633,822, an increase of 33.66 per cent; in 1830, it was 12,866,020, an increase of 32.51 per cent; in 1840, it was 17,069,453; an increase of 32.52 per cent; in 1850, it was 23,191,876, an increase of 35.83 per cent; in 1860, it was 31,443,321, an in- crease of 35.11 per cent; in 1870, it was 38,558,371, an increase of 22.65 per cent; in 1880, it was 50,154,783, an increase of 30.08 per cent; in 1890, it was 62,622,250, an increase of about 28 per cent; in 1900, \t was 76,295,220, an increase of 26 per cent, with a fair chance that these figures will be greatly changed before the year 1910. These figures are exclusive of the Islands of Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Is- lands and the Philippine Islands, which bring about 10,000,000 more people under our dominion. AS COMPARED WITH RUSSIA. Russia has the most people, but at our rate of increase it will not be many years before this country passes Russia. Another interesting fact is that the Eng- lish language is spreading twice as rapidly as any other tongue, so that the future promises to the United States the leadership not only in population, but in the number of English speaking people. “CUP DEFENDERS" WORTHLESS FOR CRUISINC, Very few people realize how utterly worthless for all purposes excepting racing is the ordinary cup defender. As a matter of fact craft of this kind are not entitled to be called “yachts” at all. They are racing machines pure and simple. This year, more than ever before, they have reached the limit. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS RACING MACHINES COSTLY. The last boat built to defend the cup was enormously expensive to construct, equally costly to keep in commission, and worthless for cruising purposes or for any of the uses to which the ordinary yacht is put. It has no cabin room and requires an enormous crew. Here there is not room for a man to stand up below the deck. LACK OF SPACE BELOW INECK. The distance between the floor of the yacht and the deck is hardly more than a man's height. This, however, would not be so bad if it were not for the braces and cross beams, which cut up the interior of the yacht from stem to stern. Steel braces cut up the cabin room at angles of forty-five degrees every few feet. It is impossible for two men to walk abreast inside the yacht anywhere between the bow and stern. Under these circumstances the construc tion of a cabin, or of comfortable quarters for the crew, is impossible. All that the in- side of the modern racing machine is good for is, therefore, to store spare sails, blocks, spars, tarpaulins, etc. With a boat of this kind, requiring a large crew, it is impos- sible to go on a cruise, no matter how much her sail area may be reduced, for there would be no comfortable quarters below deck. THE OLD-FASHIONED YACHT. The old fashioned yacht, on the other hand, was most comfortable for the owner and his guests and the crew, and indeed the pleasantest part of the craft was below deck, where a cosy cabin with ample room af- forded every facility for enjoyment of life. OWNERSHIP OF LAND IN AMERICA Twenty-two million acres of land in the United States belong to men who owe al- legiance to other governments. Massachu- setts contains 2,720,283 acres of land; thus it is that men owing allegiance to other powers own more than enough land to make eight states of the size of Massachusetts. The largest amount of land in this coun- try owned by any one man or corpora- tion, is the property of a company called the Holland Land Company. Twice as much land is owned by aliens in the United States as is owned by Englishmen in Ireland. LARGE LANDED PROPRIETORS. William Scully, of London, is a fair specimen of this class of plutocrats. He owns forty thousand acres of good farming land in Logan County, Illinois, besides large tracts of land in other counties. He rents this land for cash at a high rate, re- quires his tenants, who are mostly poor people, to put up their own houses, barns and farm buildings, makes them pay all the taxes, and receives from them $150,000 an- nually for permission to till the soil they live on, the value of which they have mainly made. He is only one of a large class of foreigners who own vast tracts of land in the United States. The Earl of Cleveland owns 106,650 acres; the Duke of Devon- shire, 148,626 acres; the Duke of North- umberland, 191,460 acres; Baron Tweed- dale, 1,750,000 acres; Byron H. Evans, 700,000 acres; Robt. Tenant, 530,000 acres; the Duke of Sutherland, 422,000 acres; M. Ellerhousen, 600,000 acres; and eighteen others, whose landed possessions in this country aggregate about 2,000,000 aCreS. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 515 NEW YORK'S MOVING STAIRWAYS : The inconvenience and fatigue grow- ing out of the congestion of passengers at the elevated railroad stations in New York * i § • *.xzº ºverzaze. have at last led to the construction of mov- ing stairways at some of the busiest points of ingress to the trains. These escalators, A FARM WORKED The Green County, Wisconsin, “poor farm” is operated by the inmates of the in- sane asylum of that county. STRAIT-JACKETS. There are no strait-jackets here. A “maniac" is unknown. Sometimes they are brought here, but they never remain, as maniacs. There are no dungeons and no cells for raving men and women, who have lost out in the struggle. But there is some- thing in the atmosphere of the place—a feeling of calm and peace—that has done more for the restoration of reason to the frontº as they are called, carry passengers up to the cars and thus greatly relieve the pres- sure of the hurrying throng. The operation sº ; § § N § i Aower * D of the escalators is indicated by the accom- panying illustration. BY CRAZY FOLK distracted ones than strait-jackets and their advocates ever thought of. The ma- niac speedily becomes the patient. As such he is taught to bear some part in the duties of the place, and thus is made once more a useful member of society. It is generally usefulness that awakens the forgotten sense of dignity, memory and other things that go to make men and women out of incura- bles. REASON RETURNS. Sometimes it is merely the picking up of chips that calls back the unfortunate one’s 516 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS interest in life. Sometimes it is the reluc- tant turning of a grindstone. Sometimes it is a little yellow, helpless canary, whose very littleness and helplessness appeal to the dormant spark in some wreck of a woman whose reason has lost its bearings. Sometimes it is one thing and sometimes another, but nearly always it is this single principle that is used to call back the memo- ries and powers that have gone. The pa- tients are made to feel that something de- pends on them. They are not outcasts and crazy people. - EESTRAINTS. The restraints to which they have been used in most cases are taken away. Men have been brought there raving, taking four strong assistants to hold them, and yet in a few hours the evil spirit that rent them somehow felt the power that lies in the methods of the place. Confinement, straps and their like are absolutely un- known. The institution is self-supporting. In connection with the asylum—which does not carry any suggestion at all of that grim thing—is the county poor farm. The men and women in this department are gener- ally past the working time, and are the greatest burden on the place. The insane are taught to work. They sow, they reap, they do all the farm labor, including the care of the cattle and horses and the team- ing itself. They do much of the carpenter COINS OF TEIE SEIEREL. The first mention of the use of silver in the Bible is in Genesis xx: 16. In Genesis xxiii: 16, its use as money is distinctly men- work and in other ways are made to help themselves and to help others. A UNIQUE REPORT. One of the superintendent's reports to the state authorities is almost unique, and is remarkable chiefly for its blanks: “Trans- ferred to other institutions, none; number escaped and not returned, none; under re- straint or seclusion one month or more at a time, none; temporarily in restraint or seclusion, none; total number days re- straint, none.” On the contrary, out of a total number of 134 patients, seven were discharged as sane, and three were paroled and not re- turned. Thirty-two out of the men and twenty-three of the women work all day regularly. Thirty-three in all work half a day or more, regularly; sixteen work less, Only thirty do no work at all, and just thirty are classified as “physically disabled otherwise, aside from their mental disabil- ity,” so that every patient physically able works to a greater or less extent every day. Green County folks have learned to speak of the institution as the “farm” rather than as the asylum. The farm consists of 320 acres, and 200 of these are under cultiva- tion. All the work, even the teaming, is done by “crazy people.” No less than for- ty of them go about their work like any other “hands,” absolutely without watch- ing, and among the very few attendants the same rule of calmness and kindness is in force. THE BIBLE tioned, in the denomination of shekel, which was the unit of Jewish calculations. “And Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver which he had named in the audience FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 517 of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the mer- chant.” Thus, money has formed the basis of commercial intercourse from the earliest stages. The metals most commonly men- tioned as used for this purpose are gold, silver and copper. MONEY OF EGYPT AND CANAAN. Throughout the Old Testament the mon- ey of Egypt and Canaan is mentioned with- out distinction, leading to the conclusion that the money of the two countries, if not the same, was interchangeable. RINGS AS MONEY. Old Egyptian inscriptions give repre- sentations of money in the form of rings, which did not represent any fixed amount, but had to be weighed. Silver was proba- bly the earliest and therefore, the standard, representative of value, and the shekel was ABOUT WHERE GROWN. The peanut is grown mostly in South- ampton, Surrey, Prince George, Nanse- mond, Sussex, Isle of Wight, Princess Anne and Norfolk counties, in Virginia, and in Currituck county, North Carolina. The nuts differ greatly in quality and fla- vor, and the finest come from Nansemond and Isle of Wight counties in Old Virginia. Although they grow on vines, the nut is developed under the ground. PEANUT. FACTORIES OF NORFOLK. The peanut factories of Norfolk, Vir- ginia, which handle more than a million bushels per year, furnish an interesting the common denomination. It was often called a “piece of silver.” - THE BEKA. / The first allusion to Jewish coinage is found in the Apochrypha, where it is re- lated, in I Maccabees xv.: 6, that Simon was granted permission to coin money with his own stamp, and he probably issued the first distinctive Jewish coins, the silver shekel, and the half shekel, called the beka. The standard or sacred shekel was kept in the sanctuary, and by this the coinage was regulated. The coins in use in the Biblical period were as follows: The coins of Cro- tona, Boetia, Berea, two Syracusan pieces, Acanthus, Phocis Thessalonica, Egina, Herod's shekel, another Berean coin, the Patera, Athens, two Pisistratus coins, the Magnesia, Antiochus Dionysius, Corinth, Antiochus Epiphanes, coin of Macrinus, Byblos, Syria, and of Tigranes, King of Syria. PEANUTS study of the methods of preparing this humble but popular little edible for the market. CLEANING. The nuts are separated, cleansed and classed as follows, each machine having a duty to perform: First, there is a large cylinder in which all the nuts are placed in order that the dust may be shaken off from them. They pass thence to the brushes, where every nut receives fifteen feet of a brushing before it becomes free. Then they pass through a sluiceway to the floor below, where they are dropped on an endless belt which is about two and a half 518 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS feet in width, and passes along at the rate of four miles an hour. SORTING. On each side of the belt stand eight col- ored girls, and as the nuts fall from the sluice onto the belt, the girls, with a quick motion of the hand, pick out all the poor looking nuts. Two-thirds are thus picked off before the belt reaches the end, and only the finest pass the crucible. These drop through another sluice into bags on the floor below. They are taken away by hand, sewed up, branded as “cocks,” and stamped with a r00Ster. “SHIPs,” “EAGLES" AND “CHIPs.” The nuts caught up by the girls are thrown to one side, placed in bags and taken to another room, where they are picked over, and the best are singled out and branded as “ships.” The third grade, called “eagles,” is picked from the cullings of the “cocks” and “ships,” bagged and sent to another floor. There the nuts are shaken out of the shell by a patent sheller, placed in 200-pound sacks and shipped to the North for use of the confectioners. A PECULIAR, OIL. A peculiar kind of oil is extracted from the meat of the nut, in which the whole- sale druggists deal largely. THE SHELLS. The shells are packed in sacks and sold to stablekeepers for horse bedding. A pea- nut factory of average size cleans, picks and packs about 3,000 bushels per day. LARGEST APARTMENT HOUSE IN THE WORLD The Ansonia, a 17-story structure, which occupies an entire block on Broadway, New York, between 73d and 74th streets, is said to be the largest apartment building in the world. - TWENTY-FIVE HUNDRED ROOMS ABOVE THE GROUND. Some idea of the magnitude of the hotel may be formed from the fact that it con- tains no less than 2,500 rooms above ground, and consumed more than three years in its construction. THE BASEMENT. The building is supplied with many mod- ern and novel arrangements for heating, ventilation, and the supply of hot and cold water. The basement is a veritable reposi- tory of 20th-century inventions. Here are a storage, repair and charging room for automobiles; a grocery, where everything in the line of edibles and household necessa- ries may be obtained by the tenants at cur- rent prices; a meat market, bakery, milk depot, barber shop, laundry, ladies' hair dressing and manicuring parlors, safe de- posit vaults, cold storage rooms for furs, and other conveniences. There is also one of the largest swimming pools in New York, which it is intended to use for a swimming school. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 519 HIGH RENTALS. The cheapest bachelor suites in the build- ing rent for $600 a year, and consist of one room and a bath. The family apartments range in size from five to fourteen rooms, with bath, and the rent varies from $1,500 to $6,000 a year. These are rates for un- furnished rooms, and give a pretty good idea of the cost of living in style in the metropolis. CHRONOLOGY OF ELECTRICAL DISCOVERIES Alessandro Volta discovered the electric current, 1800. Sir Humphrey Davy produced an arc light, 1810. Induction discovered by Faraday, 1831. First electric road built by Thomas Dav- enport, of Brandon, Vermont, 1885. Automobile invented by Davenport, 1885. Wheatstone and Cooke invented a system of telegraphy, 1835. Zinc-copper battery invented by Daniell, 1835. Submarine cable laid across the Hoogly river, 1839. First Morse telegraph line constructed, 1844. Royal House discovered method for printing by telegraph, 1846. Automatic repeaters invented, 1848. First long submarine cable laid in Brit- ish channel, 1850. First successful Atlantic cable laid, 1858. James Elkington invented system of elec- trolytic copper refining, 1865. Stearn's duplex telegraph system intro- duced, 1872. Edison introduced a quadruplex system, 1874. First modern electric road built by George F. Greene, of Kalamazoo, Michi- gan, 1875. Telephone invented by Bell and Gray, 1875. Continuous current dynamo discovered by Gramme, 1876. First telephone exchange operated at New Haven, Connecticut, 1878. Incandescent lamp invented by Edison, 1879. First central lighting station established in New York, 1880. Storage battery, or accumulator, invent- ed by Planté, 1882. First practicable trolley line built by J. C. Henry at Kansas City, Missouri, 1884. The Siemens brothers built the first Eu- ropean electric road in Berlin, 1884. Electricity first used on elevated roads in New York, 1885. First long-distance, high-voltage power- transmission plant installed at Pomona, California, 1892. Telautograph invented by Elisha Gray, 1893. Heavy trains moved by electric locomo- tive in Baltimore, 1895. - The X-ray discovered by Dr. Wilhelm Ronrad Roentgen, 1895. Road automobile came into general use, 1897. Wireless telegraphy developed by Gu- glielmo Marconi, 1899. Transatlantic telephony male possible by Dr. I. M. Pupin, 1900. 520 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS Marconi talked across the Atlantic with- out wires, 1901. Improved storage battery for automo. biles invented by Edison, 1901. DERIVATION OF WORDS STANDING FOR MONEY The derivations of the words relating to money and commerce are interesting and instructive. “Pecuniary” takes us back to the times when values were reckoned by so many head of cattle (“pecus”). The word “money” is from “moneta,” (MoMEY), be- cause in Rome coins were first regularly struck in the temple of Juno Moneta, which again was derived from monere (to warn), because it was built on the spot where Man- lius heard the Gauls approaching to the at- tack on the city. Coin is probably from the Latin “cuneus,” a die or stamp. NAMED FROM THEIR, WEIGHT. Many coins are probably so called from their weight, as, for instance, our pound, the French livre and the Italian lira; others, from the metal, as the “aurens;” the rupee, from the Sanscrit “rupyra,” sil- ver; others from the design, as the angel; the testoon, from teste or tete, a head; others from the head of the state, as the sov- ereign, crown; others from the proper name of the monarch, such as the daric, from Darius, the Philip, Louis d'or, or the Na- poleon. THE DOLLAR. The dollar, or thaler, is short for the Joachimsthaler, or money of the Joachims valley, in Bohemia, where these coins were struck in the 16th century. Guineas were called after the country from which the gold was obtained; and the “franc” is an abbreviation of the inscription “Franco- rum Rex.” The “sou” is from the Latin, solidus. THE SHILLING. The word “shilling” seems to be derived from a root signifying to divide. In several cases the name indicates the fraction of some larger coin as the denarious, half pen- ny, farthing, cent and mull. The pound was originally not a coin, but a weight, and comes from the Latin, pon- dus. Our pound was originally a pound of silver, which was divided into 240 pennies. The origin of the word penny is unknown. Some have derived it from pendo, to weigh. STERLING. Our word “sterling,” is said to go back to the time of the conquest. Some have sup- posed that it was first attributed to coins struck at Stirling; others, that the name was derived from coins having a star on the ob- verse. The most probable suggestion is that it has reference to the Easterling or North German merchants. HOW SPECTACLES ARE MADE The white lens in use in the ordinary spectacle of commerce is made of the com- mon window-pane glass rolled in sheets: sometimes it is made into balls. From these are cut pieces of from 1 1-4 to 1 1-2 inches in size, which are taken into the FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 521 grinding room, and each piece is cemented separately upon what is called a lap, of a semi-circular shape. THE PROCESS OF GRINDING. These are made to fit into a correspond- ing curve or saucer, into which fine emery powder is introduced, and subjected to a swift rotary motion. The gradual curve in the lap gives to the glass as it is ground a corresponding shape, until the desired cen- ter is reached; the lap is then taken out and subjected to warmth, which melts the ce- ment sufficiently to permit the glass being removed and turned upon the opposite side, when the same process is renewed. THE PROCESS OF SHAPING. This being completed, the lenses are de- tached again from the lap and taken to an- other department, where they are shaped to fit the frames. This is accomplished by a machine of extreme delicacy. Each piece of glass is put separately upon a rest, when a diamond is brought to bear upon it, mov- ing in the form of an oval, thus cutting the desired size; but the edges, of course, are rough and sharp and must be beveled. BEVELING. For this purpose they are turned over to another set of hands, mostly girls, who have charge of the grindstones, which are about six inches in thickness. Each operator is provided with a gauge. The glass is taken between the forefinger and thumb, and held sufficiently sidewise to produce half the de- sired bevel. When this is attained it is again turned, and the other side of the bevel com- pleted. During this process it is constantly gauged in order to be sure that the frame will close upon it without too much pres: sure, which would break the lens. FOCUSING. The next process to which the lens is sub- jected is that of focusing, and it requires extreme care. The person having this de- partment to attend to is placed in a small room, alone. Across the entrance is hung a curtain, which is only drawn aside suf- ficiently to admit the required amount of light from a window several feet away. Upon one of the top panes of the window is placed a piece of heavy cardboard, with a small hole cut in the center, representing the bull’s eye of a target. Through this the rays of light shine upon the lens in the hands of a workman, and are reflected through it to a dark background. The lens is then moved back and forth upon an inch measure, until the proper focus is attained. Say, for instance, the extreme end of the measure is 62 inches, the lens is placed at that, but does not focus; it is gradually moved along, inch by inch, until, perhaps, it is brought to 36 inches. NUIMBERING. At this the proper center, or focus, is attained, and it is then numbered 36. The same operation is of course neces- sary with every lens. This accounts for the numbers which are upon spectacles, or glasses of any kind, when purchased. THE OLDEST NEWSPAPER IN THE WORLD The Peking Gazette, the oldest periodical in the world, has an estimated circulation of more than 100,000. It has ten publish- ers in Canton, each of whom employs about ten distributors, so that there are 100 dis- tributors in the city and suburbs alone. 34 522 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS The Gazette is printed from movable types, and each publisher takes a certain number of copies. It is delivered every two days to subscribers, who are of two classes. The first retain the pamphlet and pay about 20 cents a month; the second pay about half that sum, and return the Gazette to the dis- tributor the next time he comes around. To- gether with it is delivered the local “official sheet,” the matter of which is collected from the yamens daily. This is printed from wax blocks, which are then re- melted and are available for another day’s issue. THE OLDEST MANUSCRIPT IN EXISTENCE This production, entitled, “De Imita- tione,” in the handwriting of Thomas à I(empis, was finished in 1441. It was saved from the ruins of the monastery of St. Ag- mes on the Nemelenberg, destroyed during the revolt of the Netherlands. Johannes Latomus, prior of the Monastery of the Throne was the means of its salvation, in 1557. By Latomus the manuscript was carried to Antwerp and left at his death to a friend, Jean Bellere, a man of letters. On his death, in 1595, his sons became possessed of the treasure and turned it over to the Jesuits. On the suppression of that order. “De Imitatione” passed into the possession of the Burgundian Library at Brussels. That this work is the production of Thomas à Kempis has been vigorously disputed by Some, but certain peculiarities of the manu- script seem to dispose of this contention. These are found in a system of punctuation characterizing the undoubted writings of this author, the object of which is to divide the work into rythmical periods. These marks are as follows: the full stop, fol- lowed by a small capital; the full stop, followed by a small letter; the usual sign of interrogation; and lastly, an unusual sign, the clivis, or flexa, used in the musical notation of the period. When the Latin is read with due attention to these marks, a distinct melody is per- ceptible. FAMILIAR MAXIMS AND THEIR ORIGIN Many of our common sayings, so trite and pithy, are used without the least idea from whose mouth or pen they first origin- ated. SHAIKESPEAR.E. - The works of Shakespeare probably fur- nish us with more familiar maxims than those of any other writer. To him we owe: “All is not gold which glitters,” “Make a virtue of necessity,” “Screw your courage to the sticking place,” “They laugh that win,” “This is the short and long of it,” “Comparisons are odious,” “As merry as the day is long,” “A Daniel come to judg- ment,” “Frailty, thy name is woman,” and a host of others. WASHINGTON IF VING. Washington Irving gives us “The Al- mighty Dollar.” Thomas Morton queried long ago “What will Mrs. Grundy say?” while Goldsmith answers “Ask me no ques- tions and I’ll tell you no fibs.” Charles C. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 523 Pinckney gives us “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute.” GENERAL BIENRY LEE. “First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen” was writ- ten, in 1790, by General Henry Lee. He also originated “Make assurance doubly sure,” “Count their chickens ere they’re hatched,” “Christmas comes but once a year,” and “Look before you leap.” Thomas Tasser, a writer of the 16th century, gives us “It’s an ill will turns no good,” “Better late than never,” “Look ere thou leap” and “The stone that is rolling can gather no moss.” “All cry and no wool” is found in Butler's Hudibras. DRYDENſ. Dryden says, “None but the brave de- serve the fair,” “Men are but children of a larger growth,” and “Through thick and thin.” “No pent up Utica contracts our power” came from Jonathan Sewen. NATHANIEL LEE AND MIATTHEW PRYOR. “When Greeks join Greek then comes the tug of war” came from Nathaniel Lee in 1692. Matthew Prior said, “Of two evils I have chosen the least,”—and “The end must justify the means.” We are indebted to Colley Cibber for ABOUT Water is found in four separate states or forms, as ice, water, vapor, and in combina- tion with other substances. As a rule, all bodies contract in cooling, but water in- creases in bulk and becomes lighter as it gets cooler. Although water in freezing becomes in- “Richard is himself again.” Johnson tells us of a “Good hater,” and Mackintosh, in 1791, used the phrase, “Wise and masterly inactivity.” COWPER AND THOMAS aſ KEMPIS. “Variety’s the very spice of life,” and “Not much the worse for wear,” are the words of Cowper; and “Man proposes, but God disposes,” those of Thomas à Kempis. - IMILTON. Christopher Marlowe, wrote “Love me little, love me long,” and Edward Cook opined that “A man’s house is his castle.” Milton originated the expressions, “A para- dise of fools,” “A wilderness of sweets,” and “Moping melancholy and moon struck madness.” Edward Young tells us that “Death loves a shining mark,” “A fool at 40 is a fool indeed,” and “Man wants but little, nor that little long.” Bacon said “Knowledge is power,” and Thomas Southern originated the phrase “Pity’s akin to love.”. Dean Swift said, “Bread is the staff of life”; Campbell said, “Coming events cast their shadows before,” and “Distance lends enchantment to the view.” Keats said, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever”; Franklin said, “God helps them who help them- selves”; Lawrence Sterne said, “God tem- pers the wind to the shorn lamb.” WATER tensely cold, cold water and cold sulphuric acid mixed in certain proportions, become intensely hot. IN THE FORM OF WAPO.R. Water is heavier than air, and yet, mixed with the air in the form of vapor, it occupies 524 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS a space 1,400 times greater than it did in its ordinary liquid state. A cubic inch of water will make nearly a cubic foot of steam. Water in the shape of steam at low pres- sure will scald and blister the hand, but at high pressure, and with double heat, it will not scald or blister. WATER FROM THE THAMES. Under certain circumstances water will change its condition without any apparent cause. Ships leaving the port of London take their water from the Thames, and it is said to have some peculiar properties which render it fit for long sea voyages. After a few weeks, or less, it turns putrid and offensive; then it changes its character altogether, becomes pure and palatable, and is better than any other water for sea stock. THE RHONE WATER. Water from the Rhone, if allowed to set- tle and then put into earthen vessels, will remain fit for use a long time. In imperial Rome there was a good supply of water. The allowance for each inhabitant was 300 gallons daily. CROTON WATER. Croton water (New York) is remarkably free from impurities, as it contains less than five grains of organic and inorganic mat- ter per gallon; the water in Philadelphia contains less than four grains. SPRING WATER IN POIRTUGAL. In some parts of Portugal the spring wa- ters are so hard as to be quite useless for many purposes. WELL WATER IN EDINBURGH. The well water in Edinburgh is so soft that soap may be dissolved in it, and it will still remain transparent. ODID EFFECT OF IRON IN WATER. Iron in water will give a bleacher of cloth no end of trouble. A woman in Scotland who bleached her own household linen, after watering some webs near her home, was amazed to find that they became redder and redder every day. She attributed this to witchcraft, blamed the person she hated most, and sold the cloth for a trifle. The water was afterward found to contain a large amount of iron. Water is liable to become contaminated by lead, and cases of lead poisoning often occur when lead in water is exposed to the air. The carbonic acid of the air attacks the lead and water, acting upon it in that state, makes the lead soluble. Water con- veyed in leaden pipes to a fish pond will kill the fish. THE DEADLY SNAKES OF INDIA ANNUAL AMOUNT PAID FOR SNAKE- RILLING. The amount of rewards paid in a single year for the destruction of wild beasts and venomous snakes in India, was 99,189 ru- pees. THE CHAIN WIPER. Three specimens of snakes dangerous to human life are to be met with in the Bom- bay Presidency, viz.: the cobra, the chain viper and a small, black, white-banded snake, known to naturalists as the Bungarus Aren: FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 525 atus. Popular Anglo-Indian tradition adds others, such as the carpet snake, the whip snake, the eye snake, etc. THE COBRA. The cobra, one of the commonest snakes in India, is one of the most fatal in the world. It is estimated that there are more than 1,000 for every square mile. In sta- tions in the Deccan, as, for instance, Poona, the cobra finds board and lodging, on easy OLD CLOCKS In his “Hyperion,” Longfellow tells us that in the belfry of the Kauthaus in Co- blenz is a huge head, with a brazen helmet and a beard, and whenever the clock strikes, at each stroke of the hammer this giant's head opens its great jaws and smites its teeth together as if it would say: “Time was—Time is—Time is past!” THE “MAN IN THE CUSTOM HOUSE.” This figure is known in all the country round as the “Man in the Custom House,” and when a friend from the country meets a friend from Coblenz, instead of saying: “How are all the good people in Coblenz’” he says, “How is the man in the Custom House?” A REMARKABLE CIOCK IN PRAGUE. Another very remarkable clock is found at Prague, near the old Hussite church. The clock itself forms part of the original tower, while the face or dial is exposed to the street. This dial is six or eight feet in diameter, and has a great number of hands, recording hours, minutes, days, months, years, and even centuries. The dial is set in an elab- orete framework, about eight feet high and terms, in the holes of the field rats, and there serves a useful purpose. SNAKES FEAR MAN. Snakes shun man far more than man shuns them, and the cobra is especially timid and wary in disposition. NUMBER, KILLED BY SNARE-BITES IN A SINGLE YEAR. According to statistics, the number of persons killed in India by venomous snake bites was 16,812 in a single year. AND WATCHES fifteen feet long, and this metal framework is ornamented with many curious and quaint devices. One of these is connected with the striking of the hours. - A WONDERFUL CLOCK IN VETNICE. On the dial of a wonderful clock in St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice, the twenty-four hours are marked with the signs of the zodi- iac and the phases of the moon. Above this is the Madonna, sitting in state upon a plat- form between two doors. ON GRAND RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. On grand religious festivals, the door on the right hand of the Virgin opens and out walks an angel with a big trumpet, which he blows, and bowing to the Madonna, passes on. He is then followed by three men rep- resenting the three wise men of the East, one of whom is as black as night. These all pause and bow before the Virgin, and then pass through the door on her left, which closes after them. On the platform is a huge bell, beside which stand two giant figures, who strike the hours with sledge hammers, while above all is the Lion of St. Mark. 526 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS AN OLD JAPANIESE TIMEIKEEPER. In Japan is an old timekeeper of remark- able construction. This clock, in a frame three feet high and five feet long, repre- sented a noon landscape of great loveliness. In the fore ground were plum and cherry trees and rich plants in full bloom; in the rear was a hill, gradual in ascent, from which flowed a cascade, elaborately imitated in crystal. From this point a thread-like stream glided along, encircling in its wind- ings, rocks and tiny islands, but presently losing itself in a far-off stretch of woodland. In the sky turned a golden sun, indicating, as it passed, the striking hours, which were all marked upon the frame below, where a slowly creeping tortoise served as a hand. A bird of exquisite plumage, resting on a plum tree branch, by its wings proclaimed the expiration of each hour. When the song ceased, a mouse sprang from the grotto near- by, and, running over the hill, disappeared. THE CLOCK AT GENEVA. THAT EX- CELLED ALL OTHERS. Droz, a mechanic of Geneva, produced a clock which excelled all others in its mar- velous construction. On it were seated a negro, a shepherd and a dog. When the clock struck, the shepherd played six tunes on his flute, and the dog approached and fawned upon him. The King of Spain came to see this wonderful invention, and was delighted beyond measure. “The gentleness of my dog,” said Droz, “is his least merit; if your majesty touch one of those apples which you see in the shepherd's basket, you will admire the animal’s fidelity.” The king took an ap- ple, upon which the dog flew at his hand, barking so loudly and so naturally that an- other dog which had come into the room, began to bark also. TERRIFIED COURTIERS. The courtiers became terrified, deeming it witchcraft, and crossing themselves, has- tily departed. Droz requested the only one who ventured to remain, to ask the negro what time it was. He did so in Spanish, receiving no reply. Droz remarked that the negro had not learned Spanish, whereupon the question was repeated in French, and the negro immediately replied. This fright- ened the questioner also, and he, too, beat a hasty retreat, sure that the whole thing must be of the devil. THE WATER CLOCK. The first clock of which we have any ac- count was invented in Alexandria, Egypt, about 245 B. C. One hundred years later the water clock, a very rude and imperfect timepiece, was introduced into Rome. The water issued drop by drop through a hole of the vessel and fell into another, in which a light body that floated marked the hight of the water as it rose, and by these means indicated the time that had elapsed. At first the water flowed out rapidly, so that the clock required much regulation. WEIGHTS AND WHEELS. With slight variations in form of con- struction, the water clock served the pur- poses of mankind for more than a thousand years, and not until the eleventh century did clocks moved by weights and wheels appear in Europe, at first in the monas- teries. Some of them were very costly. THE SALADIN OF EGYPT TO THE EM- PEROR, FREDERIC. In 1232, the Saladin of Egypt sent to the Emperor, Frederic a clock worth 5,000 ducats. It resembled a celestial globe, in which figures of the sun, moon and other FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 527 skill, were impelled by weights and wheels, courses in certain fixed intervals. In about 200 years the common people began to want to know the “time o’ day,” and clocks were placed in the towers of public buildings. Among these were many wonderful examples of mechanical skill and ingenuity, that at Strass- burg being especially noteworthy. performing THE STRASSBURG AND PADUA Strassburg had its first public clock in the year 1370; Padua, some time in the 14th century; Courtray and Dijon, in 1382. There was little improvement in clocks until the middle of the 17th ELI TERRY'S WOODEN CLOCK. Eli Terry of Plymouth, Massa- chusetts, made the first wooden clock in 1793. WATCHES. The watch dates from about the middle of the 16th century, the first being very cumbrous. The opposite extreme reached 150 years later. In 1764, John Arnold com- pleted and presented to George III a watch three-fifths of an inch in diameter, perfect in all its parts, and repeating the hours, quarters and half quarters. Its size was that of a silver two-pence, and its weight, that of a sixpence. size was º º/ ſº . 528 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS WHAT CRIME COSTS THE PEOPLE Putting into actual figures the annual cºst of detecting, punishing, and prevent- ing crime, Chicago, Illinois, and Cook County, in which it is located, are used as an illustration of the manner in which the money is applied. The police force, with its 3,000 men, leads: Police department . . . . . . . . . . $3,500,000 BRIDEWELL. City’s portions . . . . . $175,000 Country portion. . . . 18,000 $193,000 Criminal Courts: Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . $45,000 HISTORY OF THE The weeping willow tree came to Amer- ica through the medium of Alexander Pope, the poet, who planted a willow twig at his Twickenham villa, on the banks of the Thames. The twig came to him in a box of figs sent from Smyrna by a friend, who had lost his all in the South Sea bubble, and had gone to that distant land to recoup his fortunes. A young British officer, who came to Boston with the army sent to crush the rebellion of the American colonies, Supplies . . . . . . . . . . $20,000 — $65,000 STATE'S ATTORNEY. Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . $50,000 Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . 4,500 - 54,500 Jail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,000 City Police Courts. . . . . . . . . . 10,000 Juvenile Court (preventive measures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500 For locks, bolts and wires, watchmen and special police- IIlêIl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4,115,000 WEEPING WILLOW brought with him a twig from Pope's now beantiful willow tree, intending to plant it in America when he should comfortably settle down on lands confiscated from the conquered Americans. The young officer, disappointed in these expectations, gave his yellow twig, wrapped in oil silk, to John Park Custis, son of the wife of George Washington, who planted it on his Abing- don estate in Virginia. It thrived and be- came the progenitor of our willow trees. THE BEGINNING OF CERTAIN THINGS Envelopes were first used in 1839. Anaesthesia was discovered in 1844. The First Steel Pen was made in 1830. The First Air Pump was made in 1654. The First Lucifer Match was made in I829. The First Balloon Ascension was made in 1783. The First Iron Steamship was built in 1830. Ships were first “copper bottomed” in 1783. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 529 Coaches were first used in England in 1569, The First Horse-Railroad was built in 1826–7. The Entire Hebrew Bible was printed in 1488. Gold was first discovered in California in 1848. The First Steamer plied the Hudson in 1807. The First Watches were made at Nurem- burg in 1477. Kerosene was first used for lighting pur- poses in 1826. The First Newspaper Advertisement ap- peared in 1652. The First Copper Cent was coined in New Haven in 1687. The First Telescope is said to have been used in England in 1608. The First Sawmaker's brought to America in 1819. The First Locomotive used in America was placed in service in 1829. The First Almanac was printed by George Van Purbach in 1460. The First Chimney was introduced into Rome from Padua in 1329. Glass Windows were first introduced into England in the eighth century. The First Steam Engine was brought to America from England in 1753. The First Complete Sewing Machine was patented by Elias Howe, Jr., in 1846. The First Society to promote Christian knowledge was organized in 1698. The First Manufacture of Pins in Amer- ica was soon after the War of 1812. Glass Beads were found on mummies over 3,000 years old. Anvil was Gas was first used to illuminate in 1702, and first used in New York in 1827. The First Glass Factory in the United States was built in 1780. The First National Bank in the United States was incorporated December 31, 1781. The First Temperance Society in the United States was organized in Saratoga, New York, in 1808. The First Machine for Carding, roving and spinning cotton in the United States, was manufactured in 1786. The First Society for the Circulation of the Bible was organized in 1805. The First Telegraph Instrument was operated by S. F. B. Morse in 1835. The First Union Flag, with 13 red and white stripes and the English cross in one corner, was unfurled over the camp at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, January 1, 1776. The First Daily Newspaper appeared in 1702. - The First Newspaper in the United States was published in Boston, September 25, 1790. The First Religious Newspaper, the “Boston Record,” was published in 1815. The “Shoe Black” first came into vogue in 1750. THE TAHITIAN’S FIRST GLIMPSE OF NAILS. When Captain Cook first visited Tahiti, the natives were using nails made of wood, bone, shell and stone. When they saw iron nails, they fancied them to be shoots of some very hard wood, and being desirous of securing such a valuable commodity, they planted them in their gardens. - 530 FACTS FOR THE QURIOUS THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Learned men estimate that there are at. least 1,000 forms of religious worship practiced in the world to-day. These may be classed under four great heads, viz.: the Pagan, the Mohamedan, the Jewish and the Christian. Of these, the chief Pagan religions now existing are: Fetichism, Brahmanism and Buddhism, Confucian- ism, Taoism and the primitive religion of the North American Indians. The number of followers of Christianity is estimated at 506,000,000, with 800,000,- 000 followers of the other creeds. Thus it is that Christianity claims nearly two- thirds as many as the other sects com- bined. CURIOSITIES OF THE BIBLE The Bible bears no date. It comprises 66 documents, or books, and is supposed to have been written by 40 men. The Book of Isaiah has 66 chapters. There are 54 miracles recorded in the Old Testament, and 51 in the New Testament. SHORTEST AND LONGEST VERSES. The shortest verse in the Bible is John xi: 35, “Jesus Wept.” In point of words, but not of letters, another verse is equally short, viz.: Thessalonians, w; 16, “Re- joice Evermore.” The longest verse is the ninth verse of the eighth chapter of Esther. Esther is the only book in which the Deity is not mentioned. THE WORLD'S In 1775, there were only 27 newspapers published in the United States. Now there are 18,657 in America; 7,000 in Germany; 9,000 in Great Britain; 4,300 in France; 1,976 in Japan; 1,500 in Italy, and the remainder are distributed through- out Australia, Spain, Switzerland, Hol- NUMBER OF CHAPTERS, WORDS AND LETTERS. The Bible contains 3,566,480 letters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, and 1,189 chapters. The word, “Lord,” occurs 1,855 times, and the word, “and,” 46,277 times. The word, “Reverend,” occurs but once, and then in the ninth verse of the 111th Psalm. The middle verse in the Scrip- tures is the eighth verse of the 118th Psalm. The 21st verse of the seventh chap- ter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet, with the exception of the letter “J.’” In the Bible, are no words or names with more than six syllables, NEWSPAPERS land, Belgium, Asia and Canada, the total number in the world being 51,234. The oldest newspaper in the United States, called the “Pennsylvania Ga- zette,” is published at Philadelphia, and was established by Samuel Kreimer, in 1728. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 531 LARGEST BELL IN THE WORLD To Kremlin, Moscow, belongs the credit of having the largest bell in the world. This bell has a circumference of 68 feet BIG BELL AT CHIONIN, KIOTO, GROWTH OF THE The comparative numerical strength of the principal nations of the world has un- dergone many revisions during the last 103 years. In 1800, the great powers were thus grouped: Russia, 38,140,000 population; France, at the bottom, and is 21 feet in height. Its greatest thickness is 23 inches, and it weighs 443,772 pounds. It has never been rung, and was evidently cast where it now rests. HIGHEST VOLCANO IN THE WORLD. Popocatepetl (smoking mountain), 35 miles southwest of Pueblo, Mexico, is the tallest volcano in the world. It is 17,748 feet above the sea level, and has a crater three miles in circumference, and 1,000 | feet deep. LARGEST THEATER IN THE WORLD. The new opera house in Paris, France, is the largest in the world. It covers nearly three acres of ground; its cubic dimensions are 4,287,000 feet, and it cost about $100,- 000,000. LARGEST CAVERN IN THE WORLD. The Mammoth Cave, in Edmondson º county, Kentucky, is the largest cavern in the world. The cave consists of a succes- sion of irregular chambers, several of which are large, situated on different levels. Some of these are traversed by navigable branches of the subterranean Echo river. Blind fish are found in these waters. * GREAT POWERS 27,720,000; Germany, 22,330,000; Aus- tria, 21,230,000; the United Kingdom, 15,570,000; Italy, 13,380,000; Spain, 10,440,000; the United States, 5,310,000. In the year 1902, we had the follow- ing figures: 532 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS Russia, 130,896, 628; the United States, 79,725,456; Germany, 53,000,000; Aus- tria-Hungary, 42,600,906; the United Kingdom, 49,559,954; France, 38,517,- 975; Italy, 31,000,000; Spain, 18,250,- 000. ENGLISH-SPEAKING RACES. Of this population, the English-speaking races in Great Britain and Ireland, to- gether with the English-speaking colonies, and the United States, number 133,109,- 543, as against Russia's 130,896,628. LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS There are 28 locomotive works in the United States, and they represent a capital of $40,813,793. The value of their prod- ucts for 1902 was $36,107,145, to produce which involved an outlay of $11,745,524, for wages; $1,243,350, for miscellaneous expenses; and $21,175,420, for materials used. NUMBER OF LOCOMOTIVES BUILT IN . 1902. At the 28 establishments 2,962 locomo- tives of all classes were built, aggregating a value of $28,345,256, compared with 2,409 locomotives, valued at $19,752,465, built in 19 establishments in 1890. In ad- dition to these, 272 locomotives were con- structed at 26 railroad shops, which were valued at $3,276,393. INCREASE IN COST OF CONSTRUCTION. During the last ten years there has been a considerable increase in the cost of loco- motives built. In 1890 an average loco- motive cost $8,199; in 1902 the average price was $9,956. The increased price in construction is due to increased size and the materials used. In construction, Penn sylvania was first, with a record of 49.3 per cent of the whole, with New York state a close second, and New Jersey, third. TOTAL INUIMBER OF LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS IN 1902. The number of locomotives in the United States in 1902 was 39,584; the total car equipment, 1,550,833; and the total nun- ber of railroad employes, 1,071,169. TOTAL MILEAGE OF TRACK. The United States had at the same period, 195,571 miles of main track; 12,845 miles of second track; 1,154 miles of third track; 876 miles of fourth track; and 54,920 miles of yard track and sid- ings, a total of 265,366 miles of single track. TOLD IN FIGURES THE NEW YORK RAPID TRANSIT TUN- NEL. Timber and lumber costing $2,000,000 were used in the preparatory work in the New York rapid transit tunnel. AGRICULTURE IN COLORADO. Colorado cultivates about 2,500,000 acres of land, and has nearly 15,000 miles of irrigating canals and ditches. Its agri- cultural products exceed by far the mineral. - FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 533 EAT NO IMEAT. At least seven-tenths of the population of the globe never eat flesh meat. In India, China, Japan, and adjacent countries, there are about 400,000,000 people who eat no flesh meat. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. Of the 85,000 Indians in the five civil- ized tribes, Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles, less than 15,000 are full bloods, so the Indian will soon lose his racial identity. VICTIMS OF ELECTRIC STREET CARS. Electric street cars killed 1,216 persons and injured 47,428 in twelve years, from the time they came into use until 1903. The number of passengers carried in a year has increased from 2,000,000,000 to 5,- 000,000,000. PERCENTAGE OF SEIOTS THAT EIIT. During the Spanish-American war it was estimated that only 3 per cent of the shots fired by American gunners hit the enemy's ships. In the recent quarterly target practice of the North Atlantic squadron, 51% per cent of the shots hit. HIGH WAGES. The highest wage in the world, $78.30 a minute for a six hour day, is received by the Czar of Russia. THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PRECIOUS METALS TJINITED STATES LEADS. Once more the United States leads in the production of precious metals. In the report of the director of the mint for the calendar year 1901; this country’s output of gold and silver was $111,795,100, out of $368,373,800 turned out by the whole world. The figures of the world's ouput by countries were as follows: NORTH AMERICA. Silver, commercial Gold value. United States ............ $ 78,666,700 $ 33,128,400 exico .................... 10,284,800 34,593.900 Canada ................... 24,128,500 3,145,600 AFRICA AND AUSTRALASIA. Africa ..................... $ 9,089,500 - - - - - - - - - - Australasia ............... 76,880,200 $ 7,829,500 EUROPE. Russia .................... $ 22,850,900 $ 94 200 Austria-Hungary ......... 2,136,700 1,198 000 Germany .................. 59,800 3,313 000 Norway ................... .......... 99,500 Sweden ................ ---- 41,700 32,400 Italy ...................... 35,300 450,800 Spain . . . . . . ............... 8,600 1,911,200 Portugal .................. 1,300 2,300 Greece .................... - - - - - - - - - - - 692,300 Turkey . . . . . . . ............ 24,500 257,500 Finland ................... 1,300 4,700 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .......... 271,300 Great Britain ............. 276,300 133,000 SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina ................. $ 30,000 $ 27,000 Bolivia .................... 119,600 6,152,600 Chili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,067,200 5,553,100 Colombia .................. 2,801,300 1,129,000 Ecuador .................. 110 000 4,600 Brazil ..................... 2,775,400 - - - - - - - - Venezuela ................. 321,200 Guiana (British) ......... 1,771,600 Guiana (Dutch) .......... 405,600 Guiana (French) . . . . . . . . . 2,000,000 ---------- Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,329,200 3,360,500 Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,700 500 CENTRAL AMERICA. Central America ......... $ 640,300 $ 527,800 ASIA. Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 1,201,600 $ 1,037,800 China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,091,500 ----------- Corea ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,500,000 India (British) . . . . . . . . . . . 9,395,900 East Indies (British)..... 861,700 - - - - - - - - - - East Indies (Dutch)...... 435,000 48,500 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $263,374,700 $104,999,100 534 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS TOTAL NUMBER OF FINE OUNCES OF GOLD AND SILVER. The total number of fine ounces of gold produced was 12,740,746, and of silver, 174,998, 573, the coinage value of the lat- ter being $226,260,700. GOLD AND SILVER EXPORTS AND IM- PORTS OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. The imports and exports of the precious metals of the principal countries of the world during the calendar year 1901 are exhibited in the following table, the infor- mation relating to foreign countries having been received principally through repre- sentatives of the United States in those countries: GOLD. Imports. Exports. - United States ............. $ 54,761,880 $57,783,939 Africa ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,595,959 9,713,588 Austria-Hungary ...... . ... 35,731,855 7,585,753 Canada ..................... 4,574,809 24,744,890 Costa Rica. . . . . . . . . . . . . - 385,077 550,510 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804,000 - - - - - - - - Egypt ..... - - - - - - - - - ... . . . . . 14,677,469 11,971,274 France ..................... 82,798,158 27,985,000 Federated Malay states... 1,870,878 875,592 Germany ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,126,228 12,278,509 Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104,060,588 67,961,962 India (British) . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,952,409 20,666,059 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914,994 2,607,640 Japan . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5,308,563 5,720,562 Corea ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,290 2,450,737 Mexico ..................... - - - - - - - - 9,598,594 Netherlands ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,207,059 691,806 Nicaragua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 435,000 Norway .................... 516,386 - - - - - - - - Siam ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,361,450 79,700 Sweden ..................... 731,463 -- - - - - - - Switzerland ............... 13,407,332 4,009,891 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,459,685 34,870,237 Portugal ........... ... ..... 1,322,387 1,355,909 The net sum of exports of Australian gold is estimated at $76,880,200, and of Chinese gold, at $9,091,500. SILVER. Imports. Exports. United States ............. $ 31,146,782 $55,638,358 Africa ...................... 1,744,947 55,984 Argentina ......... - - - - - - - - - 23,995 86,959 Austria-Hungary .......... 993,975 1,263,382 Bolivia ..................... - - - - - - - - 13,691,26 Canada ............ - - - - - - - - - 242,215 2,136,359 Costa Rica. . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47,943 Donnark ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------- -- - - - - - - - Imports. Exports, Dutch Guiana............. 52,560 28,097 Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576,037 50,972 France ...... - - - - - - - - - - - - ... 18,885,436 27,119,395 Federated Malay states... 11,063,547 9,432,220 Germany ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,479,537 6,981,803 Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,141,061 58,640,532 India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 39,885,187 16,549,234 Italy ..... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... ... 1,430,707 1,398,994 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154,255 1,281,509 Corea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450,557 100,473 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,279,875 50,269,606 Netherlands ............... 3,278,008 889,557 Nicaragua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000 50,720 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187,264 - - - - - - - - Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,738 98,712 Siam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762,207 186,916 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,062 -- - - - - - - Switzerland ................ 8,429,956 2,278,442 Russia ...................... 4,818,854 1,905,930 China ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,334,047 148,310 Hong-Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,623,616 3,747 Straits Settlements ....... 13,787,004 167,333 East Africa ............... 806,510 32,227 Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617,226 226,805 Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,011,280 1,154,470 Persia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393,217 236,705 Turkey ..................... 886,462 - - - - - - - - Australasia (net) ------ -- - - - - - - 6,089,858 The industrial consumption of the precious metals in the world is estimated, in round numbers, at $80,000,000 gold and $57,000,000 silver. INCREASE IN THE GOLD STOCKS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. After allowing for industrial consump- tion, the increases in the gold stocks of the principal countries of the world for the cal- endar year 1901, are estimated to have been approximately as follows: United States ......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $63,800,000 Austria-Hungary ......................... 27,600,000 Belgium ................................... 1,900,000 Great Britain ............................ 17,000,000 India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 5,800,000 France ...................... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40,400,000 Germany . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 41,700,000 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... 3,500,000 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... ... , 1,700,000 Netherlands ......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5,600,000 Portugal ........ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2,300,000 Roumania. ........... ---------- ............ 1,800,000 Sweden .................... ... ............. 1,800,000 Switzerland ........... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .... 3,500,000 ONLY COUNTRIES SHOWING LOSS. The only countries showing a loss during the year are Norway, $1,600,000, and Rus. sia, $9,700,000. FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS. 535 THE GLOBE'S GREATEST RIVERS THE AMAZON. A score of navigable rivers empty their volume into the Amazon, and many smaller streams are its tributaries. Its course is mainly through Brazilian territory. Its sources are the Tungurahua, flowing from the Peruvian Lake Laurichocha, and the Ucayalo, which originates in the Apurimac, 600 miles long, issuing from the Peruvian Andes. From the junction of the last- named stream, the Amazon runs nearly 1,800 miles to the Atlantic Ocean. Its actual length is 4,000 miles, and its estuary, gradually broadening as it approaches the sea, attains at the mouth a width of 180 miles. The basin of the Amazon includes about 2,000,000 square miles of soil. THE MISSISSIPPI. The Mississippi ranks next to the Ama- zon among the world’s great streams. Rising in Lake Itasca, Minnesota, it runs southeasterly, with an extent, including its tributaries, of 4,400 miles. Together with these tributaries, the current of the Missis- sippi drains an area of about 1,100,000 square miles. It takes in the volume of the Missouri river near St. Louis, and meets the waters of the Ohio, where the states of Illinois, Kentucky and Ohio come into con- tact. Confluent with the Mississippi at their respective points of junction are the Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, White, Des Moines and St. Francis rivers. It is also joined by the Arkansas river south of its junction with the Ohio, and by the Red river as it approaches its outlet, in Louis- iana. The delta of the Mississippi, 120 miles south of the city of New Orleans, is com- posed mainly of three “passes,” which afford entrance for ships of large tonnage from the Gulf of Mexico. These are called the Northeast Pass, the Southwest Pass and the Main Pass. Steamers of moderate draught ply the Mississippi for 2,000 miles above the delta. THE YUIKON. The Yukon river has its source in British Columbia, and its outlet in Behring Sea. Its drainage basin includes a surface, ap- proximately, of 200,000 square miles. The Yukon was formerly notable for fine fish, which it still produces, but its attractiveness in this regard was entirely overshadowed, in 1896, when the famous gold discoveries were made in a creek flowing into the great river. The width of the Yukon 600 miles from the ocean is about a mile. It is navi- gable for nearly its entire length of 2,000 miles. THE NILE. The river Nile is variously estimated at from 4,100 to 4,500 miles long. By most geographers its source has been supposed to be in Victoria Nyanza Lake. At Khartoum, the former capital of the Egyptian Sudan, its two arms, the Blue Nile, issuing from Abyssinia, and the White Nile, flowing from the southwestern part of the continent, com- bine into a single stream, and constitute the main Nile, which courses its majestic way to the Mediterranean. Its delta is 120 miles wide between its west mouth at Rosetta and its east mouth at Damietta. The Rosetta mouth is 1,800 feet wide. The Nile is at flood from June to September, after which it subsides until January. Its mean rise at Cairo is 40 feet. 536 FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS. THE COLUMBIA. The Columbia river, which flows into the Pacific ocean, has its source in the Rocky mountains. Its course is through Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. On account of natural obstructions, such as rapids, etc., less than one hundred miles of it is navigable. Although the bar at its mouth is liable to rough seas, the harbor is the safest on that coast for a distance of about 800 miles. The Columbia river is 1,400 miles long and affords an abundant supply of salmon of fine quality, on which is based one of the most important indus- tries of the Pacific coast. THE VOLGA. The river Volga has its course in Euro- pean Russia, and is the largest river in Europe. It finds its source in Seligher Lake, and carries its volume 2,500 miles into the Caspian Sea. Its estuary is divided into many passages, through some of which craft of considerable tonnage enter, and pass up the stream when flooded, as far as Tver. The basin of the Volga includes a superficial surface of nearly 400,000 square miles. THE DANUIEE. Next to the Volga in extent and import- ance ranks the Danube, called the “Ister” in olden times. It has its source in the Schwarzwald, in Baden, is 2,000 miles long, and flows into the Black Sea through an estuary divided into a number of passages, of which the principal one is the Sulina. The course of the Danube is through the states of Württemberg, Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, Roumania and Bulgaria, and its main tributaries are the Leitha, Pruth, Theiss, Inn, Drave, Raab and Save. Steam- boats ply the river as far as Pesth, Eng- land, Austria, France and Turkey guaran- teed the free navigation of the Danube in 1856. During many centuries, this great river constituted the northeastern boundary of the Roman Empire. . THE GANGES. The river Ganges is 1,900 miles long. Its source is in the Himalaya mountains, in India, whence it courses through a level and fertile country to its outlet in the Bay of Bengal. The delta of the Ganges reaches north of this bay for a distance of 200 miles, forming a hugh jungle. The Hugli, one of the branches of the Ganges, runs 200 miles, to Calcutta. For its main tributaries the Ganges has the Ramganga, 250 miles long; the Jumna, 680 miles long; and the Gumti, 480 miles long. Important cities line its banks, among them being Jessore, Dacca, Moorshedabad, Cawnpoor, Alla- habad, and as before mentioned, Calcutta. This great and famous stream is regarded by the Hindoos as a sacred object. THE IMISSOURI. The Missouri river is the main tributary of the Mississippi. Before its confluence with that stream, its chief fork, the Mis- souri proper, coursing northeasterly from its source in the Rocky Mountains a little more than 600 miles, and its minor fork, the Yellowstone, issuing from the same region and flowing northeasterly about 900 miles, join themselves together, and after- ward pour their combined volumes into the “Father of Waters.” The Missouri, proper, has for its main tributaries the Osage, Chariton, Grand, Platte and Kansas rivers, and is navigable for craft of medium size for more than 2,500 miles. The entire length of the Missouri river is 3,100 miles. HOW TO DO BUSINESS // / - Wºº . / - "W/º | º . ſ // | | ſ/ Lºſ // . | y A $// sook vil • - - BY - - - MORTON MAccCRMAC, A. M. President of the MacCormac School of Correspondence, Late Professor of Mathematics with the Bryant and Stratton Business College, Chicago TE MIB R A CING Self instruction in Book-keeping Short Methods of Computation Points of Law and Legal Forms Business and Social Correspondence Spelling and Punctuation 588 1. 2. 3. SAFE BUSINESS Never sign a paper without first reading it. Shun lawsuits, and never take money risks because they look promising. Never be afraid to say no. Every successful man must have the backbone to assert his rights. 4. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Deal with strangers cautiously, not suspiciously. 5. Be frank and plain in all business affairs and put everything in writing. 6. Know your mºn before you become his security. 7. 8 9 Keep strict account of every cent, and you will have more to keep account of. . Keep appointments promptly. . Don't promise more than you can do. Small profits with little risk bring more than large profits on big risks. Keep your business plans to yourself, yet be not afraid to “tell all.” Be honest, but not because it is the best policy. If cleanliness is next to godliness, it is very close to success. Watch details, but at all times consider yourself above them. “Whatsoever thy hand finds to do, do it with all thy might.” Think success, talk success, and you are very likely to feel success. The successful man is not he who does the most, but he who does the best he can. “Rely upon your own strength of body and soul. Take for your star self-reliance, faith, honesty and industry. Don’t take too much advice, keep at the helm and steer your own ship. Fire above the mark you intend to hit. Energy, determination, right motive are the levers that move the world”.-Noah Porter. 19. 20. If you would get justice be not too anxious about it. Do not be ashamed of hard work. Work for the best salary or wages you can get, but work for anything rather than to be idle. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN B00KKEEPING, RULES, DIRECTIONS, AND FORMS FOR KEEPING BOOKS. THE SCIENCE OF ACCOUNTS, B” is a careful record of business trans- actions that has for its object the keeping of accounts in such a manner that we may at any time know the true condition of our business. Every person having occasion to keep accounts is greatly ben- efited by a knowledge of bookkeeping. Methods.-There are two general methods for han- dling accounts now in use. The simpler method—practical only when the accounts are not numerous, or the business extensive—is Single Entry bookkeeping. Single Entry. The books used are usually a Day-book, often called a blotter or memorandum book, a Cash-book and Ledger. No. 1 The farmer is exchanging butter for sº the grocer. his is “barter”—an exchange of com- modities—and represents a complete trans- action. These books, of different sizes, may be found at the bookstores, though, in case of neces- sity, they can easily be made with a few sheets of foolscap paper, ruled as hereafter shown. The method more in use, because of its flexibility or adapta- bility to all classes of accounts, is known as Double Entry. The books that can be em- ployed in Double En- try are almost without number. In most com- No. 2 mon use, however, we find the Day - book, Journal (often these are combined), Cash-book and Ledger. To these are often added Invoice-book, Bill-book, Stock-book, individual Miss B, is selling Mr. D. an umbrella for Cash. This is a complete transaction, being *hange by both parties at the same No. 3 Mr. R. is selling a #. of jewelry to Miss B. “on account”—that is, to be paid for at some future time. This is not a completed transaction, the exchange being made by the first º but, not by the second party. Who is the debtor? Who is the creditor? 540 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. No. 4 Miss B, is now paying Mr. R. for the jewelry that she previously bought from him, which completes her part in the trans- action and cancels her indebtedness to him. Mr. B. gives her a “receipt” for the money. cover the ground of an ordinary set of books. Ledgers, petty Cash-books, etc. It is now our purpose to take you through a series of transactions in which we will first use Single Entry; later we will change our books from Single to Double Entry and continue the transac- tions to a point where you can easily note the distinctive points of difference between Single and Double Entry. In making charges in a book and giving credit, it is necessary to keep clearly in mind whether the person of whom we write gives or receives. If the individual gives he is a creditor, which is designated by the abbreviation Cr. If the person receives he is a debtor. It is desig- nated by Dr. We here with submit a series of transactions which Our efforts have been to make the statements clear and exclude every- thing not necessary. We illustrate the journal or day- book, ledger, and bill-book. To these could be added the cash-book, but we have preferred to run all cash through the journal. Invoice and other books are added for the purpose of clearing up the work of a large business, but in ordi- nary accounting are not needed. NoTE.—The following transactions illustrate the No. 6 The 60 days has expired. Mr. L. now gives his check for the amount of the note to Mr. J. This completes Mr. L.'s part in the transaction. Mr. J. is endorsing his name across the back of the note, which shows that he has received º in full. He will hand the note back to Mr. L. books of J. R. Dunn, a farmer, who has a Mr. J. has sold some real estate to Mr. L. for which Mr. L is giving his note due in 60 days—that is, he gives his promise in the amount at the end of writing to pa as completed his part of the days. Mr. J. transaction, but Mr. L. has not, "This is an exchange of land for a promissory note. farm of 160 acres, and also owns an interest in the village store. He desires to, at all times, know the true condition of his business, whether he is making or los- ing money, and which interest pays him best. He may adopt either method—Double or Single Entry. Study carefully the following forms, and you will see that on any day he can determine his exact worth in dollars and cents. If every man could but realize how easy it is to keep his accounts in a correct manner much of the anxiety and annoyance in settling estates would be at an end. It might be well to remember that the wife as well as the husband can in this manner know conditions as they exist, and through coöperation with her husband will do much to add to the family's contentment and prospority, SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, DAY-BOOK TRANSACTIONS-SINGLE ENTRY. JANUARY 1, 1902 -: J. R. Dunn invests Farm of 160 acres, valued at $60 per acre, Store and lot, valued at Stock of goods in store valued at Live stock worth Machinery and implements worth James Adams owes on 96 A. H. Ames « . & 4 Cash on hand He owes the following debts Edward Drake on 3% S. E. Howard ** 8 Sold Jas. Mann on 7% 1 bbl flour 5 lbs. coffee 2 lbs. tea - 5 bu. timothy seed 10 Cash sales to date amount to 10 Paid for repairing wagons 18 Sold J. C. Evans on 3% 20 bu, oats 1 ton feed 1 bbl. flour 17 Cash receipts for the week amount to 19 Bo’t of E. B. Harvey on 7% 28 bbls. flour 40 bu. timothy seed 10 ** Clover -- 4 bbls. sugar, 1210 lbs. 6 bags Rio coffee, 642 lbs. 20 Sold A. D. Rand One horse for Received in payment, cash His 30 day note for balance 20 Bo’t of S. H. Hines on 3% 6 bx. Soap 6 doz. canned corn 15 “ “ peaches 12 & 4 --- peas 21 Paid cash for horseshoeing 24 Cash receipts for the week amount to 25 Bo't for cash vegetables, eggs, etc., in bulk - - $4 95 80% 50% $1 95 40% $22 00 $5 10 $4 10 $1 40 $3 80 #. 21% $4 00 $1 20 80% 1 50 1 00 8 00 22 00 5 10 114 80 56 00 38 00 63 53 134 82 24 00 5 88 18 00 9 60 9600 00 3000 00 6840 00 980 00 1040 00 86 00 41 00 1464 00 145 00 76 00 17 20 244 60 14 00 85 10 294 67 140 00 40 00 100 00 57 48 2 40 246 24 4 60 542 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. JANUARY 26, 1902. Sold A. W. Williams 10 bars soap 6% 60 4 cans corn 12% 48 4 lbs. cheese 11% 44 2 tons feed $22 00 44 00 45 52 Took in part payment potatoes, eggs, etc., valued at 16 50 31 Paid J. Arnold for wages 24 00 “ E. H. Hayes for wages 19 00 ‘‘ Geo. Scott “ 4 & 35 00 31 Cash sales for the week 294 20 FEBRUARY 2, 1902. Paid sundry expense bills in cash 1 40 5 Sold John Rogers on 7% 14 lbs. pork 11% 1 54 2 ** coffee 30% 60 6 ** rice 10% 60 2 74 7 Cash sales for the week 264 10 12 Paid county, town and school taxes in cash 46 80 13 Sold Jas. Winkle on 3% 1 mowing machine (secondhand) 24 00 14 Cash sales for the week 248 40 17 Bo’t of E. J. Young one job lot of clothing, books and shoes 425 00 Gave him our 30 day note for same 425 00 19 Received cash from A. D. Rand in payment of his note 100 00 - 21 Cash sales for the week 314 20 21 Paid current expense bills in cash 11 40 23 Sold J. Harvey 1 cow for 36 00 23 Took his 60 day note in payment 36 00 25 Paid S. E. Howard on 3% cash 26 00 - 27 Received of James Adams on 3% 20 00 28 Cash sales for the week 296 45 &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. 543 FEBRUARY 28, 1902. Paid Jno. Arnold for wages 24 00 “ E. H. Hayes “ 4 & 19 00 ‘‘ Geo. Scott “ 4 & 35 00 MARCH 4, 1902. Sold Jas. Franklin 1 bbl. sugar, 304 lbs. 6% 18 24 4 Received in payment 4 bbls, apples $1 50 6 00 Cash for balance 12 24 18 24 7 Gave Edw. Drake to settle account our note for one year for 145 00 7 Cash sales for the week 321 20 9 Received cash from A. H. Ames on 7% 26 00 12 Received cash from James Adams on 3% 35 00 14 Cash sales for the week 267 20 17 Paid current expenses to date 14 25 19 Paid E. J. Young our 30 day note in cash 425 00 21 Cash sales for the week 290 14 24 Sold J. E. Emery on 7% 1 suit working clothes $6 50 6 50 2 pr. working gloves $1 00 2 00 1 ‘‘ shoes $2 75 2 75 11 25 27 Bo’t of E. B. Harvey on 3% 14 bbls. flour $3 90 54 60 90 bu. timothy seed $1 50 135 00 25 “ clover & 4 $3 90 97 50 287 10 29 Cash sales for the week 284 19 80 Sold J. C. Evans on 3% 4 bu. timothy seed $1 90 7 60 2 “ clover & 4 $4 75 9 50 17 10 Paid Jno. Arnold for wages 24 00 “ E. H. Hayes “ 4 º' 19 00 ** Geo. Scott “ -- 35 00 Now note carefully the arrangement of the transactions into journal form; *one from the start, thus obviating the use of a blotter or day-book. We have this can be given them 544 &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. here, however, that each successive step may be seen. Often it occurs that transactions mast be jotted down and arranged systematically at a future time; hence, to get the form fixed in your mind is valuable. SINGLE ENTRY DAY-B00K. JANUARY 1, 1902. 1 J. R. Dunn Cr. 23051 00 By 160 acres land $60 00 9600 00 Store and lot 3000 00 Mdse. (on hand) 6840 00 Live stock 980 00 Machinery and implements 1040 00 Jas. Adams' account 86 00 A. H. Ames’ account 41 00 Cash on hand 1464 00 1 1 || J. R. Dunn Dr. 221 00 To Edward Drake’s account 145 00 “ S. E. Howard’s account 76 00 1 1 Jas. Adams Dr. 86 00 To am’t due on commencing. - 1 1 | A. H. Ames Dr. 4K 00 To am’t due on commencing 1 2 || Edward Drake, Cr. 145 00 By am’t due on commencing 1 2 S. E. Howard Cr. 76 00 By am’t due on commencing 3 2 | Jas. Mann Dr. 17 20 To 1 bbl. flour $495 4 95 “ 5 lbs. coffee 30% 1 50 ** 2 “ tea, 50% 1 00 “ 5 bu. timothy seed $1 95 9 75 13 - 3 || J. C. Evans - Dr. 35 10 To 20 bu. Oats 40% 8 00 “ 1 ton feed $22 00 22 00 “ 1 bbl flour $5 10 5 10 19 3 E. B. Harvey Cr. 407 15 By 28 bbls. flour $4 10 114 80 “ 40 bu. timothy seed $1 40 56 00 ** 10 “ clover seed $3 80 38 00 “ 4 bbls, sugar, 1210 lbs. 54% 63 53 “ 6 bags Rio coffee, 642 lbs. 21% 134 82 20 3 || A. D. Rand Dr. 140 00 To 1 horse 20 3 || A. D. Rand Cr. 140 00 By cash 40 00 “ his 30 day note 100 00 _ _ —ar" &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, 545 JANUARY 20, 1902. S. H. Hines Cr. 57 48 By 6 bx. soap $4 00 24 00 “ 6 doz. canned corn 98% 5 88 “ 15 “ & 4 peaches $1 20 18 00 “ 12 “ & 4 peas 80% 9 60 26 A. W. Williams Dr. 45 52 To 10 bars soap 6% 60 “ 4 cans corn 12% 48 ** 4 lbs. cheese 11% 44 ** 2 tons feed $22 00 44 00 26 A. W. Williams Cr. 16 50 By potatoes, eggs, etc. FEBRUARY 5, 1902. John Rogers Dr. 2 74 To 14 lbs. pork 11% 1 54 ** 2 ** coffee 30% 60 ** 6 “ rice 10% 60 18 Jas. Winkle Dr. 24 00 To 1 mowing machine (secondhand) 17 E. J. Young Cr. 425 00 By 1 job lot clothing, boots and shoes 17 E. J. Young Dr. 425 00 To our 30 day note 23 J. Harvey Dr. 36 00 To 1 cow 23 J. Harvey Cr. 36 00 By his 60 day note 25 S. E. Howard Dr. 26 00 To cash 27 James Adams Cr. 20 00 By cash MARCH 4, 1902. Jas. Franklin Dr. 18 24 To 1 bbl. sugar, 304 lbs. 6% 4 Jas. Franklin Cr. 18 24 By 4 bbls. apples $1 50 6 00 ** cash 12 24 546 &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. MARCH 7, 1902. 2 || Edward Drake Dr. To our note for 1 year 9 1 | A. H. Ames Cr. By cash 12 1 || James Adams Cr. By cash - 24 6 J. E. Emery Dr. To 1 suit working clothes $6 50 “ 2 pr. -- gloves $1 00 ** 1 ** shoes $2 75 27 3 E. B. Harvey Cr. By 14 bbls. flour $3 90 ‘‘ 90 bu. timothy s $1 50 ** 25 ‘‘ clover $3 90 30 3 J. C. Evans Dr. To 4 bu. timothy seed $1 90 ** 2 ** Clover $4 75 145 00 26 00 35 00 11 25 6 50 2 00 2 75 287 10 54 60 135 00 97 50 17 10 7 60 9 50 NOTE.-Our day book is now arranged; the next step is posting. We have opened accounts with each person with whom business is transacted. Now by referring to the journal you will see that the proprietor is credited with a total of $23,051. This amount is to be placed to his credit on the right-hand side of the account. He owes, or is debtor, for $221, for which he is charged on the debit side of the account. The general laws for debit and credit, and the specific laws governing the different transactions will be given at the close of the set. () - - Mr. Dunn, the Farmer : “Bookkeeping has been a great help to me. actually made and lost this last year.” - I now know what Ihave 8ELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. --- 547 . LEDGER. Little explanation is here needed to those who nave carefully observed the form of the ledger. It is the book of accounts containing a condensed form of all the debits and credits, each item being placed under its proper head. Notice that the accounts are placed on the left-hand side for debits, and on the right-hand side for credits. The difference between the sides of these accounts shows either a resource or liability, or gain or loss, depending, of course, upon whether the account is a fixed or fluctu- ating account, for example: the second account indicates that you are indebted to James Adams for $20 and $35, while Mr. Adams owes us $86; the difference, called a balance, is a resource in our favor. The reverse condition is true with the fifth account, where Mr. Howard is shown by the ledger as giving us a total of $76, whereas we give him but $50. In the Adams account notice that we have brought down the balance of $31 to the debit side, indicating that he owes us that amount, whereas in the Howard account the balance is brought down to the credit side, showing that we owe him. You will notice that all balances are first written in red ink. This shows you that the account has been placed in this position for a temporary object, and when it is permanently placed it will be written in black. Difference between Single and Double Entry Ledgers. In the single entry ledger there are only personal accounts. When you reach the double entry you will find that we add such accounts as merchandise and expense. These accounts show us the gain or loss. For instance, with merchandise the debit side represents the value of the merchandise purchased; the credit side the value of the merchandise sold. Now if all merchan- dise is sold, the difference between the sides of the accounts will show the gain or loss—gain if the credit side is in excess of the debit; loss if the reverse condition is true. The steps for closing will be given you later, and if you are careful to observe them you should have no difficulty with the preceding simple transactions of busi- ness. We are new ready to look at the cash-book. “ No. 7 - Mr. M. has sold goods to Mr. P. on ac- count at 30 days, for which he is giving him a bill. The transaction is not completed. Whose part is not completed? Who is the debtor? No. 8 Mr. M. at the end of thirty days gives his note to Mr. R. in settlement of his ac- count. Has Mr. M. cancelled his indebted- ness? Is the transaction completed? No. 9 This illustration shows Mr. M. paying * note. The note being returned to him * *** P.. this completes the transaction. . 548 GELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. J. R. DUNN. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 | 1 221 00 || Jan. 1 1 23051 00 Mar, 31 | Present worth 23303 66 || Mar. 31 Net gain as per state- ment - 473 66 23524 66 23524 66 Apr. 1 | Present worth 23303 66 JAMES ADAMS. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 86 00 || Feb. 27 3 20 00 Mar. 12 4 35 00 31 || Balance 31 00 86 00 80 00 Apr. ..] 1 || Balance 31 00 A. H. AMES. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 41 00 || Mar. 9 4 26 00 31 || Balance 15 00 41 00 41 00 Apr. 1 || Balance 1500 | EDWARD DRAKE. 1902 1902 Mar. 7 4 145 00 || Jan. 1 1 145 00 S. E. HOWARD. 1902 1902 Feb. 25 8 26 00 || Jan. 1 1 76 00 Mar. 31 || Balance 60 00 76 00 76 00 =- Apr. 1 | Balance 50 00 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. 549 JAMES MANN. 1902 1902 Jan. 3 1 17 20 || Mar. 31 || Balance 17 20 Apr. 1 | Balance 17 20 J. C. EVANS. 1902 1902 Jan. 13 1 35 10 || Mar. 31 || Balance 62 20 Mar. 30 4 17 10 52 20 52 20 Apr. 1 | Balance 52 20 E. B. HARVEY. 1902 1902 Mar. 31 || Balance . 694 £5 || Jan. 19 2 407 15 Mar. 27 4 287 10 694 25 - 694 25 Apr. 1 | Balance 694 25 A. D. RAND. 1902 1902 Jan. 20 2 140 00 || Jan. 20 2 140 00 S. H. HINES. 190 1902 Mar. 31 || Balance 57 48 || Jan. 20 2 57 48 Apr. 1 | Balance 57 48 550 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. A. W. WILLIAMS. 1902 1902 Jan. 26 45 52 || Jan. 26 16 50 Mar. 31 || Balance 29 02 45 52 45 52 Apr. 1 | Balance 29 02 JOEIN ROGERS. 1902 1902 Feb. 5 2 74 || Mar. 31 || Balance 2 7/ Apr. 1 | Balance 2 74 JAS. WINKLE. 1902 1902 Feb. 13 24 00 || Mar. 31 | Balance 24 00 Apr. 1 | Balance 24 00 E. J. YOUNG. 1902 1902 Feb. 17 425 00 || Feb. 17 425 00 J. HARVEY. 1902 1902 _ Feb. 23 36 00 || Feb. 23 36 00 !--- SELF. INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. 551 JAS, FRANKLIN. 1902 1902 Mar. 4 4 18 24 || Mar. 4 4 18 24 J. E. EMERY. 1902 1902 Mar. 24 4 11 25 || Mar. 31 | Balance 11 25 Apr. 1 | Balance 11 25 SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. 1902 Rec"d Paid Out Jan. 3 || Am’t on hand 1464 00 10 | Receipts for week 244 60 10 || Paid for repairing wagon 14 00 17 | Receipts for week 294 6'7 20 | Rec'd from A. D. Rand 40 00 21 || Paid for horseshoeing 2 40 24 || Receipts for week 246 24 25 | Paid for vegetables, eggs, etc. 4 60 31 | Paid J. Arnold for wages 24 00 31 “ E. H. Hayes for wages 19 00 31 ** GeO. Scott, “ “ 35 00 31 || Receipts for week 294 20 Feb. 2 || Sundry expenses 1 40 7 | Receipts for week 264 10 12 | Paid taxes 46 80 14 || Receipts for week 248 40 19 || To A. D. Rand's note 100 00 21 | Current expenses 11 40 25 | Paid S. E. Howard on 34 26 00 27 | Rec’d from Jas. Adams on 3% 20 00 28 | Receipts for week 296 45 28 || Paid J. Arnold for wages 24 00 28 “ E. H. Hayes for wages 19 00 28 ** GeO. Scott, ‘‘ ‘‘ 35 00 Mar. 4 || Rec’d from Jas. Franklin on 3% 12 24 7 | Receipts for week 321 20 9 || A. H. Ames on 3% 26 00 12 || James Adams “ 35 00 14 | Receipts for week 267 20 17 | Current expenses 14 25 19 || Paid our note favor E. J. Young 425 00 21 | Receipts for week 290 14 29 -- & 4 & 4 284 19 31 || Paid Jno. Arnold for wages 24.00 31 “ E. H. Hayes “ & 4 19 00 31 * Geo. Scott “ -- 35 00 4748 63 779 85 § BILLS RECEIVABLE. WHEN DUE - DRAWER I DRAWEE IN Fort NoTE | DATE OF H WHEN HERE - 1 --> - 53 2. No. OR OR. waose | wºr lº of || PAPER || TIME |H|2|E|3|-|3|Eg|E||BP||AMount|##| Wºº" REC’D PAY’BLE 5|3|35|3|2|&|E|E|E|3|3|9 'º § 3 | DISPOSED OF ENDORSERI MAKER FAVOR 1 RECEIVED DRAFT || Month Year >|s|≤|-|3|-|E|E|3|5|CŞ|z, ſº ºdo - --------- - | 1 || Jan.120 A. D. Rand J. R. Dunn Part pay- Note ||Jan. 20, 1902 ||30 days 19 10000 Feb 19 Paid m ent of horse 2 ||Feb. 23 J. Harvey -- Part pay- -- Feb. 23, 1902 ||60 days 24 3600 m’t of cow º - BILLS PAYABLE. DATE OF WHEN DUE - WHEN DRAWER IDRAWEE IN Fort WHERE NOTE PAPER * . . -- - q) * - - - - - s: WHEN AND How INo. OR oR | WHOSE | WHAT - on ||-º-| TIME ||3|3|#|3|########|#|AMount|## ISSUED PAY"BLE 5|3|35|3|2|&|E|E|E|37|3|S * R. DISPOSED OF ENDOBSERI MAKER FAVOR GIVEN DRAFT|| Monthl Year >|-|3|-|3|3|E|E|3|}|Ö|z|R ſº o 1 ||Feb. 17 J. R. Dunn E. J. Young Mdse. Note ||Feb. [17] 1902 ||30 days 19 42500 Mar. 19 Paid 2 ||Mar. 7 -- Edw. Drake|To set- -- Mar. 7] “ ||1 yr. d's 145 tle % I SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, 553 SINGLE ENTRY STATEMENT OF RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES. RESOURCES. Cash per cash-book 4282 98 Bills Rec. per bill-book 36 00 Real est. (farm) per inventory 9600 00 “ “ (store and lot) per inventory 3000 00 Merchandise per inventory 5424 00 Live stock “ & 4 825 00 Machinery “ 4 º 900 00 Jas. Adams owes on 7% 31 00 A. H. Ames “ 4 & 15 00 Jas. Mann “ - « 17 20 J. C. Evans “ -- 52 20 A. W. Williams owes on 7% 29 O2 J. Rogers owes on 7% 2 74 Jas. Winkle “ “ 24 00 J. E. Emery “ 44. 11 25 Total assets 24250 39 LIABILITIES, Bills Pay. per bill-book 145 00 S. E. Howard owes him on 3% 50 00 E. B. Harvey “ “ “ 694 25 S. H. Hines “ “ & 4 57 48 Total liabilities 946 73 J. R. Dunn's present worth 23303 66 - « net investment 22830 00 -- -- gain 473 66 DOUBLE ENTRY JOURNAL. We next take up the transactions in Double Entry form, and urge you to especially take note of the fact that not only are the debits and credits arranged in a convenient manner for posting, but an entire history of the transaction is recorded on the right hand of the page in a manner ready for convenient reference. ledger to which the accounts are transferred. 1 JANUARY 1, 1902. Real estate (farm), 160 acres land $60 00 - - “ (store and lot) Mdse., stock of goods in store Live stock Machinery James Adams owes him A. H. Ames -- - - Cash on hand J. R. Dunn investment J. R. Tunn Debts Edw. Drake on 74 S. E. Howard on 3% 9600 00 3000 00 6840 00 980 00 1040 00 86 00 41 00 1464 00 The figures on the left indicate the page in the 23051 00 221 00 145 00 76 00 36 554 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. JANUARY 3, 1902. : Jas. Mann Mdse., 1 bbl. flour, $495 Sold on 74 $4 95 5 lbs, coffee, 30% $1 50 2 “ tea, 50% $1 00 5 bu. timothy seed, $1 95 $9 75 10 Cash Sales for the week dse. 10 Expense Paid for repairing wagons Cash 13 J. C. Evans Sold on 34 Mdse., 20 bu. oats, 40% $8 00 1 ton feed, $22 00 $22 00 1 bbl. flour, $5 10 $5 10 17 Cash Sales for the week Mdse. 19 Mdse. Bo't on 4 E. B. Harvey, 28 bbls. flour, $4 10 $114 80 - 40 bu. timothy seed, $1 40 $56 00 10 ** Clover “ $3 80 $38 00 4 bbls. sugar, 1210 lbs., 54% $63 53 6 bags Rio coffee, 642 lbs., 21% $134 82 - 20 Cash Sold A. D. Rand 1 horse B. Rec. Rec'd cash $40 00, his 30 da. note for balance Live stock 20 Mdse. Bo't on 4 S. H. Hine, 6 bx. soap, $400 $24 00 6 doz. canned corn, 98% $5 88 15 “ “ peaches, $1 20 $18 00 12 “ “ peas, 80% $9 60 21 Expense Paid for horseshoeing Cash 24 Cash Sales for the week Mdse. 25 Mdse. Bo’t for cash Cash vegetables, eggs, etc., in bulk 26 A. W. Williams Sold on 4 Mdse., 10 bars soap, 6% 60% 4 cans corn, 12% 48% 4 lbs. cheese, 11% 44% 2 tons feed, $22 00 $44 00 17 20 244 60 14 00 35 10 294 67 407 15 40 00 100 00 17 20 244 60 14 00 85 10 294 67 407 15 26 Mol Se. A. W. Williams, of above t.’, Rec’d in part payment "notatoes, eggs, etc. 57 48 2 40 246 24 4 60 45 52 16 50 140 00 57 48 2 40 246 24 4 60 45 52 16 50 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, 555 JANUARY 31, 1902. 5 | Expense Paid J. Arnold for wages $24 00 78 00 3 Cash “ E. H. Hayes for wages $19 00 78 00 * GeO. Scott, “ “ $35 00 31 3 | Cash sales for the week 294 20 2 dse. 294 20 FEBRUARY 2, 1902. 5 | Expense Paid sundry expenses 1 40 3 Cash 1 40 5 7 || John Rogers Sold on 3% 2 74 2 Mdse., 14 lbs. pork, 11% $1 54 2 74 2 “ coffee, 30% 60% 6 “ rice, 10% 60% 7 3 | Cash sales for the week 264 10 8 Mase. 264 10 12 5 | Expense Paid county, town and school taxes 46 80 3 Cash 46 80 13 7 || Jas. Winkle Sold on 74 24 OO 1 Machinery (1 mowing machine, second-hand) 24 00 14 3 || Cash Sales for the week 248 40 8 Mdse. 248 40 - 17 2 || Mdse. Bo't of E. J. Young on our 30 da. 425 00 7 B. Pay. note 1 job lot of clothing, books and shoes 425 00 19 3 | Cash Rec’d cash from A. D. Rand 100 00 6 B. Rec. 21 in payment of his note 100 00 9 || Cash Sales for the week 314 20 8 Mdse. 314 20 21 5 | Expense - Paid current expenses 11 40 3 Cash 11 40 23 6 || B. Rec. Sold J. Harvey 1 cow 36 00 2 Live stock Rec’d his 60 da. note in payment 36 00 25 4 || S. E. Howard . Paid on 74 26 00 3 Cash 26 00 27 9 || Cash Rec'd on 3% 20 00 3 James Adams 20 00 * 28 9 || Cash sales for the week 296 45 8 Mdse. 296 45 28 5 | Expense Paid J. Arnold for wages, $24 00 78 00 8 Cash “ E. H. Hayes for wages, $19 00 78 00 ** Geo. Scott, “ “ $35 00 556 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEP1AWG. MARCH 4, 1902. 10 || Jas. Franklin Sold on 3% 18 24 8 Mdse., 1 bbl. sugar, 304 lbs., 6% $18 24 18 24 4 2 || Mdse. rec’d 4 bbls. apples, $1 50 $6 00 6 00 9 || Cash Cash $12 24 in 12 24 10 Jas. Franklin payment of above bill 1824 7 4 || Edw. Drake Gave him our note 145 00 7 B. Pay. for 1 year to settle % 145 00 7 9 || Cash Sales for the week 321 20 8 Mdse. 321 20 9 9 || Cash rec'd on 3% 26 00 3 A. H. Ames 26 00 12 9 || Cash Rec'd on 34 35 00 3 Jas. Adams 35 00 14 9 || Cash Sales for the week 267 20 8 Mdse. - 267 20 17 5 | Expense Paid current expenses 14 25 9 Cash 14 25 19 7 | B. Pay. Paid E. J. Young our 425 00 9 Cash 21 30 da. note in cash 425 00 9 || Cash sales for the week 290 14 8 Mdse. 290 14 24 10 || J. E. Emery Sold on 9% 11 25 8 Mdse., 1 suit working clothes $6 50 11 25 2 pr. 4 * gloves, $1 00 $2 00 1 ** shoes $2 75 27 2 || Molse. Bo't on 34 287 10 5 E. B. Harvey 14 bbls. flour, $3 90 $54 60 287 10 90 bu. timothy seed, $1 50 $135 00 25 “ Clover “ $3 90 $97 50 29 9 || Cash sales for the week 284 19 8 Mdse. 284 19 30 5 J. C. Evans Sold on 3% 17 10 8 Mdse., 4 bu. timothy seed, $1 90 $7 60 17 10 2 * clover “ $4 75 $9 50 31 5 | Expense Paid J. Arnold for wages $24 00 78 00 9 Cash “ E. H. Hayes for wages $19 00 78 00 ** Geo. Scott “ “ $35 00 This is followed by the Double Entry Ledger, the form of which is the same as for the Single Entry, but which contains not only the personal accounts, but all other materials of importance with which we have dealt. &ELF. INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. 557 DOUBLE ENTRY LEDGER. J. R. DUNN. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 221 00 || Jan. 1 1 23051 00 Mar. 31 | Present Worth y £3303 66 || Mar. 31 || Loss and Gains 10 473 66 23524 66 23524 66 Apr. 1 | Present Worth y 23303 66 REAL ESTATE (FARM). 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 9600 00 || Mar. 31 || Inventory r 9600 00 Apr. 1 || Inventory y 9600 00 REAL ESTATE (STORE AND LOT). 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 3000 00 || Mar. 31 || Inventory y 3000 00 Apr. 1 || Inventory y 3000 00 MERCHANDISE. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 6840 00 || Jan. 3 1 17 20 19 2 407 15 10 1 244 60 20 2 57 48 13 1 35 10 25 2 4 60 17 1 294 67 26 2 16 50 24 2 246 24 Feb. 17 4 425 00 26 2 45 52 Mar. 4 6 6 00 31 3 294 20 27 7 287 10 || Feb. 5 4 2 74 7 2 264 10 8043 83 14 4 248 40 - 21 4 314 20 - 2 8043 83 28 4 296 45 Mar. 31 || Loss and Gain 10 893 91 || Mar. 4 5 18 24 7 6 321 20 14 6 267 20 21 6 290 14 24 6 11 25 29 6 284 19 30 7 17 10. 31 || Inventory 7|_344400 y 8936 74 8936 74 Apr. || 1 || Inventory y 5424 00 558 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKAEEPING, LIVE STOCK. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 980 00 || Jan. 20 2 140 00 Mar. 31 || Loss and Gain 10 21 00 || Feb. 23 4 36 00 Mar, 31 || Inventory y 825 00 1001 00 1001 00 Apr. 1 | Inventory y 825 00 - MACHINERY. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 1040 00 || Feb. 13 4 24 00 Mar. 31 || Inventory y 900 00 Loss and Gain 10 116 00 1040 00 1040 00 Apr. 1 || Inventory y 900 00 JAMES ADAMS. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 86 00 || Feb. 27 5 20 00 Mar. 12 6 35 00 31 | Balance y 31 00 86 00 86 00 Apr. 1 || Balance y 31 00 - ! A. H. AMES. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 41 00 || Mar. 9 6 26 00 31 | Balance y 15 00 41 00 41 00 Apr. 1 || Balance y 15 00 - CASH. 1902 1902 Jan. 1 1 1464 00 || Jan. 10 1 14 00 10 1 244 60 21 2 2 40 17 1 294 60 25 2 4 60 20 2 40 00 31 3 78 00 24 2 246 24 || Feb. 2 4 1 40 31 3 294 20 12 4 46 80 Feb. 7 4 264 10 21 4 11 40 14 4 248 40 25 5 | 26 00 19 4 100 00 28 5 78 00 3196 21 262 60 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. bā9 CASH. 1902 1902 8 8196 21 3 262 60 Feb. 21 4 314 20 || Mar. 17 6 14 25 27 5 20 00 19 6 425 00 28 5 296 45 31 7 78 00 Mar. 4 6 12 24 31 | Balance y 438? 98 7 6 321 20 9 6 26 00 12 6 35 00 14 6 267 20 21 6 290 14 29 7 284 19 5062.83 5062 83 Apr. 1 | Balance y 4282 98 EDWARD DRAKE. 1902 1902 Mar. 7 6 145 00 || Jan. 1 1 145 00 S. E. HOWARD. 1902 1902 Feb. 25 5 26 00 || Jan. 1 1 76 00 Mar. 31 | Balance y 50 00 76 00 76 00 Apr. 1 | Balance y 5000 JAMES MANN. 1902 1902 Jan. 3 1 17 20 || Mar. 31 || Balance y 17 20 Apr. Balance y 17 20 EXPENSE. 1902 '1902 Jan. 10 1 14 00 || Mar. 31 || Loss and Gaim 10 324 25 21 2 2 40 31 8 78 00 Feb. 2 4 1 40 12 4 46 80 21 4 11 40 28 5 78 00 Mar. 17 6 14 25 31 7 78 00 324 25 32T25 560 SELF. IWSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, - J. C. EVANS. 1902 1902 Jan. 13 1 35 10 || Mar. 31 || Balance y 5%. 20 Mar. 30 7 17 10 52 20 52 20 Apr. 1 | Balance V 52 20 E. B. HARVEY 1902 2.902 Mar. 31 | Balance v 694 35 || Jan. 19 2 407 15 Mar. 27 7 287 10 694 25 694 25 Apr. 1 | Balance y 694 25 BILLS RECEIVABLE. 1902 1902 Jan. 20 2 100 00 || Feb. 19 4 100 00 Feb. 23 4 36 00 || Mar. 31 | Balance y 36 00 136 00 136 00 Apr. 1 | Balance y 36 00 S. H. HINE. 1902 1902 Mar. 31 | Balance y 57 48 || Jan. 20 2 57 48 Apr. 1 | Balance y 57 48 A. W. WILLIAMS. 1902 1902 Jan. 26 2 45 52 || Jan. 26 2 16 50 Mar. 31 | Balance y 29 0% 45 52 45 52 Apr. || 1 || Balance y 29 02 | &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN B00A. AEEPIA) (, 561 JOHN ROGERS. 1902 1902 Feb. 5 4 2 74 || Mar. 31 | Balance 2 74 Apr. 1 | Balance y 2 74 JAS. WINKLE. 1902 1902 Feb. 13 4 24 00 || Mar. 31 || Balance 34 00 Apr. 1 | Balance y 24 00 BILLS PAYABLE. 1902 1902 Mar. 19 6 425 00 || Feb. 17 425 00 31 || Balance y 145 00 || Mar. 7 145 00 570 00 570 00 Apr. 1 || Balance 145 00 JAS. FRANKLIN. 1902 1902 Mar. 4 6 18 24 || Mar. 4 18 24 J. E. EMERY. 1902 1902 A- - Mar. 24 6 11 25 || Mar. 31 | Balance 11 45 Apr. 1 Balance y 11 25 -- 562 .SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, LOSS AND GAIN. 1902 1902 Mar. 31 Machinery 2 116 00 || Mar 31 || Mdse. 8 892 91 Expense 5 324 25 Live stock 2 21 00 J. R. Dunn 1 473 66 - 913 91 913 91 NoTE.—We have closed and balanced the accounts. Use red ink where rulings appear. Italics indicate red ink. Having posted your accounts into the ledger and before closing the ledger, your next step is to take a trial balance. You have noticed throughout Double Entry Bookkeeping, that every debit has its corresponding credit, and every credit its corresponding debit. Now if you have properly debited and credited the items, your ledger will be in balance. The trial balance will tell this. The totals of all the debits and all the credits of each account are placed in the form below given. - TRIAL BALANCE. 1 || J. R. Dunn 221 00 23051 00 1 | Real Estate (Farm) 9600 00 1 | Real Estate (Store & Lot) 3000 00 - 2 | Mase. 8043 83 3512 74 2 | Live Stock 980 00 176 00 2 Machinery 1040 00 24 00 3 || Jas. Adams 86 00 55 00 3 || A. H. Ames 41 00 26 00 3 | Cash 5062 83 779 85 4 || Edw. Drake 145 00 145 00 4 || S. E. Howard 26 00 76 00 4 || James Mann 17 20 5 | Expense 324 25 5 || J. C. Evans 52 20 5 | E. B. Harvey 694 25 6 || Bills Receivable 136 00 100 00 6 || S. H. Hine 57 48 6 || A. W. Williams 45 52 16 50 7 || John Rogers 2 74 7 || Jas. Winkle 24 00 7 | Bills Payable 425 00 570 00 10 || Jas. Franklin 18 24 18 24 10 || J. E. Emery 11 25 29802 06 29.302 06 A GOOD PROOF OF CORRECTNESS. You will see by the above that the ledger is in balance. This is a very good proof of its correctness, but is by no means sufficient. Your ledger may be in balance and your accounts may be wrong, for you may have credited John Adams, whereas the debit should have gone SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING. 563 to merchandise. Likewise you may have credited the wrong account. The next step, there- fore, before closing your ledger is to make a balance sheet. Here we have comc to a grand finale, for after the balance sheet is completed all that remains to be done is but mechanical. You will notice, first, that the balance sheet consists of the columns you have used for the trial balance, and in addition columns for loss and gain and for resources and lia- bilities. The loss and gains of a business come from two sources: first, from our specu- lative investments, live stock and other property; second, from the incidental receipts and Expenditures necessary to carry on the business. The latter is shown you in the expense account. In the remaining columns we find our resources have two sources: either the amount due us from others, or property on hand as inventories. Our liabilities represent the amount due others, and our outstanding notes. You will notice that the difference between the loss and gain accounts shows that we have gained $473.66. This amount, when added to the propri- etor's account as a credit, shows that the difference gives him a present worth of $23,303.66. This you will note represents the difference between the resources and liabilities account, and causes these accounts to balance; and second, the separate amounts of gain and loss on each account; third, our net gains; fourth, the individual amounts owed us or on hand; and fifth, the individual amounts that we owe or are outstanding against us; and lastly, we have proven our present worth—first, by adding our gains to the proprietor's account, and second, having subtracted our liabilities from our resources, we now have a full and complete history of our business to date and are ready to close the ledger. HOW TO CLOSE THE LEDGER. 1. Enter all inventories to the accounts to which they belong. 2. Proceed to close all fluctuating accounts into the loss and gain account. 3. Close the loss and gain account into the proprietor's account. The difference between the sides thereof will show his present worth or insolvency. 4. Next close all fixed accounts. These represent your resources and liabilities, and the difference between them, as shown by the balance sheet or resources and liabilities account in the ledger, if you care to open one, corresponds with the closing of the proprietor's account. 5. Bring down to the opposite side of the account all balances from the resources and liabilities accounts. RULINGS. The first red line drawn indicates an addition and extends across the columns in which there are figures. The double red line indicates a balance and stands as a guard, showing you that it is not necessary for you to consider anything in the account above these lines, as it has already been disposed of. 564 SELF. IWSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, BALANCE SHEET. MARCH 31, 1902. FOLIO ACCOUNTS TRIAL BALANCE | LOSSES & GAINS RES. & LIA. 1 J. R. Dunn 221 00 || 230 51 1 Real Estate (Farm) Inv. $9600 9600 00 9600 00 1 Real Estate (Store & Lot) “ 3000 || 3000 00 3000 00 2 Merchandise ** 5424 8043 83 || 3512 74 | 802 91 || 5424 00 2 Live Stock 44 825 980 00 176 00 21 00 825 00 2 Machinery * - 900 || 1040 00 24 00 116 00 900 00 8 Jas. Adams 86 00 55 00 31 00 3 A. H. Ames 41 00 26 00 15 00 3 Cash 5062 83 || 779 85 4282 98 4 Edw. Drake 145 00 || 145 00 4 S. E. Howard 26 00 76 00 50 00 4 Jas. Mann 17 20 17 20 5 Expense 324 25 824 25 5 J. C. Evans 52 20 52 20 5 E. B. Harvey 694 25 694 25 6 Bills Receivable 136 00 || 100 00 36 00 6 S H. Hine 57 48 57 48 6 A. W. Williams 45 52 16 50 29 02 7 John Rogers 2 74 2 74 7 Jas. Winkle 24 00 24 00 7 Bills Payable 425 00 || 570 00 145 00 10 Jas. Franklin 18 24 18 24 10 J. E. Emery 11 25 11 25 29302 06 || 29802 06 || 440 25 913 91 || 24250 39 946 73 J. R. Dunn's Net Gain 473 66 913 91 913 91 J. R. Dunn's Investment 23051 00 J. R. Dunn Owed 221 00 J. R. Dunn’s Net Investment 22830 00 J. R. Dunn’s Net Gain 473 66 J. R. Dunn’s Present Worth 23303 66 24250 39|24250 39 -- GENERAL AND SPECIAL LAWS OF DEBIT AND CREDIT, General. Debit who or what cost value, or what is received. Credit who or what produces value, or what is given. Special. º PROPRIETOR AND PARTNER, Debit. 1. For what he owes at beginning of business (if to be paid from the business). 2. For all withdrawals of money or property. 3. For all his personal debts assumed by the business. 4. For his net loss as found in the loss and gain account. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, 2 1. 2. Credit. . For what he invests either at the beginning or subsequent investments. . For any debts of the business paid by him. For his net gain, as found in the loss and gain account. PERSONS. Debit. For the amount they owe at beginning of business. For all property sold them on account. . For any money paid or loaned them. For any goods returned to them for which they had received credit. For all drafts drawn by them and paid or accepted by us. Credit. For the amount we owe them at beginning of business. For all property bought from them. . For all money received from them on account. . For any goods they may return to us. . For notes given us on account. For drafts drawn on them by us. BILLS RECEIWABLE. Debit. . For notes or time drafts invested. . For all notes or time drafts received. For all notes or time drafts made payable to others, but transferred to us. Credit. . For all notes or time papers when paid or returned to parties issuing. . For all notes or time papers we sell, have discounted, or transferred. For all part payments made. BILLS PAYABLE, Debit. . For all notes or other time papers when redeemed by us or returned to us. . For any part payment that may be made on notes issued by us. Credit. For all notes and other time papers held by us at the beginning of business. For all time papers or notes given by us in favor of others. 566, SELF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOKKEEPING, CASH. Debit. 1. For all cash invested in business. 2. For all cash received from any source. Credit. 1. For all cash paid out, loaned or lost. MERCHANDISE. Debit. For the inventory of stock on hand at the beginning of business. Bor all merchandise bought. For any goods returned after being once sold. For freight, drayage, etc., unless separate accounts are kept. : Often for discounts allowed from original bill. Credit. For all sold. . For goods returned by us. For insurance received for damaged or lost goods. For goods taken from stock for private use. : EXPENSE. Debit. 1. For the cost of the use of anything required to carry on the business, such as rent, postage, stationery, office furniture, services of clerks, drayage, storage. NoTE.—Many of the above items may be carried in separate accounts, and should be, if large; but in a small business they can all be classified as expense. Credit. 1. For anything sold or given that has been charged to expense and for the inventory of furniture, books, etc. INTEREST AND DISCOUNT. Debit Interest and Discount. 1. For all interest accrued and owing us at the beginning of business. 2. For the use of money received by us on our notes or accounts. 3. For the use of money received by us when others prepay their notes in our favor. 4. For money received by us on notes and drafts we transfer to others before they are due. &AEALF-INSTRUCTION IN BOOA KEEPIAWG. 567 Credit Interest and Discount. 1. For all interest accrued and owing to others at time of beginning. 2. For the use of money given to others on their notes, accounts, etc. 3. For the use of money given to others on notes or drafts discounted by us. 4. For the use of money given to others when we prepay our own notes in their favor. 5. For the use of money given to others on their notes and drafts they transfer to us before they are due. CONSIGNMENT ACC0 UNTS. Debit the Consignment. 1. For all charges paid, such as freight and drayage; also for boxing, repacking, adver- tising or other outlays necessary to effect a sale. 2. For all goods returned to us after being sold, and which have been credited to the consignment. 3. For the consignor’s net proceeds remitted to him. Credit the Consignment. 1. For all sales effected, for all rebates or overcharges on expense incident to sale, and when the charges are in excess of the total sales for an amount sufficient to close the account, SHIPMENT ACCOUNT. Debit the Shipment. 1. For the invoice value of goods when shipped. 2. For all charges incident to shipment. 3. For any drafts drawn on us or cash advanced on account of the shipment. Credit the Shipment. 1. For all drafts drawn by us or cash received on account of shipment 2. For all returns when the account sales have been received. Miscellaneous Accounts. In addition to the above might be mentioned numerous accounts that are often opened, such as freight and drayage account, merchandise and discount account, labor or service account, real estate, mortages, etc. All such accounts, however, show a loss or gain, and are directly under the old general law, that we debit what costs and we credit what produces. OMMERCIAL/ º sº º & % º % º ift/ º A N | \\\ | 5: º º DDITION and multiplication are the two great sº- essentials of commercial arithmetic. Authors tº º - % s for years have been troubling themselves to find - %is some short process by which accuracy and rapidity can be reached in these branches. Little merit, however, have we been able to find in the many rules and methods de- vised to aid in these important branches. Rapid addi- tion is important, but much more importance must be given to accuracy. Were we to pin the bookkeeper down to detail we would find that at least two-thirds of his time is spent in adding or multiplying, that he may get the accounts ready to enter into his several books. For many years we have had just one rule that we have found superior to all others. It is this: “Keep your lips closed and your pencil moving.” Watch a rapid figurer at his work and you will soon discover that the seat of mathematics is not located in the lower jaw HOW TO ADD RAPIDLY. Logically it is easier to add than to read. We have in our alphabet twenty-six letters and fifty-four sounds, but in figuring we have but ten characters, each of which means the same thing at all times. Learn the figures as you have learned your letters. Study to com: bine them as you have studied to combine sounds and you will soon note a vast improvement in speed and correctness of work. 1t is necessary, however, to acquire facility in grouping the figures into convenient sets. Start by grouping tens, but do not stop there. If seven and three make ten, it is just as sure that seven and eight make fifteen, or seven and six thirteen. Remember that whenever you see an 8, 5 and 2 together that you have 15, or if the combination be 5, 2, 7, 4 the addition is 18, not once, but always. The great reason for so many failures in addition, is due largely to the fact that the accountant is so anxious for the result that he does not stop to think what he is doing. Think always, think well, and you will soon be a rapid figurer, The COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC A.WD READ Y RECKONER. best accountants do not waste their time in learning to add two columns at one time, but instead add two or three figures at a time, and note the combination. The next time they are not obliged to add, for they know the combination when they see it. If you are introduced to a person two or three times it is safe to say that you know him. Apply the same power to your addition and you have learned to know at sight the figures with which you deal. A simple process by which addition can be proven is here given, and is worthy of note. It was first published in one of Professor Eaton's valuable commercial texts, and is now con- sidered standard. 9876 = 30 = 3 8949 = 30 = 3 5678 = 26 = 8 98.43 = 24 = 6 - 43 = 7. 2698 = 25 = 7 3987 = 27 = 9 5425 = 16 = 7 46456 = 25 = 7 Adding you get the total here indicated. Next add across each set of figures, bringing out the total until it is reduced to one figure, and note that the total, when reduced, gives the same key number found through the totals of each set. HOW TO MULTIPLY RAPIDLY. Why did you cease to learn the multiplication table when you reached the twelves? There is no logical reason. If you will study the following table until you have reached the twenty-fives, you will find that it will be a source of great help to you on numerous occasions. 2_3_4_5_6_7| 8 9|10|11||12||1314|15|16|17|18||19| 20 21, 22.28 24|25 4|| 6 || 8 || 10 12 14| 16, 18| 20 22 24 26, 28 30 32 34|| 36||38|40 42| 44 46|| 48 50 6| 9| 12 15, 18 21| 24, 27| 30 33| 36|| 39 42 45 48 51| 54 57| 60 63 66 69| 72| 75 8| 12| 16, 20 24 28 32| 36|| 40 44 48 52| 56 60 64 68| 72| 76 80 84| 88 92 96100 45 50 55' 60 65 70, 75 80 85| 90 95|100105||110|115||120|125 12| 18 24, 30| 36|| 42|| 48 54 60 66 72| 78. 84 90 96,102|108||114|120,126|132|138||144|150 14| 21 28, 35 42 49 56| 63 70 77| 84 91 98|105||112||119|126||133140|147|154|161||168||175 16| 24, 32 40 48' 56| 64|| 72 80 88 96.104|112||120,128|136144|152|160|168||176|184|192|200 18| 27| 36|| 45 54 63| 72| 81| 90 99|108||117|126|135||144|153|162|171|180|189|198|207|216|225 10| 20 30 40, 50 60 70 80 901001101.20130140|150,160|170.180/190|200|210|220|230|240|250 11| 22| 33 44 55 66 77| 88|99||110|121||132143154|165,176|187|198|209|220|231|242|253|264|275 12| 24| 36|| 48 60 72| 84 96.108.120,132144156|168||180192204|216|228|240|252.264|276|288|300 13| 26|| 39| 52| 65||78 91|104|117||130|143156169||182|195208|221|234|247|260|273|286|299|312|325 14| 28 42 56 70 84 98||112||1261.40154|168||182|1962.10|224|238|252266|280|294,308.322336||350 15| 30 45 60 75|| 90|105|120|135||150|165|180|195|210|225,240|255|270|285|300|315|330/345|360|375 16| 32| 48 64 80 96112|128|144|160|176|192208:224|240|256|272.288|304|320|336||352|368|384|400 17| 34 51| 68 85,102.119||136||153|170|187|204/2211238.255.272|289|306|323|340|357|374,391408,425 18| 36|| 54. 72| 90108126|144|162,180.198|2161234,252,270,288,306|324,342|360.378,396.414|432|450 19|38||5||75||9||114|133,152|171190.209.228247266285304,333.342|361||38||30941843.4564.5 20|40. 60 80100120140|160|180200.220240260280/300.320|340'360'380|400|430440460480500 21| 42 63 84|105126.147|168|189210|231252,273'294,315336||357|378,399.420,441462.483|504,525 22 44 66 88||110|132154|176198220/242264|286308|330,352.374,396.418|440462484,506528|550 23| 46 69 92.115||138161184,207,230|253.276/299 322|345,368.391|414|437460,483.506529.552575 24 48 72 96.120.144|168|192216.240.264288.312336||360,384,408,432,456.480|504,528552.576,600 25 50 75100.125150|175|200|225 250|275|300,325 350|375 400|425|450475|500|525,550|575|600|625 T2ſ 3| 4ſ. 5 GT7ſ. 8] 310|TT|12||1314, 1516|17|18||19| 20 21ſ22ſ23/24/25 1 () 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC AND READ Y RECKONER. RAPID MULTIPLICATION. Multiply 63 by 11. Add together 6 +3 = 9. Place the 9 between the 6 and 3 and you have 693, the correct amount. To Multiply When the Tens Orders Are Alike, and the Units Add Ten. Multiply 82 by 88. 8 x 2 = 16 8 x 9 = 72 7216 First multiply the units, next add 1 to the tens, figure in the multiplier and multiply In other words, multiply each by itself, except to add 1 to the tens order. To Multiply Any Two Numbers Together. ILLUSTRATION.— 36 5 x 6 = 30. Place 0, carry the 3. 75 5 x 3 = 15 + 3 = 18. Carry the 18. 2700 7 x 6 = 42 + 18 = 60, Place0, and carry the 6. - 7 x 3 = 21 + 6 = 27. The rule is to proceed as in ordinary multiplication, except that you carry the second multiplication over to the third. To Multiply Mixed Numbers. ILLUSTRATION.—84 x 4}. 8% 4} 8 x 4 = 32. 32 8+ 4 = 12 x 4 = 6. _* + x + = 4. 38} 9+ x 74. 9} 7}_ 7 x 9 = 63. º: 9 + 7 = 16 x + = 4. +'s 4 x 4 = H'g. 67, 93 x 94. 9; 94 90 T 9} + 4 = 10 x 9 = 90. tºr * x ſ = ºr. - 90 ºr COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READ Y RECACO WEA. 571 Many more illustrations might be given of what are termed “short cuts,” as suggested in what we said relative to addition. However, we have little faith in the great multiplicity of rules and processes; we prefer to look at arithmetic from this standpoint: first, that in all arithmetic there are but two things to find, i.e., Larger numbers and Smaller ones; second, there are but four ways of finding them, i.e., Addition, Multiplication, Subtraction and Division. We wish at this point to note some of the ways to know when to add, multiply, subtract or divide, for we take it that if you know when you will have little difficulty with the how. First let us group together the figures 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 5, 3, and your total is 30—you have found it by addition. Why? Well, perhaps because you could not find it any other way. 10, 10 and 10, again we have 30—either by adding or multiplying 10 by 3. In the first instance the numbers represent different sized units, in the second the units were of the same value. Hence it follows that we add unlike and multiply like numbers. Again we wish to divide $30 between two men, one of the men to get $17. We subtract the latter from the total, getting a remainder of $13. We have subtracted for the same reason that we added; our numbers are alike. But if we wish to divide our money among three men, each to receive the same, division is our process for our units are alike. Hence we take it that with whole numbers we add or multiply to find the totals; we subtract or divide to find parts. When we reach the subject of HOW TO MULTIPLY AND DIVIDE FRACTIONS RAPIDLY. we find a somewhat different condition, however—a condition that is responsible, we believe for the couplet: Multiplication is my vexation, Division is twice as bad. The rule of three—it puzzles me, And Fractions make me mad. We have been taught all along that multiplication means increase, yet the reverse is true in more than seven-eighths of the examples with which we come in contact. The Principles of Fractions. 1. To multiply the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number does not change its value. ILLUSTRATION.— 0. #, represented by a square, is 3 4 × 2 = }, represented by the same sized square, leaves exactly the same amount not disturbed. 6 5 572 COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READY RECKONER, 2. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the denominator of a fraction increases its value. 3 x 2 6 - C & A "Tº One square will now be taken and part of another. I F | 2 1 || 2 The same sized square is divided into halves, and I 3 4 || 3 again one and one-half is 2 3 - 3. gCne. 4 × 2 8 3. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the denominator divides the fraction. # (for illustration) = }. 6 3 3 3 # ** = 5 or 1 - 2 = 5. Now to their application. If you will note carefully you will see that multiplication means decrease, and division increase. - - 5} ExAMPLE.-At $4 per yard, how many yards can be bought for _*. $5?? Now it is evident that at $1 per yard we can buy 53 yards, and º # x 8 = 6. it is just as evident that at $4 we can get more than 53 yards. As we RT- can get more we want a larger number. Apply our principle of division 7)46 for larger quantities, multiply by our denominator (which divides our 6# fraction) and divide by our numerator (which also divides the fraction). What is the cost of ; of a ton of iron if one ton costs 1281*; $1281*;? —*— REASON.—; will cost less than a ton, hence a smaller tº: 2 # 9 ---. quantity is desired. To get it we multiply first by the Wii. × 9 135 numerator, then divide by our denominator as follows: - TTIAT; DEDUCTION.—From the above illustrations form the following rule which applies to the greater part of arithmetic, for it must be remembered that percentage is fractional. (6% is .06—a fraction expressed decimally, or +}r, were it in the form of a common fraction.) Part | If required, multiply factors. If given, divide factors. 2684} }} x 3 = ºr What has been said relative to addition 3 # # * * * Multiplication and subtraction of whole numbers applies * #". 268 = §§ 4 equally with fractions, whenever you add or ... } subtract in fractions, but with multiplica. 112 L. C. D. tion or division the reverse condition is true. º *I's 65 If the example has in both factors a mixed 974 à's º | Addition number the whole number law holds. EXAMPLE.—If a ship sails 2684.3 milesin 209 = 1.9." one day, how far will she travel in 33 days? II: T **** Here, as in whole numbers, we multiply: COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READP RECKOWER. 573 Study carefully the above illustration. Notice that to multiply we have not reduced to Improper fractions. This is rarely ever necessary. BLIND MARK FOR MARKING G00DS. T A 6 E II p F () V X. A In marking goods various de- ing A d ht by the D vices are adopted to prevent the For Marking All Goods Bought by the Dozen. cost and selling price mark from To make 20% remove the point one place tº the left becoming known to outsiders. The “ “ 80% &c. &c. “ and add $ itself. - - following is good: & 4 gº 60 «g 4 & gº gº & 4 4 & % # 44 b l a c k h o r s e 44 gº & 4 & 4 gº & 4 46 ºt cº : & 4 cº & 4 &g &g ; &c. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 O “ “ 40% &c. &c. “ “ “ “ Instead of letters arbitrary * “ 37.3% “ “ “ “ “ “ characters may be used as follows: To make 35% remove the point and add itself. & 4 & 4 33}% 66 & 4 & 4 & 4 &G ! 4 & & 4 gº 32% 4 & & 4 ( & & t 4 & * º & 4 & 4 30% & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 i's º & 4 & 4 28% 44 & Cº & 4 & 4 & 4 +'s 44 44 & 4 26% gº 4 & ( & & Cº & 6 s', &g 4 : gº 25% 4 & & 4 4 & & 4 ( & s'; & 4 & 4 & 4 124% & 4 & 4 & 4 subtract I's & 4 & 4 4t 163% 44 & 4 4 & & 4 s's ºt & 4 44 183% 4 & 44 46 cg * gº FARMER'S SHORT RULES IN ARITHMETIC. How to Measure Hay in the Mow or Stack. RULE.—Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, and this by the breadth in feet, and divide the result by 500, and you have the number of tons in a mow; or, multiply the length in feet by the width in feet, and this by one-half the height, and divide the product by 300, and you have the number of tons in a stack. 7.///)} | N. S. ſº | 'Y, l } | º - t \, - º |W ** —d - How to Find the Contents of a Wagon Box. A common wagon box is a little more than 10 feet long and 3 feet wide, and will hold about 2 bushels for every inch in depth. RULE.—Multiply the depth of a wagon box in inches by 2, to give the number of bushels, or if the wagon box is 11 feet iong multiply the depth in inches by 2 and add one- tenth of the number of bushels to itself. 574 OOMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READ Y RECKONER. *S-5:... ºx-> How to Find the Number of Bushels of Grain in a ... º § Bin or Box. RULE.—Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, and then again by the breadth in feet, and then again by 8, and cut off the right-hand figure. The result will be the number of bushels. How to Measure Ear Corn in the Crib. RULE.—Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet and E that again by the width in feet, multiply the result by 4; cut off === the right-hand figure and you have the contents in bushels of EF shelled corn. gº-7 How to Figure a Load of Grain. RULE.—Find the total number of pounds and divide that by the number of pounds in one bushel, and it will equal the num- ^ſº *o ber of bushels. Number of Pounds to the Bushel, Approximate Weight. Millet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 pounds. Wheat.............................. 60 pounds. Anthracite Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 “ Corn on Cob. . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70 “ Clover Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 “ Rye. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 56 “ Blue Grass Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 “ Oats. . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 32 tº Timothy Seed ................ - - - - - - - 45 “ Barley ............................. 48 ‘’ Flax Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56 “ Buckwheat............. -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 ** Dried Peaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 “ Shelled Corn ........................ 54 “ Dried Apples... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 “ Corn Meal........................... 50 “ Peas . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 “ Potatoes............................. 60 * Beans. . . . . . . . . *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 60 “ Sweet Potatoes...................... 55 * Turnips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 55 “ Onions.................. ............ 54 * How to Find the Contents of a Watering Trough. RULE.—Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, and the product - \ by the width in feet, and divide the Re-Eas- result by 4, and the result will be the contents in barrels of 31% gallons wºch. GOMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READ}^ RECKONER. 575 How to Find the Contents of Barrels and Casks. RULE.—Add the diameters of the head and bung in inches and divide the sum by 2, and this will equal the average diameter. Then multiply the square of the average diameter by the length in inches and multiply this result by 34, and cut off the four right-hand figures. This is the number of gallons. How to Find the Contents of a Round Tank. RULE.—Multiply the square of the diameter in feet by the depth in feet, and multiply this result by 6, and the result is the approximate contents of the tank in gallons. How to Find the Number of Common Bricks in a Wall or Building. RULE.—Multiply the length of the wall in feet by the height in feet, and by its thickness in feet, and then multiply that result by 30, and that will give the num- ber of bricks in the waſl. MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND TABLES. Avoirdupois Weight. —Used in weighing all bulky articles, grain, groceries, etc. - 437% grains = 1 oz. 16 Oz. = 1 lb. 25 lbs. = 1 qr. 2000 “ = 1 ton 2240 “ = 1 long ton 196 lbs. flour = 1 bbl. 200 “ beef or pork = 1 “ 280 “ N. Y. Salt = i “ 100 “ nails = 1 keg Troy Weight.— - 24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 12, Ounces = 1 pound 480 grains = 1 ounce Note that the avoirdupois pound contains 7000 grains, while the troy pound contains but 3760. If a dishonest grocer sells you a pound of tea by troy weight he cheats you, but if he sells you an ounce by troy weight he cheats himself out of 42+ grains. 576 COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READP RECKOWER. Dry Measure.— 2 pints = 1 quart 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel Cubic Measure.— 1728 cu. inches = 1 cu. foot 27 “ feet = 1 “ yard 2150.42 “ inches = 1 bushel 231 “ “ = 1 gallon ALIQUOT PARTS. One of the first tables to learn in arithmetic should be a table of aliquot parts of a dollar. You will find that the majority of prices are aliquots. So with any scale of discounts. You can easily apply, through your knowledge of aliquots, the following illustrations. Per- centage work in all its phases gives much opportunity to use the following table. It is also very essential in billing and quick multiplication. 2} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº of one dollar 1 4 & & C & 4 3} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3's - 4 & & C & 4 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - s's 1 & 4 & C &&. 64 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Töſ 1 ( & & & 4 8; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Tº 941 1 & 4 4 & &C. TT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - T1 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iſ, “ “ “ 11%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | “ “ “ 12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | “ “ “ 14%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! “ “ “ 16é. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | “ “ “ 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * “ “ “ 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # “ “ “ 33% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! “ “ “ 37}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; “ “ “ 40... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # “ “ “ 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! “ “ “ 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * “ “ “ 1 & 4 & 4 gº 62} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § 66é. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # “ “ “ 75. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # “ “ “ 83% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # “ “ “ 87% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | “ “ “ ILLUSTRATION.—Find the total value of the following: 720 yds. at 163 cents. By referring to the table you will see that 163 cents = } of a dollar, hence, at 16% cents per yd. you can buy 6 yds. for one dollar. At a dollar per yd. 720 yds. would cost $720, but at # of a dollar it would be 4 of $720, or $120 COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC AND READF RECKOWER. 57? Find total cost of 320 yds, at 25 cents equals + 320 + 4 = $ 80.00 645 “ “ 87; “ “. . 645 + j = 564.38 324 “ “ 33} “ “ $ 324 + 4 = 108.00 $752.38 Easy Methods for Figuring Interest. 1. Any number of dollars when multiplied by any number of days will, when three figures are pointed off, produce the interest at 36%. ILLUSTRATION.— Principal, $3600 Time in days, 63 10800 21600 $226.800, Int. at 36%. 6% = } of 36%, hence, $226.80 + 6 = $36.13% Int. at 6%. 3% is ºs of 36%. Therefore, if 3% is wanted divide by 12. So with all multiples of 36. Dividing by 9 we havo the interest at 4%, or if divided by 4.5 we have it for 8%, and so on through numer- ous combinations. It is, perhaps, better for the beginner to proceed as above until he has found the interest at 6%, then divide by 6 the second time, when the amount at 1 per cent is found. Having the interest at 1 per cent it is a very easy matter to find the amount for any other rate by multiplying by the required rate. One of the methods now in general use is called the bankers’ method. The rule to remember in its workings is: Express all figures on one side of a perpendicular line, then put 360 on the opposite side and cancel. ILLUSTRATION.—Find the interest on $840 for 46 days at 6%. 14 $40 $60 46 6 You have left 14 and 46, multiply them. 14 by 46 = $6.44. Presume the time is expressed in months, the process would be as follows: Find the interest on $965 for 9 mo. at 8% 3 9 42 5 : : 865 multiplied by 3 is $28.95 x 2 - $57.90. 578 COMMERCIA L ARITHMETIC AND READ Y RECKONER, One of the best and a method used perhaps oftener than any other is known as the 6% method. It is based on the following facts: $1 at 6% for 1 year brings $.06 $1 at 6% for 6 months brings $.03 $1 at 6% for 1 month brings $.005 $1 at 6% for 1 day brings $.000; Find the interest on $340 for 1 year, 5 months and 24 days at 6%: For one year $.06 For five months .025 For 24 days .004 $.089, total interest on $1 for the given time; hence, for $340, it is 340 times $.089 or $30.56. If you desire to find any other rate, divide by 6 and multiply by the rate desired. 1. § * : To Find Time between Dates. 1897 10 16 ILLUSTRATION.—Find the time from September 16, 1897, to Jan- 7 3 8 uary 24, 1905. The legal and maximum rates of interest allowed by law in the different States and Terri- tories of the United States are as follows: TABLE OF INTEREST RATES. RATE PER ANNUM RATE PER ANNUM STATES AND TERRITORIES STATES AND TERRITORIES _ Maxi- Maxi- Legal Inunl Legal murn Alabama. .................... 8% 8% Montana. . . . . ................. 10% 10% Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - Nebraska...................... 7% 10% Arizona. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% any? Nevada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% any? Arkansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 10% New Hampshire............... 6% 6% California.................... 7% any? New Jersey.................... 6% 6% Colorado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8% any? New Mexico................... 6% 12% Connecticut.................. 6% any? New York..................... 6% 6% Delaware...... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6% 6% North Carolina................ 6% 6% District of Columbia.......... 6% 10% North Dakota ................. 7% 12% Florida....................... 8% 10% Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 8% Georgia. . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - --- 7% 8% Oklahoma......... - - - - - - - - - - - - 7% any? Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% 10% Oregon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8% 10% Illinois.......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5% 7% Pennsylvania.................. 6% 6% Indiana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .| 6% 8% Rhode Island.................. 6% any? Indian Ter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% any? South Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% 8% Iowa........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 8% South Dakota.................. 7% 12% Kansas...... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6% 10% Tennessee..................... 6% 6% Kentucky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 6% Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8% 10% Louisiana .................... 5% 8% Utah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 8% Maine........... - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6% any? Vermont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% 6% Maryland......... - - - - - - - - - - - - 6% 6% Virginia....................... 6% 6% Massachusetts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% any? Washington................... 7% 12% Michigan.............. . . . . . . . 6% 8% West Virginia................. 6% 6% Minnesota.......... - - - - - - - - - - 7% 10% Wisconsin..................... 7% 10% Mississippi.... - - - - - - - - - - - 6% 10% Wyoming..................... 8% 12% Missouri..... . . . - - - - - - - - 6% 8% REMARK egal rate of interest for England and France is 5%, and for the Dominion of Canada 6% COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC AND READ Y RECKONER. 579 The labor of computing compound interest may be abridged by the use of the following Showing the amount of $1 at compound interest for any number of years from 1 year to 55 Compound Interest Table. years inclusive: Yrs. 1 per ct. 14 per ct. 2 per ct. 2% per ct. 3 per ct. 3% per ct. 4 per ct. Yrs. 1 1.0100 000 1.0150 000| 1.0200 0000| 1.0250 0000| 1.0300 0000| 1.0350 0000| 1.0400 0000 1 2 1.0201 000) 1.0302 250| 1.0404 0000| 1.0506 2000) 1.0609 0000| 1.0712 2500 1.0816 0000 2 3 1.0303 010| 1.0456 784| 1.0612 0800) 1.0768 9062 1.0927 2700 1.1087 1787| 1.1248 6400 3 4 1.0406 040 1,0613 636|| 1.0824 3216, 1.1038 1289| 1.1255 0881| 1.1475 2300|| 1.1698 5856 4 5 1.0510 101| 1.0772 840) 1.1040 8080) 1.1314 0821| 1.1592 7407| 1.1876 8631|| 1.2166 5290 5 6 1.0615 202| 1.0934 433 1.1261 6.242 1.1596 93.42 1.1940 5230|| 1.2292 5533| 1.2653 1902 6 7 1.0721 354 1.1098 450| 1.1486 8567| 1. 1886 8575|| 1.2298 7387| 1.2722 7.926|| 1.3159 8178 7 8 1.0828 567| 1.1264 926|| 1.1716 5938 1.2184 0290) 1.2667 7008 1.3168 0904| 1.3685 6905 8 9 1.0936 853| 1.1433 900 1.1950 9257| 1.2488 6297| 1.3047 7318| 1.3628 9735| 1.4233 1181 9 10 1.1046 221 1.1605 408 1.2189 94.42 1.2800 8454| 1.3439 1638| 1.4105 9876| 1.4802 4428 10 11 1.1156 683| 1.1779 489| 1.2433 7431|| 1.3120 8666| 1.3842 3387| 1.4599 6972| 1.5394 5406 11 12 1.1268 250) 1.1956 182 1.2682 4179| 1.3448 8882| 1.4257 6089| 1.5110 6866| 1.6010 3222 12 13 1.1380 933| 1.2135 524. 1.2936 0663| 1.3785 1104| 1.4685 3371 1.5639 5606 1.6650 7351] 13 14 1. 1494 742 1.2317 557| 1.3194 7876| 1.4129 7382| 1.5125 8972, 1.6186 9452| 1.7316 7645 14 15 1.1609 690) 1.2502 321| 1.3458 6834| 1.4482 98.17| 1.5579 6742 1.6753 4883| 1.8009 4351] 15 16 1.1725 786] 1.2689 855| 1.3727 8570| 1.4845 0562| 1.6047 0644. 1.7339 8601| 1.8729 8125 16 17 1.1843 044| 1.2880 203| 1.4002 4142|| 1.5216 1826 1.6528 4763| 1.7946 7555 1.9479 0050, 17 18 1.1961 475|| 1.3073 406 1.4282 4625 1.5596 5872| 1.7024 3306 1.8574 8920 2.0258 1652, 18 19 1.2081 090| 1.3269 507| 1.4568 1117| 1.5986 5019 1.7535 0605] 1.9225 0132 2.1068 4918. 19 20 1.2201 900 1.3468 550| 1.4859 4740) 1.6386 1644. 1.8061 1123, 1.9897 8886 2.1911 2314| 20 21 1.2323 919 1.3670 578] 1.5156 6634| 1.6795 8185| 1.8602 94.57 2.0594 3147| 2.2787 6807] 21 22 1.2447 159| 1.3875 637] 1.5459 7967| 1.7215 7140|| 1.9161 0341| 2.1315 1158 2.3699 1879| 22 23 1.2571 630) 1.4083 772| 1.5768 9926 1.7646 1068 1.9735 8651] 2.2061 1448 2.4647 1555] 23 24 1.2697 346| 1.4295 028 1.6084 3725] 1.8087 2595 2.0327 9411| 2.2833 2849 2.5633 0417 24 25 1.2824 320|| 1.4509 454 1.6406 0599| 1.8539 4410 2.0937 7793 2.3632 4498 2.6658 3633 25 26 1.2952 563| 1.4727 095. 1.6734 1811| 1.9002 9270 2.1565 9127 2.4459 5856. 2.7724 6979| 26 27 1.3082 089| 1.4948 002 1.7068 8648 1.9478 0002. 2.2212 8901] 2.5315 6711] 2.8833 6858. 27 28 1.3212 910) 1.5172 222 1.7410 2421| 1.9964 9502. 2.2879 2768 2.6201 7.196 2.9987 0332 28 29 1.3345 039| 1.5399 805 1.7758 4469| 2.0464 0739| 2.3565 6551 2.7.118 7798. 3.1186 5145, 29 30 1.3478 490) 1.5630 802 1.8113 6158] 2.0975 6758 2.4272 6247| 2.8067 9370 3.2433 9751] 30 81 1.3613 274] 1.5865. 264 1.8475 8882. 2.1500 0677| 2.5000 8035 2.9050 3148, 3.3731 3341| 31 82 1.3749 407 1.6103 243 1.8845 4059| 2.2037 5694 2.5750 8276 3.0067 0759 3.5080 5875 33 33 1.3886 901| 1.6344 792] 1.9222 3140 2.2588 5086 2.6523 3524 3.1119 4235 3.6483 8110| 33 34 1.4025 770 1.6589 964 1.9606 7603 2.3153 2213 2.7319 0530 3.2208 6033 3.7900 1634 34 35 1.4166 028, 1.6838 813 1.9998 8955] 2.3732 0519| 2.81386245 3.3335 9045 3.9460 8899| 35 36 1.4307 688 1.7091 395 2.0398 8734 2.4325 3532 2.8982 7833, 3.4502 6611. 4.1039 3255 36 37 1.4450 765 1.7347 766 2.0806 8509| 2.4933 4870 2.9852 2668] 3.5710 2543 4.2680 8986 37 38 1.4595 272| 1.7607 983. 2.1222 98.79| 2.5556 8242 3.0747 8348, 3.6960 1132, 4.4388 1345, 88 39 1.4741 225] 1.7872 103 2.1647 4477 2.6195,7448, 3.1670 2698 3.8253 7171| 4.6163 6599 39 40 1.4888 637] 1.8140 184] 2.2080 3966 2.6850 6384 3.2620 3779, 3.9592 5972 4.8010 2063. 40 41 1.5037 524| 1.8412 287| 2.2522 0046 2.7521 9043| 3.3598 98.93| 4.0978 3381| 4.9930 6145 41 42 1.5187 899) 1.8688 471] 2.2972 4447| 2.8209 9520 3.4606 9589| 4.2412 5799 5.1927 8391 42 43 1.5339 778] 1.8968 798 2.3431 8936 2.8915, 2008, 3.5645 1677| 4.3897 0202 5.4004 9527| 43 44 1.5493 176 1.9253 330 2.3900 5314| 2.9638 0808, 3.6714 5227| 4.5433 4160 5.6165 1508. 44 45 1.5648 107| 1.9542 130 2.4378 5421] 3.0379 0328, 3.7815 9584 4.7023 5855, 5.8411 7568 45 46 1.5804 589] 1.9835 262 2.4866 1129, 3.1138 5086 3.8950 4372| 4.8669 4110 6.0748 2271 46 47 1.5962 634] 2.0132 791 2.5363 4351] 3.1916 9713. 4.0118 9503. 5.0372 8404 6.3178 1562 47 48 1.6122 261| 2.0434 783 2.5870 7039| 3.2714 8956 4.1322 5188| 5.2135 8898 6.5705 2524. 48 49 1.6283 483. 2.0741. 305 2.6388 1179| 3.3532 7680 4.2562 1944 5.3960 6459| 6.8333 4937 49 50 1.6446 318, 2.1052 424. 2.6915 8803| 3.4371 0872 4.3839 0602 5.5849 2686 7.1066 8335| 50 51 1,6610 781| 2.1368 211| 2.7454 1979| 3.5230 3644. 4.5154 2320|| 5.7803 9930| 7.3909 5068|| 51 52 1.6776 889| 2.1688 734 2.8003 2814)|| 3.6111 1235. 4.6508 8590 5.98.27 1327 7.6865 8871 52 53 1.6944 658 2.2014 065 2.8563 3475|| 3.7013 9016 4.7904 1247 6.1921 0824 7.9940 5226 53 54 1.7114 105 2.2344 276 2.9134 6144|| 3.7939 2491. 4.9341 2485 6.4088 3202 8.3138 1435. 54 _55 1.7285 246 2.2679 439| 2.9717 3067| 3.8887 7303 5,0821 4859. 6.6331 4114 8.6463 6692. 55 580 COMMERCIAL ARITH METIC A.WD READ Y RECKOWER. -- NoTE 1.--To find the amount to which any given principal, at compound interest, will increase at any rate per annum, and for any number of years given in the preceding tables: Multiply the given principal by the amount of $1 of principal for the given time and rate per annum, as shown in the table. NOTE 2.--To find the compound interest which any given principal will produce at any rate per annum, and for any number of years given in the preceding tables: Subtract $1 from the amount of $1 for the given time and rate per annum, as shown in the table; the result will be the compound interest of $1 of principal. Multiply the compound interest of $1 of principal by the given principal. For all examples of interest where 365 days are considered a year, use any of the methods here given and to your answer add is. DISCOUNT. All wholesale firms doing business by catalogue have a series of discounts upon their wares. These discounts are made for many reasons, chief of which is, perhaps, that the addi tional discount can be made to lower the price, or a certain rate per cent can be omitted to increase the price without a change in the root price of the goods. A number of methods for figuring discounts are used. One of the simplest is illustrated in the following: ples ame the list price to be $630, with discounts of 20, 10, and 5%. 630 = 100%. Point off one place, or $63, and you have the rate at 10%; for 20% it would be twice this quantity, or $126. Subtract this from $630 and you have $50.40, subtract and you have $435.60. The next is 5%. From $463.60 point off one place, you have $46.36—one-half of which would be 5 per cent, or $23.18. Now subtracting we have $439.42. Again by the same process we have first $43,92, then $21.97. Subtracting we find the net amount of the bill to be $407.45. SIMPLE PARTNERSHIP. ExAMPLE.-J. P. Perrie and H. H. Pfeiffer engage in partnership—Perrie investing $9000 and Pfeiffer $7000. The firm’s resources at closing consisted of cash $7095, real estate $7220, amount due by J. D. Gwynn $1680, merchandise $1340. The firm owes W. E. Gibbons $1249, and S. Blandford $585. What was the net loss of the firm? $9000 + $7000 = $16,000, net capital at beginning. ($7095 + $7220 + $1680+ $1340) — ($1249 + $585) = $15,501, net capital at end of year. $16,000 – $15,501 = $499, net loss. The above illustrates a very common form of partnership arrangement, and the condi- tions surrounding it. Unless the agreement is otherwise the net loss or gain is shared equally. We will next take an instance in which the division is made according to the investment: ExAMPLE.-A and B engage in business, A investing $8500 and B $6000. The net profit is $2500. What was each partner's share? $8500 + $6000 = $14,500, total capital. 5 5 $2500 $2500 $1.45% $8500 || $14500 $6000 29 29 §: x 8500) + 29 = $1465.52+, A's profit. $5 x 6000) + 29 = $1034.48 +, B's profit. 581 & Wºº º EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER. LAD we are that the time has come when it is not essential for the student to “go away from home” to obtain a thorough knowledge of law, for good schools are coming to your door to give you, in your own home, a thorough education in any of the practical branches. The purpose of these chapters is not so far-reaching We desire only to present many of the standard facts and to them urge your attention. In all matters of law let your common sense guide. GY © Do not issue a valuable paper without first consulting a good attorney, unless you are sure you are right. If you have that knowledge, then save the fee. At least learn enough about law to keep out of its meshes. If you are fond of pure vexation, And sweet procrastination, You are just in the situation To enjoy a suit at law. HOW TO SETTLE DIFFICULTIES WITHOUT GOING TO LAW. Arbitration. Any cause of trouble which is not criminal may be the subject of arbitration. The best way to settle difficulties between two parties is for each to appoint one disinterested person, and then the two thus selected appoint a third party, the three to consider the statements of the intending parties and their witnesses, if any. After hearing both sides of the case they can then decide upon the terms of settlement or award. Conditions. A court of equity will not, of course, compel any man to carry out an agreement to submit the difficulty to arbitrators; but when the difficulty has, by mutual consent of both parties in controversy, been once submitted for settlement, the decision of the arbitrators will be held as good and binding, unless there is some mistake or fraud entering into the decision. 582. A W WITHOUT A LA WYER. Compulsory Performance. If either of the parties, after the terms of settlement have been made known by the arbi trators, refuses to perform his part, he can, by the law, be made to carry out the conditions of the settlement or pay damages for non-performance; and the suit, if brought into court, must be on the non-performance, and not on the original claim. The original claim cannot be tried. Arbitration is considered the most just way of settling matters under dispute of any known method. The work at The Hague, Holland, is proving most satisfactory for the governments of all enlightened nations who are there represented. --> - % 2% // 2 - - || %/ - º!/ſ"|| %) ſºlº/ || |\\\\\ | | £4 */ ſ W. | \\ "W \ M W \ - º/ | º & \\ WN \ § º º Nº º lºssºs º \ º - - - AºA \) º i º º | W l º *===# （º AFTER THE LAW SUIT. The lawyer takes the cow, and leaves the contestants to fight it out among themselves. The recent great coal strike, so jeopardizing to business and comfort, as all will remember, was settled in a most satisfactory manner by arbitration. If you cannot agree, instead of going into the court, settle by arbitration. BUSINESS LAW. Law is defined as a rule of action prescribed by proper authorities for our guidance. Its most common branches are International law, Municipal law, Common law, Statutory law, Commercial law. It is with the two latter branches that we have most to do, and propose to herein set forth some of the essentials that will be vºluable, not only from the standpoint of general information, but will help the careful observe to avoid error and save difficulties that would otherwise arise. It is surprisingly unfortunate that so little is known by the majority of well-read citizens relative to the common things of law. Agreements and Contracts. A contract is an agreement between competent persons, based upon a legal considerał?" to do or not to do some act, not prohibited or enjoined by law. Note first that it must be * LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. * 583 agreement; an agreement consists of an offer and an acceptance. There are several ways in which this may come about, either by words or by action on the part of either party. Example.—A builds a fence around your lot. You did not instruct him to do so, but with your knowledge he proceeds. The fact that you do not object, but instead acquiesce, is proof that you expect to pay for it, and A can collect an equitable amount; therefore, the building of the fence is the offer; your permis- sion is the acceptance. Silence does not give consent. If you were not aware that the tº --- - fence was being built A could not recover damages. There must, in every case, be an ac- THE RESULT OF A DISAGREEMENT. ceptance. An offer once refused cannot be accepted without the consent of him who first made the offer. A offers to sell you a horse for $200. You say “No,” and a little later say “Yes.” You cannot compel A to deliver the horse. Acceptance makes a contract, and it is, therefore, important to know just when and how an acceptance can be made. A writes you that he will buy your farm at $50 per acre. The offer is presumed to be made when you receive the letter, and accepted when you mail your reply. The letter may be lost in the mail, but you are still bound by the contract. If A changes his mind and writes you that he will not pay you the price named, the contract still holds if you have accepted same before receiving the second letter. Who May Make Contracts. The general rule as to who may make contracts is: All persons of sound mind and legal Age. There are a number of persons not competent to contract: First, infants (persons under 21); second, married women; third, lunatics. Infants.-Contracts for the necessities of life, contracts for the maintenance of family and contracts for the burying of members of the family are bindiwg when made by one not of legal age. It is quite often difficult to determine just what are the necessities of life. A, aged nineteen, goes to the jewelry store and buys a diamond pin. The father refuses to pay for it. It was proven, however, that all other members of the family had like jewelry, that they considered it a necessity, as the people with whom they associated, or desired to associate, wore diamonds. The judge ruled against the father. The law, however, defines quite clearly what the necessities are: board, clothing, instruction and medical aid. .384 LA W WITHOUT A - LA WYER. Money is not a necessity, and if a minor borrows money, even though he use it to buy a suit of clothes—that is a necessity—the parent is not required by law to return the money. Married Women.—The law looks upon husband and wife as one, and by common law she could make no contracts unless (1) her husband was civilly dead—that is undergoing penal servitude, (2) an alien living in a foreign country, (3) divorced from her, (4) insane. Most States have, however, removed many of these disabilities to contract. Lunatics.-A contract of a lunatic is voidable at the option of the insane person. Every- body is presumed to be of sound mind unless adjudged insane by the proper authorities. Duress.-Any contract obtained by duress (force) is void. Personal restraint, fear of injury, imprisonment, are conditions that make a contract void. Undue influence of a strong mind over a weaker one is duress, and is sufficient cause for declaring a contract void. A Wital Part of a Contract—Consideration. There are two kinds of consideration—good and valuable. A good consideration is one based on love or esteem, as between immediate parties; it is sufficient to bind the agreement. If A, because of the esteem in which he holds you, gives you $1000, he cannot afterwards recover from you the money. The contract is executed and cannot be annulled. If, how- ever, he agrees, because of his love for you, to give you $1000 and later changes his mind, you have no means of recovery. The contract has not been executed. It is said to be eaecutory, and all such contracts must have a valuable consideration. A Valuable Consideration.—The proof of a valuable consideration lies in the fact as to whether or not the one to whom promise is made does something or promises to do some- thing because of the offer made. Money paid is always a valuable consideration. No matter how much or how little labor or time is devoted to the completion of an object, in fact anything that in any way would be considered of value or importancea, ccording to the great law of common sense, is a consideration, although it may not in any way be adequate to the amount of value received. Great tracts of land are every day being disposed of on the consideration of one dollar, and yet no one for a moment questions the validity. A promise to do a thing impossible to be done cannot be enforced, but the impossibility must be natural or physical. The fact that the task is a difficulk one is not a lawful excuse for non-performance. - Law Governing the Legality of Contracts. Contracts Must Be Legal.—A contract between two parties in which the discussion rests on the turn of a card, or some other device in which one must be the loser and the other the winner, cannot be enforced by law. In all gaming, wagering or betting on futures, unless the contract is a bonafide one to buy or sell, the law will not sustain the contract. Contracts made on Sunday are valid unless especially prohibited by the statute of your State. The old common law granted the privilege of contracting on Sunday, and such contracts are good. No contract made for the purpose of fraud, contrary to the interests of public service, morality, safety, or contracts on the restraint of marriage or trade, can ba enforced. LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 585 Fraudulent Contracts—Damages. Fraud is a false representation of facts made with knowledge of the deception; and con- tracts of fraud cannot be enforced. It must be noticed, however, that the one who makes the representations must know of the falsehood or fraudulency underlying the proposition. If A offers his horse for sale, and B buys the horse, believing him to be sound in every particular. he cannot bold A if later he discovers an ailment that A was not aware of at the time of the sale. If, however, A has concealed an ailment he is held for fraud. If fraud has been prac- ticed the one who has been deceived has two methods of redress: First, he may affirm the contract and later sue for damages because of the fraud practiced; or second, he may avoid the contract and not allow it to become binding upon him. Various Kinds of Contracts—Giving Security, etc. We find that many contracts must be recorded in a court of record. Some must be under seal, such as mortgages, deeds, etc. Some contracts must be in writing. Among this class are contracts for the transfer of lands or any permanent property, agreements to perform the contract within one year, for all sales of fifty dollars or over. In the latter case the buyer must receive at least a part of the goods, must pay a part of the price and give something to “bind the bargain.” Contracts of Guaranty for others, under any condition, must be in writing. I may step into a store with you and say to the proprietor, “If he does not pay for the goods I will see that you are paid.” You are, of course, morally bound to see that the storekeeper does not suffer, but legally you are not bound. - All contracts in consideration of marriage, and the promise of executor or administrator to pay debts of decedent must be in writing. Many forms must be in writing, but the safer plan is to put all in writing. A verbal agreement, especially before witnesses, is usually sufficient, for there are more men that are honest than dishonest, but safety is the “better part of valor.” Corporations. When three or more individuals obtain from government the authority to act as one through their officers, with perpetual succession of members, and under a name selected for them and granted by the State, they become a corporation, with the right to transact the business for which the company was organized, in the same manner as an individual. The advantages of incorporation are these: It combines capital and enterprise, with a limited pecuniary responsibility, which is generally a sum equal to the par value of the stock. Pay Your Bills by Checks. Keep your accounts in writing, and moreover pay your accounts by checks. If possible keep at least a small deposit in your bank and pay your bills with checks. You then not only have a complete record on the stub of the check-book, but when the voucher is returned have the very best form of receipt. 38 - 586 LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. DO YOU HEAR–NEVER SIGN A PAPER WITHOUT CAREFULLY READING AND EXAMINING THE SAME. HOW TO WRITE NOTES, DRAFTS, CHECKS, RECEIPTS, ETC. So much of the world’s volume of business is carried on through the medium of notes, drafts, checks, receipts, invoices, and other forms of business papers, that we should each be familiar with at least their correct form. We will not attempt to enter into a discussion of legal forms and the parties thereto, but will lay before you models of the latest approved forms. Copy of the Famous Swindling Note. Although the following scheme of the confidence man has been exposed time and time again, it still continues to add yearly to its list of victims. A paper is drawn up wherein a farmer agrees to pay ten or twenty dollars when he has sold goods to a given amount. By tearing off the right-hand end of this paper, what is apparently an agreement for a small amount, becomes a promissory note for a considerable sum. This note is sold to bank, thereby becoming the property of a third and innocent party, and the signer of the agreement is called upon to pay the note. Battle Creek, Mich., July 10, 1896. One year after date I promise to pay John Smith or bearer Ten Dollars, when I sell by order Four Hundred and Seventy-five Dollars' ($475) worth of Patent Fanning Mills, for Value Received, at Ten per cent, per annum. . . . . . Said Ten Dollars, when due, is payable at Battle Creek, Mich. Witness: G. Stevens. PROMISSORY NOTES. The two principal parties to a note are the Maker and the Payee—the Maker, he who signs; the Payee, the one in whose favor it is drawn. There are a number of different forms of notes such as demand notes, joint notes, etc.; these will be brought out by a careful reading of the follow- Ing. Three days’ grace is allowed on all time notes. Notes falling due Sunday, or on a legal holiday, Notes dated Sun- must be paid the day previous. James A. Adams, Agent for John Smith. º º THE swindleR secuRING THE SIGNATURE OF day are void. Notes given by minors are void. THE FARMER, LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 587 No. 1. Form of Note. $300+% Chicago, Ill., November 17, 1904 Thirty days. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . after date I promise to pay to the order of John R. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $300+% Three Hundred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars at First National Bank for value received. Due P. R. Wilson. No. 2. Form of Note. $720.4% Omaha, Neb., October 30, 1904 Four months. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . after date we promise to pay to Wilson Bros. . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - or order Seven Hundred and Twenty... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars at our office, 100 Washington Street. Value received. L. P. Wilson. Due February 28, 1905. Chas. R. Thompson. No. 3. Form of Note. 81884% St. Louis, Mo., November 18, 1904 Sixty days. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . after date, _*_ promise to pay to the order of John Smith dº Co., One Hundred and Eighty-eight Tºr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars $1884% for value received, with interest, at 6 per cent, after maturity. Payable at Commercial National Bank. No. Due R. M. Smith. . Chas. R. Wilson. 588 LAW WITHouT A LA WYER. Judgment Note. $600+% Chicago, Ill., November 20, 1905 Sirty days. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . after date, promise to pay to the order of Cºas. Z. Walker...................................... - Sia: Hundred............ +------→ Dollars at First Wational Bank with interest at 7 per cent per annum after Maturity until paid. And to secure the payment of said amount, I hereby authorize, irrevocably, any attorney of any Court of record to appear for me in such Court, in term time or vacation, at any time here- after, and confess a judgment without process in favor of the holder of this Note, for such amount as may appear to remain unpaid thereon, together with the costs and 25 dollars, attorney's fees, and to waive and release all errors which may intervene in any such proceedings, and consent to immediate execution upon such judgment, hereby ratifying and confirming all that the said attorney may do by virtue hereof. No. - Due L. P. Wilson. DRAFTS AND CHECKS. Drafts and checks are very similar in their form. The former are either orders of one person upon another to pay the first or a third person a sum of money, or they are the bank drafts used so extensively in commerce which are orders from one bank upon another bank in which they have money deposited, to pay the person named in the draft the face thereof. This form of draft differs from a check only in the particular that the former is between banks, whereas the latter is between an individual depositor and a local bank. Sight Draft. No. 87 Cincinnati, O., June 21, 1904 At sight, pay to the order of J. T. Davis dº Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . - Two Hundred Siacteen. . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars $216?’” Value received and charge to account of To J. R. Manning & Co., The Johnson Lumber Co Des Moines, Iowa. per Henry James. J.A. W. WITHOUT A LA WYER. 589 Acceptance. Bush, Bright & Co. Chicago, Ill., September 24, 1903 Thirty days after sight... . . . . . . . . . . . . . pay to the order of G. F. Raymond $211 ºr Two Hundred Eleven ºn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. Value received and charge to account of To G. F. Raymond, - Bush, Bright & Co. Denver, Colo. per S. G. Kendall, Mgr. Time Draft. The Richardson Hardware Co. No. 58 Springfield, Ill., June 29, 1903 Sixty days after date. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pay to the order of D. H. Turpin dº Co... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4394%; Four Hundred Thirty-nine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. Value received and charge same to account of To D. H. Turpin dº Co. The Richardson Hardware Co. St. Louis, Mo. W. F. Richardson, Pres. Draft for Collection. Wright, Bruce & Co. Buffalo, N. Y., May 16, 1904. No. 703 At one day's sight... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pay to the order of State National Bank - $ 93%r *nety-three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. Value received and charge the same to account of To W. H. Wilson & Co., Wright, Bruce dº Co. Madison, Wis. W. 590 A W WITHOUT A LA WYER. Bank Draft. - FIRST NATIONAL BANK | Chicago, January 3, 1905 Pay James Monroe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . or order Sta. Hundred. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars and charge to Our account. To Metropolitan National Bank, - G. W. Willis, New York City, N. Y. Cashier. Form of Checks. No. 1. Chicago, Ill., November 1, 1904, No. 6 THE CITY NATIONAL BANK OF CHICAGO Pay to the order of W. C. Billings................................ $743.4% Seven Hundred Forty-three... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. Andrew Carlson. No. 2. Chicago, Ill., November 28, 1902 No. 169 - CHICAGO SAVINGS BANK State & Washington Sts. Pay to the order of John Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $50+% Fifty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. Morton MacCormac. — LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 59; - -------------- - - - ----------------- No. 3. Cleveland, O., June 15, 1903 No. 1325 CLEVELAND NATIONAL BANK Pay to the order of J. W. Anderson dº Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6380.1% Sixty-three Hundred Eighty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. H. W. Brown. ------------------- -------------- No. 4. Cashier's Check. No. 6644 Kansas City, Mo., August 17, 1903 THE FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF KANSAS CITY, Mo. Pay to the order of James Jackson & Co... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - One Thousand Sia, Hundred... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollars. O. J. Johnson, $1600*, - Cashier. ENDORSEMENTS. An Endorsement is anything written on the back of an instrument which relates to it. It is generally made for two purposes: first, to transfer a title; second, to add security for payment. There are five different kinds of endorsements in common use: Blank Endorsement, Full Endorsement, Qualified Endorsement, Conditional Endorsement and Restrictive Endorsement. A Blank Endorsement Has the effect of making the paper payable to the bearer. Anyone holding a paper endorsed in blank is presumed in law to be the holder thereof. If he desired to transfer the note he could do so by simply passing it on to another, or by making a special endorsement thereon. The form of the Blank Endorsement is: 592 LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. | The Full Endorsement Is one which mentions the name of the Endorsee, with a direction to pay it. The draft or note is still negotiable, and may be passed on by any of the other forms of endorsement, after the provisions of the first have been complied with. Illustration of Full Endorsement: i : ! We next show the Full and Blank Endorsements that you may note the difference between them: & s Š s & § $ Sº § s . .3 § T. § S § S S sº Quo $. S S $ s s s • Sh S. S & A W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 593 Qualified Endorsement. This is an endorsement which remits the liability of the Endorser. Presume that the Payee in transferring a note uses a qualified endorsement. He passes his interest in the note on to the Endorsee, but incurs no liability thereby. Illustration: _- ! : i | A Conditional Endorsement Is one that transfers to the Endorsee, subject to the fulfilment of the conditions stated thereon; if the condition is not complied with the title in the paper reflects to the Endorsee, to whom the paper belongs. s Qo 3. § . Š 3 s, Š $ 5 s sº S § § 5 # s * $ $ _ s ; S. Sº Sº. S S - s & sº S $ S cº s S S & Qo Qo § - š Š & S $ S. § s ~ Restrictive Endorsements Destroy the negotiable qualities of a paper. There are several forms of Restrictive Endorse. ments, a number of which we here give: 594 LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. ‘u08.40puøH ‘JŲ J, ‘fiquo suunq 'T Z og ºpaſ ----- - ‘uos40puøH ‘J’， ‘’T ‘98 m. fiu， uoſ! suung （T. J. 0, fipaſ ‘u0s.tºpuøH ‘A ‘T ‘uoq80AM ‘’T ’0 „fo 08n 0，1% doſ º cºpao 40 suunq 'T L og finaſ LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. | : WILLS.–HOW MADE. 1. A will is the legal declaration of a person’s mind as to the manner in which he would have his property or estate disposed of after his death. All persons of lawful age, possessed of sound mind, are legally qualified to dispose of their property by will. 2. A man making the will is termed the testator, a woman the testatrix. 3. No exact form of words is necessary in order to make a will good at law, though much care should be exercised in order that its language may not be misunderstood and it must be properly signed and witnessed. 4. A will is of no force until the death of the testator, and can be cancelled at any time by the maker. 5. The last will made annuls all former wills. 6. There are two kinds of wills, written and verbal. The verbal wills depend, for legal- ity, upon proof of persons hearing the same. Verbal wills frequently cause trouble, and, even when well authenticated, often make expensive litigation. They should be discouraged. 7. A will made by an unmarried woman is no longer revoked by marriage, but in most States a husband would have approximately one-third interest in the real estate. 8. No husband can make a will that will deprive the wife of her right of dower, which is equal to about one-third of the real estate. At the wife’s death it naturally falls to her heirs, if she dies without leaving a will. But the husband can will the wife a certain amount in lieu of her dower, stating it to be in lieu thereof. Such bequest, however, will not exclude her from her dower, provided she prefers the dower to the bequest made in the will. Unless the husband states distinctly that the bequest is in lieu of dower, the wife is entitled to both. 9. The estate of a deceased person must pay debts and funeral expenses before distribu- tion can be made. 10. A person can insure his or her life in favor of any person, whether relative or other- wise, and in that event, such insurance cannot be taken for debts of deceased. 596 A W WITHOUT A LA WYER. Will of a Married Woman. A married woman has the right to dispose of her separate property by will the same as a married man. The only interest that she cannot will away, would be an estate that the hus- band would have in her property that would be equivalent to her interest in his estate at his death. - The person making a will may appoint his executor, but no person can serve as such executor if, at the time of the proving of the will, he be under twenty-one years of age, not of sound mind, or a witness to the will. - Short Form of Will. 1In the TFlame of Q.5ob, Elmen. I, of. in the County of and State of being of sound mind and memory, and considering the uncertainty of this frail and transitory life, do therefore make, ordain, publish and declare, this to be my last UUlíII and Ce3tament: jfirst, I order and direct that my Execut—hereinafter named pay all my just debts and funeral expenses as soon after my decease as conveniently may be. 5¢cont), After the payment of such funeral expenses and debts, I give, devise and bequeath Lastly, I make, constitute and appoint to be Execut last Will and Testament, hereby revoking all former Wills by me made. In Ülitmeg.3 (Clbereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my seal, the day of in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred of this, my [SEAL] This Instrument was on the day of the date thereof signed, published and declared by the said testator to be h last Will and Testament, in the presence of us who at h request have subscribed our names thereto as witnesses, in h-presence, and in the presence of each other. LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 597 MARRIAGE LAWS AND CONTRACTS. Marriage is a civil contract. Marriage licenses are required in all the States except New Mexico, New York and New Jersey, yet a marriage may be legal without it. Breach of Promise. CoNTRACT To MARRY IN THE FUTURE.-Mutual promise by a man and a woman to marry at some future day constitutes a valid contract, and a person breaking such a contract is liable in damages. Seduction of a woman of lawful age, under promise of marriage, and subsequent refusal to marry on his part is a crime and subjects the person so doing to heavy damages, and in some instances imprisonment. Ante-Nuptial Contracts. A man and woman can, previous to marriage, enter into a contract whereby either can waive all or a part of any interest that might come to them because of such marriage, in the property of the other. Such contracts are called Ante-Nuptial Contracts. Divorcé, Violation of the marriage vow is cause for absolute divorce. The divorce laws of the different States vary greatly. Some of the principal causes for divorce are impotency, will- ful desertion, cruel and abusive treatment, habitual drunkenness, imprisonment for felony, failure by husband to provide, duress, insanity or idiocy, and ungovernable temper. Divorce laws have been very lax, but public sentiment is rapidly forming against such laws, largely because of the interests of innocent children. As such sentiment grows, it will be necessary for each party to make more concessions to the other, which will naturally result in an assimilating of natures and final contentment. We hope such sentiment will continue to grow. It is a matter of statistics that in one of our States there were recorded in 1902 235 divorces to every 1,000 marriages. The Right of Married Women to Own Property. All property owned by the wife before marriage or received after marriage and held as her separate property, can be sold and transferred by her just the same as a husband can convey his separate property. If a husband fails to make proper provision for the support of his wife, the law will com- pel him to furnish her proper support if he has sufficient property. In some States he can be arrected for failure to support his family. The earnings of the wife are not liable for the debts of the husband except for family necessaries. The separate property of the wife is not liable for the debts of the husband, 6xcept for family necessaries. 598 LA W WITHOUT A LA W.P.E.R. The property owned by the husband before marriage, or acquired after marriage by gift of inheritance, is his separate property; but his wife, however, has a dower interest in the real estate. The wife who deserts her husband without cause cannot hold him for her support, but upon good cause shown, she can get alimony or support. The earnings of the wife, pro- vided the children are given to her by the court, after legal separation from her husband, are the property of the wife. If husband or wife transfers real estate of any kind, both must sign the deed, mortgage or contract. - Law Governing Lost Notes. If a person should refuse to pay a note which has been lost, he may be sued and com- pelled to pay it, but the party collecting it should indemnify the maker of the note against the possibility of having to pay it a second time. When to Sign Your Name in Full. In signing deeds, mortgages, wills and all kinds of contracts always write your name in full. Never use your ordinary business initials for signatures of this kind. For instance, instead of signing A. M. Miller, write Alonzo M. Miller. How a Married Woman Should Sign Her Name, A married woman should, on all business documents, sign her own name instead of prefixing a Mrs. to her husband's. For example, Mrs. Smith should sign Mary R. Smith and not Mrs. John Smith. How Money Accumulates. The following shows how easy it is to accumulate a fortune, provided proper steps are taken. The table shows what would be the result at the end of fifty years by saving a certain amount each day, and putting it at interest at the rate of six per cent: DAILY SAVINGS. THE RESULT. DAILY SAVINGS. THE BESULT. One cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 950 Sixty cents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 57,024 Ten cents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,504 Seventy cents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,528 Twenty cents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,006 Eighty “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76,032 Thirty “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,512 Ninety “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85,537 Forty “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,015 One dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95,041 Fifty “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,520 Five dollars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475,208 Nearly every person wastes enough in twenty or thirty years, which, if saved and care- fully invested, would make a family quite independent; but the principle of small savings has been lost sight of in the general desire to become wealthy, LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 5.99 SHORT FORM OF MORTGAGE. of this................................................... in the County of............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and State of................................................. MORTGA GE and WARRANT to................................................................................................................. of the..................................................... County of....................................... State of.................................... to secure the payment of................................ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - situated in the County of................................. in the State of........................... hereby releasing and waiving all rights under and by virtue of the Homestead Exemption laws of this State. Dated the.................................... day of.............................. A. D. 190...... Signed, Sealed and Delivered in Presence of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [SEAL] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL ] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - J ................................................[shall STATE OF........................... JS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - County. )" / ............................................................ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in and for the said County, in the State aforesaid, DO HEREBY CAERTIFY, That............................................................................................ personally known to me to be the same person...whose name......... subscribed to the foregoing instrument, appeared before me this day in person, and acknowledged that...he...signed, sealed and delivered the said instrument - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - § ; Ś º s : Ş. º S; : S tº: §: : Sº © : $-e E- : à : § - - RQ 600 - - LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. CHATTEL MORTGAGE. TRnow all (Den by these Dregents, That 1, .......................... of the Town of........................... in the County of........................ and State of............ , in con- sideration of........................... Dollars, to........,Aaid by...................................... of the County of........................ and State of........................ the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, do hereby grant, bargain and sell unto the said.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and to......... heirs and assigns, forever, the following goods and chattels, to wit: ............................................................................................. -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - TO HAVE AND TO HOLD all and singular the said goods and chattels unto the said Mortgagee herein ; and......... heirs and assigns, to their sole use and behoof forever. And the Mortgagor herein, for......... and for......... heirs, executors and administrators, do...... hereby covenant to and with the said Morgagee and............ heirs and assigns, that said Mortgagor................................................... Jawfully possessed of the said goods and chattels, as of.............., own property; that the same are free from all encumbrances, and that.............. will warrant and defend the same to............... the said Mortgagee , and,........... /*eirs and assigns, against the lawful claims and demands of all persons. PROVIDED, nevertheless, that if the said Mortgagor shall........................ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - then this Mortgage to be void, otherwise to remain in full force and effect. AND PROVIDED, FURTHER, That until default be made by the said Mortgagor in the performance of the condition aforesaid, it shall and may be lawful for............ to retain the possession of the said goods and chattels, and to use and enjoy the same, but if the same, or any part thereof, shall be attached or claimed by any other person or persons, at any time before payment, or the said Mortgagor , or any person or persons whatever, upon any pretense, shall attempt to carry off, conceal, make way with, sell or in any manner dispose of the same, or any part thereof, without the authority and permission of the said Mortgagee , or............... heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, in writing expressed, then it shall and may be lawful for the said Mortgagee , with or without assistance, or........ agent or attorney, or heirs, executors, administrators, to take possession of said goods and chattels, by entering upon any premises wherever the same may be, whether in this County or State, or elsewhere, to and for the use of said Mortgagee , .........heirs or assigns. And if the moneys hereby secured, or the matters to be done or performed, as above specified, are not duly paid, done or performed at the time and according to the conditions above set forth, then the said Mortgagee , or......... attorney or agent, or......... /heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, may, by virtue hereof, and without any suit or process, immediately enter and take possession of said goods and chattels, and sell and dispose of the same at public or private sale, and after satisfying the amount due, and all expenses, the surplus, if any remain, shall be paid over to said Mortgagor or........ heirs or assigns. The exhibition of this Mortgage shall be sufficient proof that any person claiming to act for the Mortgagee is duly made, constituted and appointed agent and attorney to do whatever is above authorized. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said Mortgagor ha hereunto set.............. hand and seal , this....................... day of....................... in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and................................. Signed, Sealed and Delivered in Presence of } ------------------------------------------ [L. S.] --------------------- ....................[L. S.] *==e LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. º ºn -*- § i ; : This Mortgage was acknowledged before me, by...................................… ------------------------------------------------------ and entered by me this....................... day of º 602 LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. WARRANTY DEED. Cbe Grantor, ....................................... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of the.........…............. ............…. in the County of................................. and State of..............................................................for and in consideration of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dollars, in hand paid, CONVEY... and WARRANT... to........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of the ................................................... County of......................................... and State of...................... ..................... the following described Real Estate, to wit ......................................................... situated in the County of.................................................. in the State of............ ſhereby releasing and waiving all rights under and by virtue of the Homestead Eremption laws of this State. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dated this.................................... day of................................. A. D. 190 Signed, Sealed and Delivered in Presence of / ‘’’ ‘’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’’ ‘’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’ ‘’’’ [SEAL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL] -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL] BACK OF WARRANTY DEED. STATE OF.............................. } SS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - County. A................................................ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in and for the said County, in the State aforesaid, DO HEREBY CERT/FY, That................................................ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - personally known to me to be the same person whose 7247/2é... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . subscribed to the foregoing instru- ment, appeared before me this day in person and acknowledged that.....he.....signed, sealed and delivered [SEAL] the said instrument as..................free and voluntary act, for the uses and purposes therein set forth, includ- ing the release and waiver of the right of homestead. GIVEN under my hand and............................. seal, this.................. day of.................. A. D. 190... * - LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. LEASE FOR PROPERTY –SHORT FORM. (Ibig ſmöenture, Made this............................ day of........................... 190 , BETWE/E/V............. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - Aarty of the first part, and.............................................................................. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - party of the second part, W/TWESSETH: that the said party of the first part, in consideratiou of the covenants of the said party of the second part, hereinafter set forth, do by these presents lease to the said parly of the second part the following described property, to wit: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----------------------------------------- TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the same to the said party of the second part, from *e.................. day of.................. 190 , to the.................. day of............... 190 . And the said party of the second part, in consideration of the leasing of the premises as above set forth, covenants and agrees with the party of the first part to pay the said party of the first part, as rent for the same, the sum of......................................... Dollars, payable as follows, to wif : .................................................................. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The said party of the second part further covenants with the said party of the first part that at the expiration of the time mentioned in this Lease, peaceable possession of the said premises shall be given to the said party of the first part, in as good condition as they now are, the usual wear, inevitable accidents and loss by fire excepted’; and that, upon the non-payment of the whole or any portion of the said rent at the time when the same is above promised to be paid, the said party of the first part may, at........... - - - - - - - - - - - - election, either distrain for said rent due, or declare this Lease at an end, and recover possession as if the same was held by forcible detainer; the said party of the second part hereby waiving any notice of such election, or any demand for the possession of said premises. AND IT IS FURTHER COVENANTED AND AGREED, Between the Aarties aforesaid............................................................................................. The covenants herein shall extend to and be binding upon the heirs, executors and administrators of the parties to this Lease. Witness the hands and seals of the parties aforesaid. ----------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [SEAL] ----------------- ---.…..........................iseALl ------------------------------------------------- [SEAL) Q O QN CN ~ * : : § 304 LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER LAW REGARDING HIRED HELP. If a man is hired without any special bargain as to the price, he is entitled to the current wages for such labor, and no more; but every laborer may not be aware that if he engages to work “ſor a year,” but leaves without good cause at the end of eleven months, he is not, in most States, legally entitled to any compensation for what he has done, but forfeits the whole; and this is so whether he has agreed to stay for the entire year at one round sum, or for a year at the rate of twenty dollars a month. If the bargain is to work for more than a year or even for just a year, but to begin at some future day, as a week after making the bargain, and the contract is not written down and signed, it is not binding on the laborer and he can break it from a mere whim and still make the farmer pay. In like manner, if the laborer is under twenty-one, he is not bound by his bargain, but may desert when he pleases and recover “back pay.” And this is so, although the young man appears to be of age, or is married and has a family, or even though he falsely stated he was over age and able and willing to make a good bargain. Always have a regular account of a hired man, keeping record of time he begins work, the date and amount drawn, time lost, etc. LAW REGARDING FARM ANIMALS. It is not generally known that every man must keep his cattle on his own land at his peril. He is liable if they stray away into other people’s grounds. It is necessary, therefore, at common law, that every man should keep watch over his animals, or surround his land with a fence. This fence is primarily, therefore, not to keep other people's cattle out, but to keep his own in. Vicious Animals. . If a man turns his animals loose into the public highway, and they there injure the per- son or property of another lawfully using the highway, the owner is responsible for all dam- ages they may do, whether he knew they had any dangerous disposition or not. He had no right to let his cattle run loose in the public highway. In like manner, if a boy, while robbing an orchard, is tossed by a vicious bull into the boughs of the apple tree overhead, the owner is as much liable in law to pay for the boy's torn trousers as if he had received the same salutation when coming up the path in broad daylight. In one instance a farmer, who was much annoyed by strolling fishermen, put a Savage bull into the lot along the stream. As one of his neighbors was remonstrating with him that he ought to give strangers notice what kind of animal it was he remarked, “The fellow will give them notice enough himself”; but as his notice was rather too brief, the farmer had to pay five hundred dollars for two broken ribs. Liability for Animals on One's Own Premises. Every owner of a dangerous or vicious horse or animal known to be such is liable for all injury he may do to another, even though the latter is at the time trospassing on the former's LA W WITHOUT A LA WYER. 605 premises. If, therefore, a man while hunting through your woods, is attacked and bitten by your savage dog, you must pay for the pound of flesh, although you did not set him on. You should have posted up the advice, BEWARE of Dogs. Runaway Horse. If a man’s horse runs away in the street and injures some one or breaks a carriage, the owner is not liable, unless he carelessly left him unhitched or was guilty of some other negligence. Law about Dogs. If your dog rushes out into the street and in mere play jumps at a horse's head, whereby he is frightened and runs away, breaking the carriage and perhaps the limbs of the occu- pants, you are responsible for double the amount of the entire damage, though it amount to several thousand dollars; for the liability of the owner is not limited to damages from the bite of a dog, but extends to any direct injury, however caused. In the case of trespassing dogs, cats, hogs, and such animals, the right to kill such ani- mals is not confined to the very moment when they are in pursuit, or about immediately to attack the farmer’s animals, but if, from their habits or former conduct, there is good reason to believe one's own property is in danger, a man need not wait until the dog has the lamb by the throat, or the cat has the chicken in its mouth, before he can fire. Law about Scratching Hens. You have not a right to kill your neighbor’s hens while scratching up your melons and cucumbers. The custom of doing so, and tossing the fowls over the fence may afford some satisfaction to the gardener, but it makes him liable to pay the full value of the nuisances, although he had repeatedly warned their owner to keep them at home or take the conse- quences. A farmer in Connecticut, who had been annoyed by his neighbor’s hens scratching up his garden seed, spread a quantity of Indian meal mixed with arsenic on his own land, which had the effect designed, but he had to pay for the fowls. Shooting an animal merely because it is trespassing on your grounds and injuring your crops is not justifiable. A farmer has a right to kill the animals of another if they are in pursuit of his own and there is reasonable ground to apprehend that they will attack and destroy or carry them off. LAW REGARDING OVERHANGING TREES. It is generally supposed that the fruit on the limbs overhanging one’s land belongs to him, but this is an entire mistake. If a tree stands wholly on your land, although some of the roots extend into the soil of your neighbor, and derive support and nourishment from his soil, he has no right to any of the fruit which hangs over the line; and if he attempts by force to prevent you from picking it, he is liable for an assault and battery, 606 LAW WITHouT A LA WYER." In one instance a lady while standing on the fence picking cherries which hung over the line, was forbidden to do so by the adjoining owner who was at work in his garden; and in the scuffle to prevent her, she received some bruises on her arm, for which he had the pleasure of paying the neat little sum of a thousand dollars. If your fruit falls into your neighbor’s lot, you have an implied license in law to go and pick it up, doing him no unavoid- able damage. If a fruit tree stands directly on the division line and is what is called a “line-tree,” both parties own the tree and the fruit in common, and meither can cut down the tree or seri- ously injure it, without being responsible to the other. WN W \\ 2/ 3.2// º % - TALKING IT OWER, - 607 SELF INSTRUCTION IN LETTER WRITINC WHAT A GOOD LETTER MEANS TO THE SENDER. º I' THERE is any one place where common sense Wºº // sºlº/A | s=– == \ºſºws= = hould be displayed it is in letter writing. A tº \wº SIlo play W g § NWWWNT - \ º *Nº || letter should at all times be noted for its clear- º º - mess, its completeness, its good form and neatness. W. | | \ If you have anything to say, say it and stop. Do \, W ſ not attempt to mix family affairs and social move- ments with an order for groceries or dry goods. If you desire a firm to ship you a barrel of sugar, it is not an essential thing to its early shipment that you inform them about the crops. or tell them that you will make it a point to come and see them when you come to the city. Be brief, but at no time at the sacrifice of clearness. Be plain and natural. Do not attempt to show your friend at the other end of the postal route how many fancy side-steps in orna- mental penmanship you can use. Iligh-flown capitals with lots of shade are regarded as instability of character and wastefulness. Whether this be true or not we do not know, but we do know that it indicates unwarranted egotism. A Silent Witness. When you write a letter remember that what you say is a silent witness that never for- gets. Hence, be it ever so painful, speak the truth. Use good language. By this we do not mean big words, for big words are very often a sign of little ideas; and last, but perhaps the most important of all, be careful of your spelling. We do not all have the opportunity to learn Latin or Greek, algebra or geometry, philosophy or rhetoric, but there are very few of us that do not have an opportunity of learning how to spell, especially when a twelve pound dictionary can be bought for $1.79. People take it that you should know how to spell, and if you do not, you are at once branded as an ignoramus. While this is often unjust, perhaps, yet it is nevertheless true. You cannot more effectually brand yourself an anarch- ist by flaunting a red flag and allowing the hair to cover your face, than you can tell to the World that you are uneducated and lazy by misspelling a few common words. 608 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL correspondewoº. BUSINESS LETTERS. A large portion of commerce and trade is brought about through the medium of corre- spondence. Statistics tell us that eighty per cent of the world's trade is on paper. Yet there is unhappily no branch of learning that has been more neglected by the average individual than the branch we call letter writing. Were you to enter one of the large business establish- ments in our cities and devote a few minutes in the morning to looking over the mail as it comes from every point of the compass, you would but be impressed with the fact that so few know how to write a good letter, and that so many are “outrageously awful” in the makeup of their communication which they expect the business man to entirely understand. - First Essential to Good Letter Writing. It will be our attempt in the pages following to illustrate some of the more common forms in the hope that a better grade of writing will result. First impressions are very important, hence we deem it that the first essential for good letter writing is good material. As a carpenter cannot work without sharp tools, as the farmer cannot till the soil with a rusty plow, so a writer of a letter cannot expect good results from using wrapping paper, a stub pen and red ink. The selection of paper depends largely upon the writer and somewhat upon the purpose of the letter. The color is immaterial, providing, of course, that it is modest. The size is not an absolute essential to good work, but for business letters letter-head stock should be used. This is paper 8x10 inches in size. For letters of friendship the smaller size is preferable, either 6x9 inches, or any size sold for that purpose. The envelope should be of the same color and large enough to admit easily the letter folded once from the bottom to within an eighth of an inch from the top, and then one-third of its width from each side, or for note paper, one-third of the way from the bottom and one-third from the top. As to size and style of pen to be used we would disagree; a penman would order a fine pen, a business man a coarser one. Fountain pens are coming into much use, but for those who write a great deal it seems to us that the essential is a clean pen and the same kind used at all times. - As to ink—always a free flowing black. It is always a mark of the lack of taste to use bright colors. One author has expressed it that “red ink always looks green” when used to write a letter. Red ink has its purpose. The bookkeeper knows what it should be used for. PARTS OF A LETTER—Heading. First the heading, or part which names the place in which the letter is written and the date of writing, is placed about two inches from the top of the sheet, as is illustrated below, and should be arranged to occupy two or three lines, according to the number of words com- posing it. The punctuation consists of a comma, used between the parts, and a period at the closing. The name of the month and the number of the day of the month are consid: BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 609 ered as one word, and no comma should be placed between them. Note carefully the follow- ing models: 1. Denver, Colo., June 1, 1904. 2. Glengarry Cottage, Hyde Park, Chicago, Ill., November 15, 1904. 3. Bowman Hall, Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa, July 1, 1903. The Address, It is just as essential that at this point you place the address as it is that you later put it on the envelope. It should be the same, except, perhaps, that some of the parts may be omitted, such as street or room number. A good reason for placing it in the letter is that the person receiving it very often discards the envelope, and yet has evidence that the letter is intended for him. Another very important fact is that the envelope may, by accident or otherwise, have had an illegible address, and will be sent, as a result, to the dead letter office, to which point hundreds of thousands of letters are sent every year, because of imperfect addresses. The officials in the office, when they have found the address at the beginning of the letter, will at once forward it to the proper person. The address should begin about one-half inch from the marginal line of the paper. Some good authors contend that it should begin about an inch from the marginal line. However we will not quarrel with them. "If you begin about one-half inch from the margin it will mean that the paragraph should begin one inch from the margin. Should you begin the address one inch removed from the margin, then begin your paragraph two inches from the same margin, the essential point being uniformity—harmony, if we may be allowed to so call it, for we feel that there is a thread of it running throughout letters, should be as carefully observed as a delicate note on the piano. The first line of the address consists of the name of the person, preceeded by or followed by a title of courtesy. The second line gives the postoffice address, which may be omitted if the person lives in the same place as the writer. The address should be punctuated with commas between the parts and a period at the close. Salutation. Salutation is the greeting of respect, courtesy, or love, which immediately precedes the body of the letter. It may be begun either immediately below with the same margin as the first line of the address, or if desired, it may be placed on the line half way between the first and second lines of the address. The usual form is the first named. If a salutation consists of two words, every word must be capitalized; when it has three words the middle word need not be capitalized unless it be a proper name. The salutation may be followed by a comma, 810 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. or a comma and dash. If written on the typewriter a colon and dash is used. We could never discover the reason for using a dash when the salutation was on a separate line from the body of the letter. If the body of the letter immediately follows the salutation it would be anderstood why the dash is used. However, this is a matter of detail, hence is not worthy of our discussion. Note carefully the following models: (Heading) __(Address) (Salutation) (Body of Letter) (Paragraph) (Complimentary Close) (Signature) Body of Letter. The body of a letter is that part which conveys, or should convey, your mission. It usually begins just below your salutation, but may begin immediately thereafter. No margin should be left on the right-hand side of the paper, the writing being continued to the very edge, or as nearly so as possible without crowding the word. This rule does not apply to typewritten letters, where often the margin is stopped on both the right and left sides. When a new subject is introduced or a paragraph formed, the first word of the paragraph begins on the next line below with a margin twice as deep as that used for the other divisions of the letter. The paragraphs depend entirely upon the judgment of the writer. They are of no certain length, and it is most essential that you make no division in thought in para- graphing. It is also essential that the paragraphs be not too long. - Complimentary Closing. The ca.”limentary closing is an expression of courtesy which ends the letter. The number of words that can be used are so numerous that we will not attempt to say which is preferable. This division of the letter should be placed on the line below the body of the letter in about the center of the sheet. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 611 Signature. The signature is written on the line below the complimentary closing, just a little to the right. 1. Yours truly, J. L. Brown. 3. Respectfully yours, 3 Howard B. James. With best wishes, I remain, Your sincere friend, Harry Jones. 4. Very respectfully yours, (Miss) Mary Anderson. Directing and Stamping. Below we give illustrations for the proper address on the envelope. Some good author- ities will disagree with us as to where the address should begin, but again we have reached a non-essential point. A few years ago, in the city of Chicago, a large convention devoted an hour and a half to deciding the momentous question as to whether there was any finger move- ment in the tail-end of the figure 6. Alas, it is yet unsettled, and the countless millions will pass into eternity without its being decided! So in the address of the envelope. We believe that the following forms are plain and clear, and that an envelope addressed as they are, will reach its destination. There is one great caution in envelope addressing: Be sure to begin the address at least as far down from the top of the envelope as is indicated by any of the forms here given. Many times a letter must go to the Dead Letter office because the name has been obliterated by the stamping machine. There is but one word to say relative to the stamp: Wet it with a sponge, and have respect enough for the “Father of his Country” to put him right-side-up on the envelope. MR. JAMES WHEATON, HAMILTON, ILL. 612 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. MR. CHAS. W. MARSTON, 1640 JEFFERSON ST., CHICAGO, ILL. THOMAS H. DENTON, Gen'l Passenger Agt., B. & O. R. R., BALTIMORE, Cor. Baltimore and Calvert Sts. MD. BUSINESS LETTERS–SERIES NO. 1. No. 1. Ordering a Bill of Goods. Clinton, Iowa, Jan.....19. Marshall Field & Co., Adams and Fifth Ave., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:— Please forward by United States express the following: 1 bolt black Venetian cloth, best quality, 1 bolt heavy navy blue cheviot. Terms cash on receipt of goods. Very respectfully, James R. Hill & Co. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 613 No. 2. Advising Receipt of Invoice. Chicago, Ill., Jan....19. James R. Hill & Co., Clinton, Iowa. Gentlemen:- Your order of the....inst. at hand. Enclosed, find invoice for same, amounting to $64.50. Trusting that goods will arrive in good condition, we are, Very respectfully, Marshall Field & Co. No. 3. Sending Remittance. Clinton, Iowa, Jan.... 19.. Marshall Field & Co., Adams and Fifth Ave., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:- Enclosed, find Chicago exchange for $64.50, in payment of your invoice of.... inst. Kindly return receipted bill and oblige, - Yours respectfully, James R. Hill & Co. No. 4. Acknowledging Remittance. Chicago, Ill., Jan.... 19.. James R. Hill & Co., Clinton, Iowa. Gentlemen:- - Enclosed, find receipted bill in exchange of your draft for $64.50, received to-day. Accept our thanks for your prompt remittance. Trusting that we may again favor you in trade, we are, Very respectfully, Marshall Field & Co. The above forms are not of necessity to be considered as models, but convey to you the fact that every order for goods must have at least four letters to complete the round of a com- mercial transaction where that transaction is performed through the mail. In fact when a verbal arrangement is made in a store, you must ask, in a polite manner, for your goods; they will then be delivered; you will next pay for them; lastly, if the merchant has an eye for business he will thank you. BUSINESS LETTERS–SERIES NO. 2. While we must have at all times at least four letters for the purpose of completing an order, the transaction may branch out into many more, as is illustrated in the following series. The first letter, which at first glance, appears to be identical with the first in Series 1 is in fact very different, in that the terms are not mentioned, and we will presume the writer to be a stranger to the concern. 614 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE, No. 1. Ordering Goods on Credit. - Denver, Colo., Jan....19. Sprague, Warner & Co., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:— Please send me at your earliest convenience the following bill of goods: 1 bag (100 lbs.) best Mocha and Java coffee. # chest Y. H. tea. 4 bbls. H. & H. granulated sugar. Forward same by C., B. & Q. fast freight. Respectfully, John Smith. No. 2. Refusing to Fill Order and Asking for References. Chicago, Ill., Jan....19. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:- Your favor of the....inst., containing order for goods duly received. We would be glad to fill this order at once and forward to you as directed were it not for the fact that you are an entire stranger to us, and we find that you have no rating in such mercantile books as we possess. The rules of our house require that before opening Ledger accounts with strangers they must either have a sufficient rating to warrant us in making the shipment, or provide us with references. If you will kindly wire us, at our expense, the names of other merchants in this city with whom you are doing business, or those of your city to whom we can refer, we will be glad to ship your order at once. Trusting that you will at once recognize the business sense of our propo- sition, and hoping to be able to serve you to your advantage, we are, Very respectfully, Sprague, Warner & Co. No. 3. Letter Giving References. Denver, Colo., Jan....19.. Sprague, Warner & Co., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:— We have this day wired you names of several merchants in this city who will vouch for our credit. As the order we gave you was the first to have been sent to your house, we should have arranged our standing with you. We trust that the names sent will prove a sufficient guarantee. We have recently opened our business here, and hope to be able to meet all bills promptly. Trusting that you will forward the goods at your earliest convenience, we are, Very truly yours, John Smith. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 615 No. 4. Letter Requesting Payment. We will now assume that the firm, feeling warranted in forwarding the goods, have done so, and have sent an invoice amounting to $146.40, the terms of which are 30 days, or three per cent discount if paid in ten days. Thirty days have now elapsed, the remittance has not arrived, and a statement will be sent. Fifteen days later, not having received any remit- tance, a mild dunning letter is forwarded, something after the following order: Chicago, Ill., Jan....19.. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:- Your account, amounting to $146.40, is now past due. We will be grate- ful to you for a remittance. Thanking you in advance, and assuring you of our appreciation of past favors in trade, we are, Very truly yours, Sprague, Warner & Co. No. 5. Second Request for Payment. Not yet hearing from him, a letter somewhat after this order would perhaps be mailed in fifteen or thirty days: Chicago, Ill., Jan.... 19. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:- We find that you are indebted to us to the amount of $146.40. We are in need of cash, and trust that you will be able to pay in full at once. If you cannot settle in full, please send a check for whatever part you can spare, and we will be glad to arrange the balance in a satisfactory manner. Yours very respectfully, Sprague, Warner & Co. No. 6. Drawing upon Debtor through the Bank. A sufficient time rolls by for the debtor to have paid some attention to the communica- tion from the company, but failing to do so, it perhaps would be well at this juncture to forward another statement, stating in it a date upon which you will draw upon them for the amount of their indebtedness. This might be followed by a letter somewhat after the follow- ing . Chicago, Ill., Jan....19. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:- We send to-day to the Citizens' Bank of your place, for collection, a sight draft on you for $146.40, the amount of your indebtedness to us in full, believ- ing that you will find this the correct amount, and trusting that you will honor our draft, we remain, Very trul - ery truly yours, Sprague, Warner & Co. 616 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. No. 7. Letter Giving Notice of Placing Account in Hands of Attorney. So far the spirit of courtesy and kindness has pervaded the letters to the debtor. It must continue so, “for more flies are caught with molasses than vinegar.” Yet we must be stern, and should he fail to respond to this last appeal, and the draft be returned to us dis- honored, something after the following order might be well: Chicago, Ill., Jan.... 19.. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:- We regret exceedingly that the draft sent you on Jan....has been returned to us dishonored. We do not understand why you have taken this position in the matter. We have endeavored to treat you courteously, and will continue so to do, but unless we hear from you within ten days of this date it will be our unpleasant duty to place your account in the hands of an attorney for collection. Trusting that we may not be obliged to take this step, we remain, Respectfully yours, Sprague, Warner & Co. No. 8. Placing the Account for Collection. Still the gentleman refuses to give the desired answer. Perhaps the following letter would stir him up, but let it be distinctly understood that no good business man will make an assertion that he will not carry out to the letter, and if you desire to sue the account, say so, then do it. Chicago, Ill., Jan....19.. Mr. John Smith, Denver, Colo. Dear Sir:— Not having received a reply to our numerous communications we take it that you do not intend to pay your account unless obliged to do so. We have, therefore, to-day given your account to our attorneys, Messrs. Swift & Wilson, with positive instructions to bring suit within ten days. Respectfully, - Sprague, Warner & Co. These letters will give to the reader some idea of the forms usually pursued by the busi- ness house. The great point that we have endeavored to keep before you, however, is that thorough courtesy must be apparent throughout your entire correspondence. The letter that calls for more tact, thought and care on the part of the business man, than almost any other that can be presented, is the dunning letter. You may offend a good customer, poor but honest. You are in business for trade. You want his future orders. Of course, if you have sold to him and then find that his account is worthless there is no need in sending good money after bad, and wasting postage, but charge his account to experience. A USINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE, 617 MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS. “Follow-ups.” There are a great many important letters that might here be given, but it is not the pur- pose of the author to give a “Handy Letter Writer.” There are too many such books. By their use thought is often stifled, and that which you intend to convey remains only in your mind, and the reader of your letter is in the dark. A good rule to observe in all letter writing is. Write, not that the reader may understand, but that he must understand all that you desire him to Among the letters that are now considered as essential among business men are those commonly known as “follow-ups.” They are presumed to be, and in fact are, trade-getters, for the business man has long recognized the fact that “keeping ever- lastingly at a thing brings success.” This rule will not, however, hold good unless the letter carries with it a conviction that the writer thereof believes in himself and in what he has to offer to the trade. We come in contact every day with letters that, because of their poor appearance, are consigned to the waste basket. Yet the one who writes the letter may have as good, or better, articles to sell than he who is able to favorably impress you by his first note. This does not logically follow, however. It is generally true that he who writes on good paper, shows neatness and carefulness in what he says and how he says it, is the individual who has the better grade of goods. It is impossible for us to give herewith model forms for the “follow-up” series. What will do for a furniture dealer is not appropriate for the hardware merchant; what would sell your farm would not sell a scholarship in a school. Should you find that you will have occasion to use a “follow-up” system our only advice would be: Write the best you can, read what you have written, carefully, and then tear up the letter and write another, for in this, as along other lines of education, intelligent practice makes perfect. - LETTERS OF APPLICATION. It is said that “political platforms are built to get in on.” Whether this be true or not we will not contend, but we do know, however, that letters of application are written for the purpose of “getting in.” The busy business man has little or no time to interview the one hundred and one applicants in person, if he desires the assistance of some one in his work. Hence he does one of two things—advertises, or, if it be for clerical help, applies to some school that makes it its business to prepare young men and women for commercial pur- suits. If his advertisement appears it is very rare that it will be found ending with his name. Usually he has the letters addressed in care of the newspaper, and then carefully looks them over, and calls for those whose letters impress him favorably. It was the privilege of the writer some time ago to look over some 600 applications for a position. The business man who had advertised first opened the letters and flattened them out on the table in front of him, and then started in with his examination, and almost at a glance divided the letters into three divisions: the first for the waste basket, the second for 40 618 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. WANTED. BOOKKEEPER AND STENOG.. — FIRST- class; $12. 402 Ft. Dearborn Bldg. BOOKKEEPER – YOUNG LADY; Penman. 92 La Salle-St. CASHIER AND BOOKKEEPER–EXPERI- enced woman, in manufacturer's Office; must have ability and thorough knowledge of office routine; state salary required and full par- ticulars. Address O 344, Tribune Office, CASHIER—RESTAURANT; 28 OR 30 YEARS of age; must give bonds. Address O 222, Tribune Office. GENERAL OFFICE WORK–YOUNG LADY; good penman; experienced; $7 to start. Ad- dress O 214, Tribune office. GENL. OFFICE LADY-EX.P., FOR GOOD, permanent West Side position; short hours. 402, 134 Monroe-St. GIRL–AS ASSISTANT IN OFFICE LAUN- dry on West Side; state age, experience, and references. Address P W 279, Tribune office. LADY-NOT UNDER 25, OF GOOD EDUCA- tion and prepossessing appearance, for per- manent and responsible position; best of references required; salary $50 monthly to start. Call after 9, Suite 412, 203 Michigan-av. GOOD AN EXPERIENCED INSTALLMENT COL- lector for country; single. Address, stating age, experience, if single, and salary wanted. Address T C 350, Tribune office. BY A RELIABLE PUBLISHING. HOUSE, A man for stockroom and billing; must have had experience in packing, a good Writer, and a hustler; salary to start, $7 to $8; steady posi- tion; must have A1 references. Address O 210, Tribune office, moderate consideration, the third to be carefully scru- tinized. When he had finished there were of the 600 letters over 400 of them in the first named pile, while but twenty-six were in the third lot, and of the twenty- six five were called in to talk the matter over with the proprietor. This should serve, we believe, as a suffi- cient lesson to use care and thought and time in your letter of application. The president of one of the leading schools desired a teacher. He received 156 applications for the place. He consumed six weeks in writing back and forth with a number of them. At the end of the sixth week the one hundred fifty-seventh teacher applied. His letter was complete. It contained all the needed information—his age, his previous experience, refer- ences, salary desired, when he could report for duty, and other essential details—which so favorably im- pressed the president of the school that he at once wired him that his terms were accepted, and that he would expect him upon a certain date. It is not nec- essary to give your family history, yet it is essential that you make it unnecessary for the proprietor to write you for information that you should have at first given. Some one of the many applicants will furnish him with the necessary data, and will, as a result, get the place. Letters of application should not only be carefully and courteously written, but they should be sparingly written. fear in so stating, but be very careful that your letter does not smack of boasting. Do not apply for a position unless you feel competent to fill it. not boast of attainments that you hope to possess. Do If you can “deliver the goods” have no If you have testimonials from others who know of your qualifications, enclose with your letter copies, never the originals unless desired to do so, and if they are, enclose also self- Keep before you the one thought—that the only safe way to secure favorable consideration is to be the best. addressed stamped envelope for their return. LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION, The ordinary letter of recommendation is fast falling into disrepute. Many irresponsible persons are very careless as to whom they recommend, or if applied to, many fear to offend by not giving the desired letter. Hence the business man has often received, from applicants for a small clerkship, letters of recommendation as strongly worded and as flatteringly embellished as though the person presenting it was an applicant for the superintendency of BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 619 the universe. The writer of a recommendation should recognize the responsibility that he has taken upon himself when he signed the letter; his own reputation is involved as well as the one who receives the letter. He should, therefore, refuse all unworthy persons, that the worthy ones may get their just reward. In determining the worth of an individual, the position desired should be considered. A person may be recommended for special qualities that will fit him for one place and make him decidedly incompetent for another. It is not in harmony to recommend a blacksmith for a position that requires fine penmanship. True, it is hard to refuse a recommendation, yet much better to refuse than to deceive. A young man may have confidence in your judgment, and if you recommend him for a position he may have a feeling of fitness, therefore, that he would not otherwise have had, and when later he finds that you have overestimated his abilities he discounts your word, and you have lost two friends—the proprietor and the applicant. There is also a responsi- bility resting upon the reader of the testimonial. He must not assume that the writer intends to recommend for anything other than the qualifications incident to the position. If the letter says that the young man is honest and upright, it does not mean that he is a rapid figurer, or that he will develop into a first-class accountant. True, it means much for his future to have this statement made, but he should not hold the writer responsible for any- thing that he does not say. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. A letter of introduction is very similar to a letter of recommendation. Do not give a letter of introduction to anyone whom you would not introduce in person. The letter should be short, should be placed in an envelope addressed, but not sealed, and should have ” This prevents embarrassment on on the lower left-hand corner, “Introducing Mr. ——. the part of the holder of the letter, and he is at once known on its presentation. Who and what he is will be learned by reading the letter. That the person receiving such a letter may know at a glance its character, the letter should, on the envelope, be addressed thus: Mr. John M. Teller, 321 Broadway, Introducing New York. L. W. Thompson, of Chicago, Ill. 620 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Letters of credit are very similar to letters of introduction. Forms of “Letters of Introduction.” 1. Chicago, Ill., August 1, 19.. Messrs. Smith & Thompson, 208 Broadway, New York. Gentlemen:- This will introduce to you my friend, Mr. Charles Smith, who intends to establish a business in your city. You will find Mr. Smith to be thoroughly honorable and trustworthy. Any favors that you can bestow upon him in the way of securing business or social acquaintances, will be highly appreciated by me. Very truly yours, 2. ' Cedar Rapids, Iowa, June 1, 19. Marshall Field & Co., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:— - This will introduce to you Mr. George R. Smith, of our city, who goes to Chicago for the purpose of buying a stock of dry goods. We have asked him to call upon you. Any special favors that you can extend during his stay in your city will be appreciated by me. - Yours truly, LETTERS OF CREDIT. give you a general idea of their requirements: Chicago, Ill., April 12, 1903. John W. Farwell & Co., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen:— - This will introduce to you Mr. William R. Smith, who desires to pur- chase a bill of goods. Please allow Mr. Smith such credit as he may desire, the amount not to exceed $3,000, for which I will become personally respon- sible. Should Mr. Smith make any purchases please notify me at once, giving the amount of the purchase. Very respectfully, Chicago, Ill., July 12, 1902. Mr. John W. Farwell & Co., Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir:- Please allow the bearer, Mr. Charles Walker, to have such goods as he may desire, the amount not exceeding $200. Charge the same to his account, extending him a credit of 60 days. If at the end of 60 days Mr. Walker has not paid for the goods send to me the amount of the invoice and I will remit in full therefor. Very respectfully, The following forms will BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 62, - S00IAL LETTERS–WEDDING INVITATIONS, ETC, Formal. WEDDING INVITATION: MER, AND MES. R. C. TOEINSTON REQUEST YOUR PRESENCE ATP TEIB. MARRIA-Glen OE" TELEIR DAUGHTER IMADGR, To JOHN F. W.A LILACF] TUEs DAY EvKNING, EFEERUARY 7TH, 1903 Aºn TELE IM. E. CEIUFrcH. DIXONſ, ILL. The wedding invitation is either written or printed, and in the form of a request of the parents or nearest friends of the bride for the presence of the person addressed. It is usually held at the residence of the person or persons issuing the invitation. The invitations are usually sent out about two weeks in advance of the nuptials. After the wedding a brief note or card is issued stating the fact and date of marriage and the time and place in which the new couple will be at home to their friends. EXAMPLE: IMIEr. JOPHIN F. W.A LILACE IMISS IMADGE JOHNSTON MAREtile. D TUEs DAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 7TH, 1903 DIX.ON, ILL- The above is a formal or set form, differing as you will note from the ordinary letter, in that it is written in the third person. The date is near the close, and it has no signature. Below we give a number of the common informal social forms: - 622 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Informal Letters. Informal notes differ from the formal in that they are headed in exactly the same way as the ordinary letter, and are written in the first person. Example: Monday Morning, June 12. Dear Friend:— We are going to take a tally-ho ride through the parks this afternoon. Will you not add to our happiness by making one of our little party? If so, we will call for you at 1:30 o'clock. Your friend, IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS IN LETTER WRITING. In order to secure prompt and correct delivery use street and number in writing addresses. Write name of State in full. When changing your address notify the postoffice in writing, giving both the old and new address. Always register valuable matter. Invariably place your name and address in upper left-hand corner of letter, envelope, newspaper or package wrapper. Remit money by money orders. Do not enclose with third or fourth class mail matter (i.e., catalogues or merchandise) letters or other writing, as by so doing you will subject the entire package to letter rates or postage. Third and fourth class matter is inspected and detained for improper enclosures. No writing other than the address and return card is permissible on the covers of third class matter. Matter sealed against inspection is rated as first class. This should be borne in mind when matter other than first class is to be mailed. The postoffice is not responsible for mail matter placed on a mail-box. It must be dropped into the box. Put the proper amount of postage on mail matter. When a letter is mailed in an envelope bearing address of a hotel, college or club, the name of the sender should be added to insure its return if undeliverable, otherwise it will be sent to the Dead Letter office. 3)— - 23 >\ == -- == 7 spelling s/ _A/VD sº (PUNCTUATION N S= @ * --- == 2-> -ſ; - = GOOD ENGLISH FOR POLITE SOCIETY. NGLISH spelling is very irregular. It is hoped by many that the spelling reform will E. come upon us, but it is a very difficult matter to change the great number of words that they may be spelled as they sound. There are a few general rules that are of aid to us, but the best rule of all is to take down the dictionary and “dig.” We submit, however, a number of the more familiar rules, together with examples governing them: RULE 1.-A monosyllable, or a word accented on the last syllable, if it ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, doubles the final consonant on the addition of a syl- lable beginning with a vowel; otherwise the final consonant is not doubled on the addition of a syllable. RULE 2.-Words ending in e usually retain the e on the addition of a syllable beginning with a consonant. RULE 3.−Words ending in silent e drop the final e on the addition of a syllable begin- ning with a vowel. ExAMPLEs.-hate, hating; write, writer; force, forcible. RULE 4.—y preceded by a consonant is changed to i on the addition of a syllable not ending with i. ExAMPLEs.-agency, agencies; lazy, laziest; thirst, thirstier. RULE 5.—English nouns form their plurals regularly by adding the syllable es to those singular forms which end in a hissing sound, and the letter s only to other singulars. ExAMPLEs.-fox, foxes; book, books. RULE 6.-Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel add 8 only, to form the plural. ExAMPLEs.-cuckoo, cuckoos; folio, folios. RULE 7.-Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their plurals by changing the y to i and adding es. FxAMPLES.–ally, allies; city, cities. 624 SPELLING AWD PUNCTUATION. RULE 8.—Some nouns ending in f and fe change the for fe to ves to form their plurals, ExAMPLES.—beef, beeves; shelf, shelves. - RULE 9.—The principal element of a compound word is usually changed to form the plural, not the modifying element. RULE 10.-Many foreign nouns now used in English retain their foreign plurals. ExAMPLES.—alumnus, alumni; beau, beaux. RULE 11.-Letters, figures and signs form their plurals by adding the apostrophe (?) and S. - ExAMPLES.—e, e's; 6, 6’s; x, x's. RULE 12.-Some nouns have no singular, some have no plural, and some have the same form in both numbers. ExAMPLES.—scissors (always plural); honesty (always singular); sheep (used in either number). RULE 13.−Some nouns have two plurals of different meanings. RULE 14.—A title used with two or more names should be put in the plural form. ExAMPLE.—The Misses Smith, not the Miss Smiths. RULE 15.—To write the possessive form of a noun in either number, write the nomi- native form in the singular or the plural as the case may be, add the apostrophe, and finally adds to all nouns in the singular and to all plurals not ending in s. ExAMPLEs.-boy, boy's, boys’; for goodness' sake, Brown & Gay's shoe shop; the queen of England's family. CAPITAL LETTERS–WHEN TO USE THEM. | 1. Sentences. 2. Poetry. 3. Direct quotations. 4. Supreme Being. 5. Heaven. 6. Days of the week. 1. Of persons, also proper adjectives. 2. Of places. - 7. Names...................... 3. Geographical. - 4. Of newspapers and magazines. CAPITALs ............... . 5. Of organized bodies or societies. t 6. Of streets. - 1. Names of persons. 8. Initials. .................... | 2. Literary titles. - 1. Official and honorary. 9. Titles........................ | 2. Of books and essays. 10. Abbreviations. 11. United States; State; Territory. 12. East; West; North; South. 13. Important buildings and localities. 14, Pronoun I and interjection O, SPELLING AND PUWCTUATION. 625 RULES OF PUNCTUATION. When there is no reason for the use of the point, never use one; in case of doubt use too few points rather than too many. RULE 1.-Separate by commas (, ) all the members of a series of words, phrases or clauses unless all are connected by conjunctions. RULE 2.—Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair. RULE 3.-Grammatically independent or parenthetical words, phrases or clauses are set off by commas. RULE 4.—A phrase out of its natural order is set off by commas. RULE 5.—A comma should be placed before a short quotation or any expression that resembles a quotation when it is introduced into a sentence without a formal introduction. RULE 6.—Words, phrases or clauses, contrasted with each other or having a common relation to some preceding or following part of the sentence, are separated by commas. RULE 7.-Even where no other rule seems to require them, commas should be used to indicate pauses in reading, without which the sense might be mistaken. RULE 8.—The parts of a compound sentence, when short and closely connected, may be Separated by the comma or not at all; but when they are not short or not so closely connected in sense, they are separated by the semicolon (; ). RULE 9.—When any one of the words as, namely, to wit, that is, for example, viz., i.e., e.g., and other similar expressions introduces an example, place a semicolon before it. RULE 10.-The colon (:) is chiefly used after words formally introducing a quotation, speech, etc. RULE 11.—Put a period (. ) at the close of every complete and independent sentence which either affirms or denies. Put a period at the close of the title or description of a book on the title page; at the close of headings, subheads, sideheads, and date lines; after every abbreviation; after figures or letters used to number examples, remarks, divisions, etc.; and after letters expressing numbers by the Roman notation. Periods are also used as decimal points, as “leaders” to carry the eye along a blank line in tables of contents of books and other tabular work, and as marks of omission to denote that part of a quotation has been left out. RULE 12.-Use the interrogation point (?) after every direct question. RULE 13.−The exclamation point (!) is placed after any word, phrase or clause express- ing strong or sudden feeling. RULE 14.—Incidental words of exclamation, references, or any matter merely thrown into * sentence and not a necessary part of it should be enclosed within marks of parenthesis ( ). RULE 15.-The dash (–) is used before and after a parenthetical part to indicate a greater degree of separation than that indicated by commas and less than that denoted by marks of parenthesis. 626 SPELLING AND PUWCTUATION. RULE 16.—The apostrophe (') is used to denote the omission of letters in contractions, in possessive case forms and in the plurals of letters, figures and signs, and in dates expressed by two figures only. RULE 17.—The hyphen (- ) is placed between the component parts of compound words. RULE 18.—At the beginning of every direct primary quotation two inverted commas (“) are placed, and two apostrophes (”) are placed at the close. RULE 19.-The caret (A) is used in manuscript only, and indicates the place at which letters, words, or sentences which the writer has omitted by mistake or afterward desires to add, should be inserted. Make sure of the correct pronunciation of the word caret. RULE 20.—The dieresis ( ' ' ) is used over the second of two adjacent vowels to indicate that they are to be pronounced in separate syllables, the latter not joining with the first to form a digraph or a diphthong. RULE 21.-Marks of reference—-the asterisk (*), the dagger (?), the double dagger (f), the section ($), the parallel (I), and the paragraph (" )—are used in the body of the page in the order named to call attention to notes at the bottom or in the margin indicated by the same respective marks and referring to the words or sentences by which the marks in the body of the page are placed. When more than six footnotes or marginal notes are placed on one page the seventh mark of reference is the double asterisk (**) and all the other marks are likewise doubled in turn to refer to further notes. Instead of these old marks of reference, figures or letters are sometimes used, placed just above and to the right of words to which the notes refer in what is called “superior” form, as, *, *, *, etc., or *, *, *, etc. Sometimes they are placed within marks of parenthesis just after the words to which the notes refer, as (1), (2), (3), etc. RULE 22.-Ditto marks (“) are used to indicate the repetition of words used in the line just above without printing or writing them again. RATES OF POSTAGE AND CLASSIFICATION. FIRST CLASS.—Letters (hand and typewritten, and letter press, or manifold copies of either) and sealed packages are two cents each ounce or fraction thereof, with no limit to weight. SECOND CLASS.—Newspapers, periodicals entered as second class matter, and sent by the publisher or news agent, are one cent per pound, with no limit to weight. Same when mailed by others than above, are one cent each four ounces or fraction, with no limit to weight. THIRD CLASS.—Books, circulars, pamphlets, and other matter wholly in print, proof- sheets, corrected proofsheets and manuscript copy accompanying same, facsimile copies of hand or typewriting obtained by a mechanical process and easy of recognition as imitations, when mailed in twenty or more, separately addressed, identical copies, at a postoffice or sta- tion (when mailed otherwise or in less nur. *er, such matter becomes subject to first class postage), one cent each two ounces or fraction thereof, with weight limit at four pounds, except single books weighing in excess f that amount. SPELLING AWD PUWCTUATION. 627 FourTH CLASS.–Merchandise and matter not included in any of the above classes, are one cent each ounce or fraction thereof, with weight limit at four pounds. The postage rates and conditions to Alaska, Cuba, Hawaii, Guam, Porto Rico, the Philippines and the Island of Tutuila are domestic in every particular. REGISTERED MAIL. Domestic. Fee, eight cents per letter or package. Postage additional. All classes of mailable matter may be registered. Matter addressed to fictitious names, to initials, to box numbers simply, or to vague and indefinite addresses, cannot be regis- tered. The fee on registered matter, domestic and foreign, is eight cents on each letter or parcel in addition to the postage, both to be fully prepaid with ordinary postage stamps Two or more letters or parcels addressed to, or intended for, the same person cannot be tied or otherwise fastened together and registered as one. Matter for registration should be legibly and correctly addressed, with the address of the sender written in the upper left-hand corner. First class registered matter should be placed in a stout envelope or wrapper and securely sealed. Postmasters or postal employes are forbidden to address registered matter, place the contents in an envelope, seal it, or affix the stamps. These things should be done before such matter is presented for registration. Third and fourth class matter for registra- tion should be so wrapped as to safely bear transportation, and easily admit of examination. Registered matter will only be delivered to the addressee in person or upon a written order, and its delivery may be limited to addressee exclusively by special direction in writing upon the envelope. Persons calling for registered mail should be prepared to furnish reasonable proof of their identity, it being impossible otherwise to guard against fraud. A return receipt signed by addressee, showing delivery, is mailed to the sender of each domestic registered letter or parcel, for which service there is no extra charge. Foreign. Any article of mailable matter addressed to a foreign destination may be registered, pro- Vided that the postage thereon be fully prepaid in addition to the registration fee, which is eight cents by postage stamps affixed. MONEY ORDERS. No single money order will be issued for more than $100. When more money is to be sent additional orders must be secured. Upon application a printed form will be handed to the remitter on which will be found blank spaces for the number of dollars and cents, whom, Sent to, name of town or city, street and number, and State, also by whom sent, and address. 628 SPELLING AND PUWCTUATION. The following are the fees charged for domestic money orders in the United States (which includes Hawaii and Porto Rico), in Canada, in Cuba, and in the Philippines: For orders for sums not exceeding $ 2.50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - For over $ 2.50 and not & 4 &c. C & 5.00 gº & 4 &e & c. 10.00 &c. &c. <& cº 20.00 &c. « &c. cº 30.00 « 44. ** * 40.00 “ º 50.00 &c. &c. 50.00 cº gº cº -- 60.00 &c. « & 4 ** 75.00 … º Special attention is directed to the fact that domestic money orders are now used in business with Canada, Cuba and the Philippines, and the domestic fees only are charged. MONEY ORDER FEES. 5.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 º' _w - -- * W º - 3 cents 5 ºc 8 & C 10 & 12 º 4 15 ( & 18 º 20 & C 25 ( . 30 -- BOOK V//// Cº. º. º. 2 & 2 & 2.2 °C TTTTTTTTTTTTTTT *=- - º ſº 'ºZ (Zºº º § º : º CEDAR RAPIDs, Iowa sº A Self-Teaching Series of Lessons in Rapid Muscular-Movement Writing. Especially adapted for Home Study and for use in all classes of schools where the utilitarian is made the basis of instruction. * * * * * Satisfactory Results have never failed to follow its adoption and use. * * * * * * | § º º º Q º S. º - govrighted, 190% ºf A. N. Palmºn. F N S T R U C TI O N "A-se WRITIN MUSCULAR MOVEMENT—ITS DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION. By A. N. PALMER, Author of the Palmer Method of Business Writing and Editor of the Western Penmar. MODERN || HAVE thought best to evade the historical, the obsolete and non-practical part of chirog- I raphy, and deal only with the live, up-to-date, utilitarian phases of writing, the issues that will appeal directly to young men and women who seek training that will fit them for the practical business life, where rapid, legible penmanship is even more in demand than before the advent of the typewriter and the art of shorthand. Shorthand and typewriting may have supplanted longhand writing in some directions, but they have emphasized the necessity of legibility and speed in other directions. The Value of Good Penmanship. The man who hires a stenographer will pay a higher salary to one who can write a good business style of longhand than he will pay to one who simply scribbles, and the reason is self-evident. In very few offices are stenographers relieved from all writing of longhand. Records are to be kept, addressing and many other things about a well-managed office are done, which can be more conveniently done with pen and ink than with the typewriter. No young man or woman, regardless of the vocation chosen, will regret the short time necessary to spend in mastering a good style of business writing. Under modern methods the process is not only short, but it is easy, and to the majority a delightful pastime. New System Improvement upon the Old. Under the old regime we might fittingly exclaim with Will Carleton: Oh, pen, when in the old time school-house we Strove, 'neath our teacher's rod, to master thee, And twisting down upon some sad old desk, With doleful air and attitude grotesque, And with protruding tongue and beating heart Took our first lesson in the graphic art, And that old copy on the paper poured, Saying, “The pen is mightier than the sword,” And then from sudden and dynamic stroke, The pen we leaned on into fragments broke, Some angel told our inexperienced youth, That, after all, that copy told the truth 632 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WEITING. That was when everything in penmanship instruction tended toward one end only, accuracy; accuracy without ease, and accuracy without speed, a slow drawing style in which the fingers were the chief, if not the sole, agents of execution. This, the copybook plan, still quite largely in use in public schools, developed a style of penmanship that was good only when the execution was slow, and when but little writing was required. The outcome, in fact, was a retrogressive tendency as soon as an attempt was made to apply speed, and when continuous writing was demanded. - The copybook mode of instruction has always led to poor, rapid continuous writing; indeed, I might say, to scribbling. In fact, any plan of penmanship instruction in which the large tireless muscles of the arm are ignored can lead to only one end—poor, erratic writ- ing, and perhaps writer's cramp when much and continuous writing is required. The Successful Plan. The student who desires to master a good commercial style of penmanship in the shortest possible time, should give careful attention to the cultivation of the muscles of the arm, and the movement from these muscles. Muscular movement should receive more attention on the start than the forms of letters. Latent in the arm of every boy and girl and man and woman of whatever age, providing the faculties are well preserved, is an easy, free movement that may be developed and applied to good writing within an almost incredibly short time if the right methods of training are followed. The successful plan is to study the muscles of tne writing arm closely, gaining some con- trol of them and ascertaining their functions before attempting to do much writing, or any good writing. Good writing—the result of good movement and muscular control—will closely follow. Writing Materials. Do not attempt to practice penmanship with poor paper, poor pens, or poor ink. Good material is an absolute necessity. Do not use a metal finished penholder. A rubber finished “Crown” and cork finished “Bank” are among the best penholders made. Never use an oblique penholder in business writing. It is out of place and of no advantage whatever. There is nothing that equals an oblique holder for ornamental writing, but there its utility ends. Use paper of generous size for your practice, a medium coarse pen and good blue- black writing fluid. Clothing for the Right Forearm. As the movement taught is one in which the muscles of the right forearm play an impor: tant part, it is highly essential that these muscles should be so clothed as to permit, at all times, unrestricted action. Many good writers consider this of sufficient importance to lead them to cut off the right undersleeve at the elbow. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING 63: Definition of Movement. The muscular movement, as applied to writing, is the movement of the muscles of the arm from the shoulder to the wrist while keeping the larger part of the arm forward of the elbow on the desk, the fingers not being held rigidly, but remaining passive, and not being extended or contracted in the formation of any of the capitals or any of the small letters except the upper loops, when there may be a slight extension and contraction in making the turn at the top. In this movement the propelling power is located behind the elbow in the upper muscles of the arm. Bxamine your right arm. Notice the increasing size from the wrist to the elbow. Grass the right arm with the left hand just below, but near the elbow. Note particularly the elasticity of the muscles; move the flesh on the right arm forward and backward with the left hand. On the development of the elasticity of that muscle depends your success in learning a good style of business writing. You are urged to read the above a number of times. It is important. How to Develop Muscular Action. Throw your right arm on the desk and close the fingers of the right hand tight (set accompanying cut). See how far you can move the hand forward and backward without slipping the sleeve or without any motion of the wrist or fingers. The fingers must be closed so that you cannot extend or contract them. - º Wºº. º º º | º ºn. -aº X. Zº % º | s | | Nº || º º º - - - |º]". ". º |º ſ | ' ' || | ſ º ºf º | || . - º º §§ tº - º º No. 1, FINGER STUDY. No. 2, FINGER AND RELATIVE POSITION STUDY. 41 634 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER W WRITING. The purpose of illustrations 1 and 2 is to show the natural positions of the fingers that should be maintained in writing. Throw your arms on the desk in a natural position, such as you would take if you were simply resting and not contemplating using a pen; turn the palms of the hands upward, as shown in cut 1, and study the position of the fingers. Now turn the palms downward and raise both arms from the table, as shown in cut 2, the left hand being a little in advance of the right; drop both arms to the table and you will be in a good writing position. But let us go further. Study closely the position of the right hand in illustration 3. Note the fact that the fingers have not been changed from numbers 1 and 2 beyond what was necessary to hold the penholder firmly. The penholder rests against the side of the second finger, at the root of the na"; the first finger rests on the upper part of the holder, and the thumb rests against the side of the holder at the lower joint of the first finger. Notice further the relative posi- tion of every part of the holder with the hand. Now pass on to illustration 4. Here we have a good position for executing writing rapidly and easily on the regular slant. The right arm is thrown well out from the side and a right angle (turn) is formed at the elbow; the third and fourth fingers are thrown well under the hand, forming a movable rest; the side of the hand and wrist, while near the paper, does not touch it; the penholder points a little to the right of the right shoulder; the left hand is at the upper left corner of the paper, keep- ing it in position; the body, while bending slightly at the hips, is self-supporting, and the large muscles of the forearm rest on the desk, the fulcrum or main rest being just forward of the elbow. Before going any further, experiment with position. Move the hand forward and backward, right and left, round and round, without extending or contracting the fingers holding the pen, and with the pen raised from the paper. |Will W º '" º | . a M.I. | | C. - º Nº.4% N D tº - ||||||| | Ulſº No. 3. NATURAL POSITION OF PENEHOLDER. No. 4. NATURAL POSITION OF HAND. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WEITING. 6' sº --- - * * sº º º -------- --> --~~~~~~~ º sº sº sº & ºv º \% º º º ) | |||}|ſ|||}|ſ) Wº% º! & !!!, !!!/ º/ Here are given drills that should be practiced by beginners in muscular 7 º’ſº movement a few minutes at the begin- ( (ſ/ ſº W. ſſ/% // /// º-ºº-ºº: º - Ø 4A ning of each writing period during ºſſ. Jøſſø º several weeks, or until the movement - - - - - - / fºſſ. ºfºſſºſſº becomes light and elastic and a fair ºfŽº 777 --- measure of control has been acquired. - ſ ſ/A ØØØØſ Rºsº zºº Ugºſº A movement drill is a repeated form, and it may be a letter or a part -- 0// & Wºº' Qugºſſ. % of a letter, but it should be so simple º º Yº/M//j2ſ) 2 | ſ | | | ſ () % | | | in construction and susceptible of such (Ø º ſ 0/ ſ ſ ſ º %Ø 20 ſ. A - - - - jº. Rºsºs ºsº sº º * in execution that the mind is (0.0% | !!!! ſº % !!!º relieved from the tedium of constantly IMMſ. 0000/01/000/40%lſº dwelling upon the forms, and can be º Rºººº; Zºº given to movement study. 1000/0000000000 ºſſº - -> - - ſº and in order to make the oval very Zºº Ž º % ſº º compact all strokes should be very (QMJ/0/00000 M4. ſ - - :... Sºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: light. One method used in making (0. [ſº] IM001/01/JMſº) very compact ovals, is to first carry the º --- º ovals across the page with somewhat * º open spacing and go over the same path DRILL 2. again and again, until all white paper disappears. Through this process the fiber of the naper is not picked ºn by the point of the pen, and the final result is much more pleasing trian it otherwise could pe. In number 1 not less than 185 downward strokes should be made in a minute, and the same rate of speed should be applied in number 2. In number 1 the movement used is in the direction of the capital 0, Counting to Regulate Motion. In developing light, uniform motion in class penmanship practice, counting is an impor- tant factor. It makes the work more interesting than it would otherwise be, tones down the movement of the naturally nervous pupils, acts as a constant spur to the habitually slow boy or girl, and keeps the indolent student busy. In the oval exercises given in drill 1 the down- 636 SELF. INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. ward strokes only should be counted. The other parts of the drill being what are termed connective lines are not counted. In the traced ovals, drill 2, the count should be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 for each completed oval. Preparatory Motion. Read the following carefully until thoroughly understood. It is of especial value to beginners. Before making the oval drill or attempting any part of it, move the pen in the air and move it rapidly over the path of the oval a number of times. While doing this, watch closely the movement of the muscles of the arm, studying the motion and its application. While the pen is moving rapidly, and without checking its motion, let it strike the paper. The force thus gathered will compel light, quick action, will break up finger motion, will give smooth lines, and will aid form building. CAUTION.—Before attempting the large oval drill, be sure that all the conditions are favorable. Not much can be accomplished unless the rules in regard to position of body, arm, wrist and fingers are closely observed. Reread the beginning lesson if necessary. Do not waste time by attempting to do something you do not understand. Work intelligently- and satisfactory results are sure to follow. - The author's constant admonition to beginners is to give more attention to the action of the muscles of the arm on the start than to the forms; overcome muscular rigidity; make muscular relaxation a habit; experiment frequently in movement practice with nothing in the hand or without touching the pen to the paper. In a word, gain muscular freedom and muscular control and the mastery of the form of the letters will be easy, and a good per- manent style of rapid writing will be the outcome. O 27 O 27 C 23.3%2%3%3%2% Drill 3 is what we term a forcing movement drill, and it is one of the best for the begin- ner to practice. In the direct traced oval make six revolutions in a count of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, lifting the pen on the base line on the sixth count without checking the motion, swinging it in the air to the beginning stroke of capital A. Thus the student will be forced from a slow, lagging move- ment to a motion that is elastic and rapid. The form may not be entirely satisfactory at DRILL 3. first, but it will improve rapidly if this process is continued a reasonable length of time and repeated at frequent intervals. The rate of speed should be about twenty complete traced ovals and as many capitals to the minute. - SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER W WRITING. The propelling power is located behind the elbow. Do not forget this, and do not think of the energy and force as coming from the hand, fingers or wrist. Following the plan suggested in connection with drill 3, the rotary motion should be applied in drill 4 below, the pen being in motion when striking the paper and in motion when leaving it. From seventy-five to eighty-five good capital A's should be made to the minute. - AN IMPORTANT SUGGESTION.—Hold the practice paper in position with the left hand and always keep the paper in about the same relative position to the right arm. Move the paper from right to left and from left to right with the left hand, as may be required to keep the paper in good position. zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzº aſ aſ 27 & 27 & 27 & 27 & 27 & DRILL 4. OOOOOOOOOOOOO DRILL 5. The method of practice in drill 5 should be the same as in capital A, drill 3. After each traced oval lift the pen while in motion, swinging it below the base line and around to the beginning point of the capital O without checking the motion. Drive the pen rapidly, and bring the muscles of the arm into active play. First make ten revolutions for the traced oval, gradually decreasing the number to six; count six for the ovals and count two for each capital 0. COOCŞGóða 9CŞCC%CCC-C) DRILL 6. Not less than seventy of this form of capital 0 should be made in a minute. This capital 0 is very popular with many excellent business penmen and teachers of modern writing. Study the letter and make a mental photograph of it. Note particularly the curves of the left and right sides, also the loop at the top, its general direction and its size. 32°3′2.3%2% DRILL 7. The plan of practice for drill 7 is the same as for drill 3 and drill 5. &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER W WRITING. (2/262/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2 DRILL 8. Lift the pen from the paper while in motion in finishing a capital; continue the motion with the pen in the air and bring the pen to the paper to begin the next capital—all without checking the motion. Make about seventy letters to the minute. ——2–’ —o-o-º-º- ~e— DRILL 9. So far in the lessons the direct oval and some of its applications have been almost exclu- sively given as drills. In the connected small o just as much freedom of motion is necessary, but its operation should be in almost a straight line toward the right, thus developing the application of lateral movement used in such small letters as m, n, o, u, w. The small o drill above should be practiced a few minutes every day during at least the first three months of a course in muscular movement writing. It can be made a very. interesting drill. In connection with this drill we urge teachers who have never tried the plan to use what we might term a conversational count. Walk about the room in time to the count of the letter, and in passing from desk to desk criticize the work being done by students in the same rhythm. Supposing that passing down an aisle one student is making the o too large, another is not closing it at the top, another is using a slow, dragging movement, another is making a narrow, flat letter, and still another is bending over the desk too far, the criticisms would be as follows: Make 'em smaller, make 'em smaller; close 'em up, close 'em up; slide along, slide along; round ’em out, round 'em out; sit up, sit up. Each criticism or admonition may be repeated until the error has in a measure been corrected. The influ- ence will not be lost upon the rest of the pupils, but those who have been making the same errors will, almost unconsciously, show a marked improvement. Home students who are endeavoring to master a good style of writing without the aid of a teacher may use the same plan in counting as they practice. Make page after page of the connected small o. Keep it up until you can make, with an easy, sliding movement, and nearly as well as the copy, more than one hundred to the mine ute. That is by no means fast, but while permitting good form it is fast enough to force light movement. To save paper, the small o may be made on the lines, between the lines, and across thf lines. The plan of writing across the lines is greatly to be commended and encouraged as tending to develop lightness and freedom of movement. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. 639 –222-222-22222222-222-22--~222-222-222° DRILL 10. Preparatory to practice on drill 10, test the movement by moving the pen in the air in the direction of the first stroke. Start the motion below the base line, and as the pen moves rapidly upward let it strike the paper at the beginning point. Drive the pen through the exercise rapidly and lightly. Do not make less than three connected m’s before lifting the pen, and make more as soon as you have ability to make them well. You will make the letters too large, irregular and awkward at first, and you will have trouble with the union (connecting lines), but never mind, keep right on. All is well that ends well, and you will succeed if you persevere. Not less than twenty completed exercises, or sixty small m’s should be made to the minute. Bear in mind that an under stroke follows each m, the m proper being made with an Over stroke. Count 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ DRILL 11. For small m a count of three is used, and in the n a count of two; thus the count for drill 11 will be 3, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, etc. Or for four connected letters, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Relatively the speed should be the same as in the small m drill. DRILL 12. Here is our first word drill. Take care of the movement and the letters will take care of themselves. Do not neglect the stady of the motion and its application to the form to be made. Write the word Annum at the rate of sixteen or more words to a minute. Write the word Common at the rate of about eighteen to the minute. Cº-C-C-C-Cºw DRILL 14. It is expected that these word drills will be treated as movement exercises, and that the *ěpetition of each word until a page or more has been written will not only bring about a 640 SELF-IWSTR UCTION IN MODER W WRITING. marked improvement in the appearance of the writing but will also improve muscular action. Do not neglect to give attention to the muscles of the arm. @wº O –4–3–2–~~~~< e < e < 2.2 –e e_2 < e <^ DRILL 15. Prº- ŽPrs Øze º - - Drill 15 may be used in developing small 1 and corresponding loops of small b, h, k, and f, as well as small e. The object of the oval as a preparatory drill is twofold: First, to force the hand to move lightly and quickly, and second, to lead the motion in the direction of the letter itself. This is a good drill to practice often. Capital M is a letter that affords splendid opportunity for the development of movement, and drill 16 leads up to it. For this drill count 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and make twenty-five of the complete drills to the minute. Compare your work with the copy. DRILL 16. Study the capital M closely before trying to make it. Compare the parts in their rela- tion as regards height, slant and width. Make about forty letters to the minute, and count 1, 2, 3, 4 for each letter. % *— **** 21% ZZZ In the capital M a count of four is used. There is one count less in the capital N. In practice work from fifty to sixty of these letters should be made to the minute. No special effort should be made to form a loop at the junction of the first and last parts of capital N. Let that part of the letter take cars of itself, but in size and general proportions the copy given should be closely imitated. - Remember that, with a slow, dragging or cramped movement, nothing of lasting value can be accomplished in penmanship development. It would be well for the learner to practice on easy words at this stage of the work, fol- lowing the plan of drills 12, 13 and 14. It may be well to connect the last part of each capital with the small letter following as soon as uniform movement can be applied to the capitals as given in drills 17 and 18. GELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER W WRITIZVG. 641 //zz Azzz z*zz //zz DRILL 19. The small a is, in the main, a reduced copy of the capital A, and the first parts of small d and g are identical with small a. Fix the resemblance in the mind; it will help you. In business writing it is best to make the looped small d. It is just as legible and much faster than the stem. The loop to small g should be made without finger motion. We favor the blunt style in small g and y when they are final letters in a word. The small g thus made is identical with the figure 9. Practice each letter in groups until a decided improvement is seen. Practice speed—from seventy to eighty good a’s and about sixty of small d and g to the minute. (2) (º)/2/(ºz @^2, -č2/2/22222222222222222222 DRILL 20. Study the relation of the loop to the oval, as shown in the first line of drill 20. The letters given here are of about the right length for average business writing. There is a slight checking of the motion on the downward strokes, but not enough to stop the motion at the base line. After a little practice loops as good as the above in groups of five should be made at the rate of from 125 to 150 to the minute. The Spencerian forms of small letters have been mainly followed in the copies given, departures being made only when more abbreviated or rapid forms seemed essential. In small r and p following, forms are given that are mainly used by the best business penmen, because of the rapidity with which they can be made. 2-2-2-2–2–4 -2–2–2–2–~2–2–7–2-’ -&-2-2-2->" —2-2-2-2-2 e_2~7-z-x_2~2–2–2-2^_e-2-24-2-2" DRILL 21. The first stroke in small r, above given, is very much like the first part of small m or D. The downward stroke is retraced to a point about one-fourth of a space above the first part; a stop (hardly noticeable) and a dot are made before the swinging curve to the next letter. 642 SEL FLINSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. Close study of the form while practicing will be necessary. After its mastery, one hundred connected letters to the minute will be a good rate of speed. The first few trials will unques- tionably be discouraging, but faithful practice will be rewarded. Stick to it. Practice speed in the word error, from twenty to twenty-four words to a minute. CAUTION TO THE STUDENT.—Never begin to practice until you are sure you know how to practice. Languid, thoughtless practice should be avoided. Put ambition, put energy, put the fire of determined will behind your practice, and the results will be astonishing. Take advantage of all favorable conditions. Keep not only the muscles of the right arm in a relaxed condition, but guard against tense muscles in any part of the body. Keep the side of the hand and the wrist free from the desk; keep the right arm well out from the side; keep the right hand in front of the eyes; keep a right angle at the right elbow, and remember that the propelling power is located back of the right elbow. If you think you are in a good position for writing, test the movement without touching the pen to the paper, and while doing this, study the conditions under which you are trying to work. Be sure you are right before you go ahead. DRILL 22. In the above is given a particularly excellent drill, to be made with pure muscular movement. From sixty to sixty-six connected letters should be made to the minute. Make frequent comparisons and write a page. Reverse Oval and Application. An application of the reverse oval motion is made in forming the capital J. Study num- ber 23. The reverse oval, it must be understood begins with an upward stroke on the left side. Before attempting the capital J make reverse ovals four or five minutes, and if the movement is then light and uniform, this copy may be safely practiced. The oval, in con- nection with capital J, is used as a driving force. 0.20202222229 O2 DRILL 23. Make the oval in a count of six, lift the pen from the paper at the top, and without checking the motion, swing the pen in its natural course in the air to the right and below the SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER N WRITING. 643 base to the point of contact with the paper in starting the letter. Do not stop the motion, but strike the paper in an upward course at full speed for the beginning stroke of J. If the explanation of applied motion is not fully understood, study it until it is, and then fill at least a half page with the copy. Do not neglect the form, but note carefully the following points: The J should begin with an upward stroke from a point just below the base line; the turn at the top should be roulid; the upper part should be about one space longer and twice the width of the lower part. 2-2-2-2-2- DRILL 24. This copy is given as a drill on both movement and form. From the beginning stroke of J to the finishing stroke of s the pen should not be lifted. Write the word from beginning to end with a steady, light and uniform movement. Eighteen or twenty words to the minute will be a fair rate of practice speed. Oſoyo'o'o'o'oyaſood'O' DRILL 25. The count for this drill is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; two for the capital I and six for the oval drill. Capital I begins in same manner as capital J, but the upper part is narrower. Write fifteen or twenty lines of this copy before passing to the next. cºoºoºoºoºoºoºoºoºoºoºoº DRILL 26. Not less than fifty of this capital to the minute. The count is two for each letter. e/eſ_6_ſ_ſ_ſ_ſ'eſſeſ 2-2-0 DRILL 27. The angular finish in this letter is of especial value when small letters follow, as shown in the following line: –44. … —44…” DRILL 28. This is a medium hand, but it is often necessary to write more compactly. Other words in which the small letters already practiced are used, may be introduced for practice. 644 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. The Frequency of Reviews. - The author is unable to decide at what points in the course reviews should be given. The matter of review must be dependent upon the thoroughness with which the lessons have been mastered in their regular order. The ability of students to use and apply muscular movement as explained in the preced- ing lessons should determine the review question. One Space Letter Drills. - - t n - - - - at 4–4–3–2–l 2-2– _--- 22–2-zº ~2–z-z- DRILL 30. Enough attention has now been given to movement development, movement application. speed and other essentials, to enable those who are following this course to proceed in their practice of the following capital drills without special instructions, but there should still be frequent reviews. a.o.o.o.o.o. 22.2.2 DRLIL 31. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODER W WRITING 645 _A cºe/e/e/e/e/e/e/e/ oooooooo & *222222222, 2%. 2% 666&sº a 6 & 96.2/2/2/2/22 Definiteness is essential in business writing. There should be a definite starting point and a definite ending point in every letter. Every curve and every loop should be definite and have a definite place in the process of construction. In studying the forms of the letters here given, bear this in mind. Capital B may end in a dot, as shown in the greater number of the letters given above, and it may end in an angular turn, furnishing a connective stroke for the letters following. The count for capital B is 1, 2, 3, and a fair practice speed is fifty to the minute. To Relieve Muscular Tension. It is often an advantage to go over the path of the letters or exercises with the pen in the air. This method is especially helpful to a student whose muscles are hard and who finds difficulty in overcoming the tendency to keep the muscles of the arm and body in a rigid condition. This plan has been suggested in former paragraphs, and we consider it of suffi- cient importance to receive emphasis here 646 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. Another plan which the author has recently found helpful to students who write with strained muscles, is to place a paperweight on the paper, and write with the left arm hang- ing at the side. Under this plan the tension on the right arm is relieved at once. Still another plan to relieve this tension so common among beginners, is to select some easy drill like small o or m, and make it across the lines of the paper while keeping the eyes fixed upon some object at a distance and on a level with the eyes when the body is fairly erect. O / A 29 J-e-º-º-º-º-º- 29, 29-A).9A%20-0-0-0-0-0- DRILL 38. In twelve of the business capitals we have the fish-hook, or small loop beginning. Most pupils find this style of starting the capital letters somewhat difficult at first, but when fully mastered it becomes a favorite. It is of sufficient importance to be given considerable study and practice. A careful study and comparison of these capitals will show that in F, Q, W, X, and Z the main downward strokes are curved much more than in H, K, M, and N, while in U, V, and Y compound curves are used in these main strokes. 2%2%-72%.””””—º-º-º-2 ŽO%3%. 23/2^% ºzº/~ 23333333333& DRILLS 39 TO 43. Work faithfully on every letter. Repeat the form of each letter over and over until decided improvement can be seen. Make frequent comparisons. Study length, breadth, curves and connections closely. Rate of practice speed to the minute, F, sixty; H, thirty-five to forty; M, forty-five to fifty-five; N, sixty. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERW WRITING. 647 222222222222222222222222222 %2/ Ž/ ?/ ?/ 44%.4% ſº-º// / / /* DRILLS 44 TO 47. Rate of practice speed, Q, thirty-seven; U, fifty-six; W, sixty-eight; W, forty-four to the minute. PoſNTS TO OBSERVE.-Capital Q is the enlarged form of the figure 2. The last parts of capitals U, V, and W are shorter than the other parts, and the first main strokes in U and W are exactly alike. In making capital W check the motion a little at the base line in the first main downward stroke, as this will aid in the construction of the first part. _2_2_2_2^2_2_2_2_%22%2%. 27. %% %%%%%%%% % º ºgº ººz DRILL 51. ~~~~~~< DRILL 52. 2^2° 2222 222*22222* DRILL 53. | s=&ºsºsº DRILL 54. 648 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERW WRITING. See how lightly you can carry the pen over the paper. Barely let the points of the pen touch it. Make a test of the movement with the pen above the paper, and when fully ready for action make from sixty to seventy good letters to the minute. DRILL 55. Do not make the beginning part too high; it should be but little more than two-thirds the entire height of the letter. Note particularly that he last part curves over the top of the main (first) part without touching it. Time and hard work will be important factors in developing this letter. Be earnest, be faithful. The count is 1, 2, 3, 4, and about forty-five letters should be made to the minute. 2222222222222 DRILL 56. Make a few letters in the air as a preliminary movement drill before beginning active work. As will be readily seen, nearly all the main oval part is at the left of the beginning stroke. The count is two, and from fifty to sixty letters should be made to the minute. Make a full page and practice steadily, not spasmodically. Léº & η-&lºº DRILL 57. This letter is a good movement drill. Count three, and be sure to connect the last part with the first, in a loop a little above the center of the letter. From forty-five to fifty good letters should be made to the minute. Business Figures. Nothing within the range of business writing is more important to the average book- keeper or office clerk than good figures. In many lines of accounting thousands of business figures are made without the writing of a single word. This, in a measure, is true in many branches of statistical work connected with railroad bookkeeping where headings are printed and page after page is filled with figures. The first requisite is legibility, and its importance cannot be emphasized too much. While, in writing the letters in a word, each may be known by the context, in making figures, each must depend upon itself for legibility. How important then that each figure should be so formed that its value, in a group or by itself, cannot be mistaken. SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WRITING. 649 2|7 || 4 |2|= 47 || 7 ||3 2 || 3 FOR STUDY. FoR PRACY ICE. Figures should be made small. Students sometimes think that large figures are necessarily the plainest, but such is not the case. Examine carefully the diagram presented herewith. At the left are figures that are absolutely plain; one could not be mistaken for another, and yet their extreme size in the space in which they are placed make them difficult to read. At the right are the same figures, made no better, but a great deal smaller. Please note care. fully the fact that these, surrounded as they are by white paper, and much smaller, are much more legible, even at a distance, than are the large figures at the left. Students who have practiced in copybooks have almost invariably acquired the habit of making figures three or four times too large. Those that we present for models from which to practice are large enough for ordinary use. If occasion demands, it will be easy to make the figures larger. One-eighth of an inch is perhaps high enough for ordinary figures, while in some places it would be advantageous to make them even smaller. Form. Naught, a disconnected small o, always closed at the top; one, a plain oblique straignt line; two, a small loop or a dot in beginning, a full right curve to base, and a small loop flat on base; three, beginning with dot, upper part about one-third entire size, made with a great deal of side motion; four, oblique straight line, horizontal straight line finished with a slight left curve extending a little above the first part and resting on the base line; five, beginning with plain downward oblique line, well rounded in main part, and with the horizontal line at top always connected with first part; six may extend above the other figures, and should always be finished with a small loop, the finishing point being brought to base line each time. There are no angles in the form of seven given here. A more graceful form could have been produced had two angular turns been made, one at extreme upper left and other at extreme upper right point, but such a form sacrifices speed while gaining nothing in legibility. Fig- ure seven extends below the base line. Our figure eight begins at the upper left side, while some who make this figure well begin on opposite side. The upper part of figure nine rests on base line, with stem extending below. Close the apper part. 42 650 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN MODERN WEITING. How to Practice. In making the figure one, draw the hand toward you with a quick, light motion, sliding on the third and fourth fingers. Uniformity in height and slant are the two important points to observe. - The development and application of a lateral oval motion will aid in the construction of the figure two. In making the figure two in class drill a count of three should be used, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, etc., or dot, 2, 3. Notice the exercise preceding the figure three. The motion used in that exercise will produce a good figure three if properly applied; 1, 2, 3, or dot, 2, 3 is the count used. A count of three is also used in four and five, but for six, seven and nine, a count of two. Several lessons should be given to drilling on the figures singly before grouping them, but as soon as the forms are mastered and the student can make them at a fair rate of speed, it is best to drill in a miscellaneous order somewhat as follows: 1, 0, 2, 6, 9, 8, 5, 4, 3, 0, 9, 6, 7, 2, 8, 9, 3, 5, 6, 9, 2, 1, 5, 8, 6, 9, 5, 4, 6, 9, 3, 7, 8, etc. No particular order is neces- sary, but the aim should be to repeat one figure as often as another. Rate of Speed. - Figures taken singly, 150 naughts, 175 ones, 80 twos, 75 threes, 80 fours, 75 fives, 100 sixes, 95 sevens, 90 eights and 100 nines per minute. Figures taken promiscuously, not less than ninety-five good figures to the minute. This rate can be increased materially by repeated effort. Persistence brings success. Practice steadily and faithfully. ſº º %/ --- .*.*.* --- Book IX A Cº. H00 SHORT HAND AT HOME 'ſ - // º (Gº aim • * * BY - - - RUFERT F. SO RELLE Late Director of the Commercial Department Armour Institute ASSISTANT TO JOHN R. GREGG Author and Inventor of “Gregg Shorfhand” 652 WRITING OUT SHORTHAND NOTES ON THE TYPEWRITER. EXPLANATION OF ALPHABET. The consonants in the first line are written from left to right; those in the second line downward. The two signs for s and that for sh are written downward, while those for th are written upward. The group of vowels ö, aw, 0 is spoken of as the “downward hook”; the group it, 56, 50, as the “upward hook.” For the syllables given in the table of blended consonants, write the sign shown in the sec. ond column. Write the sounds of each word and omit all silent letters; thus for eight write ſit; for dough write d6. The Gregg System of Shorthand. conson ANTS, K. G. R. L. N. M. - - - - - P. B. F. V. CH. J. T. D. down down down up S. TH. S.H. H. * or a *or -º º down up BLENDED CONSONANTs. controSED OF Ten, DeN ~ 2- TeM, DeM -- ~~~ eNT, eND ->'' _^ eMT, eMD — — DeF, Dev -2 22 JeNT, Jend Z. C. MeN, MeM — — — red, pep - T ~ SeS ſ ºf vow ELs, Short. & as in act Medium. A 4 & ‘‘ ark Long. Lá “ aim Short. y as in rim Medium. E - * “ red * Short. 3 as in odd Medium. O & azu “audit Long. 5 ** oak U | Short. Medium. Long. it as in up 35 “hook 55 “doom olph.THONGS. composed ov U 3-56 OW &-55 OI azu º :*º:: : : SELF INSTRUCTION →– 4 ~~~/Wa_22, 2-ºxo SHORT/HAND WRITING T IS strange that the origin of two of the greatest instrumentalities that have made for I civilization, and have been so potent a factor in the progress of the human race—writing and shorthand writing—is wrapped in entire obscurity. The origin of writing, as of shorthand, is involved in uncertainty, although many ingenious hypotheses have been advanced by learned philologists attempting to locate definitely the time in the development of the world when man first communicated with man by the aid of written signs, and when the first attempt was made to record such utterances. This much, however, is certain, communica. tion by signs is almost as ancient as speech itself. Shorthand—When First Introduced. When shorthand was first used has been the theme of writers for many generations, some attempting to trace it back to the time of the Phoenicians and the Hebrews, but the views of these writers are unsupported by history. Passages from the Bible and the apocryphal fourth book of Ezra have been quoted as aut' ºty for such an assumption, notably: “My tongue is the pen of a ready writer”; “When Jeremiah called Baruch, the son of Neriah, and Baruch wrote from the mouth of Jeremiah all the words of the Lord which he had spoken unto me with his mouth, and then wrote them with ink in the book.” While it is reasonable to suppose that Baruch wrote from dictation—taking the words from the mouth of Jere- miah—the assumption that he wrote shorthand would hardly be tenable. Frequent mention is made in the literature of those days, of the “ready writer” or “quick writer,” which naturally leads us to believe that there were in those times persons who followed the profession of amanuensis, and it would be logical to suppose that they used some brief signs in order to facilitate their work; but that there was a system of shorthand writing, as we now know it, is hardly probable. If such a valuable art as shorthand writing had been known at that time some mention of it surely would be found in the literature of the people, but nowhere in the writings of the Jews before the birth of Christ do we find any allusion to it. On the other hand, after the birth of Christ, frequent mention is made of “competent quick writers.” $54 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. Proãresius in Eunapius said: “I wish that quick writers be given to me, and assigned to a place before the eyes of all, that they may daily note down the sentences of Themes, while this day I want them to follow me word for word.” Mr. Norman P. Heffley’s translation of “Geschichte und Literatur der Geschwindschreib- kunst von Dr. Julius Woldemar Zeibig” (Ancient and Mediaeval Shorthand), after review- ing the assertions of different writers on the antiquity of shorthand writing, says: Shorthand the Servant of Oratory. “If we consider what value and significance the art of oratory had in Greece, that it was the constant companion of statesmanship; if we consider, which is undoubtedly the case, that mention was made in writings of the ancients and by the commentators on the same, of all particulars regarding public orators, then it is equally sure that so powerful an innova- tion as shorthand writing, the best servant of oratory, would have been mentioned, not merely incidentally, but specifically, if this art had really been invented and practiced in Greece before the days of Cicero. “Primarily let us ask, if a contemporary of Xenophon knew anything about tachygraphy, how is it that no one alluded to this art? We have not found a passage from which proof against the existence of this art can easily be adduced. We alluded to the words of Thucydides: “As respecting speeches made by the individuals either when they are about to begin war, or when they are fairly in it, it was difficult for me to retain in the memory with accuracy that which had been spoken and heard by myself, as well as that which was reported to me from other places; but as the individuals, according to my opinion, seem to have spoken most appropriately upon the subject in question, I shall here give as near as possible the whole meaning or sense of what was said.’” *N & I U. A Zºº -a ºr—. . of ~1-S -ti- vº e = . A ºn |- 1 & 1 & – v. 1. 4.- : ~ –. º. 21. I / £” La - 24 ºr tº —." t! – 4 i < */ ^ - 3. a- 24 2. — C, to 4. * * * $ 5, 3, J / / 1, 2:.. " = , ~ -i, 2. ~ 3 ºn A* % - \ … Z ~ 7.2 × 3--- SPECIMIEN OF TIRONEAN NOTES BY MARCUS TULLIUS TIBO, - SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. 655 In about the year 63 B.C. tachygraphy was known and practiced in Rome. It has been claimed that Cicero was the founder of shorthand, but history does not support the claim. It is easy to believe that he furthered the art to the best of his ability because of the advan- tages it offered him, but undoubtedly to Marcus Tullius Tiro, the freedman and friend of Cicero, belongs the honor of having invented the system of shorthand writing which has been preserved to us in the Tironean notes, our knowledge of which is gained from the wax tablets which were in general use by the Romans at that time. Among his contemporary practitioners of the art were Vipsanius Philargyrus, a freedman of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa; Aquila, a freedman of Caius Cilnius Maecenas. Pliny the younger relates of Pliny the elder, that he constantly had a writer at his side. From the decline of the Tironean notes until the sixteenth century stenography in its true sense was not known. During the Middle Ages nothing was heard of shorthand. Bright's Method of Shorthand. In Elizabeth’s time, 1588, a work on shorthand writing by Timothe Bright, “Doctor of Phisike,” was brought out, entitled “Characterie—an arte of shorte, swifte and secrete writ- ing by character.” Dr. Bright was a well-known physician of his day, was, for a time, physi- cian in St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, and later a rector of churches at Methley and Berwick-in-Elmet, in Yorkshire. He is also known as the author of several medical and religious works. His system of shorthand was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. Bright's method was very crude and wholly incapable of accomplishing the purpose for which it was invented. The following are the alphabetical signs used: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | f | f f a b c d e f g h i 1 m n o 2 3 “K” and “q” were represented by the same sign as “c. alphabetical, the author alludes to the signs as such. Each character was given four slopes, and there were twelve ways of varying the base, thus forty-eight words could be written with each letter of the alphabet by varying the base. Bales' System of Shorthand. Two years after Bright's treatise appeared, Peter Bales, a teacher of penmanship, brought out a work on shorthand, of which he stated, a knowledge may “easily be attained by one moneth’s studie, and performance by one moneth's practice.” Thus we find a precedent for the “short-term” method of stenography at almost the inception of the art, a question which has ever since been the cause of dissension and wrangle among its teachers and promulgators. willis' System. The next candidate for honors in shorthand authorship was John Willis, a Bachelor of Divinity who, in 1502, published anonymously at London, “The art of stenographie Although the system was not SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. teaching by plaine and certaine Rules, to the Capacitie of the meanest, and for the use of all professions, The way of Compendious writing.” To this author is due the credit for using a true stenographic alphabet. Willis discarded superfluous letters, and thus paved the way for the phonetic representation of words. “In every word,” he said, “those letters are to he omitted which are rarely or not at all found, whether they be vowels or consonants.” Later this author published another work under his own name, entitled, “Spelling Characterie.” This system had quite a vogue for a time, for it passed through thirteen or more editions. In 1618 a work entitled, “An Abbreviation of Writing by Character,” in which new characters were chosen for most of the letters, was brought out by Edmond Willis. Other Systems. After the success of Willis’ system no fewer than half a dozen systems were published before the advent of “Semography” by William Cartwright, printed in 1642 by Jeremiah Rich, his nephew. This system attained great prominence, and several modifications of it were brought out by different authors. Following in Cartwright's path William Mason, thirty years later, published “A Pen Pluck'd from an Eagle’s Wing.” Many imitators of Mason sprang up, and it was from the system of this author, “La Plume Volante,” published about 1720, that Thomas Gurney got the material which he used in his work as a stenographer. Extending over the next one hundred and thirty years, twenty editions of Gurney's works were issued. In 1767 the system of shorthand invented by John Byrom, a fellow of the Royal Society, was published. The title of this book was “The Universal English Shorthand,” and it was published some time after Byrom's death. It is still used to some extent in England. In 1778 Dr. William Fordyce Mavor published a system which he afterward revised and republished under the title of “Universal Stenography.” This system became very popular, passing through ten editions, and is still used by a few writers in London. Following Byrom, Samuel Taylor published, in London, 1786, a system which marked another era in stenographic literature. This system, like many of its predecessors, became very popular, and inspired with ambition numerous imitators. It was modified by Odell, Harding, Gould, and others, and in this form passed through many editions. Isaac Pitman, whose work is mentioned later, was a writer of Taylor's system for seven years previous to the pub- lication of his work. Mr. Jacob Pitman, in giving a biographical sketch of his brother Isaac before the Victorian (Australia) Phonetic Society many years ago, said: “During this period of his life (between 1830-1837) we both wrote Taylor's system as improved by Hard- ing.” In many respects there is a close resemblance in the first alphabet between Pitman’s consonantal representation and in the pairing of consonants and that of Taylor. It is not unlikely that Pitman received his inspiration from Taylor's system. In the early development of the art of shorthand writing the work was done almost exclusively in England. In Germany and France and other European countries phono- SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. 65'ſ graphic writers seemed content to adapt to their language the systems devised in England. Jacques Cossard published the first method in France in 1651. The earliest method published in Germany was an adaptation of Shelton's English sys- tem, in 1679. The two leading German systems of to-day are those of Gabelsberger and Stolze. Stolze's method was not published until seventeen years after its invention. Modern Shorthand. With the publication of Isaac Pitman’s shorthand, entitled “Stenographic Soundhand,” in 1837, the greatest epoch in the history of English shorthand began. Pitman’s shorthand may be said to be the first of the really scientific instruments of rapid writing that have been devised, and the inspiration of the wonderful development of the art that has taken place since its invention. Through its development by numerous adapters, Pitmanic shorthand is known, in one form or another, in every country of the globe. - In 1840 Pitman brought out a new edition of his shorthand, in which was introduced numerous changes, and the system was called “Phonography.” New editions were brought out in rapid succession and the system was further developed and improved until 1857, when the tenth edition appeared with a reversal of the vowel scale. This innovation produced a revolt among the writers of the system. The change was generally accepted in England, but in America phonographers as generally rejected it. The contest over this bone of contention was long and determined. Benn Pitman, a brother of Isaac Pitman, who had brought this system to America in 1855, adhered to the old vowel scale, as did also Andrew J. Graham (1854), and the other phonographic publishers. Of the twelfth edition Mr. Pitman said: “We have used up all the stenographic mate- rial, and, as we--who know the system so well—believe, have used it in the best manner. If anyone can produce additional material—some stenographic sign, any hook or crook or circle or straight or curved stroke, in any direction, that is not employed in stenography, or of which he can show a better use—we are willing to listen to him; but until some such proposition as that comes before us there will be no change in phonographic writing.” Shorthand in the United States. Shorthand has been used to some extent in the United States since its earliest publication in England. During the early days of the republic a considerable number of works based on Gurney’s and Taylor's systems was brought out. After the publication of Pitman’s pho. Wography numerous imitators of it appeared in America. In 1854 the first of the Graham publications by Andrew J. Graham appeared, “The Reporters’ Manual, a Complete Reporting Style,” which was but the beginning of the prolific promulgation of phonographic literature of the Graham system. To Mr. Graham belongs the credit for having so perfected the Pitman system as to make it an adequate instrument for reporting purposes. The success of Graham's phonography was the cause of its being widely imitated, and at present text-books by a large number of different authors are published. 658 SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. In 1867 “The Complete Phonographer,” by James E. Munson, official stenographer of the New York Superior Court, appeared. Mr. Munson adopted the vowel scale used in the “tenth edition” of Isaac Pitman’s Phonography, as well as nearly all the consonantal charac- ters. Both Graham's and Munson's shorthand have attained great popularity, and probably are the best known of the American Pitmanic systems. Some of the well-known systems based on the original Pitmanic alphabet are: Graham, Benn Pitman, Munson, Lindsley, Osgoodby, Scott-Browne, Day, Barnes, and Dement. Of another school of authors using an entirely different basis for their systems are: Pernin, Cross, Sloan (Sloan-Duployan), McKee, and others. Up to 1893 nearly all the work of American phonographic authors, with the possible exception of Cross, was done along the line of developing the Pitmanic system. So it may be said that these systems reached the acme of their development many years ago. As Mr. Pitman had said, “all the stenographic material had been used,” thereby implying that if there was to be further development along the line of phonographic research and invention, it would have to be accomplished by different means than that adopted in the Pitmanic sys. tem and its numerous modifications. The Most Popular System of To-day. In 1893 there was introduced into this country a system by Mr. John R. Gregg, of Liver- pool, England, entitled “Light Line Phonography,” based on longhand. The invention of this may be said to have marked the beginning of the third and most important era in the evolution of shorthand writing. Phonographers had realized that the possibilities of a system based on the geometrical foundation had long since been exhausted, and that improvements in that direction could not be made, but there was also as full a realization that the limit of phonographic perfection had not by any means been reached. Therefore with the advent of Gregg Shorthand (the title Mr. Gregg later gave to his system), there sprang into existence a new interest in shorthand, and a revolutionary movement began that has reached every part of the civilized globe. There began at once an appalling defection in the ranks of Pitmanic writers; schools that for years had taught one or the other of the Pitmanic modifications, began to investigate and adopt the new system. PITMANIC SHORTHAND. ~z, H. . 4-º'-º'- S-_( : &T v. \ __ \ Vºy -----------→- & . &ELF-INSTRUU TION IN SHORTHAND WRITING (559 GREGG SHORTHAND. Tºx- 4. <-2 .” <2 - 2 * ,” --- ~~ ~C. .2-’ --~ 2, , z – ~ *- – -e, --→ ~ * * * ~ * ~ -– ~2 - 2 - -- a--, --~ &–2 Mr. Gregg struck out boldly on new lines. The characters of his system are taken from ordinary longhand, which, as the author says, “in the adaptability to the hand embodies all the wisdom of the ages.” He uses neither position nor shading, but joins vowels and con- sonants in their logical sequence and in the order of their delivery in spoken language. Studying closely the causes for the failure of Pitmanic phonography to meet the exacting requirements of a modern civilization, the author of Gregg shorthand, through scientific research, became convinced that shading, position writing, the innumerable exceptions to rules, and the arbi- trary characters that abound in the Pitmanic system and its modifications, would have to be abolished in a system that would endure. After exhaustive experiments an alphabet was evolved based on the fundamental phonographic truth, that the value of a letter or shorthand character is determined by its combination with other letters or characters. By the wise selection of the characters for the alphabet, the frequent syllables or combinations of sounds in the language, could be expressed by one stroke of the pen, and with the further great advan- tage of securing a full phonographic representation. The following brief synopsis will suffice to show the closeness with which the author adhered to great natural principles that govern ordinary longhand, and the resultant legibility: º 1. No compulsory thickening; may be written either light or heavy. 2. Written on the slope of longhand, thus securing a uniform manual movement. As in Ordinary Writing | 3. Position writing abolished; may be written on unruled paper and in one straight line. 4. Vowels and consonants are joined and follow each other in their natural order. 5. Angles are rare; curves predominate. Gregg shorthand has received the highest scientific endorsement ever given to a system of shorthand as will appear from the following taken from “Researches on Movements Used in writings,” by Cloyd N. McAllister, Ph.D., of the Yale Psychological Laboratory: “For the student of stenography the question of speed is of the greatest importance. The older systems contain many characters that must be made in the direction of the radii of quadrant IV. (the most difficult). These movements are very slow, requiring twenty-seven per cent more time on the average than the movements of quadrant III. (the least difficult). “One system of shorthand introduced into this country in 1893, Gregg shorthand, con- tains no characters that must be made in either quadrant II. or IV., and the slope of the 660 SELF-ZAWSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. characters is such that they lie very near the middle of the quadrants I. and III. In this respect, then, this system of shorthand is the most rapid yet devised.” In spite of the fact that Mr. Gregg brought his system to the United States at a time when the country was in the throes of a financial panic, and that it was met by the most violent opposition by the ultra-conservative element of the profession, the system sprang almost instantly into popularity. It is in use at present in a larger number of commercial and high Schools than any other. Its writers are engaged in every branch of stenographic work from amanuensis to the most difficult reporting, where speed and legibility are indis- pensable. Future Prospects of the Shorthand System. The field for shorthand is ever widening and with this extension of its usefulness, there comes a constantly increasing demand for greater proficiency. The business men of the United States so quickly realized the value of shorthand that almost anyone who called himself a stenographer could obtain a situation. But of late years the business has steadied down to a good basis and the demand for really first-class stenographers is greater than ever before. The unparalleled business expansion of the last few years has given an impetus to shorthand that it has never known before. In New York last year one of the large typewriting concerns placed over 5,000 stenographers in positions, the salaries averaging about $50 a month. In Chicago the same concern placed almost as many with only a slight decrease in the average salary. The same was true of all the large cities. - Typewriting. Another innovation in the shorthand business that has given it greater prominence, has been the introduction of what is known as touch typewriting, by which is meant the opera- tion of the typewriter without looking at the keys. By this method fully fifty per cent in efficiency is gained, and with it greater accuracy. Besides adding to the efficiency of the typewriter operator, touch typewriting has had the effect of forcing shorthand writers to become proficient in order that the shorthand notes might be read more rapidly to keep pace with the additional speed on the typewriter. Touch typewriting is now taught in all the leading commercial schools, and there are many text-books on the subject. During the last five or six years, the question of teaching shorthand and typewriting in the public schools has been much agitated, and in the larger cities, the high schools and especially the evening schools are taking up this work, and the demand for it seems to be constantly increasing. Rules for Joining Circles. When joined to a curve the circle is turned on the inside of the curve. &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. - 661 eke 6 k ~ hack h # k cr", key k 3 ~2 lay I 5. ~42 ear 5 r * ill ¥ 1 cº-f *gg § g - era, § r à *_2 ale - à 1 3– gaſ g a ~2 Between two reverse curves the circle is turned on the back of the first curve. kill k i 1 --- rack r à k --ſº wreck r & k -º- lake 1 a k —º- gear g € r -º-, trick t; r. I k ~sº rig rig *-e- rag r à g Jer" When joined to straight lines, the circle is written forward—as the hands of a clock In OWe. aim à m ~-- - day da, ~~~~ me m 5 —r may m a. —- him hi m - Iºnean m € n - When two characters join with an angle, the circle is written on the outside of the angle. rear r 5 r ~~ meek m 5 k —- keg k & g -z- net n Ś t —º team tº 5 m 2– gain g a n ~2- The downward hook represents the short sound of 0, heard in hot, top; a dot beneath the hook indicates the sound of aw, as in awe, law; while the short dash indicates the long sound, as in owe, no. 5 ºw rot r & t -dº' aW f* wrought raw tº ~:* 6 * -ce’ - wrote r & tº - The downward hook is placed on its side before m, m, r, l, except when preceded by a downward character. 662 . SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING, Oil 5 n - coal k 51 rº- Or aw r * omit 6 m. It *—ºr In Oa,D m Ó n -- home h 5 m *— nor In a W r --> dawn d aw n __:- When preceded by a downward character, the hook retains its usual form. bore b Ör 2’ pole p 5 1 < bone b ð n 2ſ foam f 5 m 2– shoal sh Ö 1 4- borrow b ð r 5 4 - - The upward hook represents the short sound of u, heard in hum, dumb (not the long sound of u heard in use); a dot beneath the hook indicates the sound of 00, in took, foot, while the short dash indicates the long 00, as in doom, boom. ii ~7. tuck t iſ k 2” 56 2 took t 56 k 22- oo 2 " tomb t Ö0 m 2- To avoid an angle, the upward hook is dropped on its side after n or m. InuIl n tin muff m if → mood m 60 d * nook n 36 k -- In OOIn m Öo n —- mug m u g --- The upward hook is also dropped on its side after k or g, when followed by r or 1. cool kool ~--" gull g iſ 1 TSA- z ourry kii r I * Gurney G if r n I TR- W and Y. W is expressed by the sign for 00, because it is equivalent to that sound when followed by a vowel, as, Od-à-t—wait. We w 5 2 wall w aw l *-* Weave w & V. 2 WOe W 0 * wait, w a tº 2^ wool w Jö I * º SELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. 663 The combination whis really sounded hw, as h-w-à-l—wheel, and is therefore expressed by a dot placed over w. whit hw. It * whack hw. § k 2- whig. hw I g 2- wheat hw ét * wheel hw & 1 *:2- whim hw I m 3- The vowel e is equivalent to y, as é-Ö-r—yore, and a special sign for y is therefore tºnnecessary. yacht y & t ce yore y 5 r *- yawn yaw n *- yawl yaw 1 º- At the beginning of a word it is more convenient to express ye by a small loop, and ya by a large loop. Where necessary the dot or dash may be used to denote the exact vowel Sound. ye ye * yellow yó 1 3 *-* yea. yā 2 yam yā m - yet yó t er Yale Yā 1 S-" Word-Signs and Phrases. A large proportion of all written and spoken language is made up of a few simple words repeated over and over again; indeed, it is computed that about one hundred of these words comprise more than one-half of all ordinary language. In all systems of shorthand, brief forms are provided for such words, and the following list should be committed to memory before proceeding further: *- Carl •- at, it * go, good would e’ are, Our he -> well, will I O in, not a, an (dot) - alm, Imore the (th) wº- *9 664 &ELF-INSTRUCTION IN SHORTHAND WRITING. all º judge / -º you, your keep 7 Care •2 friend-ly &. call * public / 2 - far, favor - full-y 2 fall, follow 2 look * put « for the 2. be, but /* in which 7 for / in which the Z have / I have 2 change, which / I have not 2 - 2 shall, ship z I shall - / 2 before /* I shall not about I shall have J’ 2 2- after from the ever-y Z may be —z- name ~ would be 27° form, from 2– the letter -* been, bound Zº will not be -z * - give-n -> which have y please <- please ship <-- let, letter ~~~ please ship the C, Mr., market please have 92 HIS is a practical age, and the one who accumulates more than the aver- age amount of wealth is envied by his acquaintances, and pointed out as a man who has made a success of life. The following ideas are offered to those who desire to increase their incomes, and to those who are dissatisfied with their present employment, and wish to turn their attention to new fields of endeavor. It is not claimed that all the plans offered will be of use to each individual case. A clerk in a Chicago department store could hardly hope to make a fortune raising sheep, and a farmer in Dakota would probably meet with failure should he attempt to establish a sewing school, but it is hoped that each one who reads this chapter may find some hint that will prove of financial benefit, and lead to the enlargement ºf his bank account. If you have a garden, arrange to supply the local merchants with fresh vegetables during the season. Or, better still, make a house to house canvass in your nearest town, and arrange to call daily during the season with fruits and vegetables fresh from your garden. Here are the six articles which grocers say sell for the largest profit. 43 1. Asparagus.-Arrange it attractively in small bunches. The white variety is considered the most palatable. 2. String Beans.—Nothing is easier to raise, and the demand will exceed the sup- ply. 3. Peas.-When in the pod they are not particularly attractive, but very young peas when shelled and taken to market in bright tin pails are irresistible. 4. Green Corn.—A great luxury. The first on the market commands fancy prices. 5. Tomatoes.—The larger the better. They command a good price, and as a thrifty vine will bear fifty, the profits are very large. 6. Fresh Strawberries.—Pick them fresh every morning. Put in boxes so that they will appear attractive, with two or three unusually large ones on top, sur- rounded by a few leaves. Always give good measure, and your customers will wait for you. 7. Dairy Products.-Butter, eggs, milk and cheese, all these yield immense profits to the one who understands the dairy. If you have facilities for keeping hens, you can add greatly to your income. 666 WAYS TO MAKE MONEY 8. Big Peaches. – When ordinary peaches were selling at twenty-five cents a bushel, a grower received $2.00 a bushel. This is how he did it. When the fruit was as large as a hickory nut, he employed a large force of laborers and picked off more than one-half the fruit. The rest ripened early, grew large, and was of excellent quality. His net profit that year from eleven acres was between $3,000 and $4,000. 9. Pickles.—As many as 150,000 cu- cumbers have been grown on one acre of land, and at the low price of $1.50 per thousand this means $225 per acre. 10. Beets.-Even when sown a foot apart, it is possible to grow 80,000 beet roots on an acre of ground. They easily command $1.00 per hundred, and deduct- ing one-half for expenses, there results a net profit of $400. 11. Horseradish.-The root requires but little cultivation. Instead of selling it in bulk, grate it yourself, put it in fancy bottles, and sell to consumers. 12. Tobacco.—Where tobacco can be raised, farmers have abandoned nearly every other crop. The profits are enormous. 13. Tree Nursery.—The expense of a tree nursery is almost nothing beyond the first investment. An acre of ground will hold about 44,000 small trees. The average price is about nine cents each. If you can make a market, there is wealth in the busi- IIeSS. 14. Onions.—In some sections of the country, as high as one thousand bushels to the acre have been raised. They seldom sell for less than seventy-five cents per bushel. 15. Apples.—A man in New England said that after forty years’ experience, raising all kinds of crops, he found his ap- ple orchard brought him a greater profit than any other crop on his 200 acres of land. 16. Christmas Trees.—If you live in a section where evergreen trees abound, cut the smaller ones a few weeks before Christ- mas, and ship them to the city. Christmas trees sell for from fifty cents to five dollars, and you can cut thousands from a single acre. Wreaths made of holly and ground pine also sell rapidly. 17. Double Vegetable Culture.—A New Jersey farmer has conceived the idea of grafting tomatoes on potato vines, or an air crop on a root crop, thus raising vege- tables at both ends. This is an idea for growers who have only a limited space, and where land is high. 18. Growing Nuts-Land that is not available for ordinary farming purposes may be utilized for growing nuts. The crop requires but little care, and there is a constant demand at good prices. The chief pomologist at Washington, D. C., says: “The cultivation of nuts will soon be one of the greatest and most profitable industries in the United States.” 19. Bees.—Pure honey is always in de- mand. Here is one man’s experience: “Last year I marketed ten tons of extracted honey, and three tons of comb honey, all from 154 colonies. I received an average of ten cents per pound, or a total of $3,600. The space employed was 1,386 feet, or somewhat less than an-acre.” 20. Geese.—A man bought a gander and three geese. From the geese he re- ceived yearly forty eggs each in two litters, or a total of 120. He found that from this number of eggs he could safely count on seventy-five per cent of matured chicks, or WAYS TO MAKE MONEY 667 ninety goslings. The weight when fattened was 855 pounds, and at twenty cents a pound he received $171. The cost of keep- ing was $46. Profits, $125. Of course, the sum varied from one year to another, but this was his average for five years. 21. Cheese.—About $1,500,000 is paid yearly by the people of the United States for imported cheese, which is no better than the article manufactured at home. There is never a question about a market for this product, and the profits are very large. 22. Fresh Eggs.-Eggs bring more than twice the price in winter that they do in summer. By keeping your hen house warm, you can have fresh eggs to sell all the year. WOMAN'S WORIK. 23. School Store.—If your home is near a large school, it should be easy for you to establish a profitable business with very little capital. There are many articles needed by scholars that you can manufac- tured yourself, and as your business ex- pands, constant addition to your stock will increase your profits. 24, Noon Lunches.—Many parents would rather pay a small sum than be put to the trouble of providing their children with a lunch. Put it up in paper bags, tied with a bit of ribbon, to give it an at- tractive appearance. 25. Make Book Covers, pen wipers, colored inks and school bags. Ink may be made by boiling one and one-half pounds of logwood with sufficient water to leave a residue of two and one-half quarts. When cold, add one and one-half drams of yel- low bichromate of potash, stir thoroughly, and the ink is ready for use. 26. Temperance Drinks,—Sell root beer, ginger pop and lemonade. You can make these yourself at a trifling cost. 27. Ham Sandwiches.—Boil a ham, cut into thin slices, and place between slices of bread. Tongue may be served in the same way. 28. Doughnuts.-These are very tempt- ing to children. Make them fresh every day. Fancy cakes, pies, etc., will increase your sales. 28. Toilet Articles.—As your trade in- creases, add toilet articles, home-made fancy work, and other articles of a similar nature. If you please the children, there is no reason why their mothers should not be your patrons also. 29. Pork and Beans is a very popular dish. Bake them, and put them in small crocks. You can easily secure a steady family trade. 30. Tomato Ketchup.–If you have facilities for raising your own tomatoes, you can make it at a very small expense, and almost every one will buy the home- made article, in preference to that sold in the stores. 31. Peanuts.-Buy in bags, and roast them in your oven. The profits are con- siderably over 100 per cent. 32. Pop Corn.—Pop it in large quanti- ties, add molasses and salt, and flavor with some popular extract. Make it up in balls or fancy shapes. Profits are very large. 33. Mucilage.—Dissolve gum-arabic in water until the whole is of the consistency of cream. Add a few drops of sweet oil to prevent it from souring. The cost is comparatively nothing. Put it in bottles labeled with your name and business ad- dress. 34. Sewing School.—If you are an ex- 668 WAYS TO MAKE MONEY” pert with the needle, organize a school for teaching plain and fancy sewing. Adver- tise your enterprise, and you will soon have the work which many mothers have neither the time nor the inclination to do. 35. Repair Shop.–Hotels, boarding houses and bachelor apartments have con- stant calls for some one who can sew on buttons, mend gloves, repair torn clothing, and, in fact, do all kinds of work with the needle. Arrange with the managers of these places to make regular calls, prepared to do the work. - 36. Office Lunches.—Put up a light lunch in paste board boxes. Call at office buildings and factories near the noon hour with your stock. If your lunches are neat and low priced, you will soon have a large number of regular customers. 37. Hair Dressing.—The dressing of hair is an excellent business for women. This can be done either at your own home, or at the residences of your patrons. 38. Mending and Cleaning.—The mending and washing of fine laces is a work that requires expert knowledge, but when it is once learned, it is a very profitable em- ployment. 39. Shopping.—If you live a short dis- tance from a city, many of your friends and neighbors will willingly pay you a small fee to shop for them. When you have secured a number of regular patrons, so that your purchases are of importance, merchants will allow you a reduction in prices, which, in connection with your com- missions, will add quite a little to your in- COIne. 40. Soap.–The process of making soap is an easy one, and there is always a de- mand for the fancy toilet article. Very little capital is required to embark in the business in a small way, and the possibili- ties are unlimited. 41. Birds,--Breed and sell canary birds. One lady with eighteen pairs netted $500 in one year. 42. Cleaning Establishment.—Cleaning feathers, velvets, furs, gloves, silks and other delicate articles offer many opportuni- ties to one who understands the business. If you can take grease spots from carpets, stains from table covers, thumb marks from books, and scratches from furniture, you can find plenty of work to do, at good pay. 43. Saratoga Chips.-Here is an ex- ample of what may be done with a single good article by one who knows how. One woman has an income of $12.50 a week se- cured by selling Saratoga chips to the peo- ple of the town where she lives. - 44. Fancy Lamp Shades may be made of colored crepe papers. They are very cheap, and look almost as well as silk. The art of making them is not difficult to learn, and the profits are comparatively large. 45. Pet Dogs.-The right kind bring fancy prices. King Charles spaniels, French and Japanese poodles, and York. shire terriers will always sell, and the cost of raising them is slight. 46. Home Hothouse.—Many people will buy plants already started who would not go to the trouble to buy seeds, slips and pots. There is also a demand for cut flow- ers at all seasons. Have a cellar for root- ing and a south room for sunning. By advertising what you propose to do, you will surely get customers. 47. Preserves.—There is no one who does not prefer the home article to that sold in the stores. Equip yourself with fruit, sugar, cans and preserve kettles, buy fresh fruit, or better still, raise it if you can, WAYS TO MAKE MONEY 669 and you can sell all the preserves you have the facilities for “putting up.” 48. Needlework.-Buy linens stamped with designs, and give your spare time to decorative embroidery. If you have talent in this direction, you will have no trouble in disposing of your work at good prices. 49. Fancy Needlework.-Watch the bargain sales advertised in the papers. Buy ribbon, silk, laces and velvet remnants, which can often be secured at a trifling cost. You can make boas, ruchings, berthas, draped collars, etc. Every woman wants these things, and will buy them if they can be found in the colors and styles desired. 50. Labor-Saving Utensils. – Secure from a wholesale dealer samples of articles for the kitchen. Test them until you thor- oughly understand their use. Then start out among your neighbors. A housewife will purchase anything that will lighten her labor if it is not expensive. 51. Nurses.—Hospital nurses com- mand from $15 to $25 per week. A course of study is necessary, but the field is in- viting for women who have tastes for the work. 52. Women Physicians.—A medical journal says: “There is a real necessity for women physicians; there are many la- dies who prefer them, and in some cases will consult no other. There are now over one thousand lady physicians in the United States, but the number will soon be doubled, and even trebled. Several of these lady physicians are making over $2,000 a year. One of them says: ‘I have several well- to-do families whom I charge by the year. I charge $200 if they are people who are considered well off, less if they are poor.”” 53. Vocalists.-A lady with a good voice is certain of making a comfortable living; fortunes have come to many. The demand is wide and various. If your taste does not incline to the stage, there is a field in the church. All large churches, and many small ones, have paid choirs. 54. Z'lower Seed Packets.-Buy quan- tities of flower seeds of all varieties. Put them in small envelopes, a few seeds in each, and advertise that you will send samples for a penny a kind, ten for six cents, twenty-five for fifteen cents, fifty for twenty-five cents, etc. A large mail en- velope will hold fifty or more of the smaller ones containing the seeds. 55. Selling Books by Subscription.— . This is a profitable work and one in which any person past the age of eight or ten years can engage. It needs no special train- ing or no especial talent. The “selling of books” has been the stepping stones of more great men and women than any other one employment. Daniel Webster paid his sec- ond term's tuition at Dartmouth by can- vassing for De Tocqueville’s “America.” In the rooms of the Massachusett's His- torical Society may be seen a canvassing book used by Longfellow, on one of the leaves of which is his first draft of his poem “Excelsior.” Prince Bismarck, when a student at Heidelberg, during a winter's vacation, canvassed for one of Blumenthal's hand books. George Washington tells how prior to the Braddock defeat he sold, in the neighborhood of Alexandria, 200 copies of Bydell’s “American Savage.” The reason for this is that good books are educators. The work, though hard, is ele- vating, ennobling and helpful. Dr. Spur- geon said: “There is no other business so honorable or beneficial to mankind as the business of selling good books.” The great American divine, Dr. Talmage says: “I 670 WAYS TO MAKE MONEY always feel like taking off my hat to the book agent. He is doing more good than I can ever hope to do.” Besides the good one can do, the work is profitable. The best books to-day are sold only by subscrip- tion. In days gone by, the subscription book man thought he could palm off any old book on the innocent public, but to-day all this is changed. The best authors place their books in the hands of subscription book houses for sale. Subscription book men are wide awake, they at once put these books in the hands of agents and in one year alone often as high as seven and eight hundred thousand copies of one book alone are sold. Histories, biographies, atlases, dictionaries, etc., etc., find their way into the most common of homes. Thus it is that the boy and girl on the remote mountain side and obscure valley is to-day as well read as the lad and lass of our large cities. Books are the educators, agents are the reapers. If you have a friend who needs employment recommend him to a good subscription publishing company and get him started on life's pathway. MONEY IN INVENTIONS AND DISCOV- ERIES. There is no enterprise known to the busi- ness world where the possibilities for ac- cumulating a fortune are so great as in successful inventions. Millions of dollars have been made in the past, and the field is still unlimited. New articles for the use of mankind, and improvements on old ones are constantly being placed on the market, bringing rich rewards to the for- tunate discoverers. A few suggestions are offered which may be of use to those whose talents lie in this direction. 56. Floor Coverings.--Carpets are ex- pensive; matting is not elegant. Discover "- - something in place of both, cheap and orna, mental. 57. Water Tank.-Instead of the water tank on the top of a tower or country dwell- ing, with its liability of leakage and de- struction of property, why not put it in the cellar and operate it by means of com- pressed air : By placing it in the cellar or underground, the water could be drawn cool and fresh, and in winter it would be much better protected from freezing. 58. There are many washing machines on the market, but none so far has driven out the old-fashioned washboard and tub. A good one that can be sold cheap will do it. 59. A Stove Damper.—One that will close the draft automatically, when the state of the fire warrants it. 60. Cold Handle.—A separate handle which could be instantly applied to utensils on the stove and remove them without burn- ing the hands. 61. A Can-Slide.—A fortune awaits the person who will invent a can-slide which will effectually keep the food air- tight, and which at the same time may be easily opened. 62. A Noiseless Clock.-The ticking of clocks is very annoying to many nervous people. Who can invent one that will per- form the work silently : 63. Ice Machine.—Produce one so small and cheap that it may be used in every house. 64. Book Lock.-A small contrivance which can be attached to the edges of a book. Private correspondence, cash books, etc., could then be guarded during the ab- sence of the owner. 65. Scissors.-A scissors or shears that will cut round as well as straight would be bought by everyone who uses a needle. TWAYS TO MAKE MONEY 671 66. Gas Detective.—A device to be placed on a gas fixture to ascertain in- stantly whether it leaks. There is fre- quently an odor of gas when it is difficult to tell from whence it proceeds. 67. Towels.-Paper towels having the quality of cloth, yet designed for a single use, will make a fortune for their first maker. 68. Cement.—A cement which will take the place of pegs, nails and threads in the manufacture of shoes would revolu- tionize the trade. - 69. A Paper Match.-The National Druggist says: “The time-honored scheme of rolling up a piece of paper and using it for a lighter could be utilized by an in- ventor in the manufacture of matches. The matches would be considerably cheaper than the wooden ones, and also weigh less, a fact which counts for much in the ex- portation.” 70. Bottles.—If a paper bottle could be made as serviceable as glass, its many advantages would insure a fortune for the inventor. 71. Horse-Fastener.—A contrivance by which a rider can fasten his horse and un- fasten him without alighting would meet with ready sale. 72. A Corn-Cutter.—A machine to run between the rows and cut the stalks on each side would sell to every farmer. 73. Fertilizer-Distributer.—One con- structed on the plan of a sprinkling cart would be a great saving in farm labor. 74. Bone Cutter.—A cheap bone cutter, by which bones could be cut into small bits for fowls, would appeal to every poultry raiser. Bone is an egg-producer, but no cheap means has yet been invented for util- izing this kind of refuse. - ? 75. Well Refrigerator.—Farmers often keep articles in the well, but if an accident to the rope occur, the articles of food are often spilled, thus entailing great annoy- ance and expense. Invent a way by which a well may be a safe ice-box. 76. Portable Fence.—A fence of which the posts are made of steel or iron, taper- ing at the end so as to be readily driven into the ground. Such a fence could be carried in a wagon and set up anywhere in a few minutes. 77. Paper Milk Can.—If milk cans could be constructed of paper, the saving in cost of transportation would be a boon to every dairyman. 78. Egg Preserver.—No process has yet been found for preserving eggs for months and keeping them as fresh as newly- laid ones. Here is a chance for a practical chemist. 79. A Flameless Torch.-An igniter which will cause combustible matter to burn, but will not itself flame—a device which will instantly ignite a lamp by thrusting it down the chimney, or light the gas without the usual search for a match, would meet with ready sale. 80. Galvanized Iron.—The amount of galvanized iron used is enormous, and the range of its usefulness is constantly in- creasing. A process which will reduce the cost of galvanizing even in the slightest de- gree would be a bonanza for its inventor. 81. Metal Eact ractor. — A solution which will precipitate gold or silver from the ore. Such an invention would revolu- tionize the mining industry. MISCELLANEOUS WAYS TO GAIN RICHES. 82. Many of our wealthiest men have made their money in mining industries, 672 WAYS TO MAKE MONEY and it is safe to predict that many more will meet with the same good fortune. There is still gold in California, Arizona, Mexico and the Klondyke; silver in Colo- rado, copper in Michigan and Montana; lead and zinc in Missouri, and new bonanza kings may appear at any time. 83. Patent Medicines.—Great fortunes have been made from the manufacture and sale of patent medicines. No man lives who enjoys perfect health at all times, and medicines guaranteed to cure every dis- ease under the sun may be found on the shelves of every drug store. Where there is such a supply it is evident that there is a demand. There is room for more, and if introduced in an attractive way, the public will respond. 84. Real Estate.—Handsome fortunes have been amassed by shrewd, careful speculators in land. In order to make a success of this business, capital is re- quired, but with proper care, and a knowl- edge of market values, large sums of money may be made. 85. Oil.-A writer in the Electrical World says that petroleum is the coming fuel. It is probable that the immense sums of money made after the discovery of oil fields in Pennsylvania in 1865 will be discounted in the near future in sections of the west and south. Late discoveries in Texas and southern Louisiana indicate an inexhaustible supply of fuel oil, and the mountains of Wyoming appear to be a promising field. 86. Cattle Raisers.-A few years ago Grant Gillet was a station agent in a small Kansas town, working for a bare living. He secured a position as cattle feeder, and four years later he was worth half a million dollars, made by buying and selling cattle. Another man bought Texas cattle for $432,- 000, and four months later sold them for $540,000. This simply shows what oppor- tunities there are for shrewd men of means in the cattle business. 87. Hunting.—Most men use the rod and gun for sport, but there are a number of persons who follow the business for a livelihood. Especially in the great forests of the north are found thousands of men to whom the skins of wild beasts may be said to be meat and drink. Some of them at- tain a competence and retire on their sav- ings from the sale of furs. 88. Building Materials.-‘A man who has a quarry of good building stone, easily accessible, is richer than if he owned a gold mine.” This statement may be an ex- aggeration in many cases, but the fact re- mains that there are thousands of acres of land throughout the country useless for farming purposes, that contain quarries which if properly developed would bring their owners large returns. 89. . Wealth in Trces.—The area of the pine forests in Michigan and Wisconsin is growing less every year, but there are stili lumber districts in Texas, Georgia, and Louisiana of astonishing extent, and that offer opportunities for capital equal to any the world has ever known. 90. Cotton Mills.-The people who live south of Mason and Dixon's Line are be- ginning to realize the great value of the cotton mill to their section. Instead of shipping the raw material to New England, and having the manufactured article re- turned to them, thus paying double freight, they are turning their attention to securing mills for themselves. The field is an im- mense one, and no investment is surer of profitable returns. --- WAYS TO MAKE MONEY 673 SALARIED POSITIONS. Aſhere are many positions in which very large salaries are paid. As a rule, the re- muneration is proportionate to the re- sponsibilities involved, rather than to the actual labor required. The right man in the right place may always be sure of a rich reward. 91. Advertising Agents.-The great magazines and newspapers depend to a large extent on their advertising columns for their profits. The men who have charge of this department frequently receive as high as $10,000 a year. 92. Editors.-Editors of departments on great daily newspapers receive from $2,000 a year upwards. Many managing editors and editors-in-chief are paid five times that sum. 93. Attorneys.-Corporation lawyers, celebrated bar-pleaders, and specialists in many branches of the law, earn large sums of money. Single fees of $10,000 and over are not unusual. 93. Physicians.—Here, as in the legal profession, the great financial rewards are secured by specialists. Many doctors in our large cities have incomes of from $25,- 000 to $50,000 a year. 94. General Managers.-The manager of a leading department store in Chicago is paid $10,000 a year. He began his busi- ness career with the same employers, many years ago, at a salary of $7 a week. 95. Electricians.—This is a compara- tively new field, but the rewards are very large. As in every other line of work, there is always room at the top. A young man employed in a New York establishment says: “I am in receipt of a salary of $4,000 as superintendent of the dynamo building, and recently I had an offer of $7,000 to go to a new company out west.” 96. Detectives.—Besides the men regu- larly employed by the national and local authorities, there are many who own or work in private agencies. The pay de- pends on the nature of the work and the wealth of the employers. 97. Press Clippings.-Men like to read items about themselves which appear in print. The press clipping bureau gives them the opportunity. The profits depend on the number of clients it is possible to secure, but many of them do an enormous business, one in particular handling an average of 100,000 clippings a week. 98. Earperts.-There are many kinds— accountant, color, handwriting, etc. Any- one who confines his life-work to a special field can command a large price for his services. 99. Corporation Presidents.-The larg. est salaried employees of the business world will be found among these men, and the extremes are wide apart. Five thou- sand dollars may be considered a very low figure, and there are a favored few who re- ceive as high as $100,000, or even more. 100. Among other occupations and pro- fessions that command large salaries may be mentioned Government officials, who re- ceive from $600 to $50,000; preachers, from $20,000 in the fashionable city church to a pitiful $300 in some country town; school teachers, from $250 to $4,000. A visitor at a factory where the superintend- ing engineer was paid $25,000 a year was asked if the salary was not an extravagant one. The owner replied that he consid- ered it cheap. Talent and skill are every- where in demand, and when they are found almost any salary will be willingly paid. THE FINSEN LIGHT CURE HOSPITAL–LONDON. (For description see page 65.) wing Edward and Queen Alexandra visiting the patients. To Queen Alexandra may be given the glory of presenting the first land for this wonderful treatment at the London Hospital—established in 19 ov, REVIEW OUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS AN EASY METHOD OF “POSTING UP’’ ON ANY GIVEN SUBJECT HE following series of questions pertaining to the subjects treated in this volume is intended as a key to help unlock the great fund of information stored within its pages and to impress that information upon the mind. The list contains inquiries which point toward every quarter of human research and human achievement. It covers the universe, and touches all things which are wont to attract the attention and engross the minds of readers and thinkers. As we stated in the introduction, the book itself is a compendium of knowledge prepared for the twentieth-century man or woman who is too busy to wade through dense volumes, in order to obtain facts and figures that are here presented in a nutshell. In daily business or social intercourse, all persons are at times confronted by problems requiring immediate solution. To aid in readily solving them, these ques- tions are formulated and the responses indicated. They will be found to meet the constantly recurring needs of men and women in every vocation, serving as a medium of ready reference, not only to the student and the teacher, but to the mechanic, the farmer, the artist, the railroader, the clerk, the housekeeper, the sportsman, the specu- lator, the clergyman, the inventor, and all seekers for useful knowledge. The asking and answering of these questions will be a benefit to all members around the evening fireside, and prove a welcome and unique entertainment at social gatherings, where knowledge as well as pleasure is the object in view. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS QUESTIONS ANSWERS QUESTIONS ANSWERS PAGE. PAGE. What is the Cinematograph?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 What is Radium?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 What is the Kinetoscope?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 What is the Value of Radium, and what its Describe the Operation of the Kinetoscope. . 72 potential Force?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 What is the “Three-Phase” System of pro- How is Polonium obtained?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 pelling electric Cars?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 - - Give an Account of the Berlin High-Speed How is a Radiograph taken?.............. 93 Trolley Car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Who invented the Balloon?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 What chemical Property is essential to What did Santos Dumont accomplish in Wheat Growth?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Aéronautics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 How can Nitrogen be artificially supplied?... 78 Give the Length of the largest Balloon ever What is Nitrate of Soda?... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 79 Constructed $75 676 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS ANSWERS. PAGE. ðf what Material is the Won Zeppelin Bal- loon made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 QUESTIONS. State its Mode of Propulsion. . . . . . . . . . . . ... 25 What Airship was built under quasi United States Government Auspices?....... . . . . . 27 What is the Aérodome?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 What is Acetylene Gas?... . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 70 How is Acetylene Gas made, and for What is it used?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 What is the “Zeotope?”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 72 Where did Chocolate-Making originate?... .310 Who carried the dark brown Nut to Spain?... 311 How did the Knowledge of Chocolate-Making spread through Europe?... . . . . . . . . . . . ... .310 Who brought it to New England?... . . . . . . . 310 When was the first Chocolate Mill in Amer- ica established?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 What is the Process of Manufacture?...... 311 Describe the Cocoa Tree and Nuts. . . . . . . . . . 311 What is the annual Consumption of Choco- late in the United States?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 What is the Cupola in an Iron Foundry?...247 How is the Cupola “charged?”. . . . . . . . . . . .248 What does the Cupola Man do?. . . . . . . . . . . . 247 What is the “Tuyere?”. . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 247 How is Pig-iron made direct from the Iron Ore? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . .249 Describe the Process of Steel Rolling. . . . . . 249 Describe the Machine Method of feeding Poultry for the Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Where are the Pyramids located? . . . . . . . . . . 367 How large is the Pyramid of Cheops?. . . . . . 367 What is its Height?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - 368 What is the Age of the Pyramids of Gizeh?... 368 What are the Scenes and Dates of the great financial Panics of the Nineteenth Cen- fury? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 What is the Construction of the Ice Ma- chine, and what its Operation?... . . . . . . . . 237 What is the cheapest Method of making Ice?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 What is sometimes substituted for Iron in Building? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 How is anhydrous Ammonia made?... . . . . . 236 Name the Scenes and Dates of great Floods. .369 Give the Scenes and Dates of ten terrible Plagues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 370 Who owns the largest Packing Plant in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 What is “Cracleware?”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 What are Positive and Negative Carbons?... 46 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What is the Photophone?............. . . . . . 51 How is Speech transmitted by “Light Beams?” ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 How are Pictures transmitted by Wire?.... 51 Who is Nikola Tesla’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 What is Chronophotography?...... . . . . . . . . 94 Describe the Method of Photographing the human Voice. . . . . . . . . . . -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 94 How many Miles of Railroad are contained in the Chicago Stockyards?.............. 134 How many Persons are regularly employed in the Chicago Stockyards?... . . . . . . . . . . . 134 How are Steam Engines run by the Sun's Rays? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Is it possible to smelt Ores and Minerals by Sunshine? What Degree of Heat is developed by two Yards square of concentrated Sunlight?... 95 How does Sunlight store electric Power for Heating, Lighting, Cooking, etc.?... . . . . . 95 Describe the Operation of the Telegraph Printing Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 What is the Cost of a single, Copper, Tele- graph Wire from New York to Chicago?... 96 How many Words per Minute does the Page- Printing Telegraph Machine transmit and receive? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 97 What is the Spectrum?... . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 129 What are Electrographs?.................. 129 How should the Camera be used?.......... 129 How are Balloons utilized in Photograph- ing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... . . . . .131 What was the old Process of tinning Plates?. 98 How was this Process improved?. . . . . . . . . . 98 Describe the modern Tinning Machine...... 99 How are Liquors distilled ?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Describe the Manufacture of Whisky. . . . . . 390 What is the “mashing” Process?. . . . . . . . . . . 391 What is “Wort”?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 How does the “Wort” undergo Fermenta- tion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 State the Object of Distillation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Describe the old “Still”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 What is the Construction and Operation of the modern Still?....................... 392 Define Political Economy.................. 497 What is the Basis of Political Economy?... 497 What is Wealth?.......................... 498 What is the Distinction between Value and Price? .................................. 498 What are the Theories of “Protection” and “Free Trade”? .........................498 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 677 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. State the Relation between Exports and Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 How are Nations like Individuals?... . . . . . . . 499 What is the Advantage of a Diversity of Occupations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 500 What constitutes a proper Circulating Me- dium ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 What is Intrinsic Value? What is Credit? How are Panics caused?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 How large are the average Crew and Pas- senger List of an Ocean Liner?... . . . . . . 432 How many Barrels of Flour are required for the Round Trip Between America and Europe? . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 432 How much fresh Meat and fresh and Salt Fish are required for this Trip?. . . . . . . . 432 What Quantity of Ham, Butter, Eggs, Sugar, Tea and Coffee is required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 How much Game is needed?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 How many Tons of Potatoes are used?... . . . 433 How many Dishes and Cooking Utensils are required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 What is the Yearly Consumption of Provi- sions aboard an Ocean Liner?... . . . . . . . . . 432 What is possible with the Pocket Type- Writer? . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 393 What is the mechanical Operation of this Instrument? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 How does the Trolley Car Conductor pre- pare for his Position?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 What are the Motorman’s Wexations?. . . . . . . 434 What is International Law? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 What is the Origin of Confederations, Re- publics and Empires?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 How are the Flag of Truce and Red Cross recognized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 495 How has International Law affected the Treatment of Prisoners?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 How are Treaties enforced by Tribunals?...496 What are the Functions of Ambassadors and Consuls?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Describe National Arbitration, Mediation and Intervention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 What are Microbes?... . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64 Describe Dr. Murphy's Treatment for Con- sumption . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... 65 State the Features of Dr. Finsen’s “Light- Ray” Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . --------- 65 How is Liquid Air applied in Surgery?... . . . 66 What Use does Surgery make of the X-Ray? 66 Describe Dr. Buisson's Cure for Hydro- phobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . --------------- 67 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. How did the Arabs cure Snake-Bites?...... 67 When Were the first Experiments made in sending Wireless Messages?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 What is Marconi’s Invention?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 When was the first Transatlantic Message sent by the Marconi System?... . . . . . . . . . 32 What is the “Coherer?” ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Describe the Operation of the “Coherer”.... 34 How is the “Hertzian Wave” generated?.... 33 What is the Name of the largest United States Cruiser in active Service in 1903?... 59 Give the Name of the typical American War- ship of early Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . -- - - - - - - 57 "What is the Name of the fastest Steam Yacht in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 How do the great Powers compare in naval Strength? . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 55 What is the Name of the fastest Torpedo- Boat Destroyer afloat?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 How far will the electric Locomotive Head- light project its Ray?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Who invented the Telephone?... . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Name the swiftest Battleship afloat. . . . . . . . 61 What new War Vessels have been added to the U. S. Navy since the Spanish-American War? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 What is the Storage Battery’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 When was the Storage Battery invented”. . . 48 Where does Cinnamon grow?... . . . . . . . . . . . 312 What is Lyddite?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 What is the History of the most famous English Locomotive?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 How long has it been in Service?... . . . . . . . . 336 How many Million Miles has it run?. . . . . . . . 336 How many Round Trips has it made?... . . . 336 How many Lives are lost in climbing the Alps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 What Nationality suffers most Loss in the Ascent of the Alps?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 What are the main Features of the Govern- ment of Great Britain?.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 What Fate befell some of the early British Monarchs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 What are the Functions of the British Cabinet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 333 What is the Operation of the British Parlia- ment? What is the Status of the British Judiciary?.334 How is King Edward’s Kitchen finished?... 334 678 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS, QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What are the Duties and Salaries of its Clerk and the Chef ?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 How many Utensils does the Kitchen con- tain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Give the Number of Knives and Forks for Kitchen Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 What is the Value of Plate used ?. . . . . . . . . . 335 tained in the Plate Room?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 What are the Salaries of Chauffeurs?... . . . . . 428 Why is the Chauffeur's Occupation agree- able? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 What is essential to Competency in a Chauf- feur? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Explain the Frequency of Fires in American Cities How does the Electric Fire Alarm operate?... 378 Why is Electricity likely to supersede the Fire Horse as a Motive Power?. . . . . . . . . . 380 Describe Glasgow's Superb Fire-Engine House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Give Facts relating to Chicago’s Fire De- partment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 What is the Method of Fire-fighting in London? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 How are the Fire Horses trained 2. . . . . . . . . . 379 What is the complete modern Equipment for Fire-fighting? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Describe the Fire-Boat, Illinois. . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 What Tobaccos are used exclusively for Cigars? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 How are Cigars made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 When did the Manufacture of Cigars begin?.426 State the principal Motive Powers of the Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 What is its mechanical Arrangement?... . . . 28 How is the Power of the Gasoline Motor generated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 State the “Record” Speed of the Gasoline Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 How are Automobiles used in Agriculture?... 31 Describe the Automobile Mower. . . . . . . . . . . . 31 What is Antitoxin, and what disease does it cure?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 What is Appendicitis, and what causes it?... 68 Give an Account of the surgical Operation for Appendicitis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Describe Bone-grafting. . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - . 69 Explain the Nature and Effect of Supraren- alin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. How is Suprarenalin used in Surgery?, . . . . . 70 What is a Shadowgraph, and how is it made? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 How do Static Machines produce the X- Ray? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 How does the X-Ray aid the Doctor and the Surgeon?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 What is the Galvanic Battery?... . . . . . . . . . . 44 What is a Dynamo?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Describe the Operation of the Trolley Car Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 What does the Telephone consist of?....... 45 Describe the Incandescent and Arc Lights. . 45 What is the Roentgen X-Ray?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Describe the Construction and Operation of and “Geissler Tubes”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 What is the Induction Coil?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 State the Difference between the “Crookes” and “Geissler Tubes”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Describe the Operation of the “Crookes” Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Describe the Culture of Tapioca. . . . . . . . . . 3.71 Of What are the Leads in Lead Pencils made? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 What Process does the Graphite undergo in this Manufacture?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 What is done with the German Pipe Clay?... 233 What is the Process of Mixing?... . . . . . . . . . 234 What Woods are used for Pencils? . . . . . . . . 234 What is the finishing Process?. . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Where did the Cotton Plant originate?..... 372 How was it Self-Perpetuated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 What Country in South America produces Cotton extensively?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 To what Length can a Pound of Cotton be Spun? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Which State of the Union raises the most Cotton? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 When does Cotton-picking begin?. . . . . . . . . . . 373 How are Diamonds made by Electricity?... 394 How is Chewing Gum made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 What is Chicle?..... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 395 Where is the Zapote Tree cultivated?... . . . . 395 What is the annual Output of Chewing Guru, and what does it cost the Public?. . . . . . . . . 394 What is the Nature of the New York Stock Exchange? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'....... 487 What is Stock Gambling?... . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - 488 Describe “a Specific Case”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 What are “Margins,” “Bulls” and “Bears, “Puts,” and what is Selling Short?.... .489 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 6.79 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What are “Calls,” “Corners,” “Futures,” “Options,” and the Months for Options?... 491 How is Chicago a Dictator in the Grain and What is the Secret of Success in Specula- tion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 What befell the greatest Speculator in Wall Street? What are the Conditions governing Specu- lation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 What of the Speculators who have fallen?... 487 What Nations prefer Tea as a domestic Bev- erage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 How many Varieties of Coffee grow wild in Brazil? To What Age and Height do Coffee Trees What Nations prefer Coffee as a domestic Beverage? How are Coffee Trees grown, and when is What is the Process of pulping and drying?.399 What are the principal Tea-producing Coun- tries? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 How is the Tea Plant cultivated?... . . . . . . . 400 In what Month does the first Tea-picking take place in Japan?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 In what Month does the second Tea-picking take place?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 In what Month does the third Tea-picking take place?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 ter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 What is the curing and firing Process. . . . . . 401 How are the Tea-Leaves sorted?. . . . . . . . . . . 402 In what does “Ginning” consist?... . . . . . . . 374 What are the Use and Value of the Cotton Seed at present?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 How many Pianos were manufactured in this Country in 1902?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 What Effect has the new Keyboard on the Tone of the Piano?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 What is the average Size of Farms in the United States?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Where is the largest Cattle Ranch in Amer- ica? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Where is the famous Cattle Woman’s Ranch? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 What Ranch is larger than the State of Connecticut? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .". . . . . . . . . 300 QUESTIONS. AN&WERS. PAGE, In what relative Latitude is Kadiak, Alaska? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - 314 What is the lowest Temperature of Kadiak'? . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 314 Give the lowest Temperature ever recorded at Dutch Harbor, Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 What is the Winter Temperature of Sitka?.314 Where are the principal Breeding Grounds How many People are employed on the average metropolitan daily Newspaper?... 179 What is the “Associated Press?”. . . . . . . . . . . 180 What is a Newspaper “Scoop?”. . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Explain Linotyping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 What is the Process of Stereotyping?... . . . 185 How are Newspaper Illustrations made?... .187 What is the Extent of the New York Street Railway Tunnel?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w - - - - - 199 World? Flour? How has the Freight Tariff on Flour changed? Where is the largest Grain Elevator in the World? What are outside Storage Tanks in Grain Elevators? Canal the United States in 1902? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 How are Trains equipped on the Trans- Siberian Railway?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 How are the Silicates melted, in Glass- Making? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 How are Lenses finished?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 How are Thermometer Tubes made?... . . . . 208 How long is the Barrage of the Nile at Assiout? Where is the largest Olive Orchard in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - 213 680 RE VIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS ANSWERS. PAGE. How large do Olive Trees grow in Sicily?...214 What is the Process of making Olive Oil 2, .215 QUESTIONS. How long has Rubber been used? . . . . . . . . . . 216 Describe the Processes of Kneading and Mixing Rubber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 What are the Methods of compressing and Vulcanizing Rubber?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 How is Rubber Hose made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 What is the Panama Canal Project? . . . . . . . . 223 What is the Nicaraguan Canal Route?. . . . . . 223 cost? Where is Salt mined in the United States?...218 What is the Process of manufacturing Salt? . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 218 What is the Vacuum Method of Salt-mak- ing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 How is the great Salt Deposit of California Worked? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 How are Block Plates coated with Tin 2. . . . 101 ferring Tin Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 What is the “Duster,” in Tin-making?... . . . 101 Describe the Submarine Boat, “Holland”— the “Assassin of the Sea”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 How is the Submarine Boat, “Gymnote,” Constructed and operated?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 How is the Sub-Sea Craft “Argonaut,” How can the Argonaut's Crew pass out and re-enter through the Bottom of the Boat?. 104 How is Air supplied to the Crew in deep diving? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104 How are Lightning, Stars and Comets photo- graphed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 What is Micro-photography?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Describe the Photographic Tower. . . . . . . . . . 128 What Number of Lives was lost in 23 Ship- Wrecks? - What is the Function of the Hydrographic Office? Name the Life and Vessel-saving Devices in Use on the Ocean and Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . 106 What is the Thermopile?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Describe the modern Life-Buoy. . . . . . . . . . . . 107 What is the Operation of the Breeches Buoy? Which is the most noteworthy Lighthouse on the Atlantic Coast?... . . . . . . ---------- 110 What is the Zone-o-phone?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Describe the Telephotograph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Describe the driving Mechanism of the horseless Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 What is the “Bunsen” Burner?... . . . . . . . . . . 113 HOW much Fuel is required in a Gasoline Automobile for a 60-Mile Run?. . . . . . . . . . 114 Describe the Engine of a Steam Automobile. 112 How does the Gasoline Motor generate its Power? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 What is the modern Process of making White Lead?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 What is the Silk Cocoon?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Describe the Silk Moth and the Silk Worm. .250 Where was Silk Culture first carried on 2... 250 When was the Sugar Beet first cultivated?... 254 What is Linoleum?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 What is Papyrolith?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 What is the Number of Volcanoes in Cen- tral America?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Where were Explorations most successfully carried on during the last Century?..... 257 What Part of South America is most thor- oughly explored?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Rinown 2 States Government?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 How is the President of the United States elected, and what are his Functions?..... 265 How is the United States Senate composed, and how are the members chosen?....... 263 How is the United States House of Repre- Sentatives made up?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 What Departments of the Government are represented in the President’s Cabinet?... .265 What are the Duties of the Cabinet Offi- CerS2 Describe the Judicial Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 How are the State and National Govern- ments related?.......................... 267 How are the State, County and City Govern- ments related?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 What is State Sovereignty?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 What are the Guarantees of the Constitution of the United States?............ . . . . . . . . 269 What determines the Eligibility of the Presi- dent and Members of Congress?... . . . . . . . 269 What is Treason?... . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - 270 How are Amendments to the Constitution made? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 270 How is “Impeachment” conducted?......... 270 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS. 681 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. How is Noontime announced from Washing- ton, D. C., to all America?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 What are Patents and how are they ob- tained? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 What is a Caveat?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 ents? are its Functions?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 What is the Inter-State Commerce Law 2. . . .272 What are Rebates on Freight Rates?... . . . . . 273 What is “Pooling,” in Freight Shipments?... 273 What legal Action has the Government taken against Railroad Companies?. . . . . . . . . . . . 273 What is the Civil Service, and how is it reg- ulated by Law? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Who are eligible to Positionss under the Civil Service Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 What Subjects does the Civil Service Exam- ination cover?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 What are the main Features of the Illinois Civil Service Law?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 What is the Number of Post-offices in the United States?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 What is the annual Cost of conducting the United States Postal Service?... . . . . . . . . . . 277 How many Pieces of Mail does the Post- Office Department handle yearly 2. . . . . . . . 277 How many Postage Stamps per Minute does the Post-Office Department cancel?. . . . . . . 277 What are the Salaries of Postmasters?... . . . . 278 Why does the Rural Delivery Service benefit the Farmer?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Mow many Mail Bags are used yearly?... . . . 278 How does the Fast-Mail Train gather Mail Bags while running?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 How does the Government forward Mail in Alaska? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 How many Money Orders are issued yearly in the United States, and what aggregate Amount do they represent?... . . . . . . . . . . . 281 What is done with Dead-Letter Packages?... 282 What are Ocean Post-Offices? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 What kind of Immigration is detrimental to this country?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Give the Number of Immigrants for the Year ending July 1, 1903... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 In what Part of the United States is Irriga- tion progressing successfully?... . . . . . . . . . 285 How does the irrigating Canal utilize the old River Beds?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . --------- 286 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What are the Results of tapping the Colo- rado River?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286 In what Way does the Government promote the Cultivation of Nuts?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 What new Species of Nuts are being intro- duced by the Government?. . . . . .- - - - - - - - - 288 What are the “Weather” Man's Functions?..289 Define the Science of Weather Prognostica- tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Name the Area covered by the Signal Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 To What Extent has the Weather Bureau served Agriculture and Commerce?... . . . . 290 What Particular Loss did the Warning of a Cold Wave prevent?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Define the Barometer... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 What are the Barograph and Anemometer. .292 What is the Telethermometer? . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 What does the Hygrometer signify? . . . . . . . . 292 State the Uses of the Anemoscope. . . . . . . . . . 292 How many Postage Stamps are printed daily? . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 What is the History of Postage Legislation?. 294 What Portraits of Women have appeared on Postage Stamps?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 How does the President of the United States officially travel?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 What Precautions are taken to safeguard the President’s Journeyings?... . . . . . . . . . 295 Who arranges the Details of the President’s official Trips?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 What are the Instructions to Railroad Em- ployes when the President is on the Train? What is required of the Telegraph Operator and Lineman on the President's Special Train? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 What Provisions are loaded on the Presi- dential Train?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 What Proportion of the World's Supply of Cattle, Sheep and Swine is furnished by the United States? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Where are the main killing and packing Centers in this Country?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 What is the Number of Cattle, Sheep and Swine in the World?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Which State in the Union has the most Cattle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 297 What is the largest single Business in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 44 682 - REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What State in the Union has the largest Trees? . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 303 Where is the Calaveras Grove, and of what is it composed?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 What are the “Sequois?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Where are the Rodwood Forests?. . . . . . . . . . . 304 What is the Number of great Forests, and What the Area they cover?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 How many truly great Trees are "o be seen in California?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .304 Give their Age, Height, and Diameter. . . . . . 304 State the Ownership of the Mariposa Grove. 304 Describe the “Kuong Yuin,” or Canton “Ex- amination Hall”............. - - - - - - - - - - - - 358 What is Rice Paper?... . . . . . . . - 9 - - - - - - - - - - 358 Where is the Rockefeller Farm, and how/ large is it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Where is the largest Farm in the South- western States, and what are its Products and Profits?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Locate and describe the best equipped Farm in the United States. . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - 301 Where and of what Size is the jargest Al- falfa Tract? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... - - - - - - - - - - 301 What is the main Peculiarity of a Chinese Wedding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 359 For what are Elephants used in India?. . . . . 361 Give Details of the new Method of cleaning Furniture, Carpets, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Where did Sugar Cane originate, and how many Varieties are known?... . . . . . . . . . . . 239 What is the Area of Sugar Cane in Louisi- ana, and how much is needed to plant an acre? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 239 How much Cane does a Louisiana Sugar House use daily?....... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 239 What is the Process of making Sugar?. . . . . 240 How is Political Power centralized in France? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 345 What is the Nature of the French Canton and Commune?... . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - 345 Describe the French Election Methods. . . . . . 343 What are the Qualifications for Eligibility to Office in France?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 What are the Functions of the President of France, and those of his Cabinet?. . . . . . . . 343 How did the National Assembly originate in France? . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 342 What are the Functions of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies in France?... . . . . . 344 What Evils prevail in the French Adminis- tration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 344 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Describe the French Judicial System. . . . . . .344 Where did Celery, Tobacco and Onions come from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 Where are the following Industries mostly carried on, viz.: Collars and Cuffs? Pot- tery? Silverware? Agricultural Imple- ments? Coke? Jewelry? Oyster Canning? Slaughtering and Packing? Gloves? Car- pets? Silk? Plated and Britania. Ware? Iron and Steel? BrassWare?... . . . . . . . . . . 305 How is Coal Mined?................ - - - - - - - 241 How is Coke made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 What are the latest Substances from which Paper is made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Name the different Kinds of Harvesting Machines . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Give Facts about the Corn-Shredder. . . . . . . . 120 What is the monthly Output of a single Meat-canning Factory in Chicago?... . . . . 168 What is the daily Product of a single Bean- canning Establishment?.................. 168 What are the By-Products of Corn?. . . . . . . . 205 How many Bottles of Pickles are annually put up by a single Factory?... . . . . . . . . . . 169 What is Australia's great Railway Project. .172 What is the Bonus offered to Contractors for Value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 What was the Iowa Agricultural College Test in feeding Cattle?....................... 204 What is the Name of the World's largest Sailing Vessel?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 What chemical Element is essential in Cat- tle Feed?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 203 What is the Speed of the Torpedo Boat, Cobra? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 What is the Speed of the Steam Yacht, Ar- row? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 What is the Name of the largest Freight Vessel ever built in America?. . . . . . . . . . . 174 How many Passengers will this Wessel carry, besides its Cargo?... . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - 175 Where is the Arlberg Tunnel?............. 201 What is the Length of the Mont Cenis Tun- nel? .......................... ......... 202 When was the first Tunnel built in the United States?.......................... 202 Where and how long is the St. Gothard Tun- nel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 200 What is the Extent of the Simplon Tunnel?.20% REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 683. QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. When was the first Egg-candling Machine Give the Number of Pupils in the Public Schools of the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . 306 State the Value of Public School Property in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Where have limitless Petroleum Fields lately been discovered? . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 242 How are Sheep cleaned in New Zealand?... .354 How large are the Australian Sheep Sta- tions? Describe the Cannibal Tree, of Australia. . .356 What is the annual Output of Coal in Great Britain and the United States?... . . . . . . . 243 Where are the two deepest Coal Mines?..... 243 What is Pennsylvania's Annual Coal Pro- duction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...243 What is the Process of mining Coal?. . . . . . . 243 Why are Compressed Air Locomotives used in the Coal Mines?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 How is Coal sorted?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 What is the “Breaker,” and what does the “Breaker Boy” do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 When and by whom were the first movable Types used?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 How long was the wooden Printing Press in use?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Where did the Horse Chestnut come from ? 363 -- “ “ Citron -- “ 363 -- -- “ Pine -- -- 363 -- “ “ Poppy -- “ 363 -- “ “ Sunflower -- “ 363 -- “ “ Potato -- “ 363 -- “ “ Parsnip -- “ 363 -- “ “ Cabbage -- “ 363 -- “ “ Apple -- “ 363 -- “ “ Pear -- “ 363 -- “ “ Mulberry Tree -- “ 363 -- * “ Cucumber -- “ 363 -- “ “ Quince -- “ 363 -- “ “ Bean -- “ 365 -- “ “ Beet -- “ 365 -- “ “ SWeet Potato -- “ 365 -- “ “ Radish -- “ 363 -- “ “ Pea -- “ 363 -- “ “ Coriander -- “ 363 -- ** ** Artichoke -- “ 363 44 * “ Tomato 6- * 363 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. When were Cast-Iron Presses and Levers When was the first Press without a Screw used? . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 158 When was the first Flat-Bed Cylinder Press invented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 When was the Toggle-Joint introduced?.... 160 When was the first Quadruple Newspaper Press constructed?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 What Country was the Source of Garden Cress? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 What Country was the Source of Horserad- ish? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 What Country was the Source of Flax?... .363 Hemp? . .363 Spinach 7.363 Rye? ... .363 Barley? .363 Wheat? ... 363 Parsley? .363 Millet? ... 363 -- - - -- -- Cayenne Pepper? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 What is an illegal Trust?.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Describe the Operation of the Pneumatic Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 What is its Helation to Newspaper Work?. .238 How is it Utilized in the Post-Office?... . . . 238 What is its Service in great Hotels and Stores? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 How were the Filipino Schools taught under Spanish Ruie?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 How many American Schools have been opened in the Archipelago?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 How many American School Books have been sent, there?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 What is the Composition of the Filipino Alphabet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 What games do the young Filipinos play?. .308 How does the United States Government tions? Where is Tobacco cultivated under Tents?. .220 What is the ordinary Method of cultivating and curing Tobacco?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 How large a Business has a Chicago Pack- ing House done in a single year?. . . . . . . . 147 How much Floor Space is used by a single packing Concern?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 684 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS ANSWERS. PAGE. What is the “Kosherman's” Task at the Chicago Stock Yards?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Of what Size are the two largest Mules on QUESTIONS. Record? . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 148 How is the Skyscraper built? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 What Kind of Men become good Architec- tural Iron Workers?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 What was the old style of Foundation for high Buildings?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - 152 Of what are the Building Column's made, and what do they carry?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 What is the average Thickness of Walis in a modern “Skyscraper”?.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Describe the “Dipper” and “Clamshell” Dredges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 By what Nation was the first Printing done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 How much has 5,542 Miles of Railroad Con- struction cost the Czar of Russia?... . . . . . 163 What is the Prospect for a Railway encir- cling the Globe?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 What is the Area of Alaska?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 How does Alaska compare in Size with New England? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313 What is the Extent of Alaska's Coast Line? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313 How Wide is the Yukon River . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 How far is the Yukon navigable?... . . . . . . . 313 How much did Alaska cost the United States? What was the Value of Alaska Salmon packed in 1901?. . . . . . . . . . . . -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 313 What is the Capacity of the largest Oil Stor- age Tank in the United States?... . . . . . . 230 What is the Process of drilling for Oil 3. . . . . 230 How is cracked Cocoa turned into Choco- late? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 How is Chocolate molded into Cakes?... . . . . 312 Describe the Process of sweetening and flavoring Chocolate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -------- 312 What is the annual Volume of Business of the Chicago Union Stock Yards Com- pany? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298 How many Men does the Corporation em- ploy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 298 How many Cattle and Sheep were received at the various packing Centers of the What was the Agreement between the Unit- ed States and Great Britain as to sealing in Alaska?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 What is Pelagic Sealing?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 ANSWERS. PAGE. HOW do the Eskimos hunt Walrus?. . . . . . . . .315 What are the main Products of Florida?. .316 Where are the principal pleasure Resorts of QUESTIONS. Florida? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 What Class if Visitors frequents Palm Beach, Florida?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Where are the finest Oranges produced?... .319 dens? apples in Florida?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Describe a Sponge Factory................. 317 Give an Idea of a Cocoanut Plantation...... 321 What was the first Money coined at the United States Mint? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - 322 Who was the first Director of the United States Mint?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322 When were Silver Dollars and Gold Eagles first coined?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 For What Length of Tin.e did the Philadel- phia Mint suspend Operations?.......... 322 During what long Period were no Gold Eagles coined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 In what Years were no Half Eagles coined?.322 During what Years were no Quarter Eagles coined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 In what Years did the Mint coin no Dol- lars? . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 322 In what Years did the Mint coin no Half Dollars? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - 322 In what Years did the Mint coin no Quarter Dollars? ............ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 322 In What Years did the Mint coin no Half Dimes? . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . .322 In What Years did the Mint coin no Cents?... 322 In What Years did the Mint Coin no Half Cents? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - . . . . . .322 When was the Coinage of the 41214-Grain Silver Dollar and the 5-Cent Silver Piece discontinued? ......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . .322 At what Date did the 3-Cent Silver Piece and the bronze two-Cent Piece cease to be coined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. . .322 What Metals do the Carson and San Fran- cisco Mints Coin?..................... . .322 What is the Function of the Denver Mint?. .322 In what Country is the Art or Lace-making largely developed?....................... 357 From what Source are the Designs taken for this Manufacture?.................... 357 What is Chinese Rice Paper?.... . . . . . . . . . .357 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 685 QUESTIONS ANSWERS. PAGE, How is the modern Theater conducted?... .386 What are the Theater Manager's Func- tions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 What is the Stage Director's Task?. . . . . . . . 386 What Work devolves on the Scenic Artist and Property Man?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 How are the Parts of the Play assigned?. .388 What goes on “up in the Flies”?......... 389 What is the Farm Boy's Fond Ambition?... 430 How is the Farm Boy installed in the Rall- road Telegraph Office?... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... , 430 "What Faculty is essential in a Telegraph Operator? Give an Idea of the Morse Alphabet........ 430 What Time is required to learn Telegra- phy? - How are Telegraphy and Typewriting re- lated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Name the Salaries of Railroad Telegraphers and Train Dispatchers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Can big Corporations be just?.... . . . . . . . . . 484 What constitutes the Power of the Monop- oly? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 What has the Standard Oil Company done?.485 What has the Beef Trust done?... . . . . . . . . . 485 Bow does a good Trust Operate?... . . . . . . . . 485 Mention the various Trusts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 What is the Process of preserving natural Flowers? . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 402 What is the Value of Crops annually de- stroyed by Bugs in the United States?... .423 Name the first Process in minting Money?. .322 What are the largest and smallest Weights used in the Mint?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 What is the Deposit Melting Room? . . . . . . . . 322 What is Assaying?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 What is done in the Rolling, Adjusting and Cleaning Rooms of the Mint? . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 What is the Operation of the Presses?. . . . . . 322 How do the Peruvians get Quinine from the Cinchona Tree?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Name the Nine Great Wonders of America. .324 Where is Opium mainly produced?. . . . . . . . . 351 What Flower is the Source of Opium ?. . . . . . 351 What made the Opium Trade a political Problem in Eastern Asia?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Poppy? How are Sheep sheared by Machinery?... .354 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS PAGE, How are Sheep Cleansed by Law 7, , . . . . . . . . 354 What Salary is received by the President of the United States? the Vice President and Cabinet? Members of Congress? the Su- preme Court Judges? the Circuit and Dis- trict Judges? Heads of minor Depart- ments? Postmasters? Diplomatic Ap- What is Labor's most persistent Demand?... 482 What is the Attitude of conservative Labor Leaders as to Strikes?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 What Qualities are essential in a safe Labor Leader? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 What is shown by the Records of the De- partment of Labor since 1881?... . . . . . . . . 483 What is the Proportion of successful and unsuccessful Strikes?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 What Gains has Labor made?... . . . . . . . . . . 484 What are the Circumstances of the Average American Farmer? . . . . . . . "... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 423 How do the present Farm Wages compare With those of earlier Times?.... . . . . . . . . 423 What Improvements have been made to the Advantage of the Farmer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 What is the average Size of Farms in the United States?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 What is the average Size of Farms in the Southwest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 How many Indians received Farms from the Government in 1901?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Of what Extent are the Farms in the East- ern and Middle West States?. . . . . . . . . . . 422 How many Farms are contained in the United States?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 HOW many Women are employed in the Fields in this Country?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 How are Long Island's Female Farm Hands hired? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 What particular Work is done by Women in the Fields?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 What are the Wages of Women Farm Hands? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 What is the Locomotive Engineer's Ap- prenticeship? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 What are the Stages of his Promotion?... .437 Give an Illustration of the Immensity of Space in the Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 How fast does Light Fly?................ .471 What is the Copernican System?.......... 471 686 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Who discovered the Cause of the Tides?... .472 Who invented the Telescope?... . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Describe the Workings of the Lick Obser- Vatory Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 475 Describe the largest Telescope in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Who first promulgated the Laws or Gravi- tation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 472 Of What does the Solar System consist?... .475 What is the Composition of the Sur.” . . . . . . . 475 How large is the Sun, and how fa. Irom the Earth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 How Strong is the Light of the Sun, and what is the Intensity of its Heat?. . . . . . . 476 What is the number of the Planets?... . . . . 476 Describe Mercury and Venus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 What is the Orbit of the Earth, and what the Speed of its Revolutions?. . . . . . . . . . . . 477 What is the Diameter of the Moon, and what its Distance from the Earth?. . . . . . . . . . . . 478 How do Eclipses occur?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Explain the Ebb and Flow of the Tides. . . . . 478 Give a Description of Jupiter and Mars. . . . . 479 How far is Jupiter from the Sun, and how far from the Earth?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 How many Satellites has Saturn, and what are its Rings?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 How long is Saturn in passing through a Sign of the Zodiac 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 When was Uranus discovered, and how far is it from the Sun?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 How large is Uranus as compared with the Earth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Where is Neptune?...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 What are Asteriods, Meteors, Comets, Fixed Stars?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 481 How many Stars are visible to the naked Eye? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 481 What Apprenticeship does the Locomotive Fireman serve?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 What are the Details of the Fireman's Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 437 What are the two Systems of firing Loco- motives? What is the Fireman's Action on approach- What was the Night Traveler's Custom in olden Times?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 How long was the Journey from Eding- What effect had the Advent of the Mall Coach on the Old-Time Inns?... . . . . . . . . . 439 QUESTIONS. ANSWER3. PAGE. How has Night Travel on Railways been made comfortable?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439 Describe the new Type of Passenger Loco- motive ber Industry represent?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 What is Canada's annual Output of Lum- ber? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 How much Timber Land has New Bruns- Wick? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 What is the Forest Area of British Colum- bia? What is the Extent of Timberland in Que- bec” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 How high and how thick does the Douglas Fir Tree grow?'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 How many great Sawmills has British Co- lumbia, and what is its yearly Cut of Timber? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 How large are the Lumber Rafts in New Brunswick? Describe the Canadian Maple ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Where is the greatest Example of Water- Power in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 Where is the greatest Power-House in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 How is Water-Power sent across the Rocky Where is Power generated by Canon Water?.470 What River furnishes Sacramento its Power for Light and Trolley Cars?... . . . . . . . . . . 470 How far away from San Francisco is its Electric Power generated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 What is Carborundum, and for what is it used ? How many Eggs does the Ostrich sit on, and what is the Period of Incubation?... 448 What is the Market Value of Ostrich Feath- ers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 How is the Distribution of Moisture de- pendent on Forests?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 In what Way do Forests prevent Floods and Droughts?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 When did the United States Government establish Forest Reserves?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 How many square Miles of Timberland still remain in the United States?... . . . . . . . . . . 467 What is the annual Loss of Timber by Fire? Where is the best farming Area in Canada?.445 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUA).ENTS 687 ANSWERS. PAGE. What is the general Practice of the Canadian Farmers? What Kind of Soil has Lower Canada, and QUESTIONS. River? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 What do the Swamp Lands result from? . . . .446 What is the Swamp Muck used for? . . . . . . . . 446 What was the Wheat Crop of Canada in 1902? What Percentage of Canada's Population is engaged in Farming?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 What new Application of the Grain Crop prevails in Canada?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 When and for what Purpose did the Domin- ion Parliament establish Experimental Farms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 What has caused the rapid Growth of the What Advantage have the Canadian Farm- ers gained by new Methods of Farming?.446 How does the Stoker feed the Ship's Fur- nace? In What Manner does the Stoker “Clean the Fires”? What is the “Black Pot” 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 What is the “Trimmer’s’ Task 2. . . . . . . . . . . 425 How much Coal is consumed in a single Passage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Where does the Cork Tree grow? . . . . . . . . . . 403 Up to what Age does the Tree produce marketable Cork?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 HOW is the Cork obtained from the Tree?... 403 What is the Process of preparing Cork for What Prince was noted for his Punctuality?.463 On what Occasions is Tardiness offensive?. .464 Give Details of a Problem of Twenty Invita- tions Why is the Doctor sometimes late in his professional Calls?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 How does the Temperature of the Earth in- crease at certain Depths? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 What are the Depth and Extent of the Zinc Mine in Cornwall? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Where is the deepest artificial Hole in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 What is the average Temperature 1,000 feet below the Earth's Surface?... . . . . . . . . . . . 465 What is the Temperature of the Coal Mines in France at a Depth of 3,600 Feet?..... 465 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Can the Earth's interior Heat be utilized by Science?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 When were Eggs first hatched artificially?.404 What is the Capacity of the ordinary Incu- bator, and what the proper Temperature for Incubation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 What is the “Brooder”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 What is Law, and how do Civil and Criminal law differ?... . . . . . . . . . y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 462 Define Embezzlement, Felony, Larceny, Ar- Son, Forgery. Perjury, Murder. . . . . . . . . . . 463 Of what is Celluloid made?................ 405 What is the Process of manufacturing Cel- luloid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 For What is Celluloid a Substitute?. . . . . . . . 406 What is Solar Light?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Of what is a Beam of Sun Waves com- posed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 What is “natural” Color, and how is it pro- duced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 What determines the Color of the Pansy?... 460 What is the Effect of Electricity on Milk and Meat? Give a Description of Foot Ball, Base Ball, Golf and Basket Ball How is the Marine Torpedo discharged?... 55 Describe the Exploding of a submarine Mine . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 55 What is the respective Construction of the Gatlin, Maxim and Hotchkiss Guns, and how are they operated?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5b How is the Searchlight made, and what is it used for?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 What is the Process of making Armor Plate? 58 What new-style naval Vessel uses Sails for Motive Power?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 How is Smokeless Powder made?... . . . . . . . 53 Describe Nitro-Glycerine and its Manufac- ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Why is the “Dum Dum” Bullet a barbarous Missile? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 What is the “Base” Shell? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 HOW is the Torpedo constructed?. . . . . . . . . . . 55 How are Sheep Killed at the Union Stock Yards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 What becomes of the Stockyards Refuse?... 140 Describe the Process of slaughtering and dressing Cattle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 How is Pork officially tested by the Mius- scope? . . . . - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ * -36 688 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Where is the largest Horse-Market in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 What is the Process of making Liquid Air? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Why can Liquid Air be boiled on a Block of Ice?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 How can a Rose be frozen hard?. . . . . . . . . . 83 How may frozen Butter be pounded into a Flour?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 How may Steel Bars be burned like dry 84 Wood? Describe the Nitrogen-producing Machinery operated by Niagara Falls Water Power... 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .” - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * Describe an electric Automobile. . . . . . . . . . . . 116 What is an “Air-controlled” Motor?. . . . . . . . 116 How are Stained-Glass Windows made?.... 85 How is Porcelain made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 What is the Cannibal Tree?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Why is it worshiped as the “Devil Tree” 2. .356 What is the Agave?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 How is the Agave useful? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 What is the potential Force of a Pound of Coal? What constitutes the Freight Brakeman's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * Task on his Run?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 What is the Passenger Brakeman's Duty on the Train?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Describe the Pathway of a Cyclone. . . . . . . . . 382 Describe the Edges of a Cyclone. . . . . . . . . . 382 Describe the Center of a Cyclone. . . . . . . . . . . 382 What is the “Horn Card”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 How does the Cyclone form, develop and advance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 What is the Theory of “Evolution”?. . . . . . . . 504 What is meant by “Natural Selection”?. . . .504 Explain the Doctrine of the Survival of the Fittest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 How do certain savage Tribes use their Toes? What Changes do human Teeth undergo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * through successive Generations?... . . . . . . . 505 What are “Atavic Forms”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Is a Belief in Evolution atheistic?. . . . . . . . . 505 Why are Women most skillful in printing Music? 384 What composes the Music Printer's Case?. .384 How are Music Notes set in Type?. . . . . . . . . 384 Where is Music Type made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 What is the Process of lithographing for . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * * * . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What is Socialism?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 What is the Number of Atlantic Cables and Where do they run?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 What are the Liabilities of the British, German and French Cables in Time of War? How does the modern Commercial College prepare its Pupils for a Business Career?.458 “Uncle Sam” How does deliver “special” State the Number of High Schools in Illi- nois, and the Studies taught therein. . . . . . 455 What are the different Methods of bathing, Describe the Training of our Schoolboy Soldiers Give an Idea of the Importance of Courtesy in Domestic Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 What was the average Armount of Coal mined by each Miner in 1897-98-99 and 1901? How was the Old-Time lumbering Camp con- structed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 What is the modern Logging Outfit? . . . . . . . . 449 What are the Chances of a Country Boy in a big City?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 451 Effect? How have Improvements in the Sewing Ma- chine Curtailed domestic Work and les- Sened the Cost of the finished Garment?... 121 Describe the Construction and Operation of the Knitting Machine... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Name and describe the largest Island on the Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Of what geographical Divisions is Ger- many composed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------ . . . . .326 When and how was the German Confedera- tion organized?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - 826 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 689 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Of what consists the Imperial Council of Germany? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 How is the Imperial Crown transmitted, and what Power inheres in it? . . . . . . . . . . . 327 What are the Functions of the Imperial Chancellor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327 Of What consists the German Judiciary?. . . .328 How are Boats propelled on the River Elbe?.328 Describe the Estuary of that River. . . . . . . . .328 Where is the longest Bridge-Span in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 341 What is the Nature of the Government of Russia? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 What is the Russian “Mir”?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 What was Russian Serfdom?... . . . . . . . . . . . 346 What did Peter the Great accomplish?. . . . . . 347 What are the Functions of the Russian Sen- ate, Committee of Ministers and Council of State?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 What Kind of Town Government prevails in Russia? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 What are the Russian Preliminaries to Marriage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Where is Platinum mainly produced?. . . . . . 349 How is the crude Platinum obtained?... . . . 349 What has the Government Fish Commission accomplished? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 the Cruise of the AlbatroSS2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 What is Scotland's Model Town?. . . . . . . . . . . 337 How is human Hair bought in Germany?... 330 What do Fogs cost London?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 What is the Status of matrimonial Life in England? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Describe the Course of Experiments pursued by the Agricultural School of the Univer- sity of Minnesota. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 What was the Process followed in develop- ing new Breeds of Wheat?... . . . . . . . . . . . 177 What is the average Yield per Acre of the New Grades of Wheat called “Minnesota, 163”? What increased Production of Fife Wheat What Excess over ordinary Crops in this Region is assured by the Agricultural School’s Experimentation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Describe the Method of Egg-Candling by Machinery . . . . . . . . . --------- . . . . . . . . . . . .176 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Where was the great Roman Wall, built by Antonius? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 What is likely to be the Future of Type- Writing? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 What are the main Uses of Cork?. . . . . . . . . . 403 To what Extent is Platinum produced in the United States? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 How much Platinum was imported into the United States in 1902?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 How do the two Classes of Socialists differ?. 506 What are the Causes of Socialism?... . . . . . 506 Explain the Single-Tax Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . 507 What did Henry George claim to be the only Source of Wealth?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 For what Purpose was Tammany Hall organ- ized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 How does Tammany Hall make its “Col- lections”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 What is the “Tax Fund” of Tammany Hall?. 508 Who commanded the Union Armies in the Great Battles of the Civil War?. . . . . . . . . 511 Who commanded the Confederate Armies in the Great Battles of the Civil War?. . . . . . 511 Name the Localities and Dates of these Battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 What were the Union and Confederate Losses in each Battle?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 How are Flowers put to Sleep?. . . . . . . . . . . 512 How are Flowers made to blossom out of Season? What is the cleanest City in the World? . . .512 What is the System of Street-Cleaning in the Population of the United States?... .513 Why are “Cup Defenders” valueless for Cruising? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 How much Land in the United States is owned by Aliens?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 What are the improved Means of Access to the Elevated Trains in New York?. . . . . . 515 Give an Instance of a Farm worked by the Patients of an Insane Asylum . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 In What Part of the Bible is Silver first men- tioned as Money?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 What is a Shekel?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 When were Rings used as Money?... . . . . . 517 What is the Beka?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Where are Peanuts mostly grown?... . . . . . . 517 How are Peanuts cleansed for the Market?.517 What is the Process of sorting Peanuts?... 518 690 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS - QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE, What is done in the Factory With Peanut Shells? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Where is the largest Apartment House in the World, and how many Rooms does it con- tain? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 When and by whom was the Electric Current discovered? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom Was Induction dis- covered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the Continuous Cur- rent Dynamo invented”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the Roentgen X- Ray invented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the Zinc-Copper Battery invented 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the Automobile in- Vented 2 When and by whom was the Telautograph invented 2 When and by whom was the Method of print- When and by whom was the Incandescent Lamp invented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the Improved Au- When and by whom was the Arc Light pro- duced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the first electric Road built? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the first modern When and by whom was the first European electric Road built? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was the first practicable When was Stearn's duplex Telegraph System introduced 2 When did Wheatstone and Cook invent their System of Telegraphy?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When was the Submarine Cable laid across the Hoogly River?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 In what Year was the first Morse Telegraph Line constructed 2 When were Automatic Repeaters invented?. 519 When was the first long Submarine Cable laid in the British Channel?. . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When was the first successful Atlantic Cable laid? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When was Edison's Quadruplex Telegraph System introduced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. When and where was the first Telephone Ex- change operated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and where was the first central light- ing Station established?....... . . . . . . . . . . 519 When was Electricity first used on Elevated Roads in New York?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and where was the first Long-Dis- tance, High-Voltage Power Transmission Plant installed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and where were heavy Trains first moved by Electric Locomotives?......... 519 At what Time did the Road-Automobile come into general Use?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 When and by whom was Transatlantic Tele- phony made possible?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Pecuniary”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Money”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Coin”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Dollar”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Shilling”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What is the Derivation of the Word, “Sterling”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What Coins were named from their Weight?.520 -- -- -- -- -- -- Metal? ... 520 Design? .520 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- “ the Head of the State? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What Coins were called after the Names of Sovereigns? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 What Glass is used for Spectacle Lenses?... 520 How are Spectacle Lenses ground?... . . . . . . 521 -- -- -- “ shaped? ......... 521 -- -- -- “ beveled? ... . . . . . . 521 -- -- -- “ focused? ... . . . . . . 521 -- -- -- “ numbered? . . . . . . 521 Give the Name and Circulation of the oldest Newspaper in the World, and the Manner of its Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 What and where is the oldest Manuscript in Existence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Who originated.—“All is not Gold which glitters”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5242 - -- “Make a Virtue of Neces- sity”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 “Screw your Courage to the sticking Place”?... 522 “They laugh that win”?.522 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 691 QUESTIONS. Who originated.— “This is the long and -- - -- -- ANSWERS, PAGE, short of it”?... . . . . . . . 522 “Comparisons are odi- Ous”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 “As merry as the Day is long”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 “A Daniel comes to Judg- ment” 2 . . . . . ---------- 522 “Frailty, thy Name is Woman”? . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 “The Almighty Dollar”?..522 “What will Mrs. Grundy Say”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 “Ask me no Questions and I'll tell you no Fibs”?. 522 “Millions for Defense, but not one Cent for Tri- bute”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “First in War, first in Peace, and first in the Hearts of his Country- men”? ... . . . . . . . . . .... 523 “Make Assurance doubly sure”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “Count their Chickens ere they’re hatched”? . . . .523 “Christmas comes but “Look before you leap”?. 523 “It’s an ill Will turns no Good”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “Better late than never”?. 523 “The Stone that is rolling “All Cry and no Wool”?.523 “None but the Brave de- serve the Fair”?. . . . . . 523 “Men are but Children of a larger Growth”?. . . . . 523 “Through thic k a n d sº thin”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “No pent-up Utica con- tracts our Powers”?... 523 “When Greeks Join Greek, then comes the Tug of War”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “Of two Evils I have chosen the least”?..... 523 “The End must justify the Means”? . . . . . . . . . 523 “Richard is him self again”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. * Who originated.— “A good Hater”?... . . . . . . 523 -- -- “Wise and masterly Inac- tivity”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 -- -- “Variety's the very Spice of Life”? . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 -- -- “Not much the worse for Wear”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 -- -- “Man proposes but God disposes”? ... . . . . . . . . . 523" -- -- “Love me little, love me long”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 -- -- “A Man's House is his Castle”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . 523 -- -- -- -- “A Paradise of Fools”?... 523 “A W i 1 d e r n e s S Of Sweets”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “Moping Melancholy and Moonstruck Madness”?.523 T]eath loves a shining Mark”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “A Fool at 40 is a Fool indeed”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 “Man wants but Little, nor that Little long”?. 523 “XKnowledge is Power”?... 523 “Pity’s akin to Love”?... 523 “Bread is the Staff of Life”? ................ 523 “Coming Events cast their Shadows before”? . . . . 523 “Distance lends Enchant- ment to the View”?. . . . 523 “A Thing of Beauty is a Joy forever”? . . . . . . . . 523 “God helps them who help Themselves”? . . . . . . . . . 523 “God tempers the Wind to the Shorn Lamb”?..... 523 In what four Forms or States is Water found? . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . .523 How does a Mixture of cold Water with cold Sulphuric Acid affect the Temperature of the Combination? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 How much greater Space does Water occupy in the Form of Vapor than in its liquid State? ....... --------------------------- 523 How much Steam will a cubic Inch of Water make? . . . . . . 692 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What was the Allowance of Water for each Inhabitant in Imperial Rome?. . . . . . . . . . . 524 Describe the Effect of Iron on Water. . . . . . . . 524 -- -- * “ Lead “ “ . . . . . . . . . 524 What is the annual Bounty paid for Snake- Killing in India?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 How many Species of deadly Snakes infest the Bombay Presidency?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 To what Extent does the Cobra exist in every square mile in the Deccan?... . . . . . . . . . . 525 What is the Number of People Killed an- nually in India by venomous Snake-Bites?.525 What does the “Man in the Custom House” Describe the “Remarkable Clock in Prague”. 525 Give a Description of the “Wonderful Clock in Venice” What are the Ornamentations of the famous Clock in Japan?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 Tell the Story of the Clock at Geneva that excelled All Others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 When and Where was the first Clock in- Vented 2 Describe the Water Clock introduced into Rome, 145 B. C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 In what Century did Clocks moved by Weights and Wheels appear in Europe?... 526 What sort of a Clock did the Saladin of Egypt present to the Emperor Frederic, in 1232? When did Strassburg have its first public Clock? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 When did Padua have its first public Clock?.527 When did Courtray have its first public Clock? - When did Dijon have its first public Clock?. 527 About what Period did the common People begin to want to Know the “Time o' Day”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 When, where and by whom was the first wooden Clock made?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 When were the earliest Watches made?.... 527 Describe the tiny Watch presented to George III in 1764. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 How much does Crime annually cost the Peo- ple of Cook County, Illinois?. . . . . . . . . . . . 528 How did the Weeping Willow come to America? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 When were Envelopes first used?. . . . . . . . . . 528 When was Anaethesia first discovered?...... 528 When was the first Steel Pen made?.. . . . . . . . 528 -- -- -- -- Air Pump made?... . . . . . 528 QUESTIONS. ANSWERs. PAGE. -- “ “ “ Lucifer Match made?... 528 -- “ “ “ Balloon Ascension “ . , 528 -- “ “ “ Iron Steamship built?... 528 When were Ships first Copper-Bottomed?... 528 When and where were Coaches first used?..529 When was the first Horse Railroad built?... 529 When was the entire Hebrew Bible first printed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 In what Year was Gold first discovered in California? ............................. 529 When did the first Steamer ply the Hudson River? At what Time was Kerosene first used for lighting Purposes? When did the first Newspaper Advertise- ment appear? When and where was the first Copper Cent coined 2 When was the first Telescope used in Eng- land? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $29 When was the first Sawmaker's Anvil brought to America?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 When and by whom was the first Almanac printed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 When and whence was the first Chimney in- troduced into Rome?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 In what Century were Glass Windows first introduced into England? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 When and whence was the first Steam En- gine brought to America?............... 529 When and by whom was the first complete Sewing Machine patented?...... . . . . . . . . . 529 When was the first “Society to Promote Christian Knowledge organized”? . . . . . . . . 529 When were Pins first manufactured in America? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 How old were the Mummies on which Glass Beads were found?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 In What Year Was Gas first used to illumi- nate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 United States built?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 At What Date was the first National Bank in the United States incorporated?. . . . . . . . . 529 When and where was the first Temperance Society in the United States organized?.529 In what Year was manufactured the first Machine for carding, roving and spinning Cotton in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 When was the first Society organized for REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 698 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. When was the first Telegraph Instrument Operated by S. F. B. Morse?............. , 529 When and where was the first Union Flag unfurled? . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .529 When did the first Daily Newspaper appear?529 When and where was the first Newspaper When was the first Religious Newspaper published in the United States, and what was it called?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 In What Year did the “Shoe-Black” first come into Vogue?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 What did the Tahitians think when they first saw Iron Nails?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 How many Forms of Religious Worship exist in the World?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 530 Under What four great Heads may the Re- ligions of the World be classed? . . . . . . . . . . 530 How many Books does the Bible contain, and by how many Men are they Supposed What is the Shortest Verse in the Bible?... , 530 Where is the longest Verse in the Bible?... 530 How many Chapters, Verses, Words and What is the Middle Verse in the Scriptures?. 530. How many Newspapers were printed in the How many Newspapers are issued now in America? . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 530 How many Newspapers are issued now in Germany? ... . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 530 How many Newspapers are issued now in Great Britain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 How many Newspapers are issued now in France? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 How many Newspapers are issued now in Japan? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 How many Newspapers are issued now in Italy? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 How many Newspaper are issued now in the World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 530 What is the oldest Newspaper in the United Where is the largest Bell in the World, and what are its Circumference and Height?. 531 Where is the Highest Volcano in the World, QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. how high is it, and how deep and wide is its Crater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 What is the largest Theater in the World, what are its cubic Dimensions, and what Describe the largest Cavern in the World. , 531 Give the comparative numerical Strength of the great Powers in 1800 and 1902. . . . . . ... 531 What is the Number of English-speaking People in the World?................ . . . . 532 How many Locomotive Works are operated in the United States, and what was the How many Locomotives were constructed in these Works in 1902, and what was their Value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • . , 532 What was the average Cost of these Loco- motives? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What was the Number of Locomotives, Cars and Railroad Employes in the United Give the Cost of the Timber and Lumber used in preparatory Work on the New York Rapid Transit Tunnel.............. 532 How many Acres of Land are cultivated in Colorado? . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... . .532 How many Miles of irrigating Canals and Ditches has Colorado?.......... - - - - - - - - - 532 How many People in India, China, Japan and adjacent Countries, eat no Meat?.... 532 Of the 85,000 Indians in the five civilized Tribes of the United States, how many are “Full Bloods”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 HOW many Persons have Electric Cars Killed in 12 years?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 532 How many have Electric Cars injured in the same Period?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 How many Passengers do Electric Cars carry annually? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What Percentage of the Shots fired from Battleships hits the Enemy?... . . . . . . . . . 532 What Percentage of Shots fired by United States gunners was effective in the Span- ish-American War? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What Monarch has a Salary of $78.30 per Minute for his daily Work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What Country leads in the Production of Precious Metals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What was this Country’s Output of Gold and Silver in 1901. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 What was the World’s Output of Gold and Silver in 1901?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 532 694 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS - ANSWERS. - PAGE. Production of QUESTIONS. Give the Gold and Silver Give the Gold and Silver Africa and Australasia in 1901?.... . . . . . 532 Give the Gold and Silver What was the total Number of fine Ounces of Gold and Silver produced in the World in 1901? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Give the Gold and Silver Imports and Ex- ports of the principal Countries of the World in 1901. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 What was the net Sum of Exports of Aus- tralian and Chinese Gold in 1901?. . . . . . . 534 What was the industrial Consumption of precious Metals in the World in 1901?.... 534 When was Canada discovered? . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 At Which Period did the French take POS- session of Canada?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Name the Provinces included in the DO- minion of Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Give the Extent and Population of the Do- minion of Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 When and by whom was, Quebec founded?. 339 When and how did Canada become a POS- session of Great Britain?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 When was Nova Scotia ceded to Great Britain? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Out of what Territories were the Provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island formed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Of what Territory was British Columbia a Part, and when was it made a Crown Colony? When was British Columbia united to Wan- couver Island? When was the Dominion of Canada created?.339 In what Year was the Province of Manitoba formed? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 When was Manitoba, together with the Northwest Territories, admitted into the Dominion? When was British Columbia admitted into the Dominion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 When was Prince Edward Island admitted into the Dominion?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 QUESTIONS. ANSWER5, PAGE. Give the Details of a Religious Census of Canada taken in 1901. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 What is the Nature of the Canadian Gov- ernment? Mention the Branches of the Canadian GOV- ernment ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 What is the Membership of the Canadian Senate, and how is it distributed through How are the Members of the Canadian Sen- ate appointed, and what are the essential Qualifications for such Office?... . . . . . . . . . 340 How is the Canadian House of Commons composed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 How are the Provincial Governments of the Dominion organized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 By what Officials is Justice administered in Canada? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Name the Courts of the “Dominion”. . . . . . . 340 Specify the Provincial Courts of Canada. .340 Who is the Governor General of Canada, what is his Term of Office, and what, his Salary? Give an Idea of the Science of Keeping Business Accounts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 By means of what Instrument does the Pulse keep a Record of its Beats?........ 125 How many Methods of Bookkeeping are in Vogue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 What is an Indorsement?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 How many Beet-Roots may be grown on an Acre of Ground?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 Locate the Pottery Districts of America. . . 90 In what Ways can a Woman easily make In Business Penmanship, what Feature is essential? What are the Fees charged for domestic Money Orders in the United States, in- cluding its recently acquired Possessions?.628 What kind of Money Orders are used in this Country in doing Business with Can- Define 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Class Postage. .626 What are the respective Rates of Postage on these Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 695 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Name the Weight-Limit in Postage on Mer- chandise and other Matter in the 4th Class - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 627 What are the Postage Rates and Conditions to Alaska, Cuba, Hawaii; Guam, Porto Rico, the Philippines and the Island of Tutuilaº What are the Fees for Registration of Let- Give Directions for registering such Matter. 627 Mention the Limit in Amount of a single Money Order ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 What Books are used in Single-Entry Book- Weeping? What are Creditors and Debtors, and how are such Business Relations indicated in keeping Accounts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Mention the Books used in Double-Entry Bookkeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 What is the Use of an Invoice Book?...... 540 Give Directions for conducting a safe and profitable Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Where is Porcelain Ware brought to its highest Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 What is Kaolin, and where is it found?... 88 Make a Specimen Copy of Single-Entry, Day-Book Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 What is the Method of arranging these Transactions in “Journal” Form 2'. . . . . . . . 543 What is the “Ledger,” and how are its Ac- counts placed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Describe the Difference between Single and Double Entry Ledgers.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Make a Copy of a “Confidence Man's” Swindling Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 How are the principal Parties to Promis- sory Notes designated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 How many Days’ “Grace” are allowed on Time-Notes? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Make Copies of three Forms of Notes. . . . . . 587 What is the Form of a Judgment Note?.... 588 What are Drafts and Checks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 How should a Letter of Recommendation be written? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 What is the Form of a Letter of Introduc- tion ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Explain the Alphabet of Shorthand Writing.652 What is the Origin of ordinary Writing?... 653 Who Was Doctor Bright, and what Relation did he bear to Tachygraphy?............ 655 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. - PAGE. When did Isaac Pitman publish his first Work on Shorthand?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657 When was Shorth and first used in the United States? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Give some Directions for the Guidance of those desiring to increase their Incomes by independent, individual Effort. . . . . . . . 665 Enumerate One Hundred Ways to make Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 665 How was $2.00 per Bushel realized from Peaches when the Market Rate for the same Quality was but 25 Cents?. . . . . . . . . 666 What is the Number of Women Physicians in the United States?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Tracts of Land in the United States?.... 514 In what Manner is Respiration mechanic- ally registered by the Action of the Lungs? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 What is the Process of Posting, in Book- keeping? Prepare a Specimen of Entries in a Single- Entry Cash Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 Copy the Form of Entry of Bills Payable and Bills Receivable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 How are Accounts kept in the Double-Entry Journal 2 Give Items appearing in the Double-Entry Ledger What is the modern Method of making Porcelain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 How is a Trial Balance taken 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Is a balanced Ledger absolute Proof of the Correctness of all the Accounts? . . . . . . . . . 562 If not, what is the next Step requisite?.... 563 What is the Method of closing the Ledger?. 563 Give the Items of a Balance Sheet. . . . . . . . . . 564 What are the general and special Laws of Debit and Credit? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 How may one add Figures rapidly?... . . . . . . 568 How may one learn to multiply Figures rapidly? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Give an Example of rapid Multiplication and Division of Fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Repeat the Farmer's short Rules in Arith- metic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 How many Bushels of Onions will an Acre of Ground produce?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 How many small Trees will an Acre of Ground hold? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 What is Touch-Typewriting?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Give Directions for Practicing Shorthand. .650 696 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS ANSWERS. PAGE. How should the Arm, Hand and Fingers be held in learning to master Penmanship?. 642 Specify twenty-two Rules of Punctuation, .625 In what fourteen Instances should Capital QUESTIONS. Letters be used?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Give a few common Rules for Spelling, with Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 How are the Painting and Gilding done On fine Pottery Ware?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 How much Land does William Scully, of London, own in Illinois, and how are his holdings conducted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 What Steps are important to take in pre- paring Letters and other Matter for Mail- ing? Give Specimens of correct Wedding Invita- tions ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Give Forms of Letters of Credit. . . . . . . . . . . . 620 Repeat Advice concerning Letters of Appli- cation ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 What are “Follow-ups,” in Business Corre- spondence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 How would you place an Account for Col- lection? How is Hay measured in the Mow or Stack?.573 How is the Capacity of a Wagon-Box de- termined? What is the Rule for finding the Number of How is a Load of Grain figured in Bushels?.574 What is the Weight of a Bushel of Millet? . . . 574 -- -- -- -- -- Anthracite Coal?... . . 574 -- -- -- -- -- CIOVer Seed? . . . 574 -- -- -- -- -- Blue Grass Seed? . . . 574 -- -- -- -- -- Timothy Seed 2. . . 574 -- - -- -- -- Flax Seed?.574 How high a Temperature is reached in manufacturing Kilns? . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - 89 How are the Contents of a watering Trough calculated? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Give the Weight of a Bushel of dried Peaches.574 -- -- -- “ “ Apples... 574 -- - -- -- Peas. . . . . . . . . 574 -- -- -- -- Beans... . . . . . 574 -- -- -- - 4 Turnips. . . . . . 574 How much does a Bushel of Wheat weigh 2. . . 574 Corn on Cob “ 574 Rye “ 457 -- -- -- -- -- -- QUESTIONS, ANSWERS. PAGE. How much does a bushel of Oats weigh?. . . . . 574 -- -- -- Barley “ . . . . . . 574 - -- -- Buckwheat “ . . 574 -- -- -- Shelled Corn “ . . 574 -- -- -- Corn Meal “ . . 574 -- -- -- Potatoes “. . . 574 -- -- -- Onions -- . 574 What are the Properties and possible Uses of Polonium ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 How are the Contents of Barrels and Casks measured? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How are the Contents of a 1-ound Tank measured? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Grains are conta.r.led in the Avoirdupois Pound? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Grains are contained in the Troy Pound? For What is Avoirdupois Weight adapted?. 575 HOW many Grains are contained in One Ounce Avoirdupois? How many Ounces are contained in one Pound Avoirdupois? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Pounds are contained in one Quarter Avoirdupois? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Pounds are contained in one Ton Avoirdupois? How many Pounds are contained in one How many Pounds of Flour does one Barrel contain? How many Pounds of New York Salt does One Barrel contain How many Pounds of Nails does one Keg contain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Grains make one Pennyweight Troy? How many Pennyweights make one Ounce Troy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How many Ounces make one Pound Troy?... 575 How many Grains make one Ounce Troy?... 575 What is the Rule for determining the Num- ber of Common Bricks in the Wall of a Building? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 How is Ear Corn in the Crib measured?... . 575 What is the Form of a Sight Draft?... . . . . . 588 -- -- -- an Acceptance? . . . . . . 589 -- -- -- a Time Draft? . . . . . . . . 589 -- -- -- a Draft for Collection?.589 Describe the Effect of a Blank Indorsement. 591 What is a F . . . .” -- ent?... . . . . - - - - - - - - 592 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 697 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. What is a Qualified Indorsement?... . . . . . . . 593 What is a Conditional Indorsement?... . . . . . 593 State the Effect of Restrictive Indorsements and give Specimens of Forms. . . . . . . . . . . 593 Give Samples of Bank Drafts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 What do the different Rulings in the Ledger signify? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 For what Purposes are Debit Interest and Discount entered in the Ledger?... . . . . . . 566 For what Purposes are Credit Interest and Discount entered in the Ledger?... . . . . . . . 566 What are Miscellaneous Accounts?... . . . . . . 567 What are the two great Essentials of Com- mercial Arithmetic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 What are “Aliquot Parts”?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Give Illustration of Calculation on the Basis of Aliquot Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 How many Cubic Inches are contained in One Cubic Foot? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 How many Cubic Feet are contained in one Cubic Yard?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 How many Cubic Inches are contained in one Bushel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 How many Cubic Inches are contained in one Gallon? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Prepare a Tabulation of Aliquot Parts. . . . . . 576 Describe certain easy Methods for figuring Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 What are the Legal and Maximum Interest Rates in the States and Territories of the Union? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 What is the Rule for finding “Time between Dates”? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 By what Table may the Labor of compound- ing Interest be abridged? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 What is the Legal Rate of Interest in Eng- land, France and the Dominion of Can- ada? What is the Rule for finding the Amount to which any given Principal at Compound Interest at any Rate, will increase, for any Number of Years given in the Table FIow is the Amount of Compound Interest calculated from this Table, on any given Principal at any Rate per Annum and for any Period of Years?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 What are Discounts, and for what Reasons are they made?.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 State the different Methods of figuring Dis- counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 What is Simple Partnership?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Give Illustrations of Simple Partnership Arrangements ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• - - - - - - - - 580 What are the different Modes of adjusting Business Disputes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 From What is Polonium extracted? . . . . . . . . 92 How is “Compulsory Performance” en- forced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58%. What is a Contract? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Give an Example of a Valid Contract. . . . . . 583 In carrying out Contracts, does Silence give Consent? Who are legally competent to enter into Contracts? Under what Conditions may Minors make binding Contracts? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 What Classes are legally debarred from making Contracts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Under what Conditions under Common Law would a married Woman become compe- How is the Contract of a Lunatic voidable?. 584 What Effect does Duress have upon either Party to a Contract? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 What other Conditions invalidate Con- tracts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Name the Essence of a Contract. . . . . . . . . . . . 584 State the Difference between a good Con- sideration and a valuable Consideration, in drawing Contracts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 What is the Proof of a valuable Considera- tion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 What kinds of Contracts are invalid because barred by Statutes?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Give an Illustration of a fraudulent Con- tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 What Classes of Contracts must be in Writ- ing? Is it necessary to file Contracts in Courts of Record? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 What Contracts must be executed under Seal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 What is a Corporation?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Why should bills be paid by Checks?. . . . . . 585 Describe the astonishing Transmutation of Radium, lately discovered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 How is the Value of good Penmanship ShoWn? What is the successful Plan in studying Commercial Penmanship? . What kind of Materials should be used in this Study? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 45 698 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS *UESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Give a Definition of Muscular Movement as applied to Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 How may Muscular Action be developed in Writing? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 On what depends Success in learning a good Style of Business Writing?... . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 What Facts are noticeable in examining “Illustration 3”?.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 How is Counting important in regulating Motion when practicing Penmanship?. . . . 635 Describe the Muscular Movement Drill in learning to write. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Where is the Propelling Power located in the Muscles of the Arm, while writing?..637 In studying Penmanship, what kind of What is the best Mode of relieving Muscular Tension in acquiring a correct Style of Chirography? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; : . . . . . . . . 645 Mention two other Methods of attaining the same End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 Of what Size should Figures be made?... . . . 649 Describe the Form of artistically made Fig- ures At what Rate of Speed should certain Fig- ures be made while practicing Commer- cial penmanship? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Describe the Exercise on Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 How were Amanuenses designated shortly after the Birth of Christ?.... . . . . . . . . . . . 653 How were they styled in the Book of Ezra, in the Holy Scriptures?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Name the most popular Shorthand System of To-Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Of what Characters is all written and spoken Language made up?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 What is the best Procedure for making a Profit on Garden Produce?... . . . . . . . . . . . 665 How many Cucumbers may be grown on an Acre of Land?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 In what Way can one living a short Dis- tance from the City make Shopping Trips profitable? Name several simple Articles which would - find a ready Sale, if developed by invent- ive Ingenuity . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 670 - - - - - - QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. PAGE. Describe several miscellaneous Ways of gaining Riches ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 What Positions bring large Salaries?... . . . . 673 What Advice is given to Teachers of Pen- manship in “Drill 9”?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 What is “Preparatory Motion,” in learning to write? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 What Class of Accounts does the Double- Entry Ledger contain?..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 What is a Will? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 How is the Man or Woman making a Will styled? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 When is a Will of no Force?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 How many kinds of Wills are made?... . . . . . 595 What Persons cannot serve as Executors of Wills? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 What is Breach of Promise?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 What are Ante-Nuptial Contracts?... . . . . . . 597 Specify the several Causes for Divorce. . . . . 597 Define the Right of Married Women to own Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 What is the Law governing lost Notes?....598 Give Table showing how Money accumulates.598 Give the Form of a Real Estate Mortgage. .. 599 How does a Chattel Mortgage Run?... . . . . . 600 What is the Form of a Warranty Deed? . . . . 602 What Provisions do Leases contain?... . . . . . 603 -- -- -- -- Vicious Animals?.604 Runaway Horses?.605 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Dogs?... . . . . . . . . . 605. -- -- -- -- Scratching Hens?.605 -- -- -- -- Overhanging Trees?... . . . . . . . 605 What is the first Essential in good Letter- Writing? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Should the Address appear inside the Letter? ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 What is the Salutation of a Letter?... . . . . . 609 What is the Body of a Letter?... . . . . . . . . . . 610 Form for refusing to fill Order and asking for References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 “ of Letter giving References. . . . . . . . . . 614 -- -- “ requesting Payment . . . . . . 615 -- “ drawing upon Debtor through the Bank . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - e15 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Portraft—Santos Dumont.................. 23 Dumont's Workshop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Dumont’s First Balloon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Dumont's Airship No. 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Basket, of Dumont's Airship No. 1. . . . . . . . . . 26 Dumont's Airship No. 9... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Interior of the Aerodome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 A Fashionable Automobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Automobile Mowing Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Demonstration of Perfect Control. . . . . . . . . . 30 Climbing a 25 Per Cent Grade, Loaded. ... 31 Portrait—Marconi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Portrait—A. B. Saliger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Interior of Experimental Station. . . . . . . . . . 33 Marconi Station—Glace Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Temporary Experimental Station. . . . . . . . . . 34 Foot Seen Through Shoe by X-Ray. . . . . . . . 36 Bones of the Foot as Shown by X-Ray. . . . 37 Bones of the Hand as Seen by X-Ray. . . . . . 39 Bullet as Detected by X-Ray. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Bell’s First Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Portrait—Thomas A. Edison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Franklin and His Kite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Gardner Electric Rock Drill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Telephone–Central Office, Chicago. . . . . . . . . 47 Telephone Exchange, Chicago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Flectric Headlight on the C., M. & St. P. Ry. 49 The Photophone—Latest Scientific Miracle. . 50 Roman Catapult for Throwing Stones. . . . . . 52 “Velox”—The Fastest Destroyer Afloat. . . . 52 Gun-Napoleon's in the Kremlin. . . . . . . . . . 54 Sea Powers of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Yacht “Arrow,” Fastest in the World. . . . . . 56 Warship—American of Early Times. . . . . . . 57 Launching of Cruiser “Colorado.”. . . . . . . . . 58 Cruiser—Largest in Active Service. . . . . . . . 59 Cruiser—U. S. “Galveston.”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Battleship—Swiftest Afloat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 A New Naval Nursery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Violet Rays of Light Perförm Wondrous Cures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64 Reducing Luxation of Dorsal Vertebrae. ... 65 Removing Tumor from Cervical Vertebrae. . 66 Operating Clinic—Northwestern University. 67 Microscopic Room–Harvey Medical College. 68 - PAGE- Operating Clinic—Cook County Hospital, Chicago ... . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 69 Moving Pictures—14 in Number....... . . . 73 Feed Wire System for High Speed Electric Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - 74 Electric Car—110 Miles Per Hour.......... 75 Transcontinental Express—60 Miles Per Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - ... 76 Portrait-D. R. Lovejoy................... 77 Portrait—Charles S. Bradley.............. 77 Arc Machine, Operated by Power from Ni- a8ara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Arcs—10,000 Volts, Burning the Air. . . . . . 79 Terminals Used for Arcing and Burning Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Chamber Mounted With Arcs.............. 80 Liquid Air Boiling on a Block of Ice...... 81 Liquid Air-Packing for Shipment. . . . . . . . 81 Liquid Air—Boiling by Heat of the Atmos- phere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Liquid Air–Drawing from the Liquefier. ... 82 Liquid Air–Roses Frozen With. . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Liquid Air–Driving Nail. With Hammer... 84 Stained Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Stained Glass Window—Hunting Scene. . . . . 86 Artistic Glass Window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Windows—Beveled Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Kiln—Porcelain Factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Clay Department. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Glazing Porcelain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Hand Painting and Gilding Porcelain. . . . . . 89 Putting Handles on Cups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Kiln Placing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 A Presser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Power of Radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Chronophotograph of the Jaw. . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 How Voice Looks in Forming Sounds. . . . . . 94 Air Currents Passing a Curved Object. ... 94 Solar Furnace—Side View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Solar Furnace—Front View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Tinning Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Cutting and Doubling Shears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 The Branner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Where Block Plates Are Covered With Tin. 100 Tin–Placing Block... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 699 700 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Tinning Pot—Sectional View.............. 101 The “Assassin” of the Sea................. 102 Lighthouse—Minot's Ledge... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Buoy–The Breeches........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Typical Lighthouse and Tender. . . . . . . . . . . 107 Typical Range Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Running a Life Line to Stranded Ship..... 109 Talking Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Automobile Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Twelve Passenger, Brake, Canopy and Cur- tains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - 113 Auto Truck with from 2 to 4 Tons’ Capacity 115 Automobiles, Passing in Review. . . . . . . . . . . 116 Manufacturing Binder Twine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Boring Knotter Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Quitting Time at McCormick’s. . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Feeding of Coal Automatically. . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Shredding Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Making Knotter Hooks and Binder Needles. 120 Sewing—How Done. Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Sewing Machine—Before the Time of... . . . . 121 Knitting Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Knitting Machine Factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Pianola, Ready to Attach to the Piano. . . . . . 124 Pianola–Singing. With. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 University of Pennsylvania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Ready to Make Bird’s-Eye View. . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Photographic Tower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Camera–Largest on Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Photographer, Balloon Used by . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Photography, Illustrating the Art of . . . . . . . 132 Decoy Goat Leading Sheep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Government Inspector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Packing Plant—Largest in the World. . . . . . 135 Section in Cooler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Filling Pails With Lard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Skinning Sheep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Loading Into Refrigerator Car. . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Scalding Hogs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Sewing Hams for Export. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Rough Finishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Packing Mince Meat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 “Oleo" Agitation... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Skinning Cattle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Sausage Rockers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Canning Department—Stock Yards. . . . . . . . . 143 Sliding Onto Rail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 The Cattle Pens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Taking Our Leaf Lard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Hoisting on Revolving Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Sheep Killing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Rumping and Backing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Putting Up Sausages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Horse Market—Greatest in the World -- ºr " PAGE Horse–Longest Tailed in the World. . . . . . 149 Mule Farm.............. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 149 “Flatiron” Building, New York City. . . . . . , 150 “Monadnock,” Chicago, Ill........ . . . . . . . . . 151 “Masonic Temple,” Chicago, Ill... . . . . . . . . . 153 “Havermeyer” Building, New York City. ... 154 “Auditorium,” Chicago, Ill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Auditorium, Banquet at. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Chicago Postoffice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Sextuple and Color Combination Press and Folder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Press, Old Style Screw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Typical Russian Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Removing Bends in River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Method of Cooking Meats for Canning...... 166 Heading and Soldering Canned Meats. . . . . . 106 Largest Private Office in the World. . . . . . . . 167 Preparing Jewish Meats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Canning Beans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Turtles as Brought Into Market. . . . . . . . . . . 169 Turtles Being Prepared for Soup. . . . . . . . . . 169 Bottling Pickles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Up-to-Date Dray Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Picking Peas at Mt. Morris, Ill. . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Salmon Cannery–Montreal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 World’s Largest Sailing Vessel. . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Largest Wessel Ever Built in America. . . . 174 Cable That Girdles Half the Globe. . . . . . . . . . 175 Egg Packing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Press—Benjamin Franklin’s.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Linotype Operators Engaged in Their Work. 184 Newsboys at Four O’clock A. M.. . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Wheat Field—Dakota. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 A Mammoth Grain Elevator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Dust Collectors and Purifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Grinding Flour—Pillsbury “A” Mill. . . . . . . . 193 Baking Bread in Electric Ovens. . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Grinding Flour... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 . Testing Samples of Flour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Largest Flour Mill in the World. . . . . . . . . . . 196 Locomotive, First Coal-Burning. . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Dining Car, Up-to-Date. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Water Channels for Large Cities. . . . . . . . . . 199 Tunnel, Mine, Colorado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Poultry Killing by Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Iceberg, Gigantic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Dam at ASSouan. . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 209 Great Dam at ASSouan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Navigation Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Along the Top of the Dam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Early Irrigation in Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Rubber Tree, Young. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Rubber Tree in U. S. Barracks. . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Salt Plowing With Temperature at 140°. . . . .218 ILLUSTRATIONS 701 PAGE Jrawing Salt in California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Tobacco, Method of Drying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Tobacco Planting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 How Canals Are Made. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 “Stern Wheeler” Pushing Raft of Logs. . . 224 Canal, Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Canal, Corinth, Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Oil Field Near Los Angeles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Oil Team Crossing the San Joaquin Valley. 228 Oil Well, Flow from a 50-Barrel. . . . . . . . . . . 230 Pianos, Up-to-Date Method of Making. . . . 231 Pianos, Ready for Making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Piano—View of Interior of Cabinet Baby Grand Upright. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Piano Key—Most Durable Manufactured. . . 232 Graphite, Sorting Out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Ice Making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Sugar Cane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - 239 Sugar Cane on the Levee at New Orleans. . 240 Sugar Cane Cutting, Lincoln, Neb. . . . . . . . . . 241 Miner and Car—“Not Filled”. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Breakers, One of the Big. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Miner's House. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Miners, With Powder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Driving Nails by Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Unloading Ore and Loading Fuel, Buffalo, N. Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Silk Worm, Feeding the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Cocoon—End View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Moth, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Raw Silk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ."... 252 Dyeing Silk. . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - * . . . . . . . . . 252 The Twisting Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Weaving Silk, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Elevated Railroad, Great Curve of the New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Map of Eastern Hemisphere in 1800. . . . . . 257 Map of Eastern Hemisphere in 1900. . . . . . . . 257 Plowing a Path to the Pole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Dining-Room on the Pennsylvania Limited Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Senate Chamber, Washington, D. C. . . . . . . . 261 House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Watching the Time Ball on Navy Depart- ment ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Touching Clock Which Gives Time to All America by W. U. T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 United States Supreme Court in Session. . . . 266 Printing Money at Bureau of Engraving and Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Attorney's Room at the Patent Office, Where Records Are Kept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 PAGE Cancelling Postage Stamps in the Postof- fice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Model Representing Porta Rican Mail Car- rier in Postoffice Department. . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Alaskan Mail Carrier and Dogs at the Post- office Department. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Dead Letter Office. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Bureau of Engraving and Printing. . . . . . . . 282 Map of Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 A Sicilian in Native Costume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Irrigation Immigrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Bottomless Lake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - 286 Selling Nuts at Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 The Weather Bureau Signal Station. . . . . . . . 289 Instrument at Weather Bureau. . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Preparing the Weather Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Gumming Postage Stamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Macerating Old Money. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.94 The President at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 A Ranch in Washington. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Texas Longhorn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Great Farms of the West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Great Western Ranch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Showing the Brand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Branding a Steer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Cowboys of New Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Big Trees of California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 American Soldiers With Filipino Children. 308 Government School at Carlisle, Pa. . . . . . . . . 309 Cocoa Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Stage Coaches Starting for the Mines. . . . . . 313 Killing, Skinning and Cutting Up Seal in Alaska ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Sponge Factory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 7 Palm Beach... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 Latest Method of Growing Pineapples. . . . . . 320 Cocoanut Plantation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 New York and Brooklyn Bridge. . . . . . . . . . . . 324 The German Emperor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 “Trawling” on the Floor of the Pacific. ... 329 Mountaineering in Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Houses of Parliament and Westminster Ab- bey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 A Famous Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Shooting Lachine Rapids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Column of July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Station of the Paris Underground Railway. 345 Making Fish Nets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Cinchona Tree. . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 352 Dipping Sheep at Oamaru, New Zealand. ... 354 Shearing Sheep by Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Australian Wool Teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Rice Culture in China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 * ap'dary-Stone Cutter... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 358 702 ILLIISTRATIONS PAGE Chinese Merchant............... - - - - - - - , .. 358 Itinerant Native Cobbler, Hongkong. . . . . . . . 358 Examination Hall, Canton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Private Sedan Chair, China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Hongkong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Elephant Hunting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Domestic Elephants... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Oyster Catching, Ceylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Cocoanut Tree Climber, Ceylon. . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Plowing in Ceylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Extracting Cocoa Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Buddha’s Tooth in Buddha Temple. . . . . . . . 365 Cinnamon Tree, Ceylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Procession at the Indian Durbar. . . . . . . . . . 366 Pyramids, The Greatest of “Cheops”. . . . . . 367 Climbing to the Top of the Pyramids. . . . . . . 368 Tapioca Plantation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘371 Loading Cotton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Southern Cotton Plantation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Hauling Cotton to the Gin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Bales of Cotton. As It Is Picked. . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Cotton Compress at Birmingham, Ala... . . . . . 374 George Washington Fire Engine. . . . . . . . . . . 375 Self-Propelling Steam Fire Engine. . . . . . . . 376 Chemical Engine and Hose Wagon. . . . . . . . 376 Amoskeag Self-Propelling Steam Fire En- gine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 A Cyclone As It Strikes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Where Costumes Are Made. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Box Arrangement of a Modern Theater. . . . 387 Where Scenery Is Painted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Stage Scene, Model For . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Liquors—Testing in Bureau of Revenue. . . . 390 Fermenter, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Wat, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Storeroom, The... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Typewriter, The Pocket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Coffee Plantation ................. . . . . . . . . . 396 Coffee, Drying the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Tea, Transplanting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Tea Plucking in Ceylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Tea Nursery, Shaded by Ferns. . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Tea Powdered by the Feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Weighing Tea Chests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Inside a Factory Roller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Tea, Getting Dust Out of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Tea, Forcing Moisture from the Leaves. . . . 401 Incubator, The Modern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Twenty Days Under a Hen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Incubator, Twenty Days in the . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Football—Chicago University. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Derby Day—Chicago ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Steeple Chase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 The Favorite Game Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Surf Bathing—New Jersey. . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - 411 PAGr, Curling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 A Popular Winter Sport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Cradling Grain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Wheat in the Stack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Cigar Factory, Typical Scene in . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Cigars, Tying Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Sorting the Good Tobacco from the Poor. . . 427 Locomotive, The First. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Sleeping Car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Pullman Sleeping Car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Modern Private Apartment Railroad Car. . .439 First Railway Motor in England. . . . . . . . . . 440 The “Baldwin” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Logging in Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Lumbermen Boating Down a Mountainside. 443 British Naval Dry Dock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Raising Ostriches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Engine of a “Snow Locomotive”. . . . . . . . . . 450 A “Snow Locomotive”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Great Mills That Use Niagara's Power. . . . 469 Piazzi Searching the Heavens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 The Solar System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 The Lick Observatory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 36-Inch Telescope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Transit of Venus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Northern Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 The Moon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Merchants' Loan and Trust Bank, Chicago. . 488 Board of Trade, Chicago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 New Orleans Cotton Levee. . . . . . . . . . . . . , , 492 In a Pacific Harbor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 How Great Britain Looks Upon Tammany. 509 Autographs of the Presidents of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Moving Stairways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 View of American Waltham Watch Factory. .. 527 Big Bell at Chionin, Kioto. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Twenty Light Generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 How the U. S. Government Protects Its Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164-165 Acetylene Gas Generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 During Long Arctic Night. . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - 259 Pen Drawing—At the Desk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Pen Drawings—Scenes Over the Counter - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 539-40-47 Pen Drawing—Ready Reckoning. . . . . . . . . . . 568 Pen Drawings—Palmer's Short Rules in Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573-74-75-76 Pen Drawing—How to Develop Muscular Ac- tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633-34 Pen Drawing–Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635-649 Pen Drawing—The Typewriter Girl . . . . . . . . 652 Pen Drawing—Drills on Reading Short- hand . . . . . . . • * * * * *- : * : * ' ' ' ' . . . . . . . . .659-664 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN GRADUATE LIBRARY DATE DUE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN iii. O 3 9015 O7463 5452 - |