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DR.HENRY KRAEMER.
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA
AND
PHARMACOGNOSY
SAYRE
A MANUAL
OF
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA
AND
PHARMACOGNOSY
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE VEGE-
TABLE KINGDOM AND THE VEGETABLE
AND ANIMAL DRUGS.
COMPRISING
THE BOTANICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCE,
CONSTITUENTS, PHARMACOPOEIAL PREPARATIONS,
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS, AND
PHARMACAL BOTANY.
BY
LUCIUS E. SAYRĖ, B.S., Pí. M.,
DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF PHARMACY; PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS; MEMBER OF THE COMMITtee of revision of
THE UNIted staTES PHARMACOPŒIA.
THIRD EDITION, REVISED.
WITH
HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIQUE
BY
WILLIAM C. STEVENS,
PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS.
WITH 377 ILLUSTRATIONS,
THE MAJORITY OF WHICH ARE FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
AND PHOTOMICROGRAPHS.
PHILADELPHIA:
P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO.,
Ι Ο Ι 2 WALNUT
STREET.
1905.
COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY P. BLAKISTON'S SON & Co.
"Authority to use for comment the Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America, Eighth
Decennial Revision, in this volume, has been granted by the Board of Trustees of the United
States Pharmacopœial Convention, which Board of Trustees is in no way responsible for the accur-
acy of any translations of the official weights and measures or for any statements as to strength.
of official preparations."
PRESS OF Wm. f. fell Co.
1220-1224 SANSOM STREET
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
To the student and the instructor who are acquainted with the progress.
of pharmacy it is apparent that the publication of the eighth decennial
revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia demands a revision of all
works bearing upon Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy. The decennial
revision marks an important epoch in the history of pharmacy, and a
general recognition of this is shown by the more or less prompt conformity
to this latest standard of other works bearing upon it.
In the special line of Pharmacognosy there has been recently a vast
deal of research, and a proper recognition of this demands a revision of
works relating thereto. One branch of this-histology-has greatly in-
creased our store of knowledge. This field alone has greatly added to
the labor of preparing the manuscript of the present edition. In connection
with this part of the work the author desires to express his indebtedness
to Mr. Chas. Sterling and Mr. L. D. Havenhill; through the co-operation
of these associates in the University it has been made possible for the
author to present such additions to the work as the microscopical elements
of vegetable powders and to furnish photo-micrographs of various drug
sections. The author desires to give these associates the entire credit for
this work. It has been necessary to review the whole field of Materia
Medica in order to add the new and useful drugs, assayed drugs and
preparations, plant constituents and active principles, and to eliminate
those which no longer serve the student or the instructor representing this
extensive subject.
To the chapter on organic chemicals has been added a large number of
modern synthetic remedies. The aim has been to present those remedies
actually prescribed by physicians and dispensed by pharmacists. This
could be accomplished only by compiling such a list from recent prescription
files and from orders from wholesale and jobbing houses. The author is
much indebted for help in this direction to Mr. H. D. Faxon, with Faxon,
Horton and Galligher, of Kansas City, Mo.
The present edition aims to give the present facts regarding Materia
Medica and Pharmacognosy in as concise a form as possible. Many of
the former articles have been reduced in length in order to prevent undue
iii
iv
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
•
enlargement of the volume necessarily occasioned by the added new
material.
For the first time in its history the pharmacopoeia names a dose for each
of the various official agents-the average dose of each drug and preparation
is given. It should be stated, in this connection, that the author, in this
revision, has not conformed to this method, but has continued the plan,
of former editions, of stating the maximum and minimum doses recognized
by authorities on posology.
With a few exceptions there has been added to the description of all
of the official drugs a brief statement as to the prominent characteristic
microscopical elements found in their powders. Chapter XI of Part IV,
on Powdered Drugs, has been rewritten and extended in order to present
the facts, which are of growing importance to pharmacy students and
instructors, in such a manner as to command attention to this very inter-
esting subject.
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS.
L. E. S.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
In preparing the second edition it has been the aim to enhance the
value of the book to the practical pharmacist. With this end in view
the chapters on Elementary Botany have been replaced by Part IV, on
Histology and Microtechnic. The value of skill in the use of the micro-
scope, and of a knowledge of the minute anatomy of plant structures,
is becoming more fully recognized as the science of Pharmacy advances.
Pharmacognosy is destined to make notable progress along with the
development of microchemical technic. The dependence of Pharma-
cognosy on microchemical methods has been recognized by the con-
siderable space devoted to the chapters on Reagents and Processes, and
Plant Products. In the chapters on Histology the development and
functions of tissues are discussed not because it is supposed that histogeny
and physiology have an immediate application in Pharmacognosy, but
for the reason that there can be no comprehensive knowledge of anatomy
without the broader view which histogeny and physiology afford.
The chapter on Organic Synthetical Remedies has been replaced by a
more condensed treatment embracing a classification of these agents.
In appending to the more potent drugs the notes on the active princi-
ples, usually alkaloids, the idea has been to show principles of separation
rather than the details of practical operation, and to this end only a brief
outline of a simple method of isolation is given. Some of the more im-
portant characteristics of the principles are also given. Although over
150 pages of new material appear in this edition, and as many new
illustrations, the size of the volume has not been materially increased.
Acknowledgment is here made to Dr. Edward Bartow, of the Univer-
sity of Kansas, for valuable services in the preparation of the Classification
of Organic Synthetical Remedies.
V
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
The present volume is, in a slight degree, a revision of a work written
by the author in 1879, entitled "Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacal
Botany." This work has been out of print a number of years, and until
recently the author has had no time to rewrite it in such a manner as
seemed necessary to bring it up to the present standard; it has also been
deemed advisable to change completely the model of the former work.
The task now accomplished presents not so much a revision, as a new
treatise.
Two methods of classification of drugs are here brought into use—a
classification according to physical characteristics, and a classification
according to botanical relationships,-both of which are, though occupy-
ing separate divisions of the book, so brought together by a system of
numbering that the place of the drug in each of the classes is at once
apparent. The author would here suggest that those who make use of
the work in connection with a cabinet of specimens, should have the
containers in the cabinet numbered to accord with the numbers in the
book, in order that students may readily find specimens for identification
and study.
It is perhaps needless to state that the nomenclature and general char-
acter of the text is made to conform with the present standard—the United
States Pharmacopoeia; but the capitalization of specific names derived
from proper nouns has been discarded, in accordance with present botan-
ical practice. The descriptive heading of each of the official drugs has
been in most cases given in the pharmacopoeial language. The unofficial
drugs are distinguished in the text by the use of a different type and by a
different setting of the article from that which treats of the official drugs.
In this connection the author desires to give credit to Mr. George S. Davis,
who has aided in the work by placing at the author's disposal most ex-
cellent material regarding rare unofficial drugs, and the use of material
from his publication, credited under Bibliography.
The scope of the work, it will be seen, embraces not only the official
drugs of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, but a vast variety of un-
official drugs, some of which are of rare occurrence in the market. These
have been included because of the greater field this inclusion gives for
vii
viii
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
pharmacal and botanical study; the greater variety of forms presented to
the student of pharmacognosy, the wider will be his range of observation.
It is hoped that in the 624 drugs mentioned, the student or instructor
will be able to make a selection which will be ample to supply material
to illustrate the principles of the subject under consideration. In a work
of this size an exhaustive treatment of this number of drugs could not
be given, but by a brief mention of them material for study is indicated.
It may be mentioned in this connection that wherever metric measure-
ments are given, these are stated in millimeters; this has been deemed
advisable for the purpose of comparison.
The illustrations included in Part I are taken mainly from Bentley's
"Manual of Botany," to the author of which our thanks are due. An
exception, however, is found in the drawings of the starches, which were
prepared from original specimens. The remaining illustrations, with the
exception of those in the Chapter on Animal Drugs, have been prepared
under the direction of C. E. McClung, Ph. G., a graduate of the Kansas
State University School of Pharmacy, class of '92. All the drawings of
the cross-sections are drawn directly from sections prepared by him, the
cell contents being first removed by the method described in Appendix
C. It has been our aim to present the elements of each drug in their
true proportions. As often as possible the cells in their exact shape and
relative size have been drawn, and in no case has meaningless shading
been employed. For some of the drawings of the medicinal plants credit
is given below in the Bibliography. The illustrator has kindly furnished
a Chapter on Pharmacal Microscopy, which will be found in Appendix C.
The author is much indebted to Professor Vernon Kellogg for informa-
tion concerning animal drugs used in pharmacy; also for Appendix B, in
which he treats of insects attacking drugs. The drawings to illustrate the
material furnished by Professor Kellogg are hereby credited to Miss Mary
Wellman, artist.
For aid in the preparation of the text in Part I our thanks are due to
Mr. A. O. Garrett, who, in his university course, has made botany a
special study.
Appendix B, upon the synthetic remedies, is the work of Mr. F. B.
Dains, who has made a specialty of organic chemistry and was instructor
in this subject in the University of Kansas during the year 1894. In
this section the new spelling of chemicals has been adopted only in a few
cases.
To Dr. S. W. Williston, Professor of Physiology and Anatomy, who
has aided in the condensed description of therapeutic action; to Mr.
O. H. Parker and Mr. William Clark, members of the Senior Class of '94,
who assisted in the study of characteristics from crude specimens of drugs
PRETACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
ix
in the open market; to Mr. W. O. Strother, of the same class, who sup-
plied a few drawings of cross-sections; and to Mr. W. F. Newton, of
the Junior Class, who materially aided not only in the study of drug char-
acteristics, but also in arranging the material, our thanks are due.
L. E. S.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The following works have been consulted, and credit is due to the
authors of the same:
United States Pharmacopoeia.
United States Dispensatory.
National Dispensatory.
Reports of the American Pharmaceutical Association."
Friederich A. Flückiger and Daniel Hanbury: "Pharmacographia," London, 1874.
John Harley: "Royle's Materia Medica," sixth edition, London, 1876.
John M. Maisch: "A Manual of Organic Materia Medica," Philadelphia, 1892.
Parke, Davis & Co.: "Organic Materia Medica," Detroit, 1888.
Robert Bentley: "A Manual of Botany," London, 1887.
John B. Shoemaker: "Materia Medica and Therapeutics" (2 vols.), Philadelphia,
1893.
Samuel O. L. Potter: "Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and Therapeutics," fifth edition,
Philadelphia, 1894.
W. H. White and Reynoldds W. Wilcox: "Materia Medica and Therapeutics,"
second edition, Philadelphia, 1894.
Asa Gray: "Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States," New York, 1889.
Alphonso Wood: "Class Book of Botany," New York, 1866.
William Dymock, C. J. H. Warden, David Hooper: "Pharmacographia Indica,”
London and Bombay, 1893.
Bernard Fischer: "Die Neueren Arzneimittel" (sixth edition), Berlin, 1894.
A. Brestowski: "Die Neueren und Neuesten Arzneimittel," Leipzig, 1891.
Lehn & Fink: "Notes on New Remedies," New York.
David M. R. Culbreth: "Materia Medica and Pharmacology," Philadelphia, 1896.
Also, the following works, from which, in addition, illustrations have
been taken:
Kohler's "Medizinal-Pflanzen," Hrs'g von G. Pabst (2 vols.), 1887-1890.
Robert Bentley and Henry Trimen: "Medicinal Plants” (4 vols.), London, 1880.
Charles E. Bessey: "Botany," fifth edition, 1888.
A. B. Frank: "Lehrbuch der Botanik," Leipzig, 1892.
Emm. Le Maut and Th. Decaisne: "Traité Général de Botanique," Paris, 1876.
Anton Kerner von Marilau: "Pflanzenleben" (2 vols.), Leipzig, 1887.
J. Godfrin, De Nancy, et Ch. Noël: "Atlas manuel de l'histologie de drogues simples,"
Paris, 1887.
L. Trabut: "Précis de Botanique Médicinale," 1891.
Friederich A. Flückiger and Alexander Tschirch: "The Principles of Pharmacog-
nosy," New York, 1887; Translated by Friederich B. Power.
xi
xii
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
William Woodville: "Medical Botany" (second edition), London, 1810.
Eduard Strasburger: "Das Botanische Practicum," Jena, 1897.
Naegeli and Schwendener: “The Microscope," Swan, Sonnenschein & Co., London,
1892.
Eduard Strasburger: "Bau und Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen,”
Jena, 1891.
Sachs: "Text Book of Botany."
De Bary: "Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns," Oxford, 1884.
Haberlandt: "Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie," Leipzig, 1896.
Pfeffer: "Pflanzenphysiologie," Leipzig, 1897.
Meyer: "Untersuchungen über die Stärkekörner," Jena, 1895.
Thomas and Dudley: "Laboratory Manual of Plant Histology," Crawfordsville,
Ind., 1894.
Vines: "Student's Text Book of Botany," London and New York, 1895.
Strasburger: "Cytologische Studien," Berlin, 1897.
Beilstein: "Handbuch der Organischen Chemie," Hamburg und Leipzig, 1898.
Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper: "Lehrbuch der Botanik," Jena, 1894.
Zimmerman, A.: "Botanical Microtechnique," New York, 1893.
Tschirch and Oesterle: "Anatomischer Atlas der Pharmakognosie und Nahrungs-
mittelkunde,” Leipzig, 1900.
Dr. A. E. Vogl: "Die Wichtigsten Vegetabilishen Nahrungs und Genussmittel,"
Berlin and Wien, 1899.
Dr. Albert Schneider: "Powdered Vegetable Drugs," Pittsburg, 1902.
Dr. Henry Kreamer: "Botany and Pharmacognosy," Philadelphia, 1902.
Henry George Greenish, F. I. C., F. L. S.: "Foods and Drugs," Philadelphia, 1903.
Dr. George Karsten: "Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreiches," Jena,
1903.
Dr. Arthur Meyer: "Die Grundlagen und die Methoden für die Mikroskopische
Unterendung von Pflanzenpulver," Jena, 1901.
Dr. Ludwig Koch: "Die Mikroskopische Analyse der Droguenpulver," Berlin, 1904.
Greenish and Collin; An Anatomical Atlas of Vegetable Powders," London, 1904.
White and Humphrey : "Pharmacopedia," London, 1904.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
A STUDY OF DRUGS.
PAGE
CLASSIFICATION,
17-41
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES,.
41-48
CONSPECTUS A.-Official Drugs Arranged According to Structural
Characteristics,...
48-59
CONSPECTUS B.-Official and Unofficial Drugs Arranged According to
Prominent Physical Properties, and Subdivided by Odor and
Taste,
59-75
PURITY OF DRUGS AND DRUG ASSAY,.
76-77
PART II.
DRUG DESCRIPTION.
SECTION I.—Organic Drugs from the Vegetable Kingdom, Described
AND ARRANGED ACCORDING TO FAMILIES OR NATURAL ORDERS.
FROM RANUNCULACEA TO ALGÆ,.
78-468
SECTION II.-ANIMAL DRUGS,.
469-487
SECTION III.—(A) SYNOPSIS Of Natural ORDERS, OR FAMILIES, AND OF
Drugs, ArraNGED ACCORDING TO PART II,..
488-496
SECTION III.-(B) Drug ASSAY PROCESSES,.
497-499
PART III.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS,..
500-508
PART IV.
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC 509-669
CHAPTER I.
Selection and Use of Apparatus for Use in Vegetable Histology,-
CHAPTER II.
Preparation of Material for Section-cutting-Different Methods of Section-
cutting,...
CHAPTER III.
The Plant Cell and Its Products,.
509-525
525-536
537-551
xiii
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER.IV.
PAGE
Cell Formation,.
552-558
CHAPTER V.
The Tissues,..
558-561
CHAPTER VI.
The Tissue Systems,.
561-584
CHAPTER VII.
Secondary Increase in Thickness,
584-594
CHAPTER VIII.
The Distribution of Tissues in Leaves,-
594-601
CHAPTER IX.
Reagents and Processes,
CHAPTER X.
601-632
Methods of Demonstrating the Character of Cell-walls and Cell-contents,.... 633-653
CHAPTER XI.
The Microscopical Examination and Identification of Drug Powders,...... 653-669
INDEX,...
671
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
1. Cimicifuga racemosa-Plant and Rhizome,.
2. Cimicifuga-Cross-section of root,.
3. Cimicifuga Rhizome-Cross-section,
4. Hydrastis canadensis,...
5. Hydrastis Rhizome-Cross-section,.
6. Anemone pratensis,...
·
7. Delphinium staphisagria-Flowering Branch and Seed,
8. Aconitum napellus-Flowering Branch and Tuber,.
9. Aconite Tuber-Cross-section,..
-
10. Microscopical Elements in Powdered Aconite Tuber (Root),
II. Illicium verum-Flowering Branch and Fruit,
12. Flowering Branch of Liriodendron tulipifera,
13. Jateorrhiza palmata-Portion of Vine,.
14. Cross-section of Columbo Root,..
·
•
15. Pareira Brava-Cross-section, showing the radiating central cylinder and
the zones of wood-edges and medullary rays,.
16. Cross-section of Minispermum,..
· •
-
17. Anamirta cocculus-Flowering Branch, Fruit, and Section of Fruit,
18. Cross-section of Caulophyllum,.
19. Podophyllum peltatum-Plant and Rhizome,
20. Podophyllum Rhizome-Cross-section,.
21. Podophyllum Rootlet-Cross-section,.
22. Podophyllum Powder,.
•
23. Berberis Aquifolium-Cross-section,.
•
24. Transverse Section of Flower of Poppy,.
· ·
25. Gynecium of Poppy with One Stamen Remaining,.
26. Transverse Section of Ovary of Poppy,.
•
27. Papaver somniferum-Flowering Branch and Fruit,
28. Sanguinaria canadensis-Plant and Rhizome,
29. Sanguinaria―Cross-section,
·
30. Diagram of a Flower of the Cruciferæ,.
31. The Embryo of Brassica pumias orientalis,
32. Sinapis nigra-Branch,
-
33. Krameria triandra-Flowering Branch,
34. Cross-section of Krameria,.
35. Polygala senega-Plant and Rhizome,
36. Cross-section of Senega,.
37. Garcinia hanburii-Branch,
38. Vertical Section of Mallow Flower,.
39. Althea officinalis Flowering Branch,.
-
·
-
PAGE
79
80
80
∞∞∞
82
83
85
∞∞
87
89
90
91
93
•
94
95
96
200
97
98
99
ΙΟΙ
I02
103
103
104
105
106
106
•
106
107
II2
113.
114
114
116
119
120
122
123
125
127
128
128
-
130
132
•
133
134
135
137
139.
140
40. Cross-section of a Portion of the Trimmed Branch of Althæa,
41. Gossypium herbaceum-Branch,.
42. Cola (Kola Nut),.
43. Theobroma cacao-Branch and Fruit,
44. Linum usitatissimum,-
45. Cross-section of Flaxseed,.
46. Coca Leaves,
·
47. Guaiacum sanctum-Flowering Branch,.
48. Cross-section of Wood of Guaiacum sanctum,
XV
xvi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
49. Geranium maculatum—Flowering Branch,
50. Cross-section of Cranesbill,..
51. Xanthoxylum-Cross-section,
52. Barosma betulina-Branch and Flower,.
53. Barosma crenulata Flowering Branch,.
54. Empleurum and Buchu Leaves,-
55. Pilocarpus selloanus-Branch from Flowering Top (Kohler),
56. Leaf of Jaborandi as It Appears in the Market,
57. Ruta graveolens-Portion of Plant,-
58. Citrus aurantium-Branch, .
59. Citrus vulgaris-Flowering Branch,
60. Citrus limonum-Branch,
-
61. Cross-section of Lemon Fruit,.
62. Picrasma excelsa-Branch,
PAGE
142
143
144
145
145
146
148
•
149
·
149
·
152
153
154
155
157
63. Cross-section of Wood of Quassia,
64. Commiphora myrrha-Branch,.
65. Cross-section of Wahoo Bark,
66. Rhamnus frangula-Branch,.
·
67. Rhamnus frangula-Cross-section of Bark,
68. Rhamnus purshiana-Branch,.
69. Rhamnus purshiana-Cross-section,
70. Pistacia lentiscus-Branch,.
71. Glycyrrhiza glabra-Branch,.
72. Glycyrrhiza-Cross-section,
•
73. Hæmatoxylon campechianum—Branch,
74. Hæmatoxylon-Cross-section of Wood,
75. Plerocarpus santalinus-Branch,..
76. A. Alexandria Senna.
B. India Senna,
-
·
77. Cassia acutifolia-Branch Showing Flowers and Fruit,
78. Cytisus scoparius-Flowering Branch and Pod,.
79. Fruit of Cassia fistula,.
80. Trigonella fænum græcum-Branch,.
81. Calabar Bean,..
•
•
..
82. Physostigma venenosum-Portion of Plant and Fruit,
83. Pterocarpus marsupium-Branch,
84. Copaiba langsdorffii-Branch,
-
85. Toluifera pereira-Flowering Branch and Fruit,
-
158
160
163
165
166
167
168
173
175
176
179
180
181
182
183
185
186
188
189
190
195
197
199
86. Toluifera balsamum-Branch and Fruit,
200
87. Prunus serotina-Branch,...
202
203
89. Prunus domestica-Fruiting Branch and Flowering Branch,
·
205
206
209
210
212
213
88. Prunus virginiana-Cross-section of Bark of Stem,
90. Prunus amygdalus-Branch, Flower, and Fruit,
91. Quillaja-Cross-section of Bark,
92. Quillaja saponaria-Branch,..
-
93. Rubus villosus-Branch and Fruit, .
94. Rubus villosus-Cross-section of Root, Showing Bark attached to Wood,.-.
95. Rubus idaus-Branch,
·
214
96. Hagenia abyssinica-Flowering Branch, and Male and Female Flowers,.. 215
97. Liquidambar orientalis-Branch,
98. Eucalyptus globulus-Branch,.
99. Myrcia acris-Branch with Fruit,
100. Eugenia aromatica,.
-
D
219
222
223
225
101. Pimenta officinalis-Branch and Flower,
102. Melaleuca leucadendron-Branch,...
103. Punica granatum-Branch with Flowers,
104. Punica granatum-Cross-section of Bark of Stem,
105. Punica granatum-Cross-section of Bark of Root,
106. Pomegranate-Cross-section of Fruit, .
·
227
229
230
·
231
·
231
232
107. Colocynth-Portion of Vine and Whole Fruit,
108. Transverse Section of Colocynth Fruit,
•
234
235
109. Longitudinal Section of Colocynth Fruit,
235
110. Citrullus colocynthis-Cross-section through Outer Portion of the Fruit,.. 236
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xvii
FIG.
III. Ecballium elaterium-Branch with Flowers,
112. Anisum,
•
PAGE
237
239
113. Fœniculum capillaceum-Branch and Fruit, Entire and in Cross-section,.. 241
114. Fruit of Hemlock (Conium maculatum),.
137. Lappa-Cross-section of Root,
138. Echinacea Angustifolia-Root,
118. Viburnum opulus-Flowering Branch and Fruit,.
119. Viburnum opulus-Cross-section of Stem-bark,
120. Viburnum prunifolium-Branch with Flowers,
121. Viburnum prunifolium—Cross-section of Root-bark,
122. Cephalis ipecacuanha-Plant and Dried Root,.
123. Cross-section of Ipecac Root,..
PLATE I.-MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA,
•
124. Cinchona officinalis Branch, -
125. Cross-section of Cinchona calisaya Bark,
126. Cinchona calisaya Bark-Cross-section of,
127. Cinchona succirubra-Branch,.
128. Cinchona rubra-Cross-section of Bark,
129. Cross-section of Cuprea Bark,.
130. Valeriana officinalis-Plant and Rhizome,
131. Cross-section of Valerian Rhizome,
132. Cross-section of Valerian Rootlet, .
133. Cross-section of Taraxacum Root,
134. Inulin Spherules in Taraxacum,
135. Laticiferous Tissue in Taraxacum Root,
136. Cross-section of Pyrethrum Root,.
·
·
115. Cross-section of the Fruit of Conium maculatum,.
116. Coriandrum sativum-Whole Fruit and Cross-section,
117. Cornus florida Flowering Branch,..
·
242
242
245
253
254
254
256
·
256
258
259
263
265
266
266
268
269
271
-
•
273
274
274
276
277
•
277
278
280
142. Santonica-Head and Longitudinal Section (enlarged),
146. Styrax benzoin-Branch,.
147. Olea europea—Branch,
149. Strophanthus hispidus-Branch and Seed with Comose Awn,
150. Strychnos nux vomica-Flowering Branch and Seeds,
151. Fruit of Strychnos nux vomica-Cross-section, -
139. Eupatorium perfoliatum-Portion of Plant and Flower (enlarged),
140. Matricaria chamomilla-Branch and Dissected Flowers,.
141. Anthemis nobilis-Plant and Dissected Flowers,
143. Lobelia inflata-Portion of Plant and Flower,.
·
144. Arctostaphylos uva ursi-Branch, Flower, and Fruiting Branch,
145. Chimaphila umbellata,.
·
148. Cross-section of Apocynum cannabinum,.
281
284
289
291
292
295
·
297
299
302
305
307
·
310
·
313
152. Gelsemium-Cross-section of Stem,
314
153. Gelsemium-Cross-section of Root,
316
161. Jalap Tuber,..
154. Gelsemium-Cross-section of Rhizome,
155. Spigelia-Cross-section of Rootlet,
156. Spigelia-Cross-section of Rhizome,
•
157. Gentiana lutea-Flowering Head and Dissected Flower,
158. Gentian Root and Rhizome,.
159. Gentiana lutea-Cross-section,
160. Leaf of Yerba Santa, .
·
162. Jalap Tuber-Cross-section, .
163. Convolvulus scammonia-Branch,
164. Atropa belladonna-Branch,.
165. Cross-section of Belladonna Root,
166. Scopola Rhizome,
·
167. Datura stramonium-Branch Showing Flower and Fruit,
168. Hyoscyamus niger-Flowering Branch,
169. Capsicum fastigiatum—Branch,
170. Digitalis purpurea-Flowering Branch,
171. Leptandra-Cross-section of Rootlet,.
316
317
318
318
·
·
320
321
·
321
324
326
326
328
330
331
334
335
337
340
·
343
345
xviii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
172. Leptandra-Cross-section of Rhizome,
173. Mentha piperita-Flowering Branch,.
174. Mentha viridis-Flowering Branch,.
175. Hedeoma pulegioides-Flowering Branch,
176. Phytolacca-Cross-section of Root,
·
178. Cross-section of Rhizome of Serpentaria,
PLATE II.-PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC CROSS-SECTIONS OF RHUBARB,
177. Aristolochia serpentaria,.
179. Piper cubeba-Fruiting Branch and Fruit (enlarged),
180. Piper nigrum-Branch and Fruit,.
181. Myristica fragrans-Branch and Fruit,
182. Cinnamomum zeylanicum-Branch,.
•
183. Cinnamomum zeylanicum-Cross-section of Bark,
184. Cinnamomum cassia-Cross-section of Bark,.
185. Cinnamomum cassia-Branch,.
186. Cinnamomum saigonicum-Cross-section of Bark,
187. Sassafras-Cross-section of Bark,
188. Cinnamomum camphora-Branch and Flower,.
189. Daphne mezereum-Fruiting Branch and Flowers,
190. Santalum album-Branch,.
191. Stillingia sylvatica-Branch.
·
192. Stillingia-Cross-section of Root,
193. Croton eluteria-Branch,.
•
· ·
PAGE
345
349
351
352
357
•
359
364
365
367
369
372
375
•
375
376
377
378
380
382
194. Ricinus communis-Flowering Stem, Leaf, and Section of Fruit, .
195. Croton tiglium-Flowering Branch; Flower (enlarged); Seed, Entire and
385
386
388
3333
389
in Section (enlarged),.
196. Ulmus fulva-Branch,.
197. Cross-section of Bark of Ulmus, -
198. Cannabis indica-Branch, .
199. Ficus carica-Branch and Fruit,
·
200. Quercus alba—Branch,..
201. Quercus lusitanica-Branch and Nutgall,
202. Chestnut Leaf (natural size),
203. Salix alba-Branch,
►
-
•
204. Berry (galbulus) and Acicular Leaves of Juniper,
205. Cone of the Larch,.
206. Cypripedium-Leaf and Flower,.
207. Cypripedium-Cross-section of Rhizome,.
208. Cypripedium-Cross-section of Rootlet,
209. Vanilla planifolia-Branch Showing Leaf and Flowers,
210. Bourbon Vanilla,
211. Mexican Vanilla,
212. Tahiti Vanilla,.
213. Wild Vanilla,
·
-
214. Zingiber officinale,.
·
215. Cross-section of Ginger,
216. Jamaica Ginger-Showing Lobes of Rhizome,
217. Chinese Ginger,.
218. African Ginger,
219. Curcuma longa,
220. Curcuma longa-Cross-section of the Rhizome,
221. Cardamomum,.
•
→ ·
·
222. Crocus sativus-Plant, Flower, and Stigma,
223. Smilax officinalis-Portion of Vine and Rhizome,
224. Honduras Sarsaparilla-Cross-section of Root,
225. Jamaica Sarsaparilla-Cross-section of Root,
226. Mexican Sarsaparilla-Cross-section of Root,
227. Veratrum viride-Branch and Rhizome,..
228. Veratrum viride-Cross-section of Rhizome,
229. Allium-Bulb and Cross-section,.
230. Urginea scilla,.
·
231. Colchicum autumnale,.
391
392
393
395
396
398
400
403
405
407
409
410
410
419
419
•
419
421
422
422
422
•
422
424
425
•
425
426
426
426
427
428
430
·
433
434
434
434
437
438
439
44I
443
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xix
FIG.
232. Cross-section of Colchicum Root-Outer Portion,.
233. Sabal-Fruit,.
234. Acorus calamus,
•
235. Spikelet of the Oat (Avena sativa),
236. Triticum vulgare-Plant and Flowers (enlarged),
237. Agropyrum repens,
238. Cross-section of Couch-grass,
239-244. Starches,.
•
245. Dryopteris filix-mas-Plant and Section through Spore Case,
246. Aspidium Rhizome,.
PAGE
443
448
450
453
453
454
454
456
459
460
247. Spores of Lycopodium, as Seen from the Top and Bottom of the Spore,.. 461
248. Lupulin-a Gland Viewed in Profile and Viewed Obliquely,..
249. Pollen of Pine,.
·
·
461
461
·
250. Section of Thallus of Cetraria islandica through an Apothecium,
251. Cetraria islandica,
•
461
462
252. Claviceps purpurea (Bachs),
464
253. Portion of Horn-shaped Sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, Bearing Four-
stalked Receptacles, -
464
254. Longitudinal Section of a Receptacle, Magnified, Showing the Perithecia,.. 464
255. A Single Perithecium of Claviceps purpurea, Magnified, Showing the Con-
tained Asci,.
464
256. Asci Containing the Long, Slender Ascospores.
464
258. Spanish Fly (Cantharis vesicatoria De Geer),.
266. Sitodrepa panicea (Smith),
257. Chondrus crispus,.
259. Old-fashioned Potato Beetle (Epicauta vittata Fab.),
260. Cochineal Bug (Coccus cacti Linné),.
261. Cockroach (Periplaneta sp.),.
262. Tonquin Musk-Pod,
263. Suprarenal Capsules,
264. Sugar Mite,..
265. A Cantharid-eating Mite (Glyciphagus spinipes) (Fum. & Rob.),.
267. Ginger Root Attacked by Sitodrepa panicea,
268. Ptinus brunneus (Riley),.
·
467
·
469
470
471
472
477
486
502
·
502
503
503
-504
269. Anthrenus varius,.
505
270. Silvanus surinamensis,
-
505
271. Tinea penionella,.
506
272. Grain Kernels Attacked by Angoumois Grain Moth,
506
273. Atropos divinatoria,
507
274. Lepisma saccharina (Walker),
·
507
275. Cynips,.
507
276. Compound Microscope,
5II
277. Revolving Triple Nosepiece,
· ·
513
278. Abbe Camera Lucida,.
519
279. Adjustable Drawing Table,.
· ·
520
280. Simple Microtome,
522
281. Position of Razor in Cutting Sections with Simple Microtome,
282. Microtome with Sliding Knife Carrier,.
·
522
523
283. Method of Honing Razor or Microtome Knife on the Stone,.
524
284. Method of Stropping Razor or Microtome Knife on the Prepared Leather
Strop,...
525
285. Adjustable Steel Back for Microtome Knife,
286. Positions of Knife in Cutting,.
525
526
287. Object Imbedded in Elder Pith,.
288. Bottle for Blowing Ether Vapor,.
289. Cells from the Root-tip of Onion,
527
535
•
290. Cell from Stamen Hair of Tradescantia virginica,.
291. Nucleus with a Portion of the Surrounding Cytoplasm,
292. Showing Influence of Nucleus on Forming Cell-plate,.
293. Showing Influence of Nucleus on Thickening Walls,
294. Nuclear Division by Simple Constriction,
295. Forms of Chromoplasts,..
538
539
•
539
•
540
·
540
541
542
XX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
315. Cross-section through the Thallus of Sticta fuliginosa,.
316. Intercellular Spaces in Cells of Zea Mais,.
FIG.
296. Stages in Formation of Stone Cells, .
297. Cross-section of a Cell with Lignified Walls,
·
298. Concentrically and Excentrically Striated Starch-grain,
299. Schematic Representation of Structure of Starch-grain,
300. Starch-grains Showing the Solvent Effect of Diastase,
301. Section from the Endosperm of Date Seed,
302. Sphærocrystals of Inulin,
· ·
303. Section from the Cotyledons of Pisum sativum,.
304. Cells from the Endosperm of Ricinus communis,
305. Crystals of Calcium Oxalate,.
306. Formation of Swarm Spore by Edogonium,
307. Copulation of Spirogyra longata,.
308. Resting Spores of Spirogyra,
309. Different Stages of Cell Division,
-
310. Free Cell Formation of Spores in the Ascus of Erysiphe communis,.
311. Swarm Spores of Achlya, -
312. Budding of Yeast Cells, .
313. Spore Formation by Corticum amorphum,
314. Pediastrum granulatum,.
PAGE
545
546
547
-
547
548
548
549
550
550
551
552
553
553
555
-
556
557
557
557
559
·
559
317. Cross-section through the Endosperm of Areca oleracea,
318. Cross-section through the Petiole of Nuphar advena,
319. Lysigenous Oil-gland of Dictamnus fraxinella, -
320. Schizogenous Resin Duct in Stem of Hedera helix,
559
560
·
-
560
561
Allium cepa, -
321. Longitudinal Section through Apex of Stem of Ulmus Americanus,
322. Epidermises of Beta vulgaris and of Avena sativa,.
323. Cross-sections of Epidermal Cells of Leaves of Aloe acinacifolia and of
561
-
563
565
324. Wax Coating over the Epidermis of Saccharum officinarum,
325. Various Forms of Trichomes, -
566
·
566
326. Stinging Hairs of Urtica urens and of Urtica dioica,
327. Development of Stomata,
567
568
333. Cross-section of Concentric Bundle of Iris,
334. Cross-section of Root of Acorus calamus,-
335. Vascular Bundle of Aspidium,
336. Course of Bundles in Iberis amara,
•
337. Course of Bundles in Branch of Clematis viticella,
338. Diagram of Course of Bundles in Palm,
-
339. Course of Bundles in Palm and Cerastium,.
340. Termination of a Vascular Bundle in a Leaf,
341. Cross-section of Dracæna marginata,
342. Cross-section of Petiole of Begonia,
328. Cross-section and Longitudinal Diagram of Typical Stoma,
329. Cross-section through a Lenticel of Sambucus nigra,.
330. Cross-section of Primary Bundle of Helianthus annuus,
331. Cross- and Longisection of Sieve Tube and Companion Cell,
332. Closed Bundle of Stem of Zea Mays,
570
570
57I
573
573
575
·
575
576
-
578
578
579
579
580
581
·
582
343. Laticiferous Vessels, ..
582
344. Diagrammatic Representation of Increase in Thickness of a Dicotyledonous
Stem,.
583
348. Transverse Section of Twig of Lime,
347. Diagrams of Cross-section through Stele of Root of Vicia faba,
345. Diagram of Bundle of Helianthus, Showing Secondary Increase in Thickness, 589
346. Diagram of Course of Medullary Rays,.
585
587
-
588
349. Transverse Section of Branch of Cytisus laburnum,
590
350. Transverse Section through Wood of Fir,.
590
351. Transverse Sections of Root of Phaseolus multiflorus, Old and Young,
352. Transverse Section through Root of Allium cepa,.
353. Transverse Section through Root of Acorus calamus, -
354. Transverse Section through Root of Veratrum album,
355. Transverse Section through Leaf of Ruta graveolens,
590
591
591
-
592
·
593
· ·
595
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xxi
FIG.
356. Tangential Section through Palisade Parenchyma Cells of Leaf of Sun-
flower,.
·
357. Ramifications of Vascular Bundles in Leaf of Anthyllis vulneraria,
358. Transverse Section through Leaf of Cyperus alternifolius,..
359. Engelmann's Bacterium Method for Demonstrating Relation of Absorption
Bands of Chlorophyll to Evolution of Oxygen,
360. Powdered Rhamnus frangula-Bark,..
•
361. Powdered Cascara Sagrada Bark (Rhamnus purshiana),
362. Powdered Ipecacuanha Root (Cephalis ipecacuanha),
363. Powdered Undulated Ipecacuanha,.
364. Powdered Belladonna Leaves, -
365. Powdered Henbane Leaves (Hyoscyamus niger),
PLATES III AND IV.-STARCHES,.
-
· ·
· -
PAGE
596
597
599
600
659
660
661
662
663
664
667, 669
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA
AND
PHARMACOGNOSY.
PART I.
A STUDY OF DRUGS.
CLASSIFICATION.
Drugs may be arranged in several different ways, to suit the aim and
convenience of the student. The prominent systems of classification in
common use are as follows:
I. Therapeutical. This system of classification is especially valu-
able to the student of medicine. Here the physiological action and thera-
peutical application are made most prominent.
II. Chemical.-Classification of organic drugs is not infrequently
based upon the character of the constituents. In this way alkaloidal
drugs, glucosidal drugs, drugs containing volatile oil, etc., form the
subgroups. Other subgroups of chemical classification are:
Inorganic Chemicals. To the pharmacist the chemical action, the crys-
talline form, the solubility, and other physical properties are of especial
value. For mineral substances, therefore, he adopts the classification of
the chemist. Some therapeutists, seeing a certain relation between thera-
peutical action and chemical constitution, adopt the same method of
grouping also for these mineral substances.
Synthetical Remedies.-This class of remedial agents is most difficult to
classify in a manner consistent with science, partly because our materia
medica is becoming overloaded with proprietary combinations and mix-
2
17
18
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
tures of synthetic medicinal products with various adjuvants to modify
their action. These latter have oftentimes certain unscientific names,
which give little or no idea of their composition.
III. Physical. According to this method, drugs having allied phys-
ical properties are brought together. Roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and
seeds form the principal divisions. Under this head two different arrange-
ments are presented in this volume: (a) Classification into subgroups
based upon such prominent features as odor, taste, etc. By this means.
the aromatic, bitter, acrid, sweet, and mucilaginous drugs are brought
together. (b) Classification into subgroups based upon structural char-
acteristics. Here drugs having similar structure are found associated.
In the table having this arrangement the official drugs only are found.
Appended to each there is a physical description in the fewest possible
terms-such prominent terms as are used in describing the physical and
structural characteristics.
Each drug has a number, so that a ready reference to the same drug in the
body of the work is made easy. Here a fuller description is found.
Instructors in pharmacognosy who use this book are recommended to
employ this conspectus and to have the students use these numbers. When
labeling the drug (or its container) for class work, these numbers should be em-
ployed. The experience of the author in teaching the subject under considera-
tion has been most favorable to this method. By the use of the numbers at
first, the student quickly grows to learn, not only the drug, but the place in the
system to which it belongs. The subject grows in interest until he is able to
recognize the drug and to properly classify it.
IV. Botanical.-By this arrangement drugs belonging to the same
natural order are brought together. In subdividing these orders botanical
relationship is emphasized to as large an extent as is practicable in deal-
ing with drugs from a pharmaceutical standpoint. From the point of
view of the scientist this is the ideal system. This method has been
adopted in the body of this work.
Geographical.-Drugs are rarely classified according to the locality of their
Occurrence. It is, however, instructive to the student to refer individual or
classes of drugs to their locality. Drugs of ancient times were obtained chiefly
from Asia. Many of these have survived, and are official to-day; notably
aloes, myrrh, etc. With the discovery of the new world many important drugs
were made accessible. Geographical classification is therefore of interest from
many points of view.
The presentation of this subject is facilitated by outline
maps with the drugs indicated in their natural localities. As an example of
such a map, see Cinchona.
the
Alphabetical Arrangement.—In all the standard books of reference, such as
Pharmacopoeia" and the "Dispensatories," a strictly alphabetical ar-
rangement is followed, no attention being paid to systems of classification.
The arrangement is made wholly subservient to quick and ready reference.
In the following order four classifications will be presented: 1. A synop-
sis of therapeutical agents. 2. Chemical agents. 3. Classification of
CLASSIFICATION.
19
organic drugs, as indicated under (a) and (b). 4. Botanical arrangement,
where drugs will be treated at some length.
TABLE OF THERAPEUTICAL AGENTS.
I. INTERNAL REMEDIES.
A. Affecting Nutrition:
Hæmatics (Blood Tonics).
Alkalies.
Acids.
Digestants.
Antipyretics.
Alteratives.
B. Affecting the Nervous and Muscular Systems:
(a) The Brain-
Cerebral Excitants.
Cerebral Depressants.
Narcotics.
Hypnotics.
Analgesics.
Anæsthetics.
(b) The Spinal Cord-
Motor Excitants.
Motor Depressants.
(c) Nerve Centers and Ganglionic System-
Antispasmodics.
Tonics.
Antiperiodics.
(d) Heart and Circulatory System—
Cardiac Stimulants.
Cardiac Sedatives.
Vascular Stimulants.
Vascular Sedatives.
(e) Excretories—
Diuretics.
Renal Depressants.
Vesical Tonics and Sedatives.
Urinary Sedatives.
Diaphoretics and Sudorifics.
Anhidrotics.
Antilithics.
C. Affecting Special Organs-Partly Through the Nervous System:
(a) Organs of Respiration-
Expectorants.
Pulmonary Sedatives.
Errhines.
Sternutatories.
(b). Alimentary Canal-
Sialagogues.
Emetics.
Purgatives.
Astringents.
Stomachics.
(c) The Liver-
Hepatic Stimulants.
Cholagogues.
Hepatic Depressants.
20
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
A. Irritants:
(d) Generative System-
Ecbolics or Oxytocics.
Emmenagogues.
Aphrodisiacs.
Anaphrodisiacs.
(e) Eyes (Ciliary Muscle)-
Mydriatics.
Myotics.
II. EXTERNAL REMEDIES.
Rubefacients.
Epispastics.
Pustulants.
Escharotics.
B. Local Sedatives:
Demulcents.
Emollients.
III. AGENTS WHICH ACT UPON ORGANISMS WHICH INFEST THE
HUMAN BODY.
Antiseptics
Disinfectants.
Antizymotics.
Anthelmintics.
Antiparasitics.
Antiperiodics.
THERAPEUTICAL AGENTS DEFINED.
HÆMATICS restore the quality of the blood to normal condition. They
exert a direct influence on the composition of the blood: e. g., preparations.
of iron, of manganese, cod-liver oil, etc.
ALKALIES act, in the concentrated form, as caustics (escharotics), but
when diluted, as antacids. Dilute alkalies, if given before meals, however,
will stimulate the production of the acid gastric juice. The carbonates
of potassa and soda and the bicarbonates, also preparations of the alkaline
earths, such as lime-water and mixtures of magnesium carbonate, are
good examples. Some of the salts of the alkalies have a remote antacid
effect, becoming decomposed in the blood and excreted in the urine, which
they render less acid.
ACIDS.-These have an action opposite to that of the alkalies. When
much diluted, they are administered for the purpose of checking hyper-
acidity of the stomach, by stimulating the production of the alkaline pan-
creatic juice and checking the acid gastric juice.
Digestants.—Agents which effect solution (digestion) of food in the
alimentary canal. Examples: Pepsin, pancreatin, trypsin, papain, etc.
ANTIPYRETICS.-Agents which reduce the temperature of the body,
either by reducing the circulation or diminishing tissue change, or favor-
CLASSIFICATION.
21
ing the loss of heat through radiation, conduction, etc. Examples: Qui-
nine, aconite, antipyrine, antimony, etc.
Alteratives.—A term used to designate a class of agents which alter
the course of morbid conditions, modifying the nutritive processes while
promoting waste, by stimulating secretion, absorption, and the elimination
of morbid deposits; especially used in the chronic diseases of the skin.
Employed in the treatment of phthisis, syphilis, gout, neuralgia, asthma,
etc. Examples: Arsenious acid, mercury, iodine and the iodides, sarsa-
parilla, guaiac, colchicum, stillingia, etc.
CEREBRAL EXCITANTS.-Agents which increase the functional activity
of the cerebrum, without causing any subsequent depression of brain
function. Examples: Camphor, valerian, caffeine, cannabis (in small
doses), etc.
CEREBRAL DEPRESSANTS have an opposite effect to the preceding,
lessening brain activity. Some of the drugs of this class are employed
as hypnotics or as analgesics.
NARCOTICS.-Agents which lessen the sensibility to pain and cause
sleep. A narcotic will abolish pain, while an anodyne will frequently
merely overcome wakefulness. Examples: Opium, cannabis indica,
belladonna, humulus, etc.
HYPNOTICS.-Agents which induce sleep and will often abolish pain
and cause neither deliriant nor narcotic effects. Examples: chloral, sul-
phonal, trional, the bromides, etc.
ANALGESICS.-Agents which relieve pain by their effect upon the sen-
sory centers; the term is synonymous with anodynes. The general ano-
dynes, when taken internally, affect the whole organism; local anodynes
affect the part to which they are applied, some by their depression of the
terminal nerve organs in the skin, others by reducing the local circulation.
Examples: Opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, aconite, antipyrine, ace-
tanilid, etc.
ANÆSTHETICS.-Agents which suspend consciousness and temporarily
destroy sensation. The local anesthetics affect only the part to which
they are applied, and diminish or temporarily destroy the sensibility of
the part. Examples: Ether, chloroform, nitrous oxide, etc. Local
anæsthetics: Cocaine, carbolic acid, ether spray, etc.
MOTOR EXCITANTS.-Agents which increase the functional activity of
the spinal cord and the motor apparatus, invigorating the action of the
heart and lungs. Examples: Nux vomica, strychnine, etc.
MOTOR DEPRESSANTS have an opposite effect to the motor excitants,
lowering the functional activity of the spinal cord and motor apparatus.
Examples: Alcohol, opium, aconite, conium, belladonna, etc.
ANTISPASMODICS.-Agents acting on the nervous system in various
22
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
ways. They prevent or allay irregular action or spasm of voluntary and
involuntary muscles. This is accomplished frequently by a sedative in-
fluence upon the nerve centers, while a few others exert their influence
by stimulating the nerve centers. Examples: Alcohol, ether, valerian,
camphor, asafoetida, musk, the bromides, hydrocyanic acid, etc.
TONICS.-Agents which increase the vigor and tone of the system by
improving the appetite, favoring digestion and assimilation, and adding
strength to the circulatory system. Examples: Gentian, columbo,
quinine, etc.
ANTIPERIODICS.-Agents which prevent or check the return of diseases
which recur periodically, possibly by a toxic action upon the microbes
in the blood, which are supposed to cause the disease; but little is known
of their mode of action. The typical antiperiodic, quinine, has, however,
a decided effect upon the heart and brain, as well as other parts of the
nervous system.
CARDIAC STIMULANTS, as the name implies, are agents which increase
the heart's action, the force and frequency of the pulse. Examples: Ether,
alcohol, atropine, sparteine, nitroglycerine, etc.
CARDIAC SEDATIVES allay and control palpitation and overaction of
the heart. Examples: Aconite, veratrum viride, digitalis, antimony, etc.
VASCULAR STIMULANTS.-Agents which dilate the peripheral vessels and
increase the peripheral circulation. Members of this class also strengthen
the heart's action, and are advantageously employed in debilitated con-
ditions of the central organs of the circulation. Examples: Alcohol,
preparations of ammonia, caffeine, digitalis, strophanthus, etc.
VASCULAR SEDATIVES.-Agents which lessen the capillary circulation
and raise the blood pressure by stimulating the vasomotor center or its
mechanism and the walls of the vessels. Examples: Ergot, digitalis,
opium, salts of iron, etc.
DIURETICS.-Agents which increase the secretion of urine, acting either
directly upon the secreting cells of the kidneys or by raising the general
or local arterial tension. Employed in acute congestion and inflammation
of the kidneys and in dropsies. Examples: Squill, scoparius, triticum,
and organic salts of the alkalies.
RENAL DEPRESSANTS.-Agents which lower the activity of the renal
cells, thereby lessening the urinary secretion. Examples: Morphine,
quinine, ergot, etc.
VESICAL TONICS AND SEDATIVES.-Agents acting upon the bladder,
in the one case increasing the tone of the muscular fibers and in the other
lessening the irritability of that organ. Examples: Tonics-strych-
nine, cantharis, belladonna, etc.; sedatives-opium, buchu, uva ursi,
pareira, etc.
CLASSIFICATION.
23
RENAL SEDATIVES.-Agents which exert a sedative action upon the
whole urinary tract. Examples: Copaiba, cubebs, etc.
DIAPHORETICS AND SUDORIFICS.-Agents which increase the action of
the skin and promote perspiration. Examples: Dover's powder, jabor-
andi, camphor, sweet spirits of niter, etc.
ANHIDROTICS.-Agents which check perspiration. Examples: Acid
camphoric, atropine, zinc salts, acids, etc.
ANTILITHICS.—Agents used to prevent the formation of insoluble con-
cretions or to dissolve concretions when formed in the ducts. Examples:
Salts of lithia, potassium, benzoic acid, etc.
EXPECTORANTS.-Agents which are employed to facilitate the expul-
sion of bronchial secretions and to modify the character of these when
abnormal. Examples: Ammonium chloride, the aromatic balsams, squill,
licorice, senega, etc.
PULMONARY SEDATIVES.-Agents which allay the irritability of the res-
piratory center and the nerves of the lungs and bronchial tubes. Exam-
ples: Belladonna, opium, hyoscyamus, hydrocyanic acid, etc.
ERRHINES AND STERNUTATORIES are agents which affect locally the
nasal mucous membrane, producing sneezing and an increase of nasal
secretion. They also indirectly stimulate the vasomotor centers and at
the same time excite the respiratory centers. Examples: Ipecacuanha,
sanguinaria, veratrine, etc.
SIALAGOGUES.—Agents which promote the secretion and flow of saliva
from the salivary glands. Examples: Pyrethrum, mezereum, the mer-
curials and antimonials, etc.
EMETICS. Agents which cause vomiting, acting directly upon the nerves
of the stomach or acting through the blood upon the vomiting center, or
by reflex irritation of the vomiting center. Examples: Mustard, zinc
sulphate, apomorphine, ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, etc.
PURGATIVES produce evacuation of the contents of the intestinal canal
by increasing secretion along the tract, by exciting peristaltic action, etc.
Examples: Podophyllum, colocynth, jalap, croton oil, magnesium sul-
phate, etc.
Astringents.—Agents which produce contraction of muscular fiber,
which coagulate albumen and lessen secretion from mucous membranes.
Examples: Tannic and gallic acids, alum, lead acetate, persulphate of
iron, etc.
STOMACHICS.-Agents which increase the appetite and promote gastric
digestion. They also check fermentation and dispel accumulation of
flatus. Examples: Peppermint, cardamom, ginger, capsicum, etc.
HEPATIC STIMULANTS (Cholagogues).-Agents which excite the liver
and increase the functional activity of that organ so that the amount of
24
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
bile is augmented, etc. Hepatic stimulants increase the activity of the
liver-cells, while cholagogues remove the bile from the duodenum. Exam-
ples: Podophyllum, aloes, jalap, colocynth, mercurous chloride, etc.
HEPATIC DEPRESSANTS.-Agents which reduce the functional activity
of the liver, having the opposite effect of the foregoing, that of diminish-
ing the formation of the bile, urea, and glycogen. Examples: Opium,
quinine, arsenic, antimony, etc.
ECBOLICS, OR OXYTOCICS.-Agents which stimulate the pregnant uterus
and produce contraction of that organ, either by direct irritation of the
muscles of the womb, or indirectly by affecting the uterine center of the
cord. Examples: Ergot, cotton-root bark, savin, cimicifuga, etc.
EMMENAGOGUES.-Agents which stimulate the uterine muscular fibers
and restore the normal menstrual function. Examples: Ergot, apiol,
iron, etc.
APHRODISIACS.-Agents used to excite the function of the genital
organs when they are morbidly depressed. Examples: Phosphorus, zinc
phosphide, salts of iron, gold, or arsenic, etc.
ANAPHRODISIACS.-Agents which diminish the sexual desire. Exam-
ples: The bromides, camphor, etc.
MYDRIATICS.-Agents which cause dilatation of the pupil; used to
temporarily destroy accommodation by causing paralysis of the ciliary
muscle. Examples: Atropine and homatropine.
MYOTICS.-Agents acting in a manner contrary to that of the above,
producing contraction of the pupil by stimulating the circular muscular
fibers of the iris and at the same time contracting the ciliary muscle. Ex-
amples: Pilocarpine, eserine, etc.
IRRITANTS.—Agents which are applied locally to the skin to produce
certain effects, as rubefacients (simply reddening the skin); epispastics
(blistering); pustulants (causing blebs in which is found pus); eschar-
otics, or caustics (actually destroying the tissue). Examples: Mustard
(rubefacient); cantharides (epispastic); croton oil (pustulant); caustic
potassa, carbolic acid, and strong mineral acids (escharotics).
LOCAL SEDATIVES.-Agents which diminish irritation in the part to
which applied, relieving local inflammation. Examples: Acetate of lead,
opium, belladonna, etc.
DEMULCENTS.-Bland remedies used to allay and mechanically protect
inflamed surfaces. They are used also internally for this purpose, as in
acute inflammation of the alimentary canal. Examples: Mucilages of
acacia, flaxseed, Iceland and Irish moss, elm, etc.
EMOLLIENTS resemble the above; are used externally to soften and
soothe the irritated and abraded skin. Examples: Lard, olive oil, cacao-
butter, etc.
CLASSIFICATION.
25
ANTISEPTICS.-Agents which arrest putrefaction, either by preventing
the growth of micro-organisms causing putrefactive decomposition or by
destroying these micro-organisms. Examples: Carbolic acid, corrosive
sublimate, etc.
DISINFECTANTS.-Some authorities limit the use of this term to those
agents which destroy the micro-organisms. The terms antiseptic and
disinfectant are frequently used interchangeably. Examples: Corrosive
sublimate, carbolic acid, iodoform, zinc chloride, eucalyptol, etc.
ANTIZYMOTICS.-A term applied to agents which arrest fermentation.
Examples: See above.
ANTHELMINTICS.-Agents which destroy such parasitic worms as infest
the alimentary canal. Tæniafuges destroy tape-worms; vermifuges expel
these intestinal parasites. Examples: Santonin, spigelia, chenopodium,
etc. Tæniafuges: Filix mas, pelletierin, cusso, etc.
ANTIPARASITICS.-Agents which destroy those parasites which infest
the human body externally. Examples: Mercurial preparations, chrysa-
robin, carbolic acid, cocculus, etc.
ANTIPERIODICS.-See above.
Thus far we have only very briefly called attention to therapeutical
and physiological action of drugs, giving but a few examples. We will
temporarily leave the further consideration of this, and for the time refer
to the therapeutical agents themselves.
TABLE OF THERAPEUTICAL AGENTS OF CHEMICAL
NATURE (INORGANIC).
GROUP I.—THE ALKALINE METALS. POTASSIUM, SODIUM, AMMONIUM,
AND LITHIUM.
The Official Potassium Salts.-Acetate, bicarbonate, bichromate, bitartrate,
bromide, carbonate, chlorate, citrate, citrate effervescent, cyanide, ferrocyanide,
hypophosphite, iodide, nitrate, permanganate, sulphate, hydroxide.
The Official Sodium Salts.-Acetate, arsenate, benzoate, bicarbonate, bisul-
phite, borate, bromide, carbonate, carbonate exsiccatus, chlorate, chloride,
hypophosphite, hyposulphite, iodide, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, phosphate
effervescent, pyrophosphate, salicylate, sulphate, sulphite, phenolsulphonate.
The Official Ammonium Salts.—Benzoate, bromide, carbonate, chloride,
iodide, valerianate, salicylate.
The Official Lithium Salts.-Benzoate, bromide, carbonate, citrate, citrate
effervescent, salicylate.
GROUP II.—ALKALINE EARTHS AND ALLIES. CALCIUM, BARIUM,
STRONTIUM, AND MAGNESIUM.
The Official Calcium Salts.-Bromide, precipitated carbonate, chloride,
hypophosphite, precipitated phosphate, oxide.
The Official Barium Salt.—Dioxide (1890).
The Official Strontium Salts.-Bromide, iodide, salicylate.
The Official Magnesium Salts.-Carbonate, sulphate, sulphate effervescent,
oxide.
26
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
GROUP III. Cerium, CADMIUM, ALUMINUM, ZINC.
The Official Cerium Salt.-Oxalate.
Cadmium Salts.-Sulphate, iodide (unofficial).
The Official Aluminum Salts.-Alum, alum dried, sulphate.
The Official Zinc Salts.—Acetate, bromide, Ppt. carbonate, chloride, iodide,
oxide, phenolsulphonate, stearate, sulphate, valerate.
GROUP IV.—Lead, Silver, Copper, AND BISMUTH.
The Official Lead Salts.—Acetate, iodide, oxide, nitrate.
The Official Silver Salts.-Nitrate (crystallized, fused, diluted), oxide, cyanide.
The Official Copper Salt.-Sulphate.
The Official Bismuth Salts.—Bismuth and ammonium citrate, subsalicylate,
subgallate, subcarbonate, subnitrate.
GROUP V.-MANGANESE, IRON.
The Official Manganese Salts.—Dioxide, sulphate, hypophosphite.
The Official Iron Salts.-Carbonate (saccharated), chloride (in sol. and tinc-
ture), citrate, hydrate, hypophosphite, iodide (syrup), reduced, phosphate (solu-
ble), sulphate (granulated and exsiccated), iron and ammonium citrate, iron and
ammonium tartrate, iron and potassium tartrate, iron and quinine citrate, iron
and quinine citrate, soluble iron and strychnine citrate, oxide (hydrated), oxide
with magnesia, pyrophosphate (soluble).
GROUP VI.-GOLD AND MERCURY.
The Official Gold Salt.-Gold and sodium chloride.
The Official Mercury Salts.-Ammoniated, chloride (corrosive), chloride
(mild), iodide (red and yellow), oxide (yellow, red), mercury with chalk.
GROUP VII.-ANTIMONY AND ARSENIC.
The Official Antimony Salts.—Antimon. and potass. tartrate.
The Official Arsenic Salt.-Iodide, trioxide (also in 1 per cent. solution).
GROUP VIII.—INORGANIC ACIDS. HYDROCHLORIC, HYDROBROMIC, HY-
DRIODIC, NITRIC, NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC, SULPHURIC, SULPHUROUS,
PHOSPHORIC, HYPOPHOSPHOROUS (ARSENOUS AND CHROMIC).
GROUP IX. THE HALOGENS. CHLORINe, Bromine, aND IODINE.
GROUP X.-Sulphur AND PHOSPHORUS.
GROUP XI.-CARBON, BORON, AND SILICON.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMICALS
ACCORDING TO PROMINENT PHYSICAL
CHARACTERS.
In the identification of chemicals there are two means by which they
can be recognized. First, by physical, and second, by chemical properties.
Sometimes it is impossible to distinguish different members of a class
from each other by their physical properties; in that case chemical means
must be resorted to.
The U. S. P., in describing chemicals, gives a physical description, a
qualitative and quantitative test. For the ordinary identification of a
CLASSIFICATION.
27
chemical or for a quick recognition, one is not obliged to remember even
the tests for identity. But physical properties are so necessary that they
should become so familiar to the student that he recalls them at once
without effort. This comes to him by practice in handling the chemicals
every day at the prescription or dispensing counter.
As an aid to this study a classification, based on purely physical charac-
teristics, is desirable. An article having such a basis appeared. in the
Alumni Report of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, Nov., 1901,
page 151. We have adopted in part the scheme there presented, as a
suggestion for a systematic arrangement as above indicated. It is to be
understood that the list may profitably be expanded.
CHEMICALS HAVING COLOR:
PALE VIOLET: Ferri et Ammonii Sulphas, acid styptic taste.
GREEN: Ferri Sulphas, nauseous metallic taste.
Ferri Sulphas Granulatus, saline, styptic taste.
Ferri Phosphas Solubilis, acidulous, slightly saline taste.
Ferri Pyrophosphas Solubilis, acidulous, slightly saline taste.
GREENISH-WHITE: Ferri Lactas, mild, sweetish ferruginous taste.
REDDISH-BROWN: Antimonium Sulphuratum, tasteless.
GREENISH-BROWN: Ferri Carbonatis Saccharatus, first sweetish, afterward
slight ferruginous taste.
YELLOWISH-BROWN: Ferri et Quininæ Citras; bitter and mildly ferruginous
taste. (Scale salt.)
PINK OR ROSE: Mangani Sulphas; slightly bitter and astringent taste.
YELLOW: Sulphur Sublimatum; slight odor of sulphuric acid, faintly acid
taste.
Sulphur Lotum; odorless, tasteless.
Sulphur Præcipitum; odorless, tasteless.
Iodoform; odor characteristic.
Plumbi Iodidum; odorless, tasteless.
Plumbi Oxidum; odorless, tasteless.
Hydrargyri Iodidum Flavum; odorless, tasteless.
Potassii Ferrocyanidum; mild saline taste.
Hydrargyri Subsulphas Flavus; odorless, tasteless.
ORANGE YELLOW: Hydrargyri Oxidum Flavum; somewhat metallic taste.
Auri et Sodii Chloridum; saline, metallic taste.
Ferri Chloridum; deliquescent, styptic taste.
GREENISH-GOLDEN-YELLOW: Ferri et Quininæ Citras Solubilis; bitter,
mildly ferruginous taste.
SAFFRON YELLOW: Bismuthi Subgallas; odorless and tasteless powder.
RED OR ORANGE RED: Arseni Iodidum; glossy masses, iodine-like odor.
Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum; somewhat metallic taste.
Potassi Bichromas, bitter metallic taste.
Potassii Ferricyanidum.
SCARLET: Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, odorless, tasteless.
GARNET RED: Ferri Citras, very faint, ferruginous taste.
Ferri et Ammonii Citras; saline, mildly ferruginous taste.
Ferri et Strychninæ Citras; garnet-red to reddish-brown, sweetish and
slightly ferruginous taste.
Ferri et Ammonii Tartras; garnet-red to reddish-brown, sweetish ferruginous
taste.
Ferri et Potassii Tartras; garnet-red to reddish-brown, sweetish slightly
ferruginous taste. (All scale salts in this group.)
DARK RED: Acidum Chromicum.
DARK PURPLE: Potassii Permanganas; sweet, afterwards disagreeable astrin-
gent taste.
28
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
BLUISH-BLACK: Iodum; sharp, acrid taste, irritant.
GRAYISH-BLACK: Sulphuris Iodidum; iodine odor, somewhat acrid taste.
Mangani Dioxidum; heavy, gritty, tasteless.
Ferrum Reductum; frequently of a lusterless black, gritty, tasteless.
DARK-GRAY: Zinci Phosphidum, odor and taste of phosphorus.
LIVER-BROWN: Potassii Sulphurata; bitter, alkaline taste (1890).
BROWNISH-BLACK: Argenti Oxidum; metallic taste.
DULL BLACK: Carbo Ligni; light powder, not gritty, odorless, tasteless.
Carbo Animalis; granular, fragments or powder, odorless, tasteless.
Carbo Animalis Purificatum; purified, fine, not gritty, odorless, tasteless.
COLORLESS, OR NEARLY SO:
PERMANENT IN AIR: Potassii Bitartras; odorless, pleasant, acidulous taste.
Potassii Nitras; odorless, cooling, saline and pungent taste.
Potassii Sulphas; odorless, somewhat bitter taste.
Alumen; odorless, sweetish, strongly astringent taste.
Potassii Bicarbonate; odorless, saline and slightly alkaline taste.
Acidum Tartaricum; purely acidulous taste.
EFFLORESCENT: Plumbi Acetas; faintly acetous odor, sweetish, astringent,
afterwards metallic taste
Potassii et Sodii Tartras; odorless, cooling saline taste.
Sodii Acetas; odorless, cooling, saline taste.
Sodii Boras; odorless, sweetish alkaline taste.
Zinci Sulphas; odorless, astringent, metallic taste.
Acidum Citricum; purely acid taste, deliquescent in moist air.
Zinci Sulphocarbolas; odorless, slightly astringent, metallic taste.
Ammonii Carbonas; falls to a powder, but this is due to a slight decomposi-
tion, forming bicarbonate.
Sodii Carbonas; odorless, strongly alkaline taste.
Sodii Hyposulphis; odorless, bitter, then sweetish alkaline taste, deliquescent
in moist air.
Sodii Sulphas; odorless, saline and somewhat bitter taste.
DELIQUESCENT SALTS: Ammonii Iodidum, Potassii Citras, Potassii Car-
bonas, Potassii Cyanidum, Potassii Acetas, Potassii Hypophosphas, Lithii
Bromidi, Lithii Salicylas, Sodii Bromidum, Auri et Sodii Chloridum.
TABULAR CRYSTALS:
Argentii Nitras; odorless, bitter caustic, strongly metallic taste.
Potassii Chloras; lustrous, cooling, saline taste.
Ammonii Valerianas; odor of valerianic acid, sharp, sweetish taste.
CUBICAL:
Potassii Bromidum; odorless, pungent, saline taste.
Potassii Iodidum; peculiar, faint iodine-like odor, pungent, saline, after-
wards bitter taste.
SWEET TASTE:
Alumen Exsiccatum; very slightly sweetish, strongly astringent taste.
Antimonii et Potassii Tartras; slightly sweet, afterwards disagreeable metal-
lic taste.
Ammonii Salicylas; odorless, first slightly saline, bitter afterwards, sweet
taste. (Plumbi acetas; sweetish, astringent, poison.)
Saccharum; hard monoclinic crystals
Saccharum Lactis; gritty on tongue.
Strontii Salicylas; odorless, slightly sweet, saline taste.
STRONGLY SALINE TASTE:
Ammonii Chloridum; cooling saline taste.
Potassii Hypophosphis; pungent, saline taste.
Sodii Iodidum.
Sodii Chloridum; pure saline taste.
Sodii Hypophosphis; bitter, slightly sweet saline taste.
Calcii Bromidum; sharp saline taste.
Potassii Acetas; warming saline taste.
Sodii Bromidum; odorless, saline, slightly bitter taste.
Ammonii Bromidum; pungent saline taste.
CLASSIFICATION.
Zinci Bromidum; sharp, saline and metallic taste
Zinci Iodidum; sharp, saline and metallic taste.
Strontii Bromidum; bitter saline taste.
Ammonii Iodidum; odorless, sharp, saline taste.
COOLING SALINE TASTE:
Potassii et Sodii Tartras.
Potassii Citras.
Sodii Sulphis (also sulphurous taste).
Sodii Chloras.
Sodii Nitras; slightly bitter.
Sodii Pyrophosphas; feebly alkaline.
Sodii Sulphocarbolas; somewhat bitter.
ALKALINE TASTE:
Sodii Arsenas; mild.
Potassii Carbonas, Sodii Carbonas; strongly alkaline
Sodii Bicarbonas; cooling.
MISCELLANEOUS:
29
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum; odorless, acrid, persistent, metallic taste.
Chloral; aromatic, penetrating and slightly acrid odor, bitterish caustic taste.
Plumbi Nitras; sweetish, afterwards astringent, metallic taste.
Menthol; strong and pure odor of peppermint, warm aromatic taste.
Thymol; aromatic, thyme-like odor, pungent aromatic taste.
MICACEOUS SCALES OR LAMINÆ; WHITE OR COLORLESS.
Bismuthi et Ammonii Citras; pearly, odorless, slightly acidulous, acidulous
and metallic taste.
Calcii Hypophosphis; odorless, nauseous, bitter taste.
Ammonii Benzoas; slight odor of benzoic acid, saline, bitter, afterwards
slightly acid taste.
Strontii Iodidum; odorless, bitterish, saline taste.
Zinci Valerianas; odor valerianic acid, sweet, afterward styptic and metallic
taste.
Acidum Boricum; odorless, cooling, bitterish taste.
Acetanilidum; odorless, faintly burning taste.
LIGHT:
SMALL PRISMATIC CRYSTALS OR NEEDLES.
Benzoic Acid; odorless or characteristic odor of benzoin, warm, acid taste.
Acidum Gallicum; fawn colored, odorless, astringent or slight acid taste.
Acidum Salicylicum; odorless, sweetish, afterwards acrid taste.
Acidum Tannicum; odorless or faint characteristic odor, strongly astringent
HEAVY:
taste.
Magnesii Sulphas; odorless, cooling, saline, bitter taste.
FINE POWDERS OR GRANULAR (OCCASIONALLY IN FUSED
MASSES).
SWEET TASTE:
Sodii Benzoas; odorless or faint odor benzoin, sweetish, astringent taste.
Sodii Bisulphis; odor sulphur dioxide, disagreeable sulphurous taste.
Lithii Salicylas; odorless, sweetish taste.
Lithii Benzoas; odorless and faintly benzoic odor, cooling and sweetish
taste.
Sodii Salicylas; odorless, sweetish saline taste.
Hydrargyrum cum Cretæ; odorless, slightly sweetish taste.
EARTHY TASTE:
Magnesia; odorless
Magnesii Carbonas; odorless, slightly earthy taste.
Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum; odorless, earthy, afterwards styptic and
metallic taste.
30
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
ALKALINE TASTE:
Lithii Carbonas; odorless.
Lithii Citras; odorless, cooling, faintly alkaline taste.
Calx Sulphurata; odor hydrogen sulfid, offensive alkaline taste.
ODORLESS AND TASTELESS:
Bismuthi Subnitras; almost tasteless.
Bismuthi Subcarbonas; white or pale yellowish white.
Argentii Cyanidum.
Cerii Oxalas.
Calcii Carbonas Præcipitatus.
Calcii Phosphas Præcipitatus.
Barii Dioxidum.
Zinci Carbonas Præcipitatus.
Bismuthi Salicylas.
Zinci Oxidum.
Ferri Hypophosphis, nearly tasteless.
Hydrargyrum Chloridum Mite.
Antimonii Oxidum.
MISCELLANEOUS:
Lithii Bromidum; odorless, sharp, somewhat bitter taste.
Calx Chlorata Hypochlorous; acid odor, disagreeable, saline taste.
Zinci Chloridum; odorless, very caustic, astringent, metallic taste.
Zinci Stearas; tasteless, very faint, fat-like odor.
AMORPHOUS MASSES:
Potassii Hydroxidum; odorless or faint odor of lye; very acrid and caustic
taste.
Potassii Cyanidum; sometimes granular, very poisonous
Sodii Hydroxidum; odorless, acrid, caustic taste.
Ammonii Carbonas; strong odor ammonia, free from empyreuma, sharp,
saline taste.
Calx; odorless, sharp, caustic taste.
Calcii Chloridum; odorless, sharp saline taste.
Acidum Arsenosum (trioxide); odorless, tasteless
Amylum; irregular, friable, white.
Acidum Stearicum; hard, somewhat glossy white.
Camphor; colorless or white, odor characteristic, pungent, aromatic taste
MOBILE LIQUIDS.
ODOROUS, VERY VOLATILE, ODORS CHARACTERISTIC:
Chloroform; heavy.
Carbonii Disulphidum; heavy fetid odor, sharp aromatic taste
Bromum; heavy, peculiar, suffocating odor.
Ether; light, burning, sweetish taste.
Benzine.
Alcohol.
SLOWLY VOLATILE:
Acidum Hydrocyanicum.
Acidum Hydrochloricum.
Acidum Nitricum.
Acidum Nitrohydrochloricum.
Aqua Chlori; greenish yellow, disagreeable odor and taste of chlorine
Aquæ Ammoniæ; pungent odor, acrid alkaline taste.
Acidum Aceticum; purely acid taste.
ODORLESS:
Aquæ Hydrogenii Dioxidum; makes soapy froth in mouth.
Dilute Acids and Water.
SYRUPY LIQUIDS.
Acidum Lacticum.
Acidum Phosphoricum.
Acidum Sulphuricum; oily, caustic taste.
Acidum Carbolicum. (Phenol Liquefactum.)
Glycerinum; oily, sweet, warın taste.
Acidum Oleicum; lard-like odor and taste.
CLASSIFICATION.
31
ORGANIC CHEMICALS.
The medicinal organic compounds are very numerous, and the number
is still increasing. They are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen and
their derivatives, and may be classified under the following general heads:
CLASS I. METHANE DERIVATIVES:
1 Hydrocarbons—
Saturated.
Unsaturated.
2. Halogen Substitution Products of the Hydrocarbons.
3. Alcohols—
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary.
Monatomic, Diatomic, Polyatomic (or monacid, etc.).
4. Derivatives of Alcohols-
Esters.
Sulphur Derivatives of Alcohols and Ethers.
Inorganic Esters.
Nitriles.
Amines or Ammonium Bases, Hydroxylamines, and
Hydrazines.
Metalloid Compounds, Phosphorus, Arsenic, etc.
Metallic Compounds.
5. Aldehydes and Ketones.
6. Acids (monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, etc.).
7. Derivatives of Acids-
Esters (ethereal salts).
Halogen Substitution Products and Haloids of the Acid
Radicals.
Acid Anhydrides.
Thio-acids and Anhydrides.
Acid Amides and Amido Acids.
8. Cyanogen Compounds and their Derivatives.
9. Carbonic Acid Derivatives.
10. Carbohydrates.
Transition to the Aromatic Compounds.
1. Polymethylenes.
2. Furfurane, Thiophene, and Pyrrol.
3. Azoles, etc.
CLASS II.-Benzene OR AROMATIC DERIVATIVES:
1. Hydrocarbons.
2. Halogen Derivatives.
3. Sulphur Derivatives.
4. Nitro Derivatives.
5. Amido Derivatives.
6. Other Nitrogen Derivatives.
7. Phenols.
Diazo Compounds.
Azo Compounds.
Hydrazines.
8. Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones.
9. Acids.
10. Combinations of the above classes.
32
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
DOUBLE RING COMPOUNDS.
11. Indigo Group.
12. Diphenyl and its Derivatives.
13. Diphenyl-methane and similar compounds.
14. Triphenyl-methane and Derivatives, including certain dyes—
1. Malachite Green Group.
2. Rosaniline Group.
3. Aurin Group.
4. Eosin Group.
CONDENSED RING COMPOUNDS.
15. Naphthalene and its Derivatives.
16. Anthracene and its Derivatives.
17. Phenanthrene and its Derivatives.
18. Pyridine Group.
19. Chinoline Group.
20. Alkaloids of Complicated Composition.
21. Hydrated Benzenes (Terpenes and Camphors)
22. Tars and Glucosides.
23. Albumins and Albuminoids
The organic compounds of the various classes may be briefly defined
as follows:
CLASS I.—METHANE OR FATTY ACID SERIES.
1. HYDROCARBONS of this series are the compounds of carbon and hydro-
gen, having the carbon atoms connected in a chain-thus,
methane, CH₁; ethane, CH3-CH,; propane, CH2-CH3-CH2.
These compounds are the first of a series of compounds vary-
ing by the increment CH2. They may be taken as illustrative
of many such series of organic compounds, called homologous
series.
When there are four or more atoms of carbon in the mole-
cule, the carbon atoms may form branching chains, as in
isobutane.
This compound has the same percentage composition, but
has different properties from butane, CH3-CH2-CH2-CH¸.
This is called isomerism.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons or derivatives have atoms of car-
bon united to one another by two or three bonds of affinity—
thus, ethylene, CH2=CH2; acetylene, CHECH. These
compounds will unite with halogens or halogen acids without
an equivalent loss of hydrogen.
2. HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS are hydrocarbons in which one or
more atoms of hydrogen are replaced by a corresponding num-
ber of atoms of a halogen-thus, chloroform, CHCl3; iodo-
form, CHI,
CLASSIFICATION.
33
3. ALCOHOLS are formed by the replacement of one or more hydrogen
atoms of a hydrocarbon by a corresponding number of
hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are of neutral reaction, but
analogous to metallic hydroxides. They combine with acids,
losing water, forming compounds analogous to salts, termed
esters. They may also be defined as hydroxyl combined with
an alkyl radical *—thus, alcohol (ethyl hydroxide), C₂H¿OH.
Alcohols with one (OH) group are termed monatomic—thus,
alcohol, ethyl alcohol, CH,CH₂OH; with two (OH) groups
are termed diatomic-thus, glycol, CH₂OH-CH₂OH; with
three (OH) groups are termed triatomic-thus, glycerine,
CH₂OH-CHOH-CH₂OH, etc. Those alcohols with two or
more groups are called polyatomic. Alcohols are also divided
into three classes. If the hydrogen substituted is in the methyl
radical (CH3), making the group CH₂OH, primary alcohols are
formed; or, if the substitution is in the methylene radical
(CH2), making the group CHOH, secondary alcohols are
formed; or, if the substitution is in the methine radical
(ECH), making the group =COH, tertiary alcohols are
formed.†
4. DERIVATIVES OF ALCOHOLS.-(a) Ethers are compounds of neutral
reaction, derived from alcohols by the elimination of one
molecule of water from two molecules of alcohol. They are
analogous to the metallic oxides-thus, ether (or di-ethyl-
oxide), (C,H,)₂O; ethyl-propyl-ether, C,H,-O-С₁II.
5
(b) Sulphur derivatives of alcohols and ethers are formed by
* Radicals.—It is usual to designate as radicals those groups of atoms which are
found repeating themselves in a comparatively large number of compounds derived
from one another, and in which these combinations play the part of simple elements:
e. g., CH, is called the methyl radical, CH,-Cl is methyl chloride, CH,OH is methyl
alcohol, etc. CH-CO- is termed the acetyl radical and C₂H,O-Cl is acetyl chloride,
etc.
† Groups of elements like the above are always found to have constant properties,
and are said to be the characteristic groups in the classes in which they are found.
The principal groups of organic chemistry.are the following:
Primary alcohols,.
Ketones,
Acids,
-COH.
-CO.
-COOH.
Secondary alcohols, .
-CH₂OH. Aldehydes,.
-CHOH.
-
Tertiary alcohols,
ECOH.
Ethers,
.EC-O-CE
Nitriles,
-CEN.
Amido compounds,.
-NH2.
Nitro compounds,
Oximes,
·
Sulphonic acids,.
-HSO3.
.—NO,.
=NOH.
Imido compounds,.
NH.
3
34
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
replacing one or more atoms of oxygen by sulphur-thus, mer-
captan, C₂H,SH; ethyl-sulphid, (C₂H)2S.
(c) Inorganic esters are compounds derived from the inor-
ganic acids by the exchange of the replaceable hydrogen by an
alcohol radical-thus, ethyl-nitrate, C₂H-O-NO2. They are
analogous to inorganic salts.
(d) Nitriles are compounds of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in
which the hydrogen is replaced by an alcohol radical-thus,
aceto-nitrile or methyl-cyanide, CH,CN. Iso-nitriles differ in
properties from the nitriles by having the radical joined to the
nitrogen-thus, CH,NC.
(e) Nitrogen bases: Amines and ammonium bases are com-
pounds formed by the introduction of one or more alcohol
radicals in place of the hydrogen in ammonia or ammonium
salts—thus, methylamine, CH,NH₂; trimethylamine, (CH¸),N.
Amines are designated as primary, secondary (imines), ter-
tiary (nitrile bases), or quarternary (ammonium bases), as one,
two, or three atoms of hydrogen are replaced in ammonia, or
as the four atoms of hydrogen are replaced in ammonium.
Hydroxylamines and hydrazines are compounds derived re-
spectively from hydroxylamine and hydrazine as the amines are
derived from ammonia-thus, methyl-hydroxylamine, NH₂OCH,;
methyl-hydrazine, CH,-NHNH2.
(†) Metalloid compounds: Phosphorus, arsenic, etc.
Phosphines are compounds derived from phosphine as the
amines are derived from ammonia-thus, methyl phosphine,
CH,PH2.
Arsines are compounds derived from arsine in the same man-
ner, trimethyl arsine, (CH3)3As. Among the derivatives in this
class are the cacodyles.
(g) Metallic compounds are combinations of the alcohol
radicals with the metals-thus, zinc methyl, Zn(CH3)2; zinc
ethyl, Zn(C2H5) 2.
5. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES are substances which result from the oxi-
dation of primary and secondary alcohols respectively, with
the separation of two atoms of hydrogen. Thus, aldehyde,
(CH,CHO), characterized by the group -COH; acetone
dimethyl-ketone, CH,-CO-CH,, characterized by the group
= CO.
Oximes are compounds derived from aldehydes and ketones
by replacing the oxygen with the group = NOH. Thus,
aldoxime, CH3-CH=NOH; ketoxime, (CH)C₂=NOH.
6. ACIDS are oxidation products of the primary alcohols and the corre-
CLASSIFICATION.
35
sponding aldehydes, and contain the characteristic group,
-COOH, the hydrogen of which is replaceable by a metal to
form a salt. Acids may be monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, etc.,
as they contain one or more of these groups-thus, acetic acid,
CH,-COOH; oxalic acid, COOH-COOH, etc.
3
7. DERIVATIVES OF ACIDS.—(a) Esters are compounds formed by replac-
ing the typical hydrogen of an acid by an alcohol radical—
thus, acetic ether (ethyl-acetic-ether, ethyl-acetate), CH¸-
COOC,H.
(b) Halogen Derivatives.-I. Substitution products in which
the halogen replaces the hydrogen of the alcohol radical-thus,
monochlor-acetic acid, CH,CICOOH.
2. Chlorides of the Acid Radicals.-The halogen replaces
the hydroxyl (OH) of the acid group-thus, acetyl chloride,
CH,COCI.
(c) Acid Anhydrides. Two molecules of an acid combined
with the loss of water-thus, acetic acid anhydride,
(CH,CO),O.
(d) Thio-acids and Anhydrides.-Oxygen of the acids sub-
stituted by sulphur-thus, thiacetic acid, CH,COSH.
(e) Amido Acids.-Compounds formed (1) by the replace-
ment of the hydrogen of ammonia by acid radicals-thus,
glycocoll (amido acetic acid), CH₂(NH₂) COOH.
(2) Acid Amides.-Compounds formed by replacing the
OH of the acid by the amido group, NH, thus, acetamide,
CH,CONH,.
8. CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES.—Those compounds
derivable from cyanogen, C₂N₂; hydrocyanic or prussic acid,
HCN; potassium ferrocyanide, K4Fe(CN),; ethylthiocyanate,
C₂H,SCN.
9. CARBONIC ACID DERIVATIVES.-Compounds derivable by substitution
from carbonic acid (H2CO3)—thus, ethyl carbonate, CO (OC₂-
H₁)2; carbon oxychloride (phosgene gas), COCl2; carbamide
(urea), CO(NH2)2; guanidine, CNH (NH2)2; uric acid, xan-
thine, etc.
10. CARBOHYDRATES.-Compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
containing two atoms less of hydrogen than the corresponding
polyatomic alcohol. Chemically, they are aldehyde alcohols
or ketone alcohols.
The principal groups are:
1. Grape sugar group, C,H12O6.
2. Cane sugar group, C12H22O11-
3. Cellulose group, (C„H₁O5)x.
36
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
TRANSITION TO THE AROMATIC COMPOUNDS.
1. Polymethylenes are compounds containing three or more methyl-
ene (CH2) groups joined in a ring thus, tri-methylene,
CH₂
H₂C-CH,
2. Furfurane, thiophene, and pyrrol are compounds in which four
carbon atoms with one atom of either oxygen, sulphur, or
HCCH
11
nitrogen are joined in a ring-thus, furfurane, HCCH; thio-
HC-CH
11 11
HCCH
phene, HC CH; pyrrol, HC CH.
S
NH
3. Azoles contain two or more atoms other than carbon in a ring, and
may be considered as derived from furfurane, thiophene, and
C—C
pyrrol by replacing =CH- by N-, -thus, pyrazole, C N;
CN;
NH
O=C-CH
11
antipyrine (phenyldimethylpyrazolon), CH,N CCH,.
N.CH,
CLASS II.-BENZENE OR AROMATIC SERIES.
1. HYDROCARBONS of this series are compounds containing carbon and
hydrogen, having the carbon atoms connected in a ring-thus,
CH
benzene, C.H.,
HC
CH
16
5
3
HC
CH
CH
2. HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS have an atom of hydrogen replaced
by a halogen atom-thus, mono-chlor-benzene, CH¸Cl; dibrom-
benzene, C.H,Bг₂. C.H is called the phenyl radical; C,H,,
the phenylene radical.
5
The di-substitution products may form three isomers accord-
CBr
HC
CBr
ing as the two are adjacent in the ring-thus,
HC
CH
CH
CLASSIFICATION.
37
called ortho-di-brom-benzene; or as they have an atom of
CBr
HC
CH
hydrogen between-thus,
called meta-di-brom-
HC
CBr
CBr
CH
HC
CH
benzene; or as the atoms are opposite-thus,
HC CH'
CBr
called para-di-brom-benzene.
When three atoms are substituted, we have symmetrical
CBr
CBr
HC
BrC
CH
CBr
HC
CBr
tri-brom-benzene; asymmetrical
CBr
HC
CH
CH
CBr
HC
CBr
tri-brom-benzene; and adjacent
tri-brom-benzene.
HC
CBr
CH
This method of nomenclature is used whenever any element
or group takes the place of hydrogen.
3. SULPHUR DERIVATIVES of the aromatic series are analogous to those of
the fatty acid series-thus, benzene sulphonic acid, C,H,SO,H.
4. NITRO DERIVATIVES are analogous to those of the methane series, but
are more stable, and can be made by the direct treatment of
the hydrocarbon with nitric acid-thus, nitro-benzene, С¡Í¸-
NO₂; tri-nitro-toluene, C,H,CH3(NO2) 3·
2
5. AMIDO DERIVATIVES.-(1) Compounds formed by replacing one or
more atoms of hydrogen in benzene or derivative hydrocarbons
by one or more amido groups—thus, aniline (amido-benzene),
CH5NH2; phenylene-diamine, C¸H₁(NH2)2.
(2) Compounds formed by replacing one or more atoms of
hydrogen in ammonia by the aromatic hydrocarbon radicals-
thus, diphenyl-amine, (C¸H¸) ¿NH.
6. OTHER NITROGEN DERIVATIVES.-Diazo, azo-compounds, and hydra-
zines: (a) Diazo-compounds are intermediate products in the
conversion of amido compounds to alcohols by means of
nitrous acid. They contain the characteristic group -N-N-
—thus, diazo-benzene-chloride, CHÂ-N=N-Cl.
5
(b) Azo-compounds contain the same group as the diazo-
compounds, but joined on each side to an alkyl radical—thus,
azo-benzene (benzene-azo-benzene), CH,-N-N-CH5.
(c) Hydrazines are compounds derived by the replacement
38
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
of the hydrogen of hydrazine (N₂H) by one or more aromatic
hydrocarbon radicals-thus, phenylhydrazine, C,H,HN-NH2.
They contain the characteristic group = N-N=.
7. PHENOLS are oxygenated derivatives of the benzenes. Chemically, they
are midway between the alcohols and acids, and are formed by
the replacement of H of the benzene nucleus by hydroxyl-
thus, phenol (carbolic acid), C,H,OH; creosol, C,H,(CH3)OH.
When two or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by
the hydroxyl group, the polyacid phenols are obtained—thus,
pyrocatechin (o-dioxy-benzene), CH₁(OH)₂; resorcin (m-di-
oxybenzene; and hydroquinone (p-dioxy-benzene). Tri-acid-
phenols: C,H,(OH)3, pyrogallic acid o-trioxy-benzene; phloro-
glucin (s-trioxybenzene), oxyhydroquinone (a-trioxybenzene).
8. ALCOHOLS, ALDEHYDES, ANd Ketones.—Analogous to the same com-
pounds of the methane series, containing the same groups, re-
placing the hydrogen of the side-chains-thus, C.H,CH₂OH,
benzyl alcohol; C,H,CHO, benzaldehyde; CH¿C=OC₂H5,
acetophenone.
=
2
9. ACIDS.-Compounds analogous to the acids of the methane series,
capable of forming the same kinds of derivatives-thus, ben-
zoic acid, CHCOOH; toluic acid, C,H,CH,COOH; phthalic
acid, C,H,(COOH) 2.
IO. COMBINATIONS OF THE ABOVE CLASSES.
DOUBLE RING COMPOUNDS.
II. INDIGO GROUP.-Compounds containing double rings similar to those
of indigo-thus, indigo, C.H.CO C = C C<
Ν
4
NH
CH, C(OH); indol, C.H.H
/CH
NOC(OH);
CH.
4 NH/
NH
CO
C.H.; isatin,
12. DIPHENYL AND ITS DERIVATIVES.-Compounds containing two phenyl
groups joined directly to each other-thus, diphenyl, С¸H¸—С¸Н§;
benzidine (p-diamidodiphenyl), CH,NH₂-C,H,NH₂.
2
13. DIPHENYL-METHANE AND SIMILAR COMPOUNDS.-Compounds in
which two H atoms of methane are replaced by two phenyl
groups, (CH)2,—thus, diphenyl-methane, CH₂(CHÁ) 2; benzo-
phenone, CO (C¸H5) 2•
2
14. TRIPHENYL-METHANE GROUP.-Compounds in which three H atoms
of methane are replaced by the phenyl radical-thus, triphenyl-
methane, CH(CH); triphenyl-methane-carbinol, C(OH)-
(CHS) 3.
These compounds are of especial interest, including extensive
series of dyes. The following groups of dyes are distinguished:
CLASSIFICATION.
39
(1) Diamido-triphenyl-methane group (the bitter-almond-
oil green group).
(2) Triamido-triphenyl-methane (the rosaniline group).
(3) Trioxy-triphenyl-methane (the aurin group).
(4) Triphenyl-methane-carboxylic acid (the eosin group).
For a more complete description of these dyes the student
is referred to works on organic chemistry.
CONDENSED RING COMPOUNDS.
15. NAPHTHALENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.-Naphthalene contains two
condensed rings and has the composition C₁oHg; or, graphically,
8
HC
CH
8
1
HC
7
HC6
2
CH
5
HC
7
C
4
CH
3 CH
This is an increment of C₂H, over benzene. The hydrogen
can be replaced as in benzene, forming derivatives-thus,
-C₁H,OH, naphthol; C₁,H,NH2, naphthylamine, etc. When
an atom of hydrogen connected to a carbon atom adjacent to
either of the atoms of carbon common to both rings is replaced,
alpha («) derivatives of naphthalene are made. If those not
adjacent are replaced, we have beta (5) derivatives.
16. ANTHRACENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.-Anthracene contains three con-
HC
CH CH
C
HC
CH
densed rings, C₁4H10, or, graphically,
HC
CH
C
CH CH CH
This is an increment of CH₂ over naphthalene. The hydro-
2
gen can be replaced as in benzene, forming derivatives—thus,
C₁HO₂, anthraquinone; C₁,H,O4, alizarine.
-8 2,
8
17. PHENANTHRENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.-Phenanthrene is an isomer
of anthracene, containing three
CH
HCCH HC
condensed rings-thus,
CH
CH
CH.
It can form derivatives in the same way.
HC
C
CH CH
Pyridine derivatives, alkaloids, and compounds related to
40
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
them. These are compounds that may be considered as derived
from benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, by the exchange of
-N=for -CH= in the rings. All may be considered as derived
from benzene on the one hand and from pyridine on the other.
18. PYRIDINE GROUP.-Pyridine may be considered as benzene in which
CH- is exchanged for N-. The hydrogen of pyridine is
replaceable, forming derivatives such as picoline (methyl-pyri-
dine), C,H,NCH,.
11
Hydrated pyridine or piperidine, CH₁₁N; conine, a-normal-
propyl-piperidine, C¿H₁N(C,H₁).
19. QUINOLINE AND ACRIDINE GROUPS bear the same relation to pyridine
that naphthalene and anthracene bear to benzene.
20. ALKALOIDS OF COMPLEX OR UNKNOWN COMPOSITION.—Included in
this class are the tropine, opium, narcotine, cinchona, strychnine,
and solanine bases.
21. HYDRATED DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE.-Terpenes are hydrocarbons
of the general formula (CH)x, or, most commonly, C10H18.
Camphors are oxygen derivatives of the terpenes: C10H180,
camphor.
16
22. GLUCOSIDES are vegetable substances that, when treated with alkalies,
acids, or enzymes, are so broken up that one of the products
of the decomposition is a glucose. They are ethereal deriva-
tives of these sugars (?).
23. RESINS.—The resins are closely related to the terpenes and are formed
from them. Their composition is as yet unknown.
24. ALBUMIN AND ALBUMINOIDS make up the greater part of the
animal organism, and are also found in plants, especially in the
seeds. The composition is as yet in doubt.
As before stated, many of these organic compounds are mere mixtures
of synthetical chemicals. They have the alluring titles of "New Reme-
dies," for which special merit is claimed. Many of them have certain
euphonic titles, which give no information as regards their constituents;
others have proper scientific names, which tell at once their composition.
Virgil Coblentz, referring to their nomenclature, divides them into two
classes, as follows:
CLASS I.-TITLES OF ORGANIC CHEMICALS.
(a) Titles of this class express concisely the composition (chemical) of
the compound-as, for example, acet-anilid, benz-anilid, ethy-
lene-diamine, ethoxyl-caffein, acety-ethyl-phenyl-hydrazine.
(b) Such titles as embrace euphonic combinations of different sylla-
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES.
4I
bles of names of the bodies entering into the composition of the
remedy-for example, tann-albin (compound of tannin and
albumin); amyl-form (a combination of starch and formalde-
hyde); sali-pyrine (a compound of salicylic acid and antipyrine);
lacto-phenin (lactic acid derivative of phenetidin); gall-al (alumi-
num gallate); gall-anol (gallic acid and anilid), etc.
CLASS II.-DESCRIPTIVE TITLES.
These are especially coined euphonic titles, which are generally of Greek
and Latin origin, and partake of a descriptive character. These
describe, in a way, either the uses, properties, or physical charac-
ters of the compound-as, for example, pyoktanin is made up
of the Greek words óo, meaning pus, and Teivo, to kill;
thalline, from the Greek, allós, meaning a green twig, referring
to the bright green color produced by the action of the oxidizing
agents.
Other titles are of arbitrary character, such as loretin, an
adaptation from laura, or lorenit, in which the last three letters
of loretin have been reversed.
Owing to the entire absence of any data upon the nomencla-
ture of these remedies, the derivation of many of these titles is
entirely a matter of conjecture.
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES.
The following synopsis of new remedies aims to include such agents
as have some promise of becoming permanent additions to the Materia
Medica, giving merely the name, chemical formula, brief statement as to
physical properties, use and dose; the idea being to give simply a general
survey of the newer remedies admitted, or seeking admission, into the
list of recognized therapeutical agents. Some are recognized as modern
synthetic medicinal products. Dr. Virgil Coblentz gives a most interesting
résumé of these in the "Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry,"
February, 1904, No. 3, vol. xxiii, special reprints of which have been
issued. The selection below has been made from prescription files.
ACETANILID (Acetanalidum U. S.).—CH,NH.COCH₂. Analgesic, nerve seda-
tive, and germicide. Dose, 0.2 to 0.5 Gm. (3 to 8 gr.).
ACETONE (Acetonum U. S.).—CH3.CO.CH3. Nervine. Dose, 5 to 15m (0.3 to
1 Gm.).
ACETOPYRIN.—Compound of antipyrin and acetyl salicylic acid, sparingly
soluble in alcohol. Antiseptic. Prompt and energetic in migraine, acute
articular rheumatism, etc., in doses of 0.5 to 1 Gm. (7½ to 15 gr.) in cachets.
42
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
ACETOZONE.—(Benzoyl-acetyl-peroxide.) CH,COOOCOCH. An exceedingly
hygroscopic powder, therefore diluted with 50 per cent. inert substance.
Decomposed by water contact into its respective hydrogen peroxides, a
most powerful germicide, without toxicity. Intestinal antiseptic, especially
valuable in typhoid fever. One Gm. (15 gr.) in one liter (1 qt.) water;
100 cubic centimeters (4 fluid oz.) to be taken every four hours.
1
3
Acid Camphoric (U. S.).—C&H₁₁(COOH)2. Anhidrotic. Dose, 15 gr. (1 Gm.).
ACTOL.-(Ŝilver Lactate.) AgC,H¸О¸ + H₂O. Grayish white powder, soluble
in 15 parts water. Without caustic action on wounds. Solutions must
be protected from light.
ADRENALIN.—Solution of adrenalin chloride. Active principle of the adrenal
gland. The most powerful astringent and hemostatic known; one drop
of the solution 1 in 10,000 will blanch the mucous membrane of the eyelid
in one minute. Valuable in coryza, hay-fever, hemorrhage, iritis, laryngi-
tis, surgical operations, etc.
ALUMNOL. [C₁H5OH(SO3)2]3A12.
(Aluminum b-naphthol-di-sulfonate.) An-
tiseptic astringent. In 1 to 2 per cent. solutions, principally in gonorrhea,
also as a gargle.
ANTIPYRINE.—C¸Ñ₂HO(CH3)2C¸H,. Antipyretic, antirheumatic, and antineuralgic.
Dose, 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
ARGONIN. (Argentum-caseinicum.) Compound of silver with casein, repre-
senting about 7 per cent. of its weight of silver nitrate. Soluble in water,
non-irritant, and non-precipitated by soluble chlorides. Antiseptic, chiefly
in gonorrhea, as a 2 per cent. solution.
ARGYROL. (Silver Vitellin.) Compound of nuclein and silver, 30 per cent.
Closely allied to argonin. Therapeutically, used locally.
ARISTOL.-[CH₂(CH3)(Č3H7)OI]2. (Thymolis Iodidum U. S.) A red-brown
sticky powder, soluble in absolute alcohol, ether, chloroform, fixed oils, and
camphor carbolate, insoluble in water and glycerin. Employed in most skin
affections, etc. Dose, 0.125 Gm. (2 gr.).
ASPIRIN.-(Acetyl-salicylic-acid.) White powder, sparingly soluble in water,
freely in alcohol. Antirheumatic in doses 0.1 to 0.3 Gm. in capsule; 0.5 to
1 Gm. per diem.
Benzaldehyde (U. S.).—CH,.COH. Contained in bitter almond oil.
Benzosal.—(Guaiacol-Benzoate.) C₁,H12O3. Colorless, crystalline powder,
nearly tasteless and odorless. Intestinal antiseptic. Dose, 0.2 to 0.6 Gm.
(1 to 3 gr.) per day.
BROMOFORM.-CHBг3. Anæsthetic, a remedy in whooping-cough. Dose, 2 to
5 drops (0.1 to 0.3 Gm.).
14
CHINOSOL.—(Potassium oxyquinolin-sulphate.) Bright yellow crystalline pow-
der. Powerful antiseptic in the treatment of catarrh, ulcers, etc.; of great
value in dentistry as an antiseptic mouth-wash (1 : 1,000), not affecting in-
juriously the gums or teeth.
Hyp-
CHLORAL HYDRATE (Chloralum Hydratum U. S.).—C₂HC1₂O+H₂O.
notic. Dose, 10 to 20 my (0.6 to 1.25 Gm.).
CHLORALAMIDE. (Chloralformamide U. S.). CC1,CH.OH.CONH₂. Soluble in
nine parts of water. Hypnotic. Dose, 10 to 30 gr. (0.65 to 2.0 Gm.).
CHLORETONE.
Chloretone. (Chloroform Acetone.) HO.C(CH3)2CCl₂. White crystals. The
saturated solution is used as a local anesthetic. Internally hypnotic.
Dose, 1 to 4 Gm. (15 to 60 gr.).
Cinnaldehyde (U. S.) -C,H,.CH=CH.COH. In cinnamon oil (or synthetic oil).
Creasotal. (Beechwood Creasote 90 per cent. and carbolic acid.) A viscid,
amber-colored, nearly odorless and tasteless liquid, insoluble in water and
glycerin. Preferred to creasote in the treatment of tuberculosis, also in
typhoid fever. In capsules, in oil, or in emulsion. Dose, 1 to 16 Gm.
Cresol (U. S.).—C,H,(CH3)OH. Antiseptic. Dose, 1 m (0.05 Cc.).
CROTON CHLORAL. (Butyl Chloral Hydrate.) CH,Cl₂O+H₂O. Action and
dose same as chloral hydrate.
DERMATOL or Bismuth Subgallate (U. S.).—A fine saffron yellow powder. A
substitute for iodoform in the treatment of wounds, ulcers, etc.
DIABETIN. CH12O6· A variety of levulose used as a substitute for cane sugar
in the regimen of diabetic patients. Only an inconsiderable portion of it is
excreted with the urine.
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES.
DI-IODOFORM.—C₂H₂I₁. Used as a substitute for iodoform.
1
f
1
17 17
43
DIONIN. (Ethyl-morphine-hydrochlorate.) С₂H₂O(OH)C₁7H₁7NO. HCl + H₂O.
Local anesthetic, sedative, analgesic, chiefly used in ophthalmic practice.
Dose, ' to 'g gr.
DIURETIN. (Theobromine Sodium Salicylate.) CH,NO,Na + CH₁(OH)-
COONa. White amorphous powder. Diuretic.
Diuretic. Acts directly upon the
kidneys without producing insomnia and depression. Dose, 15 gr. (1 Gm.).
ETHYL BROMIDE.-C₂H,Br. Colorless, very volatile, non-inflammable liquid of a
chloroformic taste and odor. Employed in minor surgery for general
anesthesia.
ETHYL CHLORIDE (Ethylis Chloridum U. S.).—C₂H,Cl. Local anesthetic, pro-
ducing no shock, vomiting, or nausea.
EUCAINE HYDROCHLORATE B.-(Benzoyl-vinyl-diaceton-alkamine.) CH2NO₂-
HCl. A white crystalline powder. Less toxic than cocaine, does not pro-
duce mydriasis or corneal disturbances. In ophthalmic practice used in
2 per cent., in genito-urinary diseases, 0.5 to 2 per cent., for infiltration
anæsthetic 0.1 to 1 per cent., solutions.
Eucalyptol (U. S.).—(Cineol). CH18O. In eucalyptus oil. Dose, 5 mg (0.3 Cc.).
Eugenol (U. S.).—CH¸(OH)(OCH,).С,H,. Synthetic clove oil.
EUPHORIN.-Phenyl-urethane.
CH_NH–CÓ—OC,H. Colorless crystalline
powder. Antipyretic, analgesic, etc. Dose, 0.13 to 0.5 Gm. (2 to 8 gr.).
EUQUININE, EUCHININ.-C₂H,O.CO.OC20H23N2O. Carbonic acid ester deriva-
tive of quinine. White crystals, devoid of bitterness, tasteless quinine
compound. Given to children in mucilaginous vehicle.
EUROPHEN.-C‚Í‚(OCH¸)CH¸.C¸H₂.C₁H₂(CH₂)OI. A cresol derivative contain-
ing 22 per cent. of iodine. A yellow powder insoluble in water. Antiseptic
as a 3 per cent. ointment for burns, scalds, and ulcers; as antisyphilitic, in
solution in a fixed oil hypodermically. Dose, to 1 gr. (% to 1's Gm.).
Must not be confounded with euphorin.
T
EXALGIN. CH¿N(CH¸)(CH¿CO). Analgesic, dose, 3 to 6 gr. (0.2 to 0.4 Gm.);
antipyretic, 7½ gr. (0.5 Gm.).
EXODIN.
(Diacetyl-rufigallic-acid-tetramethyl-ether.) Purgative. Dose, 7 to
12 gr. (0.5 to 0.8 Gm.).
Formaldehyde.— HCOH.´ A 37 per cent. solution (U. S. P.) of formic aldehyde
(HCOH). Antiseptic and disinfectant. A powerful bactericide even when
largely diluted. A spray of 2 per cent. solution completely disinfects
fabrics; 0.5 to 1 per cent. solution to disinfect rooms, walls, furniture, etc.
Guaiacol (U. S.).—C‚È‚—OHOCH,. The chief constituent of creasote, which
contains it in varying proportions of 60 to 90 per cent. A colorless liquid of
a strong aromatic odor. Dose, 1 to 2 drops for children, 3 to 5 drops for
adults, dissolved in water with cognac and wine. Must be administered
continuously for months.
Guaiacol Carbonate (U. S.).—CO3(CH¸OCH3)2. An odorless, tasteless, crystalline
powder, insoluble in water. Dose, 0.2 to 0.5 Gm., increased to 6 Gm. per day.
More readily borne by the stomach than guaiacol itself. (Synonym, DuotaÏ.)
CH,CO
CH,CO
HEROIN. (Morphine di-acetic-ester.) C₁H₁NO3
17
White crystals. The
hydrochlorate in small doses, from 0.005 to 0.03 Mgm. (7' to gr.), in laryn-
geal cough, bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis; usually associated with
other agents-terpin hydrate, etc
HOLOCAIN.-CH,C
N—C₂H₂OC₂H¿
N-CH₁OC₂H
4
Muscular anesthetic, germicidal (poison).
HYPNONE.—CH,COCH,. Soporific, hypnotic. Dose, 1 to 3 m.
ICHTHYOL.-C28H36S3O6(NH4)2. Ammonium sulphichthyolate and sodium sulph-
ichthyolate are both employed under the name ichthyol. The latter,
owing to its density, being dispensed when pills are prescribed, the former
in ointments. Dark-brown semi-liquids of a fetid odor. Employed in a
host of maladies, including eczema, bruises, burns, rheumatism, migraine,
chilblains, etc.; also used in form of impregnated cotton, gauze, or soap.
IODOL (Iodolum U. S.).-C₁INH. Antiseptic and alterative. Dose, 5 to
10 gr.
44
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
OC₂H5
LACTOPHENIN.—CH₁
NH.CO.CH(OH)CH,
Chemically resembling phenacetine
The daily
Antipyretic and antirheumatic. Soluble in 40 parts of water.
dose is 10 to 40 gr. in divided quantities.
LYSIDIN. (Ethylene-ethenyl-diamine.) (CH₂N) (CH₂NH)CCH,. (Methyl-glyox-
alidin.) A very hygroscopic, pinkish-white, alkaline mass. Comes in the
form of 50 per cent. aqueous solution only. Said to possess five times the
uric-acid solvent power of piperazine. Thirty to 150 minims in one pint
or more of aerated water.
18
MERCUROL. (Mercurous Nuclein.) Brownish-white powder; contains 10 per
cent. of mercury. It does not precipitate albumen and is employed dis-
solved in physiologic salt solution.
Methylene Blue.-(Methylthionine Hydrochloridum U. S.). C₁H₁N3SC1. A
blue aniline similar to the agent following. Anodyne, antiperiodic, analgesic,
bactericide. Employed especially in carcinomatous growths. Dose, 0.1 to
0.5 Gm. (hypodermically). The crystalline powder has a dark-green color.
METHYLENE VIOLET.-(Pyoktanin Coeruleum.) Also called methyl-blue.
Violet crystalline powder. Excellent bactericide and deodorant. Deeply
penetrates the tissues and colors the urine. Applied to purulent wounds,
malignant tumors, chancroids, etc.
MIGRANIN.—A combination of 89.4 per cent. of antipyrin, 8.2 per cent. of caffein,
0.56 per cent. of citric acid. For migraine and as a general analgesic.
Naphthalenum.-CH.. Antiseptic.
10
NAPHTOL (Betanaphthol U. S.).-C₁₂H,OH. Antiseptic. Dose, 0.25 Gm. (4 gr.).
NARGOL. (Silver Nuclein.) Contains 10 per cent. of silver. (Allied to Argyrol.)
C,H,CO.
NOSOPHEN. (Tetra-iodo-phenolphthalein.)
(CH₂I₂OH),C
0. Also known
as iodophen; containing 60 per cent. of iodine. Pale yellow, odorless, and
tasteless powder. Its sodium salt is known as antinosin, the bismuth salt
as eudoxin. A harmless yet efficient substitute for iodoform.
OREXIN. (Phenyl-dihydro-chinazoline.) C,H,CH₂NC₂H₂NCH. Colorless, lus-
trous, odorless crystals of bitter, pungent taste. Dose, 0.13 to 0.4 Gm. (2 to
6 gr.).
PARAFORM. (H.COH),. Intestinal antiseptic. Dose, 7 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Gm.).
Paraldehyde (U S.).—CH12O. Hypnotic. Dose, m xv to 3j (1 to 4 Cc.).
Peronin.—CH¿CH₂O(OH)Ñ₁7H₁7NO.HCl. Feeble narcotic. Dose, to 1 gr.
( to Gm.).
13
PHENACETIN.—CH
17
NH—CH,CO.
OC₂Hs
(Acetphenetidinum U. S.)-Antipyretic
and analgesic. Dose, 7.5 gr. (0.5 Gm.)
PHENOCOLL HYDROCHLORIDE. (Amido-acetparaphenetidin Chloride.) CH₁-
(OC₂H5)NHCOCH,NH,HCI. A white powder of a slightly saline taste.
Antipyretic, in typhoid fever and pneumonia and in various forms of rheu-
matism and neuralgia. Dose, 8 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1.0 Gm.).
PIPERAZINE.—(Piperazidine, Diethylen-diamine, Dispermine.) NH(CH2),NH.
A colorless crystalline body of alkaline reaction, hygroscopic, taste not un-
pleasant. A powerful solvent of uric acid; recommended for gravel, renal
and vesical calculi, for gout and diabetes. Dose, 1 Gm. (15 gr.).
PROTARGOL.-Protein combination with silver, 8.3 per cent. Yellowish hygro-
scopic powder. Used in ophthalmic practice, etc.; also in suppositories
and as dusting powder on chancre. (See also Nargol.)
RESORCIN (Resorcinol U. S.). (Meta-dioxy-benzol.) CH(OH)2. Antiseptic.
SAFROL.—CH3(C₂H₂OCH. (Safrolum U. S.) In sassafras oil.
11 12- 2
SALIPYRIN. C₁₁H₁₂N₂OC,H¿Oз. Compound of antipyrine and salicylic acid.
Dose, 0.1 to 0.5 Gm.
SALOL. (Phenyl Salicylas U. S.). CH₁
to 0.6 Gm. (5 to 10 gr.).
OH
Antipyretic. Dose, 0.3
соосон,
OH
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES.
45
Salophen.-CH¸
CO,CHẠNHCOCH,
Derivative of phenol and salicylic
acid, resembling salol. White leaflets, odorless and tasteless. Antirheu-
matic, in doses of 0.2 to 0.4 Gm.
Serum Antitoxins.-The blood-serums of immunized animals. A class of
preparations employed hypodermically for the treatment of diseases of germ
origin, such as diphtheria, etc. They have the power of neutralizing the toxin
produced by the microorganism or germs. Serum Antidiphthericum U. S.
CH3
SODIUM CACODYLATE.—() = As CH,. Dose, 0.25 Gm. (4 gr.) per os.
ONa
SODIUM ETHYLATE.-CH,CH₂ONa. Whitish powder, decomposed in the presence
of water into alcohol and caustic soda. Depilatory.
2
SOZOIODOL.-CH₂I₂(OH)SO₂H + 3H₂O. Usually supplied similar to potassium
sozoiodal (which see), but more soluble.
SULPHONAL (Sulphonmethanum U. S.).—(Diethyl-sulphon-dimethyl-methane.)
A whitish crystalline substance, devoid of odor or taste. Dose, 1 Gm. (15 gr.).
Tannalbin.-Compound of tannin and albumen, tasteless powder, containing
50 per cent. of tannin. Astringent. Dose, 1 to 2 Gm. (8 to 15 gr.).
TANNIGEN.—(Diacetyl Tannin.) Č₁H(COCH3)209. Derivative of tannin,
grayish-yellow, odorless, tasteless powder. An intestinal antiseptic, capa-
ble of passing the stomach unaltered. Dose, 1 Gm.
TANNOPIN. (Tannon.) 2(CH2) 8N₁(C14H10O9)3. Compound of urotropin and tan-
nin. Brown, odorless, tasteless powder. Dose, 0.5 to 1.0 Gm.
Tetronal.—(C2H5)2C(SO₂C₂H5) 2.
OH
OCH. (Potassium Guaiacol Sulphonic Acid.) Combines the
THIOCOL. CH₂OCH.
full power of creasote and guaiacol.
TRICHLORACETIC ACID.—CC1,COOH. Used as a caustic.
TRICRESOL (Ortho, meta and para cresol.) Disinfectant and germicide.
TRIONAL (Sulphonethylmethanum U. S.).—C₂H₂CH₂C(SO¿C₂H¸)2.
Derivative
of sulphonal. Lustrous scales. Nerve sedative and hypnotic. Dose, 0.2
to 0.3 Gin
URETHANE.-CO.
NH₂
OC₂H₂
5
(Æthylis Carbamas U. S.) Hypnotic. Dose, 1
to 2 Gm. (15 to 30 gr.).
URICEDIN.—Produced by action of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids on lemon
juice and neutralizing the product with sodium bicarbonate. Slightly yellow
granular substance. In the treatment of the uric acid diathesis. Dose,
to 1 teaspoonful in hot water, two or three times a day, up to 300 gr. per day.
UROTROPIN.—(Hexamethylenamina U.S.) (CH₂),N. Formed by the union of
formaldehyde and ammonia. Diuretic and uric acid solvent. For uric
acid calculi, cystitis. Dose, 0.25 to 1 Gm. (4 to 15 gr.).
VANILLIN.-C₁H₂(OH)(OCH₂)COH. From vanilla bean.
XEROFORM. (C,H,Br,O), BiOH-BiO,. Deodorant and astringent and antiseptic.
For more complete lists and fuller descriptions refer to such books
as "The Newer Remedies," by Virgil Coblentz; "A Syllabus of New
Remedies," by J. W. Wainwright, M.D., etc.
SYNONYMS.
There are perhaps few who know that many of the new remedies sold
under fanciful trade names are identical with remedies having dissimilar
names, or are old preparations which have been given fancy names in
order to create a market for them.
46
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
The "California State Journal of Medicine" has published a long list
of these synonyms, and states that there is no question of substitution
involved when the pharmacist supplies a given name article under any
one of its synonomous names.
This list of synonyms mentioned includes the following:
Adeps lanæ hydrosus; syn.,
Argentum Colloidale; syn.,
Beta-naphthol Benzoate; syn.,
Beta-naphthol Salicylate; syn.,
•
{
Anasalpin,
Lanolin,
Lanum.
Argentum Crede,
Collargol,
Colloidal silver
Benzo-naphthol,
Benzoyl-beta-naphthol.
Betol,
Naphtalol,
Naphthosalol,
Salinapthol.
Antisepsin,
Asepsin.
Airol,
Airogen,
Bromacetanilid; syn.,
Bismuth-iodo-subgallate; syn.,
Airoform.
Calcium Beta-naphthol Sulphonate; syn.,
{
Abrastol,
Asaprol.
Creasote Tannate; syn.,
Dimethyl-ethyl-carbinol Chloral; syn.,
{
Amylene-chloral.
Dithymol Diiodid; syn.,
Epinephrin; syn.,.
Ethyl Chlorid; syn.,
Hexamethylene-tetramine; syn.,
other
similar
Creosal,
Tannosal.
Dormiol,
Aristol,
Annidalin,
Di Thymol Iodid,
Di Iodo Dithymol,
(And several
names).
Adnephrin,
Adrenalin,
Adrenamine,
Adrenol,
Adrin,
Caprenalin,
Hemisine,
Hemostatin,
Suprarenalin.
Antidolorin,
Ethylol,
Mono-chlor-ethane.
Kelene,
Aminoform,
Ammonio-formaldehyde,
Cystamine,
Cystogen,
Formin,
Saliformin,
Hexamethylene Anhydromethylen Citrate;
Urotropin.
syn.,
•
Helmitol.
Levulose; syn.,
•
TITLES OF NEW REMEDIES.
Ortho-ethoxy-ana-mono-benzoyl-amido-chin-
olin; syn.,
Paraphenetin Carbamid; syn.,
•
Phenyl-dimethyl-parazolon; syn.,
(Pharm. Germ.)
Diabetin,
Fructose,
Fruit sugar.
Benzanalgene,
Analgen,
Quinalgen.
Dulcin,
Sucrol.
Analgesin,
Anodynin,
Antipyrin,
Dimethyloxy-quinizin,
Methozan,
Phenazon (Br. Ph.),
Phenylon,
Pyrazin,
Pyrazolin,
Parodyn,
Salozolon,
Sedatin.
47
Phenylacetamide; syn.,
Phenylmethyl-ketone; syn.,
{
Plant Pepsin; syn.,
•
Salicylic Acid Ester of Quinine; syn.,
Salicylate of Salochinin; syn.,
Sodium Sulpho-caffeate; syn.,
•
{
{
Acetanilid,
Antifebrin,
(And several hundreds of trade
names for headache pow-
ders, etc.).
Acetophenone,
Hypnone.
Papain,
Papoid,
Papayotin,
Caroid.
Salochinin,
Saloquinin.
Rheumatin.
Nasrol,
Symphoral.
Thyroid Gland, dried lactose trituration; Iodothyrine,
syn.,
Trioxymethylen; syn.,
Abrin; syn.,
•
Acetyl-salicylic Acid; syn.,
Aluminum Aceto-tartrate; syn.,
Australian Oil Eucalyptus; syn.,
Bismuth Chryssophanate; syn.,
•
•
•
Bismuth Phosphate (soluble); syn.,
Bismuth Pyrogallate: syn.,
Bismuth Subgallate; syn.,
•
Bismuth Beta-naphtholate; syn.,
Calcium Permanganate; syn.,
•
Calcium Salicylate; syn.,
Catarin Hydrochlorid; syn.,
•
•
•
•
Chloretone (1 per cent. solution); syn.,
•
Creosote Carbonate; syn.,
Diethylen-diamin; syn.,
Dimethyl-xanthine; syn.,
Guaiacol Carbonate; syn.,
Laricinic Acid; syn.,
Magnesium Dioxid; syn.,
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Thyroidin.
Paraformaldehyde,
Paraform,
Triformol.
Jequiritin.
Aspirin.
Alsol.
Flucol.
Dermol.
Bisol.
. Helcosol
. Dermatol,
Orphol.
Acerdol.
Colchicin.
. Stypticin.
. Aneson.
.Creosotal.
Piperazin.
.Theobromine.
Duotal.
•
•
•
•
Agaricin.
•
Biogen
48
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Oxyquinaseptol; syn.,
Phenyl-ethyl-urethan; syn.,
Saccharin; syn.,
Subgallate of Bismuth; syn.,
Sodium beta-naphtholate; syn.,
Sodium chlorate; syn.,
Tang-Ki, Fl'ext.; syn.,
·
•
•
•
•
•
Diaphtherin.
Euphorin.
Garanotose.
. Dermatol.
Oxychlorin.
Microcidin.
Eumenol.
Trichloracetic Acid (50 per cent. solution); syn., Acetocaustic.
CONSPECTUS A.-OFFICIAL DRUGS ARRANGED ACCORDING
TO STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.
I. PHANEROGAMS:
SYNOPSIS OF CLASSIFICATION.
VEGETABLE.
A. Subterranean or Underground Organs-
1. Roots.
2. Rhizomes.
3. Tubers.
4. Bulbs.
5. Corms.
B. Overground Stems-
a. Herbaceous.
6. Herbs.
B. Woody.
7. Barks.
8. Twigs.
9. Woods.
10. Piths.
C. Outgrowths from Overground Stems-
II. CRYPTOGAMS.
A. Equisetaceæ.
B. Filices.
C. Lycopodiaceæ.
D. Lichenes.
E. Fungi
F. Algæ.
11. Leaves.
12. Leafy tops.
13. Plant hairs and glandular outgrowths.
14. Flowers and parts of flowers.
15. Fruits and parts of fruits.
16. Seeds and seed coverings.
III. ABNORMAL GROWTHS CAUSED BY PARASITES.
A. Excrescences.
IV. NON-CELlular Drugs Derived From CELL-CONTENTS AND SECRETIONS.
A. Farinaceous.
B. Extractives.
C. Concrete juices.
D. Sugars.
E Gums.
F. Gum resins.
G. Resins.
H. Oleoresins.
I. Balsams.
J. Stearoptens.
K. Fatty substances.
I. INSECTS.
II. TISSUES AND SECRETIONS.
ANIMAL.
CONSPECTUS.
49
DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
(With Brief Description.)
I. PHANEROGAMS.
A. Subterranean or Underground Organs.
I. ROOTS.
(a) MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ROOTS:
Orange, brown, thick, mealy or horny cortical layer, separated
from the wood-bundles by the nucleus sheath; broad central
pith,
.. Sarsaparilla, 547
(b) DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOTS:
a. Fleshy, with thin bark.
In transverse slices* externally grayish-brown; twisted and
irregularly matted wood fibers; light and spongy meditullium,
Sumbul, 247
Irregular pieces; reddish-yellow; narrow medullary rays, producing
mottled appearance (rhizome, U. S. P. 1900), Rheum, 449
Externally grayish; fibrous; small, narrow, radiating wood-bun-
dles in concentric circles,
....Phytollacca, 447
With thick bark.
•
• •
Subcylindrical, grayish-brown, narrow wood-wedges and medul-
lary rays; porous meditullium,
Stillingia, 483
White; wood-bundles small, scattered; narrow medullary rays,
Althea, 66
Externally dull gray; wood-bundles near the center small and
scattered; distinct cambium,.
Belladonna, 386
Yellowish Brown. See Rhizomes, Scopola,.
•
·
·
..388
In sections, externally brown; small, yellow wood-bundles, radiate
near the bark; dark cambium,.
Calumba, 22
Gray-brown; white bark, containing numerous concentric circles
of lacitiferous vessels; yellow, woody center, . . Taraxacum, 275
Sometimes sliced longitudinally; gray-brown, internally lighter;
meditullium spongy; radiate, with broad medullary rays,
Lappa, 280
Hard, somewhat fusiform, brownish; wood-wedges and medullary
rays narrow, radiate; resin ducts in circles,.... Pyrethrum, 277
Sometimes in longitudinal slices; yellowish-brown; meditullium
spongy; medullary rays indistinct; distinct cambium (root and
rhizome),
Gentian, 372
Yellowish-gray, keeled when dry; wood porous; fine medullary
rays; whitish inner bark excessively developed on one side,
Senega, 53
b. Woody, with thin bark.
Generally in sections; brownish-yellow, with purplish longitudinal
lines; thin cork; porous wood-wedges; broad medullary rays
(root and rhizome),
Gelsemium, 369
Rust-brown; thick cork; very narrow medullary rays (very
astringent),
Krameria, 52
Tortuous, subcylindrical pieces; wood-wedges arranged in con-
centric circles, separated by compressed stone cells, . . Pareira, 23
* When not otherwise stated, roots in this list are cylindrical in form.
4
50
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND 'PHARMACOGNOSY.
With thick bark.
Brownish color, internally tawny yellow, thin cork; narrow wood-
wedges; distinct medullary rays,.
..Glycyrrhiza, 133
· •
Light brown; wood porous; thin cork; numerous narrow medul-
lary rays (rhizome, U. S. P. 1900),.
.Apocynum, 352
Blackish color; thick bark; meditullium radiate, distinct medullary
rays,
.Ipecac, 265
2. RHIZOMES.
(a) MONOCOTYLEDONOUS:
a. With rootlets.
Obconical, but usually in slices; internally whitish, with dark
dots; wood bundles short, curved, inclosed by wavy nucleus
sheath; benumbing, acrid, bitter taste,
Veratrum Viride, and V. Album, 549
Whitish, irregular pieces; parenchyma thin-walled; small num-
ber of vascular bundles within a thick-celled nucleus sheath,
Convallaria, 548
Brownish color; deep stem scars on upper side; rather thick
bark; wood-bundles scattered, distinct toward the center;
nucleus sheath indistinct,
Cypripedium, 531
•
b. Without rootlets.
Buff color; flattish, lobed on one side; resin cells scattered through
the parenchyma; wood-bundles both sides the nucleus sheath,
Zingiber, 535
Red-brown, pinkish-white when peeled; bark thick; spongy
meditullium containing air-cells; vascular bundles most numer-
ous near the nucleus sheath,.
Calamus, 568
Light yellow, straw-like, hollow; cortical zone thick, composed of
large-celled parenchyma, and containing about six wood-bun-
dles near the outer surface,
Triticum, 575
(b) DICOTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES:
a. Vith rootlets.
·
•
Brown; thin bark covered with a thin cork; vascular bundles
small, inclosing a thick pith; odor disagreeable,.. Valerian, 274
Yellow-brown; bark thin; wood-wedges largest on the lower
side; large-celled pith near top of rhizome, ... Serpentaria, 547
Internally bright reddish-yellow; thick bark; narrow wood-
wedges; broad yellow medullary rays, inclosing large pith,
Hydrastis, 2
Brownish black, internally whitish; thick bark; narrow wood-
wedges and medullary rays; large pith; wood-wedges of the
rootlets form "Maltese cross,'
. Cimicifuga, 1
Blackish-brown; bark thin; wood in one or two circles, inclosing
a large, angular pith, usually about six-rayed,. . Leptandra, 403
Purplish-brown; bark thin; wood whitish, and arranged in a
circle, thickest on lower side; pith dark-colored or decayed,
Spigelia, 370
. Berberis, 31
Yellowish-brown; tough (root and rhizome),
b. Without rootlets.
•
Orange-brown; bark thick; wood-wedges short, forming a circle
and inclosing a large pith,
Podophyllum, 27
•
•
Yellowish-brown to dark brownish gray, indistinctly radiate wood,
horny center,.
Scopola, 388
Reddish-brown; internally whitish, usually with small red dots;
bark thin; small vascular bundles in loose circle; large pith;
numerous resin cells in parenchyma,.
.. Sanguinaria, 39
•
CONSPECTUS.
51
Brown, internally brownish-red; thin bark; wood-wedges small,
forming distinct circles near cambium;. medullary rays broad;
large central pith,.
Geranium, 77
Aspididium, Male Fern Rhizome. (See Cryptogams, II), 583
(a). DICOTYLEDONOUS:
3. TUBERS.
Dark brown, with lighter colored warts; bark thin, with a dense
zone of resin cells on the inner surface; vascular bundles small
and indistinct, concentric circles of resin cells,... ... Jalapa, 383
Dark brown, wrinkled; thick bark; cambium about seven-rayed;
small vascular bundles at termination and base of cambium
rays; large-celled pith (tuberous root),..
. Aconitum, 14
4. BULBS.
(a) MONOCOTYLEDONOUS:
Pear-shaped, yellow-white; usually in scales; parenchyma thin-
walled, with numerous raphides, and traversed by parallel
vascular bundles and lactiferous ducts,.
Scilla, 556
•
5. CORMS.
(a) MONOCOTYLEDONOUS:
Ovoid, with groove on one side, often in transverse slices; uni-
form in shape; mostly parenchymatous tissue, containing occa-
sional raphides; vascular bundles numerous, scattered,
Colchici Cormus, 219
B. Overground Stems.
a. HERBACEOUS.
6. HERBS.
(a) DICOTYLEDONOUS:
a. Petals distinct.
Leaves small, trifoliate; stems pentangular, nearly smooth; as
found in market, drug consists mostly of the greenish-brown
stems, free from leaves (tops of the plant),... ... Scoparius, 148
b. Petals united.
· •
Leaves opposite, lanceolate, united at base; the drug consists of
broken fragments of dark green leaves, with downy, resin-
dotted, lower surface,
Eupatorium, 296
Leaves smooth, light green; florets yellow; the drug consists of
fragments of leaves, stems, and flower-heads with stiff, resinous
bracts,
Grindelia, 298
Leaves ovate, alternate, pale green; stems furrowed, hairy;
flowers small, pale blue; capsules thin and papery,
•
Lobelia, 327
Leaves petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, sharply serrate; flowers pur-
plish, in terminal, conical spikes,
Mentha Piperita, 415
Leaves nearly sessile, lance-ovate; flowers in terminal acute
spikes, aromatic,.
Mentha Viridis, 416
•
Leaves opposite, oblong-ovate; flowers small; axillary cymules,
aromatic, .
•
.Hedeoma, 417
Marrubium, 418
Leaves long, opposite, roundish-ovate, white and hairy beneath;
flowers dense, axillary whorls,
Leaves opposite, petiolate, lance-ovate, serrate; flowers axillary,
one-sided racemes; stem quadrangular, smooth,
Scutellaria, 420
52
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
c. Petals absent.
Leaves opposite, sessile, ovate; flowers numerous, small; whole
plant smooth, pale brown, inodorous,
. Chirata, 374
Leaves digitate, with lancelinear leaflets; the drug in market
consists of leafy tops and flowers, often contains nearly ripe
fruit, all forming brownish-green, resinous mass.
Cannabis Indica, 498
B. WOODY.
7. BARKS.
(a) BAST WITH ISOLATED BAST CELLS:
Bast fibers short, in radial lines or small groups; inner bark red-
dish-brown, finely striate; cork cells thin-walled,
(b) BAST RADIALLY STRIATE:
Cinchona, 267
Long, closely rolled quills composed of many papery, yellowish-
brown layers; smooth outer surface composed of stone cells;
wood-bundles in wavy lines; no outer bark,
•
•
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, 467
Corky layer present, gray-brown with numerous white patches on
the surface; an almost uninterrupted line of white striæ near
cork,
Cinnamomum Saigonicum, 469
Irregular fragments, deprived of gray corky layer; bright rust
brown; bast fibers few; light medullary rays in inner layer,
Sassafras, 470
Irregular pieces; periderm greenish-brown, glossy; inner surface
lighter, finely striate; bast wavy, irregular,
(c) BAST TANGENTIALLY STRIATE:
Prunus Virginiana, 166
Long, thin bands rolled into disks; periderm greenish-orange;
inner surface white, silky; bast fibers long; bark flexible,
Mezereum, 480
Thin, tough bands; periderm blackish; inner surface lighter,
smooth; bast fibers in elongated wedge-shaped groups,
Rubus, 180
Thin, flexible quills or bands; periderm thin, yellow-brown; inner
surface white, finely striate; bast fibers long, silky,
Gossypii Cortex, 69 a
Quilled or curved pieces; periderm ash-gray, covered with black-
ish patches; scaly; inner surface smooth, tawny, Euonymus, 112
Flattish or curved bands; periderm brown-gray, covered with
elongated brownish warts; inner surface white or brownish,
Viburnum Opulus, 262
(d) BAST CHECKERED:
Brownish-white pieces, nearly deprived of corky layer; bast fibers
in rows, crossed by numerous medullary rays; mucilaginous,
Ulmus, 495
Pale brown pieces, deprived of corky layer; inner surface ridged;
astringent,
Quercus, 505
Pale brown-white pieces; smooth on both sides or outer surface
with fragments of red-brown bark; bast fibers pale brown,
imbedded in white wood and crossed by white medullary rays,
Quillaja, 175
(e) BAST WITHOUT STRIATION:
Thin quills or fragments; outer surface dark brown, somewhat
warty; inner surface yellowish, finely striate,... Granatum, 211
CONSPECTUS.
53
Thin pieces; periderm glossy brown, dotted; inner surface whitish,
smooth; numerous groups of stone cells,
Viburnum Prunifolium, 263
Thin quills; periderm dark brown with white dots; inner surface
smooth, brownish-yellow; rows of crystal cells,.. Frangula, 114
Curved or quilled pieces, outer surface brown-gray; inner surface
yellowish, darkening with age; finely striate; bast bundles in
groups; medullary rays narrow,. Rhamnus Purshiana, 115
Curved fragments; periderm brownish gray, with black dots;
inner surface whitish, smooth; medullary rays narrow,
8. TWIGS.
Xanthoxylum, 81
Greenish-gray; bark rather thick; wood in one or two circles
(U. S. P., 1890),..
Dulcamara, 396
9. WOODS.
Yellowish-white billets; free from bark; consists mostly of prosen-
chyma, with large ducts, radially striate; narrow medullary
rays; very bitter,
....Quassia, 96
Wood dark red; parenchyma in about four rows, forming irreg-
ular circles; medullary rays single-rowed; ducts large,
Santalum Rubrum, 142
Brownish-red; wood parenchyma in broad, wavy circle; medul-
lary rays composed of about two rows of cells; ducts fine,
10. PITHS.
Hæmatoxylon, 141
Cylindrical, white, very light and spongy, Sassafras Medulla, 472
C. Outgrowths from Overground Stems.
11. LEAVES.
(a) SIMPLE:
a. Margin entire.
Gray-green, lanceolately scythe-shaped, distinct_marginal veins,
coriaceous, feather-veined, ...
• •
Eucalyptus, 204
Dark green, obovate; midrib prominent, with a curved line on
each side,..
...Coca, 74
Brownish-green above, pale below, ovate, tapering at the apex;
midrib prominent, smooth with occasional perforations,
Belladonna Folia, 387
Gray-green below, rather thick, obovate; smooth, dark-green,
glossy above; lighter and reticulate below,. . . . . . Uva Ursi, 328
b. Margin toothed or crenate.
Ovate-oblong, gray-green; veining prominent; soft, hairy, aro-
matic,
Lanceolate; upper surface dull green, tesselated;
rough, prominently veined, meshed,
Obovate, dull yellowish-green, coriaceous, pellucid-punctate,
sharply serrate, with gland at the base of each tooth,
Oblong-lanceolate;
Salvia, 434
under surface
.Matico, 460
Buchu, 83
Eriodictyon, 377
Digitalis, 400
upper surface varnished, brownish-green;
under surface white, hairy, distinctly reticulate,
Ovate-oblong; upper surface green, wrinkled, velvety; under sur-
face hairy, prominent whitish meshes,.
·
54
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Ovate-oblong, with large triangular crenations; gray-green, hairy;
midrib prominent, lighter colored; odor heavy, narcotic,
Hyoscyamus, 391
Ovate, with sharp-pointed teeth; smooth, brownish-green; midrib
hairy,.
Stramonium, 389
Oblanceolate, coriaceous, sharply serrate; upper surface dark green,
smooth,
...Chimaphila, 331
Ovate, nearly smooth, veins parallel from the midrib,
(b) COMPOUND:
a. Margin entire.
Hamamelidis Folia, 199
Ovate, coriaceous, dull green; veins forming one or two wavy
lines parallel to the margin,..
Pilocarpus, 84
•
Lance-oval, gray-green, somewhat pubescent, odor peculiar,
Senna (Alexandria), 143
nauseous,.
•
12. LEAFY TOPS.
Branches quadrangular; leaves in four rows, scale-like, imbri-
cated, with shallow groove on the back,. . . .
...Sabina, 516
13. PLANT HAIRS AND GLANDULAR OUTGROWTHS.
Subglobular, minute, yellowish-brown granules; resinous; under
the microscope, hood-shaped, .
.Lupulinum, 497
•
•
•
Fine powder, pale yellow, not wetted by water; _under the micro-
scope, tetrahedral,
Lycopodium, 582
Hairs of seed long, white (see seed covering),... Gossypium,
Styles and stigmas, fine silky hairs (see also seed coverings),
14. FLOWERS AND PARTS OF FLOWERS.
(a) FLOWERS AND BUDS:
a. Racemose or cymose inflorescence.
Sepals five, reddish, veined; petals small, hairy,
69 b
Zea, 578
.
Cusso, 185
b. Compound flower-heads.
Oblong-ovoid, unexpanded, small; smooth, somewhat glossy,
greenish-brown scales,
Santonica, 323
Petals united; rays long, white; disk-flowers numerous, short,
yellow, tubular; receptacle hollow, naked,....Matricaria, 321
Petals united; rays white, in rows; flower-heads large; receptacle
solid, densely chaffy; disk florets few, yellow, tubular,
Anthemis, 322
Petals united; rays yellow, strap-shaped, longitudinally veined;
receptacle flat, naked; disk florets yellow, tubular,
Calendula, 324
Petals united; rays yellow, three-toothed; flower-heads large;
receptacle nearly flat, pitted, hairy,....
c. Single flowers.
Arnica, 287
Unexpanded; long, dark brown; calyx four-cleft, solid, glandu-
lar; petals four, formed into a head; aromatic,
(b) PETALS.
•
Caryophyllus, 207
Petals unexpanded; in form of cone; deep-red, yellow at base;
fragrant,
Rosa Gallica, 176
(c) STIGMAS:
Thread-like, long, silky, longitudinally veined, yellowish; with
styles,.
Zea, 578
CONSPECTUS.
15. FRUITS AND PARTS OF FRUITS
(a) COLLECTIVE FRUITS:
•
55
.Humulus, 496
Strobiles glandular; thin, greenish scales, with delicate veins; aro-
matic,.
Fleshy compressed; yellowish or brownish; efflorescence of
sugar; numerous yellow akenes; sweet,
(b) FRUITS FROM SINGLE Flowers:
a. Cremocarps.
•
•
•
.Ficus, 500
Ovate, compressed at the sides, grayish, hairy, mericarps usually
separated, curved, five-ribbed; many thin oil tubes; aromatic,
sweet,
..Anisum, 228
Ovate, compressed, gray-green, smooth; mericarps usually sepa-
rated, each five-ribbed; six oil tubes,....
Carum, 232
Oblong, smooth, nearly cylindrical, greenish-brown; ribs promi-
nent, obtuse, ten oil tubes,.
Foeniculum, 229
•
Globular, smooth; mericarps united, each with two oil tubes on
face and five wavy ribs and four prominent ridges on back,
Coriandrum, 233
b. Capsular fruit, superior.
Cylindrical, long, black-brown; numerous transverse divisions;
seeds glossy brown; pulp sweet, odor prune-like,
Cassia Fistula, 149
Inferior.
Ovate-triangular, three-celled; pale buff color; seeds brownish,
angular, numerous,.
Cardamomum, 539
Cylindrical, long, wrinkled, single-celled, containing the numer-
ous small black seeds; pulp blackish-brown; fragrant,
• •
•
Vanilla, 534
Cubeba, 456
.
Piper, 457
c. Fleshy.
Globular, blackish-gray, reticulately wrinkled; internally whitish,
hollow; pericarp formed into a stalk,.
Globular, brownish-black; internally lighter, hollow; reticulately
wrinkled; without stalk, hot taste,.
Globular, glandular; two-celled; each cell contains a single
brownish seed; aromatic,...
. Pimenta, 208
•
Subglobular, dark red, densely hairy, single-seeded,
•
Rhus Glabra, 127
Sabal, 563
Blackish-brown, one seeded, ovoid-oblong, .
Oblong, wrinkled; pericarp red, shining; two-celled; with numer-
ous yellowish seeds; intensely hot taste,. . . . . . . . Capsicum, 398
Globular, deprived of rind; light, spongy, breaking into thin,
wedge-shaped pieces; contains many light-colored seeds; in-
tensely bitter,.
Colocynthis, 219
Oblong, wrinkled, black-blue; pulp soft, brownish-yellow; single
seed; sweet, acidulous,.
Prunum, 168
(c) PARTS OF FRUITS:
Thin, curved sections; glandular; pericarp leathery, dark brown-
ish-green; odor fragrant,
Thin curved sections; glandular;
odor fragrant,
flattish seeds,..
Aurantii Cortex, 87
epidermis deep lemon-yellow;
.Limonis Cortex, 92
Pulp fibrous, dark brown, sweet, acidulous, with glossy brown,
•
Tamarindus, 157
56
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
a. SEEDS.
16. SEEDS AND SEED COVERINGS.
(a) DICOTYLEDONOUS:
•
a. Albuminous.
Orbicular disks, grayish-green, curved, with fine, silky hairs;
internally whitish, hairy; bitter taste,.. ..Nux Vomica, 336
Ovate; testa removed; hard, light brown, reticulately furrowed;
internally lighter, with dark brown veins; strongly aromatic,
Myristica, 465
Ovate-lanceolate; flattish, hairy, gray-green; internally white,
oily,
Strophanthus, 357
Triangular, flattish, brown, deeply pitted; albumen whitish, oily,
Staphisagria, 11
Ovate, flattish; testa brown, glossy; albumen thin, inclosing large
cotyledons,
Linum, 73
• •
b. Exalbuminous.
Ovate, flattish, curved, with a thin, brown, membranous testa;
longitudinally veined; embryo white, oily, consists of two
planoconvex cotyledons; bitter taste,... Amygdala Amara, 172
Resembles above, but longer, more convex sides; a bland, sweet-
ish taste,
. Amygdala Dulcis, 173
Globular, small; testa dark brown, hard, finely pitted; embryo
greenish-yellow, oily; pungent taste,.
Sinapis Nigra, 43
Globular, larger than above; testa yellowish; taste pungent,
•
•
Sinapis Alba, 42
Ovate, broad, flat; testa whitish; shallow groove and flat ridge
near margin,
Pepo, 222
Oblong or reniform; testa deep brown, granular; broad black
groove along convex edge; elliptic cavity between cotyledons,
Physostigma, 154
(b) MONOCOTYLEDONOUS:
a. Albuminous.
Subglobular; testa reddish-brown, thin, pitted, hard; albumen
whitish, tough, horny,..
Colchici Semen, 558
• •
B. SEED COVERINGS.
(a) ARILLODE:
(b) SEED HAIRS:
Hairs of seeds long, white, curling,.. Gossypium Purificatum, 69 b
II. CRYPTOGAMS.
A. Filices.
Rhizome, with glossy brownish scales,
B. Algæ.
....Aspidium, 583
Yellow, horny, transparent, with numerous forks and branches;
mucilaginous taste,.
Chondrus, 596
•
•
Brownish above, whitish beneath; foliaceous (U. S. P., 1890),
C. Lichens.
D. Fungi.
Cetraria, 590
•
Ergota, 592
Oblong, narrow, curved; longitudinally grooved; black; peculiar
heavy odor,..
E. Club Mosses.
•
Fine powder, pale yellow, very mobile, floats on water; under
the microscope, tetrahedral. (See also under 13),
Lycopodium, 588
CONSPECTUS.
57
III. ABNORMAL GROWTHS CAUSED BY PARASITES.
A. Excrescences.
Globular, with a short stipe; externally dull blue or lead color,
covered with prominent warts, interior whitish, central cavity,
Galla, 508
IV. NON-CELLULAR DRUGS DERIVED FROM CELL-CONTENTS AND
SECRETIONS.
A. Farinaceous.
Fine, white powder, sometimes in angular masses; odorless and
tasteless; insoluble in cold water,.
.Amylum, 580
B. Extractives.
• •
Irregular masses containing fragments of leaves; dark brown;
fracture conchoidal, brittle, glossy (Gambir),.... Catechu, 159
Cylindrical cakes, hard, mottled, reddish-brown; fracture uneven,
lighter colored,.
Guarana, 121
•
Cylindrical sticks, glossy brown-black; fracture conchoidal; taste
sweet,
Extractum Glycyrrhizæ, 134
•
C. Concrete Juices.
Irregular masses containing some fragments of leaves; chestnut-
brown, plastic, coarsely granular; odor heavy; narcotic,
Opium, 34
Angular pieces, red-brown; internally lighter; waxy lustre; bitter,
Lactucarium, 316
Yellowish to blackish masses, hard, brittle, somewhat glossy; taste
bitter,.
Aloe, 559
Small angular pieces, brittle, dark brownish-red; thin layers,
ruby-red and transparent; sweetish,.
Kino, 160
Flat pieces, blackish-brown, internally lighter; very elastic; floats
on water,.
Elastica, 488
D. Sugars.
(a) SOLID:
Granular, white, crystalline, transparent, very sweet, very soluble
in water,....
•
Saccharum, 577
Crystals or white crystalline powder, gritty; translucent, sandy;
sweetish taste,.
Saccharum Lactis, 617 d.
Irregular fragments; light yellow; internally white; porous, crys-
talline, friable, sweet,.
(b) LIQUID:
•
Translucent syrup, yellow to brown-yellow,.
E. Gums.
• •
Manna, 346
Mel, 612
Roundish tears, fissured, brittle, translucent; fracture glass-like,
Acacia, 157
Curved bands, marked with parallel wavy lines; white, translu-
cent, tough, horny,..
..Tragacantha, 158
F. Gum Resins.
•
•
Irregular pieces composed of whitish tears imbedded in a brown-
gray, sticky mass; odor sickening, .
Asafoetida, 244
Irregular masses or tears; red-brown, dusty; fracture waxy; taste
bitter, acrid,
.Myrrha, 102
Cylindrical pieces or lumps, sometimes hollow in the center;
orange-yellow; fracture smooth, waxy,... Cambogia, 61
Irregular pieces or circular cakes; dark gray internally; porous;
fracture angular; odor peculiar, somewhat cheese-like,
•
Scammonium, 385
:
58
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
G. Resins.
Irregular lumps; reddish-brown, smooth, mottled, with milk-white
tears; agreeable balsamic odor,..
Benzoinum, 345
Large lumps or masses, yellowish-brown, transparent, brittle,
Resina, 522 c
Small globular tears, transparent, yellowish, brittle, glossy,
Mastiche, 129
Irregular masses, greenish or reddish-brown; internally of a glossy
luster; brittle,.
Guaiacum, 67
H. Oleoresins.
•
Brownish-yellow, viscid liquid; transparent; odor peculiar; taste
bitter,
Copaiba, 161
Light yellow or faintly greenish,_transparent or viscid liquid;
agreeable odor,
Terebinthina Canadensis, 524
Irregular masses, tough, yellowish, opaque; fracture crumbly,
Terebinthina, 522
Thick, viscid semi-fluid, nearly black, opaque; odor empyreumatic,
Pix Liquida, 523.
I. Balsams.
Thick, syrupy liquid; brownish-black, thin layers, transparent,
Balsamum Peruvianum, 164
Very thick semi-liquid, brownish-yellow, solid in the cold, agree-
able odor,.
Balsamum Tolutanum, 165
Viscid semi-liquid, opaque, brownish-gray, odor agreeably bal-
samic,
J. Stearoptens.
• •
Styrax, 201
Translucent masses; tough, crystalline, granular; odor penetrating,
peculiar,
....Camphora, 478
Colorless prisms or small scales; thyme-like odor,. . . . Thymol, 237
Fine, white, transparent needles or crystals; peppermint odor,
Menthol, 415 b
K. Fatty Substances.
(a) OF Vegetable OriGIN:
Straw-colored liquid; clear, rather thin; nutty odor, bland taste,
Oleum Amygdala Expressum, 174
•
•
Yellow, limpid liquid; transparent,.
..Oleum Lini, 73 a
Viscid, yellowish, nearly colorless, transparent; taste sickening,
Oleum Ricini, 492
Viscid, yellow to brownish, transparent, somewhat fluorescent;
taste acrid, burning,..
......Oleum Tiglii, 492 a
Pale yellow liquid; thin, transparent; odor and taste mild nutty,
Oleum Gossypii Seminis, 69 c
. Oleum Olivæ, 347
Yellow to greenish-yellow, thin, clear,
Yellowish-white solid; rather hard, brittle, aromatic; taste choco-
late-like,
Oleum Theobromatis, 71 a
·
(b) OF ANIMAL ORIGIN:
Pale yellow liquid; thin, transparent; fishy odor,
Yellowish, nearly colorless; thin, clear,
Soft, white solid; unctuous, .
•
Light yellow or whitish solid, rather firm,
White solid; smooth, unctuous,
(c) WAXES:
Oleum Morrhuæ, 610
Oleum Adipis, 622 a
Adeps, 622
Adeps Lanæ Hydrosus, 625
Sevum Præparatum, 620
White masses; translucent; fracture crystalline, . . Cetaceum, 611
CONSPECTUS.
Yellowish-white cakes; brittle; semi-translucent,
Yellow to brownish, opaque; fracture granular,
(d) MIXTURE OF HYDROCARBONS, 625 a
59
Cera Alba, 612 b
Cera Flava, 612 a
Petrolatum Album, Petrolatum Liquidum, Petrolatum
latum Molle, Petrolatum Spissum, Paraffinum.
A. INSECTS.
DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN.
Petro-
Long, bronze-green; body cylindrical; head triangular,
Cantharis.
Oval, gray or brownish, wrinkled, covered with a whitish down,
Coccus.
B. TISSUES AND SECRETIONS.
Granular, crumbly, various sizes; dark reddish-brown; peculiar
penetrating odor,
Moschus.
. Fel Bovis.
Viscid liquid, of a brownish or dark green color,...
Yellowish-green solid, rather soft, . . . . . . . . Fel Bovis Purificatum.
Yellowish powder or thin, yellow, translucent scales,.. Pepsinum.
Yellowish-white powder or transparent, brittle scales,
Pancreatinum.
(Fatty substances of animal origin. See above under K (b),
Adeps etc.)
BACTERIAL PRODUCTS.
Antitoxic Serums, 629
Serum Antidiphtheriticum, 629 (a)
GLANDULAR PRODUCTS.
Glandulæ Suprarenales Siccæ, 629
Glandulæ Thyreoideæ Siccæ, 630
CONSPECTUS B.-OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL DRUGS,
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO PROMINENT PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES, AND SUBDIVIDED BY ODOR AND TASTE.
(With Natural Order or Family, and Official Preparations.)
ROOTS.
CLASS I. AROMATIC.
(a) Odor and Taste Pronounced.
SUMBUL.-Musk Root. 247.* Umbelliferæ. Fl'ext
Angelica. Angelica. 243. Umbelliferæ.
Angelica Atropurpurea.—American Angelica. 242. Umbelliferæ.
*Armoracia -Horse-radish.
45. Cruciferæ.
Imperatoria.-Masterwort. 248.
248. Umbelliferæ.
The
* The names in italics refer to unofficial drugs; some of these (marked thus, *)
have been official in one or more of the former editions of the U. S. P.
numbers correspond to the numbers of the drugs in the body of this work.
60
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Levisticum.-Lovage. 250. Umbelliferæ.
Pimpinella.-Pimpernel. 251. Umbelliferæ.
Vetiveria.-Vetivert. 576. Gramineæ.
(b) Feebly Aromatic.
GELSEMIUM.-Yellow Jasmine. 369. Loganiacea Fl'ext., tr.
*Inula.—Elecampane. 279. Compositæ.
Methysticum.-Kava Kava. 463. Piperaceæ.
*Petroselinum.-Parsley. 238.
238. Umbelliferæ.
CLASS II.-ODORLESS AND TASTELESS.
Alkanna.-Alkanet. 379. Boraginaceæ.
(a) Acridity Pronounced.
CLASS III.—ACRID.
PHYTOLACCÆ RADIX.-Poke Root. 447. Phytolaccaceæ. Fl'ext.
PYRETHRUM.-Pellitory. 277. Compositæ. Tr.
SARSAPARILLA.-547. Liliacea. Fl'ext., co. fl'ext., co. syr.
SENEGA.-Seneka. 53. Polygalaceæ. Fl'ext, syr., co. syr. squill.
STILLINGIA.—Queen's Delight. 483. Euphorbiaceæ. Fl'ext.
Pyrethrum Germanicum.—277 a. Compositæ.
(b) Acridity Slight.
BELLADONNÆ RADIX.-Deadly Nightshade. 386.
Fl'ext., liniment.
Solanaceæ.
*Euphorbia Corollata.-Large Flowering Spurge. 484 a. Euphorbiaceæ.
*Euphorbia Ipecacuanha.—Ipecacuanha Spurge. 484 b Euphorbiaceæ.
Hemidesmus.-Indian Sarsaparilla. 364. Asclepiadaceæ.
Scopola.-See Rhizomes.
CLASS IV.-BITTER.
APOCYNUM.-Canadian Hemp. 352. Apocynaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Asclepias.-Pleurisy Root. 360. Asclepiadaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Bryonia.-Bryony. 218. Cucurbitaceae. Tr.
CALUMBA.-Columbo. 22. Menispermaceæ. Fl'ext., tr.
GENTIANA.—372 Gentianacæ. Fl'ext., co. tr., ext.
IPECACUANHA.-Ipecac. 265. Rubiaceæ. Fl'ext., syr., wine, pulv.
ipecac. et opii.
PAREIRA. Pareira Brava. 23. Menispermaceæ. Fl'ext.
RHEUM.-Rhubarb. 449. Polygonacea. Fl'ext., tr., ext., arom. tr.,
syr., arom. syr., co. pil., co. powd., mixt. r. et sodæ.
*Rumex.-Yellow Dock. 450. Polygonaceæ. Fl'ext.
TARAXACUM.-Dandelion.
-Dandelion. 275. Compositæ. Fl'ext., ext.
*Apocynum Androsæmifolium.-Dog's Bane. 352 a. Apocynaceæ.
Baptisia.-Wild Indigo. 136. Leguminosæ.
BERBERIS.—Oregon Grape (root and rhizome).
*Berberis.-Barberry. 29. Berberidacea
Cichorium.-Chicory. 276. Compositæ.
Rhaponticum.-Crimean Rhubarb. 449 a.
*Frasera.—American Columbo. 373. Gentianaceæ.
31
Berberidaceæ.
Polygonacea.
CLASS V-SWEETISH.
GLYCYRRHIZA.-Licorice Root. 133. Leguminosa. Fl'ext., ext.,
pure ext., co. powd., co. mixt., mass. hg., pil. iod. iron, co. morph.
powd., co. syr. sars., ammon. glycyrr., troch. g. et opii, troch, ammon.
chlor., tr. aloes et myrrh. Also in a number of the fluid extracts.
Ipomea Pandurata.-Wild Jalap. 384. Convolvulaceæ,
*Panax.-Ginseng. 256. Araliaceæ.
Saponaria.-Soapwort. 57. Caryophyllaceæ.
Saponaria Levantica.-56. Caryophyllaceæ
CONSPECTUS.
CLASS VI.—MUCILAGINOUS.
ALTHÆA.-Marshmallow. 568. Malvaceæ.
pil. ferri carb.
61
568. Malvacea. Mass. hg., pil. phosphor.,
Borraginaceæ.
LAPPA.-Burdock. 280. Compositæ. Fl'ext.
Symphytum Comfrey.-380
CLASS VII.-ASTRINGENT.
KRAMERIA.-Rhatany. 52. Krameriaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., ext., syr.,
troch.
*Heuchera.-Alum Root. 193. Saxifragaceæ.
*Statice.-Marsh Rosemary. 338. Plumbaginaceæ.
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Abri Radix, 134. Baycuru, 339. Carnauba, 564.
Ceanothus, 117. Cicuta, 253. Echinacea, 285. Eryngium, 254. Helianthella,
284. Hydrangea, 194. Jambu Assu, 462. Laciniaria, 283. Laserpitium, 249.
Manaca, 388. Maregamia, 106. Osmorrhiza, 255. Osmunda, 588. Pæonia,
16. Polemonium, 378. Polymnia, 282. Thapsia, 252. Triosteum, 264.
Verbena Hastata, 412
Verbena Urticæfolia, 413. Yerba Mansa 461.
RHIZOMES.
CLASS I.—AROMATIC.
(a) Odor and Taste Pronounced.
CALAMUS.-Sweet Flag. 568.
568. Araceæ. Fl'ext.
SERPENTARIA.—Virginia Snakeroot. 454. Aristolochiaceæ. Fl'ext.,
tr., tr. cinch. co.
VALERIANA.-Valerian. 274. Valerianaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., ammon. tr.
ZINGIBER.—Ginger. 535. Zingiberaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., syr., oleores.,
arom. powd., co. rhub. powd., arom. sulphur. acid.
*Asarum.—Wild Ginger. 455. Aristolochiacea.
Galanga.-Galangal. 536. Zingiberaceæ.
Zedoaria.-Zedoary. 537. Zingiberaceæ.
(b) Slightly Aromatic.
Araliaceæ.
257 a.
Araliaceæ.
*Arnica Radix.-286. Compositæ.
*Aralia Nudicaulis.-False Sarsaparilla. 257.
Aralia Racemosa.-American Spikenard.
*Curcuma.—Turmeric. 538. Zingiberaceæ.
*Iris Florentina.—Orris Root. 544. Irideæ
CLASS II.—ACRID.
*Iris.-Blue Flag. 543. Iridaceæ. Fl'ext., ext.
SANGUINARIA.—Bloodroot. 39. Papaveraceæ. Fl'ext., tr.
VERATRUM VIRIDE OR ALBUM.-American (green) or European
(white) Veratrum. 549. Liliaceæ. Fl'ext., tr.
Dioscorea.-Wild Yam. 546. Dioscoreaceæ.
Symplocarpus.—Skunk Cabbage. 569. Araceæ.
Trillium.-Birthwort. 553. Liliaceæ.
CLASS III.—SLIGHTLY ACRID AND BITTER.
CIMICIFUGA.-Black Snakeroot. 1. Ranunculaceæ.
Fl'ext., tr., ext.
CONVALLARIA.-Lily of the Valley. 548. Liliaceæ. Fl'ext.
CYPRIPEDIUM.-Lady's Slipper. 531. Orchidaceæ. Fl'ext.
PODOPHYLLUM.-Mandrake. 27. Berberidaceæ. Fl'ext., resin.
SCOPOLA.—-Solanaceæ. Ext.
*Caulophyllum.-Blue Cohosh. 26. Berberidaceæ.
62
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Asclepias Cornuti.-Milk-weed. 361. Asclepiadaceæ.
*Asclepias Incarnata.-Swamp Milkweed. 362. Asclepiadaceæ.
*Helleborus Niger.—Black Hellebore. 5. Ranunculaceæ.
Helleborus Viridis.-Green Hellebore. 6. Ranunculaceæ.
Polygonatum.—Solomon's Seal. 551. Liliaceæ.
CLASS IV.-—BITTER.
(a) With Rootlets.
HYDRASTIS.-Golden Seal. 2. Ranunculaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., glycer-
ite.
LEPTANDRA.-Culver's Physic. 403. Scrophulariaceæ. Fl'ext., ext.
cathar. veg. pil.
*Menispermum.-Yellow Parilla. 24. Menispermaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Aletris.Colic Root. 542. Hæmodoraceæ.
Chamælirium.-Starwort.
552. Liliaceæ.
Collinsonia.—Stone-root. 444.
444. Labiatæ.
*Gillenia.-American Ipecac. 189. Rosaceæ.
*Triosteum.-Bastard Ipecac. 264. Caprifoliaceæ.
*Xanthorrhiza.-Yellow-root. 7. Ranunculaceæ.
CLASS V.-SWEETISH.
ASPIDIUM.-Male Fern. 584. Filices. Oleoresin
SPIGELIA.-Pinkroot. 370. Loganiaceæ. Fl'ext
TRITICUM.-Couch Grass. 584. Gramineæ. Fl'ext.
(a) With Rootlets.
CLASS VI.-ASTRINGENT.
*Geum Rivale.-Water Avens. 188. Rosaceæ
Geum Urbanum.-Avens.
(b) With Few or no Rootlets.
188. Rosacea.
Geraniaceæ. Fl'ext.
GERANIUM.-Cranesbill. 77. Geraniaceæ.
Bistorta.-Bistort. 453. Polygonaceæ.
Nymphæa.-Water Lily. 32. Nymphæaceæ.
*Tormentilla.-Tormentil.
186. Rosaceæ.
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Actæa, 3. Adrue, 574. Aralia Hispida, 258. Aspar-
agus, 554. Carex, 573. Cnicus Arvensis, 288. Corallorrhiza, 532. Jeffersonia,
28. Rubia, 266. Sarracenia, 33.
TUBERS, BULBS, AND CORMS.
(Mostly Acrid.)
TUBERS.
ACONITUM.-Aconite. 14. Ranunculaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., ext.
JALAPA.-Jalap 383. Convolvulaceæ. Ext., resin, co. powd., co.
cathar. pil., co. veg. cath. pil.
Corydalis. Turkey Corn. 41. Fumariaceæ.
Salep.-Salep. 533. Orchidaceæ.
BULBS.
*Allium.-Garlic. 555. Liliaceæ.
SCILLA. Squill. 556.
Liliaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., syr., co. syr., acetum.
CONSPECTUS.
CORMS.
63
COLCHICI CORMIS.-Colchicum-root.
557. Liliaceæ. Fl'ext., ext.
Arisama Dracontium.-Green Dragon. 571. Araceæ.
*Arum.-Indian Turnip. 570. Araceæ.
TWIGS AND BRANCHES.
*Dulcamara.-Bittersweet. 396. Solanaceæ.
Gouania.-Chewstick. 118. Rhamnaceæ.
Pichi.-395. Solanaceæ.
WOODS.
Guaiac Wood. 75. Zygophyllaceæ.
*Guaiaci Lignum.-Guaiac Wood.
HÆMATOXYLON.-Logwood. 141. Leguminosæ. Ext.
SANTALUM RUBRUM.-Red Saunders. 142. Leguminosæ. Tr. lav-
and. co.
QUASSIA.—96. Simarubacex. Fl'ext., ext., tr.
Juniperus Oxycedrus.—519. Pinaceæ. Oleum cadinum.
Ostrya.-Ironwood. 511. Cupuliferæ.
Sassafras Lignum.-Sassafras Wood. 471. Lauraceæ.
Santalum Album.-Sandalwood. 481. Santalaceæ. Oil.
BARKS.
CLASS I.—AROMATIC.
(a) Deprived of Corky Layer.
ĈINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM.-Ceylon Cinnamon. 467. Lauraceæ.
Pulv. aromat.
*Cinnamomum Cassia.—Cassia Cinnamon. 468. Lauraceæ.
SASSAFRAS.-470. Lauraceæ. Co. fl. ext. sars., co. syr. sars., oil in
troch. cubeb.
*Canella.-White Cinnamon.
48. Canellaceæ.
Cinnamodendron.-False Winter's Bark. 49. Canellaceæ.
Coto.-474. Lauraceæ.
(b) With Periderm.
*Cascarilla.—-490. Euphorbiaceæ.
CINNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM.-Saigon Cinnamon. 469. Lauraceæ,
tr. card. co., tr. catechu co., tr. rhei arom., tr. lavand. co., vin opii inf.
digitalis.
*Angustura.-81. Rutaceæ.
*Wintera.-Winter's Bark. 20. Magnoliaceæ.
Betula Lenta.-Sweet Birch. 501. Betulaceæ. Vol. oil.
CLASS II.—ACRID.
69 a.
Malvaceæ.
GOSSYPII RADICIS CORTEX.-Cotton-root Bark.
Fl'ext.
Fl'ext.
MEZEREUM.-Mezereum. 480. Thymelæaceæ. Fl'ext.
QUILLAJA.-Soap Bark. 175. Rosaceæ. Tr.
XANTHOXYLUM.-Prickly Ash. 81. Rutaceæ.
Erythrophlæum.-Sassy Bark. 137. Leguminosa.
Pisicidia. Jamaica Dogwood. 140. Leguminosa.
64
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
CLASS III.—BITTER.
*Aspidosperma.-Quebracho. 353. Apocynaceæ.
EUONYMUS.-Wahoo. 112. Celastrineæ. Ext.
FRANGULA.-Buckthorn. 114. Rhamnaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Juglans.-Butternut. 502. Juglandaceæ. Ext.
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.-Cascara Sagrada.
Fl'ext., ext. aromatic.
*Azedarach.-Margosa Bark. 108.
108. Meliaceæ.
*Quassiæ Cortex. Quassia Bark. 97. Simarubaceæ.
*Simaruba.-98. Simarubaceæ.
115. Rhamnaceæ.
CLASS IV. BITTER AND ASTRINGENT.
CINCHONA.—267 Rubiaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., co. tr., various alkaloidal
salts.
CINCHONA RUBRA.-267. Rubiaceæ. Comp. tinct.
PRUNUS VIRGINIANA.—Wild Cherry. 166. Rosaceæ. Fl'ext., syr.,
inf.
VIBURNUM.-Opulus. 262. Caprifoliaceæ. Fl'ext.
VIBURNUM PRÚNIFOLIUM.—Black Haw. 263. Caprifoliaceæ. Fl’-
ext.
Pinus Strobus.-White Pine. 518. Pinaceæ.
*Cornus Florida.-Dogwood. 259. Cornaceæ.
*Berberis.-Barberry Bark. 30. Berberidaceæ.
*Liriodendron.-Tulip-tree Bark. 21. Magnoliaceæ.
*Magnolia.-19. Magnoliaceæ.
*Nectandra.-Beeberu. 473. Lauraceæ.
*Prinos.-Black Alder. 111. Ilicineæ.
Chaparro Amargoso.-Amargosa. Simarubacex. 1011.
CLASS V.—ASTRINGENT.
GRANATUM.-Bark of Pomegranate Root. 211. Punicaceæ. Pelle-
tierine Tannate.
QUERCUS ALBA.-White Oak. 505. Cupuliferæ. Fl'ext.
RUBUS.-Blackberry. 180. Rosaceæ. Fl'ext., syr.
HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX.-Witchhazel Bark. 200. Hamamelidaceæ
water.
*Salix.-Willow. 512. Saliaceæ
CLASS VI.-MUCILAGINOUS.
Mucilage.
ULMUS. Slippery Elm. 495. Ulmacea.
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Acer Rubrum, 124. Esculus Glabra, 122. Ailan-
thus, 100. Alnus, 506. Alstonia Constricta, 354. Alstonia Scholaris, 355. Am-
pelopsis, 120. Calycanthus, 17. Carya, 502 b. Cascara Amarga, 106. Celastrus,
113. Cephalanthus, 269. Cercis, 138. Chionanthus, 350. Choke Cherry, 167.
Cocillana, 108. Condurango, 365. Conessi, 356. Fagus, 507. Fraxinus Amer-
icana, 348. Fraxinus Sambucifolia, 349. Hippocastanum, 123. Hoang-Nan, 368.
Juglans Nigra, 502 a Larix, 521. Lindera, 475. Malus, 170. Mistletoe, 482.
Myrica, 503. Newbouldia, 409. Populus, 513. Ptelia, 82. Rhus Aromatica,
128. Saraca, 139. Tonga, 414. Tsuga, 520.
LEAVES.
CLASS I—AROMATIC.
BUCHU (Short).-83. Rutaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Buchu (Long).-83. Rutaceæ. Fl'ext.
COCA.—74. Erythroxylaceæ. Fl'ext., cocaine hydrochloride.
CONSPECTUS.
ERIODICTYON.-Yerba Santa. 377. Hydrophyllaceæ.
65
Fl'ext.
EUCALYPTUS.-204. Myrtaceæ. Fl'ext., vol. oil, eucalyptol.
MATICO.-460. Piperaceæ. Fl'ext., tr.
PILOCARPUS.-Jaborandi. 84. Rutaceæ. Fl'ext.
Rosmarinus.—Rosemary. 435. Labiatæ. Vol. oil, tr. lavand. co., lini-
mentum saponis.
SALVIA.-Sage. 484. Labiatæ.
*Tabacum.—Tobacco. 393. Solanaceæ.
Chekan.-Cheken. 206. Myrtaceæ.
Myrcia.-Bay Leaves. 205 a. Myrtaceæ. Vol. oil
Melaleuca.-Cajuput. 210. Myrtaceæ. Oleum cajuputi.
*Conii Folia.-Hemlock Leaves. 231. Umbelliferæ.
Thymus.-Garden Thyme. Labiatæ. Oil, thymol.
CLASS II.-ACRID.
*Ruta.-Rue. 85. Rutaceæ.
CLASS III.—BITTER.
BELLADONNÆ FOLIA.-Deadly Nightshade. 387. Solanaceæ. Tr.,
ext., oint., plast., extract in pil. laxative comp., pil. pod. bell. et capsic.
DIGITALIS.—Foxglove. 400. Scrophulariacea. Fl'ext., tr., ext., inf.
HYOSCYAMUS.-Henbane. 391. Solanaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., ext.
SENNA (Alexandria).-144. Leguminosa.
Senna (India).-144. Leguminosa.
Fl'ext., syr., co. inf., conf.,
pulv. glycyr. co., syr.
sars. co.
STRAMONII FOLIA.-Stramonium Leaves. Solanaceæ. Fl'ext.
Duboisia.—394. Solanaceæ.
*Hepatica.-Liverwort. 15. Ranunculaceæ.
CLASS IV.-ASTRINGENT.
*Castanea.-Chestnut. 509. Cupuliferæ.
CHIMAPHILA.-Pipsissewa. 331. Ericaceæ.
Fl'ext.
HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA.-Witchhazel. 197. Hamamelideæ. Fl'ext.
*Rhus Toxicodendron.-Poison Ivy. 127. Anacardiaceæ.
UVA URSI.—Bearberry. 328. Ericaceæ.
Ericaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Gaultheria.-Wintergreen. 330. Ericaceæ. Vol. oil.
376. Caroba, 410. Cassia
Epigæa, 332. Erechthites,
Euphrasia, 399. Fragaria,
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Ambrosia, 293. Arctostaphylos, 329. Aurantii
Folia, 89. Betonica, 442. Boldus, 464. Borago,
Marilandica, 144. Comptonia, 504. Duboisia, 394.
289. Erythronium, 561. Eupatorium Purpureum, 297.
184. Garrya, 260. Guaco, 292. Kalmia, 334. Ilex Opaca, 110. Ilex Para-
guayensis, III. Laurocerasus, 183.
Laurocerasus, 183. Laurus, 476. Ledum, 335. Ligustrum,
351. Lippia Mexicana, 411. Mitella Nuda, 197. Monarda Fistulosa, 429.
Ocimum, 441. Oleander, 358. Orthosiphon, 437. Oxydendrum, 336. Persica,
169. Polypodium, 587. Pterocaulon, 291. Pulmonaria, 310. Pycnanthemum,
438. Rhododendron, 337. Satureia, 439. Sesamum, 408 a. Spinosum, 295.
Strumarium, 294. Thea, 62. Trilisa, 290. Turnera, 215. Umbellularia, 477.
Vaccinium, 333. Verbascum, 402. Yerba Buena, 440.
LEAFY TOPS.
All Balsamic, Camphoraceous and Bitter.
SABINA.-Savine. 516. Coniferæ. Fl'ext., vol. oil.
*Juniperus Virginiana.-Red Cedar. 516 a. Coniferæ.
Thuja -Arbor Vitæ. 517. Coniferæ.
5
66
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Labiatæ.
HERBS AND WHOLE PLANTS.
CLASS I.-AROMATIC.
HEDEOMA.-Pennyroyal. 417. Vol. oil.
MARRUBIUM.-Horehound.
418.
MENTHA PIPERITA.-Peppermint. 415. Vol. oil, spts., water,
troch., menthol. pil. rhei co., mist. rhei et sod.
MENTHA VIRIDIS.-Spearmint. 416. Vol. oil., spts., water.
*Melissa.—Balm.
419.
*Cataria. Catnip. 431.
Glechoma.-Ground Ivy. 423.
Hyssopus.-Hyssop. 430.
*Lycopus.-Bugle Weed.
424.
Majorana.-Sweet Marjoram.
425.
Monarda.-Horsemint.
428.
*Origanum.—Wild Marjoram.
421.
Compositæ.
GRINDELIA.—298. Fl'ext.
*Tanacetum.-Tansy. 299.
*Achillea.-Yarrow. 306.
*Cotula.-May Weed.
Wild Chamomile,
320.
Parthenium.—Feverfew.
319.
*Solidago.-Golden Rod. 315.
Hypocreaceæ (Cryptogamous).
ERGOTA.-Ergot. 590. Fl'ext., ext., wine.
*Ustilago.—Corn Smut. 593.
CLASS II.-BITTER.
Compositæ.
Absinthium.-Wormwood. 300.
EUPATORIUM.-Boneset. 296.
Fl'ext.
Carduus Benedictus.-Blessed Thistle. 308.
*Erigeron.-Fleabane. 302. Oil.
*Erigeron Canadense.-303.
Helenium.-Sneezewort. 305.
Gentianaceæ.
CHIRATA.-Chiretta. 374. Fl'ext.
*Sabbatia.-Centaury. 375.
Leguminosa.
SCOPARIUS.-Broom.
148. Fl'ext.
Melilotus.-Sweet Clover.
145.
Galega.-Goat's Rue.
147 a.
Scrophulariaceæ.
Chelone.-Balmony.
406.
Scrophularia. Figwort. 405.
Polygalaceæ.
*Polygala.-Bitter Polygala. 54.
Violarieæ.
Viola Tricolor.-Pansy. 47.
Ranunculaceæ.
Fungi.
Coptis.-Goldthread.
4.
Agaricus Albus.-White Agaric. 594.
Fungus Chirurgorum.-Surgeon's Agaric. 594 a.
Torula.-Yeast.
595.
CONSPECTUS.
CLASS III.—ACRID.
Ranunculaceæ.
*Pulsatilla.-8.
Ranunculus.-Crowfoot.
Cruciferæ.
10.
Bursa Pastoris.-Shepherd's Purse. 44.
Campanulaceæ.
LOBELIA.—Indian Tobacco. 327. Fl'ext., tr.
Moraceæ.
CANNABIS INDICA.-Indian Hemp. 498. Fl'ext., tr. ext.
Papaveraceæ.
*Chelidonium.—Celandine.
37.
Cactus.-Night-blooming Cereus. 226.
Cacteæ.
Droseraceæ.
Drosera.-Sundew.
Hypericineæ.
198.
Hypericum.-St. John's-wort. 60.
CLASS IV.-—ASTRINGENT.
Rosaceæ.
Agrimonia.-Agrimony. 190.
Potentilla.—Cinquefoil. 191.
Rubiaceæ.
Galium.-Cleavers. 271.
Mitchella.-Squaw Vine.
270.
Onagrarieæ.
Enothera.-Evening Primrose.
214.
Cistineæ.
Plantagineæ.
Plantago.-Plantain, 445.
Orobanchaceæ.
Epilobium.-Willow Herb.
Helianthemum.-Frostwort. 46.
213.
67
Epiphegus.-Beech-drop. 407.
All Cryptogamous.
CLASS V.-MUCILAGINOUS.
*Cetraria.-Iceland Moss. 590. Lichenes.
Decoction.
CHONDRUS.—Irish Moss. 596. Algæ. (Gigartinaceæ, U. S. P., 1900.)
Adiantum.—Maidenhair Fern. 584. Filices.
Fucus Nodosus. 597 a. Algæ.
Fucus Vesiculosus.-Bladderwrack. 597 Algæ.
Laminaria.-Sea-girdles. 598. Algæ.
UNCLASSIFIED.—All unofficial: Adonis Vernalis, 9. Anagallis, 340. Anhalonium,
227. Artemisia, 301. A. Abrotanum, 301 a; A. Vulgaris, 301 b; A. Frigida,
301 c. Asclepias Curassavica, 363. Bidens, 313. Elephantopus, 321. Ephedra,
515. Equisetum, 582. Eschscholtzia, 38. Euphorbia Pilulifera, 484 c. Frankenia,
55. Gnaphalium, 304. Impatiens, 78. Lactuca Sativa, 317. Lactuca Canaden-
sis, 318. Lamium, 415. Leonurus, 427. Litmus, 591. Menyanthes, 376.
Mercurialis, 487. Mutisia, 310. Passiflora, 217. Penthorum, 196. Polygo-
num, 452. Portulaca, 59. Rudbeckia, 312. Sedum Acre, 197. Senecio, 314.
Silphium, 309. Solanum Carolinense, 397. Spiræa, 192. Stellaria, 58. Stylo-
santhes, 147. Teucrium, 432. Trifolium Pratense, 146. Trifolium Repens, 146 a.
Urechites, 359. Urtica, 499. Veronica Officinalis, 404. Commelina, 572.
68
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
FLOWERS, BULBS, AND PETALS.
CLASS I.—AROMATIC.
ANTHEMIS.-Chamomile.
322 Compositæ.
CALENDULA.-Marigold. 324 Compositæ. Tr.
CARYOPHYLLUS. Človes. 207. Myrtaceæ. Vol. oil, tr. lavand. co.,
tr. rhei arom., vin. opii.
MATRICARIA.-German Chamomile. 321. Compositæ.
ROSA GALLICA.-Red Rose.
conf., pil. aloe et mastiche, oil.
176. Rosacea. Fl'ext., syr., honey,
*Rosa Centifolia.—Pale Rose. 177. Rosaceæ.
*Sambucus.-Elder.
Caprifoliacea
SANTONICA.-Levant Wormseed. 323. Compositæ. Santonin, troch.
santonin.
*Aurantii Flores.—Orange Flowers. 90. Aurantiaceæ. Vol. oil.
*Lavandula.-Lavender. 443. Labiatæ.
Populus Balsamifera.-Balm of Gilead Buds. 514. Salicaceæ.
CLASS II. ACRID.
ARNICA.-287. Compositæ Tincture.
CLASS III —BITTER.
CUSSO.-Kousso. 185. Rosaceæ.
*Carthamus.-Safflower. 325. Compositæ.
Rhaas.-Red Poppy. 40. Papaveraceæ.
Ambrosia Artemisiafolia.—Ragweed. Compositæ. 293 a.
CLASS IV.-DEMULCENT.
Althea Rosea.-Hollyhock. 67. Malvaceæ.
Malva.-Mallow. 68 Malvaceæ
Tilia. Linden Flowers. 72. Tiliaceæ.
FRUITS.
CLASS I.—AROMATIC.
(a) Cremocarps.-Umbelliferous fruits, consisting of two carpels or mericarps
joined by their flat sides but easily separable.
ANISUM.-Anise. 218. Umbelliferæ. Spirits, water, vol. oil, syr. sars.
co., tr. opii camph., troch. glycyrr. et opii, spt. auranti co.
CARUM. Caraway. 232. Umbelliferæ. Tr. card. co., spt. junip. co.,
vol, oil.
CORIANDRUM.-Coriander. 233. Umbelliferæ Vol. oil, conf. sennæ,
spt. aurant. co., syr. sennæ.
FŒNICULUM.-Fennel. 229. Umbelliferæ. Vol. oil, water, inf. sennæ
co., pulv. glycyrr. co., spt. junip. co.
Anethum.-Dill. 234. Umbelliferæ.
A pium.-Celery Fruit. 235. Umbelliferæ.
Cuminum. Cumin Fruit. 240. Umbelliferæ.
b) Globular.
*Chenopodium.—American Wormseed. 446. Chenopodiaceæ. Vol. oil.
CUBEBA.—Cubebs. 436. Piperaceæ. Fl'ext., vol. oil, oleores., troches.
PIMENTA.—Allspice. 208. Myrtaceæ. Vol. oil, spt. myrciæ.
SABAL.-Saw Palmetto. Palmæ. 563.
PIPER.—Black Pepper. 457. Piperaceæ. Oleoresin, piperin
*Juniperus.—Juniper. 518. Pinaceæ. Oil.
Piper Album.-White Pepper. 458. Piperaceæ.
Piper Longum.-Long Pepper. 459. Piperaceæ.
CONSPECTUS.
69
(c) Of Various Forms.
AURANTII AMARI CORTEX.-Orange Peel. 87. Rutaceæ. Fl'ext.,
tr., tr. cinch. co., tr. gentian. co., vol. oil.
AURANTII DULCIS CORTEX.-Tr., syr., spt. aurant. co.
CAPSICUM.-Cayenne Pepper. 398. Solanaceæ. Fl'ext., tr., oleo-
resin, plaster.
CARDAMOMUM.-Cardamom.
539. Zingiberaceæ.
arom. powd., tr. gent. co., ext. colocynth, co., tr. rhei.
HUMULUS.-Hops. 496. Moraceæ.
*Illicium.—Star Anise. 18. Magnoliaceæ.
Tr., co. tr.,
LIMONIS CORTEX.-Lemon Peel. 92. Aurantiac. Spts. auranti
co., spt. ammon. aromat.
VANILLA.—534. Orchidaceæ. Tr.
Caryophylli Fructus.-Mother Clove. 207 a. Myrtaceæ.
Citrus Bergamia.-Bergamotte. 94. Aurantiaceæ. Vol. oil.
Dipteryx.-Tonka Bean. 153. Leguminosa.
CLASS II.-ODORLESS AND TASTELESS.
CONIUM.-Hemlock Fruit. 230.
230. Umbelliferæ. Fl'ext.
CLASS III.—BITTER.
COLOCYNTHIS.—Colocynth. 219. Cucurbitaceae. Ext., co. ext., pil.
cathar. co., pil. veg. cathar.
Cocculus.-Cocculus Indicus. Fishberry. 25. Menispermaceæ. Picro-
toxin.
Lappa Fructus.-Burdock Fruit. 281. Compositæ.
*Papaver.-Poppy. 35. Papaveraceæ.
CLASS IV.—SWEET.
CASSIA FISTULA.-Purging Cassia. 149. Leguminosa. Confec.
sennæ.
FICUS.-Fig. 500. Moraceæ. Confec. sennæ.
*Phytolacca Fructus.-Poke Berries 448. Phytolaccaceæ.
PRUNUM.-Prune. 168. Rosaceæ. Confec. sennæ.
TAMARINDUS.-Tamarind. 151. Leguminosa. Confec. sennæ.
CLASS V.-ACIDULOUS.
RHUS GLABRA.-Sumach. 127. Anacardiaceæ. Fl'ext.
*Rubus Idæus.-Raspberry. 181. Rosacea.
Rosa Canina.-Hips. 178. Rosaceæ.
CLASS VI.-ASTRINGENT.
Bela-Bael Fruit. 86. Rutaceæ.
*Granati Fructus Cortex.-Pomegranate Rind. 212.
Punicaceæ.
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Ajowan, 246. Anacardium, 131. Ananassa, 541.
Carota, 241. Ceratonia, 150. Diospyros, 343. Embelia, 341. Luffa, 220
Lycopersicum, 399. Mangostana, 62. Momordica, 221. Morus, 501. Myro-
balanus, 203. Phellandrium, 239. Rhamnus Cathartica, 116. Semecarpus, 133-
Serenoa 563. Uva Passa, 119. Xanthoxyli Fructus, 82. Cratægus, 182.
SEEDS.
CLASS I.-AROMATIC.
MYRISTICA.-Nutmeg. 565. Myristicaceæ. Pulv. aromat., tr. lav-
and. co., tr. rhei arom., troch. sod. bicarb., vin. opii, vol. oil.
*Caffea.—Coffee. 272. Rubiaceæ. Caffeine, caffeine citrate, caff. cit.
efferves.
70
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Cola.-Cola. 70. Sterculiaceæ.
Fænum Græcum.-Fenugreek. 153.
Granum Paradisi.—Grain of Paradise
Areca.-Areca Nut. 562. Palmaceæ.
Leguminosa.
540. Zingiberaceæ.
CLASS II.-BITTER.
AMYGDALA AMARA.-Bitter Almond. 172. Rosacea. Syr., vol.
oil, water, spts., fixed oil.
NUX VOMICA.-Dog Button. Loganiaceæ. Fl'ext., ext., tr.
STAPHISAGRIA.-Stavesacre. 11. Ranunculaceæ.
STROPHANTHUS.-357. Apocynaceæ. Tr.
* Delphinium.—Larkspur. 12. Ranunculaceæ.
*Ignatia.-St. Ignatius' Bean. 367. Loganiaceæ.
CLASS III.—ACRID.
COLCHICI SEMEN.-Colchicum Seed. 558.
wine.
Liliaceæ. Fl'ext., tr.,
Cruciferæ.
Cruciferæ. Charta, vol. oil.
SINAPIS ALBA.-White Mustard. 42.
42.
SINAPIS NIGRA.—Black Mustard. 43.
Curcas.-Purging Nut. 493. Euphorbiaceæ.
*Hyoscyami Semen.-Henbane Seed. 392. Solanaceæ.
Nigella.-13. Ranunculaceæ.
Ricinus.-Castor Bean. 491. Euphorbiaceæ. Oil.
*Sabadilla.—Cevadilla. 550. Liliaceæ. Veratrine, unguent. veratrin.,
oleat. veratrin.
Tiglium.-Croton Seed. 492. Euphorbiaceæ. Oil.
CLASS IV.-MUCILAGINOUS OR OILY.
AMYGDALA DULCIS.-Sweet Almond.
express. Oil in unguent., aqua rosæ.
173. Rosacea. Syr., emul.,
LINUM.-Flax Seed. 73. Linaceæ.
PEPO.-Pumpkin Seed. 222. Cucurbitaceæ.
PHYSOSTIGMA.-Calabar Bean. 155. Leguminosæ. Tr., ext., phy-
sostigmine (eserine) and salts.
*Stramonii Semen.-Stramonium Seed. 390. Solanaceæ.
*Cydonium.—Quince Seed. 171. Rosacea.
Theobroma.-Cacao. 71. Sterculiaceæ.
*Papaver.-Poppy, or Maw Seed. 36. Papaveraceæ.
UNCLASSIFIED.-All unofficial: Abri Semen, 136. Cannabis Semen, 498 a. Cedron,
99. Gynocardia, 50. Helianthus, 326. Jambul, 209. Persea, 479. Cucumis,
224. Sesamum, 408 b. White Zapote, 95.
CELLULAR DRUGS AND PRODUCTS FROM FRAGMENTS
OF THE PLANT.
CLASS I.—AROMATIC.
*Crocus.—Saffron. 545. Iridaceæ. Tr.
LIMONIS SUCCUS.-Lemon Juice. 91. Aurantiaceæ. Citric acid,
LUPULINUM.-Lupulin. Glands from hops. 497. Moraceæ. Fl'ext.,
oleores.
*Macis.-Mace. Arillode of Nutmeg. 466 Myristicaceæ.
CLASS II.-ODORLESS AND TASTELESS.
LYCOPODIUM.-582. Lycopodiacea.
GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM.-Cotton. 69 b. Malvaceæ. Pyrox-
ylin, collodion, collod. styp., collod. flexib., collod. cantharid.
*Kamala.—Rottlera. 494. Euphorbiaceæ.
Cibotium.-Penghawar. 586. Filices.
CONSPECTUS.
CLASS III.—BITTER.
71
Araroba.-Goa Powder.
chrysaro.
156. Leguminosa. Chrysarobin, unguent.
CLASS IV.—ASTRINGENT.
GALLA.-Nutgalls. 508. Cupuliferæ. Tr. unguent., Tannic acid,
which enters into troch., glycerite, collod. styp.
*Mucuna.-Cowage. 155. Leguminoseæ.
CLASS V.-MUCILAGINOUS.
SASSAFRAS MEDULLA.-Sassafras Pith. 472. Lauraceæ. Mucilage.
CLASS VI.—SWEETISH.
ZEA.-Corn Silk. 578. Gramineæ. Fl'ext.
CLASS VII.-FARINACEOUS.
AMYLUM.-Starch. 580. Gramineæ. Glycerit.
*Avena Farina.-Oat Meal.
Oat Meal.
*Hordeum.-Pearl Barley.
Gramineæ.
581 a. Gramineæ.
*Sago.-Pearl Sago. Gramineæ.
*Tapioca.-Euphorbiaceæ.
Taro, Triticum vulgare, Oryza, Solanum tuberosum, Canna, Maranta, and
Curcuma leucorrhiza.
NON-CELLULAR DRUGS DERIVED FROM CELL-PRODUCTS,
INCLUDING SECRETIONS.
FARINACEOUS.
AMYLUM.-Starch (see above).
EXTRACTIVE SUBSTANCES.
Extracts.
CATECHU (Gambir).-Cutch.
159. Leguminosa. Co. tr., troch.
Leguminosa.
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ.-Licorice. 133 a.
Troch. g. et opii, troch. ammon. chlor., pil. ferri iod., troch. cubeb.
GUARANA.—121. Sapindaceæ. Fl'ext.
Annatto.-Arnotta. 51. Bixineæ.
*Catechu Pallidum.-Gambir. 273. Rubiaceæ.
Curara.-Curare. 371. Loganiaceæ.
Monesia.-343. Sapotaceæ.
Concrete Juices.
ALOE.—Aloes. 559. Liliaceæ. Tr., aloe purificata, tr. a. et myrrh, tr.
benzoin. co., ext. colocyn. co., pil., pil. al. et mastich., pil. a. et myrrh.,
pil. rhei co., pil. cathar. co., pil. veg. cathar., aloin. (the latter in pil. aloin
co.).
KINÓ.-160. Leguminosa. Tr.
LACTUCARIUM.-Lettuce Opium. 316. Compositæ. Tr., syr.
OPIUM. 34. Papaveraceæ. Pulv., deod. opium, tr., ext., wine, pil., pul.
ipecac. et o., deod. tr., tr. ipecac. et o., tr. opii camph., troch. glycyrr.
et o., morphine and its salts, morph. hydrochlor., mor. sulph., codeine,
apomorph. hydrochlor.
ELASTICA.—Índia Rubber. 488 Euphorbiaceæ. Chart. sinapis.
Alveloz Milk.—486.
*Gutta Percha.-342. Sapotaceæ.
Papaya. Papain. 216. Passifloraceæ.
72
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
1
Solid.
Liquid.
SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES.
MANNA.—346. Oleaceæ. Inf. sennæ co.
SACCHARUM.-Sugar. Cane Sugar. Gramineæ. Syrups, pills, pow-
ders, etc.
SACCHARUM LACTIS. Sugar of Milk. 617 d.
MEL.-Honey. 612. Mel despumat., mel rosæ, conf. rosæ.
MUCILAGINOUS SUBSTANCES.
Gums.
ACACIA.-Gum Arabic. 157. Leguminosa. Mucilage, syr, pul. cret.
co., mist. glycyr. co., emul. amyg., pil. fe. iod., pil. phos., troch. glycyr.
et opii.
TRAGACANTHA.-Gum Tragacanth. 158. Leguminosa. Mucilage,
troch. ammon. chlor., troch. catechu, troch., tannic acid, and others.
Gum Resins.
RESINOUS SUBSTANCES.
Aromatic.-Containing volatile oil.
ASAFOETIDA.-244. Umbelliferæ. Tr., pil., emul.
*Ammoniacum.-Ammoniac. 246. Umbelliferæ.
MYRRHA.-Myrrh. 102. Burseraceæ. Tr., tr. aloes et m., pil. aloes et
m., pil. rhei co., mis. ferri co.
Bdellium.-104. Burseraceæ.
*Galbanum.-245. Umbelliferæ.
Olibanum.-Frankincense.
Acrid.-Free from volatile oil.
103. Burseraceæ.
CAMBOGIA.-Gamboge. 61. Guttifereræ. Pil. cathar. co.
SCAMMONIUM.—Scammony. 385. Convolvulaceæ. Resin, ext. colo-
cynth. co
Euphorbium.-485. Euphorbiaceæ.
Pure Resins.-(Benzoin sometimes classified as Solid Balsam.)
Aromatic.
BENZOINUM.-345. Styraceæ. Tr., co. tr., benzoinated lard, tr. opii
camph.
RESINA.-Rosin. 522 c. Pinaceæ. Plas., cerate, co. cerate.
Xanthorrhoea.-Acaroid Resin. 560. Liliaceæ.
Odorless and Tasteless.
Copal.-163 Leguminosa.
Dammara.-Dammar. 528. Coniferæ.
Draconis Resina.-Dragon's Blood. 565. Palmæ.
Kauri Resin.-Kauri Gum. 529. Coniferæ.
*Succinum.Amber. 527. Coniferæ.
Bitter.
MASTICHE.-Mastic. 229. Anacardaceæ. Pil. aloes et m.
Elaterium.-225. Cucurbitaceæ. Elaterinum, tritur elater.
Lacca.-Lac. 489. Euphorbiaceæ.
Sandaracca.-530. Coniferæ.
Acrid.
GUAIACUM.—Guaiac Resin. 76. Zygophylaceæ. Tr., ammoniated tr.
Oleoresins.
COPAIBA.-Copaiva
fied.
161
Leguminosa. Mass, vol. oil, resin, solidi-
Pix Burgundica.-Burgundy Pitch. 526. Coniferæ. Plas., canthar.
plas., iron plas, opium plas.
PIX LIQUIDA.-Tar. 523. Pinaceæ. Syr., oint., vol oil.
CONSPECTUS.
73
TEREBINTHINA.-522. Pinaceæ. Vol. oil in emuls, rectified oil,
liniment, terbene, terpin hydrate, canthar. cer., resin, resin. cer., res.
plas.
TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS.-524. Pinaceæ.
Elemi.-105. Burseraceæ.
Gurjun.-Gurjun Balsam. 64
Dipterocarpeæ.
*Pix Canadensis.-Canada Pitch. 525. Coniferæ.
Terebinthina Chia.-Chian Turpentine. 139. Anacardiaceæ.
Venice Turpentine.-522 a. Coniferæ.
Balsams.
BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM.-Balsam of Peru.
Balsam of Peru. 164. Leguminosæ.
BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM.-Balsam of Tolu. 165. Leguminosæ
Tr., syr., tr. benzoin. co., pil. ferri iod., pil. phos., syrupus tolu in troch.
ammon. chlor.
STYRAX.—Storax.
201.
Hamamelidaceæ. Tr. benzoin. co.
Liquidambar.-Sweet Gum. 202 Hamamelidaceæ.
STEAROPTENS OR CAMPHOR.
Deriv-
CAMPHORA.-Camphor. 478. Lauraceæ. Spt., water, liniment, cerat.,
tr. opii camph., linim. belladon., linim. sapon., linim. chlorofor.
atives: Monobromated camphor, camphoric acid.
MENTHOL.—Pipmenthol. 415 b. Labiatæ.
THYMOL.—Thymol. 237. Umbelliferæ and Labiatæ.
Borneo Camphor.-65.
Dipterocarpeæ.
Of Vegetable Origin.
From Seeds.
FATTY SUBSTANCES.
LIQUID.
OLEUM AMYGDALÆ EXPRESSUM.-Expressed Oil of Almond.
174. Rosacea. Ung. aqu. ros.
73 a.
69 c.
Malvaceæ.
OLEUM GOSSYPII SEMINIS.-Cotton-seed Oil.
Lini. ammoniæ, lini. camphora.
OLEUM LINI.-Linseed Oil.
linim. sapo molis.
OLEUM RICINI. Castor Oil.
OLEUM TIGLII.Croton Oil.
Oleum Juglandis.-Nut Oil. 502.
Macassar Oil.-125. Sapindaceæ.
Pongamia Oil.-162. Leguminosæ.
Oleum Papaveris Poppyseed Oil.
Oleum Sesami.-Benne-seed Oil.
Oleum Sinapis Expressum.-Expressed
From Fruits.
Lineæ. Lini. calcis, sapo molis,
491 a.
Euphorbiaceæ. Collod, flexile.
492 a. Euphorbiaceæ.
Juglandaceæ.
36 a.
Papaveraceæ.
408 c. Pedalinæ.
Oil of Mustard. 43 b. Cruciferæ.
Oleaceæ. Sapo. Lead plaster,
OLEUM OLIVE.-Sweet Oil. 347
oint. veratrine, in unguent. diachylon.
Oleum Cannabis.-Oil of Hempseed. 498 b. Moraceæ.
Oleum Maydis.-Maize Oil. 579. Gramineæ.
Of Animal Origin.
OLEUM ADIPIS.-Lard Oil. 622 a. Many cerates and ointments.
OLEUM MORRHUE.-Cod-liver Oil. 610. Emuls., emuls. ol. morrh.
cum hypophos.
Oleum Bubulum.-Neats-foot Oil. 621
74
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
SOLID.
Of Vegetable Origin.
From Seeds.
OLEUM THEOBROMATIS.-Cacao Butter. 71. Sterculiaceæ.
Oleum Cocois.—Cocoanut Oil. 567.
Oleum Gynocardiæ.-Chaulmoogra Oil.
Palmæ.
50 a.
Bixineæ.
Lauraceæ.
From Fruits.
Oleum Lauri.-Oil of Bays. Laurel Oil. 476 a
Oleum Palma -Palm Oil. 566. Palmæ.
Of Animal Origin.
Waxes.
ADEPS.-Lard. 622. Benzoinated lard in various ointments and cerates,
cerate cantharides.
ADEPS LANE HYDROSUS.-Lanolin.
drarg. ox. rub., ung. hydrarg. nit., etc.
Wool-fat. 625. Ung. hy
SEVUM.—Suet. 620. Unguent. hydrarg., oleic acid, oleat. hydrarg.,
oleat. verat., oleat. zinc., stearic acid.
Butyrum.-Butter. 617 a.
CETACEUM.-Spermaceti. 611. Unguent. aquæ rosæ.
CERA ALBA.-White Wax. 612 a.
CERA FLAVA.-Yellow Wax. 612 b. Cera alba, cerate, cer. cam-
phor., cer. resin., cer. canthar., tar oint.
Hydrocarbon Oils and Fats (used in various ointments and cerates).
625 a.
Petrolatum Album.-White Petrolatum.
Petrolatum Liquidum.-Liquid (oil). 625 a.
Petrolatum Molle.-Soft Petrolatum.
Petrolatum Spissum.-Hard Petrolatum.
625 a.
825 a.} Petrolatum, U. S.
DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN.
I.--ANIMALS.
Insecta.
CANTHARIS.-Spanish Flies.
507 Collod., tr.
Vermes.
COCCUS.-Cochineal. 600. Tr. card. co.
Blatta.-Cockroach. 611.
Hirudo.—Blood-sucking Leech. 612.
II.-ANIMAL TISSUES AND SECRETIONS.
Spongia. Sponge. 613.
Poriphera.
Polypiphera.
Corallium.-Coral. 604.
Testa.—Oyster Shell 605.
Acephala.
Cephalopoda.
Os Sepia.-Cuttle Fish Bone. 606.
Crustacea.
Pisces.
Calculi Cancrorum.-Crabs' Stones. 607.
OLEUM MORRHUÆ.-Cod-liver Oil. (See Fatty Substances.) 610.
*Ichthyocolla.-Isinglass. 608.
Insecta.
CERA ALBA.-White Wax. (See Fatty Substances)
612 a.
CONSPECTUS.
75
Aves.
CERA FLAVA.-Yellow Wax. (See Fatty Substances.) 612 b.
MEL.-Honey. (See Saccharine Substances.) 612.
*Vitellus.-Egg-yolk. 613. Glycerite.
Ovum -Egg.
Egg. 13.
Albumen Ovi.-White of Egg.
Testa Ovi.-Egg-shell.
Mammalia.
ADEPS.—Lard. (See Fatty Substances)
622.
ADEPS LANÆ HYDROSÚS.-Lanolin. (See Fatty Substances) 625.
CETACEUM.-Spermaceti. (See Fatty Substances.) 611.
FEL BOVIS.-Ox-gall. 615.
FEL BOVIS PURIFICATUM.-Purified Ox-gall. 615 a.
MOSCHUS.-Musk.
614. Tr.
OLEUM ADIPIS.-Lard Oil. (See Fatty Substances.)
PANCREATINUM.-Pancreatin. 624.
PEPSINUM.-Pepsin. 623. Saccharated p.
SEVUM.-Suet. (See Fatty Substances.)
Castoreum.-Castor. 627.
Civetta.-Civet. 628.
Gelatinum.--Gelatin. 619.
Hyraceum.-Hyraceum. 626.
Lac.-Milk 617.
(a) Butyrum.-Butter. (See Fatty Substances.)
(b) ACIDUM LACTICUM.-Lactic Acid.
622 a.
(c) SACCHARUM LACTIS.-Sugar of Milk. (See Saccharine
Substances.) Used chiefly as diluent.
Os.-Bone. 618.
Oleum Bubulum.-Neats-foot Oil. (See Fatty Substances.) 621.
Sanguis. Blood. 616.
Bacterial Products.
Antitoxic Serums. 629.
Serum Antidiptheriticum. 629 a.
Glandular Products.
Glandula Suprarenales Siccæ.
Glandulæ Thyreoidea Siccæ.
629.
630.
PURITY OF DRUGS AND DRUG ASSAY.
It is almost needless to say that the quality of drugs is of prime impor-
tance. A practical druggist will guard himself against inferior supplies;
he will not take it for granted that they come to him absolutely pure,
but will satisfy himself as to their value by careful inspection. In order
to be a good inspector it is necessary to become acquainted with the char-
acteristics of the normal drug; these characteristics and properties are
set forth in the body of this work under each drug of importance. Every
student should become so familiar with the drug and its characteristics
that he can without difficulty recognize the presence of foreign substances
not belonging to the drug in question. He should be able to tell without
the least effort whether the drug is the one intended—whether there has
been any mistake in packing, labelling, etc. It is a very uncommon
occurrence, it is true, that this happens, but some quite serious results
have followed from this very cause mistake in labelling of crude drugs.
The retail druggist is held responsible, as he is supposed to be a careful
inspector of his materials. For examination of Drug Powders, see page
653.
Estimation of Value. It is extremely difficult to estimate the value
of drug material without resorting to certain chemical and physical means
which are beyond the ordinary person to employ. It is often practically
impossible to distinguish a good quality from an inferior one by the or-
dinary methods of observation. Especially is this true of the product as
in the condition of a powder, a solid extract, or a liquid.
As to the identification and extraction of drug powders we have referred
to this in some detail in Chapter XI of Part IV, page 653. With few
exceptions under each official drug mentioned in the body of the work,
there is stated the characteristic microscopical elements of the drug
powder.
Drug Assay. The chemical means resorted to for determining the
medicinal as well as commercial value of drugs is known as drug assay.
The toxic and alkaloidal drugs are of such value that it has become neces-
sary to "standardize" them, as it is called. That is, the drug or prepara-
tion of it, to be recognized as official must reach by assay a certain standard
of strength or activity in order to be classed as official. The Pharmacopoeia
gives the details of the process of assay for each of the drugs standardized.
76
PURITY OF DRUGS AND DRUG ASSAY.
77
A condensed statement regarding the principles of drug assay will be
found in Section III (B), page 497.
The following is the list of assayed drugs and preparations of the United
States Pharmacopoeia:
SOLID OR Powd.
EXTRACT.
Aconite Root.
Bellad. Leaf.
" Root..
Scopola...
•
• •
PERCENTAGE.
0.5
0.35
0.5
0.5
FLUIDEXTRACT.*
0.4
(Ext. 1.4 Plaster 0.38–0.42)
0.5
0.5
2.0
Calabar Bean (Physostig.) 0.15
2.0
Cinchona (Physostig.).... 4.0 (ether sol.)
4.0 (ether sol.)
Coca.....
0.5
0.5
Colchicum Corm.
0.35
1.4
•
· •
"
Seed..
0.55
0.5
Conium.
0.5
0.45
•
• •
Guarana.
• •
Hydrastis.
Hyoscyamus
Ipecac..
•
Jalap (resin)...
Nux Vomica (Strychnine). 1.25
Opium (Gum)...
Opium (Powder and deo-
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.0
•
•
•
•
0.08
0.075
0.3
2.0
1.75
•
•
8.0
(not more than
1.5 % sol. in
ether.)
1.0
5.0
dorized).
Pilocarpus.
•
•
Stramonium.
9.0
.12.0 to 12.5
•
0.5
0.35
0.4
0.35
1.4
•
•
•
20.0
THE ASSAYED TINCTURES.
The assayed tinctures of the Pharmacopoeia have the following amounts
of alkaloids represented in one hundred cubic centimeters of tincture:
Tinctura Aconiti,
•
..0.45 Gm, aconitine.
Tinctura Belladonna Foliorum,...0.035 Gm. belladonna alkaloids.
Tinctura Cinchonæ,.
•
Tinctura Colchici Seminis,.
•
•
0.75 Gm. anhydrous ether-soluble alkaloids.
0.05 Gm. colchicine.
Tinctura Hydrastis, .
•
·
0.40 Gm. hydrastine.
Tinctura Hyoscyami,.
Tinctura Nucis Vomicæ,
Tinctura Opii, . . . . .
•
•
·
Tinctura Opii Deodorati,
Tinctura Physostigmatis,
Tinctura Stramonii,
·
•
.0.007 Gm. mydriatic alkaloids.
.0.10 Gm. strychnine.
•
•
1.20 to 1.25 Gm. crystallized morphine.
•
1.20 to 1.25 Gm. crystallized morphine.
0.014 Gm. ether-soluble alkaloids.
•
0.03 Gm. mydriatic alkaloids.
* Figures, representing alkaloidal strength of fluid extracts, show the amount in
100 Cc. of Fl'ext.
PART II.
DRUG DESCRIPTION.
SECTION I.-ORGANIC DRUGS FROM THE VEGE-
TABLE KINGDOM, DESCRIBED AND ARRANGED
ACCORDING TO FAMILIES OR NATURAL ORDERS.
PHANEROGAMS.
(Plants producing true seed.)
RANUNCULACEÆ.-Crowfoot Family.
Herbaceous or somewhat shrubby plants with acrid juice; distinguished by
the parts of the flower-sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils-being free and
distinct—that is, separated and independently situated on the receptacle. The
leaves are dilated at base, one-half clasping the stem. Fruit a pointed or feathery
akene, dry pod, or berry. The order has numerous anomalies in the form and
structure of the calyx, and corolla in such genera as columbine, aconite, lark-
spur, ranunculus, anemone, etc., which, nevertheless, agree in the separation
of their sepals and petals, the insertion of their numerous stamens, direction of
their anthers, structure of seed, etc.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Ranunculacea.*
A. Rhizomes.
CIMICIFUGA, 1.
HYDRASTIS, 2.
Actæa, 3.
Coptis, 4.
Helleborus Niger, 5.
Helleborus Viridis, 6.
Xanthorrhiza, 7.
B. Herbs.
Pulsatilla, 8.
Adonis Vernalis, 9.
Ranunculus, 10.
C. Seeds.
STAPHISAGRIA, 11.
Delphinium, 12.
Nigella, 13.
D. Tuber.
ACONITUM, 1+.
E. Leaf.
Hepatica, 15.
F. Root.
Pæonia, 16.
1. CIMICIFUGA.-CIMICIFUGA.
BLACK SNAKEROOT. BLACK COHOSH. Ger. SCHWARZE SCHLANGEN-
WURZEL. The dry rhizome and roots of Cimicif'uga racemo'sa Nuttall.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Stem 4 to 8 feet high, from a thick rhizome;
leaves alternate, ternately decompound; flowers regular, small, white, in wand-
*Official drugs are in bold-faced capitals.
78
CIMICIFUGA.
79
like racemes often three feet long; sepals 5, petaloid; petals from 1 to 8,
small, on claws, 2-horned at apex; stamens numerous; pistils 1 to 3; fruit
1 to several dry, dehiscent pods.
FIG. 1.-Cimicifuga racemosa-Plant and rhizome.
SOURCE.—This plant is common in rich woodlands of the United States,
westward to Iowa and northward to Canada. Acta'a racemo'sa is

80
RANUNCULACEÆ.
mentioned by Flückiger as a synonym of this plant. A similar plant,
Acte'a spicat'a, furnishing a rhizome resembling black snakeroot, is
common in Europe; it differs, however, in having juicy berries instead
of dry follicles.
A
B
C
D
E-
FIG. 2.-Cimicifuga-Cross-section of Rhizome. (18 diam.) A, Parenchyma of cortex. B, Vascular
bundle. C, Group of bast fibers. D, Xylum. E, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.)
M
H
FIG. 3.-Cimicifuga rootlet-Cross-section. (26 diam.) G, Cork. H, Parenchyma of cortex. I,
Phloëm. K, Xylem. M, Endodermis. (Photomicrograph.)
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A short horizontal rhizome from 10 to 25 mm.
(to 1 in.) thick, with numerous branches,-remains of aerial stems,
-each terminated by a deep cup-shaped scar; on the lower side are
found numerous brittle rootlets from 1 to 2 mm. (5 to 12 in.)
HYDRASTIS.
81
thick; externally brownish-black; fracture of rhizome, horny; odor
slight (the powder, however, has a heavy odor); taste bitter and acrid.
Cross-section of the rhizome exhibits a large, whitish pith, around
which, more or less stellately arranged, are wood-wedges separated by
medullary rays. Bark hard and thickish. The rootlets display,
under the microscope, a thick cortical layer, the space within which
contains converging wedges of open, woody tissue, three to five in
number, forming a Maltese cross. The stellate arrangement of the
woody wedges of the rootlets is one of the best distinguishing charac-
teristics.
Powder.-Dark brown. Characteristic elements: The cells of parenchyma of
cortex, large with spherical starch grains (3 to 10 μ in diam.); numerous wood
fibers, short, thick; large ducts; thick-walled cells of periderm with reddish-
brown color; spherical starch grains.
CONSTITUENTS.-Besides the ordinary vegetable principles,-fat, sugar,
tannin, and starch,-there exists a resin which has been by some
assigned as the active medicinal constituent. This resin, amounting
to about 31 per cent., is contained in the resinoid cimicifugin or
macrotin of the market. An acrid, crystalline principle, soluble in
chloroform, ether, and alcohol, and not precipitated by lead acetate,
is also said to exist in the root.
Preparation of Cimicifugin.-By precipitating the concentrated tincture with
water, a crude article is prepared which is known as the resinoid.
A purer
form is made by precipitating the tincture of the fresh drug with lead subace-
tate, removing the lead from solution with H₂S, and evaporating. Soluble in
alcohol and chloroform.
ACTION AND USES.-Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and expectorant. It acts
like digitalis on the circulation, and as a sedative upon cardiac ganglia;
small doses stimulate digestion and secretion; used in rheumatism
and disturbances of the menstrual function. It is a powerful uterine
stimulant. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Cimicifugæ,
Extractum Cimicifugæ,
Tinctura Cimicifugæ (20 per cent.),...
Dose: 5 to 30 пy (0.3 to 2 Сc.).
3 to 5 gr. (0.2 to 0.3 Gm.).
15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
2. HYDRASTIS.-HYDRASTIS.
o.
GOLDEN SEAL. YELLOW PUCCOON. Ger. CANADISCHE GELB-
WURZEL.
The dried rhizome and roots of Hydras'tis canaden'sis Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICSs.-Plant about 8 inches high, from a thick, knotty
rhizome. The single radical leaf simple, 5-lobed; stem 2-leaved at summit;
6
82
RANUNCULACEÆ.
flowers terminal, single, greenish; calyx of 3-petaloid sepals, regular; fruit
a head of 1-2-ovuled berries.
SOURCE.-The area of the country over which hydrastis grows in suffi-
cient abundance to be a commercial source of the drug is embraced,
according to Lloyd, in four states: Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and
을
​-|
E
FIG. 4.-Hydrastis canadensis.
West Virginia. It is also found abundantly in other portions of the
Eastern United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A knotty, contorted rhizome about 40 mm.
(13 in.) long and 5 mm. (½ in.) thick; on the upper side are several
scars which mark the positions and detachment of former herbaceous
stems; these scars (cup-like projections) have given rise to the name
"golden seal." Externally rough, of a dull yellowish-brown color,
annulate, and beset with numerous slender rootlets; internally of

HYDRASTIS.
83
a lemon-yellow color; breaks with a short, resinous fracture; a
cross-section shows a thick bark, narrow wood-wedges, and broad
medullary rays which radiate from a large pith. The rootlets show
a woody center surrounded by a thick parenchymatous cortical tissue
which is bordered by an outer row of compressed cells; odor distinct;
taste bitter. The drug should contain not less than 2.5 per cent.
of white alkaloid, hydrastine, when assayed by the official pro-
cess. Two hundred thousand to 300,000 pounds of the drug are
annually consumed.
Powder.-Bright yellow. Characteristic elements: The spherical starch gran-
ules (4 to 10 u in diam.); ducts with simple pores; tracheids short, thick-walled;
dark brown cork cells; bright yellow resin in many cells. (Highly magnified
starch grains of Hydrastis, see Fig. 377.)
CONSTITUENTS.-The two alkaloids, hydrastine, C2,H,NO (colorless
and slightly acrid), and berberine (yellow and intensely bitter),
A
B
C
FIG. 5.-Hydrastis-Rhizome, cross-section. (18 diam.) A, Cortex. B, Vascular bundle. C, Medulla.
(Photomicrograph.)
is very
are the principal constituents. Berberine, C20H17NO 47
widely distributed in nature, being found in drugs from several
different families of plants. Hydrastine, when pure, is in perfectly
colorless, very brilliant, glassy crystals. As a rule, however, they are
white and opaque, owing to the presence of numerous fractures. The
yellow color of berberine adheres very tenaciously to the hydrastine, so
that the absolutely colorless hydrastine is difficult to obtain. Cana-
dine, C20H21NO,, tetrahydroberberine, the sulphate of which is sol-
uble in water and alcohol. The resinoid, hydrastin, should not
be confounded with the active alkaloid. This resinoid is made by
84
RANUNCULACEÆ.
precipitating a concentrated alcoholic tincture of hydrastis with acidu-
lated water, and is probably, in the main, an impure muriate of ber-
berine. Hydrastinine, which Falk regards as a valuable remedy, is
made by decomposing the alkaloid, hydrastine, with dilute nitric
acid and gentle heat, when opianic acid is also formed.
Preparation of Hydrastine.-Percolate drug with water; precipitate berberine
by adding HC1; to filtrate add ammonia in excess. The impure hydrastine
which then deposits is dissolved in alcohol, filtered through charcoal, and crys-
tallized.
Preparation of Berberine.—(Obtained also from Berberis vulgaris and allied
drugs.) Exhaust powdered root with boiling water, evaporating to soft extract;
exhaust this with alcohol; add water. Distil off alcohol; add H₂SO, in excess,
when berberine sulphate crystallizes in yellow needles.
ACTION AND USES.-Until the introduction of the white alkaloid, hydras-
tine, the drug was used almost exclusively as a local astringent; but
of late years, since the many physiological experiments with this alka-
loid, it has been used internally in chronic inflammations of the
mucous membrane. Dose: 30 gr. (2 Gm.). Hydrastine is said to
have antiperiodic properties and is given in doses of gr. (0.002
Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Hydrastis,
1
32
Dose: 5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
10 to 60 m (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
Tinctura Hydrastis (20 per cent.),.
Glyceritum Hydrastis (each Cc. contains 1 Gm. of drug). Used externally.
3. ACTÆA ALBA.*-WHITE COHOSH. The rhizome of Actæ'a alb'a Bige-
low. Habitat: Southern and Eastern United States. Often found in the
European market mixed with black hellebore; its appearance, however, is
more like cimicifuga. Violent purgative, irritant, and emetic.
4. COPTIS.-GOLD THREAD. The herb of Cop'tis trifol'ia Salisbury. Hab-
itat: Northern and Eastern United States. The drug as found in com-
merce consists mainly of long, thread-like, yellow rootlets, attached to a
slender, terete rhizome, mixed with trifoliate leaves. Contains berberine
and a white alkaloid resembling hydrastine. Tonic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.) in decoction.
5. HELLEBORUS NIGER.-BLACK Hellebore. The rhizome and roots of
Helle'borus ni'ger Linné. Habitat: Central and Southern Europe. Irreg-
ular and knotty; externally brown-black; internally grayish, with a thick
bark; taste sweetish, bitter, and acrid; odor slight, peculiar. Poisonous;
anthelmintic, drastic cathartic, and emmenagogue. Dose: 5 to 20 gr. (0 3
to 1.3 Gm.).
6. HELLEBORUS VIRIDIS.-Green Hellebore. The rhizome and roots
of Helle'borus viri'dis Linné. This resembles above, but is smaller. Used
as a diuretic, cathartic, and emmenagogue. Dose: 5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3
Gm.). It should not be confounded with veratrum viride (also called green
hellebore), a cardiac and nervous sedative.
7. XANTHORRHIZA.-Yellow-roOT.
The rhizome of Xanthorrhi'za apii-
fol'ia L'Heritier. Habitat: Southern and Central United States. About
500 to 1000 mm. (20 to 40 in.) long, and 10 mm. (} in.) thick; externally
* Drugs treated of in small type and solid paragraphs are unofficial.
PULSATILLA.
85
of a bright yellowish-brown color; internally yellow; inodorous and bitter.
Contains berberine, the alkaline base of berberis vulgaris; it is a matter
of record that in many, perhaps most, berberine-yielding plants, a color-
less alkaloid accompanies berberine, but, according to Lloyd, a second
alkaloid does not exist in this drug. Used as a tonic. Dose: to 1 dr.
(2 to 4 Gm.).
8. PULSATILLA.-PASQUE FLOWER. The herb of Anem'one pulsatil'la
and of Anem'one praten'sis Linné, collected soon after flowering. Off.
U. S. P., 1890. The drug never comes into the market in a condition in
2
મા
FIG. 6.-Anemone pratensis.
which the leaf or other parts are readily recognizable, as they are most
always broken or compressed. The U. S. P., 1890, directed that the herb
should be carefully preserved, and not kept longer than one year. Even
the drying of the plant is said to render the drug unreliable. Constituents:
A peculiar acrid crystallizable principle exists in the plant known as anem-
onin (C₁HO₁), an acrid, unstable principle not well understood. Some
authorities state that it undergoes decomposition after its solution, under
conditions that are not precisely known, into anemonic acid (C10H10O5)
and anemoninic acid (C6H12O), etc.; others state that it is a volatile,
fluid, acrid principle, very susceptible of decomposition.
86
RANUNCULACEA
Preparation of Anemonin.—If aqueous distillate be treated with chloroform,
the latter, on evaporation, yields a residue--anemonin. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.1
to 0.2 Gm.).
Diuretic, diaphoretic, mydriatic, irritant. The action of pulsatilla is said
to resemble aconite as a cardiac sedative. One author says it is equivalent to
senega in convulsive coughs and in bronchitis. The recent tincture, in 5-drop
doses (made according to the formula of the tincture of recent herbs, U. S. P.,
1890), is highly esteemed by some practitioners. The drug is not infrequently
classed among the most useful emmenagogues. Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to
0.3 Gm.).
9. ADONIS VERNALIS.—False Hellebore. The herb of Adon'is ver-
nal'is Linné. This rather obscure drug owes its poisonous quality and
medicinal activity to a glucoside, adonidin, whose physiological action
seems to be almost identical with that of digitalin, except that it is more
powerful, and not cumulative. Like digitalis, it is used in heart disease
and dropsy, slowing the heart's action, and making it more regular and
forcible; it greatly increases urinary secretion. Dose: 2 to 10 gr. (0.12 to
0.6 Gm.), in infusion.
10. Ranunculus.-CROWFOOT. BUTTER CUP. The herb of Ranun'culus
bulbo'sus Linné. Habitat: Europe and North America. Base of stem
thick; flowers yellow, the ovaries of which form akenes with a short, curved
beak; inodorous, with acrid taste. Used externally as an irritant.
11. STAPHISAGRIA.—STAPHISAGRIA.
STAVESACRE.
Ger. STEPHANSKORNER.
The ripe seed of Delphin'ium staphisag'ria Linné.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.-Stem 3 to 4 feet high, erect, more or less col-
ored purple; leaves long petiolate, alternate, palmately 5-9-divided, blotched
with purple; flowers in loose spoke-like racemes, varying from light-blue
to purple; irregular; sepals 5, petaloid, upper one prolonged into a spur;
petals 4, small; fruit 3 hairy follicles.
SOURCE. This herb is a native of Italy, Greece, the Greek Islands, Asia
Minor, Mediterranean regions, and Canary Islands. It was intro-
duced into England in 1596.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-About 5 mm. (in.) long, 3 to 4 mm. (to
in.) thick; externally flattish, tetrahedral, the broadest side convex;
testa brownish, with reticulate ridges, rough and deeply pitted; in-
ternally it contains a whitish, oily albumen, inclosing a small, straight
embryo in its sharper end. The outer layer of the testa is made up
of thin-walled, narrow cells, which become larger near the edges of
the seed and in the superficial wrinkles. They contain a small number
of minute starch granules. The interior layer exhibits a single layer
of small, densely-packed cells. The albumen is composed of the
usual tissue loaded with granules of albuminoid matter and drops
of fatty oil. Nearly inodorous; taste bitter and astringent. Dose
1 gr. (0.06 Gm.).
STAPHISAGRIA.
87
Powder.-Dark greenish. Characteristic elements: The angular cells of the
parenchyma of the endosperm with aleurone and oil globules; very large epi-
dermal cells, brown, thick-walled, with irregular thickenings.
CONSTITUENTS.—-Besides fixed oil, etc., one of the most prominent con-
stituents is a poisonous alkaloid, delphinine, which exists in the
form of a malate. This alkaloid, however, is said to be composed
of several distinct principles. Marquis has separated four dis-
tinct alkaloids from the seed.
a
FIG. 7.-Delphinium staphisagria-Flowering branch and seed a.
Preparation of Delphinine.—Treat the decoction with magnesia, exhaust the
precipitate with alcohol, and evaporate. The crude alkaloid thus obtained
consists of three distinct principles-resin, staphisagrine, and delphinine. Pure
delphinine is soluble in alcohol and ether.
ACTION AND USES.—Stavesacre is mostly used as a parasiticide to destroy
vermin, especially against pediculi vestimentorum-inhabiting the
garments next to the skin. A tincture in cologne spirit has been used
in some districts as a substitute for tincture of cocculus indicus, ap-
plied to the scalp as an antiparasitic. Internally, the action resembles
88
RANUNCULACEÆ.
•
aconite in its effects upon the heart and respiration. Dose: 1 to 2
gr. (0.065 to 0.130 Gm.). Poisonous doses are rapidly diffused, and
antidotal measures should be rapidly applied. (Fluidextractum
U. S. P. 1900.)
12. DELPHINIUM.-LARKSPUR SEED. The seed of Delphin'ium consolida
Linné. Habitat: Central Europe; cultivated and naturalized in some
parts of the United States. A flattish, tetrahedral seed, 1 to 1.5 mm. (2-
in.) broad; edges sharp, testa black and roughly pitted; internally, it
consists of whitish, oily albumen, inclosing a small, straight embryo;
inodorous; taste bitter and acrid; contains delphinine. Used as a diuretic,
cathartic, and emetic; poisonous. Dose: to 3 gr. (0.03 to 0.2 Gm.).
13. NIGELLA.-NIGELLA. The seeds of Nigel'la damasce'na Linné. Habitat:
Levant; cultivated. Triangular-ovate, about 2.5 mm. (6 in.) long; testa
brittle, dull-black; embryo straight and small, with pointed ends. It
has a strawberry-like odor, and bitter taste. Used as an emmenagogue
and diuretic.
14. ACONITUM.-ACONITE.
MONKSHOOD.
Ger. MONCHSKAPPE.
The dried tuberous root of Aconi'tum napel'lus Linné. Collected in autumn;
yielding, by official assay, not less than 0.5 per cent. of aconitine.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem 3 to 4 feet high, smooth and erect; leaves
nearly sessile, alternate, palmately 5-divided; root-leaves long-petioled;
flowers deep violet, irregular, very showy, in racemes; sepals 5, petaloid,
the upper one hooded or helmet-shaped; petals 2, concealed.
SOURCE AND VARIETIES.-This genus of poisonous herbs, including a
number of species, is found throughout cold, mountainous districts
of Europe, in the Himalayas, and in Northwestern North America.
It is one of the oldest and commonest plants of the English garden,
and is often found in dangerous proximity to horseradish (Royle).
Hindu writers mention no less than eighteen different kinds of
"bish"-the vernacular for aconite. Ten of these are said to be
unfit for medicinal use on account of their extremely poisonous
nature, which is exaggerated to such an extent as to say that their
touch is fatal. The root (tuber) of A. napellus is the source of the
medicinal preparations of this drug, although formerly the leaves
were official as well. A. ferox is called bish in India, more com-
monly. Nepaul aconite is the source of the extremely active alkaloid,
pseudaconitine (see below). It is a bolder root than that imported
from Germany. Therapeutically, it resembles the napellus, but is
more diuretic and less antipyretic and diaphoretic. A. fischeri pro-
duces Japanese aconite root. It yields japaconitine, stated to be
identical with aconitine. A. japonicum, with yellowish-white flowers,
has been identified as a variety of 4. lycoctonum. A. heterophyllum
ACONITUM.
89
produces a non-poisonous root, known in India as atis, or atees. It
is tonic and possibly aphrodisiac. It contains a large quantity of
starch.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Almost napiform, abruptly tapering, from 40
to 100 mm. long, about the thickness of a finger at the top, which
is tuberculated; externally dark-brown, wrinkled longitudinally at
lower portion, stem scars visible, rootlets usually detached; fracture
FIG. 8.-Aconitum Napellus-Flowering branch and tuber.
short, horny or starchy, exhibiting sometimes a spongy or resinous,
white, grayish, or brownish tissue; taste at first sweetish, then acrid
and tingling, followed by numbness. This peculiar tingling sensa-
tion to the tongue is one of the most prominent characteristics upon
which the toxicologist depends for the recognition of this drug and
its preparations. At the upper portion of the root there often projects
a lateral branch connecting a second tuber, which is an offspring of

90
RANUNCULACEÆ.
the other. A cross-section of the tuber shows a thick bark and a
pith often in the form of a star, the two being separated by a nucleus
sheath; the cambium, following the outline of the pith, is also 5- to
7-angled, and at the terminal and basal extremities of each ray are
found small groups of vascular bundles; these, however, are inclined
to follow the whole cambium line. The drug should contain not
less than 0.5 per cent. of aconitine.
Powder.-Brown; giving yellow color with KOH; deep red with H2SO4.
Characteristic elements: Starch grains nearly spherical (4 to 12 in diam.)
with a few compound granules; stone cells (10 to 80 in diam.) accompanying
thick-walled parenchyma. (Highly magnified starch grains, see Fig. 373.)
A
B
C
D
FIG. 9.-Aconite tuber-Cross-section. (14 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex. C, Vascular
bundle. D, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.).
ADULTERANTS.-With allied aconite roots, defective roots, and horse-
radish. The root of European masterwort resembles aconite root,
but it is aromatic and pungent.
CONSTITUENTS. The principal constituent is aconitine, CH47NO 11
(0.5 per cent.), forming about one-third the total alkaloid of the
root. This is white, usually amorphous, but with difficulty may
be obtained in rhombic, tabular crystals; almost insoluble in cold
water, soluble in alcohol, ether, and diluted acids. Other related
principles exist in the drug combined with aconitic acid (H,C,H,O),
but our knowledge of them is not satisfactory. The crystallized alka-
loid only is now official in the B. P. It has the composition of acetyl
benzoylaconine, melts at 189° to 190° C., and yields acetic acid at
slightly higher temperature.
36
22 31
ACONITUM.
91
Pseudaconitine, C3H4NO12, from Aconitum ferox, is highly poison-
ous. Atisine, C₂₂H¸NO₂ (from Aconitum heterophyllum), does not
present any close analogy to the alkaloids of the other and well-known
species of aconite (A. napellus, A. ferox, and A. japonicum). In
small doses it is said to be non-toxic, but its action, according to some
reports, resembles that of aconite.
Commercial aconitine contains some of the allied principles, which
are separated from the alkaloid with difficulty.
Preparation of Aconitine. After extracting oil and resin by a suitable solvent,
an alcoholic extract is made which is treated with hot water.
The aqueous
solution is precipitated by adding NH,OH in excess. This precipitate is ex-
В
FIG. 10.-Powdered Aconite Tuber. (100 diam.)
A, Stone cells. B, Fragments of water tubes.
C, Parenchyma, cross-section. D, Parenchyma, longitudinal section. E, Starch.
hausted with ether-ethereal solution distilled to dryness. Purify residue by
dissolving in acidulated (H₂SO,) water, again precipitating with NH4OH, etc.
This process yields a commercial product which is not free from pseudo-
aconitine.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful depressant of the sensory nerve-ends,
the heart, the respiration, and spinal system. It relaxes the inhibit-
ory apparatus of the heart, and paralyzes the cardiac muscle and its
contained ganglia, the respiratory centers, and the spinal cord in all
its functions, sensory, reflex, and motor,-but does not affect the
cerebrum. Murrell has called attention to the fact that the English
alkaloid is seventeen times stronger than the German, while the French
is variable, but generally between these; the crystalline variety
(Duquesnel's or Merck's aconitine) is therefore to be preferred on
92
CALYCANTHACEÆ—MAGNOLIACEÆ.
account of its uniform strength. The dose of the commercial aconi-
tine isgr.; the crystallized alkaloid, however, is given in doses of
only from to gr., cautiously repeated (Shoemaker).
1
Dose of drug: I gr. (0.06 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Aconiti,.
Extractum Aconiti (U. S. P., 1890),
*Tinctura Aconiti (10 per cent.),....
Dose:
to 2 m
(0.015 to 0.12 Cc.).
togr. (0.010 to 0.02 Gm.).
to 4 m (0.03 to 0.25 Cc.).*
15. HEPATICA.-LIVERWORT. The leaves of Anem'one hepa'tica Linné.
Habitat: North America and Europe. Heart-shaped, about 50 mm. (2 in.)
long, slightly leathery; inodorous; astringent and bitter. The more cor-
rect synonym for this plant is liverleaf, as the term liverwort is applied to
a family of cryptogamic, moss-like plants-Hepatica. Used as a demulcent
and tonic. Dose: to 2 dr (2 to 8 Gm.) in decoction.
16. PÆONIA.-PEONY. The root of Pæonia officinalis Linné. Seldom used,
although at one time a popular remedy in epilepsy, diarrhea, and as an
emmenagogue. Occasionally used in chorea, whooping-cough, etc.
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in infusion.
CALYCANTHACEA.-Calycanthus Family.
Dose:
Dose: 10 to 30
17. CALYCANTHUS.-FLORIDA AllspiCE. The bark of Calycan'thus flor'-
An aromatic stimulant, used in diarrhea mixtures.
gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
idus.
MAGNOLIACEA.-Magnolia Family.
Trees and shrubs, mostly of subtropical regions. Leaves coriaceous; alter-
nate, simple, usually pellucid-punctate, entire, or rarely dentate; flowers axil-
lary or terminal, usually solitary, perfect, or, in a few genera, unisexual; sepals,
petals, stamens, and pistils numerous and hypogynous. Fruit various, cone-
like, or forming a stellate group of whorl (illicium), or capsular with ventral or
dorsal dehiscence.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Magnoliacea.
A. Fruit.
Illicium, 18.
B. Barks.
Magnolia, 19.
Wintera, 20.
Liriodendron, 21.
18. Illicium.-STAR ANISE. The dry fruit of Illi'cium ve'rum Hooker filius.
Off. U. S. P. 1890. The fruit is pedunculate, and consists of light, stel-
lately-arranged, one-seeded carpels, which are boat-shaped and united
around a short central column rising from an oblique pedicle. Each
carpel is 12 or 15 mm. ( tog in.) long, woody, wrinkled, with a straight
beak; rusty-brown in color, and split at the ventral suture, exposing the
flattish, bright, glossy-brown, oval seed; odor intermediate between fennel
and anise; taste (residing in the carpel), aromatic and sweet; seed not
aromatic, but oily. Adulterated with Illicium religiosum Siebold (found
*This preparation has been changed from 35 per cent. to 10 per cent. Great
care must be taken not to use the 1890 strength for the 1900.
MAGNOLIA.
93
growing around Buddhist temples in southwest China, whence its name), a
poisonous plant cultivated in China and Japan, which resembles it in
appearance, but is more woody, has a curved beak, a clove-like odor, and
a disagreeable taste. Constituents: A volatile oil resembling the oil of
pimpinella anise. The former oil is solidified at 35º C., and the latter be-
tween 50° and 60° C., almost entirely composed of anethol (С₁0H₁₂O),
with small amounts of terpenes, safrol, anisic acid, etc.
10 12
It has stimulant, anodyne, diuretic, and carminative properties which
reside exclusively in the volatile oil. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
-
FIG. 11.-Illicium verum-Flowering branch and fruit.
19. MAGNOLIA.—MAGNOLIA. The bark of Magno'lia glau'ca Linné. Hab-
itat: Middle and Southern United States. A thin-quilled bark of a gray
color, or sometimes light brown, fissured, and covered with numerous
scattered warts; the inner surface smooth and of a light brown color;
fracture short, toward the inner portion somewhat fibrous; nearly inodo-
rous, with a bitter, spicy, and pungent taste. It contains a volatile oil,
resin, tannin, coloring matters, gum, and a crystalline glucoside, magnolin.
Used as a diaphoretic, tonic, and febrifuge. Dose: 10 to 80 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.)
in decoction.
94
MENISPERMACEÆ.
20. WINTERA.—WINTER'S BARK. From Dri'mys winte'ri Forster, a South
American tree. It has an aroma similar to that of canella and cinnamon,
for which drugs it has been substituted, and is known in some places as
Winter's Cinnamon. The bark of Drimys granatensis from New Granada
is said to have been offered as Coto bark. It also has an astringent, pun-
gent, as well as aromatic taste. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
FIG. 12. Flowering branch of Liriodendron tulipifera.
21. LIRIODENDRON.—Tulip-TREE BARK. From Lirioden'dron tulipi'fera
Linné. Habitat: United States westward to Kansas. In quills and curved
pieces obtained from the branches. These quills and pieces are about 2
mm. (½ in.) thick; outer surface purplish-brown, with thin ridges forming
elongated meshes; nearly inodorous; taste pungent and bitter. Tonic,
febrifuge and vermifuge. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.) in infusion or fluid
extract.
Σ
Preparation of Liriodendrin.—Concentrate the alcoholic tincture; add water
until a permanent turbidity commences to appear. Set aside to evaporate
spontaneously. It forms, when purified, white needles or small scales. In-
soluble in water, soluble in ether and alcohol.
MENISPERMACEÆ.-Moonseed Family.
Woody climbers, mostly tropical, with peltate or palmate alternate exstipulate
leaves, and small diœcious, greenish, or whitish flowers in axillary panicles. Sepals
and petals alike, in three rows, the petals sometimes wanting. The stamens
equal or exceed the petals in number. Pistils 2 to 6, with nearly straight ovaries,
which, however, are incurved in fruiting, so that the seed is either a crescent or
a ring.
A. Roots.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Menispermacea.
CALUMBA, 22.
B. Rhizome.
Menispermum, 24
C. Fruit.
Cocculus, 25.
PAREIRA, 23.
COLUMBO.
22. CALUMBA.-CALUMBA.
Ger. KALUMBAWURZEL.
The dry root of Jateorrhi'za palma'ta Lamarck.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Underground stem a short, irregular rhizome,
from which start numerous fleshy fusiform roots 1 to 4 inches in diameter.
Leaves palmate, on long petioles. According to Bentley and Trimen, the
CALUMBA.
95
blade of the leaf often reaches fourteen inches in length. Flowers dioecious,
sepals 6, petals 6, stamens 6; anthers 2-celled; fruit about the size of a
hazelnut, densely clothed with long, spreading hairs, each tipped with a
black, oblong gland.
HABITAT.-East Africa and Madagascar; cultivated in the East Indies.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In transverse sections, circular or oval in
outline, 25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) in diameter; 3 to 12 mm. ( to
in.) thick. The outer edge is covered with a brown wrinkled
layer of cork. The bark is about 9 mm. ( in.) thick; a dark,
ས
FIG. 13.-Jateorrhiza palmata-Portion of vine.
shaded cambium line separates this bark from the spongy grayish-
yellow meditullium. In drying the central portion contracts more
than the outer, hence the disks are depressed at this point, where
also are found a few interrupted circles of projecting wood-
bundles, while the outer portion near the cambium is distinctly
radiate. A microscopic section shows near the centre very distinct
bright yellow wood-bundles, which are narrow and radiate near
the bark. The parenchyma is filled with large, oval or circular
starch granules. Odor faint; taste slightly aromatic, very bitter,
Dose: 30 gr. (2 Gm.).
and mucilaginous.

96
MENISPERMACEÆ.
Powder-Yellowish. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma with charac-
teristic starch grains (25 to 50 u in diam.); ducts, large, reticulate or pitted;
sclerenchyma consisting of stone cells, thin-walled, with prismatic calcium
oxalate crystals. (Starch grains highly magnified, see Fig. 369.)
CONSTITUENTS.-A neutral crystalline principle, calumbin, extremely
bitter, berberine, calumbic acid, and starch, of which it contains
33 per cent. No tannin is present; it can therefore be compounded
with salts of iron. The best solvent for the bitter principle is dilute
acetic acid. This liquid, however, is not a good menstruum.
Preparation of Calumbin.-Infusion of columbo, made with 3 per cent. of
oxalic acid, is neutralized with ammonia. Evaporate to one-third, and when
cool, shake out with ether. On evaporation of ethereal solution, white calumbin
is obtained.
A
B
FIG. 14.-Columbo-Cross-section of root. (1.5 diam.) A, Annual ring of growth. B, Medulla.
(Photograph.)
ACTION AND USES.-A simple tonic, stimulating the appetite through the
gustatory nerves, increasing in turn the gastric and salivary secretions.
Its special value as a tonic resides in the fact that it has no disagree-
able effects, such as nausea, headache, or febrile disorder, like other
remedies of its class. Externally, antiseptic, disinfectant, and anthel-
mintic.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Calumbæ,....
Tinctura Calumbæ (20 per cent.),
Dose: 5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
I to 4 f3 (4 to 15 Cc.).

PAREIRA.
97
PAREIRA BRAVA.
23. PAREIRA.-PAREIRA.
Ger. GRIESWURZEL.
The dry root of Chondoden'dron tomento'sum Ruiz et Pavon.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A vine with twining stem 4 inches in diam-
eter; leaves large, cordate, long-petioled, with entire margins; flowers dice-
cious; fruit purplish, ovoid, 1-seeded, drupaceous, forming thick clusters
resembling bunches of grapes.
HABITAT.-Brazil.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A long, branching, woody root, found in
commerce in tortuous, subcylindrical pieces, about 100 to 150 mm. (4
A
G
B
C
EF
FIG. 15.-Pareira-Cross-section of root. (1.5 diam.) A, E, F, Xylem. B, Phloëm. C, G,
Rings of stone cells. (Photograph.)
to 6 in.) long, and from 20 to 100 mm. ( to 4 in.) thick. Exter-
nally it varies from brown to light grayish-brown in color, and is
marked with fissures, transverse ridges, and longitudinal wrinkles.
When cut or sliced it displays a dark brown interior, leaving under
the knife a waxy luster. A cross-section displays a thin bark; within
this bark circle there are two or more circles (zones) of radiating
7

98
MENISPERMACEÆ.
wood-wedges. About 12 of these wood-wedges are found in the cen-
tral zone radiating from a common center. The outer circles (zones)
of wood-wedges are separated from one another by a narrow
line of parenchyma, stone cells, and compressed cells, and the short,
circular, radiating wedges of wood are separated from one an-
other by medullary tissue, making a combination of concentric
and radiate arrangement which is quite characteristic. Sometimes
sections of the stem are found in the drug; these have a rather thick
FIG. 16.-Cross-section of Menispermum-Magnified 14 diam.
bark and a narrow pith. Taste at first mild, then bitter and some-
what acrid; odorless.
Powder.-Brownish yellow. Characteristic elements: Starch, ellipsoidal,
simple or 2 to 4 compound (7 to 15 in diam.); sclerenchyma consisting of long
bast fibers and numerous isodiametric or elongated stone cells 20 to 50 μ across;
wood fibers, simple or bordered pits; cork, dark brown cells (20 to 25 μ in diam.);
calcium oxalate, in rosettes, few.
CONSTITUENTS.-Pelosine (cissampeline), amorphous, insoluble in hot
or cold water, soluble in alcohol and chloroform; taste sweetish-bitter.
Preparation of Pelosine (also known as Cissampeline).-Boil root in acidu-
lated H₂SO, water, precipitate with K,CO,, purify by redissolving in acidulated
water, decolorize with charcoal, again precipitate with K,CO,, and purify from
solution in ether.
ACTION AND USES.-As a remedial agent pareira is generally conceded
to be beneficial as a diuretic and tonic in the treatment of cystitis
MENISPERMUM.
99
and suppurative kidney diseases, acting in a soothing manner, espe-
cially on the bladder. Formerly renowned as a lithontriptic. Dose:
30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Pareiræ,
Dose: to 2 f3 (2 to 8 Cc.).
24. MENISPERMUM.-YELLOW PARILLA.—The dry rhizome and roots of
Menisper'mum canaden'se Linné. Rhizome about 1000 mm. (40 in.) or
more long, and 6 mm. († in.) thick; externally dark yellowish-brown,
knotty, and longitudinally wrinkled; fracture woody and tough; nearly
1
3
a
G
FIG. 17. Anamirta cocculus-Flowering branch. a. Fruit.
b. Section of same.
inodorous; taste bitter Rootlets thin, brittle, yellow. A cross-section
of the rhizome displays a thick bark and a yellowish interior. Under the
microscope are seen numerous wood-wedges separated by narrow
medullary rays; at the extremity of each wood-ray there appears a semi-
lunar bundle, which on longitudinal section proves to be composed of bast
fibers penetrating the bark. The diameter of the pith varies, not infre-
quently occupying one-third of the space between the bark. The over-
ground stem, with which the drug is not infrequently mixed, has a very
large, porous pith. Constituents: Berberine (yellow) in small amount,
and mênispine (white), the principal constituents, with resin, tannin, and
starch. (Maisale.) Alterative, tonic, diuretic, and laxative; said to resem-
100
BERBERIDACEÆ.
ble sarsaparilla in its action. The root was introduced into the market
as Texas sarsaparilla. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
Fluidextractum Menispermi
(U. S. P. 1890)
Dose: 5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
25. COCCULUS.-FISH BERRIES. Coc'culus In'dicus. The fruit of Ana-
mirta cocculus Wight and Arnott. Obtained from a climbing shrub in
Eastern India, native of Malabar coast. The berries are ovoid, kidney-
shaped, and about the size of a large pea, with an obscure ridge around
the convex back. Externally wrinkled and blackish-brown in color. The
endocarp is white, and extends from the concave side deeply into the
interior. The seed is semilunar, oily, very bitter, but the pericarp is
tasteless. The chief constituent is picrotoxin.
Preparation of Picrotoxin.-To aqueous extract add MgO; treat this with
hot alcohol. Evaporate and collect the deposited picrotoxin.
Locally employed in cutaneous affections. The decoction (or tincture
added to water, 1 to 4) is used as an insecticide in head lice. Picrotoxin
is an acrid narcotic poison; in its action on the secretions it is said to
resemble pilocarpine. The berries have been used from ancient times for
stupefying and capturing fish, but "this unsportsmanlike method of fishing
in some parts of the country is now illegal.'
Cocculus indicus has been sometimes confounded with the fruit of the
Laurus nobilis, commonly known as bayberry. The latter is, however,
generally larger, distinctly oval in form, and the seeds lie loose within and
fill the cavity of the fruit. The seed of the bayberry has an agreeable
aromatic taste.
BERBERIDACEAE.-Barberry Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees with watery juice. A peculiarity of the leaves in the
principal genus of the order suggests the name barberry; these are usually
beset with spiny teeth, occasionally reduced to simple or branching spines
(barbs). Inflorescence various; solitary (Podophyllum), in racemes (Berberis),
panicles, cymes, or spikes. Flowers greenish (Caulophyllum) or white with
outer greenish bractlets (Podophyllum); fruit a berry or capsule (sometimes
edible-May apple).
Synopsis of Drugs from the Berberidacea.
A. Rhizomes.
Caulophyllum, 26.
PODOPHYLLUM, 27.
Jeffersonia, 28.
3
B. Roots.
Berberis Radix, 29.
BERBERIS, 31.
C. Bark.
Berberis cortex, 30.
26. CAULOPHYLLUM.-SQUAW ROOT. BLUE COHOSH. The rhizome and
roots of Caulophyl'lum thalictroi'des Linné. Off. in U. S. P. 1890.
Rhizome crooked, of horizontal growth, about 100 mm. (4 in.) long, and
6 to 8 mm. ( to in.) thick; on the upper side are broad cup-shaped
scars and short bent branches having concave terminations; it is beset
with numerous tough and wiry light-brown rootlets matted together.
Externally of a dull brown color, internally whitish, with numerous
narrow wood-wedges, sometimes in two circles, inclosing a large pith.
The rootlets have a much thicker bark and a thick central woody cord.
Nearly inodorous; taste slightly sweetish and somewhat acrid. (Highly
magnified starch grains of caulophyllum, see Fig. 372.) Constituents:
Resins, 12 per cent., tannin, starch, gum, etc. The existence of an alka-

PODOPHYLLUM.
ΙΟΙ
loid, caulophylline, has been shown by J. U. Lloyd; this is colorless,
odorless, and almost tasteless, is not precipitated by alkalies, and crystal-
lizes with difficulty; many of its characteristics make it appear as a
proximate principle belonging to a new class of bodies about which little
is known.
Preparation of Caulophyllin.-Concentrate alcoholic tincture and add this to
a large volume of water. Collect precipitate and dry in current of warm air.
Caulophylline.-Extract drug with 60 per cent. alcohol. Evaporate tincture
to a semi-solid. Add ferric hydrate and sodium bicarbonate to this residue
and extract the mixture with chloroform. The principle remains on the evap-
oration of the solvent. Emmenagogue, diuretic, and antispasmodic; it has some
reputation in the treatment of rheumatism and as an expectorant in bronchitis.
Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
A
B
D
E
FIG. 18.-Caulophyllum-Cross-section of rhizome. A. Epidermis. B. Parenchymatous tissue.
C. Phloem portion of bundle. D, F. Medullary rays. E. Xylem portion of bundle.
27. PODOPHYLLUM.-PODOPHYLLUM.
MAY APPLE. MANDRAKE.
Ger. FUSSBLATTWURZEL.
The dry rhizome of Podophyl'lum pelta'tum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Leaf 7-9-lobed; peltate. Flowering stem bear-
ing two one-sided leaves with the stalk thickest near their inner edge.
Flower large, white, nodding. Fruit ovoid, slightly acid, edible.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Rhizome 300 mm. (12 in.) or more long and
5 mm. (in.) thick, jointed, consisting of nodes and internodes, the
length of the internodes being about 50 mm. (2 in.). The rhizome
is very much thickened at the nodes, where it is sometimes
branched laterally, each node having a circular scar on the
upper side and about six to ten small brittle rootlets below or
scars from broken rootlets; externally smooth, slightly wrinkled
longitudinally, of an orange-brown color; fracture short, white and
starchy, showing a rather thick bark, and from sixteen to thirty
vascular bundles encircling a broad pith; the parenchyma con-
tains chiefly starch. Odor faint and characteristic; taste sweetish,
slightly acrid, and quite bitter.
102
BERBERIDACEÆ.
Powder. Light brown. Characteristic elements: Starch grains, spheroidal,
simple, 2 to 4 compound or aggregate (5 to 12 u in diam.); parenchyma of cortex,
large (35 to 40 by 80 to 200 µ in diam.), thick-walled; occasional large aggre-
gate crystals of calcium oxalate; ducts variously marked with spiral, sca-
lariform, reticulate, or simple pores; cork, small amount (30 to 40 μ in diam.).
(Highly magnified starch grains, see Fig. 376.)
Preparation of Podophyllin.-Composed of several resinous principles sepa-
rable by solvents. Ether dissolves out a resin of bright yellow color, leaving
FIG. 19.-Podophyllum pellatum-Plant and rhizome.
a brown, odorless resin of little more prompt activity. A concentrated tinc-
ture is precipitated by water containing HCl. (See U. S P., page 379; Resina
Podophylli.) The precipitate is collected and dried.
Podophyllin is not found to any extent in the fresh drug, according to Loh-
man. It is developed to the fullest extent only by storage.
CONSTITUENTS.-Resins associated with other common vegetable princi-
ples; podophyllin (Resina podophylli, U. S. P.) 4 to 6 per cent.,
together with amorphous and crystalline principles. Later inves-
tigations have given prominence to the following: Podophyllotoxin,

PODOPHYLLUM.
103
C15H1O8 (white crystals), converted by hydration into podophyllic
acid, C15H1607; picropodophyllin, isomeric with podophyllotoxin
A
B
C
FIG. 20.-Podophyllum. Cross-section of rhizome. (15 diam.) A, Vascular bundle. B, Parenchyma
of cortex. C, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.)
A
B
FIG. 21.-Podophyllum. Cross-section of rootlet. (25 diam.) A, Cortex. B, Xylem. (Photomicro-
graph.)
(inert); quercetin, yellow needles; podophylloresin (purgative).
Some authorities state that the purgative principle is closely related
to emodin. (See Rhamnus purshiana.)
104
BERBERIDACEÆ.
ACTION AND USES.-Classed usually with the drastic cathartics. Dose:
10 to 20 gr. (0.6 to 1.3 Gm.). Podophyllin is an irritant to the
mucous membrane; in small doses an active cathartic, having reputed
cholagogue properties, hence the name "vegetable calomel." Dose:
as a laxativegr. (0.006 Gm.), as a purgative gr. (0.016 Gm.).
There is a remarkable difference shown in the medicinal activity of
podophyllin, whether precipitated by water alone, whether by acidu-
lated water (U. S. P. process), or by solution of alum. H. J. Loh-
man points out the fact that it is not safe to give a larger dose than
PD
Cryst
Staroh
RV.PV
PAR
W.F
ST
Cryst, Crystals of calcium oxalate. Ck, Corky tissue, side
RV, PV, Reticulated and pitted ducts. Tr, Tracheids.
or bast fibers. Par., Parenchyma in longitudinal view.
FIG. 22.-Podophyllum in powder. Starch.
view. PD., Duct with bordered pores.
SV, Spiral vessels. W. F., Wood fibers
P., Parenchyma in cross-section.—(After Jelliffe.)
1
1 of a grain of the resin obtained by the first process, to of a
grain may be given of the product of the second process, and from 1
to grains of that of the third process-a subject worthy of further
study.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Podophylli, ...Dose: 5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
Resina Podophylli, .
to gr. (0.0081 to 0.0324 Gm.).
28. JEFFERSOʻNIA DIPHYL’LA Persoon.—TWIN-LEAF. (Rhizome.) Has
properties somewhat similar to senega; it is also diuretic, alterative, and
antispasmodic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
29. BERBERIS RADIX.—BARBERRY ROOT. The root of Ber'beris vulga'ris
Linné. Habitat: Europe, Western Asia, and North America. Thick,
much-branched, from 25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) in diameter in the thickest
part; wood light yellowish, hard, tough, with a very thin bark (see Barberry
Bark below); odor slightly aromatic; taste bitter. It contains five alka-
loids, of which berberine is the most interesting. Used as a tonic in doses
of 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
30. BERBERIS CORTEX.-BARBERRY BARK. The bark of the above root,
coming in long, thin pieces, exfoliating, or separating into thin layers;
outer surface yellowish-gray; inner surface bright yellow. It contains the
same alkaloids as the root, but in greater proportion. This species is the

BERBERIS.
105
host plant for the common wheat rust (Puccinia graminis) in its accidio
stage. The leaves when parasiticized by this fungus seem to be covered
with yellow spots, the openings of the cups in which the spores are borne.
Dose: 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6 Gm.).
31. BERBERIS.
BERBERIS. (OREGON GRAPE.)
The dry rhizome and roots of Ber'beris aquifo'lium Pursh, growing in the Rocky
Mountains and westward.
In more or less knotty irregular pieces of varying length and from
3 to 50 mm. in diameter; bark from 0.5 to 2 mm. thick; wood yel-
lowish, distinctly radiate, with narrow medullary rays, hard and
tough; rhizome with a small pith; odor distinct; taste bitterish
A
B
C
D
FIG. 23.-Berberis Aquifolium. Cross-section of rhizome. (22 diam.) A Cork. B, Group of bast
fibers. C, Medullary ray. D, Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
CONSTITUENTS.-Contains three alkaloids,
berbamine; the two latter are white.
in doses of 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
berberine, oxycanthine and
Used as a tonic and alterative
(Fluidextractum U. S. P. 1900.)
106
NYMPHÆÆ PAPAVERACEÆ.
NYMPHÆÆ.-Water Lily Family.
Aquatic plants, with peltate or cordate leaves from a prostrate rhizome.
32. NYMPHÆA.—WATER LILY. The rhizome of Nymphæ'a odora'ta Aiton
Habitat: United States, in ponds. About 500 mm. (20 in.) long and 50
mm. (2 in.) thick, usually broken up into grayish, spongy segments, con-
sisting mainly of parenchyma, with a few scattered wood-bundles. In-
odorous; taste mucilaginous and astringent. Used as a demulcent and
astringent. Dose, 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
The rhizome of Nu'phar ad'vena Nuttall, Yellow Pond Lily, has similar
properties and uses.
SARRACENIACEÆ.-Pitcher-plant Family.
33. SARRACE/NIA FLA'VA and S. PURPU'REA Linné.-The curious
pitcher-plant, fly-trap, or side-saddle plant of our Southern States, where
their rhizomes are much used in dyspepsia. They are tonic and diuretic.
Dose, 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
PAPAVERACEÆ.-Poppy Family.
Herbs with milky, narcotic juice. Leaves alternate. Flowers large, with
caducous calyx. Ovary one-celled, with parietal placentæ. The genus Papa-
ver, a description of which is given under Opium, is typical of the order. See
also illustrations below.
งว
مخيمات البلاك
.....
FIG. 24.-Transverse section of
flower of Poppy.
FIG. 25.-Gynecium
of Poppy, with one
stamen remaining.
FIG. 26.-Transverse section
of ovary of Poppy.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Papaveracea.
A. Concrete Juice.
OPIUM, 34.
B. Capsule.
Papaver, 35.
C.
Seed, and Fixed Oil.
Papaver, 36.
D. Herbs.
Chelidonium, 37:
Eschscholtzia, 38.
E. Rhizome.
SANGUINARIA, 39.
F. Flower-petals.
Rhoas, 40.
OPIUM.
107
OPIUM.
34. OPIUM.-OPIUM.
Ger. MOHNSAFT.
The concrete milky exudation obtained by incising the unripe capsules of Papa'ver
somnif'erum Linné. Containing not less than 9 per cent. of Morphine.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Leaves large, sessile, wavy, cut, or toothed;
flowers large and terminal, drooping before expansion; petals 4, large,
roundish, white or purplish with a darker colored spot near the claws;
FIG. 27.-Papaver Somniferum-Flowering branch and fruit.
stigmas 4 to 20, radiating, sessile upon the disk, which covers the ovary
Capsule obovate, 1-celled; placenta extended so as to almost divide the
cavity into several cells; dehiscence by small chinks or pores beneath tle
crown formed by the radiating stigmas; seeds numerous, reniform.
SOURCE.—Western Asia; cultivated in the elevated plains of India, in
Egypt, Persia, Asia Minor, and in some parts of Europe. Varieties:
108
PAPAVERACEÆ.
(1) Smyrna, Levant, Turkey, or Constantinople; opium generally in
flattish masses-the most abundant in the market, to which descrip-
tions in text-books usually apply; (2) Egyptian, in flattened, round-
ish cakes; (3) Persian, in cylindrical sticks or cakes of a black color;
(4) Indian, in flat squares, covered with layers of mica, and further
protected by a coating of wax or an oiled-paper wrapper; (5) Chinese,
in flat, globular cakes; (6) European.
A so-called Boston opium entered the American market a few years
ago; this was really a sophisticated article. Its morphine strength
was at the lowest point which would enable it to pass through the
United States Custom House, and yet to have the physical appearance
of high-grade opium.
Factitious opium has occasionally been met with, of soft consistence,
blackish-brown color, less odorous than the genuine. It is probably
an aqueous extract of the poppy plant.
Bonato states that opium is often adulterated with the aqueous
extract of the capsules and seeds of Ruta silvestris; fresh poppy petals
are also pulped and mixed with it.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In irregular or subglobular lumps weigh-
ing from four ounces to two pounds, enveloped in remnants of
poppy leaves and with chaffy fruits of a species of Rumex adhering;
when fresh it is plastic, breaking or tearing apart, showing an
irregular, chestnut-brown surface, shining when rubbed; odor pecu-
liar, narcotic; taste bitter. When examined with a pocket lens, it is
seen to be composed of yellowish, agglutinated tears. The value
of the gum, however, is determined only by assay. Opium should
yield not less than 9 per cent.; powdered opium not less than 12, nor
more than 12.5 per cent., of crystallized morphine when assayed by
the official process.
Granulated opium, or coarsely powdered opium, is an article of
commerce, and is especially recommended as a form of the drug best
adapted to the preparation of the tinctures. A tincture made of
opium in this condition is said to have a greater morphine strength
than that made by the official process.
Powder. Grayish brown. Characteristic elements: Fibro-vascular tissue
absent; epidermal cells of capsule (40 in diam.), with scattered, brownish,
irregular, granular masses.
ADULTERATIONS. To increase the weight various articles are used,
such as sand, clay, scrapings of poppy capsules, and various muci-
laginous, albuminous, and saccharine matters. The writer has taken.
from the interior of about a two-pound lump of opium over a quarter
of a pound of lead bullets.
OPIUM.
109
CONSTITUENTS.-Opium contains a mixture of sixteen or more different
alkaloids, with meconic acid, coloring matters, and various inert
substances. The principal constituents are the following alkaloids:
Morphine, C₁7H19NO3 + H₂O; codeine, C18H21NO3 + H₂O (both
official); narcotine, narceine, paramorphine, papaverine, meconidine,
pseudomorphine, codamine, laudanine, and oxynarcotine; these are
in combination with meconic and thebolactic acids.
Preparation of Morphine.-To the concentrated infusion of opium add three
volumes of a mixture composed of one part of alcohol, two volumes of ether,
and one-third volume of ammonia; shake, and set aside for crystals to form.
Preparation of Codeine.—The mother liquor, from which morphine has sepa-
rated, yields crude codeine on evaporation. Obtained artificially by heating
morphine with methyl iodide and soda or potassa.
Preparation of Narceine.-The concentrated infusion of opium is shaken
with ether. This removes narcotine. If alkali be added in excess, codeine is
deposited. From the filtrate morphine can be crystallized, and from the mother
liquor narceine may be obtained upon evaporation.
Preparation of Meconic Acid.—Add CaCl, to an infusion of opium, which pre-
cipitates calcium meconate; decompose the latter by dilute HCl at 180° F. This
deposits the calcium bimeconate, which is dissolved in warm concentrated HC1,
from which the pure meconic acid deposits in cooling.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic, and
intoxicant. It restrains the movements and checks the secretions of
the stomach and intestinal canal. The dominant action of opium,
however, is upon the brain, first producing mental and emotional
exhilaration, then hypnotic depression. It is a powerful respira-
tory depressant, death usually resulting from paralysis of the respira-
tory center in the medulla. Toxic doses, also, finally paralyze both
the heart and vagi, and produce a rapid and feeble pulse. While the
effects are due to the morphine present, the drug is not fully repre-
sented by this alkaloid. Codeine is also hypnotic, but affects the
cerebrum less. Narcotine is antiperiodic. Thebaine is sudorific and
excitant. Dose of opium: 1 to 2 gr. (0.065 to 0.13 Gm.).
ANTIDOTES.-Emetics, apomorphine subcutaneously injected, strong
coffee and stimulants, evacuation by mechanical means (stomach-
pump, etc.), or rousing and walking the patient. Atropine is the
physiological antagonist.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Opii Pulvis (12 to 12.5 per cent.
Morphine),
Acetum Opii (10 per cent)
Extractum Opii (20 per cent. Mor-
phine),...
Emplastrum Opii (6 per cent.
extract Opium).
Opium Deodoratum (12 to 12.5
per cent. Morphine), . .
Pilulæ Opii (1 gr. in each pill), . . .
Dose:
to 2 gr. (0.016 to 0.13 Gm.).
3 to 10 m (0.2 to 0.6 Cc.).
to 1 gr. (0.016 to 0.065 Gm.).
} to 2 gr. (0.016 to 0.13 Gm.).
1 to 2 pills.
IIO
PAPAVERACEÆ.
Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ et Opii (1
gr. Opium and 1 gr. Ipecac in
every 10 gr.),
Tinctura Opii (10 per cent.), .
Tinctura Opii Camphorata (Opi-
um, Camphor, Benzoic Acid, and
Oil of Anise, each o.4 per cent.),.
Tinctura Opii Deodorati (10 per
cent.),.
Tinctura Ipecacuanha et Opii
(1 gr. Opium and 1 gr. of Ipe-
cac in every 10 m),..
Trochisci Glycyrrhizæ et Opii
(each troche containing about re
gr. of Opium),
Vinum Opii (10 per cent.), -
Alkaloids:
Morphina,
Morphine Acetas,
Morphine Hydrochloras,
Morphinæ Sulphas,
Codeina,
2
Preparations containing Morphine
Sulphate:
Pulvis Morphinæ Compositus (1.5
Gm. in 100, with Glycyrrhiza,
Camphor, and Precipitated Chalk),
5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
5 to 10 m (0.3 to 0.6 Cc.).
I to 3 troches.
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
to gr. (0.008 to 0.032 Gm.).
to
gr. (0.008 to 0.032 Gm.).
to
gr. (0.008 to 0.032 Gm.).
to
gr. (0.008 to 0.032 Gm.).
1 to 2 gr. (0.016 to 0.13 Gm.).
5 to 10 gr. (o 3 to 0.6 Gm.).
35. PAPAVER.-POPPY CAPSULES. The nearly ripe capsules, free from seeds,
of Papa'ver somnif'erum Linné. There are two varieties, distinguished
by the color of their seeds. The white poppy is usually considered the
true opium plant; its capsule is smooth, of various shapes, but usually
subglobular and somewhat flattened at the extremities; it is of a gray
or a light yellowish-brown color, 50 to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) in diameter,
crowned with the sessile stigmas arranged in a circle; placenta parietal,
projecting toward the center; odor slight; taste bitter.
CONSTITUENTS.-Morphine, codeine, narcotine, narceine, papaverosine,
and rhœadine, united with organic acids, of which meconic is the most
important.
ACTION AND USES.-Hypnotic and sedative in syrup or extract; local
anodyne in decoction. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
Seed.
36. PAPAVERIS SEMEN.-Poppy SEED. MAW SEED. The seed of Papa'-
ver somnif'erum, remarkable for containing so large a per cent. of fixed
oil, which is very useful in the arts, and is also demulcent and anodyne.
The seeds are less than a millimeter in length, kidney-shaped, with the
surface regularly pitted, giving them a beautiful appearance under a lens.
There is a black-seeded and a white-seeded variety under cultivation.
Fifty per cent. of oil is obtained from the seeds by warm and 30 per
cent. by cold pressure. It is pale yellow, with a bland and slightly sweetish
taste, totally destitute of narcotic properties. Poppy-seed oil is used for
salads, paints, soaps, illumination, and to adulterate olive and almond
oils.
37. CHELIDONIUM.-Celandine.
The entire plant of Chelido'nium ma'jus
Linné. Off. in U. S. P. 1890. Stem hairy, arising from a reddish-brown,
branching root, and bearing light green, lyrate-pinnatifid leaves about 200
mm. (8 in.) long; odor slight; taste acrid. Cathartic, diuretic, diaphoretic,
and expectorant. In certain sections it is used in the treatment of jaundice.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
Alkaloids and Principles of Chelidonium and Allied Plants.-Important re-
searches of J. O. Schlotterbeck have shown that chelerythrine, yielding lemon-
SANGUINARIA.
III
colored salts, exists also as a prominent alkaloid in sanguinaria and other plants
of the same family. Protopine, CH₁NO5, a frequently occurring alkaloid in
the poppy family, occurs also in the plants of the fumariaceæ. In physical
properties protopine agrees, in every particular, with fumarine. Protopine has
been found in Papaver somniferum, Eschcholtzia californica, Sanguinaria cana-
densis, Stylophorum diphyllum, and Adlumium cirrhosa; it constitutes two-
thirds of the entire alkaloidal content of Bocconia cordata. ("Proc. Amer.
Phar.," 1900, p. 131.) Wintgen found the constituent, chelidonine, to be
C20H10NO59 + H2O. Schlotterbeck finds its more exact formula as, C20H18(OH)-
NO + H₂O. ("Proc. Am. Ph.," 1903, p. 321.) It occurs in colorless mono-
clinic prisms, melting at 135° to 136° C. The coloring-matter, known as chelido-
xanthin, found in chelidonium and stylophorum diphyllum, has been found to
be identical with the alkaloid berberine. ("Pharm. Rev.," Jan., 1902, pp
4, 5.)
38. ESCHSCHOLTZIA
CALIFORNICA Chamisso. (Herb.) A valuable
calmative, soporific, and analgesic, “free from the disadvantages of opium."
Dose of alcoholic extract: 10 gr. (0.6 Gm.), gradually increased to 3 dr.
(12 Gm.) in a day.
39. SANGUINARIA. SANGUINARIA.
BLOOD ROOT.
Ger. BLUTWURZEL.
The rhizome of Sanguina'ria canaden'sis Linné, dried after death of foliage.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.→A low perennial, common in rich woods, hav-
ing a thick, prostrate root-stock, surcharged with an orange-red, acrid
juice, and sending up in earliest spring a rounded, palmately-lobed leaf and
a one-flowered naked scape. Flower white, handsome; sepals 2; petals
8 to 12; stamens about 24; style short; stigma two-grooved; pod oblong,
turgid, one-celled
HABITAT.-Rich woods of North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—A horizontal cylindrical rhizome about 50 mm.
(2 in.) long and 10 mm. (in.) thick, slightly tapering and
branched; externally reddish-brown, rough, wrinkled, and annu-
late; internally spongy, dotted with small resin cells of a
ruby color. The color of a cut surface varies from a light to a
very dark red, and presents a glossy, dotted appearance; bark thin,
with resin cells scattered in the parenchyma; frequently the trans-
verse surface shows either a uniform dark blood-red color, or a whit-
ish, starchy surface scattered with numerous red dots; odor slight;
taste bitter and acrid; the powder is sternutatory. The infusion
of the drug becomes blood-red with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.
Powder.-Brownish-red. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex
with thin, reddish-brown walls and starch grains, 4 to 15 . Reddish-brown
laticiferous ducts (secreting cells) with reddish-brown contents; ducts reticulate
and spiral; cork cells containing dark brown resin.
ADULTERATION.-E. M. Holmes calls attention to an adulteration of
Ielionas rhizome (550), false unicorn, a rather expensive admixture
II2
PAPAVERACEÆ.
amounting, in one case, to 40 per cent. This root has a different
transverse surface, being of a dirty white hue and horny texture, and
exhibits a well-defined central column, occupying about one-third
of the diameter, and containing irregularly placed vascular bundles.
CONSTITUENTS.-Sanguinarine, C20H15NO2, a colorless alkaloid
yielding red salts, chelerythrine yielding lemon-yellow salts, homo-
chelidonine, and protopine. See Alkaloids, under Chelidonum.
Schlotterbeck ("Proc. Amer. Pharm. Asso.," 1900, p. 250) states:
"A careful analysis of sanguinaria shows that instead of getting a
1
1
1
2
FIG. 28.-Sanguinaria canadensis-Plant and rhizome.
large percentage of sanguinarine, as the rhizome should yield, scarcely
1 per cent. was obtained." He believes that "the name Sanguinarine
should be applied to the predominating alkaloid, to the one that
forms yellow salts. Sanguinarine nitrate is becoming recognized
more and more by the medical profession as a remedy in respiratory
disorders and throat troubles."
Preparation of Sanguinarine.—Treat infusion of the powdered rhizome with
dilute HCl or acetic acid, add NH,OH, collect precipitate, redissolve in alco-
hol, decolorize, and evaporate. It is white, soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene;
yields bright red salts of an acrid taste.

FUMARIACEÆ.
113
ACTION AND USES.-An acrid emetic, stimulant, narcotic.
narcotic. It is also
expectorant, used in chronic bronchitis and in advanced stages of the
acute disease. Dose: Expectorant, 0.2 Gm. (3 gr.); emetic, 1 Gm.
(15 gr.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Sanguinariæ, ....... Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
Tinctura Sanguinariæ (10 per cent.),.. 15 to 30 m (1 to 2 Cc.).
40. RHOEAS.-RED POPPY. The petals of Papa'ver rhoe'as Linné, the red or
corn poppy of our gardens, growing abundantly as a wild plant in Europe.
Nearly round, 50 mm. (2 in.) broad, contracted below into a short blackish
claw; when fresh, they are of a scarlet-red color, but become brownish-
purple on drying, and have an opium-like odor and a somewhat bitter
FIG. 29.-Sanguinaria. a. Wood-bundle. b. Pith.
taste. All parts of the plant contain the alkaloid rhoadine, which produces
interesting reactions with acid and alkalies. It does not appear to be
poisonous. Acid solutions produce a purple color, which disappears when
neutralized. One part of the alkaloid produces a deep purple with 10,000
parts of water, rose with 20,000, and a perceptible redness with 800,000
parts. According to Hesse, the milky juice also contains meconic acid.
Red poppy is a weak and uncertain opiate; used in pharmacy almost
wholly in the fresh state for coloring preparations.
FUMARIACEÆ.-Fumitory Family.
Erect or climbing herbs with alternate leaves. Slightly bitter, innocent
plants. Bocconia cordata (= Macleya cordata), Tree Celandine, belongs to this
order (see Chelidonium). Yields protopine.
41. CORYDALIS.-TURKEY CORN. Tubers of Dicen'tra canaden'sis De
Candolle. Habitat: Canada and the mountains of the United States south
to Kentucky. Small, heavy, pebble-like tubers, often united, three
8
114
CRUCIFERÆ.
around a common center; of a dull yellowish to a dull black color, semi-
translucent; inodorous; bitter. They contain four alkaloids, the chief of
which is corydaline (C18H1NO,), four-sided prisms, inodorous, tasteless,
insoluble in water, soluble in ether, alcohol, and chloroform. This inter-
esting alkaloid has been found in other species of corydalis, as C. cava.
Preparation of Corydaline.—Treat the residue from evaporated tincture with
dilute HCl. Precipitate with ammonia and dissolve precipitate in boiling
alcohol; on evaporation of this solution four-sided prisms of the alkaloid are
deposited.
CRUCIFERÆ.-Mustard Family.
Herbs with pungent, watery juice; sepals and petals 4 each, cruciform ;
stamens 6, tetradynamous; capsule usually spuriously 2-celled; fruit a silique
or silicle.
A. Seeds.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Cruciferæ.
SINAPIS ALBA, 42.
SINAPIS NIGRA, 43.
B. Herb.
Bursa Pastoris, 44.
C. Root.
Armoracia, 45.
42. SINAPIS ALBA.
WHITE MUSTARD.
Ger. WEISSER SENF.
The seed of Sina'pis al'ba Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem 1 to 2 feet high, round, smooth. Leaves
lyrate-pinnatifid. Flowers yellow. Silique hispid. Seeds whitish, with
the embryo folded upon the surface of one of the cotyledons, which is also
folded so as to inclose it.
FIG. 30.-Diagram of a flower of
the Crucifera.
FIG. 31. The embryo of Brassica
pumias orientalis.
HABITAT.—Asia and Southern Europe; cultivated.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The principal difference between this and
black mustard is that of color and size, being 1 to 2 mm. in diam.,
of a yellowish color, and less pungent. The oily embryo con-
sists of a curved caudicle and two cotyledons, one folded over
the other. Both the black and white seeds are practically free
from starch. Commercial ground mustard is an unctuous yellowish
SINAPIS ALBA-SINAPIS NIGRA.
115
powder which cakes on pressure; it is usually a mixture of the ground
white mustard (dull yellow) and the black mustard (yellowish-green).
The mixture is, however, often rendered brighter by the addition of
turmeric; when this is the case, it will respond to the test for starch,
and will acquire a red-brown color with a solution of borax or
boric acid. The "limit of starch" test of the U. S. P., page 394, will
betray dilution with starchy substances. Moistened with water the
powder quickly develops a pungent odor.
Powder.-Light yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Starch, some-
times in small amounts; epidermal cells large, thin, with mucilaginous walls;
endosperm cells, thin-walled, with fat and proteid; sclerenchyma consisting of
stone cells from inner layer of seed coat.
CONSTITUENTS OF BLACK AND WHITE MUSTARD.-Both contain a fixed
oil, 22 to 23 per cent.; mucilage about 19 per cent. Both seeds
contain the ferment myrosin, the white having usually the larger
quantity. The quantity of myrosin in these seeds is quite variable,
sometimes being as low as 2 per cent., then as high as 18 per cent.
A glucoside exists in the white mustard, sinalbin (C30H44N2S2O18),
which, decomposed by myrosin, yields glucose, sinapine sulphate, and
a fixed oil, which is the sulphocyanate of acrinyl, and is found to be
identical with para oxyphenylacetic acid. H. Salkowski manufactured
this principle synthetically. The black mustard contains sinigrin
(C10H18KNS2O10), which yields, when decomposed by the ferment.
myrosin, glucose, potassium sulphate, and a volatile oil, allyl iso-
thiocyanate (CS: N.C,H), the common mustard oil.
Preparation of Sinalbin.-Extract powdered white mustard with benzene
(CH) to remove oil. Treat the dried dregs with four times its weight of boiling
alcohol. Filter the alcoholic liquid while hot. On standing in a cool place
the liquid deposits crystals of sinalbin.
Preparation of Sinigrin.-Oil is removed, as in the case of sinalbin. The
oil cake is then boiled in alcohol and evaporated to dryness. Repowder and
extract with cold water. Treat the resulting liquid with barium carbonate and
evaporate on a waterbath to dryness. Extract the residue with strong boiling
alcohol and filter while hot. Ön cooling and standing the solution deposits
silky needles of sinigrin, or potassium myronate.
ACTION AND USES.-Same as Sinapis Nigra. Average dose: 2 dr. (8
Gm.).
43. SINAPIS NIGRA.
Ger. SCHWARZER SENF.
BLACK MUSTARD.
The ripe seed of Bras'sica ni'gra Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Similar to S. alba (see above), but has larger
flowers, a longer hispid silique, and a smaller blackish seed.
116
CRUCIFERÆ.
1
HABITAT.—Asia and Southern Europe; cultivated. ·
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A globular seed about 1 mm. (in.) in
diameter, with a circular hilum and a short beak not filled with albu-
men; testa hard, black, or reddish-brown, finely pitted. The yel-
low embryo and cotyledons are folded and bent along the midrib.
Inodorous when dry, but pungent and penetrating when moist;
taste hot, acrid. (For limit of starch, see U. S. P., page 394.)
Powder.-Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Similar to white mus-
tard; collenchymatous cells wanting; stone cells smaller than white mustard;
FIG. 32.-Sinapis nigra—Branch.
endosperm yellow with KOH.
The same reagent to white mus-
tard gives orange color.
ACTION AND USES.-Extern-
ally a powerful rube-
facient and counter-
irritant, internally em-
etic, especially valuable
in cases of poisoning by
narcotics from its reflex
stimulation of the heart
and respiration. Dose:
I to 4 dr. (4 to 15 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Charta Sinapis.
Oleum Sinapis Volatile.
(Used in counter-irritant
liniments.) Extremely
pungent and volatile.
43 a. OLEUM SINAPIS EX-
PRESSUM (Unofficial).-
Crushed seeds of the black
and white mustard yield,
by cold expression, about
22 per cent. of a bright
yellow (white) or brownish-
yellow (black) oil, of a
bland taste. This oil is
a commercial oil and not infrequently used for the adulteration of
other oils. Rapeseed, or colza, oil is obtained from the seeds of different
varieties of the genus Brassica, rape (Brassica napus) in particular. In
Europe the term rapeseed oil is sometimes applied to the product of rape
alone, colza being restricted to the oil obtained from the ruta-baga, or
Swedish turnip (B. campestris), while "Rubsen" oil is furnished by the
common turnip (B. rapa). There is great confusion among authors in
the use both of the common names of the oils and the scientific names of
the varieties of Brassica which produce them. The seeds of rape contain
from 33 to 43 per cent. of oil, which, when crude, is a dark yellow-brown
and used for lubricating. Refined and freed from albumen and mucilage
the oil becomes bright yellow. Rape oil is extensively used for lamps,
lubricating machinery, and for adulterating both almond and olive oils.
CISTINEÆ-CANELLACEÆ.
117
44. BURSA PASTO'RIS.-Shepherd's PURSE. The herb of Capsel'la bursa-
pastoris Moench, a small plant very common along our roadsides. It
derives its name from its inversely heart-shaped fruit in elongated racemes.
The small white flowers are in corymbose racemes. Nearly inodorous;
taste acrid, pungent, and bitter. Contains a little volatile oil of mustard.
An active diuretic, also tonic and stimulant. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
45. ARMORACIA.-HORSERADISH. The root of Cochlea'ria armora'cia
Linné. Indigenous to Europe, but cultivated in our gardens as a condi-
ment. A cylindrical root 300 mm. (12 in.) long, 12 to 25 mm. ( to 1 in.)
thick; externally pale yellowish-brown, warty; internally white; fracture
short; odor when crushed pungent; taste sharp and acrid. Contains a
volatile oil similar to oil of mustard. Used only in fresh state as a stimu-
lant to digestion, as a diuretic, and externally as a rubefacient. Dose:
1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
CISTINEÆ.-Rock-rose Family.
46. HELIANTHEMUM.—FROSTWORT. The herb of Helian'themum cana-
den'se Michaux. Habitat: North America. As found in commerce it
consists of broken branches or stems not longer than 1 to 1½ inches, mixed
with a few broken roots, crushed, woolly leaves, and, occasionally, yellow
petals; the stems are red-brown, thread-like, slightly pubescent, internally
whitish, with a very large pith; taste astringent and bitter. It contains a
bitter glucoside (?), soluble in water, alcohol, and benzol, and 11 per cent.
of tannin, with sugar and gum. Tonic, astringent, and alterative, in the
treatment of scrofulous diseases. Dose: 5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.).
VIOLARIEÆ.-Violet Family.
Herbs with alternate or radical leaves; corolla of 5 unequal petals, one being
spurred; stamens 5, connivent, alternate with the petals; fruit a 3-valved cap-
sule.
47. VIOLA TRICOLOR.-PANSY. HEART'S-EASE. The herb of Viola tri-
color Linné. Habitat: Europe, North America, and Northern Asia; cul-
tivated. The drug consists of the herbaceous upper portion of the plant,
including green leaves, straw-colored, broken stems, and the variegated
flowers. Odor slight, pleasant; taste somewhat bitter. It contains sali-
cylic acid 1 per cent., sugar, mucilage, a bitter principle, resin, and violin
(in small quantity). Mucilaginous, emollient; much used in Europe as an
alterative in skin diseases, especially eczema. Dose: to 2 dr. (2 to 8
Gm.).
CANELLACEÆ.
An order furnishing mostly aromatic trees.
48. CANELLA.-CANELLA. The bark of Canel'la al'ba Murray. A native
of Florida, West Indies, etc. In quills or broken pieces deprived of the
corky layer; outer surface orange-red, marked with small scars and de-
pressions; inner surface whitish; odor slight, aromatic; taste bitter and
very pungent and biting. It contains a reddish volatile oil (about 2 per
cent.), a portion of which is closely related to eugenol of oil of cloves, with
resin, ash, mannite, a bitter principle, cellulose, albumen, and starch.
Aromatic and stimulant, used as an adjuvant. The powder is used in
making "hiera picra," Pulv. aloes et canellæ, N. F (formerly official).
118
BIXINEÆ POLYGALEÆ.
49. CINNAMODENDRON.-The bark of Cinnamoden'dron cortico'sum
Miers. An aromatic bark from Jamaica, coming in curved or quilled
pieces. Odor cinnamon-like; taste bitter, biting, giving a suggestion of
canella, but this bark contains tannin, which canella does not. Used as an
aromatic stimulant. Enters commerce solely from the Bahamas, where it
is known as cinnamon bark, or as white wood bark.
BIXINEÆ.
Trees and shrubs with alternate simple leaves and regular, symmetrical
flowers. The fruits of some species are edible, and gums are obtained from a
few others.
50. GYNOCARDIA.—CHAULMOO'GRA. The seed of Gynocar'dia odora'ta
R. Brown. Habitat: Malayan Peninsula. Contains an acrid, whitish fat,
known in market as chaulmoogra oil, separated from the kernels by ex-
pression or by boiling water, then taken up by ether or chloroform, which,
when evaporated, leaves the oil almost pure. Gynocardic acid, a constit-
uent, is sometimes employed in medicine. "The oil is a very successful
remedy in eczema of the third stage." The oil is esteemed in India for the
treatment of all manner of skin diseases. Its unctuous smoothness has
been compared to that of goose-grease. Dose (of oil): 10 to 20 m (0.6 to
1.3 Cc.), in gelatin capsules or in emulsion.
51. ANNATO.—A coloring substance obtained from a tropical American tree,
Bix'a orella'na. The seeds steeped in water and allowed to ferment, and
this liquid evaporated to a paste, becomes the anna'to of commerce,
used as a cheese and butter color. By the natives the fragrant reddish
pulp of the seeds is used as an astringent in diarrhea. It is also used as a
dyestuff for silks and other fabrics.
POLYGALEÆ.-Milkwort Family.
Plants often with milky juice in roots, low herbs in temperate regions, with
leaves mostly simple, entire, dotted, exstipulate. Flowers irregular; sepals 5,
the two inner large, petaloid; petals 3, the anterior one larger. Properties:
generally bitter (polygala), acrid (senega), or astringent (krameria).
Synopsis of Drugs from the Polygalea.
A. Roots.
KRAMERIA, 52.
SENEGA, 53.
B. Herb.
Polygala, 54.
52. KRAMERIA.-KRAMERIA.
RHATANY.
Ger. RATANHAWURZEL.
The dried root of Krameʼria trian'dra Ruiz et Pavon, and of Krame'ria ixi'na
Linné and other undetermined species of Krameria. (Fam. Krameriacea―
U. S P. 1900.)
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A low, woody shrub, with grayish leaves and
red flowers. The flowers are solitary in the axils of the upper leaves,
short-stalked. The fruit is globular, leathery, indehiscent, about the size
of a pea, and covered with reddish-brown, hooked prickles.
KRAMERIA.
119
SOURCE.-Krameria triandra (Red rhatany) is a native of Peru, the com-
mercial supply being obtained from the southern provinces; abun-
dant about the cities of Huanucco and Lima; shipped from Paytu.
Krameria ixina (Savanilla or New Granada rhatany) is yielded
by several varieties, as K. tomentosa, St. Hil., an extremely woolly
form growing in Colombia, British Guiana, and Northern Brazil;
-|
FIG. 33. Krameria triandra-Flowering branch.
I
shipped from Carthagena, Santa Marta, etc. Para rhatany, described
by Berg, is said to be from K. argentea; grayish-brown color.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-From 10 to 30 mm. (to 1 in.) thick, knotty,
and with several thick heads above, and branches below, from which
emanate cylindrical roots about 6 to 12 mm. (toin.) thick and
from 100 to 400 mm. (4 to 16 in.) long. In commerce the more woody

120
A
B
POLYGALEE.
pieces, with short stumpy branches, constitute the largest pro-
portion; the bark is tough and fibrous, dark reddish-brown, scaly,
rugged, and about 1 to 2 mm. (2 to 12 in.) thick; the wood is hard
and compact, light reddish-brown in color, and when cut with a
knife, presents a shining surface, marked with concentric circles
and fine medullary rays. Inodorous; taste very astringent, the
bark more so than the wood. Krameria ixina (Savanilla rhatany)
is more slender and less knotty, dull purplish-brown, with smooth,
C
D
FIG. 34. Krameria triandra-Cross-section of root. (18 diam.)
closely adhering bark.
To distinguish the pow-
ders resulting from the
Peruvian and Savanilla
roots, shake with water
and reduced iron, filter,
and dilute with distilled
water. Peruvian powder
will give a dingy brown,
and the Savanilla a vislac-
eous, color. Lead acetate
with alcoholic tinctures
produces, with Peruvian,
red-brown; with Savanilla
and Para, a bluish-gray
or purple color and color-
less filtrate. Para rha-
A, Cork. B, Thin-walled parenchyma of cortex. C, Xym, tany, like Savanilla, be-
D, Medullary ray. (Photomicrograph.)
comes bluish-black when
immersed in solution of
ferrous sulphate. Peruvian variety becomes a dark green. This root
is peculiarly elastic.
Powder.-Deep red. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells of cortex
with reddish-brown coloring-matter; starch grains, 20 to 30 in diam., 1 to
4 compound; calcium oxalate in prisms and pyramids; sclerenchyma with few
short, thick-walled bast fibers. In Savanilla variety the sclerenchymatous fibers,
the parenchyma, bast, and ducts, are larger.
CONSTITUENTS.-Kramero-tannic acid (20 per cent.), rhatanin, and
rhatanic-red (a coloring matter). The tannic acid in a state of purity
is perfectly colorless, but accompanying it is phlobaphene, an ex-
tractive which gives its solutions a reddish-brown color. Gives a
dark green precipitate with ferric salts, a flesh-colored precipitate,
with gelatin, and none with tartar emetic. Extracts of krameria
should be made with cold water, the solution being evaporated
SENEGA.
12 I
at a low temperature. Boiling water extracts apotheme, the pres-
ence of which is a detriment to the astringent principle.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful astringent, with some tonic properties.
Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Krameriæ (20 per cent.), ...Dose:
Fluidextractum Krameriæ,
Syrupus Krameriæ (45 per cent. of
fl'ext.),
Extractum Krameriæ,
Trochisci Krameriæ (about 1 gr. of
ext. in each troche),
SENEKA.
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.).
5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
I or 2 troches.
53. SENEGA.-SENEGA.
SENEGA SNAKEROOT.
Ger. SENEGAWURZEL.
The dried root of Polyg'ala sen'ega Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stems several, from a thick and hard, knotty
root-stock; leaves lanceolate, with rough margins; calyx with 3 sepals,
small, greenish, and 2 larger (called wings), colored; flowers white, in a
solitary, close spike.
SOURCE.—Almost all parts of the United States east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. It is collected for market in Kentucky and in the states west
and southwest of it, and in Wisconsin, and in immense quantities.
in northern Minnesota. This latter variety is known as northern
senega. It is, as a rule, a larger root than the southern; the anatom-
ical and structural differences between the two roots are probably very
slight. Polygala alba, Nutt., inhabits Western Texas and Western
Kansas, but this variety of senega is not systematically collected for
the market as are the roots of Minnesota and Kentucky.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A contorted root, about 100 mm. (4 in.) long,
with a knotty crown bearing numerous remnants of scaly
leaves. The main root is from 5 to 10 mm. ( to in.) thick,
fleshy, but void of starch. It varies in color from a light yellow to
a dark brown externally; much-branched, the branches spreading,
tortuous, longitudinally wrinkled, annulate near upper end; bark
thickish, inclosing a porous, yellowish wood, but easily separable
from it; it consists of three layers, the inner one excessively devel-
oped on one side, forming a prominent cord or keel on
drying, fracture short when dry. Odor faint, sometimes winter-
green-like; taste sweetish, afterward acrid and nauseating. The
liquid preparations of it have a characteristic nauseous odor.
Powder.-Yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells 25
to 40 in diam.; many collenchymatous cells, with phloëm distributed through-
122
POLYGALEÆ.
1
out; stone cells few; ducts 10 to 30 μ in diam., with simple and bordered pits;
wood fibers short, porous; cork yellow 20 to 30 μ in diam.
CONSTITUENTS.—The acrid principles to which its medicinal action is
entirely due, are polygalic acid, C₁9H30O10, and senegin, C₁7H2010-
two homologues. The distinction between polygalic acid and senegin
26
i
FIG. 35-Polygala senega-Plant and rhizome.
is mainly one of solubility in alcohol (the former more soluble). Lead
acetate precipitates polygalic acid, but does not precipitate senegin.
The root also contains a fixed oil, and a small quantity of volatile oil,
which is a mixture of valerianic ether and methyl salicylate, resin,
malic acid, and sugar. Liquid preparations of senega are apt to become

FRANKENIACEÆ.
123
gelatinous, which is ascribed to the presence of pectin compounds;
but is very likely, at least in part, due to sapogenin, generated under
the influence of acids or other compounds; the jelly is rendered
soluble again on the addition of an alkali. The above proximate
principles are similar to the saponins.
ACTION AND USES.-A valuable stimulating expectorant, for which it is
generally used; also diuretic, and in large doses emetic and cathartic.
It affects the heart like digitalis. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
A
B
C
FIG. 36.-Senega-Cross-section of Root. (21 diam.) A, Xylem. B, Parenchyma of cortex. C, Cork
(Photomicrograph.)
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Senegæ,
Syrupus Senegæ (20 per cent. of fl'ext.),.
Syrupus Scillæ Compositus (Fl'ext.
senega 8 per cent., Fl'ext. squill 8 per
cent., Tartar emetic, o.2 per cent.)....
Dose: 10 to 30 my (0.6 to 2 Cc.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
10 to 60 m (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
A North Amer-
The bitter principle is easily ex-
54. POLYGALA RUBELLA Willdenow.-BITTER POLYGALA.
ican herb, used for its tonic properties.
tracted by water and alcohol.
FRANKENIACEAE.
55. FRANKENIA.-YERB'A REUM'A. (Herb.) A California plant, Frank-
en'ia grandiflo'ra Chamisso et Schlechtendal. A valuable topical applica-
tion in catarrhal affections, and in diseases of the mucous membranes
generally. Dose of fluidextract: 10 to 30 my (0.6 to 2 Cc.), diluted.
124
CARYOPHYLLEÆ-GUTTIFERÆ.
CARYOPHYLLEÆ.-Pink Family.
Herbs with swollen joints, opposite, entire, and regular flowers; petals 4 or 5
mostly removed from the calyx by a short internode. Usually bland herbs;
some are highly valued as ornamental plants.
56. SAPONARIA LEVANTICA.-LEVANT SOAPWORT. The root of Gyp'-
sophila panicula'ta Linné. Habitat: Italy to Asia Minor. A simple,
fusiform root, longitudinally wrinkled, and marked with transverse ridges;
used in washing silks and other fabrics. It contains sapotoxin (8.5 per
cent.), and the acrid glucoside saponin, yielding by hydrolysis sapogenin,
which is used as a detergent.
57. SAPONARIA.—SOAPWORT. Sapona'ria officina'lis Linné. An acrid root,
found in Europe and the United States; contains resin, and the gluco-
side, saponin. The latter is a white powder, soluble in hot water and
alcohol; its solution when shaken foams like soap-water. When treated
with acids it is split into sugar and a crystallizable principle, sapogenin,
soluble in water. Used as an alterative in doses of 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4
Gm.).
58. STELLARIA.-CHICKWEED.
The herb of Stella'ria me'dia Smith.
Demulcent and emollient; a poultice is used in ophthalmia, bruises, in-
flammation, etc.
PORTULACEA.-Purslane Family.
59. PORTULACA.-GARDEN PURSLANE. The herb of Portula'ca olera'cea
Linné. Refrigerant and mild efficient diuretic in ascites; it has a beneficial
action in catarrhal affections of the genito-urinary tract. Dose: 1 to 3 dr.
(4 to 12 Gm.).
HYPERICINEÆ.-St. John's-wort Family.
60. HYPERICUM.-ST. JOHN'S-WORT. The herb of Hype'ricum perfora'tum
Linné. Habitat: Europe, Asia, and North America. The drug as it
appears in market is composed of a mixture of oblong-ovate, pellucid-
punctate leaves, thread-like branches, and less slender, brittle stems, with
occasionally black-dotted flower petals, the whole having a greenish-
brown appearance. Constituents: Resin, tannin, and a red coloring
Üsed as a stimulant, diuretic, and astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr.
matter.
(2 to 4 Gm.).
GUTTIFERÆ.
Trees or shrubs with opposite or whorled coriaceous leaves; stamens indefi-
nite; stigmas sessile, radiant. Many species, like the gamboge, yield a yellow
juice; the seeds of others are oily. Among the edible fruits of the order is the
mangosteen, regarded as the most delicious fruit in the world.
61. CAMBOGIA.-GAMBOGE.
GAMBOGE.
Ger. GUMMIGUTT.
A gum-resin from Garcin'ia hanbu'rii Hooker filius.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The gamboge tree has dioecious flowers and a
foliage resembling that of laurel. Flowers yellow; male flowers in axillary
CAMBOGIA.
125
clusters, on short, one-flowered pedicels. Female flowers sessile. Fruit a
berry, about the size of a large cherry; reddish-brown, containing a sweet
pulp
HABITAT.-Anam, Camboja, Siam, and Cochin-China.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Lumps, or cylindrical sticks (pipes), 25
to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) in diameter, and 100 to 200 mm. (4 to 8 in.)
1-/4
FIG. 37.-Garcinia hanburii-Branch.
in length, striated lengthwise by impressions from the bamboo in
which it is collected. Externally, grayish-brown. It has a smooth,
conchoidal fracture of a waxy luster and orange-red in color.
The powder is bright yellow and sometimes adheres to the drug, giv-
ing it a yellow appearance. Taste at first mild, afterward very acrid;
odor irritating, sternutatory. The cake or lump gamboge is sold in
126
DIPTEROCARPEÆ.
masses weighing two or three pounds. It is less uniform, less brittle,
and is sometimes called "coarse gamboge." Adulterated specimens
are easily recognized by their general inferior appearance, by the grayish
or bronze appearance of a broken surface, and by giving a blue or
green color with iodine when starch is one of the impurities. Pure
gamboge is completely soluble by successive treatment with ether or
alcohol and then water.
CONSTITUENTS.-A bright yellow resin (gambogic acid) 73 per cent.,
soluble in alcohol and ether, turned to a red color by alkalies, and
black-brown by ferric chloride; gum 16 to 26 per cent., which, with
the resin and hot water, forms a yellow emulsion; wax 4 per cent. and
ash 1 per cent.
ACTION AND USES.-A drastic hydragogue cathartic, but so liable to
produce vomiting and griping that its action is usually modified by
combining it with other milder purgatives. Dose: to 5 gr. (0.0324
to 0.3 Gm.), generally in pill form.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Pilulæ Catharticæ Compositæ (about
0.015 Gm. of gamboge in each pill),..... Dose: 2 to 5 pills.
62. MANGOSTANA.-MANGO FRUIT. MANGOSTEEN. The pericarp of the
fruit of Garcin'ia mangosta'na Linné, of India. Astringent; used in
various diseases of the mucous membrane, in injections, etc. Mangostin
has been isolated from the pericarp. It is golden-yellow in color, crystal-
lizes in scales, soluble in alcohol and ether. The fruit yields a fatty oil,
concrete oil of mangosteen, called kokum butter, used in soap-making.
It is well adapted for pharmaceutical preparations and candle-making.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
TERNSTRŒMIACEÆ.-Tea or Camellia Family.
Trees or shrubs with simple, usually alternate, leaves, often fascicled at the
tops of the branches
63. THEA.-TEA. The leaves of Camel'lia the'a Link. Habitat: Southern
Asia; cultivated. From 25 to 75 mm. (1 to 3 in.) long, petiolate, acute at
both ends, irregularly serrate except at base, and with anastomosing veins
near the margin; bluish-green or blackish. The green color of tea is not
infrequently intensified by a mixture of Prussian-blue and gypsum. Odor
peculiar, taste bitter and astringent. Contains volatile oil and an alkaloid,
theine, which is analogous to, if not identical with, caffeine. Astringent,
tonic, stimulant, and nervine; one of the most valuable stimulating and
restorative agents.
DIPTEROCARPEÆ.
Trees often gigantic, exuding a resinous juice; rarely shrubs.
64. GURJUN.-GURJUN Balsam. WOOD-OIL. An oleoresin exuding from
Dipterocar'pus turbina'tus Gaertner, and other species of Dipterocarpus.
Habitat: India and the East Indies. A thick, viscid balsam with uses
ALTHÆA.
127
and properties similar to copaiba. Opaque, and grayish, greenish or
brownish in reflected light; transparent and reddish-brown or brown in
transmitted light; odor copaiba-like; taste bitter. It contains a volatile
oil, 40 to 70 per cent., which is similar to oil of copaiba in composition, and
produces a red or violet color with a drop of H₂SO, and HNO, mixed; also
gurjunic acid (crystalline), resin, and a bitter principle. Owing to its close
resemblance to copaiba it has been used in considerable quantities for the
purpose of adulterating the latter. The United States Pharmacopoeia gives
one of the many excellent tests for detecting its presence in this official
oleoresin.
65. BORNEO CAMPHOR.-SUMATRA CAMPHOR AND BORNEOL. A stear-
opten, or camphor, CiH18O, obtained in solid crystalline form from fis-
sures and cavities in a gigantic forest tree, Dryoba'lanops aroma'tica
Colebrook, growing in the Malay Archipelago. It occurs in masses some
pounds in weight. Differs from the ordinary camphor in having a higher
specific gravity (heavier than water) and in being less volatile. With nitric
acid it yields the Japan (laurel) camphor, C₁H10O.
MALVACEÆ.-Mallow Family.
Mucilaginous, innocent plants, with tough bark and palmately-veined leaves;
stamens monadelphous, in a column, and united
with the short claws of the petals; pistils several,
the ovaries united in a ring, or forming a several-
celled pod.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Malvacea.
A. Root.
ALTHÆA, 66.
B Flowers.
Althea Rosea, 67.
Malva, 68.
C. DERIVATIVES OF THE COTTON PLANT.
Bark, 69 a.
Filamentous Hairs, 69 b.
Oil, 69 c.
FIG. 38.-Vertical section of
Mallow flower.
66. ALTHÆA.—ALTHÆA.
MARSHMALLOW.
Ger. EIBISCHWURZEL.
The dried root of Althæ'a officina'lis Linné, collected from plants of the second
year's growth and deprived of periderm.
Botanical CHARACTERISTICS.—Stem 2 to 4 feet high. Leaves ovate, or slightly
heart-shaped, toothed, downy. Flowers pale rose color.
HABITAT.-Europe, Asia, United States, and Australia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Whitish, cylindrical, or conical pieces deprived
of the outer corky layer, from 75 to 150 mm. (3 to 6 in.) long, and
about 10 mm. (in.) or more in diameter; longitudinally wrinkled,
and marked with numerous brownish scars; somewhat hairy ex-
ternally from loosened bast fibers; it breaks with a short mealy
fracture, with projecting fiber-ends near the outer edge; odor faint, but

128
MALVACEÆ.
characteristic, stronger in infusion; taste sweetish and mucilaginous.
A cross-section shows small wood-bundles of scalariform and pitted
vessels scattered throughout the prevailing parenchymatous tissue, but
with an indistinctly radiate arrangement near the edge. The cells of
the parenchyma contain starch and mucilage, with a few stellate
rhaphides.
Powder.-Light yellow. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma with starch
5 to 15 in diam.; calcium oxalate 10 to 35 μu in diam. with mucilage cells and
rosette masses of asparagin; bast fibers of sclerenchyma 10 to 20 μ thick; ducts
scalariform and reticulate.
I
CONSTITUENTS.-Asparagin, C,H,N₂O,H2O, 1 per cent. (a colorless,
nearly tasteless, crystalline principle), bassorin, C12H20O10, 25 per
cent. (althæa mucilage, a
turbid, slimy, non-ad-
hesive mucilage, which
when dried forms a very
coherent mass), sugar 8
per cent., pectin 10 per
cent., ash 5 per cent.,
starch 35 per cent., a
fixed oil, and a trace of
tannin.
ACTION AND USES.-Used as
a..
d..
FIG. 39.-Althaea officinalis-Flowering branch.
FIG. 40. Cross-section of a portion of
the trimmed branch of Althæa. a.
Bark. b. Medullary ray. c. Paren-
chyma. d. Wood-bundle. Magnified
18 diam.
a demulcent application to inflamed mucous tissues, as in bron-
chitis. Powdered marshmallow root being exceedingly absorbent,
DERIVATIVES OF THE COTTON PLANT.
129
is used advantageously to impart consistency to soft pill-masses. (In
Mass. Hydrarg., 15 per cent. In Blaud's Pills and Pil. Phosphorus.)
67. ALTHÆ'A RO'SEA Cevanilles.-HOLLYHOCK. (Petals.) Indigenous to
Western Asia, but cultivated in gardens for its large, purple, ornamental
flowers. Petals broadly obovate, notched above and with a claw at base;
odor slight; taste sweetish, mucilaginous, and astringent. They contain
tannin, mucilage, and a coloring matter. An infusion is occasionally used
as a demulcent.
68. MALVA.-MALLOW. The flowers of Mal'va sylves'tris Linné, an her-
baceous plant growing abundantly in Europe. When fresh, of a rose-red
or purple color, becoming blue when dried; odor slight; taste sweetish and
mucilaginous. Emollient and demulcent.
69. DERIVATIVES OF THE COTTON PLANT.-ALL
OFFICIAL.
Bark, Hairs of Seed, and the Oil of Gossyp'ium herba'ceum Linné, and other
species of Gossypium.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GOSSYPIUM HERBACEUM.-Large herbs with
alternate leaves, which are more or less palmately-lobed. Flowers are large,
showy, more or less yellow or red; pistils 5, united at their base. Stamens
numerous, united below and adhering to the petals. Capsule roundish,
3- to 5-celled, opening at the top by as many valves. The numerous
seeds are glossy, covered with long, woolly hairs, which constitute the
cotton.
HABITAT.-Asia and Africa; cultivated in the United States.
69 a. ROOT BARK.-Gossypii Cortex. COTTON-ROOT BARK.-Long
bands or curved pieces, sometimes in quills. The outer surface is
of a yellowish-brown color, dotted with a few small black spots, and,
from the abrasion of the thin cork, numbers of orange-brown patches;
the inner surface is whitish and has a silky luster; the bast fibers are
long and tough, and may easily be separated into papery
layers; inodorous; taste very slightly acrid and astringent.
Powder-Light brown. The microscopical elements are: The simple and
compound starch grains, the aggregate calcium oxalate crystals, colored resin,
and tannin masses; the numerous long, slender, and thick-walled bast fibers
(8 to 15 μ thick), large cork cells, etc.
Constituents.—A yellow resin, fixed oil, tannin (small quantity), sugar,
starch, and, in the fresh bark, a yellow chromogen, which becomes
red and resinous on exposure to the air. To this change is due the
red color of old specimens, and old preparations, of the bark.
ACTION AND USES.-Emmenagogue and oxytocic, stimulating uterine
contractions probably by direct action on the uterine center in the
spinal cord; said to be as efficient and more safe than ergot. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
9
130
MALVACEÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Gossypii Radicis (1890),..Dose: to 1 fl. dr. (2 to 4 Cc.).
69 b. HAIRS OF SEED.-Gossypium Purificatum. PURIFIED
COTTON. Fine, white, soft filaments, which, under the micro-
scope, appear as hollow, flattened, and twisted bands; unacted upon
2
FIG. 41.-Gossypium herbaceum-Branch.
by ordinary solvents. Ordinary raw cotton contains among other
impurities fatty substances, which, when removed by chemical means,
such as alkaline or ethereal solvents, changes its character so that the
fiber, which formerly was almost impenetrable by aqueous liquids,
now becomes so absorbent that it no longer floats on water, but when
placed on the surface of that liquid will readily absorb it and sink.
COLA.
131
CONSTITUENTS.-Almost pure cellulose; by the action of nitric acid this
is converted into soluble gun-cotton.
ACTION AND USES.-Employed as a dressing for burns, scalds, and
excoriated surfaces, and for making antiseptic cottons, such as
salicylated cotton, benzoinated cotton, iodoform cotton, etc.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Pyroxylinum (Soluble Gun-cotton), the basis of the various official collodions.
69 c. OIL.-OLEUM GOSSYPII SEMINIS. A fixed oil expressed from the
seeds. Pale yellowish, odorless, with a bland, nut-like taste; specific
gravity 0.920 to 0.930 at 15° C. (59° F.), solidifying at about o°
to −5° C. (32° to 23° F.); very sparingly soluble in alcohol. Brought
into contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, the oil at once assumes
a dark reddish-brown color. Color reactions with nitric acid and
silver nitrate (see U. S. P. tests) distinguish this oil from other
similar oils. The oil is used as a basis for Linimentum Ammoniæ,
Linimentum Camphoræ, etc. Processes have been invented for
purifying the crude oil to abstract its acrid resin, and so leave it
bland and as palatable as the olive oil, for which it is oftentimes
substituted as a table or salad oil.
CONSTITUENTS.-Palmitin, olein, and a pale-yellow coloring-matter that
is non-saponifiable.
STERCULIACEAE.
Trees or shrubs with soft wood; sometimes climbing. Fruit dry, rarely
fleshy (Theobroma, 71); seeds globose or ovoid, with coriaceous or crustaceous
testa. The two plants of interest of the order are the one mentioned and Cola,
70.
70. COLA.-COLA (KOLA). The dried kernel of the seed of Cola acuminata
R. Brown (Fam. Sterculiacea), yielding by assay 1 per cent. of total alka-
loids. Occurring in irregular somewhat plano-convex pieces; cotyledons
from 15 to 30 mm. long and 5 to 10 mm. thick; dark brown or reddish-
brown; fracture short, tough; odor faintly aromatic, taste astringent
and somewhat aromatic. The drug contains alkaloids consisting mostly
of caffeine and theobromine, about 40 per cent. of starch, a little vola-
tile oil, fat, and tannin. The kolanin of Knebel is simply a kolatannate
of caffeine. Kolatannic acid differs from caffeotannic acid in being free
from sugar. Tonic, stimulant, and nervine; used as a beverage by the
natives of Africa as is coca by the natives of South America. Dose: 10
to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
'Bissey nuts" are the seed of the Cola naturalized and cultivated in the
West Indies. An article upon the subject may be found in the "American
Druggist," 1894, page 356. It should be said with regard to the many prepa-
rations of Cola that they seem to lack a certain degree of permanence: the
fluidextract of the Cola, for example, is an unsatisfactory preparation, because

132
STERCULIACEÆ.
of the immense precipitation which goes on for a long time after the prepara-
tion is made.
71. THEOBROMA. CACAO. CHOCOLATE NUT. The seed of Theobro'ma
caca'o Linné. Habitat: Mexico; cultivated in the West Indies. About
the size of an almond, flattened, invested with a thin, longitudinally
wrinkled testa, varying from reddish to grayish-brown in color; somewhat
ovate in shape, the hilum being situated on the broader end. The coty-
ledons are brown, oily, somewhat ridged. Odor agreeable when bruised;
taste bitterish, oily. Contains 45 to 53 per cent. of fixed oil (Cacao Butter),
and 1.5 per cent. of theobromine, an alkaloid similar to caffeine. Choco-
late is made by roasting the seed, removing the testa, then powdering the
kernels, forming the powder into cakes with water, and flavoring with
vanilla or other substances.
FIG. 42.-Cola (Kola Nut).
Showing longitudinal section of fruit X; cross-section of red seed X;
longitudinal section of red seed showing embryo X ; cross-section of red seed X ; longitudinal
section of white seed. (After Kohler.)
Preparation of Theobromine.-Obtained from an infusion of cacao, precipitat-
ing it with lead acetate, removing excess of lead by H2S, evaporating, and ex-
hausting the residue with boiling alcohol. The alkaloid separates on cooling.
Sparingly soluble in cold water, alcohol, and ether.
71 a. OLEUM THEOBROMATIS, U. S.-CACAO BUTTER. A fixed
oil expressed from the seed. A yellowish-white, brittle, fatty solid,
of tallow-like consistence, melting at 30° to 33° C. (86° to 91.4° F.),
about the temperature of the body; has a faint, chocolate-like taste
and agreeable odor. Should respond to the various important official
Contains palmitin, stearin, laurin, olein (small
quantity), theobromine, and glycerides of formic, acetic, and butyric
acids. Employed largely in making suppositories.
tests (see U. S. P.).
TILIACEÆ.
133
TILIACEÆ.-Linden Family.
Mostly tropical trees, some of the species of the genus Tilia, yielding tena-
cious fibers for cordage. Flowers balsamic, furnishing infusions which are
antispasmodic and diaphoretic.
FIG. 43.-Theobroma cacao-Branch and fruit.
72. TILIA AMERICANA Linné.-LINDEN FLOWERS. BASSWOOD LIME TREE.
Habitat: North America Flowers yellowish; petals notched at base;
odor pleasant; taste sweet and mucilaginous. Stimulant, diaphoretic, and
lenitive. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.) The bark is used as a demul-
cent, emollient, and vulnerary.
134
LINACEÆ.
LINACEÆ.-Flax Family.
Stems herbaceous; annual or perennial, rarely woody plants closely allied
to the mallows, remarkable, however, in having the inner fiber of the bark very
tenacious, and for the mucilaginous covering of the seed, in which there is an
abundance of drying fixed oil. A few are bitter..
FLAXSEED.
73. LINUM.-LINSEED.
Ger. FLACHSSAMEN.
The ripe seed of Li'num usitatis'simum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The common flax is an annual; stem corym-
bosely branched at top. Leaves sessile, linear-lanceolate, smooth.
Flowers in a corymbose panicle, with sky-blue petals. Pod about the size
FIG. 44.-Linum usitatissimum.
of a pea, of 5 united carpels (into which it splits in dehiscence), and 5-celled,
with two seeds hanging from the summit of each cell, which is partly or
completely divided into two by a false partition projecting from the back
of the carpel, the pod thus becoming 10-celled.
LINUM-OLEUM LINI.
HABITAT.-All temperate countries.
135
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Oblong-ovate, flat, obliquely pointed at one
end and blunt at the other. The brown, glossy, polished surface is
seen, under the lens, to be marked with fine pits, and to be covered
with a transparent mucilaginous epithelium that swells in water.
The hilum occupies the slight hollow just below the apex. The
embryo is oily, whitish, and inodorous. Taste mucilaginous, oily,
and slightly bitter. Flaxseed meal is of a brownish-gray color, and
has a slight odor.
Powder.—Brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endosperm, thin-
walled, with aleurone and oil globules; testa with parenchyma of deep brown
tabular cells; sclerencyhma of small yellow stone cells; epidermal cells, pris-
matic and mucilaginous; starch, when present, spherical.
CONSTITUENTS.-A viscid yellow fixed oil, 30 to 35 per cent., proteids
25 per cent., resin, wax, a small quantity of amygdalin, and from 3 to
α
b.
C
d
e
f.....
c. Stone
FIG. 45.-
Cross-section of Flaxseed. a. Epithelium. b. Epidermal cells in swollen condition.
cells. d. Layer of collapsed cells for building stone cells. e. Pigment coat. f. Containing oil.
4 per cent. of ash. An althæa-like mucilaginous substance resides in
the epithelial layer, which swells considerably in water. This gummy
matter from the investing coat is rapidly imparted to hot water, form-
ing a thick, viscid mucilage, precipitated by alcohol and lead sub-
acetate. The gummy principle is considered as transformed starch,
which latter exists in the immature seed, but is absent in the ripe seed.
73 a. OLEUM LINI, U. S.-A yellowish fixed oil expressed (for
medicinal use) from the seed without heat, having a slight, pleasant
odor, and a bland taste; on exposure to the air it gradually thickens
and acquires a strong odor and taste. The oil used in the arts is
obtained on a large scale by roasting the seeds before being pressed,
in order to destroy the gummy constituents of the coating. It does
136
LINACEÆ.
not congeal above -20° C. (-4° F.), and should respond to the various
official tests (see U. S. P.). The most characteristic principle in the
oil is linolein, C12H28O2, a glyceride of linoleic acid, and considered
to be a mixture of two acids-linolic, C18H32O2, and linolenic acid,
C18H3002. The drying property of the oil resides in this constituent.
ACTION AND USES.-The whole seed is used in decoction as a demulcent;
ground flaxseed is a favorite farina for poultices; the expressed
oil is laxative, and, in combination with lime-water (Linimentum
Calcis), is much employed as a protective in burns, etc.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
From Oleum Lini.
Linimentum Calcis (equal parts of linseed-oil and lime-water).
ERYTHROXYLON.
74. COCA-COCA.
Ger. COCABLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Erythrox'ylon Co'ca Lamarack (Fam. Erythroxyllaceæ,
U. S. P. 1900), known commonly as Huanuco (Bolivian) Coca, or of E. Truxil-
lense Rusby, known commercially as Truxillo (Peruvian) Coca, yielding, when as-
sayed by U. S. P. process, not less than 0.5 per cent. of ether-soluble alkaloids of
coca
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Shrub about six feet high, with bright green
leaves, size and shape similar to those of tea, and white blossoms, which
are succeeded by small scarlet berries. When the leaves mature, the
branches are stripped and the leafless plant is soon again covered with
verdant foliage. The plant is propagated in nurseries from the seed.
SOURCE. The shrub bearing coca leaves is extensively cultivated on the
slopes of the Andes about 2000 to 5000 feet above the sea level, in
Peru and Bolivia. The province of La Paz in Bolivia produces
about the largest crops. That of Bolivia is considered superior to
the Peruvian, although the latter country produces double the
quantity. In this latter country, especially owing to the European
demand, the cultivation has considerably increased. The annual
production reaches the enormous figures of about one hundred mil-
lion pounds. Two varieties, "Truxillo" and "Huanuco," having
different characteristics, come to this market, the former named after
the port Trujillo in the northern part of Peru, and the latter from
the city of Huanuco, in the central part of Peru. The culture of
coca leaves has been tried in other countries, but with questionable.
results, except, perhaps, on the Island of Java. The plant yields
its first crop when eighteen months old, and continues to bear about
forty years. There are two pickings yearly-April and September;
the latter is considered the best and most abundant. The leaves are

COCA.
137
laid out in a paved drying yard and afterward pressed in drums
(tambors) of plantain leaves, the tambor weighing forty pounds net.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Huanuco Coca.-Greenish-brown to clear brown,
smooth and slightly glossy, thickish and slightly coriaceous, stoutly
and very short petioled; blade 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long and nearly ellip-
tical, with a very short and abruptly narrowed basal portion and
a short point, the margin entire; midrib traversed above by a slight
ridge, very prominent underneath, the remaining venation obscure,
A
B
B
A
B
A
A
FIG. 46.-Coca Leaves-A, Upper side. B, Under side. (Photograph. Natural Size.)
especially above; underneath, two conspicuous lines of collenchyma
tissue run longitudinally on either side of the midrib and about one-
third of the distance between it and the margin, the enclosed areola
being of a slightly different color from the adjacent surface; odor
characteristic; taste bitterish, faintly aromatic, followed by a numb-
ness of the tongue, lips, and fauces.
Truxillo Coca.-Pale green, thin, brittle and usually much broken,
smooth but not shining, shortly and stoutly petioled; blade 1.6 to
138
LINACEÆ.
5 cm. long and one-third to one-half as broad, obovate to oblanceolate,
narrowed from near the middle into the petiole, usually with a slight
projecting point at the summit, the margin entire; underneath two
irregular lines of collenchyma tissue, usually incomplete or obscure,
and frequently wanting, run beside the midrib; odor more tea-like
than that of Huanuco Coca;* taste and numbing effect similar.
Powder.—Greenish. Characteristic elements: Calcium oxalate of parenchyma
in prisms, 3 to 10 μ in diam.; sclerenchyma, bast, and crystal fibers; small
papillæ on under epidermal cells.
Constituents.—A volatile liquid alkaloid (?), hygrine, and cocaine
(C₁7H21NO₁), which has been found to be a compound body repre-
sented in a methyl benzoyl compound of another organic base, ecgo-
nine (C,H₁NO3). There are also present in the leaves benzoyl
ecgonine, a methyl compound of which constitutes the al-
kaloid cocaine. This complex body cocaine is readily decomposed
into its component parts, methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and ecgonine,
by heating with HCl. Hydrochloric acid is, therefore, unsuitable for
the extraction of cocaine in the process of its manufacture. The
percentage of cocaine varies greatly, hence it is important to assay
the leaves and its preparations. U. S. P. process of assay shows 0.5
per cent. of ether-soluble alkaloids of the leaf.
Preparation of Cocaine.-Exhaust the powdered drug by repercolation with
water acidulated with 5 per cent. H2SO4. Agitate the concentrated liquid with
pure coal oil and an excess of Na,CO,. The oily liquid is then shaken with
acidulated water and again precipitated by Na,ČO, in the presence of ether.
From the ethereal solution the alkaloid can be obtained on evaporation.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant to digestion, the brain, and respiration.
Checks the process of wasting, enabling the laborer to endure a
greater amount of physical exertion with a small amount of food.
For this purpose the leaves are habitually chewed by the natives.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). Cocaine is a valuable local anæs-
thetic. Applied to mucous surfaces and injected subcutaneously.
Dose: to 1 gr. (0.0324 to 0.064 Gm.).
Solutions of the alkaloid in olive and castor oil are stable.
Cocaine ointments should not be made with lard or vaseline, as it is
insoluble in these fats. If the hydrochlorate be dissolved in a little
water before admixture, a stable ointment is effected.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Vinum Cocæ (6.5 per cent. Fl'ext.),
Fluidextractum Cocæ,
Dose: 4 fl. dr. (16 Cc.).
I to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
* For an exhaustive description of coca leaves, see article by Dr. H. H. Rusby.
Drug. Circ.," Nov., 1900, p. 220.
ZYGOPHYLLACEÆ.
139
ZYGOPHYLLACEÆ.
The wood of many species of this order is remarkable for its excessive hard-
The two official drugs from the order are the wood, 75, and resin, 76, of
guaiacum.
ness.
75. GUAIACI LIGNUM.-LIGNUM VITE. The heart-wood of Gua'iacum
officina'le and G. sanctum Linné. Greenish-brown, resinous raspings or
chips, mixed with yellowish particles of the sap-wood; odor slight, agreeable,
increased by heating or rubbing; taste slightly aromatic, but irritating
and persistent after chewing some time. The heart-wood of guaiac is im-
FIG. 47-Guaiacum sanctum―Flowering branch.
ported in billets or logs and used for turning out various instruments and
utensils, the shavings from these being used in pharmacy. The sap-wood
is yellowish, the heart-wood dark greenish-brown, hard and heavy, re-
markable in that its specific gravity is such as to sink in water.
Con-
stituents: The resin (soluble in alcohol and alkaline fluids) is the most
important constituent, of which it contains about 26 per cent.; it also
contains 0.8 per cent. of bitter, pungent extractive. The wood or chips.
are turned a bluish-green by the action of nitric acid fumes.
Stimulant, diaphoretic; also a reputed antirheumatic and antisyphilitic.
Generally given in the form of compound decoction of sarsaparilla. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
140
ZYGOPHYLLACEÆ.
76. GUAIACUM.-GUAIAC.
Ger. GUAJAKHARZ.
GUM GUAIAC.
The resin from the wood of Gua'iacum officina'le Linné and of G. sanctum.
SOURCE. Obtained from natural exudation or from incisions into the
trunk, occasionally by boring longitudinally through a billet, placing
one end in the fire, and catching the melted resin as it exudes from
the hole in the other end; more commonly, however, by extracting
the chips or raspings with a boiling solution of common salt.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Greenish-brown, irregular masses, contain-
ing fragments of wood and bark; brittle, breaking with a glossy
FL-
FIG. 48.-Guaiacum-Cross-section of wood. R. Medullary rays, composed of one, two, and three
of cells V. Closed vessels. Fl. Ligneous fibers, very much developed and forming concentric zones.
ranges
fracture; in thin pieces, transparent. The powder is gray when fresh,
but becomes green on exposure, and blue when in contact with
oxidizing agents. Odor slight, balsamic, when heated resembling
benzoin; taste slightly irritating.
CONSTITUENTS.-Guaiacic acid, B-resin (11.75 per cent.), and guaiac
yellow, C20H20O7, soluble in milk of lime; guaiaretic acid, C20H2404)
11.15 per cent.; guaiaconic acid, 50 per cent., and gum and ash
in small quantity. Guaiacene, guaiacol, cresol, and pyroguaiacin
are obtained by dry distillation. The coloring matter crystallizes in
pale yellow or quadratic octahedra having a bitter taste.
•
GERANIACEÆ-GERANIUM.
141
The so-called "guaiacum oil" is obtained by boiling guaiacum
resin with solution of sodium carbonate, allowing to cool, filtering,
saturating the filtrate with carbon dioxide, again filtering, extracting
the oil with ether, and allowing the solvent to evaporate. The
product is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. From the alkaline
liquid acids precipitate the yellow coloring matter ("guaiacum
yellow"), which imparts a blue color to strong sulphuric acid.
The blue color which guaiacum resin produces with certain oxidiz-
ing agents is due to an oxidation product of guaiaconic acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, diaphoretic, and alterative; also a mild
purgative. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Guaiaci (20 per cent.),
Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata (20 per
cent.), .
Dose: 30 to 60 my (2 to 4 Cc.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
GERANIACEÆ.-Geranium Family.
Herbs with opposite or alternate leaves, usually stipulate, simple or com-
pound. Flowers regular or irregular; carpels prolonged above into beaks ter-
minated by the styles, which give rise to the name Cranesbill, applied to the
principal genus.
CRANESBILL.
77. GERANIUM.-GERANIUM.
Ger. FLECKSTORCHSCHNABEL-WURZEL.
The dried rhizome of Gera'nium macula'tum Linné.
BOTANICAL
Botanical CHARACTERISTICS.—Stem erect, hairy; leaves about 5-parted; flowers
light purple; petals entire, bearded on the claw
HABITAT.-North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Rough, knotty, cylindrical, horizontal, rhi-
zome, 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in.) long, and 10 mm. (in.) thick; longi-
tudinally wrinkled, tuberculated, very hard, and sometimes beset
with shriveled, brittle rootlets; externally dark brown; fracture
short, reddish-gray, showing a thin bark, several small, yellowish
wood-wedges forming a circle near the cambium line, and a large
pith; medullary rays broad. The rootlets have a thick bark and
a thin central column of fibrovascular tissue. Inodorous; taste as-
tringent.
Powder. Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Large aggregate crystals
of calcium oxalate; ducts porous and reticulate; parenchyma with crystals
and starch. (Highly magnified starch grains, see Fig. 374.)
142
GERANIACEÆ.
CONSTITUENTS.—Tannic (12 to 37 per cent.) and gallic acids, with resin,
starch, gum, pectin, and a red coloring matter. Both alcohol and
water extract its virtues.
ACTION AND USES.-A valuable and pleasant astringent. It has been
claimed that the rhizome contains mucilaginous material which, act-
ing as a demulcent, makes a decoction a much more desirable prepa-
1-24
FIG. 49.-Geranium maculatum-Flowering branch.
ration than a simple solution of tannin. The fluidextract is said to
be useful in buccal ulcer, etc. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Geranii,
Dose: 20 to 60 пy (1.3 to 4 Cc.).
ny
78. IMPATIENS PALLIDA.-JEWEL WEED. Indigenous herb occasion-
ally used as an alterative and diuretic in infusion. Dose: 1 dr. (4 Gm.).
Impa'tiens balsam'ina, the touch-me-not of the gardens, has the same
properties.

RUTACEE-XANTHOXYLUM.
143
RUTACEÆ. Rue Family.
To facilitate study, this order has been divided, one of the subdivisions being
the suborder Aurantieæ (see below). The rueworts are remarkable for yielding
acrid and resinous principles and volatile oil. Ruta montana, growing in Spain,
is so extremely acrid that it raises pustules on the skin of those who gather it.
The peduncles and flower of the European Dittany are so laden with volatile oil
that the plant ignites at the approach of a lighted candle.
A. Barks.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Rutacea.
XANTHOXYLUM, 79.
Angustura, 81.
Ptelia Trifoliata, 82.
B. Leaves.
Bela, 86.
C. Fruits.
PILOCARPUS, 84.
BUCHU, 83.
Ruta, 85.
Xanthoxyli Fructus, So.
(Products of the suborder Aurantieæ, p. 150.)
FIG. 50.-Cross-section of Cranesbill. a. Bark. b. Wood-wedge. c. Pith. (12 diam.)
79. XANTHOXYLUM.-XANTHOXYLUM.
PRICKLY-ASH BARK.
Ger. ZAHNWEHHOLZ.
The bark of Xanthox'ylum america'num Miller, and of Fagara clava-
her'culis Linné, known in commerce respectively as Northern Prickly-ash and
Southern Prickly-ash.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The northern prickly-ash, X. americanum, bears
its leaves and flowers in sessile, axillary, umbellate clusters; leaflets 2 to 4
pairs, and an odd one, obovate-oblong, downy when young. The southern
prickly-ash, F. clava-herculis, bears its flowers in an ample terminal cyme,
appearing after the leaves; leaflets 3 to 8 pairs, and an odd one, ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, oblique, shining above.
HABITAT. United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Northern prickly-ash (X. americanum), as found
in commerce, is in curved or quilled pieces about 1 mm. (2 in.)
thick; the outer surface is of a brownish-gray color, longitudin-

144
RUTACEE.
ally furrowed and showing a few yellowish-gray patches of
foliaceous lichens, also numerous black dots and a few straight
spines. Inner surface is light brown or yellowish; fracture uneven,
short; inodorous; taste bitter, pungent, and acrid. Southern prickly-
ash (F. clava-herculis) is somewhat thicker and has conical corky pro-
jections, with a few spines rising from corky bases. Inner surface
free from acicular crystals.
Powder. Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of inner cortex
with abundant calcium oxalate, in prisms, and aggregate, 10 to 25 μ in diam.;
large resin-bearing cells; sclerenchyma consisting of yellowish stone cells, and
bent bast fibers.
CONSTITUENTS. An acrid green oil, a colorless crystalline resin, sugar,
ash 11 to 12 per cent., tannin (small quantity), and a bitter principle
B
C
A
FIG. 51.-Xanthoxylum-Cross-section
diam.) A, Cork. B, Resin cells.
ray. (Photomicrograph.)
of bark. (15
C, Medullary
which is turned brown by
H₂SO4
ACTION AND USES.-Alter
ative, sialagogue, stimu
lant, and tonic, its action
being similar to that of
guaiac and mezereum.
The bark chewed is a
popular remedy for tooth-
ache, giving rise to the
synonym, toothache-tree.
The fluid extract is fre-
quently combined with
such alteratives as still-
ingia, lappa, etc. The
berries are used in com-
pound syrup of stillingia
(see National Formulary). Dose: 15 to 45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Xanthoxyli,.....
Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
80. XANTHOXYLI FRUCTUS. PRICKLY-ASH FRUIT. Consists of brown-
ish-red capsules about 4 to 5 mm. ( to in.) in diameter, sessile on the
thin receptacle (X. clava-herculis), or borne on short stalks (X. ameri-
canum); the two valves open when ripe and expose the one or two shining,
more or less wrinkled, black seeds; odor aromatic; taste very pungent and
somewhat bitter. Stimulant, tonic, and alterative; used in fluid extract of
stillingia, N. F. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
81. ANGUSTURA. CUSPARIA BARK. The bark of Galipe'a cuspa'ri St. Hil-
laire. Habitat: Northern South America. Found in the market in flattish,
quilled, or channeled pieces about 3 mm. (in.) thick, and not longer than
150 mm. (6 in.), but usually shorter; externally it is covered with a yellow-
ish-gray, corky layer, which is marked by shallow longitudinal fissures, and
BUCHU.
145
in most cases easily removed by the nail; inner surface light cinnamon-
brown, often with adhering strips of wood; internally reddish-brown, show-
ing white points due to deposits of calcium oxalate. The tissue of the bark
is loaded with oil cells. Odor musty, due to volatile oil; taste bitter and
nauseous. Besides volatile oil and resin, the bark contains a bitter prin-
ciple, angusturin, and four alkaloids, the most important of which is
cusparine. Used as an aromatic bitter. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
82. PTELIA TRIFOLIATA Linné.-WATER ASH. Shrub growing in the
United States east of the Mississippi. (Root-bark.) It contains berberine.
Used as a tonic and antiperiodic, "its mild, non-irritating properties render-
ing it especially valuable in low fevers attended with gastro-intestinal irrita-
tion; this soothing influence causes it to be retained when other tonics
would be rejected. Dose of fluid extract: 15 to 30 mg (1 to 2 Cc.).
2
FIG. 52.-Barosma betulina—Branch
and flower.
FIG. 53.—Barosma crenulata-Flowering branch.
83. BUCHU.-BUCHU.
SHORT BUCHU.
Ger. BUKUBLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Baros'ma betuli'na (Thunberg) Bartling et Wendland.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Shrubby plant. The characteristics common
to the buchus are opposite leaves, small, simple, coriaceous, dotted with
ΙΟ

146
RUTACEE.
pellucid glands. Flowers pink (betulina), white (crenulata), solitary on
axillary or terminal peduncles. Fruit composed of five follicles, adherent
at the axis and dehiscing at the summit.
HABITAT.-Southern Africa, Cape of Good Hope.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-About 15 mm. long, varying between oval and
obovate, yellowish-green, apex obtuse, margin crenate or serrate with
a gland at the base of each tooth, base more or less wedge-shaped;
coriaceous, both surfaces beset with numerous slight projections;
odor strong and characteristic; taste somewhat mint-like, pungent
and bitterish. B. serratifolia (very narrow, linear-lanceolate) con-
stitute the "long buchu" of commerce. The long buchu (off. in
U. S. P. 1890) contains less of the volatile oil. Transverse sections
B
FIG. 54-Buchu Leaves and Adulterant. A, Leaf of Empleurum serrulatum. B, Leaf of Barosma
betulina (enlarged). C, Leaf of Barosma seratifolia. D, Leaf of Barosma crenulata.
show a subcuticular layer of thickened cells, rich in mucilage, and
containing sphæro-crystals. Both kinds usually require careful garb-
ling, as they are often mixed with branchlets, fragments of capsules,
and with leaves of allied species. The long buchu is sometimes
mixed with the leaves of Empleurum serrulatum, but these are still
narrower, often longer, and terminate in an acute point, without an
oil duct.
Powder.-Pale green. Characteristic elements: Epidermal cells with vertical
walls straight; sphæro-crystals of inulin, 30 to 50 in diam.; few short, one-
celled trichomes; numerous oil globules; few tracheids with simple pores; few
long bast fibers; crystals of calcium oxalate 15 to 25 μ in diam.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil is contained in large circular cells just
beneath the epidermis of the under surface of the leaf; the short buchu
yields the greater per cent. (1 to 1.56 per cent.). On exposure to
PILOCARPUS.
147
cold it separates out barosma camphor, which existed in the oil dis-
solved in a hydrocarbon. The upper surface of the leaves swells up
in water, due to a layer of mucilage cells just beneath the surface.
The bitter principle is rutin; resin is also present.
ACTION AND USES.-A mild diuretic in disorders of the urinogenital
organs, its action depending upon the volatile oil. In Cape Colony
the leaves are employed as a stimulant and stomachic. Dose: 15 to
45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Buchu,.
Dose: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
84. PILOCARPUS.-PILOCARPUS.
JABORANDI.
Ger. FOLIA JABORANDI.
The leaflets of Pilocar'pus jaboran'di Holmes or of Pilocarpus microphyllus
Stapf. Yielding when assayed by U. S. P. process not less than 0.5 per cent. of
alkaloids.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A shrub 4 to 5 feet high. Leaflets 1 to 4 pairs,
petiolate. Flowers in long racemes. Ovary with 5 carpels. Seeds black,
angular.
SOURCE, VARIETIES, AND ADULTERATIONS.—The name Jaborandi is a
generic one, applied in South America to several plants possessing
diaphoretic properties. The shrub, Pilocarpus jaborandi, grows in
Brazil in the neighborhood of Pernambuco. E. M. Holmes deter-
mined the origin of the leaf in 1875. Several varieties of the genus,
regarded by some as distinct species, grow in its native country. The
P. selloanus (Rio Janeiro jaborandi) differs in some few particulars
from the Pernambuco; the latter, for example, has elliptical, oblong-
shaped leaflets, of more fleshy consistence, the veinlets being more
prominent on the upper surface, etc.
E. M. Holmes ("Pharmac'l Journal and Transactions," fourth
series, 501) describes a new kind of jaborandi met with in the Eng-
lish market (probably P. spicatus), which differs in several particu-
lars from the Pernambuco drug. As compared with the true jabo-
randi, the leaves differ wholly from the official leaf, having a more
shining surface, but very little difference in the color of the two sur-
faces. The same author ("Pharmac. Journal," fourth series, vol. 3,
p. 2) calls attention to a spurious leaf in importations of P. microphyl-
lus (which yields a larger percentage of alkaloid), differing from this
in absence of oil from their tissues, by their reticulated venation, etc.
These are probably derived from some hitherto undescribed variety.
148
RUTACEÆ
It has been adulterated with species of Piper, which are not pellucid-
punctate, with Laurus nobilis, etc.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Leaves nearly sessile, pinnate, with a terminal
leaflet; the leaflets, which come into market separate, are ovate-
oblong, entire, about 100 mm. (4 in.) long, and 50 mm. (2 in.)
broad; short-petiolate; uneven at the base; slightly revolute at
FIG. 55.-Pilocarpus selloanus-Branch from flowering top.-(After Kohler.)
margin, near which the anastomosing veins form one or two
distinct wavy lines; coriaceous; dull green, finely marked with
small, transparent dots or oil-cells, plainly visible when held up to
the light; texture coriaceous, brittle; when bruised a peculiar, rather
unpleasant odor is emitted; this odor is predominant in the fluid ex-
tract. Taste disagreeable, slightly pungent, and bitter. The leaflets
of P. microphyllus (Maranham jaborandi) are smaller (2.5 to 4 Cm.
PILOCARPUS.
149
in length), usually ovate in outline, deeply emarginate at apex. Alka-
loidal content (chiefly Pilocarpine) of best leaf ranges from 0.5 to 1
per cent.
Powder.-Yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Epidermal cells, poly-
gonal; crystals of calcium oxalate, aggregate, 29 to 30 in diam., few stone cells
and tracheids present; trichomes, non-glandular, one-celled, thick-walled.
Requires most careful study to distinguish between powders of different species.
FIG. 56.-Leaf of Jaborandi as it appears
in the market.
11 17 2
FIG. 57.-Ruta graveolens-Portion of plant.
CONSTITUENTS.-A volatile oil, and two alkaloids, pilocarpine
(C₁₁H₁7N₂O₂), deliquescent, crystalline, inodorous, and slightly bitter,
and jaborine, chemically isomeric with, but directly antagonistic to,
the first named in physiological action. Pilocarpine is the most
active, and yields jaborine and pilocarpidine (C10H1N₂O₂) when
heated with HCl; its salts are readily soluble in water; their action
is similar to that of nicotine. Jaborine (C22H,,N,O,) is yellow,
amorphous, and resembles atropine in action; its presence in
14 2
150
AURANTIEÆ.
the commercial pilocarpine explains the different effects following the
use of the latter when improperly made. It is therefore very necessary,
in using pilocarpine or any of its preparations, to obtain them free
from jaborine.
Preparation of Pilocarpine.-To an aqueous solution of acidulated alcoholic
extract add alkali and shake with chloroform. From the chloroformic solution
the alkaloid is separated by shaking with acidulated (HCl) water, filter, and
allow it to crystallize.
•
ACTION AND USES.-Powerfully diaphoretic and sialagogue by stimulating
the nerves supplying the glands and involuntary muscular fiber; car-
diac depressant. Dose: 5 to 60 gr. (0.3 to 4 Gm.). Pilocarpine is
used as a myotic in ophthalmic practice. It has acquired some repu-
tation in the treatment of diphtheria and croup; frequently adminis-
tered hypodermically; poisonous. Dose of pilocarpinæ hydrochloras,
U. S.:togr. (0.0081 to 0.0324 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Pilocarpi,
Dose: 5 to 60 пy (0.3 to 4 Сc.).
85. RUTA.-RUE. The leaves of Ru'ta graveo'lens Linné. Habitat: Medi-
terranean region; cultivated. The whole plant is active, but the leaves
are the portion generally employed. They are ternate, the leaflets being
obovate-oblong, yellowish-green, thickly dotted with minute, transparent
oil-vesicles; odor strong, disagreeable, increased by rubbing; taste bitter,
hot, and acrid.
Their medicinal value depends chiefly upon the volatile oil, but there is
also present a peculiar coloring matter, rutinic acid, found also in other
plants, and an acrid principle, the activity of which is diminished in the
dried leaves; the fresh leaves will inflame or even blister the hands if much
handled.
ACTION AND USES.-Emmenagogue, vermifuge, and diaphoretic. Dose: 5 to
20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.) in infusion. The Romans used rue as a condiment,
as the Germans still do.
OLEUM RUTE.-A yellowish-green volatile oil, powerfully irritant; used as a
uterine stimulant, emmenagogue, etc. Dose: 2 to 5 my (0.13 to 0.3 Cc.).
86. BELA.—BAEL FRUIT. BENGAL QUINCE. From Æ'gle marme'los Correa.
Habitat: Himalaya Mountains; cultivated in India, where it is employed
and considered as a valuable remedy in dysentery and diarrhoea, relieving
without causing constipation. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.). It is collected
when half ripe and dried; usually enters commerce in segments having a
smooth, grayish rind, and a hard, reddish, gummy pulp; whitish internally
and divided into cells, each of which contains four or five woolly seeds;
taste mucilaginous, slightly bitter; nearly inodorous.
AURANTIEÆ SUBORDER OF RUTACEÆ. The Orange
Family.
The trees and shrubs which compose this suborder of Rutaceæ are distin-
guished from others of the order merely by the character of the fruit. In the
Aurantieæ the fruit is an indehiscent, juicy, berry-like fruit, botanically known
as hesperidium (lemon, orange, and lime), having a leathery rind, containing
numerous oil-glands (see Fig. 59). The capsular fruit of the rueworts proper
THE ORANGE PRODUCTS.
151
is usually dehiscent. The leaves and fruit of both suborders abound in minute
receptacles of volatile oil. These attain their maximum development in the
rind of the orange, lemon, etc.
The Official and Unofficial Products of the Aurantieæ.
I. The Products of the Orange.
A. Official.
The Peel, 87.
The Oil, 88.
Oleum Aurantii Florum, 90 a.
B. Unofficial.
The Leaf, 89.
The Flower, 90.
II. The Products of the Lemon.
A. Official.
The Juice, 91.
The Rind, 92.
The Oil, 93.
Oil of Bergamot, 94.
B. Unofficial.
White Zapote, 95.
THE ORANGE PRODUCTS.
SOURCE.—Universally cultivated in India and widely in tropical regions.
The sweet orange was introduced from China by the Portuguese. It
has been much improved by cultivation. There are now some fifty
varieties in different parts of the globe, these taking the name of
the places where cultivated, the sweetest coming from Havana,
Florida, and California. Bitter oranges were introduced into Europe
from India by the Arabians and were used medicinally from very
early times, the bitter fruit being usually termed the Seville or Bigarade
orange.
(A) OFFICIAL.
87. AURANTII AMARI CORTEX.-THE RIND. BITTER ORANGE
PEEL, the dried rind of the unripe fruit of Citrus vulgaris Risso.
AURANTII DULCIS CORTEX.—SWEet Orange PEEL, the un-
dried outer rind of the ripe fruit of Citrus Aurantium Linné. The
orange tree is cultivated in the south of Europe, in the Azores, and
in the United States-Southern States and California. It is said
to be one of great longevity; thus, a tree in Versailles, known as the
"Grand Bourbon," planted in 1421, is still in existence (Mueller).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Bitter: In narrow, thin bands or in quarters,
epidermis brownish-yellow color, outer layer with numerous oil reser-
voirs, inner layer spongy, light yellowish-brown; odor fragrant; taste
aromatic, bitter. The Curacao orange peel is obtained from a variety
of the orange cultivated in the island of Curacao. Sweet: Outer
surface orange-yellow with numerous oil reservoirs, odor highly
fragrant, taste pungently aromatic.
CONSTITUENTS.—Volatile oil (contained in vesicles of the epidermis),
hesperidin, ash, and a white principle which turns black with ferric
salts.
152
AURANTIEÆ.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic, carminative, and stomachic; a valuable
addition to preparations of the bitter tonics like gentian. Dose: 15
to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Bitter Orange Peel.
Fluidextractum Aurantii Amari,
Tinctura Aurantii Amari (20 per cent.) -
Tinctura Cinchonæ Composita (8 per
cent.),.
Tinctura Gentianæ Composita (4 per
cent.)
Sweet Orange Peel.
Syrupus Aurantii (5 per cent. of Tinct.)
Tinctura Aurantii Corticis Recentis
(50 per cent.), .
Dose:
15 to 60 пy (1 to 4 Сc.).
1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
8.0 Cc. to 2 fl. dr.
4.0 Cc. to I fl. dr.
to 1 fl. oz. (8 to 30 Cc.).
Flavoring.
4/24
FIG. 58.-Citrus Aurantium—Branch.
88. OLEUM AURANTII CORTICIS.-THE OIL. Obtained from
the fresh peel of either the bitter or sweet orange. A pale yel-
low liquid, having a characteristic aromatic odor. Among the tests
for the purity of the oil, the U. S. P. directs that the optical rotation
should not be more than 95° to the right in a 100 mm. tube, and at
THE ORANGE PRODUCTS.
153
a temperature of about 25° C. (77° F.). It contains hesperidin,
and geranial, an aldehyde.
Oil of Petit-grain is obtained from the small, fragrant, immature
oranges (berries about the size of a cherry). Recently, however, the
leaves and shoots have been used for this purpose.
Manufacture. The oils of the fruit of the Aurantieæ are manufactured by
subjecting the outer rind to expression, distillation, or, preferably, to the écuelle
process. This instrument (the écuelle) is described in most works on pharmacy.
-4
-12
FIG. 59.-Citrus vulgaris-Flowering branch.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Spiritus Aurantii (U. S. P. 1890) (5 per cent.).
Spiritus Aurantii Compositus (contains 25 per cent. oil and the oils of lemon,
coriander, and anise).
Elixir Aromaticum (1.2 per cent.).
(B) UNOFFICIAL.
89. AURANTII FOLIA. THE LEAF. From Cit'rus vulgar'is Risso. Oval,
from 50 to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) long, on a broadly-winged petiole, pellucid-
punctate; odor aromatic; taste bitter. It is the principal source of essence
de petit-grain, used to adulterate Oleum Neroli. Stimulant and tonic.
90. AURANTII FLORES. THE FLOWER. ORANGE FLOWERS. The flowers
Cit'rus vulgar'is and C. Aurantium, collected before they are expanded,
solely for the volatile oil, which is then most fragrant. Generally used
154
AURANTIEÆ.
while fresh, in which state they may be preserved for some time by mixing
with half their weight of common salt. They are about 12 mm. (in.)
long, with small, cup-shaped calyx and white, rather fleshy petals. Occa-
sionally used as a ŝtimulant and antispasmodic, but principally for pre-
paring orange-flower water and the volatile oil.
OLEUM AURANTII FLORUM, U. S.—Oleum NEROLI. A thin, yellowish, or brown-
ish-yellow volatile oil, very fragrant. Used as a flavor and as a perfume.
Neroli is the predominant odor in Farina Cologne.
THE LEMON PRODUCTS.
91. LIMONIS SUCCUS-THE JUICE.-LEMON JUICE. The freshly
expressed juice of the ripe fruit of Cit'rus medica Linné (C.
limonum Risso, U. S. P. 1900). A slightly turbid, yellowish liquid
-1~
을
​FIG. 60.-Citrus limonum―Branch.
having the odor of lemon, due to the presence of some of the volatile
oil from the rind; taste acid, often slightly bitter. It contains about
7 per cent. of free citric acid, also phosphoric and malic acids. Re-
frigerant and antiscorbutic; used in the form of lemonade, or in
effervescing draughts. Dose: 1 fl. oz. (30 Cc.).
THE LEMON PRODUCTS.
155
92. LIMONIS CORTEX-THE RIND.-LEMON PEEL. The undried
outer rind of the ripe fruit of Citrus medica Linné (C. limonum
Risso, U. S. P. 1900), removed by grating. The fruit comes from
the Mediterranean and tropical regions (see Orange). The outer
surface is of a light yellow color and ruggedly glandular from the oil-
cells; odor fragrant; taste aromatic and bitterish.
Microscopically, the rind of the lemon resembles that of the orange.
CONSTITUENTS. A pale yellow volatile oil (sp. gr. 0.87) consisting
mainly of hydrocarbons, citrene (C₁0H₁6), cymene (C₁H₁₁), also citral
(C10H18O), and a compound ether. Hesperidin (C22H26O12), a bitter
principle, produces with ferric salts a black color.
16
Used as a flavoring agent.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
10 16/
10
Spiritus Limonis (U. S. P. 1890) (5 per cent., with oil of lemon 5 per cent.).
Tinctura Limonis Corticis (50 per cent.).
93. OLEUM LIMONIS.-OIL OF LEMON Peel, or RinD. A volatile
oil obtained by expression from the fresh lemon peel. It is a pale
yellow, limpid liquid, having a lemon
taste and a fragrant odor. It should
be protected from light in well-stop-
pered bottles. Oil of citral, used in
perfumery, is obtained from Citrus
med'ica Risso, a large oblong fruit
with rough surface-known in Eng-
land as the citron.
Oil of lemon consists of two iso-
meric oils (?), chiefly citrene or limo-
nine, C10H16, with citral (an aldehyde)
and a crystalline product which fuses
FIG. 61. Cross-section of Lemon Fruit.
at 143° to 144° C. (289° to 291° F.), colored yellow by H.SO,, and
green by HNO3. Used principally as a flavor.
ADULTERATION OF THE OIL OF LEMON.-It is adulterated with the
volatile oil of other fruits of the genus Citrus. These are difficult to
detect; odor and taste must be chiefly relied upon.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Spiritus Aurantii Compositus (5 per cent.).
Spiritus Limonis (U. S. P. 1890) (5 per cent.).
94. OLEUM BERGAMOTTÆ.-OIL OF BERGAMOT. A volatile oil
obtained by expression from the rind of the fresh fruit of Cit'rus
berga'mia Risso et Poiteau, the fruit being collected in November
or December, still greenish, unripe, but full grown. By some, the
156
SIMARUBACEÆ.
bergamot orange is supposed to be an established hybrid-a product
of cultivation. A greenish or greenish-yellow, thin liquid, having a
peculiar, very fragrant odor, and an aromatic, bitter taste. The color
is due to chlorophyll. It is distinguished from the oils of orange
and lemon by forming a clear solution with solutions of potassium.
This oil, so valuable in perfumery, was official in the U. S. P. of
1890, but was dropped from the list in 1900.
CONSTITUENTS.-By fractional distillation there comes over as the first
fraction at 60° to 65° about 40 per cent. of the oil. This has a lemon
odor and consists of almost pure limonine. The second fraction
(10 per cent.), distilling at 77° to 82°, consists principally of dipentene,
C10H10. The third fraction of about 25 per cent., distilling between
87° and 91°, consists of linalool, C10H18O. The fourth fraction, 90°
to 105° (approximately 20 per cent.), having the pronounced berga-
mot odor, consists of linalool (linalyl) acetate, C₁H₁₂OC₂H₂O.
It is to this that the peculiar odor of bergamot is probably due.
95. WHITE ZAPOTE.-The seeds of Casimuroa edulis, growing in Mexico.
Used as a hypnotic in the hospitals of the City of Mexico. Recently in-
troduced in United States. Dose of fl'ext.: 14 to 9 m (0.1 to 0.6 Cc.).
17
SIMARUBACEÆ.
Shrubs and trees with scentless foliage; almost confined to the tropics.
Leaves generally compound and alternate. The bitter bark and wood are
employed in medicine.
QUASSIA.
96. QUASSIA.
Ger. JAMAICA QUASSIAHOLZ.
The wood of Picrasma excelsa (Swartz) Planchon, known commercially as
Jamaica Quassia, or of Quassia amara Linné (Surinam Quassia).
Botanical ChARACTERISTICS.—A tree resembling the common ash, attaining
a height of 50 or 60, or even 100, feet. Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet ;
leaflets opposite, 4 to 8 pairs. Flowers small, pale yellowish-green, in
loose panicles, polygamous. Fruit drupaceous, globose, glossy, black.
HABITAT.-Jamaica and other West India islands.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Imported in dense, tough billets, often 300
mm. (12 in.) thick, freed from the thick, tough bark. The yellowish-
white or white raspings or chips are usually employed in pharmacy.
The tissue consists mostly of prosenchyma, associated with long wood-
fibers with tapering ends, and ducts which, on transverse sections of
the wood, appear as pores; inodorous; taste intensely bitter. Quassia
QUASSIA.
157
tonic drinking cups are made from the wood on a turning lathe;
water poured into them acquires a bitterness of which the wood seems
inexhaustible.
Quas'sia amar'a Linné, Surinam Quassia, comes in much thinner
billets, and has a thin, brittle bark; it seldom reaches our market.
!
FIG. 62.-Picrasma excelsa—Branch.
It may be distinguished from the Picrasma excelsa (Jamaica quassia)
by the fact that the medullary rays in the former consist of single
rows of cells, while those of the latter consist of three rows each.
The cells composing the rays in the Q. amara are of equal size, and
their radial walls appear wavy in tangential section; whereas the cor-
responding cells in P. excelsa are of variable size and exhibit regu-
158
SIMARUBACEÆ.
lar walls in tangential section. According to the latest authority, it
is interesting to note that the quassia now official in the U. S. P. is
not a quassia at all, but a simaruba, for which the Pharmacopœia
retains the name of Picrasma excelsa.
Powder.-Light yellow. Characteristic elements: Ducts large; with bor-
dered pits and simple pores; wood fibers thin-walled, oblique pores; cells of
medullary rays and crystal fibers with prisms of calcium oxalate; stone cells only
present in bark tissue and in Surinam quassia.
A
B
C
FIG. 63.—Quassia-Cross-section of wood. (65 diam.) A, Water tube. B, Medullary ray. C, Wood
fibers. (Photomicrograph.)
CONSTITUENTS.—Picras'ma excel'sa contains a bitter neutral principle,
picrasmin, Quas'sia amar'a, an analogous principle, quassin, both
soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform. The principles can easily
be obtained from the precipitated tannate by mixing it with lead car-
bonate, drying, and extracting with alcohol. They crystallize from
alcoholic solution in needles; purified by recrystallization. Quassia
contains no tannin, and therefore can be prescribed with salts of
iron.
QUASSIÆ CORTEX-CHAPARRO AMARGOSO.
159
Preparation of Quassin.-Neutralize infusion with NaOH; add tannin to
precipitate the neutral principle; heat with lead oxide or lime to decompose
precipitate, and dissolve out with alcohol. White, opaque, very bitter. Solu-
ble in hot alcohol, chloroform; slowly in water.
Preparation of Picrasmin.-Precipitate tannate with lead acetate, the former
obtained by precipitating the neutral infusion with tannin. In needles; very
soluble in hot alcohol, chloroform, acetic acid, but sparingly in water.
ACTION AND USES.-A valuable simple bitter tonic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.). It is poisonous to insects, a strong infusion being often
used as a parasiticide on animals.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Quassiæ,.
Fluidextractum Quassiæ,
Tinctura Quassia (20 per cent.), ..
Dose:
I to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
5 to 30 my (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
97. QUASSIÆ CORTEX.-QUASSIA BARK. The bark of Picræ'na excel'sa
Lindley. In flat or curved pieces 5 mm. (in.) or more thick. The outer
surface is of a dark gray color and longitudinally furrowed; inner surface
yellowish-white and smooth; inodorous; very bitter. The bark of Surinam
Quassia is much thinner. These barks have the same constituents and are
used for the same purposes as the wood-as tonics.
98. SIMARUBA. The root-bark of Simaru'ba officina'lis De Candolle.
Habitat: Northern South America and West Indies. In curved or quilled
pieces about 50 to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) long, and 3 mm. (} in.) thick; it is
of a yellowish-white color, generally deprived of the yellowish or brownish
periderm; inner surface light brown, finely striate; bast coarsely fibrous,
tough, flexible, the fibers easily separable; inodorous; very bitter. It con-
tains probably quassin or picrasmin, some resin, and a trace of volatile
oil. Tonic, used in dysentery and chronic diarrhea. Dose: 8 to 30 gr.
(0.5 to 2 Gm.), in infusion or decoction.
99. CEDRON.-CEDRON SEED. From Sima'ba ce'dron Planch, a South
American tree. These seeds are used by the natives as a remedy for the
bite of poisonous serpents and insects. Cerebral sedative, antispasmodic,
and antiperiodic; poisonous. Dose of fluidextract: 1 to 8 m (0.065 to
0.5 Cc.).
100. AILANTHUS.-TREE of HEAVEN. CHINESE SUMAC. The bark of
Ailanth'us glandulo'sa Des Fontaines, a common shade tree. The powder
is of a greenish yellow color, and has a strong, narcotic, nauseating odor.
A powerful nerve-depressant and antispasmodic, used in asthma, hiccough,
twitching of the muscles, epilepsy, etc. When chewed, it produces a
general sense of uneasiness, weakness, dazzling, cold sweats, shivering,
nausea, etc., similar to that produced by tobacco. These effects depend
upon a volatile oil, which is so powerful that persons preparing the extract
are often thus affected by the vapor. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
101. CASCARA AMARGA.—HONDURAS BARK. From undetermined species
of Picram'næa. A valuable alterative, claimed to be almost a specific in
syphilitic affections; it contains an alkaloid, picramnine. The use of
tobacco and alcohol is said to counteract its action. Dose: 30 to 60 gr.
(2 to 4 Gm.).
101. CHAPARRO AMARGOSO.-Castela Nicholsoni Hook.
AMARGOSA.
Bark of root. West Indies and along the Rio Grande in Mexico and Texas.
Preparation: Fluidextract. Properties: Tonic, antiperiodic, astringent.
Uses: Considered a specific for diarrhea. Dose: 30 to 60 minims. In
pieces about ten inches long by one in width and a quarter in thickness.
Outer portion composed of a corky layer inch thick and ash-gray in
color. Inner side of a dirty yellowish color; slightly striated. Fracture
brittle but fibrous. Slightly aromatic. Very bitter.
160
BURSERACEÆ.
BURSERACEÆ.
Tropical trees and shrubs abounding in resinous and oily secretions. Drugs of
the order are: Myrrha (102); Olibanum (103); Bdellium (104), and Elemï (105).
MYRRH.
102. MYRRHA.-MYRRH.
Ger. MYRRHE.
A gum-resin exuding spontaneously from the stem of Commiph'ora myr'rha
Engler and other species.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—-A shrub forming the chief underwood of the
Arabian and African forests along the shores of the Red Sea. Squamose,
FIG. 64.-Commiphora myrrha-Branch.
spinescent branches, with pale,
ash-gray, odorous bark; leaves
ternate; flowers solitary, green-
ish; fruit drupaceous, with the
persistent calyx attached.
SOURCE.-Myrrh is now imported
from the East Indies, where
it is brought from Arabia and
the northeastern coast of
Africa. It is usually im-
ported in chests containing
from one hundred to two
hundred pounds.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Irregu-
lar masses of agglutinated
tears, varying from small
grains up to pieces about the
size of an egg, or sometimes
much larger; of a reddish-
yellow to a reddish-brown.
color, dusty, opaque, waxy,
and unctuous. Freshly
broken, the shining surface
often shows characteristic
white marks or streaks.
Odor pleasant, balsamic;
taste bitter, aromatic. This
description applies to the
best Turkey-official myrrh.
The India variety comes in darker pieces, more opaque, less odorous,
and abounding in impurities. Bdellium and other gummy or resinous
OLIBANUM-ELEMI.
161
substances are often mixed with it. False myrrh is the name some-
times given to these other gummy and resinous substances. As it is
difficult to detect adulteration when it is in the powdered form, it is
best purchased in mass. The best variety yields a brownish-yellow
tincture, which acquires a purple tint upon the addition of nitric acid.
A tincture which does not show this color reaction betrays an impure
article, which should be rejected.
CONSTITUENTS.-A volatile oil, myrrhol (3 to 4 per cent.); a bitter
principle; a resin, 35 per cent., and gum, 60 per cent., forming
with water a yellowish or brownish emulsion, which deposits a sedi-
ment upon standing. Recent investigations of Tschirch and others,
have cleared up many obscure points regarding the chemistry of
the resins in such drugs as myrrh. An excellent classification of the
resins is found in a volume entitled "Pharmacopedia," by White
and Humphrey, London. Myrrh of good quality should contain not
more than 70 per cent. of matter insoluble in alcohol, and leave not
more than 10 per cent. of ash.
ACTION AND USES.-A stomachic, carminative, and emmenagogue. Used
mostly in mouth-washes. Dose: 2.5 to 15 gr. (0.15 to 1 Gm.), in pills
and emulsion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Myrrhæ (20 per cent.),
Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhæ (10 per cent.
of each, with glycyrrhiza 10 per cent.),
Mistura Ferri Composita (1.8 per
cent., with ferrous sulphate, potassium
carbonate, sugar, spirits of lavender,
and rose water),
.Dose: 10 to 60 m (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
Pilulæ Aloes et Myrrhæ, I gr. (.06 Gm.),
103. OLIBANUM.-FRANKINCENSE.
to 2 fl. oz. (2 to 8 Cc.).
to 2 fl. oz. (15 to 60 Cc.).
2 to 5 pills.
A gum-resin exuding from incisions into
the bark of Boswel'lia carte'rii Birdwood. Habitat: Eastern Africa and
Southern Arabia. In tears of various shapes, generally rounded; yellow-
ish or pale brown, thickly covered with a white dust; fracture dull, waxy,
pale yellowish or reddish; softens when chewed; odor agreeably aromatic,
stronger on heating; taste terebinthinate, somewhat bitter, but not un-
pleasant. Contains a volatile oil, a gum resembling gum arabic, and a
resin, forming with water a pure white emulsion. Rarely used medicinally;
mostly used for fragrant fumigations and pastilles, and as an altar incense.
104. BDELLIUM.-A gum-resin obtained from Commi'phora mu'kul Hooker
and from C. africana Engler. Habitat: (1) East India; (2) Western
Africa. (1) Dusty pieces breaking with a dark brown, conchoidal fracture;
translucent in thin sections; (2) irregular, dusty tears, breaking with a
yellowish to brown-red, waxy, angular fracture. Contains resin, volatile oil,
and gum.
Odor and taste resemble myrrh. Used for the same purposes.
105. ELEMI.—MANILA ELEMI. An oleoresin exuding from incisions in Cana'-
rium commu'ne (?) Linné. Habitat: Philippine Islands. A soft, unctuous
substance, colorless when pure, becoming firmer and yellow with age;
often contaminated with carbonaceous matter, which renders it grayish or
blackish. It has a strong, pleasant odor, like lemon and fennel; taste
II
162
MELIACEÆ ILICINEÆ.
bitter, disagreeable, and pungent. Contains volatile oil, resin, elemic acid,
and breidin, a crystalline principle, soluble in water. Used in plasters
and ointments as a stimulant and irritant.
MELIACEÆ.
Tropical trees, rarely undershrubs, with mostly pinnately compound leaves.
The order contains many plants which have acrid, bitter, and astringent prop-
erties. None official.
106. MAREGAMIA ALATA.—Goanese IPECAC. (Root.) Habitat: Western
India. Expectorant and emetic. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.); as
an emetic, 5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
107. COCILLANA.-The bark of an undetermined species of Guarea, a large
Bolivian tree. It is a new drug and has not yet been fully tested, but
experiments thus far have shown it to possess expectorant and emetic
properties similar to ipecac. Dose of fluidextract: 10 to 30 m (0.6 to
2 Cc.).
108. AZEDARACH.-MARGOSA BARK. The root-bark of Me'lia azed'arach
Linné. Habitat: China and India; cultivated in Southern United States.
Fibrous pieces about 5 mm. ( in.) thick, and 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in.)
wide. The outer surface is reddish-brown, with irregular, blackish, longi-
tudinal ridges. The inner surface is yellowish-white to brown, and striated
longitudinally; fracture fibrous; inodorous; taste sweetish, acrid, and bitter.
If collected from old roots, the bark must be freed from the corky layer.
The active principle is a yellowish-white resin. Azedarach was once
extensively used in the Southern States as an anthelmintic. Dose: 15 to
60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in decoction.
ILICINEÆ.-Holly Family.
Trees and shrubs indigenous to tropical and temperate climates. Leaves
coriaceous, evergreen.
109. ILEX OPACA Aiton.-HOLLY. (Leaves.) Petiolate, about 50 mm. (2
in.) long, leathery, smooth; inodorous; taste mucilaginous, bitter, and
astringent. They contain a bitter principle, ilicin, and tannin. Demul-
cent, tonic, and emetic. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
110. ILEX PARAGUAYENSIS Lambert. PARAGUAY TEA. (Leaves.) Hab-
itat: Brazil and Argentine Republic. Lance-oblong, about 50 mm. (2
in.) long, on a short petiole; surface smooth; margin few-toothed. The
maté of the market is a coarse, dark powder, slightly roasted, with a tea-
like odor and a bitter, astringent taste. Contains caffeine, giving it prop-
erties differing only slightly from tea, for which it is used as a substitute
by the natives.
111. PRINOS.-BLACK ALDER. WINTERBERRY. The bark of I'lex verticil-
la'ta Gray. Habitat: North America, in swampy thickets. Thin, yellow-
ish-green fragments, usually deprived of the grayish or brownish periderm,
which, when present, is marked with whitish patches and black lines
and dots; inodorous; taste bitter and slightly astringent. It contains
tannin, wax, sugar, resin, starch, chlorophyll, and a yellow, amorphous,
bitter principle. Used as a tonic, antiperiodic, and astringent. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).

EUONYMUS.
163
CELASTRINACEAE.-Staff-tree Family.
Small trees and shrubs, sometimes climbing.
Leaves alternate, rarely oppo-
site, often coriaceous. A peculiarity of the flowers is that the perigynous stamens
are inserted on the disk which fills the bottom of the calyx and sometimes covers
the ovary. Fruit a capsule, an indehiscent drupe, or a samara. Seeds furnished
with a pulpy, colored, cupular aril.
WAHOO.
112. EUONYMUS.-EUONYMUS.
Ger. SPILLBAUMRINDE.
The dried bark of the root of Euon'ymus atropurpu'reus Jacquin.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tall, ornamental shrub, 6 to 14 feet high; leaves
petiolate, oval-oblong; flowers dark purple, in fours; pods smooth, deeply
lobed; seeds inclosed in a red aril. Ornamental in autumn from its copious
crimson fruit, drooping in long peduncles.
HABITAT.-United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In quilled or curved pieces about 2 mm. (12
in.) thick. The periderm is of an ash-gray color, covered with
blackish patches or ridges, and removable in scales from the
whitish or yellowish-brown
inner bark; fracture, smooth and
short. It contains a hygroscopic
tissue, which readily absorbs mois-
ture, thus becoming less brittle;
odor distinct; taste sweetish, bitter
and somewhat acrid. It is some-
times mixed with branches and
pieces of the wood.
Powder. Light brown. Characteristic
elements: Sclerenchyma consisting of long,
thin-walled bast fibers; ducts and wood
fibers sometimes present; spherical starch
grains and rosette-shaped calcium oxalate
crystals also present.
FIG. 65. Cross-section of Wahoo bark.
Magnified 15 diam.
CONSTITUENTS.-Its chief constituent
of therapeutic value, euonymin,
is bitter, amorphous, and precipitated from its solution by phospho-
molybdic acid and lead subacetate. This product is not to be con-
founded with a resinoid of the same name (see below). The bark
also contains atropurpurin, asparagin, euonic acid, fixed oil, and
albumen.
164
RHAMNACEÆ.
Preparation of Euonymin.-Add chloroform to a dilute alcoholic tincture
and shake; separate chloroformic solution and evaporate; treat residue with
ether, then alcohol, and lead acetate; add H₂S to precipitate lead; finally evap-
orate. Soluble in ether, alcohol, and water. The eclectic resinoid, by this
name, is a dried precipitate, resulting when concentrated alcoholic tincture is
added to water.
ACTION AND USES.-A cholagogue cathartic in doses of 0.8 to 30 gr. (0.5
to 2 Gm.); also tonic and laxative.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Euonymi (From Fl'ext.),. Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
Fluidextractum Euonymi,
to 2 fl.dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
113. CELASTRUS SCANDENS Linné. CLIMBING STAFF-TREE. FALSE
BITTER-SWEET. Habitat: North America. (Root-bark.) Alterative, dia-
phoretic, diuretic, and emetic; has been used in chronic affections of the
liver.
Dose of fluidextract: 1 to 2 fl dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
RHAMNACEÆ.-Buckthorn Family.
Shrubs or small trees with simple leaves; branches somewhat spinescent.
Flowers somewhat diœcious. Fruit an indehiscent, fleshy, winged drupe, with
a hard, woody endocarp, or a pod not arilled.
BUCKTHORN.
114. FRANGULA.-FRANGULA.
Ger. FAULBAUMRINDE.
The dried bark of the stem and branches of Rham'nus fran'gula Linné, collected at
least one year before using.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—An elegant arborescent shrub, known as the
berry-bearing alder. Leaves entire, with about 7 pairs of nearly opposite
parallel veins. Flowers perfect, style simple; the fleshy berry is round,
red, and on ripening becomes black and juicy.
23
HABITAT.-Europe and Northern Asia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Quilled, about 1 mm. (2 in.) thick; outer
surface grayish-brown, or blackish-brown, with numerous small,
whitish, transversely-elongated lenticels and occasional patches of
foliaceous lichens; inner surface smooth, pale brownish-yellow;
fracture in the outer layer short, of a purplish tint; in the inner layer
fibrous and pale yellow; when masticated, coloring the saliva yellow;
odor distinct; taste sweetish and bitterish.
Medullary rays not converging at the outer ends (distinction from
Rhamnus Purshiana); stone cells absent (distinction from Rhamnus
Purshiana and Rhamnus Californica).
Powder.-Light yellowish-brown, red with alkalies. Characteristic elements:
The most prominent are the sclerenchyma with long, thick-walled bast fibers,
FRANGULA.
165
porous, with crystal fibers containing small crystals of calcium oxalate. Less
important is the outer and inner bark cells, the latter are without coloring-
matter.
CONSTITUENTS.-Frangulin, or rhamno-xanthin, C20H20O10, is a crystal-
line, lemon-yellow, odorless, tasteless glucoside; and emodin, a red-
dish principle, exists in the old bark; these develop by age. Two
•
~1~
FIG. 66.-Rhamnus frangula-Branch.
products are obtained from frangulin by hydrolysis-emodin, C15H10-
Os, and rhamnose, C,H12O5. Frangula-emodin differs from the
rhubarb-emodin in melting-point, and in some color reactions.
Senna and aloes also contain an isomeric emodin. (See Rhamnus
Purshiana.)
Preparation of Frangulin.-Macerate the bark for four days in carbon disul-
phide. Evaporate; exhaust residue with alcohol; evaporate alcoholic solution

166
RHAMNACEÆ.
to dryness; crystallize from ethereal solution. Forms sublimable yellow crys-
tals; becomes purple when treated with alkalies. Dyes cotton, silk, wool, etc.,
yellow.
ACTION AND USES.-A mild laxative or cathartic, acting like senna and
often used in its stead. Dose: to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Frangulæ,
Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (1.3 to 8 Cc.).
115. RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.-CASCARA SAGRADA.
CHITTEM BARK.
The dried bark of Rham'nus purshian'a De Candolle, collected at least one year
before using.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Plants of this species of Rhamnus attain a
height of 10 to 20 feet. The leaves are ovoid, 3 to 5 in, in length, and about
in. in their greatest width, serrate except at base. Flowers are small
and white, appearing after the leaves have matured. The fruit is a plain,
A
B
C
FIG. 67.-Rhamnus frangula-Cross-section of bark. (37 diam.) A, Cork. B, Group of bast
fibers. C Medullary ray. (Photomicrograph.)
round, black berry about in. in diameter, and contains three seeds.
This species differs from other species of Rhamnus in that it is a larger
tree and bears a larger fruit.
SOURCE.-Several allied species growing in the cascara district in Cali-
fornia seem to contribute the cascara sagrada bark of the market.
The official species grows abundantly in Northern California, Oregon,
and Washington. "If the bark comes and is actually collected from
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.
167
Northern California, it is presumptive evidence that it is genuine.
The probabilities of adulteration increase with its southward sources,
and if collected in, or south of, Central California, it is to be looked
upon with greatest suspicion" (Rusby).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Curved pieces or quills 1 to 4 mm. (z'g to † in.)
thick, and about 100 mm. (4 in.) long. The outer surface is reddish
brown, frequently more or less covered with grayish or whitish lichens,
the young bark having numerous rather broad, pale-colored warts;
sometimes mottled or figured; inner surface smooth and finely striate,
5
FIG. 68.-Rhamnus purshiana-Branch.
yellowish, turning brown or nearly black on exposure; fracture short,
yellowish, of the inner layer somewhat fibrous and thick. A cross-
section shows numerous thin, almost straight, broadening medullary
rays, which run on an average about three-fourths of the distance
across the bark. Medullary rays in groups converging at their outer
ends (distinction from Rhamnus Californica); stone cells present
(distinction from Rhamnus frangula). If to a small quantity of the
powdered barks an alkaline solution be added, the color developed
in the Rhamnus Californica is a deep red, while that of R. Purshiana
is orange. Odor distinct; taste bitter and slightly acrid.

168
RHAMNACEÆ.
Powder-Yellowish-brown, colored dark orange by alkalies. Characteristic
elements: Parenchyma of cortex with starch, spherical, about 4 in diam.,
yellow coloring-matter, and aggregate calcium oxalate (10 to 15 in diam.);
sclerenchyma with bast fibers slender, thick-walled, porous; stone cells, about
50 μ in diam.: also crystal bearing fibers, with prisms of calcium oxalate (6 to
10 μ in diam.).
CONSTITUENTS.-Emodin and frangulic acid; frangulin and purshianin
-the two latter being glucosides, yielding, on hydrolysis, emodin and
sugar. The principle, emodin, is found in many purgative drugs.
Its composition, and its relation to several carbon compounds are
shown in the following:
C14H10
Anthracene
C₁4H8O2
Anthraquinone
AJ
C14H(OH)202
Chrysophanic Acid
CH,CH,(OH),O,
Emodin
B-
C-
FIG. 69.-Rhamnus purshiana-Cross-section of bark. (20 diam.) A, Cork. B, Group of bast fibers
and stone cells. C, Medullary ray. (Photomicrograph.)
Emodin is therefore said to be a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone. It is con-
tained in rhubarb, senna, aloes, etc. The resins are turned a vivid
purple-red by caustic potash. The fresh bark is active as a purgative,
causing much griping. By keeping and properly curing, however,
this griping principle is destroyed, and the bark becomes more accu-
rate in action and less likely to cause this discomfort.
Purshianin is a glucoside reported by Dohme and Englehardt. Obtained by
first removing oil, etc., from the drug by means of chloroform, then extracting the
residue with alcohol, etc. It crystallizes from acetone and ethylic acetate in dark
brown-red needles, melting at 237°. On heating with alcoholic hydrochloric
acid it yields sugar and emodin.
AMPELIDEÆ-SAPINDACEÆ.
169
ACTION AND USES.-A valuable laxative in chronic constipation. Dose:
30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Rhamni Purshianæ Aro-
maticum,
Fluidextractum Rhamni Purshianæ,
Dose: Same as Fl'ext.
15 to 45 m (1 to 3 Cc.).
116. RHAMNUS CATHARTICA.-BUCKTHORN. The fruit of Rham'nus
cathar'tica Linné. Habitat: Europe, Northern Asia, and naturalized in
North America. Small, berry-like fruits about the size of a pea, borne on
a receptacle at the end of a slender stalk; apex tipped with the style
remnants. Smooth, purplish or black when fresh, in which state they are
generally used; wrinkled on drying; four-celled, each containing a single
triangular seed, surrounded by a brownish-green pulp; odor unpleasant;
taste sweetish, afterward bitter and nauseous. They contain rhamno-
cathartin, rhamnin, sugar, gum, and tannin. A syrup is made from the
juice, having strong purgative properties. Dose of syrup: 2 to 5 fl. dr.
(8 to 20 Cc.). The green fruit treated with lime yields a pigment, sap-green.
117. CEANOTHUS.-NEw Jersey TEA. RED ROOT. The root of Ceano’-
thus america'na Linné. Habitat: North America. About 300 mm. (12
in.) long, and 12 to 25 mm. († to 1 in.) thick, contorted and knotty; bark
reddish-brown, thin, inclosing a tough, light brown wood, finely rayed;
odor none; taste astringent and bitter. It contains ceanothine, tannin,
mucilage, etc. Astringent and expectorant. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2
Gm.).
118. GOUANIA.-CHEWSTICK. The stems of Goua'nia domingen'sis Linné.
Habitat: West Indies. Brownish-gray, wrinkled pieces of the stems, with
a thin bark, and a yellowish-gray, fibrous, porous wood. It contains a
bitter principle and is used as a tonic.
Mostly climbing shrubs.
clusters opposite the leaves.
the Tropics.
119. UVA PASSA.—RAISIN.
AMPELIDEÆ.
Stems and branches nodose; tendrils and flower
Fruit a two-celled berry. Plants abounding in
The dried fruit of Vi'tis vinif'era Linné. Hab-
itat: Western Asia, Europe, and California; the Valencia raisins are the
kind generally used in pharmacy. Shriveled and pressed; brown, slightly
translucent; internally pulpy, two-celled, with two seeds in each cell;
taste sweet. Chiefly used as an agreeable saccharine addition to prepara-
tions.
120. AMPELOPSIS QUINQUEFOLIA Michaux.—AMERICAN IVY. WOOD-
BINE. (Root-bark.) Alterative, tonic, astringent, and expectorant. Dose
of fluidextract: 30 to 60 my (2 to 4 Cc.).
SAPINDACEÆ.-Soapberry Family.
Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs. Stem with watery juice, erect or climbing.
The members of the order are called soapworts because of the fruit of many
species containing a saponaceous principle. The flowers are unsymmetrical,
racemed, or panicled, the pedicels often changed into tendrils. The order
furnishes a variety of dissimilar products, as will be seen in Guarana, 121;
Æsculus glabra, 122; Æsculus hippocastanum, 123; Acer rubrum, 124; and
Macassar oil, 125.
170
SAPINDACEÆ.
GUARANA.
121. GUARANA.
Ger. GUARANA.
A dried paste consisting chiefly of the crushed or pounded seeds of Paullin'ia cupanʼa
Kunth, yielding, by the official process, 3.5 per cent. of total alkaloids.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A climbing shrub with alternate, imparipinnate
leaves on long stalks, with five oblong-oval, irregularly sinuate-dentate
leaflets 5 to 6 in. long and 2 to 3 in. broad, contracted into a shortly attenu-
ated blunt point. Flowers in axillary spicate panicles. Fruit ovoid or
pyriform, about the size of a grape, with a short, strong beak, and six
longitudinal ribs. Pericarp thin, leathery, hairy inside, inclosing lenticular,
thorny seeds resembling small horse-chestnuts, and each invested with an
easily removed, flesh-colored aril.
HABITAT.-Brazil.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In cylinders, cakes, or balls of a dark
reddish-brown color, not infrequently met with in the form of a light
reddish-brown powder. In preparing the cylinders, etc., above
referred to, the seeds deprived of arilode (papery shell) of the plant
are first roasted, then ground, kneaded with water in a heated mortar
into a pasty and pliable dough, made into forms, and dried. The
forms thus made break with an uneven fracture, black-mottled from
fragments of seeds. The drug has a peculiar characteristic chocolate-
like odor and a bitter, astringent taste afterwards sweetish.
Powder.—Reddish-brown; pasty. Characteristic elements: parenchyma
thin-walled, rather large, brown cells, with starch about 10 ; sclerenchyma
with stone cells nearly isodiametric, and bast fibers few, narrow; ducts few,
annular, scalariform.
CONSTITUENTS.—Tannic acid, not precipitated by tartar emetic or
copper, gum, albumen, starch, a trace of volatile oil, saponin, a green-
ish fixed oil, and guaranine, an alkaloid identical with caffeine or
theine. Of this it contains a much larger percentage as compared
with other caffeine-yielding drugs. For example, good black tea
gave 2.13 per cent.; coffee, 1 per cent.; Paraguay tea, 1.2 per cent.,
and guarana, 5.07 per cent.-a rather large yield for the latter.
Preparation of Guaranine.-Treat the powder with boiling water. Evapor-
ate the decoction on a water-bath to dryness, and exhaust the residue with
chloroform. Distil off chloroform, treat residue with boiling water, filter, and
evaporate the liquid to obtain caffeine (guaranine). Tea and kola can be
treated in the same way for their active constituents.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, especially beneficial in nervous headache,
and used like tea, coffee, and other drugs containing caffeine-like
principles. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Guaranæ,
Dose: 15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
•
ANACARDIACEÆ.
171
122. ÆSCULUS GLABRA Willdenow.-OHIO BUCKEYE. (Bark.) It has an
especial action on the portal circulation and the liver, and promotes the
biliary secretions. Dose of fluidextract: 3 to 5 m (0.2 to 0.3 Cc.).
123. ÆSCULUS HIPPOCASTANUM Linné.-HORSE-Chestnut. (Bark and
Fruit.) Habitat: Asia; cultivated as an ornamental tree in Europe and
North America. The bark contains a bitter glucosid, esculin, isomeric
with quinovin in cinchona bark, for which it is used as a substitute in
Europe. It is tonic, astringent, antiperiodic, narcotic, and antiseptic. The
nuts have a similar action, but in addition are antispasmodic, used chiefly
in neuralgic affections. The administration of the fluidextract has been
recently recommended as a palliative in hæmorrhoids. Dose of bark:
to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.); of the nuts: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.), generally in
fluidextract.
Preparation of Esculin.—Precipitate a decoction of the bark with lead acetate,
treat the filtrate with H2S, evaporate and recrystallize.
124. ACER RUBRUM Linné.-RED OR SWAMP MAPLE. The bark of this
indigenous maple was the favorite remedy of the Indians for sore eyes; it
is a mild astringent.
125. MACASSAR OIL.-A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Schlerche'ra
triju'ga Willdenow, a small East Indian tree which is also a source of lac.
This oil has a great reputation in its native country as a stimulating appli-
cation to promote the growth of the hair, and also as a remedy in skin
diseases, especially eczema.
ANACARDIACEAE.-Cashew Family.
Trees or shrubs with gummy, milky or resinous juice, often poisonous. Leaves
usually compound. Fruit drupaceous, not infrequently having a strong tur-
pentine odor and taste. The seeds of many species yield an abundance of bland
oil. Drugs from the order: Rhus Toxicodendron, 126; Rhus Glabra, 127; Rhus
aromatica, 128; Mastiche, 129; Terebinthina Chia, 130; Anacardium, 131;
Semecarpus, 132.
126. RHUS TOXICODENDRON.-POISON IVY. POISON OAK. The fresh
leaves of Rhus rad'icans Linné. Off. U. S. P. 1890. The leaves are
trifoliate, the terminal leaflet ovate, stalked, the lateral ones sessile,
obliquely ovate. These leaflets are about 100 mm. (4 in.) in length, with
margins entire, or coarsely toothed or indented; odorless; taste bitter,
acrid, and astringent. The dried leaves are brittle and papery, of a pale
green color. Constituents: The fresh leaves abound in an acrid, milky
juice, which blackens on exposure to the air, and in contact with the skin
causes inflammation and swelling. The acridity is due to what was for-
merly termed toxicodendric acid, the vapor of which was said to be the
cause of vesicular eruptions, but this principle has been found to be, by
Pfaff and Balch, an oil, which was given the name "toxicodendrol.' It
is very volatile, and is, therefore, nearly absent in the dried leaves, rendering
them almost inert. They also contain a tannin producing greenish pre-
cipitates with iron salts, wax, fixed oil, resin, etc.
Preparation of Toxicodendric Acid. To bruised leaves add Ca(OH)2; macerate
with water; express; add H₂SO,; distil. The condensed vapor is a very acrid
liquid (see above), which causes the characteristic vesicular eruption of ivy-
poison.
Local irritant and rubefacient. Used in treatment of eczema, but is no
longer in vogue. Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
172
ANACARDIACEÆ.
127. RHUS GLABRA.-RHUS GLABRA.
Ger. SUMACH.
The dried fruit of Rhus gla'bra Linné.
SUMAC.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Spreading shrub of thickets and waste grounds,
with smooth branches, odd, pinnate leaves of 11 to 31 leaflets, and greenish
flower, succeeded by hairy, crimson, berry-like drupes, in large, terminal
thyrsoid pannicles.
·
HABITAT.-North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Berries (drupes) about 3 mm. ( in.) in diam-
eter, densely covered with a dark-red down. The sarcocarp
(the outer portion of a stone fruit) is composed of two layers, the
outer being crimson, and the inner whitish; putamen (stone) flattish,
ovoid, smooth. Inodorous; taste acidulous and astringent.
Powder.-Dark reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Thick-walled cells
of testa, porous; many celled trichomes deep red in color; seldom dispensed
as powder.
CONSTITUENTS.-The acidity of the fruit is due to the acid calcium
and potassium malates present; there are also tannic and gallic
acid, a red coloring-matter, etc.
ACTION AND USES.-Astringent and refrigerant. Used as a gargle in the
form of decoction or fluidextract. Dose: 30 gr. (2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Rhois Glabræ,
.Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
128. RHUS AROMATICA Aiton (Var. Trilobata Gray).-Sweet SumacH.
An indigenous bush, with leaves smaller than those of R. glabra, and un-
pleasantly scented. (Root-bark.) It acts as an excitant to the unstriped
muscular fiber, particularly of the bladder, and is therefore an efficient
remedy in incontinence of urine. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
MASTIC.
129. MASTICHE.
Ger. MASTIX.
A concrete resinous exudation from Pista'cia lentis'cus Linné.
Botanical ChaRACTERISTICS.—A shrub about 12 feet high; leaflets 8 to 10,
small, oval-lanceolate; petiole winged. Flowers dioecious, small, apetalous;
males in compound amentaceous racemes, females in more lax compound
racemes. Fruit a small, roundish drupe, brownish-red.
HABITAT.-Mediterranean Basin, produced chiefly in the island of
Scio.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A handsome-appearing resin, globular, some-
what elongated, yellowish, translucent tears about the size of a
MASTICHE.
173
pea, brittle, and dusty from powder derived from attrition; plastic
when chewed; odor balsamic; taste slight turpentine-like and
faintly bitter. Soluble in ether and nearly so in alcohol.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil 1 to 2 per cent., and two resins, mastichic
acid (alpha-resin), soluble in alcohol, and masticin (beta-resin), in-
soluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether.
FIG. 70.-Pistacia lentiscus-branch.
ACTION AND USES.-Mild stimulant, but rarely used internally. Dose: 30
gr. (2 Gm.). Used as a filling for carious teeth, and for making paints,
varnishes, etc.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Pilulæ Aloes et Mastiches (.04 Gm.),
Dose: 2 to 5 pills.
130. TEREBINTHINA CHIA.- CHIAN TURPENTINE. An oleo-resin from
Pista'cia terebin'thus Linné, a tree growing on the island of Scio. Inci-
sions are made and the exuding juice is allowed to fall upon smooth stones.
It is a greenish-yellow, pellucid, syrupy liquid, hardening to a transparent
mass when exposed by the evaporation of its volatile oil; odor fennel-
like; taste bitterish. It is used for destroying cancerous growths, in which
174
LEGUMINOSEÆ.
it is claimed to be very efficient.
emulsion.
Dose: 5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.), in
131. ANACARDIUM.-CASHEW NUT. The fruit of Anacar'dium occidenta’le
Linné. Habitat: North America. Kidney-shaped, about 25 mm. (1 in.)
long, invested with a grayish-brown, finely punctate pericarp containing
cardol (a reddish-yellow fixed oil, very active and poisonous). The seed
is white and consists principally of a bland fixed oil. Vermifuge and
escharotic.
132. SEMECARPUS.-ORIENTAL CASHEW Nut. The fruit of Semecar'pus
anacar'dium Linné, growing in Eastern India, a heart-shaped, somewhat
flattened nut, about 20 mm. ( in.) long, invested with a blackish-brown
pericarp containing a brown, acrid, vesicating oil. Used as a local irritant.
LEGUMINOSE.-Pulse Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees with alternate and usually compound leaves. Flowers
papilionaceous, or rarely regular. Stamens usually ten and mostly monadelphous
or diadelphous. Pistil becoming in fruit a legume, from which the order takes
its name.
Most of the plants are innoxious; the marked exception to the rule,
however, is the calabar bean.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Leguminosæ.
I. Cellular.
GLYCYRRHIZA,
Abri Radix,.
Baptisia,
Erythrophlæum,
·
Cercis,
Saraca,
Piscidia,.
·
HÆMATOXYLON,
SANTALUM
RUBRUM,
SENNA,
Cassia Marilandica,
Melilotus,
II. Non-cellular.
Root, 133.
""
134.
Stylosanthes,
Galega,
136.
Bark, 137.
138.
Trifolium Pratense,
Trifolium Repens,
SCOPARIUS,
·
((
139.
140.
Wood, 141.
"
142.
Leaves, 143.
144.
Herb, 145.
CASSIA FISTULA,
Ceratonia,
TAMARINDUS,
Dipteryx,
Abri Semen,.
Fænum Græcum,
PHYSOSTIGMA,
Mucuna,
Herb, 147.
((
((
147 a.
146.
146 a.
148.
Fruit, 149.
·
150.
((
151.
152.
Seed, 135.
""
153.
154.
Hairs, 155.
Araroba,
ACACIA,
TRAGACANTHA,
CATECHU )
....
·
Powder, 156
OLEUM
COPAIBÆ,
Gum, 157.
158.
Extractive, 159.
Pongamia,
Copal, .
BALSAMUM
PERUVIANUM,
(Gambir),
KINO,
160.
EXTRACTUM
"(
GLYCYRRHIZÆ,
133 a.
BALSAMUM
TOLUTANUM,
COPAIBA,
Oleo-resin, 161.
Volatile Oil, 161 a.
Fixed Oil, 162.
Resin, 163.
Balsam, 164.
165.
133. GLYCYRRHIZA.—GLYCYRRHIZA.
LICORICE ROOT.
Ger. SÜSSHOLZWURZEL.
The dried rhizome and root of Glycyrrhiza gla’bra Linné, and Glycyrrhiza
glandulif'era Waldstein et Kittaibel. Spanish and Russian respectively.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Plants 4 to 5 feet high. Leaves imparipin-
nate; leaflets about 13, oval. Racemes axillary, flowers distinct, pale blue.
Legume ovate, compressed.
GLYCYRRHIZA
175
SOURCE.-Russia exports the largest amount, Syria the smallest. Par-
tiality for the Spanish root is now unwarranted; the close dig-
ging, and the limited and practically exhausted fields of Spain are
the causes of its deterioration. Russia, with its new and almost
unlimited fields, furnishes roots rich in glycyrrhizin and extractive,
much better suited for commercial purposes because better and
cheaper than the Spanish root. Anatolian root ranks between the
FIG. 71.-Glycyrrhiza glabra-Branch.
From the
Spanish and Russian in the quality of sweetness. In commerce no
attention is paid to the botanical varieties of licorice root.
root alone it is quite impossible to determine its true botanical origin,
the usual designation being from the countries of growth, as Spanish,
Russian, Anatolian, etc., although all varieties except the Spanish.
are often classified as "Greek root." Peeled root may now be pre-
pared in Russia, but Syria formerly prepared it for shipment to

176
LEGUMINOSE.
Europe, some of which found its way into the market as "peeled
Russian." This has always commanded a good price. Batoum is
the principal point of export for the Russian root, which is gathered
along the Trans-Caucasian Railway, running from Batoum on the
Black Sea to Baku on the Caspian Sea. The port of export for
Anatolia is Smyrna, while the Spanish root finds its way into com-
merce through the principal seaports of Spain.-Amer. Jour. Pharm.,
1897, p. 13.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Long, cylindrical pieces from 5 to 25 mm.
(to 1 in.) in diameter; externally dark-brown, longitudinally
A
B
C
D
F
E
FIG. 72.-Glycyrrhiza-Cross-section of root. (13 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex. C,
Medullary ray. D, Xylem. E, Medulla. F, Water tube. (Photomicrograph.)
wrinkled; internally of a light-yellow color; pliable, fibrous,
tough, readily tearing into long, fibrous strips. Odor peculiar,
earthy; taste sweetish, afterward acrid. A cross-section shows a
rather thick bark, the inner layer of which is composed principally
of bast fibers. The meditullium is made up of three kinds of
cells, ligneous, with oblique ends, parenchymatous, almost cubical,
and large pitted ducts giving to the wood a porous appearance. Wood-
wedges narrow, separated by distinct medullary rays.
Glycyrrhiza glandulifera, so-called Russian, is thicker, less sweet,
and more acrid than G. glabra (Spanish).
Powder, yellow. Characteristic elements: parenchyma of cortex thin-
walled, medium sized, with simple, few compound, spheroidal starch grains
2 to 20 in diam, and calcium oxalate prisms; sclerenchyma with long bast
GLYCYRRHIZA.
177
fibers 15 to 20 μ thick, thick-walled, some not strongly lignified. Ducts reticu-
late, porous, 60 to 175 μ broad; cork abundant in unpeeled root; crystal fibers,
in connection with bast fibers, containing prisms of calcium oxalate.
CONSTITUENTS.-Glycyrrhizin, asparagin, glycyramarin, an
acrid
resin, starch, etc. Glycyrrhizin is a glucosid, sparingly soluble in
alcohol and ether, splitting up by hydrolysis into sugar and a brown-
ish-yellow bitter substance, glycyrrhetin; it probably exists in com-
bination with ammonia.
Preparation of Glycyrrhizin.—Obtained from the cold infusion (from which
albumen has been removed by heat) by precipitating with H2SO4. Purify
precipitate by dissolving in very weak ammonia water 1 to 10, filtering, and
evaporating.
ACTION AND USES.-Expectorant and demulcent in bronchial affections.
Generally used to disguise the disagreeable taste of other medicines.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Glycyrrhizæ,.
Extractum Glycyrrhizæ Purum,
Mistura Glycyrrhizæ Composita (3)
per cent. of extract, with wine of
antimony, paregoric, sweet spirits
of niter, syrup, and mucilage of
acacia),
Glycyrrhizinum Ammoniatum,
Pulvis Glycyrrhizæ Compositus (23.6
per cent., with senna, washed sulphur,
oil of fennel, and sugar),.
Dose: 15 to 60 пy (1 to 4 Сc.).
5 to 60 gr. (0.3 to 4 Gm.).
2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.)..
5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
Besides these it forms a sweetening ingredient in many other official preparations.
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, U. S.-Extract of Licorice.
Made by evaporating the aqueous extract of the root. It is found
in market in black, brittle, cylindrical rolls about 150 mm. (6 in.)
long; flexible when warm, but when dry breaks with a brittle, con-
choidal fracture, showing a glossy surface; odor characteristic; taste
sweet. It yields a brown powder. It contains glycyrrhizin, both
free and combined with ammonia, to which combination its sweetness
is due, glycyrrhizin itself being almost tasteless. It is an excellent
demulcent, the presence of a small piece in the mouth often allaying
cough by coating and thus protecting the irritated membrane. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Trochisci Ammonii Chloridi (each troche contain-
ing about 3 grains each of glycyrrhiza and 1 of
ammonium chloride, with sugar, tragacanth, and
syrup of tolu),...
Trochisci Glycyrrhizæ et Opii ( gr. Pulv. opii),..
2
.Dose: 1 or 2 troches
I or 2 troches.
12
178
LEGUMINOSÆ.
134. ABRI RADIX.-INDIAN LICORICE. The root of A'brus precato'rius
Linné, indigenous to India, naturalized in most tropical countries. Red-
dish-brown, twisted pieces, having a thin bark, and a meditullium com-
posed of alternating zones of porous wood-bundles and parenchyma,
traversed by medullary rays. Inodorous; taste bitter, afterward sweetish.
It is thought to contain glycyrrhizin, and is used as a demulcent like
glycyrrhiza.
135. ABRI SEMEN.-PRAYER BEADS. JEQUIRITY. The seeds of A'brus
precato'rius Linné. Subglobular, about 5 to 8 mm. ( to in.) long, scar-
let-red, glossy, with a black spot at the hilum; inodorous; taste bean-like.
They contain two proteids, paraglobulin, and albumose, which are irritating
to the eyes.
A weak infusion of the seed is used in granular ophthalmia.
136. BAPTISIA.—WILD INDIGO. The root of Bapti'sia tincto'ria R. Brown.
Habitat: United States. It contains baptisine (acrid, poisonous), baptisin
(a bitter glucoside), and baptin (a purgative glucoside). Chiefly used for its
antiseptic properties, in lotion and ointment, although it acts also as an
emetic and cathartic. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
137. ERYTHROPHLUM.-SASSY BARK. A poisonous bark from Ery-
throphlœ'um guineens'e Don, used as an ordeal in Africa, where the tree
grows, and therefore sometimes called doom-bark. It is in thick, warty,
curved pieces, reddish-brown, fissured. Inodorous; taste astringent and
bitter. It contains an alkaloid, erythrophleine, which gives it an action
on the heart similar to digitalis; also astringent, emetic, diaphoretic,
and analgesic. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
Preparation of Erythrophleine.-Treat concentrated aqueous solution of the
alcoholic extract of the bark with ammonia and exhaust the mixture with acetic
ether. The alkaloid is yielded on evaporation.
138. CERCIS CANADENSIS Linné.-REDBUD. The bark of this indigenous
tree has been recommended as a mild, non-irritating, but active astringent
in diarrhea and dysentery. Also used as a local application to mucous
membranes. Dose of fluidextract: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
139. SARACA INDICA Linné.-Asoca. (Bark.) Much employed by the
Hindoo physicians as a sedative in the treatment of uterine affections; it
is also astringent. Dose of fluidextract: 15 to 60 mg (1 to 4 Cc.).
140. PISCIDIA.—JAMAICA DOgwood. The bark of Piscid'ia erythri'na
Jacquin. Habitat: West Indies. Quills or curved pieces about 4 mm.
(in.) thick; externally of a dark, yellowish-gray color, ridged longitudi-
nally. Odor opium-like when broken. Taste bitter, acrid, producing a
burning sensation in the mouth. Used as a mild soporific for children
and aged persons, and for those not able to bear a strong narcotic like
opium. Dose: 15 to 45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
141. HÆMATOXYLON.-HEMATOXYLON.
LOGWOOD.
Ger. CAMPECHEHOLZ.
The heart-wood of Hæmatox'ylon campechia'num Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A tree of moderate size.
A tree of moderate size.
Leaves 2 to 4 from
the same point, pinnate; leaflets 2 to 4 pairs, obovate or obcordate. Flowers
racemose, yellow. Legume small, compressed, lanceolate, pointed at each
end, two-seeded.
HABITAT.-Central America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Usually found in commerce in the form of
HÆMATOXYLON.
179
deep, brownish-red chips. When the surface has a greenish
metallic luster, the wood has undergone fermentation and should be
rejected. Odor slight; taste sweetish, astringent.
CONSTITUENTS.-Hæmatoxylin, C10H140, sweet, colorless crystals,
giving to the wood its characteristic colors by the combined action
of the oxygen of the air and the alkaline bases existing in the wood;
it is readily soluble in hot water and alcohol, sparingly in cold water;
3.-Hæmatoxylon campechianum-Branch.
FIG. 73.-
by the action of ammonia and oxygen in the air dark purple scales
of hæmatein, C16H12O6, are formed, often observable as the fine
greenish hue upon logwood chips. This principle gives a blue color
with alkalies. Hæmatoxylon also contains tannin, fat, resin, and a
trace of volatile oil. With an alkali hæmatoxylon gives a purple
color, brazil-wood a red color, and red saunders is not affected.
Preparation of Hæmatoxylin.-To ethereal extract add water and allow to
crystallize; add a little H₂SO, or sulphite to prevent oxidation. Yellowish
prisms of sweetish taste, violet-blue, with alkalies. Soluble in alcohol and
water. Sunlight causes a red color.
ACTION AND USES.-A mild astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.),
180
LEGUMINOSÆ.
in decoction or extract. A solution of hæmatoxylon as a staining
fluid in microscopy is one of the most useful, as it stains both lignified
-R
GPL
D
·V
-FL
V, Pitted vessels. FL, Ligneous fibers.
FIG. 74.-Hamatoxylon-Cross-section of wood. R, Medullary ray, consisting of two vertical rows of
cells, to which the black line from R should be extended. V, Pitted vessels.
PL, Wood parenchyma.
and cellulose tissue, but not suberin or cutin. It is also one of the
very best nuclear stains.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Extractum Hæmatoxyli,.
Dose: 5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
142. SANTALUM RUBRUM.-RED SAUNDERS.
RED SANDALWOOD.
Ger. ROTHES-SANTELHOLZ.
The heart-wood of Pterocar'pus santali'nus Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A large tree with dark red, heavy, and com-
pact wood; a reddish juice exudes from its bark. Racemes axillary;
flowers yellow, streaked with red. Legumes orbicular.
HABITAT.-Madras.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In commerce usually in deep reddish-brown
raspings or small chips, or a coarse powder; tasteless and nearly
odorless. The wood consists mostly of the lower parts of the stem,
and thick roots, imported in irregular logs of various sizes, usually
SANTALUM RUBRUM.
181
deprived of the bark, and externally of a dark-brown color; inter-
nally of a rich red color, showing in transverse sections circles of a
lighter tint. Used in Compound Tincture of Lavender (1 per cent.).
CONSTITUENTS.-The most important constituents are the red coloring-
matter, santalin, in needles, soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid,
and alkaline solutions, but insoluble in water, and only slightly
FIG. 75.-Pterocarpus santalinus-Branch.
soluble in boiling water and santalic acid, C15H1405. The yellow
ethereal solution is turned to violet by alkalies. Santol, pterocarpin,
and homopterocarpin are also constituents.
Preparation of Santalin.-Precipitate alcoholic tincture with lead acetate;
decompose this precipitate with H2S in presence of alcohol and evaporate. Red
needles are obtained, which are inodorous, tasteless, resinous; soluble in the
alkalies with violet, and in ether with yellow color.
ACTION AND USES.-Of no value medicinally. Used in pharmacy for
coloring preparations.
182
LEGUMINOSÆ.
SENNA.
143. SENNA.—SENNA.
Ger. SENNESBLÄTTER.
The dried leaflets of Ca'ssia acutifo'lia Delile and C. angustifolia Vahl.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The acute-leaved senna, C. acutifo'lia, is a
leafy shrub 2 to 5 feet high, bearing axillary racemes of yellow flowers.
Legume flat, broadly oblong, very slightly curved inward, rounded at the
extremities, terminating in an indurated and nearly obsolete style.
SOURCE.-Alexandria senna, exported by the way of Alexandria, is
derived from Ca'ssia acutifo'lia, a species growing wild abundantly
in upper Egypt, Nubia, etc. India, senna (C. angustifolia) is ob-
tained chiefly in Arabia, reaching western ports by way of Bombay
and other Indian ports; sometimes called Mocha senna, as originally
from that port. The same plant in cultivation yields Tinnevelly
senna. The plant yields two annual crops, the best at the close of
the rainy season (September), and the other during the dry season.
B
FIG. 76.-A, Alexandria
senna. B, India
senna.
Prepared for market by the natives, who carry it
there on camels, where it is cleaned (garbled) and
sold.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Both the Alexandria and the
India senna consist of leaflets, a prominent dis-
tinction between the two being their size; the
former, the acutifolia, is described as follows: Lan-
ceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 1.5 to 3 cm. long, 5 to
8 mm. broad; apex acute, mucronate; base unequal,
acute; margin entire; upper surface light green, nearly
glabrous, midrib sometimes depressed, veins of first
order more or less prominent; under surface light
grayish-green, midrib prominent, minutely pubes-
cent, especially near the veins; petiole about 1 mm.
long; texture coriaceous, fibrous; odor slight; taste somewhat bitter.
Powder: Light green; non-secreting hairs o.1 to 0.2 mm. long, one-
celled, thick-walled, the wall of the upper part strongly cuticularized;
calcium oxalate crystals rosette-shaped or in monoclinic prisms. The
powder of Indian senna (C. angustifolia) is dark green and has rela-
tively few non-secreting hairs. (For fuller particulars of the micro-
scopical distinction of the two powders, see article by the author,
"Amer. Jour. Pharm.," June, 1897, p. 298.) The India senna is by
far a cleaner senna; senna should be free from stalks and other inert
materials, and from Argel leaves (Solenostem'ma ar'gel, N. O. Asclepi-
adex), which are thick, even at the base, and one-veined.
SENNA.
183
Powder. Light green. Characteristic elements: Stomata, roundish in out-
line in Alexandria, more elongated in India Senna. In simple powders the
mere number of hairs will distinguish between the two sennas; the shape of the
stomata will have to be examined; many of the elongated oval forms indicate
the presence of India senna; unicellular hairs, abundant in Alexandria, but few
or none in India senna. The leaves of Castanea dentata as an adulterant give
a powder that turns blue with ammonio-ferric alum. T. S.
CONSTITUENTS.-The purgative action of senna depends upon a sulphu-
retted glucoside, cathartic acid, insoluble in alcohol, soluble in
water, but rendered partially or wholly inert by prolonged evaporation
FIG. 77.-Cassia acutifolia-Branch showing flowers and fruit.
22
or boiling of its solution. Senna also contains chrysophan,
phæoretin, sennacrol, and gluco-sennin, C₂2H18O8; this latter is prob-
ably an emodin glucoside. The emodin is said to be identical with
that found in Barbadoes and Cape Aloes. The principles giving
the odor and taste to senna, also its griping action, are extracted by
alcohol, somewhat affecting the cathartic action, however.
Preparation of Cathartic Acid.-Rhubarb or senna may be treated sepa-
rately as follows: Moisten the drug with alcohol. Macerate 48 hours and per-
colate with strong alcohol till exhausted, to remove chrysophanic acid, resin, etc.
184
LEGUMINOSÆ.
Exhaust the marc with 60 per cent. alcohol. Evaporate the percolate at 50° C.
to syrup, with constant stirring. Precipitate extract with 85 per cent. alcohol
and filter to remove gum. The filtrate, after evaporating to a syrupy consistence,
is added to a large excess of absolute alcohol. The brown precipitate thus pro-
duced is spread on glass to dry. It is then in light, shining scales.
ACTION AND USES.-A prompt and efficient cathartic. Its griping
action may be prevented by combining it with an aromatic and one
of the alkaline salts, or, as before stated, by first extracting the griping
principle with alcohol. Dose: 2 to 8 dr. (8 to 30 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Infusum Sennæ Compositum (6 per
cent., with manna and Epsom salts,
each, 12 per cent., and fennel 2 per
cent.),.
Syrupus Sennæ (25 per cent. of Fl'ext.),
Fluidextractum Sennæ,.
Confectio Sennæ (10 per cent., with
cassia fistula, tamarind, prune, fig,
sugar, and oil of coriander),
Pulvis Glycyrrhizæ Compositus (18
per cent.),
•
Dose:
1 to 2 fl. oz. (30 to 75 Cc.). `
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
to 4 fl. dr. (2 to 15 Cc.).
1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
I to 2 dr.( 4 to 8 Gm.):
144. CASSIA MARILANDICA Linné.-AMERICAN SENNA. (Leaflets.) Ob-
long-lanceolate, about 25 mm. (1 in.) in length, mucronate at the apex
and uneven and short-stalked at base; lower surface lighter green than
upper surface. They have a weaker odor and taste than senna, but have
similar medicinal properties, their action depending upon the same prin-
ciple, cathartic acid.
145. MELILOTUS.-SWEET CLOVER. The flowering tops of Melilo'tus offi-
cina'lis Willdenow. The small yellowish or white flowers are in a close,
rounded raceme on an angular stem; leaves serrate, trifoliate; odor frag-
rant, honey-like; taste aromatic and bitter. They contain melilotol (a
fragrant volatile oil), coumarin (the aromatic principle of tonka), cumaric
acid, and melilotic (hydrocumaric) acid, having a honey-like odor. An
infusion is used as a stimulant and antispasmodic in whooping-cough, but
it is generally used as a local anodyne in poultices.
146. TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE Linné.-The flowering tops of this, our com-
mon red clover, are now being used quite extensively as an alterative;
they are also deobstruent and sedative in whooping-cough.
146 a. TRIFOLIUM REPENS.—WHITE CLOVER. The tops are used in whoop-
ing-cough and other spasmodic affections, in the form of infusion.
147. STYLOSANTHES ELATIOR Swartz.-PENcil FloweR. This herb is
much used in domestic practice as a uterine sedative and tonic. The
fluidextract is not miscible with water. Dose of fluidextract: 10 to 20 m
(0.6 to 1.3 Cc.).
147 a. GALEGA.—GOAT'S RUE. The herb of Galega officinalis Linné. Europe.
Recently introduced. An erect glabrous perennial, about three feet high.
Leaves alternate, oddly pinnate, and stipulate; stipules lanceolate; leaflets
smooth, lanceolate, and mucronate. Flowers in loose, axillary racemes
longer than the leaves; blue, appearing in June or July. Preparation:
Fluidextract. Properties: Vermifuge, nervous stimulant, galactagogue.
In typhoid conditions diuretic and tonic. Dose: 15 to 20 minims.
SCOPARIUS.
185
BROOM.
148. SCOPARIUS.-SCOPARIUS.
Ger. GEMEINE BESENGINSTER.
The dried tops of Cyti'sus scopa'rius (Linné) Link.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A shrub 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves minute
ternate. The leaflets obovate-oblong, entire. Flowers bright yellow, large,
axillary, with ten monadelphous stamens. Pod almost black, compressed,
hairy along the sutures. Seeds numerous.
FIG. 78.--Cytisus scoparius-Flowering branch and pod.
HABITAT.-Europe and Asia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Thin, flexible, branched twigs, pentangu-
lar and winged, nearly smooth, and of a dark greenish-brown color;
as found in the market they are usually free from the small trifoliate
leaves. Odor slight, stronger when bruised; taste very bitter.
Powder. Greenish-brown. Characteristic elements: Sclerenchyma with bast
fibers, long, thick-walled, associated with crystal fibers containing calcium
oxalate prisms; ducts, spiral, annular, and reticulate; trichomes, non-glandular
(0.5 to 0.7 in diam.), thick-walled, yellowish, one-celled; pollen, brownish;
grains, oval.
186
LEGUMINOSÆ.
2
CONSTITUENTS.-A neutral crystalline principle, scoparin, C20H20O10+
5H₂O, to which the diuretic action is due, and the colorless, vola-
tile, liquid alkaloid, sparteine, C15H28N2, acting as a powerful
cardiac tonic; this is oily, very bitter, soluble in alcohol, chloro-
form, and ether; it has been made official
as the salt, sparteinæ sulphas. Prisms
freely soluble in water. Oxidation pro-
ducts, such as oxysparteine, C15H24N₂O,
produce an increase of heart activity,
while dioxysparteine, C₁5H26N2O, produces
an inverse effect upon the heart. Spar-
teine has an aniline-like odor.
15
Preparation of Scoparin.-Allow a concentrated
decoction of broom-tops to gelatinize; express and
purify the jelly-like mass by repeated solution in
hot water, and finally in hot alcohol.
Preparation of Sparteine.-Extract plant with
acidulated water and distil concentrated liquid with
NaOH. A colorless oily liquid, forming crystalline
salts. Sulphate official.
ACTION AND USES.-Scoparius is a reliable
diuretic and laxative in small doses of 10
to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.), and is an efficient
remedy in dropsy. Dose of sparteinæ sul-
phas: to 1 gr. (0.0081 to 0.065 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Extractum Scoparii,
U.S. P., 1890,.. Dose: 15 to 60 пy (1 to 4 Сc.).
B
FIG. 79.-Cassia fistula, two-
thirds natural size. A, Ventral
view.
B, Dorsal view.
149. CASSIA FISTULA.—CASSIA FISTULA.
PURGING CASSIA.
Ger. PURGIERCASSIE.
The dried fruit of Cas'sia fist'ula Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tree from 20 to 50
feet high, with showy racemes, 1 to 2 feet long,
of bright yellow, fragrant flowers, followed by cylindrical pods of the same
length. Legume woody, indehiscent.
HABITAT.—Upper Egypt and India; extensively cultivated throughout
all tropical regions.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Cylindrical pods or legumes 450 to 600 mm.
(18 to 24 in.) long and about 25 mm. (1 in.) in diameter, with a
blackish-brown, woody pericarp; indehiscent, but with two smooth
sutures or bands on opposite sides running the whole length of the
TAMARINDUS.
187
pod, and showing the union of the two valves. The dorsal band is
marked with a fine ridge, while the ventral band is seemingly divided
into two by a shallow, longitudinal groove. The interior of the
pod consists of numerous (25 to 100) transverse cells, each con-
taining a single, flattish, glossy, red-brown seed, imbedded in
a sweet, blackish-brown pulp; odor prune-like.
CONSTITUENTS.—The pulp, which is the part used, consists mainly of
sugar (about 60 per cent.), with mucilage, pectin, albuminoids, and
organic salts.
ACTION AND USES.-A mild laxative, generally combined with other mix-
tures. Dose: 1 to 8 dr. (4 to 30 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Confectio Sennæ (16 per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
150. CERATONIA.-ST. JOHN'S BREAD. The fruit of Cerato'nia sil'iqua
Linné. Habitat: Southern Europe. Broad, flat pods, brown and glossy,
divided into six to twelve transverse cells, in each of which is a sweet, black
pulp having a single seed imbedded in it. This pulp is used as a laxative
and demulcent, but chiefly as an ingredient in expectorant mixtures.
TAMARIND.
151. TAMARINDUS.-TAMARIND.
Ger TAMARINDEN.
The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarin'dus in'dica Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The Indian date, as it is called in its native
country, is a lofty tree (60 to 80 ft.) with crooked branches, and remarkable
for its bright and elegant foliage. Leaflets 10 to 15 pairs, small, narrow,
oblong, obtuse. Flowers in racemes, of a yellow color variegated with red.
Fruit a broad legume, thickish, indehiscent, pulpy, ramified by strong
fibers.
HABITAT.-India and Africa.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A tough, reddish-brown mass, made ad-
hesive by the syrup in which the fruit is preserved. This preserved
pulp consists of a fibrous or stringy mucilaginous mass, the
thin membranous epicarp (the pericarp being removed), and numerous
large, somewhat quadrangular, brown seeds, each inclosed in a tough
membrane; inodorous; taste sweetish and acidulous.
Constituents.—Tartaric acid and acid potassium tartrate, with traces of
citric and malic acids. These organic salts amount to about 10 per
cent.
ACTION AND USES.-Laxative and refrigerant. Dose: 1 to 8 dr. (4 to
30 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Confectio Sennæ (10 per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
188
LEGUMINOSÆ.
152. DIPTERYX.-TONKA BEAN. The fruit of a large tree, Dip'teryx
odora'ta Willdenow, growing in Guiana. Oblong, flattened, rounded at
each end, 37 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) long; pericarp thin, wrinkled, of a
dark brown color, somewhat glossy, and often covered with small, white
crystals of coumarin; internally oily, pale brown; odor fragrant, similar
to vanilla; taste aromatic and bitter. Its odor is due to the aromatic,
crystalline principle coumarin. Used as a flavor, as an adulterant of
vanilla, and to flavor cigars.
·
FIG. 80.-Trigonella fænum græcum-Branch.
153. FŒNUM GRÆCUM.-FENUGREEK. The seeds of Trigonel'la fœnum
græ'cum Linné. Habitat: India and the Mediterranean Basin. Brownish
or yellowish, rhomboid seeds, about 3 mm. († in.) in diameter, often wrinkled
or distorted. They are divided into two equal lobes by a deep furrow
running from the hilum on the sharper edge, diagonally across the sides.
Odor peculiar, characteristic; taste mucilaginous and bitter. Used mostly
as a demulcent in condition-powders.

PHYSOSTIGMA.
189
154. PHYSOSTIGMA.-PHYSOSTIGMA.
Ger. CALABAR BOHNE.
CALABAR BEAN.
The ripe seed of Physostig'ma veneno'sum Balfour, yielding, by official assay,
not less than 0.15 per cent. of ether-soluble alkaloids.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A lofty, half-shrubby, twining plant, obtaining
its name from its peculiar footed stigma. Leaves trifoliate, leaflets ovate.
Flowers purplish-pink, in axillary racemes. Legume about 7 inches long.
HABITAT.-Africa.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-About the size of a pecan nut, oblong,
somewhat flattened, and kidney-shaped, invested with a light to
deep chocolate-brown testa. Along its entire convex edge there
extends a prominent black fur-
row, bordered on each side by a
reddish ridge, and traversed the
entire length by the raphe as a
little ridge in the center. This
'raphe is terminated at one end
by a small funnel-shaped de-
pression, the micropyle. Ex-
albuminous, embryo large, the
cotyledons are concavo-convex,
the concave surfaces inclosing a
rather large cavity, thus enabling
the bean to float upon water.
Nearly odorless; taste bean-like,
afterwards acrid. Spurious cala-
bar beans have been called "cali
beans" in European commerce,
those occurring the most fre-
quently belonging to the following
species: Entada scandens, E. gingalobium D. C., Mucuna urens D. C.,
and seeds of oil palms, Elais Guineensis. E. H. Holmes called atten-
tion to certain specimens of calabar beans of commerce bearing a close
resemblance to the genuine beans. They were longer, of circular cross-
section, and the hilum did not extend the full length of the bean.
They also differ chemically, as upon touching the cotyledons with a
solution of potassa a permanent yellow tint was produced, and upon
treating the spurious article similarly a deep, almost orange, color
is formed, turning to a greenish hue. It has been found that the
ordinary test-reagents for alkaloids are so sensitive for physostigmine.
FIG. 81.-Calabar Bean.
190
LEGUMINOSÆ.
(eserine) that one one-millionth part of a gram may be recognized.
The poisonous qualities reside in the seeds, especially in the cotyledons.
It has been ascertained that the leaves and stems are not poisonous.
Powder.-Dark brown. Characteristic elements: Large starch grains; fat
and colorless granular matter abundant; brownish palisade cells with coloring-
matter. Seldom used as a powder.
بس
4ο
-10x
2
FIG. 82.-Physostigma venenosum-Portion of plant and fruit.
CONSTITUENTS.-Physostigmine, C₁5H21N3O₂ (also known as eserine),
contracting the pupil of the eye; calabarine, a tetanizing principle,
a derivative of physostigmine; eseridine, C₁H23N3O3 (producing
purgation); and physosterin, a neutral principle closely related to
cholesterin. These principles are soluble in alcohol. Physostigmine
is amorphous, tasteless, reddened by potassa, soda, and lime when
exposed to the air, due to absorption of oxygen. The drug sometimes
contains over 0.15 per cent. of the alkaloid Physostigmine.
ACACIA.
191
Preparation of Physostigmine (Eserine).—Treat powdered drug (mixed with
1 per cent. tartaric acid) with water. Shake out coloring matter with ether,
make aqueous solution alkaline with an alkaline bicarbonate, and shake out
alkaloid with ether. Evaporate ethereal solution.
Preparation of Eseridine (Calabarine).—Precipitate the alkaloid from the
liquid from which physostigmine has been separated by lead subacetate and
ammonia; evaporate the filtrate, treat the residue with alcohol, precipitate with
phosphotungstic acid, and decompose with baryta. It is converted into phy-
sostigmine by hydrolysis.
Preparation of Physosterin.—Exhaust beans with petroleum ether and evap-
orate solvent.
ACTION AND USES.-Spinal sedative; poison. Dose: 1 to 4 gr. (0.065
to 0.25 Gm.). Physostigmine is a myotic.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
1
30 gr. (0.0005 to 0.00216 Gm.).
120 to
10
to
6 gr. (0.0005 to 0.0010 Gm.);
gr. (0.0064 to 0.0324 Gm.).
Physostigminæ Salicylas,.. Dose: 1 to
Physostigminæ Sulphas,.
Extractum Physostigmatis,
Tinctura Physostigmatis (10
per cent.),
10 to 40 m (0.6 to 2.6 Cc.).
155. MUCUNA.-COWAGE, OR KIWACH, the Hindustan name, vulgarly cor-
rupted into cow-itch. The hairs from the pods of Mucu'na pruriens De
Candolle, a high-climbing plant growing in tropical Africa, America, and
India. These hairs are about 3 mm. ( in.) long, stiff, brown-red, and
readily penetrate the skin, causing violent itching. Detached from the pod
(which forms an article of diet in India) by dipping it in honey and then
scraping. An electuary is used in doses of a teaspoonful to a tablespoon -
ful. Cowage acts as an anthelmintic mechanically, penetrating the
bodies of the worms and thus irritating and dislodging them.
156. ARAROBA.-GOA Powder. A mixture of neutral principles obtained
from radial fissures in the wood of a Brazilian tree, Andi'ra araro'ba
Aguiar. This powder is of a light yellow color, with a somewhat earthy
appearance, turning dark brown or purplish on exposure; somewhat crys-
talline, rough, and mixed with pieces of wood-fiber; inodorous and very
bitter. It consists chiefly of chrysarobin (Chrysarobinum, U. S.). Used
externally, in ointments, in skin diseases caused by fungi.
GUM ARABIC.
157. ACACIA.—ACACIA.
Ger. ARABISCHES GUMMI.
A gummy exudation from Aca'cia sen'egal Willdenow and of other species of
Acacia.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A small tree about 20 feet high, with a gray
bark. Leaves bi-pinnate. Flowers pale yellow, in dense spikes.
broad, three to four inches long.
Legumes
HABITAT.—The acacia tree forms dense scrubby forests in the sandy re-
gions watered by the Senegal, and in Abyssinia and Kordofan.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—In roundish, brittle tears or broken frag-
ments about the size of a pea, or larger, with an opaque
appearance, due to the numerous fissures. Inodorous; taste mu-
cilaginous and insipid. Soluble in water, forming a thick mucila-
192
LEGUMINOSÆ.
ginous liquid; insoluble in alcohol. The aqueous solution has
an acid reaction and yields gelatinous precipitates with subacetate
of lead, ferric chloride, and concentrated solution of borax. Oxalates
precipitate the calcium base. There are two kinds of "powdered
acacia" on the market, the "granulated" and the "finely dusted."
The former is more soluble and less liable to form lumps, and is,
therefore, preferable for pharmaceutical purposes.
VARIETIES AND GRADES.-The Kordofan and Senegal gums are the prod-
uct of A. Senegal. The former has been described above. Gum
Senegal, deriving its name from the river Senegal, comes in larger
tears than the former, varying in color between yellow and yellowish-
brown, being less fissured and more transparent. As to the grades
of gum, it may be said that the quality entering the market varies
exceedingly in its solubility, viscosity of its mucilage, and its color.
In the market the grades are designated by numbers, No. 1 being
the best carefully selected tears, No. 2 the next best, and so on until
several selections have been made, the remaining colored pieces con-
taining impurities being termed "sorts"; but this term is sometimes.
applied to unsorted gum arabic, often consisting of a mixture of the
lower grades. The terms "strong" and "weak” have been applied,
designating the quantity of moisture, the strong being the drier and
probably the most soluble; the weak being that which possibly swells
in water, does not completely dissolve, and hence yields a relatively
small percentage of mucilage.
Mesquite gum is obtained from Prosopis juliflora, found in South-
western America and South America. Quite abundant in some
portions of Texas and New Mexico. It occurs in colorless or amber-
brown tears; resembles gum arabic somewhat in fissures, specific
gravity, solubility, its behavior to nitric acid, and the amount of ash
yielded upon incineration (2.1 to 3 per cent.). Its aqueous solution
is not precipitated by subacetate of lead, ferric salts, or borax.
Acetate of lead, with ammonia added subsequently, yields a gelatin-
ous precipitate. These reactions, however, differ to some extent in
different samples.
CONSTITUENTS.-Arabic acid, C12H22O11, combined with calcium,
magnesium, and potassium, to the presence of which its solubil-
ity is due; boiled with dilute acid it yields arabinose or arabin sugar.
A solution of the gum is unaffected by neutral lead acetate.
The gum contains about 14 per cent. of moisture and some sugar.
Preparation of Arabic Acid. Obtained by adding alcohol to acidified (HCl)
mucilage, and drying the precipitate. It yields arabinose in prismatic crystals
when boiled with acids and possibly also galactose.
TRAGACANTHA-CATECHU.
ACTION AND USES.-Demulcent.
193
Used in pharmacy for suspending
insoluble matters in water, as in emulsions, and as an excipient.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Mucilago Acacia (34 per cent).
Syrupus Acacia (10 per cent. of acacia),. Dose: 1 to 8 fl. dr. (4 to 30 Cc.).
Pulvis Cretæ Compositus (20 per cent.), used as an excipient.
158. TRAGACANTHA.-TRAGACANTH.
GUM TRAGACANTH.
Ger. TRAGANTH.
A gummy exudation from Astra'galus gum'mifer Labillardiere, and from other
species of Astragalus.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A small, tangled, spiny bush of compact growth,
the petioles being converted into long spines. Flowers yellow, in axillary
clusters. Legume partially two-celled.
HABITAT.-Western Asia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The flake tragacanth comes in transversely
lined, curved, and contorted bands, somewhat resembling frag-
ments of oyster shell, but tough and horny; color whitish or
yellowish, translucent. Taste insipid, sometimes faintly bitterish;
inodorous. It is difficult of pulverization, made less so, however,
by the use of a warm mortar. It does not dissolve in water, but
swells up and forms a thick, gelatinous mass.
VARIETIES.-Very narrow bands or strings variously coiled. Tragacanth
in sorts-stratified or nodular, conical and subglobular pieces, more
or less brown, often adulterated with the gum of the almond and
plum trees.
CONSTITUENTS.—-Traganthin or bassorin, C.H10O5, constituting about
43 per cent., swelling up in water, but not dissolving; and arabin,
the calcium salt of gummic acid, soluble in water, but not identical
with the arabin or arabic acid of acacia.
ACTION AND USES.-Used as a demulcent, but rarely, however, on
account of its insolubility. Chiefly used in pharmacy to give con-
sistence to lozenges, etc.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Mucilago Tragacanthæ (6 per cent.).
CUTCH.
159. CATECHU.-CATECHU.
Ger. CATECHU.
An extract prepared from the heart-wood of Aca'cia cat'echu Linné (U. S. P
1890.) (See also Gambir, p. 194.)
BOTANICAL CHaracteristics.-Small tree with straggling, thorny branches,
and compact, dark red wood. Leaves bipinnate; petiole angular, with
13
194
LEGUMINOSÆ.
prickles on its under side. Flowers pale yellow. Legume about three-
seeded.
SOURCE.-The tree is common in most parts of India and Burmah, where
the export of cutch forms, next to the sale of timber, the most impor-
tant item of forest revenue. It abounds in the forests of tropical
Eastern Africa, but in many places where the tree abounds it is only
valued for its wood. In comparatively few regions is any extract
manufactured. From Acacia suma, a nearly related species growing
in Southern India, catechu is also made. The extract from these
two species of acacia furnishes a variety of catechu, but a catechu
formerly prescribed as Catechu pallidum (pale catechu), gambir, is
official in the present Pharmacopoeia and is described as follows:
GAMBIR.
GAMBIR. (CATECHU.)
An extract prepared from the leaves and twigs of Ourouparia Gambir (Hunter)
Baillon (Fam. Rubiacea). (Replacing Catechu, U. S. P. 1890. See p. 193.)
Irregular masses of cubes about 25 mm. in diameter; externally
reddish-brown, pale brownish-gray or light brown; fracture dull-
earthy, friable, crystalline; inodorous, bitterish, very astringent with
a sweetish after-taste.
Not less than 70 per cent. should be soluble in alcohol; the ash
should not be more than 5 per cent., and starch should not be present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Mainly catechu-tannic acid, 45 to 55 per cent.,
which does not produce gallic acid on exposure to air as does the
tannin of galls; it is turned blackish-green by ferric salts. Catechin
is an interesting principle which, by dry distillation, yields pyro-
catechin, or catechol, C.H.O2, which, with ferric chloride, gives a
dark green color by ammonia changing to violet.
Preparation of Catechin.-On allowing the decoction of catechu to stand
several days, crude catechin is deposited. This deposit is purified to white silky
needles by dissolving in dilute alcohol, washing with ether, and evaporating
from hot aqueous solution. It has a sweetish taste, is precipitated by albumen,
but not by gelatin.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful astringent like kino. Dose: 8 to 30
gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Gambir Composita (5 per cent.,
with saigon cinnamon 2.5 per cent.),. ..Dose: 15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.)
Trochisci Gambir (about 1 gr. in each
troche),
I or more.
KINO.
195
KINO.
160. KINO.-KINO.
Ger. KINO.
The inspissated juice of Pterocar'pus marsu'pium Roxburgh.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A leafy tree 40 to 80 feet high, with reddish-
brown bark. Leaflets 5 to 7, coriaceous, dark green, shining, 3 to 5 inches
long. Flowers yellowish-white. Legume woody, indehiscent.
SOURCE.-East Indies. We have several varieties other than the Malabar
(East India), the official kind as described above-namely, African
or Gambia kino (P. erinaceus), Palas or Bengal kino (Butea frondosa),
FIG. 83. Pterocarpus marsupium-Branch.
Botany Bay or Eucalyptus kino (E. amygdalina), from Australia, and
West Indian or Jamaica kino (Coccoloba uvifera). These all furnish
extractives known as kino.
A new kind of kino from the juice of the bark of several kinds of
Asiatic Myristica has been noticed, differing from the Malabar by
containing, in the crude state, calcium tartrate. By this characteristic
196
LEGUMINOSÆ.
it may easily be distinguished from the official and other kinos of the
market.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Small, dark reddish-brown, shining, angu-
lar fragments, much lighter and nearly transparent in thin layers.
Adheres to the teeth when chewed, and colors the saliva a deep red;
odorless; taste sweetish and astringent. The powder is of a
brownish-red color.
CONSTITUENTS.-Kino-tannic acid (colored black-green by ferric salts,
in neutral solution; violet by ferrous salts), kinoin, neutral crystal-
line prisms, pyrocatechin, kino-red, pectin, and ash.
Preparation of Kinoin.-Boil kino with dilute HCl and agitate clear solu-
tion with ether. Evaporate off the ether. Heating this to 266° F., an insoluble
amorphous kino-red is obtained.
Pyrocatechin results from the dry distillation of kino, or is obtained by treat-
ing kino with ether.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful astringent. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to
2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Kino (5 per cent.),..
.Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
161. COPAIBA.-COPAIBA.
BALSAM COPAIBA.
Ger. COPAIBA-BALSAM
The oleoresin of Copai'ba langs'dorffii* O. Kuntze, and of other species of Copaiba.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Lofty forest trees, natives of Central America,
bearing alternate, pinnate leaves. The wood of the trees is replete with
oleoresin, sometimes even to bursting.
Source and COLLECTION.—This oleoresin is derived from several species
of copaiba, as C. officinalis (Carthagena), C. langsdorffii (Sao Paulo),
C. multijuga (Para). These furnish the several commercial varieties.
Obtained by making large augur holes, square or wedge-shaped
boxes, into the center of the trunk, where the oleoresin collects.
Sometimes these openings are closed or sealed with wax, and often
the pressure from the high liquid column is said to burst the trunk
with a very loud report. A tree may yield from ten to twelve
gallons.
If 4 fluidrams of the above varieties of copaiba be mixed with
1 fluidrams of aqua ammonia and shaken in a test-tube, the mix-
ture will be clear, but milky if more alkali or fixed oil be present.
Maracaibo (Colombia copaiba) is thicker, darker, not always clear.
* Sometimes written, incorrectly, lansdorffii (Lloyd).
COPAIBA.
197
It solidifies, however, with magnesia and contains from 20 to 40 per
cent. of the volatile oil.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A more or less viscid, yellow or light brown,
transparent liquid, of about the consistence of olive oil; specific grav-
ity, 0.950 to 0.955 at 25° C. (77° Fahr.); it becomes thicker and
darker with age, the volatilization and the oxidation of the volatile
FIG. 84.-Copaiba langsdorffii-Branch.
oil leaving a greater proportion of the soft resin. Odor peculiar,
aromatic; taste bitter, acrid, and nauseous.
Para copaiba is a pale, limpid liquid containing from 60 to 90 per
cent. of volatile oil. Maranham and Rio Janeiro copaiba are of the
consistence of olive oil, and contain a somewhat smaller proportion
of volatile oil-40 to 60 per cent. Maracaibo copaiba is dark yellow
198
LEGUMINOSE.
or brownish, thick, somewhat turbid. It contains from 20 to 40 per
cent. of oil of copaiba.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, upon which its value mostly depends; a
bitter principle, and two resins, copaibic acid, C20H30O2 (soluble in
ammonia and absolute alcohol), and a viscid, non-crystalline resin.
Para copaiba contains oxycopaivic acid, C2H28O3; Maracaibo
copaiba, metacopaivic acid, C22H34O4 Copaiba contains no benzoic
nor cinnamic acids, hence the term balsam is a misnomer.
Preparation of Copaibic Acid.—Mix nine parts of copaiba and two parts of
ammonia (sp. gr. 0.95); lower the temperature to 10° C.; crystals of copaibic
acid are then obtained, which agree with abietic acid in composition, but not
in properties.
ACTION AND USES.--Stimulant, diuretic, laxative. Its principal action,
however, is on mucous membranes. Dose: 15 m (1 Cc.), in emulsion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Massa copaibæ (U.S. P. 1890) (94 per
cent.; Magnesia, 6 per cent.),……….. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
161 a. OLEUM COPAIBÆ, U. S.-OIL OF COPAIBA. A volatile
oil distilled from copaiba. A pale yellowish liquid of an aromatic,
bitterish taste, and having the general properties of the oleoresin.
It is a pure hydrocarbon having the formula C20H32. Dose: 5 to 15
m (0.3 to 1 Cc.), in emulsion.
162. PONGAMIA OIL.-KURUNG OIL. A deep yellow, or reddish-brown,
fixed oil expressed from the seeds of an East Indian tree, Ponga'mia gla'bra
Ventenat. It is used by the natives as a local application in skin diseases
and rheumatism; especially recommended in pityriasis versicolor, and
other cutaneous diseases due to fungous growth.
163. COPAL.—GUM COPAL. A resin found as a fossil in Zanzibar, or exuding
from various species and genera of trees of the natural order Leguminosa,
growing in South America, West Indies, and Africa. Yellowish or brown-
ish, irregular masses, often with a wrinkled surface; breaks with a glossy
conchoidal fracture; odorless and tasteless. Used in making varnishes.
164. BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM.-BALSAM OF PERU.
BALSAM OF PERU.
Ger. PERUVIANISCHER BALSAM.
A balsam exuded from the bruised trunk of Tolui'fera perei'ræ Baillon.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.--A leafy tree, with wood containing a liquid
balsam. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets 5 to 11, alternate. Racemes 6 to
7 inches long. Fruit a one-celled, one-seeded pod about 3 inches long;
mesocarp fibrous, the inner part with receptacles of oleoresin.
Source and COLLECTION.-This valuable tree grows in the wild forests
of San Salvador, singly or in groups. The trees, owned by individ-
BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM.
199
uals, are carefully guarded. The balsam is collected by loosening
the bark with a blunt mallet for some distance in four alternate sec-
tions so as not to kill the tree. The loosened bark soon splits; it is
set on fire and charred, leaving the wood bare. Pockets thus made
are covered with rags to absorb the exuding balsam. These, when
saturated, are thrown into boiling water, as a means of separating the
balsam, which collects at the bottom of the vessel. The annual yield
per tree is about twenty pounds. The fruit yields by expression a
white balsam (balsam blanco, white Peru balsam), having a tonka-
FIG. 85.-Toluifera pereira-Flowering branch and fruit.
like odor, which contains a crystallizable resin. The name Myroxylon,
as sometimes applied to the balsam, suggests the fact that for a long
time it was supposed to be derived from a species of Myroxylon (M.
peruiferum).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A brownish-black, oleoresinous, non-viscous
liquid, transparent in thin layers, and, by transmitted light, a bright
red-brown; heavier than water; odor balsamic and vanilla-like;
taste warm, bitterish, afterward acrid.
CONSTITUENTS.-Benzoic and cinnamic acid, cinnamein (the cinnamate
200
LEGUMINOSÆ.
5
of benzyl alcohol) constituting the greater part, about 60 per cent.;
resin 32 per cent., and small quantities of benzyl alcohol, C.H¿CH2-
CH₂OH; benzylic benzoate, C,H,(C,H,)O₂; stilbene, C₁H12; styrol,
CH¸; styracin; toluol, C,H。.
2
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, expectorant, and stomachic. Externally
in ointment. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
165. BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM.-BALSAM OF TOLU.
BALSAM OF TOLU.
Ger. TOLUBALSAM.
A balsam exuding from incisions in the trunk of Tolui'fera Balsamum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A lofty evergreen tree with warty branches;
the wood contains a liquid balsam, which exudes when incisions are made.
FIG. 86.--Toluifera balsamum-Branch and fruit.
Leaflets 7 to 8, ovate-oblong. Legume indehiscent, with winged expansions
and a winged stalk; very broad at apex.
HABITAT.-Venezuela and New Granada.
COLLECTION.—The balsam is obtained by making V-shaped incisions
ROSACEÆ.
201
through the bark and collecting the exudate in small cups or cala-
bashes. It is imported from Venezuela in tins holding from ten to
twenty-five pounds. This tapping of the tree continues for eight
months, causing the tree to become partially exhausted, showing itself
in the lessened foliage. A spurious article has been found on the
market. It has a soft consistence, is very sticky, especially when
chewed, and under the microscope shows only an occasional crystal.
On distilling a portion of this balsam with water, it was observed
to contain more of a fragrant volatile oil and less cinnamic acid than
the genuine drug.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A very viscid, yellowish-brown semi-solid, with
a sweet, fragrant odor, and feebly aromatic taste. Long kept, it grad-
ually hardens into a more or less solid mass, which is brittle in the
cold. Soluble in volatile oils, alcohol, chloroform, glacial acetic acid,
and solution of potassa. Readily fusible, and burns with an aromatic
odor.
CONSTITUENTS.-A volatile oil (chiefly toluene, C10H18), a resin, free
acids (cinnamic and benzoic), and benzylic ethers of these, princi-
pally of the former. If a thin layer of the balsam be viewed under
the microscope, numerous crystals of the free cinnamic acid are seen.
ACTION AND USES.—Stimulant expectorant, similar in action but weaker
than balsam of Peru. The syrup is used as an agreeable basis for
cough mixtures. Dose of the balsam: 8 to 30 m (0.5 to 2 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Syrupus Tolutanus (5 per cent. of tr.),.. Dose: 2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.).
Tinctura Tolutani (20 per cent.),
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
Tinctura Benzoini Composita (4 per
cent.),
15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.)
ROSACEÆ.-Rose Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with pinnate, palmate, or simple, alternate leaves.
Flowers regular, sepals usually 5, united petals 5, perigynous; stamens numer-
ous, distinct, perigynous; pistils 1 to many. The different tribes are character-
ized by the fruit-a drupe in Pruneæ, follicles in Spirææ, druples in Rubeæ,
dry akenes in Potentilleæ and Poterieæ, bony akenes in Roseæ, and pomes in
Pomeæ. Except in the seeds of the drupe-fruits, which develop the poison
hydrocyanic acid, this order is destitute of noxious qualities.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Rosaceæ.
A. Barks.
PRUNUS VIRGIN-
IANA, 166.
Choke Cherry, 167.
Malus, 170.
RUBUS, 180.
QUILLAJA, 175.
B. Seeds.
AMYGDALA
AM-
ARA, 172.
AMYGDALA DUL-
CIS, 173.
Cydonium, 171.
C. Fruits.
PRUNUM, 168.
Rubus Idæus, 181.
Crætegus, 182.
202
ROSACEÆ.
}
}
D. Leaves.
Persica, 169.
Laurocerasus, 183.
Fragaria, 184.
E. Flowers and Petals.
ROSA GALLICA,
176.
Rosa Centifolia, 177.
CUSSO, 185.
F. Rhizomes.
Tormentilla, 186.
Geum Urbanum, 187.
Geum Rivale, 188.
Gillenia 189.
G. Herbs.
Agrimonia, 190.
Potentilla, 191.
Spiræa, 192.
Rosa Canina, 178.
H. Volatile Oils.
OLEUM ROSÆ, 179.
OLEUM
AMYG-
DALÆ AMARE,
172 a.
I. Fixed Oils.
OLEUM
AMYGDA-
LÆ EXPRESSUM,
174.
FIG. 87.-Prunus serotina-Branch.
166. PRUNUS VIRGINIANA.-WILD CHERRY.
WILD CHERRY BARK.
Ger. WILDKIRSCHENRINDE.
The bark of Pru'nus sero'tina Ehrhart, collected in autumn and carefully dried
and preserved.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A large forest tree. Leaves oval-oblong or
lance-oblong, brilliant green, smooth on both sides, unequally serrate;
flowers white, in racemes; drupes purplish-black and shining; bitter.
SOURCE.-United States and Canada. Although the name Prunus vir-
PRUNUS VIRGINIANA.
203
giniana has been held as the official and medicinal name, the botanical
name is P. serotina. This leads to confusion among botanists, who
strongly urge the discontinuance of the above official title. Prunus
virginiana is the botanical name of the common choke cherry, not
of the black wild cherry. Prunus Pennsylvanica, the wild red cherry,
growing in rocky woods and along the lake shores, is frequently mis-
taken for the P. serotina.
A
B
-C
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-About 2 mm. (in.) or more in thickness,
curved or flat. The newer bark is covered with a smooth, greenish
periderm, but bark collected
from the older parts usually has
the corky layer removed, leav-
ing a rough, rust-brown sur-
face; inner surface lighter
colored, finely striate; fracture
granular. Almost inodorous,
but emits the characteristic
odor of bitter almonds when
moistened; taste astringent,
aromatic, and bitter, at the last
bitter almond-like.
STRUCTURE.-Beneath the corky
layer are found numerous clus-
ters of stone cells, forming an
interrupted zone. Just beneath
this layer the medullary rays,
which in the whole bark are
wavy, terminate very obliquely.
Between the medullary rays are
found masses of stone cells and
more elongated bast fibers.
The bark of the root is
thought to be the most active,
·G
H
FIG. 88.-Cross-section of bark of stem of Pru-
nus Virginiana (P. serotina). A. Cork.
B. Middle or green layer of bark. C. Clus-
ters of stone cells. D. Compressed sieve
tissue. E. Medullary ray. F. Fissure be-
tween medullary ray and bast. G. Bast
tissue. H. Cambium zone. I. Ducts in
mature wood.
but that of the whole tree is collected indiscriminately.
RELATIVE VALUE OF THE OLD AND NEW BARK.-Experiments by Dohme
and by Stevens have been made to decide whether the green bark is
richer in hydrocyanic acid than the older, thick, brown bark. The
results of the experiments of these gentlemen are somewhat contra-
dictory. Dohme obtains o.216 and 0.183 per cent. of HCN respec-
tively, while the older bark assays 0.167 and 0.159 per cent. Stevens
found in the older bark 0.335 per cent., while the younger assayed
only 0.25 per cent. It is probably safe to say that the older thick
bark is not so unworthy of recognition as some believe.
204
ROSACEÆ.
Powder. Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Seldom dispensed as
powder. The powder of the wild cherry bark is abundant in aggregate and
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate found in the parenchyma cells. Schneider
calls attention to the bark of the choke cherry as differing from wild cherry in
the absence of sclerenchyma cells, etc.
CONSTITUENTS.-Tannin, a bitter glucoside, resin, starch, etc. The
volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid, to which the sedative action
is due, do not preexist in the bark, but, as in the bitter almond, are
formed by the action on amygdalin, in the presence of water, of a
ferment analogous to, if not identical with, emulsin; the action
of this ferment is destroyed at a boiling temperature, and
therefore heat should never be used in making preparations of this
bark.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic and sedative. The syrup forms the basis of
many of the cough syrups. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Infusum Pruni Virginianæ (4 per cent.,
made with cold water),
Syrupus Pruni Virginianæ (15 per
cent.),
Fluidextractum Pruni Virginianæ,
Dose, 1 to 4 fl. oz. (30 to 120 Cc.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
167. CHOKE CHERRY.-The bark of Pru'nus virginia'na Linné, a small
tree growing in the Northern and Western States. Tonic and antiperiodic.
PRUNE.
168. PRUNUM.-PRUNE.
Ger. PFLAUMEN.
The partly dried ripe fruit of Pru'nus domes'tica Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The French variety, or Juliana, the principal
commercial prune, bears ovate-oblong, deep-purple drupes, not depressed
at the insertion of the stalk, and with a scarcely visible suture and no
furrow; pulp greenish and rather austere. The tree is small, with smooth
branches and elliptical leaves; flower-buds formed of one or two flowers;
petals white, oblong-ovate.
HABITAT.-Western Asia; cultivated in temperate regions. Most of
the prunes come from France, the best from Bordeaux.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Dried, shriveled, oblong, almost globular,
about 30 mm. (13 in.) long; externally brownish-black. The sarco-
carp (the medicinal portion) consists of a brownish-yellow pulp
having a sweet, acidulous taste, and surrounds a single stone (puta-
men), which is very hard, smooth or ridged, and incloses a white,
bitter seed.
CONSTITUENTS.—Sugar 12 to 25 per cent., pectin, malic acid, and salts.
The seeds contain fixed oil, amygdalin, and emulsin.
PERSICA-CYDONIUM.
205
Preparation of Amygdalin.—Obtained by solvent action of boiling alcohol
upon the "oil cake," evaporating off alcohol, fermenting residue by yeast, and
precipitating amygdalin and gum. Boiling alcohol takes up the principle
which is deposited on cooling.
ACTION AND USES.-Laxative and nutrient, as an article of food or in
laxative confections.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Confectio Sennæ (7 per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
FIG. 89.—Prunus domestica—Fruiting branch and flowering branch.
Mild seda-
to 2 Gm.).
Tonic and
169. PERSICA.—Peach LEAVES. From Pru'nus per'sica Linné.
tive, generally administered in infusion. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1
170. MALUS.—Apple TreE. The bark of Pyr'us ma'lus Linné.
febrifuge. Dose of fluidextract: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
171. CYDONIUM.-QUINCE SEED. Pyr'us cydo'nia Linné. Habitat: West-
ern Asia; cultivated. About 6 mm. († in.) long, ovate, somewhat trian-
gularly compressed, with the hilum near the pointed end; testa dark
brown, covered with a thin, mucilaginous membrane or epithelium, causing
the seeds to adhere in masses. The two cotyledons are thick and oily,
veined, with a short conical radicle. Taste and odor of the embryo like
bitter almonds, of the unbroken seed mucilaginous and insipid. The testa
contains a large amount of mucilage; the embryo, fixed oil. A decoction
is often used as a demulcent, and as an addition to eye-lotions.
206
ROSACEÆ.
172. AMYGDALA AMARA.-BITTER ALMOND.
BITTER ALMOND.
Ger. BITTERE MANDELN.
The ripe seed of Pru'nus Amyg'dalus, var. Amara, De Candolle.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A small tree, 15 to 20 feet high, with lance-
olate, glandular serrate leaves, with the petiole beset with glands. Flowers
solitary, pinkish, the style equal in length to the stamens. Seed bitter.
SOURCE. The almond tree is considered to be a native of Morocco,
Syria, Turkey, and Persia; it is doubtfully wild in Sicily, Greece,
and Anatolia, and is cultivated throughout temperate Europe, includ-
1
FIG. 90.-Prunus amygdalus-Branch, flower, and fruit.
ing England, where it ripens its fruit in the south only. It has been
unsuccessfully cultivated in the United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Oblong-ovate, flattened, about 25 mm. (1 in.)
long; testa cinnamon-brown, scurfy, marked with numerous
longitudinal lines running from a broad scar (chalaza) at the broad
end, to the hilum on the pointed end. The embryo is white and oily,
AMYGDALA DULCIS.
207
and consists of two plano-convex cotyledons, at the pointed end of
which there is a short radicle. Inodorous; bitter. When deprived
of their testa by dipping in warm water and rubbing (blanched
almonds), and triturated with water, a milk-white emulsion is formed,
which faintly emits the odor of hydrocyanic acid. The development
of this acid is due to the fact that amygdalin is decomposed by the
ferment emulsin in the presence of water, yielding, besides the volatile
oil and this acid, glucose.
CONSTITUENTS.-Fixed oil 45 per cent. and amygdalin, C20H27NO 117 a
crystalline glucoside, having a sweetish-bitter taste, and soluble in
water and hot alcohol; by the action of emulsin, a ferment existing
in the seeds, in the presence of water, this glucoside splits up
into glucose, hydrocyanic acid, and benzaldehyde, C,H,O (oil of
bitter almonds). The investigation of this reaction first disclosed
the existence and properties of the now numerous class-glucosides.
ACTION AND USES.—Sedative. From the seed is extracted the fixed oil
(173) by expression, and from the residue the volatile oil (172 a) by
distillation.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Syrupus Amygdala (Spirit of Bitter
Almond 1 per cent.),
Dose: 2 to 4 fl. dr. (8 to 15 Cc.).
172 a. OLEUM AMYGDALE AMARÆ, U. S.-OIL OF BITTER
ALMOND. A pale yellowish volatile oil obtained by macerating in
water the residue left from bitter almonds after the fixed oil has
been expressed, and distilling. It has a bitter, acrid taste, and a
strong odor of hydrocyanic acid. It consists chiefly of benzoic
aldehyde, to the oxidation of which is due the sediment, benzoic
acid, thrown down on long exposure to air. Sedative. Dose: to
I m (0.0164 to 0.0650 Cc.), in emulsion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Amygdala Amaræ (o.1 per cent.),... Dose:
Spiritus Amygdalæ Amaræ (1 per cent.),
to 2 fl.dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
5 m (0.3 Cc.).
173. AMYGDALA DULCIS.-SWEET ALMOND.
SWEET ALMOND.
Ger. SÜSSE MANDELN.
The ripe seed of Pru’nus Amyg'dalus, var. Dulcis, De Candolle.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Like Amygdala Amara, except that the style
is much longer than the stamens, and the seed is sweet.
SOURCE.-Western Asia and Barbary; extensively cultivated in Southern
Europe, Spain and Southern France chiefly supplying the market.
208
ROSACEÆ.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Closely resembles the bitter almond, but is
somewhat larger, with more convex sides, and has a bland, sweet-
ish taste, free from rancidity. When triturated with water, it forms
a milk-white emulsion, free from the odor of hydrocyanic acid.
CONSTITUENTS.-Fixed oil from 50 to 55 per cent., nitrogenous com-
pounds 25 per cent. (myrosin, vitellin, conglutin) precipitated
by acetic acid, emulsin, mucilage, and sugar amounting to about 6
per cent.
ACTION AND USES.-Nutrient and demulcent; being free from starch,
sweet almonds are often used as a diet in diabetes.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Emulsum Amygdalæ (6 per cent.),...Dose: 2 to 8 fl. oz. (60 to 240 Cc.).
Syrupus Amygdala (14 per cent. U. S.
P., 1890),..
2 to 4 fl. dr. (8 to 15 Cc.).
174. OLEUM AMYGDALE EXPRESSUM.-EXPRESSED OIL
ALMOND OIL.
OF ALMOND.
Ger MANDELOEL.
A fixed oil expressed from Bitter or Sweet Almond.
DESCRIPTION.—A thin, clear, colorless or straw-colored liquid, with a
mild, sweet taste and slight odor.
CONSTITUENTS.-Chiefly olein, with a slight quantity of palmitin.
ACTION AND USES.-Lenitive in pulmonary affections, in the form of
emulsion. Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Unguentum Aquæ Rosæ (56 per cent., with spermaceti, white wax, stronger
rose-water, and borax).
SOAPBARK.
175. QUILLAJA.—QUILLAJA.
Ger. SEIFENRINDE.
The dried bark derived of the periderm of Quilla'ja sapona'ria Molina.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tree of moderate size, with oval or oblong
leaves, which are entire or nearly so. Flowers monoecious. Fruit a follicle,
many seeded.
HABITAT.-Peru and Chili; cultivated in Hindustan.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In rather thick, flattish pieces of various sizes,
deprived of the corky layer; outer surface brownish-white, sometimes.
with patches of the reddish-brown cork adhering; when held up to
the light it shows numerous glistening crystals of calcium oxalate,
which are scattered throughout the tissue. Fracture tough and

QUILLAJA.
209
fibrous, a transverse section showing a checkered arrangement
of pale brown bast fibers imbedded in the white wood. Odorless;
taste persistently acrid. The powder is sternutatory. The powder
of quillaja has been suspected as an adulterant of senega. It is not
at all difficult to detect its presence in such admixtures, as in quillaja
powder there are found elements not at all represented in senega.
In quillaja there is a considerable amount of sclerotic tissue, numerous
bast fibers, and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Any and all
of these clearly mark the powder of quillaja, and would at once betray
its presence in the powder of senega.
A B
FIG. 91.-Quillaja-Cross-section of bark. (25 diam.) A, Medullary ray. B, Bast fibers and stone
cells. (Photomicrograph.)
Powder. Grayish. Inner parenchyma of cortex colorless (15 to 25 μ by 50
to 150 u in diam.), mostly with large, long prisms of calcium oxalate; parenchyma
of cortex with starch (3 to 10 u in diam.); sclerenchyma with bast fibers (20
to 30 μ in diam.), thick-walled, porous, occasionally branched; stone cells (50
to 150 in diam.).
CONSTITUENTS.-Its irritant property is due to the presence of saponin,
C19H30010, a mixture of the two glucosides, quillaiac acid and
sapotoxin.
Preparation of Saponin.-Exhaust quillaja with hot alcohol, from which it
separates upon cooling. Saponin is regarded as a mixture of two glucosides,
quillaiac acid and sapotoxin.
ACTION AND USES.-Containing about the same principles as senega, it
14
210
ROSACEÆ.
has been recommended as a substitute for that drug as an expectorant
in pulmonary affections. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Quillajæ.
Tinctura Quillaja (20 per cent.),
.Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
~|~
을
​FIG. 92.—Quillaja saponaria-Branch.
RED ROSE.
176. ROSA GALLICA.-Red Rose.
Ger. ESSIGROSENBLÄTTER.
The dried petals of Roʻsa gal'lica Linné, collected before expanding.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A dwarfish bush, with odd-pinnate leaves and
adnate stipules; leaflets elliptical, rugose. Flowers large, red; stamens
many. Carpels several, becoming bony akenes in fruit. Receptacle urn-
shaped, with styles rising from inner surface.
HABITAT.-Asia and Europe; cultivated.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—The buds are collected before expanding, the
OLEUM ROS.E.
2II
petals being loosely imbricated in the form of cones, or separate and
crumpled. They are roundish-obovate, with a dark red, velvety
appearance, which they retain after drying, during which process the
fresh petals lose 90 per cent. of their weight; claws yellow; odor
fragrant; taste bitter and astringent.
CONSTITUENTS.-The astringency is due principally to quercitrin, with
which their color is also doubtless connected. They contain some
tannin, fat, and volatile oil. Boiling water extracts their virtues.
ACTION AND USES.-Mild tonic and astringent; chiefly employed as a
vehicle for tonic and astringent preparations. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Rosæ,
Syrupus Rosæ (12.5 per cent.),.
Mel Rosæ (12 per cent.).
Confectio Rosa (8 per cent., with sugar,
honey, and rose-water).
Pilulæ Aloes et Mastiches (.03 Gm.), ....
Dose: 15 to 60 пy (1 to 4 Cc.).
I fl. dr. (4 Cc.).
1 to 5 pills.
177. ROSA CENTIFOLIA.-PALE ROSE. HUNDRED-LEAVED or Cabbage Rose.
The petals of Ro'sa centifo'lia Linné. Off. U. S. P. 1890. The full-
blown flower is picked off just below the calyx, and the petals separated.
They are a beautiful pink when fresh, dull brown when dry; thin and
delicate, roundish-obovate, sometimes obcordate, with a fragrant odor,
and a bitter, faintly astringent taste. They may be preserved fresh for a
considerable time by packing them in half their weight of common salt.
These petals were formerly used in making the compound syrup of sar-
saparilla, but wisely have been dropped as one of the ingredients. Con-
stituents: Malic and tartaric acids, tannin, etc. Their odor depends upon
a volatile oil existing in small quantity, about 0.04 per cent. Seldom, if
ever, used medicinally. In pharmacy used principally for preparing rose-
water.
178. ROSA CANINA.-HIPS. DOG ROSE. The fruit of Ro'sa cani'na Linné,
common in Europe. Ovoid, or pitcher-shaped, about 18 mm. († in.) long,
with a smooth, shining, red surface. It consists of the ripened fleshy
calyx, surmounted by the five calyx teeth; its cavity is hairy inside, and
contains numerous hard, hairy akenes, but these akenes and hairs are
removed before the hips are used. Taste acidulous, slightly astringent,
due to the malic and citric acids and slight quantity of tannin contained;
odorless. Refrigerant, mild astringent, and diuretic. Confection of hips
is a familiar preparation abroad.
179. OLEUM ROS.E.-OIL OF ROSE.
ATTAR OF ROSES.
Ger. ROSENOEL.
A volatile oil distilled from the fresh flowers of Ro'sa damasce'na Miller.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—From cultivated flowers growing on bushes about
6 feet high. Reliable information regarding this species of rose is difficult
to obtain. Some authors claim the flower to be "a permanently uniform
variety of Ro'sa centifolia."
SOURCE. District of Kisanlik, in southern slope of the Balkans.
212
ROSACEÆ.
DESCRIPTION.-A pale yellow liquid having a specific gravity of 0.87, an
agreeable rose odor, and sweetish taste. It solidifies between 16°
and 21° C. into a transparent solid, containing numerous slender,
iridescent crystals of the stearopten, which float on the surface when
the solid is melted, as by the heat of the hand. (See Tests in
U. S. P. for saponification value.)
CONSTITUENTS.-It consists of two parts, one of which is fragrant and
the other comparatively inodorous. The fragrant principles are
mainly geraniol and citronellol; the other a white crystalline stear-
opten, C₁6H34, melting at 36.5° to 38° C.
10
ACTION AND USES.-Used as a perfume for ointments, etc.
FIG. 93. Rubus villosus-Branch and fruit.
180. RUBUS.-RUBUS.
BLACKBERRY ROOT.
Ger. BROMBEERRINDE.
The dried bark of the rhizome of Ru'bus villo'sus Aiton, Rubus Nigrobaccus
Bailey, and Rubus cuneifolius Pursh.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A low shrub, extensively trailing, with scat-
tered prickles. Leaflets usually 3, ovate-lanceolate, serrate. Flowers in

RUBUS.
213
racemes, with leaf-like bracts; pistils numerous, becoming drupels in fruit.
Fruit aggregate.
HABITAT.-North America.
12
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In thin, tough, pliable bands 1 to 2 mm. (2/15
to in.) thick, having a blackish-gray outer surface, longitudinally
wrinkled, and a pale brown inner surface; bast layers tangential, the
fibers easily removed. Odorless; taste astringent and somewhat
bitter. The root of Rubus canadensis Linné (dewberry) very closely
resembles that of blackberry in medical properties.
Powder.-Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex,
thin-walled, with starch, spherical (3 to 7 u in diam.), thick, porous, elongated;
bast fibers, walls of medium thickness, with some starch; wood fibers, ducts and
tracheids, numerous with simple pores; cork considerable (20 to 30 in diam.);
calcium oxalate crystals, aggregate (25 to 30 in diam.).
A
E
B
C
FIG. 94. Rubus villosus-Cross-section of root, showing bark attached to wood. (17 diam.) A, Cork.
B, Medullary ray. C, Xylem. D, Water tube. E, Groups of bast fibers. (Photomicrograph.)
CONSTITUENTS.-The virtues of the bark depend chiefly upon the tannin
present, about 10 to 15 per cent.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic and astringent. From a popular domestic
remedy it has come into extensive use in the treatment of diarrhea,
dysentery, and relaxed conditions of the bowels generally. Dose:
15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Rubi,....
...Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
Syrupus Rubi (25 per cent. of fluidextract),
181. RUBUS IDEUS.-RASPBERRY. The fruit of Ru'bus idæ'us Linné. Off.
U. S. P. 1890. A collective fruit, hemispherical, about 12 mm. (in.)
broad; it consists of numerous small, red, hairy drupes united at the base
around the receptacle, from which the coalesced fruits are easily removed,
leaving a conical cavity. Contains a bright red, acidulous juice; odor
agreeable. Used only in the fresh state. The purplish-black fruit of
214
ROSACEÆ.
Rubus occidentalis Linné may be substituted for it. Constituents: Sugar,
citric and malic acids, pectin, proteids, a coloring-matter, and a trace of
volatile oil. Refrigerant. Generally used as a flavoring agent or as a
vehicle. Vehicle, Syrupus Rubi Idæi, U. S. P. 1890.
182. CRATÆGUS.—The fruit of Cratæ'gus oxyacan'tha, English Hawthorn.
Heart tonic. Its value as a cardiac stimulant and tonic has recently come
to the medical profession through Dr. M. C. Jennings, of Chicago. Dose
of fluidextract: 10 to 15 my (0.6 to 0.9 Cc.).
{"
FIG. 95. Rubus idaus-Branch.
183. LAUROCERASUS.-CHERRY LAUREL. The leaves of Pru'nus lauro-
cera'sus Linné, an ornamental shrub native to Western Asia. They con-
tain an amygdalin-like principle, laurocerasin, and a ferment. Odor
bitter, almond-like; taste aromatic and bitter. Used in making cherry-
laurel water, a preparation much employed in Europe as a sedative nar-
cotic, much as the dilute hydrocyanic acid is used here.
184. FRAGARIA VESCA Linné.-STRAWBERRY.
and diuretic. Dose: 1 dr. (4 Gm.), in infusion.
(Leaves.) Mild astringent
KOOSO.
185. CUSSO.-Kousso.
BRAYERA.
Ger. KUSSO.
The dried panicles of the pistillate flowers of Hage'nia abyssin'ica Gmelin.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A large ornamental tree with crowded-pinnate
leaves. Flowers diœcious, in panicles, small, greenish, becoming purplish
CUSSO.
215
or reddish. Male flowers-calyx bracteate, 10-sepaled; stamens 10 to 25.
Female flowers-petals linear; carpels 2, with hairy styles. Fruit a nut.
Only the female flowers are collected.
HABITAT.-Abyssinia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Small, reddish, pistillate flowers, consisting of
FIG. 96.—Hagenia abyssinica—Flowering branch, and male and female flowers.
two reddish bracts and a calyx of five reddish, hairy sepals inclosing
one or two nutlets. They come into market in cylindrical bundles
of the compressed panicles, or detached, on short, hairy peduncles;
odor tea-like; taste bitter and nauseous. In trade the "brown" and
"red" kusso are known. The former are mixed with male flowers.
216
ROSACEÆ.
In the "red," the best variety, the sepals are reddish; in the
"brown" they are greenish or brownish and smaller.
Powder.-Light brown. Characteristic elements: These are to be found in
the glandular trichomes consisting of stalks, 2 to 3 celled, head 1, 2, 4 celled;
non-glandular trichomes, one-celled, curved; few ellipsoidal pollen grains.
Powder seldom dispensed.
CONSTITUENTS. The chief constituents are kosotoxin (amorphous), a
muscle poison, and protokosin (crystalline), inactive. Kosotoxin
with baryta water yields a neutral body said to be identical with
commercial kosin, an active principle soluble in alkalies; tannin
24 per cent., and a tasteless and an acrid resin.
Preparation of Kosin.-Heat cusso repeatedly with alcohol to which calcium
hydrate has been added, boil residue with water, mix liquids, filter, and distil.
Kosin is then precipitated by treating the solution with acetic acid. Is in floccu-
lent form, soon becoming dense and resin-like. Purified by crystallization.
ACTION AND USES.-Tænifuge. Dose: 2 to 8 dr. (8 to 30 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Cusso (U. S. P. 1890),.. Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
186. TORMENTILLA.-TORMENTIL.
The rhizome of Potentil'la tormentil'la
Sibthorp. Habitat: Europe. Large, somewhat fusiform, longitudinally
wrinkled, and rough from numerous stem and rootlet scars; externally
dull reddish-brown; fracture smooth, showing a pale reddish interior, con-
sisting of one or two distinct circles of wood-fiber around a large central
pith; inodorous; taste astringent. Used as a tonic and astringent. Dose:
10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.), in powder or decoction.
187. GEUM URBANUM.—AVENS. EUROPEAN AVENS. The rhizome of Ge'um
urba’num Linné. Habitat: Europe. Short, oblong, hard, with a dark
brown, warty, and scaly surface; a cross-section shows a thin bark, and
a large, reddish pith surrounded by a circle of whitish wood. The rootlets
are long and fibrous, light brown in color, and have a comparatively thicker
bark. Odor aromatic, slightly clove-like when fresh, but nearly absent
when dry; taste aromatic, bitter, and astringent. Used as an astringent
and tonic. Dose: 15 to 45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.), in powder or decoction.
188. GEUM RIVALE Linné.—-WATER AVENS. (Rhizome. See Conspectus.)
Astringent and tonic. Dose: 15 to 45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
189. GILLENIA.-AMERICAN IPECAC. The rhizome of Gille'nia stipula'cea
Nuttall. Habitat: Western United States. A knotty rhizome, with nu-
merous tortuous, annulate rootlets, the thick bark of which is in two reddish
layers and incloses a tough, whitish, finely-rayed wood. Gillenia tri-
foliała Moench, growing east of the Allegheny Mountains, is a smaller
and less knotty rhizome, and the rootlets are nearly straight and smooth.
Both rhizomes are similar in medical properties, being mildly emetic and
cathartic, somewhat resembling ipecac in action.. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to
2 Gm.).
190. AGRIMONIA.-AGRIMONY. The herb of Agrimo'nia eupato'ria Linné.
Common in the United States west to the Rocky Mountains, and in Europe.
Tonic and astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
191. POTENTILLA CANADENSIS Linné.—CINQUEFOIL. Habitat: North
America. (Herb.) Astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in in-
fusion.
SAXIFRAGEE-HAMAMELIDACEÆ.
192. SPIRÆA TOMENTOSA Linné.—HARDHACK.
217
An indigenous herb used
as an astringent and tonic in doses of 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.). As
found in market it consists of the slender, reddish-brown stems, broken
leaves covered below with a rust-brown wool, and a few of the dull reddish
flower-petals. Odor slight, aromatic; taste astringent and bitter.
SAXIFRAGEÆ. Saxifrage Family.
193. HEUCHERA.-ALUM ROOT. The root of Heu'chera america'na Linné.
(See Conspectus.) Habitat: United States. It contains about 14 per cent.
of tannin, and is a powerful astringent in doses of 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
194. HYDRANGEA.-The root of Hydran'gea arbores'cens Linné. (See
Conspectus.) Habitat: United States. It consists of several bent,
branched roots, arising from a thick, knotty head, or, as usually seen, of
pieces of these roots cut up into various lengths. The rather thick, light
gray, or pale brown bark is longitudinally ridged and covered with rust-
colored patches, and separates easily from the tough, white, tasteless
wood; wood-wedges long, narrow; odorless; taste of bark sweetish, after-
ward pungent. Used as a diuretic and as an antilithic in those cases where
there is an alkalinity of the urine and a tendency toward the deposition
of phosphatic calculi. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
195. MITELLA NUDA Linné. COOLWORT. (Leaves.) Diuretic; used in
inflammatory and catarrhal affections of the bladder and kidneys.
CRASSULACEA.-Orpine Family.
196. SEDUM ACRE.-BITING STONE-CROP. ENGLISH MASS. The whole plant,
Se'dum a'cre Linné. Habitat: Europe; cultivated in New England gardens.
It is said to be very successful in the treatment of diphtheritic sore throat,
by dissolving and expelling the false membrane. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to
2 Gm.).
Penthoʻrum
197. PENTHORUM.-VIRGINIA STONE-CROP, The herb of
sedoi'des Linné. Astringent, demulcent, and laxative, in diseases of the
mucous membranes. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
DROSERACEAE.-Sundew Family.
(See
198. DROSERA.-SUNDEW. The herb of Drose'ra rotundifo'lia Linné.
Conspectus.) Habitat: North America and Europe. Used principally as
a pectoral in bronchitis, coughs, etc.. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
HAMAMELIDACEAE.-Witchhazel Family.
Shrubs or trees with alternate, simple leaves and deciduous stipules. Flowers
in heads or spikes, often polygamous or monœcious. Fruit a woody capsule,
2-beaked, 2-celled, 2-seeded. A family which contains but few species, but is
dispersed over both hemispheres. The wood of a tree, Parrolin, is extremely
hard, and in Persia is called iron-wood.
A. Leaves
Synopsis of Drugs from the Hamamelidaceœ.
HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA, 199.
B. Bark.
HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX, 200.
C. Balsam.
STYRAX, 201.
Liquidambar, 202.
218
HAMAMELIDACEÆ.
199. HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA.—HAMAMELIS Leaves.
WITCHHAZEL.
Ger. ZAUBER HASEL.
The dried leaves of Hamamelis virgin'iana Linné, collected in autumn and care-
fully preserved.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Woody shrub 5 to 15 feet high. Leaves oval
or obovate, crenate-dentate, obliquely cordate at base, on short petioles.
Flowers appearing very late, even in the winter, sessile, 3 or 4 together in
an involucrate, axillary, subsessile glomerule. "The small branches have
been superstitiously used for 'divining rods' to indicate the presence of
the precious metals and of deep springs of water.”
HABITAT.-North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Leaves broadly elliptical to obovate, more
or less unequal, 3.5 to 12 cm. long, 2.5 to 7 cm. broad; apex rounded,
acute or acuminate; base obliquely cordate; margin sinuate or sinu-
ate-dentate. Upper surface dark green, midrib and veins prominent,
veins of the first order running nearly parallel to the margin; under
surface light green, texture coarse, brittle; odor slight; taste astringent.
The drug is sometimes broken and in more or less compact
masses.
Powder.-Dull green. Characteristic elements: The trichomes, one-celled, in
groups of 8 to 15, radiating from a center; crystal fibers, calcium oxalate prisms,
and stomata. Seldom employed as powder.
CONSTITUENTS.-Gallic acid; hamamelo-tannic acid, C₁H₁409 + 5H₂O,
14
resin, and extractive. Distilled Extract of Witchhazel, Hama-
melis Water, Aqua Hamamelidis, is prepared from hamamelis
bark by macerating the bark in water for twenty-four hours, then
distilling the product until the distillate reaches 85 per cent. of the
bark used; then add 15 per cent. of alcohol. It has a peculiar odor,
a somewhat saccharine taste, is quite stable, and presents no phar-
maceutical, chemical, or therapeutical incompatibility. Its mode of
preparation has been to some extent a trade secret, but the above
formula furnishes a good preparation. This preparation has built up
quite an industry along the Connecticut Valley, where the distillation
of the liquid is performed almost exclusively.
ACTION AND USES.-It has come into extensive use as an astringent
in hemorrhoids and internal hemorrhages, and as a general vulner-
ary. The distillate, known as "Extract of Witchhazel," is alleged
to have properties which are not professionally recognized. Average
dose: 30 gr. (2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Hamamelidis Foliorum,... Dose: 10 to 60 ny (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
200. HÁMAMELIDIS CORTEX.-WITCHHAZEL BARK. Thin pieces covered
with an easily separable grayish or grayish-brown cork, more or
STYRAX.
219
less covered with blackish dots and scars. When deprived of this layer,
the bark is pale cinnamon-brown, fibrous. Odorless; taste astringent,
bitter, and somewhat pungent. Its medical properties are the same as
those of the leaves. The bark and twigs are official under the above title.
LIQUID STORAX.
201. STYRAX.--STORAX.
Ger. FLÜSSIGER STORAX.
A balsam obtained from the wood and inner bark of Liquid'ambar orienta'lis
Miller.
ORIGIN AND SOURCES.-Much useful and interesting information regard-
ing the history and sources of storax may be found in Flückiger's
Pharmacographia and in the Pharmacographia Indica. According
FIG. 97.-Liquidambar orientalis-Branch.
to Royle, the source of the true storax-a variety of benzoin formerly
obtained in fine tears-is Storax officinale Linné, a small tree with
smooth bark; the little of this article now obtained is used by the
churches and mosques of the countries which produce it. The official
liquid storax, however, is obtained from a different source: The
220
COMBRETACEÆ-MYRTACEÆ.
Liquidambar orientalis, growing in the southwest districts of Asia
Minor, is a gigantic tree "like the great oak, having clusters (of
berries) like those of the oak, but its berries are larger." The inner
bark of the tree is boiled in water and the balsam pressed out. A
superior kind is said to be obtained by simply pressing the bark
before it is boiled. Another kind of liquid storax is mentioned—that
which exudes naturally.
HABITAT.-Asia Minor.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-It is a viscid, gray semi-liquid, with an agree-
able odor, and a balsamic, somewhat acrid taste; a heavier dark
brown layer separates on standing.
CONSTITUENTS.-Containing a volatile oil and a resin, and cinnamic and
benzoic acids, storax is rightly classed as a balsam. Its most abun-
dant constituent is storesin, C6H58O3, existing both free and as a
cinnamic ether. Cinnamic acid exists to the extent of 6 to 12 per
cent., various ethers of it occurring, styracin being the cinnamate
of cinnamyl. Storax also contains a liquid hydrocarbon, styrol,
CH, or cinnamene, having the storax odor and taste, and another
fragrant constituent, vanillin.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant expectorant. Dose: 5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to
1.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Benzoini Composita (8 per cent.),. Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
202. LIQUIDAMBAR.-SWEET GUM. A balsam exuding spontaneously or
from incisions made in the trunk of Liquidam'bar styraci'flua. Habitat:
Southern United States and Central America. It is a pale yellowish,
opaque liquid of honey-like consistence, or thick, golden brown, solidify-
ing on exposure to a transparent, amber-colored mass, which softens at the
heat of the hand; odor storax-like; taste aromatic and pungent. Stimu-
lant expectorant, mostly used in the manufacture of chewing-gum.
COMBRETACEÆ.
203. MYROBOLANUS.-MYROBOLANS.
The fruit of Terminalia chebu'la
Retzia, and of other species of Terminalia growing in the East Indies.
Oblong, pyriform, or roundish-oval, from 30 to 50 mm. (1½ to 2 in.) in
length, dark brown or orange color. Several varieties of the fruit are used
occasionally as a mild laxative and astringent, but now principally in the
arts for tanning, etc.
MYRTACEÆ.
Trees and shrubs, without stipules. Leaves opposite, entire, pellucid-punc-
tate, usually with a vein running close to the margin; they are usually fragrant
and pungent, due to volatile oil residing chiefly in the pellucid dots or glands.
EUCALYPTUS.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Myrtacea.
EUCALYPTUS, 204.
A. Leaves.
'Myrcia, 205.
Chekan, 206.
B. Flower.
CARYOPHYLLUS, 207.
C. Fruits.
Caryophylli Fructus, 207 a.
PIMENTA, 208.
D. Seed.
Jambul, 209.
E. Volatile Oils.
OLEUM EUCALYPTI, 204 a.
OLEUM MYRCIÆ, 205 a.
221
OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI, 207 b.
OLEUM PIMENTÆ, 208 a.
OLEUM CAJUPUTI, 210.
204. EUCALYPTUS.-EUCALYPTUS.
EUCALYPTUS.
Ger. EUKALYPTUS-BLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Eucalyp'tus glob'ulus Labillardierre, collected from the older
parts of the tree.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Rapid-growing trees, attaining the height of 200
to 300 feet. Flowers solitary, or in clusters of 2 or 3, axillary; peduncles
broad, somewhat hemispherical in shape, prolonged into a cone, and united
with the petals and 4- or 5-celled ovary, making a peculiar hard, brittle,
floral envelope, which is quite aromatic. Wood exceedingly hard, remark-
able for toughness and durability.
SOURCE. This is an Australian tree, but is cultivated extensively, espe-
cially in malarial districts in various subtropical portions of the world.
In California the tree is abundant. At the State Forestry Station at
San Monica forty-four species are cultivated. Among these, the
Globulus is the most valuable. The Amygdalina possesses the best
emollient properties. E. rostrate Schlecht (red gum) furnishes an
inspissated juice, which is used for the same purpose as kino.
It has been stated that the anti-malarial properties attributed to
these trees is probably due to their power of absorbing moisture rather
than from emanations from them. They probably act in a dual
capacity.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Petiolate, scythe-shaped, from 150 to 300
mm. (6 to 12 in.) long, 20 to 40 mm. ( to 13 in.) broad, tapering
from near the base to the apex; pale grayish-green, smooth, and of
a leathery texture; margin entire, with a parallel vein a short dis-
tance from it, running from base to apex of the leaf; odor camphora-
ceous; taste cooling, bitter, astringent, and aromatic.
Powder.—Pronounced green. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of leaf
with prisms and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate (15 to 25 μ in diam.); scler-
enchyma from petiole, with stone cells, about isodiametric; bast fibers, long,
narrow, with crystal fibers; stomata present; epidermal cells very thick-walled.
CONSTITUENTS.-The virtues of the leaves depend upon a volatile oil,
existing to the extent of 2 to 6 per cent.; the freshly-dried leaves
yield the greatest proportion.
222
MYRTACEÆ.
ACTION AND USES.-Used as a febrifuge, stimulant, and astringent. Its
principal action, however, is that of the volatile oil, or rather its
FIG. 98. Eucalyptus globulus-Branch:
chief constituent, eucalyptol, C10H18O, antiseptic. Dose: to
2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.). Dose of eucalyptol: 5 m (0.3 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Eucalypti,
Dose: 5 to 60 my (0.3 to 4 Cc.).
EUCALYPTUS.
223
OLEUM EUCALYPTI, U. S.-A colorless or yellowish vola-
tile oil, distilled from the fresh leaves. It has a spicy, cooling taste,
and somewhat camphoraceous odor. Consists of two hydrocarbons
(cymene, C10H14, and eucalyptene, C10H16), a terpene, and euca-
lyptol, C10H18O, upon which its value depends. Eucalyptol is now
official in the U. S. Pharmacopœia; it is obtained as one of the frac-
tions in the distillation of the oil, coming over between 170° to
FIG. 99.-Myrcia acris-Branch with fruit.
178° C. It is a nearly colorless liquid, with a strong, aromatic, cam-
phoraceous odor; slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in alco-
hol, carbon disulphide, and glacial acetic acid. Dose: 5 to 10 m (0.3
to 0.6 Cc.). Antiseptic. Dose of the oil: 5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
204 a. RED GUM.—The resin or inspissated juice of Eucalyptus rostrata
Schlecht. Synonyms: CREEK GUM, MURRAY RED GUM, RED GUM KINO,
EUCALYPTI GUMMI. Habitat: Australia. Small, angular, ruby-red, shining
pieces; in thin layers transparent. Resembles kino, but has a brighter
appearance and is less astringent. The taste is bitter. Almost entirely
dissolved by alcohol. Properties: A good astringent, similar to kino.
Preparations: Fluid and lozenges. Uses: Checks the purging of mercurial
pills administered for syphilis. Has been recommended for seasickness.
Dose: 5 to 20 minims of the fluid.
224
MYRTACEÆ.
205. MYRCIA.-BAY LEAVES. WAX MYRTLE. WILD CLOVE Leaves.
The
leaves of Myr'cia ac'ris De Candolle, a West Indian tree. These leaves are
aromatic and spicy, containing a volatile oil, which, when distilled, forms
the Oleum Myrciæ, U. S., and when distilled over with rum, forms bay rum
(Spiritus Myrciæ, U. S.).
205 a. OLEUM MYRCIÆ (1890).—OIL OF BAY. A volatile oil dis-
tilled from bay leaves. It is a brownish-yellow, slightly acid liquid,
having an agreeable, somewhat clove-like odor, and a warm, spicy
taste; sp. gr. 0.96 to 0.98. See Tests in U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It
consists of a light and a heavy oil,-the light a hydrocarbon identical
with that of cloves and allspice, the heavy composed chiefly of
eugenol.
ACTION AND USES.-Admitted into the U. S. P. of 1890 as an ingredient
in Spiritus Myrciæ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Spiritus Myrciæ (U. S. P. 1890) (8 per cent., with the oils of orange-peel
and pimenta). Artificial Bay Rum.
206. CHEKAN.-CHEKEN. The leaves of a Chilian evergreen shrub, Eu-
ge'nia che'kan Molina. Tonic, expectorant, with some diuretic action.
Dose of the fluidextract: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
CLOVES.
207. CARYOPHYLLUS.—CLOVES.
Ger. GEWÜRZNELKEN.
The dried flower buds of Euge'nia aroma'tica O. Kuntze.
Botanical CHARACTERISTICS.-A shrubby evergreen, with hard wood, covered
with a smooth, gray bark. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, coriaceous.
Petals 4, globular in bud, afterward spreading, whitish, aromatic. Ovary
2-celled; fruit a large, elliptical berry.
SOURCE. The original habitat of the clove tree was the Molucca Islands,
but they have been introduced into other East Indian Islands, into
Zanzibar (which now forms the principal source), and into Cayenne.
They are picked singly while green and are dried in the sun. Com-
mercial: There are several varieties, as Molucco, Sumatra, and
South American, the latter being rather inferior.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Cloves are about 15 mm. (3 in.) long, of a dark
5
brown or reddish-brown appearance; the calyx tube is long, nearly
cylindrical, crowned with the four stiff teeth (clasping the unexpanded
corolla); corolla of four lighter colored, unexpanded petals,
forming a hollow ball on the top of the calyx-tube, inclosing
the numerous curved stamens and the single style; the ovary is in-
ferior, situated near the top of the calyx-tube, and consists of two
cells, each containing many ovules. A cross-section of the lower
1
CARYOPHYLLUM.
225
part of the calyx-tube under the microscope shows a thin outer layer
surrounding a darker zone; this outer layer contains a double ring of
oil cells; the inner darker zone contains an outside circle of about
thirty fibrovascular bundles, with a larger bundle running through
the center. Odor highly aromatic, especially when scratched;
taste pungent and aromatic, followed by slight numbness.
FIG. 100.-Eugenia aromatica.
in diam.);
Powder. Deep brown. Characteristic elements: Outer parenchyma cells
closely united, with aggregate calcium oxalate crystals (10 to 15
inner parenchyma spongy; sclerenchyma with bast fibers, short, thick-walled,
strongly lignified, simple and oblique pores; ducts, spiral, thick-walled; pollen
triangular, tetrahedral, spheroidal, 3-pored, about 15 in diam. Frequently
adulterated with clove stalks, the ripe fruit, etc., to detect which requires special
study.
CONSTITUENTS.—About 18 per cent. of volatile oil, 17 per cent. of
tannin, a little fixed oil, gum, resin, etc. Two crystalline principles
15
226
MYRTACEÆ.
have been separated, caryophyllin, C10H16O, white, odorless, and
tasteless, resinous, and eugenin, C10H12O2, isomeric with eugenol of
the volatile oil, soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, as is also cary-
ophyllin, but differing from the latter in turning red with nitric acid,
vanillin. Water extracts the volatile oil with scarcely any of the
pungency of taste.
Preparation of Caryophyllin.-Treat ethereal extract of cloves with water,
collect precipitate, and purify with ammonia.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and carminative, used mostly as a syner-
gist. Dose: 5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Lavandulæ Composita (0.5 per
cent.),.
.Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
Vinum opii. Tinctura Rhei Aromatica.
207 a. MOTHER CLOVES.-The ripe fruit, or Mother Cloves, resembles cloves
in appearance, but is thicker and somewhat lighter in color and less aro-
matic; the corolla is absent, but the calyx-teeth still adhere.
207 b. OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI, U. S.-OIL OF CLOVES. A pale
yellowish-brown, thin liquid, becoming reddish-brown on exposure.
It has a specific gravity of 1.065, and boils at about 250° C.;
slightly acid; taste aromatic and hot; odor characteristic, aromatic.
(See Tests in U. S. P.) Oil of cloves consists of two oils-one lighter
than water, the other heavier; the light oil, caryophyllene, C15H24,
sp. gr. 0.91, is a pure hydrocarbon, and is thought to be inactive;
the heavy oil is a phenol-like liquid termed eugenol, or eugenic acid,
C10H12O2, sp. gr. 1.076.
ACTION AND USES.-Used for the same purposes as cloves, more com-
monly, however, for introduction into an aching, carious tooth.
Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
ALLSPICE.
208. PIMENTA.-PIMENTA.
Ger. NEUGEWÜRZ.
The nearly ripe dried fruit of Pimen'ta officina'lis Lindley.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-An elegant tree about 30 feet high, evergreen.
Leaves pellucid-punctate, petiolate. Flowers in racemes, white. Calyx
and petals 4-fold, the latter greenish-white. Fruit a berry, covered by the
roundish, persistent base of the calyx. After ripening, they lose their
aromatic warmth and acquire a somewhat juniper-like taste; hence they
are gathered in the unripe state.
SOURCE.-West Indies, Mexico, and South America, the principal source
PIMENTA.
227
being Jamaica-from which it has received the name of Jamaica
pepper.
Description of DRUG.-Globular, about the size of a large pea; picked
while yet green, becoming wrinkled and brownish on drying, with
the four calyx-teeth and the short style still adherent to the apex, or
- lav
FIG. 101.-Pimenta officinalis-Branch and flower.
a raised ring marking the position of the calyx-teeth; it is divided
into two cells, each of which contains a single, brownish, plano-
convex seed. The pericarp is finely tuberculated with numerous oil
tubercles. Odor spicy and agreeably pungent; taste clove-like.
Powder.-Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm, with starch and resin; parenchyma of pericarp, with starch, resin, and
228
MYRTACEÆ.
calcium oxalate in aggregate crystals about 10 μ in diam.; sclerenchyma with
stone cells, having simple, branching pores; trichomes, short, one-celled; large
oil and resin ducts; starch grains, spherical, 10 μ simple or compound.
CONSTITUENTS.—The properties depend upon a volatile oil and a green,
acrid fixed oil, existing to the extent of 10 per cent. and 8 per cent.
respectively in the pericarp, and in considerably less quantities in the
embryo.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and carminative, as an adjuvant to tonic
and purgative mixtures. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
208 a. OLEUM PIMENTÆ, U. S.-A colorless, or pale yellow,
volatile oil, becoming thick and reddish-brown by age. Specific
gravity 1.04 to 1.05. It closely resembles oil of cloves (q. v.), but
has a more pleasant and less pungent odor; taste aromatic. Consists,
like oil of cloves, of a light and a heavy oil, the heavy oil being
identical with eugenol.
ACTION AND USES.-Same as the other stimulant aromatic oils. Dose:
I to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Spiritus Myrciæ (U. S. P., 1890) (0.05 per cent.).
209. JAMBUL.-JAVA PLUM. A large tree, Eugen'ia jambola'na, growing in
the East Indies, where its fruit is eaten as a food. All parts are astringent,
but the bark, and especially the seeds, possess, in addition, the peculiar
property of arresting the formation of sugar in diabetes, and hence are
"likely to prove a valuable remedy in this disease." Dose: 5 to 10 gr.
(0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
210. OLEUM CAJUPUTI.-OIL OF CAJUPUT.
OIL OF CAJUPUT.
Ger. CAJUPUTOEL.
A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of Melaleu'ca leucaden'dron Linné
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A tree with crooked stem and scattered branches,
the branchlets drooping like those of the weeping willow; bark whitish.
Leaves lanceolate, deep green, entire, from 3 to 4 inches long. Flowers
small, white, inodorous, in axillary spikes.
HABITAT.-East Indies.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A light bluish-green (probably due to copper).
limpid liquid having a penetrating, agreeable odor, and a warm,
camphoraceous, bitter, afterward saline or cooling, taste. Specific
gravity 0.925. It has a slightly acid reaction.
CONSTITUENTS.—The principal constituent is the hydrate of the hydro-
carbon, cajuputene, C10H16 (Cajuputol, C₁H,,H₂O), said to be
identical with eucalyptol, or cineol, from eucalyptus. The commer-
GRANATUM.
229
cial oil often contains a trace of copper, not in large enough quantities
to be dangerous, however.
ACTION AND USES.-Highly stimulant, carminative, and a counter-
irritant in rheumatism. Dose: 1 to 10 m (0.065 to 0.65 Cc.).
FIG. 102.-Melaleuca leucadendron—Branch.
PUNICACEÆ.-Pomegranate Family.
211. GRANATUM.-POMEGRANATE.
POMEGRANATE.
Ger. GRANATWURZELRINDE.
The stem-bark and root-bark of Pu'nica grana'tum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tree shrubby, 20 feet in height; branches
numerous, sometimes bearing thorns. Leaves opposite, entire, oblong,
pointed at each end. Flowers large, rich scarlet, terminal. Fruit a berry
230
PUNICACEÆ.
about the size of an orange; rind thick, having a reddish-yellow exterior;
pulp many-seeded, acidulous.
HABITAT.-Mediterranean Basin and various portions of Asia; cultivated
in all warm climates for its ornamental flowers.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The stem bark comes occasionally in quills,
more frequently in curved pieces 20 to 80 mm. long, 5 to 20 mm.
in diameter; bark 0.5 to 2 mm. thick, outer surface yellowish-brown,
with grayish patches; longitudinally wrinkled; small lenticels. Inner
surface light yellow or brownish-yellow, finely striate, smooth. Frac-
ture short, smooth, inner layer of bark (phelloderm) dark green,
inner bark light brown, odor slight; taste astringent, somewhat bitter.
FIG. 103.—Punica granatum—Branch with flowers.
The root bark has a rough, yellowish-gray to brown outer surface,
marked with more or less longitudinal patches of cork, green inner
layer of bark absent. Medullary rays extending nearly to the outer
layer; inner surface smooth and yellowish with irregular brownish
blotches.
A process of assay has been suggested, consisting of an extraction.
and separation of the alkaloid from the drug by immiscible solvents
(chloroform and acidulated water) and titrating a final solution of
the alkaloid against hydrochloric acid. ("Drug. Circ.," June,
1901, p. 212.)
N
ΙΟ
STRUCTURE.—The tissue consists chiefly of large-celled parenchyma,
GRANATUM.
231
traversed by one-rowed medullary rays of quadratic cells, each ray
accompanied by a single row of crystal cells. The inner bark steeped
in water and then rubbed on paper produces a yellow stain,
which is rendered blue by ferrous sulphate, and rose-red by
nitric acid, soon vanishing. These propert'es distinguish it from
the bark of the box-root and the barberry, with which it is sometimes
adulterated.
·
A
S
PC
R
...
FIG. 104.
0.
Punica granatum-Cross-section of
bark of the stem. S. Suberous layer. PC.
Cortical parenchyma. L. Liber. R. Dotted
line extends to narrow medullary ray.
Stands opposite a tangential row of oxalate
of calcium crystals, which are numerous
throughout the phloem. C. Cambium.
FIG. 105.-Punica granatum-Cross-section of
the bark of the root.
Powder.-Pale yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of
cortex, inner cells small with starch, spherical (5 to 20 μ in diam.), middle cells
thick-walled, calcium oxalate aggregate and prisms about 15 μ in diam.; scleren-
chyma consisting of few stone cells, large, thick-walled.
CONSTITUENTS.—Mannite, punico-tannic acid, 22 per cent. (resolved by
hydrolysis into sugar and ellagic acid), and the active constituent,
pelletierine, C,H,,NO, with its three allied alkaloids, methyl-

232
ONAGRARIEÆ.
pelletierine, C,H,,NO, pseudo-pelletierine, C,H,NO, and iso-
pelletierine. Pelletierine is a liquid alkaloid, readily soluble in
water, alcohol, and ether. Several salts of it are made, but the
tannate is the official one. This is yellowish, hygroscopic, and
pulverescent, with a pungent astringent taste, soluble in 700 parts
of water and 80 parts of alcohol.
Preparation of Pelletierine.-Displace powder with water mixed with lime,
exhaust percolate with chloroform, etc. It is claimed by Tanret to be the
anthelmintic constituent. Is probably a mixture of several alkaloids.
FIG. 106.-Pomegranate-Cross-section of fruit.
ACTION AND USES.-Astringent, tæniafuge. Dose: to 1 dr. (2 to 6
Gm.). The alkaloid pelletierine is a tæniafuge in extensive use; it
is given in the form of tannate in doses of about 5 gr. (0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Granati,
Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
212. GRANATI FRUCTUS CORTEX.-POMEGRANATE RIND. Irregular frag-
ments, of a yellowish or reddish-brown color; outer surface rough from
tubercles; inner surface marked with small depressions; hard; brittle.
It contains a greater proportion of tannin than the bark, but has the same
medical properties.
ONAGRARIEÆ.-Evening Primrose Family.
213. EPILOBIUM.-WILLOW-HERB. The herb of Epilo'bium angustifo'lium
Linné. Habitat: Northern Hemisphere. It has a smooth, reddish stem,
branching above, arising from a long, yellowish-white root, and bearing
the purplish-pink flowers in a raceme resembling those of the willow; hence
the name willow-herb. Demulcent and astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr.
(2 to 4 Gm.).
214. CENOTHERA BIENNIS Linné.-EVENING PRIMROSE. Habitat: North
America. (Herb. See Conspectus.) Astringent, alterative.
TURNERACEÆ—COLOCYNTHIS.
233
TURNERACEÆ.
215. TURNERA.-DAMIANA. The leaves of a Mexican plant, Turnera aphro-
disiaca (T. diffu'sa Willdenow). About 8 to 16 mm. (3 to 3 in.) long,
obovate or lanceolate, with a few-toothed margin; surface smooth or with
a few hairs on the under side along the ribs. They generally have mixed
with them pieces of the slender, woody stem, which is reddish-brown and
hairy, the branches being terminated by hairs; odor somewhat aromatic,
due to the presence of about 0.5 per cent. of volatile oil. Damiana leaves
form the basis of a large number of the quack aphrodisiacs now in the
market. T. U. Lloyd recently investigated the plant in its home, and
finds it was introduced to American medicine under a misunderstanding
of its nature. It is not known as a drug in Mexico, but as a general tea-
like beverage. Dose: about 1 dr. (4 Gm.), in infusion.
PASSIFLOREE.-Passion-flower Family.
216. CARICA PAPAYA.-MELON-TREE. TRUE Papaw (wholly different from
the common papaw, Asim'ina trilo'ba, of our Southern States). Habitat:
Tropics; cultivated. Although the inspissated juice (papain) of the unripe
fruit has been for a long time known as a medicinal agent, having a repu-
tation in its native country as a remedy for hæmoptysis, bleeding piles, and
ulcers of urinary passages, and for ringworm, etc., it has only comparatively
recently attracted attention as a digestive agent. Dymock, in his treatise
on the drugs of British India, says: "Its digestive action on meat was
probably known in the West Indies at a very early date. * * * It
has long been the practice to render meat tender by rubbing it with the
juice of the unripe fruit or by rubbing it with the leaves. Its therapeutic
value, in the form of papain, is specially commended in aggravated symp-
toms of dyspepsia." Its constituents are mainly globulin, albumen, and
albumoses. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
217. PASSIFLORA.-PASSION FLOWER. The herb of Passiflo'ra incarna'ta
Linné; indigenous. Said by eclectic and homeopathic practitioners to be
a narcotic, useful in neuralgia, sleeplessness, dysmenorrlioa, etc. Dose of
a saturated tincture: 15 to 30 my (1 to 2 Cc.).
CUCURBITACEAE.-Gourd Family.
Succulent herbs, creeping or climbing by tendrils. Leaves alternate. Flowers
monoecious and polygamous; stamens with long and wavy or twisted anthers.
Fruit a pepo.
A. Root.
Bryonia, 218.
B. Fruits.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Cucurbitacea.
COLOCYNTHIS, 219.
Luffa, 220.
Momordica, 221.
C. Seeds.
PEPO, 222.
Citrullus, 223.
Cucumis, 224.
D. Resin.
Elaterium, 225.
218. COLOCYNTHIS.-COLOCYNTH.
BITTER APPLE.
Ger. KOLOQUINTEN.
The dried fruit of Citrul'lus colocyn'this Schrader, deprived of its rind.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem procumbent, angular, hispid; leaves
cordate-ovate, lobate; tendrils short. Flowers axillary, female flowers

234
CUCURBITACE.
solitary, petals yellow with greenish veins. Fruit globose, smooth, 6-celled,
with very bitter pulp; seeds whitish, sometimes brownish.
HABITAT.-Asia, Europe, and Africa.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG. The fresh fruit has a marbled green surface,
not very unlike the watermelon. It has a thick rind inclosing a
white, spongy pulp, imbedded in which are numerous light-colored
seeds. The fruit on drying loses about 90 per cent. of water, leaving
a very light, spongy, white or yellowish-white pulp, which,
deprived of the seed, constitutes the official drug. Colocynth
"apples," as they appear in the market, contain the seeds, but are de-
prived of the rind; 50 to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) in diameter. A cross-
FIG. 107. Colocynth-Portion of vine and whole fruit.
section of the spherical pulp ("apples") makes apparent three distinct
wedges, each of which has two branches; this structure is due to the
parietal placenta, which project to the center of the fruit, then divide
and turn back, making convoluting branches directed one toward
the other. Inodorous; so intensely bitter that the bitterness is
imparted to any object brought in contact with it.
Powder.-Pale yellowish-brown, some of the prominent characteristics are:
The very large parenchyma cell having thin walls and simple pores, these are
much broken; sclerenchyma with stone cells also present. If the powder is
carelessly mixed with powdered seeds, numerous oil globules are present. The
fine powder is seldom dispensed.

COLOCYNTHIS-BRYONIA.
235
CONSTITUENTS.-Resin, gum, and amyloid principles. Colocynthin,
C56H84023, a yellowish, somewhat translucent, bitter, and friable
glucoside, is, perhaps, the most important constituent; it is contained
in the pulp to the extent of about 2 per cent. Colocynthitin is a taste-
less crystalline principle left after treating the alcoholic extract with
cold water in preparing colocynthin.
Preparation of Colocynthin.-Exhaust alcoholic extract with water, precipi-
tate with lead acetate and subacetate, remove lead from liquid by treating with
H2S, filter, then precipitate with tannin; suspend the tannate in alcohol, de-
compose with lead hydroxide, remove excess of lead by H2S, filter, evaporate,
and wash the residue with ether.
FIG. 108.-Transverse section of colocynth fruit. FIG. 109.-Longitudinal section of colocynth fruit.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful hydragogue cathartic, given in
combination with weaker purgatives. Dose: 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6
Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Colocynthidis, ....... Dose: to 2 gr. (0.0324 to 0.13 Gm.).
Extractum Colocynthidis Com-
positum (Extract Colocynth 16
per cent., with aloes, scammony,
cardamom and soap), ....
Pilulæ Catharticæ Compositæ
(8 per cent. of compound ex-
tract), ..
Pilulæ Catharticæ Vegeta-
biles (6 per cent. of com-
pound extract),
5 to 25 gr (0.3 to 1.6 Gm.).
2 to 5 pills.
2 or 3 pills.
219. BRYONIA. BRYONY. The root of Bryo'nia al'ba and of Bryo'nia
dioi'ca Linné. Off. in U. S. P. 1890. A dull reddish-brown, longitudinally
wrinkled root, usually appearing in the market in transverse disks about 50
to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) in diameter, of a white or yellowish-white color;
bark thin, with a thin, friable cork; the bark is separated by a brown
cambium line from the meditullium, in which the wood-bundles are ar-
ranged radically and concentrically; the wood-wedges and zones are sepa-
rated by rather broad rays and concentric circles of parenchymatous
tissue; fracture short. Inodorous; taste disagreeably bitter. The active
principle is bryonin, C8H80O19, an intensely bitter glucoside, soluble in
water, but best extracted with strong alcohol. Obtained by precipitating

236
CUCURBITACEE.
the hydro-alcoholic percolate with tannin. The moist tannin compound
is mixed with lead oxide and then digested with alcohol. The alcoholic
solution yields bryonin on evaporation. Drastic hydragogue cathartic,
formerly much used in the treatment of dropsy, but now superseded by jalap.
Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
Tinctura Bryoniæ (10 per cent.)
(U. S. P., 1890),
220. LUFFA. VEGETABLE SPONGE.
..Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
WASH-RAG SPONGE. GOURD TOWEL.
The gourd-like fruit of Luf'fa ægyp'tiaca, a vine growing in Arabia and
Egypt. The layer of tissue next the epidermis is composed of interwoven
woody fibers, and, when deprived of the epidermis, makes a good substi-
tute for sponge. The fruit of Luffa echinata, growing in India, contains a
principle related to, if not identical with, colocynthitin.
b
a
FIG. 110.-Citrullus colocynthis-Cross-section through outer portion of the fruit. a, a. Parenchyma.
b. Stone cells. c, c. Fibro-vascular bundles.
221. MOMORDICA BALSAMINA Linné.-BALSAM APPLE. This is a climb-
ing East Indian plant, cultivated in our gardens for the sake of its cucumber-
like fruit, which is often used in domestic practice as a vulnerary.
222. PEPO.-PUMPKIN SEED.
PUMPKIN SEED.
Ger. KÜRBISSAMEN.
The ripe seed of Cucur'bita pe'po Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem hispid, procumbent; tendrils branched.
Leaves very large, cordate, palmately 5-lobed. Fruit yellow, very large
(sometimes two feet in diameter), roundish or oblong, smooth, and fur-
rowed.
HABITAT. Tropical Asia and America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Flat, broadly ovate seeds, about 20 mm. (in.)
long, and 2 mm. (12 in.) thick, with a flat ridge and shallow groove
CITRULLUS—ELATERIUM.
237
around the edge; testa dull white, inclosing two flat, white, oily
cotyledons and a short radicle; inodorous; taste bland and oily.
CONSTITUENTS.-From 30 to 40 per cent. of a thick, red fixed oil, an
acrid resin, considered to be the tæniafuge principle, starch, sugar,
fatty acids, and the proteids, myosin and vitellin, the myosin pre-
cipitating from an infusion saturated with NaCl, and the addition of
CO₂ separating out the vitellin, apparently identical with that of egg
yolk.
2
ACTION AND USES.-Tæniafuge. Dose: 1 to 2 oz. (30 to 60 Gm.), in
emulsion.
을
​FIG. 111.-Ecballium elaterium-Branch with flowers.
223. CITRULLUS.—WATERMELON SEED. The seed of Cucu'mis citrul'lus
Seringe. Indigenous to Southern Asia, but cultivated extensively in the
United States. Differs from the pumpkin seed in being blackish-marbled
or brownish in color, somewhat smaller, and with a blunt, ungrooved edge.
They are used like pumpkin seeds as a tæniafuge, and also have diuretic and
demulcent properties. Dose: 2 dr. to 2 oz. (8 to 60 Gm.).
224. CUCUMIS SATIVUS Linné.-CUCUMBER SEED. Flat and thin, lance-
oblong, from 8 to 12 mm. (toin.) long, acutely edged, ungrooved,
dull white in color. Resembles above in properties.
225. ELATERIUM.-A peculiar resinous substance obtained from the fruit
of Ecbal'lium elate'rium A. Richards (squirting cucumber), a vine growing
in the Mediterranean regions of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The fruit, when
ripe, separates suddenly from its stalk, and the internal pressure forces the
juice out of the aperture thus made in a stream; in collecting, therefore,
the fruits are gathered green, sliced, and the juice expressed by slight
pressure; on standing it deposits a sediment, which, when dried, forms the
commercial Elaterium.
Elaterium is in flat pieces of varying sizes, light and friable, pale green
when fresh, but taking on a gray or light buff color as it becomes older; the
238
CACTEÆ UMBELLIFERÆ.
surface is covered with small crystals of elaterin; odor somewhat tea-like;
taste acrid and intensely bitter, due to the active ingredient, elaterin, which
constitutes from 25 to 30 per cent. of the drug. This principle is insoluble
in water, readily soluble in chloroform and hot alcohol; it is a violent
irritant poison; its alcoholic solution is colored red by warm sulphuric
acid; its carbolic acid solution, crimson, rapidly changing to scarlet. There
is also present ecballin (soft, yellow, acrid), hydroelaterin, and elaterid.
ELATERINUM. Elaterin.-Exhaust elaterium with chloroform; add ether;
white crystals deposit immediately. Wash with ether and recrystallize from
chloroform. This principle is odorless and crystalline, is bitter and acrid in taste.
Action and UseS.-Elaterin is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, used in the
treatment of dropsy. Dose: to gr. (0.003 to 0.005 Gm.). Official
Preparation: Trituratio Elaterini (10 per cent.). Dose: gr. (0.030 Gm.).
1
20
1
12
CACTEÆ.-Cactus Family.
226. CACTUS GRANDIFLORUS Linné.-NIGHT-BLOoming Cereus. Hab-
itat: Tropical America; cultivated as an ornamental herb. The fleshy,
hexagonal flowering branches are used in the fresh state. Sedative and
diuretic; useful in diseases of the heart when there is an irregularity of
action. The tincture and fluidextract have of recent years been growing
in popularity, but the supply of the drug seems difficult to obtain, and for
this reason, partly, the drug is not official. Dose: 5 gr. (0.3 Gm.).
227. ANHALONIUM LEWINI Henning.-A Mexican cactus, acting power-
fully as a cardiac and respiratory stimulant; it has been used to a slight
extent in medicine in angina pectoris and asthmatic dyspnea.
UMBELLIFERA.-Parsley Family.
Herbs with hollow stems. The umbellate inflorescence—the general char-
acter of the order-gives rise to its name. The fruit, called a cremocarp (from
cremao, to support, and karpos, fruit), is perhaps the most marked characteristic
of the order; it originates from one ovary surmounted by 2 styles and often
crowned by the limb of the calyx, and has 2 cells and 2 seeds. The entire fruit
is usually ellipsoidal, but in the case of the coriander it is spherical; it divides
itself into two mericarps (half-fruits) suspended by their summits from a slender
axis (carpophore), usually 2-forked; each mericarp has 5 to 10 more or less
prominent ridges (juga), in the furrows or grooves between which are several
oil-tubes (vittæ), usually visible in cross-section; in anise there are usually 15,
in coriander 2. The roots contain an abundance of aromatic resin.
A. Fruits.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Umbelliferæ.
ANISUM, 228.
FENICULUM, 229.
CONIUM, 230.
CARUM, 232.
CORIANDRUM, 232.
Anethum, 234.
Apium, 235.
Ajowan, 236.
Petroselinum, 238 a.
Phellandrium, 239.
Cuminum, 240.
Carota, 241.
B. Leaves.
Conii Folia, 231.
C. Volatile Oils.
OLEUM ANISI, 228 a.
OLEUM FENICULI, 229 a.
OLEUM CARI, 232 a.
OLEUM CORIANDRI, 233 a.
Oleum Anethi, 234 a.
D. Gum Resins.
ASAFŒTIDA, 244.
Galbanum, 245.
Ammoniacum, 246

E. Stearopten.
THYMOL, 237.
F. Roots.
SUMBUL, 247.
Imperatoria, 248.
Laserpitium, 249.
Angelica Atropurpurea, 242.
Angelica, 243.
ANISUM.
F. Rools. (Continued.)
Levisticum, 250.
Petroselinum, 238.
Pimpinella, 251.
Thapsia, 252.
Cicuta, 253.
Eryngium, 254.
Osmorrhiza, 255
239
ANISE.
228. ANISUM.-ANISE.
Ger. ANIS.
The ripe fruit of Pimpinel'la an'isum Linné, obtained from cultivated plants.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem about 1 foot high. Umbels on long stalks
without involucre; flowers small, white; calyx obsolete; carpels 5, with
filiform ridges.
HABITAT.-Levant and Egypt; extensively cultivated in Europe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Two or three varieties have been produced by
cultivation, the Spanish being the smallest, and usually preferred.
In general appearance anise resembles conium very much, but
it is distinguished from the latter in being usually longer and more
A
B
C
FIG. 112.-Anisum. A. Transverse section. B. Longitudinal section. C. Fruit (enlarged).
ovate, the mericarps, which usually adhere together, having their five
ribs more or less hairy and not jagged, and having about 15 oil tubes,
of which conium has none; odor fragrant; taste aromatic, sweetish.
The fruit is often accompanied with its adhering short peduncle.
Powder.-Dull brownish. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm with proteid granules and oil globules; reddish-brown parenchyma tissue
inclosing oil glands (Vitæ); sclerenchymatous cells, short, with simple pores
(inner epidermis of pericarp is very characteristic); one-celled trichomes and
crystals of calcium oxalate also present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (1 to 3 per cent.).
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and aromatic carminative. Dose: 8 to
30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
228 a. OLEUM ANISI, U. S.-A colorless or pale yellow volatile
oil, having the aromatic odor and taste of the fruit; neutral in reac-
tion; sp. gr. 0.98 to 0.99, depending upon age. Dose: 5 m (0.3 Cc.).
240
UMBELLIFERÆ.
CONSTITUENTS.—It contains a slight quantity of a light hydrocarbon oil,
but principally anethol, C10H120, which is present in both liquid
(liquid anethol) and solid form (anise camphor); by oxidation this
anethol is converted into anisic acid; anethol is the principal con-
stituent also of fennel and star anise, the most of the commercial anise
oil being derived from the last-named fruit.
Preparation of Anethol.-Obtained by fractional distillation; by oxidation
is converted into anisic acid.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Anisi (0.2 per cent.),
Spiritus Anisi (10 per cent.),
Spiritus Aurantii Compositus (0.5 per cent.).
Tinctura Opii Camphorata (0.4 per cent.),.
FENNEL.
Dose: 4 fl. dr. (16 Cc.).
90 my (6.0 Cc.).
2 fl. dr. (8 Cc.).
229. FENICULUM.-FENNEL.
Ger. FENCHEL.
The dried nearly ripe fruit of Fœnic'ulum vulga're Miller.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem somewhat furrowed, 3 feet high. Leaves
much compounded, cut into fringe-like segments. Umbels with 6 to 8 rays,
without involucre or involucel.
HABITAT.-Chiefly imported from Germany, although the cultivated
plants in the gardens of this country partially supply the market.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Varying in size, the longest often being 12 mm.
(in.) in length; oblong, terete, a cross-section showing a nearly
circular surface; the mericarps are usually separated, however, and
slightly curved, their surface dark brown and smooth, with the excep-
tion of the five prominent, filiform, lighter colored ribs, the two
lateral ones rather broader; in each depression is one oil tube, and
on the flat side or commissure there are two. There are two promi-
nent varieties: Saxon, or German, about 4 mm. (in.) long,
dark brown, usually in half-fruits without foot-stalks. The other
(Roman) is about 12 mm. (in.) in length, lighter brown, with more
prominent ribs, and often in the whole state and furnished with foot-
stalk. Both, however, are about the same in aromatic properties,
and have a warm, sweet, aromatic taste. Bitter fennel, from a wild
plant of Southern France, is a small fruit, bitter and spicy. Indian
fennel (6.7 mm. in length), anise-like odor; used in the preparation of
compound infusion of senna (2 per cent.).
Powder.-Yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm colorless, thick, porous walls (3 to 6 µ in diam.), and oil globules; paren-
chyma of middle layer of pericarp, large, brown cells elongated, some thick
cell walls, or reticulate, bordering vittæ in fragments; aleurone (1 to 2 in
diam.).
OLEUM FŒNICULI.
241
CONSTITUENTS.-From 2.5 to 4 per cent. of volatile oil, almost chemically
identical with that of anise. It contains phellandrene, C10H18.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, corrective. Dose:
8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.), in infusion or powder.
229 a. OLEUM FENICULI, U. S.-A colorless or pale yellow
FIG. 113.-Faniculum capillaceum-Branch and fruit entire and in cross-section.
volatile oil, having a specific gravity of 0.96. It usually solidifies
at from 5° to 10° C. (41° to 50° F.). It has essentially the same
constituents as the oil of anise. Stimulant and carminative, and a
corrective of harsh, purgative preparations. Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.06
to 0.3 Cc.).
16
242
UMBELLIFERÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Fœniculi (0.2 per cent.),
Pulvis Glycyrrhizæ Compositus (0.4 per
cent.), .
Spiritus Juniperi Compositus (0.05 per
cent.), .
Dose: to 1 fl. oz. (8 to 30 Cc.).
to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
230. CONIUM.-CONIUM.
POISON HEMLOCK.
Ger. SCHIERLINGSFRÜCHTE.
The full-grown, but unripe fruit of Con'ium macula'tum Linné, carefully dried
and preserved, and yielding, by official assay, not less than 0.5 per cent. of coniine.
It should not be kept longer than two years.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Stem 2 to 6 feet high, dotted with dull purple
spots. Leaves large, shining, tripinnate, with long, furrowed petioles,
sheathing at the base. Umbels numerous, with one-sided involucels of 3
or 4 ovate or lanceolate bracts, united at base; flowers white.
HABITAT.-Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Gathered when full grown but yet green, the
yield of alkaloid being greatest at this time. Small, roundish-ovate,
laterally compressed, grayish-green. The mericarps, which are often
a
FIG. 114.-Fruit of Hemlock (Conium
maculatum).
FIG. 115.-Cross-section of the fruit of Conium
maculatum, 20 diam.
separated, have five jagged ribs but no oil-tubes; the flat side
or commissure is deeply furrowed, giving to a transverse cut surface
a reniform outline. Almost odorless; taste disagreeable and
somewhat acrid; when triturated with a solution of KOH, conium
emits the peculiar, mouse-like odor characteristic of the alkaloid,
coniine, which is developed thereby. The total alkaloids in the fruit
may reach as high as 3.5 per cent., rapidly diminishing as it ripens.
The U. S. P. requires not less than 0.5 per cent. of coniine in the drug,
which is unfit for use when more than two years old.
Powder.-Pale yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of
endosperm, rather thick-walled with oil globules and aleurone (4 to 7 µ in diam.);
aggregate calcium oxalate (1 to 2 µ in diam.); other parenchyma with starch
and chloroplastids; sclerenchyma, from fruit and stalk with bast fibers, long and
CARUM.
243
thin-walled, with numerous pores; collenchymatous cells from mericarp, yel-
lowish, nearly isodiametrical, irregularly thickened.
CONSTITUENTS.-The liquid alkaloid, coniine, C,H,,N (the active con-
stituent), methyl coniine, C,H16(CH3)N (also liquid), conhydrine
and its isomer, pseudoconiine. Coniine is a yellowish, oily, volatile
liquid (sp. gr. o.88), very acrid, and of a strong, mouse-like odor;
it is strongly basic, and is combined in the fruit with conhydric
acid, from which it may instantly be freed and its odor developed in
the fruit by rubbing with potassa, as noted above; its action is that
of a paralyzant to the motor nervous system. Methyl coniine
resembles it in action. Conhydrine is in iridescent scales, melting
at 120.6° C.
Preparation of Coniine.-Liberated from drug by distilling it with alkali.
Methyl coniine and conhydrine is likely to come over with it.
Separation of Conhydrine from Coniine.-Reduce the temperature of the oily
liquid containing the two by a freezing mixture. Recrystallize from ether.
Occurs in iridescent scales, less poisonous than coniine.
ACTION AND USES.-Conium is narcotic and sedative; its principal action
is as a paralyzant to the motor nerves. Dose: 3 to 5 gr.
(0.2 to 0.3 Gm.). The alkaloid coniine is an active poison, the dose
being from tom (0.0164 to 0.0324 Cc.); dose of the hydrochlorate
is probably about & gr. (0.01 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Conii (U.S. P., 1890),..Dose: † to 2 gr. (0.0324 to 0.13 Gm.).
Fluidextractum Conii,
1 to 5 mm (0.065 to 0.3 Сc.).
231. CONII FOLIA.-HEMLOCK LEAVES. Grayish-green, thin, smooth, from
100 to 300 mm. (4 to 12 in.) long, twice or thrice decompound, with oblong-
lanceolate, acute, sharply serrate divisions; petiolate, the petiole hollow;
odor mouse-like; taste disagreeable. They contain coniine in very small
quantity, and are less active than the fruit, but used for the same purposes
-as an anodyne and antispasmodic for controlling maniacal excitement
and spasmodic affections, such as whooping-cough, etc. Dose: about 5
gr. (0.3 Gm.).
232. CARUM.-CARAWAY.
CARAWAY.
Ger. KÜMMEL.
The dried fruit of Car'um car'vi Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A biennial 2 feet in height, with bipinnate
leaves. The umbel rarely involucrate; flowers consisting of 5 obcordate,
small, white petals; carpels with 5 filiform ridges; stylopodium (the disk-
like expansion of the receptacle) depressed. Fruit brownish, oblong,
slightly curved.
HABITAT.-Asia; introduced into America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The mericarps, which are usually separated, are
about 4 to 5 mm. († to in.) in length, tapering somewhat at the
244
UMBELLIFERÆ.
ends. Surface dark brown, smooth, with the exception of the five
lighter colored, filiform ribs, between which are the six large,
easily visible oil-tubes. A cross-section shows the pentangular seed
and oil-tubes. Odor and taste aromatic, agreeable. The U. S. P.
requires not more than 8 per cent. of ash. "Drawn fruits": This
name has been applied to a form of adulterated caraway—a partially
exhausted fruit, whereby they have been deprived of a portion of the
volatile oil. It is said that "Dutch seed" of fair quality should give
over 5 per cent. of volatile oil. Exhausted fruits have been found to
contain but 1.5 to 1.9 per cent. of oil. They are of much darker
color than the genuine. The American seed is slightly smaller than
the German. The seed cultivated in Northern Germany is too defi-
cient in essential oil for profitable distillation, but it has a fine ap-
pearance.
Powder.—Dark brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of pericarp
thin-walled, yellowish; parenchyma of endosperm with fat and proteid; aleurone
granules (2 to 3 μ in diam.); sclerenchyma from pericarp with few bast fibers,
thick-walled, and with numerous simple pits, slightly lignified; resin in yellowish
particles; oil cells in fragments of light yellow color.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil 5 to 7 per cent., consisting of carvone
(carvol, C10H140) about 50 per cent.; readily soluble in alcohol,
slightly soluble in water.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, stomachic, and carminative, and an adju-
vant. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita (1.2
per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
232 a. OLEUM CARI, U. S.-A limpid, colorless or pale yellow
volatile oil, specific gravity 0.92, with an aromatic odor and taste,
becoming acrid and of a higher specific gravity when exposed. It
consists of two portions, a light hydrocarbon, carvene, identical
with limonene, and a heavy oil, carvol, isomeric with thymol.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, and adjuvant.
Dose: 1 to 10 m (0.065 to 0.6 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Spiritus Juniperi Compositus (0.05 per
cent.), .
.Dose: 2 to 4 fl. dr. (8 to 15 Cc.).
233. CORIANDRUM.-CORIANDER.
CORIANDER.
Ger. KORIANDER.
The dried ripe fruit of Corian'drum sati'yum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-An annual herb about two feet high, with an
offensive, bedbug-like odor, with smooth stem and bipinnate leaves. Calyx
CORIANDRUM.
245
5-toothed; petals obcordate (the exterior ones bifid), white, often with a
pink tinge. Capsules with primary ridges obsolete, the four secondary
ones prominently keeled. Fruit globose; seed covered with a loose mem-
brane.
HABITAT.—Italy; cultivated in all parts of Europe and United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Almost globular, about 3 mm. (§ in.) in
diameter, slightly pointed at the apex (style) and with the persistent
calyx-teeth around the pedi-
The
cel-scar at the base.
two concave, hemispherical
mericarps are closely
united at the edge by the
woody pericarp; their outer
surface is pale yellowish-
brown, sometimes purplish-
tinted, with five primary ribs.
merely indicated by wavy,
slightly raised lines, and four
FIG. 116.-Coriandrum sativum—Whole fruit and cross-
section.
more prominent secondary ribs. The interior of the fruit is a lenti-
cular cavity. Odor fragrant (the odor of the fresh plant and fruit is
fœtid, resembling bedbugs); taste aromatic.
Powder.—Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm, small cells with aleurone, oil globules, calcium oxalate; other parenchyma
yellowish, thin-walled; sclerenchyma with bast fibers, yellowish, thick-walled,
lignified and irregularly curved; oil cells in fragments, light yellow; inner
epidermal cells, long and narrow.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, to 1 per cent., containing coriandrol,
C10H180, also dextropinene, fat, mucilage, ash.
ACTION AND USES.-Feeble aromatic and stimulant; mostly used as an
aromatic addition to, or a corrective of, purgative preparations.
Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.)
233
OLEUM CORIANDRI.-An almost colorless or yellowish
volatile oil with the characteristic aromatic odor and taste of the
fruit; specific gravity 0.87 to 0.88; neutral in reaction. It is one of
the most stable of the volatile oils in its power of resisting oxidation
when exposed. It consists mainly of d-linalol or coriandrol, C10H18O.
Stimulant and carminative, like the other aromatic oils. Dose: I to
5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Spiritus Aurantii Compositus (2.0 per
cent.),
Confectio Sennæ (0.5 per cent.),
Syrupus Sennæ (0.5 per cent.),
·
Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
I to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
I fl. dr. (4 Cc.).
246
UMBELLIFERÆ.
234. ANETHUM.—DILL FRUit or Dill SeeD. The fruit of Ane'thum grave-
o'lens Linné, an herb of Levant and Southern Europe. Oval-oblong,
usually separated into the two thin mericarps; these have a smooth brown
surface, with five ribs, the two lateral ones expanded into a lighter colored,
membranous wing surrounding the fruit; oil-tubes six, two on the con-
cave inner face and one in each interval between the ribs; odor and taste
caraway-like, depending upon the volatile oil, the heavy portion of which
is doubtless carvol. Stimulant, carminative, and stomachic. Dose: 8 to 30
gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
234 a. OLEUM ANETHI.-Pale yellow, with the characteristic odor of the
fruit, and a pungent, sweetish, acrid taste. It is official in the British
Pharmacopoeia, where it is sometimes used to prepare dill-water.
235. APIUM.-CELERY FRUIT. From A'pium graveo'lens Linné, the common
celery of our gardens, native to Levant and Southern Europe. Roundish-
ovate, very small, brown cremocarps, generally separated into the two
mericarps, which have five ribs and about six oil-tubes. They contain a
volatile oil and a yellowish liquid principle, apiol, an oleoresinous sub-
stance, but somewhat analogous to the fixed oils; this apiol is chiefly
extracted for medicinal use from parsley, however; it is used as an emmen-
agogue in doses of 10 to 15 my (0.6 to 1 Cc.).
Preparation of Apiol.-The simplest process for its separation is to exhaust
the fruit with petroleum-benzene, evaporate the solvent, and treat the residue
with strong alcohol. On evaporation, the apiol remains. A process resulting
in a pure, almost colorless apiol is published in "Pharm. Archiv," Feb., 1899.
Dose: 7 to 23 gr. (0.5 to 1.5 Gm.).
Celery is stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative. Dose of fl'ext.:
5 to 15 my (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
ΤΣ
236. AJOWAN.—The fruit of Ca'rum ajow'an Bentham and Hooker. Habi-
tat: Southern Asia and Egypt. Ovate, somewhat compressed laterally,
about 2 mm. (½ in.) long, with a rough, grayish-brown surface; mericarps
usually separated, containing six oil-tubes. The large fruits much resemble
those of common parsley, but are readily distinguished from them and
other small umbelliferæ by their odor and very rough surface. Odor
thyme-like; taste pungent and aromatic, due to a volatile oil, 5 to 6 per
cent., which consists of a terpene, cymene, and the stearopten, thymol.
Ajowan is one of the commercial sources of this stearopten. Oil of ajowan,
when freshly distilled, is colorless, but soon acquires a slightly yellow
tinge. It has an acrid, burning taste. Carminative, stomachic, having
the same properties as thymol (see below). Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to
0.2 Gm.).
THYMOL.
237. THYMOL.
Ger. THYMIANSÄURE.
A phenol, C10H13OH, obtained by fractional distillation of oils from Thymus vul-
garis, Carum ajowan, and Monarda punctata. That portion coming over
at 392° F. (200° C.) is separately collected and subjected to freezing, when
thymol crystallizes out; or by distilling off a greater part of the light oils or
hydrocarbons and obtaining the thymol from the remaining heavier liquid by
the use of caustic soda and HCl.
DESCRIPTION.-Small, colorless scales or large, translucent crystals of the
hexagonal system having a thyme-like odor and pungent taste,
somewhat caustic to the lips. It melts at about 50° C. (122° F.), but
PETROSELINUM- -CUMINUM.
247
does not crystallize again until a much lower temperature is reached.
Sparingly soluble in water (1: 1200), but dissolves in less than its
own weight of alcohol, ether, or chloroform. The crystals have a
specific gravity of 1.069, but the melted liquid is lighter than water.
Chemically, thymol is considered as isopropyl-meta-cresol (C¸H3.-
CH,.OH.C,H,), and is closely related to carvacrol, which is regarded
as isopropyl-ortho-cresol; the two differing in the relative position of
the hydroxyl group. (Liquor Antisepticus, U. S. P. 1900.)
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and powerful antiseptic, generally
applied externally in ointment or lotion, or in a spray. Internal
dose: 1 to 2 gr. (0.065 to 0.13 Gm.).
238. PETROSELINUM.-PARSLEY. The root of Petroseli'num sati'vum
Hoffman, native to Southern Europe, but cultivated extensively as a
common garden plant. A tapering root from 100 to 200 mm. (4 to 8 in.)
long, and about 12 mm. ( in.) thick; externally yellowish or light brown,
marked with close annular rings above and longitudinal wrinkles at the
lower end; fracture short, showing a thick bark dotted with resin cells, and
a porous, pale yellow wood, with very irregular, white medullary rays.
When fresh, it has a strong, aromatic odor, but is only faintly so when dry;
taste sweetish, slightly aromatic. It is the chief source of apiol (also found
in celery), a yellowish liquid somewhat analogous to the fixed oils, given
as an emmenagogue in doses of 10 to 15 m (0.6 to 1 Cc.). The root is
given in infusion as a carminative, and as a laxative and diuretic in nephritic
and dropsical affections. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
1
ΤΣ
238 a. THE FRUIT is ovate, about 2 mm. (½ in.). long, with a greenish or
brownish-gray surface, the mericarps usually separated. It contains the
same principal ingredients, and is used for about the same purposes as the
root. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
238 b. APIOL (L. apinum, parsley, + ol), an oleoresinous liquid, heavier
than water, of a persistent odor, distinct from the plant, and an acrid, pun-
gent taste; from certain umbelliferous fruits, chiefly parsley "seed." A
crystalline compound, C₁₂H₁O4, a purified apiol (parsley camphor) is
obtainable. Dill oil yields a liquid apiol which has the same composition
as the crystallizable apiol from the parsley. (See also 235.)
14
2
239. PHELLANDRIUM.-WATER DROPWORT. FIVE-LEAVED WATER HEM-
LOCK. The fruit of a European aquatic plant, Enan'the phellan'drium
Lamarck. From 2 to 3 mm. (1 to 3 in.) in length, terete, oblong, nar-
rowed at one end, and crowned with the stylopodium; yellowish-brown or
blackish-brown in color; taste aromatic, slightly acrid; odor strong, some-
what caraway-like, but disagreeable. Its aromatic properties depend upon
a volatile oil, but there are indications of a narcotic alkaloid, possibly
coniine, as the characteristic mouse-like odor is developed when the pow-
dered seeds are rubbed with a solution of potassa. Slightly narcotic, stimu-
lant, but more particularly used in chronic affections of the air-passages,
as bronchitis, etc. Dose of powder about 5 gr. (0.3 Gm.), cautiously
increased.
240. CUMINUM. CUMIN SEED. The fruit of Cumi'num cym'inum Linné.
Habitat: Egypt; cultivated in Southern Europe. Resembles caraway, but
may be distinguished by its entirely different, peculiar, heavy odor, and in
being whole fruits and not half-fruits, as in the latter; surface brown, rough,
and hairy; ribs 18, oil-tubes 6; taste aromatic, bitterish, disagreeable. It
contains a volatile oil, often used as a carminative, which consists of three
different oils (two hydrocarbons and cuminol). Cumin is much stronger
·
248
UMBELLIFERÆ.
as a stimulant than the other umbelliferous fruits. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5
to 2 Gm.).
241. CAROTA.-CARROT FRUIT. From wild plants of Dau'cus caro'ta Linné.
Habitat: United States and Europe. Light, oval-oblong fruits, dorsally
compressed; mericarps usually united, brownish, each with five hairy
primary ribs and four more prominent secondary ones beset with long,
white bristles; odor aromatic; taste warm, bitterish. Aromatic stimu-
lant, diuretic. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
242. ANGELICA ATROPURPUREA.-AMERICAN ANGELICA. (Root.) This
highly aromatic root was official in the U. S. P., 1860-'70. It is similar to-
243. ANGELICA, A. OFFICINALIS.-EUROPEAN OR GARDEN ANGELICA.
(Root.) The aroma is due to a fragrant volatile oil. Also contains angelic
acid (also found in sumbul), which has an action on the nerves. Descrip-
tion: Root-stock 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 in.) long, 2.5 to 5 cm. (in.) thick,
crowned with remnants of leaf-bases, rather thick bark, curved yellowish,
porous wood-wedges, a whitish pith, spongy, especially in root-branches,
radiating lines of large resin-ducts in the bark, bast rays destitute of bast
fibers. Aromatic stimulant, stomachic, and carminative. Dose: 30 to 60
gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
244. ASAFOETIDA.—ASAFETIDA.
ASAFETIDA.
Ger. STINKASANT.
A gum-resin obtained from the root of Feru'la fœ'tida Regel, and other species of
Ferula.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A gigantic herbaceous plant, 10 feet high, with
radical leaves 18 inches long, bipinnate; calyx nearly obsolete, consisting
of 5 minute points. Fruit broadly elliptical, thin, foliaceous, with dilated
border; vittæ inconspicuous.
SOURCE. This plant, and other species from which commercial asafetida
is procured, grows in Western Thibet, Kashmir, Persia, Turkestan,
and Afghanistan. The plant is cut off at the root, and the milky
juice exuding is allowed to harden, the sun being excluded by
branches and leaves thrown over the cut surface; when it has solidi-
fied it is scraped off, and another slice of the root is cut off to expose
a fresh surface, this operation being continued until the root is ex-
hausted.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—Masses composed of white tears of various
shapes and sizes, imbedded in a brown, sticky mass, along with vege-
table trash and earthy impurities. These masses are at first soft,
but harden on exposure, the tears breaking with a conchoidal frac-
ture, at first milk-white, but gradually turning pink, and at last brown.
It resembles galbanum very much in appearance, but is easily dis-
tinguished by its strong, disagreeable, alliaceous odor, due to a
sulphuretted volatile oil present to the extent of 3 to 9 per cent.
On adding ammonia to a decoction of the sublimated resin, a blue
fluorescence is exhibited. Taste acrid, bitter, and alliaceous.
ASAFOETIDA-GALBANUM.
249
VARIETIES.—Besides the above-described variety, the amygdaloid, which
is the most common, there are other forms in which it enters the
market:
Liquid asafoetida is a permanent, syrupy liquid, white, turning
brown on exposure.
Asafoetida in tears is the purest variety.
Stony asafoetida, never used medicinally, consists of pieces of
gypsum or other earthy material coated with a thin layer of the milk-
juice.
CONSTITUENTS.—The greater part of asafœtida. consists of a gum (20 to
30 per cent.) and resin (50 to 70 per cent.). These, with the vola-
tile oil (3 to 9 per cent.), form with water a milky emulsion.
The resin is regarded by Tschirch as the ferulic ester of asaresino-
tannol, C24H350s, which, by sublimation, yields umbelliferone. There
is also contained in the drug vanillin 0.06 per cent., ferulic acid,
C10H10O4, 1.28 per cent. The resin, when fused with KOH,
yields resorcin and protocatechuic acid. The mineral impurities
often amount to 40 per cent., especially in that imported from Herat,
where it is adulterated with red clay.
For an exhaustive treatise on Gum Resins, etc., the student is referred to "Anal-
ysis of Resins, Balsams and Gum Resins, Their Chemistry and Pharmacognosis,”
by Carl Dietrich (Scott, Greenwood & Co., London).
ACTION AND USES.-Asafoetida combines the properties of a stimulating
antispasmodic with those of an efficient expectorant, making it a
valuable remedy in spasmodic affections of the respiratory tract, as
whooping-cough, asthma, etc. It is also a laxative, especially useful
in cases of flatulence. Dose: 5 to 8 gr. (0.3 to 0.5 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
·
Emulsum Asafœtidæ (4 per cent.), .... Dose:
Tinctura Asafoetidæ (20 per cent.)
Pilulæ Asafoetida (each pill containing
about 3 gr. of asafoetida, with soap as
an excipient),....
245. GALBANUM.-GALBANUM.
2 to 4 fl. dr. (8 to 15 Cc.).
10 to 40 п (0.6 to 2.6 Cc.).
2 to 5 pills.
A gum-resin imported from Persia, but the
botanical source of which is not definitely decided; it is generally consid-
ered, however, as a spontaneous exudation from Feru'la galbani'flua Bois-
sier et Buhse, and other species of Ferula, large plants growing in that
region. It is usually met with in pale yellow or brownish tears, ranging in
size from a pea to a hazelnut, occasionally separate and with a shining,
varnished surface, but more generally agglutinated into a more or less hard
mass by means of a darker, yellowish-brown, sometimes greenish, sub-
stance. In winter this mass has the consistence of firm wax, but in the
heat of summer it becomes soft and sticky; odor balsamic; taste acrid and
bitter.
CONSTITUENTS.-Besides gum and resin, it contains the interesting principle,
umbelliferone (common to many umbelliferous plants), acicular crystals,
producing a brilliant blue fluorescence on the addition of an alkali.
250
UMBELLIFERÆ.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, expectorant, and antispasmodic. Dose: 5 to 8
gr. (0.3 to 0.5 Gm.).
ammoni'acum Don.
246. AMMONIACUM.-GUM AMMONIAC. A gum-resin exuding from Dore'ma
Off. U. S. P., 1890. Roundish tears varying in size
from 1.5 to 12 mm. ( to in.) in diameter, externally yellow or pale
yellowish-brown. When warm it is of the consistence of wax, but it
becomes brittle when cold, breaking with a milk-white, waxy fracture,
translucent at the edges; odor balsamic, stronger on heating; taste acrid,
bitter, and nauseous. Lump ammoniac is an inferior quality in which
the tears are agglutinated. Čake ammoniac is a very impure, dark-colored,
resinous mass exuding from the roots; imbedded in it are a few tears and
much vegetable and earthy trash; it is not used internally. Constituents:
Volatile oil, gum resembling acacia, resin (about 70 per cent. composed of
two, one acrid resin and one indifferent resin); it yields no umbelliferone.
By fusing with KOH, yields protocatechuic acid and resorcin, CHO₂.
Among the derivatives of the acid resin are salicylic acid, ammoresinotannol,
Similar to asafoetida-stimulating expectorant, antispasmodic and
laxative-but less powerful. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
etc.
Emulsum Ammoniaci (4 per cent.),
U. S. P., 1890,
Dose: to 1 fl. oz. (15 to 30 Cc.).
Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro (72 per cent., with mercury
oleate of mercury, dilute acetic acid, and lead plaster), U. S. P., 1890.
MUSK ROOT.
247. SUMBUL.—SUMBUL.
Ger. SUMBULWURZEL.
The dried root of Feru'la sum'bul Hooker filius (?).
When punctured, the branches
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root fusiform; perennial stem 8 to 10 feet
high. Fruit oblong-ovate, monocarpous.
yield an angelica-flavored milk-juice.
HABITAT.-Regions north and east of British India.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Transverse segments about 10 to 50 mm.
(to 2 in.) long, and 25 mm. (1 in.) thick. They have a dusky-
brown, wrinkled bark, just beneath which is a whitish, spongy,
parenchymatous layer, under the microscope dotted with brown,
translucent, resinous exudations from large resin-ducts. The brown-
ish-yellow interior is a spongy mass consisting of coarse fibers,
easily separable, and indiscriminately mixed and twisted with the
medullary rays; fracture short and fibrous. Odor musk-like; taste
sweetish at first, becoming bitter and balsamic, and leaving a sensa-
tion of warmth in the mouth and throat. E. M. Holmes refers to
the inferior quality of this root of late years. He recommends that
the true root be cultivated, which he thinks possible in temperate
and mountainous districts in the colonies or in ordinary gardens
and fields of England. The true root has a strong, persistent, musky
odor, which the roots of recent importation do not have.
Powder.-Brown.
Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex, spongy,
with irregular masses of brownish resin, starch, spherical (4 to 15 in diam.);
IMPERATORIA-ERYNGIUM AQUATICUM.
251
parenchyma just below cork, elongated cells with reddish-brown coloring-matter,
ducts, large, brown with short, reticulate, scalariform, simple pores; wood
fibers broad, pitted; brown cork abundant.
CONSTITUENTS.-Sumbulic or angelic acid, C,H,O₂, a small quantity
of valerianic acid, C5H10O2, and a small percentage of bluish
volatile oil, to which, however, its odor is not due, but to two bal-
samic resins, or probably to some principle connected with them not
yet isolated. The oil contains umbelliferone, C,HO3.
ACTION AND USES.-Antispasmodic (due to the angelic and valerianic
acids contained), stimulant, and tonic. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2
Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Sumbul,..
Extractum Sumbul,
Dose: 30 m (2.0 Cc.).
5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
248. IMPERATORIA.—MASTERWORT. The root of Imperato'ria ostru'thium
Linné. Habitat: Southern Europe. A conical root with a dark brownish-
gray, annulated and tuberculated bark, inclosing a whitish wood-circle
and a resin-dotted central pith; odor angelica-like; taste pungent and
bitter. It is a stimulant aromatic, but is rarely used in this country.
249. LASERPITIUM.—White GENTIAN. The root of Laserpi'tium lati-
fo'lium Linné. Habitat: Central Europe. Somewhat conical, wrinkled
and annulated above, branched below; wood whitish, porous, deprived of
the brown, corky layer; aromatic and bitter. Used as a tonic and stimu-
lant. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
250. LEVISTICUM.-LOVAGE. The root of an aromatic European herb,
Ligus'ticum levis'ticum Linné. This is thick, sparingly beset with fibers,
and has an annulate, reddish-brown bark, inclosing a porous yellow wood;
it has an aromatic odor resembling that of angelica, and a sweetish, aro-
matic, and pungent taste, somewhat bitter. Its medicinal properties are
similar to those of angelica, being used as an aromatic stimulant and car-
minative, and as an adjuvant to tonic mixtures. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5
to 2 Gm.), in infusion.
The root of Ligus'ticum filici'num, Osha or Colorado Cough Root, has
enjoyed some notoriety as an expectorant.
251. PIMPINELLA.-PIMPERNEL. The root of Pimpinel'la saxifra'ga Linné.
Habitat: Europe. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and stomachic. It has also been
employed in chronic catarrh, asthma, dropsy, amenorrhea, etc., and as a
masticatory in toothache. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.), in infusion or
powder.
252. THAPSIA GARGANICA Linné.-(Root.) Used chiefly as a counter-
irritant in rheumatism, gout, bruises, etc.
253. CICUTA MACULATA.-AMERICAN WATER-HEMLOCK. WILD PARSNIP.
The root and leaves of Cicu'ta macula'ta Linné. Poisonous, sedative, nar-
cotic; resembles conium in action and has been used in its stead, but the
two drugs should not be confounded when conium is prescribed, as it
sometimes is, by its old name, cicuta. Dose: 3 to 5 gr. (0.2 to 0.3 Gm.).
Children have been poisoned by eating the fresh root, which resembles
parsnip in taste and smell.
254. ERYNGIUM AQUATICUM Linné.-WATER ERYNGO. RATTLESNAKE'S
MASTER. Habitat: United States. (Root.) Diaphoretic and expectorant,
and has been used as a substitute for senega. Dose of fluidextract: 20 to
40 mg (1.3 to 2.6 Cc.).
252
ARALIACEÆ CORNACEÆ.
255. OSMORRHIZA LONGISTYLIS. De Candolle.—SWEET CICELY. Habitat:
United States and Canada. (Root.) Aromatic, stomachic, carminative,
and expectorant. It contains a volatile oil identical with oil of anise.
Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
A. Root.
Panax, 256.
ARALIACEÆ.-Ginseng Family.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Araliacea.
B. Rhizome.
Aralia Nudicaulis, 257.
Aralia Racemosa, 257.
Aralia Hispida, 258.
256. PANAX.—GINSENG. (Official, 1840-1880.) The root of Pa'nax quinque-
fo'lium Willdenow. Collected in Ohio, West Virginia, Minnesota, etc., and
exported to China, where, from its fancied resemblance to the human figure,
it is supposed to possess miraculous powers in preventing and curing dis-
eases, and where at one time it was valued at its weight in gold. It has,
however, little medicinal properties except as a demulcent and aromatic
stimulant; not used extensively in medicine. It is a soft, yellowish-white,
fusiform root, about the thickness of the finger, with two or three equal
branches below. A cross-section shows a hard central portion, surrounded
by a thick, soft, white inner cortical layer; with thin bark, containing
numerous reddish resin-cells; wood-wedges narrow; medullary rays broad;
odor feeble; taste sweet, slightly aromatic. The sweet principle is pana-
quilon, C12H2509.
Preparation of Panaquilon.-Concentrate the cold infusion to a syrup, pre-
cipitate by concentrated solution of sodium sulphate, wash the precipitate
thoroughly with the saline solution, then treat with alcohol, which dissolves
the principle; evaporate to dryness.
257. ARALIA NUDICAULIS Linné.-FALSE SARSAPARILLA. WILD LICOR-
ICE. Habitat: North America. (Rhizome.) Horizontal, often 300 mm.
(12 in.) in length, and about the thickness of the little finger; it has a yel-
lowish-brown, wrinkled, and annulate bark, inclosing a yellow wood and
spongy pith; somewhat aromatic; taste warm, aromatic, and sweetish.
The rhizome of Ara'lia racemo'sa Linné (American Spikenard) is short,
and from 25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) thick, marked above by prominent stem-
scars and beset below with long, branching rootlets; externally pale brown,
internally whitish; more aromatic and spicy than A. nudicaulis. Both
rhizomes are used extensively in domestic practice as stimulant, diaphoretic,
and alterative. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in infusion. This drug
is treated of exhaustively by Alpers and Murray ("Proc. of Pharm.
Assoc.," 1897, p. 183).
258. ARALIA HISPIDA Ventenat.-DWARF ELDER. Habitat: United States.
(Rhizome.) Diuretic; used in dropsy, etc. Dose of fluidextract: 1 to 2
fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
CORNACEÆ.-Dogwood Family.
ΤΣ
259. CORNUS FLORIDA.-DOGWOOD. The root-bark of Cor'nus flori'da
Linné. Habitat: North America. Appears in pieces of various sizes,
generally broken up and more or less curved; about 2 mm. (½ in.) in
thickness when deprived of its brownish-gray cork, as it generally is, with
a fawn-colored outer surface; inner surface red, due to the tannin contained,
plainly radially striate; fracture short, whitish, showing numerous striæ
CAPRIFOLIACEÆ-SAMBUCUS.
253
of brownish-yellow stone cells. Inodorous; taste astringent and bitter, the
bitter principle being termed cornin. It yields a grayish powder, tinged
with red. Tonic and astringent, and almost equal to cinchona as an anti-
periodic in intermittent fevers. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.). The
barks of two other dogwoods, Cor'nus circina'ta (green osier bark or round-
leaved dogwood bark) and Cor'nus serice'a, are often used.
FIG. 117.-Cornus florida-Flowering branch.
260. GARRYA FREMONTII Torrey.-CALIFORNIA FEVER BUSH. (Leaves.)
Used as a tonic and antiperiodic in chills and fevers. They contain a
bitter principle similar to quinine in therapeutic acton. Dose: 15 to 30
gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
CAPRIFOLIACEAE.-Honeysuckle Family.
Shrubs, as viburnum, or twining plants, as the honeysuckle, with opposite,
exstipulate leaves, a gamopetalous corolla, and the fruit a berry, pod, or drupe.
The calyx-tube is adherent to the 2- to 5-celled ovary.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Caprifoliaceæ.
A. Flowers.
Sambucus, 261.
C. Root.
Triosteum, 264.
B. Bark.
VIBURNUM OPULUS, 262.
VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM, 263.
261. SAMBUCUS.-ELDER. The dry flowers of Sambu'cus canaden'sis Linné.
Collected when in full bloom and rapidly dried, the commercial drug being
composed of the small, yellowish, somewhat wheel-shaped and shriveled
flowers, mixed with a few expanded ones; usually detached from their
peduncles, which are mixed with them. They have a sweetish, somewhat
bitter taste, and a slight, peculiar, agreeable odor, due to a very small
quantity of volatile oil. The European elder (S. nigra) resembles S. cana-
densis. Constituents: Besides volatile oil, they contain sugar, mucilage,
fat, wax, resin, pectin, albuminoids, and probably a little tannin. Stimu-
lant, carminative, and diaphoretic. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
254
CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.
T
FIG. 118.-Viburnum opulus-Flowering branch and fruit.
FIG. 119.-Viburnum opulus—Bark of stem, cross-section. A. Cork. B. Cortical parenchyma.
C. Group of bast fibers in cortical parenchyma.
-A
B
VIBURNUM OPULUS-VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.
255
262. VIBURNUM OPULUS.-CRAMP BARK.
HIGH BUSH CRANBERRY.
Ger. WASSERHOLDERRINDE.
The dried bark of Vibur'num op'ulus Linné.
BOTANICAL CHaracteristics.-Leaves palmate, 3- to 5-ribbed, 3-lobed, the
petioles bearing two glands at base. Cymes peduncled. Fruit a light red,
acid, globose drupe.
HABITAT.-North America.
Description of DRUG.-Very thin pieces or occasionally quills, with an
ash-gray periderm marked with elongated brown warts and black dots
in longitudinal lines; it is easily removed from the somewhat reddish-
brown surface of the middle layer; the inner surface is white or
brownish; fracture uneven, fibrous; inner layer of the bark contains
large clusters in the form of elongated bands of bast fibers, associated
with but few stone cells. These interrupted bands are separated from
one another by narrow medullary rays and, longitudinally, by broader
rays of soft bast. The absence of stone cells distinguishes it from,
but otherwise is substantially the same as, V. prunifolium (263).
inodorous; taste astringent and bitter.
Powder. Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of inner
cortex, with calcium oxalate prisms; middle bark bearing reddish-brown color-
ing-matter, starch (5 to 12 µ in diam.); long thick-walled bast fibers numerous;
few stone cells; crystals of calcium oxalate, in prisms, few aggregate (15 to 30
in diam.); crystal fibers with calcium oxalate in prisms.
ACTION AND USES.-Claimed to be antispasmodic, hence the name
cramp bark. Dose: 30 gr. to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Viburni Opuli,
Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
263. VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.
BLACK HAW.
The dried bark of the root of Vibur'num prunifo'lium Linné or of V. lentago
Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A tall shrub or small tree. Leaves oval, obtuse,
or slightly pointed, finely serrate. Cymes compound, sessile. Fruit an
oval, black, sweet drupe.
HABITAT. Middle and Southern United States, east of the Mississippi.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—In thin pieces or quills, glossy purplish-brown,
with scattered warts and minute black dots; when collected from old
roots, grayish-brown; the thin corky layer easily removed from the
green layer; inner surface yellowish to brownish, smooth; fracture
256
CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.
FIG. 120 Viburnum prunifolium-Branch with flowers.
FIG. 121. Viburnum prunifolium-Bark of root, cross-section. 4. Cork. B. Group of stone cells
in cortical parenchyma.
A
B
-B
RUBIACEÆ-IPECACUANHA.
257
short; inodorous, astringent and bitter. Cross-sections display, in-
stead of the bands of bast fibers, as in V. opulus, numerous groups
of stone cells irregularly disposed.
Powder.-Dark brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of inner cor-
tex, with prisms and aggregate calcium oxalate (15 to 35 u in diam.), middle
parenchyma tangentially flattened with some starch (5 to 30 μ in diam.); stone
cells large, numerous (30 to 100 μ in diam.); crystal fibers with aggregate crystals
and prisms of calcium oxalate; large cork cells; bast fibers not abundant (20 to
30 μ thick).
CONSTITUENTS.—A brown resin, a bitter principle (viburnin), valerianic
acid, tannic acid, oxalic, malic, and citric acids, sulphates, and
chlorides.
ACTION AND USES.-Diuretic, and a tonic and sedative to the uter-
ine and ovarian nerve centers; used in threatened abortion.
Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Viburni Prunifolii, ..... Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
264. TRIOSTEUM.-FEVER ROOT. BASTARD IPECAC. The root of Trios'-
teum perfolia'tum Linné, common in most parts of the United States.
(See Conspectus.) Cathartic and emetic in large doses. Dose: 15 to 30
gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
RUBIACEÆ.-Madder Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with opposite, simple, and entire leaves, connected
with interposed stipules, or in whorls without stipules. A very large family in
tropical regions, represented by the coffee plant (Arabia and Africa) and by
the cinchonas (South America).
A. Root.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Rubiacea.
IPECACUANHA, 265.
B. Rhizome.
Rubia, 266.
C. Bark.
CINCHONA, 267.
CINCHONA RUBRA, 267 a.
D. Herb.
Mitchella, 270.
Galium, 271.
E. Seed.
Caffea, 272.
F. Extractive.
Catechu Pallidum (Gambir), 273.
Remijia, 268.
Cephalanthus, 269.
IPECAC.
265. IPECACUANHA.-IPECAC.
Ger. RUHRWURZEL.
The dried root, to which may be attached a portion of the stem not exceeding
7 cm. in length, of Cephæ'lis Ipecacuan'ha (Brotero) A. Richard (Fam. Rubiacea),
known commercially as Rio, Brazilian, or Para Ipecac, or corresponding portion of
C. acuminata Karsten, known commercially as Carthagena Ipecac. The value is
dependent upon the percentage of alkaloidal constituents. Rio Ipecac yields from
1 to 2 per cent. of emetine and from 0.25 to 1 per cent. of cephæline; Carthagena
17
258
RUBIACEÆ.
yields from 1.16 to 1.94 per cent. of emetine and from 0.59 to 1.3 per cent. of cepha-
line. When assayed by the official process the root should yield not less than
2 per cent. of total alkaloids.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—The root perennial, knotty, with transverse
rings; stems suffruticose, ascending, somewhat pubescent toward the apex.
Leaves opposite, oblong, roughish above, finely pubescent beneath. Inflor-
escence capitate, inclosed by a large one-leafed involucre; flowers bracteate;
corolla white, funnel-form, the limb with reflexed segments; stamens 5,
slightly exserted. Fruit a dark violet berry, crowned by the limb of the
calyx, 2-celled, 2-seeded.
-|-
1/2
FIG. 122.-Cephalis ipecacuanha-Plant and dried root.
Source and VARIETIES.—Grows in the damp woods of the Brazilian
valleys, notably in the provinces of Para, Rio Janeiro, Pernambuco,
etc. This variety is known in commerce as Rio ipecac, while that
from Colombia is called Carthagena ipecac. The former is usually
preferred, but the latter is now more common. The plant Psychotrin
!

IPECACU ANHA.
259
medica is sometimes termed and sold as Carthagena ipecac, but it is
devoid of alkaloid. The Brazilian plant is quite hardy, appearing
as a creeping vine or bush. The roots usually grow thicker as they
penetrate the ground and then taper off again to a point or thin root-
let. Collectors usually leave a part of every other plant in the ground,
so that in about three years another crop may be harvested. "Wiry
root," consisting of about 75 per cent. of woody portion and 25 per
cent. cortex, is, according to Dohme, richest in alkaloids. It has a
rather rough, uneven appearance, and is popularly less esteemed than
the so-called "fancy" root consisting of 75 per cent. cortex. This
prejudice, according to Dohme, is difficult to overcome.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Rio
Ipecac. In pieces of ir-
regular length, rarely ex-
ceeding 25 cm.; stem por-
tion 2 to 3 mm. thick,
light gray-brown, cylin-
drical and smoothish;
root portion usually red-
brown, occasionally
blackish-brown, rarely
gray-brown, 3 to 6 mm.
thick, curved and sharply
tortuous, nearly free from
rootlets, occasionally
branched, closely annu-
lated with thickened, in-
A
B
C
complete rings, and usu- FIG. 123.-Ipecac-Cross-section of Root. (25 diam.) A,
Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex. C, Xylem. (Photo-
micrograph.)
ally exhibiting transverse
fissures with vertical sides,
through the bark; fracture short, the very thick, easily separable bark
whitish, usually resinous, the thin, tough wood yellowish-white, without
vessels; odor very slight, peculiar, the dust sternutatory; taste bitter
and nauseous, somewhat acrid.
Carthagena ipecac is of a dull gray color, thicker, less fre-
quently and sharply crooked, and lacks the constrictions character-
istic of Rio ipecac, although it bears the annular thickenings, or
merging annulæ. The thick bark, on cross-section, has rather a
grayish color, the medullary rays are more prominent and more
numerous.
STRUCTURE. The thin outer layer of cork cells contains a brownish-red
deposit, thought by some to be emetine in combination with ipecac-
260
RUBIACEÆ.
uanhic acid. The thick inner cortical layer consists of starchy
parenchyma, free from medullary rays, but containing a circle. of
stone cells filled with calcium oxalate crystals. Transverse sections
show rather a small layer of cork cells, a thick cortical portion con-
sisting of parenchyma, loaded with starch and rich in alkaloid. The
woody portion, radiate, contains little or no alkaloid.
Powder.-Fawn color. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma containing
raphides, with starch, simple and 2 to 4 compound (4 to 14 μ in diam.) (starch
grains in Carthagena Ipecac, larger); tracheids with simple or oblique pores.
(See Ipecac starch grains highly magnified, Fig. 366.)
CONSTITUENTS.-Emetine (1 to 2 per cent.), cephaëline, psychotrine, and
15
a peculiar tannic acid called ipecacuanhic or cephaëlic acid, starch,
resin, etc. The active principles exist only in the bark of the root,
and probably in the thin, outer layer of cork cells. Recently con-
siderable light has been thrown on emetine, C₁5H22N2O5, and
cephaëline, C₁₁H20NO2, which were formerly supposed to be one
body. According to Paul and Cownley ("Pharm. Jour.," 1896)
cephaëline is the emetic principle and emetine the expectorant prin-
ciple of the drug. This naming is unfortunate, and should be
reversed. Emetine is amorphous; cephaëline crystalline.
Recent researches show that Rio ipecac contains 1.45 per cent. of
emetine (melting-point 68° C.), and 0.52 per cent. of cephaëline,
while the Carthagena variety contains 0.89 per cent. of emetine and
1.25 of cephaëline (melting-point 96° to 98°). The latter variety is
said to be the better one, because it runs higher in total alkaloids.
Any sample of either, however, is liable to run high or low in total.
alkaloids, so that there is little ground for distinction between the
two ipecacs. The U. S. P. requires that the drug shall contain 2 per
cent. of total alkaloid. ·
Preparation of Emetine.-A very simple process is to exhaust the drug with
boiling chloroform made slightly alkaline with solution of ammonia. Upon
distilling off the chloroform the emetine is left in a very pure condition, and,
when dried at 100° C., gives a residue which, when weighed, gives one a rough
estimate of the value of the drug: Cephaëline is extracted usually with emetine
in most of the processes for assay. It is less soluble in ether than emetine.
Preparation of Ipecacuanhic Acid (Cephaëlic Acid). Precipitate decoction
with lead acetate, dissolve precipitate with acetic acid, and precipitate solution
with lead subacetate; wash and dry. Resembles caffeotannic acid.
ACTION AND USES.-In large doses a systemic emetic, in minute
doses stomachic, aiding digestion. Ipecac has been used, since its
introduction into medicine, as a remedy in dysentery, when there is
said to be a peculiar tolerance of the drug; but the fact is the
stomach almost invariably rejects large doses. Recent experiments
prove that ipecac, when deprived of its emetine, possesses its full
CINCHONA.
261
antidysenteric properties, without the drawbacks of depression,
nausea, etc. Accordingly there appears in the market to meet this
peculiar demand a preparation made from de-emetinized bark.
Dose as expectorant, 1 gr. (0.06 Gm.); emetic, 10 to 15 gr. (0.6
to I Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Ipecacuanhæ, . Dose:
Syrupus Ipecacuanhæ (7 per
cent.),..
Vinum Ipecacuanhæ (10 per
cent.),
Tinctura Ipecacuanhæ et Opii
(10 per cent.),
ΙΟ
Mistura Rhei et Sodæ (0.3 per
cent. with Sodium Bicarbon-
ate, Fl'ext. Rhubarb and Sp.
Peppermint),
Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ et Opii
(10 per cent. of each),..
Pilulæ Laxativæ Compositæ
(.004 Gm., with Aloin, Strych-
nine, Extract of Belladonna
leaves and Glycyrrhiza), . . . . . .
3 to 8 my (0.2 to 0.5 Cc.); 15 to 60
my (1 to 4 Cc.).
Adult exp. 30 mg (2.0 Cc.), Emetic 6
fl. dr. (24.0 Cc.).
5 to 10 m (0.3 to 0.6 Cc.).
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
1 fl. dr. (4 Cc.).
5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
2 pills.
266. RUBIA.-MADDER. The rhizome of Ru'bia tinc'torum Linné.
Habitat:
Levant and Southern Europe, chiefly supplied from Holland, where it is
cultivated. Usually comes into market in a coarse, red powder. Its most
important constituent is alizarin, a red coloring-matter soluble in water and
alcohol. Chiefly used as a dye.
267. CINCHONA.-CINCHONA.
PERUVIAN BARK.
Ger. PERUVIANISCHE RINDE.
The dried bark of Cincho'na Ledgeriana Moens, Cincho'na calisa'ya Weddell,
Cincho'na officina'lis Linné, and of hybrids of these with other species of
Cinchona, yielding, when assayed, not less than 5 per cent. of anhydrous cin-
chona alkaloids. The bark should yield 4 per cent. of anhydrous alkaloids solu-
ble in ether, when assayed by the U. S. P. process.
SOURCE, VARIETIES, HISTORY, ETC.-The genus Cinchona is composed
of over three dozen species, but few furnish the commercial barks.
It is well known that the original source of the drug is South America
(10° N. lat. to 19° S. lat., from about 3000 to 12,000 feet above sea-
level), the area of the growth of the various species being confined
exclusively to the Andes, chiefly on the eastern face of the Cordilleras-
occasionally on the western face, which is covered by forests. The
best known varieties from South America were the dark brown Loxa
bark and the pale yellow-gray Huanuco. The cinchonas seldom
form an entire forest, but rather groups interspersed among tree-
262
RUBIACEÆ.
ferns, gigantic climbers, bamboos, etc., sometimes growing separately
in exposed situations, but under peculiar climatic conditions, such
as a great humidity of atmosphere and a mean temperature of about
62°. Shade seems to favor the development of alkaloids. Dymock
calls attention to the fact that "the north or shaded side of a tree
has a richer bark than that on the south side," a fact which explains
the success of the "mossing system."*
Cultivated trees in recent years have been the chief source of the
commercial barks. To some extent the cultivation has been carried
on in South America, but great success has attended the persevering
efforts of the Dutch Government and the Government of British
India. Extensive plantations of cinchona are now flourishing, to the
extent of over five million trees of the more important species, on the
Neilgherry Hills and in the valleys of the Himalaya in British
Sikkin. The tree is also cultivated in Ceylon, Java, Jamaica (Blue
Mountains), and other countries.
VARIETIES.—Dohme ("Druggists' Circular," p. 296, 1896) divides the
barks as follows:
1. Those barks that are histologically true cinchona barks and at
the same time contain cinchona alkaloid.
2. Those that are histologically not cinchona barks, but still con-
tain cinchona alkaloids.
3. Those barks that simulate cinchona barks, but are not histo-
logically cinchona, and do not contain cinchona alkaloids.
There are about twenty varieties of cinchona barks, and it is a very
difficult matter to distinguish them, since they have been and are
now changed so much by grafting and crossing. The varieties.
generally used and best known are: C. succirubra Pavon, C. cali-
* There are four methods of collecting or harvesting the bark: (1) By taking it
in longitudinal strips from the standing tree and leaving the bark to renew over the
exposed wood; (2) by scraping and shaving off the bark; (3) by coppicing; and (4)
by uprooting. The first is most in use.
The trees are barked preferably in
the rainy season, when the bark "lifts," or is more easily removed from the wood.
The coolie inserts the point of a knife in the tree as far as he can reach and draws
it down, making an incision in the bark straight to the ground; he then makes
another cut parallel to the first, about an inch and a half distant, and, loosening the
bark with the back of the knife, the strip or ribbon is taken off. If the operation
is performed carefully and the cambium cells are not broken, a new layer of bark
will be formed in place of that which is taken away. The tree is then covered
All this is done to foster
with moss, grass, or leaves, bound on by strings or fiber.
the growth of the new bark (renewed bark) from the cambium and to thicken the
untouched layers of natural bark, which is now termed mossed bark.-Pharmaco-
graphia Indica.
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Outline map of South America, showing the native distribution of cinchona bark
and certain other prominent drugs of that country. See also Geographical Classifi-
cation of Drugs, page 18.
263
CINCHONA.
265
saya Weddell, C. ledgeriana Moens, C. lancifolia Mutis, and C.
officinalis Hooker.
These would, of course, all come under class I of the above
classification. C. cuprea, or Remijia purdieana, is the repre-
sentative of class 2, and C. nova, also known as C. bicolor,
Ladenbergia magnifolia, or Cascarilla magnifolia (nothing to do with
Croton eluteria), represents class 3. The success of the Dutch
rela
FIG. 124-Cinchona officinalis—Branch.
planters of Jaya has been so pronounced that the greater portion of
cinchona bark comes from this place, the leading varieties being
ledgeriana and succirubra bark. Verne states that cultivation of
cinchonas in tropical localities should be confined to the Ledgeriana
variety, that the C. succirubra should be restricted. Major D. Train,
the superintendent government quinologist of the Bengal cinchona
plantations, states ("Chem. and Drugg.," Aug. 24, 1901, 358) that

266
RUBIACEÆ.
the bulk of the bark harvested on the Bengal plantations during the
year 1899-1900, taken from sickly and stunted trees, amounted to
208,652 pounds, all quinine-yielding barks. In Java greater care in
general is exercised in the cultivation and the trees are allowed to
reach the age of twelve years before the bark is collected. Moreover,
the cultivation is confined to the variety Ledgeriana. Over 500,000
pounds are collected annually from Java plantations.
DESCRIPTION. In quills or curved pieces of variable size, usually 2 or
A
B
C
C
H
G
-H
D
F
0000
-E
FIG. 125.-Cinchona calisaya-Cross-section of bark.
4. Cork cells. B. Cortical parenchyma. C.
Stone cells. D. Phloëm portion. E. Soft bast.
F. Phellogen forming bork. G. Medullary rays.
(The black line from G should be extended to the
parenchyma cells between the phloëm portions.)
H. Bast fibers.
FIG. 126. Cross-section of Cinchona
calisaya bark (var. Micrantha).
3, sometimes 5 mm. thick; externally gray, rarely brownish-gray, with
numerous intersecting transverse and longitudinal fissures, having
nearly vertical sides; the outer bark may be wanting, the color exter-
nally being then cinnamon brown; the inner surface light cinnamon
brown, finely striate; fracture of the outer bark short and granular,
of the inner finely splintery; powder light brown or yellowish-brown;
odor slight, aromatic; taste bitter and somewhat astringent.
MICROSCOPICAL.-The calisaya (variety Micrantha) transversely shows
milk-vessels in the cortical parenchyma and absence of stone cells,
CINCHONA RUBRA.
267
which are present in Lancifolia. The rays of the woody portion are
more elongated and the medullary rays larger in size. Bast fibers
comparatively small and less numerous, but are spindle-shaped, as
they are in all true cinchona barks showing longitudinal section.
C. rubra the stone cells and milk-ducts are both wanting, while the
bast fibers are more numerous and stouter. The bark is richer in
coloring matter. In cuprea bark the cork cells are thicker and the
cortical parenchyma cells smaller, stone cells present, milk-ducts
absent, few bast fibers, but the woody portion contains indurated cells,
which simulate them. The ligneous cells are very numerous and
extend even down into the medulla. They are smaller than the bast
fibers of true cinchona barks, but much more numerous.
These barks are thoroughly saturated with pigments, principally
cinchona red, the phlobaphen of all cinchona barks. Before micro-
scopical examination these pigments must be removed by a weak
alcoholic solution of ammonia. This requires considerable practice
(Dohme). Compared with other barks, the fibers of the liber of
cinchona are shorter and more loosely arranged, being for the most
part separated into simple fibers imbedded in the bast parenchyma,
or united into very short bundles.
2
Grahe's test for the distinction of cinchona bark is as follows: On
heating about 0.1 Gm. (1½ gr.) of the powdered bark in a dry test-tube
a tarry distillate of a red color is obtained. (Constituents, see below.)
267 a. CINCHONA RUBRA.—The dried bark of Cinchona Succirubra
Pavon or its hybrids. "In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length,
and from 2 to 4 or 5 mm. (½ to or in.) thick; the outer surface
covered with a grayish-brown cork, more or less rough from warts
and longitudinal, warty ridges, and from few, mostly short and not
frequently intersected transverse fissures, having their sides sloping;
inner surface more or less deep reddish-brown and distinctly striate;
fracture short, fibrous in the inner layer; outer layer, granular. This
bark should yield at least 5 per cent. of total alkaloids.
Powder.-Yellowish-red to reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Paren-
chyma of cortex with spherical starch granules, simple (4 to 12 µ in diam.) ; few cells
with crystal sand, others with reddish-brown tannin; sclerenchyma with bast
fibers short, thick, spindle-shaped (40 to 120 μ thick) (400 to 1000 long); thick-
walled stone cells (40 to 60 by 100 to 200 µ); cork, considerable quantity; red
cinchona, deep red with KOH.
μl
CONSTITUENTS.—Upon quinine, C₂HNO3H2O, the bark almost
exclusively depends for its value. This alkaloid is colorless, amor-
phous, or in acicular crystals; inodorous, very bitter; soluble in 1670
parts water. 6 parts alcohol, 26 parts ether. Aqueous solutions of
the salts have a blue fluorescence, and when treated with chlorine
268
RUBIACEÆ.
water and ammonia a beautiful green color is produced—“Thalleoquin
test." The solutions deviate the plane of polarization to the left.
The tartrate is soluble in water. A cold aqueous solution of the
sulphate remains unaffected by potassium iodide T. S. (difference
FIG. 127. Cinchona succirubra-Branch.
-12
from quinidine) U. S. P. The other prominent principles, also
official in the U. S. P., are as follows:
CINCHONIDINE, C19H22N₂O-isomeric with cinchonine, non-fluor-
escent; forms colorless, anhydrous crystals, soluble in 20 parts alcohol
(80 per cent.), 1680 of water, and 188 of ether. The sulphate is more
soluble in water than quinine, and the tartrate very insoluble. The
Thalleoquin test (see above) gives a white precipitate. Represented
in Cinchonidine Sulphas, U. S.
CINCHONA RUBRA.
269
CINCHONINE, C20H24N₂O-white lustrous prisms, soluble in 3760
parts water, 116 parts alcohol, and 526 parts ether; has exactly the
opposite action to cinchonidine and quinine upon polarized light.
QUINIDINE, C20H24N2O2-isomeric with quinine; crystallizes in
prisms soluble in 2000 parts water, o.8 part alcohol, about 30 parts
ether; turns the plane of polarization to the right. A cold aqueous
solution of the sulphate
yields a white precipitate
with potassium iodide T. S.
(difference from sulphate of
quinine). Represented in
Quinidine Sulphas, U. S.
Among the unofficial
alkaloids and principles
found in the bark are the fol-
lowing: Isomeric with qui-
nine and quinidine is qui-
nicine; with cinchonine and
cinchonidine, are cinchoni-
cine, homocinchonine,
ho-
homocinchonidine,
mocinchonicine, and apo-
quinamine; a brown amor-
phous alkaloid is obtainable
from the mother-liquor
known as chinoidine (qui-
noidine), a mixture of vari-
ous not well-defined alka-
loidal substances; kinic acid,
C,H12O6, and kinovic acid;
B
D
E
D.
F
FIG. 128.—Cinchona rubra—Cross-section of bark.
A. Cork cells. B. Cortical parenchyma. C.
Coloring matter, deposits between and within
the cells. D. Medullary ray. (Black line from
D should not extend beyond the first two rows
of cells of the figure.) E. Bast fibers.
kinovin; bitter cinchonic acid (derived from preceding); volatile oil,
a minute quantity.
Separation of Total Alkaloids.-Moisten powdered cinchona with ammonia
water and allow it to stand for an hour, then hot water is added. To the mix-
ture, after cooling, milk of lime is added and the whole evaporated to dryness.
This is placed in an extraction apparatus and exhausted with ether. Water
acidulated with HC1 is added to neutralize the alkaloids and the ether distilled
off. The cooled liquid is filtered and decinormal solution of soda is added.
Finally, sodium hydrate is added to complete the precipitation of the alkaloids.
There are numerous other processes, but this seems a simple and satisfactory
one to use for assay purposes.
YIELD OF ALKALOID. The richest government bark brought to the
market until recently has not exceeded 9 per cent. of sulphate of
quinine; 7 to 8 per cent. is a good average in government plantations.
270
RUBIACEÆ.
Barks taken from the trees in the government gardens at Pioeng
Goenoeg, Java, have recently been analyzed and found to equal
respectively 12.66 and 16.04 per cent. of quinine sulphate.
ACTION AND USES.-The action of cinchona bark is due almost entirely
to the alkaloids therein contained. Quinine is a powerful antiseptic,
destructive, in weak solution, to infusorial and vegetable life. In-
ternally it stimulates the muscular fibers of the stomach, acting as a
bitter tonic, invigorating the vital functions and aiding digestion. In
large doses the brain is affected, giving rise to symptoms such as full-
ness, frontal headache, deafness, ringing in the ears, and mental
dullness. This effect is called "cinchonism," attributed to partial
anæmia of the brain, contraction of blood-vessels, etc. Heart action
is depressed. Reflex excitability of the spinal cord is lowered. In
the blood, quinine arrests the migration of the white corpuscle and
checks its amœboid movement; the oxygen-carrying function of the
red corpuscle is impaired; infectious micro-organisms in the blood
and tissues are probably rendered inactive or destroyed. The toxic
symptoms produced by quinine and allied salts are spoken of collect-
ively as cinchonism, which ordinarily is not allowed to go further
than tinnitus aurium (Shoemaker).
Dose of cinchona: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in powder, fluidex-
tract, or its equivalent in the salts of the alkaloids.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Cinchonæ,
Tinctura Cinchonæ (20 per cent.),
Tinctura Cinchonæ Composita (10 per
cent., with bitter orange-peel 8 per cent.,
and serpentaria 2 per cent.) (Ĉinchona
Rubra),..
Dose: 10 to 60 mm (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
I
268. REMIJIA.-CUPREA BARK. The bark of Remij'ia peduncula'ta Triana
and of Remijia purdiea'na Weddell, resembling cinchona in physical
properties and constitution. A copper-red bark from the United States
of Colombia, grown at an altitude of from 3000 to 6000 feet, usually in
flat or curved pieces; odor slight; taste bitter. Quinine is contained in
this bark to the amount of 0.5 to 2.5 per cent., but no chinchonidine is
found; homoquinine-a compound of quinine and cupreine—is also a
constituent. Remijia bark is largely imported by manufacturers; it was
said that the importations of this bark at one time exceeded in amount
the entire importations of all the cinchona barks, by reason of its cheapness
for the manufacture of quinine. Cinchonamine, CH24N2O, is one of the
principal products of R. purdicana, the bark from which does not respond
to Grahe's test.
269. CEPHALANTHUS
OCCIDENTALIS Linné.-BUTTON BUSH. POND
DOGWOOD. Habitat: United States. (Bark.) Tonic, febrifuge, laxative,
and diuretic. It has an indirect action on the lungs, and is much used in
consumption, coughs, and colds generally. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
270. MITCHELLA.-SQUAW VINE. PARTRIDGE BERRY. The herb of Mit-
chell'a re'pens Linné, a creeping evergreen growing in the woods of this
GALIUM-CAFFEA.
271
country east of the Mississippi. Stem branching, bearing roundish-ovate,
entire, evergreen leaves, about 12 mm. (in.) long, sometimes marked
with white lines; flowers pale purplish, the ovary ripening into a small,
scarlet-red berry. Tonic, astringent, and diuretic, resembling pipsissewa
in action and often substituted for it. It is frequently combined with
black haw. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
LITT
271. GALIUM.-CLEAVERS. LADY'S BEDSTRAWS. The herb of Ga'lium
apari'ne Linné. Habitat: Northern Hemisphere. Stem weak, quad-
rangular, prominently winged,
and covered with retrorse
prickles; leaves linear-lanceo-
late, borne in whorls. Flowers
small, white, axillary, the sin-
gle ovary ripening into a two-
seeded, bristly fruit. Aperient,
diuretic, and alterative; also
used in psoriasis and other
skin diseases. Dose: 30 to 60
gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in infusion.
G. ve'rum (Yellow Lady's
Bedstraw) has a smooth stem,
bearing yellow flowers. G. tri-
flo'rum contains coumarin, and
has a fragrant odor when dry.
272. CAFFEA. COFFEE. The
seeds of Cof'fea arab'ica
Linné. Habitat: Southern Ara-
bia and Abyssinia; cultivated
in South America, Java, and
various tropical countries.
The fruit is a roundish berry,
about the size of a large cherry,
becoming dark purple, and con-
taining two seeds, which are in-
closed within a membranous
covering, and a purplish pulp.
These seeds, when freed from
the pericarp, form the coffee of
the market. They are brown-
ish-green or bluish-gray, plano-
convex, the flat surface being
elliptical, with a longitudinal
groove curving deeply into the
horny albumen; odor peculiar,
faint, growing stronger by age;
taste sweetish, somewhat as-
tringent.
Good berries are
hard and sink readily in water.
Soft, light, dark-colored berries
should be rejected.
CONSTITUENTS.-Its properties de-
FIG. 129.-Cross-section of Cuprea baik.
pend upon the alkaloid caffeine (2 to 8 per cent.), the constituent common to
most of the stimulating beverages. It also contains sugar, tannic acid,
caproic acid, fat, etc. When roasted, the sugar is converted into caramel,
the caffeic acid partially into methylamine, and several volatile and em-
pyreumatic substances (caffeone) are formed, giving to coffee its peculiar
aroma. It loses from 15 to 18 per cent. of moisture in drying.
Preparation of Caffeine (Theine).—Precipitate infusion of tea or coffee with
lead acetate; remove lead from filtrate with H₂S; concentrate second filtrate,
neutralize with NH,OH, and allow it to cool, when caffeine will crystallize out.
272
VALERIANEÆ.
An aqueous solution of caffeine does not form a precipitate with Mayer's re-
agent. For estimation of caffeine in tea or coffee see "Proc. Amer. Pharm.
Assoc.," 1897, p. 712.
ACTION AND USES.—Cerebrospinal stimulant, tonic; aids digestion and allays
hunger and fatigue by lessening tissue waste.
273. CATECHU PALLIDUM.-TERRA JAPONICA. GAMBIR. (See also p. 194.)
An extract obtained from a climbing plant of the East Indies, Ourouparia
Gambir (Hunter) Baillon, by boiling the leaves, twigs, etc., in water. It is
in about one-inch cubes, or in irregular pieces, reddish-brown or yellowish,
breaking with a dull, earthy, pale yellowish fracture, showing under the
microscope numerous crystals; inodorous; taste astringent and bitter,
leaving finally a sweet taste in the mouth. It is mostly used in this country
in tanning, dyeing, etc.; in its native country it is chewed with betel-nuts.
VALERIANEÆ.
Herbs with opposite, exstipulate leaves. Flowers in panicled or head-like
cymes. Many of the species possess antispasmodic properties, due to the pres-
ence of a volatile oil, from which is developed valerianic acid
VALERIAN.
274. VALERIANA.-VALERIAN.
Ger. BALDRIANWURZEL.
The rhizome and roots of Valeria'na officina'lis Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root perennial, tuberous.
Root perennial, tuberous. Leaves pinnate or
pinnately cut. Corolla roseate, funnel-form, 5-lobed; stamens 3. Fruit
a feathery akene.
SOURCE.-Europe, especially in Holland, Belgium, England, and Ger-
many, as well as Japan. The Japanese root is said to be richer in
volatile oil than the Belgian. The fresh rhizomes and roots are pre-
ferred for distilling the oil, as there is a loss of nearly 50 per cent. of
the oil in drying the rhizome and root for medicinal use.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Obconical, from 6 to 75 mm. (to 3 in.) in
length, with stem-remnants above, and beset with numerous rootlets;
those rhizomes grown in dry localities are smaller, nearly globular,
with lighter colored, thinner, and less shriveled rootlets, and con-
tain a greater proportion of volatile oil than those grown in moist
ground; the latter are generally sliced longitudinally. Externally
brown, internally pale brownish; odor strong, disagreeable, increasing
with age; taste camphoraceous and bitter. A cross-section shows
a rather thin bark, and a wood-circle, narrow, white, inclosing a large
pith. Nucleus sheath mostly indistinct; branches have a similar
structure but a thicker bark. The rootlets have a thick bark and a
slender, woody column, distinctly radiate, and contain a small pith
inclosed in a nucleus sheath.
VALERIANA.
273
Powder.-Light brown to dark brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma
of cortex with cells thin or thick-walled, with starch, spherical (3 to 15 μ in
diam.), simple or compound; sclerenchyma with stone cells, very thick-walled
(20 to 30 μ in diam.); ducts with scalariform, spiral, annular, simple pores;
wood fibers and wood parenchyma with simple pores; cork, small amount, brown.
-1:3
FIG. 130.-Valeriana officinalis-Plant and rhizome.
CONSTITUENTS.-Besides the common vegetable principles, it contains a
terpene, isovaleric acid, CH10O2 (distilling at 300° C.), and a vola-
tile oil of complex constitution, consisting mainly of an alcohol,
borneol; its ether, and its formic, acetic, and valerianic acid esters,
which are gradually decomposed on exposure, liberating the acids.
This oil (Oleum Valerianæ, U. S.) is of a pale greenish color, be-
18

274
VALERIANEÆ.
coming yellow and viscid on exposure, and has the peculiar odor of
the root.
D
B
FIG. 131. Valerian-Cross-section of rhizome. A. Cork cells. B. Collenchyma. C. Cortical paren-
chyma. D. Endodermis. E. Small irregular liber-cells. F. Medullary rays. G. Punctated vessels
of wood-rays. H. Pith-cells.
B
C
D
FIG. 132. Valerian-Cross-section of rootlet. (17 diam.) A, Epidermis. B, Parenchyma of cortex.
C, Phloem. D, Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
ACTION AND USES.-Gentle nerve stimulant and antispasmodic, em-
ployed in hysterical disorders. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Valerianæ,
Tinctura Valerianæ (20 per cent.),...
Tinctura Valerianæ Ammoniata (20 per
cent.), .
.Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
COMPOSITÆ TARAXACUM.
275
COMPOSITE.-Composite Family.
Herbaceous or woody plants, rarely shrubs, with the flowers in close heads
on a common receptacle, and surrounded by a common imbricated involucre.
Stamens 5, their anthers united into a tube surrounding the pistil. Flowers of
two sorts, strap-shaped or ligulate, and tubular, and hence the family is divided
into three tribes: Tubuliflora (flowers tubular in all the perfect flowers, and
ligulate in the marginal or ray-flowers), Liguliflora (all the flowers of the
head being strap-shaped, ligulate), and Labiatifloræ (with tubular flowers more
or less labiate). Fruit an akene.
A. Roots.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Composite.
TARAXACUM, 275.
Cichorium, 276.
PYRETHRUM, 277.
Pyrethrum Germani-
cum, 277 a.
Inula, 279.
LAPPA, 280.
Polymnia, 282.
Laciniaria, 283.
Helianthella, 284.
Echinacea, 285.
B. Rhizomes.
Arnica Radix, 286.
Cnicus Arvensis, 288.
C. Leaves.
Erechthites, 289.
Trilisa, 290.
Pterocaulon, 291.
Ambrosia, 293.
D. Herbs.
EUPATORIUM, 296.
GRINDELIA, 298.
Tanacetum, 299.
Absinthium, 300.
Artemisia, 301.
A. Frigida (a).
A. Vulgaris (b).
A. Abrotanum (c).
Erigeron, 302.
Erigeron Canadense,
303.
Gnaphalium, 304.
Helenium, 305.
Achillea, 306.
Tussilago, 307.
Carduus Benedictus,
308.
Silphium, 309.
Mutisia, 310.
Elephantopus, 311.
Rudbeckia, 312.
Guaco, 292.
Strumarium, 294.
Spinosum, 295.
Bidens, 313.
Eupatorium Purpure-
Senecio, 314.
Solidago, 315.
um, 297.
Lactuca Sativa, 317.
Lactuca Canadensis,
318.
Parthenium, 319.
Cotula, 320.
E. Flowers.
MATRICARIA, 32I.
ANTHEMIS, 322.
SANTONICA, 323.
ARNICA, 287.
CALENDULA, 324.
Carthamus, 325.
Pyrethri Flores, 278.
F. Concrete Juice.
LACTUCARIUM,
G. Volatile Oil.
316.
OLEUM ERIGERON-
TIS, 303 a.
Oleum Anthemidis,
322 a.
H. Seeds.
Helianthus, 326.
I. Fruit.
Lappa Fructus, 281.
275. TARAXACUM.-TARAXACUM.
DANDELION.
Ger. LÖWENZAHNWURZEL.
The dried root of Tarax'acum officina'le Webber, collected in autumn.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root perennial; leaves radical, runcinate, pin-
natifid or lyrate; scape hollow. Flower-head solitary, many flowered,
yellow. After blossoming, and while the fruit is forming, a pappus raises
which soon exposes to the wind the naked fruit, which is blown about.
SOURCE. A plant of very extensive geographical distribution, native to
Europe, but very abundant in the United States, where, in some parts,
it is a troublesome weed.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The dry root is fleshy, long, and tapering, seldom
branching; 5 to 25 mm. ( to 1 in.) thick at the top, surmounted by

276
COMPOSITE.
several heads. Externally brownish, soon darkening by exposure.
In the fall, about November, the root acquires a deep orange color
throughout. Internally white, abounding in a bitter, inodorous,
milky juice. A cross-section displays a thick, white bark with
numerous concentric circles of laticiferous vessels surrounding a
yellow woody center. The central column is easily separated from
the thick bark, when the former is found to have along its exterior
at intervals minute knotty projections; a cross-section of the root at
this point shows woody fibers branching from the ligneous cord, pene-
trating, and passing through, the bark. Inulin spherules are plainly
FIG. 133.-Cross-section of Taraxacum root.
discernible under the microscope if, before sectioning, the fresh root
be macerated in alcohol. The root loses in drying fom 78 to 88 per
cent. of moisture. The dried root is longitudinally and spirally
wrinkled; when quite dry, has a brittle fracture, showing a dark
brown exterior and a thick, white bark. The powder from the dried
root is orange-brown; that root collected late in the fall, however,
gives a bright orange powder; inodorous; bitter. Should be free from
chicory (276).
ADULTERATIONS.-Besides the common chicory, the author has found
admixture with hydrastis.
Powder-Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex,
thin-walled, medium-sized, with inulin in glassy masses or sphæro-crystals;
ducts, reticulate; cork, small amount, brown; laticiferous vessels, yellowish
TARAXACUM- CICHORIUM.
277
brown, with inulin and resinous emulsion latex, which is blue with chloral-
hydrate-iodine.
CONSTITUENTS.-Taraxacin (a bitter principle), taraxacerin, C,H15O,
resin, inulin, sugar, and mucilaginous substances. The percent-
age of sugar varies with different seasons and with condition of soil;
it is said to diminish in the summer. Recent investigations have
shown the existence of an alkaloid. But this has been found to be
exceedingly minute—a mere trace.
Preparation of Taraxacin.-Treat decoction with animal charcoal, wash the
latter with water, and dissolve out bitter principle with boiling alcohol; evap-
orate. It has not been proven that this is crystalline. Composition uncertain.
0000
0000
50000
E
FIG. 134.-Inulin spherules in Taraxacum.
FIG. 135.-Laticiferous tissue in Taraxacum root.
E. Laticiferous tissue. P. Parenchyma.
ACTION AND USES.-Deobstruent, tonic.
The fluidextract and extract
are used in hepatic disorders. Dose: 1 to 4 dr. (4 to 15 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Taraxaci, ..
Extractum Taraxaci,.
.Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
5 to 60 gr. (0.3 to 4 Gm.).
276. CICHORIUM.-CHICORY. The root of Cichor'ium in'tybus Linné.
Habitat: Europe; naturalized in the United States. Nearly cylindrical,
resembling dandelion, but lighter in color, more woody, with a thinner bark,
and with the laticiferous vessels of the woody column and the bark ar-
ranged radially; very bitter. It contains inulin and a bitter principle.
Bitter tonic in doses of 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in decoction. Its greatest
demand is as an adulterant of coffee. It should be stated, however, that
roasted chicory has become a favorite in many parts as a coffee substitute.
The cultivation of the plant for this purpose and as a forage plant has
grown to be a permanent agricultural industry in nearly every country of
Europe and in many parts of the United States.

278
COMPOSITE.
PELLITORY.
BOTANICAL
277. PYRETHRUM.-PYRETHRUM.
ROMAN PELLITORY.
Ger. RÖMISCHE BERTRAMWURZEL.
The root of Anacy'clus pyre'thrum Linné.
CHARACTERISTICS.-Root long, fusiform. Stems numerous,
branched, pubescent. Radical leaves pinnatifid; stem-leaves sessile.
Florets of the ray pistillate, white above and purplish beneath; of the
disk, yellow, tubular, 5-toothed. Akene flat, winged; pappus short.
SOURCE.-Mediterranean Basin, coming solely from Algeria, thence to
Mediterranean points.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A hard, compact, somewhat fusiform root,
about the size of the little finger, with sometimes leaf-remnants at the
top, and beset with few or no hair-like rootlets; externally brownish,
D
C
B
A
E
F
FIG. 136.-Pyrethrum-Cross-section of root. (11 diam.) A, Cork. B, Ring of stone-cells. C, Par-
enchyma of primary cortex. D Cambium. E, Medullary ray. F, Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
deeply fissured longitudinally. It breaks with a short fracture,
showing a rather thick bark adhering closely to the pale brown wood,
from which it is separated by a narrow cambium line. This woody
column is traversed by broad, distinct medullary rays, and contains,
as does also the bark, large scattered resin ducts. Odor very slight;
taste slight at first, but afterward persistently acrid, leaving a sin-
gular tingling sensation in the mouth and throat, and exciting a re-
markable flow of saliva.
Pyrethrum Germanicum, from Anacyclus officinarum Hayne, is of
a grayish color, about half as thick as above, tapering to filiform at
PYRETHRI FLORES-LAPPA.
279
the lower end; has long been cultivated near Magdeburg and in
Saxony. It resembles the above in foliage and flowers.
Powder.-Brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex, large
with irregular masses of inulin and resin; sclerenchyma with stone cells, usually
elongated, sometimes bast like; ducts, reticulate (50 to 75 in diam.), spiral;
resin cells in parenchyma and fragments of anastomosing ducts; resin ducts
with oil and resin in yellow lumps; numerous stone cells (30 to 50 in diam.),
in cork.
CONSTITUENTS.-A very acrid resinous substance, two acrid oils-pyre-
thrin, extracted by ether (crystalline, bitter, burning taste), and
pellitorine. Most of the parenchymatous cells are loaded with
inulin, which forms about 35 per cent. of the root.
ACTION AND USES.-Used almost exclusively as a sialagogue in head-
ache, neuralgic and rheumatic affections of the face, toothache, etc.,
or as a local stimulant in palsy of the tongue or throat, or relaxation
of the uvula. Dose when chewed: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Pyrethri (20 per cent.),. . .
Used externally.
278. PYRETHRI FLORES.-INSECT FLOWERS. The flowers of ( (1) Pyre'-
thrum carne'um and Pyrethrum rose'um Weber, yielding, when pow-
dered, Persian or Caucasian Insect Powder, and (2) Pyrethrum cinerariæ-
fo'lium Visiani, yielding Dalmatian Insect Powder, which is more powerful
than the Persian powder; this latter is now produced of very superior
quality in California by cultivation. The plants resemble matricaria and
bear flower-heads about 38 mm. (1½ in.) in diameter, surrounded by an
imbricate involucre, (1) having brownish scales with a white scarious
(membranous) edge, whitish ray-florets, and yellow disk-florets, and (2)
having greenish involucral scales with scarious edge, rose-colored ray-
florets, and yellow disk-florets. The flowers seldom come in market, but
are in the form of a yellowish-brown or yellowish-green powder, which is
used either as a powder or in tincture as an insecticide. It is not actively
poisonous to human beings. Its strength or purity, and the variety from
which obtained, may be ascertained by microscopical examination. A
deficiency of pollen and presence of sclerenchymatous tissue would show
a scarcity of flowers and the presence of stems in the powder, and con-
sequent inferiority in strength.
•
279. INULA.-ELECAMPANE. The root of In'ula Hele'nium. Off. in U. S.
P. 1890. Found in the market in slices cut in various directions. Ex-
ternally grayish-brown, wrinkled, with overlapping bark. Internally gray.
When dry, breaks with a horny fracture. Odor aromatic, suggestive of
orris and camphor; taste slightly bitter, warm, aromatic. Gentle stimu-
lant and tonic, supposed also to have diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant,
and emmenagogue properties. Chiefly used in this country for dyspepsia
and pulmonary troubles. Dose: to 2 dr (2 to 8 Gm.), in powder or
decoction.
BURDOCK.
280. LAPPA.-LAPPA.
Ger. KLETTENWURZEL.
The dried root of Arc'tium lappa Linné, and possibly of other species of Arctium,
collected from plants of the first year's growth.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root biennial, fusiform; stem 1 to 3 feet high.
Leaves strong-smelling, ovate, with cordate and crenate base, or lanceolate,

280
COMPOSITE.
with cuneate base. Involucre composed of imbricated coriaceous scales,
the stiff, needle-like points of which are hooked. Heads solitary or clus-
tered; flowers white or light purple, all tubular. Akenes oblong, flattened.
HABITAT.-Europe and Asia; naturalized in the United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A fusiform, fleshy root several inches in length
and about 25 mm. (1 in.) thick, sometimes sliced longitudinally;
grayish-brown, longitudinally wrinkled from drying, and having
withered scales near the top; internally lighter colored, spongy, a
cross-section showing a thick bark (in young roots, thin in old),
B
C
A
D
FIG. 137.-Lappa-Cross-section of root. (10 diam.) A, Cork. B, Resin cell. C. Xylem. D,
Cambium. (Photomicrograph.)
the inner layer of which, and the meditullium, is traversed by broad
medullary rays. Fracture horny. It has a slight unpleasant odor,
and a sweetish, somewhat bitter taste.
Powder.-Brownish-gray. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex,
thin-walled, elongated with glassy masses and sphæro-crystals of inulin; ducts
large and small, with reticulate, simple pores; wood fibers and resin ducts, few.
CONSTITUENTS.-Mucilage, sugar, fat, a little tannin, a bitter gluco-
side (?), and inulin.
ACTION AND USES.-Diuretic, diaphoretic, and alterative. Dose: to
2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Lappæ,
Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
281. LAPPE FRUCTUS.-BURDOCK FRUIT. A somewhat angular fruit,
about 6 mm. (in.) long, rough and wrinkled, and covered with short,
stiff hairs, which are easily rubbed off. Very bitter. A tincture is used in
psoriasis and other skin diseases.

POLYMNIA UVEDALIA-ARNICE RADIX.
281
282. POLYMNIA UVEDALIA Linné.-BEARSFOOT. An indigenous plant, the
root of which, in ointment form, has had virtues ascribed to it as a dis-
cutient and anodyne, particularly in the treatment of malarial splenic
enlargements.
283. LACINIARIA SPICATA Willdenow.-BUTTON SNAKEROOT. Habitat:
United States. (Root.) Diuretic; also used as a gargle and injection.
Dose:to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
284. HELIANTHELLA TENUIFOLIA Torrey and Gray.-The root of this
plant has the properties of an aromatic expectorant and antispasmodic,
used as an addition to cough mixtures.
285. ECHINACEA.-The root of Echina'cea angustifo'lia De Candolle.
Habitat: Western United States. This plant has grown into considerable
importance, especially among the eclectic practitioners, in the treatment of
phagedenic ulcerations, boils, various forms of septicemia, etc. The
A
FIG. 138.-Echinacea angustifolia-Root. A, Cross-section of root. (Photograph.)
common name of the plant is "nigger-head." The flower-head has from
twelve to fifteen rays, 2 inches long, rose-colored or red, drooping; recep-
tacle conical, with finely tipped chaff, longer than the disk-florets; disks
purplish. The root has a brownish-black color, the epidermis shrunken
causing longitudinally twisted wrinkles. Over 200,000 pounds were con-
sumed in 1903.
In cross-section are seen wood-wedges and medullary rays, colored dark
gray or blackish; fracture short and rough; taste peculiar and somewhat acrid
and biting, reminding one of pyrethrum; odor heavy, mousey, accompanied by
a peculiar pungency. The root contains a very small percentage of alkaloid
and a crystalline principle soluble in carbon disulphide (see "Drug. Circ.," 1898,
p. 124). Active principle contained, apparently, in an oleoresin. Allied species;
Echinacea purpurea.
286. ARNICE RADIX. ARNICA ROOT. A horizontal, contorted rhizome
about 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in.) long, and 3 to 4 mm. ( to in.) thick;
282
COMPOSITÆ.
externally dark brown, rough from scars, longitudinally wrinkled, and
beset with numerous thin, fragile rootlets. Fracture short, showing a
rather thick bark containing a circle of resin cells near the cambium line,
a circle of short, yellowish wood-bundles, and a very large, whitish pith.
Odor slightly aromatic; taste pungent and bitter. Adulterated with other
roots of the Compositæ, also with Geum urbanum roots and Frageria vesica
Off. in U. S. P. 1890. Stimulant and tonic.
Stimulant and tonic. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2
Gm.).
PREPARATIONS, Official 1890:
Tinctura Arnica Radicis (10 per cent.), . Dose: 20 to 30 m (1.3 to 2 Cc.).
Fluidextractum Arnica Radicis,
Extractum Arnicæ Radicis,
Emplastrum Arnicæ (33 per cent. of extract).
5 to 30 my (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
2 to 5 gr. (0.13 to 0.3 Gm.).
287. ARNICA.-ARNICA FLOWERS.
The dried flower heads of Ar'nica montana Linné.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-About 25 mm. (1 in.) in length and 15 to 20
mm. (to in.) in diameter, surrounded by lanceolate, involucral
scales; the receptacle is flat, and bears about 15 to 20 bright yellow,
ligulate ray-florets, 3-toothed, striate, about 25 mm. (1 in.) long,
and numerous shorter, tubular disk-florets; pappus long and hairy,
giving the heads a characteristic appearance; odor peculiar and
agreeable; taste persistently acrid and bitter. The powder is sternu-
tatory. Adulterated with many flowers of the Compositæ, such as
calendula, anthemis, inula, senecio, etc.
Powder.-Yellowish-brown. Characteristic elements: Trichomes, glandular,
2-5-10-celled, non-secretion, 1-6-celled; pollen, spherical (25 to 35 in diam.);
ducts, spiral and porous; pappus multicellular axis with unicellular branches.
CONSTITUENTS.-Same as the root.
ACTION AND USES.-Same as the root. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
The tincture is used externally as a vulnerary.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Arnica (20 per cent.),
.Dose: 10 to 30 п1º (0.6 to 2 Cc.).
An indigenous
288. CNICUS ARVENSIS Hoffmann.-CANADA THISTLE.
plant, the rhizome of which is popularly used for its astringent properties.
289. ERECHTHITES HIERACIFOLIA Rafinesque.-Fireweed. Habitat:
United States. (Leaves.) The name (fireweed) comes from the fact that
the plant springs up spontaneously in burned districts. Tonic and astrin-
gent in dysentery, etc. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.). The volatile oil
of this plant has been used to adulterate the oil of erigeron.
290. TRILISA ODORATISSIMA Cassini.-DEER TONGUE. VANILLA LEAF.
This plant contains coumarin, and the leaves are used in the Southern
States to flavor tobacco. Aromatic, stimulant, and tonic; used as a cor-
rective. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
291. PTEROCAULON PYCNOSTACHYON Elliott.-BLACK ROOT. Leaves
used by the Indians as an alterative. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
GUACO-EUPATORIUM.
283
292. GUACO.-By this name are known the leaves and roots of various herbs
belonging to the genus Mikania, growing in Central and South America,
where they are used as a febrifuge, anthelmintic, alterative, and alexiphar-
mic. They at one time gained considerable attention in Europe in the
treatment of epidemic cholera and chronic diarrhea. Dose: 15 to 30 gr.
(1 to 2 Gm.).
293. AMBROSIA ARTEMISIÆFOLIA Linné.-RAGWEED. The leaves of this
common weed are used in domestic practice as an astringent, styptic, and
hemostatic.
293 a. AMBROSIA.-RAGWEED.
The staminate flowers of Ambrosia arte-
misiæfolia Linné, North America. Staminate flowers very small, yellowish;
surrounded by the cup-like, green involucre. Preparation: Fluidextract.
Properties: Tonic and astringent. Uses: In treatment of inflammation
from wounds and injuries; in hemorrhoidal tumors and ulcers; inter-
nally for hay-fever. Also in the treatment of dysmenorrhea.
294. STRUMARIUM.-CLOTBUR. COCKLEBUR. The leaves of Xan'thium
struma'rium Linné. Hemostatic and styptic.
295. SPINOSUM.-SPINY CLOTBUR. The herb of Xan'thium spino'sum
Linné. Diaphoretic, sialogogue, and diuretic. It is asserted that it has
been used with success in warding off hydrophobia. Dose of fluidex-
tract: 15 to 30 my (1 to 2 Cc.).
BONESET.
296. EUPATORIUM.-EUPATORIUM.
THOROUGHWORT.
Ger. WASSERDOSTEN.
The dry leaves and flowering tops of Eupato'rium perfolia'tum Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem erect, 2 to 4 feet high, hairy; leaves lance-
olate, united at the base around the stem (connate-perfoliate), tapering
to a slender point, coarsely serrate, very wrinkled, downy beneath. Heads
corymbed, 20- to 40-flowered, the florets all tubular, perfect, white. Pappus
a single row of slender capillary bristles. Akene 5-angled (Fig. 139).
SOURCE.-Eupatorium grows in damp, swampy places, meadows, and
banks over a large area of country from Nova Scotia to Florida.
Besides the official perfoliatum, we have the purpureum (297), the
teucrifolium (wild horehound), these latter two having been dropped
from the Pharmacopoeia in 1840. An allied species, fœniculaceum
(dog fennel), growing from Virginia to Florida, yields a juice which
has the reputation of relieving the pain of insect bites.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—As it appears in the market, the drug consists of
broken, wrinkled fragments of the dark green leaves and corymbs of
the numerous white florets. The leaves have a rough upper surface,
and downy, resin-dotted lower surface. Odor faintly aromatic; taste
strongly bitter and slightly astringent.
Powder.-Yellowish-green. Characteristic elements: Sclerenchyma with bast
fibers, thin-walled, very slightly or not at all lignified; ducts, spiral, annular,
with bordered pits; trichomes, glandular and non-glandular present, 2- to 12-
celled, of different shapes; stomata present; pollen, ellipsoidal (10 to 20 μ
diam.); pappus, multicellular axis, unicellular branches.
284
COMPOSITÆ.
CONSTITUENTS.-A peculiar, bitter, crystallizable glucoside (eupatorin),
soluble in boiling water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform; resin, gum,
tannin, and an undetermined wax-like, crystalline matter.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and tonic, in large doses emetic and cathar-
tic, and as a diaphoretic often used in warding off a cold and in
FIG. 139.—Eupatorium perfoliatum-Portion of plant and flower (enlarge 1).
fevers. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in infusion, powder, or
fluidextract.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Eupatorii,
·
Dose: 30 to 60 пy (2 to 4 Cc.).
297. EUPATORIUM PURPUREUM Linné.-QUEEN OF THE MEADOW.
Gravel Root. The leaves and root of this indigenous plant are an excel-
lent diuretic. Also tonic, stimulant, and somewhat astringent. Dose: 30
to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
GRINDELIA.
285
GRINDELIA.
298. GRINDELIA.-GRINDELIA.
Ger. GRINDELIENKRAUT.
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Grinde'lia robus'ta Nuttall, and of Grinde’lia
squar'rosa Dunal.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Woody herbs; leaves clasping, resinous, some-
what cuneate. Involucre hemispherical or globular, coated with resin; rays
fertile, yellow; disk-florets yellow, tubular, and perfect. Akenes com-
pressed, the outermost somewhat triangular; pappus awned. Grindelia
robusta is found in rather elevated regions, while G. squarrosa is found in
the plains. The former is more woody than the latter.
SOURCE.—This genus inhabits the western part of both North and South
America. A resinous exudation is common to the various species of
the genus, being most abundant in the flower-heads, and it is possible
that medicinal properties are common to the genus. Besides the
official species, there are found the hirsutula and the glutimosa, similar
species growing in the western part of the United States, often culti-
vated and mixed with the official.
Description of DRUG.-Rough, grayish-green fragments of the leaves,
mixed with brownish-yellow stem fragments, and with flower-heads
about 15 mm. (in.) in diameter, usually destitute of florets, leaving
the bare receptacle surrounded by the stiff, varnished,
resinous bracts of the involucre; odor balsamic; taste aromatic
and bitter.
Distinction of the Two Species.-It may be said that the two species,
squarrosa and robusta, resemble each other very much. Robusta is
said to have a more leafy involucre and the leaves to be more coarsely
serrate. The squarrosa in general is said to be less leafy and bushy,
but on close examination of numerous specimens it is a question
whether the distinction will hold.
Powder.-Pale brownish-green. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of leaf
with aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; sclerenchyma fibers,
thin-walled; ducts spiral, annular, or with bordered pits, strongly lignified;
trichomes, glandular and non-glandular, sessile, many-celled; pollen, spherical,
about 25 in diam., oil and resin in numerous globules and masses; stomata, on
both surfaces.
CONSTITUENTS.—The medicinal properties of grindelia seem to reside in
the resinous exudation. An alkaloid principle has been claimed
by some investigators and termed grindeline.
ACTION AND USES.-Antispasmodic and sedative, in
sedative, in asthma.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). The fluidextract is said to be an
efficient application in rhus poisoning.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Grindeliæ,.
Dose: 15 to 60 ny (1 to 4 Cc.).
286
COMPOSITÆ.
4
299. TANACETUM.-TANSY. The leaves and tops of Tanace'tum vulga're
Linné. Off. in U. S. P. 1890. Leaves pinnate, the lobes sharply serrate,
in wrinkled, broken pieces mixed with the reddish stems; midrib heavy
and prominent on under side; odor strong, fragrant, diminished by drying;
taste bitter, somewhat mint-like. Constituents: Tanacetin, C₁HO (a
bitter principle), malic acid, volatile oil (0.25 per cent.), tannin, resin, etc.
Stimulant, tonic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. The dose of the
volatile oil is from 1 to 5 m; used also as a domestic abortifacient and as
a remedy for amenorrhea. Its use should be prohibited except upon
physician's order, as it is a dangerous drug. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4
Gm.), in infusion.
300. ABSINTHIUM.—WORMWOOD. The leaves and tops of Artemis'ia ab-
sin'thium Linné. Off. U. S. P. 1890. Consists of the grayish, softly,
hairy, longitudinally ribbed or furrowed stems with the petiolate, pinnatifid,
pubescent leaves mostly broken beyond recognition; flower-heads in
racemes, hemispherical, about 3 mm. (in.) broad; receptacle small,
hairy, convex, with all yellow, tubular florets; akenes obovoid, without
pappus; odor strongly aromatic; taste intensely bitter and nauseous.
Constituents: Tannin, resin, malates, absinthin, CH2O (a bitter glu-
coside), absinthic acid (probably succinic acid), and a dark green volatile
oil, about 1 per cent. (mainly absinthol), which has the odor of the drug,
and when mixed with alcohol and oil of anise constitutes the absinthe of
the French. Stomachic, tonic, anthelmintic and febrifuge. Dose: 15 to
60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
20
Isolation of Absinthin.- Obtained by precipitating infusion, previously
deprived of color, with tannin. The alcoholic extract of this precipitate is
mixed with lead oxide and again extracted with alcohol. Absinthia deposits
on evaporation of this tincture.
301. ARTEMISIA. Nearly all the varieties of Artemis'ia seem to have similar
properties—anthelmintic. Besides absinthium and santonica, some common
indigenous plants of this genus are more or less used in medicine:
Artemisia abrotanum.-SOUTHERNWOOD. OLD MAN.
Artemisia vulgaris.-MUGWORT. Also alterative and emmenagogue,
and externally as a vulnerary.
Artemisia frigida.-MOUNTAIN SAGE. Antiperiodic; first introduced
as a substitute for quinine.
Artemisia tridentata.-SAGE BRUSH-of the Rocky Mountains. A.
trifolia, the dwarf variety of the above, and A. dracunculus Terragon, are
well known, but only used locally in making domestic remedies of aromatic,
bitter, and tonic character.
302. ERIGERON.—FLEABANE. DAISY FLEABANE. The herb of Erig'eron
an'nuus Persoon, E. philadelphicus Linné, and E. strigosus Muhlenberg.
Habitat: North America and Europe. All resemble one another and are
indiscriminately employed in medicine. They have erect stems, much
branched at the top, bearing terminal corymbs of wheel-shaped flowers
having delicate, thread-like, white or purple ray-florets and yellow disk-
florets; all parts of the plant are pubescent. Taste bitterish; odor feebly
aromatic, due to a small quantity of volatile oil. Diuretic and stomachic,
sometimes used in the treatment of gravel and dropsy. Dose: 30 to 60
gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in infusion.
303. ERIGERON CANADENSE Linné.—Canada Fleabane. Habitat: North
America. (Herb.) This differs from the other species principally in
having a bristly stem and flowers with very inconspicuous ray-florets and
straw-colored disk-florets. Odor aromatic; taste bitterish, somewhat acrid.
It contains a bitter principle, and a volatile oil which is OFFICIAL in the U. S.
P. Properties and dose about the same as preceding.
303 a. OLEUM ERIGERONTIS, U. S.-(CANADA FLEABANE.) A
limpid, straw-colored liquid becoming thick and dark on exposure;
GRINDELIA.
287
odor aromatic, persistent; taste characteristic. Adulterated with the
oil of fireweed, Erechthites hieracifolia (289). Stimulant and diuretic,
resembling oil of turpentine in action, especially as a hemostatic,
but is less irritating and stimulating. Dose: 10 to 30 m (0.6 to 2 Cc.).
304. GNAPHALIUM.-Life EverlastING. The herb of Gnapha'lium poly-
ceph'alum Michaux. Habitat: North America. Leaves lanceolate, entire,
woolly, sessile on the erect stem, which is branched, and bears dense termi-
nal clusters of small obovate flower-heads surrounded by dry, whitish in-
volucres; florets yellow, tubular; odor pleasant, taste aromatic, bitterish.
It probably possesses little medicinal value, but is a popular domestic
remedy, used as a tea in diarrhea, hemorrhages, etc., and externally in a
fomentation as a vulnerary. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
305. HELENIUM.-SNEEZEwort. The herb of Helen'ium autumna'le Linné.
Habitat: North America. A square-stemmed herb, the leaves and flowers
of which, when powdered and snuffed up the nose, produce violent sneez-
ing, hence the name sneezewort. It has been used as an errhine.
306. ACHILLEA.-YARROW. MILFOIL. The herb of Achillea millefo'-
lium Linné, common in Europe and North America. Stem hairy, branched
at top bearing the large corymbs of white flower-heads, each composed of
five pistillate ray-florets, and greenish-white, perfect disk-florets; leaves
lanceolate, thrice pinnatifid, the divisions linear. In market, however,
the leaves are broken or crumpled, and the flower-heads destitute of florets;
odor chamomile-like; taste aromatic, bitterish, and astringent. Used as
a vulnerary and occasionally as an internal remedy for hemorrhages and
mucous discharges, as in consumption. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.),
in infusion.
307. TUSSILAGO. COLTSFOOT. The herb of Tussilago farfar'a Linné.
Habitat: Europe, and Middle and Northern United States, along the
banks of streams. Demulcent, popularly used in the treatment of coughs
(hence the name, from tussis, cough). Its expectorant properties are not
pronounced, however. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in decoction.
308. CARDUUS BENEDICTUS.-BLESSED THISTLE. The herb of Cni'cus
benedic'tus Gaertner. Habitat: Levant and Europe. The drug consists
of the woolly stems, with the soft, spiny leaves and a few of the large, ovate,
yellow flower-heads; it has a slight, unpleasant odor and a very bitter taste.
In cold infusion it is a bitter tonic, in hot infusion in large quantities diapho-
retic and emetic. Cnicus marianus Gaertner has been used for the same
purposes, and in Europe as a depurative.
309. SILPHIUM LACINIATUM Linné.-ROSIN WEED. Habitat: United
States. (Herb or root.) It has given good results in intermittent fevers,
and in dry, obstinate coughs, its action being somewhat like grindelia.
310. MUTISIA VICIÆFOLIA. CHINCHIROCOMA, This herb is said to be a
valuable antispasmodic and cardiac tonic.
311. ELEPHANTOPUS TOMENTOSUS Linné.—ELEPHANT'S FOOT. Habi-
tat: United States. (Herb.) Diaphoretic and expectorant; in large doses
emetic. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
312. RUDBECKIA LACINIATA Linné.-THIMBLE WEED. CONE FLOWER.
This indigenous herb is used in catarrhal affections of the urinary tract.
Diuretic and tonic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
313. BIDENS BIPINNATA Torrey and Gray.-SPANISH NEEDLES. An in-
digenous herb, popularly used as an eminenagogue. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.).
314. SENECIO AUREUS Linné.-LIFE-ROOT.
RAGWORT. (Herb.)
(Herb.) Used by
the Indians as a vulnerary. Emmenagogue. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4
Gin.), in infusion, decoction, or fluidextract.
288
COMPOSITÆ.
(See
315. SOLIDAGO.—GOLDEN ROD. The herb of Solida'go odo'ra Aiton.
Conspectus.) Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, and diaphoretic, in infu-
sion. Used also to disguise the taste of other medicines.
316. LACTUCARIUM-LACTUCARIUM.
LETTUCE-OPIUM.
Ger. GIFTLATTISCHAFT.
The concrete milk-juice of Lactu'ca viro'sa Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A biennial, rank-smelling herb, abounding in
a milky, acrid juice. Root napiform; stem 2 to 4 feet high, erect, slender,
glaucous, slightly prickly below, covered here and there with blood-red
spots. Leaves with midrib prickly, otherwise smooth, finely toothed;
radical leaves obovate, undivided, those of the stem lobed, auricled, and
partly clasping. Flower-heads panicled, with small heart-shaped bracts;
flowers all ligulate, perfect, light yellow.
SOURCE.-Europe; chiefly produced in Scotland, France, and Prussia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In sections of plano-convex circular cakes, or
angular pieces, of a grayish or reddish-brown color, breaking with a
waxy, yellowish-white fracture; odor opium-like and disagreeable,
characteristic; taste bitter and acrid. It is partly soluble in alcohol
and ether. When triturated with water it yields a turbid solution;
boiling water dissolves about 50 per cent., forming a brown infusion.
CONSTITUENTS.—Lactucin, lactucopicrin (very bitter and acrid), lac-
tucic acid, OH2O21 (very bitter, probably an oxidation product of
lactucopicrin), lactucerin (lactucone), and wax.
44 32
Preparation of Lactucerin, Lactucone.-Boiling alcohol extracts it in almost.
pure state from lactucarium, which has been deprived of resin and caoutchouc.
ACTION AND USES.-Anodyne, hypnotic, and sedative, resembling
opium in its action, but much feebler and without the de-
pressing after-effects. Dose: 5 to 60 gr. (0.3 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Lactucarii (50 per cent.),
Syrupus Lactucarii (10 per cent. of Tinc-
ture),
ΙΟ
Dose: 10 to 60 mm (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
a mild
317. LACTUCA SATIVA.-GARDEN LETTUCE. Popularly used as
antispasmodic to allay nervous irritability and mental worry. It yields a
lactucarium during flowering, but before that period the juice is pellucid
and insipid.
318. LACTUCA CANADENSIS.-WIld Lettuce. Used as a mild soporific
for children. Dose: 20 gr. (1.3 Gm.).
319. PARTHENIUM.-FEVERFEW. The herb of Matrica'ria parthe'nium
Linné. Habitat: Europe; cultivated in this country. Resembles chamo-
mile in odor and taste, in medical properties, and also in the appearance
of the flowers, which differ, however, in their peculiar odor, their rounded
and somewhat flattened receptacle, and the numerous large and long disk-
florets which they bear.
MATRICARIA.
289
320. COTULA.-MAYWEED. WILD CHAMOMILE. The herb of Anthe'mis
cotu'la Linné. Habitat: Europe; naturalized in the United States. It
has essentially the same properties as anthemis and chamomile, but has a
disadvantage for general use in its strong, disagreeable odor. It is popu-
larly used as a sudorific and antispasmodic, in doses of to 2 dr. (2 to 8
Gm.), in infusion.
1
FIG. 140.-Matricaria chamomilla-Branch and dissected flowers.
321. MATRICARIA.-MATRICARIA.
GERMAN CHAMOMILE.
Ger. KAMILLENBLUMEN.
The dried flower-heads of Matrica'ria chamomil'la Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Plant annual; stem 1 to 2 feet high, much
branched. Leaves alternate, more or less pinnate, smooth. Heads soli-
tary; ray-florets white, pistillate, spreading, soon reflexed; disk-florets deep
yellow, perfect; pappus none. The flowers have a peculiar aroma and a
bitter aromatic taste.
19
290
COMPOSITE.
SOURCE.-Europe and Asia. The genus Matricaria is widely distributed;
two or three species of the "wild chamomile" of this genus have
been introduced into the United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-After drying, the flower-heads are of a dull
yellow or yellowish-white color, about 10 mm. ( in.) broad, sur-
rounded by a flattish, imbricated involucre; this involucre is com-
posed of oblong scales, having a membranous, translucent margin;
the receptacle is conical, internally hollow, and bears a single row
of about fifteen short, toothed, reflexed ray-florets, and numerous
tubular yellow disk-florets, without pappus; disagreeably aromatic;
taste bitterish, aromatic.
Powder.-Greenish. Characteristic elements: The interesting microscopical
constituent for study is found in the pollen grains with three distinct pores;
seldom dispensed as powder.
ADULTERATIONS.—Anthemis arvensis and A. cotula (320). These have
solid, chaffy receptacles.
CONSTITUENTS.-Deep blue volatile oil, anthemic acid, anthemi-
din, and tannin.
Preparation of Anthemic Acid.-The concentrated infusion, made with water
acidulated with acetic acid, is precipitated with alcohol. The alcoholic residue,
after evaporation of the alcoholic solution, is treated with chloroform. The
precipitate produced by alcohol contains anthemidin.
ACTION AND USES.-Mild stimulant and tonic, in large doses emetic.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.) in infusion.
322. ANTHEMIS.-ANTHEMIS.
ROMAN CHAMOMILE.
ENGLISH CHAMOMILE.
Ger. ROMISCHE KAMILLE.
The dried flower-heads of Anthe'mis nobil'is Linné, collected from cultivated plants.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.—Roots perennial; stems much branched, fur-
rowed. Leaves very finely dissected, clasping the stem. Flower-heads
solitary, with a convex, yellow disk; ray-florets white, perfect; pappus
none.
SOURCE.-Europe; cultivated in Germany, England (Mitcham Gardens),
Surrey; introduced in United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-There are two kinds of flower-heads, the single
and the double. The latter is developed by cultivation, the disk-
florets being partly or wholly converted into the white, strap-shaped,
three-toothed ray-florets, forming an almost spherical head, dull
white when dry and about 20 mm. (in.) broad; it is the kind pre-
ferred, on account of its greater aromatic properties, which reside in
ANTHEMIS.
291
the rays, but as the conversion is more or less incomplete, both kinds
may be found intermingled in the commercial article. It is stated,
however, by some that the single flowers are more odoriferous and
yield a larger proportion of volatile oil; the double flowers, being more
showy, are preferred by the public. Involucre imbricate, the scales
ovate-oblong, with a scarious margin; receptacle solid, conical, chaffy;
odor strong, agreeable; taste aromatic and bitter.
FIG. 141.—Anthemis nobilis-Plant and dissected flowers.
Trichomes, glandular,
Powder.-Straw color. Characteristic elements:
single-celled, thick-walled; pollen and stomata present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (Oleum Anthemidis), at first pale blue,
becoming yellowish-brown on exposure; it is regarded as a mixture
of hydrocarbons with the angelic, valerianic, and tiglinic esters of
butyl and amyl. Anthemis also contains a brown, bitter extractive,
probably a glucoside.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and tonic, in enfeebled digestion during
convalescence; also carminative, and in large doses emetic. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in infusion.
292
COMPOSITÆ.
323. SANTONICA. SANTONICA.
LEVANT WORMSEED.
Ger. WURMSAMEN.
The dried unexpanded flower-heads of Artemis'ia pauciflo'ra Weber.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A low, shrubby, tomentose, aromatic plant.
Leaves downy, pinnatifid; flower-heads drooping, in dense thrysoid panicles.
SOURCE.—Artemisia pauciflora grows on the desert plains or steppes of
several parts of Russia, especially in the districts near the lower course
of the Volga and Don Rivers. It is quite abundant in Persia
and Turkestan, where it is known as Damanah. This Asiatic drug
does not differ materially from the Russian, except that it is slightly
FIG. 142. Santonica-Head and
longitudinal section enlarged.
shaggy and mixed with tomentose stalks.
Of late years most of the wormseed of com-
merce has come from the steppes of the
northern part of Turkestan, whence it finds
its way to Moscow and Western Europe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG. Greenish-brown,
small, oblong-ovoid, about 2 mm. (§ in.)
long. They consist of fifteen to eighteen
imbricated scales, each having a green mid-
rib containing oil-glands, which inclose four
or five tubular florets so minute that they
can scarcely be distinguished by the naked
eye; odor strong, aromatic; taste bitter, aromatic, camphoraceous.
Powder.-Greenish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells, elon-
gated, thin-walled; trichomes, glandular, 1 or 2 short cells or two or three pairs
of cells, non-glandular, one-celled, long, slender, thin-walled; pollen mostly in
masses, brown, 15 to 20 μ in diam.; pores distinct.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil about 1 per cent., having a characteristic
smell and taste, devoid of anthelmintic properties, which reside in
the neutral principle, santonin, C15H18O31. Santonin (Santoninum,
U. S.) constitutes about 2 per cent. of the drug; it occurs in colorless,
rectangular, tabular crystals, which, when exposed to the light, assume
a yellow hue. Soluble in 5300 parts of water, 34 cf alcohol, 78 of
ether and 2.5 of chloroform at 25° C. (77° F.).
Preparation of Santonin.—Digest powdered santonica in dilute alcohol mixed
with slaked lime; recover alcohol; add acetic acid in excess to residue, which
separates santonin in white, shining, odorless bitter prisms, turning yellow on
exposure.
This important principle is manufactured to a considerable extent in Russia,
large factories at Oldberg turning out about twelve tons annually. It is well
known to the natives of India, and is now imported from Germany. Much of
the imported santonin is adulterated, sometimes to the extent of three-fourths
of its weight, with gum and boric acid. These can easily be detected upon
CALENDULA.
293
exposure, as santonin turns yellow. The quantity of santonin in the plant
diminishes as the plant grows older and the flowers expand.
Tests. On dissolving with nitric acid and adding sulphuric acid we get a
red color, and on adding Fe,Cl, it changes to violet. With an alcoholic solu-
tion of KOH a pinkish-red liquid is obtained, soon becoming colorless.
On account of the fact that santonin is easily decomposed, it should be kept
in amber-colored bottles, away from the sunlight, which converts it into yellow
photo-santonic acid. Heating it with alkalies changes it into santoninic acid,
while long boiling with baryta water changes it into santonic acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Anthelmintic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.),
in infusion or electuary. Dose of santonin: to 1 gr. (0.016 to 0.065
Gm.), in powder or troches. Trochisci Santonini, U. S. P., gr.
1
(0.03 Gm.).
324. CALENDULA.-CALENDULA.
MARIGOLD.
Ger. RINGELBLUMEN.
The dried ligulate florets of Calen'dula officina'lis Linné.
Botanical ChARACTERISTICS.--Stem roughish, hairy, 1 to 2 feet high. Leaves
alternate, sessile, hairy, entire to few-toothed, varying in shape from spatu-
late or obovate to oblanceolate. Flower-heads terminal; ray-florets pistil-
late, fertile, yellow or orange color; disk-florets perfect, but sterile.
HABITAT.-Levant and Europe; cultivated in our gardens.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Florets about 12 mm. (in.) long, linear
and strap-shaped, delicately veined in a longitudinal direction,
yellow or orange-colored, 3-toothed above, the short, hairy
tube inclosing the remnants of a filiform style terminating in two
elongated branches; odor slight and somewhat heavy; taste some-
what bitter and faintly saline.
SUBSTITUTION.—The Tagates erecta. Much of the fluidextract of calen-
dula on the market at present is really obtained from the above and
from T. patula (Natl. Disp.).
CONSTITUENTS.-Trace of volatile oil, a bitter principle, and a peculiar
gummy principle, calendulin, CH10O5, regarded by some authorities
as analogous to bassorin.
ACTION AND USES.-It has slight stimulant and diaphoretic properties,
but is used principally in the form of tincture, as a vulnerary. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Calendulæ (20 per cent.), ..... Dose: I to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
325. CARTHAMUS.-Safflower.
AMERICAN SAFFRON. The florets of Car-
tha'mus tincto'rius Willdenow. (Official, 1820-1880.) Habitat: India,
Levant, and Egypt; cultivated. Orange-red; tube long, slender, cylin-
drical, with the two-cleft yellowish style protruding; strap divided into five
narrow, lanceolate lobes; odor peculiar, aromatic; taste bitter.
It con-
tains two coloring principles, safflower-yellow, C24H0O15 (24 to 30 per
cent.), and a red principle, carthamin, C4H10O7, or carthamic acid, to
294
CAMPANULACEÆ.
the latter of which its value as a dyestuff is due, and which, mixed with
talc, forms rouge. Cathartic and diaphoretic in large doses of the warm
infusion; in domestic practice used as a substitute for saffron to promote
eruption in measles, scarlatina, etc. Dose: 8 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Gm.).
326. HELIANTHUS ANNUUS Linné.-Our common sunflower, the seeds of
which are sometimes used as a diuretic and expectorant in pulmonary and
laryngeal affections. Dose of fluidextract: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.). The
fixed oil expressed from them has become an article of commerce, and
the growing plants themselves enjoy the reputation of purifying malarial
districts
CAMPANULACEA.-Campanula Family.
Herbs or shrubbery plants, with acrid, milky juice, alternate leaves, and
scattered flowers, corolla 5-lobed. Fruit a one- to several-celled capsule. Many
species of the tribe Lobelia are acrid-narcotic poisons.
327. LOBELIA.-LOBELIA.
INDIAN TOBACCO.
Ger. LOBELIENKRAUT.
The dried leaves and tops of Lobe'lia infla'ta Linné, collected after a portion of the
capsules have become inflated.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stems much branched from an annual root,
pubescent; leaves ovate or oblong, gradually diminishing into leaf-like
bracts. Capsule inferior.
RELATED SPECIES.-Lobelia syphilitica (great lobelia), Lobelia cardinalis
(cardinal plant).
HABITAT.-United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—In the market the herb is broken up, but the
fragments of green leaves, small pieces of the longitudinally-ridged
stem, the rather elongated, dried flowers, and the inflated, membranous
capsules serve to identify it; odor irritating when inhaled; taste very
pungent, persistently acrid, and tobacco-like.
Powder.—Brownish-green. Characteristic elements: Walls of upper epi-
dermal cells, porous; sclerenchyma with bast fibers, thin-walled, slightly ligni-
fied; trichomes, one-celled (3 to 10 by 6 to 10 µ in diam.), pollen and stomata
present; calcium oxalate in prisms.
CONSTITUENTS.-Lobeline (a poisonous, acrid, yellowish, aromatic liquid
alkaloid), lobelic acid, lobelacrin (an active principle, probably
lobelate of lobeline), inflatin (a tasteless, colorless, and odorless, prob-
ably inert, neutral principle), resin, fixed oil, gum, probably volatile
oil, salts, etc.
Preparation of Lobeline.-Evaporate the acetic alcoholic tincture to syrup;
triturate this with MgO in excess; agitate filtrate with ether. Evaporate ether
and concentrate over sulphuric acid. It is quite volatile.
Preparation of Lobelacrin.-Obtain by concentrating tincture of lobelia in
LOBELIA.
295
presence of animal charcoal; exhaust charcoal with boiling alcohol. It is the
acrid principle, lobelate of lobeline (?).
ACTION AND USES.-Poisonous; diaphoretic and expectorant; used in
asthma, whooping-cough, and other spasmodic pulmonary affections.
In large doses it is a cathartic and emetic, but, being a violent gastro-
irritant, it should not be used for these purposes on account
FIG. 143.-Lobelia inflata—Portion of plant and flower.
of its danger. Dose: 1 to 15 gr. (0.065 to 1 Gm.). The latter
dose as an emetic. The two species, syphilitica and cardinalis, are
used medicinally, the former antisyphilitic and diaphoretic and the
latter anthelmintic. Both were used by the Indians.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Lobeliæ,
Tinctura Lobelia (10 per cent.),
ΙΟ
Dose: 1 to 5 ny (0.065 to 0:3 Cc.).
Expectorant 15 mm (1.0 Cc.),
Emetic 1 fl. dr. (4.0 Cc.).
296
ERICACEÆ.
ERICACEÆ.-Heath Family.
Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs; leaves generally foliaceous; flowers regular,
gamopetalous, usually bell-shaped or urn-shaped; anthers two-celled, with
porous dehiscence. A large order, with leaves astringent and bitter, because
of the presence of glucosides. Some species contain a poisonous principle,
andromedotoxin.
A. Leaves.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Ericaceæ.
UVA URSI, 328.
Arctostaphylos, 329.
Gaultheria, 330.
CHIMAPHILA, 331.
Epigæa, 332.
Kalmia, 334.
Ledum, 335.
Oxydendrum, 336.
Rhododendron, 337.
B. Volatile Oil.
OLEUM GAULTHERIÆ, 340.
Vaccinium, 333.
328. UVA URSI.-UVA URSI.
BEARBERRY.
Ger. BÄRENTRAUBE.
The dried leaves of Arctostaph'ylos u'va ur'si Sprengel.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Shrubs with trailing stems. Leaves alternate,
coriaceous, evergreen, obovate or spatulate, entire. Flowers in terminal
racemes, nearly white; corolla urn-shaped. Fruit a red drupe.
SOURCE. In dry, sandy, or rocky soil from Hudson's Bay to New Jersey,
in some parts of which it grows in abundance.
RELATED SPECIES.-Arctostaphylos glauca, indigenous to
indigenous to California
(329).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Short-stalked, rather thick, coriaceous,
obovate leaves, about 20 mm. (in.) in length, rounded at the
apex and narrowed at the base; margin entire; surface smooth,
glossy, grayish-green above, lighter colored and reticulated below;
taste astringent, bitter; odor slight. (The powder has a hay-like
odor.)
They are sometimes adulterated with the leaves of Vaccinium vitis
idea (European uva ursi), distinguished from the genuine by their
rounder shape, their revolute margin, which is sometimes toothed,
and the dotted appearance of their under surface. Chimaphila leaves,
which are occasionally mixed with uva ursi, may be readily distin-
guished by their greater length, their cuneiform-lanceolate shape, and
their serrate edges. Leiophyllum buxifolium (sand myrtle) and
Epigœa repens (trailing arbutus, 144) are also used as adulterants.
Powder.-Greenish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of leaf
with irregular, yellowish tannin masses, and prisms of calcium oxalate, the latter
sometimes in fibers; trichomes rarely present.
16
UVA URSI.
297
CONSTITUENTS.—Tannic and gallic acids, and the three principles,
arbutin, C₁₂H10O7, ericolin, C34H50O21, and ursone, C10H180,
which are common to the plants of the natural order Ericaceæ.
Arbutin is a bitter glucoside, occurring in colorless crystals; it is
resolved by hydrolysis into glucose and hydroquinone or arctuvin,
CHO₂. Ericolin is a yellow, crystalline, bitter glucoside. Ursone
is in tasteless needles.
Preparation of Arbutin.—Precipitate decoction with lead acetate; filter; add
H₂S; evaporate; evaporate slowly, when needles crystallize out. Dilute Fe₂Cl
gives blue color. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
-100
FIG. 144. Arctostaphylos uva ursi-Branch, flower, and fruiting branch.
Preparation of Ursone.-Obtained by exhausting drug with ether. The
alcoholic solution of the ethereal residue yields the crystals on slow evapora-
tion. Occurs in tasteless needles; sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether. In-
soluble in water.
ACTION AND USES.-Astringent, tonic, and diuretic; valuable in ulcera-
tions of the kidneys, bladder, or urinary passages. It has been
recommended in cystitis, its action being due to the decomposi-
tion of arbutin in the system and the excretion of the hydro-
quinone, which is a powerful disinfectant and antiferment. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
298
ERICACEÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Uvæ Ursi,.
Dose: 15 to 60 пy (1 to 4 Сc.).
329. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS GLAUCA Lindley.-MANZANITO. This is a small
California evergreen tree or shrub whose leaves are there highly esteemed
as an astringent, like uva ursi.
330. GAULTHERIA.-WINTERGREEN.
CheckerbeRRY. PARTridge Berry.
The leaves of Gaulthe'ria procum'bens Linné. Habitat: Northern Hemi-
sphere. This is a small evergreen shrub, consisting of slender, erect, red-
dish stems, bare below, leafy at top, rising at intervals from a creeping
root to the height of eight or ten inches. Fruit a scarlet-red, berry-like,
fleshy capsule. Leaves roundish, oval or obovate, about 37 mm. (1½ in.)
long, on a short pedicel; coriaceous; margin serrate, with a few appressed
teeth; somewhat revolute at the edges; odor fragrant, especially when
chewed; taste aromatic, astringent. The fragrance is due to a volatile oil
(330 a). Stimulant, astringent, and diuretic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to
4 Gm.).
3
A
330 a. OLEUM GAULTHERIÆ, U. S.-OIL OF WINTERGREEN.
nearly colorless volatile oil, distilled from the fresh leaves, "consist-
ing almost entirely of methyl salicylate, CH,C,H,O,, and nearly
identical with volatile oil of betula" (U. S.). The latter, according
to Power, is composed entirely of methyl salicylate and is optically
inactive, while the former is lævogyrate. As it comes into market
it is of a brownish-yellow or reddish color and has a very agreeable,
characteristic odor and taste. It is remarkable in having the high
specific gravity of 1.175-1.185. An aqueous solution gives, with
ferric salts, a purplish color. It yields, with 6 parts of 70 per cent.
alcohol at 20° C., a perfectly clear solution—a property serving to
detect adulterations (Spiritus Gaultheriæ, U. S. P., 5 per cent.).
331. CHIMAPHILA.-CHIMAPHILA.
PIPSISSEWA.
PRINCE'S PINE.
Ger. DOLDENBLÜTHIGES HARNKRAUT.
The dried leaves of Chimaph'ila umbella'ta Nuttall.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A low, nearly herbaceous plant, with long,
running, underground shoots. Leaves evergreen, thick, and shining,
whorled, wedge-lanceolate, sharply serrate, not spotted. Flowers umbelled,
on a terminal peduncle; petals rose-color; anthers violet. Capsule 2- to
5-celled.
HABITAT.-Northern Hemisphere, in dry woods.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Oblanceolate, about 25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 n.)
in length, sharply serrate, with pointed apex, cuneiform and entire
at base; coriaceous; surfaces smooth, upper dark green, glossy, lower
lighter in color; odor slight; taste astringent, slightly bitter.
Chimaphila maculata (spotted wintergreen or pipsisseway) has the
CHIMAPHILA.
299
same medicinal qualities, but differs physically in being oval-lan-
ceolate, with a paler upper surface, and in being dotted with small
white holes along the midrib.
RELATED PLANTS.-Pyrola rotundifolia (known as wintergreen or shin
leaf), P. elliptica and P. chlorantha are used similarly to the above.
Powder.-Brownish-green. Characteristic elements:
Characteristic elements: Parenchyma, meso-
phyll with irregular reddish-brown tannin masses, other cells with few starch
grains, simple or compound, calcium oxalate crystals, aggregate (40 to 60 µ in
diam.); stomata and few tracheids present.
1/1/2/4
FIG. 145.-Chimaphila umbellata.
CONSTITUENTS.-Same as uva ursi (328) with the addition of chimaphilin,
4
C24H2O (yellow, odorless, tasteless, volatile crystals), and several
white crystalline principles.
Preparation of Chimaphilin.-When the leaves are distilled with water,
yellow crystals are deposited in the neck of the retort. These, dissolved out
with chloroform, will deposit from this solution on evaporation. Shaking out
the tincture with chloroform will also dissolve out the principle.
ACTION AND USES.-Like uva ursi (328). Also used in scrofula and other
cutaneous eruptions. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
300
PLUMBAGINEÆ-PRIMULACEÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Chimaphilæ,
Dose: 15 to 60 ny (1 to 4 Cc.).
332. EPIGÆA.-TRAILING ARBUTUS.
-Trailing ArbuTUS. GRAVEL PLANT. The leaves of Epigæ'a
re'pens Linné. Habitat: North America, on woody hillsides. Ovate,
about 50 mm. (2 in.) long, with heart-shaped base and mucronate apex;
coriaceous; margin entire. They contain the same three principles that
uva ursi does and have the same general medicinal properties, but are
particularly valuable in those cases of local irritation of the urinary organs
in which they have often given relief when uva ursi and buchu had failed.
They are also claimed to be highly beneficial in lithic acid gravel. Dose:
15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in decoction or fluidextract.
333. VACCINIUM CRASSIFOLIUM Andrzejowski.—The leaves of this in-
digenous shrub have properties very much resembling uva ursi and may be
used in its stead.
334. KALMIA.-MOUNTAIN LAUREL. SPOONWOOD. The leaves of Kal'mia
latifolia Linné, an evergreen shrub common on the hills and mountains
of North America. They are lance-oval, acute at both ends, about 50 to
75 mm. (2 to 3 in.) in length; petiolate; coriaceous; both surfaces smooth,
green. In medicinal doses kalmia is astringent, sedative to the heart, and
antisyphilitic; also used externally in skin diseases. From its affirmed
effect upon sheep and other small animals it is supposed to have toxic, nar-
cotic properties, but no such principle has yet been found. Dose: 10 to
30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
335. LEDUM.-LABRADOR TEA. The leaves of Le'dum latifo'lium Aiton.
Habitat: Canada and Northern States. Elliptic-oblong, covered beneath
with a rust-colored wool. Besides the tannin and other principles common
to the Ericaceæ, they contain a poisonous principle, andromedotoxin,
rendering them poisonous in large doses. Astringent, tonic, and alterative.
Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.), in infusion.
-SOURWOOD. The leaves
336. OXYDENDRUM ARBOREUM De Candolle.-SOURWOOD.
of this North American tree are tonic, diuretic, and refrigerant, used in
dropsy. Dose of fluidextract: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
337. RHODODENDRON MAXIMUM Linné.-GREAT LAUREL. (Leaves.)
Tonic, diuretic, astringent, expectorant. Dose of fluidextract: 5 to 15
gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
PLUMBAGINEA.-Leadwort Family.
338. STATICE.-MARSH ROSEMARY. The root of Stat'ice limo'nium Linné,
growing in flat marshes along the Atlantic coast of the United States.
Spindle-shaped, from 300 to 600 mm. (12 to 24 in.) long, and about 25 mm.
(1 in.) thick; externally rough, purplish-brown; bark thick; wood yellow-
ish, in narrow wood-wedges; inodorous; bitter and strongly astringent. It
contains about 12 per cent, of tannin and is used like catechu and kino in
diarrhea, but more particularly as an astringent gargle in ulcerations of the
inouth and throat, and as an injection. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
339. BAYCURU. The root of Statice brasilien'sis Boissier. Habitat: Brazil.
One of the most powerful of astringents, chiefly used locally in gargle,
injection, and lotion.
PRIMULACEA.-Primrose Family.
This plant,
340. ANAGALLIS ARVENSIS Linné.-SCARLET PIMPERNEL.
growing in the United States and Europe, is applied locally to ulcers and
employed internally in consumption, dropsy, etc. It contains a pepsin-
like ferment.
BENZOINUM.
301
MYRSENEÆ.
341. EMBELIA RIBES Burman.-The pepper-corn-like, aromatic fruit of this
East Indian plant is said to be an efficient tæniafuge.
SAPOTACEÆ.-Sapodilla Family.
342. GUTTA-PERCHA.-The concrete juice of large trees, Isonandra (or
Palaquium oblongifolium), Dichop'sis gut'ta, and other species, growing
in the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies. In grayish or yellowish
masses, often streaked with red; hard and tenacious at ordinary tempera-
tures, with a somewhat unctuous feeling, but at a higher temperature, or
when immersed in hot water, it becomes plastic, retaining, when hard and
dry, the form into which it has been molded. Upon this property its uses
in the arts chiefly depend. In medicine it is used as a surgical dressing in
the formation of splints, supports, etc. A Liquor Gutta Percha (U. S. P.,
1880) is often applied as a protective, the evaporation of its solvent, carbon
disulphide, leaving a thin, flexible coating over the wounded surface.
343. MONESIA.—An extract obtained from a South American tree, Lucu'ma
glycyph'læa Martius et Eichler. Dark brown, almost black, cakes, about
25 mm. (1 in.) in thickness; very brittle, often coming into the market in
broken fragments; inodorous; taste sweetish, astringent, and then acrid,
its acrimony being very persistent, especially in the fauces. This acridity
is due to monesin, a principle identical with saponin. Monesia also con-
tains tannin, glycyrrhizin, and lucumin (silky needles). Stomachic stimu-
lant, alterative, and astringent. Used in diarrhea, hemorrhages, in astrin-
gent gargles, and in powder or ointment applied to scrofulous ulcers.
5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.).
EBENACEÆ.-Ebony Family.
Dose:
344. DIOSPYROS. PERSIMMON. The unripe fruit of Dio'spyros virginia'na
Linné. (Official, 1820-'80.) Very astringent. Used in uterine hemor-
rhage, leucorrhoea, and sore throat. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.) in
infusion, syrup, or vinous tincture.
STYRACEÆ.-Storax Family.
345. BENZOINUM.-BENZOIN.
BENZOIN.
Ger. BENZOË.
A balsamic resin obtained from Sty'rax benʼzoin Dryander, and other species of
styrax.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A large tree with tomentose branches.
Leaves
alternate, oblong, the under surface tomentose. Inflorescence compoundly
racemose; calyx 5-toothed; corolla 5-parted, gray; stamens 10, their
filaments coherent at the base into a short tube.
SOURCE AND VARIETIES.—Sumatra and Java. Sumatra-Penang, gray-
ish-brown with many white tears, odor storax-like; Siam, reddish-
brown, odor vanilla-like; Palembang resembles Sumatra, but yields.
more benzoic acid; false benzoin, catappa benzoin (Terminalia
angustifolia), whitish brown.
302
STYRACEÆ.
A deciduous shrub of the Lauraceæ, a native of Virginia, and called
spice-wood or Benjamin tree, was at one time thought to be a source
of benzoin. The berries of this tree are aromatic, and have been used
as a substitute for allspice.
COLLECTION.-In Sumatra the benzoin is collected by making incisions.
in the tree during its seventh year, only the unhealthy trees yielding
resin. The milky juice which flows first is the purest and most
FIG. 146.-Styrax benzoin-Branch.
fragrant, but soon hardens upon exposure to the air. That which
flows subsequently is brownish, and some is scraped out when the
tree is cut down and split open, as it is soon killed by the process of
tapping. These varieties are in common called head, belly, and
feet benzoin, and have the relative value to each other of 105, 45,
and 18, being esteemed according to their whiteness, semi-trans-
parency, and freedom from admixture (Royle). A product of the
MANNA.
303
younger tree furnishes a variety known as amygdalina benzoin, which
contains whitish, almond-like tears diffused through its substance.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-It exudes from incisions in the bark, hardening
on exposure into agglutinated shining tears of a yellowish-brown or
reddish-brown color; internally milk-white; usually, however, it is
in various-sized pieces, having a resinous fracture, showing a mottled
surface of smooth, shining white spots, tears, imbedded in the
somewhat rough and porous, reddish-brown mass.
It has a very
agreeable odor and a slightly aromatic taste, leaving an irritating
sensation in the mouth and fauces.
Constituents.—Benzoin has the constitution of a balsam and is by some
8 2
authors considered as a solid balsam; it contains resin, benzoic acid,
C,H₂O₂, 20 to 24 per cent., which comes off in dense white vapor
when benzoin is heated and melted, and cinnamic acid, C,H¸O₂ (in
some varieties), detected by boiling in milk of lime, decomposing
with HCl, and adding permanganate of potassium, when the cdor of
bitter almonds is given off. Siam benzoin contains vanillin, C.H¸O3,
and has a vanilla-like odor.
Preparation of Benzoic Acid.-Obtained by simple sublimation of benzoin.
Is also prepared artificially from tuluol, but sometimes from phthalic acid or
hippuric acid. The U. S. P. provides against its contamination with cinnamic
acid. When this impurity is present, mild oxidation yields the odor of oil of
bitter almond. (See above.)
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and diaphoretic, but seldom used as such
except in the compound tincture of benzoin. It is used locally as a
stimulant and irritant, and in tooth powders and fumigations. Dose:
8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Benzoini Composita (10 per
cent., with aloes, storax, and tolu), ...Dose: 15 to 60 ny (1 to 4 Cc.).
Tinctura Benzoini (20 per cent.),....
10 to 40 my (0.6 to 2.6 Cc.).
Adeps Benzoinatus (2 Ġm. digested in 100 Gm. of lard).
OLEACEÆ.-Olive Family.
Trees or shrubs with simple leaves-illustrated by the olive, the ash, the
lilac, and the privet. The olive fruit contains mannite, which is converted into
olive oil on ripening.
MANNA.
346. MANNA.—MANNA.
Ger, MANNA.
The concrete saccharine exudation from Frax'inus or'nus Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A tree about 25 feet high.
A tree about 25 feet high. Leaves pinnate,
leaflets 7 to 9, serrate. Panicles dense; calyx 4-cleft; corolla white,
divided to the base into linear segments.
304
OLEACEAE.
I
SOURCE.—The tree yielding the manna is a native of Sicily, Calabria, and
Apulia. The juice exudes spontaneously, or its flow is hastened by
incision. Although this is the only manna officially recognized, sac-
charine substances known as mannas are yielded by many other trees
and plants, and are obtained from the cocoons of some insects. The
manna of Scripture was doubtless a lichen which grows extensively in
the Sahara and Western Asia, and which occasionally falls like rain
over the adjacent country.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In stalactiform pieces from 1 to 6 inches long, or
irregular fragments, yellowish or brownish-white, internally
white and porous; very friable. Manna in tears is a pure kind, but
manna in flakes is chiefly valued and mostly met with. Manna in
sorts, minute tears, internally crystalline, and fat manna, brownish,
viscid, non-crystalline masses, are also met with. Odor honey-
like; taste sweetish, afterward nauseous. Soluble in water and
alcohol. When long kept, manna darkens and deliquesces into a
liquid.
OTHER MANNAS.-The sweet exudation of various trees, some of which,
being different from the manna ash, have received the name of manna;
hence we have the exudation from a eucalyptus, yielding Australian
manna, Persian manna from a leguminous plant, Lebanon manna
from Cedrus libanotica,—all of which are saccharine exudations con-
taining the sugar peculiar to this drug. Some of the exudations
result from the puncture of insects, some spontaneous exudations,
others from incisions.
CONSTITUENTS.-Chiefly mannite (75 per cent.), a sweet principle
which separates out from the boiling alcoholic solution in crystals,
also sugar, dextrin, mucilage, and a nauseous principle, to which
its laxative action is doubtless due.
ACTION AND USES.-Gentle laxative, usually given in combination
with other purgatives. Dose: to 2 oz. (15 to 60 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Infusum Sennæ Compositum, 12 per
cent.),
.Dose: 1 to 4 fl. oz. (30 to 120 Cc.).
347. OLEUM OLIVE.-OLIVE OIL.
SWEET OIL.
Ger. OLIVENÖL.
Leaves
A fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of O'lea europæ'a Linné.
BOTANICAL CHaracteristics.-A small evergreen with hard wood.
short-petiolate, opposite, ovate-lanceolate, mucronate. Flowers white, in
axillary clusters. Fruit a drupe, to 1 in. long, ovoid, purple; sarcocarp
firm, fleshy, filled with oil.
OLEUM OLIVE.
·
. 305
HABITAT.-Levant and the Mediterranean Basin and California.
DESCRIPTION OF OIL.-A pale yellow or greenish-yellow, unctuous liquid
when pure, having a bland, sweetish taste, but scarcely any odor.
Specific gravity 0.915 to 0.918 at 15° C., 59° Fahr. On exposure
it absorbs oxygen and becomes thick and rancid and loses its color,
but does not dry as does linseed oil. See Tests in U. S. P.
The oil is obtained by crushing the ripe fruit and subjecting the
1-24
hil
FIG. 147.-Olca europaa-Branch.
pulp to strong pressure. The expressed oil is run into water and the
floating oil is skimmed after a few days' subsidence (virgin oil); the
expressed cake is now broken up, mixed with hot water, and again
subjected to pressure, resulting in a second-grade oil. The remaining
marc yields by solvents, such as carbon disulphide, or by a third ex-
pression after fermentation, a very inferior oil.
וי
The oil is adulterated with cotton-seed oil chiefly, with oil of benne
(408 a), and with peanut oil.
20
306
APOCYNACEÆ.
Preparations:
Sapo, soap (which is employed in:
Linimentum saponis. Emplastrum saponis.)
Emplastrum plumbi: lead acetate, and soap solution
are mixed and the resulting precipitate is kneaded
on a warm slab to free the mass from water.
Emplastrum adhæsivum contains emplastrum
plumbi, rubber, and petrolatum.
Unguentum diachylon,
- 50 per cent.
From the olive is obtained the wood so famous for its capability of
receiving a fine polish; used in cabinetwork of various kinds. The
unripe fruit is served at the table. It is prepared by repeatedly
steeping it in water containing lime and ashes, then bottling in a
slightly aromatic salt solution; the small French or Provence, the
finest, and the large Spanish are both used for this purpose.
CONSTITUENTS.-At about 5° C. (41° F.) white crystalline granules.
separate out, which consist of palmitin with possibly some stearin
and arachin. The liquid portion remaining consists almost entirely
of olein, CH¿(OC18H33O)3, which forms about 72 per cent. of the
oil. The green color is due to chlorophyll.
ACTION AND USES.-Nutritive and laxative, a common ingredient in
laxative enemata; externally protective and emollient. Its chief
use in pharmacy is in liniments, cerates, and plasters. Dose: I
fl. oz. (30 Cc.).
348. FRAXINUS AMERICANA Linné.-WHITE ASH. (Root-bark.) Quills
or curved pieces, having an ash-gray periderm and a white inner bark, and
breaking with a splintery, coarsely fibrous fracture. Emmenagogue.
Dose: about 15 gr. (1 Gm.).
349. FRAXINUS SAMBUCIFOLIA Lambert.-BLACK ASH. (Bark.) Habi-
tat: United States. Tonic and astringent. Dose: 1 to 4 dr. (4 to 15 Gm.).
350. CHIONANTHUS.-Fringe-tree. The root-bark of Chionan'thus vir-
gin'ica Linné. Habitat: United States. Tonic, aperient, and diuretic.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gın.).
351. LIGUSTRUM.-PRIVET. The leaves of Ligus'trum vulga're Linné, a
shrub growing wild in the United States and Europe. Astringent; the
decoction is used in sore throat, ulcerations of the mouth, stomach, and
intestines.
APOCYNACEÆ.-Dogbane Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, mostly tropical, with a milky juice which is often
drastic or poisonous. Leaves mostly opposite, exstipulate. Flowers regular,
5-merous and 5-androus, with the pollen cohering into granular, waxy masses.
Fruit a pair of follicles; seeds often comose.
A. Roots.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Apocynaceæ.
APOCYNUM, 352.
Apocynum Androsæmifolium, 352 a.
B. Barks.
Aspidosperma, 353.
Alstonia Constricta, 354.
Alstonia Scholaris, 355.
Conessi, 356.
C. Seeds.
STROPHANTHUS, 357.
D. Leaves.
Oleander, 358.
E. Herb.
Urechites, 359.

APOCYNUM.
307
Powder-Pale brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex with
single starch grains (7 to 15 in diam.); sclerenchyma with bast fibers, numer-
ous, stone cells, sometimes present; ducts, large and small, porous, reticulate
and annular; laticiferous vessels in yellowish fragments. Androsæmifolium has
more stone cells; cork tissue in small amount.
352. APOCYNUM.-APOCYNUM.
CANADIAN HEMP.
Ger. CANADISCHE HANFWURZEL.
The dried rhizome of Apocy'num canna'binum Linné and closely allied species.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stems much branched, 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves
from oval to oblong or lanceolate, short petiolate or sessile. Inflorescence
cymose; corolla greenish-white, with nearly erect lobes, the tube not
longer than the calyx tube.
HABITAT.-United States.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A long, cylindrical root, somewhat con-
torted, about 8 mm. (3 in.) thick, with a rather thick light brown
A
B
C
D
FIG. 148. A pocynum cannabinum-Cross-section. (28 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex.
C, Medullary ray. D, Water tube. (Photomicrograph).
bark, longitudinally wrinkled and transversely fissured, and a
yellowish, porous wood divided by fine medullary rays into
very narrow wood-wedges; fracture short. The thick inner cortical
308
APOCYNACEÆ.
layer has numerous lactiferous vessels scattered through it, which in
the fresh state secrete a milky juice which hardens into a caoutchouc-
like substance. Odor slight, or none; taste bitter, nauseous.
Apocynum androsæmifolium Linné, dogbane, resembles the above,
but has a relatively thicker bark inclosing a white, porous wood, and
contains, in the outer portion, stone-cell groups. By applying the
phloroglucin test to a section, the groups of stone-cells are revealed,
stained red. Two species sold indiscriminately.
CONSTITUENTS.-Apocynein, a yellowish glucoside (acting like digita-
lin); apocynin, a bitter, resin-like extractive; tannin, resin,
starch, etc.
a
ACTION AND USES.-A valuable diuretic in moderate doses, in large
doses emetic and cathartic, producing considerable diaphoresis and
expectoration; most used and most beneficial in dropsy. Recently
the drug has attracted some attention as a most valuable deobstruent in
relieving renal congestion in the second stage of tubular nephritis.
It is also a decided heart tonic. Dose as a diuretic, 4 to 5 gr. (0.3
to 0.324 Gm.); as an emetic and cathartic, 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Apocyni,
Dose: 15 ny (1 Cc.).
353. ASPIDOSPERMA.-QUEBRACHO. The bark of Aspidosper'ma quebra'-
cho blancho Schlechtendal. Off. U. S. P. 1890. Thick, flat pieces (from
to 1 in. in thickness), with a very thick, yellowish-gray cork, which con-
stitutes more than one-half of its entire substance, and is separated from
the lower layer by more or less sharply defined outline, deeply fissured,
and traversed by parallel yellowish lines; between these lines are whitish
dots visible in a cross-section scattered through both the outer and inner
layers. Internally reddish-brown to yellow; odor slight; taste aromatic
and bitter. Constituents: Aspidosperma is very rich in alkaloids, six
having been discovered thus far; the most important are aspidospermine,
C22H30N2O2, and quebrachine, C21H20N2O2. A peculiar sugar, quebrachite,
is also present, and tannin, 3 to 4 per cent. Cardiac tonic. Its special
action, however, is upon the respiration, lessening the rate and increas-
ing the amplitude of the respiratory movements; it is chiefly used in asth-
matic dyspnoea. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
Preparation of Aspidospermine.-Treat alcoholic extract with alkaline chloro-
form; dissolve chloroformic extract in acidulated (H₂SO₁) water and precipi-
tate with NaOH; dissolve precipitate (mixed alkaloids) in boiling alcohol and
cool, when alkaloids will crystallize.
To separate aspidospermine, crystallize from dilute HCl, when this alkaloid
will remain in the mother liquor, from which it may be removed by neutraliza-
tion and recrystallization. As found in commerce, this alkaloid is a mixture
of this and the other associated principles, among which quebrachine is the
most important. Crude aspidospermine sulphate is a commercial article, is
deliquescent and unstable; it is much more soluble in water than the alkaloid.
Fluidextractum Aspidospermatis, U. S. P. 1890. Dose: 5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
354. ALSTONIA CONSTRICTA F.
Mueller.-AUSTRALIAN FEver Bark.
Tonic, antiperiodic. Dose of fl'ext.: 2 to 8 m (0.13 to 0.5 Cc.).
STROPHANTHUS.
309
355. ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS R. Brown.-DITA. A tree growing in the
Philippine Islands, the bark of which is used in India as a substitute for
cinchona. Dose of fl'ext.: 2 to 8 my (0.13 to 0.5 Cc.).
356. CONESSI.—The bark of Holar'rhena antidysenter'ica Wallr. Has been
used in Europe and is still extensively employed in India in dysentery.
Its alkaloid, conessine, enters commerce.
357. STROPHANTHUS.-STROPHANTHUS.
-STROPHANTHUS.
Ger. STROPHANTHUSSAMEN.
The ripe seed of Strophan'thus Kombé De Candolle, deprived of its long awn.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A woody climber, ascending to the tops of high
trees, from which it hangs in festoons. Flowers in terminal cymes, gamo-
petalous, the lobes prolonged into long, tail-like points, often 8 or 9 inches
long. Fruit two long follicles.
SOURCE. The genus Strophanthus contains about 20 species, native of
Africa and Asia, where it is probable that more than one of them
are used for the preparation of arrow-poison.
COMMERCIAL VARIETIES.-Several varieties are found in the market.
Jelliffe says ("Drug. Circ.," 1896, p. 101): "It may be expected
that as time goes on more and more of the 28 or more species will
find their way into trade." S. hispidus and S. kombé are considered
by some writers as varieties of the same species. These are above
described. S. asper varies from to of an inch in length, oblong,
laterally flattened, and covered with a dense coat of whitish or greenish
hairs, which double the diameter of the seed proper. Beneath the
hairs the seed is of a light brownish color. S. gratus, a smooth,
brownish seed from to of an inch in length, slightly fusiform,
flattened, and thin; color light, waxy, and dull; often twisted, show-
ing on the posterior surface a long, delicate raphe running from
just below the center.
Description of DRUG.—According to Jelliffe, the seeds of hispidus vary
fromto of an inch in length. The variety kombé is apt to be
longer, to inch. The color varies considerably-at times it is
brownish-white. Many good seeds are distinctly brown. All are
provided with short, stout hairs, pointing upward, which give a shin-
ing appearance to the seed. In the case of Kombé seeds, which are
apt to be green, the sheen is often well marked. The seeds are flat-
tened, sharp at the apex where the barb is broken off, and narrowed
at the lower end. On the back of the seed a fine ridge may often
be seen running from the lower third upward. Odor, faintly un-
pleasant, due to fixed oil; taste very bitter, due to strophanthin.
Powder.-Dark brown. Some of the predominating elements to be studied
are: The long, one-celled, non-lignified hairs, which, according to Kraemer,
310
APOCYNACEÆ.
contain in S. Kombé, colorless or yellowish-green granules, in S. hispidus, dark-
brown granules. Sulphuric acid colors S. Kombé green, other kinds are usually
colored red, on cross-section.
32
CONSTITUENTS.—Its medical properties depend upon an intensely bitter
glucoside, strophanthin, C2H48O10 (anhydrous), 2 to 2.5 per cent.,
choline, trigonelline, kombic acid, resin, mucilage, and a fixed oil are
also present.
FIG. 149.-Strophanthus hispidus-Branch and seed with comose awn.
Preparation of Strophanthin.—Treat powdered seeds with acidulated (HCl)
alcohol; evaporate to soft extract; treat with water. The aqueous solution
containing tannate is treated with lead oxide, and from the purified aqueous
solution white crystals are obtained.
ACTION AND USES.-Used in all forms of cardiac disease to supplant
digitalis, but is not generally regarded as its equal. It has a diuretic
action similar to digitalis through its action on the circulation, and
also by direct promotion of urinary secretion, and is especially indi-
cated in cardiac dropsy as being superior to digitalis; given in the
form of tincture. Dose: 1 gr. (0.065 Gm.).
ASCLEPIADEÆ.
311
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Strophanthi (10 per cent.),.....Dose: 4 to 8 mg (0.25 to 0.50 Cc.).
358. OLEANDER. The leaves of Ne'rium odor'um, a heart stimulant be-
longing to the digitalis group. Oleandrin is a cardiac poison.
359. URECHITES.-YELLOW-FLOWERED NIGHTSHADE. A poisonous plant
growing in the West India Islands. A cardiac poison not very unlike
digitalis in effect. Dose of fl'ext.: 2 to 10 mg (0.13 to 0.6 Cc.).
ASCLEPIADEA.-Milkweed Family.
Herbs, usually milky-juiced, with opposite or whorled entire leaves. Anthers
connected to the stigma and the pollen, cohering into waxy masses which hang
in pairs from the glands of the stigma. The juice contains caoutchouc.
360. ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA.-The root of Ascle'pias tubero'sa Linné.
Off. in U. S. P. 1890. Enters the market in transverse or longitudinal
sections about 20 mm. (‡ in.) in thickness, and of various lengths; exter-
nally pale orange-brown or grayishi, wrinkled longitudinally; internally it
consists of a grayish or yellowish porous wood with broad, white medullary
rays; fracture tough, uneven, showing the two distinct layers of the thin
bark, the inner one white; odorless; taste bitter, somewhat acrid. Dia-
phoretic, expectorant. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). Fl'ext., off.
U. S. P. 1890, dose, 15 to 60 ny (1 to 4 Cc.).
361. ASCLEPIAS CORNUTI Decaisne.-COMMON SILK-WEED or Milk-weed.
(Rhizome.) Cylindrical sections, from 6 to 25 mm. (to 1 in.) thick,
beset with a few simple rootlets; externally grayish-brown, finely wrinkled,
and rough from stem-scars and undeveloped branches. It breaks with a
short or splintery fracture, showing a thick bark containing lactiferous
vessels, and a yellowish, porous wood in narrow wood-wedges. Odorless;
taste bitter and nauseous. Diuretic, alterative, and expectorant; recom-
mended in pectoral affections and in dropsy. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4
Gm.), in decoction.
362. ASCLEPIAS INCARNATA Linné.-SWAMP Milk-weeD. Habitat: North
America. An oval or globular, yellowish-brown rhizome, with a tough,
white wood, and a central pith; rootlets smooth, light yellowish-brown,
brittle; odorless; taste sweetish, bitter, and acrid. It contains an emetic
principle, asclepiadin; it is also alterative and cathartic. Dose: 15 to
45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
363. ASCLEPIAS CURASSAVICA Linné.-BLOOD Flower. A West Indian
herb used as an emetic, in smaller doses cathartic and vermifuge. Dose
of fl'ext.: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
364. HEMIDESMUS.-INDIAN SARSAPARILLA, The root of a climbing East
Indian plant, Hemides'mus in'dicus R. Brown. Long, cylindrical, slen-
der, and tortuous; externally wrinkled and fissured, dark brown; wood
yellowish, separated from the thin bark by a dark, wavy cambium line.
Odor sweetish, tonka-like; taste sweetish and acrid. It is used in India as
an alterative, and also in Great Britain, where it is official. Dose: 30 to 60
gr. (2 to 4 Gm.), in infusion or decoction.
365. CONDURANGO.-The bark of Gonolo'bus conduran'go Triana, a South
American vine, largely used there as an alterative. It was first introduced
as a medicine here as a specific in cancer, but experience has shown it to
be of no value in that trouble. It is from 2 to 6 mm. (½ to in.) thick,
the outer surface or periderm ash-gray, with greenish or blackish lichen
patches scattered over it; odor slight; taste bitter and acrid.
It is given
in doses of about 30 gr. (2 Gm.).
2
312
LOGANIACEÆ.
LOGANIACEÆ.-Logania Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with opposite, entire leaves connected by stipules or
a stipular line, and with regular 4-5-merous, 4-5-androus flowers, the ovary
free from the calyx. Many of the plants belonging to this order are extremely
poisonous.
A. Seeds.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Loganiacea.
NUX VOMICA, 366.
Ignatia, 367.
B. Bark.
Hoang-nan, 368.
C. Rhizomes.
GELSEMIUM, 369.
SPIGELIA, 370.
D. Extractive.
Curara, 371.
366. NUX VOMICA.-NUX VOMICA.
Ger. KRAHENAUGEN.
DOG BUTTON. QUAKER BUTTON.
The dried ripe seed of Strych'nos nux vom'ica Linné yielding, by assay, not less
than 1.25 per cent. of strychnine.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A small tree with a crooked stem resembling
a dogwood. Leaves short-petiolate, smooth, oval, mucronately, pal-
mately, 3- to 5-nerved. Flowers small, greenish-white, in terminal cor-
ymbs; corolla funnel-form. Fruit round, orange-like.
SOURCE.-Indigenous to the coasts of most parts of India, Burmah, Siam,
and northern parts of Australia. Large quantities of the drug are
brought into the London market from British India. The export
from Bombay is considerable. Madras and Calcutta are also ship-
ping points.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Orbicular disks from 18 to 25 mm. ( to
I in.) in diameter, and about 4 mm. (in.) thick; flat or slightly
convex on one side and concave on the other, with a slightly raised
margin on the concave side. On one side is a ridge (raphe) extend-
ing from a raised point in the center (hilum) to a point on the edge
where the radicle is situated (chalaza). Both surfaces have a grayish
or a grayish-green, shiny, silky appearance, due to a large
number of silky hairs, closely pressed to the seed and forming
a tuft around its edge. Testa thin, fragile, somewhat soft, inclosing
two disks of horny, translucent or opaque, yellowish or white albumen
around a large central cavity. The embryo is contained in this cavity,
and consists of a short radicle and two flat, heart-shaped, veined
cotyledons extending about one-fourth the distance across it. In-
odorous; taste extremely bitter. Powdered nux vomica is yellowish-
gray and has a faint, sweetish odor. Should contain 1.25 per cent. of
strychnine.
NUX VOMICA.
!
313
Powder.-Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm, very thick-walled with aleurone and oil globules, finely porous; color
blue or violet with K₂Cr₂O, and H2SO4; trichomes, elongated, very thick-walled,
lignified, colorless, with base wide and porous; starch, small amount in adhering
proteid matter. In Ignatia bean, trichomes are rarely present.
از
COUL
FAW
FIG. 150.-Strychnos nux vomica-Flowering branch and seeds.
CONSTITUENTS.-The total alkaloids amount to 2.5 to 3.5 per cent. They
consist principally of strychnine, C21N22N2O2, 1.25 per cent., and
brucine, C2H26N2O4, the former being in excess. These are com-
bined in the seed with igasuric acid. A third alkaloid, igasurine, has
been claimed, but it is probably simply a mixture of the other two. A
glucoside, loganin, C25H34O14, has been found in the seeds, but it
exists in greater quantity in the pulp surrounding the seed of the
314
LOGANIACEÆ.
fruit. Other constituents are a concrete fixed oil, gum, wax, phos-
phates, and a yellow coloring matter.
Strychnine. As usually found in commerce, strychnine is a
white or grayish-white powder. When rapidly crystallized from an
alcoholic solution, it has the form of a white gran-
ular powder; when slowly crystallized, that of an
elongated octahedra, or rhombic prisms with
pyramidal capping. It is officially described as
"in colorless, transparent, octahedral, or pris-
matic crystals," etc.
FIG. 151.
fruit of
vomica.
Cross-section of the
Strychnos
nux
Its solubilities and tests are given in the U. S.
Pharmacopoeia. The test usually employed for
its recognition is sulphuric acid with potassium
bichromate; gives a deep violet or blue color.
Heated with strong nitric acid, yields picric acid.
Brucine. Brucine occurs in rectangular octahedra containing
4H₂O, readily soluble in alcohol; nitric acid colors blood-red, chang-
ing to orange and yellow, the yellow liquid becoming violet upon the
addition of stannous chloride or ammonium or sodium sulphide.
Preparation of Strychnine.—Boil powdered seeds with acidulated (HCl or
H₂SO) water. Decompose solution of alkaloidal salts by adding milk of lime,
which precipitates strychnine and brucine. Wash precipitate; treat with
dilute alcohol to dissolve brucine, or with alcohol or benzene to take out strych-
nine, thus leaving brucine in the residue. Purify with animal charcoal and
reprecipitate with ammonia. Occurs in four-sided rhombic prisms; very bitter;
soluble in boiling alcohol 5 parts chloroform, 110 alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.-Nux vomica is a tonic, spinal nervine, and a poison.
In small doses it stimulates the appetite and digestion and the respi-
ration. Dose: to 5 gr. (0.0324 to 0.3 Gm.). Strychnine repre-
sents its action fully. Brucine has the same physiological action as
strychnine, but is only about one-twelfth as strong.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Nucis Vomicæ,
Extractum Nucis Vomicæ,.
Tinctura Nucis Vomicæ (2 per cent.
of extract),
·
.Dose: to 5 m (0.0324 to 0.3 Cc.).
to I gr. (0.0324 to 0.0650 Gm.).
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
STRYCHNINE AND ITS OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Strychnina,
Ferri et Strychninæ Citras,
Glyceritum
•
Ferri, Quininæ,
et
Strychnine Phosphatum (0.08 per
cent.).
Syrupus Ferri, Quininæ, et Strych-
ninæ Phosphatum (25 per cent. of
salt),
Strychninæ Sulphas,
Dose: to 2 gr. (0.001 to 0.003 Gm.).
1
60 20
I to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
gr. (0.001 Gm.).
367. IGNATIA. ST. IGNATIUS' BEAN. The seeds of Strych'nos igna'tia
Lindley, a tree growing in the Philippine Islands, where they are much
GELSEMIUM.
315
esteemed as a medicine, and whence they were introduced to the medical
world by the Jesuits, who conferred upon them the name of the founder
of their order. The fruit is pear-shaped, and contains 10 to 15 of these
hard, heavy seeds lying one upon the other and imbedded in a dry medul-
lary mass, but the seeds come into market separate. Their shapes are
various, owing to the manner in which they were situated in the fruit; but
their general form is ovate, somewhat flattened, and more or less angular.
They are about 25 mm. (1 in.) long, but considerably narrower, and have
at one end a small depression indicating their point of attachment (hilum).
Their testa is of a less silky nature than that of nux vomica, and of a gray-
brown color. In commerce they are perfectly smooth, the testa and hairs
being removed by the rubbing of the seeds against one another, and there-
fore the outer surface consists of dull brown or blackish horny albumen,
translucent when fresh. The embryo is oblong, situated in the broad end
of the seed, the cotyledons extending only about half the distance across
the irregular cavity. Inodorous; taste excessively bitter.
CONSTITUENTS.-Same as nux vomica (366) but in different proportions,
the strychnine existing to the extent of about 1.2 per cent. against to
per cent. in nux vomica. Ignatia was once used for the preparation of
this alkaloid, strychnine, but rarely at the present day, as nux vomica is
imported in such large quantities and is a much cheaper source. Dose:
to 5 gr. (0.0324 to 0.3 Ġm.).
368. HOANG-NAN or HOANG-NAO.-TROPICAL Bindweed. The bark of
Strych'nos malaccen'sis Bentham, a creeping vine growing in the moun-
tains of Tonquin. This bark is in general use among the natives of Tonquin,
Cochin-China, Venezuela, etc., as a remedy in leprosy and hydrophobia,
and as an antisyphilitic and alterative. First brought to the notice of
the medical profession by the missionary fathers. It contains strychnine
and brucine in about equal proportions, and probably has about the same
range in medicine as nux vomica. Dose: to 5 gr. (0.0324 to 0.3 Gm.).
369. GELSEMIUM.-GELSEMIUM.
YELLOW JASMINE.
Ger. GIFTJASMIN.
The dried rhizome and roots of Gelse'mium sempervir'ens Aiton.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Stem smooth, climbing. Leaves short-petiolate,
shining, ovate. Flowers in short axillary clusters, very fragrant; corolla
bright yellow, funnel-form, 5-lobed.
HABITAT.-Southern United States, notably Florida.
Description of DRUG.-Generally in very light and fibrous cylindrical
sections, 90 to 200 mm. long, 4 to 15 mm. in diameter; externally
of a brownish-yellow color, slightly wrinkled; tough, breaking with
a fibrous, splintery fracture; bark thin, with silky bast fibers, adhering
to the light-yellowish, porous, broadly-rayed wood; the wood-cells
are more or less indurated and free of starch-grains; medullary rays
contain few starch-granules; pith small; odor characteristic; taste
persistently bitter.
ADULTERATION.-Mixed with the true gelsemium there are sometimes
found the roots of the jessamine or jasmine; as an adulterant this
has become known as false gelsemium. The true yellow jasmine
(Jasminum fructicans Linné) is called Gelsemium officinale in Europe.

316
LOGANIACEAE.
In cross-section the false root, according to Dohme, has no indurated
cells in the medulla. Its medullary rays are full of starch-grains,
and the sieve-ducts at the outer end of the woody cylinder are, in
the case of every woody wedge, surrounded and protected by several
rows of bast fibers. The true gelsemium has no such bast fibers.
- A
B
-C
D
E
F
G
H
A-
B
C
D
FIG. 152. Cross-section of the stem of Gel-
semium. 4, Epidermis. B, Collenchyma.
C, Parenchyma of cortex. D, Bundles of
sclerenchymatous cells. E, Sieve tissue.
F, Cambium. G, Wood fibers. H,
Tracheal tubes. I, Pith cells.
FIG. 153. Gelsemium-Cross-section of root. (19
diam.) A, Cork. B, Phloëm. C, Xylem. D, Medul-
lary ray. (Photomicrograph.)
Accidental admixture of stems may be detected by the latter having
bundles of bast fibers near the cortex. In the rhizome the fibers are
not in bundles, but in a more or less interrupted ring.
Powder-Light brown. Parenchyma of cortex, with starch (4 to 8 in
diam.), calcium oxalate in prisms (15 to 30 in diam.); sclerenchyma with stone
cells about 50 u in diam.; bast fibers, long, narrow; ducts, large with straight
pores (20 to 60 in diam.); considerable cork.
69
CONSTITUENTS.-Gelsemine, C54H9N,O12, gelseminine, gelseminic acid,
volatile oil, resins, gallic acid, etc. Gelsemine is a brittle, white,

GELSEMIUM.
317
transparent solid, soluble in alcohol, from which it crystallizes with
difficulty. The root yields from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, of alkaloid.
Preparation of Gelsemine.-Add acetic acid to concentrated tincture; precipi-
tate resin with water; concentrate the aqueous filtrate; remove gelsemic acid
with chloroform or ether. The acid liquid yields impure alkaloid when pre-
cipitated by Na,CO,. This is purified by solution in chloroform and slow evap-
oration. It is a white, amorphous, very bitter alkaline alkaloid; with HCl or
HNO, forms crystalline salts.
AB
D
E
FIG. 154. Gelsemium-Cross-section of rhizome. (25 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex.
C, Bast fibers. D, Xylem. E, Medullary ray. F, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.)
ACTION AND USES.-Antispasmodic, sedative, and diaphoretic.
Dose: 2 to 10 gr. (0.13 to 0.6 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Gelsemii,
Tinctura Gelsemii (10 per cent.),
...Dose: 2 to 10 m (0.13 to 0.6 Cc.).
2 to 15 m (0.13 to 1 Cc.).
370. SPIGELIA.-SPIGELIA.
PINK ROOT. CAROLINA PINK.
Ger. MARYLANDISCHE SPIGELIE.
The dried rhizome and roots of Spige'lia marilan'dica Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root perennial; stem simple and erect. Leaves
sessile, ovate-lanceolate, acute. Flowers in a short spike; corolla red
externally, yellow within, four times the length of the calyx; stamens and
pistil exserted.
HABITAT.-United States, Maryland southward and westward in rich
woods.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Rhizome thin,
thin, bent, purplish-brown, on
the upper side marked with stem scars, on the lower side beset with

318
LOGANIACEAE.
numerous lighter colored, slender, branching rootlets. It has a dark
or decayed pith. Fracture short. Odor slight, aromatic; taste
sweetish, bitter, and pungent.
RELATED SPECIES.-Another species which has attracted attention as an
A
B
C
FIG. 155. Spigelia-Cross-section of rootlets. (37 diam.) A, Parenchyma of cortex. B, Medulla. C,
Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
A
B
C
FIG. 156. Spigelia-Cross-section of rhizome. (21 diam.) A, Parenchyma of cortex. B, Medulla.
C, Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
anthelmintic is Spigelia anthelmia of South America and the West
Indies, which in that country is said to have greater medicinal prop-
erties than the official.
Powder.-Pale brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex with
cells elongated, outer cells with cystoliths; other cells with spherical starch
grains 4 in diam. and resinous brown coloring-matter; sclerenchyma with stone
GENTIANA.
319
cells which are bast-like, large, and finely porous, 20 to 40 μ thick, 200 to 300 μ
long; ducts with simple pores; cork, small amount, dark purplish-brown.
CONSTITUENTS.-A volatile alkaloid, spigeline, is the active principle.
Preparation of Spigeline.-Distil the powdered drug over a paraffin bath
with milk of lime; collect the distillate in HCl and evaporate to dryness; crys-
tallize from alcoholic solution.
ACTION AND USES.-A powerful anthelmintic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Spigeliæ,
371. CURARA.-CURARE.
Dose: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Сc.).
WOORARI. From Strych'nos castelnæa'na and
other species of Strychnos growing in South America, where an extract is
prepared by the natives as an arrow-poison. This extract is a blackish,
friable solid or of extract-like consistence, having a somewhat resinous
appearance, and very hygroscopic. It contains a very bitter and poisonous
alkaloid, curarine. As a remedial agent curara has probably little value,
although it has been used in tetanus, hydrophobia, epilepsy, and chorea.
It is a strong depressant of the motor nerves, causing a gradual loss of
muscular power, deepened respiration, and death by asphyxia. Dose: 10
to gr. (0.006 to 0.02 Gm.).
Curarine (C18H35N).—From the drug Roulin obtained this principle by a
very intricate process. The alkaloid is extremely deliquescent and crystal-
lizes in prisms, soluble in water, and changes litmus feebly.
GENTIANEÆ.-Gentian Family.
Smooth herbs with a colorless, bitter juice, and containing little or no tannin.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Gentianeæ.
A. Roots.
GENTIANA, 372.
Frasera, 373.
B. Herbs.
CHIRATA, 374.
Sabbatia, 375.
Menyanthes, 376.
GENTIAN.
372. GENTIANA.-GENTIAN.
Ger. ENZIANWURZEL.
The dry rhizome and roots of Gentia'na lu'tea Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root perennial, large; stem 2 to 3 feet high.
Leaves opposite, sessile, 5- to 7-nerved, ovate-acute, more or less clasping.
Flowers in whorls, bright yellow; corolla with 5 or 6 green glands at its
base; stigmas 2.
HABITAT.-Mountainous portions of Central Europe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Cylindrical, fleshy, and very long, often 3 feet
or more; it is generally cut longitudinally about 100 to 200 mm. (4
to 8 in.) long, and 5 to 40 mm. ( to 13 in.) thick; in drying, these
slices are depressed in the center and the bark overlaps; yellowish-
320
GENTIANEÆ.
•
brown, much wrinkled longitudinally and marked transversely,
especially in the upper portion, with numerous rings. Transversely
the bark is rather thick, wrinkled, and contorted, separated by a
black cambium line from the yellowish-brown, porous, and spongy
meditullium marked with indistinct medullary rays. Fracture irreg-
ular, brittle when dry, flexible and tough when damp; odor pro-
1-24
FIG. 157.-Gentiana lutea-Flowering head and dissected flower.
nounced and characteristic; taste intensely bitter, sweetish, and not
disagreeable.
Gentiana catesbai, the blue gentian of the Southern States, grow-
ing in mossy swamps, is said to be little inferior to the official
species. It is sometimes used to adulterate senega. Other indigenous
species, as G. purpurea and G. punctata, have about the same proper-

GENTIANA.
321
ties as the official gentian and are used similarly. The herb G. quin-
queflora is used in liver affections, chronic ague, jaundice, etc.
B
FIG. 158.-Gentian-A, Rhizome portion. B, Root portion. (natural size.)
A
B
C
D
FIG. 159.-Gentiana lutea-Cross-section. A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex. C, Water tube.
D, Parenchyma of xylem.
Powder. Orange brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells, large
and empty, usually collapsed; ducts, few, large (30 to 60 in diam.); cork,
brownish (25 to 35 μ in diam.); collenchyma, thick-walled, lies just inside
of cork; wood fibers, usually not lignified; calcium sulphate forms in needles
with H,SO,.
21
322
GENTIANEÆ.
CONSTITUENTS. The bitter principle is a neutral principle, gentiopic-
rin, C20H30O12, the yellow color is due to gentisin, C₁₁H10O5, or
gentisic acid (tasteless yellow prisms). The root also contains from
12 to 15 per cent. of glucose (gentianose), C₁Ho0O31, but is remark-
able in that it contains no starch, calcium oxalate, or tannin.
Preparation of Gentisic Acid.-The alcoholic extract is washed with water,
then with ether. The residue dissolved in alcohol yields the acid on evapora-
tion. It is in yellow, tasteless crystals, partially soluble in alcohol and ether;
with ferric salts gives dark brown color.
Preparation of Gentiopicrin.-Obtained by making aqueous solution of alco-
holic extract. This solution is subjected to the absorptive action of charcoal.
Charcoal is then boiled with alcohol, tincture evaporated, and treated with lead
oxide to remove color. Lead removed by H₂S; solution agitated with ether.
Set solution aside to crystallize. Yellowish-brown, soluble in water and dilute
alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.-Simple bitter tonic, long known and very valu-
able. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Gentianæ,
Extractum Gentianæ,
Tinctura Gentianæ Composita (10 per
cent., with orange-peel and cardamom),
Dose: 5 to 30 пy (0.3 to 2 Сc.).
5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
373. FRASERA.-AMERican Columbо. The root of Fra'sera wal'teri Mich-
aux, a plant growing extensively in Southern and Western United States,
especially in Arkansas and Missouri. Its root is long and spindle-shaped,
but comes into market in transverse slices, irregularly circular, about 25
mm. (1 in.) in diameter; these disks consist of a central medullary matter,
yellowish-brown, shrunken in the middle, and a reddish-brown exterior;
inodorous; taste at first sweet, then bitter. It may be distinguished from
columbo by its greater uniformity of internal structure, the absence of con-
centric and radiating lines, and its purer yellow color without the green
tinge. It occasionally comes into the market in longitudinal slices under
the name of American gentian. It contains gentiopicrin and gentisic acid,
but no starch or tannin. Simple bitter tonic like columbo and gentian.
Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
CHIRETTA.
374. CHIRATA.-CHIRATA.
Ger. OSTINDISCHER ENZIAN.
The dried plant Swer'tia chira'yita Hamilton.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-An annual plant, 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves
opposite, clasping, lanceolate-acute, 5- to 7-nerved. Flowers petiolate, in
umbel-like cymes; corolla persistent, yellow, rotate; style single, stigma
2-lobed.
HABITAT. Nepaul and other parts of Northern India.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Chirata of the market consists principally of
short sections of the stem and branches, orange-brown or dark
purple in color, generally pressed and split, showing the yellow
pith, and mixed with a few leaves and flower panicles. These stems
CHIRATA.
323
when entire are about 4 mm. († in.) in thickness, round at base and
quadrangular toward the top, jointed, the internodes being from 37
to 100 mm. (1 to 4 in.) in length; branches opposite. Inodorous
when dry, but when moistened it has a perceptible odor; taste very
bitter, persistent.
In the Indian bazaars there are a number of species of Ophelia,
known by the name of Chiretta, which possess, to a greater or less
degree, the bitter properties of that drug. Flückiger states: "We
have frequently examined the chiretta found in the English market,
but have never met with any other than the legitimate sort." Bentley
noticed, in 1874, the substitution of O. angustifolia, which he found
by far to be less bitter than the true chiretta. J. S. Ward ("Pharm.
Jour.," 4th Series, 1, 1897) calls attention to a false chirata entering
the market recently. He recognized it as the product of Andrographia
paniculata, nat. ord. Acanthraceæ, a plant distributed throughout
India from Lucknow and Assam to Ceylon, and cultivated in the
West Indies-a domestic remedy for fevers, debility, etc. Sold by
herbalists in the fresh state.
Powder. Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of medulla,
slightly lignified with simple pores; sclerenchyma with fibers, long, narrow
and thick-walled; tracheids, numerous; ducts with spiral or scalariform mark-
ings; yellowish-brown pollen and stomata present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Chiratin, C20H18O15 (yellow, hygroscopic powder, very
bitter), ophelic acid, C13H20O10 (a syrupy liquid, very bitter), resin,
coloring matter, bitter extractive, gum, and salts. Water and alcohol.
extract its virtues.
ACTION AND USES.-Bitter tonic like the other plants of the order Gen-
tianeæ. Dose: 15 gr. (1 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Chiratæ (10 per cent.) (1890), Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to Cc.).
Extractum Chiratæ Fluidum,
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
375. SABBATIA. CENTAURY. Three species of this indigenous herb are
more or less used in this country as tonic and antiperiodic. These are
Sabba'tia angular'is Pursh (American centaury), S. paniculata Pursh, and
S. Ellio'tti Steudel (quinine flower); the whole plant of the two first-named
species is used, the root of the last-named; they probably all contain the
same principle, erythrocentaurin, C27H2O. Dose: about 1 dr. (4 Gm.).
376. MENYANTHES.-WATER SHAMROCK, BUCKBEAN. The herb of Men-
yan'thes trifolia'ta Linné, an aquatic plant growing in bogs in the tem-
perate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. Leaves ternate, rising out of the
water on long petioles from a rhizome; leaflets obovate, about 50 mm.
(2 in.) long, with entire margin, and smooth, green upper surface, paler
beneath. It has no odor, but a very bitter taste, due to a bitter principle,
menyanthin, C33H54O16 (?). Bitter tonic, in large doses cathartic. Em-
ployed in the preparation: Vinum Aurantii Compositum N. F. (Elix.
Aurantiorum Compositum, Germ. Pharm.). Dose: 15 to 45 gr. (1 to 3 Gm.).
324
HYDROPHYLLACEÆ POLEMONIACEÆ.
HYDROPHYLLACEÆ.-Waterleaf Family.
377. ERIODICTYON.-ERIODICTYON.
YERBA SANTA.
MOUNTAIN BALM. CONSUMPTIVE'S WEED.
The dried leaves of Eriodic'tyon Californicum Greene.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Low shrubs with alternate leaves. Calyx of
narrow sepals; corolla violet or purple, occasionally white, with the fila-
ments adherent to it; ovary 2-celled. Fruit a small
capsule.
FIG. 160.-Leaf of Yer-
ba Santa. Under side.
HABITAT.-California, and in mountains of Northern
Mexico.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Oblong-lanceolate, from 50
to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) long, 10 to 30 mm. ( to
1 in.) broad, with a sharp apex, and narrowed
at the base into a short foot-stalk; margin sinuate
or almost entire; upper surface brownish-green
and varnished with a resinous coating; under
surface greenish-white, hairy, with a promi-
nent midrib and distinct reticulations; brittle,
odor aromatic; taste balsamic, sweetish, free from
bitterness.
RELATED SPECIES.-Eriodictyon tomentosum, growing
with the other, is large and has a dense coat of
short, villous hairs, becoming whitish or musty-
colored with age.
Powder.-Dull green.
Characteristic elements: The
peculiar epidermal cells; numerous, elongated, wavy tri-
chomes and crystals of calcium oxalate, constitute the in-
teresting microscopical features for study.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, an acrid resin, tannin,
ericolin, C34H56O21.
ACTION AND USES.-Long used in California as a stimulant balsamic
expectorant. Its preparations are principally used, however, as
vehicles to disguise the taste of disagreeable medicines like quinine.
Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Eriodictyi,
Dose: 15 to 30 m (1 to 2 Cc.).
POLEMONIACEÆ.-Polemonium Family.
378. POLEMONIUM REPTANS Linné.—ABSCESS ROOT. The root of this
American plant has been used as an alterative, astringent, diaphoretic, and
expectorant. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
•
JALAPA.
BORRAGINACEÆ.-Borage Family.
325
Hab-
379. ALKANNA.—ALKANET. The root of Alkan'na tincto'ria Tausch.
itat: Grecian Archipelago and Southern Europe. Fusiform, about 100
mm. (4 in.) long, from the thickness of a quill to that of the little finger,
often crowned with soft, white, hairy root-stocks; the bark is of a dark-
purple color, friable, and separates easily in thin, papery layers from the
yellowish, twisted ligneous column; the wood is composed of distinct,
slender wood-fibers cohering together and cleft by purple, friable, medul-
lary rays; in the commercial samples, however, it is generally more or
less decayed, loose, and spongy. Odorless and tasteless. Alkanna is
employed exclusively for coloring oils, ointments, and plasters, which is
accomplished by suspending it, tied up in a rag, into the melted fat. Its
coloring principle has been termed aĺkannin; it is a red, resin-like sub-
stance, soluble in alcohol, ether, and fats, but insoluble in water.
Preparation of Alkannin.-Obtained by evaporation of ethereal tincture, or
precipitating a weak alkaline aqueous solution of alkanet by an acid.
380. SYMPHYTUM.-COMFREY. The root of Sym'phytum officina'le Linné.
Habitat: United States and Europe; cultivated. About 150 mm. (6 in.) or
more long, and from the thickness of a quill up to an inch in diameter,
often split; externally black, wrinkled; internally whitish, and horny
when dry; inodorous; taste sweetish, astringent, and very mucilaginous,
containing as much mucilage as, or more than, althæa, for which it may
often be substituted. It is chiefly used as a demulcent in domestic cough
remedies, and has been highly esteemed as a vulnerary. Dose: 2 to 4 dr.
(8 to 15 Gm.).
381. BORAGO OFFICINALIS Linné.—BORAGE. Habitat: Europe. (Leaves.)
They contain a large quantity of mucilage, with potassium nitrate and
other salts, upon which their virtues depend. Diuretic, refrigerant, demul-
cent, etc. Dose of fluidextract: 1 fl. dr. (4 Cc.).
382. PULMONARIA OFFICINALIS Linné.-LUNGWORT.
Habitat: Europe.
(Leaves.) Pectoral and demulcent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
CONVOLVULACEÆ.-Convolvulus Family.
Chiefly twining or trailing herbs, sometimes with milky juice, with alternate
leaves, and regular, 5-androus flowers.
Tuber.
JALAPA, 383.
Root.
Ipomoea, 384.
Resin.
SCAMMONIUM, 385.
JALAPA.
383. JALAPA.—JALAPA.
Ger. JALAPENWURZEL.
The dried tuberous root of Exogo'nium pur'ga (Wenderoth) Bentham, yielding, by
assay, not less than 8 per cent. of resin. (See Constituents.)
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem brownish, smooth. Leaves long-petio-
late, cordate-ovate, acuminate, entire, smooth. Peduncles axillary, 2-
flowered; corolla crimson or light red, four times the length of the calyx.
HABITAT.-Mexico; now successfully cultivated in India.

326
CONVOLVULACE.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A compact, heavy, hard, pear-shaped
tuber, varying in size, but never larger than the fist; the larger ones
are longitudinally incised to facilitate the drying, which is done over
the hearths of the Indian huts, hence externally brown, smoky,
more or less wrinkled, covered with thick, round warts of a some-
what lighter color; internally gray to dark brown; fracture horny
and resinous; odor peculiar, smoky, partly due to the manner of
drying; taste starchy, afterward slightly acrid. Powdered jalap is
yellowish-gray, and when inhaled causes sneezing and coughing.
STRUCTURE. Cortical layer thin, with a dense circle of resin cells near
the cambium line; interior composed chiefly of parenchymatous
FIG. 161.-Jalap tuber. (Photograph.)
FIG. 162. Jalap-Cross-section of tuber. (2
diam.) (Photograph.)
tissue containing starch and calcium oxalate, arranged in which are
concentric zones of resin cells, the broader, darker, alternate zones
being formed by a closer packing of the cells; medullary rays small,
but plainly visible. The false jalaps which frequently adulterate the
drug in market may usually be detected by the difference in internal
structure.
ADULTERATIONS.-Immature roots, roots partially deprived of resin by
treatment with alcohol. These are sticky, internally darker than the
genuine and other species of Ipomoea.
Powder. Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Outer parenchyma of
cortex with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate; starch, single and 1 to 3
compound, granules average (20 to 25 in diam.), sometimes swollen or pasty;
ducts, large and small, porous; tracheids few; secretion cells, yellowish-brown;
SCAMMONIUM.
327
laticiferous ducts, large, with transverse walls; reddish cork, considerable. (See
starch grains highly magnified, Fig. 367.)
CONSTITUENTS.-Besides starch, calcium oxalate, etc., jalap contains a
resinous substance which consists of two portions, a soft resin, jalapin,
soluble in ether, and a hard resin, constituting nine-tenths of the
mixture, termed jalapurgin or convolvulin (a glucoside, C3H50010);
this latter is supposed to be the active principle. The U. S. Pharma-
copoeia has fixed the lowest limit of resin at 8 per cent. Jalap
should not contain more than 1.5 per cent. of ether-soluble resin.
The varying strength in jalap may be accounted for by the fact
that the roots are dug at all seasons of the year. In the fall, when
the aërial stem has decayed, it is better than in the spring, at the
sprouting season.
ACTION AND USES.-Hydragogue cathartic, generally used in dropsy
in the compound powder of jalap. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Pulvis Jalapa Compositus (35 per cent.,
with potassium bitartrate),
Resina Jalapæ,
Pilulæ Catharticæ Compositæ,
Pilulæ Catharticæ Vegetabiles,.
Extractum Jalapæ (U. Š. P. 1890),
.Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
2 to 5 gr. (0.13 to 0.3 Gm.).
2 to 5 pills.
2 to 5 pills.
2 to 5 gr. (0.13 to 0.3 Gm.).
MAN OF THE
384 a. IPOMOEA PANDURATA.-WILD Jalap. MAN-ROOT.
EARTH. The root of Ipomoe'a pandura'ta Meyer. Occasionally met with
in commerce, in the form of longitudinal slices with an irregularly wrinkled,
brownish-gray bark overlapping the white wood. The woody center is
divided into narrow wood-wedges by medullary rays dotted with resin
cells. Nearly inodorous; taste sweetish and bitter. Contains panaquilon
(the sweet principle found in panax), mucilage, starch, resin, etc. Diuretic
and cathartic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
384 b. FALSE JALAPS.-Ipomoea simulans (Tampico jalap), a somewhat
globular root yielding a resin (tampicin), very similar to jalapin, nearly
soluble in ether. I. orizabensis (fusiform or male jalap), a spindle-shaped,
large, woody root, often in sections, the resin orizabin (unfortunately named
jalapin) entirely soluble in ether.
385. SCAMMONIUM.-SCAMMONY.
SCAMMONY.
Ger. SCAMMONIUM.
A gum resin obtained by incising the living root of Convolvulus scammo'nia Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Root perennial, tapering, 3 to 4 feet long,
from 9 to 12 in. in circumference at the crown, and abounding in a milky,
acrid juice. Stem annual, smooth. Leaves petiolate, sagittate, entire.
Peduncles cymose, 3-flowered, twice the length of the leaves; calyx-lobes
with a reflexed point; corolla pale yellow. Capsule 2-celled, 4-seeded.
HABITAT.-Western Asia. Obtained like asafœtida.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The pure, or, as it is called, the "genuine"
328
CONVOLVULACEE.
scammony is scarce in the market, the ordinary article being impure
from flour, chalk, ashes, sand, etc., mixed with the exuded milk-juice
before it has entirely hardened. It usually comes in hemispherical
cakes, convex on one side, about 100 to 150 mm. (4 to 6 in.) in diam-
eter; externally dark gray or nearly black; fracture brittle, shining,
somewhat rough, exhibiting a usually porous interior, lighter colored
and tinged with yellow or green. It yields a light-gray powder
-/~
Ź
FIG. 163. Convolvulus scammonia-Branch.
}
having a peculiar odor resembling cheese or putty; taste slight,
but leaves an acrid sensation in the throat
CONSTITUENTS.-Gum, resin, starch, scammonin, C34H56O16, etc. Not
less than 75 per cent. of the drug should be soluble in ether; ash not
more than 3 per cent.
ACTION AND USES.-Hydragogue cathartic, on account of its harsh-
ness, generally given in combination. Uncertain on account of
BELLADONNA-BELLADONNE RADIX.
329
frequent impurities. Dose: 1 to 8 gr. (0.065 to 0.5 Gm.), in
emulsion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Resina Scammonii,
Dose: 1 to 8 gr. (0.065 to 0.5 Gm.).
SOLANACEAE.-Nightshade Family.
Herbs or, rarely, shrubs, with rank-scented, often poisonous, foliage, and
colorless juice. Leaves alternate. Stamens five, equal, inserted on the corolla.
Fruit a capsule or berry. This order owes its poisonous qualities to the pres-
ence of alkaloids such as atropine.
A. Roots.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Solanacea.
BELLADONNÆ
RADIX, 386.,
Manaca, 388.
B. Leaves.
BELLADONNÆ
FOLIA, 387.
STRAMONII
FOLIA, 389.
HYOSCYAMUS,
391.
Tabacum, 393.
Duboisia,_ 394.
C. Stems and Branches.
Pichi, 395.
D. Seeds.
Stramonii Semen, 390.
Hyoscyami Semen, 392
E. Branches.
Dulcamara, 396.
F. Fruits.
CAPSICUM, 398.
Lycopersicum, 399.
G. Herb.
Solanum Carolinense,
397.
BELLADONNA.-DEADLY NIGHTSHADE.
The dried root and the dried leaves official.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—At'ropa Belladon'na Linné. Roof perennial,
fleshy, white within; stem 3 to 5 feet high, with a tinge of red. Leaves
short-petiolate, ovate, acute, entire, more or less hirsute. Flowers solitary,
drooping; calyx campanulate; corolla campanulate, twice the length of
the calyx, greenish at the base, varying to dark purple at the border.
Berry 9-lobed, violet-black; seeds uniform.
SOURCE AND COLLECTION.-Central and Southern Europe; in a few locali-
ties in England, Germany, France, as well as in North America, the
plant is cultivated for medicinal use.
The roots should be collected from plants of three or more years'
growth, and preferably in the spring. A. Kremel ("Chemist and
Druggist," 1897-'98, p. 48) found that the root gathered in June
and October from the same spot yielded from the first 0.88 per cent.
of alkaloid and 26.6 per cent. of solid extract, the October root 0.225
per cent. of alkaloid and 16.6 per cent. of extract.
386. BELLADONNE RADIX.
Ger. WOLFSKIRCHEN-WURZEL.
The dried root of Atropa Belladonna Linné, yielding, when assayed by U. S. P. pro-
cess, not less than 0.5 per cent. of its alkaloids.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Rough, irregular, longitudinally wrinkled,
330
SOLANACEÆ.
somewhat tapering pieces, from 12 to 25 mm. ( to 1 in.) thick, of
a dirty-gray color externally, internally whitish; fracture
short, mealy when dry, tough when damp; odor narcotic; taste
slightly sweetish, afterward bitter and acrid. Tough, woody roots,
breaking with a splintery fracture, should be rejected, also the hollow
FIG. 164.-Atropa belladonna-Branch.
stem-bases sometimes present. The root should yield when assayed
by the U. S. P. process not less than 0.5 per cent. of total alkaloids.
STRUCTURE. The bark is rather thick, free from bast fibers, composed
almost entirely of parenchymatous tissue containing starch-grains
and calcium oxalate raphides; directly underneath the periderm is
a darker line composed of six to eight tabular cells. In the center
of the root is a small pith, surrounded in the younger root by distant
wood-fibers scattered throughout the parenchymatous tissue; in older
BELLADONNA RADIX.
331
roots the wood-bundles are more numerous, and traversed by broad
medullary rays.
Belladonna is sometimes mistaken for, or adulterated with, althæa,
from which it may be distinguished by the smoothness of its outer
layer (althæa has projecting fibers), by its fracture, which does not
show protruding fiber-ends, and by the wood-bundles, which are
readily discernible in the former, but not in the latter.
ADULTERATIONS.-Certain species of Mandragora yield very nearly
FIG. 165.--Cross-section of Belladonna root.
allied roots both in external appearance and structure, but they are
not likely to be confounded with belladonna roots.
Attention has been called to species of Scopola, a genus connecting
atropa and hyoscyamus, as resembling belladonna. The rhizomes
of the S. carniolica are very similar to the root of belladonna; the
bark, however, of the former, is less thick, starch-grains smaller, and
shape less distinct. Scopola Japonica (Japanese belladonna) was
found to be similar to S. carniolica. This drug is now official. See
Scopola.
Powder.-Brownish-gray. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex
with starch (5 to 15 in diam.), spherical, simple or 2 to 3 compound, and
332
SOLANACEÆ.
crystal sand of calcium oxalate; sclerenchyma from rhizome, with bast fibers;
ducts, few and large, scalariform or reticulate, spiral with simple pores; tracheids
few, from old roots; cork small amount; Scopola is similar, but has smaller
starch granules, with other histological elements that require close study to
distinguish.
3
17 23-
CONSTITUENTS.-Atropine, C₁,H2,NO, (0.2 to 0.6 per cent.), belladon-
nine, C₁7H23NO₁, hyoscyamine, C₁7H2,NO,, atropamine (sometimes
present), and atrosine (fluorescent). Atropine is in white, acicular
crystals or white, amorphous powder, with a strong alkaline reaction;
it exists in the root as a malate and is now known to be an isomer
of hyosciamine. The latter alkaloid by the action of the heat and
alkali during many of the processes of extraction, precipitation, etc.,
becomes converted into its isomer, atropine.
Preparation of Atropine.-Obtained by first removing resin in alcoholic tinc-
ture of root, acidifying with H2SO4. Evaporate filtrate and carefully neutral-
ize the concentrated liquid with K₂CO,. Filter to remove more resin; to fil-
trate add K₂CO, in excess. Collect resulting precipitate. Dissolve in chloro-
form. Decolorize by animal charcoal. Distil off chloroform and crystallize
residue from its alcoholic solution.
Solanaceous Alkaloids.-The researches of Ladenburg prove that the three
mydriatic alkaloids, atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine, are contained as fol-
lows: Atropine in Atropa Belladonna and Datura stramonium; hyoscyamine
in A. Belladonna, D. stramonium, and Hyoscyamus niger; hyoscine in H. niger
and Duboisia myoporoides. Duboisine is nearly pure hyoscine.
nearly pure hyoscine. Pure atropine
and pure hyoscyamine as well as hyoscine (?) are isomeric alkaloids, but pos-
sess different chemical and physical properties. By the action of baryta water
both atropine and hyoscyamine split up into tropic acid and tropine. Hyos-
cine splits up into tropic acid and oscine.
Tropine and tropic acid may be recombined under certain conditions to form
atropine, or tropine may be combined with other acids, such as salicylic or
mandelic acid, to form salts. These salts, when treated with diluted hydro-
chloric acid, form a class of artificial alkaloids to which the generic name tropeines
has been given. One of these so produced from the mandelate of tropine is
homatropine, or oxytoluyltropeine. This body, like atropine, forms salts with
acids.
Scopolamine, another exceedingly valuable mydriatic alkaloid, is obtained
from the root of Scopola carniolica. It also contains the alkaloid hyoscyamine
in comparatively large quantities and almost free from admixture with other
mydriatic alkaloids. Given internally this drug produces less dryness of the
throat_than_belladonna, and is probably more nearly allied to hyoscyamus in
its action. Scopolamine is now regarded as identical with hyoscine.
ACTION AND USES.-Applied externally belladonna is anodyne and an-
esthetic. Internally the activity of the peripheral terminations of all
the secretory nerves in the body is depressed. Dropped into the eye,
solutions of belladonna or atropine quickly dilate the pupil and ac-
commodation is paralyzed. Upon the heart it has a stimulating
action; toxic doses abolish the function of the cardiac muscles and
the heart stops in diastole. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.);
of atropine, to To gr. According to Cushney, Hyoscyamine is
1
1
10
twice as active as atropine in checking secretions and in pupil dilata-
tion.
BELLADONNE FOLIA.
333
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Belladonnæ Radicis, Dose: 1 to 3 my (0.065 to 0.2 Cc.).
Linimentum Belladonnæ (95 per cent., with camphor 5 per cent.).
(Emplastrum, U. S. P., 1880.)
387. BELLADONNÆ FOLIA.
Ger. WOLFSKIRSCHEN-BLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Atropa Belladonna.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-As they come into market, these leaves are
crumpled and broken, of a dull brownish-green tint, the under surface
paler than the upper, and with a prominent woody midrib prolonged
below into a petiole, margin entire; one of the characteristics is the
small, circular holes puncturing the leaves by the dropping off of
corky excrescences. This, however, applies in a less degree to the
other narcotic leaves. It should be observed that the margins of the
three narcotic leaves, belladonna, stramonium, and hyoscyamus, are
quite different. Digitalis, sometimes called a narcotic leaf, has a
crenate margin. When fresh the leaves are thick and fleshy and have
a narcotic odor, but the dry leaves are thin, with a somewhat tea-like
odor; taste somewhat bitter, saline. Under the microscope they
present a grayish, granular appearance, due to numerous cells con-
taining a crystalline principle. The dried leaves should yield when
assayed by the U. S. P. process not less than 0.35 per cent. of
total alkaloids.
Powder.-Green. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of leaf and petiole
with few raphides or aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate or crystal sand;
stomata present; trichomes, simple, 2 to 5 celled, compound with stalk 1 to 3
celled and head one- to many-celled; ducts, spiral; tracheids, few.
CONSTITUENTS.-The alkaloids hyoscyamine and atropine (0.3 to 0.7 per
cent.) are present. Belladonnine (oxyatropine) and other alkaloids
of less importance exist, with chrysatropic acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Same as the root. Dose: I gr. (0.065 Gm.). The
extract is employed in: Pil. Laxative Co. and Pil. Podophyl., Bellad.
et Capsici.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Belladonnæ Foliorum (10 per
cent.),.
Extractum Belladonnæ Foliorum (1.4
per cent. alkaloid),
Emplastrum Belladonnæ (30 per cent.).
Unguentum Belladonnæ (10 per cent.).
388. MANACA.—Portions of the root and
tham, a Brazilian plant. Strongly
rheumatism as a powerful alterative.
.Dose: 5 to 15 mm (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
to gr. (0.008 to 0.048 Gm.).
stem of Brunfel'sia hopia'na Ben-
recommended in chronic subacute
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).

.334
SOLANACEÆ.
3881. SCOPOLA.-SCOPOLA.
The dried rhizome of Scopola Carniolica Jacquin, yielding by U. S. P. process not
less than 0.5 per cent. of its alkaloids.
HABITAT.-Germany, Austro-Hungary, and adjacent regions.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-From 25 to 100 mm. (1 to 4 in.) long and from
10 to 20 mm. ( to in.) thick, frequently sliced. The upper surface
is beset with cup-shaped stem scars; externally, yellowish-brown
to dark brown; wrinkled longitudinally, obscurely annulate, rough
and nodular; fracture short, showing a yellowish-white bark, its
corky layer dark-brown or pale brown, indistinctly radiate wood;
pith rather hard, but becoming soft and spongy when macerated in
A
FIG. 166.-Scopola rhizome. A, Leaf scar. (natural size.) (Photograph.)
water. As compared to belladonna root, Coblentz concludes that
scopola rhizome is more constant in alkaloidal content; that it is
to be preferred to belladonna root in securing preparations of uni-
form standard ("Pharm. Era," 1900, p. 285).
CONSTITUENTS.-Atropine, that has little optical activity. This alkaloid
(atropine) has been assumed, by recent investigators, to be a simple
mixture of right-handed and left-handed hyoscyamine. It follows
therefore that a proper mixture of these two modifications would
produce an optically inactive alkaloid. Both modifications have been
isolated and physiologically studied. See Schlotterbeck's address
before the Am. Phar. Assoc. ("Proc. Amer. Phar. Assoc.," 1903, p.
151). Scopolamine is regarded as identical with hyoscine. See
Belladonna Radix.
ACTION AND USE.-The action of scopola is about the same as that of bella-
STRAMONIUM.
335
donna, but preparations of the rhizome have not been professionally
recognized until recently. The extract has been used as a substitute
for the extract of belladonna in making of plasters. It has been
stated that scopola costs about forty dollars per ton, while belladonna
costs three hundred dollars per ton.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Scopolæ,..
Fluidextractum Scopolæ,
Dose: gr. (0.01ò Gm.).
I II (0.05 Cc.).
STRAMONIUM.-THORNAPPLE. JIMSON WEED.
The leaves and the seed are medicinal.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Datu'ra stramo'nium Linné. Rank, narcotic,
poisonous annuals. Leaves ovate, sinuate-toothed. Corolla whitę, funnel-
form, the border 5-toothed. Fruit a 4-valved, 2-celled capsule, the outer
side covered with prickles, longer toward the apex.
FIG. 167. Datura stramonium-Branch showing flower and fruit.
HABITAT.-Europe, Asia, and North America; almost universally dis-
tributed.
•
336
SOLANACEÆ.
389. STRAMONIUM.
Ger. STECHAPFELBLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Datu'ra Stramo'nium Linné.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-These leaves, which should be collected in
early summer while the plant is in bloom, in the dried and broken
state resemble somewhat those of belladonna, but are lighter in color;
odor distinct, heavy, and narcotic; taste nauseous. The drug should
yield not less than 0.35 per cent. of total alkaloids.
Powder.-Green. Characteristic elements: Spongy parenchyma of leaf with
aggregate calcium oxalate; palisade parenchyma of leaf with cells long, narrow;
parenchyma of petiole and stem with calcium oxalate in prisms; trichomes,
glandular with stalk 1 to 2 celled, head 2 to 4 celled; non-glandular 2 to 3 celled
with warty cuticular markings; stomata present.
CONSTITUENTS.—Daturine 0.2 per cent., which, according to Laden-
burg, is a mixture of atropine and hyoscyamine, with the latter usu-
ally predominating; it is said to be stronger than atropine.
ACTION AND USES.-Stramonium acts similarly to belladonna in every
particular, but more strongly, and chiefly on the sympathetic system,
without affecting the motor or sensory nerves. Its chief use is in
asthma, the powdered leaves being sprinkled with a solution of
potassium nitrate, dried, and smoked in a pipe, or ignited and the
smoke inhaled. Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Stramonii Foliorum,
Fluidextractum Stramonii Folia,
Extractum Stramonii,.
·
Dose: 10 to 20 m (0.6 to 1.2 Cc.).
1 to 3 my (0.065 to 0.2 Cc.).
gr. (0.010 Gm.).
390. STRAMONII SEMEN.-Off. in U. S. P. 1890. Small, somewhat reni-
form, flattened seeds, with a blackish testa covered with small indenta-
tions; the embryo, curved parallel with the convex edge of the seed, is
imbedded in a whitish, oily albumen. Inodorous in the whole state, but
with a peculiar disagreeable odor when crushed; taste oily, slightly acrid,
bitter, and nauseous. Constituents: Daturine 0.3 per cent., combined with
malic (daturic) acid, scopolamine, fixed oil, etc. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to
0.2 Gm.). A tincture, extract, and fluidextract were official in the U. S. P.
1890.
391. HYOSCYAMUS.-HENBANE.
Ger. BILSENKRAUT.
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus ni'ger Linné, collected from
plants of second year's growth, yielding by official assay not less than 0.08 per cent.
of mydriatic alkaloids.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Clammy, pubescent, fœtid, narcotic annuals or
biennials. Leaves clasping, sinuate-toothed, and angled. Flowers sessile,
in one-sided, sessile spikes in the axils of the leaves; calyx urn-shaped;
corolla dull yellow, reticulated with purple veins. Fruit a 2-celled capsule.
HYOSCYAMUS.
337
SOURCE.-Europe and Asia; from biennial plants growing wild or culti-
vated in Britain, when about two-thirds of the flowers are expanded.
The plant is found in the northeastern section of the United States
in wet grounds, growing in great abundance about Detroit and in
other parts of Michigan.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The fresh leaf is from 2 to 10
to 4 inches broad, ovate to ovate-oblong in shape.
inches long, I
On each side
-/~
을
​FIG. 168.-Hyoscyamus niger-Flowering branch.
3 to 5 coarse, sinuate teeth or lobes, which are rather acute and ob-
long or triangular. On drying, the leaves shrivel and crumple up
around the very large, light-colored midribs, and generally have the
large petiole still attached; they are grayish-green, and of a coria-
ceous texture; leaves, in the market, are very much broken; odor
heavy, narcotic; taste bitter and nauseous. The drug when assayed
by the U.S. P. process should contain not less than 0.08 per cent.
of mydriatic alkaloids.
22
338
SOLANACEÆ.
Powder.-Dull green. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of leaf, spongy;
stomata present; calcium oxalate prisms about 10 in diam., sometimes aggre-
gate; trichomes of different kinds, glandular, with stalks 1 to 4 celled, heads one-
to many-celled; non-glandular, 1 to 5 celled.
CONSTITUENTS.-By distillation the leaves yield a very poisonous volatile
oil, but the active principles are hyoscyamine, C₁7H23NO, (crystal-
line), and hyoscine, C₁7H21NO4 (amorphous). They also contain .
about 2 per cent. of potassium nitrate, which causes them to crackle
when thrown in the fire.
100
Preparation of Hyoscyamine from Seed. First extract fatty matter; acidu-
late with HC1; evaporate; wash acid solution with benzene. Neutralize solu-
tion with NH4OH, shake out with chloroform, and evaporate latter solvent.
ACTION AND USES.-Anodyne, hypnotic, narcotic. The action of hyos-
cyamus is that of its alkaloid, hyoscyamine, which acts like atropine
but is less irritant and more calmative and hypnotic. Hyoscine is a
decided anodyne and hypnotic. Dose of leaves: 5 to 15 gr.
(0.3 to 1 Gm.); Hyoscyamine salts, Tʊ gr. (0.0006 Gm.); Hyoscine
hydrobromate (Scopolamine hydrobromate), ʊ gr. (0.0006 Gm.).
Related Species.-Hyoscyamus pallidus (flowers pale yellow), H. agres-
tis (flowers few, leaves smaller), and H. albus (flowers white). The
latter is used indiscriminately in France with the niger, with which
it appears to be identical in medicinal properties.
VARIETIES.-There are two varieties of henbane, the annual and biennial.
The former when properly grown are not devoid of active properties.
The official plant is susceptible of considerable diversity of character.
causing varieties which have been considered by some as distinct
species, and by cultivation differing somewhat in medical properties.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Hyoscyami (10 per cent.), ....Dose: 10 to 60 m (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
Fluidextractum Hyoscyami,
1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
Extractum Hyoscyami,
392. HYOSCYAMI SEMEN (unofficial).-Used for the same purposes as the
leaves and contain the same alkaloids, but in larger proportion, together
with a large quantity of fixed oil and a bitter glucoside, hyoscyopicrin.
They are small, reniform, and have a peculiar gray-brown surface, much
wrinkled and finely pitted; near the raised portion of the testa they are
rather sharp (distinction from stramonium seed). The embryo is curved
so as to form a figure 9, the lower part of which is the radicle, and is sur-
rounded by a whitish, oily albumen. Odorless in entire state, but when
rubbed, of a distinctly narcotic odor; taste oily and bitter.
393. TABACUM.-TOBACCO. The leaves of Nicotia'na taba'cum Linné.
Off. U. S. P. 1890. Large, oval, or oval-lanceolate leaves, often 500 mm.
(20 in.) long when entire, but they are more generally somewhat broken;
brown; thin; friable; the glandular hairs, so thick on the leaves when
fresh, are scarcely discernible; short-petiolate; odor peculiar, heavy, nar-
cotic; taste strong, bitter, and acrid. Constituents: Nicotine, CH14N2,
nicotianine (a camphor), bitter extractive, salts, resin, etc. Nicotine is a
volatile liquid alkaloid and a virulent poison; there is hardly any of it
DUBOISIA-DULCAMARA.
339
contained in Turkish tobacco; by heat it is decomposed, yielding various
pyridine compounds, hydrocyanic and acetic acids, etc.; these pass off
in the smoke; the chief of these compounds are pyridine (in smoke from
pipes), collidine (from cigars), lobeline, coniine, piperidine, sparteine,
trimethylamine, etc.
Preparation of Nicotine.-Concentrated infusion made with acidulated water
is treated with KOH and shaken with ether. The ethereal solution is pre-
cipitated with oxalic acid; the oxalate of the alkaloid thus precipitated is dis-
solved in boiling alcohol; evaporate to a syrup, agitate with ether, and make
alkaline with KOH. On fractional distillation the colorless, oily alkaloid re-
mains. It is very unstable.
Narcotic, sedative, diuretic, and emetic. It is rarely used in medicine.
Dose: to 2 gr. (0.0324 to 0.13 Gm.). Oil of tobacco is a pharmaceutical
product, official in the U. S. P. in 1870, obtained by destructive distillation
of coarsely powdered tobacco; it is a tarry liquid of offensive odor. Con-
siderable oil is obtained by distilling the leaves with water. It contains
nicotine (a dark, oily liquid).
394. DUBOISIA. DUBOISIA. The leaves of Duboi'sia myoporoi'des R.
Brown, a tall Australian shrub or small tree. The medicinal qualities of
the leaves make the plant related to hyoscyamus and other narcotic plants
of this order. Lanceolate, 75 to 100 mm. (3 to 4 in.) long and 12 to 25 mm.
(to 1 in.) broad, tapering below into a short petiole; midrib prominent;
margin entire; they are generally seen, however, in broken fragments of
a brownish-green color; inodorous; taste bitter. They contain duboisine
(a mixture of hyoscyamine and atropine), and their action is, therefore,
nearly identical with that of belladonna, except that they are less of a cere-
bral excitant and more calmative and hypnotic.
395. PICHI.—The stems and leafy branches of a Chilian shrub, Fabia'na
imbrica'ta Ruiz et Pavon. A terebinthinate diuretic, used in gravel, cyst-
itis, and diseases of the genito-urinary tract when the kidneys are not
inflamed. Dose of fluidextract: 30 my (2 Cc.).
396. DULCAMARA.-BITTERSWEET. WOODY NIGHTSHADE. The young
branches of Sola'num dulcama'ra Linné. Off. U. S. P. 1890. Very small
cylindrical pieces (branches cut in sections) about the thickness of a quill;
externally longitudinally striate and marked with alternate leaf-scars;
periderm light greenish-brown or greenish-gray, thin, overlaying a uni-
formly green, rather thick, inner bark. Wood whitish or yellow, with
greenish spots, surrounding a central pith, or, as is generally the case, a
hollow; it is in one or two circles, with large ducts and numerous one-
rowed medullary rays. The bark consists principally of parenchymatous
tissue. Inodorous; taste at first bitter, afterward sweet. Constituents:
Solanine, the active alkaloid, and a glucoside termed dulcamarin,
C22H34O10, to which the taste of the drug is due; also resin, wax, gum,
starch, and calcium lactate. Commercial Solanin is a mixture of Solanin
and Solanidin. Solanidin is soluble in alcohol. Solanin is practically
insoluble, excepting in boiling alcohol, 0.840. Solanin—a glucoside
("Amer. Drugg.," Nov. 10, 1902, p. 305.)
Preparation of Dulcamarin.-Digest aqueous infusion of the drug with ani-
mal charcoal; treat charcoal with alcohol. Precipitate aqueous solution of
alcoholic extract with lead subacetate, wash, digest with alcohol, and decompose
with H₂S. (For details of improved process, see "Amer. Drugg.," Nov. 10, 1902,
p. 306.)
Dulcamara is feebly narcotic and anodyne, but is chiefly employed as
an alterative and resolvent in skin diseases, particularly those of a scaly
character. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
Extractum Dulcamaræ Fluidum, U. S.
P. 1890,
.Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
I
340
SOLANACEÆ.
397. SOLAʼNUM CAROLINEN'SE Linné.-HORSE NETTLE. A 20 per cent.
tincture of this herb has been recommended in epilepsy in doses of 30 to
60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
CAYENNE PEPPER.
398. CAPSICUM.-CAPSICUM.
RED PEPPER.
Ger. SCHOTTENPFEFFER.
The dried ripe fruit of Cap'sicum fastig'iatum Blume, deprived of its calyx.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICs.—A small, rough, branched shrub, 1 to 2 feet
high. Leaves ovate or lanceolate, entire, hairy. Flowers small, white,
solitary, axillary, drooping. Capsule deep red, very pungent.
SOURCE.-Tropical America and Asia; cultivated.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The fruits vary in shape and size, but those
most generally used are oblong, wrinkled, pendulous, pod-like berries,
FIG. 169.-Capsicum fastigiatum-Branch.
the largest (American), about the thickness of a finger, with a long,
recurved apex; pericarp bright red, sometimes yellow, thin, translu-
cent; it incloses two or three cells and contains numerous flat, reni-
form, whitish seeds, which are surrounded by a dry, loose parenchyma,
CAPSICUM.
341
and fastened to a slender placenta; odor peculiar, very irritating,
especially in powder or in the fresh state; taste fiery.
Powdered capsicum of the market consists of several species of
capsicum ground up together. It is of a reddish color. This is espe-
cially true of the American capsicum, which is grown to a limited
extent in Texas and Mexico, where it is ground and called "paprika."
The African (Zanzibar) pod yields a powder of a greenish- or brown-
ish-yellow color. The commercial variety known as Bombay
yields a powder of a more yellowish color than the African, but is
not at all like the reddish-orange powder resulting from the American
pod. This color fades and disappears on long exposure to the light.
It is often adulterated with sawdust and red lead; the former may be
detected with the microscope, the latter by digesting the powder in
dilute nitric acid, filtering, and adding a solution of sodium sulphate,
which will throw down a white precipitate if any lead oxide is present.
STRUCTURE.—A microscopical examination for the distinction of the
above varieties has been suggested. This test is based upon the size
and character of the cells of the outer layer of the epidermis, the
American having, in dimension, the largest and the African the
smallest cell in the outer layer of the pericarp. The value of capsi-
cum can be estimated only by assay.
Powder. Brownish-red. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of pericarp
with yellowish-red oil globules and chromoplasts; parenchyma of endosperm
with small aleurone and oil globules. The large, porous, wavy epidermal cell
walls from seed and pericarp are characteristic and interesting. (Fig. 363.)
14
CONSTITUENTS.-Capsaicin, C,H₁4O2, an exceedingly active pungent prin-
ciple existing principally in the pericarp; a volatile alkaloid hav-
ing an odor like coniine, supposed to be the result of a decomposi-
tion process during ripening of the fruit, as it does not exist in the
unripe fruit; fixed oil, fat acids (oleic, palmitic, and stearic), and a
red coloring matter (a cholesterin ester of the fat acids).
Preparation of Capsaicin.-Treat petroleum ether extract with alkali; pass
CO₂ through the solution; collect crystals after standing. Soluble in ether,
alcohol, benzene, and fixed oils.
ACTION AND USES.-Externally rubefacient. Internally a powerful
stimulant. Its chief value medicinally is in the treatment of malig-
nant sore throat and scarlet fever, used internally and as a gargle.
Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.06 to 0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Capsici (10 per cent.),.
Fluidextractum Capsici,
Oleoresina Capsici,
Emplastrum Capsici.
Dose: 15 to 30 пy (1 to 2 Cc.).
to 2 m (0.324 to 0.13 Cc.).
to 1 my (0.0162 to 0.065 Cc.).
•
342
SCROPHULARIACEÆ.
399. LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM Miller.-TOMATO. The ripe fruit is
said to exert a curative action on ulcerated mucous membranes, given
internally and applied locally. Dose of fluidextract: 30 to 60 my (2 to 4
Cc.).
SCROPHULARIACEAE.-Figwort Family.
Herbs or rarely trees with didynamous stamens, and an irregular, usually
2 lipped, corolla; fruit a capsule. A large order of plants, containing a bitter
glucoside.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Scrophulariacea.
A. Leaves.
DIGITALIS, 400.
Euphrasia, 401.
Verbascum, 402.
B. Rhizome.
C. Herbs.
Veronica Officinalis, 404.
Scrophularia, 405.
Chelone, 406.
LEPTANDRA, 403.
FOXGLOVE.
400. DIGITALIS.-DIGITALIS.
Ger. FINGERHUT.
The dried leaves of Digita'lis purpu'rea Linné, collected from plants of the second
year's growth at the commencement of flowering.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Biennial, hoary-pubescent. Leaves alternate,
ovate-lanceolate, crenate, rugose. Racemes terminal, loose; flowers pur-
ple, sometimes white, hairy, and spotted within.
SOURCE. The plant is indigenous to Southern and Central Europe, par-
ticularly in the western section, and grows wild as far north as Nor-
way, also in Madeira and the Azores, and is cultivated in the United
States. It is found on the edges of woody land and prefers sandy soil.
Considerable care should be exercised in obtaining the drug of a
certain age, only the full-grown and fresh drug being collected during
the second year of its growth. Care should also be used in its prepara-
tion for market and subsequent preservation, so as to avoid, as far
as possible, exposure to light, air, and moisture.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The margin of this leaf is rather irregularly
double crenate. In the market it comes in wrinkled, velvety frag-
ments, the lower surface paler green than the upper, softly pubes-
cent, especially along the midrib and veins; the midrib is prominent,
but not so much so as in hyoscyamus; the venation forms prominent
meshes on the under surface of the leaf, the principal veins joining
the midrib at a very acute angle; odor slight and characteristic; taste
strongly bitter.
ADULTERATIONS.-Other dried leaves are sometimes mixed with digitalis;
the commonest of these are: Inula conyza (Conyza squarrosa), spike-
DIGITALIS.
343
nard, and Inula helenium, both having entire, instead of crenate or
serrate, margins, and the latter having its veins branching off at
about right angles to the midrib; accidental impurities, such as
comfrey leaves, Symphytum officinale, have been found. These are
lanceolate and bear isolated stiff hairs.
Powder. Dull green. Characteristic elements: Trichomes, glandular, with
stalk one-celled, head two-celled; non-glandular, 2 to 5 celled, straight or curved
with warty markings; stomata on lower surface only.
CONSTITUENTS.-The exact chemical composition of digitalis is a vexed
question, but the latest analysis shows it to be composed of at least
five principles: digitalin,
CHO₂ (soluble in alcohol,
8 2
13
31
insoluble in water), digi-
talein (soluble in water
and alcohol), digitonin,
C27H44018 (readily soluble.
in water, insoluble in alco-
hol, the diuretic principle),
digitin (inert), and digi-
toxin, Cз1H50О10, the most
active ingredient, crystalline
(insoluble in water, and
sparingly soluble in alcohol,
deposited as a sediment
from the alcoholic prepara-
tions of the leaf). Digitoxin,
by recent experimentation, is
found to yield with hydro-
chloric acid digitoxigenin,
C22H22O4, and a glucose,
digitoxose, C,H180, the
former in colorless crystals.
Digitoxin is found to be an
abundant constituent of the
leaves-not of the seeds; the
latter contain large quanti-
ties of digitogenin. The
commercial digitaline is a
mixture of these various
principles. There are, how-
32
-10
FIG. 170.-Digitalis purpurea-Flowering branch.
ever, on the market principles of similar name having quite different
degrees of therapeutical activity. On the whole, it appears that
1
344
SCROPHULARIACEÆ.
digitoxin and digitalin may be regarded as the two substances of
definite composition, and of most definite and constant therapeutic
action. The infusion is the best for diuretic action, the tincture or
fluidextract for cardiac action.
Preparation of Digitalin.-A concentrated fluidextract is first treated with
water acidulated with acetic acid and charcoal. The filtrate is neutralized with
ammonia, then precipitated with tannin. The washed precipitate is then
rubbed with lead oxide, boiled with alcohol, decolorized, and filtered. Evap-
orate to solid and wash with ether. In this way a digitalin of indefinite com-
position is obtained, consisting of such glucosides as digitin, digitonin, etc.
ACTION AND USES.-Cardiac tonic and stimulant and diuretic. It
slows the heart's action and increases its force, and by stimulating
the vascular nervous system causes contraction of the arterioles and
therefore greatly increases arterial tension. Its efficient diuretic
action in cardiac diseases is due to its peculiar effects upon the gen-
eral and renal circulations. Dose: 1 to 2 gr. (0.065 to 0.03 Gm.).
Dose of digitalin: % to 3 gr. (0.001 to 0.002 Gm.); much depends
on the quality.
1
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
1
Infusum Digitalis (1.5 per cent.),
Tinctura Digitalis (10 per cent.),
Fluidextractum Digitalis,
Extractum Digitalis, .
·
Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
5 to 30 my (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
1 to 2 ny (0.065 to 0.13 Cc.).
to 1 gr. (0.021 to 0.065 Gm.).
401. EUPHRASIA OFFICINALIS Linné.—EYEBRIGHT. The leaves of this
common plant have been stated to be almost a specific in acute nasal
catarrh, given in the form of infusion.
402. VERBASCUM THAPSUS Linné.-MULLEIN. Both the flowers and
leaves of this field weed are used. Mullein contains a large proportion of
mucilage, which makes it a good demulcent and emollient. Anodyne
properties are also ascribed to it. Popularly used in pectoral complaints,
especially consumption, in which it is said to relieve the cough and also to
improve the nutrition. Dose: 2 to 3 dr. (8 to 12 Gm.), in infusion. The
dried leaves are sometimes smoked for nasal catarrh.
403. LEPTANDRA.-LEPTANDRA.
CULVER'S ROOT. CULVER'S PHYSIC. Ger. LEPTANDRA WURZEL.
The dried rhizome and roots of Veron'ica virgin'ica Linné.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.—Stem erect, 2 to 6 feet high. Leaves whorled,
in 4's or 7's, very smooth, or sometimes slightly downy, lanceolate, serru-
late. Spikes panicled; corolla small, pinkish, or nearly white; stamens
much exserted.
HABITAT.-United States, east of the Mississippi.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Horizontal rhizome, 4 to 6 inches long, some-
what flattened, about the thickness of a quill, branched, generally
broken into pieces an inch or more long; very hard and firm; from

LEPTANDRA.
345
a light to a dark brown color; upper side marked with broad stem-
scars, under side beset with the remnants of the thin, fragile, wrinkled
A
B
C
D
FIG. 171.-Leptandra-Cross-section of rootlet. (25 diam.) A, Parenchyma of cortex. B, Phloëm.
C, Xylem. D, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.)
A
BC
D
F
E
FIG. 172.-Leptandra-Cross-section of rhizome. (13 diam.). A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of cortex.
C, Phloëm. D, Medullary ray. E, Xylem. F, Medulla. (Photomicrograph.)
rootlets. Fracture woody-bark thin, blackish, wood-circles one or
two, yellowish, pith 6-rayed; tissue surrounding pith irregular and
angular; inodorous; taste bitter and acrid.
346
OROBANCHACEÆ.
Powder.-Brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex, iso-
diametrical or elongated with spherical starch grains (2 to 4 μ in diam.) and
brown resin; sclerenchyma with bast fibers and narrow, thick-walled stone
cells; ducts with scalariform, spiral, simple pores; tracheids, numerous; outer
wall of epidermal rootlets very thick; considerable cork from rhizome.
CONSTITUENTS. Besides tannin, gum, and a small quantity of volatile
oil, it contains a crystalline glucoside, the active principle, which
should be termed leptandrin instead of the resin or resinoid called
by that name; this resinoid is obtained by precipitating a concentrated
alcoholic tincture with water; its action is probably due to a small
amount of the crystalline glucoside mixed with it.
Preparation of Leptandrin.—Remove coloring matter from infusion by basic
acetate of lead, excess of lead removed by Ña₂CO,. Treat resulting liquid
with animal charcoal. Extract washed charcoal with boiling alcohol; evap-
orate; dissolve in ether to purify. Upon evaporation needle-shaped crystals
are obtained which are bitter; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. The eclectic
leptandrin is made by precipitating concentrated alcoholic tincture with water,
and is a mixture of inert matter with pure leptandrin.
ACTION AND USES.-Cholagogue cathartic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1
to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Leptandræ,
Extractum Leptandræ,.
Pilulæ Catharticæ
Dose: 15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
Vegetabiles
1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
2 to 5 pills.
(about gr. in each pill), .
404. VERON'ICA OFFICINAʼLIS Linné.—SPEEDWELL. Indigenous. (Herb.)
Alterative, diuretic, and expectorant, in infusion.
405. SCROPHULA'RIA NODO'SA Linné.-FIGWort. This indigenous
herb is peculiar from the rank, fœtid odor of the leaves, especially when
fresh. It has alterative, diuretic, and anodyne properties, and is used in
hepatic diseases, scrofula, cutaneous diseases, dropsy, and as a depurative.
Dose of fluidextract: 30 to 60 mg (2 to 4 Cc.).
406. CHELONE.-BALMONY. SNAKE-HEAD. The herb of Chelo'ne gla'bra
Linné. Habitat: United States. Tonic, anthelmintic, and laxative, with a
supposed peculiar action on the liver. It has been largely employed in
domestic practice as an external application in diseases of the skin.
30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
Dose:
OROBANCHACEÆ.-Broom-rape Family.
407. EPIPHEGUS.-BEECH-DROP. Cancer-roOT. The herb of Epiphe'gus
virginia'na Barton, growing in all parts of North America as a parasite on
the roots of the beech tree. It is a fleshy plant with a scaly, tuberous root,
and smooth, yellowish or purplish stem, about 400 mm. (16 in.) tall, cov-
ered with small scales instead of leaves; taste bitter, astringent, and
nauseous. It receives its name, cancer-root, from the popular belief that
the powder was beneficial in the treatment of cancerous ulcers. It is often
given as an astringent. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
PEDALINEÆ-BIGNONIACEÆ—VERBENACEÆ.
347
PEDALINEÆ.
408. SESAMUM.-BENNÉ. From Se'samum in'dicum Linné, a plant growing
to the height of 4 or 5 feet, native to the East Indies, but long cultivated in
Asia and Africa; from the latter country it was introduced by the negroes
into Southern United States. Both the leaves and the seeds are used, and
a fixed oil expressed from the latter.
THE LEAVES are oblong-lanceolate, from 75 to 125 mm. (3 to 5 in.) long,
heart-shaped at base; pubescent, prominently veined beneath. They
abound in a gummy matter to such an extent that two leaves stirred in a
cup of water will make a sufficiently thick mucilage for use as a demul-
cent.
THE SEEDS are used chiefly as a source of the fixed oil, of which they con-
tain from 50 to 60 per cent. They are used by the southern negroes as
food. Ovate, flattened, about 3 to 4 mm. ( to in.) long; externally
yellowish-white to pale brown (in one species, S. orientale, purplish-brown),
with four longitudinal ridges, and, on the pointed end, a somewhat promi-
nent hilum; internally whitish, oily; taste bland.
408 a. Oleum Sesami.-TEEL OIL. BENNÉ OIL. A yellowish, limpid,
transparent fixed oil, thinner at ordinary temperatures than most of
the fixed oils; odor slight; taste bland, nut-like. It has a specific
gravity of 0.919 to 0.923, and congeals to a yellowish-white mass at
—5° C. (—23° F.). It is often used to adulterate olive and almond
oils, in which it may be detected by shaking a portion of the suspected
oil with an equal weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid; a bright
emerald-green color will usually be produced, changing to blue, then
violet, and finally to deep crimson on the addition of about one-tenth
its weight of cane-sugar and agitating.
Constituents.—Contains olein (76 per cent.), myristin, palmitin,
stearin-resinoid compound, higher alcohol, C2H440, sesamin,
C₁₁H12O3, crystalline.
11
25
BIGNONIACEAE.-Bignonia Family.
409. NEWBOULDIA.—The root-bark of Newboul'dia læ'vis Seeman, intro-
duced from tropical Africa as an astringent in diarrhea and dysentery.
Dose of fl'ext.: 15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
410. CAROBA.-The leaves of Jacaran'da proce'ra Sprengel. Habitat:
South America. A valuable alterative and antisyphilitic. Dose of fl'ext.:
15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
VERBENACEÆ.-Vervain Family.
411. LIPPIA MEXICANA.—The leaves of Lip'pia dul'cis Treviranus. De-
mulcent and expectorant. Dose: 8 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Gm.).
412. VERBENA HASTATA Linné.-AMERICAN BLUE VERVAIN.
(Root and
Herb.) The hot infusion is used as a sudorific in colds, etc. Also tonic
and expectorant. Dose of fl'ext.: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
413. VERBENA URTICÆFOLIA Linné.—White VervaIN. Habitat: Tropi-
cal America. (Root.) Febrifuge. Credited with the cure of the opium-
habit. Dose of fl'ext.: 30 to 40 mg (2 to 2.6 Cc.).
414. TONGA.-A drug introduced under this name has been found to be a
mixture of bark, leaves, and woody fibers, tied into bundles by means of
348
LABIATE.
the inner bark of the cocoanut tree. The bark comes from Premna tai-
tensis (nat. ord. Verbenacea), a shrubby tree having a sweet and slightly
astringent inner bark, containing little volatile oil, etc. The fibrous mate-
rial comes from Rhaphidophora vitiensis (nat. ord. Araceae), a creeper
having a stem about the size of a quill, containing potassium chloride, a
volatile alkaloid, tongine, etc. From this mixture a fl'ext. is prepared
which has proved efficient in neuralgia. Dose of fl'ext.: 1 fl. dr. (4˚ Cc.).
LABIATE.-Mint Family.
One of the most natural groups of plants in the vegetable kingdom. Its
members being so uniform, it would seem as if all of its species could be com-
prehended in a single genus; hence the characteristics of its different genera
are very difficult to make out.
DESCRIPTION.-Herbs with opposite or whorled leaves. Flowers in axils of
leaves or bracts, solitary or clustered cymes, scattered or crowded into spikes.
Calyx sometimes 2-lipped, upper lip bifid, lower trifid, sometimes subregular.
Corolla monopetalous, bilabiate, the upper lip entire or emarginate, the lower
3-lobed, sometimes bell- or funnel-shaped, with 4 subequal lobes (Mentha).
Stamens 4, inserted on the corolla tube, didynamous (2 long and 2 short), or 2
by the abortion of the 2 upper (Lycopus, Salvia, Rosmarinus). Ovary 4-lobed.
Ovules 4. Style simple, rising from the base of the ovarian lobes. Fruit sepa-
rating into 4 akenes. Stem quadrangular, with volatile oil secreted in vascular
glands.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DRUGS OF THE ORDER.
In most instances the drug consists of dry herbs composed of leaves, or
leaves and tops, with portions of stem, branches, and flowers. These are usu-
ally broken and intermixed. Odor aromatic, due to the secreted volatile oil;
some species hold in solution a solid hydrocarbon (stearopten) analogous to
camphor. Taste aromatic, pungent, cooling, and bitterish (marrubium). The
odor and taste are frequently sufficient to distinguish the different drugs, but
a knowledge of the size, shape, and marginal character of the leaves and their
texture, and the character of the stem and branches is sometimes quite useful
in the identification of the various drugs derived from the order.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Labiata.
Cataria, 431.
Teucrium, 432.
A. Herbs.
MENTHA PIPER-
ITA, 415.
Lamium, 433.
MENTHA VIRI- B. Leaves.
DIS, 416.
HEDEOMA, 417.
MARRUBIUM, 418.
Melissa, 419.
SCUTELLARIA,
420.
Origanum, 421.
Cunila, 422.
Glechoma, 423.
Lycopus, 424.
Majorana, 425.
Serpyllum, 426.
Leonurus, 427.
Monarda, 428.
Hyssopus, 430.
SALVIA, 434.
Rosmarinus, 435.
Thymus, 436.
Orthosiphon, 437.
Pycnanthemum, 438.
Satureia, 439.
Yerba Buena, 440.
Ocimum, 441.
Monarda Fistulosa, 429.
Betonica, 442.
C. Flowers.
Lavandula, 443.
D. Volatile Oils.
OLEUM MENTHÆ
PIPERITÆ, 415 a.
OLEUM MENTHÆ
VIRIDIS, 416 a.
OLEUM
HEDE-
OME, 417 a.
Oleum Origani, 421 a.
Oleum Monardæ, 428 a
OLEUM ROSMA-
RINI, 435 a.
OLEUM THYMI,
436 a.
OLEUM
LAVAN-
DULÆ FLORUM,
443 a.
E. Stearopten.
MENTHOL, 415.
F. Rhizome.
Collinsonia, 444.
MENTHA PIPERITA.
349
415. MENTHA PIPERITA.—PEPPERMINT.
Ger. PFEFFERMINZE.
The dried leaves and tops of Men'tha piperi'ta Linné.
DESCRIPTION.—Leaves petiolate, ovate, lanceolate, about 2 inches (50
mm.) long, acute, sharply serrate, glandular, nearly smooth; light
or dark green flowers in terminal spikes, purplish; odor strong and
1-244
FIG. 173.-Mentha piperita-Flowering branch.
characteristic; taste pungent and cooling. Statistics show that 300,000
pounds of peppermint are annually consumed by the world, and
that more than 90 per cent. of this is grown within 75 miles of Kala-
mazoo, Mich. The "mint" industry is a specialty with peculiar
features, combining farm and factory—agriculture in growing the
plant, and manufacture in separating the oil from the plant by dis-
tillation. There are about 80 "stills" in southwestern Michigan,
350
LABIATE.
and since there are 4000 acres of the plant under cultivation, one
"still" is required for every 50 acres of peppermint.
CONSTITUENTS.—Volatile oil, consisting of a terpene of complex compo-
sition (liquid) and menthol, C10H20O.
Action and Uses.-Carminative and diffusive stimulant. Dose: 15 to
60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Spiritus Mentha Piperitæ (1 per cent.),... Dose: 15 to 30 my (1 to 2 Cc.).
415 a. OLEUM MENTHE PIPERITÆ, U. S.
A volatile oil distilled from peppermint. A colorless, or yellowish, or
greenish-yellow liquid, turning darker and thicker by age and expo-
sure to the air, having a strongly aromatic, pungent taste, followed by
a sensation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth. Its composi-
tion is very complex, consisting of a number of terpenes, aldehydes,
and acids: pinene, phellandrene, cineol, dipentene, limonene, men-
thone, and menthol, etc. In a freezing mixture the oil becomes
cloudy and thick, and will separate crystals of menthol (415 b).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Mentha Piperitæ (0.2 per cent.), .Dose:
Spiritus Mentha Piperitæ (ro per cent.),
4 fl. dr. (15 Cc.).
15 to 30 my (1 to 2 Cc.).
415 b. MENTHOL.
A secondary alcohol from the official oil of peppermint (from Mentha
piperita Smith), or from Japanese or Chinese oil of peppermint (from
Mentha arvensis Linné, variety piperasceus Holmes, and Mentha cana-
densis Linné, variety glabrata Holmes). Colorless, acicular or pris-
matic crystals, having a strong and pure odor of peppermint, and a
warm, aromatic taste, followed by a sensation of cold when air is
drawn into the mouth. Dose: 0.06 Gm. (1 gr.).
416. MENTHA VIRIDIS.-SPEARMINT.
Ger. RÖMISCHEMINZE.
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Men'tha spica'ta Linné.
DESCRIPTION.-The leaves of the spearmint resemble those of the pep-
permint, but the former are rather subsessile. The branches of the
spearmint are mostly light green, while those of the peppermint are
OLEUM MENTHÆ VIRIDIS.
351
often purplish. The stamens of the spearmint are exserted, while
those of the peppermint are short; odor and taste mint-like, but less
cooling, quite characteristic.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil containing carvol, C10H14O, limonine, etc.
-108
FIG. 174.—Mentha viridis—Flowering branch.
ACTION AND USES.-Carminative; an antispasmodic of milder property
than peppermint, often preferred in infantile cases. Dose: 15 to 60
gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in infusion, employed in Spiritus Mentha Viridis.
416 a. OLEUM MENTHA VIRIDIS, U. S.
A volatile oil distilled from spearmint.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Menthæ Viridis (0.2 per cent.).
Spiritus Menthæ Viridis (10 per cent.),
Dose: 30 ny (2.0 Cc.).
352
LABIATÆ.
417. HEDEOMA.-AMERICAN PENNYROYAL.
Ger. AMERIKANISCHER POLEI.
The dried leaves and tops of Hedeo'ma pulegioi'des Persoon.
DESCRIPTION.—Stem hairy; leaves inch (12 mm.) long, short-petioled,
oblong-ovate, slightly serrate; flowers in small axillary cymules, with
small, pale blue, spotted, pubescent stamens; odor mint-like. Taste
aromatic and pungent.
2
•
FIG. 175.-Hedcoma pulegioides-Flowering branch.
CONSTITUENTS.—Volatile oil containing hedeomol, C10H18O, and pulegone.
C10H16O. The oil obtained from Mentha pulegium Linné has about
the same specific gravity and optical rotation, and contains pulegone.
417 a. OLEUM HEDEOMÆ, U. S.-OIL OF PENNYROYAL.
A volatile oil distilled from Hedeoma pulegioides.
MARRUBIUM-SCUTELLARIA.
353
1
418. MARRUBIUM.-HOREHOUND.
Ger. ANDORNKRAUT.
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Marru'bium vulgaʼre Linné.
DESCRIPTION.-Stem white, tomentose; leaves roundish-ovate, about 1
inch (25 mm.) long, obtuse, crenate, downy; flowers whitish, aro-
matic, and bitter; odor distinct and agreeable; taste aromatic and
bitter.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil in minute quantity, marrubiin, crystalline
prisms soluble in hot water and ethereal solvents, insoluble in benzene.
Preparation of Marrubiin.—Treat the infusion with charcoal; exhaust latter
with alcohol, which dissolves marrubiin and tannin; precipitate tannin with
lead oxide; exhaust precipitate with alcohol. This leaves behind insoluble
tannate of lead and dissolves the bitter principle.
ACTION AND USES.—A bitter tonic, laxative when given in large doses;
employed in catarrh and chronic affections of the lungs attended by
copious expectoration. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.), in infusion
or decoction.
419. MELISSA.-BALM. The leaves and tops of Melis'sa officina'lis Linné.
Official U. S. P. 1890. Margin of leaves crenate, serrate, base rounded
or rather heart-shaped, somewhat hairy; flowers in about four-flowered
cymules, whitish or purplish; aromatic, astringent, and bitterish. Con-
stituents: Volatile oil about 0.1 per cent., containing citral and citronellal (?).
Carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in
infusion or decoction.
420. SCUTELLARIA.-SKULLCAP.
Ger. HELMKRAUT.
The dried plant of Scutella'ria lateriflo'ra Linné.
DESCRIPTION.—Leaves 2 inches (50 mm.) long, somewhat ovate, serrate;
stem smooth and branched; corolla pale blue; odor slight, taste
bitterish. The other species of Scutellaria are sometimes collected
as S. integriafolia, S. pilosa, and S. galericulata.
CONSTITUENTS.-A bitter crystalline glucoside, trace of volatile oil, tannin.
ACTION AND USES.—Tonic and antispasmodic. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to
4 Gm.), in infusion or fl'ext.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Scutellariæ,
421. ORIGANUM.-WILD MARJORAM.
Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
The herb of Ori'ganum vulga're
Linné, formerly used in making the Vinum Aromaticum, U. S P., 1880.
421 a. OLEUM ORIGANI.-OIL OF ORIGANUM is a favorite among some
practitioners as an ingredient in various liniments.
422. CUNILA. DITTANY. The herb of Cunil'a marian'a Linné.
CUNILA.—DITTANY.
Carmina-
tive and sudorific.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
23
354
LABIATE.
423. GLECHOMA.-GROUND IVY. The herb of Glecho'ma hedera'cea Linné.
Pectoral, tonic, and diuretic. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
424. LYCOPUS. BUGLE. The herb of Ly'copus virgin'icus Linné, and of
L. sinuatus Elliott. Astringent, sedative. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2
Gm.)
425. MAJORANA.-SWEET MARJORAM. The herb of Ori'ganum majora'na.
Carminative, stimulant, and emmenagogue. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4
Gm.).
426. SERPYLLUM.-WILD THYME. The herb of Thy'mus serpyl'lum.
Carminative, stimulant, tonic, and emmenagogue.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1
to 4 Gm.).
427. LEONURUS.—MOTHERWORT. The herb of Leonu'rus cardia'ca. Tonic
and expectorant. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
428. MONARDA. HORSEMINT. The herb of Monar'da puncta'ta Linné.
Carminative, emmenagogue, and nervine. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
428 a. OLEUM MONARDÆ.-OIL OF HORSEMINT. Used as an embroca-
tion and as an addition to stimulating liniments.
429. MONARDA FISTULOSA Linné.-WILD BERGAMOT. Indigenous.
(Leaves.) Introduced as a substitute for quinine; in large doses diapho-
retic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
430. HYSSOPUS.-HYSSOP. The herb of Hysso'pus officina'lis Linné. Car-
minative, sudorific, and stimulant. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
431, CATARIA.-CATNEP. The herb of Nep'eta cata'ria Linné. Carmina-
tive, stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
432. TEUCRIUM.-GERMANder. The leaves and tops of Teu'crium
chamæ'drys. Aromatic stimulant; noted as an ingredient in the famous
gout remedy known as Portland Powder.
433. LAMIUM ALBUM Linné.-DEAD NETTLE. (Herb.) An active hemo-
static.
434. SALVIA.-SAGE.
Ger. SALBEIBLÄTTER.
The dried leaves of Sal'via officin'alis Linné.
DESCRIPTION.—About 2 inches (50 mm.) long, ovate, obtuse, base nar-
row to the long petiole, thickish, wrinkled, grayish-green, soft, hairy,
and reticulated and glandular beneath; odor aromatic, taste bitterish
and astringent.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (0.5 to 0.75 per cent.), resin, tannin, etc.
The volatile oil contains pinene, cineol, and salviol, C10H18O.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, tonic, astringent, vulnerary, in infusion
or decoction. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
435. ROSMARINUS.-ROSEMARY.
The leaves of Rosmari'nus officina'lis
Linné. Rigid, linear, obtuse at summit, margin entire; odor strong, bal-
samic, and camphoraceous.
ACTION AND USES.-Carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue.
Dose: 3 to 15 gr. (0.2 to 1 Gm.).
435 a. OLEUM ROSMARINI, U. S.-OIL OF ROSEMARY. A volatile
oil distilled from the leaves of Rosmari'nus officina'lis Linné.
PLANTAGINE.E.
355
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Lavandulæ Composita (0.2
per cent.),
Linimentum Saponis (1 per cent.).
.Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
436. THYMUS.-GARDEN THYME. The leaves of Thy'mus vulga'ris Linné.
Carminative, tonic, antispasmodic. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
436 a. OLEUM THYMI, U. S.-OIL OF THYME. Used as an anti-
septic, etc. Liquor Antisepticus, U. S. P., contains o.01 per cent.
THYMOL. (See Ajowan, 236.)
437. ORTHOSIPHON STAMINEUS Bentham.--JAVA TEA. (Leaves.) Used
as a diuretic and in gravel. Dose of fl'ext.: 20 to 30 ny (1.3 to 2 Cc.).
438. PYCNANTHEMUM MONTANUM Michaux.-MOUNTAIN MINT. (Leaves.)
Stimulant, tonic, and carminative. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
439. SATUREIA HORTENSIS Linné.—SUMMER SAVORY. Habitat: South-
ern Europe; cultivated in our gardens. (Leaves.) Stimulant, carmina-
tive, and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 4 dr. (4 to 15 Gm.).
440. YERBA BUENA. The leaves of a California plant, Microme'ria doug-
la'sii Bentham. A grateful aromatic stimulant, tonic, and emmenagogue.
Dose of fl'ext.: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
441. OCIMUM BASILICUM Linné.-SWEET BASIL. (Leaves.)
stimulant, and tonic.
Aromatic,
Used in
442. BETONICA. The leaves of Sta'chys beto'nica Bentham.
atonic dyspepsia, rheumatism, hepatic diseases, etc. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.).
443. LAVANDULA.-GARDEN LAVENDER. The flowers of Lavan'dula ve'ra
De Candolle. Calyx tubular, blue-gray, hairy, 5-toothed; corolla violet-
blue, hairy, and glandular on the outside, tubular and 2-lipped; odor
characteristic, somewhat camphoraceous. Stimulant and carminative.
Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
443 a. OLEUM LAVANDULÆ FLORUM, U. S.-OIL Of Lavender
FLOWERS. A volatile oil distilled from the fresh flowers of Lav-
an'dula officina'lis Chaix.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Spiritus Lavandulæ (5 per cent. of the oil).
Tinctura Lavandula Composita (0.8 per cent. of the oil, with oil of rosemary.
Saigon cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and red saunders). Dose, 30 my (2.0 Cc.).
OIL OF SPIKE, used as an embrocation in rheumatic affections, is obtained
by distillation of the leaves, tops, etc., of Lavandula spica.
444. COLLINSONIA.-STONE ROOT. The rhizome of Collinso'nia canaden'-
sis Linné. Long, with short, knotty branches and numerous stem-scars;
hard; internally whitish; nearly inodorous; taste bitter and nauseous.
Contains resinous matter. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and irritant.
PLANTAGINEÆ.
445. PLANTAGO.-PLANTAIN. The herb of Planta'go ma'jor and other
species. Used principally in domestic practice, the leaves being externally
applied as a stimulant application to sores, frequently in the form of a
poultice, not infrequently applied whole.
3.56
CHENOPODIACEÆ-PHYTOLACCACEÆ.
CHENOPODIACEÆ. Goosefoot Family.
Weed-like herbs, with minute greenish flowers; ovary 2-styled, 1-celled,
becoming a 1-seeded thin utricle or caryopsis. Generally bland and innocent.
446. CHENOPODIUM.-AMERICAN WORMSEED. The fruit of Chénopo'dium
ambro'sioi'des Linné, and variety anthelminʼticum Gray. Off. U. S.
P. 1890. A small, irregularly globular, seed-like fruit (utricle) not larger
than a pin-head and of a grayish-yellow or brownish color. By rubbing
the minute grains (fruit) in the hands, the capsular covering to the seeds
is broken off, when the shining, lenticular, blackish seeds appear and a
peculiar, strong, terebinthinate odor is rendered sensible. Taste pungent
and bitter. The variety Anthelminticum gives a similar fruit, but is
more aromatic. Constituents: Its medical properties depend upon a
volatile oil, 3.5 per cent. (446 a), in which it, as well as all the other parts
of the plant, abounds. Anthelmintic. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Ġm.).
446 a. OLEUM CHENOPODII, U. S.—OIL OF CHENOPODIUM. A thin,
yellowish, volatile oil, turning darker or brownish by age, having
the peculiar odor and taste of the fruit. It is composed of a hydro-
carbon and a heavier oil. Dose: 4 to 8 m (0.25 to 0.50 Cc.).
PHYTOLACCACEÆ.-Pokeweed Family.
Tropical plants represented in the United States by Phytolacca decandra
and Rivinia lævis.
447. PHYTOLACCA.-POKE ROOт.
Ger. KERMSBEERENWURZEL.
The dried root of Phytolac'ca decan'dra Linné, collected in autumn.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem red, 3 to 8 feet high, smooth, with an
unpleasant odor. Leaves large, petiolate, alternate, ovate-lanceolate,
entire, cuspidate. Racemes lateral, opposite the leaves; calyx (perianth)
white, lobes ovate, rounded at the apex; ovary bright green; berries
dark purplish-red, pulpy.
HABITAT.—North America; naturalized in West Indies and Southern
Europe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A large root, often 25 to 75 mm. (1 to 3 in.) in
diameter, but cut into various sized transverse or longitudinal
slices for drying and for the market; externally yellowish-brown,
much wrinkled; internally grayish, turning yellow on exposure.
Structure loosely fibrous, almost ligneous, alternating with dark,
circular layers; a transverse slice shows on its face numerous concen-
tric circles formed by the projecting ends of fibers between which
the intervening parenchyma has shrunk; odor slight; taste sweetish,
then acrid.
CONSTITUENTS.-Resin, tannin, starch, gum, sugar, fixed oil, salts, and
probably a glucoside. A trace of alkaloid is reported, but the

PHYTOLACCA FRUCTUS-POLYGONEÆ.
357
writer has found alkaloidal reaction quite pronounced in concen-
trated and purified solutions of the drug. Its virtues are imparted
to water and alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.-Alterative, emetic, cathartic. It is not suitable for
a cathartic, however, because of the narcotic effect often produced.
Its most important use is as an alterative in chronic rheumatism, etc.,
and externally, in the form of ointment, in various skin diseases.
Dose: 3 to 30 gr. (0.2 to 2 Gm.). Emetic in the larger dose.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Phytolaccæ,
..Dose: Emetic, 1.0 Cc. (15 m).
Alterative 0.2 Cc. (3 m).
FIG. 176.-Phytolacca-Cross-section of root. (Photograph.)
448. PHYTOLACCE FRUCTUS. POKE-BERRIES. Globular, purplish or
black, berry-like fruits, about 8 mm. (3 in.) or less in diameter, adhering
together in masses from the exudation and drying of a purplish-red juice.
Ten-celled, each containing a single glossy black seed imbedded in a suc-
culent pulp. Inodorous; taste sweetish, slightly acrid, and nauseous.
Constituents: Phytolaccin, phytolaccic acid, tannin, sugar, gum, and
an evanescent coloring matter, turned yellow by alkalies and bleached
by sunlight.
POLYGONEÆ.-Buckwheat Family.
Herbs or woody plants with alternate, entire leaves, and with the stipules in
the form of sheaths above the smaller joints of the stem. Fruit an akene.
The leaves and stem are very rich in crystals of calcium oxalate.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Polygonea.
A. Roots.
RHEUM, 449.
Rumex, 450.
Canaigre, 451.
B. Rhizome.
Bistorta, 453-
C. Herb.
Polygonum, 452.
358
POLYGONEÆ.
RHUBARB.
449. RHEUM.-RHUBARB.
Ger. RHUBARBER.
The dried rhizome of Rhe'um officina'le Baillon, Rheum palmatum Linné, and the
Var. Tanguticum Maximowicz, and probably other species of Rheum, de-
prived of most of the bark.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Botanical history somewhat obscure. It is
known, however, from authentic specimens, that the plant is a herbaceous
perennial with acidulous juice, resembling the garden rhubarb, but attain-
ing a larger size than any other species. Leaves very large, roundish, cor-
date at base, and 5- to 7-lobed. The flower-stem, 6 to 8 feet high, bears
flowers having a greenish perianth; ovary (and fruit) triangular, 1-celled.
SOURCE.-Rhubarb is obtained from many species of Rheum, mostly
natives of Asia, especially of China, Chinese Tartary, and Thibet.
Russian or Turkish rhubarb—so called because all of it imported into
these countries from China had to be submitted to official inspection
-is now never found in the market. The caravan commerce between
Russia and China has been an important one for many generations,
and the rhubarb in European commerce was almost entirely carried
from China through Persia and Asia Minor; hence the old name of
Turkey rhubarb. Later on it was brought through Northern China,
Siberia, and European Russia (Kiachta) to St. Petersburg. It is
probable that the railway schemes of the Russian Government will, in
the near future, make it likely that some portion of the Chinese prod-
uct, now carried by steamer from the treaty ports of China to the
European centers of population, will be deviated to the overland
route through Siberia.
The "Russian rhubarb" of early times was evidently what is now
known as Shensi variety. That brought into the trade by the port of
Canton, known in Europe as Indian rhubarb, is now called Canton.
The Chinese rhubarb is the variety recognized by the U. S. Pharma-
copoeia. The root is dug in the winter, often attaining a weight of
fifty pounds, the cortical layer pared off, and it is then cut up into
pieces of a suitable size for drying, holes being usually bored through
the pieces and a string passed through for hanging them up.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In cylindrical, conical, or plano-convex pieces,
or pieces with no regular shape, varying in size from 75 to 150 mm.
(3 to 6 in.) long, and 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in). thick; they are usually
sorted into "round" and "flat" rhubarb. Externally somewhat
shriveled, often with portions of the cortical layer which have not
been pared away; usually covered with a bright yellow dust, beneath
which it is seen to have a rusty-brown hue; under the lens it is seen
to be marked with the medullary rays (innumerable short, broken

PLATE II.
FIG. 1.-Cross-section of Canaigre root (Rumex
hymenose palus). X 5. Photomicrograph.
FIG. 2.-Cross-section of Chinese Rhubarb.
X 5. Photomicrograph.
FIG. 3.-Cross-section of Rheum rha ponticum.
X 5. Photomicrograph.
359
RHEUM.
361
lines of a deep brown color) crossing a white ground, forming elon-
gated whitish meshes. Well-formed pieces broken transversely dis-
play near the cambium zone dark lines arranged as an internal ring
of star-like spots, with radiating, reddish medullary rays, marking the
internal origin of the leaves. Although this characteristic is not
always obvious, it affords some help in distinguishing it from the
European variety, in which these spots are absent entirely or occur
very sparingly. The tissue is made up of a white parenchyma,
with reddish-brown or brownish-yellow medullary rays, so twisted,
however, as to be scarcely recognizable as such, giving a cross-
section a mottled appearance of red, white, and yellow. The
white parenchyma cells are loaded with starch and crystals of cal-
cium oxalate, which causes the gritty feeling between the teeth; the
medullary rays contain the active principle of the rhubarb. For
illustration of structure of root see chapter on Powdered Drugs.
Odor characteristic; taste bitter, aromatic, astringent, and gritty.
When chewed, it tinges the saliva orange-yellow. It yields a yel-
lowish powder with a reddish-brown tinge.
The common pie-plant, Crimean rhubarb, from Rheum rhaponticum
Linné, is a European variety, having properties similar to that of
rhubarb, but the astringent principles predominate. It is fusi-
form, about 100 mm. (4 in.) long and 20 mm. (‡ in.) thick, with a
thick orange-red cork, partially removed; a cross-section shows a
comparatively regular, radiate structure of red medullary rays travers-
ing a whitish parenchyma and extending into the cortical layer when
present; its odor is less aromatic, is less gritty, and its taste more
mucilaginous and astringent. Rumex hymenosepalus, Canaigre, has
been used, in powder, to adulterate powdered rhubarb. For detec-
tion, follow general directions for examination of powders, page 664.
Choice of Rhubarb.-Select the moderately heavy and compact
pieces, which should break with a brittle fracture, presenting a lively,
mottled appearance of yellowish and reddish fibers intermingled
with white parenchyma; odor decidedly aromatic; taste bitter,
astringent, and gritty, not mucilaginous, tingeing the saliva orange-
yellow when chewed. Very light, rotten, or worm-eaten pieces.
should be rejected.
Powder.-Brownish-yellow. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells,
large, thin-walled; parenchyma of xylem, medullary rays, etc., with starch,
simple (5 to 20 μ in diam.) 2 to 4 compound; calcium oxalate aggregate (50 to
100 in diam.); resin in masses, yellowish-brown; ducts, reticulate.
CONSTITUENTS.-Seemingly a mixture of different coloring principles of
a somewhat resinous quality, each having a peculiar solubility of its
362
POLYGONEÆ.
own: Chrysophan, C27H30O14 (and crysophanic acid), emodin,
aporetin, phæoretin, erythroretin, rheumic acid, and rheo-
tannic acid; also starch, calcium oxalate, pectin, and arabic acid.
Chrysophan is a yellow glucoside yielding, with acidulated water,
sugar and chrysophanic acid, C15H10O4, yellow crystals, one of the
best solvents for which is hot benzol. With the exception of aporetin
(dark, resinous) the other neutral principles are more or less yellow-
colored, but they differ in solubility, emodin, for example, being in-
soluble in benzol. According to Hagar, by proper extraction with
chloroformic solvent, etc., rhubarb yields not less than 3 per cent.
of chrysophanic acid. O. Hesse ("Pharm. Jour.," Fourth Series, 1,
325-327) gives a process for the separation of chrysophanic acid,
emodin, and rhein (C₁5H¸O₂(OH),). Chrysophanic acid, or dioxy-
methyl-anthraquinone (C₁,H,CH,(OH)₂O₂) is closely related to
emodin, which is a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone (C₁H¸CH¸(OH)3-
O₂). Cathartic acid represents the cathartic principles of rhubarb
in a crude but concentrated form. For its preparation, see Senna.
15
5
3
2
Preparation of Phæoretin.-Wash alcoholic extract with water; dissolve
residue in a little alcohol; add ether. This precipitates crude phæoretin.
Preparation of Chrysophanic Acid.—Tincture of rhubarb, after standing for
some time, deposits yellow sedimentary crystals. This sediment, dissolved in
benzene, deposits the principle on evaporation.
Chrysarobin is a principle easily converted into chrysophanic acid by oxida-
tion. The source of this is Goa powder (from Andira araroba). The powder
is extracted with hot benzene (benzol), and the liquid allowed to cool.
orange-colored principle separates as the liquid cools.
The
ACTION AND USES.-Purgative and astringent. It has been highly
esteemed as an antidysenteric remedy because of the fact that the
cathartic principles are accompanied by the antiseptic action of
chrysophan, and because catharsis is followed by an astringent and
tonic effect upon the mucous lining. Roasting destroys the cathartic
quality, when the root becomes simply a bitter astringent. Dose: 15
to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Rhei (20 per cent., with carda-
mom),
Tinctura Rhei Aromatica (20 per cent.,
with cassia cinnamon, cloves, and
nutmeg),
Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus (15 per
cent. of aromatic tincture),
Tinctura Rhei Dulcis (10 per cent., with
glycyrrhiza, anise, and cardamom, 1890),
Fluidextractum Rhei,
Mistura Rhei et Soda (1.5 per cent.
with sodium bicarbonate, fl. ext. of
ipecac, and spirit peppermint), . . . .
Syrupus Rhei (Fl'ext. 10 per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
to 3 fl. dr. (2 to 12 Cc.).
2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.).
1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
5 to 30 my (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
to 2 fl. oz. (15 to 60 Cc.).
2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.).
Extractum Rhei,
SERPENTARIA.
.
Pulvis Rhei Compositus (25 per cent.,
with magnesia and ginger),
Pilulæ Rhei (3 gr., U. S. P. 1890),
Pilulæ Rhei Compositæ (each pill con-
taining about 2 gr. of rhubarb, with
purified aloes 1 gr., myrrh, and oil of
peppermint),
5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
I to 5 pills.
I to 3 pills.
3
363
450. RUMEX.-YELLOW DOCK. The root of Ru'mex cris'pus Linné, and of
some other species of Rumex. Off. in U. S. P. 1890. A fusiform root
from 100 to 200 mm. (4 to 8 in.) long and 10 to 15 mm. ( to in.) thick;
externally reddish-brown, the upper portion annulate, the lower portion
wrinkled; fracture short, exhibiting a rather thick cortical layer and a
yellowish or whitish interior, somewhat mottled, the rather porous and
horny wood-wedges separated by fine, distinct, reddish medullary rays;
inodorous; taste astringent and bitter. Alterative, tonic, and astringent.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). Extractum Rumicis Fluidum, Ŭ. S.
U.
P. 1890. Dose: 15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
451. CANAIGRE. The root of Ru'mex hymenosep'alus Torrey, from which
a tannin is obtained. This plant resembles common dock, Rumex crispus,
and flourishes in dry, barren, sandy soil in Southwestern United States and
Mexico. It propagates by means of the roots, which grow in clusters of
three or four. They are from 50 to 150 mm. (2 to 6 in.) long, and 25 to 50
mm. (1 to 2 in.) thick, reddish-brown to almost black. A cross-section
shows a prominent cambium line and a broad radiating center. The tissue is
chiefly parenchyma, containing starch, tannin, and a yellowish-red coloring
matter. The tannin is yellowish-white, identical with that of rhubarb
(rheotannic acid).
452. POLYGONUM ACRE.-WATER PEPPER. SMART WEED. (Herb.)
Stimulant, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
453. BISTORTA.-BISTORT. The rhizome of Poly'gonum bistor'ta Linné.
Habitat: Europe, Northern Asia, and Northwestern United States, in
moist places. An S-shaped rhizome (bent upon itself-bistorted), flattened,
and transversely striate on upper side, and convex, with depressed root-
scars, on lower side; color dark reddish-brown, internally lighter; fracture
smoothish, showing a thick bark and a pith of about the same thickness
as the bark. Contains tannin, 20 per cent., and starch, with red coloring
matter. Tonic and astringent. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.), in
decoction.
ARISTOLOCHIACEÆ.-Birthwort Family.
Climbing shrubs, or low herbs, with perfect flowers, the lurid calyx coherent
with the ovary, which forms a 6-celled capsule or berry in fruit. Leaves petio-
late. Principal constituents are volatile oil and resinous principles.
454. SERPENTARIA.-SERPENTARIA.
VIRGINIA SNAKE-ROOT. Ger. VIRGINIANISCHE SCHLANGENWURZEL.
The dried rhizome and roots of Aristolo'chia serpenta'ria Linné (Virginia),
and of Aristolochia reticula'ta Nuttall (Texas).
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem 8 to 15 inches high, pubescent. Leaves
alternate, ovate, or oblong, with a heart-shaped or halberd-shaped base.
Flowers all next the root, short-peduncled; calyx-tube bent like the letter
S; stamens 6, the sessile anthers adnate to the fleshy style.
364
ARISTOLOCHIACEÆ.
HABITAT.-United States (Virginia and Texas).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A rhizome about 25 mm. (1 in.) long, and
about the thickness of a quill; contorted, bent up and down; extern- ·
ally light grayish-brown, with short stem-bases on the upper side and
numerous long, fibrous, branching rootlets below, interlaced; in-
ternally grayish, closely matted. The bark is thin, overlaying quite
a large woody zone, and separated into wood-wedges by broad medul-
을
​FIG. 177.-Aristolochia scrpentaria.
lary rays; the pith is not in the center but is nearer the upper
side, making the lower wood-wedges the longest. Odor faintly
terebinthinate, characteristic; taste warm, bitter, and cam-
phoraceous. Virginia and Texas Serpentaria are both recognized
by the U. S. P. The latter is about twice as large as the former, with
fewer and thicker rootlets.
ADULTERATIONS.-As found in commerce,
adulterated with portions of the stem.
serpentaria is frequently
Hydrastis canadensis has

ASARUM CANADENSE-SERPENTARIA.
365
been used as an intentional adulteration; also spigelia. All of these
may easily be distinguished from the genuine by their general
characteristics.
Powder.-Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex
with spherical starch granules 10 in diam., simple or compound; some paren-
chyma with yellowish or dark brown contents; ducts with reticulate, spiral,
annular, simple pores; short, porous wood fibers; cork, small amount (30 to
35 in diam.); resin present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (per cent.), containing borneol, aristol-
ochine, C2H22N2013 (very bitter), tannin, resin, starch, etc.
A
B
C
D
E
FIG. 178.-Serpentaria-Cross-section of rhizome. (25 diam.) A, Parenchyma of cortex. B, Medul
lary ray. C, Xylem. D, Phloem. E, Medulla. (Photomicrogtaph.)
Preparation of Aristolochine.-Precipitate decoction with lead acetate; ex-
haust precipitate with hot alcohol; evaporate; dissolve out alkaloid with water.
It is bitter, yellow, amorphous, or in needles; soluble in alcohol, water, pre-
cipitated by tannin.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic stimulant and tonic. Dose: 5 to 30 gr.
(0.3 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Serpentariæ (20 per cent.), ... Dose:
Tinctura Cinchonæ Composita (2 per
cent. of serpentaria),
Fluidextractum Serpentariæ,
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
I to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
455. ASARUM CANADENSE Linné.-CANADA SNAKE-ROOT. WILD GINGER.
A long, creeping rhizome, more or less contorted. In commerce broken
into pieces from 100 to 150 mm. (4 to 6 in.) long, from the thickness of
a straw to that of a goose-quill; somewhat quadrangular or two-edged;
externally grayish-brown, longitudinally wrinkled, beset with small fibers,
easily broken off; internally nearly white, the small wood-bundles sur-
rounding a large pith; odor peculiar, aromatic; taste aromatic and pun-
gent. It contains a large percentage of volatile oil which is often used in
perfumery. This contains asarol, probably identical with linalool, its
acetic and valerianic esters, methyl eugenol. Aromatic stimulant and
tonic. Dose: 30 gr. (2 Gm.).
366
PIPERACEÆ.
PIPERACEÆ.
Herbaceous or shrubby tropical plants, with jointed stems, and flowers, des-
titute of floral envelopes, arranged in spikes or spicate racemes. The entire
order possesses pungent and aromatic properties, due to the presence of vola-
tile oil and resin.
A. Fruits.
CUBEBA, 456.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Piperaceæ.
PIPER, 457.
Piper Album, 458.
Piper Longum, 459.
CUBEBS.
B. Volatile Oil.
OLEUM CUBEBÆ,
456 a.
C. Leaves.
MATICO, 460.
D. Roots.
456. CUBEBA.-CUBEB.
Yerba Mansa, 461.
Jambu Assu, 462.
Methysticum, 463.
Ger. KUBEBEN.
The dried unripe but fully grown fruit of Pi'per cube'ba Linné filius.
BOTANICAL CHaracteristics.-Stem climbing, rooting at the joints. Leaves
4 to 7 inches long, petiolate, oblong to ovate. Flowers dioecious, in spikes
opposite the leaves. Fruit larger than black pepper, globose, on pedicels
about of an inch long.
SOURCE.―Java, Sumatra, Borneo; also in West Indies. It grows exten-
sively in coffee plantations or in grounds reserved for that purpose.
The fruit after gathering is sent to Java, thence to Singapore, where
it enters the market.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The official cubebs are picked while green, be-
coming brown or black and reticulately wrinkled on drying;
they are about the size of a pea, still attached to the slender stalk;
this stalk is longer than the fruit, and is formed by the downward
lengthening of the pericarp, continuous with the prominent raised
ridges on the surface of the berry. The shell or pericarp is hard,
almost ligneous, and incloses a central cavity or a black, shrunken
seed; odor and taste aromatic, spicy, pungent.
Powder.-Dark brown, wine color with H2SO4. Characteristic elements:
Parenchyma of endosperm with small, simple starch grains and oil globules;
stone cells, singly or in groups, thick-walled, very porous; reddish-brown
tannin masses present with some tracheids; oil cells in fragments.
Adulterations.-Frequently adulterated with stems. Black pepper and
other piperaceous fruits are often met with, but these are rarely inten-
tional adulterants. Rhamnus catharticus (buckthorn berries) is some-
times used as an adulterant and may be readily distinguished by
its four-seed fruit.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (5 to 18 per cent.), cubebin, C10H10O3,
cubebic acid, C₁H₁O₁, resin, fat, wax, and starch. Cubebin is a
16
CUBEBA.
367
colorless principle and forms the greater portion of the sediment which
deposits from the official oleoresin on standing. Cubebic acid is
the principle upon which depends the diuretic action of cubebs; the
volatile oil is stimulating.
Preparation of Cubebin.-Precipitates from oleoresin, upon standing, in white,
crystalline form; inodorous and bitter.
FIG. 179.-Piper cubeba-Fruiting branch and fruit (enlarged).
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, carminative, and diuretic. Its especial
action is on the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary tract.
15 gr. to 2 dr. (1 to 8 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Cubebæ,
Oleoresina Cubebæ,
Trochisci Cubeba ( gr. of oleoresin in
each troche),
Dose: 10 to 30 пy (0.6 to 2 Сc.).
5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
I or 2 troches.
Dose:
368
PIPERACEÆ.
456 a. OLEUM CUBEBÆ, U. S.-OIL OF CUBEB. A greenish vola-
tile oil, becoming yellowish with age (colorless upon rectification),
having the odor and taste of cubeb, but less pungent, and a warm,
camphoraceous, aromatic taste. It has about the consistence of
almond oil and is lighter than water. It is said not to preexist in the
fruit, but to be formed by the prolonged action of the air. The oil
consists of dipentene, cadinene, and cubeb camphor. Dose: 5 to
15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
BLACK PEPPER.
457. PIPER. PEPPER.
Ger. SCHWARZER PFEFFER.
The dried unripe fruit of Pi'per ni'grum Linné.
Botanical ChaRACTERISTICS.—Aromatic shrub, with knotted, pointed branches.
Leaves alternate, entire. Flowers spicate, perfect, each supported by a
scale. Berry 1-seeded.
HABITAT.-India and Cochin-China; cultivated in the East Indies.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A black, reticulated, berry-like fruit, re-
sembling cubebs in size and general appearance, except that it is
destitute of the foot-stalk. It is hollow inside and contains a
single, small, undeveloped seed. Odor aromatic and sternutatory;
taste sharp, burning, and acrid.
Powder.-Brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endosperm with
cells, large, thin-walled, with starch (1 to 2 μ in diam.), some cells with resin;
parenchyma of pericarp of reddish-brown cells; stone cells of pericarp present;
some stone cells of testa, small, porous, outer walls very thin.
CONSTITUENTS.-The aromatic and stimulant properties of pepper depend
upon its volatile oil, C10H16, but the pungent taste and medicinal
activity are mainly due to a soft, pungent resin, chavicin; a
neutral principle, piperine, is also present which is decomposed by
alkalies into piperidine, CH₁,N, and piperic acid, C₁₂H10O4. The
latter yields piperinal (heliotropine) by oxidation.
11
12
Preparation of Piperine.—It is deposited almost pure from freshly made
oleoresin; usually has pungent resin associated with it, giving it a biting taste.
It is in pale yellow prismatic crystals; odorless, with sharp, bitter taste.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and carminative, its principal use being as
a condiment. The principle piperine has been used as an antiperiodic.
Dose of pepper: 5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Oleoresina Piperis,
Dose: to 2 m (0.016 to 0.13 Cc.).
Commercial oil of pepper is an oleoresin from which the piperine
has crystallized out.
PIPER.
369
458. PIPER ALBUM.-WHITE PEPPER. The ripe fruit from which the epi-
dermis has been removed by macerating in water and rubbing off. It is
usually somewhat larger than black pepper and has a smooth surface with
about ten distinct lines running from base to apex; the seed fills the whole
inner cavity. It contains the same principles as black pepper; is seldom
used except as a condiment.
FIG. 180.-Piper nigrum-Branch and fruit.
459. PIPER LONGUM.—LONG PEPPER. The fruit of Pi'per lon'gum Linné,
and of Pi'per officina'rum De Candolle. Habitat: Southeastern Asia. It
consists of cylindrical spikes of the fruits, 25 mm. (1 in.) or more in length;
in the market they are of an earthy, grayish-white appearance, but exhibit
their deep reddish-brown color when washed. The individual berries
are ovoid, about 2.5 mm. (7 in.) long, with a nipple-like point at the apex
and a bract at the base; they are arranged spirally on the axis. Medical
properties same as those of black pepper, but they are inferior and seldom
used.
24
370
PIPERACEÆ.
MATICO.
460. MATICO.-MATICO.
Ger. MATICOBLÄTTER.
The leaves of Pi'per angustifo'lium Ruiz et Pavon.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stems jointed, about 12 feet high. Leaves
short-petiolate, rough, and wrinkled, linear-lanceolate, acuminate. Spikes
opposite the leaves; flowers perfect, yellowish; stigma sessile.
HABITAT.-Tropical America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The imported packages of this drug are com-
posed of a mixture of broken leaves, stalks, and spikes; all are active,
but the leaves only are recognized by the pharmacopoeias. Although
broken, they may be readily recognized by the prominent veining
of the under surface; upper surface dull green, tessellated or check-
ered; odor slight; taste warm, aromatic, and bitter.
A South American plant, Artanthe adunca, furnishes a leaf very
similar to matico in medicinal properties, but distinguished physically
in not being tessellated, rough, and hairy. The reticulated upper
surface and downy under surface are wanting in this leaf. It is prob-
ably not inferior in medicinal properties. Matico has a peculiar me-
chanical structure. To this structure is attributed the remarkable
hæmostatic properties when either the leaf or powder is applied
topically.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (about 2 per cent.), resin, tannin, a bitter
principle, and artanthic acid; crystalline. On account of its action
on the urinary passages it has been thought to contain a principle
analogous to cubebin or piperin, but none has yet been found.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic, stimulant, and tonic, its special action
being on mucous membrane; it also acts as a hemostatic and local
styptic. Dose: to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Matico,
Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
461. YERBA MANSA.-The root of Houttuy'nia califor'nica Bentham and
Hooker. Stimulant, tonic, and astringent; used with good results in
malarial fevers. Dose of fl'ext.: 15 to 60 mg (1 to 4 Cc.).
462. JAMBU ASSU.-The root of Pi'per jaboran'di Vell. Used in its native
country, Brazil, as a sudorific like pilocarpus. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2
Gm.).
463. METHYSTICUM.-KAVA-KAVA. The root of Pi'per methys'ticum, ob-
tained from a shrub indigenous to the Sandwich Islands. A large, woody,
but spongy root, having a thin, grayish-brown bark and a yellowish medi-
tullium which is radiate; usually comes in whitish segments. Odor fragrant,
like a perfume rather than a spice; taste pungent, slightly benumbing.
Used as a remedy in the treatment of diseases of the mucous membrane,
as a tonic to the digestive organs, and stimulant to the nerves; also as a
diuretic. It perhaps has some reputation as a remedy in gonorrhea.
MYRISTICA.
371
MONIMIACEÆ.
462. BOLDUS.-BOLDO. The leaves of Peumus boldus Molina, an ever-
green shrub growing in the Chilian Andes. They are broadly oval, about
50 mm. (2 in.) long, with entire margin and rough, reddish-brown surfaces,
covered with numerous small glands containing a volatile oil; upper sur-
face glossy, lower surface hairy; midrib prominent; odor fragrant; taste
pungent, aromatic, somewhat bitter. They are used as an aromatic stimu-
lant and tonic; in South America in inflammation of the genito-urinary
tract. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in fl'ext., tincture, or infusion.
A. Seed.
MYRISTICA, 465.
B. Volatile Oil.
MYRISTICACEÆ.
OLEUM MYRISTICÆ,
465 a.
NUTMEG.
C. Fixed Oil.
Oleum Myristica Expressum, 465 h.
D. Arillode.
Macis, 466.
465. MYRISTICA.-NUTMEG.
Ger. MUSKATNUSS.
The kernel of the ripe seed of Myris'tica frag'rans Houttuyn.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tree about 30 feet high. Leaves oblong-oval,
entire, glossy above, whitish beneath, aromatic. Flowers diœcious; male
flowers in axillary clusters; female flowers single, solitary, and axillary,
both very small and of a pale yellow color.
HABITAT.—Molucca Islands; cultivated in adjacent East India islands,
and especially in the Dutch Banda Islands, whence most of the nut-
megs are imported for market.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A roundish or oval kernel about 25 mm. (1 in.)
long; externally light grayish-brown, marked with worm-shaped fur-
rows and covered with lime (done by the Dutch growers to kill the
germ, thinking in this way to monopolize its cultivation). They are
hard and not readily pulverizable, but can easily be cut or grated,
showing a waxy luster; internally yellowish, a cross-section
having a mottled appearance, due to the penetration to the albu-
men of the inner seed-coat in narrow brown strips; these strips con-
tain oily material; hilum and micropyle on the broad end, chalaza
near the upper end, united by a groove corresponding to the raphé;
the embryo is small, in a cavity at the base; odor strongly aromatic;
taste warm and aromatic.
The male, wild, or long nutmeg, as it is variously termed, is occa-
sionally found in market; it is much longer than the official nutmeg,
elliptical, destitute of the dark brown inner veins, and of a bitter and
disagreeable taste. Penang and Singapore nutmegs are unlined.
California nutmeg, so called, is the seed of Torrega Californica
372
MYRISTICACEÆ.
(nat. ord. Conifera); testa smooth, brownish, internally marbled,
resembling nutmeg, but has a terebinthinate odor and taste.
Powder. Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endo-
sperm, cells large with spherical starch granules (5 to 7 μ in diam.), simple or
2-3-4-5 compound; or aggregate; fixed oil globules present; parenchyma cells
of endosperm, reddish-brown, some contain resin and volatile oil.
FIG. 181.-Myristica fragrans-Branch and fruit.
CONSTITUENTS.-The greater portion of nutmeg (25 to 30 per cent.) con-
sists of a fixed oil; this is official in the British Pharmacopoeia and
is called oil of mace or mace butter; it contains chiefly myristin, with
some myristic acid, olein, palmitin, resin, and volatile oil (see 465 b).
The aromatic properties of nutmeg depend upon 2 to 8 per cent. of
volatile oil.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic stimulant and stomachic. Used as a cor-
LAURACEÆ.
373
rective and as a condiment. In large doses it possesses narcotic
properties. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Pulvis Aromaticus (15 per cent., with
cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger), .. Dose:
Fluidextractum Aromaticum (from
aromatic powder),
Tinctura Lavandula Composita (1 per
cent.),
10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
465 a. OLEUM MYRISTICÆ, U. S.—OIL OF NUTMEG. A thin, color-
less or pale straw-colored volatile oil, lighter than water, and having
the characteristic properties of nutmeg; on standing for a consid-
erable length of time it becomes darker and thicker, and deposits a
crystalline fatty glyceride of myristic acid. It contains a hydrocarbon,
pinene, myristicin, and an oxygenated compound, myristicol, isomeric
with carvol (?). Action and uses same as nutmeg, but rarely used.
Dose: 1 to 3 m (0.065 to 0.2 Cc.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Spiritus Ammoniæ Aromaticus (0.1
per cent.),.
.....Dose: 30 mm (2 Cc.).
465 b. OLEUM MYRISTICÆ EXPRESSUM.-EXPressed Oil of Nutmeg.
MACE BUTTER (see Myristica Constituents). Unctuous blocks, marbled
whitish and brown. Mostly used externally.
466. Macis (U. S. 1890).-The thick membrane or "arillode" imme-
diately investing the kernel of the nutmeg. It comes in narrow bands,
irregularly slit above into somewhat branched and lobed divisions,
united at the base in an unbroken band; reddish or orange-yellow
in color, with a fatty feeling when scratched or pressed; peculiar
aromatic odor and taste. It contains volatile oil (about 8 per cent.),
a red fixed oil, gum, resin, sugar, and proteids, but no starch. Aro-
matic stimulant and tonic; mostly used as a flavoring agent. Dose:
5 to 20 gr. (0.3 to 1.3 Gm.).
LAURACEÆ.-Laurel Family.
Aromatic trees or shrubs, all parts of which yield volatile oil. Leaves simple,
alternate, pellucid-punctate.
A. Barks.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Lauraceæ.
F. Volatile Oils.
OLEUM CINNA-
MOMI, 468 a.
B. Leaves.
CINNAMOMUM
ZEYLANICUM,
Laurus, 476.
Umbellularia, 477.
C. Wood.
Sassafras Lignum, 471.
D. Pith.
SASSAFRAS ME-
DULLA, 472.
G.
E. Stearopten.
SASSAFRAS, 470.
467.
Cinnamomum
Cassia, 468.
CINNAMOMUM
SAIGONICUM,
469.
Nectandra, 473.
Coto, 474.
Lindera, 475
OLEUM
SASSA-
FRAS, 470 a.
OLEUM CAM-
PHORÆ, 478 a.
Fixed Oil.
Oleum Lauri, 476 a.
CAMPHORA, 478. H. Seeds.
Persea, 479.
374
LAURACEE.
467. CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM.
CEYLON CINNAMON.
Ger. ZEYLONZIMMT.
The dried inner bark of the shoots of Cinnamoʼmum zeylan'icum Breyne.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Tree about 30 feet high. Root with the odor
of camphor as well as that of cinnamon. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, entire,
smooth and shining, tasting of cloves. Flowers in panicles, usually uni-
sexual. Drupes 1-seeded, the seed large, with oily cotyledons.
HABITAT.-Ceylon.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Long, cylindrical quills deprived of the corky
layer by scraping; compound, consisting of 8 or more thin, papery,
light brownish-yellow, quilled layers, inclosed one within the other,
their sides curling inward, giving the sticks a flattened appearance on
one side; somewhat flexible, with a splintery fracture; the outer sur-
face is marked with shining, wavy bast lines, and occasionally with
small scars or perforations indicating the former position of leaves;
under the microscope it is seen to be formed by a layer of stone cells.
The inner surface is darker and striated. A characteristic, sweet,
fragrant odor, and a warm, aromatic, pungent, and sweetish taste
run through the different cinnamon barks, but the taste of the Ceylon
cinnamon is the more delicate. The broken pieces, caused by re-
packing at custom-houses (sorted and sold as "small cinnamon"),
are commonly used in pharmacy.
•
ル
​Powder.-Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex
with starch, spherical (7 to 15 in diam.), simple, 2 to 4 compound, also with
tannin masses, and calcium oxalate raphides about 5 μ in diam., other large
cells with resin and oil; sclerenchyma with bast fibers, rather short, thick-walled;
stone cells single or in groups having walls usually unequally thickened;
Ceylon cinnamon has no cork; as compared with Saigon, the bast fibers are
longer and more pointed, stone cells larger, both more numerous; Saigon cin-
namon fewer bast fibers and stone cells and regular cork cells with reddish-
brown contents.
CONSTITUENTS.—Principally volatile oil; tannin, mucilage, a coloring
principle, and an acid are also present.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic stimulant and tonic, carminative and
astringent. The different varieties of cinnamon are among the most
pleasant and efficient aromatics and form agreeable adjuvants to a
great many official preparations. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
IO
Tinctura Cinnamomi (10 per cent., U. S. P., 1890).
Pulvis Aromaticus (35 per cent., U. S. P., 1890).
468. CINNAMOMUM CASSIA.-CASSIA BARK. The bark of the shoots of one
or more undetermined species of Cinnamo'mum grown in China (Chinese
cinnamon). Off. U. S. P. 1890. Cassia cinnamon is in tubes or curved
pieces, of a darker yellowish-brown color than preceding, nearly deprived
CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM.
375
FIG. 182.-Cinnamomum zeylanicum—Branch.
F
FIG. 183.-Ceylon cinnamon-Cross-section of bark. C. Stone cells. D. Parenchyma containing
numerous bast fibers. E. Oil-resin cells. F. Medullary rays.
376
LAURACEÆ.
of the corky layer; these tubes are usually simple, rarely double, 1 mm.
(2 in.) or more thick, and break with a rather short fracture; odor and
taste similar to, but somewhat less delicate than, that of Ceylon cinnamon.
Constituents the same, the volatile oil being officially recognized as from
this source. This variety has been superseded by Saigon cinnamon in
the official preparations containing cinnamon.
468 a. OLEUM CINNAMOMI.—OIL OF Cinnamon. Contains at least
75 per cent. of cinnamic aldehyde. Both the Ceylon oil and that
A
D
FIG. 184.
Cassia cinnamon-Cross-section of bark. A. Cork cells. B. Parenchyma cells. C. Stone
cells. D. Bast fibers in parenchyma. E. Oil-resin cells (black_line from E should have been
directed to the large cell below and to the left of that letter). F. Medullary ray.
derived from Cassia, and other cinnamon barks are found in commerce,
and they are essentially the same. The oil of Ceylon cinnamon has
a more delicate odor and flavor. All of the various oils of cinnamon
become darker and thicker by age and exposure to the air; they have
the characteristic odor of cinnamon, a sweetish, spicy, and burning
taste.
OLEUM CINNAMOMI.
377
CONSTITUENTS.-Oil of cinnamon consists chiefly of cinnamic alde-
hyde, with small quantities of hydrocarbon; when the oil is exposed
to the air for a time, the cinnamic aldehyde is oxidized into cinnamic
TA
FIG. 185.-Cinnamomum cassia-Branch.
acid, two resins, and water, the oil becoming thicker and darker, and
frequently separating out a few crystals of the cinnamic acid.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Aqua Cinnamomi (0.2 per cent.),
Spiritus Cinnamomi (10 per cent.),
IO
Dose: to 1 fl. oz. (15 to 30 Gm.).
10 to 20 m (0.6 to 1.3 Cc.).
378
LAURACEÆ.
469. CINNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM.-SAIGON CINNAMON.
SAIGON CASSIA.
Ger. SAIGONZIMMT.
The dried bark of the stem and branches of an undetermined species of Cinnamo'mum.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-It takes its name from Saigon, the capital of
French Cochin-China, where it is collected and exported. It is in
large quills or broken pieces, 1 or 2 mm. (to 2 in.) thick; the
gray or grayish-brown bark, which is not removed, is more or less
rough and warty, longitudinally wrinkled and ridged, and covered
with whitish patches. Inner bark cinnamon-brown or dark brown,
with numerous white striæ near the bark; fracture short, granular;
odor aromatic; taste aromatic and pungent.
-A
F
F
FIG. 186.-Saigon cinnamon-Cross-section of bark. A. Corky layer. B. Parenchyma cells. C.
Stone cells. D. Bast fibers. E. Oil-resin cells. F. Medullary rays, very inconspicuous.
COMPARISON OF THE CINNAMON BARKS.-Color.—There is quite a differ-
ence in the depth of the color of the three barks. The Ceylon is
the lightest, the Saigon is the darkest, and the Cassia intermediate.
This difference in shade is shown best in the powder.
Thickness.-The Ceylon is very thin and papery. The Saigon,
usually regarded as the thickest, is in the average about the same as
Cassia.
Odor.-The odor and taste of the Saigon is the strongest, the Cey-
lon is the most delicate, the Cassia weakest.
Microscopical. To distinguish between the barks no difficulty is
experienced in cross- and longitudinal sections, which display the oil-
cells, stone cells, and other elements. In the powdered condition
SASSAFRAS-SASSAFRAS BARK.
379
the Ceylon shows the largest stone cells. In Cassia the stone cells
are less numerous and smaller. In the Saigon the oblong stone
cells are about the same size as those of Cassia, but fewer in number.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita (2.5
per cent.),
Tinctura Gambir Composita (2.5 per
cent.)
Tinctura Lavandulæ Composita (2 per
cent.),
Tinctura Rhei Aromatica (4 per cent.),
employed in Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus.
Tinctura Cinnamomi (20 per cent.), ..
Pulvis Aromaticus (35 per cent.).....
Dose: 1 to 3 fl. dr. (4 to 12 Cc.).
to 3 fl. dr. (2 to 12 Cc.).
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.). Em-
ployed also in Vinum Opii
and Infusum Digitalis.
15 gr. (1 Gm.).
SASSAFRAS.-SASSAFRAS.
Sasʼsafras variifo'lium O. Kuntze. The various portions used in medicine are the
bark of the root, the volatile oil, and the pith, all official, and the wood, unofficial.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Tree with spicy, aromatic bark, 15 to 125 feet
high, with yellowish-green twigs. Leaves ovate, entire, or some of them
3-lobed. Flowers dioecious, greenish-yellow, in racemes.
HABITAT.—North America, from Kansas eastward.
470. SASSAFRAS.-SASSAFRAS BARK.
Ger. SASSAFRASRINDE.
The dried bark of the root of Sassafras variifolium O. Kuntze, collected in early spring
or autumn and deprived of the periderm.
25
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In small, irregular, rust-brown fragments,
deprived of the grayish-brown, fissured, corky layer, leaving a reddish
or rust-brown surface; 1 to 5 mm. ( to in.) thick. It breaks with a
short, corky fracture, exposing a whitish interior dotted with numer-
ous oil-cells; odor highly fragrant, characteristic; taste sweetish,
aromatic. Employed in the compound syrup of sarsaparilla.
Powder.-Reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex
with starch (7 to 20 µ in diam.), single and 2 to 3 compound, tannin in irregular
masses and oil globules; prisms of calcium oxalate very few; sclerenchyma with
bast fibers (20 to 30 thick by 250 to 500 long); stone cells, porous, some very
thick-walled; cork (30 to 40 in diam.), with bright red contents.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (about 5 per cent.), camphoraceous matter,
tannin (6 per cent.), sassafrid (a derivative of tannin, 9 per cent.),
gum, resin, starch, etc.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic stimulant, alterative, and astringent. It is
used almost entirely as an adjuvant or corrective. Dose: 30 to 120
gr. (2 to 8 Gm.), in infusion.

380
LAURACEÆ.
470 a. OLEUM SASSAFRAS, U. S.-A volatile oil usually distilled
from the entire root. A colorless or yellow liquid, sp. gr. 1.065-
1.075, becoming thicker and of a reddish color by age and exposure,
and having the characteristic odor and taste of sassafras. It con-
tains a hydrocarbon (safrene, C10H16), and an oxygenated compound,
safrol, C10H10O2 (melts at 8.5° C., 47.3° F.), a widely distributed
principle obtained commercially from oil of camphor, phellandrene,
C10H16, eugenol, C10H12O2, etc. Generally used as a flavor. Dose:
1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
A
B
C
FIG. 187.-Sassafras-Cross-section of bark. (27 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of primary cortex.
C, Medullary ray. (Photomicrograph.)
471. SASSAFRAS LIGNUM (Unofficial).-SASSAFRAS WOOD. The wood of
the root, coming in billets, partially or wholly deprived of bark, or in rasp-
ings or chips; pale brownish or reddish in color, light and easily cut; medul-
lary rays narrow; odor and taste like the bark, but weaker, there being a
smaller proportion of volatile oil. It is used like the bark.
472. SASSAFRAS MEDULLA.-SASSAFRAS PITH.
The dried pith of Sassafras variifolium O. Kuntze.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Thin, cylindrical, white pieces, very light and
spongy; inodorous; taste insipid and mucilaginous. The tissue is
NECTANDRA-UMBELLULARIA CALIFORNICA.
381
entirely composed of parenchyma. It contains a mucilage (not
precipitated by alcohol or lead subacetate) which forms a limpid,
ropy, viscid solution with water, but not sufficiently tenacious to
hold insoluble substances in suspension. Demulcent, often used as
an application to inflamed eyes.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Mucilago Sassafras Medullæ (2 per cent.).
473. NECTANDRA.-BEEBERU BARK. GREENHEART BARK. From Nec-
tan'dra ro'diæi Schomburgk. Habitat: South America. Large, flat,
heavy pieces, from 250 to 300 mm. (10 to 12 in.) long, 50 to 150 mm. (2 to
6 in.) broad; usually deprived of the cork, leaving longitudinal depressions
in the grayish-brown outer surface similar to the digital furrows of flat cali-
saya bark; internally pale brown, roughly striate. Its structure is chiefly
short liber cells filled with secondary deposit, causing it to break with a
short fracture. Inodorous; intensely bitter, somewhat astringent. It con-
tains tannin, beberine (identical with buxine and pelosine), and sipirine.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge, introduced as a
substitute for cinchona as an antiperiodic, but much inferior. Dose: 15 to
60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), commonly used in the form of beberine sulphate.
474, COTO.-COTO BARK. Origin undetermined. Habitat: Bolivia. Very
large, flat pieces, about 5 to 15 mm. ( to 3 in.) thick, usually deprived of
cork; the outer surface cinnamon-brown, rough, having the appearance
of having been shaved or split off; inner surface darker brown, rough from
numerous close ridges of longitudinally projecting bark fiber; a fresh
cross-section shows numerous small, yellowish spots (groups of stone cells).
Odor aromatic, cinnamon-like, stronger when bruised; taste hot, bitter.
Paracoto bark, which occasionally enters our market from Bolivia, very
much resembles the above, but is marked with whitish fissures, and has a
fainter, somewhat nutmeg-like odor.
CONSTITUENTS.—Cotoin, in true coto bark, paracotoin in the other; both
barks contain volatile oil, resin, and piperonylic acid. They have estab-
lished quite a reputation in diarrhoea. Dose: 5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.).
475. LINDERA BENZOIN Meissner.-SPICE BUSH. (Bark, berries, and
leaves.) Aromatic stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic. The berries have
been used as a substitute for allspice. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
476. LAURUS.-LAUREL. SWEET BAY. The leaves of Lau'rus nobi'lis
Linné. Oval-oblong, about 50 to 100 mm. (2 to 4 in.) long, brownish,
pellucid-punctate; margin entire, wavy; taste aromatic, bitter, somewhat
astringent; odor fragrant, due to a volatile oil. The chief constituent,
however, is a fixed oil (see below) present to the extent of about 30 per
cent. Stimulant and astringent, quite popular as an astringent injection.
476 a. OLEUM LAURI.—LAUREl Oil. A green, granular, semisolid of the
consistence of butter. It consists mainly of laurostearin, but contains a
small quantity of volatile oil which makes it a very aromatic base for lini-
ments and ointments.
477. UMBELLULARIA
LAUREL.
CALIFORNICA Nuttall.-CALIFORNIA
(Leaves.) They contain a volatile oil which seems to be a strong local
anæsthetic, used in neuralgic headache, cerebro-spinal meningitis, intes-
tinal colic, and atonic dyspepsia. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
382
LAURACEÆ.
478. CAMPHORA.-CAMPHOR.
GUM CAMPHOR.
Ger. KAMPFER.
A stearopten (having the nature of a ketone) obtained from Cinnamo'mum cam'phora
Nees et Ebermaier, and purified by sublimation.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A large and handsome tree. Leaves evergreen,
shining, alternate, ovate-lanceolate. Flowers small, perfect, in corymbose
panicles; anthers 4-celled, opening by terminal pores.
SOURCE. The camphor tree grows in Japan and China, especially in the
island of Formosa. This island alone furnishes half of the total
product of the globe, or 5,200,000 pounds. Japan grows 1,560,000
을
​-100
FIG. 188.-Cinnamomum camphora-Branch and flower.
pounds. The rest comes from China, Java, Sumatra, and Florida.
It should be mentioned that the camphor of Malaysia is not extracted
from Cinnamomum camphora, but from Dryobalanops aromatica.
CAMPHORA.
383
The United States alone uses 2,000,000 pounds of camphor yearly.
The trunk, root, and branches are cut into chips and exposed to vapors
of boiling water. The camphor volatilizes and condenses in small
granules on the straw with which the head of the still is lined. It is
freed from the volatile oil by draining or expressing, and is purified
by resubliming with lime from a vessel into which the steam is allowed
to escape through a small aperture. The camphor condenses in a
compact cake, with a circular hole in the center corresponding to
the aperture. Camphor has had to compete with rivals which are
cheaper. In the manufacture of celluloid, the substitution of naph-
thalin for camphor has produced a considerable effect in controlling
the high price resulting from the Japanese monopoly of the industry.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Refined camphor comes in white, translu-
cent masses, tough and somewhat flexible, breaking with a shining,
crystalline fracture; it is very difficult of pulverization by direct
means, but may be easily reduced to a powder by the addition of a few
drops of alcohol, ether, chloroform, glycerin, volatile or fixed oils, or
other volatile liquids for which it has an affinity, by triturating with
an equal weight of sugar, by precipitating the alcoholic solution with
water, or by sublimation. It is very volatile, even at ordinary tem-
peratures, giving out a characteristic penetrating odor. Taste
pungent, aromatic, leaving a cooling sensation in the mouth. Lighter
than water, small pieces taking up a circulatory motion therein, which
ceases upon the addition of a drop of oil. This property has been put
to account in the detection of fatty matter in liquids. When triturated
with water it imparts a decided odor to it, although only about 1 part
to 1000 goes into solution; its solubility is increased by the presence
of sugar or magnesia. Very inflammable, burning with a dense smoke,
and leaving no residue. When triturated with about molecular pro-
portions of thymol, phenol, or chloral hydrate, it liquefies. It melts
at 175° C. (347° Fahr.) and boils at 204° C. (399.2° Fahr.).
Borneo or Sumatra camphor is an allied camphor. By oxidation it
yields ordinary camphor.
18
CONSTITUENTS.—Camphor has the composition C10H16O, and is consid-
ered as a ketone yielded indirectly by the oxidation of borneol, a
secondary alcohol having the composition C10H1O. By treatment
with various reagents camphor yields a number of interesting com-
pounds, as cymol, camphoric acid, etc. With iodine and bromine
it forms compounds, one, the monobromated camphor (Camphora
Monobromata, U. S.), being used as a nerve sedative in doses of
3 gr. (0.2 Gm.); it is made by heating equal portions of bromine and
camphor at 172° F.; one-half the bromine goes off as hydrobromic
384
THYMELEACEÆ.
10 15
acid, leaving the monobromated camphor-C₁,H,BrO. Camphoric
acid, C10H1804, and camphronic acid, C,H12O5, are produced by
oxidation with nitric acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and antispasmodic. Externally anodyne
and rubefacient. Dose: 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6 Gm.), in pill or emul-
sion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
•
Aqua Camphoræ (0.8 per cent.),
Spiritus Camphora (10 per cent.),
Tinctura Opii Camphorata (0.4 per
cent.),
Linimentum Camphoræ (20 per cent.).
Linimentum Saponis (4.5 per cent.).
Dose: to 2 fl. oz. (15 to 30 Cc.).
Linimentum Chloroformi (70 per cent.).
Linimentum Belladonnæ (5 per cent.).
5 to 40 my (0.3 to 2.6 Cc.).
I to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
478 a. OLEUM CAMPHORÆ.-OIL OF CAMPHOR.
Obtained in the sublima-
tion of camphor from the wood. It is a reddish liquid with a slight yel-
lowish tint, and is probably a mixture of a hydrocarbon and camphor.
It resembles the latter in medical properties, but is more of a stimulant,
and is especially applicable to those cases of bowel complaint or spasmodic
cholera in which an anodyne and stimulant effect is wanted. This volatile
oil must not be confounded with Linimentum Camphora, the common
name for which, with many, is oil of camphor Dose: 2 or 3 пy (0.13 to
0.2 Cc.).
479. PERSEA GRATISSIMA Gaertner.-ALLIGATOR PEAR. (Seeds.) Used
by the Mexicans as an anthelmintic, and, in the form of liniment, in inter-
costal neuralgia. Dose of fl'ext.: 30 to 60 my ( 2 to 4 Cc.).
THY MELEACEAE.-Mezereum Family.
Shrubby plants, with the bark containing strong bast fibers, and very bitter.
480. MEZEREUM.-MEZEreum.
MEZEREON BARK.
Ger. KELLERHALS.
The dried bark of Daph'ne meze'reum Linné, and of other species of Daphne, col-
lected in early spring.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A small shrub with smooth, evergreen, lance-
olate leaves. Flowers spicate, appearing before the leaves, rose-colored,
4-lobed. Berry bright red, fleshy, 1-seeded.
HABITAT.-Mountainous regions of Europe, Siberia, Canada, and New
England.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-This bark comes to us in tough, pliable strips,
from 2 to 4 feet long, 25 mm. (1 in.) or less broad, always rolled into
bundles or balls; the very thin periderm is of a greenish-orange
or purple color, marked with transverse scars and minute black
dots; beneath it is a soft, greenish parenchymatous layer, from
MEZEREUM.
385
which it separates easily. The inner surface is whitish, covered with
irregular layers of white silky bast fibers, tangentially arranged.
Fracture tough. Odorless; taste exceedingly acrid.
Powder.-Light brown. Characteristic elements: Outer parenchyma with
chloroplasts and starch; prisms and aggregate calcium oxalate, and resin pres-
ent; sclerenchyma with bast fibers, long, very slender, thin-walled, about 10 μ
thick, quite characteristic; starch (10 to 15 μ in diam.), simple or compound.
을
​尖
​FIG. 189.-Daphne mezereum-Fruiting branch and flowers.
CONSTITUENTS.-It contains a crystalline glucoside, daphnin, C15H10O9,
which is not the active principle, however, the medical virtues de-
pending upon an acrid resin termed mezerein.
ACTION AND USES.-Sialagogue, stimulant, and alterative. Externally
vesicant, in ointment or applied in the form of a small square, moist-
ened. Dose: 1 to 8 gr. (0.065 to 0.6 Gm.).
25
386
SANTALACEÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
positum (3 per cent.),
Fluidextractum Sarsaparillæ Com-
Fluidextractum Mezerei,
Dose:
to fl. dr. (2 to 6 Cc.).
1 to 8 mm (0.065 to 0.6 Cc.).
SANTALACEÆ.-Sandalwood Family.
481. SANTALUM ALBUM. SANDALWOOD. The wood of San'talum al’bum
Linné, and other species of Santalum. It comes in billets from 100 to
150 mm. (4 to 6 in.) in diameter, or in split slices; color varying, yellow-
ish, whitish, or brownish; it has only a feeble taste, but an aromatic
odor, particularly when rubbed or in powder. Contains from 1 to 4 per
cent of volatile oil.
-12
FIG. 190.-Santalum album-Branch.
481 a. OLEUM SANTALI, U. S.-OIL OF SANTAL. A yellowish, some-
what thick volatile oil, having a peculiar, strongly aromatic odor,
and a pungently aromatic taste. It is a valuable remedy in inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane, used especially in gonorrhea and
bronchitis. Its principal use is in the manufacture of perfumery.
Dose: 10 to 30 m (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
STILLINGIA.
387
LORANTHACEA.-Mistletoe Family.
482. MISTLETOE. The bark of Phoraden'dron flaves'cens Nuttall, a para-
sitic evergreen growing on various trees, particularly on fruit trees. Laxa-
tive, oxytocic, . and antispasmodic. As an oxytocic it is claimed to be
superior to ergot. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
EUPHORBIACEÆ.-Spurge Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, usually with an acrid, milky juice, which in some
cases yields rubber. A volatile oil is found in the bark of a few species, and a
fatty oil is found abundantly in the seeds of other plants, as tiglium and ricinus.
A. Roots.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Euphorbiacea.
STILLINGIA, 483.
C. Gum-resins.
Euphorbia, 484.
D.
Euphorbia Corollata,
484 a.
anha, 484 b.
B. Herbs.
484 C.
Mercurialis, 487.
Euphorbia Ipecacu- E.
Euphorbia Pilulifera,
Euphorbium, 485.
Concrete Juices.
Alveloz Milk, 486.
ELASTICA, 488.
G. Seeds.
Ricinus, 491.
Tiglium, 492.
Curcas, 493.
H. Fixed Oils.
OLEUM RICINI,
491 a.
OLEUM TIGLII,
Resin.
Lacca, 489.
F.
Bark.
Cascarilla, 490.
I. Glands.
Kamala, 494.
492 a.
483. STILLINGIA.-STILLINGIA.
QUEEN'S ROOT. QUEEN'S DELIGHT.
Ger. STILLINGIE.
The dried root of Stillin'gia sylvat'ica Linné.
high. Leaves
Flowers mon-
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem herbaceous, 1 to 3 feet
alternate, nearly sessile, oblong-lanceolate, finely serrate.
œcious, in a terminal spike (the fertile flowers at the base), with saucer-
shaped glands at the base of each; stamens 2 or 3; style 1; stigmas 3.
Capsule 3-celled, 3-lobed, 3-seeded.
HABITAT.-United States, from Virginia to Florida, in sandy soil.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A subcylindrical root, 300 mm. (1 ft.) long,
25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) or more thick, slightly tapering and spar-
ingly branched; compact; fracture fibrous; odor distinct, peculiar,
stronger and disagreeable when fresh; taste bitterish and pungent,
persistently acrid.
The color of the exterior surface varies considerably, due, probably,
to the varied character of the soils in which the plants grow. Roughly
speaking, the roots would thus be classified into light and dark stillin-
gias. By the accidental removal of their outer bark the pinkish
inner bark is exposed. Transversely the woody cortex is seen to
occupy about one-half of the diameter of the root. Around this is
disposed the thick bark containing numerous bast fibers separately
388
EUPHORBIACEÆ.
imbedded in the parenchyma. The cambium line is composed of
distinctly marked flat cells. Woody center radiate, through which
numerous tracheids, arranged in four or five radiating rows that are
quite regular in their disposition.
•
Powder.-Light reddish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of
cortex with starch, spherical or ellipsoidal, simple and compound (15 to 30 μ in
diam.), calcium oxalate, aggregate, about 35 in diam.; sclerenchyma with
bast fibers, very long, 20 thick, thick-walled, swelling with KOH; ducts,
reticulate (25 to 50 in diam.); wood fibers, distinctly pitted (20 to 25
diam.); cork cells with reddish-brown coloring-matter.
:
in
44
FIG. 191.-Stillingia sylvatica-Branch.
CONSTITUENTS.-The active principle has not yet been determined; it is
probably a volatile principle, as old roots are nearly inert. An acrid
resin (sylvacrol, soluble in alcohol and chloroform, insoluble in ben-
zene), volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, starch, tannin, and gum have been
separated. The so-called oil of stillingia, as found in the market,
is intended to be the ethereal extract, but sometimes possesses very
little of the persistent acrimony of the root.

EUPHORBIA-EUPHORBIUM.
389
ACTION AND USES.-An efficient alterative and antisyphilitic, usually
given in combination, often with sarsaparilla, but more generally in
the compound syrup of stillingia. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Stillingiæ,
Dose: 15 to 20 m (1 to 2 Cc.).
484. EUPHORBIA.-There are a number of species of this genus yielding
medicinal products:
484 a. EUPHORBIA COROLLATA Linné.-LARGE FLOWERING SPURGE.
(Root.) Long, branched; externally purplish-black, wrinkled; internally
whitish or yellowish. The medical virtues reside in the very thick, in-
ternally whitish bark, which constitutes about two-thirds of the whole
root. Inodorous; taste sweetish, somewhat bitter and acrid. Emetic
in doses of 10 to 20 gr. (0.6 to 1.3 Gm.); diaphoretic, expectorant, and
cathartic in smaller doses.
A
B
C
D
FIG. 192. Stillingia-Cross-section of root. (17 diam.), A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of Cortex. C
Medullary ray. D, Xylem. (Photomicrograph.)
484 b. EUPHORBIA IPECACUANHA.-IPECACUANHA SPURGE. (Root.)
Has medical properties similar to the above. It is of a light brown color
externally, with a thick bark inclosing a yellowish or whitish wood. The
action of these two drugs is due to a resinous matter. Both are indigenous.
484 c. EUPHORBIA PILULIFERA Linné.-A common herb along the road-
sides in Australia, where it enjoys a great reputation for the prompt and
complete relief it gives in asthma and pectoral complaints generally.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
485. EUPHORBIUM.-EUPHORBIUM.
A gum-resin exuding from one or
more undetermined species of Euphorbia, ascribed to some leafless, cactus-
like plants of Egypt, Arabia, and the East Indies. It occurs in dull brown-
ish-yellow or reddish, rounded pieces of the size of a pea or larger, often
pierced with, or inclosing, the spines around which it has hardened on
the stem of the plant; almost inodorous, the powder sternutatory; taste
390
EUPHORBIACEÆ.
mild at first, but afterward intensely acrid and burning. Only used
externally, mostly in veterinary practice as a vesicant.
486. ALVELOZ MILK.-The milky juice of a Brazilian plant, Euphor'bia
heterodox'a Müller. It has an action resembling that of papain, and is
used in eating out cancerous and other ulcers.
487. MERCURIALIS ANNUA Linné.-MERCURY WEED. A European herb,
employed from the most ancient times as a purgative and emmenagogue.
•
488. ELASTICA.-INDIA-RUBBER.
CAOUTCHOUC.
Ger. KAUTSCHUK.
The prepared milk-juice of He'vea Braziliensis Mueller and other species, known
in commerce as Para rubber.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Large trees containing a milky juice which,
on hardening, forms india-rubber. Ficus elastica, producing the greatest
quantity, has its seeds germinate in the forks of the tree, giving off aërial
roots which descend to the ground and form a great many trunks.
HABITAT.-South America and India, the finest quality coming from
Brazil.
DESCRIPTION.-Large, flat pieces, or molded into various shapes-balls,
hollow, bottle-shaped pieces, etc. When the juice first hardens it is
yellowish-brown externally and yellowish-white within, but in the
processes of molding and drying it acquires a smoky, blackish appear-
ance; very elastic; odor peculiar. Insoluble in water and alcohol,
but soluble in chloroform, carbon bisulphide, and benzin. The com-
mon adulterants are the carbonates of zinc and lead; when pure or
nearly pure, india-rubber should float in water.
CONSTITUENTS.-The elastic principle has been termed caoutchouc; it,
or a similar principle, is contained in a great number of milky-juiced
plants.
USES.-On account of its insolubility it has no therapeutic application, but
is extensively used in the arts. It is recognized by the Pharmacopoeia
and employed in some of the official plasters, e. g., Emp. Adhesivum.
489. LACCA.-LAC. GUM-LAC. A resinous exudation from punctures, made
by insects, in the bark of several East Indian trees, and also in plants grow-
ing in Arizona and other Western States. The twigs, with their deep red-
dish-brown incrustations, are called stick-lac. Seed-lac consists of the
small, irregular fragments broken off from the twigs. Lump-lac is made
by melting the stick-lac, and, after it has hardened, breaking the brown,
translucent mass into lumps. Shell-lac or gum-shellac, the most common
form, is prepared by spreading the melted lac out in thin layers, which,
on drying, form thin, brittle sheets, glossy, more or less transparent, vary-
ing from amber to dark brown in color; in packing, these sheets are broken
into fragments, in which form shellac is commonly met with in market;
odorless and tasteless. Lac contains several resins, laccin (a peculiar
principle insoluble in alcohol), and a coloring matter varying in quantity
in the different forms; this coloring matter, "lac dye," is equal to cochineal
dyes; it is soluble in water, being obtained from the washings in making
CASCARILLA-RICINUS.
391
the different forms of lac. Lac is not used medicinally, but is exten-
sively employed in the arts for making varnishes and sealing-wax.
490. CASCARILLA.-Cascarilla BaARK. The bark of Cro'ton elute'ria Bennet.
Small broken quills having a grayish fissured cork, more or less covered
with white lichen patches, but often partially or wholly removed, showing
the dull brown inner bark; inner surface smooth; bast fibers few; fracture
short, resinous; odor feeble, stronger when rubbed; when ignited, it emits
a strongly aromatic odor, somewhat resembling musk, but weaker and
-12
FIG. 193.-Croton cluteria—Branch.
more agreeable; taste warm, aromatic, very bitter. Copalchi bark (see
also Aspidosperma, 353) has a cascarilla-like odor, and melambo bark,
from Croton Melambo, Venezuela, and other species of Croton, are similar
to cascarilla. Constituents: Volatile oil (1.5 to 3 per cent.); cascarillin
(a bitter crystalline principle), tannin, fat, resin, etc. Aromatic, stimulant,
and tonic. Once used as a febrifuge as a substitute for cinchona. Dose: 15
to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
491. RICINUS.-CASTOR-oil Seed. The seeds of Rici'nus commu'nis Linné
(Palma Christi), a herbaceous plant about 4 to 6 feet in height, native to
392
EUPHORBIACEÆ.
India, but cultivated in tropical and warm temperate countries; stems
hollow, purplish-red; leaves large, palmately 9-divided, on long petioles,
with glands at the apex of the petiole; flowers monacious, in terminal
panicles, the lower ones male, the upper female; male flowers-stamens
numerous; female flowers-style 1, stigma 3, colored red; capsule covered
with prickles, 3-celled, each cell containing one seed.
The seeds are about the size of a bean, oval-oblong, flattened on one
گرفته
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FIG. 194. Ricinus communis-Flowering stem, leaf, and section of fruit.
side; at one end is a yellowish caruncle from which runs an obscure, longi-
tudinal ridge (raphé) to the opposite end; externally smooth, of a glossy
grayish color, mottled with reddish-brown from the removal, in places,
of the thin, white pellicle investing the black, brittle testa. Embryo and
albumen very oily; cotyledons broad and veined.
veined. Inodorous; taste
sweetish, then acrid. They contain a fixed oil, 45 to 50 per cent. (Oleum
Ricini, U. S.), ricinin, and a poisonous principle, ricin. They are more
active, weight for weight, than the oil.
OLEUM RICINI-TIGLIUM.
393
491 a. OLEUM RICINI.—CASTOR OIL. The commercial fixed oil is ex-
tracted in several ways, the finest product being yielded by the process
known as cold expression. It is a thick, viscid, transparent liquid
with a feeble odor, and a mild, somewhat acrid and nauseous taste,
soluble in its own weight of strong alcohol. On standing, it becomes
thicker, and deposits a white, crystalline substance. Ricinolein
00
FIG. 195.-Croton tiglium-Flowering branch; flower (enlarged); seed, entire and in section (enlarged).
(the glyceride of ricinoleic acid) constitutes the bulk of castor oil,
with small quantities of palmitin, stearin, myristin, and an acrid prin-
ciple. A mild and efficient cathartic. Dose: to 2 fl. oz. (8 to
60 Cc.). Employed in making flexible collodion, 3 per cent.
Seed.
492. TIGLIUM.-CROTON SEED. The seed of Cro'ton tig'lium Linné, a small
tree indigenous to China, but extensively cultivated in India. The fruit is
a smooth capsule about the size of a large hazelnut, 3-celled, each contain-
394
URTICACEÆ.
ing a single seed. The seeds are from 12 to 15 mm. († to 3 in.) long,
oval-oblong, resembling castor-oil seeds in shape but somewhat larger, and
quadrangular, and with the caruncle usually absent; the testa is soft, dull
yellowish-brown, generally partially, but occasionally wholly, rubbed off
from the black tegmen by friction, giving the seeds a mottled or nearly
black appearance; albumen and embryo yellowish-brown; odor feeble;
taste acrid. It yields about 50 to 60 per cent. of an acrid fixed oil (Oleum
Tiglii, U. S.).
492 a. OLEUM TIGLII, U. S.-CROTON OIL. A rather viscid, pale
yellowish to brown fixed oil, with a peculiar, faint odor, and an ex-
ceedingly hot, acrid taste, continuing in the mouth for several hours.
It consists of the glycerides of lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic,
formic, acetic, crotinic, CHO₂, isobutyric, isovalerianic, and tiglinic,
CHO₂, acids. The vesicating properties are due to a croton resin.
Purgative principle is insoluble in alcohol. Drastic purgative,
capable of causing death in excessive doses. Dose: to 2 m (0.0324
to 0.13 Cc.), in emulsion. Applied externally in liniment, it is a
powerful rubefacient.
2,
493. CURCAS.-PURGING NUTS. The seeds of Cur'cas pur'gans Adanson.
Habitat: Brazil, West Indies, and Africa. They resemble croton seeds,
but have a dull black, fissured surface and are somewhat milder in action.
The purgative principle is ricinoleic acid; they also contain about 40 per
cent. of an acrid, colorless fixed oil.
494. KAMALA.-ROTTLERA. The glands and hairs from the capsule of Mallo'-
tus philippinen'sis Mueller Arg. Official U. S. P. 1890. A brick-red,
mobile, finely granular powder, almost odorless and tasteless, with a gritty
feeling between the teeth; excessive grittiness, however, indicates a prob-
able adulteration with earthy matter, which may be detected by floating
it in water. It is inflammable, flashing up like gunpowder, with a red
flame. Under the microscope the powder is seen to consist of depressed
globular, transparent sacs, containing numerous red, hood-shaped vesicles,
and mixed with colorless hairs. Almost insoluble in water; soluble in
alcohol, imparting a deep red color to the solution, from which water
throws down a resinous precipitate. Flemingia rhodocarpa Baker or
Warrus, a leguminous plant indigenous to Eastern Africa, has been em-
ployed as substitute. The powder is coarser than kamala, is deep purple,
in a water-bath becomes black, and has a slight odor. The glands are
cylindrical or subconical. Constituents: Resins (supposed to be the active
principle) and resinous coloring matters, one of which has been isolated and
termed rottlerin, C22H2O. Vermifuge. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
Preparation of Rottlerin.—Obtained by exhausting with ether or carbon
disulphide, evaporating and crystallizing; occurs in yellowish needles; soluble
in hot alcohol, ether, benzene, or carbon disulphide; changes on exposure.
URTICACEÆ.-Nettle Family.
A large and very diversified family, consisting of herbs, shrubs, or trees,
sometimes with a milky juice yielding caoutchouc; some species have a bark
which yields mucilage; the nettleworts are remarkable for the caustic secretion
of their glandular stinging-hairs; the juice of the hempworts (suborder Can-
nabinex) is bitter and narcotic.
A. Bark.
ULMUS, 495.
B. Strobiles.
C Glands.
ULMUS.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Urticacea.
D. Herb.
CANNABIS INDICA,
498.
Urtica, 499.
HUMULUS, 496.
E. Seed.
LUPULINUM, 497.
Cannabis Semen, 498 a.
F. Fixed Oil.
395
Oleum Cannabis, 498 b.
G. Fruits.
FICUS, 500.
Morus, 501.
495. ULMUS.—ELM.
SLIPPERY ELM BARK.
Ger. ULMENRINDE.
The dried bark of Ul'mus ful'va Michaux (Fam. Ulmaceæ—U.S. P. 1900), deprived
of its periderm.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A tree 40 to 60 feet high. Leaves ovate-oblong,
taper-pointed, doubly serrate, very rough above. Flowers nearly sessile,
in lateral clusters, purplish or brownish. Fruit a 1-celled, 1-seeded samara,
winged all around.
을
​FIG. 196.-Ulmus fulva-Branch.
HABITAT.-North America, north of the Carolinas and east of Nebraska.
Description of DRUG.-Various sized flat pieces about 4 mm. († in.)
396
URTICACEÆ.
thick, deprived of cork, of a uniformly pale brownish-white color,
the finely ridged inner surface with a slight reddish tinge; good
specimens are tough and flexible, capable of being bent double.
The texture consists of soft parenchymatous tissue with tangentially
arranged bast fibers and numerous medullary rays, giving to a cross-
section of the bark a delicately checkered appearance. Odor agree-
able, resembling fenugreek. Taste highly mucilaginous. It yields
a fawn-colored powder which is often adulterated with starch. Euro-
pean elm bark, from U. campestris and U. effusa, cinnamon-colored,
A
B
C
D
FIG. 197.-Ulmus-Cross-section of bark. A. Bast fibers. B. Parenchymatous tissue. C. Mucilage
ducts. D. Medullary rays.
nearly inodorous, mucilaginous, but has a bitterish and astringent
taste, owing to the presence of a little tannin. A few nearly spherical
starch grains (0.005 to 0.01 μ in diameter) are sometimes present.
CONSTITUENTS.-A large quantity of mucilage (capable of precipitation
with alcohol and lead acetate), and some tannin.
ACTION AND USES.-Demulcent-externally as an emollient applica-
tion, in poultice. Dose: 2 dr. (8 Gm.) or more.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Mucilago Ulmi (6 Gm. digested in 100 Gm. of water).
HUMULUS-LUPULINUM.
397
HOPS.
496. HUMULUS.-HOPS.
Ger. HOPFEN.
The strobiles of Hu'mulus lu'pulus Linné, carefully dried-bearing the whole of
their natural glandular coating (Fam. Moraceae, U. S. P. 1900).
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—Rough, climbing perennial. Leaves palmately
3- to 7-lobed, roughish, ovate. Flowers dioecious, the fertile flowers forming
a strobile in fruit; calyx, akene, etc., thickly studded with yellowish, resin-
ous grains, which give the bitterness and aroma to the hops.
HABITAT.-North Temperate Zone.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Strobile about 30 mm. (1½ in.) long, cone-
shaped, consisting of numerous membranous, greenish-yellow scales
attached to a thin, undulating, hairy axis; the scales are oval, leaf-
like, translucent, showing delicate veins, and surround a subglobular
akene; there is also, covering the surface of the scales at the base and
adhering to the zigzag axis, small yellow grains of lupulin, upon
which the value of hops depends. Odor strong, peculiar, somewhat
narcotic; taste bitter, aromatic, slightly astringent.
CONSTITUENTS.-Lupulin (Lupulinum, U. S.), volatile oil (0.08 per cent.),
resin, choline, and tannin.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic, anodyne, and slightly narcotic. Dose: to
5 dr. (2 to 20 Gm.), in infusion or tincture. Externally as an ano-
dyne or sedative in fomentation or poultice.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Humuli (20 per cent., 1890),..Dose: 1 to 3 fl. dr. (4 to 12 Cc.).
497. LUPULINUM, U. S.-LUPULIN. The granular powder separated
from humulus, bright yellow, becoming yellowish-brown with age;
mixed with minute scale particles; resinous; odor peculiar, aro-
matic, like hops, but stronger; taste bitter. Under the microscope
each gland is seen to be composed of two reticulated hemispheres,
one narrow and one round; the narrow one collapses on drying, giv-
ing to the granule a hood-shaped appearance. They are filled with
an oleoresin, the volatile oil of which contains a trace of valerianic
acid, and valerol, which passes into valerianic acid when kept a long
time, causing the valerian-like odor of old hops-lupamaric acid, C35-
H3504·
ACTION AND USES.-Same as hops. Dose: 6 to 15 gr. (0.4 to 0.1 Gm.),
in capsules or pills, the latter of which may be made by simply rub-
bing the powder with warm water until it becomes adhesive.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Lupulini,
Oleoresina Lupulini,
Dose: 10 to 30 my (0.6 to 2 Сc.).
3 to 6 m (0.2 to 0.4 Cc.).
398
URTICACEÆ.
498. CANNABIS INDICA.-INDIAN CANNABIS.
INDIAN HEMP. HEMP.
Ger. INDISCHER HANF.
The dried flowering tops of the pistillate plant of Can'nabis sati'va Linné (Fam.
Moraceæ, U. S. P. 1900), growing in the East Indies. The ovules unfertilized
and carrying the whole amount of its natural resin.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem 4 to 8 feet high, annual, tall, and rough-
ish, the inner bark consisting of tough fibers. Leaves palmately 5- to 7-
divided, the leaflets coarsely serrate. Flowers diœcious, green, in compound,
axillary racemes or panicles. Akene globose, crustaceous.
-IN
FIG. 198.-Cannabis indica-Branch.
SOURCE. The plant is indigenous to Asia, from India northward to
Western China and Caspian Sea. Its cultivation has extended to
Central and Southern Europe, Russia, Brazil, and the Western United
States-in fact, it may be said to grow in all civilized countries on
the globe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Cannabis indica occurs in commerce as bundles
of the flowering tops; the branches, digitate leaves, and the numer-
ous flower-bracts are more or less compressed, and agglutinated to-
CANNABIS INDICA.
399
gether with a resinous exudation; color brownish-green; odor pecu-
liar, narcotic; taste bitterish, somewhat acrid. It is sold in Indian
bazaars for smoking purposes as "gunjah." The leaves, small stalks,
and capsules, dried separately and mixed with aromatics and fruits,
form the Arabian confection, "hashish, bhang, or siddhi." "Chur-
rus” is a brown, earthy-looking resin, brushed off from the plants by
leather-clad men running through the field.
Cannabis americana, the plant grown in various parts of the United
States, acts similarly to the official plant, but is less powerful.
Powder.-Dull greenish. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma with small
aggregate calcium oxalate crystals, about 20 μ in diam.; sclerenchyma with
bast fibers, long, thin-walled, with few simple pores; ducts frequently spiral;
trichomes one-celled, sometimes with crystoliths, one or many celled, heads 8
to 16 celled; pollen, spheroidal (25 to 35 µ in diam.); oil and resin in fragments.
CONSTITUENTS.—The resin and a yellow, aromatic volatile oil, C10H10,
are its most important constituents. The former, cannabin (15 to
20 per cent.), is a brown, amorphous powder, soluble in absolute.
alcohol (but not in cold alcohol of 89 to 90 per cent.), from which
solution it is thrown down as a white precipitate by water; it is very
potent, of a grain acting as a powerful narcotic; it comes into the
market as cannabin tannate; choline, C,H,,NO2, syrupy, soluble in
alcohol and water, very sensitive to Mayer's reagent, yielding at
yellow, crystalline precipitate, is probably the same as the so-called
alkaloid, “tetano-cannabinine.”
24
15
A
Cannabinol. This principle has been obtained by Wood, Spivey, and Ester-
field from the exudate of cannabis indica (charas). Several different fractional
distillates from the ethereal extract of this exudate were obtained. Among these
distillates is cannabinol, C₁8H2O2, boiling at 265° C. It is oleaginous and has
a red color. This they have found to largely represent the active principle.
condensed account of the pharmacology of cannabis indica, as contributed by
Dr. C. R. Marshall, may be found in "Western Druggist," 1899, pp. 163–166.
Preparation of Cannabin.-Treat drug with water made alkaline with Na₂-
CO; exhaust dry residue with alcohol; add milk of lime; precipitate with
H₂SO₁; treat filtrate with animal charcoal. From the resulting liquid, concen-
trated, cannabin is precipitated by water.
ACTION AND USES.-Powerful narcotic. The primary effect of the
drug is that of exhilaration, intoxication, etc. This is followed by
depression, drowsiness, and stupor. It has some advantages over
opium, it is claimed, in that it is not constipating, and interferes less
with digestion; it is more acceptable in certain morbid states of the
system and nervous disquietude. Dose: 3 to 5 gr. (0.2 to 0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Cannabis Indicæ (10 per
cent.),
Fluidextractum Cannabis Indicæ,
Extractum Cannabis Indicæ,
•
Dose: 5 to 20 my (0.3 to 1.3 Cc.).
2 to 3 my (0.13 to 0.2 Cc.).
to I gr. (0.0081 to 0.0650 Gm.).
400
URTICACEÆ.
498 a. CANNABIS SEMEN.-Hemp Seed.
These have been used in the
form of emulsion as demulcent and anodyne, depending upon the fixed oil
which they contain. They are mostly used as a bird-seed, however, and
for the extraction of the fixed oil.
498 b. OLEUM CANNABIS.-OIL OF HEMP. A greenish fixed oil, becoming
lighter and brownish on exposure; odor hemp like; taste mild. Used as
a demulcent and protective. Neither it nor the seed are thought to have
any narcotic action.
499. URTICA.-NETTLE. STINGING NETTLE. The herb of Urti'ca dio'ica
Linné. Habitat: United States and Europe. Tonic, astringent, and a
valuable diuretic. As an astringent it is chiefly used in uterine hemor-
rhages. Dose: 20 to 40 gr. (1.3 to 2.6 Gm.).
1/2/44
FIG. 199.-Ficus carica-Branch and fruit.
500. FICUS.-FIG.
Ger. FEIGEN.
FIG.
The partially dried fruit of Fi'cus car'ica Linné (Fam. Moracex, U. S. P. 1900).
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A small tree with palmately-lobed, cordate
leaves. Flowers monoecious, inclosed within a pear-shaped receptacle
which converges so as to leave only a small orifice at the apex; style single;
stigmas 2.
JUGLANDACEÆ.
401
HABITAT.-Levant; cultivated extensively in the Mediterranean Basin
and subtropical regions.
COLLECTION.—Figs are either left on the tree to dry or are dried after
being gathered by artificial heat or the heat of the sun, and in this
condition are called "natural figs," or they are rendered pliant by
pulling and kneading. They are then packed in boxes or drums and
known as "pulled figs." The largest and best are those of Smyrna
and Turkey, the best Smyrna being known as "Eleme figs." The
largest amount is imported from Asiatic Turkey, and the remainder
from Spain, Portugal, and other countries.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Figs come into market compressed, and covered
with an efflorescence of sugar which melts in warm weather and makes
them soft and moist. They are yellowish or brownish, somewhat
translucent, and consist mostly of a sweet, viscid pulp, in the center
of which are numerous small, yellow ovaries, or akenes, popularly
regarded as seeds; odor peculiar; taste sweet, mucilaginous. When
soaked in water they may be opened out to their original pear-shaped
form, showing the short stalk, or its scar, at the base or pointed end,
and scales at the large end surrounding an orifice near which the
staminate flowers were situated; the numerous akenes, or ovaries, of
the pistillate flowers cover the walls of the hollow interior.
CONSTITUENTS.—Grape sugar (60 to 70 per cent.), gum, fat, and salts.
ACTION AND USES.-Nutrient, laxative, and demulcent. Their principal
use medicinally is as a laxative diet in constipation, freely given, which
action in dried figs is mainly due to the indigestibility of the seeds
and tough skin. Dose: 4 dr. (15 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Confectio Sennæ (12 per cent.),
Dose: 1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
501. MORUS.—MULBERRY. The fruit of Mo'rus ru'bra, M. nigra, and M.
alba Linné, indigenous trees. Dense, cylindrical spikes of the small fruit,
differing in size, shape, and color in the different species. They are all
used in the fresh state as a refrigerant.
JUGLANDACEE.-Walnut Family.
A small family of trees with monoecious flowers and the fruit a nut.
502. JUGLANS.—BUTTERNUT. The root-bark of Jug'lans cine'rea Linné,
collected in autumn. Off. U. S. P. 1890. Corky layer very thin, smooth,
grayish, easily removed, leaving a smooth, deep-brown surface; inner
surface pure white when the bark is first removed from the tree, but changes
to deep brown on exposure. In the market it is found in flat or curved
pieces about of an inch (5 mm.) thick, the outer surface dark gray and
nearly smooth, or, deprived of the soft cork, deep brown, the inner sur-
face striate. Fracture short, whitish-and-brown checkered; medullary
rays somewhat diagonal; odor feeble; taste bitter, somewhat acrid. The
26
402
MYRICACEÆ—CUPULIFERÆ.
leaves and bark of Juglans nigra (black walnut) have been used as an altera-
tive and deobstruent, and the bark of Carya alba (shellbark hickory) as
a tonic and antiperiodic. The kernels of the nuts of all these trees yield
about 25 per cent. of a pale greenish fixed oil (Oleum Juglandis, or nut oil),
used as a demulcent. Constituents: Bitter oily extractive, in large pro-
portion juglandic acid, C₁HO,, tannin (?), two other acids, one of them
volatile, with potassium, sodium, and other salts. A mild cathartic,
especially valuable in habitual constipation. It was much used in the
army during the Revolutionary War. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.).
MYRICACEÆ.-Sweet-gale Family.
503. MYRICA.-BAYBERRY BARK. WAX MYRTLE. The bark of Myri'ca
ceri'fera Linné, an indigenous plant growing on seashores, the fruit of
which is covered with a layer of white vegetable wax. This bark is occa-
sionally used in medicine as a tonic, and as an astringent gargle in sore
throat, etc. Dose of fl'ext.: 15 to 30 m (1 to 2 Cc.).
504. COMPTONIA.—Sweet FERN. The leaves of Compto'nia asplenifo’lia
Aiton, an indigenous herb. They are linear-lanceolate, with deep, alternate,
rounded lobes, and have a spicy odor, especially when rubbed. Stimulant
and astringent. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
CUPULIFERÆ.-Oak Family.
An important order on account of its valuable wood. It is characterized by
alternate leaves and monoecious flowers, the sterile ones in catkins, the fertile in
clusters or spikes, and the fruit a 1-seeded nut, with or without a woody, scaly
involucre (cupule).
A. Bark.
QUERCUS, 505.
Alnus, 506.
Fagus, 507.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Cupuliferæ.
B. Excrescence.
C. Leaves.
GALLA, 508.
ACIDUM TANNI-
CUM, 508 a.
Castanea, 509.
OLEUM BETULÆ
VOLATILE, 510.
ACIDUM GALLI- D. Heart-wood.
CUM, 508 b.
Ostrya, 511.
PYROGALLOL,
508 c.
505. QUERCUS.-WHITE OAK.
WHITE OAK.
Ger. EICHENRINDE.
The bark of Quer'cus al'ba Linné, collected from trunk or branches ten to twenty-
five years of age and deprived of the periderm.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A large tree 100 to 120 feet high, with pale
bark. Leaves smooth, pale or glaucous beneath, bright green above,
obovate-oblong, pinnately 3- to 9-lobed. Stigma sessile. Cupule saucer-
shaped, tuberculated, much shorter than the ovoid acorn.
HABITAT.—North America, westward to Minnesota, Kansas, and Mis-
sissippi.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Flat pieces about 6 mm. († in.) thick, deprived
of the thick, corky layer; pale brown; coarsely fibrous; inner sur-
QUERCUS.
403
face traversed by prominent longitudinal ridges; fracture coarse,
fibrous (the tissue contains groups of stone cells and crystals of cal-
cium oxalate); odor faintly tan-like; taste very astringent. It is
usually found in the shops as a coarse, fibrous powder.
Powder.-Pale brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex,
rather thin-walled, pale brownish rosy hue, some with brown resin or irregular
brownish-yellow tannin masses; calcium oxalate, aggregate or prisms (10 to
"
2
FIG. 200.-Quercus alba—Branch.
μ
20 μ in diam.); sclerenchyma with stone cells (25 to 40 in diam.), thick-walled;
bast fibers 15 to 30 μ thick, long, rather large, thick-walled; crystal fibers with
aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate (10 to 20 μ in diam.); cork
cells, pentagonal or hexagonal (20 to 30 μ in diam.).
CONSTITUENTS.-Quercitannic acid 6 to 11 per cent., a coloring matter,
a bitter principle (quercin), sugar (quercite), resin, etc. The active
principles are soluble in water and alcohol. The amount of tannin
varies with the species, the part of the tree, and the season of the
404
CUPULIFERÆ.
year when gathered; the young bark contains a greater proportion
than the old.
Quercitannic Acid.-Two forms of this principle exist, accord-
ing to Lowe-one soluble in water, of the formula C28H28O14, and the
other scarcely soluble, C28H24O12. Both are changed by the loss of
water into oak red, C28H22O11. Neither is a glucoside.
Quercitron. Under this name large quantities of black oak
(Quercus tinctoria) bark deprived of its epidermis and reduced to a
coarse powder are sent from the United States to Europe as a dye.
The coloring principle is called quercitron, CH,8O30. This gluco-
side splits up by hydrolysis into quercetin and isodulcite, or rham-
mose, CH12O5(Сн¸О¿CH₂). Quercetron (Xantho rhamnin) forms
yellowish crystals, odorless and tasteless, but in hot aqueous or alco-
holic solution has a bitter taste.
Preparation of Quercin.—Boil bark in acidulated (H₂SO,) water; add milk
of lime to neutralize; filter; add K₂CO. Yellow needles slowly form on evap-
oration of alcoholic solution of above precipitate.
ACTION AND USES.-Astringent and tonic, generally used externally in
infusion or decoction as an astringent and tonic bath, injection, etc.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). Fluidextractum Quercus, U. S.
506. ALNUS SERRULATA Willdenow.-TAG Alder. Habitat: North Amer-
ica. (Bark.) Tonic, astringent, and alterative. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to
4 Gm.).
507. FAGUS FERRUGINEA Aiton.-AMERICAN BEECH. (Bark and leaves.)
Astringent and slightly tonic.
GALLS.
508. GALLA.-NUTGALL.
Ger. GALLÄPFEL.
An excrescence produced on Quer'cus lusitan'ica Lamarck by the punctures and
deposited ova of Cynips gallæ tinctoriæ (Fig. 201) Olivier (class, Insecta; order,
Hymenoptera).
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-
A shrub or small tree 6 to 8 feet high. Leaves
short-petiolate, obovate-oblong, obtusely toothed, oblique at base. Acorn
solitary, obtuse, two or three times the length of the cup.
HABITAT.-Levant.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Hard, heavy, subglobular, from the size of a
pea to that of a large cherry, contracted below into a short stipe
and covered above with a few or many prom nent warts (tuber-
culated) between which the surface is smooth. Externally dark
bluish or lead color, frequently with a greenish tinge, often with a
circular hole near the middle upper part, communicating with the
central cavity. They break with a flinty fracture, showing a whitish
or brownish interior, with often a central cavity, lined with a thin,
GALLA.
405
hard shell, which contains the insect in all stages of development, or
the pulverulent remains of the developed insect mixed with partly
eaten fragments of the starchy parenchyma. Odorless; very astrin-
gent.
STRUCTURE.—The tissue is chiefly parenchyma, loaded with tannin and
FIG. 201.-Quercus lusitanica-Branch and nutgall.
chlorophyll; the cavity lining is composed of stone cells containing
calcium oxalate crystals; within this cavity, if not eaten out, is a
starchy parenchyma.
VARIETIES.—Most of the oaks are occasionally affected as the above
species, the resulting excrescence, known as galls, developing a tannin
406
CUPULIFERÆ.
which may be employed for various practical purposes. The Aleppo
or Syrian, dark colored and heavy (although the designation Aleppo
is not wholly applicable to the official galls—" Galla"), are the products
of different parts of Asiatic Turkey; still the name is applied to this
variety. Smyrna galls, grayish-olive color, intermixed with white
galls. Sorian, size of a pea, blackish. Japanese and Chinese, from
Rhus simulata, to 2 inches long, ovate, very irregular, tubercular,
grayish downy, inclosing the remnants of numerous insects. The
Chinese make use of this product in dyeing and as a medicine.
Powder.-Brownish-gray. The microscopic elements consist of: One-celled
trichomes; thin-walled parenchyma; few starch granules and spiral ducts.
Constituents.—Tannin 65 to 77 per cent. (gallotannic acid), chemi-
cally known as digallic acid, C₁H10O. It is a yellowish-white
amorphous substance, insoluble in absolute ether, chloroform, benzol,
benzin, and carbon disulphide, soluble in glycerine, alcohol, and
water; precipitated blue-black by ferric salts, and white by gelatin.
It appears to exist, in part at least, as a glucoside and digallic acid.
Digallic acid may be considered as an anhydride of gallic acid, C₂H¿О5,
formed from two molecules of the latter by elimination of one mole-
cule of water. Gallic acid also exists in galls. It is precipitated
blue-black by ferric salts, the color disappearing on boiling, and is
not affected by gelatin when gum is absent.
14
6 5'
Preparation of Tannic Acid.-Powdered nutgall is exposed to damp atmos-
phere for twenty-four hours, then made into paste with washed ether. Allow to
stand six hours, then express in canvas cloth between tinned plates. After
powdering the pressed cake, again make into paste with washed ether. Repeat
the former process and allow the mixed liquid to evaporate spontaneously.
ACTION AND USES.-Galls are strongly astringent, but in the crude form
are only used locally. From them are extracted tannic and gallic
acids. Dose: 8 gr. (0.6 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Gallæ (20 per cent.),
Unguentum Gallæ (20 per cent.).
Glyceritum Acidi Tannici (20 per cent.
tannic acid).
Unguentum Acidi Tannici (20 per cent.
tannic acid).
Collodium Stypticum (20 per cent. tan-
nic acid)
Trochisci Acidi Tannici (about 1 gr. in
each troche),
Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
I to 2 troches.
508 a. ACIDUM GALLICUM, U. S.-GALLIC ACID. Usually pre-
pared from tannic acid. Also prepared by exposing moistened pow-
dered nutgalls to the action of the air for a month or more; a peculiar
PYROGALLOL-CASTANEA.
407
fermentation sets in which converts the tannic acid into gallic acid;
this is extracted by expression and purified by filtration and crystal-
lization. It is in light, silky, acicular needles, colorless when
pure, but as usually seen in the shops, of a more or less pale brown-
ish color; inodorous; taste sourish and astringent. It differs
from tannic acid in its sparing solubility
in cold water, and in not precipitating gela-
tin or alkaloids from their solutions. It is
less astringent than tannic acid, and in-
ferior to it in all respects except where the
astringent effect must be reached through
the medium of the general circulation.
Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.).
508 b. PYROGALLOL, U. S.-PYROGALLIC
ACID. A triatomic phenol, C.H¸(OH)3,
obtained chiefly by the dry distillation of
gallic acid. It is in light, white, shining
laminæ, or in fine needles, becoming gray
or darker when exposed to the air or light,
and should therefore be kept in amber-
colored bottles; inodorous; astringent.
Soluble in water and alcohol. Used ex-
clusively externally in the form of oint-
ments, in lupus, psoriasis, and other skin
diseases. Its absorption through abra-
sions in the skin has caused death by
general poisoning.
509. CASTANEA.-CHESTNUT. The leaves of Cas-
tan'ea denta'ta Sudworth, collected in Sep-
tember or October while yet green. Off. U.
S. P. 1890. Oblong, elliptical, from 150 to
250 mm. (6 to 10 in.) long, and about 50
mm. (2 in.) broad, with a sharply pointed
apex and a short petiole; margin somewhat
unequally, but strongly, repand-dentate, with
prominent parallel veins beneath each tooth
(feather-veined); texture firm, flexible; odor
slight; taste somewhat astringent. Constitu-
ents: Tannic acid about 9 per cent., gum,
albumen, salts, and traces of resin and fats.
Tonic and astringent, used almost exclusively in whooping-cough in the
form of infusion or fl'ext. Dose: to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
FIG. 202.-Chestnut leaf, natural
size.
Fluidextractum Castaneæ, U.S. P. 1890, Dose: to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
408
SALICACEÆ.
510. OLEUM BETULE.-VOLATILE OIL OF BETULA.
OIL OF SWEET BIRCH.
A volatile oil distilled from the bark of Betula lenta Linné (Fam. Betulaceæ, U. S.
P. 1900).
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A tree often exceeding 60 feet in height, with
a diameter of 2 or 3 feet. The trunk is invested with a dark brown or
reddish bark, separating in thin layers. Remarkable for its agreeable fra-
grance and flavor. Leaves cordate, ovate-acuminate, acutely, finely, and
doubly serrate, veined beneath. Flowers monacious, sterile catkins 2 or 3
inches long, fertile much shorter and thicker; petals hairy; wood reddish,
strong, compact.
DESCRIPTION. This oil is identical with methyl salicylate, CH,C,-
H₂O, and nearly identical with oil of wintergreen (330 a). Its
specific gravity is 1.18. In fact, is one of the sources of commercial
oil of wintergreen. Dose: 5 to 30 m (0.3 to 2 Cc.). It should be
kept in well-stoppered bottles, protected from the light.
511. OSTRYA VIRGINICA.-IRON-WOOD. HOP-HORNBEAM. The wood has
some reputation as an antiperiodic, tonic, etc. The fl'ext. is used in
malaria, in doses of to 1 fl. dr. (2 to 4 Cc.).
SALICACEÆ.-Willow Family.
Diœcious trees or shrubs with both kinds of flowers in catkins; fruit bearing
numerous seeds furnished with long, silky down.
512. SALIX.—WILLOW. The bark of Saʼlix al′ba Linné, and of other species
of Salix. Habitat: Europe; naturalized in North America. The best
bark is that collected from the older branches, coming in thin fragments or
quills, the thin brownish or yellowish periderm of which overlays a green-
ish parenchymatous layer. The bark from the trunk is deprived of the
outer layer, pale cinnamon-brown, exfoliating; fibrous. Inodorous; taste
bitter and astringent. Two varieties—white willow and purple willow,
S. purpurea (see below).
CONSTITUENTS.—Tannin about 12 per cent., most abundant in the white
willow, and a bitter neutral principle, salicin, which is the active glucosidal
constituent, occurring and coming into market in silky, shining, white
needles or grains; it exists most abundantly in the purple willow, but may
be extracted from various other species and from various species of Populus,
where it is combined with populin (benzoyl salicin). The degree of bitter-
ness in the barks is probably the best criterion of the value of the several
species.
to
=
512 a. SALICINUM.-It occurs in white, shining, bitter crystals, soluble in
28 parts of water and 68 parts of alcohol. Boiled with sulphuric acid it
is converted into saligenin or saligenol, C,H,O₂, and glucose, according
the following formula: C13H1807 + HO (CH₁)(OH)CH₂OH +
CoH12O6. By oxidation with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid,
salicylic aldehyde, C,H,OH.COH, is formed, having the fragrant odor
of the oil of meadowsweet (Spiræa ulmaris) and of heliotrope. Tonic, as-
tringent, febrifuge. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.). The bark itself
GNETACEÆ.
409
is rarely employed, however, salicin being used instead in doses of 10 to
30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
Preparation of Salicin.-Obtained by adding lead subacetate to a decoction
of the bark, precipitating the excess of lead with H₂S. Evaporate liquid. Add,
near the end of the process, sufficient quantity of animal charcoal to decolorize;
filter the liquid while hot. Upon cooling, salicin will deposit in crystalline form.
513. POPULUS.-WHITE POPLAR. AMERICAN ASPEN. The bark of Pop'ulus
tremuloi'des Michaux. Tonic and febrifuge. Its active principle, popu-
lin, is analogous to the salicin of salix (510). Dose of fl'ext.: 30 to 60 m (2
to 4 Cc.).
-12
FIG. 203.-Salix alba-Branch.
514. POPULUS BALSAMIFERA.-BALM OF GILEAD BUDS. The buds of
Pop'ulus balsamif'era Linné, variety candicans Gray. Habitat: North-
ern North America and Siberia. These buds, as well as those of other
species of Populus, are covered with a resinous exudation which is im-
pregnated with a fragrant volatile oil, and is very similar in medicinal action
to the turpentine oleoresins. Dose of fl'ext.: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
GNETACEÆ.
Dose
515. EPHEDRA.-The herb Ephe'dra antisyphilit'ica C. A. Meyer. This
plant is a native of Arizona, where it is used in venereal diseases.
of fl'ext.: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
410
CONIFERÆ.
CONIFERÆ.-Pine Family.
Trees or shrubs with a resinous juice. The wood differs from that of dicoty-
ledons in that it is destitute of ducts, but has instead bordered disks. The
FIG. 204. Berry (galbulus) and
acicular leaves of Juniper.
FIG. 205.-Cone of
the Larch.
leaves are usually fascicled, and are mostly awl- or needle-shaped. Fruit a
cone or galbulus.
A. Tops.
SABINA, 516.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Coniferæ.
Juniperus Virginiana,
516 a.
Thuja, 517.
B. Fruits.
Juniperus; 518.
C. Barks.
Pinus Strobus, 5164.
Tsuga, 520.
Larix, 521.
Venice Turpentine,
522 a.
TEREBINTHINA
CANADENSIS, 524.
Pix Canadensis, 525.
PIX LIQUIDA, 523.
Pix Burgundica, 526.
E. Volatile Õils.
OLEUM
OLEUM CADINUM,
519.
OLEUM TEREBIN-
THINÆ, 522 b.
OLEUM PICIS LIQ-
UIDÆ, 523 a.
Oleum Succini, 527 a.
F.
Resins.
SABINÆ,
OLEUM JUNIPERI,
516 b.
518 a.
RESINA, 522 c.
Succinum, 527.
Dammara, 528.
Kauri, 529.
Sandaracca, 530.
D. Oleoresins.
TEREBINTHINA,
522.
SAVINE.
516. SABINA.-SABINA.
Ger. SEVENBAUM.
The tops of Junip'erus sabi'na Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTIcs.-A small bushy shrub with slender branches.
Leaves small, opposite, decussate, imbricated. Fruit round, bluish-purple.
HABITAT.-Southern Europe and Levant.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The young and tender green shoots are stripped
off in the spring, coming into the market as short, thin, quadran-
gular branchlets, clothed with alternate pairs of minute, opposite,
scale-like leaves, appressed (more pointed and divergent in older
twigs); each scale has a shallow groove and a conspicuous, depressed
oil-gland in the back. The berry-like cone fruit is about the size of
a pea, situated on a short, recurved pedicel, and covered with a
bluish bloom; it is dry, but abounds in essential oil, and contains
OLEUM SABINE-JUNIPERUS.
411
from 1 to 4 small, bony seeds. Odor strong, balsamic; taste bitter
and acrid. Adulteration: Red cedar tops (516 a).
Powder.-Yellowish-brown. The microscopic elements consist of: Tracheids
with bordered pits; parenchyma with numerous stomata; long bast fibers and
starch grains.
CONSTITUENTS.—Tannin, resin, gum, etc., and. a volatile oil (516 b)
(2 per cent. in tops, 10 per cent. in berries) having the same compo-
sition as oil of turpentine.
ACTION AND USES.-Savine is an irritant, acting especially as a uterine
stimulant; also diuretic, emmenagogue, and vermifuge. Dose: 5
to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.). It is used externally in ointment as a stimu-
lant dressing for bruises.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Extractum Sabinæ Fluidum,
Dose: 5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.).
516 a. JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA.-The tops of the red cedar, or American
savine, are often used to adulterate savine, from which they can scarcely
be recognized except by difference in taste and smell. The galbulus of
the false variety is borne on an erect pedicel.
516 b. OLEUM SABINE.-OIL OF SAVINE. A nearly colorless, some-
times yellow, limpid, volatile oil, having a strong, terebinthinate odor,
and a bitterish, intensely acrid taste. It has the same composition
as oil of turpentine. Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
き
​5161. PINUS STROBUS Lin.—WHITE PINE. The inner bark of Pinus strobus
(Weymouth Pine), from eastern and central North America. In flat
pieces about 6 inches long by 3 inches in width and inch in thickness.
Bark brittle, fracture irregular, not fibrous, but showing several woody
layers. Reddish-brown streaked with gray outside; inner, yellowish
blotched with light brown; bland odor; mucilaginous, slightly bitter and
astringent taste.
PROPERTIES.-Those of balsamic preparations generally.
USES. An emollient and expectorant in chronic affections of air-passages.
Dose of fluidextract: to 1 fluidrachm (2 to 4 Cc.).
517. THUJA.—ARBOR VITÆ. The leafy tops of Thu'ja occidenta'lis Linné, a
North American evergreen tree. Small flattened twigs having a scalloped
appearance, due to the flat, lateral leaf-scales, each of which has an oil-
gland near its apex; the other leaves folded lengthwise, boat-shaped,
mostly glandless; odor balsamic, somewhat terebinthinate; taste pungently
aromatic, camphoraceous, and bitter. The medicinal properties of Thuja
depend mainly upon a volatile oil. It resembles savine in its general
action. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in infusion or fl'ext.
518. JUNIPERUS.-JUNIPER Berries. The fruit of Junip'erus commu'nis
Linné, an evergreen shrub or small tree inhabiting the Northern Hemi-
sphere, bearing small cones, the scales of which coalesce in threes, become
fleshy, and ripen into the so-called berry. These berries or fruits are
globular, about the size of a large pea, with a triangular depression at the
top caused by a three-rayed furrow where the scales are united; at the base
are a few small scales, remnants of undeveloped whorls; externally of a
glossy, purplish-black color, covered with a grayish bloom; they contain
a brownish-yellow pulp with oil-glands, in which are imbedded three small,
bony, angular seeds, also covered with large oil-glands; odor disagreeably
412
ì
CONIFERÆ.
aromatic, balsamic; taste sweetish, warm, and balsamic, slightly bitter.
The Smyrna berry from J. phonicea Linné, yields an oil of greater optical
activity.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, most abundant in the full-grown green
berries, being partially converted into resins on ripening, entirely so in the
dead-ripe, black berries; also juniperin, sugar (15 to 30 per cent.), wax,
fat, proteids, mucilage, etc. Their virtues are extracted by water and
alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant and diuretic, chiefly used as an adjuvant
to more powerful diuretics in dropsical complaints. Dose: 15 to 60 gr.
(1 to 4 Gm.), in infusion, water, spirit, etc., the volatile oil, however, ob-
tained from the wood and branches, being principally used. They are
largely used in the manufacture of gin, which owes its diuretic properties
to them.
518 a. OLEUM JUNIPERI, U. S.-OIL OF JUNIPER. A colorless or
greenish-yellow volatile oil, with a strong, terebinthinate odor and a
hot, acrid taste. Specific gravity 0.850 to 0.865. It consists of
pinene, C10H16, cadinene, and juniper camphor.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Spiritus Juniperi (5 per cent.),
Dose: 30 m (2 Cc.).
Spiritus Juniperi Co. (0.4 per cent.),... Dose: 2 fldr. (8 Cc.).
519. OLEUM CADINUM.-OIL OF CADE.
JUNIPER TAR OIL.
Ger. KADE OEL.
An empyreumatic, oily liquid obtained from the heart-wood of Junip'erus oxyce'drus
Linné, by dry distillation in ovens.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A tree 10 to 12 feet high, with spreading top
and drooping twigs. Leaves awl-shaped. Fruit globular, reddish-brown,
about the size of a filbert.
HABITAT.-Mediterranean Basin.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A brownish or dark brown, oily liquid, less
thick and more mobile than tar, having a tarry but characteristic
odor, and an aromatic, bitter, and acrid taste.
ACTION AND USES.-Used mostly externally in the treatment of cutane-
ous diseases and as an insecticide in the form of liniments, ointments,
or soaps. Dose: 3 m (0.2 Cc.).
520. TSUGA CANADENSIS Carriere.-HEMLOCK SPRUCE. (Bark.) Tonic
and astringent. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
521. LARIX AMERICANA Michaux. - TAMARAC.
AMERICAN LARCH.
(Bark.) Tonic and gently astringent, its chief action being upon mucous
membranes. Dose: to 2 dr. (2 to 8 Gm.).
522. TEREBINTHINA.-TURPENTINE.
TURPENTINE.
Ger. GEMEINER TERPENTIN.
A concrete oleoresin obtained from Pi'nus palus'tris Miller (Fam. Pinaceæ, U. S. P.
1900), and other species of Pinus.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.-A large tree, 60 to 100 feet, with thin, scaled
bark, and hard, very resinous wood. Leaves 10 to 15 inches long, in threes,
TEREBINTHINA.
413
from long sheaths. Sterile flowers rose-purple. Cones large, cylindrical
or conical-oblong.
SOURCE AND COLLECTION.-Southern United States, particularly North
Carolina. The oleoresin is secreted in the sapwood; some of it
flows spontaneously, but it is generally obtained by a process called
"boxing," as follows: During the winter from one to four excava-
tions, each holding from 4 to 8 pints, are cut into the tree through
the sapwood. After a few days the bark above these cavities is re-
moved for about a height of 3 feet, and some of the wood is hacked
off, the hacks being in the shape of the letter L. The oleoresin begins
to flow about the middle of March, and continues until September or
October. The turpentine is removed by means of dippers constructed
for the purpose, and then usually distilled. That which flows the first
year is considered the best, being termed "virgin dip," and yields about
6 gallons of oil per barrel, and "window-glass rosin"; that of the
next and subsequent years is known as "yellow dip," yielding about
4 gallons of oil per barrel, and medium grades of rosin. The turpen-
tine which hardens on the tree is known as "scrapings," and yields
about 2 gallons of oil per barrel, leaving a dark resin.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-In yellowish, opaque, tough masses, brittle in
the cold, crumbly-crystalline in the interior, of a terebinthinate odor
and taste. In warm weather it is a yellowish, viscid semiliquid when
fresh, but ultimately, through exposure to the air, becomes perfectly
dry and hard.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Ceratum Resinæ Compositus (11.5 per cent.). Employed in ointments and
plasters generally.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil 20 to 30 per cent. (522 b), abietinic anhy-
dride, C44H82O4, in rosin (522 c), the acid of which, abietic acid,
C44H64O5, is crystalline, soluble in CS2, benzol, alcohol, ether, chloro-
form, glacial acetic acid, and alkalies.
522 a. Venice Turpentine.-A yellowish or greenish liquid of honey-
like consistence, collected in Switzerland and portions of France
from Larix europea De Candolle. Obtained by boring holes into
the center of the wood and dipping the liquid out as it accumulates.
It received its name from having formerly been almost entirely dis-
tributed from the Venetian port. Genuine Venice turpentine is com-
paratively scarce in the markets to-day, most of it being a factitious
brown liquid made by dissolving rosin in oil of turpentine.
A number of other turpentines are obtained from various species
of pine, larch, and fir, but hardly any of them enter our markets.
The turpentines all agree in their medical properties, and differ only
slightly in their physical characteristics, all of them being liquid at
414
CONIFERÆ.
first, thickening through the evaporation and oxidation of their vola-
tile oil, and ultimately solidifying. They melt by heat, and at a
high temperature ignite with a white flame attended with dense
smoke.
CONSTITUENTS.—Volatile oil 20 to 30 per cent., resin (abietic anhy-
dride, crystallizing out as abietic acid), a bitter principle, and traces
of succinic and acetic acids.
ACTION AND USES.-The turpentines are rarely used internally, the vola-
tile oil, to which the medicinal virtues are due, being used instead.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in pills. Externally irritant and
rubefacient, in ointments and plasters.
16
522 b. OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ, U. S.-OIL OF TURPENTINE.
SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE. A volatile oil distilled from turpentine, the
markets of the United States being chiefly supplied by the North
Carolina forests. A perfectly limpid, colorless liquid when pure, but
generally somewhat colored from resin contained, or from oxidation;
odor peculiar, strong, penetrating; taste hot, pungent, somewhat
bitter. It is very volatile and inflammable. When purified by dis-
tilling with caustic soda, it constitutes the Oleum Terebinthinæ Recti-
ficatum, U. S., which is officially directed to be dispensed when oil
of turpentine is required for internal use.
CONSTITUENTS.-Oil of turpentine consists of several terpene hydrocar-
bons having the formula C10H18 (pinene), sp. gr. 0.855-0.870. When
exposed to the air, it becomes thick from the oxidation of some of
these hydrocarbons into resin. When the rectified oil is treated with
nitric acid, large crystals of terpin hydrate (Terpini Hydras, U. S.)
separate out, having properties similar to the oil of turpentine. Dose,
2 gr. (0.1 Gm.). The European turpentine oil contains pinene and
sylvestrine; it forms with hydrochloric acid a crystalline compound,
C10H16HCl (artificial camphor). Terebenum is a liquid derived
from the oil (consisting chiefly of pinene) by treatment with sulphuric
acid, boiling point 156º-160° C. Dose: 8 m (0.5 Cc.).
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, diuretic, hemostatic, occasionally dia-
phoretic; in large doses anthelmintic and cathartic; externally rube-
facient, in rheumatism, etc. As a stimulant it is often beneficial in
low forms of fever, and, when death is inevitable, to prolong life
beyond the natural limit. Dose: 5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.) in emul-
sion.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Linimentum Terebinthinæ (35 per cent.
with resin cerate).
Oleum Terebinthinæ Rectificatum, ..Dose: 5 to 15 m (0.3 to 1 Cc.)
I
PIX LIQUIDA.
415
522 c. RESINA, U. S.-RESIN. ROSIN. COLOPHONY. The residue
left after distilling off the volatile oil from turpentine. It has been
asserted that Pinus palustris, the official species, contains more
resin than any other German or American pine. When pure, rosin
is of a clear, pellucid, amber color, but the commercial rosin is yel-
lowish-brown, more or less dark, sometimes almost black, the color
depending upon its purity and the amount of heat used in its prepara-
tion; it breaks with a shining, shallow, conchoidal fracture; odor
and taste faintly terebinthinate. White rosin is an opaque variety
made by incorporating it with water.
CONSTITUENTS.-Rosin is the anhydride of abietic acid, C44H82O47 into
which acid it may be converted by warming with dilute alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.—An important ingredient of ointments and plasters,
and is said to have the property of preserving them from rancidity
by preventing the oxidation of the fatty base.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Ceratum Resinæ (35 per cent.).
TAR.
523. PIX LIQUIDA. TAR.
Ger. THEER.
SOURCE.-An empyreumatic oleoresin obtained by the destructive distil-
lation of the wood of Pinus palustris Miller, and of other species of
Pinus. The pine logs are cut into billets, and built up into a stack
and covered with earth, as in making charcoal. Slow combustion is
started through an opening in the top of the stack, and the resinous
matter, as it melts out and collects in a cavity in the center, is drawn
off into barrels.
DESCRIPTION.—A resinous, black semiliquid, of an empyreumatic, tere-
binthinate odor, and a sharp, bitterish, empyreumatic taste. Acid in
reaction. Partly soluble in water.
Birch tar, Dagget, or Oleum Rusci, from Betula alba Linné, has
an odor similar to that of Russian leather.
CONSTITUENTS.-Tar is a very complex substance, varying with the kind
of wood, amount of resins present therein, and the care exercised in
its preparation, the chief constituents being an empyreumatic volatile
oil, pyrocatechin, acetone, xylol, toluol, cresols (creosote), guaiacol,
phenol, etc. The acid reaction which characterizes tar is due to
acetic acid, obtained in an impure state as pyroligneous acid by dis-
tillation. In the retort is left behind the ordinary solid and fusible
pitch of commerce.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, irritant, insecticide, similar to, but less
416
CONIFERÆ.
irritant than, the turpentines. Dose: 8 to 60 gr. (0.6 to 4 Gm.). The
syrup is much used in pulmonary affections.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Syrupus Picis Liquidæ (0.5 per cent.), ... Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
Unguentum Picis Liquidæ (50 per cent.).
523 a. OLEUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ, U. S.-OIL OF TAR. A volatile
oil distilled from tar, the residue left being common pitch, pix nigra.
A nearly colorless liquid when first distilled, but soon acquires a dark,
reddish-brown color; it has the characteristic odor and taste of tar,
which depends upon it for its medicinal properties. Dose: 1 to 5 m
(0.065 to 0.3 Cc.), in capsules or emulsion.
524. TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS.-CANADA TURPENTINE.
CANADA BALSAM. BALSAM OF FIR.
Ger. CANADISCHER TERPENTIN.
A liquid oleoresin obtained from A'bies balsam'ea Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Abies balsamea has solitary leaves, with acu-
minate apex, and cylindrical cones reflexed in flower.
HABITAT.-Canada, Nova Scotia, Maine, and the mountainous regions
further south.
PRODUCTION.—The oleoresin is secreted in small vesicles in the bark,
collected by puncturing and allowing the liquid to exude into a vessel
having a broad and funnel-like lip. The vesicles contain only from
a few minims to 1 fluid drachm.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A yellowish or faintly greenish, transparent
liquid of honey-like consistence, becoming thicker and somewhat
darker with age, but always retaining its transparency, and ultimately
drying into a transparent mass; it has an agreeable, aromatic, tere-
binthinate odor, and a bitterish, feebly acrid, but not disagreeable
taste, for which reason it is sometimes erroneously called balm of
Gilead (514).
ACTION AND USES.-It has medical properties similar to the other turpen-
tines and copaiba, but is rarely employed as a remedial agent. It is
most valued for mounting microscopic objects, for which its
beautiful and durable, uncrystalline transparency peculiarly fits it.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Collodium Flexile (5 per cent.).
525. PIX CANADENSIS.-CANADA PITCH or HEMLOCK PITCH. An oleoresin
obtained from the North American hemlock spruce, A'bies canaden'sis
Carriere. Resembles Pix Burgundica (526) in appearance, properties, and
uses; it is somewhat darker red-brown in color and is much more fusible;
odor weak, peculiar; taste very feeble. Rosin is a common adulteration.
526. PIX BURGUNDICA.—BURGUNDY PITCH. The resinous exudation pre-
SUCCINUM-SANDARACCA.
417.
pared from Abies excelsa Poiret. Off. U. S. P. 1890. (Fam. Penaceæ,
U. S. P. 1900.) A reddish-brown or yellowish-brown, opaque or translu-
cent solid when pure, gradually taking the form of the vessel in which it
is contained; brittle, breaking with a shining, conchoidal fracture; at
body heat it becomes soft and adhesive; odor agreeable, somewhat aro-
matic, terebinthinate; taste aromatic and sweetish, not bitter. A mix-
ture of common pitch, rosin, and turpentine melted together and agitated
with water, is often substituted for Burgundy pitch, but may be detected
by its insolubility in warm glacial acetic acid. Terebinthina cocta, a
residue from the distillation of turpentine with water, and Resina pini
(white turpentine), fused in hot water and strained, are allied products
resembling the former, but these later become crystalline. Constituents:
Volatile oil (smaller proportion than in turpentine), water, and resin.
Gentle rubefacient and stimulant, in chronic rheumatism, etc., in plasters.
Emplastrum Picis Burgundicæ (80 per cent.), U. S. P. 1890.
Emplastrum Picis Cantharidatum (92 per cent., with cerate of cantharides),
U. S. P. 1890.
527. SUCCINUM.-AMBER. A fossil resin from extinct coniferous trees, found
in greater or less quantities in every quarter of the globe; the largest
deposits occur in the region surrounding the Baltic Sea, where it has been
washed upon the shore. In small, irregular pieces, usually light or deep
yellowish-brown, sometimes reddish-brown, generally translucent; taste-
less and odorless, but emits an agreeable, aromatic odor when heated. It
is almost insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, or oils, slightly soluble in chloro-
form. Used for fumigation, for the preparation of succinic acid and oil of
amber, and in the arts.
With
527 a. OLEUM SUCCINI.-OIL OF Amber. A light yellowish-brown or amber-
colored liquid (colorless when pure), having a balsamic, empyreumatic
odor, and a warm, acrid taste. On exposure to light and air it thickens
and becomes darker, ultimately solidifying into a black mass.
fuming nitric acid it acquires a red color, changing after a time into
a brown, resinous mass having a peculiar musk-like odor. It is often
adulterated with oil of turpentine, which may be detected by its throwing
down a solid camphor when hydrochloric acid gas is passed through the
mixture. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and irritant. Dose: 5 to 15 m (0.3
to 1 Cc.). Externally in liniments.
528. DAMMARA.-DAMMAR. GUM DAMMAR. A spontaneous, resinous ex-
udation collected in the East Indies from A'gathis dam'mara Richard.
Transparent, straw-colored, rounded masses, almost free from odor and
taste, and breaking with a glossy, conchoidal fracture. Used mostly for
varnishes.
529. KAURI RESIN.-KAURI GUM. A resin dug in large quantities from the
soil in New Zealand, where it has exuded from Dam'mara orienta'lis. It
is in large cream-colored or amber-colored masses. Used as a vulnerary
in skin diseases; also used as a substitute for collodion, leaving an adherent,
impervious, resinous varnish over the wound.
530. SANDARACCA.-SANDARAC.
A resin exuding spontaneously from the
bark of a North African evergreen tree, Calli'tris quadrival'vis Ventenat.
Small rounded masses about the size of a pea, of a yellowish color; it re-
sembles mastic somewhat, and is often substituted for it on account of its
lower price, but a simple means of distinction is afforded in its becoming
pulverulent (not adhesive) when chewed. It was formerly used as a mild
stimulant in ointments and plasters, but is now mostly used for varnishes.
Its powder is used as a pounce to prevent ink from spreading on paper or
cloth.
A
27
418
ORCHIDACEÆ.
ORCHIDACEÆ.—Orchis Family.
Perennial herbs, sometimes parasitic, with perfect, irregular, and usually
showy flowers, the stigma having a broad, glutinous surface (except in Cypri-
pedium); the (usually single) anther is sessile on the style; it is 2-celled, each
cell containing one or more waxy masses of pollen, pollinia (Fig. 115).
Synopsis of Drugs from the Orchidacea.
A. Rhizomes.
CYPRIPEDIUM, 531.
Corallorrhiza, 532.
B. Tuber.
Salep, 533.
C. Fruit.
VANILLA, 534.
531. CYPRIPEDIUM.-CYPRIPEDIUM.
LADIES' SLIPPER.
Ger. GELBFRAUENSCHUB-WURZEL.
The dried rhizome and roots of Cypripe'dium hirsutum Miller, of Cypripedium
parviflo'rum Salisbury, and Cypripedium pubescens Willdenow.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Generic characters.-Rootlets of many tufted
fibers. Stem about a foot high, from a rhizome. Leaves large, many-
nerved, sheathing at the base. Sepals 3, spreading; petals 3, forming a
large inflated sac; pollen loose and powdery or somewhat granular; stigma
terminal, broad, moist, and roughish.
Cypripedium pubescens. Stem 2 feet high, pubescent. Leaves broadly oval,
acute, pubescent. Sepals linear-lanceolate; petals (lips) pale yellow.
Cypripedium parviflorum. Stem 1 to 2 feet high, pubescent. Leaves oblong-
lanceolate. Flowers fragrant, bright yellow, about one-third the size of C.
pubescens.
HABITAT.-North America, in swampy regions.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A horizontal, somewhat curved rhizome, about
the thickness of a quill and 100 mm. (4 in.) or less in length, of a
dark brown or light orange-brown color; on the upper side it is closely
covered with deeply concave stem-scars about the width of the
rhizome, and on the lower side with smooth, simple, wavy root-
lets, abruptly descending, varying in length from 100 to 500 mm.
(4 to 20 in.); cortical parenchyma thick, wood-bundles and nucleus
sheath indistinct; fracture of rhizome short, of roots fibrous; odor
somewhat valerian-like, diminishing with age; taste sweetish, bitter,
somewhat pungent at the last; adulterated with hydrastis canadensis
and polygalla senega.
Cypripedium parviflorum has the rhizome bent two or three times,
almost at right angles, and is of a brighter orange-brown color; the
rootlets are shorter and less wavy.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil (a trace), a volatile acid, resins, tannin,
sugar, starch, and fixed oil. The active principle has not yet been

CYPRIPEDIUM.
419
isolated, but the virtues of the drug are supposed to reside in the
volatile oil and a bitter principle (probably a glucoside).
ACTION AND USES.-Diaphoretic, nerve stimulant, and antispas-
A
C
FIG. 206.-Cypripedium-Leaf and flower. (Pho-
tograph.)
B
FIG. 207.-Cypripedium-Cross-section of rhi-
zome. (20 diam.) A, Cortex. B, Vascu-
lar bundle. C, Ground tissue. (Photomicro-
graph.)
A
B
FIG. 208.-Cypripedium-Cross-section of rootlet.
cortex. C, Xylem.
C
(30 diam.) A, Epidermis. B, Parenchyma of
(Photomicrograph.)
modic, less powerful than valerian.
opium in the treatment of children.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Cypripedii,
It is valuable as a substitute for
Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.).
Dose: 8 to 15 my (0.5 to 1 Cc.).
420
ORCHIDACEÆ.
532. CORALLORRHIZA ODONTORRHIZA
Nuttall.-CRAWLEY. CORAL
ROOT. The rhizome of a parasitic, leafless herb growing throughout the
United States east of the Mississippi. "A prompt and powerful diapho-
retic, with sedative properties. A combination with blue cohosh is a good
emmenagogue." Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
533. SALEP.-Salep. The tubers of Or'chis mas'cula and Orchis morio
Linné. Habitat: Europe. Frequently comes in powder. It is a farina-
ceous, gummy substance, somewhat analogous to tragacanth in composi-
tion. Demulcent and nutritive.
VANILLA.
534. VANILLA.
Ger. VANILLE.
The full-grown but immature fruit of Vanil'la planifoʻlia Andrews, cured in the
customary manner.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-A fleshy, climbing orchid with long, smooth,
dark green stem sending out at the nodes aërial rootlets which fasten it to
the tree or other support. Leaves sessile, fleshy, tough, veinless. Flowers
pale yellowish, in loose axillary racemes. Fruit a pod.
SOURCE AND VARIETIES. Of the genus Vanilla there are some twenty-
three species recognized, a few only of which are used and cured as
the commercial vanilla, a product of cultivation mainly. The fruit
is chiefly cultivated in Mexico and Bourbon, and to a greater or less
extent in the West Indies, Java, Mauritius, Ceylon, the Fijis, and
Straits Settlements.
COLLECTION AND CURING.-The fruits are collected before they are ripe,
just as they begin to turn yellow, then placed between woolen blankets
in a sweating-box and left there for thirty-six hours, being afterward
exposed to the noonday sun just long enough to dry off the perspira-
tion which was thus produced. This process is repeated until the
fruit has a uniform blackish chocolate color, until the curer deter-
mines the process finished and the fruit ready for packing.
ARTIFICIAL POLLENIZATION OR FECUNDATION.-In Mexico and Guinea
fertilization is left to natural influences, as by insects and by the wind;
but in Reunion (Bourbon) artificial fecundation is resorted to because
there is a total lack of the necessary insect life. Pollenization consists
in holding the flower with the thumb and finger of the left hand,
and, with a splinter of wood or bamboo held in the right hand, rais-
ing up the labellum between the pollen and the stigma, then with the
forefinger of the left hand pressing the former down upon the latter.
Transversely are seen several rib-like processes extending inward.
These are the placenta which support the numerous minute seeds.
Projecting into the central cavity and borne on the inner cell-wall
VANILLA.
421
are unicellular papillose hairs; these secrete oil and resin, which
elaborate vanillin.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Linear, somewhat triangularly compressed pods
from 150 to 250 mm. (6 to 10 in.) long, 8 mm. (3 in.) thick, attenuated
at the base, where they are curved more or less into a hook; flexible;
을
​FIG. 209.-Vanilla planifolia-Branch showing leaf and flowers.
externally finely furrowed longitudinally, dark brown, shining,
unctuous, often covered with an incrustation of fine, acicular crystals
of vanillin;* they split lengthwise into two unequal valves, showing
numerous minute, lenticular, glossy black seeds imbedded in a black,
oily pulp, which also contains shining, acicular crystals. The pecu-
* An adulteration of benzoic acid crystals can be detected by the latter having rhom-
boidal form. Most excellent papers on Vanilla are found: "Amer. Druggist," 1898,
pp. 36, 37, and "Western Druggist," December, 1897.
422
SCITAMINEÆ.
liar, strong, aromatic odor resides chiefly in the pulp; taste warm,
aromatic, sweetish.
CONSTITUENTS.-The aroma of vanilla chiefly depends upon a crystalline
principle, vanillin (C,H,.OH.OCH,.CHO, m-methoxy-p-oxybenzal-
dehyde), which does not exist in the green pods, but is developed
during the process of curing, and forms the frosty inflorescence upon
their surface. It is found in many other plants, being first made
artificially from coniferin, a glucoside found in the cambium of the
pine; it is now largely made from oil of cloves by reactions upon the
eugenol.
FIG. 210.-Bourbon
FIG. 211.-Mexi-
FIG. 212.
FIG. 212. Tahi-
FIG. 213.-Wild Vanilla.
Vanilla.
can Vanilla.
ti Vanilla.
་ང་དད་
Preparation of Vanillin.-Treat alcoholic extract with ether, evaporate, and
treat residue with boiling water, when needles of vanillin are deposited. Pre-
pared artificially on large scale from coniferin, C₁0H22O8 + 2H2O, a compound
occurring in the sap of the cambium in the Coniferæ. This is first fermented
and finally oxidized.
ACTION AND USES.-Carminative, stimulant, aphrodisiac, anti-hysteric.
Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.). It is rarely employed medicinally,
being principally used as a flavor.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Vanillæ (10 per cent.),
Flavoring.
SCITAMINEÆ.-Banana Family.
A tropical order, many species of which have a pungent principle in their
rhizome or root; other species yield an abundance of starch and coloring matter.
ZINGIBER.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Scitamineæ.
A Rhizomes.
ZINGIBER, 535.
B. Fruit.
CARDAMOMUM, 539.
C. Seeds.
Galanga, 536.
Zedoaria, 537.
Curcuma, 538.
Granum Paradisi, 540.
423
GINGER.
535. ZINGIBER.-GINGER.
Ger. INGWER.
The dried rhizome of Zin'giber officina'le Roscoe (Fam. Zingiberaceæ, U. S. P. 1900),
deprived of periderm.
BOTANICAL Characteristics.-Root-stock biennial, creeping; stem 3 to 4 feet
high; leaves linear-lanceolate, smooth. Spikes radical, each flower bracte-
ate; lip 3-lobed; stamens 3, 2 abortive; capsule 3-celled, 3-valved.
HABITAT.-Africa, Hindustan; cultivated in the West Indies and tropics.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A flattened rhizome, from 25 to 100 mm. (1 to
4 in.) long, with large club-shaped lobes on one side; deprived
of the corky layer by scraping, and bleached, leaving a pale buff-
colored, striate surface, sometimes covered with a white powder of
calcium carbonate from being steeped in milk of lime; fracture
mealy and rather fibrous, showing a whitish interior dotted with
numerous small, orange-colored oil and resin-cells. Transverse sec-
tions show a parenchymatous meditullium containing scattered resin-
cells and numerous fibrovascular bundles, which latter are less abun-
dant outside of the nuclear sheath. The central cylinder is quite
broad as compared with the cortical layer; aromatic and spicy;
pungent.
VARIETIES.—The above-described root, Jamaica ginger or white ginger,
is the finest variety, yielding 5 per cent. oleoresin. African ginger
is shorter, with broadly linear or oblong lobes, and is not deprived
of its light brown, corky layer. Chinese ginger is also a coated rhi-
zome, but has short stumpy lobes. East India ginger is scraped on
the flat side, leaving the cork remaining on the edges. It yields 8
per cent. of oleoresin. Green ginger consists of the rhizome sent to
market without drying; black ginger, of the rhizome steeped in
boiling water before drying, after which it has a black, horny struc-
The preserved ginger is an article on the market which consists
of soft, yellowish-brown pieces, obtained by steeping the fresh ginger
in hot syrup and carefully bottling.
ture.
Powder.-Brownish-yellow to brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma
of cortex with starch, oval to elliptical (8 to 15 by 18 to 75), cells, large,
loosely united; sclerenchyma with bast fibers long, thin-walled (15 to 25 μ in
424
SCITAMINEÆ.
diam.), porous; ducts, large; oil and resin cells with suberized walls. African
ginger has cork present.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, 1 to 2 per cent. (consisting of camphene
and phellandrene), and gingerol, the former probably giving to it its
aromatic properties, and a resinous, viscid, inodorous extractive its
-12
FIG. 214.-Zingiber officinale.
hot, pungent taste; also resin, starch (20 per cent.), and mucilage.
Jamaica ginger yields about 5 per cent. of oleoresin, the East India
ginger about 8 per cent.
ACTION AND USES.-Stimulant, carminative, and stomachic, often used
as an adjuvant to bitter, tonic preparations. Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5
to 2 Gm.).

ZINGIBER.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Zingiberis (20 per cent.), ....Dose:
Fluidextractum Zingiberis,..
Syrupus Zingiberis (3 per cent.), ..
Pulvis Aromaticus (35 per cent.), ..
Pulvis Rhei Compositus (10 per cent. of
ginger),
Oleoresina Zingiberis,
15 to 60 my (1 to 4 Cc.).
8 to 30 m (0.5 to 2 Cc.).
2 to 6 fl. dr. (8 to 24 Cc.).
10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
1 to 3 dr. (4 to 12 Gm.).
to 2 m (0.0324 to 0.13 Cc.).
425
FIG. 215.-Cross-section of ginger, outer portion of peeled rhizome. a. Fragment of cork. b. Fibro-
vascular bundles. c. Resin cell. d. Parenchyma. (15 diam.)
FIG. 216.-Zingiber-Jamaica, showing lobes of rhizome, peeled and unlimed. (natural size.)
(Photograph.)
536. GALANGA.-GALANGAL. The rhizome of Alpi'nia officina'rum Hance.
Habitat: China. Reddish-brown, cylindrical, branched, about 100 mm.
(4 in.) long, and about the thickness of the thumb, marked with circular
or diagonally annular, whitish rings, the remains of former leaf-sheaths;

426
SCITAMINEE.
FIG. 217.-Zingiber-Chinese limed and peeled. (3 natural size.) (Photograph.)
FIG. 218.-Zingiber-African, half peeled. (3 natural
size.) (Photograph.)
FIG. 219.-Curcuma longa.
ZEDOARIA—CURCUMA.
427
internally orange-brown, dotted with numerous brownish-yellow resin-cells;
odor and taste ginger-like. Small galangal, or galanga minor, does not
exceed the little finger in size, is darker in color, and has a stronger taste
and odor. Like ginger, their activity is due to a volatile oil and a resin,
and they have the same medicinal action. (Highly magnified starch grains,
see Fig. 370.)
537. ZEDOARIA.-ZEDOARY. The rhizome of Cur'cuma zedoar'ia Roxburgh.
There are two kinds, the long and the round, both coming from the East
Indies. Externally grayish-white, internally brown, hard, compact; odor
aromatic; taste spicy, camphoraceous. The drug comes into`market in
slices and disks. It is used as an aromatic stimulant, and possesses prop-
erties similar to but inferior to those of ginger. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6
to 2 Gm.).
538. CURCUMA.-TURMERIC. The rhizome of Cur'cuma lon'ga Linné.
Habitat: Southern Asia and East Indies, the best coming from China.
Cylindrical pieces (Curcuma longa), about as thick, but not so long, as the
finger, tuberculated and somewhat contorted; externally yellowish-gray,
FIG. 220.-Curcuma longa-Cross-section of the rhizome.
internally deep orange-yellow, with a darkish ring marking the circular
nucleus sheath; hard, compact, breaking with a glossy, waxy fracture;
odor feeble but peculiar; taste aromatic, pungent, bitter.
Curcuma rotunda is round or oval, about the size of a pigeon's egg, or
larger, marked externally with annular rings. Both forms of root are
derived from the same plant, one being a modification of the other.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil, a viscid oil, a pungent resin, pasty starch,
and a peculiar yellow coloring matter called curcumin, turned brownish
by alkalies, becoming violet on drying; with boracic acid it produces an
orange tint, changed to blue by alkaline solutions. Stimulant and tonic,
but rarely used in that way, except in India, where it is used as a condi-
ment, like ginger. It is used in pharmacy for coloring ointments and
tinctures, and for preparing turmeric test-paper.
Preparation of Curcumin.-Obtained pure after removing the oil by exhaust-
ing the residual powder with ether, evaporating and recrystallizing from alcohol.
Crystals yellow, with a vanilla-like odor.
428
SCITAMINEÆ.
539. CARDAMOMUM.-CARDAMOM.
CARDAMOM.
Ger. CARDAMOMEM.
The dried ripe fruit of Elettaʼria re'pens Baillon. (Fam. Zingiberaceæ, U. S. P. 1900.)
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Rhizome fleshy-fibrous. Stem 6 to 9 feet high.
Leaves lanceolate, pubescent above, silky beneath. Flowers borne on
scapes; anthers 2-lobed. Capsules 3-celled, 3-valved.
HABITAT.-Malabar; cultivated in India.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Triangular-ovate, from 12 to 37 mm. (to
1½ in.) long, with flat, ribbed sides, in the center of which are longi-
tudinal furrows marking the positions of the cell-partitions; valves
three, opening longitudinally at the rounded angles; central placenta.
The pericarp is of a yellowish or buff color, leathery, and nearly
tasteless. Internally 3-celled, each containing from 5 to 7 reddish-
brown, irregularly. angular, rugose seeds, having an aromatic odor
and taste; these seeds form 75 per cent. of the fruit in the best varieties.
The inert pericarp is rejected in making preparations.
VARIETIES.-Malabar, the choicest, plump, light, and buff color; Aleppo,
A
C
C
B
I
mostly short and greenish. These
two kinds are mostly imported into
the United States. Besides these,
there are Madras cardamom, ob-
long, alternated above, pale in color;
Ceylon, from Elettaria major, 1 in.
(40 mm.) long, triangular, prolonged
into a beak, dark gray and brown.
This latter variety is of inferior
flavor. Round cardamom, from
Amomum cardamomum of Siam and
Java, and A. globosum and A. aro-
maticum (Bengal cardamom) are known; also winged Java cardamom,
from A. maximum. This latter variety has from 9 to 12 wings from
the base to the apex, but the Bengal has 9 wings near the apex.
FIG. 221.-Cardamomum. A. Whole fruit en-
larged. B. Cross-section. C. Seed.
Powder. Pale brownish-gray (of seed). Characteristic elements: Paren-
chyma of pericarp, thin-walled with prismatic calcium oxalate crystals; the
pericarp valueless as an aromatic; parenchyma of endosperm with oil, proteid
granules and starch, spherical or angular, simple or compound (1 to 4 µ in diam.);
seed coat with dark brown stone cells (15 to 20 µ in diam.), inner wall thickened;
pericarp has bast fibers very slightly lignified; outer epidermal cells elongated
(20 to 30 in diam.), tangential walls thickened; oil cells with suberized walls;
Ceylon differs from Malabar in containing trichomes and in the measurements
of the elements.
CONSTITUENTS.—The pericarp is almost inert, consisting chiefly of lig-
nin. The seeds abound in a fixed oil (10 per cent.) and a volatile
1
BROMELIACEE-HÆMODORACE.E-IRIDEÆ.
429
oil (4.6 per cent.), consisting of terpene, diterpene, and terpineol,
with rhombohedric masses of albuminous matter, gum, and about 15
per cent. of ash, containing 8 to 10 per cent. of manganese.
ACTION AND USES.-Aromatic, stimulant, stomachic, and carminative,
used principally in this country as an adjuvant. Dose: 5 to 15 gr.
(0.3 to 1 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Cardamomi (20 per cent.),.... Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita (2.5
per cent., with cassia cinnamon, cara-
way, and cochineal),
Pulvis Aromaticus (15 per cent.),.
1 to 3 fl. dr. (4 to 12 Cc.).
10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
540. GRANUM PARADISI.-GRAINS OF PARADISE. GUINEA GRAINS. The
seeds of Amo'mum gra'na paradi'si and Amo'mum melegue'ta. Small,
roundish, somewhat cuneiform; externally finely warty, reddish-brown;
internally white. When rubbed, they emit a feebly aromatic odor; taste
hot and peppery. Action somewhat resembles pepper.
BROMELIACEAE.-Pineapple Family.
541. ANANASSA.-PINeapple. The fruit of Ananas'sa sati'va Schultz.
The fresh juice contains the digestive ferment, bromelin, which is a power-
ful and rapid digestant of albumen, both animal and vegetable, acting in
the presence of either acid or alkaline carbonates, but most energetically
in neutral solutions. It is more nearly related to trypsin than to pepsin.
HÆMODORACEÆ.-Bloodwort Family.
542. ALETRIS.-COLIC ROOT. STARWORT. The rhizome of Alet'ris farino'sa
Linné. Habitat: United States. Small, crooked, about the size of a
quill, flattened and tufted above and beset with wiry, white rootlets below.
Alcohol extracts its bitter principle. Bitter tonic, diuretic, and vermifuge;
used extensively in the treatment of uterine diseases. Dose: 10 to 30 gr.
(0.6 to 2 Gm.).
IRIDEÆ.-Iris Family.
Perennial herbs, with equitant, 2-ranked leaves, the flowering stem arising from
a rhizome or corm.
543. IRIS.-IRIS VERSICOLOR. BLUE FLAG. (1890.) A horizontal, jointed
rhizome, generally cut into longitudinal slices; externally brown, closely
annulate from the leaf-sheath remnants, and near the broad flattened end
crowded with long, simple rootlets. Constituents: Acrid resin 25 per cent.,
fixed oil, starch, gum, tannin, sugar, iridin, and indications of a brownish,
viscid, amorphous alkaloid. Preparation of Iridin: Obtained by precipitating
hot alkaline solution by an acid. The eclectic method of preparation is to
precipitate concentrated alcoholic tincture with water; mix dried precipi-
tate with equal quantity of licorice root. Cholagogue, cathartic and
alterative. Dose: 10 to 30 gr. (0.6 to 2 Gm.).
Fluidextractum Iridis (U. S. P. 1890),.. Dose: 10 to 30 m (0.6 to 2 Cc.).
Extractum Iridis (U. S. P. 1890),
I to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
544. IRIS FLORENTINA.-ORRIS ROOT. The rhizome of I'ris florenti'na,
Iris pallida, and Iris germanica Linné. Habitat: Northern Italy. In
430
IRIDEÆ.
club-shaped "pieces or joints, from 75 to 125 mm. (3 to 5 in.) in length, a
broad depression or scar terminating the broad end. Externally white,
peeled; fracture short, mealy, faintly yellowish-white; odor violet-like;
taste mealy, bitterish, and somewhat acrid. It contains iridin, irone,
C₁3H200, a ketone of violet odor, acrid resin, starch, mucilage, bitter ex-
tractive, and orris camphor, consisting of a fat impregnated with volatile
oil. Cathartic, diuretic. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.). Chiefly used
in tooth-powders and perfumes. (Highly magnified starch grains of Iris,
see Fig. 371.)
13-
FIG. 222.-Crocus sativus-Plant, flower, and stigma.
545. CROCUS.-SAFFRON. The stigmas of Cro'cus sati'vus Linné. Asia
Minor and Greece; cultivated for market in Spain, France, and other
temperate countries of Europe; also cultivated in the southeastern coun-
ties of Pennsylvania. Commercial saffron is mostly of French or Spanish
origin; a product of the Cape of Good Hope known as Cape saffron, re-
sembling the genuine in odor, is a flower of a small plant belonging to the
Scrophulariaceae ("Pharm. Journal," vi, 462, 1865). “American saffron'
consists usually of safflower. The commercial or "hay saffron" consists of
orange-brown stigmas, separate, or united (three) to the top of the style,
DIOSCŒRACEÆ-LILIACE.E.
431
about 30 mm. (1} in.) long, almost filiform, enlarging toward the top,
which is toothed; their edges are rolled in, giving them a flattish-tubular
appearance; crisp and somewhat elastic; orange-brown; odor peculiar,
aromatic; taste pungent, bitterish. In selecting saffron the above char-
acteristics should be borne in mind; the drug should not emit an offensive
smell when thrown upon live coals. If it has a musty flavor or a black,
yellowish, or whitish color, it should be rejected. If the cake saffron be
purchased, those should be selected which are close, tough, and firm in
tearing. Owing to its high price, saffron offers a great field for adulteration,
which is done in various ways. The commonest is to mix the stigmas with
the styles, which may be distinguished by their lighter color. Old saffron
and that deprived of its coloring matter leaves an oily stain when pressed
between paper, due to the fixed oil with which they are covered to conceal
their false nature. The florets of other flowers, as calendula, carthamus,
and arnica, may be detected by dropping them into water, when their
characteristic forms will come out. Mineral adulterants, which are some-
times found to the extent of 20 per cent., will subside to the bottom when
the suspected drug is placed on water; carbonate of lime will effervesce
when a drop of acid is placed on the suspected drug. Constituents: An
orange-red coloring matter, which gives to saffron its chief value; a gluco-
side, usually called crocin, CH70028, but formerly called polychroit, because
of the many different colors it gives with acids; crocetin, C34H4O9, and a
volatile oil, C10H16, upon which its medicinal virtues depend. Saffron has
fallen into almost complete disuse among practitioners of the United
States and Great Britain, but it is occasionally used in domestic practice
in the form of a tea, to promote eruption in measles, scarlet fever, and other
exanthematous diseases. Dose: 5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.). Chiefly used
for coloring preparations.
44
Tinctura Croci (10 per cent.). (U.S. P.
1890),
40
Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
I
DIOSCOERACEA.-Yam Family.
546. DIOSCOREA.-WILD YAM. COLIC ROOT. The rhizome of Diosco'rea
villo'sa Linné. Habitat: United States. Expectorant, diaphoretic, anti-
spasmodic, and a stimulant to the intestinal canal. It is a valuable remedy
in bilious colic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.), in fluidextract.
LILIACEÆ.-Lily Family.
Herbs (rarely woody) with flowering stems springing from bulbs or corms
with the leaves parallel-nerved, except in the tribe Smilaceæ, where they are
netted-veined. The perianth consists of six divisions; anthers introrse; ovary
superior, usually 3-celled.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Liliacea.
C. Bulbs.
Allium, 555.
SCILLA, 556.
A. Root.
SARSAPARILLA,
547.
B. Rhizomes.
D. Corm.
CONVALLARIA,
548.
VERATRUM, 549.
E. Seeds.
Veratrum Album, 549 a.
Polygonatum, 551.
Chamælirium, 552.
COLCHICI COR-
MUS, 557.
COLCHICI SE-
MEN, 558.
Sabadilla, 550.
F. Inspissated Juices.
ALOE, 559.
Aloe Barbadensis,
559 a.
Aloe Capensis, 559 b.
Aloe Socotrina, 559 c.
G. Resin.
Xanthorrhoea, 560.
H. Leaves.
Erythronium, 561.
Trillium, 553.
Asparagus, 554.
432
LILIACEÆ.
547. SARSAPARILLA.-SARSAPARILLA.
SARSAPARILLA.
Ger. SASSAPARILLE.
The dried root of Smi'lax officinalis Kunth, Smi'lax med'ica Chamisso et Schlech-
tendal, Smilax papyra'cea Duhamel, Smilax ornata Hooker, and of other
undetermined species of Smilax.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Evergreen, climbing, shrubby plants. Stem
prickly. Leaves alternate, netted-veined, coriaceous, ovate-oblong, with
a cordate base, 1 foot long and 4 to 5 inches broad. Flowers in axillary
clusters, diœcious; stigmas 3, sessile. Fruit a globular, 1- to 3-seeded berry.
HABITAT.-Tropical America, in swampy forests.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—The varieties used in medicine have a thick,
knotty rhizome (which, if present, should be removed) from which
grow in a horizontal direction the fleshy roots. These appear in the
market several feet in length, cylindrical, about the thickness of a
quill, very flexible; externally longitudinally wrinkled, of various
colors, depending upon the variety, generally ash-colored, grayish-
brown, or reddish-brown; internally whitish, horny, or occasionally
mealy; nearly inodorous; taste mucilaginous, bitter, and acrid.
STRUCTURE.-A transverse section shows a thin, easily removed epider-
mis overlaying a thick cortical layer; this inner bark consists of
loose parenchyma, the cells of which, when not devoid of solid con-
tents, are filled with starch-granules or paste, and occasionally calcium
oxalate raphides; a brownish ring (nucleus sheath) separates it from
the woody center, which is made up of elongated woody cells. A
small pith runs through the center of this woody zone.
VARIETIES.-There are four principal varieties of sarsaparilla, differing
somewhat in appearance, and especially in the condition of the starch.
(a) Mealy-starch in granules.
The Honduras sarsaparilla is the kind most generally used in this
country. It is grayish or grayish-brown from adhering dirt, beset
with a few fibers, and comes in compact cylindrical bundles 2 or 3
feet long.
Brazilian sarsaparilla (Rio Negro, Para, or Lisbon sarsaparilla).
Considered to be the finest variety. Dark brown or blackish-brown,
with a thick cortical layer and pith, and a narrow, woody zone.
(b) Pasty-starch in a paste.
Jamaica or red sarsaparilla is of a reddish color externally; it is
said to be the richest in extractive and to contain the best quality of
starch. The name bearded sarsaparilla has been applied to it, from
the numerous fibers attached.
Mexican sarsaparilla is deeply wrinkled, and brownish-gray from
SARSAPARILLA.
433
adhering earth. The woody zone and pith are about equal in thick-
ness, each being about half as broad as the cortical layer.
Powder. Grayish-brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma cells of cortex
elongated (40 to 60 μ across), or cylindrical with spherical starch grains (2 to
FIG. 223.-Smilax officinalis-Portion of vine and rhizome.
4 μ in diam.), simple and 2 to 4 compound; raphides (6 to 8 μ by 60 to 175 µ);
sclerenchyma with bast fibers, long, thick-walled, porous; ducts, large, reticulate,
spiral, annular; epidermis with polygonal brown cells, some developed into one-
celled, thin-walled trichomes. Powders of commercial varieties differ, but are
not easily compared. (For highly magnified starch grains, see Fig. 375.)
CONSTITUENTS. The activity of sarsaparilla depends upon an acrid
28

434
LILIACEÆ.
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
G
F
C
F
D
E
FIG. 224.-Sarsaparilla, Honduras-Cross-section
of root. (18 diam.) A. Epidermis. B, Par-
enchyma of cortex. C, Endodermis. D, Wood
parenchyma and fibers. E. Medulla. F, Water
tube. (Photomicrograph.)
FIG. 225.-Sarsaparilla, Jamaica-Cross-section
of root. (21 diam.) A, Epidermis. B, Par-
enchyma of cortex. C, Endodermis. D, Wood
parenchyma and fibers. E, Medulla. F, Water
tube. G, Phloëm. (Photomicrograph.)
B
C
D
E
F
H
A
FIG. 226.-Sarsaparilla, Mexican-Cross-section of root. (32 diam.) A, Root hairs. B, Cork. C,
Parenchyma of cortex. D, Endodermis. E, Wood parenchyma and fibers. F, Water tube. H,
Phloem. (Photomicrograph.)
CONVALLARIA.
435
glucoside, parillin, C2H44O10 + 2H2O (variously termed smilacin,
parillinic acid, pariglin, etc.), frothing with water and otherwise
closely resembling saponin in action. Kobert states that two other
glucosides are present, saponin (sarsaparilla saponin), 5(C20H32O10)-
24H₂O, and sarsa-saponin, 12(C22H38O10) + H₂O. These two latter
differ from parillin in their being soluble, while parillin is insoluble.
The latter constituent is the most poisonous.
Preparation of Parillin.-Exhaust with warm alcohol and concentrate the
liquid to a syrup; add 1 times its weight of water; macerate for several days,
when a yellow precipitate will form; decant and mix with alcohol, and wash
on a filter with 20 per cent. alcohol.
ACTION AND USES.-The efficiency of sarsaparilla as a remedial agent
has been and is still much questioned, some declaring it almost inert,
others ascribing to it valuable alterative and antisyphilitic proper-
ties. Preparations from good, well-preserved specimens are perhaps
beneficial remedies in scrofulous affections, and as general blood-
purifiers. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidextractum Sarsaparillæ,
Syrupus Sarsaparillæ Compositus
(fl'ext. 20 per cent., with the fluidex-
tracts of glycyrrhiza and senna, and the
oils of sassafras, anise, and gaultheria),
Fluidextractum Sarsaparillæ Com-
positum (75 per cent., with glycyrrhiza,
sassafras, and mezereum),
Dose: 30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
2 to 4 fl. dr. (8 to 15 Cc.).
to 1 fl. dr. (2 to 6 Cc.).
548. CONVALLARIA.-COnvallaria.
LILY OF THE VALLEY.
Ger. MAIBLUMEN.
The dried rhizome and roots of Convalla'ria majal'is Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.—A low, perennial, glabrous herb with slender,
running root-stocks. Leaves 2, oblong, bright green, and shining. Scape
bearing a one-sided raceme of white, bell-shaped flowers. Fruit a few-
seeded red berry.
HABITAT.-North America, Europe, and Northern Asia.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.—In pieces from 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in.) long,
and about 3 mm. (§ in.) thick, the upper end gnarled and wrinkled,
and with the remnants of the scape and petioles attached; tapering
at the small end; annulate nodes beset with a circle of eight or ten
long, branching, gray rootlets; externally white; fracture white,
tough, and fibrous. Odor distinct; taste sweetish, somewhat bitter
and acrid.
Constituents.—Two glucosides, convallarin, C34H2O11 (the emeto-
cathartic principle), acrid prisms, scarcely soluble in, but foaming
436
LILIACEÆ.
when shaken with, water; and convalla marin, C23H44012, the
cardiac-acting principle, a sweetish, afterward bitter, crystalline
powder.
Preparation of Convallamarin.-The estimation of the value of the drug
is based upon the separation of this constituent. The drug is extracted with
alcohol, the tincture treated with subacetate of lead, and filtered; excess of
lead removed by careful addition of H₂SO,; filter, distil off alcohol, add water,
neutralize carefully with Na,CO,, add solution of tannin. The precipitate of
tannin compound is dissolved in 60 per cent. of alcohol, decolorized with ani-
mal charcoal, decomposed with zinc oxide. The filtrate is then evaporated to
dryness.
ACTION AND USES.-Convallaria was introduced as a safer cardiac tonic
than digitalis. Its absence of cumulative action was pointed out by
therapeutists. "It does not disturb the stomach or cerebro-spinal
functions if preparations free from convallarin are used." It is one
of the most active diuretics, especially in cardiac dropsies. Dose:
5 to 30 gr. (0.3 to 2 Gm.); of convallamarin to 2 gr. (0.0324 to
0.13 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Convallariæ,
Dose: 5 to 30 my (0.3 to 2 Cc.).
549. VERATRUM.-VERATRUM.
AMERICAN HELLEBORE.
Ger. GRÜNER GERMER.
The dried rhizome and roots of Vera'trum vir'ide Aiton (American), or of Vera-
trum album (White Hellebore) Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Roots fibrous; stem 2 to 7 feet high, stout and
very leafy, somewhat pubescent. Leaves broadly oval, clasping. Flowers
in dense panicles, yellowish-green. Capsule many-seeded.
HABITAT.-North America and Europe.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Usually in small pieces or large slices. When
entire, obconical, from 50 to 75 mm. (2 to 3 in.) long, truncate at
the base, tufted above with the inert stem-remnants and leaf-stalks,
and beset on all sides with light yellowish-brown rootlets about the
thickness of a knitting needle; externally blackish. A transverse
section shows a dingy white surface dotted with darker colored dots
and wavy lines within the nucleus sheath. The larger part of the
tissue consists of parenchyma containing starch and calcium oxalate;
nucleus sheath wavy, wood-bundles numerous. Rootlets have a thick,
cortical parenchyma. Inodorous; taste bitter, very acrid, causing a
tingling, benumbing sensation in the tongue. The powder is sternu-
tatory.
Powder.-Brownish-gray. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of cortex,
with starch, ellipsoidal, simple and compound, calcium oxalate in raphides;
ducts, spiral, reticulate, scalariform, pitted; epidermal cells, brownish-yellow
VERATRUM.
20
437
thick-walled; endodermal cells, distinctly pitted. (See starch grains, highly
magnified, Fig. 368.)
CONSTITUENTS.-Veratrum viride contains the alkaloids jervine, C₂8H37-
NO, (to which the depressant action on the circulation is partly
due), pseudo jervine, rubijervine, and cevadine, C2H4NO,
(sternutatory). Veratrum album has almost the same constituents,
but contains veratralbine instead of cevadine. The veratroidine
-12
4-4
FIG. 227. Veratrum viride-Branch and rhizome.
of the earlier investigations is probably a mixture of rubijervine and
a toxic resin; it causes the emetocathartic action of the drug, and
is also sternutatory. Veratrine was at first supposed to be the active
principle of the two species of veratrum, but it has been found either
to not exist in them, or at most only in very small quantities, the
source of this alkaloid being the sabadilla fruit.
ACTION AND USES.-The action of veratrum viride closely resembles
that of aconite, being a powerful cardiac depressant and spinal par-

438
LILIACEÆ.
alyzant, but in addition it has a strong emetocathartic action, and
consequently overdoses are less likely to prove fatal; death occurs by
paralysis of the heart. Dose: 1 to 5 gr. (0.065 to 0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Tinctura Veratri (10 per cent),....... Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
Fluidextractum Veratri,
1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
A-
B-
C-
D
FIG. 228.-Veratrum viride-Cross-section of rhizome. (25 diam.) A, Cork. B, Parenchyma of
ground tissue. C, Endodermis. D, Vascular bundle. (Photomicrograph.)
550. SABADILLA. CEVADILLA. The seeds of Vera'trum sabadil'la Schlech-
tendal, and of Asagræa officinalis Lindley. Habitat: Mexico. They
occur in commerce mixed with the fruit, which consists of three thin,
papery, acuminate follicles, nearly erect, united at the base, opening by a
ventral suture, and appearing like a single three-celled capsule. Each fol-
licle contains one or two narrow, oblong or lance-linear seeds, about 6 mm.
(in.) long, dark brown or blackish, longitudinally shriveled, slightly
winged, flat on one side, convex on the other, somewhat curved; apex
pointed; the thin testa incloses a discolored, oily albumen, in the broader
end of which is the small, linear embryo; inodorous; taste bitter, oily,
strongly and persistently acrid.
CONSTITUENTS.-Sabadilla is the principal source of veratrine, C7H53-
NO (Veratrina, U. S.), a white powder, intensely acrid and sternutatory.
The commercial veratrine is impure; it is a mixture of the alkaloid vera-
trine with other alkaloids extracted along with it, cevadine, C32H49 NO9,
cevadilline, C3H53NO,, sebadine, C2H51NO, and sabadinine.
Preparation of Veratrine.-Remove resin and oil from alcoholic tincture by
adding water q. s. Decompose native salt (veratrate of veratrine) in filtrate
POLYGONATUM-ALLIUM.
439
by means of KOH. Take up alkaloid with alcohol. Purify by converting into
sulphate, decolorizing, and reprecipitating.
ACTION AND USES.-Sabadilla is rarely used except for the extraction of
veratrine. It is a powerful irritant and is sometimes used to kill vermin
in the hair.
551. POLYGONATUM.-SOLOMON'S SEAL. The rhizome of Polygona'tum
biflo'rum Elliott, and of P. gigante'um Dietrich. Habitat: North America.
A pale brownish-yellow or whitish root, annulate and jointed, each joint
being surmounted by an obscurely seal-like stem-scar, which gives to the
plant its name; internally whitish, spongy; inodorous; taste sweetish,
mucilaginous, with an acrid, bitterish after-taste. Tonic, mucilaginous
and mildly astringent; formerly much used in skin diseases and as a vul-
nerary, and has been recommended in gout and rheumatism. Dose: 1 to
2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm ), in fl'ext.
552. CHAMÆLIRIUM LUTEUM Gray.-HELONIAS DIOICA Pursh. FALSE
UNICORN. Habitat: United States. The rhizome, which is the part em-
ployed, is greenish-brown externally, closely annulate, about 25 mm. (1 in.)
long, and 6 mm. († in.) thick, beset on the lower side with numerous wiry
rootlets; internally whitish, horny; bitter. Transverse surface is dirty
white in hue and of a horny texture, and exhibits a well-defined central
column occupying about one-third the diameter. It has been used as an
adulterant for sanguinaria. Tonic, diuretic, anthelmintic. Dose: 15 to
60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
553. TRILLIUM.-BIRTHROOT.
WAKE-ROBIN. The rhizome of Trill'ium
erec'tum Linné, and other species of Trillium growing in the United States.
Emmenagogue and emetic. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
554. ASPARAGUS.-The rhizome of Asparagus officina'lis Linné. Cardiac
sedative or palliative, diuretic, laxative. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
FIG. 229.-Allium-Bulb and cross-section of same (twice natural size).
555. ALLIUM.-GARLIC. The bulb of Allium sati'vum Linné. Official in
U. S. P. 1890. A compound, subglobular bulb, flattened at the base,
pointed at the apex, where several inches of the stem remains; it consists
of five or six (in commercial garlic about eight) small, oblong, somewhat
curved bulbs or "cloves" arranged around the central axis, each with a
distinct coat, and internally whitish, moist, and fleshy; the whole bulb is
inclosed by a dry, white, membranous coat, consisting of several delicate
laminæ; odor pungent and disagreeable (alliaceous); taste warm, acrid.
Used in the fresh state. Commercial garlic is a hybrid between A. sativum
Constituents: Mucilage 35 per cent., albumen,
and A. porrum Linné.
i
440
LILIACEÆ.
fibrous matter, and moisture. The peculiar odor and taste are due to
volatile oil, composed of the sulphide and oxide of allyl. Stimulant and
expectorant, also diaphoretic and diuretic. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4
Gm.).
Syrupus Allii (20 per cent., with the addi-
tion of dilute acetic acid) (U. S. P. 1890) Dose: 1 to 2 fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
SQUILLS.
556. SCILLA.-SQUILL.
Ger. MEERZWIEBEL.
The inner freshly scaled bulb of Urgin'ea maritima (Linné) Baker, cut into slices
and dried, the central portions being rejected.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Bulb semisuperficial. Leaves lanceolate, all
radical, appearing after the flowers. Scape 2 to 4 feet high, terminated by
a dense raceme of yellowish-green flowers, each one of which is accom-
panied by a long bract; ovary with 3 nectariferous glands at the apex.
HABITS OF PLANT.-Grows in sandy places near the coast. The plant
flowers in autumn, the leaves appear in the following spring. Bulb
only half immersed in the soil.
HABITAT.—Mediterranean shores, in dry, sandy places near the coast.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Squill comes into the market in narrow
horny segments about 50 mm. (2 in.) long, often more or less con-
torted; color varying from white or yellowish-white to a reddish
tint, slightly translucent; when dry, it is brittle and pulverizable,
but by exposure to a moist atmosphere it becomes flexible. Occa-
sionally vertical slices, sometimes adhering at the base, are met with.
Odor slight; taste mucilaginous, bitter, nauseous, and acrid.
The fresh bulb is inversely pear-shaped, fleshy, varying in size from
that of a man's fist to a child's head. There are two kinds, differing
only in color, one being entirely white, and the other reddish-brown
externally, internally rose color, with white parenchyma. In prepar-
ing for market the outer scales are removed and the bulb is then
sliced transversely, the central scales being also rejected as being too
fleshy and mucilaginous; they lose about four-fifths of their weight
in drying.
Powder.-Pale yellowish-brown, darkens with age. Characteristic elements:
Parenchyma cells, very large, thin-walled, with mucilage and raphides of cal-
cium oxalate; varying from very small, fine needles to very large, acicular
crystals.
CONSTITUENTS.—Merck's analysis shows three active principles, scilli-
picrin (a bitter principle acting upon the heart), scillitoxin, gluco-
side (bitter, burning, also acting upon the heart), scillin, crystalline
(producing numbness, vomiting, etc.), with mucilage, sugar, sinis-
trin, C.H1005, like dextrin, and calcium oxalate crystals. Later in-

SCILLA.
441
vestigations point to the probability of the above principles being alka-
loids, and they are named scillapicine, scillamarine, and scillamine
respectively. Jamersted's scillain is a poisonous glucoside of a yellow
color.
ACTION AND USES.-Expectorant, diuretic, in large doses emetic and
712
FIG. 230.-Urginea scilla.
cathartic. As an expectorant it is usually combined with tartar emetic
or ipecac; as a diuretic, with stimulant expectorants. It is very
rarely given as an emetic because of its uncertainty, having often
proved fatal from its irritant action on the stomach and intestines,
and by causing hypercatharsis, death occurring by arrest of the heart
in systole. Dose: 1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
442
LILIACEÆ.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Acetum Scillæ (10 per cent.),
Syrupus Scillæ (45 per cent. of the
acetum),
Tinctura Scilla (10 per cent.),
Fluidextractum Scillæ,
Syrupus Scillæ Compositus (fl'ext. 8
per cent., with fl'ext. senega 8 per
cent., and tartar emetic 2 per cent. or
gr. to the teaspoonful),.
Dose: 10 to 30 my (0.6 to 2 Cc.)
30 to 60 m (2 to 4 Cc.).
5 to 20 my (0.3 to 1.3 Cc.).
1 to 4 m (0.065 to 0.25 Cc.).
15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.); 1 to 2
fl. dr. (4 to 8 Cc.).
COLCHICUM.-MEADOW SAFFRON.
The corm and the seed of Colchicum Autumnale Linné.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Col'chicum autumnal'e Linné. Corm fibrous-
rooted. Leaves about a foot long. Flowers several, lilac or purple, ap-
pearing in the autumn without the leaves; styles 3.
HABITAT.—Europe and North Africa.
HABIT OF PLANT.-Flowers in autumn; the leaves appear in the spring.
In the latter part of spring a new corm begins to form at the ex-
pense of the old one. In September the upper portion of the flower
emerges from the spathe just above ground unaccompanied with.
leaves. The rudimentary fruit at the base of the flower, below ground,
in the following spring rises upon a stem above the surface, in the
form of a 3-celled capsule. At the same time the leaves appear; so
that, in fact, the leaves follow the flower, instead of preceding it.
During the development of the fruit the new corm has been devel-
oping at the expense of the old parent one. It will be seen that the
medicinal virtues depend upon the time of collection. Early in the
spring it is too young, and late in the fall the parent corm has become
exhausted by the nutriment furnished to the new plant. The proper
period for collection, therefore, is said to be from June to the month
of August, although April roots have been found to be of superior
efficacy.
557. COLCHICI CORMUS.—(Corm.)
COLCHICUM CORM.
Ger. ZEITLOSENKNOLLEN.
The dried corm of Col'chicum Autumnal'e Linné, yielding by the official process
not less than 0.35 per cent. of colchicine.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-An ovoid corm about 25 to 40 mm. (1 to 13
in.) long, flattened and deeply grooved on one side; when dried and
deprived of its outer membranous covering it is wrinkled and of a
brownish-gray color; internally whitish. It often comes into market
in transverse starchy slices having a reniform outline, due to

b-
FIG. 231.-Colchicum autumnale.
112
FIG. 232.-Cross-section of Colchicum root-outer portion. a, Vascular bundle. b, Parenchyma.
443
444
LILIACEÆ.
the lateral groove; inodorous; taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat
acrid. A very deep or large notch in the slices indicates that the
corm has been partially exhausted by the offset which springs from
the base.
Powder.-Brownish-gray, reddish-yellow with concentrated H2SO4. Charac-
teristic elements: Parenchyma cells large, thin-walled, with starch spherical or
ovoid (7 to 20 μ in diam.), simple or 2-3-4 compound; ducts, spiral, scalari-
form; trichomes, very few, tapering, one-celled.
CONSTITUENTS.-Colchicine, a methyl derivative of colchiceïn as will
be seen from the following: Colchiceïn, C₁5H,(NHCOCH₂)-
(OCH,),COOH; colchicine, C,,H,(NHCOCH,) (OCH,),COOCH,.
With mineral acids colchicine yields colchiceïne and methyl alcohol.
Starch, gum, resin, fat, and sugar are also present.
15
Preparation of Colchicine.-Exhaust with alcohol, dilute with water, filter;
add lead subacetate to precipitate coloring matter; add sodium phosphate to
remove lead; precipitate solution with tannin, wash the precipitate and digest
with lead oxide, dry, and dissolve out colchicine with alcohol. Occurs in whit-
ish amorphous powder or crystals; odor saffron-like, taste bitter.
ACTION AND USES.-Cathartic, emetic, and diuretic. It is chiefly em-
ployed in gout and rheumatism, in which it is very efficacious. Dose:
2 to 8 gr. (0.13 to 0.5 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Fluidext. Colchici Rad. (U. S. P. 1890), . Dose: 2 to 5 my (0.13 to 0.3 Cc.).
Extractum Colchici Cormi,..
1 to 3 gr. (0.065 to 0.2 Gm.).
558. COLCHICI SEMEN.
COLCHICUM SEED.
Ger. ZEITLOSENSAMEN.
The seed of Col'chicum autumnal'e Linné, yielding by the official process not less
than 0.55 per cent. of colchicine.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-These seeds have the same constituents and the
same medicinal action as the roots, and are given in about the same
doses. They are hard, reddish-brown, subglobular, 3 mm. († in.)
in diameter, somewhat pointed at the hilum and with a slight pro-
jection or caruncle on one side. Testa thin, somewhat scurfy, closely
adhering to the white albumen, which fills the entire seed and which
is characterized by its extreme hardness; embryo small, nearly
opposite the hilum; inodorous; taste oily, bitter, and somewhat
acrid. Dose: 3 gr. (0.2 Gm.).
Powder.-Light brown. Characteristic elements: Parenchyma of endosperm,
thick-walled with simple pores and granules of proteid and oil globules; scleren-
chyma with stone cells containing coloring-matter soluble in KOH solution.
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Vinum Colchici Seminis (10 per cent.), . Dose: 10 to 60 m (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
Tinctura Colchici Seminis (10 per
cent.),
Fluidextractum Colchici Seminis,
10 to 60 my (0.6 to 4 Cc.).
1 to 5 my (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
ALOE.
445
559. ALOE.-ALOES.
Ger. ALOE.
The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe Perryi Baker, Aloe vera (Linné) Webb,
Aloe Chinensis Baker, and probably other species of Aloe.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Succulent plants with spicate inflorescence;
perianth tubular; style equal in length to the stamens, or almost wanting.
Capsule membranous, scarious; seeds in two rows, flattened or 3-cornered,
winged. Habitat: Island of Socotra in the Strait of Babelmandeb; Barba-
does; Cape of Good Hope, etc. The American aloe, or century plant
(Agave americana), is a plant quite similar to the above.
COLLECTION.—The bitter, yellow, succulent portion of the leaf (which,
when inspissated, constitues the aloes of commerce) is found in thin-
walled ducts near the surface. The thick leaves are cut off near the
base (March and April) and stood up in the sun to drain upon skins
(see Aloes capensis, 559 b). Impurities are removed by skimming
with a ladle, etc. Artificial heat is sometimes used for evaporation.
When of proper consistence, the evaporate is transferred to kegs,
monkey skins, or boxes, and shipped by way of Bombay and Zanzibar.
Since the present pharmacopoeia has required this drug to be
assayed, the variety of aloes from which the drug is obtained is not
so important. The commercial varieties formerly recognized were
the Socotrine, Curacoa and Barbadoes, etc. The present pharma-
copoeia gives the following physical characteristics:
In yellowish-brown or orange-brown to blackish-brown opaque
masses, or translucent in thin fragments, fracture uneven, dull and
waxy, somewhat resinous, or smooth and glassy, somewhat conchoidal;
occasionally exhibiting microscopical crystals of aloin; odor distinct;
taste nauseous, bitter. It gives a reddish color with nitric acid or
with solutions of alkalies.
CONSTITUENTS.—The active principle of these different aloes is a bitter
neutral principle having the general name of aloin, but slightly dif-
fering in each variety, forming possibly a homologous series; these
aloes may be distinguished by their characteristic reactions with dif-
ferent reagents. It should be stated that the various processes of
assay for aloes thus far proposed give discordant results. A small
percentage of emodin is found in various varieties. Cape aloes
contains 0.8 per cent. of this principle. For a review of the
different commercial varieties, see "Proc. Amer. Pharm. Asso'n,”
1903, p. 727.
559 a. ALOE BARBADENSIS.-BARBADOES ALOES. Prepared from the
leaves of Aloe vera by boiling the juice or by making a decoction of the
leaves; it is inferior to the other varieties. Its color varies, but it is usu-
446
LILIACEÆ.
ally dark brown, approaching to black, opaque even at the edges, and
with a dull fracture; it is further distinguished by its nauseous odor.
A solution of 1 part in 100,000 of distilled water produces a fine rose color
on the addition of gold chloride or tincture of iodine, all the others, except
Natal aloes, producing only a slow change, a feeble color, or no color what-
ever.
It
559 b. ALOE CAPENSIS.-CAPE ALOES or SHINING ALOES. Collected from
Aloe spic'ata and other species, at Cape of Good Hope. A sheepskin is
spread out in a shallow hole in the ground, the leaves arranged with their
cut ends hanging over the edge, and the juice allowed to run out spontane-
ously; the juice is then inspissated in iron cauldrons or other vessels to
a soft consistence, and poured into sheepskins or boxes to concrete.
differs from Socotrine aloes in its glossy, conchoidal fracture and its
peculiar, strong odor, neither aromatic nor disagreeable. Moreover, a
freshly broken surface has a dark olive or greenish color, approaching
to glossy black. The powder is greenish-yellow, and often covers the
surface of the lumps, giving them a somewhat yellowish appearance.
Natal aloes is of a greenish-slate hue and has the odor of Cape aloes, dis-
tinguishing it from hepatic aloes.
559 c. ALOES SOCOTRINA.—SOCOTRINE ALOES. This variety was formerly
official; of a yellowish or reddish-brown color; of a peculiar saffron-like
odor.
559 d. CURACOA ALOES.-Formerly official, as synonymous with Barbadoes
aloes.
TESTS.-A drop of nitric acid on a porcelain slab gives a vivid crimson
with barbaloin (rapidly fading) and nataloin (permanent unless heat
be applied), but has no effect on socaloin. To distinguish between
barbaloin and nataloin they are treated with a drop or two of sulphu-
ric acid and the vapor of nitric acid passed over them; barbaloin
(also socaloin) will undergo no change, but nataloin will change to a
blue color. Also resin, 50 to 30 per cent.; volatile oil, 0.0015 per
cent.; ash, 1 per cent.
Preparation of Aloin.-From some varieties of aloes it is obtained by digest-
ing in alcohol for twenty-four hours; then boil, filter, and set aside to crystal-
lize. Can also be obtained by dissolving aloes (Barbadoes or Curaçoa) in acidu-
lated boiling (HCl) water, and, when cold, resin will deposit; decant, evaporate,
and set aside for two weeks, when aloin will crystallize. Shaking the crystals
with acetic ether removes adhering resin. Dose: 2 to 5 gr. (0.12 to 0.32 Gm.).
(See also 559 e.)
ACTION AND USES.-Cathartic and emmenagogue.
As a cathartic
aloes is slow in action but certain, having a peculiar affinity for the
large intestine; it has produced beneficial effects as a cholagogue;
as an emmenagogue it is extensively employed in amenorrhoea.
Dose: 2 to 5 gr. (0.13 to 0.3 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Aloes,.
Aloe Purificata,.
Tinctura Aloes (10 per cent. with gly-
cyrrhiza 20 per cent.),
Dose: 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6 Gm.).
2 to 5 gr. (0.13 to 0.3 Gm.); 8
to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Gm.).
5 to 10 mg (0.3 to 0.6 Cc.); to
4 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
ALOINUM-PALME.
Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhæ (10 per cent.
of each, with glycyrrhiza 10 per cent.),
Tinctura Benzoini Composita (2 per
cent. of aloes),
Extractum Colocynthidis Composi-
tum (50 per cent.),.
Pilulæ Catharticæ Compositæ,
Pilulæ Catharticæ Vegetabiles,
Pilulæ Aloes (about 2 gr. in each pill),
Pilulæ Aloes et Ferri (about 1 gr. each
of aloes, dried sulphate of iron, and
aromatic powder in each pill),
Pilulæ Aloes et Mastiches (2 gr. aloes
in each pill, together with mastic and
red rose),
Pilulæ Aloes et Myrrhæ (aloes 2 gr. in
each pill, together with myrrh and
aromatic powder), .
Pilulæ Rhei Compositæ (aloes 1gr.in
each pill),
559 e. ALOINUM.-ALOIN.
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
10 to 40 ny (0.6 to 2.6 Cc.).
5 to 25 gr. (0.3 to 1.6 Gm.).
2 to 5 pills.
2 to 5 pills.
2 to 5 pills.
1 to 3 pills.
2 to 5 pills.
2 to 5 pills.
1 to 3 pills.
16
447
A neutral principle from several varieties of
aloes, chiefly Barbadoes aloes (yielding barbatorin), C17H20O7, and So-
cotra or Zanzibar aloes (yielding socaloin), C15H10O7, U. S. P. Nataloin,
C10H18O7, while not official, is a similar product. Minute acicular crys-
tals, or a microcrystalline powder, yellow to yellowish-brown, of a slight
odor and characteristic bitter taste. Barbaloin, soluble in 470 parts of
ether; socaloin, soluble in 380 parts of ether. Both soluble in water and
alcohol. It is rapidly decomposed in alkaline solution. Dose: 1 gr. (0.6
Gm.).
TREE RESIN.
560. XANTHORRHOEA.-GUM ACAROIDES. BOTANY BAY RESIN. GRASS-
A spontaneous resinous exudation from the stems of differ-
ent shrubby Australian plants of the genus Xanthorrhoea. The yellow
variety, from X. hastitis R. Brown, resembles gamboge in appearance;
externally reddish yellow, internally a lighter yellow; odor agreeably bal-
samic, especially when heated, when it emits a tolu-like odor; taste bal-
samic, somewhat acrid. The red variety, from X. australis R. Brown,
resembles dragon's blood in appearance, being externally deep brown-red;
internally bright red; fracture glossy.
CONSTITUENTS.-Resin, benzoic and cinnamic acids, and a trace of
volatile oil.
ACTION AND USES.-Resembles storax and tolu in medical properties.
Dose: 8 to 30 gr. (0.5 to 2 Gm.). Chiefly used as a substitute for shellac,
and for making colored varnishes.
561. ERYTHRONIUM AMERICANUM Smith.-ADDER'S
TONGUE. DOG-
Some-
tooth VioleT. Habitat: United States. (Leaves.) Alterative.
times applied as a poultice to scrofulous tumors.
PALME.-Palm Family.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Palme.
A. Seed.
Areca, 562
B. Fruit.
SABAL, 563.
C. Root.
Carnauba, 564.
562. ARECA.—ARECA Nut. BETEL NUT.
Are'ca cat'echu Linné.
D. Resin.
Draconis Resina, 565.
E. Fixed Oils.
Oleum Palmæ, 566.
Oleum Cocois, 567.
The seed of an East Indian tree,
Roundish-conical, about 25 mm. (1 in.) long, flat-

448
PALME.
tened at the base; externally deep brown, varied with fawn-color, giving
it a longitudinally-veined appearance; internally brownish-red with white
veins. It abounds in tannin, and contains three alkaloids upon which its
tæniafuge properties depend, arecoline, arecaine, and a trace of an undeter-
mined alkaloid. Mixed with the leaves of Piper betel it forms the "betel"
chewed so largely by the natives. It is strongly recommended as a tænia-
fuge and vermifuge. Dose: 2 to 3 dr. (8 to 12 Gm.).
563. SABAL.
SABAL. (SAW PALMETTO.)
The dried ripe fruit of Sereno'a serrula'ta (R. and S.) Hooker filius.
Irregularly spherical to oblong-ovoid; 10 to 25 mm. long, 10 to
15 mm. in diameter; externally blackish-brown, shrivelled, somewhat
oily; epicarp thin, sarcocarp about 1 mm. thick, greenish-yellow,
soft, spongy, endocarp thin, friable; seed hard, chocolate-brown;
odor aromatic; taste sweetish, acrid and oily. Tonic, diuretic, ex-
pectorant, and sedative, used in neuralgic affections to allay irritation
of mucous membranes, and in pulmonary affections. Dose of fl'ext.:
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
FIG. 233.-Sabal. Fruit. (Photograph.)
564. CARNAUBA.-The root of Coper'nica cerif'era Martius, used in Brazil,
where the plant grows, as an alterative like sarsaparilla, stillingia, etc.
Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
565. DRACONIS RESINA.-DRAGON'S BLOOD. A spontaneous resinous
exudation from the ripening fruit of Cal'amus dra'co Willdenow. Habitat:
East Indies, Siam, and the Molucca Islands. A dark brownish-red, inter-
nally brighter red resin, coming into market in various forms, small gran-
ules, oval pieces in bead-like strings, sticks, and the poorer varieties in
cakes and disks; breaks with a dull, irregular fracture; tasteless and
almost odorless, but when heated emits a benzoin-like odor, due to the ben-
zoic acid which it contains. The red resin, constituting 90 per cent., has
been termed draconin. The use of dragon's blood is almost entirely con-
fined to the manufacture of paints and varnishes.
CALAMUS.
449
566. OLEUM PALMÆ.-PALM OIL. A fixed oil expressed from the fruit of
Elæ'is Guineen'sis Jacquin, a West African palm cultivated in tropical
America. A solid fat, harder than butter, of an orange-red color, bleaching
upon exposure to light or heat. When fresh, it has a violet-like odor and a
bland taste, but it rapidly becomes rancid and of an acrid taste. It is used
principally in the manufacture of soaps and candles, occasionally in oint-
ments.
567. OLEUM COCOIS.-COCOANUT OIL. A fixed oil
seeds of the tropical palm, Co'cos nucif'era Linné.
consistence of butter, and with a disagreeable odor.
soaps.
expressed from the
A white solid, of the
It is mostly used in
AROIDEÆ.-Arum Family.
Herbs with an exceedingly acrid, colorless juice, and having a fleshy corm
or rhizome. Inflorescence a spadix usually surrounded by a spathe. Fruit a
berry.
A. Rhizomes.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Aroidea.
CALAMUS, 568.
Symplocarpus, 569.
B. Corms.
Arum, 570.
Arisæma Dracontium, 571.
568. CALAMUS.-CALAMUS.
SWEET FLAG.
Ger. KALMUSWURZEL.
The dried rhizome of Acor'us cal'amus Linné (Fam. Araceæ, U. S. P. 1900.)
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Pungent, aromatic plants, with equitant, 2-
ranked leaves. Inflorescence a spadix on a leaf-like scape, sessile, lateral,
yellowish green; sepals 6, stamens 6, anthers 1-celled, with transverse
dehiscence; ovary 2- to 3-celled.
HABITAT.-North America, Europe, and Western Asia, in swamps, and
along the banks of streams and ponds.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Subcylindrical sections of various lengths, about
20 mm. (in.) thick; externally reddish-brown, deeply wrinkled,
marked below with rootlet scars (little elongated dot-like rings) in
wavy, longitudinal lines, above with leaf-scars; fracture short, corky,
showing a pinkish or whitish interior dotted with yellowish or brown-
ish dots, both in the thick cortical layer and in the spongy central
column; odor aromatic; taste peculiar, very bitter. Although the
unpeeled rhizome is directed, the pinkish-white sections deprived
of the corky layer are often met with in market.
STRUCTURE.-The tissue is chiefly parenchyma, traversed by yellowish
fibrovascular bundles, most abundant just within and near the nucleus
sheath. The cells of the parenchyma are filled with starch and vola-
tile oil, the latter most abundant in the cortical layer. The
The spongy
appearance of the meditullium is due to large air-cells, as in all aquatic
plants.
29

450
AROIDÉE.
CONSTITUENTS.-Volatile oil 1 to 2 per cent., having the smell and taste
of calamus, a bitter glucoside termed acorin (syrupy, yellow liquid),
calamine, choline, resin, starch, and mucilage.
Isolation of Acorin.-A concentrated decoction of the drug is deprived of
gum by precipitating with alcohol. The liquid is then treated with lead sub-
112
FIG. 234.-Acorus calamus.
acetate. The lead is removed by H,S. The resulting liquid, after neutraliza-
tion, is shaken with chloroform, which leaves on evaporation a thin, yellow,
aromatic liquid, acorin. This splits into oil and sugar by hydration; by oxida-
tion the resin and acoretin are obtained.
ACTION AND USES.-Tonic and carminative, and a feeble aromatic stim-
ulant. Dose: 15 to 60 gr. (1 to 4 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Calami,
Dose: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
1
COMMELINACEÆ—CYPERACEÆ-GRAMINEÆ.
45I
569. SYMPLOCARPUS.-SKUNK CABBAGE. The rhizome and roots of an
indigenous herb, Symplocar'pus fœ'tidus Salisbury, so called from the dis-
agreeable odor (depending upon a volatile oil) which is emitted by all parts
of the fresh plant, and by the dried rhizome when triturated. It has an
acrid taste, but the acrid principle has not yet been isolated. Stimulant,
antispasmodic, and narcotic, causing nausea and vomiting, together with
vertigo, headache, and dimness of vision. It has been used in asthma,
whooping-cough, nervous and convulsive affections, and hysteria; also in
chronic catarrh, chronic rheumatism, and bronchial and pulmonary affec-
tions. Dose: 10 to 20 gr. (0.6 to 1.3 Gm.).
570. ARUM.-INDIAN TURNIP. The corm of Arisæ'ma (Arum) triphyl'lum
Torrey (Jack-in-the-pulpit or wake-robin). Habitat: North America, in
rich woods. Depressed-globular, about 25 to 50 mm. (1 to 2 in.) in diam-
eter, covered with a loose, wrinkled, brown epidermis; it often comes
into market in white, starchy, transverse slices; inodorous; very acrid.
This acrid principle is volatile, the fully dried corm being nearly inert.
Arum has been used as a stimulant to the secretions in asthma, whooping-
cough, chronic catarrh, and rheumatism. Dose: 8 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Ġm.).
571. ARISÆMA DRACONTIUM Schott.-GREEN DRAGON. Habitat: United
States, west to Kansas. (Corm.) Diaphoretic and expectorant in dry,
hacking coughs attended with irritation. Dose of fl'ext. 1 to 10 my (0.065
to 0.6 Cc ).
COMMELINACEAE.-Spiderwort Family.
572. COMMELINA.—ASIATIC DAY FLOWER. From Com'melina com'munis.
This plant has recently been brought to notice as one of medicinal value.
It is claimed to have peculiar hemostatic and healing properties. An
account of the plant and a report of a chemical examination of it is found
in the “Am. Jour. of Pharm.,” July, 1898, p. 321.
CYPERACEÆ.-Sedge Family.
573. CAREX ARENARIA Linné.—RED Sedge. RADIX SARSAPARILLÆ
GERMANICÆ. This sedge grows in the coast regions of Central and
Northern Europe, where its rhizome is used as an alterative like sarsa-
parilla.
574. ADRUE.-GUINEA RUSH, The rhizome of Cy'perus articula'tus Linné,
used in its native country to check vomiting and as a tonic. Dose of
fl'ext. 30 m (2 Cc.).
GRAMINEÆ.-Grass Family.
A large order yielding the cereals (wheat, rye, etc.) and sugar cane, the
source of most of the sugar of the market. The characteristics of the order are
the hollow stems (culms), flowers in spikelets, and the fruit, a caryopsis.
A. Rhizome.
Synopsis of Drugs from Gramineæ.
TRITICUM, 575.
B. Root.
F. Starches.
AMYLUM, 580.
a. Avenæ Farina.
G. Fruit.
Hordei Fructus, 581.
H. Decorticated Fruit.
Vetiveria, 576.
b. Sago.
C. Sugar.
c.
Tapioca.
I.
SACCHARUM, 577.
d. Taro.
Hordeum, 581 a..
Germinated Seeds.
Maltum, 581 b.
D. Styles and Stigmas.
e.
Triticum Vulgare.
f.
Oryza.
ZEA, 578.
E. Fixed Oil.
Oleum Maydis, 579
h.
Canna.
i.
g. Solanum Tuberosum.
Maranta.
j. Curcuma Leucorrhiza.
452
GRAMINEÆ.
575. TRITICUM.-TRITICUM.
Ger. QUECKENWURZEL.
COUCH-GRASS.
The dried rhizome of Agropy'ron rep'ens Beauvois, gathered in the spring and
deprived of the roots.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Creeping; root-stocks slender, numerous. Spike-
lets 4- to 8-flowered, glabrous; glumes 3- to 7-nerved; rachis glabrous;
leaves flat.
HABITAT.-Europe; naturalized and grows abundantly in North America.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Short, hollow sections from 3 to 6 mm. (to
in.) long, and about the thickness and color of a straw; odorless;
taste sweetish.
CONSTITUENTS.-No active constituent has been discovered in couch-
grass; it contains glucose, mucilage, malates, triticin (a gummy sub-
stance resembling inulin), and inosit.
Preparation of Triticin.—Obtained by exhausting powdered drug with water;
neutralize with baryta; concentrate and precipitate with lead subacetate; re-
move lead; purify with charcoal; neutralize, concentrate, and precipitate with
alcohol. It is an amorphous, white powder, inodorous, tasteless, deliquescent,
and with HNO, is oxidized into oxalic acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Diuretic, demulcent. Dose: to 3 dr. (2 to 12
Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Fluidextractum Tritici,...
576. VETIVERIA.-VEtivert.
Dose: 1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
The fibrous wiry roots of Andropo'gon
murica'tus Retzius. Habitat: Eastern India. Tonic and stimulant, but
mainly employed as a perfume in sachet powders, etc.
577. SACCHARUM.-SUGAR.
CANE-SUGAR.
Ger. WEISSER ZUCKER.
The refined sugar obtained from Sac'charum officina'rum Linné, and from various
species or varieties of Sorghum, also from one or more varieties of Be'ta vulgaʼris
Linné (nat. ord. Chenopodiacea).
SOURCE AND VARIETIES.—The sugar cane is extensively cultivated in
Africa, East and West Indies (especially Cuba), Brazil, and Southern
United States, particularly Louisiana. The sugar beet is extensively
cultivated in France and Spain, and has been introduced with varying
success into some parts of the United States, Cane-sugar is also a
constituent of the sugar maple; of the carrot and turnip; of cassia
pulp, etc. The sugar in fresh fruit is mainly cane-sugar; by the
action of the fruit acids, or a ferment, it is generally inverted, becomes
uncrystalline, and influences polarized light in the opposite direction
from that of cane-sugar, twisting the ray from right to left. Honey-
@
1
79
gü
fs
FIG. 235.-Spikelet of the Oat (Avena sativa). gl. Glumes. ps, is. Paleæ or pales.
pl. An abortive flower.
a. Awn.
1
-12
FIG. 236.-Triticum vulgare (Wheat). Plant and flowers (enlarged).
453

-102
FIG. 237.-Agropyrum repens.
FIG. 238.-Cross-section of couch-grass. (25 diam.) a. Medullary parenchyma. b. Woody tissue.
c. Wood-bundles. d. Cortical parenchyma.
454
ZEA.
455
sugar is probably a mixture of the two varieties-right- and left-handed.
It is readily altered to a crystalline and granular mass of grape-sugar
in dried fruit, as in the raisin, the prune, and solidified honey. This,
the common form of grape-sugar, is right-handed, and is called dex-
trose (dextrogyrate), to distinguish it from lævulose. Barley-sugar
is made by heating cane-sugar till it fuses, becoming thus, in a great
measure, uncrystalline. Molasses (treacle)-Syrupus fuscus (official
1860-1870)—is the result from the evaporation of cane-sugar syrup;
it is a mixture of cane-sugar with uncrystallizable sugar and coloring
matter.
OTHER SUGARS.-Besides the modification above referred to, other sugars
exist: as, galactose (milk-sugar)-Saccharum lactis (U. S. P.); man-
nose (from mannite); maltose (from starch by the action of dilute
acid or diastase); melitose (from eucalyptus).
Caramel is a name applied to burnt sugar (Saccharum ustum), used
in the liquid form as a coloring for spirits, vinegar, etc.
DESCRIPTION.-Sugar or sucrose, C12H21O11, is in "white, dry, hard, dis-
tinctly crystalline granules, odorless, and having a purely sweet taste.
Permanent in the air." The aqueous solution saturated at 15° C.
(59° F.) has a sp. gr. of 1.345 and is miscible with water in all pro-
portions, soluble in 175 parts of alcohol.
SACCHARUM UVEUM.-Grape-sugar. Glucose. Yellowish or whit-
ish masses or granules much less sweet than cane-sugar. Composition
CH₁₂OH₂O.
12
ACTION AND USES.-Demulcent and lenitive. Used in making the
various syrups and compound syrups of the Pharmacopœia, etc.
CORN-SILK.
578. ZEA.-Zea.
Ger. MAISPISTILLE.
The dried styles and stigmas of Ze'a ma'ys Linné (our common Indian corn).
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Yellowish or greenish, soft, silky, hair-like
threads, about 150 mm. (6 in.) long; free from odor, with a sweetish
taste.
CONSTITUENTS.-Maizenic acid, fixed oil, resin, sugar, gum, albumin-
oids, phlobaphene, extractive, salt, cellulose, and water.
ACTION AND USES.-Mild stimulant, diuretic. The infusion may be
taken ad libitum.
Fluidextractum Zea (Unofficial)......Dose: † to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
579. OLEUM MAYDIS.—MAIZE OIL. A fixed oil expressed from the embryo
of the seed of Zea mays Linné. A yellow, viscid, transparent liquid,
having a peculiar odor like cornmeal, and a bland taste. Demulcent.
456
GRAMINEÆ.
STARCH.
580. AMYLUM.—STARCH.
Ger. STÄRKMEHL.
The starch grains obtained from the fruit of Ze'a ma'ys Linné.
DESCRIPTION.—Usually in opaque, angular or columnar masses, easily
pulverizable between the fingers, with a peculiar sound, into a fine,
white powder; odorless and tasteless. Under the microscope it is
seen to be composed of small granules striated concentrically or
FIG. 239.-Maranta Starch.
FIG. 240.-Curcuma Starch.
1
FIG. 241.-Wheat Starch.
FIG. 242.-Rice Starch.
FIG. 243.-Potato Starch.
637
FIG. 244.-Corn Starch.
See also Starches of Drugs, part IV.
excentrically around a nucleus or hilum. Insoluble in cold water,
but with boiling water it forms a glutinous paste on cooling. Iodine
is the test for starch, the characteristic blue color being produced
when only a minute quantity of the latter is present.
AMYLUM.
457
Other starches-chiefly distinguished by the size and shape of
the starch-granules as seen under the microscope:
(a) AVENE FARINE.-Oatmeal. From Avena sativa Linné, prob-
ably native to Western Asia, but now a common field crop. A gray-
ish-white, not uniform meal, containing the gluten and fragments of
the integuments; bitterish. Demulcent and nutritive (due to the
gluten contained).
(b) SAGO.—Pearl Sago. Globular, pearl-like grains, white or
brownish, prepared from Metroxylon sagu, M. rumphii, and other
species growing in the East India Islands.
(c) TAPIOCA.-Cassava Starch. Yielded by the rhizomes of Brazil-
ian plants, Manihot utilissima and M. aipi, nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ.
White and opaque, irregular lumps.
(d) TARO.—Taro Flour. A starch prepared from the corm of
Colocasia esculenta Schott, the food (poi) of the natives in Hawaii
and the West Indies. Recommended as a diet for dyspeptic and
consumptive patients.
Starches from the underground parts of Triticum vulgare and Oryza
sativa, Gramineæ; Solanum tuberosum (potato starch), Solanaceæ;
Canna edulis, Maranta arundinacea, and Curcuma leucorrhiza, Scit-
amineæ.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.-Starch is the basis of that class of organic
compounds termed carbohydrates. Its composition is C.H10O5. By
hydrolysis it is converted into a gummy principle, dextrin, and glu-
cose. Ferments convert it into alcohol and carbon dioxide-C,H10O5
=2C2H5OH + 2CO₂.
ACTION AND USES.-Nutritive and demulcent.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Glyceritum Amyli (10 per cent.).
581. HORDEI FRUCTUS.-BARLEY. The fruit of Hor'deum dis'tichum
Linné, a common cultivated cereal indigenous to Western Asia. About
15 mm. ( in.) long, tapering at the ends, on one side traversed by a longi-
tudinal groove along which the grayish-yellow palea or husk is coalesced
with the smooth, pale-brown testa; underneath the testa is a layer of
gluten surrounding the central starchy parenchyma. Nutritive.
581 a. HORDEUM, or pearl barley, is the fruit deprived of its brown integu-
ments.
581 b. MALTUM.-MALT Prepared from the fruit of Hordeum distichum
Linné by soaking, and then allowing fermentation to proceed until the
young embryo is nearly the length of the fruit; the fruit is then dried in
the sun and afterward kiln-dried in order to kill the germ. The object of
this process is to develop the greatest possible amount of diastase, a pecu-
liar ferment which has the property of converting starch into sugar. Malt
is demulcent and nutrient, given in the form of the extract, a brown liquid
of honey-like consistence.
CRYPTOGAMS.
(Plants producing spores.)
EQUISETACEÆ.-Horsetail Family.
582. EQUISETUM.-SCOURING RUSH.
The herb of Equise'tum hyema'le
Linné. Habitat: Northern United States. Diuretic and astringent. Dose
of fl'ext.: 15 to 60 m (1 to 4 Cc.).
FILICES.-Ferns.
Leafy plants with the fronds raised on a stipe (petiole) rising from a rhizome,
circinate in vernation. The spore-cases are found on the under side of the
frond. The life history of the fern is as follows:
When the minute spore from the sporangium on the frond drops to the
ground, it germinates into a more or less heart-shaped body called a prothallus.
The under surface of this body is provided with root-hairs and also female
organs of generation, archeogonia, and male. organs, antheridia; the frond-
stage is a direct outgrowth from the fertilized archeogonia.
A. Rhizome.
Synopsis of Drugs from the Filices.
ASPIDIUM, 583.
B. Herb.
Adiantum, 584.
C. Hairs.
Cibotium, 585.
D. Root.
Osmunda, 586.
E. Leaves.
Polypodium, 587.
583. ASPIDIUM.-ASPIDIUM.
MALE FERN.
Ger. WURMFARNWURZEL.
The dried rhizome of Dryop'teris fil'ix-mas Schott, and of Dryop'teris margin-
a'lis Asa Gray.!
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Fruit-dots round, borne at the back of the
veins; indusium covering the sporangia. Stipe continuous with the root-
stock. Frond lanceolate (A. filix-mas) or ovate-oblong (A. marginalis);
fruit-dots in the former nearer the mid-vein than the margin, in the latter
nearer the margin.
HABITAT.-North America.
I
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-As taken from the ground the rhizome consists
of a caudex around which are arranged the dark brown, somewhat
curved leaf-stalk remnants or stipes, about 25 to 50 mm. (1 to
2 in.) in length, imbricated like the shingles of a roof; at the base
they are densely surrounded by thin, glossy, chaffy scales of a
lighter color and somewhat transparent. The entire rhizome is from
458
ASPIDIUM.
459
100 to 300 mm. (4 to 12 in.) long, and from 50 to 62 mm. (2 to 21
in.) thick, flexible; it generally comes into market broken into pieces
of various lengths; internally pale green, spongy or corky; odor
slight and disagreeable; taste sweetish, somewhat bitter and astringent,
acrid and nauseous. Only such portions as are still green should be
2
2
FIG. 245.-Dryopteris filix-mas-Plant and section through spore case.
used in making preparations. The deterioration of the root is rapid
-loses its activity in one or two years.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE.-The prevailing tissue is parenchyma, the
polyhedral, porous-walled cells of which contain starch, greenish or
brownish tannin-like substances, and drops of a greenish fixed oil.
The thin suberous outer layer consists of smaller brown cells.

460
A
LYCOPODIACEÆ.
Toward the center of the rhizome is an irregular circle of ten (A. filix-
mas) or six (A. marginalis) vascular bundles, outside of which are
smaller scattered bundles. Distributed through-
FIG. 246.-Aspidium rhi-
zome. (natural size.)
A, Leaf-stalk. (Photo-
graph.)
out the tissue are large air pores.
CONSTITUENTS. Filicic acid, C35H42013, filicin
(filicic acid anhydrid, C35H40012), aspidin,
C23H27O7, the latter being poisonous, fixed oil,
a trace of volatile oil, and chlorophyll.
Preparation of Filicic Acid.-This principle is deposited
as a granular sediment when the oleoresin is allowed to
stand.
ACTION AND USES.--Tæniafuge. Dose: to 2 dr.
(2 to 8 Gm.). The oleoresin is the most efficient
preparation.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Oleoresina Aspidii, ....Dose: to 1 fl. dr. (2 to 4 Cc.).
584. ADIANTUM.-MAIDENHAIR. Adian'tum peda'tum
Linné, an indigenous fern which has been used as a
pectoral in chronic catarrh and other affections of
the air-passages.
585. CIBOTIUM. PENGHAWAR. PAKU-KIDANG. The
chaffy hairs collected from the base of the fronds and
stems of many varieties of ferns, especially of the
genus Cibotium, growing in Sumatra and Java. Long,
silky, yellowish or brownish, curling filaments (under the microscope flat and
jointed), used to stop the flow of blood from capillaries by mechanical
absorption of the serum.
586. OSMUNDA REGALIS Linné.-BUCKTHORN BRAKE. A common fern in
swamps, the root-stock of which is used as a demulcent, tonic, and styptic.
Dose of fl'ext.: 1 to 3 fl. dr. (4 to 12 Cc.).
587. POLYPODIUM.-POLYPODY. The leaves of Polypo'dium vulga're
Linné, common in Europe and North America. Expectorant in chronic
catarrh and asthma. Dose: 1 dr. (4 Gm.), in infusion.
LYCOPODIACEAE.-Club-moss Family.
Low plants looking like very large mosses, more or less branching, and with
the 1- to 3-celled sporangia (spore-cases) in the axils of the lanceolate, subulate,
or rounded, persistent leaves. Spores homogeneous.
588. LYCOPODIUM.-LYCOPODIUM.
VEGETABLE SULPHUR.
Ger. GEMEINER BÄRLAPP.
The spores of Lycopo'dium clava'tum Linné, and of other species of Lycopodium.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Stem creeping extensively, with ascending very
leafy branches. Leaves linear-awl-shaped, aristate. Spikes 1 to 4 on a
slender peduncle 4 to 6 inches long.
LYCOPODIUM-POLYTRICACEÆ.
461.
SOURCE AND COLLECTION.-Europe, Asia, and North America; collected
mostly in Russia, Germany, and Switzerland, in July and August, by
cutting off tops of the moss, shaking out spores, and sifting.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-A fine, pale-yellowish powder, very mobile,
free from odor and taste. It floats in water without being wet by it
(due to the fixed oil), but sinks on being boiled. When slowly heated
it burns quietly and should not leave more than 5 per cent. of ash,
but when thrown into a flame it flashes up. Under the microscope
the granules are seen to be tetrahedral, the basal side convex and
the other three coming together to form a triangular pyramid. The
surfaces are traversed in all directions by ridges which form regular,
five- or six-sided meshes; at the points of intersection are small ele-
vations, and along the edges short projections. Like lupulin, lyco-
podium is one of the interesting objects for microscopic study. Pollen
FIG. 247.-Spores of Lyco-
podium, as seen from the
top and from bottom of
the spore.
FIG. 248.-Lupulin; a gland
viewed in profile and
viewed obliquely. See
Lupulinum, 497, P. 397.
FIG. 249.-Pollen of Pine:
a grain seen in profile;
another seen from the
front side.
of pine, an illustration of which is shown above, is sometimes used
as an adulterant.
ADULTERANTS.—These may be easily detected by the microscope or
simple tests. Pine pollen consists of an elliptical cell with a globular
cell attached to each end. Starch is detected with iodine; turmeric,
by turning reddish-brown with alkalies; inorganic mixtures, by in-
creasing the yield of ash over 5 per cent., and by sinking in carbon
disulphide. Dextrin has been found in lycopodium to the extent
of 50 per cent.
CONSTITUENTS.—Fixed oil 47 to 50 per cent., volatile bases in very
small quantity, and ash containing alumina and phosphoric acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Absorbent and protective application to excoriated
surfaces; in pharmacy, to facilitate the rolling of pill masses, and to
prevent the adhesion of the pills.
POLYTRICACEÆ.
589. POLYTRICHUM JUNIPERUM Hedwig.-HAIR-CAP MOSS. This com-
mon moss is a powerful diuretic; in full doses given at very short intervals
it has proved very beneficial in dropsy. Dose: 1 to 2 dr. (4 to 8 Gm.), in
infusion.
462
LICHENES.
LICHENES.
Consisting mainly of a thallus (often leaf-like), without stem and leaves,
wholly cellular. Reproduced by spores.
590. CETRARIA.-ICELAND Moss. The entire plant, Cetra'ria islan'dica
Acharius. Off. U. S. P. 1890. The crisp, leaf-like lobes are cartilaginous,
whitish on the under surface, channeled and fringed at the margins. A
strong decoction gelatinizes on cooling; taste mucilaginous and bitter.
The Pharmacopoeia calls attention to the fact that the drug is frequently
mixed with pine leaves, moss, and other lichens; from these it should be
freed. Constituents: It is largely composed (70 per cent.) of lichen starch,
lichenin, and isolichenin, a solution of the latter producing a blue color
with iodine. Unlike the gum of chondrus, it furnishes but a trace of mucic
acid when treated with nitric acid. Boiling with dilute acids converts the
as
૬૦
FIG.
250.-Section of
thallus of Cetraria
islandica through an
apothecium. as. Asci,
three of which contain
ascospores. gou. Go-
nidia.
FIG. 251. Cetraria islandica.
mucilage into sugar solution. A solution of Iceland moss is precipitated
by alcohol. The bitter principle, cetraric acid (cetrarin, CH1808), forms
yellow salts, which are equal in bitterness to quinine; this bitter principle
may be removed by prolonged maceration in water, or, still better, by
treating the drug with twenty-four times its weight of a weak solution of
an alkaline carbonate. Demulcent, nutritive, and, if the bitter principle
be present, tonic; used in advanced stages of phthisis when stronger
remedies are unsuitable. Dose: 30 to 60 gr. (2 to 4 Gm.).
Preparation of Cetrarin: Boil drug with alcohol; express and add acidulated
(HCl) water to the filtrate; then allow cetrarin to deposit.
591. LITMUS.—A fermented coloring extract from various species of lichens
(e. g., Lecanora tartarea), other varieties of which also yield the dyes orchil
and cudbear. Habitat: Northern Europe and African coast, and adjacent
islands. Litmus is in about to 1 inch rectangular cakes, blue, light,
friable, finely granular. Unlike most vegetable dyes, it is not turned green
2
ERGOTA.
463
by alkalies. It is turned red by acids, for which it is used as a test in the
form of infusion (tincture), or litmus paper, made by dipping unsized paper
in the strong infusion.
Orchil is a purplish-red, thickish liquid, with an ammoniacal odor.
Cudbear is a purplish-red powder, sometimes used to color prepara-
tions.
FUNGI.
Spore-bearing plants destitute of chlorophyll and reproduced by means of
spores, not by true seeds.
ERGOT.
592. ERGOTA.—ERGOT.
(Ergot of Rye.)
Ger. MUTTERKORN.
The sclerotium of Clav'iceps purpu'rea Tulasne (Fam. Hypocreaceæ U. S. P. 1900),
replacing the grains of rye, Secale cereale Linné (Graminea), moderately dried,
preserved with a few drops of chloroform and not kept longer than one year.
Development.—Sclerotium described: The early stage of the fungus con-
sists of a profuse growth of mycelium in the tissues and upon the surface
of the young ovary. In the "sphacelia” stage, as it is called, a multitude
of conidia (non-sexual spores) are produced on the ends of the hyphæ;
after the conidial stage the mycelium at the base of the ovary becomes
greatly increased and assumes a hard and compact form. It grows with
considerable rapidity, and carries upon its summit the old sphacelia and
the remains of the now destroyed ovary. The compact, horn-shaped,
dark-colored body which results (and is official) is called the sclerotium,
which occupies the position of the displaced ovary. This sclerotium ·
remains dormant in winter, and in the spring produces spores, as follows:
stalked receptacles (Fig. 253) grow up from the tissue of the ergot, in which
are developed a number of perithecia (Fig. 254) These perithecia are
somewhat flask-shaped cavities (Fig. 255) filled with asci (Fig. 255), the
latter containing long, slender spores termed ascospores (Fig. 256), which
again, by germinating on the rye and other grasses, give rise to a new
growth, and to the development of Claviceps.
SOURCE.-Produced in the inflorescence within the paleæ of rye, Secale
cereale Linné. Other grasses, however, are "hosts" for this fungus.
Commercially, the Russian ergot is considered of superior strength,
although Austrian, Spanish, and German (Bavarian) are thought to
be almost equal in power. Swedish ergot seems to contain the lowest
percentage of an active alkaloid, cornutine. Beckurts recommends.
that artificial heat be not employed in drying. The drug should be
dried over quicklime without the application of heat.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-The official ergot of rye is from 10 to 30 mm.
(to 1 in.) long and from 2 to 6 mm. (½ to in.) in diameter. On
other grasses it is usually of less size. Triangular, slightly curved,
tapering toward, but obtuse at, the ends; externally purplish-black,
internally whitish with pinkish lines; fracture short (not very brittle).
1

D
B
b
P
C
FIG. 253. Portion of Horn-
shaped sclerotium of Clavi-
ceps purpurea, bearing four
stalked receptacles.
FIG. 252. Claviceps purpurea. A. Young sclerotium,
c, with old sphacelia, s. p. The apex of the dead
. ovary of rye. B. Upper part of A, in longitudinal
section, showing sphacelia, s. C. Transverse section
through the sphacelia, more highly magnified. m.
The mycelium, surrounded with the hyphæ. b.
Bearing conidia. p. Conidia fallen off. w. The
wall of the ovary. D. Germinating conidia, forming
sporidia, x.-(Bachs.)
FIG. 254.-Longitudinal section
of a receptacle, magnified,
showing the perithecia.
FIG. 255. A single perithecium of Claviceps purpurea,
magnified, showing the contained asci.
FIG. 256.-Asci containing the
long, slender ascospores.
464
ERGOTA.
465
If a portion be macerated in water containing hydrate of potassium
or sodium, then carefully crushed under the blade of a spatula, the
fragments of mycelium threads are plainly discernible under the
microscope. Odor (especially in powder or when treated with an
alkali) heavy and unpleasant; taste oily and disagreeable.
As the drug is liable to the attacks of insects, it should be protected
in closed vessels, and a few drops of chloroform should be dropped
upon it from time to time.
When more than one year old, it is unfit for use. Old ergot, which
breaks with a sharp snap, is almost devoid of pinkish tinge upon
the fracture, is hard and brittle between the teeth, and is compara-
tively odorless and tasteless, should be rejected.
Powder.-Dark gray, with purplish tint. The predominating elements are:
The mycelium threads containing small fragments of hypha with fat, no starch.
CONSTITUENTS. Notwithstanding the many investigations concerning
the constituents of ergot, there still remains an uncertainty with
regard to the nature of the so-called active principles. This is due
partly to the fact that these principles are amorphous (?), and difficult
to isolate and purify. For therapeutic purposes, however, it is suffi-
ciently well established that the active principles are soluble in aque-
ous, alcoholic, or alkaline menstrua. Ergotinine, a crystalline princi-
ple (0.1 to 0.26 per cent.), is said to be present. Cornutine (see
below) is probably a decomposition product of the former.
Assay of Ergot. The physiological test for ergot, originated by E. M.
Houghton, consists in feeding the preparation or drug to roosters, and noting
the blackened and gangrenous appearance produced in the comb and wattles.
The rapidity with which this change takes place and the depth of color produced
denote the strength of the drug. According to Keller's investigation, ergot
contains but one single base, Kobert's cornutine. Tanret's ergotinum, Drag-
endorff's and Podwyssotzki's picrosclerotine are all identical, or somewhat
altered forms of the same substance. Jacoby finds chrysotoxin to fully repre-
sent ergot pharmacologically, and it retains its activity for years. This is one
of the constituents of a complex body formerly named sphacelotoxin, or spas-
modin. An assay of the drug can be made by estimating the proportion of
cornutine present, which, according to Beckurts, is as follows: 25 Gm. of the
drug are freed from oil by percolation with petroleum spirits, then dried and
well shaken with 100 Gm. of ether and 1 Gm. of magnesia, the latter having
been suspended in 20 Cc. of water. After repeated agitation the mixture is
allowed to stand for three or four hours. Then 60 Gm. of the clear ethereal
solution (to 15 Gm. of ergot) are shaken four successive times with 25, 10, 10,
and 10 Cc. of dilute HC1 (0.5 per cent.), the united solutions rendered alkaline
by NH,OH, and the alkaloid shaken out with three successive portions of ether.
On evaporation, drying, and weighing the somewhat crystalline yellowish-
white cornutine the assay is completed.
Preparation of Ergotin (Wiggers).—Treat ergot with ether to deprive it of
fixed oil, then extract with hot alcohol, evaporate, and purify. It resembles
cinchonic red, is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in ether and water. Bon-
jeau's ergotin corresponds to a purified extract of ergot (aqueous extract, pre-
cipitated by alcohol, filtered, and evaporated); is soluble in alcohol and water.
30
466
FUNGI.
ACTION AND USES.-Produces vascular contraction, especially of the
arteries, all over the body. This property is said to be due to its
action on the vasomotor centers in the cord. Because it contracts the
arterioles it is hemostatic. The flow of urine is also diminished. It
is ecbolic and parturient, powerfully exciting the pregnant uterus
and expelling its contents. Recently it has been discovered to be of
value in the treatment of insomnia, the sleep produced being more
natural than that from other drugs. Dr. Livingstone reports its re-
markable curative effects in a host of diseases. (N. Y. Med. Society,
"Am. Druggist," 1903, p. 252.)
Poisonous symptoms: dimness of vision, local anesthesia, and
numbness are sometimes produced, even by medicinal doses. Anti-
dotes: evacuants (stomach-pump, emetics, etc.), stimulants, nitrite
of amyl, inhalations, friction, etc. Dose: 20 to 30 gr. (1.3 to 2 Gm.)
in freshly prepared powder, wine, or fluidextract; ergotin solution, 1
to 3 gr. (0.65 to 0.2 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Extractum Ergotæ,
Fluidextractum Ergotæ,
Vinum Ergotæ (20 per cent.),
Dose: 3 to 12 gr. (0.2 to 0.8 Gm.).
to 2 fl. dr. (2 to 8 Cc.).
1 to 4 fl. dr. (4 to 15 Cc.).
593. USTILAGO.—CORN SMUT. A fungous growth upon Zea mays, more par-
ticularly upon the inflorescence. Consists of blackish, irregular, roundish
masses enveloping innumerable spores; of a disagreeable odor and taste.
It contains probably sclerotic acid. Used as a parturient and emmena-
gogue. Dose: 15 to 30 gr. (1 to 2 Gm.).
594. AGARICUS ALBUS.-LARCH AGARIC. PURGING AGARIC. WHITE
AGARIC. From Polypo'rus officina'lis Fries. The internal, decorticated
portion of the fungus comes in light, colorless, spongy masses of irregular
shape. Taste sweetish, acrid, and bitter. In large doses cathartic. In
doses of 8 gr., gradually increased to 1 dr., it has been found useful in
checking night-sweats of phthisis. Surgeon's agaric, from Polyporus
fomentarium Fries, is used externally as a styptic in hemorrhage.
594 a. FUNGUS CHIRURGORUM.-Surgeon's Agaric. Same as Polyporus.
See above.
ture.
595. TORULA (Saccharomyces) CEREVISIÆ, an organized ferment. Yeast
is the name applied to the frothy scum that forms on the surface of saccha-
rine liquids and rises from the bungholes of newly brewed beer. Under
the microscope this froth is shown to consist of particles which multiply
with extraordinary rapidity when placed in a moderately warm tempera-
The globular forms are considered as the spores of a fungus belong-
ing to the genus Torula, the cells of which are but slightly united, sometimes
forming branching chains, the mycelium being almost absent. Yeast is
employed in hastening the fermentation of worts and in leavening dough
in bread-making. Bottom or sediment yeast is found on the bottom of
fermenting vessels. Two quite distinct methods of brewing are produced,
depending upon the employment of one or the other of these varieties of
yeast. For the purpose of the bakery, yeast is dried and formed into cakes.
Beer yeast is official in the B. P. Yeast, under the title of fermentum,
was official in the U. S. P., 1820-'40, 1860-'80, used as a tonic, laxative,
etc., but at present rarely employed. As a local remedy, as poultice, in
treatment of eruptions of boils, it still finds some favor.
CHONDRUS.
467
ALGE.
Structure very various, growing for the most part in water, mostly in stag-
nant water in warm climates, but some on moist rocks or ground, etc. Entirely
cellular, producing fronds.
CARRAGEEN.
596. CHONDRUS.-IRISH Moss.
Ger. PERLMOOS. KNORPELTANG.
The dried plant, Chon'drus cris'pus Lyngbye. (Fam. Gigartinaceæ U. S. P. 1900.)
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.-Thallus fleshy, cartilaginous, compressed,
dividing into short, moniliform filaments. Antheridia or oogonia in super-
ficial spots. Chondrus crispus has four vessels or capsules imbedded in
the frond. Gigartina mamillosa (Chondrus mamillosa) has an oval one
raised upon a short stalk, and its frond is slightly channeled toward the
base.
SOURCE.—These plants inhabit the rocks on the American and European
shores of the Atlantic Ocean. In the spring they are collected on the
coast of New England and Ireland, the Massachusetts coast yielding
about 15,000 barrels annually.
FIG. 257.-Chondrus crispus.
DESCRIPTION OF DRUG.-Yellowish or white, horny, translucent; many
times forked; when softened in water, cartilaginous; shape of the
segments varying from wedge-shaped to linear; at the apex emargin-
ate or 2-lobed. It has a slight seaweed-like odor, and a mucilaginous,
somewhat saline, taste.
468
ALGEÆ.
One part of it boiled for ten minutes with thirty parts of water
yields a solution which gelatinizes on cooling, and is not colored blue
by Iodine T. S. Drug is said to be sometimes adulterated with other
species of Gigartina, as G. acicularis and G. piscillata, which closely
resemble the official species.
CONSTITUENTS.—The principal constituent (90 per cent.) is mucilage,
which is precipitated by lead acetate; traces of iodine and bromine
have also been detected. There seems to be no starch present, but
the cell-walls acquire a dark blue color in contact with iodine (Flück-
iger). Literature rather, contradictory as to the nature of its various
constituents.
ACTION AND USES.-Demulcent and slightly nutritious. A dietetic is
specially prepared from the powder, made in the form of jelly with
water. Dose: 6 dr. (24 Cc.) in decoction.
RELATED DRUGS.-There are several edible seaweeds of East Indies
which are known as agar agar, or Chinese (or Japanese) isinglass or
gelatine, derived chiefly from Gelidium corneum, Lamarck. The
article comes in long strips of yellowish-white color. A jelly from
this is employed in bacteriological investigations.
597. FUCUS VESICULOSUS.-Bladder-wrACK. The whole plant, Fu'cus
vesiculo'sus Linné, growing on muddy rocks and floating to the shores of
the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, consists of long, flattened,
branched fronds, upon which are dispersed blackish air-vessels (tubercles)
in pairs, one on each side of the midrib. These cavities contain thin, gel-
atinous matter, and bear on their inner walls, when young, hair or trans-
parent filiform cells. Odor marine-like; taste mucilaginous and saline.
Wracks" or rock weeds of other species are also collected, such as Fucus
nodosus The medicinal properties probably lie in the inorganic matter,
the ash of the plant containing chlorides, bromides, iodides, phosphates,
and sulphates; the organic matter is mainly mucilage.
mainly mucilage. The medicinal
value of the drug as an alterative has been questioned; it is used in obesity.
"The fl'ext. and extract are irrational preparations, the only form in which
to obtain the effects of the plant being the recent decoction (Shoemaker).”
598. LAMINARIA.-SEA-GIRDLES or Tangles. From Lamina'ria digita'ta
Lamouroux. A dark-spored seaweed having a ribless expansion resem-
bling a leaf-blade. The stipitate portion has been used in gynecology as a
substitute for sponge in making sponge tents for dilating the cervical canal.
Contains salts, mucilage, and mannite; the latter principle is especially
prominent in another species,-Laminaria saccharina,-like the above,
abundant on the sea-coast.
SECTION II.-ANIMAL DRUGS.
599. CANTHARIS.-CANTHARIDES.
SPANISH FLIES. BLISTER BEETLES.
Ger. CANTHARIDEN.
The beetle, Can'tharis vesicato'ria De Geer. (Fam. Coleoptera.) Thoroughly dried
at a temperature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.).
HABITAT.-Southern and Central Europe and Northwestern Asia, feeding
on plants of the families Oleaceae and Caprifoliaceæ.
COLLECTION.-By shaking or beating the food-plants; the insects are
then killed by heat (hot water) and rapidly dried.
DESCRIPTION.-A bronze-green beetle, with long (about 1 in. or 25 mm.)
and narrow (toin., about 7 mm.), subcylindrical body. The
vertical, rather triangular, head is constricted be-
hind so as to form a conspicuous neck. Odor
strong and disagreeable, caused, in the living in-
sect, by a secreted fluid containing uric acid, ac-
cording to Maquetti. The crushing of the dried
insect yields a grayish-brown powder containing
green shining particles (the bits of the green wing-
covers and the body-wall).
FIG. 258. Spanish Fly
(Cantharis vesicatoria
DeGeer)-(Original).
Cantharides should be thoroughly dried at a
temperature of 40° C. (104° F.) and kept in
tightly closed vessels. The dried insects or the
powder is subject to the attacks of several Der-
mestid beetles and of several mites (Glyciphigus).
The addition of a little chloroform, oil of turpentine, or naphthalene
balls will help to keep out these cantharid-eating pests; or, if they
have established themselves in the vessels, they may be killed by the
use of carbon disulphide. (See Part III.)
OTHER SPECIES.-Besides Cantharis vesicatoria, several other beetles of
the family Meloida, especially species of Mylabris, Epicauta, and
Macrobasis, are used to obtain vesicatory agents, and give a larger
percentage of cantharidin than the officially recognized insect.
469
470
ANIMAL DRUGS.
Epicauta vittata.-The Old-fashioned Potato Beetle.* Found,
often abundantly, in the United States; feeds largely on leaves of
potato-plants. This insect was formerly official.
Mylabris cichorii Fab., and M. phalerata Pallas.-Chinese
Blister Beetles. Habitat: Southern and Eastern Asia. Cichorii has
its black wing-covers crossed by three broad orange-yellow bands;
one band is terminal, thus rendering the apices of the wing-covers
yellow.
Mylabris bifasciata.-The Two-striped Blister Beetle. Habitat:
Northern Africa. The body is black, the wing-covers presenting two
undulating narrow yellowish stripes. All these species of Mylabris
yield about 1 per cent. of cantharidin.
ADULTERATION.-Spanish flies exhausted of their vesicating principle have
FIG. 259.-Old-fashioned
Potato Beetle (Epicauta
villala Fab.)-(Orig-
inal).
been met with as substitutions. Powdered eu-
phorbium has been spoken of as one of the adul-
terants, but adulteration is not common in this
drug. The assay of the drug is very easily ac-
complished by making first a chloroformic solu-
tion of the soluble ingredients. Evaporating the
chloroformic solution, the residue, containing the
crystals, is purified by washing out the fat by
means of carbon disulphide, which leaves the
crystals of cantharidin pure. Other processes
have been suggested, but the above seems to be
the simplest.
CONSTITUENTS.—The chief constituents are: (1) can-
tharidin, the active principle, a fatty crystallizable
body forming shiny, colorless plates, soluble in
alcohol, ether, acetic ether, glacial acetic acid,
chloroform, and oils; volatilizable by heat (100° C.,
212° F.) without decomposition, the vapor condensing in acicular
crystals; (2) a volatile oil, giving the odor of cantharides, and said to
have vesicatory properties; and (3) a green oil, the coloring principle,
closely allied to chlorophyll.
I
Preparation of Cantharidin.-Obtained by percolating the powder with
chloroform, distilling off the liquid, and purifying the resulting crystals by wash-
ing them with CS, to remove fat. Colorless prisms; soluble in alcohol, ether,
fats, etc.
* This "Potato Beetle" should not be confused with the well-known Colorado Potato
Beetle (Doryphora decemlineata, Say), belonging to the family Crysomelidæ, a short,
oval, yellow-and-black insect with ten longitudinal stripes on its wing-covers. This
latter beetle probably possesses no vesicatory principle.
COCCUS.
47I
Cantharidin is associated with certain alkalies and alkaline earths
in the drug, and seems to exist partly in combination with them.
The principle itself has been found to combine with salifiable bases
like an acid.
ACTION AND USES.-Internally cantharides acts as a powerful irritant,
and has a peculiar effect on the urinary and genital organs. Large
doses produce violent strangury, attended with excruciating pain and
a discharge of bloody urine. The principal use of cantharides is the
application, externally, of the cerate as a blistering plaster. It is
seldom used as a rubefacient, but as an epispastic or vesicant it is to be
preferred of all substances of this class. Its blistering action termi-
nates in a copious secretion of serum under the cuticle. Dose: gr.
(0.03 Gm.).
OFFICIAL PREPARATIONS.
Ceratum Cantharidis (32 per cent.).
Collodium Cantharidatum (60 per cent.).
Tinctura Cantharidis (10 per cent.), .. Dose: 1 to 5 m (0.065 to 0.3 Cc.).
600. COCCUS.-COCHINEAL.
COCHINEAL BUG. RED SCALE INSECT.
Ger. SCHARLACHWURM.
The dried female insect, Coc'cus cac'ti Linné. (Fam. Hemiptera.) Meloida.
HABITAT.—Mexico, Central America, and Northern South America (orig-
inally), and Spain and Algiers (introduced); feeds on various cacti,
especially upon Opuntia coccinilifera.
COLLECTION.—Only the females (wing less) are used; they are brushed
off from the food-plant, and, if alive, are killed by
heat (hot water or oven). The cochineal insect is
cultivated on a large scale, and large quantities are
annually exported from Mexico and Peru. Hum-
boldt estimated that 800,000 pounds of coccus (each
pound representing 70,000 insects) were annually
imported into Europe.
DESCRIPTION.-The females (which alone are used) are
FIG. 260.-Cochinea
Bug (Coccus cacti)
Linné (Original).
small, wingless, oval, dull purplish-brown insects,
convex above, about 4 mm. († in.) long, covered,
when alive, with a white cottony secretion. When
the insects are dead and dry, this "cotton" rubs off,
and the crushed insects yield a dark red powder; odor faint, taste
slightly bitter.
VARIETIES. These are: (1) silver, recognized by the presence of a soft,
silvery white powder contained in the furrows and wrinkles; it appears
472
ANIMAL DRUGS.
to be a fatty substance as it melts on the application of heat, and the
insects lose their silvery appearance. This variety is said to be the
mature and fecundated insect. (2) Black cochineal, of a reddish-
black color, nearly devoid of silvery powder, is supposed to be the
female exhausted by propagation. (3) Granilla, an inferior kind
composed of small and imperfect insects.
· ADULTERATION.-The silvery gray variety with carbonate or sulphate of
barium and lead; the black cochineal with graphite, ivory black, or
manganese dioxide. The fixed inorganic substances may be detected
by the U. S. P. test, which is as follows: "When completely incin-
erated, cochineal should leave not more than 5 per cent. of ash."
CONSTITUENTS.-Cochineal contains principally a red coloring matter
1
soluble in water, alcohol, or water of ammonia. This coloring mat-
ter is composed of carminic acid, C17H18O10 (?).
Carminic acid is obtained by treating the drug first with ether to remove fat,
then with alcohol. Let alcoholic solution stand a few days, when carminic acid
will deposit as a brownish-purple substance. A vermilion-red powder (car-
mine), soluble in water, alcohol, and alkalies, is obtained as a combination of
this acid with alumina or occasionally with oxide of tin or with albumen. Com-
mercial carmine is made by precipitating the decoction of cochineal with alum
or cream of tartar,
MEDICAL PROPERTIES.-Cochineal has some reputation as an anodyne
and antispasmodic, but it has not for many years been used as a reme-
dial agent, its chief use being that of a coloring matter, and for this
purpose it enters into the following preparation.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita (0.5 per cent.),.. Dose: 1 fl. dr. (4 Cc.).
I
601. BLATTA.-COCKROACH. Periplane'ta orienta'lis Linné. Class, In-
secta; order, Orthoptera; family, Blattidæ.
HABITAT.-Asia (originally); now found in al-
most all parts of the world, in kitchens, laundries,
and any warm, damp room. Nocturnal in habit,
feeding omnivorously on vegetable and animal pro-
ducts.
DESCRIPTION.-A large (1 in. long), dark brown,
short-winged, broad, flat, oval insect with long,
thread-like antennæ. Wings of the female rudi-
mentary; of the male not reaching quite to the tip
of the abdomen. Odor disagreeable.
OTHER SPECIES.-Periplaneta americana (Ameri-
can cockroach) is larger than orientalis, lighter brown
in color, and has the wings well developed in both
sexes. Numerous in houses about the water pipes;
also abundant, often, in green-houses, feeding in-
juriously on various plants.
Ectobia germanica (German cockroach or Croton
Bug), very common in New England cities; smaller
than the two preceding roaches (about in. long),
FIG. 261.-Cockroach (Peripla- very light (yellowish-brown) in color, with two
nela sp.)-(Original).
longitudinal dark stripes upon the prothorax.
HIRUDO-SPONGIA.
473
Blatta gigantea, found in the West Indies, attains a length of 2 inches.
CONSTITUENTS.-Fœtid oil, ammonia, trimethylamine, and a crystallizable
principle, not diuretic, antihydropin.
ACTION AND USES.-Diuretic. Dose: 5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.), in
powder or tincture.
602. HIRUDO.-LEECH. Sanguisu'ga medicina'lis Savigny. Class, Vermes;
order, Annelida; family, Hirudinea.
HABITAT.--Northern and Central Europe chiefly, but found more or less
in all parts of Europe, in ponds of fresh water.
DESCRIPTION.-The body, which varies in length from 75 to 150 mm.
(3 to 6 in.), is smooth and round, tapering toward both ends, and made up
of about 100 soft rings or folds. Both ends are provided with a flattened
disk, the posterior being the larger, each of which is adapted to fix upon
objects by suction. The mouth has three jaws, with a double row of fine
sharp teeth in each; the small anal opening is found on the under side of
the last posterior wrinkle. Color of back greenish and striped longitudin-
ally with numerous black spots; belly somewhat lighter green.
OTHER SPECIES.-Besides S. officinalis, which is next to S. medicinalis
in importance and is similar in appearance (only there are no spots, and a
black line extends along each side), may be mentioned Hirudo provincia-
lis, H. obscura, and H. interrupta, the species common in this country
being known as H. decora. Leeches are said to be found in great abun-
dance throughout India.
PRESERVATION.-The usual way of keeping leeches is to place them in
clear water, in a shaded spot if possible, where the temperature will range
from 10° to 20° C. (50° to 68° F.), care being taken to have a considerable
quantity of charcoal, moss, and pebbles in the containing vessel.
USE. For local blood-letting, a single leech being able to extract from
1 to 2 drachms of blood.
SPECIAL ANIMAL TISSUES AND SECRETIONS.
603. SPONGIA. SPONGE. Spon'gia officina'lis Linné. Class, Porifera;
order, Ceratospongiæ.
HABITAT. Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and other
bodies of salt water, upon the rocky bottom.
Collection.—The best sponges are secured by diving and cutting away
their fastenings from the rocks; those of inferior quality are usually torn
away with an instrument made for the purpose. The fresh sponges are
exposed to the sun and washed, for the purpose of removing the animal
matter with which they are filled.
Description.-A soft, elastic skeleton or framework of fibrous tissue
surrounding the original animal matter, which, being removed, leaves a
number of large and small cavities. The color is a light yellowish-brown.
VARIETIES.-The Turkey sponge is considered the best and belongs to
the species Euspongia mollisima; Euspongia zimocca, from the coast of
Greece, is harder and not so elastic. A still coarser sponge is Euspongia
equina, collected along the north coast of Africa. The various sponges
of the West Indies and Florida are different varieties of the three preceding
species.
CONSTITUENTS.-A characteristic substance known as spongin, which
yields leucin and glycocoll when treated with sulphuric acid, and when
treated with KOH evolves ammonium hydrate. The ash is made up of
various compounds of iodine, sodium, magnesium, calcium, etc.
USES. Its power to absorb liquids and to expand at the same time makes
sponge valuable as a surgical accessory in absorbing blood, dilating cavi-
ties, cleansing surfaces, etc., but great care should be exercised in its use,
so that the same sponge may not be used more than once without being
thoroughly washed in a dilute solution of carbolic acid; otherwise there
is danger of contamination by infection, which is easily carried from one
patient to another when the same sponge is used repeatedly. Burnt
474
ANIMAL DRUGS.
sponge is occasionally administered, on account of the iodides of sodium
and potassium which it contains, in cases of goiter and scrofulous swellings.
604. CORALLIUM.-Coral. Oculi'na virgi'nea Lamarck. Class, Poly-
pifera; order, Hexacoralla.
HABITAT.-Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.
DESCRIPTION.—A hard, calcareous substance produced by coral polypi.
The pieces are often branched, presenting a surface more or less porous
and striate, and the interior is radiate or hollow.
VARIETIES.-Besides Oculina virginea there are several other species,
among which may be mentioned Corallium rubrum, the red coral.
CONSTITUENTS.-Calcium carbonate 83 per cent., animal matter 7 to 8
per cent., magnesium carbonate 3 to 4 per cent., and ferric oxide 4.25 per
cent. (in the red coral).
USES.-Antacid. Used in tooth powders. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1
Gm.).
605. TESTA.—Oyster Shell.
SOURCE.-O'strea virginia'na and O. edulis, which excrete a calcareous
bivalved covering or shell, and inhabit the shallow coast water of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
DESCRIPTION.-External surface rough, inner surface smooth and white,
the two toothless, hinged valves made up of imbricate, foliaceous layers,
presenting, when closed, an irregularly rounded, oblong, or ovate form.
CONSTITUENTS.-Largely calcium carbonate, there being only 4 per cent.
or less of animal matter present and a small percentage of silica, alumina,
magnesia, and calcium phosphate and sulphate.
USES.—Antacid. The shell, to be used, should first be thoroughly puri-
fied and washed in boiling water. Dose: 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.).
606. OS SEPIÆ.-CUTtlefish Bone.
SOURCE. Se'pia officinalis is the species from which this calcareous
bone is obtained; it inhabits the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea.
DESCRIPTION.-A white, flattish, oval-oblong bone about 100 mm. (4 in.)
in length; exterior hard and smooth, interior porous and friable; inodor-
ous; taste somewhat saline and earthy.
CONSTITUENTS.—Mostly calcium carbonate, with from 10 to 15 per cent.
of animal matter and a very small percentage of sodium chloride, calcium
phosphate, and magnesia.
USES.—An antacid. Extensively employed in the manufacture of tooth
powders, and used to some extent as a polishing agent.
607. CALCULI CANCRORUM.-CRABS' STONES.
SOURCE. The stomach of the crab (Asta'cus fluviatilis Fab. or Cancer
astacus Linné), where they are formed by concretions. The crab is found
in rivers throughout the North Temperate Zone.
Description. The circular, plano-convex stones vary in size from 3 to
10 mm. (to in.) in diameter, and are white and hard, changing in hot
water to a rose-red; tasteless and inodorous. When treated with hydro-
chloric acid, they effervesce until nothing is left but a small plano-convex,
cartilaginous mass.
SUBSTITUTIONS.—Artificial stones are sometimes manufactured, but can
be distinguished from the true crabs' stones by treating with HCl, when,
if they are artificial, they leave little or no residue.
CONSTITUENTS.-Calcium carbonate 63 per cent., calcium phosphate 17
per cent., animal matter 12 to 15 per cent., and small portions of phosphate
of magnesium and sodium salts.
USES. Antacid.
608. ICHTHYOCOLLA.—ISINGLASS. Off. in U. S. P. 1890. The swimming-
bladder or sound of the Sturgeon, a fish found in the Black and Cas-
pian Seas and their tributary streams. The swimming-bladders of other
fish are also employed for this purpose, but the isinglass from the
AMBRA GRISEA—OLEUM MORRHUÆ—CETACEUM.
475
Russian species, Acipenser huso, A. guldenstadtii, A. ruthenus, and A
stellatus, is considered the finest and purest. The inner layer of the
swimming-bladder is separated from the outer, and after being washed
is thoroughly dried. The sheets of commercial isinglass are prepared in
various forms,-leaf isinglass (single sheets), book isinglass (several sheets
folded together), and staple isinglass. In appearance it resembles horn,
is of a yellowish-white color, semitransparent and iridescent. The sub-
stance is tough, tearing with difficulty even in the direction of the fibers,
but dissolves completely in hot water, forming a transparent jelly on
cooling in a solution of 24 parts of the same. Constituents: Gelatin (98
per cent., in the best Russian variety) and from 2 to 30 per cent. of in-.
soluble membrane, the ash amounting to only about 0.5 per cent. Nutri-
tive, easily digested. Emollient and protective externally.
609. AMBRA GRISEA.-AMBERGRIS.
SOURCE.-Physe'ter macroceph'alus, a species of whale inhabiting the
Indian Ocean and the southern part of the Pacific Ocean, excretes a sub-
stance from the intestines which is found floating on the surface of the
water; this is known as ambergris.
DESCRIPTION.-Waxy, grayish-brown, with streaks and dots; odor
peculiar, taste slight; soluble in hot alcohol, ether, fats, and volatile oils.
Constituents.—Ambrein (brilliant white needles precipitated from alco-
holic solution) 85 per cent., a balsamic extractive, and a very small pro-
portion of ash. On account of its high price adulterations of and substi-
tutions for ambergris are common, but the genuine article is easily dis-
tinguished by means of its complete solubility in hot alcohol, and evapora-
tion without evolving acrid vapor.
Preparation of Ambrien. Obtained by crystallizing from hot alcoholic solu-
tion of ambergris; it forms white, shining, tasteless, and inodorous needles
which fuse near 350° C.
USES. As a perfume it is highly prized. It possesses very uncertain
medical properties and is very rarely administered as a remedial agent.
610. OLEUM MORRHUÆ.-COD-LIVER OIL. A fixed oil obtained from the
fresh livers of Ga'dus mor'rhua Linné, or of other species of Gadus (class,
Pisces; order, Teleostei; family, Gadide) For tests see U. S P. De-
scription: A pale yellow thin oily liquid. Peculiar, rancid odor; bland,
fishy taste. Specific gravity at 15° C. (59° F.) 0.922 to 0.927. Should be
kept in dry, well stoppered bottles. Constituents: Chiefly olein, palmitin,
and stearin. The oil also contains dissolved in it minute quantities of the
halogen elements, iodine, bromine, and chlorine, with phosphorus and
sulphur. A peculiar substance named gaduin is also claimed to have been
found. A crystalline substance, morrhuol, a compound body containing
phosphorus, iodine, and bromine, is also said to be among the "active
principles" of cod-liver oil. Action and Uses: A nutritive agent, generally
of easy assimilation. It has long been used as a stimulant and alterative
in rheumatic and strumous diseases. In pulmonary consumption it has
for a long time enjoyed a great reputation. Dose: a tablespoonful (†
fl. oz.) three or four times a day.
611. CETACEUM.-SPERMACETI.
SPERMACETI.
Ger. SPERMACETIS.
A peculiar concrete, fatty substance obtained from the head of the sperm whale,
Physe'ter macroceph'alus Linné (class, Mammalia; order, Cetacea).
DESCRIPTION.—A pearly-white, somewhat translucent, waxy mass, but of
a somewhat granular texture, fusing at about 45° C. (113° F.). Odor
faint and bland, taste mild. Insoluble in water, soluble in 50 parts
476
ANIMAL DRUGS.
of boiling alcohol; also in ether, chloroform, and carbon-disulphide.
It becomes yellow and rancid on exposure to air.
CONSTITUENTS.—Mainly cetin (cetyl palmitate, C18H33, C16H31O₂), with
small amounts of other fatty compounds.
USES.—Mainly as a base for cerates and ointments.
HONEY.
612. MEL.-HONEY.
Ger. HONIG.
A saccharine secretion deposited in the honeycomb by the bee, A'pis mellif'era Linné
(class, Insecta; order, Hymenoptera).
DESCRIPTION.—For description and Tests see U. S. P.
USES.-Mainly as a vehicle for remedial agents.
The honeycomb, from which the honey is drained, is the source of
the two official products:
612 a. CERA FLAVA.—YELLOW WAX. BEESWAX. Obtained by slicing
the honeycomb, draining it thoroughly, melting the residue after
impurities have subsided, and allowing the melted liquid to cool. A
yellowish or brownish-yellow solid, having an odor suggesting honey,
and a rather agreeable taste. It melts at about 63° C. (145.4° F.).
For Tests see U. S. P.
612 b. CERA ALBA.--WHITE WAX. BLEACHED WAX. The yellow
wax is bleached by exposing an extended surface to the light and
atmospheric influence. This is done in various ways. Bleaching
may be accomplished by chemical means, such as by the use of chlo-
rine gas, etc. A white, shining, inodorous, insipid solid, fusing at
about 65° C. (149° F.). For Tests see U. S. P.
USES.-As an ingredient in cerates, ointments, plasters, etc.
613. OVUM.—EGG.
SOURCE. The egg of the common domesticated hen (probably from India
originally) is well known as an article of food throughout the country.
DESCRIPTION.-A thin, calcareous shell incloses an albuminous sub-
stance known as white of egg, which in turn incloses the vitellus or yolk.
CONSTITUENTS.-The three parts of an egg are entirely separate and dis-
tinctive in composition.
(a) Testa Ovi, Egg-shell.-Almost pure calcium carbonate (90 to 97 per
cent.), the remainder being made up of magnesium and calcium phosphates,
together with about equal quantities of organic matter.
(b) Albumen Ovi, White of Egg.-Made up mostly of a solution of albu-
men and water (albumen 15 per cent., water about 85 per cent.), with
slight traces of fat and sugar, as well as KC1 and NaCl, which are the chief
components of the ash.
(c) Vitellus, U. S. P. 1890.-Egg Yolk, or Yelk. Compounded of water
(about 52 per cent.), fat (30 per cent.), vitellin (16 per cent.), and inorganic
salts (1.5 per cent.), such as chloride of sodium, sulphates and phosphates
of magnesium, etc., together with coloring matter and traces of lactic acid
and sugar.
ACTION AND USES.-Shell sometimes used as antacid. The white, be-
sides its nutriment, is valuable as an antidote when corrosive sublimate,

MOSCHUS.
477
sulphate of copper, or other metallic poisons have been taken into the stom-
ach. The yolk is even more nutritious than the white, having a greater
amount of digestible solids. It is used in preparing emulsions of oils and
applied as a dressing for burns.
MUSK.
614. MOSCHUS.-MUSK.
Ger. MOSCHUS.
The dried secretion from the preputial follicles of Mos'chus moschif'erus Linné
(Fam. Ruminantia).
SOURCE.-Musk is obtained from a small bag or sac attached to the pre-
puce of the male Musk deer, Mos'chus moschif'erus, a species of horn-
less deer found in Central Asia from Thibet to China. The musk-sac
is somewhat oval and about 50 mm. (2 in.) in diameter, containing
in the mucous lining a number of delicate glands which secrete the
musk.
DESCRIPTION. A granular substance of a brownish or reddish-black
color, having a very strong, peculiar,
and penetrating odor. The granules
are irregular in size, and have a smooth,
oily appearance and a bitter taste. The
color of the fresh article is considerably
lighter than that which has been dried.
and prepared for the market, although
the commercial product is estimated to
contain about 10 per cent. of moisture.
The dried musk is contained in the
original sac, one-half of which is
smooth and the other covered with hairs
arranged concentrically around two ori-
fices. The quantity of musk in each sac
amounts to about 160 grains. Not more
than one-tenth of this musk is dissolved by strong alcohol, with which
it forms a light yellowish-brown tincture, while as much as one-half
of it can be dissolved in water, forming with it a dark brown solution
having a very strong odor. Should not contain more than 15 per cent.
of moisture nor 8 per cent. of ash.
VARIETIES. Besides the Chinese or Thibetan musk, which is of the most
excellent quality, there is also a Siberian musk, the quality of which
is inferior. There is also an artificial musk which comes more prop-
erly under the head of adulterations. The Siberian or Russian
variety is generally quite easily distinguished, the containing sac being
more elongated than that of the Chinese variety, and the hair thinner
and lighter.
FIG. 262.-Tonquin Musk. Pod. (
natural size.) (Photograph.)
478
ANIMAL DRUGS.
ADULTERATIONS.-An artificial musk is manufactured by the Chinese and
is made up chiefly of a mixture of blood and ammonia to which a
small quantity of real musk is added, the whole being inclosed in a
piece of the skin of the musk ox. Resin, lead, and other substances
are also resorted to in preparing adulterations.
CONSTITUENTS.-Free ammonia, fat, albumen, an acid, wax, and gelat-
inous principles can be easily separated, but it has been impossible to
separate the odoriferous principle. The gray ash left after burning
the pure musk constitutes about 8 per cent. of the drug. The odor
of musk is destroyed or greatly modified by the action of several sub-
stances, such as camphor, ergot, hydrocyanic acid, etc.
ACTION AND USES.—Antispasmodic and diffusible stimulant, together with
more or less aphrodisiac action. Its powerful and lasting odor makes
it valuable as a perfume, either alone or in combination with other
substances. Dose: 1 to 10 gr. (0.065 to 0.6 Gm.), administered in
the form of powder, pills, or enema, the powder being generally taken
with milk.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.
Tinctura Moschi (5 per cent.),
OX GALL.
Dose: 2 fl. dr. (8 Cc.).
615. FEL BOVIS.-OX GALL.
Ger. OCHSEN GALLE.
The fresh bile of Bos taurus Linné (Fam. Ruminantia).
DESCRIPTION.—The fresh bile of the ox is a brownish or dark green, viscid
liquid, with a characteristic, unpleasant odor, and a nauseous, bitter
taste. It is neutral or faintly alkaline. Pettenkofer's test for this
liquid is as follows: Two drops in 10 Cc. of water, when treated,
first with a drop of freshly prepared solution of one part of sugar and
four parts of water, and afterward with sulphuric acid cautiously
added until the precipitate first formed is redissolved, gradually ac-
quires a brownish-red color, changing successively to carmine, purple,
and violet.
OFFICIAL PREPARATION.-Fel Bovis Purificatum. The method by which
this medicinal preparation of the crude ox-gall is made, according to
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, is as follows: Fresh ox-gall 300 Cc.; alco-
hol 100 Cc. Evaporate ox-gall in tared porcelain capsule on water-
bath to 100 Gm.; add to it the alcohol. When precipitation has
occurred and the solution cleared, the clear liquid is decanted, the
remainder filtered, and the filtrate evaporated to a pilular consistence.
Purified ox-gall is a yellowish-green, soft solid, having a peculiar
odor and a sweetish, bitter taste.
SANGUIS-LAC-SACCHARUM LACTIS-OS.
479
ACTION AND USES.—The purified ox-gall only is used in medicine. It is
tonic and laxative, at one time much used to increase the secretion of
bile. Dose: 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6 Gm.).
616. SANGUIS.-BLOOD.
SOURCE. The ox (Bos taurus Linné) furnishes this liquid from the arte-
rial circulation of the vascular system.
DESCRIPTION.-A red, opaque fluid, slightly heavier than water (sp. gr.
1.05), containing corpuscles in suspension, and coagulating on exposure.
CONSTITUENTS.-Chiefly water (78 per cent.), with albumen 7 per cent.,
salts 9 per cent., fibrin 4 per cent., and corpuscles and other constituents
13 per cent. Hæmoglobin is a peculiar coloring matter made up of glob-
ulin and hæmatin, which gives blood its red appearance.
MEDICAL PROPERTIES.-Desiccated blood has enjoyed some reputation
as a nutritive or restorative, the dose being about 15 gr. (1 Gm.), but it has
not been very generally adopted as an agent among therapeutists for treat-
ment of debilitated conditions.
617. LAC.-MILK.
SOURCE. The mammary glands of the cow (Bos taurus), the well-known
domestic animal.
DESCRIPTION.—A white, opaque liquid or emulsion, made up of butter
and casein, and having a pleasant taste and slight odor; specific gravity
about 1.030. When allowed to stand for a few hours, the oily globules
rise to the surface on account of their lower specific gravity. Under the
microscope these globules are seen to be separate, and each surrounded
by an albuminous envelope, but when a caustic alkali is added, this en-
velope is destroyed, so that the globules are released and accumulate as
pure butter.
When exposed for a considerable time in a warm place, milk
changes from sweet to sour on account of the development of an acid by
chemical action between the constituents.
Constituents.—A large percentage (about 87 per cent.) of milk is repre-
sented by water, 4 per cent. by butter, 5 per cent. by sugar and soluble
salts, and only about 3.6 per cent. by casein and insoluble salts.
Butter is composed of olein (about 30 per cent.), palmitin, and stearin
(68 per cent.), and about 2 per cent. of glycerides of butyric and other
acids.
Casein, which is soluble in a solution of the alkalies, is a modification
of albumen, and is precipitated from solution by the action of rennet or
acetic acid.
Lactic acid (Acidum Lacticum, U. S.), which is developed by the action
of heat, is said not to be a normal constituent of milk, but is always present
in sour milk. Syrupus Calcii Lactophosphatis employs this acid. Dose:
8 Cc. (2 fl. dr.).
617 d. SACCHARUM LACTIS, U. S.-SUGAR OF MILK. LACTOSE. Forms
about 5 per cent. of milk and is obtained from the whey by evaporation
and recrystallization. A hard, somewhat gritty, slightly sweet powder,
almost inodorous. Soluble in about six parts of water. For Tests see U.
S. P. It has been recommended as a dietetic in wasting diseases, but in
pharmacy is merely a diluent for triturations of various kinds.
ACTION AND USES.-Milk is nutritious, and its value as an article of diet
is well known. In addition to this use, milk may be satisfactorily em-
ployed as a vehicle for the administration of certain remedies having an
unpleasant taste.
618. OS. Bone.
SOURCE.—The skeleton of vertebrate animals.
Constituents.—Calcium phosphate 40 to 67 per cent., which includes a
small percentage of calcium carbonate; phosphates of magnesium and
other salts are also present. With the salts are also found organic sub-
stances yielding gelatine on boiling with water. The basic substance of the
480
ANIMAL DRUGS.
bony structure contains two chief constituents, namely, an organic sub-
stance, ossein, and the so-called bone earth inclosed in or combined with
it. Ossein is generally considered identical with collagin of the connective
tissue.
Preparation of Ossein: that portion of bone that is left undissolved after
treatment with HCl.
USES. For preparing bone-black, animal charcoal, and phosphates.
619. GELATINUM (U.S.).—Gelatin.
SOURCE. Bone, cartilage, skin, tendons, and ligaments; a boiling-hot
solution of these, resulting in a jelly when cooled, is dried in the air.
DESCRIPTION.-Thin, transparent sheets or porous, opaque layers or
shreds, amorphous, swelling in water without dissolving, dissolving in
warm water, forming a sticky liquid which solidifies on cooling. The solu-
tion is lævogyrate. Solutions of gelatin on boiling are not precipitated
either by mineral acids, acetic acid, alum, lead acetate, or mineral salts in
general, but precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide, tannic acid, mercuric
chloride in the presence of HCl and NaCl, and by alcohol, especially when
neutral salts are present. Its solution containing KCr₂O, yields an in-
soluble compound on exposure to light.
Gelatinoids. To this group belong a number of substances occurring in
bones, skins, horns, etc., having generally the property of forming a jelly
with water. The organic matter in bones, usually called ossein, contains,
besides albuminous substances, the two gelatinoids, collagin and gelatin, a
pure mixture of which forms common glue. Chondrin resembles gelatin;
it is obtained from cartilages of the ribs and non-ossifying cartilages; its
aqueous solution is precipitated by alum, lead acetate, ferric salts, acetic
acid, and a small quantity of mineral acid, but not precipitated by tannin
or mercuric chloride. Properties: Emollient, nutritive, and protective.
MUTTON SUET.
620. SEVUM.-SUET.
Ger. HAMMELSTALG.
The internal fat of the abdomen of O'vis a'ries (class, Mammalia; order, Ruminan-
tia), purified by melting and straining. Suet should be kept in well-closed vessels
impervious to fat. It should not be used after it has become rancid.
DESCRIPTION.-White, unctuous, smooth solid, melting at about 48° C.
Sevum Præparatum (U. S.) is identical with suet as
above described.
(113° F.).
CONSTITUENTS. Stearin, palmitin, and olein, with a preponderance of
the first mentioned.
USES.-Lenitive, as an external application and as a base for unctuous
preparations.
621. OLEUM BUBULUM.-NEAT'S-FOOT Oil. From the fatty tissue of the
feet of the ox, previously deprived of hoofs, obtained by boiling in water
and skimming off the fat, which is subsequently strained and pressed. At
ordinary temperatures this is a semifluid, oleaginous fat, of a peculiar odor.
Constituents.-Mainly olein, with solid fats. Used externally.
ADEPS-PEPSINUM.
48I
LARD.
622.-ADEPS.-LARD.
Ger. SCHWEINESCHMALZ.
The prepared internal fat of the abdomen of Sus scrof'a Linné (class, Mammalia;
order, Pachydermata), purified by washing with water, melting, and straining.
Lard should be kept in well-closed vessels impervious to fat, and in a cool place.
For Tests see U. S. P..
DESCRIPTION.-A white unctuous solid with faint odor and bland taste.
Insoluble in water. Soluble in chloroform, carbon bisulphide and
benzine. Specific gravity at 15° C. (59° F.) about 0.932.
CONSTITUENTS.-Olein, stearin, and palmitin; of the first mentioned it
consists of about 50 to 60 per cent.
USES.-Emollient, and as a base for ointments and cerates.
622 a. OLEUM ADIPIS, U. S.-LARD OIL. A pale yellowish or
colorless fixed oil having a slight odor and taste. It is produced by
exposing lard, at a low temperature, to strong pressure.
CONSTITUENTS.-Olein, with palmitin and stearin. Used externally.
PEPSIN.
623. PEPSINUM.—PEPSIN.
Ger. PEPSIN.
A proteolytic ferment or enzyme obtained from the glandular layer
of fresh stomachs of healthy pigs, and capable of digesting not less.
than 3000 times its own weight of freshly coagulated and disin-
tegrated egg albumen when tested by U. S. P. process.
SOURCE.-Pepsin is prepared from the stomach of the ox (Bos taurus), the
sheep (Ovis aries), or the hog (Sus scrofa), the mucous membrane ·
being the part used. Several methods have been employed for its
extraction. The ordinary methods of manufacture may be briefly
stated as follows:
(1) The extraneous matter is first removed from the inner surface
of the stomach by washing, and the mucous membrane scraped off
with a blunt instrument; the pulp thus obtained is placed on glass or
porcelain and dried and finally reduced to a powder. This forms a
rather poor quality, owing to the presence of mucus and inert matter.
(2) The finely chopped mucous coat is macerated in dilute hydro-
chloric acid (about 2 per cent.), and to the filtered solution common
salt is added; the floating precipitate which results is carefully washed,
then dried, and the dried residue mixed with sugar of milk until the
strength of the article is such that I grain will dissolve 3000 grains
of coagulated albumen, the strength directed by the United States
Pharmacopoeia.
(3) A scale pepsin is made by digesting the mucous lining at the
31
482
ANIMAL DRUGS.
temperature of about 100° C. with about 0.2 per cent. of HCI (or
water acidulated with other acids to the same degree of acidity) until
the membrane is completely or nearly all dissolved. The solution
is neutralized by a suitable alkali and the filtered product, after reduc-
tion by evaporation at a low temperature (sometimes in vacuo) to a
syrupy consistence, is spread on plates of glass and dried in a current
of warm air, care being taken not to allow the temperature to exceed
40° C. (104° F.). The dried, transparent film is then scraped from
the plates and broken into more or less fine lamellæ.
DESCRIPTION. A yellowish-white amorphous powder or thin, pale yel-
lowish, somewhat transparent scales, with faint odor and slight saline
or acidulous taste, but no indication of decomposition; should not be
hygroscopic. In the form of saccharated pepsin it is insoluble in
alcohol, but soluble in water, and has a curdling action on milk.
Heat destroys its proteolytic power.
TESTS.-The U. S. P. method and many others are based on the
property of pepsin to dissolve (digest) coagulated albumin. Allen's
method (seemingly a more accurate one) analyzes the products of
digestion. See "Commercial Organic Analysis," Allen, volume IV,
second edition, page 350.
ACTION AND USES.-Pepsin has a digestive action upon the food taken
into the stomach, and is employed as an artificial agent to assist diges-
tion when there is functional derangement of the stomach.
10 gr. (0.6 Gm.).
Pepsinum Saccharatum (Pepsin 10 Gm.,
sugar of milk 90 Gm., U. S., 1890),.... Dose: 8 to 15 gr. (0.5 to 1 Gm.).
Dose:
624. PANCREATINUM.—PANCREATIN.
A mixture of enzymes (Amylopsin, Myopsin, Trypsin, Steapsin) existing in the pan-
creas of warm-blooded animals capable of converting at least twenty-five times its
weight of starch into substances soluble in water.
SOURCE.-Prepared from the pancreas of the hog, by mixing finely chopped
pancreas with half its weight of cold water and straining the liquid
by pressure through cheese-cloth or flannel. To the filtrate alcohol
is added (about one volume), and the resulting precipitate collected
and dried. (For details see National Formulary.)
DESCRIPTION.-Yellowish-white amorphous powder with but slight odor
and meat-like taste; slowly soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol.
TEST.—If there be added to 4 fl. oz. of tepid water contained in a suit-
able flask or bottle, first 5 gr. of pancreatin, 20 gr. of bicarbonate
of sodium, and afterward one pint of fresh cow's milk previously
ADEPS LANE HYDROSUS CASTOREUM.
483
heated to 38° C. (100.4° F.), and if this mixture be maintained at
the same temperature for thirty minutes, the milk should be so com-
pletely peptonized that, upon adding to a small portion of it trans-
ferred to a test-tube a slight excess of nitric acid, coagulation should
not occur. For Assay see U. S. P., page 331.
ACTION AND USES.-Used as a digestive agent.
Dose: 10 gr. (0.6 Gm.).
625. ADEPS LANE HYDROSUS.-LANOLIN.
HYDROUS WOOL-FAT.
The purified fat of the wool of sheep, Ovis aries Linné (class Mammalia; order, Rumi-
nantia), mixed with not more than 30 per cent. of water.
For Tests see U. S. P.
Faint, peculiar odor.
DESCRIPTION.-A yellowish-white unctuous mass.
Insoluble in water, but miscible with twice its weight. Melts at about
40° C. (104° F.). Adeps Lanæ, U. S., is the above freed from water.
CONSTITUENTS.-Cholesterin, palmitin, olein, the first mentioned being
largely represented.
USES.-As an inunction and vehicle for substances the medicinal action
of which can be obtained by local application. It is employed in
several official ointments. The anhydrous used in Goulard's cerate.
625 a. HYDROCARBON FATS AND OILS.
DESCRIPTION, SOURCE, ETC.-As a most valuable addition to the list
of ointment bases and oleaginous liquids there has been officially recognized:
Petrolatum album (White Petrolatum); Petrolatum Liquidum (oil); Petro-
latum Molle (soft Petrolatum); and Petrolatum Spissum (Hard Petrolatum).
These are mixtures of the harder and softer members of the paraffin series
of hydrocarbons, having different melting and congealing points, etc.
Hard paraffin consists chiefly of hydrocarbons ranging from C20H42 to
C30H62; soft paraffin consists chiefly of C15H32 to C20H42; liquid consists
chiefly of heptane, C,H16, and octane, CH18.
USE. As a vehicle for medicinal substances applied locally. As such
it is much less permeable through the skin than other fats.
626. HYRACEUM.-A plaster mass of a blackish-brown color, occasionally
used medicinally as a stimulant and antispasmodic. When warmed, it
emits the odor of castor. It is an animal excretion found in Africa.
627. CASTOREUM.-Castor.
SOURCE. The preputial follicles of both sexes of Cas'tor fiber Linné
These follicles are not perceptible until the outer skin is removed, when
they are seen to lie between the cloaca and pubic arch of the animal. This
species of animals is commonly known as the beaver, and is found more
or less throughout the Temperate and North Temperate Zones.
DESCRIPTION.-The dry, resinous, brownish contents of the fig-shaped
sacs or follicles have a strong and peculiar odor, an acrid, nauseous taste,
and are soluble in alcohol and ether. An aqueous decoction of castor is
of a light yellowish-brown color which becomes turbid on cooling, and
changes to a dark color when ferric chloride is added.
VARIETIES.—American or Canadian, and Russian or Siberian Castor.
The Russian variety differs from the American in the size of the inclosing
follicles; in the former the size varies from 23 oz. to 8 oz. (75 to 240 Gm.)
in weight, and in the latter from 1 to 4 oz. (30 to 120 Gm.). There is also a
484
BACTERIAL PRODUCTS.
difference in the composition of the product from the different varieties,
the American probably containing a larger percentage of resin.
ADULTERATIONS.-Earthy matters, as well as resin and blood, are some-
times used for this purpose, but not frequently. The product from dis-
eased animals is also met with; this often contains as much as 50 per cent.
of inert material and is of a brownish-gray color.
CONSTITUENTS.-A bitter resinous substance 14 to 58 per cent., 1 to 2 per
cent. of volatile oil containing carbolic acid, a small quantity of castorin (a
colorless, odorless and tasteless, crystalline, non-saponifiable fat, soluble
in ether and boiling alcohol), together with salicin, cholesterin, and about
3.5 per cent. ash. The resin is dark brown, slightly acid, soluble in alco-
hol but not in ether. The volatile oil contains the odoriferous principle and
is generally colorless, having an acrid, bitter taste.
ACTION AND USES.-Castor enjoys some reputation as a stimulant, anti-
spasmodic, and emmenagogue, and is employed in cases of hysteria, chorea,
and epilepsy, associated with sexual disorders. On account of its disagree-
able taste it is best administered in the form of a pill.
DOSE.-5 to 10 gr. (0.3 to 0.6 Gm.) in the form of a pill; 1 to 4 fl. dr (4
to 15 Cc.) of the tincture.
628. CIVETTA.—CIVET.
SOURCE. The glandular pouch between the genitals and anus of the
male and female animals belonging to the two species Viver'ra zibe'tha
Schreber, and V. civetta Schreber, the first of which is found in Southern
Asia and the other in Africa.
DESCRIPTION. The secretion, when fresh, is yellowish, becoming brown
with age, soluble in hot absolute alcohol, partly soluble in ether, and in-
soluble in water; odor musk-like; taste acrid and nauseous.
ADULTERATIONS.-Butter or lard is not infrequently used as an adulter-
ant of the commercial article.
CONSTITUENTS.-Resinous and coloring matters are the chief compon-
ents, together with volatile oil and fat.
ACTION AND USES.-The manufacture of perfumery is the principal use
of civet, but it is also sometimes administered as a stimulant and antispas-
modic in doses of 5 to 15 gr. (0.3 to 1 Gm.). As a perfume it is superior
to musk, as the odors of various kinds of flowers can be successfully imi-
tated with it.
BACTERIAL PRODUCTS.
629. ANTITOXIC SERUMS.
In recent years there has grown up almost a new system of thera-
peutics, known as "serum therapy."
serum therapy." This system is based upon the
theory that the various infectious diseases are in most instances caused
by the poisonous toxins produced by the micro-organisms. As an
example of the diseases thus produced, diphtheria is perhaps the most.
striking, because it is the most common, and the success in its treat-
ment by this system has been universally acknowledged as phenomenal.
In addition to diphtheria, we have tetanus, septicemia, glanders,
cholera, etc. These diseases are now treated by hypodermic injection
of the well-known animal serums containing different percentages of
GLANDULAR PRODUCTS.
485
antitoxins. These antitoxic serums are practically produced in the
animal—the goat, cow, or horse, for instance. The animal is gradually
rendered immune to the specific micro-organisms by the injection of
either attenuated cultures rendered comparatively harmless by heat
and cultivation at relatively high temperature, or very minute quanti-
ties of the virulent organism itself.
After the animal has been rendered immune by this treatment, blood
is withdrawn from it with the strictest aseptic precautions; it is then
allowed to stand until the blood serum separates as a distinct layer.
This blood serum, when separated and hermetically sealed in glass
bulbs, etc. (containing 5 Cc. and upwards), constitutes the remedial
agent. It is needless to state that from the beginning until the very
end of the process the greatest aseptic precautions are observed. The
liquid before being placed in its containers is impregnated with
minute quantities of such preservative material as tricresol, carbolic
acid, etc. As these serums are tested only in the physiological
laboratory, the pharmacist must of necessity hold the manufacturer
responsible for the value of his product.
629 a. SERUM ANTIDIPHTHERICUM.-DIPHTHERIA ANTITOXIN.
DOSE.-Depends on age and condition of patient. Average dose 3000
units. Immunizing dose for well persons 500 units.
GLANDULAR PRODUCTS.
630. GLANDULE SUPRARENALES SICCA.
From the suprarenal gland is prepared a principle known as “ Adre-
nalin," which, according to von Fürth, is identical with Suprarenin.
Abel has isolated Epinephrin as the active constituent contained in
the medulla of the gland. The physiological activity of these prin-
ciples is very great: in the minute quantity of 0.000001 gm. per kilo-
gram of body-weight it is still able to raise the blood-pressure dis-
tinctly.
It is one of the most powerful hemostatics known (a fraction of one
drop of aqueous solution of adrenalin or its salt-Adrenalin
Chloride-in strength of 1 : 50,000 blanches the normal conjunctiva
within one minute).
ACTION AND USE.-The action of the remedy is very short, but the prin-

486
GLANDULAR PRODUCTS.
ciple is very resistant against acids and heat. It is soluble in water.
Employed as a local application to stop hemorrhage, especially in
FIG. 263-Suprarenal Capsules. (3 natural size.) (Photograph.)
nasal and laryngeal operations. Ophthalmologists find results most
valuable from it when applied to the eye to relieve congestion. See
article by Dr. Takamine, "Am. Jour. Pharm.," 1901, p. 523.
631. GLANDULE THYROIDEÆ.
Thyroid glands differ from the suprarenal glands in that they exert
their action when taken by the mouth. Bauman has isolated a sub-
stance very rich in iodine from the fluid (9.3 per cent.) which he
calls "iodothyrin." It also contains nitrogen and phosphorus.
GLANDULE THYROIDEÆ SICCE (DESICCATED GLANDS).
There are prepared from the fresh and healthy thyroid gland of the
sheep by removing the external fat, connective tissue, and abnormal
parts from the thyroid glands taken from the sheep immediately after
killing; mincing finely; drying at 90° to 100° F.; powdering the dried
product; removing all fat from it by washing with petroleum spirit;
and again drying the residue.
LIQUOR THYREOIDEI.-THYROID SOLUTION.
This is prepared as above from the healthy thyroid gland of the
sheep, bruising thoroughly; adding for each entire gland (consisting
of two lobes) 34 minims of glycerin and 34 minims of a 0.5 per cent.
solution of phenol in distilled water; transferring the mixture, well
stirred, to a flask, closed with cotton-wool; allowing it to stand for
twenty-four hours; straining through linen; and adding to the
GLANDULÆ THYROIDEÆ.
487
strained liquid sufficient of the 0.5 per cent. solution of phenol to make
100 minims of the liquor for each gland used.
ACTION AND USE.-Thyroid extract, when taken internally, affects
metabolism; the body-weight falls at first, but rises afterward as
health is restored. Nutrition is roused to fresh activity. Used in
myxedema and sporadic cretinism, two diseases that are associated
with disease or defect of the thyroid gland. Dose of dry thyroid, or
iodothyrin, 3 to 10 gr. (0.2 to 0.6 Cc.); of the solution, 5 to 15 m (0.3
to 1 Cc.).
SECTION III.-(A.) SYNOPSIS OF NATURAL
ORDERS, OR FAMILIES, AND OF DRUGS,
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO PART II.
*
(Number refers to number of drug-not to page. Dagger (†) refers to changes in families, see p. 496.)
Ranunculaceæ.
CIMICIFUGA, 1.
HYDRASTIS, 2.
Actæa, 3.
Coptis, 4.
Helleborus Niger, 5.
Helleborus Viridis, 6.
Xanthorrhiza, 7.
Pulsatilla, 8.
Adonis Vernalis, 9.
Ranunculus, IO.
STAPHISAGRIA, 11.
Delphinium, 12.
Nigella, 13.
ACONITUM, 14.
Hepatica, 15.
Pæonia, 16.
Calycanthacea.
Calycanthus, 17.
Magnoliaceæ.
Illicium, 18.
Magnolia, 19.
Wintera, 20.
Liriodendron, 21.
Menispermaccæ.
CALUMBA, 22.
PAREIRA, 23.
Menispermum, 24.
Cocculus, 25.
Berberideæ.
CAULOPHYLLUM, 26.
PODOPHYLLUM, 27.
Jeffersonia, 28.
Berberis Radix, 29.
Berberis Cortex, 30.
BERBERIS, 31.
Nymphææ.
Nymphæa, 32.
Sarraceniaceæ.
Sarracenia, 33.
Papaveracea
OPIUM, 34.
Papaver, 35.
Papaveris Semen, 36.
Chelidonium, 37.
Eschscholtzia, 38.
SANGUINARIA, 39.
Rhoas, 40.
Fumariacea.
Corydalis, 41.
Cruciferæ.
SINAPIS ALBA, 42.
SINAPIS NIGRA, 43.
OLEUM SINAPIS VOLATILE, 43.
Oleum Sinapis Expressum, 43 a.
Bursa Pastoris, 44.
Armoracia, 45.
Cistinea.
Helianthemum, 46.
Violariea.
Viola Tricolor, 47.
Canellaceæ.
Canella, 48.
Cinnamodendron, 49.
Bixinea.
Gynocardia, 50.
Oleum Gynocardiæ, 50 a.
Annatto, 51.
Polygalea.
†KRAMERIA, 52.
SENEGA, 53.
Polygala, 54.
* Natural orders in Italics and official drugs in bold-face type.
488
Frankeniacea.
Frankenia, 55.
Caryophyllacea.
Saponaria Levantica, 56.
Saponaria, 57.
Stellaria, 58.
Portulaceæ.
Portulaca, 59.
Hypericineæ.
Hypericum, 60.
Guttiferæ.
CAMBOGIA, 61.
Mangostana, 62.
Ternstræmiaceæ.
Thea, 63.
Dipterocarpeæ.
Gurjun, 64.
Borneo Camphor, 65.
Malvacea.
ALTHÆA, 66.
Althea Rosea, 67.
Malva, 68.
Cotton Derivatives, 69.
GOSSYPII CORTEX, 69 a.
SYNOPSIS.
GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM, 69 b.
OLEUM GOSSYPII SEMINIS, 69 c.
Sterculiacea.
Cola, 70.
Theobroma, 71.
OLEUM THEOBROMATIS, 71 a.
Tiliacea.
Tilia, 72.
Linacea.
LINUM, 73:
OLEUM LINI, 73 a.
+ COCA, 74.
Zygophyllaceæ.
Guaiaci Lignum, 75.
GUAIACUM, 76.
Geraniacea.
GERANIUM, 77.
Impatiens, 78.
Rutacea.
Angustura, 81.
Ptelia, 82.
XANTHOXYLUM, 79.
Xanthoxyli Fructus, 80.
BUCHU, 83.
PILOCARPUS, 84.
Ruta, 85.
Bela, 86.
AURANTII CORTEX, 87.
489
OLEUM AURANTII CORTICIS, 88.
Aurantii Folia, 89.
Aurantii Flores, 90.
LIMONIS SUCĆUS, 91.
LIMONIS CORTEX, 92.
OLEUM LIMONIS, 93.
Oleum Bergamottæ, 94.
White Zapote, 95.
Simarubaceæ..
QUASSIA, 96.
Quassiæ Cortex, 97.
Simaruba, 98.
Cedron, 99.
Ailanthus, 100.
Cascara Amarga, 101.
Chaparro Amargoso, 101.
Burseraceæ.
MYRRHA, 102.
Olibanum, 103.
Bdellium, 104.
Elemi, 105.
Meliacea.
Maregamia, 106.
Azedarach, 108.
Cocillana, 107.
Ilicineæ.
Ilex Opaca, 109.
Ilex Paraguayensis, 110.
Prinos, III.
Celastraceæ.
EUONYMUS, 112.
Celastrus, 113.
Rhamnacea.
FRANGULA, 114.
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA, 115
Rhamnus Cathartica, 116.
Ceanothus, 117.
Gouania, 118.
Ampelideæ.
Uva Passa, 119.
Ampelopsis, 120.
Sapindacea.
GUARANA, 121.
Esculus Glabra, 122.
Esculus Hippocastanum, 123.
Acer Rubrum, 124.
Macassar Oil, 125.
490
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Anacardiacea.
Rhus Toxicodendron, 126.
RHUS GLABRA, 127.
Rhus Aromatica, 128.
MASTICHE, 129.
Terebinthina Chia, 130.
Anacardium, 131.
Semecarpus, 132.
Leguminosa.
GLYCYRRHIZA, I33.
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, 133 a.
Abri Radix, 134.
Abri Semen, 135
Baptisia, 136.
Erythrophloum, 137.
Cercis, 138.
Saraca, 139.
Piscidia, 140.
HÆMATOXYLON, 141.
SANTALUM RUBRUM, 142.
SENNA, 143.
Cassia Marilandica, 144.
Melilotus, 145.
Trifolium Pratensis, 146.
Trifolium Repens, 146 a.
Stylosanthes, 147.
Galega, 147 a.
SCOPARIUS, 148.
CASSIA FISTULA, 149.
Ceratonia, 150.
TAMARINDUS, 151.
Dipteryx, 152.
Fænum Græcum, 153.
PHYSOSTIGMA, 154.
Mucuna, 155.
Araroba, 156.
ACACIA, 157.
TRAGACANTHA, 158.
CATECHU (Gambir), 159.
KINO, 160.
COPAIBA, 161.
OLEUM COPAIBÆ, 161 a.
Pongamia Oil, 162.
Copal, 163.
BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM, 164.
BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM, 165.
Rosacea.
PRUNUS VIRGINIANA, 166.
Choke Cherry, 167.
Persica, 169.
OLEUM AMYGDALE AMARÆ, 172 a.
Rosa Centifolia, 177.
Rosa Canina, 178.
OLEUM ROSÆ, 179.
RUBUS, 180.
Rubus Idæus, 181.
Cratægus, 182.
Laurocerasus, 183.
Fragaria, 184.
CUSSO, 185.
Tormentilla, 186.
Geum Urbanum, 187.
Geum Rivale, 188.
Gillenia, 189.
Agrimonia, 190.
Potentilla, 191.
Spiræa, 192.
Heuchera, 193.
Hydrangea, 194.
Mitella Nuda, 195.
Crassulacea.
Sedum Acre, 196
Penthorum, 197.
Droseraceæ.
Drosera, 198.
Hamamelidaceæ.
HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA, 199.
HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX, 200.
STYRAX, 201.
Liquidambar, 202.
Combretacea.
Myrobolanus, 203.
Myrtacea.
EUCALYPTUS, 204.
OLEUM EUCALYPTI, 204 a.
Myrcia, 205.
Oleum Myrciæ, 205 a.
Chekan, 206.
CARYOPHYLLUS, 207.
Caryophylli Fructus, 207_a.
OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI, 207 b.
PIMENTA, 208.
OLEUM PIMENTA, 208 a.
Jambul, 209.
OLEUM CAJUPUTI, 210.
Punicacea.
GRANATUM, 211.
Granati Fructus Cortex, 212.
Onagrarieæ.
PRUNUM, 168.
Malus, 170.
Cydonium, 171.
AMYGDALA AMARA, 172.
AMYGDALA DULCIS, 173.
OLEUM AMYGDALE
Epilobium, 213.
EXPRES-
Enothera, 214.
Turneracea.
Turnera, 215.
SUM, 174.
QUILLAJA, 175:
ROSA GALLICA, 176.
SYNOPSIS.
Passiflorea.
Carica Papaya, 216.
Passiflora, 217.
Cucurbitaceӕ.
COLOCYNTHIS, 218
Bryonia, 219.
Luffa, 220.
Momordica, 221.
PEPO, 222.
Citrullus, 223.
Cucumis, 224.
Elaterium, 225.
Cacteæ.
Cactus, 226.
Anhalonium, 227.
Umbelliferæ.
ANISUM, 228.
OLEUM ANISI, 228 a.
FŒNICULUM, 229.
OLEUM FŒNICULI, 229 a.
CONIUM, 230.
Conii Folia, 231.
CARUM, 232.
OLEUM CĂRI, 232 a.
CORIANDRUM, 233.
OLEUM CORIANDRI, 233 a.
Anethum, 234.
Oleum Anethi, 234 a.
Apium, 235.
Ajowan, 236.
THYMOL, 237.
Petroselinum (root), 238.
Petroselinum (seed), 238 a.
Phellandrium, 239.
Cuminum, 240.
Carota, 241.
Angelica Atropurpurea, 242.
Angelica Officinalis, 243.
ASĂFŒTIDA, 244.
Galbanum, 245.
Ammoniacum, 246.
SUMBUL, 247.
Imperatoria, 248.
Laserpitium, 249.
Levisticum, 250.
Pimpinella, 251.
Thapsia, 252.
Cicuta, 253.
Eryngium, 254.
Osmorrhiza, 255.
Araliacea.
Panax, 256.
Aralia Nudicauli, 257.
Aralia Racemosa, 257 a.
Aralia Hispida, 258.
Cornacea.
Cornus Florida, 259.
Garrya, 260.
Caprifoliacea.
Sambucus, 261.
VIBURNUM OPULUS, 262.
VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM, 263.
Triosteum, 264.
Rubiacea.
IPECACUANHA, 265.
Rubia, 266.
CINCHONA, 267.
CINCHONA RUBRA, 267 a.
Remijia, 268.
Cephalanthus, 269.
Mitchella, 270.
Galium, 271.
Caffea, 272.
Catechu Pallidium, 273.
Valerianeæ.
VALERIANA, 274.
Oleum Valerianæ, 274 a.
Compositæ.
TARAXACUM, 275.
Cichorium, 276.
PYRETHRUM, 277.
Pyrethrum Germanicum, 277 a.
Pyrethri Flores, 278.
Inula, 279.
LAPPA, 280.
Lappæ Fructus, 281.
Polymina, 282.
Laciniaria, 283.
Helianthella, 284.
Echinacea, 285.
Arnica Radix, 286.
ARNICA, 287.
Cnicus Arvensis, 288.
Erechthites, 289.
Trilisa, 290.
Pterocaulon, 291.
Guaco, 292.
Ambrosia, 293.
Ambrosia Artemisiæfolia, 293 a.
Strumarium, 294.
Spinosum, 295.
EUPATORIUM, 296.
Eupatorium Purpureum, 297.
GRINDELIA, 298.
Tanacetum, 299.
Absinthium, 300.
Artemisia, 301.
Erigeron, 302.
Erigeron Canadense, 303.
OLEUM ERIGERONTIS, 303 a.
* Natural orders in Italics and official drugs in bold-face type.
49I
492
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Gnaphalium, 304.
Helenium, 305.
Achillea, 306.
Carduus Benedictus, 308.
Tussilago, 307.
Silphium, 309.
Mutisia, 310.
Elephantopus, 311.
Rudbeckia, 312.
Bidens, 313.
Senecio, 314.
Solidago, 315.
LACTUCĂRIUM, 316.
Lactuca Sativa, 317.
Lactuca Canadensis, 318.
Parthenium, 319.
Cotula, 320.
MATRICARIA, 32I.
Oleacea.
MANNA, 346.
OLEUM ŎLIVÆ, 347-
Fraxinus Americana, 348.
Fraxinus Sambucifolia, 349.
Chionanthus, 350.
Ligustrum, 351.
Apocynaceæ.
APOCYNUM, 352.
Apocynum Androsæmifolium, 352 a.
Aspidosperma, 353.
Alstonia Constricta, 354.
Alstonia Scholaris, 355-
Conessi, 356.
STROPHANTHUS, 357.
Oleander, 358.
Asclepiadea.
Urechites, 359.
ANTHEMIS, 322.
Oleum Anthemidis, 322 a.
SANTONICA, 323.
CALENDULA, 324.
Carthamus, 325.
Helianthus, 326.
Campanulacea.
LOBELIA, 327.
Ericaceæ.
UVA URSI, 328.
Arctostaphylos, 329.
Gaultheria, 330.
OLEUM GAULTHERIÆ, 330 a.
CHIMAPHILA, 331.
Epigæa, 332.
Vaccinium, 333.
Kalmia, 334.
Ledum, 335.
Oxydendrum, 336.
Rhododendron, 337.
Plumbaginea.
Statice, 338.
Baycuru, 339.
Primulaceæ.
Anagallis, 340.
Myrseneæ.
Embelia, 341.
Sapotaceæ.
Gutta Percha, 342.
Monesia, 343.
Ebenacea.
Diospyros, 344.
Styraceæ.
BENZOINUM, 345-
Asclepias, 360.
Asclepias Cornuti, 361.
Asclepias Incarnata, 362.
Asclepias Curassavica, 363.
Hemidesmus, 364.
Condurango, 365.
Loganiacea.
NUX VOMICA, 366.
Ignatia, 367.
Hoang-nan, 368.
GELSEMIUM, 369.
SPIGELIA, 370.
Curara, 371.
Gentianacea.
GENTIANA, 372.
Frasera, 373.
CHIRATA, 374.
Sabbatia, 375.
Menyanthes, 376.
Hydrophyllacea.
ERIODICTYON, 377.
Polemoniaceæ.
Polemonium, 378.
Boragineæ.
Alkanna, 379.
Symphytum, 380.
Borago, 381.
Pulmonaria, 382.
Convolvulaceæ.
JALAPA, 383.
Ipomoea, 384.
SCAMMONIUM, 385.
Solanacea.
BELLADONNÆ RADIX, 386.
BELLADONNE FOLIA, 387.
Manaca, 388.
Scopola, 3884.
STRAMONIUM, 389.
Stramonii Semen, 390.
HYOSCYAMUS, 391.
Hyoscyami Semen, 392.
Tabacum, 393.
Duboisia, 394.
Pichi, 395.
Dulcamara, 396.
Solanum Carolinense, 397.
CAPSICUM, 398.
Lycopersicum, 399.
Scrophulariacea.
DIGITALIS, 400.
Euphrasia, 401.
Verbascum, 402.
LEPTANDRA, 403.
Veronica Officinalis, 404.
Scrophularia, 405.
Chelone, 406.
Orobanchaceæ.
Epiphegus, 407.
Pedalineæ.
Sesamum, 408.
a. Leaves.
b. Seeds.
c. Oleum Sesami.
Bignoniacea.
Newbouldia, 409.
Caroba, 410.
Verbenacea.
Lippia Mexicana, 411.
Verbena Hastata, 412.
Verbena Urticæfolia, 413.
Tonga, 414.
Labiata.
MENTHA PIPERITA, 415.
SYNOPSIS.
OLEUM MENTHA PIPERITÆ, 415 a.
MENTHOL, 415 b.
MENTHA VIRIDIS, 416.
OLEUM MENTHA VIRIDIS, 416 a.
HEDEOMA, 417.
OLEUM HEDEOMÆ, 417 a.
MARRUBIUM, 418.
Melissa, 419.
SCUTELLARIA, 420.
Origanum, 421.
Oleum Origani, 421 a.
Cunila, 422.
Glechoma, 423.
.Lycopus, 424.
Majorana, 425.
Serpyllum, 426.
Leonurus, 427.
Monarda, 428.
Oleum Monarda, 428 a.
Monarda Fistulosa, 429.
Hyssopus, 430.
Cataria, 431.
Teucrium, 432.
Lamium, 433.
SALVIA, 434.
Rosmarinus, 435.
OLEUM ROSMARINI, 435 a.
Thymus, 436.
OLEUM THYMI, 436 a.
Orthosiphon, 437.
Pycnanthemum, 438.
Satureia, 439.
Yerba Buena, 440.
Ocimum, 441.
Betonica, 442.
Lavandula, 443.
493
OLEUM LAVANDULÆ FLORUM,
443 a.
Collinsonia, 444.
Plantaginea.
Plantago, 445.
Chenopodiacea.
Chenopodium, 446.
OLEUM CHENOPODII, 446 a.
Phytolaccaceæ.
PHYTOLACCA, 447.
Phytolacca Fructus, 448.
Polygonacea.
RHEUM, 449.
Rheum Rhaponticum, 449 a.
Rumex, 450.
Bistorta, 451.
Polygonum, 452.
Canaigre, 453.
Aristolochiaceæ.
SERPENTARIA, 454.
Asarum, 455.
Piperacea.
CUBEBA, 456.
OLEUM CUBEBÆ, 456 a.
PIPER, 457.
Piper Album, 458.
Piper Longum, 459.
* Natural orders in Italics and official drugs in bold-face type.
494
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
MATICO, 460.
Yerba Mansa, 461.
Jambu Assu, 462.
Methysticum, 463.
Monimiacea.
Boldus, 464.
Myristiacea.
MYRISTICA, 465.
OLEUM MYRISTICÆ, 465 a.
Oleum Myristica Expressum, 465 b.
Macis, 466.
Lauraceœ.
CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM, 467.
CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, 468.
OLEUM CINNAMOMI, 468 a.
CINNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM, 469.
SASSAFRAS, 470.
OLEUM SASSAFRAS, 470 a.
Sassafras Lignum, 471.
SASSAFRAS MEDULLA, 472.
Nectandra, 473.
Coto, 474.
Lindera, 475.
Laurus, 476.
Oleum Lauri, 476 a.
Umbellularia, 477.
CAMPHORA, 478.
OLEUM CAMPHORÆ, 478 a.
Persea, 479.
Thymelacea.
MEZEREUM, 480.
Santalacea.
Santalum Album, 481.
OLEUM SANTALI, 481 a.
Loranthacea.
Mistletoe, 482.
Euphorbiacea.
STILLINGIA, 483.
Euphorbia, 484.
a. Euphorbia Corollata.
b. Euphorbia Ipecacuanha.
c. Euphorbia Pilulifera.
Euphorbium, 485.
Alveloz Milk, 486.
Mercurialis, 487.
ELASTICA, 488.
Lacca, 489.
Cascarilla, 490.
Ricinus, 491.
OLEUM RICINI, 491 a.
Tiglium, 492.
OLEUM TIGLII, 492 a.
Curcas, 493-
Kamala, 494.
Urticaceae (Moracea, U. S. 1900).
+ULMUS, 495.
+HUMULUS, 496.
LUPULINUM, 497.
+CANNABIS INDICA, 498.
Cannabis Semen, 498 a.
Oleum Cannabis, 498 b.
Urtica, 499.
+ FICUS, 500.
Morus, 501.
Juglandacea.
Juglans, 5o2.
Myricacea.
Myrica, 503.
Comptonia, 504.
Cupulifera.
QUERCUS ALBA, 505.
Alnus, 506.
Fagus, 507.
GALLA, 508.
ACIDUM TANNICUM, 508 a.
ACIDUM GALLICUM, 508 b.
PYROGALLOL, 508 c.
Castanea, 509.
OLEUM BETULÆ, 510.
Ostrya, 511.
Salicacea.
Salix, 512.
Populus, 513.
Populus Balsamifera, 514.
Gnetaceæ.
Ephedra, 515.
Conifera.
SABINA, 516.
Juniperus Virginiana, 516 a.
OLEUM SABINÆ, 516 b.
Pinus Strobus, 5161.
Thuja, 517.
Juniperus, 518.
OLEUM JUNIPERI, 518 a.
OLEUM CADINUM, 519.
Tsuga, 520.
Larix, 521.
†TERĚBINTHINA, 522.
Venice Turpentine, 522 a.
OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ, 522 b.
† RESINA, 522 c.
+ PIX LIQUIDA, 523.
+OLEUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ, 523 a.
TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS, 524.
Pix Canadensis, 525.
Pix Burgundica, 526.
Succinum, 527.
Oleum Succini, 527 a.
Dammara, 528.
Kauri, 529.
Sandaracca, 530.
Orchidacea.
CYPRIDEDIUM, 531.
Corallorrhiza, 532.
Salep, 533.
VANILLA, 534.
Scitamineæ.
† ZINGIBER, 535.
Galanga, 536.
Zedoaria, 537.
Curcuma, 538.
† CARDAMOMUM, 539.
Granum Paradisi, 540.
Bromeliacea.
Ananassa, 541.
Hamodoraceæ.
Aletris, 542.
Irideæ.
Iris, 543.
Iris Florentina, 544.
Crocus, 545.
Dioscoraceæ.
Dioscorea, 546.
Liliaceæ.
SARSAPARILLA, 547.
CONVALLARIA, 548.
VERATRUM, 549.
Veratrum Album, 549 a.
Sabadilla, 550.
Polygonatum, 551.
Chamælirium, 552.
Trillium, 553.
Asparagus, 554.
Allium, 555.
SCILLA, 556.
COLCHICI CORMUS, 557.
COLCHICI SEMEN, 558.
ALOE, 559.
Aloe Socotrina, 559 a.
Aloe Barbadensis, 559 b.
Aloe Capensis, 559 c.
Xanthorrhoea, 560.
Erythronium, 561.
Palma.
Areca, 562.
SABAL, 563.
Carnauba, 564.
Draconis Resina, 565.
SYNOPSIS.
Oleum Palmæ, 566.
Oleum Cocois, 567.
Aroideæ.
† CALAMUS, 568.
Symplocarpus, 569.
Arum, 570.
Arisæma Dracontium, 571.
Commelina, 572.
Cyperaceæ.
Carex, 573.
Adrue, 574.
Gramineæ.
TRITICUM, 575-
Vetiveria, 576.
SACCHARUM, 577.
ZEA, 578.
Oleum Maydis, 579.
AMYLUM, 580.
a. Avenæ Farina.
b. Sago.
c. Tapioca.
d. Taro.
e. Triticum Vulgare
f. Oryza.
g. Solanum Tuberosum.
h. Canna.
i. Maranta.
j. Curcuma Leucorrhiza.
Hordei Fructus, 581.
a. Hordeum.
b. Maltum.
Equisetacea.
Equisetum, 582.
Filices.
ASPIDIUM, 583.
Adiantum, 584.
Cibotium, 585.
Osmunda, 586.
Polyodium, 587.
Lycopodiacea.
LYCOPODIUM, 588.
Polytricaceae.
Polytrichum, 589.
Lichenes.
Cetraria, 590.
Litmus, 591.
a. Orchil.
b. Cudbear.
* Natural orders in Italics and official drugs in bold-face type.
495
496
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
Fungi.
† ERGOTA, 592.
Ustilago, 593.
Agaricus Albus, 594.
Agaricus Chirurgorum, 594 a.
Torula, 595.
Alga.
† CHONDRUS, 596.
Fucus Vesiculosus, 597.
Fucus Nodosus, 597 a.
Laminaria, 598.
Animal Drugs.
CANTHARIS, 599.
COCCUS, 600.
Blatta, 601.
Hirudo, 602.
Spongia, 603.
Corallium, 604.
Testa, 605.
Os Sepiæ, 606.
Calculi Cancrorum, 607.
Ichthyocolla, 608.
Ambra Grisea, 609.
OLEUM MORRHUÆ, 610.
CETACEUM, 611.
MEL, 612.
CERÁ FLAVA, 612 a.
CERA ALBA, 612 b.
Ovum, 613.
a. Testa Ovi.
b. Albumen Ovi.
c. Vitellus.
MOSCHUS, 614.
FEL BOVIS, 615.
a. FEL BOVIS PURIFICATUM.
Sanguis, 616.
Lac, 617.
a. Butyrum.
b. Casein.
c. ACIDUM LACTICUM.
d. SACCHARUM LACTIS.
Os, 618.
GELATINUM, 619.
SEVUM PRÆPARATUM, 620.
Oleum Bubulum, 621.
ADEPS, 622.
OLEUM ADIPIS, 622 a.
PEPSINUM, 623.
PANCREATINUM, 624.
ADEPS LANE HYDROSUS, 625.
Hydrocarbon Fats and Oils, 625 a.
Hyraceum, 626.
Castoreum, 627.
Civetta, 628.
GLANDULÆ SUPRARENALES, 630.
GLANDULÆ THYREOIDEÆ, 631.
Bacterial Products.
Antitoxic Serums, 629.
The changes made in the U. S. P. of 1900 place the following drugs in
families as indicated:
Krameria
Coca ...
Granatum
Lobelia
Ulmus
.Krameriaceæ.
.Erythroxylaceæ.
Punicaceæ.
. Campanulaceæ.
Ulmacæ.
Moraceæ.
Humulus
Lupulin
Cannabis Indica.
Ficus..
Terebinthina
Resina
Pix Liquida..
Oleum Picis Liquida
Zingiber
Cardamomum.
Calamus.
Pinaceæ.
((
Ergota
Chondrus
•
.Zingiberaceæ.
Araceæ.
Hypocreaceæ.
Gigartinaceæ.
* Natural orders in Italics and official drugs in bold-face type.
SECTION III.-(B.)—DRUG ASSAY PROCESSES.
In the former part of this work (p. 77) we have given a list of crude
drugs and their preparations, and the required official strength of each
to be determined by assay. The Pharmacopoeia gives in detail the various
processes suited to the assay of the various drugs specified. By careful
manipulation, using these methods, the pharmacist may reach definite
results as to the quality and strength of the article under examination.
The student in pharmacy should be familiar with the general principles
which underlie the process of drug assay. A brief outline of these prin-
ciples may be here in place.
Principles of Alkaloidal Assay. The immiscible solvents, such as
chloroform, ether, benzol, amylic alcohol, etc., are employed. Any of
these liquids, when shaken with water or acidulated water, will mix with
the aqueous liquid only for a time. On standing for a few minutes they
will separate into two distinct layers, one of these being the aqueous layer,
the other the immiscible solvent (mostly ethereal in character).
If equal volumes of ether and water be shaken together and a solution
of the extract of belladonna added to the mixture and a few drops of
sulphuric acid, it will be found that the belladonna alkaloids will be dis-
solved out and will be contained in the aqueous (acidulated) layer, not
in the ethereal layer, because it is the general property of alkaloidal salts
to be soluble in water, and to be insoluble in ether. The acid having
converted the atropine and the hyoscyamine of the extract into a salt
(sulphate), it therefore will be taken up and retained by the aqueous layer.
If to these two liquids (the ether and the acidulated solution of the alka-
loidal salt) there is now added a sufficient quantity of ammonia water to
neutralize the acid and make the aqueous liquid slightly alkaline, and
the fluids be again mixed and allowed to stand as before, it will be found
that the alkaloids (of belladonna) are no longer in the aqueous layer but
in the upper (ethereal) layer. It is the general property of free alkaloids,
themselves, with few exceptions, to be soluble in ether (chloroform, etc.)
and to be insoluble in water. It might be stated therefore, as a general
principle, that alkaloids, as a rule, are soluble in the immiscible fluids.
(ether, chloroform, amylic alcohol), etc., while their salts are insoluble in
these fluids. Alkaloidal salts, on the other hand, are insoluble in the
immiscible fluids, but are soluble in water. Advantage is taken of this
property in the assay of alkaloidal drugs.
32
497
498
DRUG ASSAY PROCESSES.
As an illustration of the foregoing principle we would quote the first
part of the process for the assay of fluidextract of Ipecac.
The official formula is about as follows:
Fluidextract of Ipecac, ten cubic centimeters (10 Cc.),
Normal Sulphuric Acid Solution,
Ammonia Water,
Ether,
Tenth-normal Sulphuric Acid Solution,
Fiftieth-normal Potassium Hydroxide Solution,
Hematoxylin Test Solution, each a sufficient quantity.
Measure off 10 Cc. of Fluidextract of Ipecac, in a measuring cylinder
or a graduated pipette, and pour it into a porcelain evaporating dish.
Evaporate off all the alcohol on a water-bath, and when almost cool,
add 5 Cc. normal sulphuric acid, and stir until all the alkaloids have
been dissolved. Filter off the undissolved portion through 7 Cm. plain
filter into a separator. Wash the dish and the filter twice with 5 Cc. of
distilled water, and add the wash-water to the separator. To the sepa-
rator, add 20 Cc. of ether, make alkaline with ammonia water, and shake
for three minutes. Draw off the lower portion into a beaker, and the
ethereal layer into another beaker. Return the aqueous solution to the
separator, and shake with 10 Cc. more of ether, adding the ethereal solu-
tion to that already in the beaker. After again returning the aqueous
solution to the separator, shake again with 10 Cc. of ether, and then add
the ethereal layer to that already in the beaker. Allow all of the ether
to evaporate spontaneously or on a moderately warm water-bath.
The residue, when dried to constant weight, will contain the crude
alkaloids of Ipecac.
The remainder of the official process consists in titrating this residue
against a tenth-normal volumetric solution of sulphuric acid, using hema-
toxylin test solution as indicator.
Estimation of the Strength of Resinous Drugs. In estimating
the resinous drugs another procedure is necessary. Sometimes one can
simply thoroughly extract the drug by means of alcohol; take an aliquot
portion of the alcoholic solution and evaporate it to a small bulk; add
water to precipitate the resin; decant the supernatant liquid and dry the
residue to constant weight. From this weight of resin the percentage.
may be computed. This is a rather crude way, but the Pharmacopoeia
gives a more accurate assay process for the estimation of Jalap, which
reads about as follows:
"Jalap should contain not less than 8 per cent. of total resin, nor more
than 1.5 per cent. of ether-soluble resin.
DRUG ASSAY PROCESSES.
ASSAY OF JAlap.
Jalap, in fine powder (No. 60), ten grains (10 Gm.),
Ether,
Alcohol,
Chloroform,
Distilled water, each, a sufficient quantity
499
"Plug the tube of a funnel or small glass percolator with absorbent
cotton, and put into it 10 Gm. of powdered Jalap. Drench with ether
and percolate with ether, after covering the percolator, until 50 Cc. of
percolate have been obtained. Evaporate off the ether from a tared
beaker, and weigh the residue as ether-soluble resin. The weight so found
multiplied by ten will give the percentage of ether-soluble resin in the
drug.
"Percolate the powder in the percolator further with alcohol until
100 Cc. of percolate have been obtained. Measure off 20 Cc. of this
percolate into a separator, add 20 Cc. of chloroform, and mix. Then
add 20 Cc. of distilled water, shake the liquids thoroughly for a minute,
and when they have completely separated, draw off the chloroform into
a tared beaker. Wash the separator with 5 Cc. more of chloroform, which
add to a tared beaker. Evaporate off the chloroform on a water-bath,
and when perfectly dry, weigh. The weight of ether-insoluble resin so
found multiplied by fifty will give the percentage of ether-insoluble resin
in the drug. Add to this the percentage of ether-soluble resin already
determined, and the result will be the percentage of total resin contained
in the drug."
PART III.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS.
The introduction of this brief appended section on insects injurious
to drugs into a text-book of materia medica, while an innovation, seems
desirable to the author of the text-book on the ground of the importance
of the subject. It is a fact that stored drugs are attacked by a consider-
able number of insects, and that a varying amount of loss from this cause
is sustained by practically every druggist, wholesale and retail, in the land.
If, by the acquiring of a little knowledge of the appearance and habits
of these pests, and by the exertion required in a little preventive or reme-
dial care, this loss can be lessened, the introduction of this section, which
attempts to furnish the information necessary for the little knowledge
and the little care, will be justified.
The necessary entomological knowledge of the pharmacist who would
make some show of resistance to the insect enemies of his drugs may be
limited to an acquaintanceship with these insect enemies, and a knowl-
edge of the means of fighting them. As a basis for this acquaintanceship,
however, it is necessary to glance hastily at the great class of insects in
general. More numerous in species and individuals than all other animals
combined, the insects are conveniently divided into several great groups.
or orders.
All the butterflies and moths, whose wings are covered with
fine scales, and who obtain their food by sucking the nectar from flowers,
constitute one order; the beetles, with their horny fore-wings and their
powerful jaws for biting, compose another order; the two-winged flies, of
which the familiar house-fly is an example, constitute a third order; the
ants, bees, and wasps, and some other highly intelligent insects are grouped
together in a fourth order; the true bugs, as the chinchbug and squash-
bug, with their sucking beaks, are comprised in a fifth order; the grass-
hoppers, crickets, cockroaches, and katydids compose a sixth order; and,
finally, the gauzy-winged dragon-flies, the short-lived May-flies, and the
wonderful white ants constitute a seventh order. But a simpler division
of insects into two great groups is that often made, for convenience' sake,
especially by the economic entomologist; namely, a division made accord-
ing to mouth parts, all insects in the adult stage having mouth parts fitted
500
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS.
501
for biting or mouth parts fitted for sucking. It is evident at once that
the pharmacist will be especially interested in the biting insects, the ones
which can attack roots and leaves, and all dry preparations. There will
be little opportunity for the sucking insects to injure the pharmacist's
stores. The insects may be divided according to this distinction as fol-
lows: The orders containing the beetles, the cockroaches, the dragon-
flies, etc., compose the group of biting insects; the orders containing
the true bugs, the butterflies and moths, and the flies, compose the group
of sucking insects; while the order of the ants, bees, and wasps, and
the order of mites (which are not true six-footed insects, but are closely
related to them) may be said to compose a third group, in which the
mouth parts are arranged for both biting and sucking, or piercing and
sucking.
But we can not thus dismiss certain of the sucking insects from our
pharmaco-entomological consideration; for with wonderful adaptiveness,
nature has arranged that the young of certain sucking insects shall be
provided with jaws for biting. The common worm-like caterpillars, which
are the larval forms, or young, of butterflies and moths, are familiar to
all; most children know that the strong-jawed, foliage-eating "worm,"
now feeding so voraciously on the green leaves of plant or tree, will in
time change into some beautiful four-winged butterfly or moth, incapable
of injuring a green leaf, and taking its food only in dainty sips, by means
of its sucking tubular mouth parts, from some bright flower. And most
housewives know that the dreaded clothes-moth-little, brown, delicate
flutterer-is, in its moth or winged stage, harmless to furs or woolens, but
that the dreadful little white grub, with its sharp jaws and voracious appe-
tite, which really does the damage, is only the young of the innocent-
looking moth, and that the moth, after all, is not so innocent.
So, then, it behooves the pharmacist to keep an eye on not only those
insects which all their lives are truly biting insects, but also on those
insects, as the moths, which, while harmless as adults, yet in their young
stages, with strong biting mouth parts, appear as ravaging caterpillars.
In setting out to fight an insect pest, the economic entomologist asks
first, “What is it? Is it a beetle, or a fly, or a moth?" This question
answered, he already knows much about it; whether, for example, it is a
biting or a sucking insect; he knows in a general way what sort of dam-
age it does and how it does it, and he knows, too, in a general way, what
remedies are most likely to be effective in fighting it. But it is always
better and usually necessary to know the exact life history of the particu-
lar pest he must fight; he must discover where and when its eggs are laid,
how long it remains in the larval or grub stage, what are its times and
places of feeding, and what are its favorite articles of diet. From this
502
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
life history he can decide on the character of the remedy to be applied,
and when and where the remedy can best be used. Therefore the phar-
macist may wisely turn to his jars and boxes, his store-rooms and labora-
tories, and try to discover what manner and number of insects he is to
array himself against.
Referring to some of the more common and destructive pests attacking
stored drugs, the mites (order, Acarina) may first be noted. The mites,
commonly enough represented and known in the case of the familiar
flour or cheese mite, are minute, rounded-oval, eight-legged insects, with
the mouth parts arranged to form a piercing beak. The body is not.
divided into head, thorax, and abdomen, as is the case with other insects,
but all these parts are coalesced or merged into a single mass. While
many mites suck the blood from animals or the juices from plants, many
FIG. 264.-Sugar Mite.
FIG. 265.-A Cantharid-eating Mite (Glyci-
phagus spinipes).-(Fum. and Rob.)
others feed on "dry food." Among these are the flour and cheese mites,
and sugar mites with soft, smooth, whitish body (see Fig. 264), and belong-
ing to the genera Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus, and Glyciphagus. Many
species of these genera of mites, besides being found in sugars, meals,
and other vegetable products in the store-room, attack dried animal re-
mains, cantharides suffering severely from the ravages of several species of
Glyciphagus (see Fig. 265). The presence of the mites in the cantharides
jars is indicated by much powder and broken bits of the beetles gathering
on the bottom of the jars. In this mass of powder and fragments can be
seen with the naked eye many small, moving, whitish specks, the mites.
These specks, examined under the microscope, will reveal the character-
istic shape and appearance of the mites.
The most abundant pest in the pharmacal store-rooms appears to be a
small brown beetle, Sitodrepa panicea, belonging to the family Ptinidæ,
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS:
503
a family whose members, in both larval and adult stages, feed on dead,
dry vegetable and animal matter. This family comprises a number of
small beetles, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and usually
brownish in color. A conspicuous and distinctive character is the hood-
like prothorax, the head being so bent or drawn back under it as to be
almost concealed (see b, Fig. 266). Sitodrepa panicea, the especially
abundant species of this family, is from two to three mm. long, with a
brown, subcylindrical body. It is almost entirely covered with many fine,
short, yellowish hairs, which, on the upper surface of the body, are ar-
ranged in parallel longitudinal lines; the upper surface of the body (strictly,
only the wing-covers) is finely striated (see a, Fig. 266). The head is
a
C
FIG. 266.-Sitodrepa panicea Linné. The com-
mon drug-eating insect. a. Dorsal view of
adult beetle. h. Side view of adult beetle. C.
Larva.-(Smith.)
FIG. 267.-Ginger root attacked by
Sitodrepa panicea Linné.-(Orig-
inal.)
almost concealed by the thorax, the front margin of the thorax reaching
to the eyes.
The head is also bent strongly downward. The young, or
larva, of this beetle is a small white grub with three pairs of legs, and strong,
dark brown jaws. The grub when lying at rest usually assumes a semicir-
cular position (see c, Fig. 266). They feed voraciously on the drug, grow
rapidly, and, after two or three weeks, pupate, and soon change into the
perfect beetle. The beetle also feeds upon the drug by means of strong
biting jaws, and the females soon lay eggs, from which another genera-
tion of larvæ, or grubs, hatch. The whole life of the insect is thus passed
in the can or jar containing the drug. The presence of the pest is shown
by the collecting of a considerable amount of powder on the bottom of
504
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
the can or jar (if the drug is a root, stem, or leaf), and by the presence
in the drug of many small holes eaten by the insects (see Fig. 267). Often
the little brown beetles may be seen crawling about in the jar. If the
drug is a powder, this is the easiest means of detecting their presence.
Sitodrepa panicea is almost omnivorous in the pharmacal store-room. In
the store-rooms of the department of pharmacy, University of Kansas,
Sitodrepa panicea has been found feeding on such drugs as the following:
Columbo, aconite, mustard, althæa, belladonna, poke root, ginseng,
angelica, etc.
Still other species of the family Ptinidæ feed on drugs: Lasioderma
serricorne, a small brown beetle very like Sitodrepa panicea, but more
robust, and with the wing-covers smooth and not striated, although cov-
ered with fine hairs as in Sitodrepa, is not uncommon. The larva or grub
is like the grub of Sitodrepa, and the habits are
about the same. I have found Lasioderma ser-
ricorne attacking powdered ergot, and Prof. J.
B. Smith, entomologist of Rutgers College, has
found it attacking belladonna root. Ptinus brun-
neus, another species of the family, which I have
found attacking musk root, powdered senna, and
powdered jaborandi leaves, differs considerably
in appearance from the other two members of
the family just referred to. It is slightly larger,
being about four mm. long, and it has long, slen-
der antennæ or feelers which project forward
from the head (see Fig. 268). The antennæ of
Sitodrepa and Lasioderma are usually bent back
upon the body. The body of Ptinus is not sub-
cylindrical, but tapers toward the head, the head
itself being much narrower than the body. Bostrichus dactilliperda, another
member of the family Ptinidæ, attacks sweet almonds.
FIG. 268.-Ptinus brunneus Duft.
-(Riley.)
Another family of beetles which includes several drug-attacking species
is the Dermestidæ. To this family belongs the common buffalo bug
(Anthrenus scrophulariacea) of the house. The Dermestidæ comprise a
number of beetles, mostly small, which feed on skins, furs, various dried
animal substances, and, to some extent, on dried vegetable substances.
Anthrenus varius, which I have found in jars of powdered cramp bark
and fenugreek, is small, rounded-oval, with transverse black, white, and
reddish-brown waved stripes (see a, Fig. 269). The grub differs from the
larvæ of the Ptinidæ in bearing many long, bristly hairs (see c, Fig. 269).
The adult beetle lives chiefly upon the pollen of certain plants, but the
larva or grub lives indoors, and, feeding on rugs, woolen goods, collections
of natural history, furs, hairs, and drugs, is a serious pest.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DRUGS.
505
Another family of small beetles, the Cucujidæ, is represented among
drug pests by several species of the genus Silvanus. The beetles belong-
ing to this genus are about one-tenth of an inch long, light-brown, flat-
tened, and with antennæ clubbed at the tip (see Fig. 270). I have found
Silvanus surinamensis attacking almond meal, Silvanus advena feeding on
aconite root, and another species of Silvanus attacking angelica seed,
quince seed, bitter-sweet, senega root, hyoscyamus, pellitory root, etc.
A large black beetle, Tenebrio obscurus (family Tenebrionidæ), is some-
times found attacking drugs. I have taken it in jars of parsley root. It
is three-quarters of an inch long, dull black all over, with bead-like an-
tennal joints, and with narrow, parallel, longitudinal ridges along the
wing-covers. A small, shining, black beetle (genus Paromalus), belong-
ing to the family Histeridæ, has been found in powdered poke root. Two
species of Ceutorynchus, small snouted beetles or weevils, infest poppy and
a
b
C
FIG. 269.-Anthrenus varius Fab. a. Adult beetle. b. Pupa.
c. Larva.-(Original.)
FIG.
270.-Silvanus
surinamensis Linné.
-(Original.)
other seeds. Another weevil, Calandra oryza, imported from Europe,
infests rice and ground roasted acorns.
The beetles comprise the chief drug pests, but some other orders of
insects are represented by a lesser or greater number of pests.
The Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths, while possessing, in the
adult stage, mouth parts adapted for sucking, have, in the young stages,
strong biting-jaws. The young are the well-known caterpillars, and may
be distinguished from the young or grubs of beetles by the number of
legs. The larva or grub of the beetle has but three pairs of legs, and
these are attached to the first three segments of the body lying just behind.
the head; the larva or caterpillar of a moth has, in addition to these three
pairs of so-called thoracic legs, usually five more pairs of legs, four of
these pairs being attached to segments in the middle region of the worm-
like body, and the fifth pair being attached to the last segment of the
506
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
body. The grubs of beetles sometimes have in addition to their three
pairs of thoracic legs a single leg on the last segment of the body.
Every one knows of the clothes-moth, dread foe of the housewife, which,
as a small white caterpillar, living in a cylindrical roll or case (see d, Fig.
271) made from the woolen cloth or fur on which it is feeding, does irrepar-
able injury to the choicest fabrics and costliest furs. This moth belongs
to the genus Tinea, of which one or more species attack drugs. Fig.
α
b
C
d
FIG. 271.—Tinea penionella Linné. a. Adult moth. b. Pupa. c. Larva. d. Case.-(Original.)
271 illustrates the life history of the moths of this genus; c is the larva
or caterpillar; b is the pupa or resting stage; and a is the adult moth.
The moth is very small and light-brown in color. I have found a Tineid
attacking aconite root. Another moth, known as the Angoumois grain
moth (Gelechia cerealella), attacks, in the caterpillar stage, all kinds of
stored grain. It bores holes into the grain kernels and eats out the starchy
interior, leaving only a delusive hollow shell. Figure 272 shows the
b
a
FIG. 272. Grain kernels attacked by Angoumois grain moth.
C
a. Infested kernel of corn. b. Kerne
of corn cut open showing feeding larva within. c. Infested kernel of wheat.—(Original.)
appearance of the infested grain kernels. The larva of Carpocapsa
amflana, a moth of the same genus as the codlin moth, the greatest insect
pest of the apple, infests the seeds of Corylus avellana, Juglans regina,
and Castanea vesca. The larva of Mylois ceratonia feasts on the fruits
of Ceratonia siliqua and Castanea vesca. The larva of the moth Ecophaga
olivella inhabits the kernels of the olive, causing the dropping of the fruit.
and a smaller yield of oil.
Passing now to another order of insects, the two-winged flies, we find
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO drugs.
507
that while the mouth parts of the adult flies are adapted for sucking or lap-
ping, the young flies, which appear as grubs or maggots, are in many cases
better prepared to partake of solid food. The olive in southern France and
Italy is infested by a larva of a fly known as Dacus olea; in the kernels.
of fresh hazelnuts are often found the larvæ of a fly which belongs to the
same genus as that notorious wheat pest, the Hessian fly. The fly Trypeta
arnicivora is often gathered in its youthful state with arnica flowers, and
becomes developed later on, after feeding on the flowers in the pharma-
cist's canisters.
The book-louse insects (genus Atropos) have at least one representative
in the list of drug pests. I have found a species (probably divinatoria)
FIG. 273. Atropos divin-
atoria Fab.-(Orignal.)
FIG. 274.-Lepis-
ma saccharina
Linné. (Walk-
er.)
FIG. 275.-Cynips.—(Orig-
inal.)
of this genus attacking golden seal and hyoscyamus. The insect is very
small, hardly a twentieth of an inch long. When examined with a micro-
scope it is found to be wingless, and of a general appearance as shown in
Fig. 273. This insect represents the family Psocidæ, of the order Pseudo-
neuroptera.
The order of wingless insects Thysanura, which includes the "fish-
moths," those active scale-covered little creatures of the household, is
represented by a member of the genus Lepisma (probably saccharina) (see
Fig. 274), which I have found in jars of mezereon bark and Socotrine aloes.
Finally, in jars of gall the pharmacist may find numerous little four-
winged, compact-bodied "flies," which are not, however, attacking his
508
1
ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
stores, but which are only the insects which produced the galls, now issuing
from them. These little insects (see Fig. 275) are Hymenoptera, belong-
ing to the genus Cynips. The pharmacist may find other Hymenoptera
(distinguished by having four clear membranous wings with almost no
veins in them, see Fig. 275) in his jars and cans; but these insects are his
benefactors. They are parasitic on the beetles and other insect pests which
are feeding on the drugs, and thus do much good. Their eggs are laid
on the body of the grub of the drug-eating beetle, and the young hymen-
opteron, on hatching, eats its way into the beetle-grub and lives there at
the expense of its host.
REMEDIES.
Coming now to the matter of remedies, a reviewing of the notes thus
far presented shows that beetles are the most serious and numerous of
drug pests, and that practically only insects which have biting mouth
parts are injurious. In fighting insects with biting mouth parts the com-
mon means employed by entomologists is to cover the substance attacked
(usually the green foliage of plants) with a thin coating of arsenic, by
means of spraying. In the nature of the case this method is out of the
question in fighting drug pests, but, because the drugs are capable of being
easily handled and subject to treatment in air-tight vessels, a very con-
venient, effective, and universally applicable method is possible, namely,
treatment with vapor of bisulphide of carbon. The vapor of bisulphide
of carbon is deadly to all insects in all stages, except the egg stage. The
infested drug should be placed in a tight vessel (after having removed the
dust and debris caused by the attacks of the insects) and a quantity of
bisulphide of carbon, sufficient to charge the vessel with vapor, intro-
duced. Any insect in the vessel will be killed. The remedy is simple,
effective, and is feasible in the case of almost any drug.
Prevention of attack may be accomplished in some degree by the use
of tight cases, though often the insects are introduced into the case with
the drug, the drug specimens having come from an infested lot. Occa-
sionally inspection of the jars and cans will detect the insects before they
have had time to do much damage.
The case of the detection of the presence of insects, and the ease with
which the pests may be killed, makes it certainly worth the while of any
druggist to devote the little time required for the effective prevention of
insect damage to his stores.
PART IV.
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND
MICROTECHNIC.
CHAPTER 1.-SELECTION AND USE OF APPARATUS FOR
USE IN VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY.
THE MICROSCOPE.
The Continental type of microscope manufactured by the Spencer Lens
Co., Buffalo, N. Y., and by Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y., gives
excellent service in histological work. The Spencer Continental form
No. 3, equipped with a double nosepiece, a and inch objective, and
a 1 inch eyepiece, will be found adequate for the needs of the pharma-
cist, unless bacteria are to be studied, in which event an oil-immersion
objective and an Abbe condenser should form a part of the microscope.
equipment. The Spencer Continental form No. I and the Bausch and
Lomb AAB and BB stands are suitable for work of this character.
Excellent microscope outfits may also be obtained in Germany from
Carl Zeiss, Jena, Ernst Leitz, Wetzlar, and from C. Reichert, Vienna,
Austria, and Powell & Lealand, London.
The Use of the Microscope.-Starch from the potato will be found
an excellent object for the first lessons in the use of the compound micro-
scope.
Clean a glass slip by dipping it into water and wiping it dry with a
clean towel or piece of old linen or cotton cloth; clean a cover-glass in
the same manner, using great care not to break it. A safe way of wiping
the delicate cover-glass is to fold the cloth between the thumb and fore-
finger, then place the cover-glass within the fold and polish it with a
gentle movement to and fro of the thumb and finger. After the cover-
glass is cleaned, it should not be touched on its faces with the fingers, but
should always be picked up by its edge. After the cover-glass has been
cleaned, it should always be placed on the edge until needed, for if its
faces come in contact with anything at all unclean or dusty, it will need
polishing again. The glass slip should also be kept scrupulously clean.
Put a small drop of water in the middle of the glass slip; cut open a
potato, and with the point of a knife scrape the cut surface lightly and
509
510
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
transfer some of the juice which adheres to the knife to the drop of water
on the slide. The beginner is apt to make the drop of water too large.
The drop should be only large enough to fill out the space between the
slip and cover-glass when the cover-glass has been placed over the drop.
If the water is pressed out beyond the edge of the cover-glass, it is apt to
carry with it the object to be studied, or to flow back over the upper sur-
face of the cover-glass, and in this event the latter would need to be re-
moved and again polished. After a little practice, the proper size of the
drop for a certain diameter of cover-glass can be determined.
To put on the cover-glass, grasp it between the thumb and forefinger
of the right hand and, holding it nearly vertically, rest the lower edge
upon the slip to the right of, and near to, the drop. Lower the cover-
glass over the drop, supporting it at its upper edge by means of a dissect-
ing needle held in the left hand, and placing the middle finger of the right
hand against the lower edge of the cover-glass to keep it from sliding
backward toward the right. Lower the cover-glass slowly, taking care
that no air-bubbles become entangled in the film of water; if danger of
this is observed, move the glass up and down with the dissecting needle
until the bubbles are broken and pass out. The bubbles should be broken
in this way as they are seen to form. When the cover-glass is in position,
if water is pressed out beyond the edge, it may be removed with a bit of
filter paper; but if much water is to be removed, the object is apt to be
drawn to the edge of the cover-glass or entirely from under it, and in
such event the preparation should be made over again. When the prep-
aration is finished, the cover-glass and slide should look as clear as a
crystal; if they have become smirched in any way the preparation should
be made anew and the cover-glass and slide repolished. The reason for
this is that the object is to be examined with transmitted light,—that is,
with light that has passed through the slip, object, and cover-glass from
below, and the transmission of the light, which is absolutely necessary
to the observation of the object, is prevented by a dirty slide or cover-
glass.
Place the slip on the stage of the microscope (see Fig. 276) so that
the object under the cover-glass comes in the center of the opening in
the stage; place the microscope in a position convenient for observation,
keeping the microscope upright, and then adjust the mirror so that the
light is reflected up through the object. When this is accomplished, a
bright spot of light will be seen to illuminate the object. Thus far no
attempt has been made to look through the microscope. When the
mirror has been adjusted, the microscope should not be moved, else a
readjustment of the mirror will be necessary. The microscope should
therefore be placed in position and left there during subsequent manipu-

THE MICROSCOPE.
511
lations. Before putting the slip on the stage of the microscope the objec-
tive should be racked high up out of the way.
S
H
G
D
K
M
с
B
HUCINDOTHANGROCHIN
FIG. 276.-Compound Microscope. A. The base or foot. B. Pillar. C. The arm. D. The body,
to which the optical parts are attached. E. Nosepiece. F. Objective. G. Eyepiece or ocular.
H. Draw-tube. I. Collar. J. Coarse adjustment. K. Milled heads for operating the coarse
adjustment. L. Fine adjustment, which acts upon the body directly or indirectly by means of a
micrometer screw. M. Stage where the objects are placed for examination. N. Clips for holding
in position the glass slides on which the objects are mounted. O. Mirror, one side of which is concave
and the other plane; the concave mirror gives stronger illumination than the plane. P. Mirror bar.
Q. Substage which carries the diaphragms and the condenser; in the cheaper forms of microscopes
the substage is attached directly to the stage, but in the better forms, as in this instance, it is attached
to the movable substage bar, R. S. The diaphragm, which may consist of a revolving disk with
openings of various sizes, or the size of the openings in the diaphragm may be regulated by shutters
constituting what is known as the iris diaphragm.
The high-power (namely, the,,,, etc.) objectives are in focus
-that is, are in position to form an image of the object at the right plane
512
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
for observation through the eyepiece-when the front lens is very close
to, and almost touching the cover-glass. The 3- and 4-inch objectives
are in focus when their front lenses are about of an inch from the cover-
glass.
Proceeding with the examination of the starch preparation, the or
other low-power objective will be first employed. Rack the objective down
until within less than of an inch from the cover-glass, and then, looking
through the microscope, slowly rack back until the object comes in view;
then obtain a sharp focus by turning the micrometer screw (L, Fig. 276)
to the right or left, as the case may require. It will be observed that the
turning of the micrometer screw in the same direction as the hands of a
watch carries the objective downward, while the reverse movement carries
it upward.
If the mirror has been properly adjusted, the field of view will appear
brightly illuminated; if the field is not bright, the mirror may be slightly
moved about until the proper angle is obtained; but only a trifling ad-
justment should be necessary after the light has once been directed on the
object, as described above.
If on racking the objective back the object does not come into view,
the objective should again be lowered and the operation repeated. The
caution should be given here, and borne in mind once for all, that never
should one lower the objective while looking through the microscope,
for the reason that the objective is apt to be run against the cover-glass
before one is aware, breaking the cover-glass and even the slip, and some-
times injuring the objective. The objective should be racked back very
slowly, else the plane of the focus may be passed without the image being
seen.
If after proceeding as above the image has not been observed, the
failure is probably due to the fact that the object has not been placed
directly under the objective; in this event the object should be more
accurately centered and the operation of focusing repeated. If difficulty
is still experienced, the slip may be moved back and forth while the ob-
jective is being raised. Even if the object is not brought under the ob-
jective, in this way some fleck of dust on the cover-glass, or in the mount-
ing medium, or even the edge of the cover-glass, may pass within the
field of view, and by means of this the proper height of the objective may
be approximately attained. The slip should then be moved about until
the image of the object to be studied appears. The image is apt to be
indistinct, or even a mere shadow, but still sufficiently discernible to be
centrally adjusted, and then it may be brought sharply into view by means
of the fine adjustment.
After the object has been accurately centered by means of the low

THE MICROSCOPE.
513
power, the tube may be racked back and the high power swung into posi-
tion, assuming that a double or triple nosepiece (Fig. 277) is provided.
If this is not the case, however, the low-power objective must then be un-
screwed and the high power put in its place. In screwing on an objective
it should be held in position between the thumb and forefinger of one
hand, while the screwing motion is imparted by the thumb and forefinger
of the other hand. To get the objective in exactly the right position for
screwing it on, it is a safe plan to press the objective gently but steadily
against its proper place in the nosepiece and then turn contrary to the
direction of the movement of the hands of a watch until a clicking sound
makes known that the threads of the tube and of the nosepiece are adjusted
to each other, and then the opposite motion should be imparted. Without
this precaution the objective may be started on while its threads and those
of the nosepiece are not
properly adjusted to each
other, and an injury to the
threads may result.
BAUSCH
With the high-power objec-
tive in position, rack down
until the front lens of the ob-
jective nearly touches the
cover-glass; then, while look-
ing through the microscope,
rack back very slowly until
the image appears, and then focus it sharply by means of the micrometer
screw.
FIG. 277.-Revolving Triple Nosepiece. This may be
screwed directly to the nosepiece, E, of Fig. 276.
It will be noticed that the full depth of even so small an object as a
starch-grain is not in focus while the objective is in one plane; that while
the upper surface is in focus the central portion and under surface are
indistinct. The general outline of the starch-grain can therefore be best
made out when the central portion is in focus-that is, when the edge of
the grain appears sharply and without shadowy outlines.
The substage diaphragm (S, Fig. 276) is provided with openings of
different sizes; the larger openings give greater illumination, and the
smaller openings sharper definition. The size of the opening to be em-
ployed will depend upon the intensity of the source of light, the thick-
ness of the object through which the light must be transmitted, and the
power of the objective employed. The apertures of the diaphragm should
therefore be shifted until the best results under the existing conditions are
obtained.
If a substage condenser is employed, as will be necessary when oil-
immersion objectives are in use, it must be raised and lowered after the
33
514
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
objective has been focused until the sharpest possible image has been
obtained, and the diaphragm should be manipulated as before.
In the foregoing manipulations it is assumed that the microscope has
been kept upright, although provided with a joint for inclination; for it
is always best when examining objects in a fluid to keep the microscope
erect, else the cover-glass may slide downward, or the object may con-
stantly shift its position in the same direction. When permanent mounts
in Canada balsam, glycerine jelly, or glycerine, after the cover-glass has
been cemented down, are being examined, there is no objection to inclining
the microscope. The microscope table should, however, be so low that
an inclination of the microscope is not necessary.
Whenever possible the microscope table should stand before a north
window. The light reflected from a bright cloud affords the best natural
source of light for the microscope. Direct sunlight should never be used.
If a northern exposure is not available, white curtains or white paper
should be adjusted before the windows so that they may at the same time
shut out the direct rays of the sun and serve as a source of illumination.
The concave side of the mirror should be employed when high powers
are being used and there is no substage condenser on the microscope;
when the microscope is provided with a substage condenser, however, the
plane surface of the mirror should be used.
The mirror and the lenses of the objectives and eyepieces should be
kept perfectly clean and bright.
If on looking through the microscope hazy spots or flecks of dust appear
in the field, they may be located by revolving the eyepiece or the objec-
tive by slightly unscrewing it, or by moving the slip. If the dirt is on
the eyepiece, it will appear to revolve with the eyepiece, and the same is
of course true for the objective and slip. Such dirt may usually be easily
removed by simply breathing on the glass where the dirt occurs and then
wiping it off with a piece of old and soft linen or cotton cloth, using a
circular motion on the eyepiece or objective. The lenses of the eyepiece.
and objective should never be touched with the fingers; if this should
occur, breathe upon the lenses and wipe them off as directed.
When the source of light is known to be good, and the field of view is
still poorly illuminated, the difficulty is due to the fact that the mirror is
not set at the proper angle, or the diaphragm used is too small for the
existing conditions, or there is dirt on the slide or lenses of the objective
or eyepiece. The beginner should soon learn that cleanliness is an abso-
lute necessity for success with the microscope.
If the moisture from the breath is not sufficient to clean the lenses, the
cloth may be dipped into water, but the lenses should receive a final polish-
ing with a dry portion of the cloth. The cloth used for the purpose should
THE MICROSCOPE.
515
be clean and kept in a place free from dust and grit. In wiping off the
lenses of the eyepiece and objectives only a gentle pressure should be
exerted, so that danger of scratching the lenses may be avoided.
When an oil-immersion objective is to be used, the object to be studied
should be first accurately centered with a lower power, and then after
the objectives have been racked back a small drop of immersion oil should
be put on the front lens of the objective or on the cover-glass directly
above the center of the substage condenser. The oil-immersion objec-
tive should then be swung into position and lowered until contact with
the drop of oil is made; the objective may then be lowered a trifle more,
but care must be exercised not to press it against the cover-glass; then
while looking through the microscope the objective should be slowly
elevated by means of the micrometer screw. The substage condenser
should next be elevated or depressed until the image comes out sharpest,
when the objective is accurately focused; the size of the opening in the
diaphragm should also be varied until the best results are obtained. When
the oil immersion is no longer in use, it should be gently but thoroughly
wiped off with a clean and soft cloth; an old handkerchief serves admir-
ably for this purpose.
An excellent artificial light for use with an oil-immersion objective may
be arranged with a Welsbach burner as the source of light and a liter
balloon-flask filled with ammonio-sulphate of copper to serve as a con-
denser and filter to eliminate the yellow rays. The solution for this
condenser may be made by dissolving copper sulphate in distilled water
and adding ammonia until all precipitate is dissolved and a perfectly
clear blue solution results. Only a few small crystals of sulphate of copper
will be necessary. The solution should be of such a depth of blue that
the condenser projects a white image of the glowing Welsbach mantle
upon a piece of white paper. The condenser should stand about eight
inches from the lamp, and the microscope about the same distance from
the condenser; the apparatus should be so adjusted that a sharp white
image of the mantle falls upon the mirror of the microscope. A wooden
base may be turned for the condenser or the condenser may be set upright
in a tumbler. The condenser should be entirely filled with the solution,
and a needle should be held beside the stopper while the latter is being
pushed in, and then the needle should be withdrawn.
The objectives should always be racked back when a slide is being
placed in position on the stage of the microscope or when it is being re-
moved; in this way danger of injuring the preparation or the face of
the objective is avoided.
At the outset the beginner should accustom himself to keeping both
eyes open while looking through the microscope, and both eyes should
516
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
be employed in observation; if then the eyes are frequently shifted, they
will not so soon become tired. There is usually some difficulty at first
in keeping both eyes open while using the microscope, but the habit is
soon acquired and is well worth the effort necessary at first.
When the microscope is not provided with a rack and pinion for the
coarse adjustment, the tube should be raised and lowered with a spiral
motion; or, if a double or triple nosepiece is attached to the tube, the
motion should describe only segments of spirals to the right and left,
downward or upward, as the case may require. A complete revolution of
the tube is avoided, for the reason that the projecting arms of the nosepiece
should be kept to the front.
After use, the microscope should be wiped off and put away in a place
free from dust and injurious vapors.
The Use of Reagents. In order to become better acquainted with
the character of an object which is being studied with the microscope it
is often desirable to treat the object with reagents after it has been mounted
for observation, as described above. Starch, for instance, when treated
with a tincture of iodine, will take on a blue or purple color. This may
be demonstrated with the starch from the potato prepared as is else-
where directed. After some of the starch-grains have been properly
centered in the field of view and the objective has been sharply focused, a
drop of tincture of iodine, prepared as described in the chapter on Re-
agents, should be put on the slide close to the right-hand edge of the cover-
glass, but not touching it. Then the drop may be drawn up with a glass.
rod or a stick until it touches the cover-glass. The reagent is not put
in contact with the cover-glass at first, lest the drop should overflow the
cover-glass; in this event it would be best to wash off the slide and cover-
glass and begin again. After the reagent comes in contact with the edge
of the cover-glass a piece of filter-paper should be placed against the left-
hand edge of the cover-glass, by which means the water will be drawn
from under the cover-glass and the reagent drawn under in place of it.
There should not at any time be a large quantity of water or reagent
under the cover-glass or on the slide, but just enough to fill out under the
cover-glass. The cover-glass should not appear to be borne up by the
fluid. Unless too much fluid is present the starch-grains will not float
away when one reagent is replaced by another, as above described.
Since the color imparted to the starch-grains should be watched as the
reagent is being drawn under the cover-glass, some of the starch should
be put into position for observation before the iodine is applied. The
starch may take on a violet tint at first, but as the iodine continues to
act, the color deepens to deep blue or purple, and finally to almost black.
It is usually a good plan to watch the progressive action of a reagent in
this way.
THE MICROSCOPE.
517
When an object is mounted in water, the water will soon evaporate
from under the cover-glass, and accordingly a drop of water should be
added from time to time in the manner described for the iodine, excepting
that the filter-paper will not be necessary. The additional water should
always be added on the side where the water is still in contact with the
edge of the cover-glass, otherwise bubbles of air are apt to become en-
tangled with the new supply of water as it passes under the cover-glass.
It is frequently useful when a mount has been made in water, and no
other reagents are to be added, to place a drop of glycerine against the
cover-glass on one side; as the water evaporates, it will be replaced by
the glycerine. If other reagents are to be used, however, the glycerine
should not be used, because it is difficult to replace. Glycerine has a
tendency to clear up objects, and in many instances it is useful on this
account, but objects which have no color of their own or which have not
been stained are certain to appear, after a time, less distinct in glycerine
than in water.
Other reagents will frequently be needed, as described in subsequent
chapters, but except where otherwise specified they should be applied as
already described.
Drawing from the Microscope.-The student should, from the be-
ginning of his work in vegetable histology, make drawings of the structures
seen with the microscope. This insures accurate observation and helps
to a better understanding of the things observed.
Heavy linen ledger paper serves very well for a drawing surface, and
Bristol-board is also well adapted for this purpose. The drawing paper
should be of such a character that it can stand erasure without roughing
up.
The drawing pencil should be hard and free from grit, such as Faber's
No. 6 or Koh-I-Noor HHHHHH. The pencil should always be kept
quite sharp; a piece of No. o emery cloth may be used to bring the lead
down to a fine point. The pencil should be rubbed back and forth on
the emery, point foremost (a lateral motion would be apt to drag off a
fine point as fast as formed).
A good eraser should also be provided, and a brush or a rubber sponge
will also be found useful in brushing off the fine particles after erasure.
Before the drawings are begun the student should decide how many
drawings he wishes to make on a single sheet of paper, so that they may be
uniformly distributed.
The drawings do not, of course, need to be made of the same size as
they appear under the microscope, they made be made larger or smaller,
as desired, but they must be in right proportion. The small diameter of an
object may, for instance, be assumed as the measuring rod, and then all
518
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
other dimensions should be made as many times greater or less than this
as they actually appear. The size of the drawing should depend upon
the amount of detail to be drawn. The scale of the drawing should be so
large that when the smallest details are put in, they will stand out clearly
and will not be so cramped and crowded together as to appear unintelligi-
ble. Suppose an object should appear under the microscope to be as
large as a pin-head, and certain details of structure may still be made out
clearly; the object may then be drawn with a diameter three or four times
larger than its apparent diameter, otherwise the drawing may not be made
to represent the details so clearly as they really appear.
Right proportion and right relative position of all the details should
be the rule invariably followed. This becomes less difficult of accom-
plishment if some dimension of the object is assumed as the measuring
rod, as above suggested.
1
1000
The lines should first be made with a very light stroke of the pencil, so that
they may be easily erased if necessary, and then, after all the details have
been satisfactorily drawn, the lines may be retraced and made quite sharp.
Determination of Magnification and Use of Camera Lucida.-To
determine the magnification of an objective with a certain eyepiece, a
stage-micrometer is necessary. This is a glass slide with a scale graven
on its surface, the smallest division on the scale being or 10¹‰ʊ of an
inch, or of a millimeter, as the case may be. Place the micrometer on
the stage of the microscope and focus for the scale as one would for an
ordinary object. To the right of and close against the microscope adjust
a board or a pile of books to the height of the stage of the microscope, and
on this place a sheet of white paper. Look into the microscope with the
left eye, and at the same time look at the paper with the right eye; the
image of the micrometer scale should then appear projected upon the
paper. The beginner may find difficulty in doing this at first, but a little
practice will bring success. With the sharp point of a lead-pencil mark
off the divisions of the scale upon the paper, or with a pair of dividers space
off the distance between the larger divisions of the scale. Then compare
the distance thus spaced off with a rule graduated in inches or centi-
meters according as the micrometer is graduated in fractions of inches or
centimeters respectively. Suppose, for instance, that of an inch on the
micrometer is found to cover 2 inches on the paper, the amount of
magnification will be found by dividing 2 by T, giving 250 as the
result. In other words, the value of the magnified image of any portion
of the scale is to be divided by the actual value of the same portion of the
scale. In this way the magnifying power of the objectives, when com-
bined with the different eyepieces, may be determined and written down
for future use.
5
10
5
10
1
1

THE MICROSCOPE.
519
To determine the size of an object, the image of the object should be
spaced off on paper, as described above for the micrometer scale; it is
not necessary, however, to outline the whole object, but simply to space
off those diameters whose values are desired. Then divide the values of
the magnified diameters by the magnifying power of the combination of
objective and eyepiece already determined. Suppose, for instance, that
the diameter of the image is found to be of an inch, and the magnifying
power of the combination is 500; the actual diameter of the object would
be 1000 of an inch. In making these measurements the paper on which the
diameters of the images are spaced off should always be at the same height,
or rather at the same distance from the eyepiece. One only needs to
vary this distance to note that the farther the paper is from the eyepiece,
the larger the image appears. A convenient way to keep this distance
K
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.
ROCHESTER, N.Y
M
FIG. 278.-Abbe Camera Lucida. Description in text.
constant for measurements is to set the microscope upright and adjust
the paper to the height of the stage of the microscope. If the microscope
is provided with a draw-tube, as is likely to be the case, this should be
entirely shoved in, or always drawn out to the same distance while the
measurements are being made.
When a camera lucida is available, it will be found very useful in making
measurements and in sketching in outlines.
The camera lucida illustrated by figure 278 is very complete in its
adjustments. Simpler instruments may be obtained, however, which will
give very satisfactory results. The essential structure of the above camera
lucida will be made clear by reference to the figure. The light from
the paper is reflected from the mirror, M, to the silvered surface of the
prism behind the opening, P, and thence to the eye of the observer. A

520
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
unsilvered, and through
Since by this arrange-
small, round spot on the surface of the prism is left
this the light passes from the object to the eye.
ment both the object and the paper are seen at the same time, the ob-
ject seems to be superimposed on the paper, and can therefore be traced
with the sharp point of a lead-pencil. It is plain, however, that the light,
entering the eye from both sources, must be of equal intensity, else the
object and the pencil can not be seen with equal distinctness. If the
pencil appears indistinct, the paper must receive greater illumination or
the light which enters the eye from the object must be less intense. This
FIG. 279.-Adjustable Drawing Table for Use with Camera Lucida.
may be accomplished by closing the diaphragm below the stage to a smaller
aperture, or by letting more light fall on the paper by means of raising
curtains or setting up the apparatus nearer to a window. If the pencil
appears plainer than the object, the paper should be shaded by setting up
a screen of cardboard or some other material. The camera lucida illus-
trated in figure 278 is provided with means for regulating the light from
both sources. By means of the knobs K a series of smoked glasses of
different intensities of color is made to revolve between the prism and
the mirror and between the prism and the objective, so that the light
from both sources may be easily moderated as desired.
THE MICROTOME.
521
If the magnified image covers much space, the paper should be inclined
by raising the right-hand end of the support on which the paper lies until
the outline of the field of view drawn on the paper appears circular, assum-
ing that the camera lucida has been so centered that the field, as seen
through the microscope, appears circular. If this adjustment is not
attended to, the image projected on the paper will be more or less dis-
torted according to its size.
The camera lucida may be used to determine the magnifying power of
the microscope and to measure the actual diameter of objects, as already
described in connection with the two-eye method of projection.
In drawing outlines with the camera lucida the lines should be made
with a very light pressure of the pencil, and then evened up and made
heavier afterward.
The adjustable drawing table shown in figure 279 is so constructed
that the height of the table may be varied, the table, together with the
microscope, may be inclined, and the drawing board may be inclined at
the angle necessary to prevent distortion of the image.
THE MICROTOME.
While substances in the form of powder may be prepared for examina-
tion in the manner suggested for starch, most plant tissues must be cut
into very thin sections before their structure can be clearly made out
with the compound microscope. The microtome facilitates the process
of section cutting, and gives results much better than can be obtained
with free-hand section cutting.
A simple and very effective form of microtome for all purposes is shown
in figure 280. This microtome consists of a solid iron frame, which can
be clamped to the laboratory table by means of the clamp-screw C. Two
glass plates, PP, are fastened to the top of the frame to form a guide for
the section-knife. The screw S operates the clamp which holds the
object rigidly in position for cutting. The micrometer-screw M raises
and lowers the object-holder. The milled head of the micrometer-screw
is graduated into 100 parts, and the micrometer-screw has a pitch of
0.5 millimeter, so that sections as thin as 0.005 millimeter may be accu-
rately gauged.
An ordinary razor may be used as a section knife with this microtome,
but a razor with longer blade specially designed for the purpose is to be
preferred. Section-razors are made with one side ground flat, but a
double-concave blade is to be preferred because it is much more easily
kept sharp, and is otherwise quite as efficient as the plano-concave form.
In cutting sections the razor should be held firmly, edge and back,

522
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
C
P
BAUSCH & LOMB OPT.CO.
P
M
FIG. 280.-Simple Microtome. Description in text.
S
FIG. 281.-Position of Razor in Cutting Sections with Simple Microtome. Description in text.

USE OF MICROTOME.
523
against the glass guides, and with the toe or front end inclined forward
(Fig. 281), and as close to the inner edge of its guide plate as possible;
the cutting motion should then be a forward one against the object, and
at the same time a sliding motion should be imparted to the razor from
the heel toward the toe, as indicated by the arrow. The forward and
lateral motions should be so correlated as to bring the full length of the
razor into use.
Methods of imbedding objects for sectioning will be given in succeed-
ing pages (pages 526, 529, 534).
AD
BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO
ROCHESTER, NY.
FIG. 282.-Microtome with Sliding Knife Carrier.
Another and more elaborate form of microtome is shown in figure 282.
Here the section-knife is carried on a solid iron block which slides in a
V-shaped bed. By means of a thumb-screw the knife can be set at any
desired angle. The object-holder and the micrometer-feed are essentially
the same as in the simpler microtome of figure 280.
Other forms of microtomes will be found described in the catalogues
of Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y.; E. Zimmermann, Leipzig; R.
Jung, Heidelberg; and C. Reichert, Vienna.
Sharpening the Microtome Knives. To insure good work the edge
524
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
of the section-cutter should be kept in the very best condition. This is
an absolute necessity to success in section-cutting.
There is nothing better for sharpening a razor than the Torrey com-
bination strop and hone.
To test the edge of a razor or other section-cutter moisten the end of
the thumb and draw it with very light pressure over the cutting-edge. If
the edge, throughout its entire length, gives the sensation of taking hold
of the skin, the use of the hone will not be necessary, and only the strop
should be used; but if the edge at any place slide over the skin without
FIG. 283.-Method of Honing Razor or Microtome Knife on the Stone.
taking hold, the hone must be used until the edge responds properly to
the test.
To use the hone, put a drop or two of thin mineral oil on its surface,
or lather it with soap; the lather is rather better than the oil for keeping
the pores of the stone open. Now draw the razor over the stone, edge
foremost, passing obliquely from toe to heel, as shown in figure 283, turn-
ing the razor and honing the other side of the blade on the back stroke.
The blade should always be held flat, edge and back, upon the stone,
and only a very slight pressure should be exerted. After honing, the
blade should be wiped off on a soft cloth in such a way that the cutting-
edge does not come in contact with the cloth. Then strop the razor on
PREPARATION FOR SECTION CUTTING.
525
leathers 1, 2, and 3, passing obliquely from heel to toe, as shown in figure
284, stropping the other side of the blade in like manner on the back
stroke.
When the edge is in proper condition, it should, throughout its entire
length, easily clip a hair held between the thumb and forefinger.
If a microtome knife, such as is used on the microtome shown in figure
FIG. 284.-Method of Stropping Razor or Microtome Knife on the Prepared Leather Strop.
BAUSCH-LOMB OPT.CO
FIG. 285.-Steel Back to be Adjusted on Back of Microtome Knife Preparatory to Sharpening.
282, is to be sharpened, it should be treated in exactly the same manner
as described for the razor, excepting that a steel back, shown in figure
285, should be adjusted on the back of the knife; this allows the knife to
lie on the stone and strop at the proper angle, and a keen edge is much
more easily obtained by its use.
The removable back should be adjusted, by the makers, to the particu-
lar knife with which it is to be used.
CHAPTER II.—PREPARATION OF MATERIAL FOR SECTION-
DIFFERENT METHODS OF SECTION-
CUTTING.
CUTTING.
Sections in three different planes are usually necessary in order to get
a clear understanding of the structure of a plant member; these are (1)
a cross-section, which is a section transverse to the long axis of the member;
526
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
(2) a longitudinal radial section, which is parallel to the long axis of the
member and passes through its center; and (3) a longitudinal tangential
section, which is parallel to the long axis of the member and perpendicular
to the radial section (see Fig. 286).
Fresh plant material may often be sectioned to advantage free hand-
that is, the material to be sectioned may be held between the thumb and
forefinger of one hand while the razor is wielded by the other. The
razor should be kept flooded with water or 50 per cent. alcohol, so that
the sections may slip smoothly over the razor while being cut. The blade
of the razor should rest upon the forefinger of the hand which holds the
specimen, so that the forefinger may serve as a guide in determining the
thickness of the sections. The cutting should be begun at the toe of the
razor and should progress toward the heel, the stroke being a long, sliding
one. The material frequently needs to be held in a support while being
sectioned; this would be the case, for instance, with leaves or tender stems
and roots. Elder pith is an excellent imbedding medium for delicate
A
B
C
FIG. 286.-A. Position of Knife in Cutting Cross-sections. B. Position of Knife in Cutting Longitudinal
Radial Sections. C. Position of Knife in Cutting Longitudinal Tangential Sections.
tissues; cork which is free from grit will answer for harder tissues, while
some soft wood, such as the Linden, will be needed for imbedding objects.
which are small and quite hard, such as some seeds.
In general, however, a microtome is to be preferred, even in cutting
fresh material. Whether the form of the microtome be that figured in
figure 280 or 282, the razor or knife should make a long, sliding cut.
If elder pith is to be used for imbedding, it should be cut in two, longi-
tudinally, through the middle; to do this without danger of breaking the
pith, lay the pith upon the table and hold it firmly between the thumb
and forefinger while halving it with a sliding cut of a scalpel or pocket-
knife.
If the object to be sectioned is fairly thick, grooves may be cut in the
elder pith to receive it, but the grooves should not be so large as the ob-
ject. If the object to be sectioned is small, and extends only a short dis-
tance down the length of the pith, a piece of pith or cork should be placed
between the lower ends of the pieces of pith, so that when these are clamped
PREPARATION FOR SECTION-CUTTING.
527
together between the jaws of the object-holder of the microtome, their
inner faces will stand parallel to each other, and so exert a stronger grip
on the object than if they slanted together toward the lower ends.
After the pieces of pith holding the object have been clamped in posi-
tion on the microtome, their upper ends may be trimmed away somewhat,
as shown in figure 287.
If cork is used for imbedding the object, all gritty dark brown spots.
should be avoided, since these are pretty certain to nick or turn the edge
of the section-cutter.
Rigid bodies, such as woody stems, will not need imbedding, provided
they are large enough to be clamped in the microtome. Woody tissues
which have become dry are best prepared for sectioning by allowing them
to soak in water for a time, and then transferring them to equal parts of
70 per cent. alcohol and glycerine. Dry seeds and fruits may be confined
in hot steam for half an hour. Small air-dried seeds may be melted into
a block of hard paraffin. Brittle objects which easily
break in pieces on cutting may be prepared for cutting
by spreading a thin film of 2 per cent. collodion over
the surface of the object with a camel's-hair brush
shortly before cutting each section. The tendency of
sections from woody tissues to become ragged in cut-
ting may be obviated by impregnating them with a
glycerine-gum prepared by dissolving 10 Gm. of gum
arabic in 10 Gm. of water, and adding 40 to 50 drops
of glycerine and a trace of carbolic acid to keep from
spoiling. The material should first be soaked in
water, and then transferred to the gum mixture di-
luted with twice its bulk of water. The object is cut into as small pieces as
possible before being placed in the gum solution. The solution is left ex-
posed to the open air until it attains the consistency of syrup; the object
is then removed and placed on a glass plate to further harden. On the
following day the hardened crust of gum is removed from the side of the
object where the sections are to be cut, and in about two days thereafter
the sections may be cut. The gum may be removed from the sections by
warm water.
FIG. 287.-Object 1m-
bedded in Elder Pith
Preparatory to Cross-
sectioning.
When the protoplast and the processes of cell division are to be studied
(see p. 552), the fresh material must be put through processes of fixing
and hardening which will as nearly as possible coagulate the protoplast
in its natural form, so that during subsequent manipulations of imbedding,
sectioning, etc., the organs of the protoplast will retain their finer details
of structure. These processes will now be given in the order in which
they must be employed.
528
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Fixing the Fresh Material.-The process of fixing involves the killing
and apparent coagulation of the protoplast in the form which it possessed
during life, even to the finest details of its structure.
The fixative which gives uniformly the best results is known as Flem-
ming's fixative. This is made as follows:
One per cent. chromic acid,
Two per cent. osmic acid,..
Glacial acetic acid,
·
-
16 parts
3 parts
I part.
The 1 per cent. chromic acid is made by dissolving 1 Gm. of chromic
acid crystals in 99 Cc. of distilled water, the 2 per cent. osmic acid by dis-
solving I Gm. of osmic acid crystals in 49 Cc. of distilled water, and the
glacial acetic acid is used just as it comes from the chemist's. The prepara-
tion of the chromic acid solution requires no particular precaution, but
the osmic acid solution must be made with extreme care in excluding all
traces of organic materials, else the solution will spoil in a short time, as
shown by a black precipitate. The bottle in which the solution is to be
made and kept should have a glass stopper, and should be thoroughly
washed out, and then concentrated sulphuric acid saturated with potassium
bichromate should be poured into the bottle and shaken up until all parts
have been washed by it; the stopper should also be washed in the same
manner as the bottle. The sulphuric acid should then be poured out,
and the bottle and stopper rinsed several times with distilled water. The
crystals of osmic acid are obtained from the manufacturers sealed in glass
tubes; one of these tubes containing a gram of the osmic acid is washed
and rinsed in the same manner as the bottle, and is transferred to the
bottle without being touched by the hands or anything likely to leave.
organic substances on it, however slight the amount. A clean glass rod
will serve to guide the tube from the dish in which it has been rinsed
into the bottle. About 10 Cc. of distilled water should now be poured
into the bottle. Then the bottle should be tightly stoppered and vio-
lently struck against the palm of the hand until the tube containing the
osmic acid is broken. Then the remaining 39 Cc. of distilled water
necessary to make the 2 per cent. solution of osmic acid should be poured
into the bottle. The bottle should always be tightly stoppered and kept in
a safe place. It must be remembered of the osmic acid that it is very vola-
tile, poisonous, very corrosive to the mucous membranes, and so should
not be inhaled or the vapors of it allowed to enter the eyes; and it is cer-
tain to be spoiled if organic substances get access to it. The distilled
water used in its preparation should therefore be caught in a receptacle.
free from organic matter.
In order to insure the best results the fixative should be able to pene-
FIXING AND HARDENING TISSUES.
529
trate quickly to all parts of the material to be fixed; therefore the material
should be cut into the smallest pieces compatible with the purposes of the
study. Pieces of leaves need not be more than 5 mm. long and 2 mm.
broad; root-tips need not be longer than 2 or 3 mm.; pieces of stems,
roots, etc., should be cut only a few millimeters long and then quartered
or cut into smaller pieces longitudinally according to their size; small
ovaries should be opened at two ends, and larger ones should be cut into
pieces; or, if the ovules are alone to be studied, they may be put into
the fixative singly if they are large, or if they are small, the placenta bear-
ing a line of ovules may be cut out and put into the fixative. These sug-
gestions will serve to emphasize the fact that the material to be fixed must
be cut into as small pieces as possible.
The amount of fixative used should be large in proportion to the amount
of material to be fixed; for instance, fixative to the height of 3 Cm. should
be put into a 14-dram short-style homœopathic phial to fix about ten small
pieces of root, tips, leaves, etc.
The material should be left in the fixative for about forty-eight hours,
and should then be washed in running water for six hours.
Hardening the Fixed Material. After the fixative has been thor-
oughly washed out, the material should be transferred to 20 per cent.
alcohol, and thence at intervals of two hours to successive alcohols each
Io per cent. stronger than the last, until the absolute alcohol is reached;
this hardens and dehydrates the material so gradually that a collapsing
of the protoplasts is avoided. If the material is not to be imbedded and
sectioned at once, it may be left in the 70 per cent. alcohol until wanted,
and then it may be transferred to the higher alcohols as if the succession
had not been interrupted.
Imbedding in Paraffin.-Material which has been fixed as above, and
has gone as far as the 70 per cent. alcohol, may be taken from this, im-
bedded in elder pith, and sectioned free hand or in a microtome, as already
directed for fresh material; but with delicate tissues by far the better
results are obtained by imbedding in paraffin and sectioning with a micro-
tome.
To imbed in paraffin the material is taken from the absolute alcohol,
where it has become thoroughly dehydrated, and placed in equal parts of
absolute alcohol and chloroform; then at intervals of two hours the
material is successively transferred to a bottle of pure chloroform, then to a
second bottle of pure chloroform, then to pure chloroform to which bits of
paraffin are gradually added until the chloroform is saturated at the tem-
perature of the room. Then the saturated chloroform containing the ma-
terial is placed on the paraffin oven or other place which is warm but still
below the melting point of the pure paraffin, which should be about 52° C.,
34
530
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
and the chloroform gradually saturated at this higher temperature.
Then the saturated chloroform with the material should be poured out into
a watch-glass or other shallow dish, and should be placed in the paraffin
oven at the temperature at which the pure paraffin would melt (52° C.) and
left there, uncovered, until the chloroform has entirely evaporated, which
will be the case when the paraffin no longer has a sweetish taste. Then
the paraffin with the material is poured out into a shallow paper tray
which is standing on something cool, such as a porcelain slab, and the
pieces of material are arranged in rows with dissecting needles, which are
heated in the flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner as often as is
necessary to melt away the film of hardening paraffin at the surface.
The pieces should be so separated from each other that they may finally be
cut out singly with a good border of paraffin all around. When the material
is all arranged, the surface of the paraffin should be blown upon until a film
is formed, and then the tray should be carefully submerged in a dish of
cold water; if ice-water, all the better. In pouring the melted paraffin
into the paper tray the dish of melted paraffin should be held so close to
the tray that spattering of the paraffin and consequent entanglement of
air-bubbles is avoided. The tray should stand on something cold, as
already suggested, in order that the material may not settle entirely to
the bottom of the tray but may be arrested by a layer of hardened par-
affin which has quickly formed there; otherwise there would not be a
layer of paraffin of sufficient thickness bounding the material on the
lower side. The tray is submerged in cold water as soon as possible, for
the reason that if the paraffin is allowed to harden slowly, is has a loose
crystalline texture and does not hold together well about the sections when
these are being cut on the microtome.
Sectioning Material Imbedded in Paraffin.-After the paraffin in
which the material is imbedded has hardened in the cold water, the paper
tray may easily be stripped off. To prepare the imbedded material
for sectioning on the microtome cut out a block of paraffin containing
the specimen which is to be sectioned; the block should be large enough
to leave a thickness of about 2 mm. of paraffin on all sides beyond the
specimen. Coat a pine stick about 3 cm. long and 1 cm. square on one
end with melted paraffin; then warm the coat of paraffin on the stick to
the point of melting, and quickly press the block of paraffin containing
the specimen into this melted paraffin in such a position that when the
stick is fastened upright in the microtome, the knife, running in a plane
at right angles to the long axis of the stick, shall cut the specimen in the
desired direction. Now heat a dissecting needle in the flame of an alco-
hol lamp or Bunsen burner and melt the edges of the paraffin block slightly
all around at the base so that the paraffin block is well sealed to the stick.
SECTION CUTTING.
531
The paraffin block may then be well hardened by dipping into cold water.
Trim down the paraffin block with a sharp knife so that at least two
opposing faces are parallel, and so that the specimen will be surrounded
on all sides with a thickness of paraffin of about 1 mm. Fasten the stick
upright in the object-holder of the microtome, and adjust the stick and
holder to such a height that the knife will be able to cut the paraffin soon
after the micrometer feed-screw has begun to be operated. The micrometer
feed-screw should have been run down to near its lowest point before
fastening the stick in the object-holder, so that the specimen may not need
readjustment after the sectioning has begun.
If the simple form of microtome shown in figure 280 is used, the razor
should be held firmly, edge and back, on the glass knife-guides, and par-
allel with the front face of the paraffin block and only about 5 mm. dis-
tant from it. Then the section should be cut with a quick, direct for-
ward movement, and the stroke should be arrested before passing far
beyond the block. The razor should be held between the thumb and
forefinger of both hands, and the hands should rest against, and be steadied
by, the lateral edges of the top of the microtome. The forward motion
of the razor should be accomplished by the movement of the thumb and
forefingers and of the wrists.
Just before each forward movement of the razor the micrometer feed-
screw should be turned the desired distance; 10 micromillimeters is a good
average thickness for the sections. Sections seldom need to be cut less
than 5 micromillimeters. (A micromillimeter = 1 of a mm.)
0 0 0
The razor should be so held at each forward stroke that the section
last cut, which has been left in its original position on the razor, will stand
immediately in front of the paraffin block; in this way the sections may
be made to hold together in ribbons, and they can subsequently be handled
with much greater expedition than if they are removed separately from
the razor.
Success in cutting thin sections from paraffin depends on a proper tem-
perature of the room; this, for paraffin melting at 52° C., should be be-
tween 21° and 24° C., or 70° and 75° F. If the temperature is too high,
the sections will crumple up in cutting, or if too low, the paraffin will be
brittle, and the sections are apt to crumble.
If the microtome shown in figure 282 is used, the stick holding the
block of paraffin is fastened in the object-holder as described above, the
micrometer-screw being run far down so as to permit of a feed through
a long distance without the necessity of readjusting the block.
The sec-
tion-knife should be set parallel with the opposing face of the paraffin
block, and in all cases the front and back faces of the paraffin block should
be parallel with each other. In operating the knife the elbow should.
532
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
rest on the table and the knife should be drawn back and forth with a
wrist movement. The stroke of the knife should be a very short one,
and the micrometer-screw should be turned upward the desired distance
just after the backward stroke of the knife and before the forward stroke
has begun. It sometimes happens that the pitch of the knife from edge
to back needs adjusting; when no special mechanism is provided for
this purpose, it may be accomplished by placing a piece of paper or thin
cardboard under the front edge or back edge of the knife where it is
clamped to the knife carrier.
It sometimes happens that the sections crumble up on cutting even
when the temperature is right. This is usually due to an imperfect
impregnation of the specimen by the paraffin. If the impregnation is
complete, the cut surface of the paraffin block through the specimen will
look smooth and shining.
Some plant tissues are especially hard to imbed on account of the large
amount of air which fills their intercellular spaces; this is particularly
true of leaves. It is therefore a good plan, before fixing the material in
the Flemming's fixative, to put it into 0.5 per cent. chromic acid and
then to pump the air from this; as soon as the atmospheric pressure is
again turned on, the chromic acid will be forced into the intercellular spaces
which were formerly filled with air. The removal of the air from the
specimen is in the interest of the fixing as well as of the imbedding of the
material.
Mounting the Sections on the Slide.-Assuming that the sections
have adhered in the form of a ribbon while being sectioned, the ribbons
should be laid in a place free from dust, with the side downward which
was next to the knife as the sections were cut; it will be noticed that this
side is glossier than the other, and when mounted on the glass slide, will
make a smoother contact than the other side.
Clean one surface of a slide which has been kept for some time sub-
merged in a saturated solution of potassium bichromate in concentrated
sulphuric acid very thoroughly by rinsing in water and rubbing it vigor-
ously with a clean cloth stretched over the forefinger;, this process should
be repeated until a film of water may be made to lie evenly over the sur-
face of the glass. If the water shows a tendency to creep away from
any portions of the glass, those portions are not sufficiently clean. When
the slide is clean, place several drops of albumin-water on the slide, and
with a dissecting needle or glass rod draw them out until they form an
even layer over the surface to be occupied by the sections. Cut the rib-
bons into pieces of the desired length, remembering that the paraffin will
stretch on being warmed subsequently, and transfer the pieces to the sur-
face of the albumin-water on the slide, placing the under, glossy side
STAINING THE SECTIONS-SEALING IN BALSAM.
533
downward. If it is desired to study the sections in the same order in which
they were cut, the pieces must be placed on the slide in rows which form
a continuous series. It is best to put the rows close together, and, if de-
sired, they may be made to cover the entire breadth of the slide. With a
piece of filter paper draw away a part of the albumin-water from under
the sections, especially if there is enough of the water on the slide to cause
the sections to float about, and at the same time push the sections into
even rows with the filter paper. Then lay the slide, with a piece of blotting
paper beneath it, on top of the paraffin oven, so that it will not be heated
sufficiently to melt the sections, and leave on the oven several hours to
dry. The sections will not adhere so firmly to the slide if allowed to dry
at a low temperature.
The albumin-water above referred to is made as follows: Shake together
equal parts of white of egg and distilled water and add a pinch of salicylate
of soda to keep from spoiling; this is a stock solution, one drop of which
is added to each ounce of distilled water to form the albumin-water. The
albumin-water causes the sections to adhere firmly to the slide, but the
very weak solution of albumin does not leave a sufficiently thick layer
on the slide to hold the stain when the sections are being stained.
When the sections have dried to the slide, it should be immersed in a
dish of xylol to a depth sufficient to cover the sections. Here it should
remain until the paraffin has been entirely dissolved. It should then be
transferred to a dish of absolute alcohol to wash off the xylol and so be
fitted for transference to an aqueous stain. Absolute alcohol should
always be the intermediary between xylol and water, whether progressing
from xylol to water or from water to xylol, otherwise a milky turbidity
will be formed on the slide which is difficult of elimination.
Staining the Sections.-After the xylol has been thoroughly washed
out in the alcohol, the slide may be transferred to a dish containing the
desired stain. For methods of manipulation, see chapter on Reagents.
A beautiful differentiation in shades of gray may be obtained by the
use of iron hæmatoxylin described in the chapter on Reagents. Other
stains are given in the same chapter.
Sealing in Balsam.-Slides which have been stained and dehydrated
in 95 per cent. alcohol may then be placed in xylol, preparatory to seal-
ing in Canada balsam according to the following directions: Remove the
slide from the xylol and place it quickly on a piece of filter paper, so that
the side holding the sections lies upward; then put a small drop of Canada
balsam on the slide near to the right end of the space covered by the sec-
tions; place a cover-glass, which has been cleaned and then dipped into
xylol and again wiped off, on the slide while holding it by opposing edges
between the thumb and middle finger, the right edge of the cover-glass
534
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
being first placed in contact with the glass and the middle finger placed
against it, while the left edge is being slowly lowered by means of a dis-
secting needle; as the cover-glass comes in contact with the drop of balsam,
and is spreading it out toward the left, care should be taken that no bubbles
of air become entangled with the balsam; danger of this becomes lessened,
and the small drop of balsam is made more surely to cover the entire space
under the cover-glass if the forefinger is made to press upon the cover-
glass, beginning at the right edge and passing toward the left as the cover-
glass is being lowered, the cover-glass being then held by the thumb and
middle finger in order that the forefinger may be free to perform this office.
Experience will teach the size of the drop of balsam necessary for a
given size of cover-glass. The drop should be no larger than is necessary
to cement the cover-glass to the slide with a very thin layer.
After the cover-glass has been put on, the slide should be placed in a
warm situation for hardening the balsam; the top of the paraffin oven
or an incubator with a temperature of about 50° C. will furnish the proper
conditions for this. The slides should be kept at this temperature for
about a week, or even longer, when any balsam which may have pressed
beyond the cover-glass may be scraped off and the slide cleaned up with
a cloth moistened with xylol. If the balsam is not dried at a somewhat
high temperature, as suggested, even after the expiration of several months
the balsam will be soft enough for the cover-glass to be easily displaced,
particularly on warm days.
Imbedding in Collodion. For most purposes paraffin is to be pre-
ferred above any other substance for imbedding; its use facilitates the
process of section-cutting and the subsequent mounting of the sections
on the slides more than any other substance.
ever, collodion has been found very useful.
sections from large pieces of material, such as whole fruits, or of old tissues
which have been found not to give good results in paraffin, collodion may
be found to answer the purpose.
For some purposes, how-
When it is desired to cut
Material to be imbedded in collodion is prepared in the same manner
as for paraffin-imbedding, until the 95 per cent. alcohol is reached in the
process of dehydrating and hardening. From the 95 per cent. alcohol
the material is transferred to equal parts of 95 per cent. alcohol and ether;
here it remains for two hours, or longer if the material is in large pieces,
though this should always be in as small pieces as possible. The material
is next transferred to a 2 per cent. solution of collodion in equal parts of
95 per cent. alcohol and ether, and allowed to remain for from twelve
to twenty-four hours or longer as experience may prove necessary for
the specific material. The cork is now to be removed from the bottle so
that the collodion may slowly become more concentrated by the evap-
IMBEDDING IN COLLODION.
535
oration of the solvent. When the solution is still capable of pouring, but
quite concentrated, it is run out into the paper trays, made from ordinary
writing-paper; here the material is distributed with needles equally in
rows, and after a skin has formed on the surface of the collodion, the tray
is immersed in chloroform, where the collodion hardens in a few hours
to the proper consistency for sectioning. The material should then be
kept in 80 per cent. alcohol until needed for sectioning.
When it is desired to cut sections from this material, a small block of
collodion containing the specimen is cut out from the tray and fastened
on a pine stick, as described for paraffin, by spreading some 5 per cent.
collodion kept for this purpose over one
end of the stick, and placing the block of
collodion on this in such a way that the
sections may be cut in the desired direc-
tion when the stick is held upright in the
object-holder of the microtome. Then
more of the thick collodion should be
painted all around the base of the block
so as to make the union with the stick
more secure, and after this has stiffened
somewhat in the atmosphere, the block,
with the stick cemented to it, is put into
chloroform to harden, and then placed
until needed in 80 per cent. alcohol.
When sectioning material imbedded in
collodion, the razor or knife should be
held quite oblique to the line of motion,
in order that a long, sliding stroke may
be made, and the razor or knife should be
kept flooded with 80 per cent. alcohol.
E-
FIG. 288.-Bottle for Blowing Vapor of
Ether over Collodion Sections for Fixing
Them to the Slide. The long tube dips
below the surface of the ether, but the
calcium chloride dryer does not. E.
Ether. C. Tube containing calcium
chloride for drying the ether vapor.-
(After Thomas.)
The sections may be removed from the
razor or knife as soon as cut and trans-
ferred to a slide which is kept wet with 80 per cent. alcohol. After
the desired number of sections has been arranged on the slide, the
alcohol should be filtered away and the slide allowed to dry. Before the
sections begin to crinkle, however, vapor of ether should be blown over
the slide from a bottle provided with a calcium chloride dryer, as shown
in figure 288. The sections may now be stained, washed quickly in
water, dehydrated in 95 per cent. alcohol, transferred to xylol, and then
sealed in Canada balsam, as already described for paraffin sections.
Making Permanent Mounts in Glycerine Jelly.-Directions for
making glycerine jelly are given in the chapter on Reagents, etc. Glycerine
536
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
jelly is an excellent mounting medium for sections from fresh material,
or for sections from material which has been imbedded in collodion.
Sections from fresh material are stained by lying for some hours in a dilute
solution of the desired stain; the surplus stain is then removed, as directed
under the specific stain employed, and after the sections have been trans-
ferred to a watch-glass containing 2 parts of water and 1 part of glycerine,
the water is allowed to evaporate from the glycerine in a place free from
dust. A small piece of glycerine jelly is then placed on a slide, and the
slide warmed until the jelly melts; then while the slide is still kept warm
the section is removed from the glycerine and placed in the melted jelly
on the slide, and a clean and warm cover-glass placed over the specimen
in the manner already recommended for balsam mounts. Then the
slide is put away for the jelly to harden. After some months, when the
glycerine jelly has thoroughly set, a ring of shellac or Brunswick black
may be run around the cover-glass for additional protection.
Sections which have been imbedded in collodion may be mounted in
glycerine jelly in the same manner as fresh material, without any attempt
to remove the collodion from the sections, since the collodion becomes
perfectly transparent in the jelly.
Permanent Mounts from Material Imbedded in Elder Pith, etc.
-Fresh material, or material which has been fixed and hardened as far
as the 70 per cent. alcohol, may be imbedded in elder pith, etc., for sec-
tioning, and the sections may be floated off into watch-glasses containing
the desired stains, from which the sections may be mounted in glycerine.
jelly as above, or they may be dehydrated in 95 per cent. alcohol and
absolute alcohol, passed into xylol, and then mounted in Canada balsam.
Material which has been fixed in a fixative containing osmic acid is
apt to be more or less blackened by the acid. Before such material is
transferred to the stains it should be placed in a bleaching solution made
by mixing I part of hydrogen peroxide with 15 parts of 70 per cent. alco-
hol; the bleaching process should be completed in about twenty minutes.
The transference of separate sections into different reagents, and finally
to the slide, is readily accomplished by means of a section-lifter impro-
vised by grasping a thin disk of elder pith with a pair of forceps and clamp-
ing the forceps by means of a rubber band.
THE PLANT CELL AND ITS PRODUCTS.
537
CHAPTER III.-THE PLANT CELL AND ITS PRODUCTS.
Plants are not homogeneous bodies, but are built up of minute struc-
tural elements known as cells. Some plants, indeed, consist of a single
one of these structural units, and are then unicellular, such as yeasts, and
pleurococcus, which forms the mealy, green growth over the bark on the
north side of trees; but as a rule most plants which grow to more than a
microscopic size are built up of many cells. Even the minute cells are
not homogeneous, but are differentiated into certain distinct structures.
which have definite functions to perform in the vital activities of the
plant.
Longitudinal sections through the root-tip of an onion furnish excel-
lent material for the study of a typical cell. Figure 289 shows cells of
various ages from the onion root-tip. At A are very young cells. The
outer wall, W, is of cellulose; within this is the protoplasmic body which
fills the entire cell. The life of the cell resides in this body, and all of
the vital phenomena have their origin there. It will be seen that the
protoplasmic body is differentiated into distinct parts. Immediately
applied to the cell-wall is a lining membrane of protoplasm, which is a
somewhat differentiated outer layer of the protoplasmic body. Within
the protoplasmic body is the nucleus, N, containing the nuclei, NL, and
at intervals are small well-defined bodies, L, known as the leucoplastids.
That portion of the protoplasmic body exclusive of the lining membrane
and the nucleus and leucoplastids is known as the cytoplasm. The
lining membrane, the nucleus with its nucleolus, the plastids, and the
cytoplasm, taken together, constitute the protoplast, or energid. The
parts of the protoplast just enumerated have distinct functions to perform,
and so may be considered as organs of the protoplast. In the very young
cells, A, the protoplast fills the entire cavity inclosed by the wall; but
as the cell becomes older, the growth of the protoplast does not keep pace
with that of the cell-wall; and, since the lining membrane adheres always
to the cell-wall, cavities, V, arise in the cytoplasm, which become filled.
with cell-sap, and are known as vacuoles. The vacuoles increase in size
as the unequal growth of the cell-wall and protoplast proceeds, until
finally the vacuoles may fuse together into one large cavity, while the
cytoplasm forms a thin layer applied to the cell-wall. Through all of
these changes the nucleus and the plastids remain imbedded in the cyto-
plasm, as shown by B and C, figure 289, and the cell-sap continues to fill
the enlarging cavities. The life of the cell resides in the protoplast, and
not in the cell-wall or in the cell-sap; accordingly, those cells from which
538
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
the protoplast finally disappears cease to live, as is the case with cork
and pith cells, and wood and bast fibers. The cell-walls of such dead
cells serve the purpose of giving protection and strength and elasticity
to the plant. When a cell dies, it is not therefore necessarily lost to the
economy of the plant.
The protoplasmic body, or protoplast, being the source of all vital
phenomena of the plant, is the most essential part
of the cell; and, indeed, nearly all other inclusions.
of the cell, and the cell-wall itself, are products of
its activities.
The structures of the cell will now be considered
in detail.
The Cytoplasm.-Under high magnification the
cytoplasm appears to have a spongy structure, the
meshes of which are exceedingly fine (Fig. 289,
B
L
A
C
W
N
NL
W
C
L
FIG. 289.-Cells from the Root-tip of Onion. A. Very young cells. W. Cellulose wall. C. Meshes of
cytoplasm. N. Nucleus. NL. Nucleoli. L. Leucoplasts. B and C. Successively older cells
where the vacuoles are becoming larger and the nucleus is coming to assume a parietal position. V,
Vacuoles.
A, C). The cytoplasm is a tenacious, elastic substance of about the
consistency of thin dough, although the amount of water absorbed by
it may appreciably alter its consistency. It appears never to be in a
fluid state, and by the use of proper fixatives it may be made to
preserve its form indefinitely in material preserved in alcohol. Since
THE CYTOPLASM.
539
the nutritive processes of the cell are carried on in the cytoplasm, in
its interstices are found various chemical compounds, such as fats,
carbohydrates, various kinds of proteids, and small amounts of various
ash constituents which have been brought into the cell by the water from
the soil. During cell division a portion of the cytoplasm takes on a thread-
like structure (Fig. 309) and becomes active in dividing the parts of the
parent cell equally between the daughter cells. This thread-like portion
of the cytoplasm is termed the kinoplasm, while the remaining portion of
the cytoplasm seems to have a nutritive function only, and is called tropho-
plasm. When the cell is in the so-called resting state, that is, when
it is not undergoing division,-the cytoplasm would
seem to have a nutritive function chiefly, the chemical
changes taking place in it which are necessary to the
nutrition of all parts of the cell. The cytoplasm of
many plant cells is seen to have the power of move-
ment within its limiting membrane, or, in the case of
the plasmodia of Myxomycetes, of changing its posi-
tion as a whole, even to the extent of moving against
gravity. If young, colorless stamen hairs of Trade-
scantia virginica be mounted in a drop of water under
a cover-glass and examined with a - or -inch
NM
NT
NE
FIG. 290.-Cell from
Stamen Hair of Tra-
descantia virginica,
highly magnified.
FIG. 291.-Nucleus with a Portion of the surrounding Cytoplasm. NM.
Nuclear membrane. NE. Nucleolus. NT. Nuclear network.
Cytoplasm.
C.
objective, the cytoplasm will be seen, under favorable conditions, to be
in active circulation. The arrows in figure 290 indicate the direction of
flow. The movement of the cytoplasm is in this instance very complex;
the strands of cytoplasm are constantly shifting their positions within the
cell, and within a single strand the movement is inconstant and variable
in its direction. Under the microscope the apparent rate of flow must be
divided by the magnifying power to obtain the actual rate, and therefore
movements which appear to be rapid are really quite slow. The whole
body of the cytoplasm in the leaf-cells of Elodea canadensis will be found
to have a rotatory motion if the leaf is severed from its stem, but kept
moist in water for about an hour before the examination is made. A
540
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
small portion from the plasmodium of a Myxomycete when placed on a
cover-glass, suspended in a moist chamber, and kept in the dark, will, if
the conditions are favorable, spread out over the cover-glass in a layer
so thin that it may readily be studied with high-power objectives without
removal from the moist chamber. By this means the creeping movement
of the plasmodium and the circulation of the cytoplasm within its limiting
membrane may be studied in detail. The cytoplasm is seen to be capable
of three kinds of movement: a circulatory movement, as in the staminal
hairs of Tradescantia; a rotatory movement, as seen in the leaves of
Elodia; a translocation movement, illustrated by the creeping of a part
or whole of a Myxomycete plasmodium from one position to another.
C
N
R
A
B
FIG. 292.-A and B represent Different Stages in Cell Division.
In A, D, D are daughter nuclei which are still connected by
threads of kinoplasm to the cell-plate along the equator, C.
In B the connection of the nucleus to the cell-plate is seen to be
maintained until the plate has traversed the entire cell. In later
stages the plate becomes differentiated into a cell-wall, and the
thread-like connection with the nuclei disappears. Since the
nuclei remain connected with the plate until the latter is com-
pleted, it would appear that some formative influence is trans-
mitted from the nucleus to the plate.
W
FIG. 293.-Cell from the Epidermis
of the Seed Coat of Scopolina atro-
poides. The inner walls and a
portion of the radial walls are be-
coming immensely thickened and
the nucleus has taken a position
near to the regions of thickening,
as if the more readily to transmit
the influences necessary to the
localized deposition of materials.
N. Nucleus. R, W. Thickened
radial and tangential
tangential walls.-
(After Haberlandt.)
The causes of these movements of the cytoplasm are not definitely known,
but they are probably initiated by chemical changes in the cytoplasm.
The Nucleus.-The nucleus is nearly always present in every living
vegetable cell. It is always suspended in the cytoplasm, whether this
traverses the entire cell-cavity or has become merely a thin layer applied
to the cell-walls. The nucleus in embryonic tissues is relatively very large,
the diameter of the nucleus being, according to Strasburger, proportionate
to that of its cell as 2 is to 3, but as growth progresses the nucleus increases
in size more slowly than the rest of the cell. In young cells the nucleus is
usually round, but the form of the nucleus sometimes approximates the
form of its cell. When properly fixed and stained, the nucleus is seen to
FUNCTION OF THE NUCLEUS.
541
be demarked from the cytoplasm by a delicate membrane which surrounds
a very fine network of colorless threads within which are suspended numer-
ous minute, colored granules, so that the thread appears to be made of
alternating colorless and colored portions. Within the network are one
or more nucleoli, and filling the meshes is a colorless nuclear sap (Fig.
291). The fact that stains affect nucleus and cytoplasm differently indi-
cates in them a different chemical composition. In addition to albu-
minous substances the nucleus contains a substance called nuclein, which
differs from the true albumins in containing phosphorus, in its indigesti-
bility in gastric juice, by its swelling up in a 10 per cent. solution of com-
mon salt, and by its solubility in potassium hydrate.
It would be anticipated that such a well-defined and constantly present
structure as the nucleus should have definite and important functions to
perform. It has been demonstrated that the nucleus
FIG. 294.-Nucleus Di-
viding by Simple Con-
striction; from the
lining of the embryo
sac of Vicia faba.-
(After Zimmermann.)
is the bearer of the inheritable qualities which are
transmitted to successive generations of cells by the
extremely exact partition of the nucleus between the
daughter cells produced by cell division. This exact
division of the nucleus takes place in ordinary vegeta-
tive cell-division as well as in those divisions resulting
in the production of the sexual cells, which by their
union give rise to new offspring. The bearing and
transmission of the inheritable qualities may be con-
sidered the chief function which the nucleus has to
perform, but other important functions belong to it.
As the bearer of the inheritable qualities, those in-
fluences must emanate from the nucleus which stamp
the cell with peculiar characteristics, and which finally
give rise to that grouping of cells into the form of plant
body characteristic of the species. The nucleus seems to have a
direct influence on the formation of the new membranes which arise
during cell division, and on the subsequent growth of the cell-walls.
Figures 292 and 293 furnish evidence in support of these conclusions.
There are certain metabolic processes which seem to require the pres-
ence of the nucleus, such as the formation of starch and proteids, and
the production of secretions. It is certainly the rule that no cell can
live long after the removal of its nucleus by any cause. The sieve
tubes are an exception to this rule, but in their case it seems probable
that the influence of the nuclei in the companion cells is transmitted to
them. New nuclei arise only by the division of nuclei already in existence,
so that all the nuclei in the phanerogamous plant body, for instance, have
arisen through the division of the nucleus of the fecundated egg cell in
542
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
the embryo sac. The division of the nucleus may take place by simple
constriction, as in figure 294, or by the more complex process shown by
the various stages of figure 309, which result in an exact division of the
nucleus into two halves. The latter process is by far the more common,
as indeed would be expected when it is considered that an exact division
of the nucleus is probably a necessity to the constancy of plant forms.
The Plastids. The plastids are organs which are entirely peculiar
to plant cells. They are present in all plants excepting the Fungi. Like
the nuclei, they arise only by the division of their own kind. The plastids
are characterized by possessing coloring matter or the power to form it.
In embryonic tissues, as in the root-tip of the onion (Fig. 289), the plastids
are colorless. The colorless plastids, termed leucoplastids, may, under
A
OKY
B
FIG. 295.-A. Cell from the Epidermis of the Upper Side
of the Calyx of Tropæolum majus with Crystalline
Chromoplasts. B. Cells from the Petal of Lupinus
luteus with Yellow Chromoplasts.-(A, after Strasburger;
B, after Frank.)
starch from carbon dioxide and water.
certain conditions of nutrition,
form starch from the soluble
organic materials supplied to
them, and when performing
this function, they are some-
times given the specific name
of starch-formers, or amylo-
plastids. On exposure to light
they may secrete the green sub-
stance chlorophyll, and are
then termed chloroplastids.
By means of the chlorophyll,
rays of the sunlight of certain
wave length are arrested
within the chloroplastid, and
the energy thus made avail-
able to it is used by the chloro-
plastid in the formation of
Under certain conditions the
coloring matter in the form
leucoplastids may secrete yellow and red
of droplets or crystals of tabular, rod, or spindle form, and are then
called chromoplastids. The chromoplastid is apt to assume the form
of its crystalline inclusions (Fig. 295). The chromoplastids do not
appear to have a physiological function, but they are of biological
significance in that they furnish the brilliant colors by means of which
insects and other animals are allured which may aid in the fecundation
of the flowers or the dissemination of the seeds.
The Plasma Membrane.-All protoplasts, whether they are inclosed
in a cell-wall or destitute of a wall, as in the swarm spores of Algæ and
Fungi and in the plasmodia of Myxomycetes, are invested by a thin plasma
THE CELL-SAP-THE CELL-WALL.
543
membrane which appears to be a differentiated outer layer of the cyto-
plasm, differing from the rest of the cytoplasm in being tougher and, for
the most part, destitute of granules. The plasma membrane has a variety
of functions to perform. It is an organ of protection in protoplasts
which are destitute of cell-walls. In all cases it regulates the osmotic
interchange of materials between neighboring cells and with the outer
world. It is the plasma membrane which permits the water of the soil
with substances in solution to pass into the plant, but prevents the fluid
substances of the cell from passing out and becoming lost to the plant.
While the nucleus and plastids may be shifted about by the movements
of the cytoplasm, the plasma membrane remains fairly constant in its
position, and is thus well adapted to receive and transmit localized stimuli;
and because of this it may be considered the perceptive organ of the proto-
plast as well as, to a certain extent, the executive organ of the nucleus
in building up or dissolving away the cell-wall. It seems very probable
that the plasma membrane contributes of its own substance for the for-
mation and growth in thickness of the cell-wall. Unlike the nucleus and
the plastids, the plasma membrane can apparently be formed de novo
from parts of the cytoplasm.
The Cell-Sap.-The cell-sap is a clear fluid with an acid reaction,
containing in solution various organic and inorganic substances, such as
the proteids, amides, carbohydrates, alkaloids, and acids formed within.
the plant, and the nitrates, phosphates, and sulphates brought into the
plant by the water from the soil; it also holds oxygen and carbon dioxide
gases in solution. The cell-sap, therefore, holds in solution, or in a tem-
porarily insoluble condition, all of those substances which are necessary
to the nutrition of the plant; and those substances also which are by-
products of the chemical activities of the plant, such as the alkaloids,
which probably serve no physiological purpose, and the tannins and
glucosides, whose function is not yet apparent. The blue and red colors
of flowers and variegated foliage are usually due to a coloring matter in
solution in the cell-sap termed anthocyanin, which assumes a red color
in acid solutions, and a blue or violet color in alkaline solutions.
The Cell-wall. When new cells arise by division, the plane of separa-
tion is first demarked by a plasma membrane, which later changes over into
cellulose and becomes the dividing wall. The swarm spores of Algæ and
Fungi, and the sexual cells of higher plants, have at first merely a plasma
membrane to cover them. Cells which are thus destitute of a cell-wall are
termed primordial cells. It appears, however, that the plasma membrane
is capable of becoming converted into cellulose, so that newly formed
cells are very early provided with a cell-wall of cellulose. Cellulose,
CH1005, is well adapted to form the protecting wall about young and
544
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
growing cells because of its permeability to liquids and gases, and its duc-
tility. In virtue of these properties of its wall the young cell is able to
obtain its necessary food materials, and it is not so bound in as to be
incapable of increase in size. After its first formation the cell-wall in-
creases in surface and in thickness. The increase in surface is accom-
plished by the stretching of the wall due to the turgidity of the cell and the
subsequent deposition of new particles of cellulose within or upon the
wall already formed. If the deposition of new particles takes place
within the wall, the process is called growth by intussusception, while
the addition of new cellulose to the inner surfaces of the wall is called
growth by apposition. Growth by apposition necessarily involves in-
crease in thickness of the cell-wall. Growth in thickness is usually
accomplished by the addition of new material to the inside of the wall;
but where the outside surface is free, as in the case of pollen grains and
epidermal cells, new material is apparently added to the outside as well,
and sometimes in such a way as to give rise to excrescences of various
forms. The growth in thickness does not, as a rule, occur uniformly.
It is usually the case that on certain portions of the cell-walls new mate-
rial is but little deposited, so that, however thick the remaining portions
of the walls may become, easy osmotic communication is maintained
between the cells throughout their life (Fig. 296).
Various forms of unequal growth in thickness of the cell-wall, which
have a definite physiological significance, will be discussed in connection
with the tissues in which they occur.
As the plant body becomes larger, both in its ontogenetic and phyllo-
genetic development, it becomes subject to greater dangers, such as too
great loss of water, the attacks of parasites, and mechanical injuries due
to breaking, crushing, and bruising. Accordingly, modifications of the
cellulose wall have come about which contribute to its impenetrability
to liquids and gases and to its hardness and elasticity.
Cutinized or suberized cell-walls usually occur when cells are exposed
directly to the air, as is the case with epidermal and cork cells and pollen
grains and spores.
The suberin and cutin, which give character to the suberized and cutin-
ized walls, are nearly allied, but not identical, substances. Both cutinized
and suberized membranes react alike to the various stains, and chemical
analysis shows that both are fatty bodies composed of glycerine esters,
and other substances which are not soluble in chloroform; both are nearly
impervious to water and gases, and both serve the same physiological
function, namely, chiefly that of preventing too great loss of water to the
plant.
Lignified cell-walls, occurring in wood, bast, and stone cells, are char-
KINDS OF CELL-WALLS.
545
acteristic of those cells which have the purpose of giving strength, elas-
ticity, and hardness to the plant. Since the strength and rigidity of
plants must depend to a great extent on the character of their cell-walls,
we find lignified walls reinforced for their office by being more or less.
ΑΙ
A
A
B
1
A
FIG. 296.—A, B, and C. Successive Stages in the Formation of the Stone Cells of the Peach. A. Thin-
walled parenchyma cells of the fundamental tissue of the ovary of the peach; the walls are of
cellulose. B. Later stage in which the walls have become thickened and lignified. At A and Pare
pits in the walls which facilitate the passage of materials to the still-growing cells. Section taken
from a half-grown peach. C. Still later stage from the hard stone of a mature peach; many of the
pits have united, forming a single-branched pit.
thickened. It may, in fact, be stated as a rule that lignification is asso-
ciated with a thickening of the cell-wall. Lignified membranes are
colored yellow with sulphuric acid and iodine or with chlor-zinc-iodide,
but after treatment with Schultze's macerating fluid, and further treatment
with sulphuric acid and iodine or chlor-zinc-iodide, they assume the char-
35
546
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
acteristic color of cellulose. This suggests the conclusion that lignification
is due in part to the infiltration of the cellulose wall by the lignifying sub-
stances. The composition of the lignifying substance, which has been
termed lignin, has not yet been definitely determined; but recent researches
seem to have shown that there is no single lignifying substance, and that
the so-called lignin is rather a combination of various substances, probably
from the aldehyde group. The physical effect of lignification is to in-
crease the hardness and strength of the membrane and to increase
its permeability to water. Lignified walls consist commonly of three
distinct layers (Fig. 297)—the middle layer C, which is dissolved in
Schultze's macerating fluid, the lignified layer B, and the cellulose layer A.
Mucilaginous cell-walls occur in the seed coats of flax and quince, in
the cotyledons of many Leguminosa, and in the parenchyma cells of the
Malvacea. In these cases the mucilage is deposited in layers against the
inside of primary cellulose walls. The mucilaginous membranes have
B
A
C
A
B-
FIG. 297.-Cross-section of a Cell
with Lignified Walls. A. Cell-
ulose layer. B. Lignified
layer. C. Middle layer.
the same percentage composition as cellulose, but
they differ from it by their power of swelling up
enormously when placed in contact with water.
Mucilaginous walls may serve the purpose of
taking up and holding large quantities of water
against times of drought, or they may in other
instances serve as reserve food material, or,
where they occur in seed coats, they may assist
in holding the germinating seeds to the soil.
Mineral deposits frequently occur in or upon
cell-walls. Silica occurs notably in the grasses
and Equisetacea; calcium oxalate sometimes
occurs in walls in the form of crystals; and cal-
cium carbonate occurs in the walls of certain Algæ, in the hairs of many
Boraginaceae, and in the peculiar growths from the walls of the epidermal
cells of many Urticaceæ, Moraceæ, and Acanthaceæ, known as cystoliths.
Mineral deposits add to the hardness and brittleness of the cell-walls; in
the case of cystoliths, however, the calcium carbonate probably serves the
purpose of reserve material.
Reserve Materials.-Reserve materials within the cells are those
substances which have been manufactured by the plant for its own food
above the amount necessary for its immediate use, such as starch, sugars,
inulin, fatty oils, and the hemicelluloses, and the protein and aleurone
grains, crystalloids, and undifferentiated protoplasm among the nitrogen-
ous substances.
Starch, which occurs always in the plastids, and chiefly in the chloro-
plastids or leucoplastids, in the form of rounded or polyhedral bodies,
STARCH.
547
consists of various carbohydrates of the formula C.H10O5, together with
an inconstant amount of water and mineral inclosures. According to
Arthur Meyer, starch-grains are sphærocrystals of amylose and amylo-
dextrine, in which the amylose occurs in two modifications-a-amylose,
which is not soluble in water at 100° C., and B-amylose, which dissolves
in water at 100° C. a-Amylose may be isolated by treating starch paste
with malt extract, or by the influence of dilute hot hydrochloric acid on
whole starch-grains. That portion of the starch-grains which remains
after this treatment is a-amylose, which differs from the portion of the
starch-grains removed by the treatment in being insoluble in boiling
water and in being colored pale red instead of blue by potassium-iodide-
iodine. The P-amylose is dissolved in water at about 60° C., and this
solution is colored blue with potassium-iodide-iodine. Starch-grains are
seen to be either concentrically or excentrically striated (Fig. 298). Ac-
B
A
B
A
FIG. 298.-A. Concentrically stri-
ated starch-grain of the
garden bean. B. Excentrically
striated starch-grain from the
potato.
FIG. 299.-Schematic Representation of the Structure of a Starch-
grain. The denser layers of crystals, A, A, are deposited during
the day, and the less dense layers, B, B, during the night.-
(After Meyer.)
cording to Meyer, the starch-grains are built up of fine needle-shaped
crystals of the amyloses and amylodextrine which are disposed radially
in the striations or laminæ. Alternate layers of the laminæ differ in the
degree of compactness of the needle-crystals which form them (Fig. 299).
Meyer was able to show that the cause of the striations was the different
amount of organized material available for starch formation during the
hours of daylight and darkness. Thus, in the daytime, when the chloro-
plasts are constantly supplying the necessary materials, the needle-crystals
were laid down compactly as at A, A; but in the night-time, when the
chloroplasts had ceased their activity, a less number of crystals were
formed in a unit of volume, B, B; in the daytime a dense layer of starch
was formed, and in the night-time a less dense layer. If the starch-grain
has a central position in the plastid, the striations are formed concen-
trically; but if the growing grain has an excentric position, the striations.
548
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
will be thicker on the side to which the greater thickness of plastid is
applied. Starch, being insoluble in the cell-sap, can not pass from cell
to cell until it has been dissolved by means of the ferment diastase, which
is evidently formed by the plastid which contains the starch. Under the
influence of the diastase the amyloses of the starch are first changed to
amylodextrine, then to dextrine, isomaltose, and maltose respectively.
FIG. 300.-Starch-grains showing the Solvent Effect of Diastase.-(After Meyer.)
The diastase is able to penetrate into the deeper layers of the starch-grain,
and the solution of the latter may therefore take place internally as well
as externally (Fig. 300).
Hemicelluloses are those extreme thickenings of the cell-wall which
occur in seeds especially, and which are dissolved by the action of dias-
tatic ferments during germination and used in the nutrition of the devel-
oping plant. The thickened cell-walls of the date seed (Fig. 301) fur-
The aut
سه
FIG. 301.-Section from the Endosperm of Date Seed. The shaded portions represent the cell cavities;.
the unshaded portions, the thickened cell-walls of hemicellulose, which, on the germination of the
seed, become converted into sugar by the action of a diastatic ferment, and absorbed by the ger-
minating embryo.
nish an example of this form of reserve material. Other examples may
be found in the seeds of some Umbelliferæ and Leguminosæ, and in the
seeds of many monocotyledonous plants. The hemicelluloses differ from
cellulose in forming glucose when acted on by hot dilute mineral acids,
and in the products yielded by hydrolysis with sulphuric acid. In many
Leguminosæ the thickening of the cell-walls is due to a mucilage which
SUGAR-PROTEIN GRAINS.
549
has either been formed directly as such or has arisen through changes
in layers of the cell-wall which were originally cellulose. Nearly allied
to the hemicelluloses is the reserve material, termed amyloid, which forms
a part of the thickened cell-walls in the seeds of Tropæolum majus, Im-
patiens balsamina, and many other plants.
Sugar in the form of sucrose, or cane-sugar, C12H22O11, exists as reserve
material in the roots of beets; and glucose, or grape-sugar, C.H1200,
occurs in the bulbs of onions.
Inulin, CH10O5, occurs dissolved in the cell-sap of many plants. It is
very abundant in the tubers of Dahlia variabilis, Helianthus tuberosus,
Inula Helenium, and in the roots of Taraxacum officinalis. On long
standing in alcohol, inulin is precipitated from its solution in the form of
sphærocrystals (Fig. 302). Inulin is converted into grape-sugar before
it takes part in the nutrition of the growing plant.
B
A
Fats and oils occur as reserve materials in the seeds of many plants;
thus, castor oil occurs in the
seeds of Ricinus communis,
and linseed oil in the seeds of
Linum usitatissimum. The
oils which serve as reserve
materials are fixed oils, and
are mixtures of free fatty acids.
with glycerine compounds of
fatty acids. When oily seeds
germinate, the oil is split up
into its acid and glycerine;
FIG. 302.-A. Sphærocrystals of inulin from tuber of
Dahlia variabilis, which have been precipitated from
an aqueous solution. B. Sphærocrystals of inulin which
have been precipitated within the cells by long standing
in alcohol.-(After Sachs.)
later sugar and starch are formed, and finally the starch is converted
into sugar.
The reserve oils appear to be always formed in the protoplasm of the
cell in the form of exceedingly small drops which are so uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the protoplasm as to give the appearance of an emul-
sion; when the cells are cut open, however, the droplets run together to
form larger masses.
The reserve materials which have been thus far spoken of contain no
nitrogen, and may be classed as the non-nitrogenous reserve materials.
Nitrogenous reserve materials occur either as undifferentiated substances
in the protoplasm or as sharply differentiated bodies in the form of rounded
grains or crystals.
►
Protein grains or aleurone grains are rounded bodies of proteid sub-
stances occurring as reserve material in the endosperm of seeds. In
starchy seeds they are usually small granules filling the space between the
starch-grains (Fig. 303); in oily seeds they are larger, as a rule, and differ-
550
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
entiated into a ground substance and a crystalloid of proteid materials,
usually associated with rounded bodies known as globoids, which consist
of a double phosphate of magnesium and calcium. Both the crystalloid
and the globoids are inclosed in the ground substance, which in its turn
is imbedded in the cytoplasm of the cell (Fig. 304). Crystalloids of pro-
teid substances also occur outside of aleurone grains. They have been
found in the plastids, in nuclei, and in the general cytoplasm of the cell.
They may be found, for instance, in the cells immediately beneath the
GR
A
A
C
B
A
FIG. 303.-Section from the Cotyledons of a
Seed of Pisum sativum, showing aleurone
grains, A, and starch-grains, S.-(After
Sachs.)
FIG. 304.-Cells from the Endosperm of Ricinus
communis. A. As seen when the section is
mounted in oil. The globoid is seen clearly
at G, while the rest of the grain appears
almost homogeneous. B. As seen when the
section is treated with a solution of potassium-
iodide-iodine. The grain is thus differentiated
into the ground substance, GR, the crystalloid,
C, and the globoid, G. The cytoplasm of the
cell in which the grains are imbedded is repre-
sented with a granular appearance, as shown at
C, on the right.-(After Frank.)
corky layer of the potato. The proteid crystalloids differ from mineral
crystals, aside from their chemical constitution, in their reaction to stains
and in their swelling up before going into solution with certain reagents,
such as caustic potash and chloral hydrate.
Before the nitrogenous reserve materials are used in the growth of the
plant they are converted by the action of proteolytic ferments into the
simpler and more soluble peptones, and these again into the still less
complex amido-compounds, such as asparagin and leucin.
Mineral Crystals.-Mineral crystals are of frequent occurrence in
MINERAL CRYSTALS.
551
the cells of plants; they are, however, for the most part, waste products
and can not be classified as reserve materials.
Calcium oxalate occurs quite frequently in the cells of all parts of the
higher plants. It occurs most commonly, however, in the parenchymatous
tissues of roots, stems, and leaves. The crystals of calcium oxalate occur
in various forms (Fig. 305), either singly in a cell or in clusters; as octa-
hedra of various forms; or as needle-shaped crystals, called raphides.
Sometimes the cells which bear the crystals are distinguished by their
A
B C
D
E
F
FIG. 305.-Crystals of Calcium Oxalate. A. From the petiole of Begonia manicata, in the form of octa-
hedra and compound crystals. B-F. Various other forms of calcium oxalate crystals.—(After Krug.)
form or size, but more frequently they do not differ from the other cells
of their tissue.
Calcium carbonate occurs in the crystalline form in the plasmodia of
Myxomycetes and in the cells of the seed coats of some plants.
Calcium sulphate is found as minute crystals in many desmids; the
crystals are particularly evident in the vacuoles at the ends of the cells of
Closterium.
Silica occurs as masses of various shapes in the cells of many plants,
as in the Magnoliacea and Orchidacea.
Other cell contents, such as the alkaloids and tannins, are discussed
sufficiently for our purpose in the chapters on Microtechnic.

552
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
CHAPTER IV.-CELL FORMATION.
The formation of new cells may come about in various ways; but by
whatever process, it is always essentially the aggregation of protoplasm
about new centers of formation. The organs of the protoplast of the new
cell
are,
with exception of the plasma membrane, always provided by the
division of those already present in the parent cell.
a new phase of existence.
B
A
Rejuvenescence is the process by which the protoplast of a cell already
present liberates itself from its cell-wall, and so becomes free to enter upon
This process occurs only in the formation of
reproductive cells. A good illustration is
found in the formation of the swarm spores
of Edogonium (Fig. 306). It will be seen
that the entire protoplast of one of the cells
which constitutes the algal filament emerges
from its cell (A and B) and changes its form
from cylindrical to egg-shape (C). There is
a hyaline region at the smaller end encircled
by a crown of cilia, the vibrations of which
cause the movements of the swarm spore in
the water. After the swarm spore comes to
rest the hyaline end expands into a sucker-
like disk (D) which holds the spore to the
substratum, while the larger green end grows
forth to form a new filament as soon as the
spore has formed a wall about itself. That,
in the formation of the spore, a radical re-
organization of the cell takes place is shown
by the fact that the polarity of the cell has
shifted through 90 degrees, for the hyaline
and opposite ends of the spore correspond
D
FIG. 306.-Formation of Swarm
Spore by Edogonium. A and B.
Protoplast emerging from its cell.
C. Protoplast differentiated into
green end and hyaline end with
crown of cilia. D. A later stage
of the swarm spore C after it has
become attached to a substratum
and has commenced to elongate
in the form of a new filament.-
(After Pringsheim.)
to the ends of a short diameter of the
original cell.
Conjugation.-New cells may arise by conjugation-that is, by the
fusion of two protoplasts from previously distinct cells. A good example
of this process is found in Spirogyra, a fresh-water Alga found in ponds.
and running streams. Each cell of this filamentous Alga (Fig. 307)
contains a chloroplast in the form of a spiral band, S, and a nucleus, N,
suspended near the center of the cell by cytoplasmic radiations. Con-
jugation takes place between the cells of two filaments which happen to
CELL FORMATION.
553
be lying near together and are more or less parallel to each other. Con-
jugation proceeds as follows: Two cells of adjacent filaments grow out
toward each other until they come in contact (A, B, and C, Fig. 307);
then the protoplasts of the two cells contract, probably by the expulsion
of water from the cell-sap, and assume a rounded form, in consequence
of which their parts undergo a considerable rearrangement; then the wall
which separates the two cells becomes resorbed, and the protoplast from
R
B
B
C
A
FIG. 307.-Copulation of Spirogyra longata.
At A two cells of adjacent filaments have
commenced to grow toward each other. At
B and C the outgrowths have grown to-
gether. (After Sachs.)
A
B
FIG. 308.-A. The protoplast of one cell is flowing
over to the adjoining cell of an adjacent filament
and fusing with its protoplast. At B the union of
the protoplasts is complete. B. At C, C the zygo-
spores formed by the union of two protoplasts
have formed a wall about themselves preparatory
to entering on a period of rest.-(After Sachs.)
one cell glides through the connecting canal into the other cell, where the
two protoplasts fuse together completely, nucleus with nucleus and cyto-
plasm with cytoplasm (A and B in A, Fig. 308). The protoplast thus formed
clothes itself with a cell-wall and becomes a so-called zygospore (C, C, in B).
The spore becomes free from the parent cell by the disintegration of the
walls of the latter, and after passing through a resting period of several
months, the spore germinates into a new Spirogyra filament.
554
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Cell Division.-The formation of cells by cell division involves the
division of the protoplast of a parent cell and the distribution of the divided
organs of the parent between the daughter protoplasts. The nucleus
being the bearer of the inheritable qualities, is divided with extreme accu-
racy between the daughter cells by a process known as karyokinesis.
The steps in this process will now be given. The resting nucleus consists
of a nuclear framework (F in A, Fig. 309), which is formed by a thread
coiled into numberless convolutions which unite where they touch, and so
form an orbicular network which traverses the entire nucleus. When
fixed and stained, the thread is seen to consist of alternating disks of
colored and colorless substances termed chromatin and linin respectively.
One or more nucleoli, N, are suspended within the meshes, and the re-
maining space inclosed by the nuclear membrane is filled by the nuclear
sap. The first stages in the process of nuclear division are marked by a
thickening of the nuclear thread. The thread continues to thicken and
at the same time to shorten until the original network has been converted
into the thick and coiled thread shown at T in B. At about this time
the thread is often seen to have divided longitudinally. The double thread
then divides transversely into segments, which are called chromosomes,
the number of which is constant within a species, but may vary in different
species. About this stage the nuclear membrane becomes dissolved, the
nucleoli disappear, and the kinoplasmic spindle is formed, radiating
toward the equator from opposite poles (S, S, in C). The chromosomes
then become arranged at the equator and attached to the spindle-fibers
in the form of a ring or plate (C in C and D). Then the longitudinal
halves of each chromosome are drawn by the contracting spindle-fibers
to opposite poles, where they unite to form the nuclear thread of the
daughter nuclei (E, F, G, H, and I). Later, the nuclear thread goes over
into the nuclear framework, a nuclear membrane is formed, the nucleoli
reappear, and the daughter nuclei enter into their resting stage (J and K).
After the chromosomes have collected at the poles, and even after the
daughter nuclei have been fully formed, kinoplasmic fibers remain stretched
from pole to pole. Thickenings arise on these fibers at the equator (F in I)
which unite to form a membrane called the cell-plate (P in J and K).
This increases in diameter in the two dimensions of its plane until it com-
pletely separates the mother cell into two daughter cells, each with a
nucleus formed by the division of the nucleus of the mother cell, as just
described. The connecting fibers finally disappear and the cell-plate
becomes transformed into a cellulose wall.
The longitudinal division of the nuclear thread and the distribution
of the halves of each chromosome to opposite poles insures a very exact
division of the mother nucleus between the daughter nuclei, and in con-

CELL DIVISION.
A
B
D
G
C
-P
P-
T
C
-S
C
-S
E
F
H
F
555
K
FIG. 309.-Different Stages of Indirect Nuclear Division, resulting in Cell Division. A. Resting nucleus,
nucleolus at N, and nuclear network, F, filling the entire nucleus. B. Early prophase. Nuclear
network has lost its reticulated character and has assumed the form of a loosely coiled thick thread;
nucleolus still present. C. Nuclear thread has become divided into chromosomes, which have gathered
at the equator of the cell. The spindle-fibers which converge at the poles are connected with the chromo-
somes; the nucleolus has disappeared. D. Late prophase. The chromosomes have divided longi-
tudinally. E. Early metaphase. The longitudinal segments of the chromosomes are being drawn
apart, one of each pair of segments toward opposite poles. The contracting spindle-fibers are instru-
mental in this translocation of the chromosomes. F, early, and G, late, anaphases. In G the chromo-
somes have arrived at the poles, where they will soon fuse together to form the daughter nuclei, as
shown in the succeeding stages of H, I, J, and K. The stages from H to the formation of the resting
daughter nuclei are known as the telophases. In I, thickenings of the connecting fibers have arisen.
At J the connecting fibers have moved out to the sides of the cell, and the equatorial plane of
thickening on the fibers constitutes a complete septum separating the mother cell into two daugh-
ter cells, each having a nucleus which has arisen by the division of the nucleus of the mother cell.
In K the septum has become changed to cellulose. In J and K the nucleoli have reappeared. The
daughter nuclei shown in K will soon pass into the resting state shown at A, where the nuclear
thread has a reticulated form.
556
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
sequence an equal possession by the daughter cells of the inheritable
qualities from the parent cell. So far as accurate observations extend,
this is the method of cell formation which generally prevails in the growth
of plants and in the formation of the reproductive cells of Phanerogams
and many Cryptogams.
Free Cell Formation.-In cell formation by cell division, as described
above, the daughter cells have a common wall, or at least a common
cell-plate, which may remain intact or may separate into two layers, so
that before or soon after the cellulose wall is formed the daughter cells
become separated from each other, as in the case of some spores and
A
B
GP
IR
C
NM
C
X-
-NL
A.
B
FIG. 310.-Free Cell Formation of Spores in the Ascus of Erysiphe communis. A. Ascus with single
nucleus, N; cytoplasm, C; nucleolus, NL. B. Successive stages in nuclear division within the
ascus; at X, early anaphase, nuclear membrane, NM, still persisting; R, kinoplasmic radiations from
the poles; at Y, telophase, new nuclear membrane not yet formed; Z, a later stage where the nuclear
membranes demark the daughter nuclei. C, A, B, and C are successively later stages than Z in B.
At A certain of the kinoplasmic radiations are bending downward about the nucleus, N; at B the
nucleus is nearly inclosed, and at C entirely inclosed by the radiations, which now form a complete
membrane, cutting off a portion of the cytoplasm of the ascus, and thus forming a complete cell.
(Arranged after drawings by Harper. B and C are diagrammatic; for the sake of simplicity of
description, various stages of nuclear division are shown in a single ascus, although at any given period
only one stage would actually be present.)
pollen grains. In the case of free cell formation, however, the daughter
cells are entirely free from each other from the time of their first forma-
tion. An excellent example is found in the formation of the ascospores
of Erysiphe communis. In the young ascus there is a single nucleus
(N in A, Fig. 310), but this divides, producing two nuclei, and these
divide and give rise to four nuclei which lie free in the cytoplasm of the
ascus. During the first and second divisions the kinoplasmic radiations
from the poles, shown at R in B, gradually disappear after the formation
of the daughter nuclei. The four nuclei finally divide to form eight
nuclei, but in this instance after the formation of the daughter nuclei

FREE CELL FORMATION.
557
certain of the kinoplasmic radiations persist and gradually bend about
the nucleus (A and B in C), forming a closed membrane (C in C), which
demarks the nucleus, together with a certain amount of the cytoplasm,
from the general cytoplasm of the ascus, forming a cell which is distinct
and free from the other cells of the ascus which have been formed in like
A
38 2
&
B
FIG. 312. Various Stages of Cell Multiplication by Budding of
Saccharomyces cerevisia.-(After Reess.)
A
B
C
D
FIG. 311-Gonidangium of an
Achlya. A. Closed and filled
with zoogonidia. B. Escap-
ing zoogonidia; a, zoogoni-
dia which have just escaped;
b, membranes which have
been abandoned by swarm-
ing zoogonidia, like those
at e; c, a lateral branch.-
(After Sachs.)
FIG. 313.-Spore Formation by Corticium amorphum. A. Nearly
mature basidium. B. Four sterigma are formed, from the ends
of which the spores bud forth, as at C. D. Ripe spores.-(After
de Bary.)
In this instance the whole of the cytoplasm of the mother cell
is not used in the formation of the daughter cells. In the formation of
the swarm spores of many Algae and Phycomycetes the whole of the cyto-
plasm of the mother cell is used in the formation of the daughter cells.
In the formation of the zoospores of an Achlya, for example (Fig. 311),
558
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
the whole of the cytoplasm becomes demarked into spores which break
out from the parent cell and become entirely dissociated from each other.
Cell formation by budding differs from ordinary cell division in that
the mother cell puts forth an outgrowth which becomes cut off by the
formation of a wall at the place of its origin. This process of cell forma-
tion occurs in yeasts and in the formation of the conidiospores of many
fungi (Figs. 312 and 313).
CHAPTER V.-THE TISSUES.
In all but the lowest forms the plant body consists of many cells united
to form one or more systems of tissues which are adapted by their posi-
tion, arrangement, and structure to perform more or less distinct physio-
logical functions. In unicellular plants such a division of labor is, of
course, impossible, and in the simpler multicellular forms, such as the
filamentous Algae and Fungi, the distribution of distinct functions to
particular cells or groups of cells has made only a feeble beginning. In
the Phanerogams and higher Cryptogams, however, the adaptation of
special tissues to perform distinct functions has reached a marked degree
of perfection.
A tissue—that is, a union of cells which have like structural characters
and functions—may come about in various ways. Cells which were
originally isolated may come together and be so intimately united where
they touch each other that no separating line can be made out. This is
illustrated by Pediastrum (Fig. 314). Here the protoplasts break up
within the cells into many which finally escape from the parent cell-cav-
ity surrounded by a thin membrane. Each of the daughter protoplasts
becomes invested by a wall of its own, and, after moving about for a time
within the common membrane the daughter cells unite to form a new
Pediastrum aggregate (B and C, Fig. 314).
In the case of Lichens and many of the higher Fungi the plant body is
composed of multicellular, filamentous threads, called hypha, which are
so intimately interwoven and grown together as to form a uniform and
compact tissue (Fig. 315).
In the majority of cases, however, and particularly in the higher plants,
the tissues are formed by cells which have remained united by common
walls from the time of their formation by cell division.
FORMATION OF TISSUES.
559
When cells are first formed by cell division, they are united along their
entire surface, but later the cells tend to assume a more rounded outline,
presumably because of hydrostatic pressure from within the cells, and
the walls become separated at the corners where three cells meet (Fig.
316).
The fact that the middle lamella of walls which have begun to thicken
II
M II
O
A
ம்
B
B
B
M
C
FIG. 314.-Pediastrum_granulatum. A. Plant body
of united cells. T. Different stages of cell division.
At G the innermost layer of cell wall is protruding,
and the daughter cells are escaping from the mother
cell along with it. B. Daughter cells G surrounded
by the inner lamella B, which has entirely freed
itself from the mother cell; the daughter cells are in
active motion. C. The same family of daughter
cells four and one-half hours later; the daughter cells
G have arranged themselves into a group similar to
A and will soon unite to form a common tissue.-
(After A. Braun.)
៦០០៛
000
ODO
G
t
FIG. 315.-Cross-section through the Thallus of Sticta
fuliginosa. At M the hypha are interwoven in the
form of a tissue. Above and below M at O the hyphæ
have become united in the form of a pseudoparenchyma.
-(After Sachs.)
FIG. 316. Cells from the Stem of Zea Mais
showing intercellular space at I, and com-
mon wall at G.-(After Sachs.)
becomes altered to a calcium pectate, associated in suberized and ligni-
fied walls with lignin, contributes to the formation of intercellular spaces.
The protoplasts in the cells of a tissue have been demonstrated in many
instances to be connected with each other by means of cytoplasmic threads
which extend through the cell-walls (Fig. 317). These connections prob-
ably serve for the transmission of stimuli throughout a tissue, and so
contribute to the harmonious action of the cells in their common physio-
logical functions.
560
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Intercellular Spaces.-The intercellular spaces have an important
physiological significance. They arise by the separation of cells as already
described, and are then called schizogenous, or they may be formed by
B
B
•A
A
A
AA
AA
B
A
A
A A
A
A
FIG. 317.-Cross-section through the Endosperm of Areca oleracea, after Treatment with Chloriodide of
Žinc. The protoplasts (P) within the cells are somewhat shrunken from the walls through the action
of the reagent. The walls of the cells are very much thickened, as shown at A, but pits occur at
intervals, B. Fine threads of protoplasm connecting the adjoining protoplasts extend through per-
forations in the pits.-(After Tangl.)
the breaking down or resorption of cells, when they are called lysigenous
Most schizogenous intercellular spaces contain air, and so constitute an
I
FIG. 318.—Cross-section through the Petiole of Nuphar advena. At I are large schizogenous intercellular
spaces containing air. S. Star-shaped idioblasts. G. Vascular bundle.-(After Sachs.)
aërating system which reaches a marked development in leaves and in
all parts of the more highly developed plants which grow in wet places
or in swamps or entirely submerged in water (Fig. 318). However, some
TISSUE SYSTEMS.
561
schizogenous spaces, such as the resin ducts of pine and ivy, contain
excretions. The lysigenous intercellular spaces contain, for the most
part, products of secretion, such as resins, gums, and ethereal oils. In
the case of the formation of lysigenous intercellular spaces certain groups
A
B
wb
C
d
C
d
E
гр
FIG. 319. Lysigenous Oil-gland at the
Upper Surface of the Leaf of Dictamnus
fraxinella. B. An early stage in the
formation of the gland where the mother
cells (C) have not yet lost their identity.
C. A mature gland; the mother cells have
broken down and the oil secreted by them
has fused into one large drop (o).—(After
Sachs.)
FIG. 320.-Schizogneous Resin Duct in the Young Stem
of the Ivy (Hedera helix) as seen in transverse section.
A early, and E, later, stage in formation of the duct.
g. The mature duct. c. The cambium. wb. The
soft bast. b. Bast fibers. rp. Cortical parenchyma.
-(After Sachs.)
of cells secrete substances such as ethereal oils or gums, and later the walls
of the secreting cells break down and the secretion collects in the common
intercellular cavity (Fig. 319).
CHAPTER VI.-THE TISSUE SYSTEMS.
The Meristematic Tissues.-In those plants in which division of
labor has been carried to any considerable extent, notably in the Phan-
erogams and higher Cryptogams, growth by cell multiplication takes place
36
562
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
in certain distinct regions, as at the apex of stems and roots and in the
cambium and cork-cambium zones. The tissues of these regions which
retain the power of active cell division are called meristematic tissues.
Since stems and roots increase in length by the division and subsequent
enlargement of the meristematic cells at their apices, these apical mer-
istematic tissues are the ultimate source of all the other tissues, and are
therefore classed as the Primordial Meristem (P, Fig. 321). A short
distance back from the apex the primordial meristem becomes differen-
tiated into three distinct tissues. At E are cells which have elongated
somewhat longitudinally, and which, by their continued division, are to
give rise to the epidermis; these constitute the protoderm. At C are
cells which have elongated considerably in proportion to their length
and which, by continued division and subsequent fundamental changes,
are to produce fibrous and vascular tissues. Some of the cells, however,
are to retain their power of continued division and constitute the cam-
bium tissues of the older portion of the stem; these elongated cells at
C are the procambium. The remaining tissue of the stem (G G) just
below the apex is known as the ground or fundamental meristem. Proto-
derm, procambium, and ground meristem are termed collectively the
Primary Meristem.
The cells of the meristematic tissues are distinguished by being rela-
tively small, thin-walled, with a protoplast filling almost the entire cell,
and have the power of continued division. The cells which arise through
the division of the meristematic cells soon undergo changes in form and
structure which demark them sharply from the meristematic cells and
which fit them for the performance of special functions, and, with the
exception of those cells which are to produce the interfascicular cambium
and the cork cambium, they lose the power of division, although in some
cases the power may be revived under the stress of special need. The
cork cambium and interfascicular cambium are classified as Secondary
Meristem, while the tissues which arise through the division of the primary
meristems are called Permanent Tissues, because their cells, in contra-
distinction to the meristematic cells, soon assume a definite and permanent
character, with the exception of those which are to give rise to the secondary
meristems.
While in Dicotyledons the formation of permanent tissues proceeds.
toward the apex, so that the maturer tissues are found toward the bases
of the nodes, in the case of the leaves of most Monocotyledons and the
internodes of the Gramineæ primary meristem is still found at the bases
when the upper portions have become permanent. Such plants are able
to grow in length not only by the division of the cells of the primordial
and primary meristems of their growing points, but also by the division
TISSUE SYSTEMS.
563
الها
G
Y
FIG. 321.-Longitudinal Section through the Apex and Three Succeeding Joints of Stem of Ulmus Ameri-
canus. At P primordial meristem. C. Procambium. G. Ground meristem. V. Spiral vessei
bounded exteriorly by young wood-fibers. E', G', C'. Tissues which have nearly reached the perma-
nent condition, which in their meristematic condition were E, G, and C respectively. L. Young
leaves. Y. Axillary buds. X. Position of older leaf.
564
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
!
of the cells of the primary meristem at the bases of a considerable number
of internodes.
The cells of the permanent tissues may be classified as parenchymatous
when their three dimensions are of about the same length, and they for
the most part remain thin-walled and retain their protoplasts; and as
prosenchymatous when one dimension becomes considerably longer than
the others, and the cells for the most part become thick-walled and lose
their protoplasts. These classes of cells gradually grade into each other,
however, and no hard-and-fast distinction can be made, excepting in the
extreme cases.
The Tegumentary Tissues.-The Pteridophytes and Phanerogams
possess a tegumentary system of tissues which covers the entire plant and
has for its functions the protection of the deeper-lying tissues from mechan-
ical injuries, the attacks of parasitic fungi, and the too great loss of water
by evaporation. This is accomplished by the epidermal and cork tissues,
the outer walls of the former being covered with cuticle which is almost
impervious to water and gases, and the walls of the latter being suberized,
with the result that they too are practically impervious to water and gases.
However, in the case of some plants which are growing submerged in
water, and in the case of the young roots of all plants, the epidermis is
slightly or not at all cutinized, thus remaining in a condition suited to the
absorption of water.
The epidermis arises by the division and subsequent differentiation of
the cells of the protoderm. It is characterized by having no intercellu-
lar spaces (unless the openings in the stomata are so considered), by con-
taining a large amount of water, by being, as a rule, destitute of chlor-
ophyll, and by being covered by a thin and tough water-proof cuticle
wherever its cells are exposed to the air. The epidermis consists, as a
rule, of a single layer of cells; but in some cases, either by the tangential
division of the protoderm or by a similar division of the epidermal cells
themselves, the epidermis may be composed of more than one cell-layer,
in which case it is termed a multiple epidermis. Sometimes the cells of
the fundamental tissue immediately beneath the epidermis assume a
character similar to the epidermis; at other times these cells become
thick-walled and much elongated, when they serve more as strengthening
than as protecting tissues. Such tissues are known as the Hypoderma.
The character of the cells of the epidermis differs with their immediate
surroundings. The epidermis of those parts of plants which are ex-
posed to the air and light, and so have as a principal function protection
against too great loss of water, differs from that which covers parts of
plants which are imbedded in the soil or submerged in water. Thus, the
epidermis which is exposed to the air is apt to have its outer wall much
:
EPIDERMIS.
565
thickened and cutinized, and overlaid with a well-developed cuticle,
while the epidermis of those parts of plants which remain covered with
soil or water do not have these characteristics, the outer wall being rela-
tively thin and non-cutinized. The cells of the epidermis are, as stated,
without intercellular spaces, and are so firmly bound together that the
epidermis can usually be stripped away from the underlying tissues as an
intact layer.
The aërating structures of the epidermis, known as stomata, which com-
monly occur on an epidermis exposed to the air, have the power usually
of opening and closing as the plant has need. The thick outer wall,
N
N
N
As
B
FIG 322.-A. Surface View of the Epidermis of Leaf of Beta vulgaris. S. Stoma. At N portion of
epidermis covering a nerve where no stomata occur. B. Surface view of epidermis of leaf of
Avena sativa.-(After Frank.)
and the cuticle covering it, also guard against mechanical injuries and
the onslaughts of fungi.
The epidermal cells usually contain a relatively small protoplast which
lines the cell-wall, and the remainder of the cell-cavity contains a very
watery cell-sap.
Starch-grains and chloroplasts are usually absent from the cells of the
epidermis, with the exception of the guard cells of the stomata.
The form of the epidermal cells usually depends on the shape of the
structure which they cover. In structures such as fruits which are rounded,
the epidermal cells seen from the surface appear isodiametric; while
structures which are much elongated in one dimension, such as the leaves
566
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
of grasses, have their epidermal cells elongated in the direction of their
long axis (Fig. 322).
The outer wall of the epidermis, which is its most important structure
physiologically, often consists of three distinct layers—the inner or cellu-
lose layer, the middle or cutinized layer, and the cuticle (Fig. 323). The
cellulose layer and the cuticle are always present, while the cutinized layer
is often absent, as in the leaf of Allium cepa (B, Fig. 323). The cutinized
layer contains a large amount of cutin, and so assists the cuticle in pre-
venting evaporation.
In addition to the cuticle there is often an incrustation of wax over
the epidermis, which assists in reducing transpiration, and in preventing
water from spreading out over the surface and closing the stomata (Fig.
324). It is the wax incrustation which produces the satiny bloom on
the surface of the leaves of cabbage, water lilies, the fruit of the plum,
C
CL
'B
Y
B
A
FIG. 323.-A. Cross-section of Epidermal Cells of the Leaf of
Aloë acinacifolia. B. Similar section of a leaf of Allium cepa.
C. Cuticle. CL. Cutinized layer. B. Cellulose layer.-(After
Haberlandt.)
FIG. 324. Rod-shaped Wax
Coating over the Epidermis
of Saccharum officinarum.-
(After Haberlandt.)
etc. When water is thrown on the leaves of water lilies it gathers into
drops and rolls off without wetting the leaves. If water were able to
wet the leaves, it would, by capillarity, be drawn into the stomata, which
would thus be prevented from performing their aërating function.
The radial and inner walls of the epidermal cells are much thinner
than the outer walls; they are made of cellulose and do not, as a rule,
become incrusted or infiltrated with cutin. They are, therefore, adapted
to permit an easy interchange of materials between the epidermis and the
deeper lying cells.
In most plants certain cells of the epidermis grow out beyond the gen-
eral surface, attain to various sizes and forms, and become adapted to
diverse functions. Such outgrowths of the epidermal cells are termed
trichomes. The simplest trichomes are found on the surface of the petals
of flowers, such as the pansy, where they have the form of short papillæ
and give to the petals a velvety texture. The outgrowth of an epidermal
A
B
A
B
D
C
E
F
ceum.
50
FIG. 325.-A. Portion of the Upper Epidermis of the Petal of Viola tricolor. Each cell of the epidermis
has grown out in the form of a papilla. B. Hairs from the seed of the cotton plant, Gossypium herba-
A. Hairs magnified about three diameters. B. Base of hair and adjacent epidermal cells,
magnified about 300 diameters. C. Scale-like hair from the upper surface of the leaf of Hippopha
rhamnoides. D. Glandular hair from the inflorescence of Dictamnus fraxinella. E. Portion of stamen-
hair of Tradescantia virginica. F. Branched hair from leaf of Verbascum thapsus.-(Figs. A and
B after Strasburger; C after Haberlandt; D after Rauter.)
567
568
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
cell unattended by cell division reaches an extreme expression in the
hairs covering the seeds of the cotton. These hairs sometimes attain
a length of 6 centimeters (Fig. 325, B, A). Instead of increasing greatly
in length, trichomes may grow into the form of a disk or globe (Fig. 325,
D). The formation of trichomes is often attended by cell division.
Multicellular trichomes are found, for example, on the filaments of Trades-
cantia virginica and on the leaves of Verbascum thapsus (Fig. 325, E, F).
The outer walls often have local thickenings, which give to the trichome
a barbed or warty appearance. Indeed, the size and form of trichomes
are often so characteristic as to give to the pharmacist a means
of determining the source of a vegetable drug in the form of a
powder.
A
A
Trichomes have quite various functions; in some instances
they contribute to the efficiency of the epidermis in protecting
the underlying tissues against unfavorable meteorological con-
ditions. Root-hairs, which are greatly elongated epidermal cells
from the younger portions of roots, and are therefore true tri-
chomes, have an absorptive function. The trichomes on the
stems of the hop vine assist in its climbing. The long hairs on
the seeds of cotton and of many other
plants have the biological function of
assisting in the dissemination of the
seeds. Glandular hairs secreting the
volatile oils which give the character-
istic odors to many aromatic plants,
such as the cultivated geranium and
Dictamnus fraxinella, have a secreting
function. The hairs on the stinging
nettle, Urtica dioica, have a protecting
function in that they penetrate and
inject under the skin of animals which
B
FIG. 326.-A. Stinging hair of Urtica urens.
B. Apex of stinging hair of Urtica dioica,
showing line of fracture, A, A.-(After
Haberlandt.)
touch them an irritating and poisonous fluid. The base of the hair
is much enlarged and contains the irritating secretions (A, Fig. 326).
At the tip of the hair is a knob, and just beneath this the very thin
walls are silicified, and so quite brittle. When the knob is pressed upon,
it breaks off, and the sharp, silicified point (B, Fig. 326) of the broken
hair pricks the skin, and at the same time the pressure transmitted to the
base of the hair ejects the secretion into the wound. The turgescent con-
dition of the hair must also contribute to the ejection of the fluid.
The Stomata. The cutinized epidermis is so well adapted to prevent
the loss of water by transpiration that it at the same time hinders the
ingress of the oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary to the life and growth
STRUCTURE OF THE STOMATA.
569
of the plant. Openings through the epidermis, called stomata, have
been provided, however, which admit gases freely into the plant and
permit the transpiration of water from the plant, but which are able to
close automatically and prevent transpiration when the water-supply is
running low. In those leaves which assume a position approximately
at right angles to the incident rays of the sun the stomata are more nu-
merous on the under than on the upper side. Those leaves, however,
which hang downward or rise nearly perpendicularly, such as those of
Populus monilifera and of the Gramineæ, have about the same number
of stomata on both sides of the leaves. Leaves which remain submerged
in water have few or no stomata, while those which float on the surface
of water have stomata only on the upper side. The stomata are formed
by the division, perpendicular to the surface, of a young epidermal cell,
and the subsequent separation of the daughter cells, except at the two
ends (Fig. 327). The daughter cells form the guard cells which, by
changing their form, are able to draw apart from each other, thus mak-
ing an opening through the epidermis, or to draw together again and
close the opening. An explanation of this action is to be found in the
structure and contents of the guard cells. Figure 328 represents the
structure of a typical stoma, B in cross-section and A as seen from the
surface. The wall of the guard cells which borders the opening will be
called the ventral wall, and the side opposite to this the dorsal. The
ventral wall has two ridges extending parallel with and near to the upper
and lower surfaces. The ventral and dorsal walls are thinner than the
upper and lower walls, and the thin dorsal wall is considerably broader
than the thin portion of the ventral wall. At M is a sort of hinge-joint
which facilitates a lateral movement of the guard cells. All of these
points of structure have a significance in the opening and closing of the
stomata.
In addition to their protoplasts and watery cell-sap the guard cells
contain chloroplasts, while other epidermal cells, as a rule, do not. This
also has to do with the operation of the stomata. It has been found
out by measurements under the microscope that the guard cells are larger
when the stomata are open than when they are closed-that is, the guard
cells are more turgescent at that time. When the guard cells become
more turgescent, the thin dorsal walls swell outward. The thin ventral
walls are prevented from stretching to an equal extent because the thin
portion here is less extensive, and because of the thick ridges which flank
them above and below; the whole cell must accordingly be pulled out-
ward with the stretching of the dorsal wall. Such an action can be
easily demonstrated by connecting with the faucet of the water-supply
two short pieces of rubber tubing which have been trimmed thin on one
570
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
side. The ends of the tubing opposite to the faucet are plugged up and
tied together so that the pieces of tubing shall touch each other through-
out their extent, the thin sides being turned outward. When the water
pressure is turned on, the thin side of the tubing swells out, and the pieces
are drawn apart.
The stomata open in the daylight and, as a rule, close at night. They
close even in the daytime when the plant begins to feel the loss of water,
which, of course, happens when the loss by transpiration is greater than
A
$
S
S
B
C
M
A
G
G
B
M
FIG. 327.-Development of the Stomata of the Leaf of Com-
melina cœlestis. A and B. Early Stages. S, S. The young
mother cells of the mature guard cells shown at S, S in C.
At O is the opening between the guard cells.-(After Sachs.)
FIG. 328.-Cross and Longitudinal
Diagram of a Stoma of Narcissus
biflorus. A. Half of a surface
view of a stoma, and B, a cor-
responding cross-section. At C
is the opening between the guard
cells. represented here as closed.
G, G represent the guard cells.
At M, M is a sort of hinge-joint
which facilitates the movement of
the guard cells away from each
other as the stoma opens.
the amount absorbed. In the daytime, as will be explained when the
leaf is discussed, the chloroplasts manufacture carbohydrates, which
become dissolved in the cell-sap and add to its osmotic capacity. In
consequence of this water is drawn in from the neighboring cells and
the guard cells become stretched and open out, as explained above. In
the night-time the carbohydrates are no longer manufactured, because
of the withdrawal of the energy of the sunlight; the guard cells lose their
excessive turgidity and, by the elasticity of their walls, straighten back
against each other and close the opening.
CORK-PHELLOGEN.
571
In time of drought, when the supply of water in the plant is limited,
the evaporation of water from the surface of the guard cells would pre-
vent them from acquiring the turgidity necessary to open the stomata.
The necessity of the guard cells, and their admirable adaptation to the
needs of the plant, will be further discussed later with the structure and
functions of the leaf.
Cork. The cells of the epidermis soon lose their power of division,
and, as a consequence, the epidermis becomes broken on those stems
and roots which continue to increase in thickness through long periods.
of growth, as is the case with perennial dicotyledons and Coniferæ. In
such instances the epidermis is replaced by cork which is formed by the
tangential division of the epidermal cells, or, as most frequently hap-
pens, by the division of the ground tissue cells which lie immediately
beneath the epidermis. The continued tangential division of a layer of
Et
PH
PL
PS
L
FIG 329.-Cross-section through a Lenticel of Sambucus nigra. E. Epidermis. PH. Phellogen. L.
Loosely disposed cells of the lenticel. PL. Cambium of the lenticel. PS. Phelloderm. C. Cortical
parenchyma containing chlorophyll.—(After Strasburger.)
cells formed in this way produces successive layers of cork cells toward
the outside and immediately beneath the epidermis.
At least one layer of cells does not change to cork, but retains its power
of division and its cellulose walls unchanged, and so constitutes a secondary
meristem, which is known as the cork cambium, or phellogen. The cork
cells are usually brick-shaped and are joined together without intercellular
spaces. The walls of the cork cells are suberized, and so rendered practi-
cally impervious to water and gases. The cork cells soon lose their proto-
plasts and cell-sap, and then usually contain only air; but sometimes
they contain brownish substances, which appear to be closely related to
the tannins. The cork cambium is able to divide radially as well as
tangentially, and is thus able to keep pace with the growth in diameter
of the organ which is covered by it. The cork may finally replace the
epidermis entirely, as in the case of the older branches and trunks of
trees.
The cork and cork cambium are collectively termed the periderm.
572
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
The lenticels in the cork perform the aërating function of the stomata in
the epidermis. They are visible to the naked eye, even before the epi-
dermis is obliterated, as elongated or rounded and usually brownish
protuberances. The lenticels are formed by the localized production
of rounded and loosely joined cork cells (Fig. 329), which finally break
through the tissues which cover them and appear at the surface. Their
numerous intercellular spaces fit them for their aërating function. The
formation of cork cells in deeper lying tissues will be spoken of later when
the structure of stems and roots is discussed.
The Vascular Tissues.-The procambium bundles which are formed
from the primordial meristem at a short distance from the growing point
(Fig. 321, C) soon undergo radical changes, resulting in the formation.
of permanent tissues having various physiological functions. The per-
manent tissues which arise from the procambium bundles are known as
the vascular bundles. An understanding of the constitution of a vas-
cular bundle will be best obtained by a description of the steps in its
development. The formation of the type of bundle known as collateral,
of frequent occurrence in the stems of Phanerogams, will be taken as an
example. Several of the cells on the inner side of the procambium bundle
—namely, the side next to the center of the stem become elongated, and
also larger in their cross diameters; ring-formed and spiral thickenings.
are formed on the inner surface of their walls, and the partition walls.
which separated them, end to end, become broken down, so that a long
tube is formed from the original cell-row. After the thickenings on the
cell-walls are completed, the protoplasts of the cell-row disappear. The
tubes with the annular and spiral thickenings are known as annular and
spiral vessels respectively (Fig. 321, V, and Fig. 330, A, A'). There
is a continuous line of these vessels extending from the newest formed
portions near the growing point of the stem to the newest formed portions
near the extremities of the roots. The function of the annular and spiral
vessels, and the other types of vessels which are formed later, is to conduct
water from the place of its absorption near the extremities of the roots to
all parts of the plant. The thickenings on the walls of the vessels tend
to prevent the latter from collapsing when subjected to the lateral pressure
which must necessarily occur when they and their neighboring cells in-
crease in diameter. If increasing the strength of the vessels were the
only problem to be met, this could be more thoroughly done by thickening
the entire wall of the vessels; but other conditions must be met. Thick
walls would offer resistance to the growth in length which must still take
place near the apex where the vessels are first formed, while the spiral and
annular thickenings offer no appreciable resistance. Thick walls offer
greater resistance to the passage of the water into the vessels at the roots
PRIMARY VASCULAR BUNDLES.
573
and out again in other parts of the plant where the water is needed. Econ-
omy of material is also a consideration which the struggle for existence
has made imperative. The spiral and annular thickenings meet all of
these conditions admirably.
On the side of the bundle toward the outside of the stem the procam-
bium cells divide longitudinally, and give rise to a vertical row of cells,
S
M
A
A
Α'
CR
A
CM
CM CSCS BE
M
A Á
www
53
4
€8
•
CR
A
FN
FN
B
FIG. 330.-Simplified Diagram of Cross- and Longisections
of primary Xylem and Phloëm of Helianthus annuus.
A, A', Spiral vessels. S. Sieve tubes. C._Companion
cells. B. Incipient bast of the pericycle. E. Endoder-
mis. CR. Cortex. M. Pith. CM. Cambium cells.
B
FIG. 331.-A. Longitudinal View of
Portion of Sieve Tube and Com-
panion Cell of Cucurbita pepo.
Lower S sieve tube. C. Companion
cell. S. Sieve plate. N. Nuclei of
companion cells. B. Sieve Tube and
Companion Cell in Cross-section. O.
Perforations in sieve plate.—(After
Strasburger.)
which again divide longitudinally to form a double longitudinal row
known later as the sieve tubes and companion cells. The cells which are
to become the sieve tubes elongate and increase in their cross-diameters,
and the walls which separate them, end to end, become thickened in such
a way as to leave thin places in the form of pits (Fig. 330, in S, and Fig.
331). These cells finally lose their nuclei. The companion cells elon-
574
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
gate, but increase in their cross-diameters relatively little. The nuclei
of the companion cells persist and are probably able to exert an influence
on the protoplasts of the sieve tubes, with which they are in immediate
contact.
In many plants certain of the procambium cells on the side next to the
vessels and on the side with the sieve tubes divide transversely, and pro-
duce vertical rows of shorter cells which remain thin-walled and retain
their protoplasts; these are known as the wood and bast parenchyma
respectively. Certain of the procambium cells in the middle of the bundle
remain undifferentiated and retain their power of division. These are
known as the cambium cells (Fig. 330, Cm). These tissues which are
thus differentiated from the procambium constitute what is known as
the primary vascular bundle, in which the cambium divides the inner or
xylem portion from the outer or phloëm portion. The annular and spiral
vessels and parenchyma of the xylem are called the protoxylem, and the
first sieve tubes and companion cells and bast parenchyma the protophloëm.
The cambium retains the power to divide longitudinally by the forma-
tion of both tangential and radial walls. The cells which are thus cut
off from the cambium become gradually transformed into the xylem
elements toward the inside and the phloëm elements toward the outside.
The division of the cambium by tangential walls would add to the radial
diameters of the two portions of the bundles, while the tangential diam-
eters of the bundles would be increased by the formation of radial walls
in the cambium. The xylem and phloëm portions of the bundles would
thus come to be, in cross-section, more or less wedge-shaped (Figs. 344
and 348), with the apex of the xylem portion pointing toward the center
of the stem and the apex of the phloëm portion pointing toward the periph-
ery. The type of vascular bundle just described is known as the open,
collateral bundle.
In monocotyledons and some dicotyledons, such as the Nymphæaceæ,
the whole of the procambium passes over into permanent tissues and no
cambium is present. Such a bundle does not, therefore, continue to in-
crease in thickness, and is called a closed bundle. Zea mais affords a good
illustration of this type of bundle (Fig. 332).
In the Cucurbitaceæ, Convolvulacea, Asclepiadaceæ, and several other
families of plants a second phloëm portion is developed on the pith side
of the xylem, forming what are known as bicollateral bundles.
In the stems of ferns and of many water plants (hippuris, myriophyl-
lum, ceratophyllum, etc.), the phloëm portion of the bundle surrounds
the xylem, forming a concentric bundle. Less frequently, as in the case
of the rhizomes of some monocotyledons, the phloëm portion is surrounded
by the xylem portion (Fig. 333).
VG
ср-
TYPES OF VASCULAR BUNDLES.
M
VG
M
SP
L
VG
S
575
FIG. 332.-Closed Bundle of Stem of Zea Mays. VG. Bundle sheath. L. Intercellular space.
A. Ring
from an annular tracheal tube. SP. Spiral tracheal tube. M. Pitted vessels. V. Sieve tubes. S.
Companion cells. CP. Crushed primary sieve tubes. F. Thin-walled parenchyma of the ground
or fundamental tissue.-(After Strasburger.)
S
9
t
UN
t
ť
FIG. 333.-Transverse Section of a Concentric Bundle from the Rhizome of Iris. Xylem surrounding
the Phloëm. t. Trachea. . Protoxylem. s. Sieve tubes. g. Companion cells of the internal
phloëm portion.-(After Vines.)
576
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
In roots the xylem and phloëm portions alternate with each other, as
shown by figure 334, and so form radial vascular bundles.
The xylem portion of the bundles carries water from the roots to the
leaves, and the phloëm portion carries food materials which have been
manufactured in the plant, chiefly in the leaves. It is obvious that such
a separation of highways as is found in the vascular bundles greatly
facilitates the transportation of materials; for, while the course of the
water is chiefly upward from the roots, the course of the elaborated food
materials must be in part downward to the growing roots and other grow-
ing regions of the plant lying below the source of elaborated food materials.
in the leaves. If the water and plastic materials were obliged to pass
m
C
e
380
S
FIG. 334.-Transverse Section of Central Part of the
root of Acorus calamus. c. Cortex. e. Endodermis.
p. Pericycle. s. Primary xylem or wood-bundles,
with small spiral vessels of the protoxylem externally.
v. Phloëm portion of vascular bundles. m. Pith.-(After
Strasburger.)
through the same tissues in
their opposite courses, it is evi-
dent that the movement of
both would be seriously hin-
dered.
Early in the spring a por-
tion of the reserve materials
which are becoming soluble
infiltrates into the tracheal
tubes, and is carried upward
by the ascending currents of
water; but later, when the re-
serve materials become deplet-
ed and the leaves begin their
activities, the water and plas-
tic materials become more re-
stricted to their separate high-
ways, as above described.
As will be learned later, the
stomata in the leaves should
remain open during the hours of daylight, in order that sufficient carbon di-
oxide gas may enter the leaves for the manufacture of the amount of carbo-
hydrate necessary for the vigorous growth of the plant. When the stomata
are open, however, the amount of water evaporated through them is quite
considerable, and the water-supply rising through the stem into the leaves.
must be correspondingly great. It is evident that to attempt the trans-
port of materials downward through the same channels in which the
water is rising would prove disastrous to the economy of the plant, since
all plastic materials-that is, food materials-must, during transport,
be in solution in the cell-sap, and if poured into the same channels with
the ascending water, would mix with it and be carried along by it. The
į
COURSE OF VASCULAR BUNDles.
577
radial arrangement of the bundles in the root permits the water which
has been absorbed from the soil to pass immediately into the xylem with-
out first having to traverse the phloëm, as would necessarily be the case
if the arrangement of the bundles in the roots were the same as in most
stems where the phloëm stands in front of the xylem.
Whatever position and arrangement the vascular bundles may have,
they are always an uninterrupted highway for the transport of materials
between all parts of the plant, from the finest rootlets in the soil to the
remotest leaves and floral organs.
The course which the vascular bundles take through the plant body
varies in different plants. In most roots the bundles pursue a straight
course, running parallel with each other throughout their extent. In the
stems of most ferns the bundles anastomose with each other in the form
of a cylindrical network, as shown by figure 335. The leaves are inserted
over the interstices, L, and the lateral branches which arise at the borders
of the interstices pass into the leaves. In most dicotyledons and some
monocotyledons the bundles run, for the most part, parallel with each
other. Some of the bundles pass outward into the leaves, and others
terminate near the growing apex of the stem; the former are called com-
mon bundles,—common to both leaf and stem,—and the latter are known
as cauline bundles. In Iberis amara, where the leaves have an alternate
arrangement, the bundles pass downward from the leaves, and join with-
out branching, with those from leaves of lower nodes, and the combined
bundle thus formed unites with bundles from still lower leaves, etc. (Fig.
336). In Clematis viticella, having opposite leaves, three bundles pass.
from each leaf down into the stem; the median bundle divides, form-
ing two branches, each of which unites with a lateral bundle of the two
opposite leaves of the next lower node; and the lateral bundles of each
leaf also unite with the lateral bundles of the next lower node, as shown
in figure 337. In palms and most monocotyledons many bundles pass
from the broad bases of the leaves into the stem. In palms the bundles
pass rather sharply inward toward the center of the stem, and then down-
ward and gradually outward until they unite with bundles from leaves.
several internodes beneath, as shown in figure 338. In this type the sev-
eral bundles from a leaf do not run inward to equal depths; the stronger
bundles from the middle of the leaf pass farther toward the center of
the stem, while the weaker bundles near the borders of the leaf take a
more direct course downward through the stem. Accordingly, a cross-
section of such a stem shows the larger bundles toward the center, and
the smaller bundles toward the periphery (Fig. 339).
The course of bundles in leaves varies in different plants. In most
monocotyledons many bundles enter the leaf from the stem, and pursue
37
578
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
direct and nearly parallel courses to the apex. These main bundles send
off smaller offshoots laterally, which may fuse together or else end free in
the parenchyma of the leaf.
The terminations of the bundles in the leaf are very simple in their
structure (Fig. 340). They consist usually of very delicate tracheids
with spiral or reticulated
thickenings, which are sur-
rounded, as a rule, by thin-
walled parenchyma cells,
usually destitute of chloro-
phyll, and uniting directly
with the chlorophyll-bear-
ing parenchyma cells. As
will be shown later, the
chlorophyll-bearing paren-
chyma cells of the leaf have
for their chief function the
manufacture of food-stuffs
for the plant.
13
24
212
19
20
18
17
16
14
X5
12
10
19
The tra-
18
B
16
A
L
13
FIG. 335.-A. Cylindrical Network
of Vascular Bundles in the Stem
of Aspidium Filix-mas. B. A
portion of the same more highly
magnified. At L are the interstices
over which the leaves are inserted;
at G are branches passing into the
leaves from the main vascular
bundles.
FIG. 336.-Diagram Showing the Course of the Bundles in
a Young Foliage Shoot of Iberis amara. The diagram
is made to show the ring of bundles spread out in a vertical
plane. The figures indicate the successive bundles of the
leaf-trace at their point of exit from the stem into the leaf.-
(After Nägeli.)
cheids at the ends of the bundles in the leaves are, then, the ultimate
branches of the water highways which deliver over to the assimilating
cells of the leaves the water and mineral substances from the soil, while
the return current containing the finished, or partly finished, product.
begins in the parenchyma cells bordering the tracheids.
RELATION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES.
579
Relation of the Vascular Bundles to the Increase in Thickness of Plant
Members. Stems and roots may increase in thickness for a short dis-
A
tance back from the vegetative
point-that is, from the primor-
dial meristem-by increase in
both radial and tangential diam-
eters of the cells of the primary
meristems. In most monocoty-
ledons the primary meristems
soon become permanent tissues,
and growth in thickness then
ceases. In the dicotyledons and
gymnosperms, however, increase
in thickness may be continued by.
additions to the bundles and
medullary rays through the ac-
200
BCA
B
B
FIG. 337-Diagram Showing the Course of Bundles
in a Branch of Clematis viticella. Median bundles
from the leaves are marked A, lateral bundles B and C.
Description in the text.-(After Nägeli.)
FIG. 338.-Simplified Diagram Showing
the Course of the Bundles in the Palm
Type. B. Base of the leaf. W. Vege-
tative point. S. Bundles from near the
center of the leaf.-(After Sachs.)
tivity of more or less permanent cambium regions; and this is also
essentially true of certain monocotyledons, such as dracæna and yucca,
580
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
where a zone of ground tissue outside of the region of the first procam-
bium bundles gives rise to a secondary meristem which may increase
the diameter of its member indefinitely (Fig. 341). New bundles are
then successively formed in the tissues produced by the meristematic zone.
The Fundamental or Ground Tissue.-The fundamental tissue is
produced by the division of the cells of the ground meristem, so that
where growth in length has ceased, the fundamental tissue has succeeded
to the ground meristem. Remove the epidermis and the vascular bun-
3m
A
3m
1m.
B
FIG. 339.-A. Diagram of Course of Vascular Bundles as Seen in Longitudinal Section of Palm Stem.
Im, 2m, 3m. Bundles from the median portions of the leaves. B. External view and transverse section
of Cerastium. The leaves are represented cut off at 1, 2, 2', 3. The bundle proceeding from each
leaf divides into two above the leaf immediately below it, and the branches of all the bundles unite
to form the four thin bundles which alternate with the thicker ones.-(After Vines.)
dles, and the remaining structure is ground or fundamental tissue (Fig.
321). When the fundamental tissue is first formed, its cells have thin
cellulose walls, but in some instances certain groups of cells become meri-
stematic and produce secondary procambium, which finally develops
into thick-walled bast fibers. Frequently the cells of a zone just beneath
the epidermis become thickened at the angles, and constitute a strengthen-
ing tissue known as the collenchyma (Fig. 342); still other cells of the
fundamental tissue may become very thick-walled and lignified, forming
FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES.
58r
The
the stone cells, which contribute to the hardness of their member.
stones of stone fruits are formed by such cells (Fig. 296). Stone cells
cause the grittiness in the fruit of the pear and quince, and they also con-
tribute to the hardness of the bark of many plants.
In some Compositæ, Campanulaceæ, Papaveraceæ, etc., certain cells
of the fundamental tissue fuse together in the form of a much branched
system containing latex, or milk. Such cell fusions are designated as
laticiferous vessels (Fig. 343). The laticiferous vessels of the Euphor-
biacea, Asclepiadaceæ, Apocynaceae, and Urticaceae have a mode of
A
A
-B
FIG. 340.-Termination of a Vascular Bundle in a Leaf. A. Thin-walled parenchyma cells, which are
destitute of chlorophyll. T. Tracheid ending free in the parenchyma of the leaf. B. Chlorophyll-
bearing parenchyma cells.-(After Frank.)
origin different from that described above; for, instead of consisting of
cell fusions, they are single cells, very much branched and elongated.
They are even to be distinguished in the embryo, with the development
of which into the mature plant they keep pace by continued elongation
and repeated branching. The latex consists of a watery fluid holding
various substances in solution, such as salts of different kinds, alkaloids,
tannins, sugar, mucilages, and proteid substances. Besides the substances
in solution, others, such as gums, resins, caoutchouc, oils, and starch-
grains may be held in suspension in the form of very fine particles or
droplets.
582
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
B-
N
The cells of the fundamental tissue in general, however, continue
to have thin cellulose walls and to be isodiametric or but little elong-
ated.
The vascular bundles divide the fundamental tissue into two regions—
an inner medullary and an outer cortical region (Figs. 344 and 348).
The medullary portion constitutes the pith, the cortical portion forms a
large part of the so-called bark, while those portions which connect the
e
c2
chl
d
-M
B
cl
2
p
0.
FIG. 341.-Portion of a Cross-section through the
Stem of Dracæna marginata. P. Cortical paren-
chyma. V. Meristematic zone, by the activity of
which the stem increases in thickness, and in which
new vascular bundles arise. M. Mature vascular
bundle. N. Nearly mature vascular bundle.
Newly-formed procambium bundle, from which a
vascular bundle is to become differentiated. B. Bc-
ginning of a procambium bundle by the rapid division
of the cells of the meristematic zone. F. Paren-
chyma cells of the fundamental or ground tissue.-
(After Haberlandt.)
FIG.
342.-Transverse Section of
Part of Leaf-stalk of a Begonia.
e. Epidermis. C. Cuticle. B.
Collenchyma, with walls thickened
at the angles v. chl. Chloro-
plasts.-(After Vines.)
medullary and cortical regions are known as the medullary rays (Fig.
344).
In many cases the pith cells do not grow in length as fast as the sur-
rounding tissues, and so become torn and finally practically obliterated.
They frequently lose their protoplasts at an early age, and then they con-
tain air only. In Juncus and Scirpus, for example, the pith cells grow
into the form of a star and cause large intercellular spaces in this way.
The cells of the cortex retain their protoplasts indefinitely, as a rule,
and serve the purpose of conducting and storing carbohydrates chiefly,
and proteid substances to a certain extent. The cells of the medullary
FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES.
583
rays have essentially the same structure as the cortical cells; they are
highways of communication between the cortex and pith; and, after the
bundles have attained to considerable size through secondary increase in
thickness caused by the activity of the cambium, the medullary rays be-
B
FIG. 343-Laticiferous Vessels from the Cortex of the Root of Scorzonera hispanica. A. Slightly magni-
fied. B. A small portion more highly magnified.-(After Sachs.)
come very necessary for the interchange of materials between the bundles
and the cortex.
Before winter sets in the cells of the cortex, medullary rays, and pith
cells adjacent to the bundles become gorged with carbohydrates and
proteid substances, which are to be used in building up new tissues when
growth is resumed in the spring.
584
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Bulbs, tubers, fleshy roots, and fruits consist, for the most part, of
fundamental tissue.
The thin places in the form of pits which frequently occur in the cells
of the fundamental tissue facilitate the transport of materials by osmosis.
As will be shown later, it is the fundamental tissues in leaves which bear
the chloroplasts and carry on the assimilating function.
CHAPTER VII.-SECONDARY INCREASE IN THICKNESS.
After the primary meristems have gone over into permanent tissues,
and the cells have attained to their full size, no further increase in thick-
ness can take place without the formation of a secondary meristem, unless,
as is the case with most dicotyledons and gymnosperms, some portion.
of a primary meristem continues to be meristematic. In the case of
most monocotyledons, such as the grasses, any secondary procambiums
which may arise from the fundamental tissues soon pass over into per-
manent tissues, and increase in thickness is due almost exclusively to the
enlargement of cells which have been derived directly from the primary
meristems (see p. 579).
In most dicotyledons and gymnosperms, however, a portion of each
procambium bundle remains meristematic and constitutes a fascicular
cambium (Fig. 344, CM in B), while certain of the cells of the ground
tissue between the bundles, in line with the cambium cells of the bun-
dles, become meristematic and form an interfascicular cambium (Fig.
344, IC in B), which, with the fascicular cambium, constitutes an un-
broken meristematic zone. The cambium cells are elongated in the
direction of the long axis of the stem or root, are somewhat pointed at
the ends, and their tangential diameter is greater than their radial (Fig.
345). They, of course, retain their protoplasts, and their original cel-
lulose walls do not become materially altered. The cambium cells have
the power of division by tangential, radial, and cross walls. When tan-
gential walls are formed, one of the daughter cells remains meristematic
while the other may directly, or after undergoing one or more divisions,
go over into the permanent condition. More frequently, when a cam-
bium cell divides, the outer of the daughter cells remains meristematic,
and then the xylem portion of the bundle is increased by the addition of
the inner daughter cell or its descendants. Less frequently, the inner
SECONDARY INCREASE IN THICKNESS.
585
daughter cell remains meristematic, while the outer daughter cell is added
to the phloëm portion of the bundle; thus, it happens that the xylem
is increased more rapidly than the phloëm (compare A, B, and C of Fig.
344) The daughter cells of the cambium may grow to be any of the
elements of the xylem or phloëm. On the xylem side the daughter cells
of the cambium may (1) enlarge in both radial and tangential diameters,
IC
CM-
CM
C
M
B
A/
X.
M
B B B
IC
X
M
X
C
חות
FIG. 344.—Diagrammatic Representation of increase in Thickness of a Dicotyledonous Stem. A. Section
near the apex of stem where the procambium strands have become differentiated into protoxylem (X)
and protophloëm (P); M, fundamental tissue of the medulla or pith; C, ground meristem of the cortex.
B. Section lower in the stem than A. The fascicular cambium has been formed, as shown at CM,
and the interfascicular cambium at IC; B, B, B, bast fibers of the phloem. In A and B the ground
tissue between the vascular bundles constitutes the primary medullary rays. C. Cross-section of still
lower and older portion of stem, showing increase in thickness due to the activity of the cambium.
The inner circle Y represents the original position of the cambium ring when first formed, as in B;
at X is the original protoxylem; between X and the present cambium zone CM is the secondary xylem
produced by the activity of the cambium; both primary and secondary phloëm occur just outside
the present cambium, at P. It is difficult to distinguish between the protophloëm and secondary
phloëm, but the former occupies the most exterior portion. The black radial lines represent the med-
ullary rays, the primary medullary rays having become very much narrowed by the interpolation of an
interfascicular xylem and phloëm, due to the activity of the interfascicular cambium.-(After Sachs.)
elongate, their tangential and radial walls become thickened irregularly
and lignified, so that they have a pitted or reticulated appearance, their
cross-walls become dissolved, so that a vertical row of cells now becomes
fused in the form of a long tube, thus giving rise to tracheal tubes (Fig.
345, t, t'); (2) they may enlarge somewhat in their radial and tangential
diameters, greatly elongate in the direction of their long axis, so that
586
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
their ends glide past each other, while the walls become much thickened
and lignified, forming wood fibers, the protoplasts of which finally disappear
(Fig. 345, h); (3) they may increase considerably in both radial and
tangential diameters, elongate more or less, their walls become irregularly
thickened and lignified, forming tracheids (Fig. 350), the protoplasts of
M
X
C
sb
P
Ꭱ
S
ť
t
Bo
&
S
Ch
Ms
s' t h ť
th
ht' C
sv
b
е
R
FIG. 345.-Simplified Diagram of Cross- and Longisections of the Stem of Helianthus annuus after Sec-
ondary Increase in Thickness Has Begun. s, S. Spiral vessels of the protoxylem. t,t. Pitted vessels
of the secondary xylem. C. Cambium. sb. Sieve tubes. b. Bast fibers of the pericycle. e. Endo-
derm. R. Cortex. M. Pith. X. Xylem. P. Phloëm. h. Wood-fibers. Compare this figure with
figure 330, which represents an earlier stage, before the cambium has taken part in increase in thick-
ness.
which finally disappear; (4) they may become divided by cross-walls
into a vertical row of cells, whose walls remain, as a rule, relatively thin;
but may become lignified, forming xylem or wood parenchyma (Fig. 349),
the protoplasts of which in perennial plants may persist for many years;
(5) as the vascular bundles become larger certain of the daughter cells
of the cambium may enlarge in all diameters, but chiefly in the radial,
COURSE OF MEDULLARY RAYS.
587
their walls thickening irregularly and forming pits, or remaining rela-
tively thin and retaining their cellulose character for a considerable period,
forming medullary rays (compare B and C of Fig. 344). The formation
of new medullary rays may begin at various distances from the center of
the stem, as shown in C of figure 344; thus, it happens that while the
primary medullary rays extend from the cortex to the pith, those which
are formed later penetrate the xylem to successively less distances. None
of the medullary rays extend very far in a longitudinal direction, and
they are therefore particularly fitted for the conduction of materials in a
radial direction between the cortex, xylem, and pith. The limited extent
of the medullary rays longitudinally is shown by figure 346.
By the activity of the interfascicular cambium the same sorts of tissues
as those formed from the cambium are interpolated between the primary
vascular bundles (Fig. 344, C).
T
m
R
The chief function of the tracheal tubes is the conduction of water.
The wood fibers are interlaced to form a
strengthening tissue, and it is to them that
the great strength of our woody plants is
for the most part due. The tracheids
serve both for the conduction of water
and for giving strength. This double
function of the tracheids receives an ex-
treme expression in the wood of the pine,
where tracheids in the form of wood
fibers take the place both of wood fibers
and tracheal tubes.
FIG. 346.-Diagrammatic Represen-
tation of the Course of the Medul-
lary Rays in a Segment of a Tree
Trunk. Q. Horizontal surface. R.
Radial surface. T. Tangential or
external surface. The shaded bands
(m, m) are the medullary rays.-
(After Vines.)
On the phloëm side of the bundle the
daughter cells of the cambium develop
into sieve tubes and companion cells, phloëm parenchyma, and bast
fibers. The sieve tubes and companion cells have been formed by the
longitudinal division of a common mother cell, which in its turn was
a daughter cell from the cambium. The sieve tubes and companion.
cells are, therefore, in contact with each other. The longitudinal rows.
of cells which are to form the sieve tubes elongate somewhat and enlarge
in their cross-diameters,—that is, radially and tangentially,—the end walls
which separate them from each other become thickened irregularly, leav-
ing thin places in the form of pits, which eventually become dissolved
away, so that there is continuity of the protoplasmic contents from cell
to cell (Figs. 331 and 345). The walls of the sieve tubes remain thin
and retain their cellulose character, and the nuclei disappear, while the
other structures of the protoplasts persist. The companion cells do not
enlarge much in their cross diameter; their walls remain thin, the cellu-
•
588
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
"
lose character of the walls does not become materially altered, and the proto-
plasts persist. It seems quite likely that the nuclei of the companion
cells are able to extend their influence to the protoplasts of the sieve tubes.
There are thin places in the walls between the sieve tubes and companion
cells, which probably facilitate the transmission of stimuli from the nuclei,
and which assist in the interchange of materials. The contents of the
sieve tubes are rich in proteids.
The phloëm parenchyma is formed from the cambium in the same
manner as the xylem parenchyma; the cell-walls remain thin and retain
their cellulose character. The contents of the phloëm parenchyma are
likewise rich in proteid substances.
The bast fibers, which may be direct descendants of the cambium or
V
BU
C
E
-B
E
P
A
B
FIG. 347.-Diagrammatic Representation of a Cross-section through the Group of Vascular Bundles of
Stele of the Main Root of Vicia faba after Growth in Thickness has Begun. X demarks a vascular
bundle, V, V, being the xylem and B the phloëm portion; C is the zone of cambium, P the pericam-
bium, and E the endodermis. B represents that portion demarked by X, very much enlarged; U is
the xylem. The remaining letters represent the same tissues as in A.-(After Haberlandt.)
of a secondary meristem produced by the increasing tissue of the cortex,
are formed in the same manner as the wood fibers; their walls become
thickened, and frequently, but not always, lignified, and they finally lose
their protoplasts. As in the case of the wood fibers, during the process.
of elongation the ends of the bast fibers glide past each other, and so
become firmly spliced together. The bast fibers contribute strength and
elasticity to the plant. In many instances the elasticity of the bast fibers
nearly equals, and in the case of Nolina recurvata slightly exceeds, that of
German steel.
It seems that the phloëm, because of the abundance of proteid mate-
rials in its cells, and of its proximity to the cambium, has the function
of supplying the latter with the materials for its rapid division; and it
RINGS OF ANNUAL GROWTH.
589
also appears to serve the purpose of rapidly conducting plastic materials,
and chiefly proteids, to all parts of the plant as needed.
While secondary increase in thickness is brought about by additions
mainly to the xylem, and to a less extent to the phloëm, through the activity
of the cambium the fundamental tissues may also take part. It has already
been stated that the cork cambium or phellogen is frequently produced
by the division of the cells of the fundamental tissues which lie imme-
diately beneath the epidermis, and by the activity of the phellogen the
thickness of the member may be considerably increased. Other cells
of the fundamental tissue lying between the epidermis and the phloëm
may give rise to phellogen, by the activity of which the member is tem-
porarily increased in thickness, but the final effect of which is that tissues
external to the phellogen become shut off from the circulation of water
and other food supplies, die, and finally slough off.
The increase in thickness of roots proceeds in essentially the same
manner as in stems. A cambium ring is formed from the cells of the
fundamental tissues just outside the xylem and immediately within the
phloëm bundles (Fig. 347), and by the activity of this cambium the xylem
and phloem elements are increased as in the case of stems, xylem being
formed inside the original phloëm bundles, and in some cases, but not
frequently, phloëm outside the original xylem.
Rings of Annual Growth.-In most dicotyledons and gymnosperms
definite rings of annual growth can be made out in the xylem (Fig. 348).
This is due to the fact that the xylem elements formed during the first
period of growth in the spring differ in certain respects from those formed
later in the season. When growth begins in the spring, the plant has need,
first of all, of a larger number of tracheal tubes or large tracheids to carry
water to the leaves, which are produced in greater number each year as
the crown of leaf-bearing branches increases. Accordingly, in the spring
growth large tracheal tubes preponderate (Fig. 349), or large and thin-
walled tracheids in the case of the Coniferæ (Fig. 350). After the means
for conducting an abundance of water has been provided for in this way,
the formation of strengthening elements-namely, of thick-walled wood-
fibers and smaller and stronger tracheal tubes and tracheids-predominates.
A ring of annual growth consists, then, of tissues with large cell-cavities
and relatively thin walls formed in the spring and early summer, and of
tissues with smaller cell-cavities and thicker walls formed during the
later period of growth. The advantage to the plant given by this differ-
ence in the character of the year's growth is evident. It is clear that
the water-conducting elements should first be formed, and that when
these have been sufficiently provided, more specifically strengthening
elements should next be formed. It is, however, impossible at present

590
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
to point to the direct chemical and physical causes of this difference, for
variations in the turgidity of the cells and differences in the amount of
10.000
800
G
AA
W
pr
pa
plu
-H
UL
00000
T
T
-E
-D
.00
T
-D
-B
ms
m
FIG. 348.-Part of a Transverse Section of
a Twig of the Lime, Four Years Old. m.
Pith. ms. Medullary sheath. x. Secondary
wood. Ph. Phloëm. 2, 3, 4. Annual rings.
c. Cambium. pa. Dilated outer ends of
medullary rays. b. Bast. pr. Primary cor-
tex. k. Cork. (After Vines.)
-A
h
m.
00000
FIG. 349.-Part of a Cross-section through Branch
of Cytisus loburnum. (The branch was cut from
the tree at the end of October.) From A to E the
last annual ring of wood; from A to B the spring
growth with large tracheal tubes (T, T, T); be-
tween B and C and D and D are wood-fibers; be-
tween C and D and D and E, wood parenchyma;
from E to F, cambium; F to G, phloëm portion; G
to H, cortical parenchyma. M. Medullary ray.
Below A the last wood-fibers and wood paren-
chyma formed the previous year.-(After Haber-
landt.)
in
FIG. 350.-Portion of a Cross-section through
the Wood of the Fir. m, m. Medullary ray.
f, f, f, f. Large cells formed in the spring.
h, h. Small cells formed in late summer and
autumn. The cells from f to w constitute
one ring of growth, while the large cells
above w are the beginning of a succeeding
year's growth.-(After Vines.)
plastic materials available throughout the season have not been shown to
be efficient causes.

RINGS OF ANNUAL GROWTH.
591
In roots the elements of the xylem have, as a rule, larger cavities, and
the demarkation of rings of annual growth is not so apparent.
In many woody plants changes in the color and general character of
the inner and older xylem portions arise through the filling of the cell-
cavities, and, finally, the infiltration of the walls with coloring substances,
B
K b
b.
b
K
Á
772
B
b
g
b
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
23
Sc
Sc
Sc'
Ն
Sc
SP
SP'
-E
g
pr
FIG. 351.-Cross-section of Young
Root of Phaseolus multiflorus. A.
pr. Cortex. m. Pith. x. Stele. g, g,
g, g. Primary xylem bundle. b, b, b, b.
Primary phloëm bundle; in this
instance the cambium zone, although
not shown in the figure, has the same
location as shown in figure 347. B.
Cross-section through an older root
of the same plant. b', b'. Secondary
bast. k, k. Periderm. The remaining
letters refer to the same tissues as the
corresponding letters of figure A. By
comparing A and B it will be seen
that the cambium has added only me-
dullary rays in front of the primary
xylem, but a secondary xylem in
front of the primary phloëm.-(After
Vines.)
FIG. 352.-Portion of Cross-section through Root of
Allium cepa. C. Cortex. E. Endodermis. P. Peri-
cycle. SP, SP'. Spiral tracheal tubes. Sc, Sc, Sc', Sc',
Sc, Sc, Sc', Sc. Reticulately thickened tracheal tubes.
V. Phloëm portion.-(After Strasburger.)
gums, and resins. The tracheal tubes are in this way rendered less
passable to water. Thus, the old xylem loses its conductive function,
but is made all the more serviceable as a strengthening tissue.
In monocotyledons, even in those which possess a peripheral meri-
stematic zone, no rings of annual growth are formed (Fig. 341).
The roots of dicotyledons and gymnosperms grow in thickness in essen-
tially the same manner as the stems. The variations in minor details.
592
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
are due to the radial arrangement of the bundles in roots. In roots (Fig.
351) the bundles are formed nearer to the center than in stems. The first-
formed elements of both primary xylem and phloëm occur at the periphery
of the bundles, and the later elements are formed successively toward
the center, so that in some cases, as in the roots of Allium cepa (Fig. 352),
the xylem elements of the different bundles may meet at the center. In
other cases the bundles form a hollow ring, within which thin-walled
parenchyma (Fig. 353) or thick-walled sclerenchyma (Fig. 354) occurs.
Just outside the bundles, and separated from them by one or a very
CITEUF
F
-E
-B
A
FIG. 353-Cross-section through a Portion of a Root of Acorus calamus. A. Cortical parenchyma.
B. Endodermis. C. Pericycle. E. Phloëm. F. Xylem. At Y, Y, are large tracheal tubes, which
were formed last, the narrow tubes near the periphery of the xylem being formed first. At the cen-
ter of the root, within the circle of vascular bundles, occur thin-walled parenchymatous pith cells.—
(After Frank.)
few rows of cells, a protective sheath called the endodermis is formed
(Figs. 352, 353, 354). This in cross-section has the form of a ring; it
is, however, a cylinder which demarks the bundles from the outlying
cortex. The character of the cells of the endodermis varies somewhat
in different plants. As a rule, its walls are more or less thickened and
suberized. In cross-sections the radial walls have a peculiar shaded
appearance, due to radially extended wrinkles in these walls. This
occurs, however, only where the radial walls alone are suberized, and is
probably due to the fact that suberized walls are less elastic than cellulose
walls, and, having once reached a certain expansion due to the turgidity
RINGS OF ANNUAL GROWTH.
593
of the cells, they gather in folds rather than contract when the turgidity
is diminished. The thickened and suberized walls of the endodermis may
protect the bundles against mechanical injuries. According to Strasburger,
the suberized radial walls which are not appreciably thickened may pos-
sibly have the mechanical use of holding the cells more firmly together
when the endodermis is subjected to strong pressure from within the
circle outward, and so, by preserving intact the sheath which shuts out
the aërating tissues of the cortex from the bundles, contribute toward
שיו
UU
C
T
S
E
FIG. 354-Cross-section through a Portion of Root of Veratrum album. C. Cortical parenchyma. E.
Endodermis. P. Pericycle. S. Phloëm. T. Xylem. At the center, within the circle of vascular
bundles, occur thick-walled sclerenchymatous cells.-(After Tschirch.)
the maintenance of the negative pressure in the water-conducting ele-
ments-namely, the tracheal tubes and tracheids; the disturbance of this
negative pressure would probably prove a hindrance to the rise of the
water. When the walls of the endodermis are considerably thickened
and suberized, both radially and tangentially, usually one of its cells
standing before each of the xylem bundles remains thin-walled and un-
suberized (Fig. 354), and so makes possible the transmission of water
38
594
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
from xylem to the cortex. The tissues inclosed by the endodermis
constitute the central cylinder or stele (see figures 352 to 354).
The layer of cells immediately within the endodermis is known as the
pericambium or pericycle. In older portions of roots the cortex often
sloughs away, and then the endodermis or cork produced by division of
the cells of the pericycle must serve the purpose of the epidermis or
periderm in giving protection against external sources of injury. The
formation of lateral roots begins by the division of the cells of the
pericycle.
The growth of roots in thickness takes place through the activity of
cambium cells, which are produced by the division of the cells of the
parenchyma lying immediately within the phloëm and without the xylem
respectively. Xylem and phloëm cambium extend laterally until they
finally meet and form a complete sinuous ring (Fig. 347, C in A). By
means of this cambium belt new phloëm is added to the primary phloëm,
and new xylem just inside this, so that a collateral bundle is formed.
As to the primary xylem, new elements may be added to this and a phloëm
part formed outside; but frequently the cambium which stands in front
of the primary xylem fails to produce either xylem or phloëm elements,
and gives rise to medullary ray cells instead (Fig. 351). In the older
parts of roots the sinuosities in the cambium ring become obliterated,
and the differences in the structure of stem and root become less marked.
CHAPTER VIII.-THE DISTRIBUTION OF TISSUES
IN LEAVES.
The differentiation of leaves as lateral outgrowths of the stem begins in
the primordial meristem quite close to the vegetative point (Fig. 321, L).
The primordial meristem of the leaf-outgrowth soon becomes differ-
entiated into protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem, which
become continuous with the corresponding tissues of the stem, excepting
that the ground meristem of the pith of the stem is not involved. In
the mature leaf, then, the epidermis is continuous with the epidermis of
the stem, the vascular bundles with the vascular bundles of the stem,
and the ground parenchyma with the ground parenchyma of the cortex
of the stem.
The leaf is the member of the plant body which has for its specific
pl.
ср.
pl:
sp
vs
sp
ср
sp
"
a
se
2'5`
e
مجمع
22-81
st
st
FIG. 355-Part of Transverse Section of Leaf-blade of Ruta graveolens. cp'. Epidermis of the upper surface.
cp'. Epidermis of the upper surface. cp. Epidermis of the lower surface. st, st. Stomata. pl', pl".
Palisade cells. sp': sp", sp"". Spongy tissue. k. Crystal sac. vs, vs. Small vascular bundles. sc. Lysigenous oil glands, the upper one empty.-(After Strasburger.)
595
596
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
function the manufacture of food substances from the water which has
come up from the soil, and the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
utilizing the energy of the sunlight to accomplish this; the structure and
arrangement of the tissues of the leaf must therefore be correlated with
the several conditions attending this function. Under normal meteoro-
logical conditions the greater part of the leaf is composed of chlorophyll-
bearing parenchyma; in regions subject to periods of drought, however,
the leaves are often much thickened by the multiplication of the paren-
chyma, much of which toward the interior is destitute of chlorophyll and
serves as a water reservoir.
T
T
FIG. 356.-Section through Palisade Parenchyma Cells of Leaf of Sunflower, Cut Tangentially to the
Surface of the Leaf. I, I. Intercellular spaces. Palisade cell lined with chloroplasts: C, C.
Chloroplasts. T, T. Tracheal tube.
A typical leaf is expanded into a thin lamina with its broad surfaces
more or less perpendicular to the incident rays of the sun, by which means
a large amount of the radiant energy from the sun is intercepted by the leaf.
The epidermis is fairly translucent, since its walls are uncolored, and its
cells, aside from the protoplasts which line the walls, contain for the most
part only water. Just beneath the epidermis, on the upper side, is usually
one, but sometimes more than one, row of chlorophyll-bearing paren-
chyma cells, with their long axes perpendicular to the surface of the leaf
and parallel to the incident rays of the sun (Fig. 355). These cells, known
as the palisade parenchyma, stand close together, as a rule; but, being
i
STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.
597
cylindrical in shape, there are fairly large intercellular spaces between
them, even when they are in absolute contact for a part of their surface
(Fig. 356). Below the palisade cells and extending to the lower epidermis
are chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma cells having a very loose arrange-
ment; these are called the spongy parenchyma. About midway between
the upper and lower surfaces the vascular bundles traverse the paren-
chyma tissue, branching repeatedly, the ultimate branches either uniting
with each other or ending free among the parenchyma cells (Fig. 357).
About these tissues the
epidermis of the upper and
lower surface forms a
water-proof covering,
whose continuity is broken
only by the stomata, which
in most plants have the
power to open and close
as the plant has need.
The stomata are, as a rule,
more numerous on the
lower than on the upper
side. Just beneath the
stomata the parenchyma
cells are arranged to form
an air-chamber, which
communicates on all sides
with the intercellular
spaces.
The problems which the
structure of the leaf must
be adapted to meet are as
follows: (1) The water
brought up from the soil
must be equally distributed
to, and absorbed by, the
M
C
C
D
FIG. 357.-Ramifications and Terminations of Vascular
Bundles in the Leaf of Anthyllis vulneraria. M. Main
bundle. S, S. Secondary bundles. C, C, C. Closed
meshes. D, D, D. Free termination of bundles in the
parenchyma of the leaf.-(After Sachs.)
chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma cells; (2) the carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere must gain access to the interior of the leaf and
become absorbed by the chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma; (3) the
water which has been absorbed by the parenchyma cells must be
evaporated from them in order that a flow of water may be kept
up, bringing with it the necessary salts from the soil; (4) the sun-
light must penetrate to the deeper cells of the leaf, in order that its energy
may be arrested by the chloroplast of both the palisade and spongy paren-
598
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
►
chyma; (5) finally, the substances which the chloroplasts, by the aid of
the sunlight, have constructed from the carbon dioxide and water must
be collected and transported from the leaf to those parts of the plant
where growth is taking place or where reserve materials are being stored
up for use at some future period. The ultimate branches of the vascular
bundles, which are so numerous and well distributed that the point of a
pin could scarcely be inserted anywhere into the leaf without penetrating
one of them, and which are closely applied to the parenchyma cells, solve
the first of these problems. The stomata and numerous intercellular
spaces meet the second and third, for the vapor of water from the leaf
can pass out by the same channels through which the carbon dioxide
enters. The fourth problem is provided for by the translucency of the
epidermis and by the shape and arrangement of the palisade cells, by
the open way of the intercellular spaces of the palisade parenchyma, and
by the position of the chloroplasts against the walls which are parallel to
the sun's rays. It will be seen that all of these circumstances combine
to permit the penetration of the sunlight to a considerable depth. The
fifth problem is met by the position of the vascular bundles midway be-
tween the upper and lower surfaces—a position which enables the bundles
to gather materials from the parenchyma cells of both sides; by the direc-
tion of the longitudinal axis of the palisade cells toward the center of the
leaf-namely, toward the bundles which are to carry away the products.
of these cells; by the general trend of the spongy parenchyma cells in the
same direction; and by the intercellular spaces which prevent an inter-
change of materials laterally between the parenchyma cells, and so compel
the outward currents to pass from cell to cell in the direction of the bundles.
In many plants certain of the parenchyma cells radiate outward from
the bundles, and so transmit materials to the latter by the shortest pos-
sible route (Fig. 358).
The chloroplasts (Fig. 356, C) are the organs of the spongy and pali-
sade parenchyma cells which have the specific function of appropriating
the carbon dioxide and water and radiant energy of the sun, and of pro-
ducing the carbohydrate food substances of the plant; the chloroplasts
should therefore receive special consideration here.
According to Arthur Meyer, a chloroplast consists of a protoplasmic
stroma which is colorless or pale yellow, in which are imbedded viscous
droplets termed grana, which are colored dark green by the chlorophyll.
The form of the chloroplasts is variable. Among the Alga they may
be in the form of a band, disk, plate, or trough, and these forms may be
modified by convolutions, serrations, etc. In the higher plants, how-
ever, the chloroplasts are almost invariably in the form of elliptical or
rounded grains, and are therefore frequently spoken of as chlorophyll
STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.
599
grains or granules. In cells which are specially devoted to assimilation
the chloroplasts in the higher plants, and frequently in the lower forms,
occur in large numbers imbedded in the protoplast, which, in mature
cells, has become a thin membrane lining the cell-wall. The chloroplasts
accordingly have a parietal position, as a rule. It is evident that the
small size of the chloroplasts is conducive to the rapid absorption of raw
materials and elimination of plastic materials which have been formed
in them, and results in the exposure of relatively more surface to the
absorption of radiant energy. The parietal position of the chloroplasts,
EC
V
E
FIG. 358. Cross-section through a Leaf of Cyperus alternifolius. E, E. Upper and lower epidermis.
V. Vascular bundle. S, S. Parenchyma sheath of vascular bundle. P. Chlorophyll-bearing palisade
parenchyma. C. Parenchyma cells not so rich in chlorophyll as the foregoing, which serve the purpose
of collecting the products of assimilation and transporting them laterally to the parenchyma sheath
of the bundles.-(After Haberlandt.)
and particularly where these are in proximity to the intercellular spaces,
facilitates the absorption of carbon dioxide.
The chlorophyll has the function of arresting the vibrations of the
sunlight of certain wave-lengths, and converting them within the chloro-
plast into chemical energy, which is then employed by the chloroplast
in the dissociation of the elements of the carbon dioxide and water
absorbed by the chloroplast, and the formation of starch or a soluble
carbohydrate by the synthesis of the dissociated elements.
That the chlorophyll has the power of arresting vibrations of a certain
wave-length more than others is shown by the spectrum of chlorophyll,
where absorption bands appear in the red and across the violet end.
It is, perhaps, impossible to give an exact chemical expression of the

600
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
processes which take place within the chloroplast during the formation of
carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water. There are certain well-
established facts, however, which afford a basis for conjecture. Starch is
the first visible product of the activities of the chloroplast, and is always
formed within the chloroplast, and, hence, always by the chloroplast. The
starch in the chloroplasts is not formed in the absence of carbon dioxide;
it is not formed in the absence of chlorophyll; it is not formed in the
dark that is, unless the chloroplasts are supplied with energy from the
sun or some artificial source. During the process of starch formation.
as many molecules of oxygen are evolved as of carbon dioxide absorbed.
The last fact might be accounted for by the simple equation: 6CO +
5H2O = CH1005 + 602-that is, one molecule of starch and six mole-
cules of oxygen result from the readjustment of the elements of six mole-
cules of carbon dioxide and five molecules of water. Sometimes, how-
B
C
D
E B
FIG. 359.-A Filament of Edogonium, as Seen when Mounted in a Drop of Water Containing Oxygen-
loving Bacteria and Illuminated by Means of Light which has Passed through a Spectroscope Placed
Beneath the Stage of the Microscope. The bacteria collect along the filament in greatest numbers
between the lines B and C, which corresponds to the region of greatest absorption by the chlorophyll
of the filament. Engelmann saw an accumulation of bacteria about the second region of absorp-
tion beyond F, but Pfeffer could not confirm this.-(After Pfeffer.)
=
=
ever, and notably in the monocotyledons, some other carbohydrate than
starch is formed. The fact that as many molecules of oxygen are evolved
as of carbon dioxide taken on, might be accounted for by another equa-
tion; thus, CO2 + H2O CH₂O+ O2. The CH2O (formic alde-
hyde) might then be polymerized to form grape-sugar, 6CH₂O
CH12O. It may be, however, that the process is not so simple and
direct as here represented; indeed, there are observations which indicate
that formic aldehyde, or a nearly allied compound, is first formed, and
that this unites with the nitrogen and sulphur, which have been brought
up by the water from the soil, to form proteid, and that the carbohydrates
are finally derived from this.
The formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water under
the influence of the sunlight has been called carbon assimilation and,
more recently, photosynthesis.
The fact that oxygen is evolved during the process of carbon assimila-
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
бог
tion, has been used by Engelmann to show the relation of the vibrations
arrested by the chlorophyll to the assimilation process. He placed a
filamentous alga in a drop of water and adjusted it for observation with
a microscope; to the drop of water he added certain bacteria which show
active movements only in the presence of oxygen; he then illuminated
the alga from beneath with light which had passed through a microspectro-
scope, and observed that the bacteria collected in greater numbers along
the alga at those portions of the spectrum which are shown to be absorbed
by chlorophyll. Accordingly, the alga must have been assimilating car-
bon and evolving oxygen at those places rather than where it was illu-
minated by other portions of the spectrum (Fig. 359).
The various structures, forms, sizes, and positions which the foliage
leaves of plants assume are, in the main, an expression of an attempt to
carry on the function of carbon assimilation to the best advantage under
the specific environment.
1
CHAPTER IX.-REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
The different kinds of cell-walls and cell-contents may be demonstrated by the
use of reagents which, in some cases, impart characteristic colors to walls and contents;
in other cases act as selective solvents, dissolving some of the walls and contents,
leaving others undissolved; or the reagents may produce precipitates the nature
of which furnishes good evidence regarding the character of the substance which has
united with the reagent to produce the precipitate.
These reagents, together with their uses, will now be given in alphabetical order.
Acetic acid dissolves most ethereal oils, while most fatty oils are insoluble in it;
dissolves calcium carbonate with evolution of CO2, while calcium oxalate is unaffected
by it, and it therefore serves to distinguish between these two salts of calcium; solvent
of crystals of hesperidin which have been deposited from the cell-sap of oranges, etc.,
when these have lain for some time in alcohol; when various lichens are treated with
it, crystals of calycin in acicular form are deposited after the lichens thus treated
have been powdered and dried; one per cent. solution dissolves globoids in aleurone
grains, while any crystals of calcium oxalate present are unaffected by it; when pieces
of potatoes, carrots, etc., are macerated in it, the separate cells become isolated. Used
in the preparation of various fixatives.
Albumen. The white of egg is used with an equal amount of glycerine and a
trace of salicylate of soda for fixing microtome sections to the glass slide, the sodium
salicylate acting partly as an antiseptic.
Alcannin. This is a coloring matter, obtained from the roots of Alcanna tinc-
toria. A tincture of alcannin to be used as a reagent is prepared by Guignard as
602
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
follows: 10 Gm. of alcannin are pulverized and added to 30 Cc. of absolute alcohol;
the solution is filtered and allowed to evaporate in a drying oven; the residue is then
dissolved in 5 Cc. of glacial acetic acid, and this solution is mixed with 50 Cc. of 50
per cent. alcohol. After twenty-four hours the solution is filtered and is ready for
use. The solution prepared in this way is said not to be subject to precipitation on
long standing. When sections are being treated with this reagent under a cover-glass,
evaporation should be guarded against by the addition of drops of 50 per cent. alcohol
as needed. A quicker way of preparing an alcannin solution is to extract the coloring
matter from roots of Alcanna in absolute alcohol, and then to add an equal bulk of
distilled water and filter the solution.
(1) Suberized and cutinized walls, when treated with a solution of alcannin for
some hours, take on the color of the alcannin. (2) Alcanna tincture mixed with 1
per cent. glacial acetic or formic acid is used to fix and stain sections of elaioplasts
from fresh material. (3) Where sections containing fatty oils are treated with tincture
of alcannin, the oil is colored red. Sections containing ethereal oils and resins behave
in the same manner, in that the ethereal oils and resins are stained red.
Alcohol. The commercial alcohol obtained in this country is about 95 per cent.
alcohol. In making alcohols from this of different strengths it answers all practical
purposes to proceed as if the commercial 95 per cent. alcohol were absolute—that is,
very nearly 100 per cent. Thus, if 50 per cent. alcohol is desired, 50 Cc. commercial
alcohol and 50 Cc. distilled water will give sufficiently accurate results for all histo-
logical work. If absolute alcohol is desired, it may be prepared by pouring the
commercial alcohol over unslaked lime, and then distilling from this over a water-
bath. Or copper sulphate may be burned until all the water of crystallization is
driven off and a white powder results; then the commercial alcohol may be poured
over this, and the white powder will become blue again from the water absorbed from
the alcohol. The alcohol should then be filtered off and kept tightly corked from
the air.
(1) Used in a series of different strengths (from lower to higher) for hardening plant
tissues. (2) When sections of plant tissues containing potassium nitrate, dulcite, aspara-
gin, or piperine are treated under the cover-glass with strong alcohol, which is then
allowed to evaporate, the substances enumerated will crystallize out in their charac-
teristic forms. (3) When pieces of plants containing inulin have lain for some time
in 50 or 70 per cent. alcohol, the inulin is precipitated in the form of sphærocrystals.
(4) Seventy per cent. alcohol is used for preserving plant tissues indefinitely, but to
avoid shrinkage and disintegration of the protoplasts in the case of very delicate or
meristematic tissues the material should first have been fixed and brought, by slow
degrees, to the 70 per cent. alcohol, as elsewhere described. Material which has
been preserved for a long time in 70 per cent. or stronger alcohol is apt to be quite
brittle; when desired, the brittleness may be removed by placing the material for an
hour or so in water and then back into the grade of alcohol from which it was taken.
Alcohol is used in the preparation of various stains and reagents. The details of its
use will be given under the various formula where it occurs.
Ammonium Carbonate.-Albumen tannate in solution in the cell-sap of many
plants may be precipitated out by the addition of ammonium carbonate. If species
of Spirogyra are treated with a 0.1 per cent. solution of ammonium carbonate, a fine-
grained precipitate of albumen tannate is apt to occur within the cells. On treating
again with water, so that the reagent is washed out, the precipitate is dissolved. This
reaction may be carried out without causing the death of the cells.
Ammonium Molybdate.-A concentrated solution of ammonium molybdate is
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
603
made in a saturated solution of ammonium chloride. When sections containing
tannins are treated with this, a yellow precipitate is usually produced.
Ammonium Vanadate.-This is used as a test for solanin. The sections are
treated with a solution prepared by dissolving 1 part of ammonium vanadate in 1000
parts of a mixture of 98 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and 36 parts of water.
If solanin is present, a yellow color appears, which merges into orange, then different
shades of red, and finally into violet, and then all color disappears.
Balsam.-Canada balsam dissolved in xylol is, on the whole, the best medium
for making permanent mounts of sections under a cover-glass. For the method of
doing this see page 535. Balsam in xylol can be obtained ready prepared of the
dealers.
Barium Chloride. This is sometimes used to distinguish calcium oxalate from
calcium sulphate. When barium chloride is run under the cover-glass, calcium oxalate,
if present, is left unchanged, while a fine granular layer of barium sulphate comes to
incrust any crystals of calcium sulphate. (2) To determine the presence of tartaric
acid, barium chloride and antimonic oxide in hydrochloric acid are run under the
cover-glass, producing, with tartaric acid, rhombic crystals of antimonium-barium
tartrate, whose obtuse angles measure 128°.
Benzoazurin.—This is used to differentiate the mycelium of a fungus from the
tissues of the host upon which it is parasitizing. The sections are placed in an aqueous
solution of benzoazurin and rosazurin, to which is added a 20 per cent. solution of
sodium carbonate. The sections lie in this solution for two or three hours. They
are then rinsed in water and examined in dilute glycerine containing 2 per cent. of
copper sulphate, which tends to fix the stain more permanently in the tissues. By
this means the cellulose membranes of the host are stained blue and the mycelium
of the parasite a rose-red.
Benzol.-Used in detecting caffeine, thus: Sections are heated on the slide in
a drop of distilled water until bubbles arise, then the water is allowed to evaporate,
and the residue is dissolved with a drop of benzol. The benzol is then allowed to
evaporate and the caffeine is deposited on the edge of the drop in the form of color-
less needle-crystals.
Berlin Blue.-Useful in the study of the growth in thickness of the cell-mem-
branes. In the study of marine algæ—notably, Caulerpa prolifera—it is used in
the following manner: A vigorous alga is submerged for a few seconds in a mixture
of 1 part of sea-water with 2 parts of fresh water in which has been dissolved suf-
ficient ferrocyanide of potassium to give it the specific gravity of sea-water.
The alga
is then rapidly rinsed in sea-water and placed for about two seconds in a mixture
of 2 parts of sea-water and 1 part of fresh water, to which has been added a few drops
of freshly prepared ferric chloride. This produces in the membranes of the alga
a precipitate of Berlin blue. The alga is then transferred to sea-water for further
growth. In case new lamellæ are added to the membranes, the new portions will
appear colorless, while the older portions will appear blue because of the Berlin
blue which was precipitated in them.
Bismarck Brown.-This is preeminently a nuclear stain. The powder is solu-
ble with difficulty in water. It is a good plan to treat with boiling water and after
a day or two to filter. Or a saturated solution may be made in 70 per cent. alcohol.
Although Bismarck brown stains rapidly, it does not overstain. It may be used
for staining in toto or for staining sections on the slide.
Blue, Turnbull's. Produced by combining ferrocyanide of iron with ferrous
604
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
lactate. Used in the same manner as Berlin blue, but is considered, on the whole
inferior to the latter.
Boric Acid.-Used as a mounting medium for sections containing mucilagi-
nous membranes. The sections are cut from dry material and placed in a 10 per cent.
solution of neutral lead acetate to harden the mucilaginous layers. Then the sec-
tions are stained in a solution of methyl blue, washed in water, and mounted under
a cover-glass in a 2 per cent. solution of boracic acid. The cover-glass should be
sealed down with a mixture of paraffin and vaseline, which is applied with a brush
while melted.
Borax-carmine.-A 4 per cent. solution of borax is made and to it is added
3 per cent. of carmine; an equal bulk of 70 per cent. alcohol is then added to this.
The mixture is left standing for a day or so and then filtered. Sections should lie
in the stain for about twenty-four hours, and should then be transferred without
previous washing to acidulated alcohol, made by adding 4 drops of hydrochloric acid
to 100 Cc. of alcohol. Here they should remain until they become bright and trans-
parent. This is a useful stain for aleurone grains, for differentiating cell-contents
from cell-walls when the sections are subsequently stained with methyl green, and
much used also in the differentiation of the cell-contents of filamentous algæ.
Bordeaux Red.-Used in conjunction with hæmatoxylin in staining nuclear
figures, particularly where Heidenhain's platinic chloride fixative has been used.
The sections are placed in a weak aqueous solution of the Bordeaux until they are
intensely stained; they are then rinsed and placed in a 2 to 5 per cent. solution of
iron oxide-ammonium sulphate for three hours. If the sections are mounted on a
slide, they should be placed upright in this solution, so that any precipitate may not
gather on the slide. Then the sections are carefully washed in an abundance of
water, and placed for twenty-four hours in a solution of hæmatoxylin prepared as
follows: 1 Gm. of hæmatoxylin is dissolved in 10 Gm. of alcohol and 90 Gm. of water.
This is allowed to stand for about four weeks, and then an equal bulk of distilled
water is added. The stain is then ready for use. When the sections are taken from
the hæmatoxylin, they will be found overstained; they are, therefore, rinsed and
placed in a 2.5 per cent. solution of ferric-ammonium sulphate, where they remain
until examination of the sections under the microscope shows them to have the proper
intensity of stain. The sections are then thoroughly rinsed in water and passed
through alcohol and xylol before mounting in balsam.
Borodin's Method.-To determine the nature of a precipitate Borodin treats
it with a saturated solution of the same substance as the precipitate is supposed to
be. Thus, if the precipitate is supposed to be asparagin, it is treated with a saturated
solution of asparagin. If the precipitate dissolves by this treatment, it is then some
other substance than asparagin. This method is not very reliable for substances
which are very readily soluble, such as potassium nitrate. Care must be taken that
the solution used for the test is entirely saturated.
Brown Discoloration of Material in Alcohol.-Some plants, such as Mono-
tropa, are apt to become quite brown in alcohol. This can be prevented by placing
the fresh material in alcohol which is acidulated by vapor of sulphuric acid in the
following manner: For each 100 Cc. of alcohol several cubic centimeters of 80 per
cent. sulphuric acid are poured over of a Gm. of sodium sulphite, and the vapors
arising are conducted into the alcohol. This operation need require hardly more
than a minute. After twenty-four hours the material should be transferred from
the acid alcohol to neutral alcohol. Thereafter the material will not discolor, and
will take stains very well when used for histological purposes.
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
605
Calcium Nitrate.—(1) Used to differentiate more clearly the lamellæ of starch-
grains. Potato starch, for instance, is placed in a rather strong aqueous solution
of methyl violet. After the grains have become deeply colored, they are treated with
a weak solution of calcium nitrate, when the methyl violet becomes precipitated,
particularly in the less dense lamellæ of the starch-grains. (2) Calcium oxalate is
precipitated in the form of crystals when sections containing oxalic acid are treated
with a solution of calcium nitrate. The calcium nitrate is thus a test for the presence
of oxalic acid.
Canarin. This is often used as a stain for tissues which have been cleared in
caustic potash. Canarin is not affected by this reagent.
Carbolic Acid (Phenol).—Used as a clearing agent. If leaves which have
been hardened and bleached in alcohol are placed in 3 parts of turpentine and I part
of carbolic acid, or in pure carbolic acid, the leaves will become so transparent that
their cellular structure may be made out from one surface to the other. Pollen-
grains may be made transparent in the same manner.
Carmalum, Mayer's.-Carminic acid 1 Gm., alum 10 Gm.; dissolve in 200
Cc. of hot distilled water; filter and add a few crystals of thymol, or o.1 per cent.
of salicylic acid, or 0.5 per cent. of sodium salicylate. This stains material well in
bulk, with little danger of overstaining. If this happens, it may be corrected by
washing with a 0.1 per cent. solution of hydrochloric acid. Material which has been
stained in bulk with carmalum may be sectioned, and the sections may then be double-
stained with some aniline stain, such as blue de Lyon. See borax-carmine for another
carmine stain. Very fine double staining may be achieved by placing sections first
in an aqueous solution of iodine green and then for a somewhat longer time in car-
malum. By this treatment lignified membranes are stained by the iodine green,
while the unlignified membranes are stained by the carmalum.
Cedar Oil.-Sections which are to be mounted in balsam may first be examined
in cedar oil to determine their fitness for permanent mounts; if they are satisfactory,
the cedar oil may be drained off and the balsam immediately added to the slide. Cedar
oil has a clearing effect on sections which are treated with it.
Thicker cedar oil with a refractive index of about 1.515 is used as an immersion
fluid for homogeneous immersion lenses.
Cedar oil is often used as an intermediary between alcohol and paraffin in paraffin-
imbedding, but for plant tissues chloroform is rather to be recommended.
Chloral Carmine.-This is useful in clearing pollen-grains and staining their
nuclei at the same time. It is prepared as follows: Carmine 0.5 Gm. and 30 drops
of officinal hydrochloric acid (specific gravity, 1.13 or 17° B.) are added to 30 Cc.
of alcohol, and this is heated for about thirty minutes on the water-bath; then, after
cooling, 25 Gm. of chloral hydrate are added, and the solution is filtered until clear.
Chloral Hydrate.-Dissolve 8 parts of chloral hydrate in 5 parts of water. The
chloral hydrate may be taken in grams and the water in cubic centimeters. This is
one of the best clearing agents. Whole leaves, when boiled in this solution, clear
quickly to such an extent that they may be studied by transmitted light throughout
all of the cell-layers. Crystals in leaves may be plainly demonstrated in this way.
This reagent is also very useful in clearing pollen-grains and embryos within the
ovules.
Chloral Hydrate-iodine.-Dissolve 5 parts of chloral hydrate in 2 parts of
water and add a small amount of potassium iodide-iodine. This is the best reagent
for demonstrating the presence of starch in chlorophyll corpuscles and in pyrenoids,
or in any situation where the starch is surrounded and obscured by other substances.
606
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Chloroform.-Used as a solvent for paraffin in the process of imbedding in
paraffin. See page 529. One of the best solvents of fatty oils and of carotin. Solvent
of most of the constituents of suberin.
Chloroiodide of Calcium.-Useful in the determination of cellulose, which it
colors violet. Prepared by dissolving 0.5 Gm. potassium iodide and o.1 Gm. iodine
to 10 Cc. of a concentrated solution of calcium chloride. A slightly elevated tem-
perature should be employed in the solution. The solution may be cleared by decant-
ing carefully or filtering through glass-wool.
Chloroiodide of Zinc.-Prepared by dissolving zinc in concentrated hydrochloric
acid to saturation and then evaporating to the consistency of concentrated sulphuric
acid, adding as much potassium iodide as can be taken up, and then crystals of iodine
until no more is dissolved. Another method is to dissolve 20 parts of chloride of
zinc, 6.5 parts of potassium iodide, and 1.3 parts of iodine in 10.5 parts of distilled
water. Chloroiodide of zinc solutions should be kept in the dark. This reagent
is one of the most generally useful in determining the character of plant membranes.
By it cellulose walls are colored violet, lignified membranes a yellowish-brown, cutin-
ized and suberized membranes from yellow to yellowish-brown. When sections
containing sieve tubes are treated with chloroiodide of zinc and a rather weak
solution of potassium iodide-iodine, the walls of the sieve tubes appear violet, while
the pits in the sieve plates are a reddish-brown, due to the strands of proto-
plasm which penetrate them; the callose plates are stained a reddish-brown. Mucil-
aginous walls are colored violet by this reagent. Chloroiodide of zinc stains
protoplasmic cell-contents from yellow to brown, and starch from purple to almost
black.
Chlorophyll Solution.-A freshly-prepared strong solution of chlorophyll in
alcohol is used to demonstrate suberized and cutinized membranes. When sections
are kept in the chlorophyll solution for an hour or so in the dark, cutinized and suberized
membranes are stained green, while lignified and cellulose membranes remain un-
stained. The chlorophyll solution will not keep, and should be freshly prepared
whenever needed.
Chrom-acetic Acid.-Prepared by mixing 70 Cc. of 1 per cent. chromic acid
with 5 Cc. of glacial acetic acid and 90 Cc. of water. Particularly good for fixing
algæ. The algæ should remain in the fixative for twelve hours, then they should be
thoroughly washed out in running water or in water which is frequently changed,
and thereafter they may be preserved indefinitely in 10 per cent. glycerine, to which
a bit of camphor has been added. If it is at any time desired to stain and imbed
the alga which have been fixed and preserved as above, the 10 per cent. glycerine
in which the algae are preserved may be evaporated in the drying oven until quite
concentrated, and the algæ may be washed out in strong alcohol; they may then
be double-stained in the following manner: To the strong alcohol (95 per cent.)
in which the algæ are lying are added a few drops of a concentrated solution of magdala
red in 95 per cent. alcohol; the algae are quickly rinsed in alcohol and trans-
ferred to a rather dilute solution of aniline blue in 80 per cent. alcohol, where they
remain for a few minutes, and are immersed for a few seconds only in a 25 per
cent. hydrochloric acid-alcohol solution. The algae are next rinsed in pure alcohol,
and transferred to a 10 per cent. solution of Venetian turpentine. The turpentine
is concentrated by the evaporation of the alcohol which was used as the solvent
(see Turpentine) in the drying oven. Permanent mounts should be made in the con-
centrated turpentine.
Chromic Acid.-Solutions of 1 per cent. and 0.5 per cent. have been much used
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
607
for fixing plant tissues. The material to be fixed should lie in the chromic acid for
a day or more, according to the size of the pieces of material to be fixed. The material
should then be thoroughly washed out in water and dehydrated by slow degrees in
ascending grades of alcohol (see p. 535). A concentrated aqueous solution of chromic
acid may be used as a macerating fluid to cause the separation of tissues into their
separate cells. To this end rather thin bits of the tissue to be macerated should be
placed in the chromic acid for about half a minute, and then carefully washed in
water. This operation may be carried on with sections under the cover-glass. Sili-
cious skeletons of diatoms, incrustations on the epidermis of equisetum, etc., may be
prepared by allowing the material to lie in concentrated sulphuric acid until it becomes
black, and then, after transferring to a 20 per cent. solution of chromic acid for some
minutes, washing thoroughly in water. In the case of equisetum and the like the
tissues should be scraped away from the inside down to the epidermis before treatment
with the acids. Chromic acid is useful in the recognition of tannins, since sections
containing tannins, when treated with a 1 per cent. solution of chromic acid, yield
a brownish precipitate.
Clearing Media. See Carbolic Acid, Cedar Oil, Chloral Hydrate, Canada
Balsam, Clove Oil, Glycerine, Javelle Water (or Eau de Javelle), Origanum Oil,
Turpentine, Xylol.
Clove Oil. This is an excellent clearing medium, but it has the power of ex-
tracting certain stains, and so can not be used in all cases; it is, however, for this
very reason of great advantage in the safranin-gentian violet-orange method of staining.
See under this head.
Collodion. Used as an imbedding medium (see page 534).
Congo-red. This stain is particularly useful in studying the growth of mem-
branes. Old membranes are, as a rule, leſt unstained by it, while the newly formed
membranes are colored red. In a 0.01 per cent. solution—that is, I part of the stain
to 10,000 of water-alge may continue to live and grow, and they are, therefore,
well adapted to the study of the growth of membranes with the employment of this
stain.
Copper Acetate.-Used in the determination of tannins. Small bits of the plant
to be tested are placed in a saturated solution of copper acetate, where they remain
for 8 or 10 days; the sections are then placed on a slide in a drop of a 0.5 per cent.
solution of ferrous sulphate; after a few minutes the sections are washed in water, then
in alcohol, and are finally treated with a drop of glycerine and examined under a
cover-glass.
An alcoholic solution of copper acetate, to which has been added a small amount
of acetic acid and glycerine, is used to demonstrate glucose in position within the
cells where it occurs. The sections are laid in a mixture of the above solution, and
an equal volume of sodium hydrate in alcohol, which is brought to boiling on the
water-bath. Since glucose is insoluble in alcohol, the cuprous oxide which indicates
the presence of glucose in this reaction is found to be deposited within the cells which
contain the sugar. For other tests for sugar with a salt of copper see Fehling's Solu-
tion. See under Resin in next chapter.
Corallin. This stain is to be dissolved in a 30 per cent. or a saturated solution
of sodium carbonate. It is particularly useful in staining the callose of sieve tubes.
It is best to overstain the sections and then to reduce the intensity of the color by
immersing the sections in a 4 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate.
Corrosive Sublimate.-See Fixatives.
Cuprammonia.-This should be freshly prepared as needed in the following
608
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
manner: Put copper filings into a bottle or flask, which is provided with a ground-
glass stopper. Pour concentrated ammonia upon the filings and rock back and forth.
Only sufficient ammonia should be used to cover the filings. When the solution will
dissolve cotton, it is ready for use. This reagent is a solvent of cellulose. When
sections are placed in it for some time and are then rinsed with ammonia and finally
with distilled water, crystals of cellulose are precipitated within the cells which are
stained blue with chloriodide of zinc, and red with Congo-red. The crystals are again
dissolved on the addition of cuprammonia.
Cyanin.-This stain is almost insoluble in water, and should be dissolved in
50 per cent. alcohol. This is a useful stain for fats and all ethereal oils. Sections
of fresh material, or material fixed in an aqueous fixative, such as an aqueous solution
of corrosive sublimate or picric acid, will be sufficiently stained when left in the cyanin
solution for about half an hour. Overstaining may be reduced with glycerine. The
alcoholic solution of cyanin, to which has been added an equal bulk of glycerine, is
a good stain for suberized membranes, particularly after the sections have been treated
with eau de Javelle, which destroys the tannins and prevents the lignified membranes
from taking the stain. When sections are placed in a dilute solution of cyanin,-
say 20 drops of a concentrated alcoholic solution of cyanin in 100 Cc. of water,-
and are then washed in alcohol and placed in oil of cloves containing eosin, the lig-
nified and suberized walls will be stained blue, while cellulose walls will be red. The
sections may then be mounted in Canada balsam. When sections are placed for a
quarter of an hour in a concentrated alcoholic solution of cyanin, and are then washed
in alcohol and transferred for a quarter of an hour to a 5 per cent. ammoniacal solution
of Congo-red, the lignified membranes will appear blue, while the unlignified mem-
branes will appear red. After washing in alcohol, such sections may be mounted
in Canada balsam.
Dahlia.—An aqueous solution of from 0.001 per cent. to 0.002 per cent. is used
for staining live nuclei. The dividing nuclei of Tradescantia virginica, for instance,
when kept in this stain for a few hours, become weakly stained. The structure of
pyrenoids is well demonstrated by fixing them in equal parts of a 10 per cent. solution
of potassium ferricyanide and a 55 per cent. solution of glacial acetic acid and then
staining with dahlia, and finally swelling the pyrenoids somewhat in a weak solution
of potassium hydrate.
Dammar Lac.-Dammar lac is dissolved in equal parts of benzol or xylol and
turpentine; the solution is filtered and evaporated to the desired consistency. This
is used as a mounting medium the same as Canada balsam; it has a lower refractive
index than Canada balsam, and unstained tissues come out more sharply in it than
in the Canada balsam.
Decalcification.-Three per cent. of nitric acid in 70 per cent. alcohol is a good
decalcifying agent. The material should be left in the solution for several days.
Chromic acid has a decalcifying action; a 1 per cent. to 2 per cent. solution should
be used, and the material should be left in this until decalcification is found to be
complete.
Decolorizing. Material which has become brown in alcohol may be decolorized
in the following solution: To each 100 Cc. of alcohol is added from 0.2 to 0.5 Cc. of
concentrated sulphuric acid and as much potassium chlorate as can be transferred
on the point of a knife. The material is to lie in this solution for eight or ten days,
and is then to be washed a few times in pure alcohol, the material standing for some
time in each change of alcohol.
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
609
Dehydration. This is best accomplished by cutting the material into as small
pieces as possible, and then placing it in 20 per cent. alcohol, and then into ascending
grades of alcohol of 10 per cent. increase at intervals of about two hours. Microtome
sections mounted on the slide may be transferred to strong alcohol without injury.
In passing from water or aqueous stains to Canada balsam, the material should first
come into strong alcohol, and then into xylol to insure complete dehydration, and
to infiltrate the material with a solvent of balsam—namely, xylol. Aniline is also a
good dehydrating agent. The preparations may pass directly from water into the
aniline and from the aniline into the balsam. A stick of potassium hydrate placed
in the aniline will keep the latter dehydrated. Potassium hydrate is not soluble in
aniline. Very thin microtome sections which are found not to be injured by drying
may be allowed to dry, and then may be placed in xylol and thereafter transferred
to balsam. See p. 511 for further description of the process of dehydrating.
Desilicification.—This is accomplished by hydrofluoric acid. A glass vessel is
coated on the inside with melted paraffin to prevent the action of the acid on the
glass. Alcohol is then poured into the vessel and the material is immersed in the
alcohol; then the hydrofluoric acid is added, drop by drop. The process should be
completed in a few minutes. Care must be taken not to breathe the fumes of the
acid, since they attack the mucous membranes.
Diastase.—This may be prepared as follows: Germinate barley in the incubator
between pieces of blotting-paper until the plumule has reached a length of about
2 mm.; then dry the barley on the water-bath and grind to a fine powder. When
a diastatic solution is desired, pour over 10 Gm. of the powdered barley 1 liter of
water containing 2 Cc. of chloroform; let stand for ten hours at about 15° C. and
filter. The water filtered off will contain the diastase in solution. Add a little chloro-
form and preserve in a dark place. Starch-grains may be mounted in this solution
under a cover-glass and kept from drying in a moist incubator, and the effect of the
diastase on the starch may be studied from time to time under the microscope; or
a 1 per cent. starch-paste may be made to which about an equal amount of the diastatic
solution may be added, and then at intervals samples from the mixture of starch
and diastase may be tested with a solution of iodine. The starch will, after a time,
be changed into dextrines and grape-sugar, and will no longer give a blue color when
tested with a solution of iodine.
Digestive Fluids. To remove from sections aleurone grains which are so numer-
ous as to obscure the nucleus, the sections should be treated for twenty-four hours
with a digestive fluid prepared by mixing 1 part of pepsin-glycerine with 1 part of
pancreatin-glycerine, and 20 parts of a 0.3 per cent. solution of hydrochloric acid.
Differences in the character of the protoplasmic cell-contents, and particularly in the
dividing nucleus, may be demonstrated by treating sections of fixed material with
a digestive fluid made by mixing 1 part of pepsin-glycerine with 3 parts of water
acidified with 0.2 per cent. of chemically pure hydrochloric acid.
Diphenylamine.—This is a test for nitrates in plant tissues.
of diphenylamine are dissolved in 10 Cc. of pure sulphuric acid.
nitrates is to be assumed when sections treated with this reagent take on a blue color.
It seems, however, that in the presence of lignified tissues the reaction may fail, even
when nitrates are present in abundance. Diphenylamine is also used to distinguish
between crystals of asparagin and potassium nitrate. Asparagin dissolves without
color in this reagent, while potassium nitrate assumes a deep blue color on dissolving
in it.
Five centigrams
The presence of
Double Staining.-There are certain stains which have a peculiar affinity for
39
610
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
the lignified and suberized or cutinized membranes; others which color the cellulose
membranes without affecting the modified membranes, and still others which stain
all membranes, but with different degrees of intensity. The latter are known as
diffuse stains, and are able to differentiate the tissues when used singly. Thus, safranin
will stain the lignified membranes a cherry-red and the unlignified membranes a
brownish-red. Double staining by the use of two stains, one of which has an affinity
for the modified membranes and the other for the cellulose membranes, gives excellent
results in differentiating the tissues. In general, the sections should first be treated
with those stains which color the lignified membranes, and then, after rinsing in water
or acidulated alcohol, as the case may require, the sections are to come into a stain
which has a particular affinity for the cellulose walls. Fuchsin is an excellent stain
for the lignified membranes, and hæmatoxylin, aniline blue, methyl blue, and Berlin
blue are good stains for the cellulose membranes. Microtome sections should be left
in aqueous solution of fuchsin for a quarter of an hour or longer; then they should
be washed in a mixture of 1 part of concentrated alcoholic solution of picric acid and
2 parts of water. Then the sections should be placed for about an hour in one of
the blue stains above named, and thereafter washed in strong alcohol, transferred
to xylol, and thence mounted in Canada balsam. The lignified membranes will be
stained red and the cellulose membranes blue. The cutinized and suberized mem-
branes may be stained together with the lignified membranes in the following manner:
Ammonia is added to an alcoholic solution of fuchsin until the solution attains a straw-
yellow color; then the sections are placed in this and treated thereafter as described
for the simple fuchsin solution.
A mixture of fuchsin and iodine green produces an excellent differentiation. One
volume of a concentrated aqueous solution of fuchsin is mixed with 9 volumes of a
0.1 per cent. aqueous solution of iodine green. The sections remain in this solution
for about eight minutes; then they are washed in a mixture of 100 Cc. of absolute
alcohol, 1 Cc. of glacial acetic acid, and o.1 Gm. of iodine; then transferred to xylol,
and thence they are mounted in Canada balsam. The sections should be left longer
in the stain if a double stain is not achieved in eight minutes. The proper time for
a given material can soon be determined by experiment. In general, those sections
stain best which have been fixed in a fixative containing chromic acid or corrosive
sublimate. Material which has been fixed in alcohol should, just before staining,
be placed for about a day in a 1 per cent. solution of chromic acid, and then washed
out in water for some hours. When permanent mounts are to be made, staining is
best carried out with sections already fixed to the slide (see page 535).
The iron-hæmatoxylin method of staining imparts different intensities of gray
or blue to the different tissues and cell-contents, and is one of the simplest and best
differentiating stains. It is particularly useful for staining the dividing nucleus. For
staining sections from which photomicrographs are to be made, it is unsurpassed.
The method of procedure is as follows: The sections mounted on the slide are placed
in a 4 per cent. solution of ferric ammonium sulphate for an hour or so. They are
then washed in water and placed in a 0.5 per cent. aqueous solution of hæmatoxylin
for an hour or more. The hæmatoxylin solution should be several weeks old. The
sections are again washed in water, and placed in 1.5 per cent. solution of ferric
ammonium sulphate and left there until examination with the microscope shows that
the desired intensity of color is achieved. They are then washed in water, dehydrated
in alcohol, cleared in xylol, and mounted in Canada balsam.
The three-color method in which safranin, gentian violet, and orange G are suc-
cessively employed gives a most beautiful differentiation of the structures of the dividing
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
611
nucleus, and in tissues with resting nuclei there is a sharp differentiation of the nucleus,
nucleolus, and the cytoplasm, and of the cutinized, lignified, and cellulose membranes.
For embryonic tissues this method of staining is unexcelled. It is not, however, so
simple as the methods given above, since the time relations of the three stains em-
ployed must be accurately determined and adhered to for a given material. This
stain works best with material that has been fixed in Flemming's fixative (see page
614), or in a fixative containing chromic acid. Sections from material which has been
fixed in alcohol should be immersed for twenty-four hours in a 1 per cent. solution
of chromic acid, and then washed in water for a few hours, as above suggested. The
sections mounted on the slide are first immersed in a safranin solution which has
been prepared by adding to a concentrated alcoholic solution of safranin an equal
amount of water. Here the sections remain for twelve hours, or over night. They
are then rinsed in pure alcohol, and thereafter immersed in alcohol to which is added
about o.1 per cent. of hydrochloric acid. Just as the clouds of safranin cease to
come from the sections, they are rinsed in distilled water and placed in a saturated solu-
tion of gentian violet, remaining ten minutes. They are quickly rinsed in water, and
while the slide is held horizontally, the sections are flooded with orange G, prepared
by diluting a saturated solution of the stain with about five times its bulk of water.
After about four seconds the orange G is drained off and the sections are quickly
rinsed in water; then, while the slide is held slanting downward, absolute alcohol
from a drop-tube is flooded over the slide, beginning at the upper edge of the rows
of sections. This washes away some of the surplus gentian violet and dehydrates
the sections at the same time. The slide is now again held horizontally and the
sections are covered with clove oil from a drop-tube. The process of decolorizing
should be watched under the microscope. Clouds of gentian violet come off in the
clove oil, and when the stain has passed from an opaque to a transparent color, the
clove oil should be drained off and the slide immersed in xylol, where the sections
may be further cleared without extracting more of the stain. When the sections
appear clear and without any milkiness in the xylol, they may be mounted in Canada
balsam under a cover-glass; or they may be first mounted in cedar oil under a cover-
glass and examined under high powers to see if the differentiation has been satis-
factorily attained in the finer structures. If the gentian violet should be found still
too dense, the oil may be washed off in xylol, the xylol rinsed off in alcohol, and the
sections again treated with the solution of orange G, alcohol, and clove oil, and there-
after brought into xylol and cedar oil for preliminary examination as before. If,
on the other hand, the gentian violet is found to be too faint, the sections should be
brought from the oil through xylol and alcohol to the gentian-violet bath for, say,
another ten minutes, and then the process onward to the examination in cedar oil
should be as at first described. The effect of the orange G is not only to impart its
own color to certain of the structures, but to cause the gentian violet, which stains
very intensely, to loosen its hold, to a certain extent, from the structures for which
it has a special affinity, so that the absolute alcohol and the clove oil may be able
to wash out the surplus stain. The critical part of the process is to allow the orange
to work long enough to cause the gentian-violet to loosen its hold sufficiently, but
not too much. The time relations as above given produce the right result in many
instances, but it will be found that they must be altered for certain subjects. In
some instances the gentian-violet bath must be prolonged, and in others the orange
G solution must be stronger or must be allowed to act for a longer time.
It must be remembered that sections can not be transferred from water or an aque-
ous stain immediately to xylol or to Canada balsam, for the reason that water does not
612
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
mix with these substances. Always, in going from water to oil or a resinous solution,
strong alcohol should intervene, and, of course, the same precaution must be taken
in going from the oil or resinous solution to water.
Eau de Javelle.-Prepared by adding to an aqueous solution of chloride of lime
a solution of potassium oxalate so long as a precipitate is formed. The solution is
then filtered and diluted somewhat with water before using. Or 20 parts of a 20
per cent. solution of calcium chloride is diluted with 100 parts of water, and after
this has stood for some time, a solution of 15 parts of pure potassium carbonate in
100 parts of water is added. If a film should form on the surface of this on exposure
to the air, a few drops of the solution of potassium carbonate should be added and
the precipitate filtered away.
Lignin is extracted from sections of woody tissues which have lain in the eau de
Javelle solution for some time, and thereafter, on treating with chloriodide of zinc,
the membranes show only a cellulose reaction, staining only purple with the chlor-
iodide of zinc.
Starch-grains included in chloroplasts may be demonstrated by first treating
sections, or even whole leaves, with eau de Javelle until the chloroplasts are dissolved
(this may take from one to twenty-four hours), and then treating the material with
a solution of potassium iodide-iodine. The starch-grains will take on a blue or violet
color. In some cases, however, the starch-grains themselves are dissolved with the
eau de Javelle. In such cases, and indeed in most cases, chloral hydrate and iodine
is to be preferred for demonstrating starch-inclusions in chloroplasts (see under this
head).
When the forms of the cells simply are to be studied, eau de Javelle is very useful
in clearing the sections by dissolving the cell-contents. If the sections become too
clear in the eau de Javelle, this defect may be corrected by treating the sections with
alcohol or with a solution of alum. See under Cyanin for use of eau de Javelle in
differentiating cutinized and suberized membranes.
Eosin.-An aqueous solution of eosin is an excellent stain for protoplasmic cell-
contents and cellulose walls. The solution should be quite dilute. For the use of
eosin in double staining see under Cyanin and Gram's Method. See also in the
next chapter under Aleurone Grains.
Ether.—Used with equal parts of 95 per cent. alcohol as a solvent of collodion;
solvent of ethereal and fatty oils.
Fehling's Solution.-Prepare three separate solutions: (1) 17.5 Gm. of copper
sulphate in 500 Cc. of water; (2) 86.5 Gm. of sodium-potassium tartrate in 500 Cc.
water; (3) 60 Gm. of caustic soda in 500 Cc. of water. To prepare for use mix 1
volume of each of these with 2 volumes of water. The solutions keep well separately,
but the mixture becomes changed after a time, and for this reason the solutions should
not be mixed until needed.
Sections may be treated with this solution on the glass slip. Two small drops
of distilled water are placed on the slip with I small drop of each of the three solutions;
then sections, not too thin, of the material which is to be tested for glucose are placed
in the mixture on the slide. It is best to cut the sections without wetting the razor,
and the sections should not be placed in water, but should be transferred directly to
the mixture on the slide. The sections should be covered with a cover-glass and
the slide carefully heated over the flame of an alcohol lamp, or a very small flame
from a Bunsen burner, until bubbles arise in the solution. If glucose is present, the
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
613
sections will appear reddish from very small crystals of cuprous oxide which have
been reduced from the solution. If it is not desired to observe the crystals of cuprous
oxide within the cells, but simply to demonstrate the presence of grape-sugar, small
pieces of the tissues to be tested may be placed in a test-tube containing a few cubic
centimeters of the solution, which is then heated to boiling; if grape-sugar is present
in considerable quantity, a copious precipitate will after a time settle to the bottom
of the tube. See under Copper Acetate. This is particularly suitable for demon-
strating the presence of grape-sugar in those cells which contained it in the uninjured
tissues.
Ferric-ammonium Sulphate.-Used as a mordant. See under Double Staining.
Ferric Chloride. An aqueous solution is used as a test for tannin. When
sections containing tannin are placed in this solution on the slide, a color is produced
which may vary from dark blue to green.
Ferricyanide of Potassium.-Used in demonstrating the structure of pyrenoids.
Algæ containing pyrenoids are placed in a mixture of equal parts of a 10 per cent.
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium and a 55 per cent. solution of glacial acetic
acid. Then, after staining with Hofmann's violet and swelling in dilute potassium
hydrate, the lamellated structure of the pyrenoids and the included hollow sphere
of starch-grains can be distinguished.
Ferrocyanide of Potassium.-A mixture of this salt and hydrochloric acid
diluted with 8 to 10 volumes of water is used to stain the nucleus of starch-bearing
Characea. The starch is changed to sugar by the hydrochloric acid, and Berlin
blue is produced, which is taken up by the nucleus, and, after clearing with chloral
hydrate, the nucleus becomes plainly visible. See also under Berlin Blue.
Fischer's Method of Demonstrating Cilia.—The following method is highly
recommended for demonstrating cilia of certain bacteria: An exceedingly small amount
of the culture containing the bacteria is spread out as thinly as possible on the cover-
glass. After the film has dried on the cover-glass the latter is passed through the
flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner (care being taken to avoid a too excessive
heat), and then a few drops of a mordant are put on the film on the cover-glass. The
mordant is prepared by dissolving 2 Gm. of tannin in 20 Cc. of water.
The cover-
glass is then passed back and forth over a small flame until vapor arises from the
mordant. The mordant is now washed off by means of water from a wash-bottle,
and then one edge of the cover-glass is held in contact with a piece of filter paper to
draw away the surplus water. Next, a concentrated aqueous solution of fuchsin is
spread over the film on the cover-glass, and the cover-glass is held over a flame until
the fuchsin solution begins to boil; the cover-glass is then washed off, and is allowed
to dry. At any time thereafter the cover-glass, with the film side down, may be
cemented to the slide with balsam. In successful preparations made by this method
cilia, when present, will stand out quite sharply.
Fixatives. All embryonic plant tissues, and those tissues, whether embryonic
or mature, whose protoplasmic cell-contents are to be studied, should be first fixed
and hardened preparatory to cutting thin sections from them. The object of fixing
is to coagulate the protoplasmic structures in the form which they possessed during
life. Subsequent dehydration and hardening prepare the material for imbedding
and sectioning.
All the constituents of a fixative should penetrate the tissues quickly and at the
same time, and to aid in this the material to be fixed should be cut into the smallest
pieces compatible with the purpose of the study (see p. 527).
Absolute alcohol or 95 per cent. alcohol penetrates the tissues quickly, and for
614
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
many subjects is an excellent fixative. Material fixed in alcohol does not, as a rule,
yield the best results with staining media, and such material should, as already recom-
mended, after sectioning and mounting on the slide, be placed in a 1 per cent. solution
of chromic acid for about twenty-four hours, and then washed for two hours in water.
Then the sections may be stained.
The best all-around fixative is Flemming's mixture of chromic, osmic, and acetic
acids, prepared as described on page 528.
A saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in strong alcohol penetrates quickly,
and tissues need to be left in it for only a few hours. The corrosive sublimate should
be washed out with alcohol, to which crystals of iodine have been added, until it
assumes a brown color.
A concentrated solution of picric acid in alcohol is an excellent fixative for aleurone
grains in oily seeds.
It is best to thoroughly wash out all fixatives before the process of hardening in
successively higher grades of alcohol is begun. This is accomplished for those fixatives
which do not contain corrosive sublimate by washing in running water for about six
hours, or over night. Fixatives containing corrosive sublimate should be washed in
alcohol containing iodine, as above suggested.
The material to be fixed should be made to sink at once in the fixative. In alco-
holic fixatives this will occur very quickly without any special means to accomplish
it, but for aqueous fixatives it may be necessary to first pump the air from the tissues.
This always insures a better injection of the tissues by the fixative, and is to be recom-
mended for most material. Any sort of air-pump will answer. A bicycle-pump with
the valve reversed does excellent service, and has the advantage of portability, so that
it may be carried into the field where material may be fixed as gathered. In pumping
out the air the material should be immersed in 0.5 per cent. chromic acid if Flem-
ming's fixative is to be used, and after the material has been made to sink in this,
the chromic acid should be immediately replaced by the intended fixative. In most
aqueous fixatives, such as Flemming's, the material should be left for about forty-
eight hours. In the alcoholic fixatives the material may be left from a few hours to
twenty-four hours. With some material the best results are obtained by using the
fixatives hot. This is true of many sporangias and zygospores, which are very difficult
of penetration by the fixative. Since the osmic acid is quite volatile, special precau-
tions must be taken in heating fixatives of which it forms a part. Good results have
been obtained in the following manner: The fixative (preferably Flemming's) was
poured into a tall test-tube to the height of a few centimeters. Into this was placed
the material to be fixed, and the tube was tightly stoppered. Then the test-tube was
immersed in a vessel of boiling water to the depth of the fixative, where it remained for
about three minutes, or until the fixative began to show signs of boiling; then the test-
tube was removed and plunged into cold water. After cooling, the stopper was re-
moved and the material then sank in the fixative. Since the long test-tube extends
for some distance above the boiling water, the upper part of the tube remains suffi-
ciently cool to condense the vapors of the fixative as they are formed, and in this
way any material change in the composition of the fixative is prevented. The material
should remain in the cool fixative for about twenty-four hours, and then should be
washed out and dehydrated in the usual manner.
The amount of the fixative employed should always be large in proportion to the
material to be fixed in it.
A corrosive sublimate fixative which may be used cold or hot, as the material
may require, is prepared by mixing 80 parts of a saturated aqueous solution of corrosive
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
615
sublimate with 20 parts of glacial acetic acid. As with all aqueous fixatives, the air
pump should be employed when this fixative is used cold.
Fuchsin.-See under Double Staining.
Fuchsin, Acid.—Excellent for staining crystalloids. The material containing
the crystalloids should be fixed in a concentrated alcoholic solution of corrosive sub-
limate. Then the sections should be immersed for twenty-four hours in a 0.2 per
cent. solution of acid fuchsin, to which a little camphor has been added. To demon-
strate crystalloids in chromatophores the sections should be treated as follows: The
sections are placed in a solution of 20 per cent. acid fuchsin in 100 Gm. of aniline-
water. This solution is heated somewhat while the sections remain in it from two
to five minutes; they are then rinsed in a solution of 1 part of a concentrated solution
of picric acid in alcohol and 2 parts of water. This solution should be warmed to
about 40° C., and the sections should be rinsed in it until they cease giving off color
to it. Thereafter they are dehydrated in strong alcohol, passed into xylol, and mounted
in Canada balsam.
Acid fuchsin is an excellent stain for leucoplasts and chromatophores in general.
The material is fixed in a concentrated alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate in
absolute alcohol, where the material remains for twenty-four hours; then the fixative
is washed out in alcohol containing iodine (see under Fixatives). Sections from this
material are placed in a 0.2 per cent. solution of acid fuchsin in distilled water. After`
remaining twenty-four hours they are taken out, washed in running water for a
time, and are then examined in glycerine or are allowed to dry, after which they
are mounted in Canada balsam. The sections can not be dehydrated in alcohol,
because this will extract the stain from the chromatophores. The following method
may also be used: The material is fixed in a solution of 5 Gm. of corrosive sublimate
in 100 Gm. of absolute alcohol, which is acidulated with 10 drops of hydrochloric
acid. Then the fixative is removed by placing the material in pure alcohol, which is
several times replaced. Sections from this material should be stained by immersion
for about twenty minutes in a solution of 2 Gm. of acid fuchsin in 200 Cc. of distilled
water and 3 Cc. of aniline oil. They are then washed in a mixture of 50 Cc. of a
saturated alcoholic solution of picric acid and 100 Cc. of water until color ceases to
be given off from the sections. Then the picric acid is washed from the sections in
pure alcohol. The sections are next placed in chloroform for ten minutes and are
then ready to be mounted in Canada balsam.
When desired, sections cut from fresh material may be fixed and stained as above.
Or the material may be fixed and imbedded, and after microtome sections have been
cut and mounted on the slide they may be stained as above directed.
A beautiful double stain for nuclei is prepared from acid fuchsin and methyl
blue as follows: The microtome sections mounted on the slide are immersed for half
an hour in a 0.001 per cent. aqueous solution of acid fuchsin, then quickly washed in
water, and immersed for about one minute in a 0.002 per cent. aqueous solution of
methyl blue. The surplus stain is then washed off in alcohol and the preparation
is allowed to dry; then the sections are immersed in olive oil from six to twenty-four
hours, after which they are washed in absolute alcohol or in a mixture of absolute-
alcohol and xylol until the stains are quite clear, and the preparation is ready to be
mounted in Canada balsam.
Gelatine. Motile swarm spores and the like are sometimes mounted for ob-
servation in a solution of gelatine, which renders their movements less rapid, and
in this way facilitates the study of these bodies. About 1 Gm. of gelatine is dissolved
616
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
in 100 Cc. of water; a drop of this is placed upon a slide which has been some-
what warmed, and then a drop of the fluid containing the motile bodies is added
to the drop of gelatine solution and mixed with it by stirring, after which the cover-
glass is put on. See also under Nutrient Media.
Gentian Violet.-A 1 or 2 per cent. solution of acetic acid, to which gentian
violet is added until the solution appears of a deep violet color, is effective in instan-
taneously fixing and staining the nuclei of fresh tissues. Anthers and sporangia need
only to be teased out with needle in this fluid or crushed under the cover-glass, when
the nuclei of the pollen-grains and spores or the mother cells of these will be fixed
and stained for immediate examination. See also under Double Staining and Gram's
Method.
Glucose.-A mounting medium is made from glucose by mixing 140 parts of
distilled water with 10 parts of camphorated alcohol, 40 parts of glucose, and 10
parts of glycerine. The water, glucose, and glycerine are first mixed, and then the
alcohol is added and the mixture filtered to remove any camphor which may have
been precipitated. The aniline stains are preserved particularly well in this medium.
Glycerine. This is frequently used as a mounting medium, but since objects
are apt to become very transparent in it, only those sections which have been stained
should be mounted in it. Sections, such as of wood, which are not apt to shrink easily
may be mounted in glycerine directly from water, but delicate tissues should first
go from water into a mixture of 10 parts of water and I part of glycerine; this should
then be allowed to concentrate, by the evaporation of the water, when the sections
may be mounted on the slide in a drop of pure glycerine. The cover-glass should
be quite clean and the glycerine should not be allowed to run back over it. After
putting on the cover-glass the surplus glycerine should be taken up with a bit of filter
paper and the slide about the edge of the cover-glass should be made quite clean
with a cloth moistened in water and then wiped dry with a dry cloth; then the slide
may be put in position on the turntable, where a ring of Brunswick black, or of shellac
to each ounce of which 20 drops of castor oil have been added, may
be spun
around
the edge of the cover-glass. This process should be repeated several times, allowing
each coat to harden before putting on the next, until a strong ring of the cement has
been formed. When certain stains are used, such as hæmatoxylin, the glycerine must
be entirely free from acids; but with other stains, such as the carmine stains, an
acidulation with 1 per cent. of acetic acid is of advantage.
Dilute glycerine, in which sufficient chrome-alum has been dissolved to give a
clear blue color, is recommended as a mounting medium for the Schizophyceæ and
Florideæ, since the natural colors of these plants are retained in this medium.
Sections containing mucilaginous membranes may be mounted in a drop of pure
glycerine in which the membranes will not swell, and then, by irrigating the mount
with water, the process of the slow swelling of the membrane may be observed.
Glycerine-gelatine.—This is for most subjects a better mounting medium than
glycerine alone. It is prepared as follows: One part by weight of the best gelatine is
soaked for about 2 hours in 6 parts by weight of distilled water. Then 7 parts by
weight of chemically pure glycerine are added, and finally, to each 100 Gm. of this
mixture 1 Gm. of concentrated carbolic acid. The mixture is warmed for about 15
minutes, and at the same time constantly stirred until it becomes clear; then, by
means of a hot-water funnel, or while kept warm in an incubator, the mixture is
filtered through glass-wool or filter paper which has been washed with distilled water
after being placed in the funnel.
To mount sections in glycerine-gelatine the glass slip is warmed and a small bit
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
617
of the gelatine is placed upon it. If the slip is not warm enough to melt the gelatine,
it should be passed back and forth above the flame of an alcohol lamp. If the sec-
tions are of a character not liable to shrink, they may be transferred directly from
water to the melted gelatine; if, however, there is danger of shrinking, the sections
should first be placed in a 10 per cent. solution of glycerine, which is then allowed to
concentrate by evaporation of the water, and then, from the concentrated glycerine
the sections may be transferred to the drop of melted glycerine-gelatine. To avoid
air-bubbles the cover-glass should be put on with the precautions given on page 532
for putting on the cover-glass when Canada balsam is the mounting medium. If
several sections are being mounted under one cover-glass, and these should come
to lie over each other in putting on the cover-glass, they may be properly arranged
without attempting to remove the cover-glass (which usually makes the matter worse)
by heating the slide until the gelatine becomes quite soft, and then drawing a hair
under the cover-glass, with which the sections may be manipulated. It is sometimes
a difficult matter to put just the right amount of the gelatine on the slip. To overcome
this difficulty, heat the gelatine and pour it out in a thin film over a clean glass plate.
When it has become cool, strip it from the glass; then cut off small squares of different
size, melt them separately on glass slips, and cover with the cover-glasses of the size
to be used with subsequent preparations. The film of gelatine should then be cut
into wafers of the size found to exactly fill out the space under the cover-glass. These
wafers should be kept from drying too much and free from dust in tightly stoppered
bottles.
Glycerine Gum.-For imbedding brittle objects see p. 535.
Gold Chloride.—Protein crystalloids may be beautifully stained by means of a
solution of gold chloride. The material is to be fixed in a 20 per cent. solution of
corrosive sublimate in absolute alcohol, then the fixative is to be washed out in alcohol
containing iodine, and finally in pure alcohol; and then the sections are to be placed
in a 1 per cent. solution of gold chloride for about 3 hours. This process is to be
carried on in the dark. Then the sections are to be placed in a 5 per cent. solution
of formic acid, in which they are to remain for several hours exposed to the light.
They are next to be placed in 10 per cent. glycerine, which is allowed to concentrate
in a place free from dust, and from the concentrated glycerine they are to be mounted
in glycerine-gelatine, under which head will be found the method of mounting. By
this method of staining, the crystalloids are stained from rose to violet.
The above method also works admirably in the demonstration of leucoplasts.
Gold Size. An excellent cement for sealing glycerine mounts, and when immer-
sion lenses are to be used, since this cement is not soluble in the immersion oil. Best
obtained already prepared from the dealers.
Gram's Method.—This method is specially recommended for staining bacteria,
either in cover-glass preparations or in sections. The sections are stained in a mixture
of 100 Cc. of aniline water (prepared by combining about 5 Cc. of aniline with 95
Cc. of distilled water), and 11 Cc. of a concentrated alcoholic solution of gentian
violet, or, better, methyl violet. This is filtered, and 10 Cc. of absolute alcohol are
added to it. The preparation is taken from the stain, rinsed in alcohol, and transferred
to a solution of 2 parts of potassium iodide, and 1 part of iodine in 300 parts of dis-
tilled water, where it remains from 1 to 3 minutes. Then it is rinsed in alcohol,
transferred to clove oil, and thence mounted in Canada balsam. A good double stain
is obtained if the clove oil has some eosin dissolved in it.
Gunther's modification of the Gram method is as follows: The preparation is
stained and passed through the potassium iodide-iodine solution as above. Then
618
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
it is placed for 1 to 2 minutes in alcohol, next for 10 seconds in a 3 per cent. solution
of hydrochloric acid in alcohol, then again for several minutes in pure alcohol, until
no more color comes away, and then it is passed on into xylol, and finally is mounted
in Canada balsam.
Gum Arabic.—The study of the spermatozoids of ferns, etc., is facilitated by
adding a 10 per cent. solution of gum arabic to the drop of water containing
the spermatozoids, which are then unable to move so rapidly in the thicker fluid.
Hæmatein.-Dissolve with heat 1 Gm. of hæmatein in 50 Cc. of 90 per cent.
alcohol, and add to this a solution of 50 Gm. of alum in 1 liter of distilled water. After
cooling, filter if necessary, and add a crystal of thymol to prevent the growth of fungi.
The solution is ready for use at once. Sections stained in this solution should be
washed in water and transferred to glycerine-gelatine for mounting, or may be de-
hydrated and mounted in Canada balsam. The stain may be reduced in overstained
sections by allowing the preparation to stand for some time in a 1 per cent. solution
of alum. A sediment is apt to settle from this solution, but this is not an indication
that the stain is spoiled. The sediment can be partly prevented by adding to the
solution about 2 per cent. of glacial acetic acid, which, on the whole, increases the
effectiveness of the stain. The acid should be entirely washed from the sections
with water before permanent mounts are made.
Hæmatoxylin, Delafield's.-Prepared by mixing 4 Cc. of a saturated solution
of hæmatoxylin crystals in absolute alcohol with 150 Cc. of a saturated solution of
crystals of ammonium alum in water. After standing for a week exposed to the
light, this should be filtered nd mixed with 22 Cc. of glycerine and 25 Cc. of methyl
alcohol. Before using this it should be allowed to stand until all precipitates have
settled.
Hæmatoxylin and Eosin.-These may be combined to form a double stain by
adding the above solution to a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and a saturated
alcoholic or aqueous solution of eosin, until the green fluorescence of the eosin has
entirely disappeared.
Hæmatoxylin and Safranin.-Sections stained in safranin and washed in water
may be placed for a few minutes in a solution of o.1 Gm. of alum in 30 Cc. of water
to which have been added a few drops of a solution of 3.5 Gm. of hæmatoxylin in
100 Gm. of alcohol. The hæmatoxylin and alum mixture should stand a few days
before using. By this treatment lignified and suberized walls are stained red and
cellulose walls violet.
Hanging-drop Culture.—A hanging-drop culture is useful in the study of various
micro-organisms. A glass or vulcanite ring, obtained of the dealers for the purpose,
is cemented to the ordinary glass slip with Canada balsam or melted paraffin. A
round cover-glass, which should have a diameter at least as large as the outside diam-
eter of the ring, should be thoroughly cleaned, and sterilized by baking in a hot-air
sterilizer. Then the slide may be held with sterilized forceps, or placed on any con-
venient support, while a drop of nutrient substance is placed on the cover-glass by
means of a sterilized glass rod. By means of a sterilized platinum needle a few indi-
viduals of the organisms to be studied may be transferred from pure cultures to the
drop of nutrient fluid on the slide. Then the cover-glass should be quickly inverted
over the ring cemented to the glass slip, the upper surface of the ring having been
previously lightly coated with vaseline, which serves to hold the cover-glass in position
and, at the same time, prevents the drop from evaporating. If a single organism is
desired in the hanging drop, a few of the organisms from a pure culture may be trans-
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
619
ferred by means of a sterilized platinum needle to some sterilized nutrient liquid in
a test-tube; the tube should be twirled between the palms of the hands to distribute
the organisms, and then a drop from the test-tube should be transferred to the cover-
glass. More organisms should be transferred from the pure culture to the test-tube,
or more nutrient liquid should be added to that already in the test-tube, until it is
found that a single individual of the organism to be studied occurs in each drop taken
from the test-tube. If, in inverting the cover-glass over the ring, the drop runs to
one edge or spreads out over the cover-glass so that it comes in contact with the ring,
the cover-glass is to be washed off and the process repeated until the drop hangs free
near the center of the cover-glass. The drop must not be so large that if the organism
should sink to the lower surface of the drop it could not be brought into focus with
the highest power objective to be used in studying it. The circulation in the plas-
modia of myxomycetes may be conveniently studied if a bit of the substratum con-
taining the plasmodium is moistened and placed on the cover-glass, which is then
inverted over the ring as before. The preparation is then set aside in a warm, dark
place until the plasmodium has grown out over the cover-glass.
It is sometimes of advantage to place a drop of water on the glass slip within
the ring, so that the atmosphere within the cell will be kept quite humid. Instead
of the glass or vulcanite ring, thick cardboard may be used. A piece is cut 1 inch
square, if the glass slip is 3 x 1 inch, and a round or square hole is cut in the center
of the cardboard somewhat smaller than the cover-glass to be used. The cardboard
is sterilized in boiling water, and pressed into position on the slide. The hanging-
drop culture is prepared as above described, but no medium is needed to fasten the
cover-glass to the cardboard, other than the water with which the cardboard is soaked.
Thereafter the cardboard should be moistened from time to time as needed. Bits
of the plasmodia of myxomycetes, when suspended on the cover-glass of such a card-
board cell or of the glass or vulcanite cell, as above described, will grow out over
the cover-glass, and may be studied throughout a protracted period without being
disturbed. If a solid nutrient medium is required, a drop of nutrient gelatine may
be placed on the cover-glass instead of the drop from the fluid nutrient medium.
Under certain circumstances it is of advantage to flatten out the drop of nutrient
substance, after the organisms have been planted in it, by placing over it a smaller
cover-glass, which, of course, should be so small that when the larger cover-glass is
inverted over the ring or piece of cardboard, the border of the smaller cover-glass
will not come in contact with the inner edges of the cell.
Hardening Processes.-The hardening of tissues is accomplished by the with-
drawal of water from them. This is, in most cases, best accomplished by means
of successively higher grades of alcohol, as described elsewhere.
A quick method of hardening fresh tissues, and at the same time preparing them
for immediate sectioning, is to freeze them by the evaporation of ether or the ex-
pansion of liquid carbonic-acid gas. This process requires the use of special appa-
ratus, for a description of which the student is referred to the catalogue of Bausch and
Lomb, Rochester, N. Y. For an imbedding mass, either a drop of the white of egg,
or a thick solution of dextrin in a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part, water 40 parts,
may be placed about the object before freezing. If the dextrine solution is used, it
would be better to pump the air from the object while immersed in the solution; then
place on the object-holder, pour a small amount of the solution about it, and freeze.
This method will answer very well in some cases, when it is desired to prepare a large
number of sections quickly for class use, but it can by no means take the place of´
fixing the material in an appropriate fixative, hardening slowly in alcohol, and imbed-
ding in paraffin or collodion.
620
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
The mucilaginous layer of certain seed coats may be hardened with a 10 per
cent. solution of neutral acetate of lead. The sections are cut from dry seeds, hardened
in the lead acetate, and stained with methyl blue. They are then washed in water
and mounted in a 2 per cent. solution of boracic acid.
Hydrochloric Acid.—This reagent has such manifold application in histology
that its uses are best learned in the specific cases of its application. See in the next
chapter under Amylose, Berberin, Caffeine, Calcium Oxalate, Calcium Sulphate,
Ethereal Oils, Elæocapsin, Magnesium Sulphate, Middle Lamella, Myrosine, Pectic
Substances, Phloroglucin, Theobromine, Vanillin. See also in this chapter under
Maceration.
Hydrogen Peroxide. One part of hydrogen peroxide mixed with 20 parts of
60 per cent. alcohol will, in a few minutes, remove from sections the dark discoloration
due to osmic acid which has been used as a fixative (see p. 528).
!
India Ink.-The gelatinous sheath of the conjugatæ may be demonstrated by
placing the alga under investigation in water in which India ink has been rubbed
up until the water has a dark gray color. In this the gelatinous sheath becomes
sharply demarked.
Infiltration. For infiltration with glycerine gum see page 527, with paraffin,
page 529, with collodion, page 534. The stony tissues of seeds, etc., which are too
hard and brittle to be sectioned with a knife, and must, therefore, be ground to the
requisite thinness on a stone or by means of emery powder, may be protected against
breaking during this process if fairly thin sections are first cut with a fine saw and
then placed in a rather thin solution of Canada balsam or copal in chloroform, which
is then allowed to evaporate to the thickness of syrup; the sections are allowed to
dry and are then cemented by means of a thick solution of gum arabic to a glass plate
preparatory to grinding. Only a thin layer of gum arabic should be used, and this
should be quite dry before the grinding is begun. The sections .nay now be ground
thin on a clean, dry Arkansas or Wichita stone. Before the section has been brought
to the desired thinness, the surface should be polished by rubbing it on a piece of
soft leather which has been dressed with tripoli. The stone on which the sections
are ground may be cleaned of the balsam from time to time by means of a cloth dipped
in xylol or turpentine. When one side has been polished, the section may be freed
from the glass plate by soaking in water, and then the polished side should be ce-
mented to the glass plate and the reverse side ground and polished as before. The
sections should be examined from time to time with the microscope, so that the process
of grinding may be stopped as soon as the desired transparency has been obtained.
They may then be washed from the glass plate with water, and after drying should
be mounted in Canada balsam.
Iodine. The fumes from heated crystals of iodine serve well in many cases as
a fixative. Small objects in drop cultures may be readily fixed by pouring over them
the fumes arising from iodine heated in a test-tube. Algæ may be fixed by placing
a few crystals of iodine in the bottom of a test-tube, cautiously inclining the tube
slightly with the mouth downward, then pacing the algae in the test-tube near the
mouth directly from the water in which they were growing, and thereafter heating the
crystals so that the fumes from them pour down over the algae. The iodine may after-
ward be expelled by warming the fixed material to 30° or 40° C., and the material
will then need no further washing out.
Iodine has a wide application in plant histology and microchemistry. See under
Aconitine, Atropine, Carotin, Cellulose, Colchicine, Gums, Gram's Method, Lipo-
chromes, Lignin, Mucus-globules, Nicotine, Proteids, Suberin.
!
?
!
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
621
Iodine and Alcohol.—A good fixative for very small organisms is a solution
of 3 parts of iodine in 100 parts of 70 per cent. alcohol. This, at the same time,
permits the staining effect of iodine on the cell-wall and cell-contents.
Iodine and Aluminum Chloride.-Aluminum is dissolved in hydrochloric acid
to saturation, and then allowed to evaporate to the consistence of syrup. Cellulose
is colored a dark blue to violet color when successively acted on by this reagent and
a solution of potassium iodide and iodine. It is said to act more quickly than chloro-
iodide of zinc and iodine and the color imparted is retained for several days.
Iodine and Glycerine.—A mixture of potassium iodide-iodine with glycerine
in equal parts gives good results when the action of iodine is to be observed. The
glycerine keeps the preparation from drying, and at the same time has a clearing
effect.
Iodine and Phosphoric Acid.-Used as a test for cellulose, which it colors violet.
Prepared by dissolving with heat 0.5 Gm. of potassium iodide and a few crystals of
iodine in 25 Cc. of concentrated aqueous solution of phosphoric acid.
Iodine and Potassium Iodide.-This solution is prepared by dissolving 0.5
Gm. of potassium iodide and 1 Gm. of iodine in a small amount of water, and then
diluting this with 100 Cc. of water. The solution is left standing over any iodine
which may crystallize out. This formula is recommended by Arthur Meyer in his
work on "Stärkekörner" as best adapted to the study of starch-grains. A rough-and-
ready method of preparing an iodine solution is to dissolve a small amount of potassium
iodide in distilled water and then dissolve crystals of iodine in this until a brown color
is obtained. This can be diluted with water as is found necessary. A rather pale
solution of iodine is sufficient to color starch blue. To stain modified cell-walls the
solution needs to be stronger.
Iodine and Sulphuric Acid.—A test for cellulose. The section is first soaked
in a solution of potassium iodide-iodine, and then is mounted in a drop of a mixture
of 2 parts by volume of sulphuric acid and 1 part of water. Cellulose walls take on
a blue color by this process.
Iodine Green.-See under Double Staining. A 2 per cent. solution of glacial
acetic acid with iodine green dissolved in it serves well in the instant fixing and staining
of the nuclei of fresh material.
Iron Acetate.-Used in the detection of tannins, which see.
Iron Hæmatoxylin.-See Double Staining.
Lactic Acid.-Dried algæ and fungi may be prepared for study with the micro-
scope by soaking them first in water and then in concentrated lactic acid, in which
they are heated until small bubbles are formed; they may then be studied in the
lactic acid. A 10 per cent. solution of lactic acid is recommended for fixing bacteria.
This fixative is said not to interfere in any way with the subsequent processes of staining
with alcoholic solutions of aniline dyes.
Lead Acetate.—A 10 per cent. solution of neutral lead acetate is used to harden
the mucilaginous layers of seed coats. For subsequent treatment see under Boracic
Acid.
Lithium Carbonate.-Useful in removing from material picric acid, which has
been used as a fixative. A few drops of a cold, saturated, aqueous solution of lithium
carbonate are added to the alcohol, which is used to wash out the fixative.
Maceration. The study of the forms of cells is greatly aided by isolating the
cells from each other by the process known as maceration. Various reagents may
622
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
be used for this purpose. A solution of potassium chlorate in nitric acid is very com-
monly employed. This is known as Schulze's maceration fluid. A few pieces of
potassium chlorate are put into a test-tube, where they are covered with nitric acid;
not very thin longitudinal sections of the material to be macerated are put into the
solution, which is then gently heated over a Bunsen burner until bubbles are violently
evolved. After standing for a short time the contents of the tube are poured into a
vessel containing considerable water. The sections should be transferred to a second
dish of water, and then mounted in a drop of water, as needed for examination. The
cells may easily be separated from each other by teasing out the section in the drop
of water with two dissecting needles. The cells may be isolated from each other
by this treatment, for the reason that the middle lamellæ are dissolved, and only the
membranes due to secondary thickening remain. The lignin is also removed from
the lignified membranes, so that these after maceration give only a cellulose reaction.
All chemical manipulations involving the evolution of acid fumes as above should
be carried on where the fumes may be quickly conducted out of the laboratory, since
the fumes are not only irritating to the mucous membranes, but they are also injurious
to delicate apparatus, such as compound microscopes.
Chromic acid may be used for maceration instead of Schulze's maceration fluid.
A concentrated aqueous solution is used, and in this the sections are allowed to remain
for about half a minute, when they are to be rinsed in plenty of water. They are
then to be teased out in a drop of water as before. Very thick sections can not be
treated by this method.
Schulze's maceration fluid is to be particularly recommended for sections con-
taining lignified tissues, while tissues destitute of lignified membranes, or containing
only a small percentage of these, may be better macerated as follows: A mixture is
made of 1 part of hydrochloric acid and about 4 parts of alcohol. The sections remain
in this mixture for about twenty-four hours; then they are washed in water, and
mounted in a 10 per cent. solution of ammonia. A slight pressure on the cover-glass
will assist the cells in separating from each other. Cork-cells can be macerated to
best advantage by means of a dilute solution of potassium hydrate. See also under
Acetic Acid.
Magnesium Sulphate and Ammonium Chloride.--A mixture of 25 volumes
of a concentrated aqueous solution of magnesium sulphate, 2 volumes of a concen-
trated aqueous solution of ammonium chloride, and 15 volumes of water is used as
a test for phosphoric acid in tissues. When sections containing salts of phosphoric
acid are treated with this reagent, a crystalline precipitate of ammonium magnesium
phosphate is formed.
Mercuric Chloride.-Used as a fixative in both aqueous and alcoholic solutions.
An aqueous solution which has given excellent results is composed of 80 parts of a
saturated aqueous solution of mercuric chloride in water and 20 parts of glacial acetic
acid. See also under Fixatives.
Methyl-alcohol.-The refractive index of methyl-alcohol is 1.321, being less
than that of water, which is 1.336. On account of this low refractive index methyl-
alcohol is a good mounting medium for bringing out the striation in starch-grains
and cell-walls.
Methyl-blue. An excellent stain for cellulose membranes. For double staining,
the sections may first be stained with safranin, then washed with alcohol and placed
in a concentrated aqueous solution of methyl-blue for 15 minutes or longer. The
sections are then to be washed in strong alcohol and mounted in Canada balsam.
See also under Double Staining.
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
623
Methylene-blue.-A good nuclear stain. For cells filled with protein granules
it is particularly good in differentiating the nucleus. Methylene-blue is useful in
differentiating pectin compounds. The protoplast and lignified walls are stained a
bright blue, while pectin compounds are stained a violet blue. Cells containing
tannin will accumulate methylene-blue from very dilute solutions. The sections of
living tissues are placed in a solution of 1 part of the stain in 500,000 parts of filtered
rain-water. The cells containing tannin soon take on a distinct blue color, and, later,
a deep blue precipitate is formed in them. The gelatinous sheaths of live conjugatæ
may be stained by dilute aqueous solutions of methylene-blue without injury to the
living organism. A 0.001 per cent. solution of methylene-blue in water will stain
the living nuclei of diatoms and other simple organisms. The central body of the
Cyanophyceae may be stained by the above dilute solution if, after 24 hours' treatment,
the stain is strengthened to a 0.1 per cent. solution. Methylene-blue and carmine
form a good differential stain for bacteria occurring in sections of tissues.
Methylene-blue and Carbol-fuchsin.—This double staining method is used in
the differentiation of Bacillus tuberculosis. The material first coughed up from the
lungs by the patient on waking in the morning should be expectorated into a wide-
mouthed bottle or covered jar. The person who is to make the examination should
afterward pour this out into a shallow glass dish. This should be placed on a dead-
black background, and one of the small, yellowish, lenticular bodies which usually
occur in tuberculous sputum should be removed and placed on a cover-glass. A
second cover-glass should be placed over this; then press the cover-glasses gently
between the thumb and forefinger, and rub to and fro until the material is spread
out in a thin film on the cover-glasses. Then slide the cover-glasses apart, and allow
them to dry in the open air. When dry, hold them with a pair of forceps and pass
them 3 times through the flame of the Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp. (The film
should not be allowed to turn brown, else the preparation will be ruined.) Next
pour over them carbol-fuchsin prepared by rubbing 1 Gm. of fuchsin with 100 Cc.
of a 5 per cent. aqueous solution of carbolic acid, with the gradual addition of 10 Cc.
of alcohol. Hold the cover-glasses over a flame with forceps until vapor begins to
arise from the surface of the stain. Then hold away from the flame, except in intervals
of gentle heating, by which they are kept warm for a minute or two. They are next
washed in water and decolorized by being moved about in a 25 per cent. solution
of nitric or sulphuric acid. When the previously deep-red color has changed to a
greenish tint, the preparation is washed in 60 per cent. alcohol to remove the color
set free by the acid. If any red color still remains, the preparation should be rinsed
in water and again treated with the acid-bath. By the above process the fuchsin has
been removed from everything but the tubercle bacilli. The double staining is accom-
plished by now pouring over the preparation a mixture of 3 parts of water with 1
part of a concentrated alcoholic solution of methylene-blue. After a few minutes
the methylene-blue is washed off with water, and the preparation is allowed to dry;
when dry, it may be mounted in Canada balsam. Other bacteria than the tubercle
bacilli are decolorized by the acid-bath, and are subsequently stained blue by the
methylene-blue.
Methyl-green.-An aqueous solution of this stain serves well to différentiate the
nucleus of cells containing aleurone grains. Sections through vascular bundles which
have been treated for some hours with alcohol borax-carmine, and then for a short
time with methyl-green, have the protoplasmic cell-contents stained red, the lignified
walls of the tracheal tubes green, and the walls of the primary phloëm portion green.
Methyl-green and Acetic Acid.-Methyl-green is dissolved in a 2 per cent.
624
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
solution of acetic acid until the solution has a blue-green color. The nuclei of fresh
material teased out in this become instantly fixed and stained. It is very useful for
a preliminary examination of dividing nuclei.
Methyl-violet.-Starch-grains may be stained by treatment with a dark aqueous
solution of methyl-violet. If the starch-grains after staining are treated with a very
dilute solution of calcium nitrate, the stain becomes deposited particularly in the less
dense layers of the grains. Useful as a stain for elaioplasts. See under this head
in the next chapter, page 640: See also in this chapter under Staining Intra Vitam.
Millon's Reagent.—This should be prepared fresh, as needed, by dissolving
mercury in an equal weight of nitric acid and then diluting this solution with an equal
weight of distilled water. Proteids are colored a brick-red with this reagent. Sec-
tions to be tested are to be mounted in a drop of the reagent on a glass slip. Warming
the slip hastens the reaction.
a-Naphthol. When sections which are rather thick are treated on a slide with
a drop of a 20 per cent. aqueous solution of a-naphthol and then two or three drops
of concentrated sulphuric acid are added, the sections will be colored violet in a few
minutes if cane-sugar, milk-sugar, glucose, lævulose, maltose, or inulin is present.
Nessler's Reagent.-Used as a test for the presence of ammonium. Prepared
by dissolving 2 Gm. of potassium iodide in 5 Cc. of water, and then adding mercuric
iodide to the solution while warm until a part remains undissolved. After cooling,
20 Cc. of water are added to the solution and then, after standing for a time, the
solution is filtered, and to each 20 Cc. of it are added 30 Cc. of a concentrated solution
of caustic potash. The solution must be filtered as often as it becomes turbid. The
solution is changed to a yellow color in the presence of ammonia. However, other
organic compounds may give the same reaction.
Nutrient Media.-Nutrient media must be sterilized by heat to keep them from
spoiling and to make it possible to grow in them pure cultures—that is, cultures of
organisms of any desired single species. Sterilization may be accomplished by steaming
the medium for about twenty minutes each day on three days in succession, after
having poured it into test-tubes or flasks which have previously been tightly plugged
with cotton rolled into the form of a stopper of the proper size and baked in an oven
until the cotton is slightly scorched. The tubes and cotton plugs should be baked
together. Or, if an autoclav is available in which steam can be generated under
pressure, and accordingly at a higher temperature than that of boiling water at ordinary
atmospheric pressure, the cotton plugs and tubes, or flasks, will not need to be baked
but may be sterilized, together with the nutrient medium already poured into them,
by subjecting them for fifteen minutes to a temperature of 115° C. in the autoclav.
At this temperature a single sterilization suffices.
A good artificial nutrient medium for yeasts is made by adding 0.05 per cent. of
tartaric acid to a 10 per cent. solution of cane-sugar. A filtered aqueous extract of
malted barley also gives good results. To prepare this, barley is germinated until
the plumule just begins to protrude; the barley is then dried and ground up, and
water is poured over it until there is about twice as much water by volume as of the
powdered malt. The water should stand over the malt, with occasional stirring, for
about an hour, when it may be filtered off and sterilized. Sterilized grape juice is
also an excellent nutrient medium for yeasts. Cultures of yeasts grown in the above
media may be made to produce spores in about twenty-four hours if some of the
culture is transferred to the surface of sterilized bits of flower-pots which are half
submerged in water and kept covered by a bell-jar.
酏
​REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
625
Cohn's normal solution for the culture of bacteria is prepared as follows: Dissolve
in 200 Gm. of distilled water 1 Gm. of acid potassium phosphate, 1 Gm. of magnesium
sulphate, 2 Gm. of neutral ammonium tartrate, and o.1 Gm. of calcium chloride.
An infusion of meat for the culture of bacteria is prepared by covering finely
chopped lean beef with water and allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours in an
ice-chest, after which it is to be filtered through a muslin bag, using pressure of the
hands to make the filtration more complete. The filtrate is then cooked and again
filtered, and neutralized by the gradual addition of a solution of carbonate of soda.
The solution should be tested with litmus paper, and the addition of carbonate of
soda should cease as soon as neutralization is accomplished. To this solution is
added 0.5 per cent. of common salt. Ten Gm. of peptone may be added to a liter
of the infusion.
In place of the meat infusion as prepared above, meat extract may be used in
the ratio of 4 to 5 Gm. per liter of water.
Bouillon is prepared by adding 1 liter of water to 1 pound of chopped lean beef.
This is cooked for half an hour, then filtered and neutralized with carbonate of soda,
then again boiled for an hour to precipitate albuminoids. After a final filtering the
bouillon is poured into flasks or test-tubes and sterilized.
Infusions of hay and dried fruits may also be used for nutrient media. A hay
infusion for the growth of Bacillus subtilis may be prepared as follows: Chopped hay
is placed in a beaker and barely covered with well water; this is kept in an incubator
at a temperature of 36° C. for four hours, after which time the extract is poured off
and diluted, if necessary, to a specific gravity of about 1.004. The extract is now
poured into a flask which, having been closed with a cotton plug, is placed in a steam
sterilizer and subjected to a gentle evolution of steam for about an hour. The flask
is then placed in an incubator at 36° C. for a day or two, after which time a film pro-
duced by colonies of Bacillus subtilis will have formed over the surface of the extract.
The spores of this bacterium are particularly resistant to heat, and for this reason
while the spores of other bacteria are killed by the process of steaming, those of Bacillus
subtilis still retain their vitality.
Solid culture media may be prepared by adding to any of the fluid culture media
a sufficient amount of a gelatinous substance to keep the mixture from liquefying at
the temperature of the laboratory or, if desired, at the higher temperature of an in-
cubator. One of the most used of the solid media is prepared by adding to the pep-
tonized infusion of meat, as above described, 10 per cent. of the best French gelatine.
The gelatine may be increased up to twice this amount, as the temperature may
require. One hundred grams of gelatine is allowed to soak in 1 liter of the meat
infusion until the gelatine becomes swollen, and then a gentle heat is applied until
the gelatine is completely dissolved. After the gelatine is dissolved the solution should
again be neutralized, if necessary, with carbonate of soda. When the solution stands
at a temperature of about 50° C., an egg stirred up in 100 Gm. of water is added
while the mixture is stirred with a glass rod. The mixture is then kept at the boiling-
point for about ten minutes. This coagulates the egg-albumen and clarifies the
liquid. The clarified liquid is now filtered by means of a hot-water funnel or while
kept warm in an incubator, the high temperature being necessary for the reason that
the mixture would become stiff at a low temperature, and so incapable of being filtered.
The medium should be distributed while warm in sterilized test-tubes or flasks, which
are then stoppered with baked cotton plugs. It should then be subjected to a tem-
perature of 100° in the steam sterilizer for 10 minutes at 4 successive intervals of 24
hours. For the reason that gelatine loses its power of solidifying at ordinary tem-
40
626
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
peratures after being subjected to the temperature of boiling water for a long period,
the time of each sterilization is necessarily reduced to about 10 minutes and the number
of sterilizations is increased to 4; whereas with other solidifying substances, such
as agar-agar, the length of each sterilization may extend to 1 hour, and the number
of sterilizations need be only 2 or 3.
In pouring the filtered medium into the test-tubes care should be taken not to
get any of the medium on the upper portion of the tube where the cotton plug would
be likely to come in contact with it, else the plug would later be difficult of removal.
A solid nutrient medium which will remain solid at a higher temperature than
the gelatine medium may be prepared from agar-agar, a substance obtained from
certain gelatinous algæ, as follows: Two Gm. of the agar are broken into small pieces
and soaked in cold water for 24 hours. Then the water is poured off and the swollen
agar is added to 1 liter of the peptonized meat infusion. The mixture is boiled for
several hours until the agar is completely dissolved. The solution is then neutralized
with a solution of carbonate of soda, filtered, distributed in flasks or test-tubes, and
sterilized by steaming for 1 hour at 2 or 3 successive intervals of 24 hours.
I
Cooked potatoes afford a solid nutrient medium which is quickly prepared and
which is particularly adapted for the culture of chromogenic bacteria. Potatoes free
from wounds are selected and scrubbed in water until they are perfectly clean, and
the eyes and any unsound spots, if these could not be avoided, are cut out with a
knife. Then the potatoes are placed for an hour in a solution of 1 part of mercuric
chloride in 500 parts of water to disinfect the surface. They are next steamed for
about an hour in a steam sterilizer, and after 24 hours the steaming is repeated for
about half an hour. The sterilized potatoes are then placed in glass Petri dishes,
are cut in halves with a sterilized table-knife, and the cut surfaces are inoculated.
If the source of the inoculation is not a pure culture, an isolation of forms may be
approximated by making long scratches over the surface of the potato with a sterilized
platinum needle which has been in contact with the source of the inoculation. It
will add to the security of the process of sterilization if each potato, before being
placed in the bath of mercuric chloride, is wrapped in a piece of tissue paper, and so
protected until it is cut open for inoculation.
Another method of preparing potatoes which is, on the whole, more convenient
and certain, is to cut out long cylindrical plugs from sound potatoes by means of a
cork-borer or any metal tube of the proper size, and then to cut the potato cylinders
very obliquely in two pieces, each of which is then to be placed in the bottom of a
test-tube so that the oblique surface stands uppermost. After plugging the tubes
with baked cotton, the potato cylinders are subjected to a temperature of 100° C.
in the steam sterilizer for one hour at three successive intervals of 24 hours. A ster-
ilized paste made from potatoes or bread serves well for the culture of molds as well
as of bacteria.
A decoction of horse-dung furnishes a good medium for the culture of mucor and
various other molds. The decoction is prepared by boiling the dung in water, then
filtering and sterilizing the solution. By placing the dung of different kinds of animals
in a moist chamber, as, for instance, in dishes floating on water and covered with a bell-
jar, characteristic fungi will after a time appear on it.
Single spore cultures of mucor may be obtained in the following manner: Glass
slides are thoroughly cleaned and sterilized by baking. By means of sterilized forceps
a single sporangium of mucor is picked from a spontaneous growth of this fungus
on horse-dung or stale bread kept in a moist chamber. The sporangium is placed
in a sterilized decoction of horse-dung contained in a sterilized watch-glass, which
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
627
may be placed on an inverted tumbler in a plate of water and then covered with
a bell-jar which should dip into the water and form a germ-proof moist chamber.
After a few hours the sporangium will have burst open and the spores, which are
now distributed through the decoction, will have swollen to several times their original
diameter, and can all the more readily be discerned in subsequent manipulations. A
needle which has been disinfected by heating in a flame is now dipped into the decoc-
tion and the point of it drawn along the surface of a glass slide which has been cleaned
and sterilized as above directed. By this process the decoction which has adhered
to the needle is drawn out in the form of a narrow streak, and if several spores of
mucor are present, they will be separated from each other. A single spore may be
located with a medium power of the compound microscope, and all other spores present
in the streak may be wiped off with a cloth which has been sterilized by heat. Then
a drop of the decoction of sterilized horse-dung should be added to the small amount
containing the spore on the slide. The slide should be placed in a moist chamber
where the spore will soon give rise to a mycelium visible to the naked eye, and from
the mycelium numerous sporangia will be produced after a time. The slide may
be taken from the moist chamber from time to time and the stages in the development
of the fungus examined, but as much care as possible should be taken to prevent
the contamination of the culture.
Knop's nutrient solution, which is particularly good for the culture of algæ,
consists of 4 parts of calcium nitrate, I part of magnesium sulphate, 1 part of potassium
nitrate, 1 part of potassium phosphate. These should be dissolved in sufficient water
to make a 0.2 per cent. or 5 per cent. solution of the combined salts. The potassium
salts should first be dissolved, then the magnesium salt, and last the salt of calcium
should be added after having been dissolved by itself. By this procedure only a small
amount of insoluble calcium phosphate is formed. The zoospores of Vaucheria may
be induced to form at almost any time by transferring this alga from the above solu-
tion, in which it has been growing exposed to a bright light, to pure water; or cul-
tures in a 0.1 per cent. or 0.2 per cent. nutrient solution which have been exposed to
the light need only be placed in a dark place in order to incite the production of zoo-
spores.
A 2 per cent. to 4 per cent. solution of cane-sugar may be used as a nutrient
medium for algæ. Filaments of spirogyra may be made to conjugate by transferring
them from the water in which they have been growing to a solution of cane-sugar as
above, which is then placed in a well-lighted place.
The formation of zoospores may be incited in œdogonium by transferring filaments
of the alga from water at a low temperature (say at the temperature of the early
morning) to a 2 per cent. or 3 per cent. solution of cane-sugar which is kept at a
constant temperature of about 26° C.
Convenient flasks for the preservation of sterilized fluid nutrient media may be
made from glass tubing as follows: A piece of glass tubing 0.2 inch in diameter,
or larger, is held with its lower end in the flame of a blow-pipe, the tube being con-
stantly revolved about its long axis to insure an even heating of the end of the tube
until the end of the tube becomes soft and just begins to draw downward in the form
of a large drop. By this time the mouth of the tube has become closed. Then quickly
the tube is removed from the flame, and while the melted end of the tube is still held
downward, air is blown in at the upper end of the tube by means of the mouth, so
that the molten glass at the lower end of the tube is forced outward in the form of a
rounded flask. After cooling so that it may be handled, the tube is held in the flame
close to the bulb, and by constant turning the tube is heated equally on all sides until
628
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
it becomes so soft that it may be drawn out. This process is accomplished by taking
the tube from the flame and pulling on it gently so that it may be drawn out quite
long and narrow. The length of the stem of the bulb should be equal to the depth
of the vessel from which the nutrient medium is to be drawn into the bulb. The stem
may be severed from the tube by holding it in the flame of the blow-pipe at the proper
distance from the bulb, where it will soon become soft enough to be pulled off from
the main tube. Then the end of the capillary neck is held in the flame until
a bead is formed; in this way the flask is hermetically sealed. To fill the flask with
nutrient fluid the neck is sterilized near the end by passing it through a flame, and the
head is broken off with sterilized forceps. The bulb is then heated in the flame of an
alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner to expand the air. The end of the neck is next quickly
dipped into the nutrient fluid, which is forced up the neck into the bulb as the air in
this cools. When the bulb is two-thirds full, the neck is withdrawn from the fluid
and hermetically sealed in a flame. In filling the bulb the greatest care must be
taken to keep the stock of nutrient medium from any source of contamination, if
it has once been sterilized. Chemical flasks with narrow necks serve well for a com-
mon receptacle. These should be kept stoppered with a cotton plug, and to fill
the small flasks the plugs need only to be lifted slightly while the sterilized capillary
neck of the small flasks is thrust past the plug into the nutrient fluid. If the nutrient fluid
is freshly prepared, and has not yet been sterilized, the small flask may be filled, sealed up
in the flame, and sterilized in the steam sterilizer or in a vessel of boiling water for an
hour each day on three successive days. The nutrient fluid will keep indefinitely
in the little flasks, and when a drop is wanted for a drop culture, it is only necessary
to sterilize the end of the capillary neck in a flame, break off the bead with sterilized
forceps, invert the flask, and place the palm of the hand over the bulb. The heat of the
hand will expand the air over the fluid and force the latter down the neck. With a little
practice just the desired amount of fluid can be forced out by the heat of the hand.
The hand must not be placed on the bulb until the flask is inverted. If it is desired
to make cultures within the little flasks, snip off the end of the capillary neck as be-
fore, and thrust a long platinum needle, the end of which has been in contact with the
source of inoculation, down the neck into the fluid. Then withdraw the needle and
hermetically seal the neck in the flame. When cultures are to be made in the flasks,
these should be only one-third filled by the nutrient medium; there will then be suffi-
cient air in the flasks for the success of the culture after the flasks have been inocu-
lated and hermetically sealed.
Pollen grains may be made to germinate in hanging drops composed of 100
parts of well-water, 3 to 30 parts of cane-sugar, and 1.5 parts of gelatine. This should
be made as needed, or it may be sterilized and kept indefinitely in the little flasks just
described. The amount of cane-sugar to give the best results varies with the species of
pollen, and can only be determined by experiment, but 3 parts will probably answer for
most pollen-grains.
Spores of ferns may be made to germinate on pieces of flower-pot which are kept
half submerged in water and are covered by a bell-jar. They should be set before
a north window. They should never be exposed to the direct light of the sun, since
in such a position the temperature under the bell-jar would become very great.
Orchella (Orseille).-Sections of tissues containing actinomyces may be stained
to advantage by an orchella stain prepared as follows: Orchella which has been left in
the open air until it is free from its ammonia is dissolved in a mixture of 20 Cc. of abso-
lute alcohol, 5 Cc. of concentrated acetic acid, and 40 Cc. of distilled water, until the
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
629
mixture has a dark-red appearance. Sections are left in the filtered solution for one
hour. They are then washed in alcohol, stained with gentian-violet, washed again
in alcohol, placed for a short time in xylol, and mounted in Canada balsam. By this
treatment the fungus will be double-stained red and blue.
Orseillin and Aniline Blue.-The mycelium of the Peronosporeæ may be
stained blue, and the cell-walls of the plant which the fungus is parasitizing may be
stained red at the same time by a combination of orseillin and aniline blue. Sections
of tissues containing the parasite are bleached in Javelle water, then washed in a
saturated solution of potassium hydrate in alcohol. The sections are placed for
staining in acetic acid, to which have been added a few drops of an aqueous solution
of orseillin BB and a drop or two of aniline blue. The solution should have a violet
color. The sections may be mounted for examination in glycerine.
Osmic Acid. The method of preparing a solution of osmic acid and of its use
in Flemming's fixative is given on p. 528. The vapor of osmic acid may be used as a
fixative for very small organisms. In order to accomplish this a drop of water con-
taining the organisms need only to be inverted over a bottle containing a 2 per cent.
solution of the acid. Osmic acid colors ethereal and fatty oils from brown to black,
but other organic substances are also darkened by it; and as a test for oils it is not
absolutely reliable. Aleurone grains in sections of Ricinus which have been freed
from their oil by standing for a time in strong alcohol may be stained brown, and
the crystalloid and ground substance differentiated by immersing the sections for a
short time in a 1 per cent. solution of osmic acid.
Paraffin.—The directions for imbedding material in paraffin are given on p. 529.
Paraffin of about 52° melting-point sections to good advantage at a temperature be-
tween 21° and 24° C., or 70° and 75° F. Good cells for hanging-drop cultures may
be made by placing glass slides on the turntable and spinning rings on them by means
of a camel's-hair brush dipped in melted paraffin.
Pepsin. One part of pepsin-glycerine and 3 parts of water acidulated with 0.2 per
cent. of chemically pure hydrochloric acid. When sections containing protoplasts
are subjected to this reagent at blood temperature, certain structures of the protoplast
which are insoluble in the reagent may be isolated from those which are soluble. In the
dividing nucleus the kinoplasmic spindle-fibers persist after the chromosomes and
nuclear plate have been dissolved by this reagent. By the action of digestive fer-
ments on aleurone grains the ground substance is first dissolved and then the crystalloid
more slowly, while the limiting membrane of the vacuole occupied by the aleurone
grain persists. Digestive ferments are thus found to be excellent reagents for dem-
onstrating the difference in constitution of the finer structures of the protoplast and
protoplasmic cell-contents.
Phloroglucin. This furnishes one of the most reliable tests for lignin. Sections
are placed in alcohol containing a trace of phloroglucin, transferred to a drop of water
on a slide, and covered with a cover-glass. A drop of hydrochloric acid is then
applied to the edge of the cover-glass, and, as the acid comes in contact with the lig-
nified membranes, these are colored a bright violet red.
Phospho-molybdic Acid. This is used as a test for proteids. Sections are
treated for an hour or two with a solution of 1 Gm. of sodium-molybdium phosphate
in 90 Gm. of distilled water and 5 Gm. of concentrated nitric acid. Proteid materials
then take on the appearance of yellow granules.
Picric Acid. The structures of aleurone grains are well differentiated by fixing
in a concentrated alcoholic solution of picric acid and subsequent staining with eosin.
630
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
The sections are to remain in the alcoholic fixative for several hours. They are then
to be washed out in alcohol and stained for a few minutes in a solution of eosin in
absolute alcohol. Then the sections are successively washed in absolute alcohol,
transferred to oil of cloves, and mounted in Canada balsam. The ground substance
is dark red, the crystalloid yellow, while the globoid remains colorless. The pyrenoids
and chromatophores of alge may be simultaneously fixed and stained by placing the
algæ for an hour or longer in a concentrated solution of picric acid in 50 per cent.
alcohol, to which has been added about 5 drops of a solution of 20 Gm. of acid fuchsin
in 100 Cc. of aniline water. The aniline water is prepared by shaking up 3.5 Gm. of
aniline in 96.5 Gm. of water. The algae are then washed in alcohol, transferred to
xylol, then to a thin solution of balsam in xylol, and are finally mounted in the thicker
solution of Canada balsam in xylol.
Alcohol is a better solvent of picric acid than water, and accordingly it gives
quicker results in washing out the acid from the fixed material than water does, but
running water may be used to wash out the fixative whether the latter has been dissolved
in alcohol or in water.
Picro-aniline Blue.-A double stain, which is very rapid in its action, is prepared
by adding aniline blue to a saturated solution of picric acid in 50 per cent. alcohol
until the solution has a blue-green color. By this treatment the unmodified cell-walls
and the cell-contents are stained blue, while the lignified walls are stained by the
picric acid.
Picro-nigrosin.-A solution of nigrosin in a concentrated solution of picric acid
in water or 50 per cent. or 95 per cent. alcohol is a good fixative and stain for algæ and
leucoplasts, and for double-staining modified and unmodified cell-walls. The so-
lution may, in some cases, need to act for 24 hours. The strong alcoholic solution
is particularly recommended for material containing chlorophyll, since this will be
extracted by the strong alcohol. Nuclei and leucoplasts are stained a steel blue by
the nigrosin.
Potassium Alcohol.-Used for bleaching sections. It may be prepared by
mixing a concentrated aqueous solution of potassium hydrate with 90 per cent. alcohol
until a sediment is formed. This is allowed to stand for 24 hours with frequent violent
shaking, and then the clear liquid is poured off and is diluted for use with 2 or 3 parts
of water.
Potassium Hydrate.-For general use, dissolve 5 Gm. of potassium hydrate in
95 Cc. of distilled water. This is used as a clearing agent for sections and small organ-
isms. The process of clearing may require from several hours to several days. After
clearing, the potash should be washed out in plenty of water, and then the preparation
may be neutralized with acetic acid. This will tend to make the objects more opaque,
and if too much is added, the objects may be cleared again by caustic potash or am-
monia. A dilute solution of caustic potash, as above, may be used for the macera-
tion of cork, while delicate tissues in general may be macerated by boiling for a few
minutes in a 50 per cent. solution of potassium hydrate in water; the tissues should
then be washed in water and teased out on a slide in a drop of water.
Ruthenium Red.—An aqueous solution is an excellent stain for pectic substances
and for gums and slimes which have been derived from these. Ruthenium red is not
soluble in alcohol, clove oil, or glycerine, and, therefore, preparations stained by it may
be dehydrated and mounted in glycerine or balsam.
Safranin.-A saturated solution of safranin in alcohol should be made and this
REAGENTS AND PROCESSES.
631
should be diluted with an equal bulk of water, or with an equal bulk of a saturated
aqueous solution of safranin. This is an excellent general stain, and gives good dif-
ferentiating effects when used singly. It is one of the few stains which are particularly
adapted to the staining of pectic compounds. It also gives beautiful results in staining
the cell-contents of spirogyra and other algæ. The algæ, after fixing in a fixative
containing chromic acid, should lie in the alcoholic solution diluted with an equal bulk
of water for 12 or 24 hours. They should be transferred to 50 per cent. alcohol, to
which strong alcohol is then added, drop by drop. The color will begin to be ex-
tracted in the alcohol, and when the right intensity has been reached, the material
should be transferred to dilute glycerine, where it is to remain while the glycerine
slowly concentrates in a place protected against dust. Then permanent mounts
may be made in glycerine or glycerine-jelly. The stain given by safranin is quite
permanent. See also under Double Staining, and the directions there given for the
three-color method.
Salicylate of Soda.—A clearing reagent which for small objects is not inferior
to chloral hydrate is furnished by dissolving crystals of salicylate of soda in an equal
weight of distilled water. With tincture of iodine added this reagent will cause starch
to swell, at the same time imparting a blue color to it.
Salt.-A 4 per cent. or stronger solution of common salt, or of potassium nitrate,
may be used to cause plasmolysis in living cells. This process may be all the more
clearly seen by adding eosin to the salt solution.
Shellac.-A thick solution of shellac in alcohol, to each ounce of which are added
20 drops of castor oil, makes an excellent sealing medium for preparations mounted
in glycerine or glycerine-jelly, or in an aqueous medium.
Silver Nitrate.-A solution of silver nitrate is used to bring out more clearly
the striations in bast fibers and starch-grains. Sections containing striated bast
fibers are allowed to dry and are then impregnated with the silver salt. Without pre-
vious washing the sections are transferred to a 0.75 per cent. solution of common
salt. They are then placed in distilled water and exposed to the light for a consider-
able time; thereafter they are allowed to dry and may be examined to good advantage
in anise oil.
Dry starch-grains are put to soak in a 5 per cent. solution of silver nitrate. After
a time they are allowed to dry superficially and are then treated with a 0.75 per cent.
solution of common salt, in which they are finally exposed to the direct light of the sun to
reduce the chloride of silver which has been formed within the grains. The less dense
laminæ of the starch-grains will show a gray color, due to the reduced silver. See
page 547 for a description of the structure of starch-grains.
Staining Intra Vitam.-Living protoplasts may accumulate certain stains.
from very dilute solutions without injury to themselves. Dahlia, methyl-violet, mau-
vein, and methylene-blue are particularly suitable for this purpose. Solutions con-
taining 0.001 per cent. or 0.002 per cent. of any of the first three stains have given
good results in staining living nuclei, while I part of methylene-blue in 500,000 parts
of filtered rain-water is used for staining living cells containing tannin. A large
amount of these very dilute solutions should be employed in order that a sufficient
amount of coloring matter may be at hand for accumulation by the living cells. Living
protoplasts have the power of reducing and accumulating metallic silver from solu-
tions of certain of the salts of silver, while dead protoplasts have not this power. The
simplest method of producing this reaction is to place a few filaments of spirogyra in
a liter of a mixture of 1 part of silver nitrate in 100,000 parts of water with 5 Cc. of
lime water. The experiment will be completed in about half an hour if the temperature
632
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
of the solution is raised about 30° C. By this process living protoplasts are colored
black by the reduced silver, while dead protoplasts take on a yellowish or brownish
color.
Sulphuric Acid.—By the action of sulphuric acid cellulose is changed to amyloid,
which may be colored blue by a tincture of iodine. By the continued action of con-
centrated sulphuric acid cellulose becomes dissolved. Cutinized and lignified mem-
branes remain undissolved in sulphuric acid. Silicious skeletons or incrustations
may be freed of all organic matter by treating the objects with concentrated sulphuric
acid until they turn black, and then with a 20 per cent. aqueous solution of chromic
acid. The objects should be washed repeatedly in water before they are ready for
examination with the microscope.
Tannin and Antimonium-potassium Tartrate.—These are used successfully as
a mordant for methyl- and gentian-violet, fuchsin, and safranin when sections stained
with these stains are to be mounted in glycerine. The sections before staining are
placed in a 20 per cent. solution of powdered tannin in cold water. After washing
well in distilled water, they are placed for 24 hours in a 2 per cent. solution of antimo-
nium-potassium tartrate. After washing again in distilled water, they are transferred
to the stain. From the stain the sections are washed quickly in distilled water and
placed in strong alcohol, where the color is washed out until the desired degree of in-
tensity is reached. They are now ready for mounting in glycerine, or, if desired, they
may be placed in xylol and then mounted in balsam. If the sections are so deeply
stained that they cannot be sufficiently washed out in alcohol, they should be placed for
a time in a 2.5 per cent. solution of tannin.
Turpentine. This may be used to dissolve paraffin from sections which have
been cut from material imbedded in paraffin. See also under Carbolic Acid.
Venetian Turpentine.-To prepare a mounting medium from Venetian turpen-
tine the product as it comes from the apothecary is diluted with an equal volume of
strong alcohol, and after the mixture has become clear by long standing or by filtering
after being well shaken, it is thickened somewhat on the water-bath. Objects may
be mounted directly from strong alcohol into Venetian turpentine as above pre-
pared. Objects which are found to shrink by this treatment may be transferred
from strong alcohol to a mixture of 10 parts of the turpentine with 100 parts of alcohol.
The alcohol is then to be withdrawn from this mixture by placing the latter, together
with a dish of calcium chloride, under a bell-jar. In order to keep the mixture of
turpentine and alcohol from mounting the sides of the vessel which contains it, the rim
of the vessel should be coated over with hot paraffin. The turpentine hardens quite
slowly, and in order quickly to fasten a cover-glass to the slide when the turpentine is
being used for a permanent mount, a wire which has been heated in a flame should be
quickly drawn around the edge of the cover-glass.
Xylol.—This is used as a solvent for paraffin, either in removing paraffin from
sections or in preparing a dilute solution of paraffin to be used in the gradual infiltra-
tion of tissues with this substance. Used also as a solvent of Canada balsam.
PLANT PRODUCTS.
633
CHAPTER X.-METHODS OF DEMONSTRATING THE
CHARACTER OF CELL-WALLS AND
33
CELL-CONTENTS.
Aconitine, CH43NO₁2.—To demonstrate aconitine, treat sections with a solution
of potassium iodide-iodine. If aconitine is present, a carmine-red color will be pro-
duced. Treatment with a mixture of equal parts of sulphuric acid and water gives
a similar color. Treatment with a solution of cane-sugar and then with the dilute
sulphuric acid produces a brilliant carmine-red color.
Aleurone. See page 549 for a description of the general nature of aleurone
grains. The protein nature of aleurone is shown by the fact that it dissolves with a red
color on the application of Millon's reagent, and assumes a yellowish or brownish
color with tincture of iodine. The aleurone grains of ricinus are best studied from
material that has been fixed in a saturated alcoholic solution of picric acid, or sections
from fresh material may be fixed as above, rinsed in alcohol, stained with an alcoholic
solution of eosin, cleared in oil of cloves, and mounted in Canada balsam. By this
process the ground substance is stained red, the crystalloid yellow, while the globoid
is usually colorless. For characteristic reactions of aleurone with other reagents, see
in the last chapter under Borax-carmine, Digestive Fluids, Gold Chloride, Pepsin.
Alkaloids. Sections which are to be tested for alkaloids should be sufficiently
thick to leave one cell-layer intact. In order to make the determination of the alkaloid
more certain, sections for control should be soaked for a day or so in a solvent of alka-
loids prepared by dissolving 1 part of tartaric acid in 20 parts of alcohol; and then the
sections should be rinsed in water for a day to wash out the acid solution. Sections
which have been thus treated should be mounted under the same cover-glass with un-
treated sections, and the reagents for testing for alkaloids applied. It is best, on the
whole, to mount the sections directly in the reagent which is to be used as a test for the
alkaloid, since some alkaloids might be dissolved out if the sections are first mounted
in water.
With the following reagents most alkaloids are thrown down in the form of amor-
phous or crystalline precipitates: Potassium iodide-iodine, potassium bismuthiodide,
chlor-zinc-iodide, potassium-mercuridiodide, chloride of gold, ammonium-molybdate.
The crystalline precipitates can be studied to best advantage by means of a polarizer
attached to the microscope.
The vapor of iodine may often be used to good advantage in the detection of alka-
loids in the following manner: A few grams of iodine are placed at the bottom of a
small exsiccator, and a layer of sand about a centimeter deep is placed over the iodine
to prevent its too rapid evaporation. Sections which have been treated with a solvent
of alkaloids, and sections which have not been thus treated, are mounted on the same
slide and placed on the upper part of the exsiccator, where they are to remain for several
hours. The sections are then covered with a drop of paraffin oil, which will not dissolve
the precipitate, and covered with a cover-glass for examination under a microscope,
preferably with a polarizing attachment.
Allyl Sulphide, or Garlic Oil, (C3HÁ)2S.—This may be demonstrated by treating
portions of a species of Allium with a solution of palladous nitrate, which produces
with allyl sulphide a kermes-brown precipitate, or the material may be treated with a
2 per cent. solution of silver nitrate, in which case sulphide of silver will be produced.
The material may then be hardened in alcohol and sectioned.
634
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC
Ammonia, NH3.-The demonstration of ammonia in plant tissues is given in
the preceding chapter under Nessler's Reagent.
Amygdalin. This nitrogenous glucoside is particularly abundant in bitter
almonds and in the bark, leaves, and flowers of Prunus padus. It may be extracted
by boiling water, and from a mixture of alcohol and water it crystallizes out in the
form of transparent orthorhombic crystals. From 80 per cent. alcohol it crystallizes
in the form of pearly scales. It is split up into prussic acid, oil of bitter almonds,
and sugar by an enzyme known as emulsin, which occurs within the plant along with
the amygdalin.
Amylodextrine.-This substance occurs in those starch-grains which take on
a reddish color with iodine, and it is formed by the action of diastase and acids from
the amylose of those starch-grains which are colored blue with iodine. By the action
of diastase on the starch of germinating seeds the amylose of the starch is converted
first into amylodextrine, and this in turn into dextrine and isomaltose. The micro-
chemical behavior of amylodextrine is given by Arthur Meyer as follows: Water at
70° C. dissolves crystals of amylodextrine slowly, while at 100° the crystals are dis-
solved at once. A solution of 10 Gm. of pure calcium nitrate in 14 Gm. of water
dissolves crystals under the cover-glass very slowly. After some hours, if a solution
of iodine is added, the calcium nitrate solution is colored brown, which indicates that
the crystals of amylodextrine have at least been partially dissolved. A solution of
2 Gm. of purest potassium hydrate in 100 Gm. of water dissolves small crystals within
2 hours, while the solution of larger crystals requires a longer time. A solution of
iodine, prepared as directed on page 621, colors the crystals dark brown. A 25 per
cent. solution of hydrochloric acid dissolves large and small crystals immediately.
When this solution is diluted with 4 parts of water, it takes on a brownish-red color
with the iodine solution. When I drop of malt extract is added to 5 drops of a neutral
solution of amylodextrine this becomes inverted within 10 minutes, so that it no longer
is colored by the iodine solution. To prepare the malt extract treat 1 part of malt
with 3 parts of water and filter the solution. The solution of crystals of amylodex-
trine by the malt extract requires several days. At a temperature of 40° C. saliva
dissolves the amylodextrine crystals within 48 hours. To prepare the saliva mix
human saliva with a drop of chloroform, filter, and preserve over a few drops of chloro-
form.
Amyloid. This occurs as reserve material in the seeds of Tropæolum majus,
Impatiens balsamina, Pæonia officinalis, and in many other plants. It is colored blue
by dilute solution of iodine, but with a concentrated solution it is colored a brownish-
orange. It is soluble in cuprammonia only after a day. Treated with a 30 per
cent. solution of nitric acid it swells strongly, and finally dissolves. This is different
from the amyloid produced by the action of acids and certain chlorides on cellulose.
Amylose. Starch-grains which are colored blue by iodine—that is, most starch-
grains—are, according to Meyer, composed of crystals of two kinds of amylose, named
by Meyer a-amylose and ß-amylose. The a-amylose has been isolated in crystalline
form, but the B-amylose has not been isolated, and its microchemical behavior has
only been determined by experiments with starch-grains. The microchemical behavior
of the a-amylose is as follows, the reagents being prepared as directed under amylo-
dextrine: Water at from 60° to 100° C. does not soon dissolve the crystals of this
amylose. Treatment with the calcium nitrate solution for 30 minutes does not appear
to affect the crystals. The solution of iodine does not color the crystals at first, but
after a longer time it imparts a brownish color. The solution of hydrochloric acid
dissolves the crystals at once, and the solution, diluted with four times its bulk of
PLANT PRODUCTS.
635
water, is colored deep blue with the iodine reagent; but after the solution has stood
for 12 hours it is colored brownish or not at all by the iodine. The solution of potas-
sium hydrate at ordinary temperatures affects the crystals so that they are colored
blue by the iodine after the solution has been neutralized with acetic acid. In boiling
potassium hydrate the crystals are changed into viscid drops. If the solution is now
neutralized with acetic acid and diluted with four times its bulk of water, it takes on
a deep blue color with the iodine reagent.
If a drop of malt extract is added to the solution formed by boiling crystals of
a-amylose with the potassium hydrate solution, and exactly neutralizing with acetic
acid, it is found after 5 minutes that the solution takes on a red color, due to the
formation of amylodextrine by the influence of the malt extract. Saliva and malt
extract have very little effect upon a-amylose. After treatment with these reagents
for 15 days at a constant temperature of 40° C., no essential change could be detected.
B-Amylose is insoluble in cold water, but at a temperature of 70° C. it forms
viscid masses or minute droplets. The solutions of calcium nitrate, potassium hydrate,
and hydrochloric acid have the same effect as water, excepting that the solution in
hydrochloric acid is more complete than in water. The solution of 3-amylose acts
precisely as the solution of a-amylose. Undissolved ß-amylose, however, is colored
blue by the iodine solution. The swelling of starch in hot water is probably due to
the ẞ-amylose which it contains. Meyer considers «-amylose and ẞ-amylose to be
the same substance, but that the latter contains water of crystallization, while the
former does not.
Anthochlorin.-A yellow coloring matter dissolved in the cell-sap of flowers,
and differing from the yellow coloring matter xanthin occurring in chromoplasts in
that it is not changed to a blue color by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid.
Anthocyanins.-These are coloring matters of flowers which impart red, violet,
blue, blue-green, or green colors, the character of the color being dependent on the
alkalinity or acidity of the cell-sap. The anthocyanins are soluble in water, alcohol
and ether, and are decolorized in strong alkalies.
Anthoxanthin.-This yellow coloring matter in the chromoplasts of flowers
and fruits takes on a blue color with concentrated sulphuric acid. Since the chromo-
plasts of flowers and fruits were first of all green, anthoxanthin is probably a derivative
of chlorophyll. Anthoxanthin is also called xanthin and xanthophyll.
g
Arabin. This is the gum derived from species of Acacia and known as gum
arabic. Arabin is soluble in hot and cold water, and insoluble in alcohol and ether.
The aqueous solution will mix with glycerine, but concentrated glycerine has little
effect on the hard gum.
Asparagin, C2H3NH2.CONH2.COOH.—This is a nitrogenous compound of
simpler constitution than that of proteids. It is formed within plants both analytically
by the decomposition of proteid, and synthetically probably by the combination of
ammonia with formic aldehyde. Asparagin is soluble in water and in the cell-sap,
and is one of the most important nitrogenous compounds which are capable of solu-
tion and circulation within the plants. It combines with non-nitrogenous compounds
to form proteids, and is apt to accumulate in those parts of plants where there is not
sufficient non-nitrogenous material at hand for the formation of proteids. The
accumulation of asparagin is particularly apt to occur in plants which are grown in
the dark, so that carbon assimilation does not take place. Thus, Pfeffer found that
when seedlings of lupin were grown in the dark, they contained a large amount of
asparagin, but when they were brought to the light, the asparagin disappeared. He
found that this was not due simply to the influence of the light, for when the seedlings
636
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
were exposed to the light in an atmosphere destitute of carbon dioxide, the asparagin
persisted in the seedlings. For the ready demonstration of asparagin, tubers of dahlia
may be employed. Rather thick sections are cut from a tuber while the razor is kept
dry and transferred to a few drops of alcohol on a glass slide and covered with a cover-
glass. On the evaporation of the alcohol crystals of asparagin in the form of rhombic
plates are deposited on the cover-glass and slide. To determine whether the crystals
are asparagin, they are treated with a few drops of a saturated solution of asparagin,
which must be entirely saturated and of the same temperature as the preparation.
If the crystals are asparagin, instead of being dissolved they will increase in size,
while other substances than asparagin will dissolve in the saturated asparagin solution
just as they would in water. It is characteristic of asparagin that if the crystals are
heated to 100° C., they lose their water of crystallization and appear like bright droplets
of oil. At 200° asparagin becomes decomposed and forms frothy brown droplets which
are no longer soluble in water.
4
Atropine, C₁7H23NO3.—In sections containing atropine a solution of potassium
iodide-iodine produces a brown precipitate, while phosphomolybdic acid produces a
yellow precipitate.
Bassorin.-Gum tragacanth, obtained from certain cells of the pith and medullary
rays of several species of Astragalus. Swells strongly in water, but does not go into
complete solution. Is not colored either by iodine or chloroiodide of zinc.
Berberine, C20H17NO, + 4†H₂O.—This occurs in the young parenchymatous
tissue, and in the older xylem portions of Berberis vulgaris. With potassium iodide-
iodine it forms a reddish-brown precipitate which, by treatment with alcoholic
potassium iodide-iodine, becomes changed into tubular or hair-like forms which have a
brownish or iridescent green color. Ammonium and nitric acid impart to berberine a
reddish-brown color. A solution of potassium bichromate or potassium iodide in
50 per cent. sulphuric acid produces, with berberine, an intense purplish-red color.
One part of nitric acid mixed with 100 parts of water added to sections containing
berberine will produce clustered acicular crystals of berberine nitrate within the
berberine-bearing cells.
Betulin. This occurs in the form of fine granules in the thinner walled cork
cells of birch bark. In order that it may be studied to good advantage under the
microscope, the air should be pumped from sections immersed in water, and then the
sections should be examined in water under the microscope. Betulin is insoluble in
water, but is soluble in alcohol. It is strongly antiseptic, and protects birch bark
against the attacks of lower organisms.
Betuloretic Acid, Cз6H6O.-This is secreted by the glandular hairs on the
leaves of Betula alba. It is obtained from the thick, pale yellow secretion by successive
solution in boiling alcohol, ether, and an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate.
It is colored a beautiful red by concentrated sulphuric acid.
Brucine, C23H20N2O4 + 4H₂O.—Brucine occurs in the seeds of various species
of strychnos. Ammonium vanadate in sulphuric acid gives with brucine a
yellowish-red color. When sections containing brucine are treated with a mixture
of nitric and hydrochloric acids, the cell-contents are colored a reddish-orange, which
merges into yellow.
Caffeine, CHIN¸O2 + H₂O.—When sections containing caffeine (theine, methyl-
theobromine, trimethyl-xanthin) are treated with a drop of concentrated hydrochloric
acid, and then after a minute with a drop of a 3 per cent. gold chloride solution, some-
PLANT PRODUCTS;
637
what slender, yellowish, silken crystals of a double chloride of gold and caffeine begin
to be formed on the evaporation of the reagent. However, theobromine forms quite
similar crystals when treated as above. Another method for the detection of caffeine
is to place sections in a few drops of water and heat to boiling; then to allow the
water to evaporate slowly and to treat the residue with a drop of benzol. On the
evaporation of the benzol, caffeine appears in the form of fine needle-crystals.
Calcium. When the ash of plants is treated with sulphuric acid, this unites with
the calcium present to form crystals of gypsum. If calcium sulphate is already present
in the ash, its characteristic crystals may be detected when an aqueous solution of
the ash is allowed to dry slowly. If calcium is present in sections, it may be deposited
in the form of crystals of calcium oxalate if the sections are treated with a solution of
ammonium oxalate.
Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3.-This rarely occurs in the crystalline form within
the cells. It may, however, be found imbedded in, or incrusted on, the cell-walls.
Calcium carbonate dissolves with effervescence when treated with dilute acetic acid.
When treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, it dissolves with the evolution
of carbon dioxide gas. The ingrowths from the walls of certain cells of the leaves
of Ficus elastica, known as cystoliths, are thickly incrusted with calcium carbonate,
and afford excellent material for the demonstration of this salt within plant tissues.
Calcium Phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2.—This salt of calcium occurs usually, if not
always, in solution in the cell-sap. It may be deposited in the form of sphærocrystals
when plant tissues containing it are kept for a long time in strong alcohol. When
treated with sulphuric acid, the sphærocrystals are dissolved and crystals of calcium
sulphate are formed in their stead. When sections containing calcium phosphate
are heated on a slide in a drop of ammonium molybdate acidulated with nitric acid,
a yellow precipitate is produced. This reaction may be hindered by the presence of
certain organic compounds, such as potassium tartrate, in which case the sections
should be treated with a mixture of 25 volumes of a concentrated aqueous solution of
magnesium sulphate with 2 volumes of a concentrated aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride and 15 volumes of water. In this case a crystalline precipitate of ammonio-
magnesium phosphate is formed.
Calcium Oxalate, CaC2O4.-Crystals of calcium oxalate occur so commonly in
plants that it is safe to assume that any crystals observed in fresh tissues are of this
substance until the contrary is demonstrated. The crystals may occur singly in the
cells, in which case their definite crystalline form can be made out, or in the form of
agglomerated star-shaped clusters of crystals, or in bundles of parallel needle-shaped
crystals, or they may occur very numerously in cells in the form of very minute crystals.
The crystals are insoluble in water and acetic acid, but dissolve without effervescence
in hydrochloric acid. When they are treated with sulphuric acid, crystals of calcium
sulphate are formed in their place. Calcium oxalate appears to be an excretion formed
by the union of salts of calcium, which have been absorbed from the soil, with oxalic
acid which is formed by the plant.
Calcium Sulphate, CaSO₁.—Minute crystals of calcium sulphate occur in many
desmids. They are insoluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. A solution of barium
chloride dissolves them with the formation of barium sulphate.
Callose.-Callose occurs in sieve tubes, where it may close up the sieve pores.
It also occurs commonly in cystoliths, and in the membranes of pollen-grains and
various fungi. Callose is insoluble in water, alcohol, and cuprammonia, but it is
readily soluble in cold sulphuric acid, calcium chloride, and concentrated chloride of
It is insoluble in cold alkaline carbonates, but swells up without dissolving in
zinc.
638
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
ammonium. Corallin, aniline blue, and a mixture of soluble blue and vesuvin, or
of vesuvin and orseillin, are suitable stains for callose. The corallin should be dis-
solved in a saturated solution of sodium carbonate. After remaining in this solution
for a time, the sections should be examined in glycerine. If the sections are over-
stained, the intensity of the stain may be reduced in a 4 per cent. solution of sodium
carbonate. The aniline blue should be used in dilute aqueous solutions, in which
the sections are to remain for about half an hour. Overstaining may be remedied by
washing out in glycerine.
Calycin, C18H12O6.-This occurs in the tissues of many lichens.
Its presence
may be demonstrated by moistening some of the powdered lichen with glacial acetic
acid, and when the preparation dries, the long, doubly refractive crystals of calycin
are deposited. When a section of lichen containing calycin is treated on the slide
with a few drops of chloroform and a drop of sodium hydrate, that portion of the
section which contains calycin assumes a color varying from brick-red to blue-red.
Cane-sugar (Sucrose), C12H22O11.-This is of common occurrence in plant tissues.
At 15° C. it is soluble in part of water. It is difficultly soluble in alcohol. When
boiled with Fehling's solution, it does not at first precipitate cuprous oxide, but on
longer boiling it becomes converted into glucose and lævulose, which are capable of
reducing Fehling's solution. If rather thick sections containing cane-sugar (the
sugar-beet affords good material) are placed for a short time in a concentrated solu-
tion of cupric sulphate, and then quickly rinsed in water, transferred to a solution
of 1 part of potassium hydrate in 1 part of water, and heated to boiling, the cells con-
taining the sugar take on a sky-blue color. A blue color is also produced by Fehling's
solution when sections containing cane-sugar are heated in a drop of the solution on a
slide until bubbles arise.
Carotin, C20H38.-Carotin occurs in the orange and red chromatophores of many
flowers and fruits; it seems also to be an essential part of chlorophyll; it occurs in crys-
talline form in the roots of carrots, which have a yellow color in consequence. To
demonstrate the presence of carotin in chloroplasts place pieces of fresh leaves in a
20 per cent. solution of potassium hydroxide in 40 per cent. alcohol, and leave them
thus in a tightly closed vessel for several days. When the chlorophyll has been ex-
tracted from the leaves, they should be washed in distilled water and sections from
them should be mounted in glycerine. Yellowish and red crystals will then be found
in the cells which formerly contained chlorophyll. Carotin is insoluble in water
and with difficulty in alcohol, but is readily soluble in petroleum ether, benzol, and
benzine. When freshly dried leaves or roots of carrots are powdered and treated
with one of these solvents, and the solution is allowed to dry or is treated with alcohol,
carotin crystallizes out in the form of reddish or yellowish crystals. With a solution
of iodine carotin is colored greenish or bluish; with concentrated sulphuric acid it is
colored from violet to indigo blue.
Cellulose, CH10O5.-Cellulose is one of the most important constituents of cell-
walls; the first-formed walls are nearly always of cellulose, together with certain
pectic compounds. Modified cell-walls—namely, those which have become cutinized
or lignified—have arisen by the chemical modification of cellulose, or by the infiltra-
tion of new material between the cellulose molecules, or by both of these processes.
Cellulose is characterized by being soluble in sulphuric acid and cuprammonia; by
being colored from violet to blue by sulphuric acid and iodine, chloroiodide of zinc,
chloroiodide of calcium, iodine and aluminum chloride, iodine and phosphoric acid.
See under these heads in the chapter on Reagents.
Chitin. The walls of many fungi consist of chitin instead of cellulose. This
PLANT PRODUCTS.
639
may be demonstrated by cutting the pileus of an agaracus into small pieces, which
are then to be treated successively with dilute potassium hydrate, dilute sulphuric
acid heated to boiling, alcohol, and finally ether. When this process is completed, a
white substance remains which becomes hard and horny on drying, and which is in-
soluble to all reagents except concentrated acids, and in all other respects possesses
the characteristics of chitin.
Chlorophyll.-Chlorophyll may be extracted from the chloroplasts by means of
strong alcohol. When this extract is shaken up with benzol and a few drops of water,
and allowed to stand for a short time, the benzol which rises to the top will contain
two pigments, amorphous chlorophyll-green and carotin; while the lower stratum
of alcohol will contain a crystallizable chlorophyll-green and xanthophyll. The
amorphous and the crystallizable chlorophyll-green differ in the character of their
spectra and in their solubility in different reagents. The amorphous form is soluble
in alcohol, petroleum ether, carbon bisulphide, and benzine; while the crystallizable
is soluble only in the alcohol.
Colchicine, C22H26NO6.-This occurs in a few rows of cells immediately sur-
rounding the vascular bundles of the corm of Colchicum autumnale. Treated with a
mixture of 1 part of sulphuric acid and 3 parts of water colchicine is colored yellow,
and this color is changed to a brownish-violet by the addition of a crystal of potassium
nitrate. Iodine stains it brown, and potassic-mercuric iodide and hydrochloric acid
produce with it a yellow precipitate.
Corydalin, C18H19NO,.-This is an alkaloid which is found in the idioblasts of
the Fumariaceæ. When corydalin is present, ammonia produces a dark gray color,
picric acid a yellow, and potassium iodide-iodine a deep reddish-brown color.
Crocin (Saffron-yellow), CH70O28.—This is a glucoside occurring in the stigmas
of Crocus sativus. When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to crocin, a deep blue
color is produced which passes into violet, cherry-red, and then brown. Nitric acid
also produces a blue color which passes into brown.
Curarin. This occurs in the parenchyma and bast of several species of Strychnos.
Concentrated nitric acid produces with it a blood-red, and dilute or concentrated
sulphuric acid a carmine-red, color.
Curcumin, C₁4H4O4.—Curcumin occurs, dissolved in an ethereal oil, in certain
cells of the ground parenchyma of the rhizome of Curcuma longa. It crystallizes in
the form of yellow needles which have a bluish tint by reflected light. Lead acetate
forms a brick-red precipitate with curcumin, and sulphuric acid gives it a crimson
color.
Cutin.-Cutin is a substance which is nearly related to suberin (which see), but
is not identical with it. None of the acids derived from cutin is identical with any
derived from suberin. However, the micro-chemical reactions of suberin and cutin
are the same. They are insoluble in concentrated sulphuric acid and cuprammonia
and are colored from yellow to brown with the iodine reagents. When heated with
concentrated potassium hydrate, they form yellowish droplets and granular masses.
When heated in nitric acid and potassium hydrate, they form droplets which melt
between 30° and 40° C., and which are soluble in boiling alcohol, ether, benzol, chloro-
form, and dilute potassium hydrate. Both suberized and cutinized walls resist con-
centrated chromic acid at ordinary temperatures. Chemical analysis shows that
cutin is composed of compound esters and fatty acids, and when heated to 300° in
glycerine, it behaves as a fatty body. For staining cutinized walls, see under Cyanin,
Alcannin, Chlorophyll Solution, Double Staining.
Cytisin, C20H27N3O.-This alkaloid occurs in the seeds of Cytisus laburnum
640
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
and of other species of Cytisus. It occurs in less abundance in other parts of the
plant, such as the petals and peripheral tissues of the stem. Potassium iodide-iodine
produces with it a reddish-brown, granular precipitate which is soluble in sodium
hyposulphite. Chloride of iron gives an orange-red color with cytisin. With phospho-
molybdic acid a light yellow precipitate is produced, and picric acid when added to
thin sections containing cytisin produces crystal groups of a reddish-yellow color.
Datiscin, C2H22O12.-This glucoside is found in the cell-walls of the wood
and bark of Datisca cannabina. Lime and baryta waters produce with it a yellow
solution which loses its color on the addition of acetic or dilute hydrochloric acid. In
the presence of datiscin, acetate of lead and chloride of zinc produce a yellow, oxides
of copper a greenish, and chloride of iron a dark bluish-green, precipitate.
Dextrine, C12H20O10--This is one of the intermediate products between starch
and maltose (see Amylose). It is easily soluble in water, and from its aqueous
solution it may be precipitated by strong alcohol. It is not colored by iodine, and
does not reduce salts of copper.
Dextrose (Glucose, Grape-sugar).—See under Glucose.
Diastase. To demonstrate the presence of diastase in sections they are laid for
a time in a dark brown solution of guaiacum in absolute alcohol. When the sections
are completely infiltrated with this solution the alcohol is allowed to evaporate, and
then the sections are placed in a rather dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide. By
this treatment cells containing diastase are colored a beautiful blue. See also under
Diastase Solution in the preceding chapter.
Dulcite, C6H1406.-Dulcite may be demonstrated in sections from one-year-old
stems of Euonymus japonicus. The sections are placed on a slide in a few drops of
alcohol, and covered with a cover-glass. After the alcohol has slowly evaporated from
under the cover-glass, crystals of dulcite will be deposited in the form of long, branched
prisms or needles radiating from a common center. They are distinguished from
crystals of potassium nitrate by dissolving in diphenylamine and sulphuric acid with-
out coloration, and by being insoluble in a concentrated solution of dulcite.
Elaioplasts.—These are rounded or irregularly polygonal, more or less granular
bodies, consisting of a protoplasmic stroma and inclosed oil, which occur closely
applied to the nucleus in the epidermal cells of many monocotyledonous and some di-
cotyledonous plants. In old cells the elaioplasts have the appearance of a sponge
saturated with oil. The oil in the elaioplast of Ornithogalum umbellatum may be almost
instantly dissolved by means of alcohol. These elaioplasts may be fixed and stained
at the same time by treating sections containing them with a dilute solution of alcannin
in 1 per cent. acetic or formic acid. The acid fixes the protoplasmic stroma, while the
alcannin stains the oil a beautiful red. The fixing and staining process should be
complete in 5 minutes. If desired, the sections may be double-stained by transferring
them from the alcannin to a solution of iodine-green and glycerine, after which they
may be mounted in glycerine-jelly. The sections may also be stained in a mixture of
a dilute solution of alcannin and a solution of iodine-green in 50 per cent. alcohol
and I per cent. acetic acid.
Emulsin. This is a glucoside-splitting ferment which occurs in certain cells of
the almond and of the bundle-sheath of the leaves of Prunus laurocerasus. When
sections are treated with Millon's reagent, the cells containing emulsin take on an
orange-red color, while the surrounding cells are colored a pale rose-red. A solution
of copper sulphate and caustic potash produces a violet color in the emulsin-bearing
cells.
PLANT PRODUCTS.
641
Ethereal Oils.-Ethereal oils are distinguished from fatty oils in that they may
be distilled from plants along with vapor of water, and are soluble in glacial acetic
acid, and an aqueous solution of chloral hydrate. At 130° C. all ethereal oils may
be driven from sections, while the fatty oils remain behind. Ethereal oils are only
slightly soluble in water, but they impart their smell strongly to it. They are easily
soluble in ether, chloroform, and fatty oils. The spot produced on paper by ethereal
oils soon disappears. They agree with the fatty oils in being browned or blackened
by osmic acid, and in being stained by alcannin and cyanin.
Eugenol, C.H¸ . OH. OCH3. C3H5.-Eugenol occurs in clove and pimento oil.
When sections containing either of these oils are treated with a concentrated solution
of potassium hydrate, long columnar or needle-shaped crystals of potassium caryophyl-
late are produced. When sections of cloves are used, they often become covered by
the forming crystals.
Fats and Fatty Oils.-These are insoluble in cold and hot water, and, with the
exception of castor oil, hardly soluble in alcohol, but readily soluble in ether, chloro-
form, benzol, ethereal oils, acetone, and wood spirit. They make a spot on paper which
does not disappear, as in the case of ethereal oils. Most fats and fatty oils are colored
brown or black by 1 per cent. osmic acid. When a drop of fat or fatty oil is placed on a
glass slide in a drop of a mixture of equal parts of concentrated potassium hydrate
and ammonium, the oil becomes saponified, and may assume a form like a bunch of
grapes, or it may be partly or wholly changed into clusters of soap crystals. Vapor
of hydrochloric acid has been used to distinguish between ethereal and fatty oils. A
large and a small glass ring, such as are used for hanging drop cultures, are cemented
to a glass slide, the small one being shallower than the large one, and placed within it
concentrically. Hydrochloric acid is placed into the space between the rings, and
the sections to be tested are placed on a cover-glass in a drop of glycerine containing
a large amount of sugar.
The cover-glass is then inverted and placed on the larger ring. After the vapor
of hydrochloric acid has had time to act, any ethereal oil present in the sections will
take on the form of bright yellow drops which finally disappear. Fatty oils do not
form yellow drops by this treatment. A solution of alcannin colors the fats red, but
several hours may be required to accomplish this. A solution of cyanin in 50 per
cent. alcohol is also a good stain for fats. The sections will not need to lie in this
stain longer than half an hour. If sections are overstained, they may be washed out
in glycerine or a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate.
Frangulin, C20H20O10--This glucoside occurs in the cortex of species of Rhamnus.
It forms yellow crystalline masses which are insoluble in water, but soluble in alkalies,
which produce with it a cherry-red color. Concentrated sulphuric acid produces with
frangulin an emerald-green, which changes into purple, and finally the frangulin dis-
solves with a dark red color. Water will precipitate it from this solution.
Fungus Cellulose. The membranes of very few fungi give the reactions of
cellulose. The membranes of most fungi are insoluble in cuprammonia, and are
colored from yellow to brown by chloroiodide of zinc, sulphuric acid and iodine. Neither
do they react in the same manner as suberized and lignified membranes. They are,
therefore, considered to be a distinct substance, which is termed fungus cellulose.
See also under Chitin.
Gelatinous Sheaths. The homogeneous gelatinous sheaths which cover the entire
outside of certain algæ―notably, species of Spirogyra and Zygnema-may be demon-
4I
642
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
strated by the use of certain stains and other substances, such as India ink, which may
become deposited in the sheaths. Aqueous solutions of vesuvin, methyl-violet, and
methylene-blue will stain both the cell-walls and gelatinous sheaths, but the latter with
less intensity. Chloroiodide of zinc will stain the walls without affecting the sheaths.
Turnbull's blue may be deposited in the gelatinous sheaths in the following manner: A
small number of zygnema filaments, for instance, may be tied together with a thread
and placed for about 2 minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of ferrous lactate, then quickly
washed in water, and transferred to a 0.2 per cent. solution of ferricyanide of potas-
sium. A small amount of Turnbull's blue will then be deposited in the gelatinous
sheaths. This process should be repeated several times, until the deposit of Turn-
bull's blue is sufficiently dense to cause the sheaths to stand out quite sharply. By
this method very instructive double stains may be achieved with algae which have
been growing in a dilute solution of congo-red (see under this head in the preceding
chapter), which stains the cell-walls, but not the gelatinous sheaths. See also in the
preceding chapter under India ink.
Globoids. The globoids found in aleurone grains consist of a double phosphate
of calcium and magnesium, which is insoluble in alcohol and dilute potassium hydrate
but is soluble in dilute mineral acids and in acetic, oxalic, and tartaric acids. In an
ammoniacal solution of ammonium phosphate the globoids are replaced by groups
of crystals of ammonium-magnesium phosphate. Treated with ammonium oxalate,
they become replaced by crystals of calcium oxalate. The globoids may be isolated
to a certain extent by extracting the oil from sections of endosperm containing them
by means of alcohol or alcohol and ether, and then dissolving the ground substance
and crystalloid by means of 1 per cent. potassium hydrate. If crystals of calcium
oxalate are present along with the globoids, they may be distinguished by means of
the polarizer, since they are doubly refractive, while the globoids are not.
Glucose, C6H12O6.-This occurs in sweet fruits and in the leaves and other mem-
bers of plants, being one of the most common forms in which carbohydrates circulate
within the plant. The warty crystals of glucose which are deposited from aqueous
and alcoholic solutions at low temperatures melt at 86°, and become free from water
at 110° C. At from 30° to 35° C. glucose crystallizes from concentrated solutions in
water, ethyl- and methyl-alcohol in the form of hard crusts, which melt at 146° C.
The presence of glucose may be easily demonstrated in the fruit of the pear, for in-
stance, and in the leaves of balsamina, or other rather translucent leaves which have
been cut from the parent plant and kept fresh under a bell-jar for several days. Pieces
of the flesh of a ripe pear may be put into a test-tube with Fehling's solution and
brought to a boil, when a reddish precipitate of cuprous oxide will be thrown down.
This reaction is characteristic of dextrose, maltose, lactose, lævulose, and many glu-
cosides. In this instance, however, we are dealing with dextrose. This reaction may
also be carried out on the microscopic slide. Sections from the pear three or four
cell-layers thick should be placed on the slide in a few drops of the solution, the cover-
glass should then be put on, and the solution heated until bubbles begin to arise. The
microscope will then reveal the granular precipitate of cuprous oxide within the cells.
Portions of the leaf of the balsamina may be treated on the slide as directed for the
sections from the pear. See under Fehling's Solution in the preceding chapter.
10
Glycogen, C.HO;.-This is a colorless, amorphous, highly refractive substance
occurring quite commonly in the cells of fungi. It is soluble in water, but within the
cells it may be stained a reddish-brown by means of iodine.
Gums. These are amorphous, transparent substances which dissolve in water
more or less completely and form a sticky solution. They may be precipitated from
PLANT PRODUCTS.
643
their aqueous solutions by alcohol. Those gums which dissolve in water completely,
such as the gum of the cherry, apricot, peach, and gum arabic, are called true gums,
while those which contain cellulose and are not completely soluble in water are known
as mixed gums. Gum tragacanth is an example. One of the most striking charac-
teristics of gums which may be used in their identification is their great capacity to
swell in water. To follow the process of swelling with the microscope, sections should
be cut from dry material with a razor which may be wetted with alcohol, but not with
water. The sections should be placed on a slide in a drop of strong alcohol, the cover-
glass should be put on, and a drop of water placed on the slide so that it just touches
the edge of the cover-glass. As the water mixes with the alcohol and comes in contact
with the section a slow swelling of the gum will begin, which may be followed very
accurately through the microscope. For directions for staining and making permanent
preparations of sections containing mucilages and gums see under Boracic Acid in the
preceding chapter.
Hemicelluloses.-These are reserve materials which are deposited as additions
to the cell-walls in the endosperm of seeds and in wood parenchyma and wood-fibers.
By means of enzymes they may be converted into gums and sugars, in which forms
they may be transported to those parts where growth is taking place. The hemicel-
lulose or reserve cellulose in the endosperm of the date seed acts like ordinary cellulose
in being colored blue by chloroiodide of zinc and in dissolving in cuprammonia. The
reserve cellulose in the endosperm of the seeds of Lupinus luteus is not dissolved in
cuprammonia, and does not assume a blue color when treated with chloroiodide of zinc.
Hesperidin, C21H26O12.—This glucoside occurs dissolved in the cell-sap of many
plants. It may be precipitated from its solution in the cell-sap by means of alcohol.
The precipitate is in the form of crystals, which are colorless or slightly yellow, and
are doubly refractive, so that they may be studied to good advantage by means of
the polarizer. Hesperidin is also precipitated on the drying up of the cell-sap. The
crystals of hesperidin are insoluble in cold and boiling water, alcohol, ether, benzine,
and dilute acids, but they are soluble in solutions of caustic potash and soda, and in
ammonia, yielding a yellowish color to the solvent. Hesperidin may readily be ob-
tained for study in the unripe fruit of the orange and in the epidermal cells of Capsella
bursa-pastoris. Hesperidin may become deposited in the form of spærocrystals, when
the tissues containing it have lain for some time in strong alcohol or glycerine, acting
in this respect similarly to inulin. The constituent acicular crystals of the hesperidin
sphærites can be more easily distinguished than those of inulin, and when the hes-
peridin sphærites are treated with a drop of a-naphtol, and then with two or three
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, they dissolve with a yellow color, while, with
like treatment, inulin sphærites dissolve with a violet color.
Indican. The glucoside indican is a substance of the consistency of syrup, and
of a yellowish or brownish color. It is found in Isatis tinctoria, Phajus grandifolius
and in other indigo-bearing plants. When tissues containing indican are exposed to
the air, they may take on a blue color due to the conversion of the indican to indigotin,
which may be precipitated in alcohol in the form of small, tabular, bluish crystals.
To demonstrate the presence of indican, tissues containing it should be placed under
a bell-jar and over a dish of absolute alcohol. After standing exposed to the vapor
of alcohol for 24 hours, the tissues will be colored blue by the indigo blue which will
have been forced from the indican. A piece of moistened filter-paper should be placed
under the bell-jar to keep the tissues from drying.
644
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Inulin, C₁₂H20O10-Inulin is a carbohydrate which occurs dissolved in the cell-sap
of many plants, particularly among the Compositæ. It may be deposited from its
solution in the cell-sap by means of alcohol. To study the sphærocrystals of inulin,
pieces of dandelion or dahlia roots should be placed in 50 per cent. alcohol for a week
or more, and then thin sections should be prepared and examined in a drop of the
alcohol under the microscope. The sections should not be placed in water, since the
crystals of inulin are soluble in it. The sphærites will appear applied to the walls
of the cells as shown in figure 302, page 549. When the alcohol is replaced by water
which is then heated over a flame, the sphærites will dissolve. If sections containing
inulin sphærites are treated with a 20 per cent. solution of a-naphtol, and then 2 or 3
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added, the sphærites will be seen to dissolve
with a violet color. Inulin does not reduce Fehling's solution.
Leucin, C,H10NH2. COOH.-Leucin belongs to the amido-compounds. It has
been found in the etiolated leaves of Paspalum elegans and Dahlia veriabilis, and
associated with asparagin in seedlings of various Leguminosæ, particularly in those
of lupinus. Leucin crystallizes in thin plates, which are lighter than water and have
the appearance of mother-of-pearl. If sections containing leucin are carefully heated
on a slide under a cover-glass to a temperature of 170° C., the cover-glass will become
covered with minute, scale-like crystals, which are doubly refractive and may be studied
to advantage by means of the polarizer. The crystals of leucin may also be obtained
if sections are treated with alcohol under a cover-glass, and the alcohol is then allowed
to evaporate slowly.
Leucoplasts. For methods of fixing and staining leucoplasts, see in the last
chapter under Acid Fuchsin, Gold Chloride, and Picronigrosin.
Lignified Membranes.—Lignified membranes are distinguished from cellulose
membranes by their insolubility in cuprammonia and by being colored from yellow
to brown by iodine or chloroiodide of zinc. One of the most reliable tests for lignified
membranes will be found in the last chapter under Phloroglucin. Aniline sulphate is
also a good test for lignified membranes. The sections are first mounted in a drop of
a concentrated solution of aniline sulphate, and then this is replaced by a drop of con-
centrated sulphuric acid. By this treatment lignified membranes are stained a golden
yellow. See also under Double Staining in the last chapter.
Lipochromes.-These are yellow and red pigments which are for the most part
dissolved in fatty substances within the cells, and which are colored blue by sulphuric
or nitric acid, and green by potassium iodide-iodine.
Magnesium. To demonstrate the presence of magnesium within plant tissues,
sections are placed on the slide in a drop of sodium phosphate or sodium-ammonium
phosphate, and a little ammonium is added. In the presence of magnesium, crystals
of ammonio-magnesium phosphate are then formed, which have a coffin-lid form.
When the ash of tissues containing magnesium is treated as above, the crystals are apt
to form in x- or *-shaped groups.
Maltose.-Maltose is a sugar which is produced from starch by the action of
diastase. Maltose reduces Fehling's solution, but only about two-thirds as much as
grape-sugar (dextrose, glucose).
Morphine, C₁7H10NO3.-When the latex containing morphine is treated with
potassium iodide-iodine, a reddish-brown precipitate is produced, with potassium-
bismuth iodide a reddish-orange, and with potassio-mercuric iodide a yellowish-white
precipitate, while phospho-molybdic acid produces a yellow precipitate. A solution
PLANT PRODUCTS.
645
of 5 drops of methylal in 1 Cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid gives a violet color to
latex containing morphine.
Mucilages (see also under Gums).—Mucilage contained in sections of plant tissues
may be differentiated by staining with methylene-blue. The sections may be mounted
on the glass slip in a drop of a solution of 0.4 Gm. of methylene-blue in 100 Cc. of
equal parts of water, glycerine, and 95 per cent. alcohol. The mucilage will be seen
under the microscope to be stained more deeply blue than the cell walls or other cell
contents. If the sections are taken from fresh materials, the razor should be moist-
ened with alcohol. Dry materials should be soaked in water to soften for cutting.
If it is found that the mucilage dissolves too much in the water, the mucilage may be
hardened and the tissues softened at the same time in the lead acetate solution described
under Gums.
Myrosin.—Myrosin is an enzyme occurring in certain specialized cells in the seeds
and other parts of many Cruciferæ. The cells containing myrosin are stained a deep
red by Millon's reagent, while the surrounding cells may be stained a pale rose color.
When sections containing myrosin are heated in a concentrated solution of hydrochloric
acid which contains a drop of a 10 per cent. aqueous solution of orcin in each cubic
centimeter, a violet color is produced in the cells containing the myrosin. Myrosin
produces allylic mustard oil from potassium myronate, a glucoside occurring in the
parenchyma cells which are associated with those containing myrosin.
Narceine, C2H29NO,.-This is an alkaloid occurring in the latex of Papaver
somniferum. When a yellow color follows the addition of methylal to the latex, the
presence of narceïne is indicated.
Narcotine, C22H23NO7.-Sodium selenate produces an orange-red color with the
latex of Papaver somniferum, indicating the presence of narcotine.
Nicotine, C10H1,N2.-When sections containing nicotine are treated with potassio-
mercuric chloride, a yellowish-white precipitate is produced. Phospho-molybdic acid
gives, with nicotine, an abundant yellow precipitate. In the presence of nicotine
mercuric chloride produces a white, and platinum chloride a yellow, precipitate, while
potassium iodide-iodine causes first a carmine-red color and finally a reddish-brown
precipitate, which gradually bleaches out.
Nitrates. When nitrates are present in a solution, a drop of barium chloride
added to a drop of the solution will produce a precipitate of octahedral crystals of
barium nitrate. See also under Diphenylamine in the preceding chapter.
Nucleus. The nucleus can best be demonstrated in tissues which have been fixed
according to the directions given under Fixatives in the last chapter. Also under
Iodine-green and Acetic Acid, and Methyl-green and Acetic Acid, are given directions
for instantly fixing and staining nuclei. The three-color method of staining detailed
on page 610 gives the best results for the dividing nucleus.
Oils.-Ethereal and fatty oils have already been discussed under separate heads,
where the methods for distinguishing between the two will be found. See also in the
preceding chapter under Alcannin, Cyanin, and Osmic Acid.
Oxalic Acid.-When calcium nitrate is added to sections containing oxalic acid,
crystals of calcium oxalate are formed. With uranyl acetate crystals of uranium
oxalate are formed in tissues containing oxalic acid. The crystals are rhombic, of
rectangular form, and when large, appear of a yellow color, and, being doubly re-
fractive, they may be studied to advantage with the polarizer.
646
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Paragalactan. This occurs as a thickening of the cell-walls in the cotyledons
of Lupinus luteus. When it is heated with nitric acid, mucic acid is formed, and
when heated with dilute sulphuric acid, galactose, C6H12O6, and a pentaglucose are
formed. When heated with phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid, a cherry-red color is
produced. Paragalactan is not dissolved by cuprammonia, and is stained slightly or
not at all by chloroiodide of zinc.
Paramylum.-Paramylum grains are flattened, cylindrical, stratified bodies
occurring in the bodies of the Euglena and in the cysts of Leptophrys vorax. The
paramylum grains are hardly affected by water, alcohol, ether, nitric acid, or concen-
trated chromic acid; and while they are hardly soluble in 5 per cent. potassium hydrate,
they are easily soluble in a 6 per cent. solution. They may also be dissolved in con-
centrated sulphuric acid. They are not stained by iodine, chloroiodide of zinc, or by
any of the organic coloring matters.
Pectic Compounds.—The pectic substances (pectin, pectose, and pectic acids)
are widely distributed in the membranes of plants. Pectose occurs associated with
cellulose in the membranes of embryonic tissues, where it is distributed throughout
the entire thickness of the membrane. Pectose also occurs in most lignified, suberized,
and cutinized membranes. The middle portion of cell-walls-the so-called middle
lamella-consists, for the most part, of calcium pectate. When thin sections of plant
tissues are treated for several hours with a mixture of 1 part of hydrochloric acid and
4 parts of alcohol, the calcium pectate becomes changed, so that pectic acid is liberated
and calcium chloride is formed. The pectic acid is insoluble in water, but is soluble
in a 10 per cent. solution of ammonia, so that after rinsing the sections in water and
treating with the ammonia solution, the cells may be separated from each other by
a slight pressure on the cover-glass. When the sections are placed for a considerable
time in cold alkaline solutions, a double pectate is formed which swells in cold water
and finally dissolves in it. After the calcium pectate of the middle lamella has been
removed, the pectose which permeates the cell-wall still remains, but by treatment
with cuprammonia it may be removed from sections which have already been acted
on by dilute hydrochloric acid. The pectic substances may be stained only in neutral
or slightly acid solutions. For this reason it is a good plan to place sections for a short
time in a 3 per cent. solution of acetic acid, and then to wash them in water before
transferring them to the staining solutions. Safranin, methylene-blue, bleu de nuit,
and ruthenium-red are excellent stains for pectic substances. Safranin stains the
protoplasts and the lignified, suberized, and cutinized cell-membranes a cherry-red,
while the pectic compounds are stained orange-yellow. Methylene-blue and bleu de
nuit stain the protoplasts and the lignified membranes blue, and the pectic substances
a violet color. See also in the last chapter under Ruthenium-red.
Pezizin.—Pezizin is an orange-red coloring matter which occurs in solution within
the paraphyses of Peziza aurania and P. convexula. It is soluble in alcohol and ether,
and is not altered by alkalies and organic acids. It dissolves without color in hydro-
chloric acid and is colored bright green by nitric acid.
Phloridzin, C₂H24O10-A glucoside occurring in the leaves and in the cortex
of the roots and stems of the Pomaceæ. When tissues of Pirus malus containing
phloridzin are treated with ferric chloride, a dark brown solution is formed, while
treatment with ferrous sulphate causes a yellowish-brown precipitate. The tissues
of the pear, cherry, and plum are apt to contain large amounts of tannins which produce
a green color with salts of iron, and so mask the phloridzin reaction.
Phloroglucin, C。H3(OH)3.—This occurs in solution in the cell-sap. To demon-
strate its presence treat previously dried sections with a solution prepared by dissolving
PLANT PRODUCTS.
647
0.005 Gm. of vanillin in 0.5 Gm. of alcohol, and adding 0.5 Gm. of water and 3 Gm.
of concentrated hydrochloric acid. When phloroglucin is present, this solution pro-
duces a light red color.
Phosphoric Acid, H3PO4.—This can be best demonstrated in the ash. The ash
is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the solution is evaporated to dryness; then the
residue is treated with ammonium molybdate, which, if phosphoric acid is present,
produces a precipitate of ammonium phospho-molybdate, the crystals of which have
a greenish-yellow color under the microscope. If the presence of phosphoric acid is
to be sought for in fresh tissues, sections should be heated in a drop of ammonium
molybdate on the glass slide. This method also produces a precipitate of crystals of
ammonium phospho-molybdate in the presence of phosphoric acid. If ammonium
tartrate is present in the tissues, ammonium molybdate does not serve so well as a
test for phosphoric acid. In such a case a solution should be used, consisting of 25
volumes of a concentrated aqueous solution of magnesium sulphate, 2 volumes of a
concentrated aqueous solution of ammonium chloride, and 15 volumes of water. With
phosphoric acid this solution produces a precipitate of ammonio-magnesium phosphate
the crystals of which are frequently formed in x- and *-shaped clusters.
Piperine, C₁₂H₁NO.—Piperine is an alkaloid occurring in the fruit of the Piper-
aceæ. Very thin sections may be rubbed out somewhat under a cover-glass to press
out the ethereal oil, which will then evaporate and leave the piperine to crystallize
in the form of minute short needles. A section becomes of a deep red color when
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, while with nitric acid an orange color is
produced. When sections are moistened with sodium molybdate, and then treated
with concentrated sulphuric acid, they take on a blue color. Piperine is easily soluble
in acetic acid.
Proteids (Albuminoid Substances).—Proteids are stained from yellow to brown
by a dark solution of potassium iodide-iodine. The dilute solution of iodine recom-
mended for starch should not be used, for proteids are stained less readily than starch.
Millon's reagent (see under this head in the preceding chapter) colors proteids a brick-
red color. If the solution is old and has lost its efficiency, a few drops of a solution of
potassium nitrate will probably restore it. Concentrated nitric acid colors proteids
yellow, and the addition of ammonium produces a still deeper yellow. When sections
lie for an hour or two in a solution of 1 Gm. of sodium phospho-molybdate in 90 Gm.
of distilled water and 5 Gm. of nitric acid, which has been filtered after standing for
several days, the proteid substances appear in the form of yellowish granules. A con-
centrated solution of nickel sulphate colors proteid granules yellow or blue. When
rather thin sections are placed in a concentrated solution of copper sulphate for about
half an hour, and then are placed in water for about an hour, and then are transferred
to a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate, proteids are colored red or violet,
which becomes deeper when the solution in which the sections are lying is heated
somewhat. The pepsin-glycerine and pancreatin-glycerine ferments prepared by
Dr. G. Grübler in Leipzig are solvents of proteids. Sections are treated for an hour
at a temperature of 40° C. with a mixture of 1 part of pepsin-glycerine and 3 parts of
water, to which is added 0.2 per cent. of chemically pure hydrochloric acid. Pan-
creatin-glycerine is employed in the same manner as the pepsin-glycerine.
Protein Crystalloids.-Under Aleurone in the preceding chapter are given methods
of differentiating crystalloids in aleurone grains. Protein crystalloids also occur in
the cytoplasm, nucleus, and chromatophores, and in all of these cases the crystalloids
have essentially the same nature, but they may vary considerably in form. For staining
crystalloids, see in the preceding chapter under Acid Fuchsin.
648
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Protoplasm.—The protoplasm of the cell can be studied to advantage by means
of the microscope only after being killed and fixed by such reagents as those formulated
under Fixatives in the preceding chapter. The different constituents of the proto-
plasm can then be differentiated by means of stains or by means of digestive ferments,
such as pepsin and pancreatin. Iron hæmatoxylin, or a combination of fuchsin and
iodine green, or of safranin, gentian violet, and orange G, as recommended under
Double Staining in the preceding chapter, are specially to be recommended for differ-
entiating the different parts of the protoplasm. For staining the leucoplasts and chro-
matophores in general, see under Acid Fuchsin, page 615.
Protoplasmic Connections.-The protoplasmic connections between the plates
of sieve tubes may be strongly stained by acid fuchsin and aniline water (see page 615).
More delicate protoplasmic connections require the use of a swelling agent for their
demonstration. Sections of fresh material may be fixed with a solution of 0.05 Gm.
of iodine and 0.2 Gm. potassium iodide in 15 Gm. of water, and then the iodine should
be replaced by chloroiodide of zinc, which should be allowed to act for about 12 hours.
At the end of this time the membranes traversed by the protoplasmic connections will
be swollen to greater or less extent, so that the chloroiodide of zinc may be washed out
in water and the sections stained by acid fuchsin and aniline water, as already suggested.
Sulphuric acid may be used instead of the chloroiodide of zinc as the swelling agent.
For demonstration purposes sections through the endosperm of the Gramineæ, or tan-
gential sections through the green bark of Rhamnus frangula, may be used. Sections
are placed on a cover-glass in a drop of sulphuric acid. After a few seconds the acid
is washed away by immersing the cover-glass and moving the sections about in a dish
filled with water. The sections remain in the water for only a short time, and are
then to be stained in an aqueous solution of aniline blue, washed in water, and mounted
for examination in dilute glycerine. Or the sections may be stained in a saturated
solution of picric acid in 50 per cent. alcohol, to which aniline blue is added until the
solution has a blue-green color.
Pyrenoids.—The pyrenoids may be simultaneously fixed and stained by placing
the material in a concentrated solution of picric acid in 55 per cent. alcohol, to a
watch-glass of which is added about 5 drops of the acid fuchsin and aniline water
solution described on page 615. The material should remain for about 2 hours in a
watch-glass of this solution. It should then be washed for a quarter of an hour in
alcohol and mounted for examination in dilute glycerine. If permanent mounts are
desired, the material should be placed in a watch-glass of dilute glycerine, which should
then be allowed to concentrate in a place free from dust. The material should finally
be mounted in glycerine-jelly. The material may be mounted in Canada balsam
by transferring it from the alcohol in which it was washed to successively stronger
solutions of balsam in xylol until the ordinary solution used for mounting is reached.
See under Dahlia in the previous chapter for other methods of treating pyrenoids.
Reserve Cellulose.-Those hemicellulose thickenings of cell-walls in seeds, etc.,
which are essentially reserve food materials, and are made soluble by diastatic ferments
and employed as food material in the germination of seeds, are known as reserve cellu-
lose. Sections taken from a sprouted date seed and treated with potassium hydrate
and stained with alizarine show the inner layers of the cell-walls which have been
acted on by the diastase unstained, while the outer layers which have not yet been
affected by the diastase are stained an intense violet. If Congo-red is used instead
of the alizarine, the intact layers are scarcely stained, while the layers which have
PLANT PRODUCTS.
649
come under the influence of the diastase are stained a dark red. See under Hemi-
cellulose.
Resin. When sections containing resin are treated for some time with a tincture
of alcannin, the resin assumes a red color. When sections from tissues which have
lain for about a week in a concentrated aqueous solution of copper acetate are examined
under the microscope, the resin will be seen to be colored an emerald-green.
Ruberythric Acid, C20H28O14.-This occurs in the roots of Rubia tinctorium, and
is the chief constituent of the madder dye obtained from the roots of this plant. It
gives a yellow color to the cell-sap of the young roots; the cell-walls of old roots, how-
ever, have absorbed it and are colored by it. It is colored a purple-red by potassium
hydrate, and an orange color by acids. In dry roots it takes on the form of red flakes,
and in the injured cells of fresh material it assumes the same form. It may be ex-
tracted by alcohol from its yellow solution in uninjured tissues, but in the red flake form
it is not dissolved by alcohol.
Rutin, C42H50025.-This glucoside is widely distributed in plants. It crystallizes
from an aqueous solution in the form of minute light yellow crystals. The yellow
color of straw is, in part, due to it. When treated with ammonia or lime-water, rutin
forms a deep yellow solution, which turns to brown on exposure to the air.
Salicin, C13H1807.-Salicin is a glucoside which occurs in particular abundance
in the cortex of many poplars and willows. It may be dissolved by water, but more
readily by boiling water, by aqueous solutions of alkalies, and by acetic acid. It is
insoluble in ether. It crystallizes in the form of needles, scales, or thin plates. It is
colored by concentrated sulphuric acid, and, on the addition of a little water, a red
powder is thrown down in the sulphuric acid solution.
Santalin.—Santalin is the coloring matter of the red sandal-wood, Pterocarpus
santalinus. Santalin is insoluble in water, but is soluble in ether with a yellow color
and with 80 per cent. alcohol it gives a blood-red solution. Stronger alcohols give the
same result. It is also soluble in acetic acid and in aqueous alkaline solutions.
Saponin, C₁H0O10-This glucoside occurs in solution in the cell-sap. When
treated with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid, a yellow color is
produced which soon changes to red, and later to violet. If it is then treated with
a concentrated solution of chloride of iron, a brown or bluish-brown precipitate is
formed, the intensity of the bluish color increasing with the amount of saponin present.
Seminose. Seminose is one of the products resulting from the hydrolysis of
hemicellulose by sulphuric acid. It is dextrorotary, reduces Fehling's solution, and
is fermentable.
Silica, SiO2.-Silica occurs in the skeletons of diatoms, and as incrustations over
the epidermis of the Equisetacea and Gramineæ. It also sometimes occurs in masses
in the interior cells. It may be isolated from the organic matter with which it is
associated by burning over a flame bits of epidermis incrusted by it, or diatoms, which
are placed in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid on a piece of platinum foil. By
this treatment the organic matter will be destroyed, and the silica will remain behind
as a pure white ash. The silica may also be obtained pure by placing bits of tissues
incrusted by it in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, and then after a time adding
20 per cent. chromic acid, and following this with additions of still stronger chromic
acid until a considerable strength has been reached, and, finally, washing in water
and alcohol. Silica is distinguished by being insoluble in all the acids excepting
hydrofluoric acid. Silicious skeletons may be removed from diatoms by placing the
latter in hydrofluoric acid which is contained in a platinum vessel. The vessel should
650
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
be kept on a water-bath, and the diatoms should remain in the acid for 24 hours. At
the end of this time the acid should be thoroughly washed out from the diatoms. On
examination with the microscope, the diatoms will then be found to have lost their
silicious skeletons. In some instances a thin exterior membrane which is stained
brown by iodine is to be observed; but in other instances this membrane has been a
too insignificant part of the skeleton to retain its identity after the removal of the
silica.
Sinapine, C₁0H32NO.-This is an alkaloid occurring in the seeds of the white
mustard. When sections of these seeds are placed in a concentrated solution of
potassium hydrate, they assume a yellow color, which changes to orange on warming.
This reaction loses some of its value, however, from the fact that a glucoside called
sinalbine also occurs in the seeds of the white mustard and turns yellow on the applica-
tion of potassium hydrate.
Solanin, C₁2H7NO₁5.—This glucoside occurs in the tissues of Solanum tuberosum.
To demonstrate its presence, sections should be placed in a mixture of 1 part of ammo-
nium vanadate and 1000 parts of a mixture of 98 parts of sulphuric acid with 36 parts
of water. This produces with solanin a yellow color, which changes successively
into orange, purple-red, brown, red-orange, carmine-red, raspberry-red, and blue-
violet. The color then passes into a grayish-blue and disappears. With concentrated
sulphuric acid solanin assumes a yellow color, which changes to red, and then violet,
and then passes into gray and disappears.
Spergulin, CH7O2.—This occurs in the seed coats of species of Spergula. It is
soluble in alcohol with a blue fluorescence, in ether, and in concentrated sulphuric
acid with a deep blue color. It is insoluble in chloroform, benzine, and in the fatty
and ethereal oils. When caustic potash is added to an alcoholic solution of spergulin,
an emerald-green fluorescence is produced.
Starch, CH10O5.—A solution of potassium iodide stains starch from pale violet
to purple, depending on the strength of the iodine solution. Chloroiodide of zinc
stains starch-grains purple, and at the same time swells them. A solution of chloral
hydrate and iodine dissolves the protoplasmic cell-contents and stains included starch-
grains purple.. This reagent is particularly adapted to demonstrate the presence of
starch in chloroplasts or amyloplasts. The bleaching effect of the chloral hydrate
is so great that starch may be demonstrated in whole leaves by the chloral hydrate
and iodine reagent. For the further treatment of starch with reagents, see in the
preceding chapter under Eau de Javelle, Calcium Nitrate, Diastase, Methyl-violet,
Silver Nitrate. For the structure of starch-grains, see page 547.
Strychnine, C2H22N2O2.—When sections containing strychnine are treated with
a solution of 1 Gm. of ammonium vanadate in 100 Cc. of sulphuric acid, they quickly
take on a violet-red color, which after a time changes to brown. If sections of the
seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica are treated with sulphuric acid containing an excess of
ceric sulphate, the walls of the cells are colored a bluish-violet. The sections must
have been previously treated with petroleum ether and absolute alcohol to remove
the fatty oils, grape-sugar, and brucine. The reagent should be applied immediately
before the observation is to be made. If sections are treated with concentrated sul-
phuric acid, and crystals of potassium bichromate are then added, a violet color is
produced.
Suberin and Suberized Walls.-Suberized walls are stained green when treated
for about an hour in the dark by a freshly-prepared strong solution of chlorophyll.
A cold concentrated solution of potassium hydrate colors suberized walls yellow.
When the potassium hydrate is heated yellow drops and granular masses are formed.
PLANT PRODUCTS.
651
When suberized walls are heated in a solution of potassium chlorate in nitric acid,
they become changed into droplets which melt between 30° and 40° C., and which
are soluble in hot chloroform, alcohol, ether, benzol, or dilute potassium hydrate.
At ordinary temperatures concentrated chromic acid solutions have little effect on
suberized walls. A solution of potassium iodide-iodine and chloriodide of zinc colors
suberized membranes from yellow to brown. After long treatment with a dilute
solution of potassium hydrate, suberized membranes may be stained violet with chloro-
iodide of zinc. Alcannin stains suberized walls red. Under the polariscope suberized
walls are seen to be doubly refractive. They lose this property on heating and regain
it on cooling. It may be deduced from this that the constituents of the walls are in
part, at least, in crystals which are melted by heat, but reappear on cooling. See under
Methyl-blue and Double Staining.
Syringin. Syringin is a glucoside occurring in the cortex, and to a certain extent
in the xylem and medullary rays of Syringa vulgaris. It is especially abundant in
early spring. Sections containing syringin, when treated with concentrated sulphuric
acid, acquire a dark blue color, which changes to violet. Nitric acid dissolves syringin
with a blood-red color. Syringin crystallizes from aqueous solutions in the form of
colorless, needle-like crystals which are grouped in the form of a star. The crystals
are dissolved with difficulty in cold water, but readily in boiling water or in alcohol.
Tannins. Various substances occurring in plants having an astringent taste,
and turning blue or green with salts of iron, are termed tannins or tannic acid. Oak-
galls furnish excellent material to illustrate the demonstration of tannin.
When sec-
tions are treated with an aqueous solution of ferric chloride, they take on a deep blue
color, due to the presence of tannin. Aqueous solutions of ferrous sulphate give the
same result. If the reaction is watched under the microscope, it is noticed that at
first a deep blue precipitate is formed, which soon dissolves and imparts its color
to the surrounding fluid. When sections are placed in a 10 per cent. aqueous solution
of potassium bichromate, a flocculent reddish-brown precipitate is formed in the
tannin-bearing cells. When sections are placed in a concentrated solution of ammo-
nium molybdate in concentrated ammonium chloride, the same character of precipitate
is produced as when potassium bichromate is used. Lead acetate produces a white
precipitate with tannins. The following method may be employed: Sections are
placed in a 7 per cent. solution of copper acetate for about a week or longer, and are
then placed on a slide in a drop of a 0.5 per cent. solution of ferrous sulphate. After
a few minutes, and before the cell-walls begin to turn brown, the sections are washed
in water and transferred to a watch-glass of alcohol to drive out air-bubbles and
extract chlorophyll, if any is present. The sections are then mounted in glycerine
for examination under the microscope. By this treatment an insoluble brown pre-
cipitate is produced in the presence of tannins. The sections may be transferred
from the glycerine to glycerine-jelly if permanent mounts are desired. If the sections
are taken from the alcohol in which they were placed to remove the chlorophyll, etc.,
and placed in a solution of iron acetate, a blue or a green color will be produced,
according to the kind of tannin present. If it is desired to fix the cell-contents while
testing for tannins, the sections should be placed in a concentrated alcoholic solution
of iron acetate instead of in the aqueous solution, as above. When living tissues are
placed in a solution of 1 part of methylene-blue in 500 parts of distilled water, those
cells which contain tannins take on a blue color, and later a deep blue precipitate
is formed in these cells. Cells containing phloroglucin act in the same way to this
reagent as those containing tannins.
652
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Theobromine, Dimethyl-xanthin, CH,N4O2.—This alkaloid occurs in the
cocoa-bean. Its presence may be demonstrated by the use of hydrochloric acid and
chloride of gold, as directed under Caffeine. The reactions for caffeine and theobro-
mine are sometimes difficult to distinguish. When sections containing theobromine
are heated in distilled water on the slide to the boiling-point, and the sections are
allowed to dry slowly, and a drop of benzol is added to the residue, crystals of theo-
bromine appear in the form of a fine powder on the evaporation of the benzol; whereas,
when sections containing caffeine are treated in like manner, the crystals containing
caffeine take on the form of needles.
Tyrosin, C.H4OH. CH2. CHNH2. COOH.-Tyrosin may be demonstrated in
abundance in the tubers of the dahlia. When sections are mounted under a cover-
glass in glycerine for several days, needle-shaped crystals of tyrosin are deposited
in radiating groups. In an abundance of glycerine the crystals are not deposited,
for the reason that the tyrosin becomes too much diffused through the glycerine.
The crystals appear brownish by transmitted, and white by reflected light. When
a portion of a dahlia tuber is placed in a dish of about the same size as itself, and
covered for about two-thirds of its length with alcohol, an abundance of tyrosin crystals
will collect at the exposed cut surface. The crystals of tyrosin are colored a deep
red by means of Millon's reagent, and when nitric acid is poured over them, and then
evaporated, a yellow residue is left.
3
Vanillin, C.Hз . OH . OCH, . CHO.—Vanillin occurs abundantly in solution
in the pods of vanilla, or in the dry pods it occurs in an amorphous condition. It
is often found in a crystalline condition on the surface of dried pods. It is soluble
in alcohol and ether, and to a certain extent in hot water, but it is soluble with difficulty
in cold water. When sections containing vanillin are wetted with a 4 per cent. solution
of orcin, and then treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, they take on a deep car-
mine-red color; and when they are treated in like manner with a solution of phloro-
glucin in place of the orcin, a brick-red color is produced. It seems probable that
vanillin is always present in lignified walls, judging from the colors which these assume
with certain aromatic compounds.
Veratrine, CHзNO11.-Veratrine occurs in the tissues of Veratrum album.
When sections are placed in a mixture of 1 drop of concentrated sulphuric acid and
2 drops of water on a glass slide, and examined under a microscope, it is to be seen
that the walls or cell-contents of the cells containing veratrine assume a yellow color,
which soon changes to an orange-red, and finally to a dusky violet.
Wax.-Wax frequently occurs in plants as a crust-like, or granular, or rod-like
layer over the cuticle. It consists of fats and free fatty acids, together with other
substances. Wax is insoluble in water, but it will melt and form droplets in water
at 100° C. It is hardly soluble in cold alcohol, but will quickly dissolve in boiling
alcohol. When sections containing wax are heated in a solution of alcannin in 50
per cent. alcohol, the wax runs together in droplets, which become stained red by the
alcannin. Wax is not wetted by water, and sections are best mounted for study in
cold alcohol, which will dissolve the wax but little, if at all.
Wound Gum.-The wounded surfaces of deciduous trees become protected by
the formation of wound gum from starch contained in the live cells. Sections taken
through the wounded surfaces of such plants several days after the wound has been
inflicted show brownish granules of wound gum in the medullary rays, tracheal tubes,
and wood-cells. The wound gum may be found lying free in the cytoplasm or sur-
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
653
rounding starch-grains which have contributed to the formation of the gum. Wound
gum is not soluble in warm water, but may be dissolved in hot nitric acid or in eau
de Javelle after several hours. It is not soluble in sulphuric-acid, potassium hydrate,
alcohol, or ether, but it may be dissolved in alcohol after treatment for few minutes
with a solution of potassium chlorate in dilute hydrochloric acid. It may be stained
with a solution of fuchsin, iodine green, safranin, or methyl-green. It is stained red
by phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid.
Xanthin, CH₁N4O2.-Xanthin occurs in an amorphous condition or in the form
of granules in yellow chromoplasts. It differs from carotin in being more soluble in
alcohol, and in being deposited in amorphous and resin-like masses on the evaporation
of its solvent. It is insoluble in water, and but little soluble in ether and benzine. It
becomes green and then blue when treated with sulphuric acid, and with potassium
iodide-iodine it is colored green.
CHAPTER XI.-THE MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF DRUG POWDERS.
Effects of Pulverization upon Identification.-It is quite possible
in many cases to identify the official drugs even in powdered form after
the gross characteristics have disappeared through the process of pul-
verization. This has been made possible by the efforts of those investi-
gators who have studied the inner morphology of drug tissues and given
us methods of recognizing the various forms of these as well as the forms
of cells, etc., though they have been modified in the process of drying,
or curing, necessary for the preparation of the crude drug. The identifi-
cation of drug powders can be accomplished only by the aid of the com-
pound microscope. Such an examination is frequently desirable or even
necessary in order to determine the purity of the material-whether it be
true to name.
Formerly it was considered sufficient for identification of vegetable
drugs to describe gross characteristics only, such as color, odor, taste,
and such other characters as might be brought out by the simple micro-
scope, magnifying, say, ten to fifteen diameters; but this method has
become inadequate because of the new factor in drug supplies-the drug
miller. He supplies these in powdered form, and the process of pulveriza-
tion the druggist is glad enough to transfer to those who have laboratories
especially equipped for that purpose. But it is easy to see that adulteration
is made easier and its detection more difficult, hence it is necessary that
students in pharmacy be made familiar with methods of microscopical
analysis of drug powders.
Aids to the Study of Powders.-Most valuable aids to the study of
654
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
drug powders are the illustrated works recently published as follows: "Pow-
dered Vegetable Drugs," by Albert Schneider, M.D., Ph.D.; "A Course in
Botany and Pharmacognosy," by Henry Kreamer, Ph.D., Ph.B.; “A Mi-
croscopical Examination of Foods and Drugs," by Henry George Greenish;
"Anatomical Atlas of Vegetable Powders," by Henry G. Greenish; “Phar-
macognosy," by Smith Ely Jelliffe, M.D. Valuable illustrated articles.
have also appeared in "Merck's Report," by Burt E. Nelson, on "Micro-
scopical Examination of Powdered Drugs." Comparatively recently there
has been completed the "Anatomischer Atlas der Pharmakognosie und
Nahrungsmittelkunde von Dr. A. Tschirch und Dr. O. Oesterle."
As before intimated, the practical value of these publications lies in the
fact that the diagrammatic illustrations they contain serve as a guide to
recognition and as a means of verification, but a sample of the drug itself,
as a check or guide, answers a better purpose after the principles of micro-
scopical examination have been mastered.
An examination of a drug powder should never be considered complete,
until the sample has been compared with authentic specimens of the same
drug or drugs of the same degree of fineness.
•
Pulverization-Powdering.—It is taken for granted that the student
is familiar with the different methods of reducing vegetable drugs to powder.
The various mills and appliances for the process are well illustrated in
all the works on pharmacy. He has learned that the degree of fineness
of a powder has much to do with the process of extraction in making
the various preparations by percolation, maceration, etc. These degrees
of fineness of powder are represented by certain numbers. A No. 80
powder, for example, is one that will pass through a sieve having 80 meshes
to the inch. Sieves having a greater or less number of meshes to the inch,
or to the centimeter, determine, therefore, the character of the powder
(see Preliminary Notices in the U. S. P. on “Fineness of Powders"). A
powder passing through a No. 80 sieve-"No. 80 powder"—will be found
on microscopical examination to have most of the cells and cell groups
recognizable. It is true, however, that a few drugs with unusually large
cells, such as those grown in moist or marshy soil, will have such large
cells as would be ruptured if pulverized so finely as a No. 80 or No. 100
powder that is, a powder passing through a No. 80 or No. 100 sieve.
Such drugs as these must not, therefore, be so finely pulverized for micro-
scopical examination.
The less resisting tissues, such as parenchyma, in which is contained
the starch granules, are readily reduced to powder (e. g., external portion,
or bark, of ipecac root), while the fibrous and more tenacious parts con-
taining both tracheids and vessels are quite difficult to pulverize (e. g.,
internal, woody column, of ipecac root). Accordingly the first-mentioned
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
655
powder resulting from the softer parenchymatous tissues would pass a
fine sieve first and leave behind in the sieve the tenacious and wiry fibrous
portion, which is very difficult to reduce to a powder form by the ordinary
means; yet it is quite possible to do this, in small quantities at least, by
the pestle and mortar.
Identification by Color.-Drug powders have colors which are very
liable to vary. Dr. Schneider * very clearly refers to this as follows:
Exposure to light deadens the color quite rapidly, the tendency being
towards grayish shades and tints. Exposure to moisture and the presence
of vegetable parasites, also, greatly modifies the color, increasing fineness
producing tint effects. In some instances the quality of the color is even
changed; for instance, powdered licorice of medium fineness is yellow,
while the fine powder is much lighter, with a decided lemon color. Roast-
ing produces dark to nearly black colorations. Powders made from plant
parts rich in oil and fat, as cloves, almonds, larkspur, stavesacre, etc.,
darken rapidly, and become rancid, due to the decomposition of the fats
into fatty acids and glycerine. The ageing of powders, even though they
are kept from light, changes them in color from deep and bright to fainter
and duller tints.
The above author groups the powdered vegetable drugs according to
the following colors:
I. Very light. Mostly seeds and roots.
1. White, as starches and cereal flour.
2. Very light, tinged with yellow, red, or some dark substance;
as althæa, orris root, colocynth, etc.
II. Yellow. Mostly roots and rhizomes. A few flowers and barks.
1. Pale yellow and straw yellow.
2. Orange yellow and lemon.
3. Brownish-yellow and yellowish-brown.
III. Green. Mostly leaves and herbs.
1. Grayish-green.
2. Brownish-green.
IV. Gray. Mostly roots.
1. Ash gray.
2. Brownish-gray and dark gray.
V. Brown. Mostly barks.
1. Reddish-brown.
2. Dark brown.
VI. Very dark. A few barks, as juglans. Roasted drugs.
1. Very dark, tinged with red and yellow.
2. Black, as charcoal.
* "Powdered Vegetable Drugs," Albert Schneider, p. 55.
656
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
Identification by Odor.-The odors from drugs are exceedingly diffi-
cult to describe, largely because we have no odor standards at command
for comparing them qualitatively or quantitatively.' We can understand
such terms as aromatic, pungent, fragrant, agreeable, disagreeable, etc.
These terms serve in a measure to indicate odor qualities.
The student is recommended to acquaint himself with such aromatic
odors as cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg; with the mint family odors, such as
peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal, etc. He should acquaint himself
with such odors as are furnished by the odorous fruits, of the Umbelliferæ,
such as caraway, fennel, etc.; with camphoraceous odors, as eucalyptus,
rosemary, and camphor; with pronounced and characteristic odors of
wintergreen, sassafras, etc.; with the delicate and fragrant odors derived
from the lemon, orange, orange flowers, etc. He should not omit the
study of the disagreeable odors, as we find in conium, valerian, stramonium,
garlic, civet, castor fiber, etc. All such odors serve as a means of com-
parison.
It will be seen that in order to describe an odor it becomes necessary
to have some prominent characteristic odor with which to compare. The
Pharmacopoeia states that conium has a mouse-like odor; sumbul, a
musk-like odor; lactucarium, a heavy odor; senna is described as having
a tea-like odor, etc. Tarry substances that have a creasote or smoky
odor are said to have an "empyreumatic odor."
Identification by Taste.-What has been said of the odor of drugs
applies also to their taste. Taste is not a very distinctive property. There
are some drugs that have a distinctive taste, such as gentian root, which
has a simple bitter taste; senega, an acrid taste; ginger, a pungent; geranium,
astringent; elm bark, mucilaginous, etc. Many drugs have what may
be termed a mixed taste. Hence we find in descriptions such terms as:
bitter-astringent applied to cinchona; bitter-pungent applied to orris root;
pungent-astringent applied to cotton-root bark; bitter-sweet, applied to
dulcamara; sweetish-bitter-pungent, applied to spigelia, etc. Many drugs
are tasteless, such as lycopodium, kamala, physostigma, etc.
It is plain to be seen from the foregoing that the taste, as well as the
color and odor of powders, is not distinctive enough to identify them with.
certainty; still, these physical properties serve in many cases as a valuable
aid in their identification.
Identification of Adulterants.-As stated above, adulteration of drugs
is made easier and the detection of these more difficult when the drug is
reduced to powder. Great skill is here required in the identification of
adulterants. It is necessary to have a knowledge of the microscopical
elements of the drug itself, and also necessary to be familiar with the
powdered materials employed in the art of adulteration. Not infrequently
•
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
657
do we find foreign starches which do not belong to the powders under
examination, and even sawdust, coffee-grounds, powdered cocoanut
shells, etc., lend themselves as adulterants. Sometimes inorganic sub-
stances, such as clay and other earthy materials, sand, etc., are employed.
One of the most difficult adulterants to detect and identify is the exhausted
powders (the dregs left from drugs extracted by percolation). These are
first dried and repowdered and mixed in various proportions with the
pure article. Deteriorated drugs have been used in the same way. It
goes without saying that these latter forms of adulteration cannot be
detected by the microscope, although this instrument in connection with
careful chemical tests may prove valuable.
MOUNTING POWDERS FOR EXAMINATION.
Powders for microscopical examination should be thoroughly mixed,
so that the large and small particles will be uniformly distributed through-
out the entire specimen, as before stated. In powders that have been
standing for a considerable time the larger particles will be separated
from the finer, so that great difficulty may be encountered in obtaining
a typical mount from such a powder, unless it has been thoroughly mixed.
Only a small portion of powder should be used in making a mount, the
amount depending upon the size of the cover-slip to be used. When the
mount is ready for examination, the particles should be spread out evenly
and should not come in contact one with another so that the large ones
might obscure the smaller.
Powders for examination may be mounted directly on the slide, using
the proper medium, or the powder may be mixed with the mounting
medium in a small test-tube, specimen tube, or homeopathic vial. If a
small portion of powder be transferred to a slide, a drop of the desired
mounting medium added, and the whole thoroughly mixed and covered
with a cover-slip, it will furnish a mount ready for examination. However,
it is frequently desirable or even necessary to use some clearing agent in
order to render dark colored or opaque powders transparent. In such
cases the powder should be thoroughly mixed with the reagent and left
standing for twelve hours or more, when a portion may be taken up with
a pipette and a drop of the mixture transferred to a slide.
Clearing Agents and Mounting Media. For making temporary
mounts of powders water is the best general medium, and should be used
whenever a clearing agent is not required. In this medium delicate mark-
ings are clearly brought out, and it is especially recommended for the
examination of starches. Frequently specimens are filled with air, which
42
658
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
must be removed before a satisfactory examination can be made. For
driving out air 70 per cent. or stronger alcohol should be used, but this
is not a desirable medium for general use, as it evaporates rapidly and
allows the specimens to dry up. However, this medium is excellent for
bringing out details of structure, and may be profitably employed when
a hasty examination is to be made. It can be replaced by water or other
media as desired.
Equal parts of water and glycerine furnish one of the best and most
useful mounting media. This mixture is especially desirable when delicate
markings are not brought out in water. It acts as a clearing agent, and
although the action is somewhat slow, it will render most specimens clear
enough for examination. Equal parts of water, glycerine, and alcohol
make a reagent to be preferred to the above in many respects, and is the
most useful of the simple and cheap reagents. This mixture penetrates
tissues well, acts as a clearing agent, and does not dry up. Specimens
may be kept in it for days or even weeks.
In the examination of many specimens it is necessary to use a strong
clearing agent, and it is frequently desirable to have one that acts rapidly.
Chloral hydrate, made by dissolving five parts of chloral hydrate crystals
in two parts of water, is one of the most common and useful clearing
agents. Its action is rapid, but it is not a good medium for mounting in
many cases, since delicate markings are not clearly brought out by it.
In many specimens starch is dissolved by this reagent, and it should never
be used when accurate measurements of starch grains are to be made.
However, chloral-hydrate solution with iodine added is the best and most
reliable agent for the detection of starch, and is especially recommended
where starch occurs in small quantities or is likely to be obscured, as in
chloroplasts or by proteid substances.
A clearing agent to be preferred to the above for general purposes may
be made by mixing 1 part of 95 per cent. alcohol, 1 part glycerine, 1 part
water, and 4 parts saturated aqueous solution of chloral hydrate. This
mixture gives a reagent fairly rapid in action, and also serves well as a
mounting medium. It is the most useful clearing agent and can be em-
ployed in more cases than any other.
Potassium hydrate in 2 to 10 per cent. aqueous solution is valuable
as a clearing agent, and also serves well as a macerating agent. It is rapid
in action, and dissolves starch. Acetic acid, 20 per cent., and hydrochloric
acid, 10 to 20 per cent., may be found exceedingly useful as clearing agents
in many cases. They are often valuable in removing starch from speci-
mens where it may interfere in an examination.
In the preparation of specimens which are exceedingly difficult to clear,
or in handling coarse powders where the fragments are so large that they
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
659
must be broken up by macerating before mounting, javelle water and
Schultz's macerating fluid will be found useful.
The action of any of the clearing agents mentioned above may be
hastened or increased by the application of heat. By holding a mounted
specimen over the flame of an alcohol lamp or a Bunsen burner it can be
heated without injury, even to boiling, if proper care be exercised.
For more detailed directions for the use of reagents see Chapter IX,
on Reagents and Processes, where a complete list of reagents is discussed
p'c'
col
OOOOOD
ase .tc
tc
tc
Sh
I'm'
сч
S
B********
tin
fl
е
で
​чт
***...
е
pe
FIG. 360.-Powdered Rhamnus Frangula-Bark. (X 210.) col, Collenchyma of the cortex. cr, Pris-
matic and rosette crystals. f, Bast fibers with pitted walls. 1, ', Bast in longitudinal and transverse
section. pc, p'c', Cortical parenchyma, in longitudinal and transverse section. ph, Phelloderm.
rm, r'm', Medullary ray in tangential and radial section. s, s', Cork in tangential and transverse
section. tc, Rows of crystal cells.-(From Greenish and Collin.)
and explicit directions given for their use. This list of reagents is arranged
alphabetically and is in convenient form for handy reference.
Measurements. The fragments of powders should be carefully
measured, and the measurements used for comparison wherever it is
possible to do so. Measurements should be made with an eye-piece
micrometer. In preparing specimens for measurement the greatest care
should be exercised in the use of reagents so that objects may not be
swollen abnormally or distorted before measurements are made.
660
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
On the following pages are given a few examples to show the diagnostic
characteristics of some powders which frequently, either by mistake or
intentionally, are substituted one for the other.
The first example is illustrated by the barks taken from the same genus—
Frangula, Fig. 360, and Cascara sagrada, Fig. 361. A comparison of
the fragments composing these two powders shows them to be very similar
in structure. Cascara presents one striking difference, as shown by the
SICK.
000
Joh
JC
icol
х
fl
ta
Pi
e. '2'm'
2'in
чт je
ľ
flipc
ODDOUDO
fl it c
cr
00000
FIG. 361.-Powdered Cascara Sagrada Bark (Rhamnus Purshiana). (X 210.) col, Collenchyma of the
cortex. cr, Prismatic and rosette crystals., Bast fibers. 1,, Bast in longitudinal and transverse
section. pc, pc, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. ph, Phelloderm.
rm, Medullary rays, tangential section. r'm', The same, transverse section. "m", The same, radial
section._s, S, Cork, in surface view and section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. tc, Rows of crystal
cells.-(From Greenish and Collin.)
sclerenchymatous cells, sc, Fig. 361, which occur quite commonly, but
occur rarely, if ever, in Frangula. In each of the specimens are bast
fibers, but in Frangula the fibers have thicker walls and contain more
numerous and well-defined pits than do the fibers of Cascara. Also the
cork cells and the large parenchyma cells of the cortex show characteristics
which are of diagnostic value. In Frangula the cork cells contain a deep
red or purplish coloring substance, while those of Cascara have a reddish-
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
661
brown coloring substance. In the large parenchyma cells of Cascara is
found a substance yellowish in color which changes to orange upon the
addition of potassium-hydrate solution, while in Frangula the large paren-
chyma cells contain a coloring substance of a much brighter yellow, which
upon the addition of potassium-hydrate solution changes to a red or deep
purplish color.
The second example is illustrated by two roots taken from closely related
species—Brazilian Ipecac, Fig. 362; Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Stokes)
غمزه
sa o 8
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Ό
8 08
a
O. O tra 8.
8
tra
درجة
088
tra
se
Ө Ө
My..ha
Ph
fl
3.
ccr
ФЕ
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об
O se
8
Da
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​88
το
pc'
j'c'
Se tra
tra
fa"
:8
:ccr.
FIG. 362.-Powdered Ipecacuanha Root (Cephalis ipecacuanha). (X 210.) a, a', a", Starch grains,
simple and compound. ccr, Cells with calcium oxalate. fl, Fibrous cells. 1, Bast. pc, p'c', Cortical
parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. ph, p'h', Phelloderm in surface view and section.
ra, Raphides. s, 5, Cork in surface view and profile. tra, Tracheids.—(From Greenish and Collin.)
of the British Pharmacopoeia; Cephalis Ipecacuanha (A. Richard) of the
U.S. P.; and undulated Ipecac (Fig. 363), which represents species from
several different genera, such as Richardsonia, Psychotria, Ionidium, etc.
The starch grains from each specimen are similar in form and structure,
the only difference being that the starch grains from Brazilian Ipecac,
ranging in size from 4 to 15 microns, are uniformly smaller than are those
of undulated Ipecac. The elements of the xylem, however, furnish a
ready and reliable means of distinguishing between these two powders.
662
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
The xylem of Brazilian Ipecac consists of tracheids, tra, Fig. 362; and of
peculiar strongly pitted wood parenchyma, which somewhat resembles.
tracheids, f, Fig. 362. Undulated Ipecac shows the presence of strongly
pitted water tubes (pitted vessels), v, Fig. 363, and quite typical wood
fibers, f, Fig. 363. Brazilian Ipecac does not show water tubes, unless
fragments of the stems become mixed with the roots.
As a third example, the leaves of Belladonna, Fig. 364, and Hyoscyamus,
Fig. 365, furnish an excellent illustration. The epidermal cells of Bella-
08
cr
8.
Ә
Ө
8°
cr
3
ph
ph
&
p.c
рс
cr
pc
00
a
Ө
оо
о
Y.
se
g
ов
FIG. 363.-Powdered Undulated Ipecacuanha. (X_210.) a, Starch grains. cr, Acicular crystals. fl,
Pitted wood fibers. 1, Bast. pc, Cortical parenchyma. ph, Phelloderm. s, s', Cork, in surface view
and section. v, Pitted vessels.-(From Greenish and Collin.)
donna are large with wavy walls and the cuticle is striated, es, Fig. 364;
while Hyoscyamus has epidermal cells similar in every respect excepting
the striated cuticle, ei and es, Fig. 365. The spongy parenchyma of
Hyoscyamus contains numerous crystals of calcium oxalate, usually in
the form of prisms, cr, ccr, Fig. 365; while Belladonna is without calcium
oxalate excepting for crystal sand, which is contained in a few large cells
of spongy parenchyma adjoining the palisade parenchyma,—c, cr, Fig.
364. The presence of prismatic crystals in Hyoscyamus is the most
striking diagnostic character of these two powders.
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
663
The trichomes furnish other valuable diagnostic characters, but they
are not always reliable, since Belladonna leaves that are almost glabrous,
and consequently almost devoid of trichomes, are sometimes found.
Either specimen may contain both simple and glandular hairs. The
simple hairs are conical and may be composed of one or more cells. In
Hyoscyamus the glandular heads, which may be either bicellular or multi-
cellular, pg, Fig. 365, are borne on a stalk composed of two or more cells.
pa...
р.д
p.g
ра
pg.
ecr
p.q
C.cz
ny
en
ine
st
st. ei
j'a
e.a
me
CO
clor
[pg
迎
​pt
فلادي
cer
ཉ
e.
en
p'a
FIG. 364.-Powdered Belladonna Leaves. (X 210.) c, cr, Cells with sandy crystals. co, Collenchy-
matous cells from cortical tissues of midrib. ei, Epidermis of under surface. en, Epidermis over
the veins, with striated cuticle. es, Epidermis of the upper surface, with striated cuticle and occasional
stomata., Bast. me, Branching cells of spongy parenchyma. nv, Fragment of small vein. pa,
Palisade cells, surface view. p'a', Palisade cells, in longitudinal section. pg, Glandular hairs, long
and short, with unicellular and pluricellular glands. st, Stomata, surrounded by three or four cells,
one of which is smaller than the others. tf, Cortical tissues of the midrib. tr, v, Tracheids and vessels.
-(After Greenish and Collin.)
The glandular hairs of Belladonna are found with heads either unicellular
or multicellular. The larger multicellular glands are usually borne on a
stalk consisting of one or two cells, pg, Fig. 364, while the smaller ones.
are likely to have a stalk composed of several superimposed cells. The
unicellular glands are rounded in form and are borne on stalks of several
cells, pg, Fig. 364.
It should be stated that each drug has its own peculiar microscopical
elements. Some of these, it is easy to see, are of special value in the identi-
664
ELEMENTS OF PLANT HISTOLOGY AND MICROTECHNIC.
fication of drug powders. In the general discussion of drugs (pages 78
to 487) the microscopical elements that we consider characteristic of the
မှာ
es
pa
сч
p.g
tr
ei
J'a
en
cr
tz
tf.
FIG. 365.-Powdered Henbane Leaves (Hyoscyamus niger). (X 210.) ccr, Crystal cells. cr, Crystals
of calcium oxalate. ei, Lower epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. fv, Portion of fibrovascular bundle
of midrib. ip, Scar of fallen hair. m, Spongy parenchyma. pa, p'a', Palisade cells. pg, Glandular
hairs. pt, Simple hairs. st, Stomata. tf, Cortical parenchyma of midrib. tr, Tracheid and vessels.
-(After Greenish and Collin.)
drug powder are concisely stated in a separate paragraph under each
official drug.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
As a general direction for the detection of adulteration or admixture,
it cannot be too strongly emphasized, that authentic samples of the pure
drug, and of the suspected adulterant or admixture, should be carefully
studied, macroscopically and microscopically, as a preliminary process.
This laboratory method supersedes all the aids in the form of repre-
sentation by drawings and figures on paper.
FIG. 366.-Shows Starch-granules of Ipecac. The cells of the bark are filled
with starch. The granules are spherical, oblong, or angular, and vary much in size.
The hilum is located near the center, and is often seen to be fissured. The grains
are smooth, and show no concentric markings. They are often in groups of two,
three, and sometimes even more grains joined together.
FIG. 367.—Shows Starch-granules of Jalap. The grains are very numerous in
the cells; are large and have characteristic markings. They are rounded or broadly
ovate, having the hilum located near the small end and surrounded by excentric lines.
FIG. 368.-Shows the Starch-grains of Veratrum viride, which so closely resemble
those of Veratrum album that it would be impossible to distinguish the two by their
starch-grains. Those of the former are often found in groups of twos, threes, fours,
and sometimes even more. They are small, rounded, or angular, with the hilum in the
center.
!
FIG. 369. Represents Starch as it appears in Calumba. The grains are large,
and in shape they are circular or oval. A few double or compound grains are found,
but they do not occur frequently. The hilum is rather excentric, and is often seen to
be fissured in a radial direction. The grains are smooth, and occasionally a curved
line or two is to be found.
FIG. 370.-Shows Starch-grains as they appear in Galengal. The grains are
large and mostly long ovate, but sometimes they are irregular. The hilum is located
near the larger end, and is sometimes fissured. The stratification lines are plainly seen
on the larger grains and but faintly, if at all, on the smaller ones.
FIG. 371.-Illustrates Starch-grains as seen in a specimen of Iris florentina. These
grains are quite characteristic and very abundant. They are rather elongated, rounded
or truncate at one end, and usually tapering toward the other end. Occasionally a
three-lobed grain is seen. As a rule, the grains are irregular in shape. The hilum
is located near the large end, and is slightly fissured. (a) is the most common form.
A very prominent characteristic is a double line branching from the hilum and extend-
ing toward the other end.
666
Ө
FIG. 366.
De
FIG. 368.
FIG. 369.
FIG. 370.
00
FIG. 371.
Ө
FIG. 367.
PLATE III.
667
FIG. 372.-Shows Starch-grains as they appear in Caulophyllum. The grains
are small, but quite characteristic. They are mostly gathered together in large and
roundish masses, consisting of twenty-five to fifty grains. The single grains are globu-
lar, or more commonly many-sided, and without hilum or stratification lines.
FIG. 373.-Shows the Grains as they appear in Aconitum napellus. This drug is
very rich in starch. The starch-grains are rather large. There are a great many
compound grains composed of from two to eight granules. The single grains are
round, long, and in some cases have flat faces. The hilum is located centrally, and
is seen at times to be fissured slightly. The concentric markings are not discernible.
FIG. 374.-Shows Starch-grains as they appear in Geranium. There are speci-
mens of Geranium in the market that contain little or no starch. This somewhat
singular fact is said to be due to the season in which it is gathered. The drug usually
contains starch in abundance. The grains are rather long, and appear to be thicker
at one end than at the other. The hilum is located generally at the larger end, but
sometimes central, and it occasionally appears at the smaller end. The stratification
lines are very faintly seen at times.
FIG. 375.-Shows Starch-grains as they appear in Honduras Sarsaparilla. Many
of the grains are seen to occur in groups of two, three, and sometimes four. The
single grains are spherical or angular, with a hilum located near the center. The hilum
in the larger grains is angular fissured. No concentric markings can be seen.
FIG. 376.-Shows Starch as it appears in Podophyllum. The grains are small and
mostly single, but sometimes they are double or triple. They are spherical with a
central hilum, and are seldom fissured. The hilum can hardly be seen in the smaller
grains.
FIG. 377.-Shows Starch as it appears in the rhizome of Hydrastis. The starch
is very abundant. The grains are most commonly joined together in groups of from
two to six. The grains, when single, are rounded in form. The hilum is indistinct
and unfissured.
NOTE. The drawings of the starches were made from authentic specimens of the
crude drug of the market. No fixed scale was used.
668.
оо
оо
о
Ø
0.0
PLATE IV.
0
BB
80
FIG. 372.
FIG. 373.
FIG. 375.
FIG. 374.
FIG. 376.
FIG. 377.
(00
669
INDEX.
A.
Abies balsamea, 416
canadensis, 416
excelsa, 417
Abri radix, 178
semen, 178
Abrus precatorius, 178
Abscess root, 324
Acacia, 191
catechu, 193
Acer rubrum, 171
Acetanilid, 41
Acetone, 41
Acetopyrin, 41
Acetozone, 42
Achillea, 287
millefolium, 287
Acid fuchsin, 615
Acids, 20
acetic, 601, 623
betuloretic, 636
boric, 604
camphoric, 42
carbolic, 605
cathartic, 183
chrom-acetic, 606
chromic, 606
hydrochloric, 620
fuchsin, 615
lactic, 621
osmic, 629
oxalic, 645
Adder's tongue, 447
Adeps, 481
lanæ hydrosus, 483
Adiantum pedatum, 460
Adonis vernalis, 86
Adrenalin, 42, 485
Adrue, 451
Ægle marmelos, 150
Æsculus glabra, 171
hippocastanum, 171
Agaricus albus, 466
Agathis dammara, 417
Agrimonia eupatoria, 216
Agrimony, 216
Agropyrum repens, 452
Aids to the study of powders, 653
Ailanthus glandulosa, 159
Ajowan, 246
Albumen, 601
ovi, 476
Albumin water, 533
Alcannin, 601
Alcohol, 602
Aletris farinosa, 429
Aleurone, 633
Algæ, 455
Alkalies, 20
Alkaline allies, 25
earths, 25
metals, 25
Alkaloids, 633
phospho-molybdic, 629
phosphoric, 647
picric, 629
ruberythric, 649
sulphuric, 632
tannic, 406
Acidum gallicum, 406
Acipenser huso, 475
Aconite, 88
Aconitine, 88, 633
Aconitum, 88
ferox, 88
napellus, 88
Acorus calamus, 449
Actæa alba, 84
Actol, 42
Alkanet 325
Alkanna, 325
tinctoria, 325
Alligator pear, 384
Allium porrum, 439
sativum, 439
Allspice, 226
Allyl sulphide, 633
Almond oil, 208
Alnus serrulata, 404
Aloe barbadensis, 445
capensis, 446
Curaçoa, 446
perriyi, 445
socotrina, 446
spicata, 446
vera, 445
Aloes, 445
671
672
INDEX.
Aloinum, 447
Alphabetical arrangement, 18
Alpinia officinarum, 425
Alstonia constricta, 308
scholaris, 309
Alteratives, 21
Althæa, 127
officinalis, 127
rosea, 129
Alumnol, 42
Alum root, 217
Alveloz milk, 390
Amber, 417
Ambergris, 475
Ambra grisea, 475
Ambrosia, 283
artemisiæfolia, 283
American aspen, 409
beech, 404
blue vervain, 347
columbo, 322
hellebore, 436
ipecac, 216
ivy, 169
larch, 412
saffron, 293
spikenard, 252 ·
water-hemlock, 251
wormseed, 356
Ammonia, 634
Ammoniac, 250
Ammoniacum, 250
Ammonium carbonate, 602
molybdate, 602
vanadate, 603
Amomum grana paradisi, 429
melegueta, 429
Ampelideæ, 169
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 169
Amygdala amara, 206
dulcis, 207
Amygdalin, 634
Amylodextrine, 634
Amyloid, 634
Amylose, 634
a and B, 547
Amylum, 456
Anacardiaceæ, 171
Anacardium, 174
occidentale, 174
Anacyclus officinarum, 278
pyrethrum, 278
Anæsthetics, 21
Anagallis arvensis, 300
Analgesics, 21
Anamirta cocculus, 100
Ananassa sativa, 429
Anaphrodisiacs, 24
Andira-araroba, 191
Andropogon muricatus, 452
Anemone hepatica, 92
pratensis, 85
pulsatilla, 85
Anethum, 246
graveolens, 246
officinalis, 248
Angelica atropurpurea, 248
Angustura, 144
Anhalonium lewini, 238
Anhidrotics, 23
Aniline sulphate, 644
Anise, 239
Anisum, 239
Annato, 118
Annular vessels, development of, 572
Anthelmintics, 25
Anthemis, 290
cotula, 290
nobilis, 290
Anthochlorin, 635
Anthocyanins, 635
Anthoxanthin, 635
Anthrenus varius, 504
Antilithics, 23.
Antimony and arsenic, 26
Antiparasitics, 25
Antiperiodics, 22
Antipyretics, 20
Antipyrine, 42
Antiseptics, 25
Antispasmodics, 21
Antitoxin, 45, 484
Antizymotics, 25
Aphrodisiacs, 24
Apiol, 247
Apis mellifera 476
Apium, 246
graveolens, 246
Apocynaceæ, 306
Apocynum, 307
androsæmifolium, 306
cannabinum, 307
Apple-tree bark, 205
Arabin, 635
Aralia hispida, 252
nudicaulis, 252
racemosa, 252
Araliaceæ, 252
Araroba, 191
Arbor vitæ, 411
Arctium lappa, 279
Arctostaphylos glauca, 298
uva ursi, 296
Areca catechu, 447
Argonin, 42
Arisæma dracontium, 451
triphyllum, 451
Aristolochia reticulata, 363
serpentaria, 363
Aristolochiaceæ, 363
Armoracia, 117
Arnica montana, 282
Arnicæ flores, 282
radix, 281
Aroideæ, 449
Artemisia, 286
673
Artemisia abrotanum, 286
frigida, 286
pauciflora, 292
vulgaris, 286
Arum triphyllum, 451
Asafoetida, 248
Asagræa officinalis, 438
Asarum canadense, 365
Asclepiadæ, 311
Asclepias cornuti, 311
curassavica, 311
incarnata, 311
tuberosa, 31I
Asoka, 178
Asparagin, 635
Aspidium, 458
Aspidosperma, 308
Aspirin, 42
INDEX.
quebracho-blanco, 308
Assay, drug, 76, 497
by immiscible solvents, 497
Astacus fluviatilis, 474
Astragalus gummifer, 193
Astringents, 23
Atropa belladonna, 329
Atropine, 332
Atropos divinatoria, 507
Attar of roses, 211
Aurantieæ, 150
Aurantii amari cortex, 151
dulcis cortex, 151
flores, 153
folia, 153
Australian fever bark, 308
Avena sativa, 457
Avenæ farina, 457
Avens, 216
Azedarach, 162
Bael fruit, 150
Balm, 353
B.
of Gilead buds, 409
Balmony, 346
Balsam, 603
apple, 236
copaiba, 196
of fir, 416
of Peru, 198
of tolu, 200
sealing, 533
Balsamum peruvianum, 198
tolutanum, 200
Baptisa tinctoria, 178
Barberry bark, 104
root, 104
Barium chloride, 603
Barks, 53, 63
Barley, decorticated fruit, 457
fruit, 457
Barosma betulina, 145
crenulata, 146
Bassorin, 636
Basswood, 133
Bast fibers, strength of, 588
Bastard ipecac, 257
Bay leaves, 224
Bayberry bark, 402
Baycuru, 300
Bdellium, 161
Bearberry, 296
Bearsfoot, 281
Beeberu bark, 381
Beech-drop, 346
Bela, 150
Belladonna, 329
leaves, 329, 333
root, 329
Bengal quince, 150
Benne, 347
oil, 347
Benzaldehyde, 42
Benzene or aromatic series, 36
Benzoazurin, 603
Benzoin, 301
Benzoinum, 301
Benzol, 603
Benzosal, 42
Berberidaceæ, 100
Berberine, 636
Berberis aquifolium, 105
cortex, 104
vulgaris, 104
Betel nut, 447
Betonica, 355
Betula alba, 415
lenta, 408
Betulin, 636
Bidens bipinnata, 287
Bignoniaceæ, 347
Birch tar, 415
Birthroot, 439
Bismarck brown, 603
Bistort, 363
Bistorta, 363
Biting stone-crop, 217
Bitter almond, 206
apple, 233
orange peel, 151
polygala, 123
Bittersweet, 339
Bixa orellana, 118
Bixineæ, 118
Black alder, 162
ash, 306
cohosh, 78
haw, 255
hellebore, 84
mustard, 115
pepper, 368
root, 282
snakeroot, 78
walnut, 402
43
674
INDEX.
Blackberry, 212
Bladder-wrack, 468
Blatta, 472
gigantea, 473
Blessed thistle, 287
Blood, 479
flower, 311
root, III
Blue, Berlin, 603
cohosh, 100
flag, 429
Turnbull's, 603
Bocconia, III
Boldo, 371
Boldus, 371
Bone, 479
Boneset, 283
Borage, 325
Boraginaceæ, 325
Borago officinalis, 325
Borax-carmine, 604
Bordeaux red, 604
Borodin's method, 604
Borneo camphor, 127
Bos taurus, 478
Bostrichus dactilliperda, 504
Boswellia carterii, 161
Botany Bay resin, 447
Brassica alba, 114
Cacao, 132
butter, 132
Cacteæ, 238
C.
Cactus grandiflorus, 238
Caffea, 271
Caffeina, 636
Caffeine, 636
Calabar bean, 189
Calamus, 449
draco, 448
Calandra oryza, 505
Calcium, 637
carbonate, 551, 637
nitrate, 605
oxalate, 551, 637
phosphate, 637
sulphate, 551, 637
Calculi cancrorum, 474
Calendula, 293
officinalis, 293
California fever bush, 253
laurel, 381
Callitris quadrivalvis, 417
Callose, 637
Calumba, 94
Calycanthaceæ, 92
Calycanthus, 92
nigra, 115
Brayera, 214
Bromeliaceæ, 429
Bromoform, 42
Broom, 185
Brown, Bismarck, 603
Brown discoloration of material in al-
cohol, 604
Brucine, 636
Brunfelsia hopiana, 333
Bryonia, 235
alba, 235
dioica, 235
Bryony, 235
Buchu, 145
floridus, 92
Calycin, 638
Cambium, descendants of, 584
division of, 574, 584
interfascicular, 587
Cambogia, 124
Camellia thea, 126
Camera lucida, adjusting light for, 519
determination of mag-
nification and use of,
518
Campanulaceæ, 294
Camphora, 382
monobromata, 73
Camphors, 73
Buckbean, 323
Buckeye, 171
Buckthorn, 164, 169
Buddin, 558
Bugle, 354
brake, 460
Bulbs, kinds, 51, 62
Burdock, 279
fruit, 280
Burgundy pitch, 416
Burner, Welsbach, 515
Bursa pastoris, 117
Burseraceæ, 160
Butter, 479
Buttercup, 86
Butternut, 401
Button bush, 270
snakeroot, 281
Canada balsam, 416
fleabane, 286
pitch, 416
snake-root, 365
thistle, 283
turpentine, 416
Canadian hemp, 301
Canaigre, 363
Canarin, 605
Canarium commune, 161
Cancer astacus, 474
Canella alba, 117
Canellaceæ, 117
Cane-sugar, 452, 638
Canna edulis, 457
Cannabis indica, 398
semen, 400
Cantharides, 469
Cantharis, 74
Cantharis vesicatoria, 469
Caoutchouc, 390
Caprifoliaceæ, 253
Capsella bursa-pastoris, 117
Capsicum, 340
fastigiatum, 340
INDEX.
Cell division, conjugation of, 552
free, 556
rejuvenescence of, 552
organs of, 537
sap, 537, 543
wall, 543
Caraway, 243
cutinized, 544
Cardamom, 428
lignified, 544
Cardamomum, 428
mucilaginous, 546
Carduus benedictus, 287
Cellulose, 638
Carex arenaria, 451
reserve, 648
675
Carica papaya, 233
Carmalum, Mayer's, 605
Carnauba, 448
Caroba, 347
Carota, 248
Carotin, 638
Carpocapsa amflana, 506
Carrot fruit, 248
Carthagena ipecac, 258
Carthamus, 293
Carum, 243
tinctorius, 293
ajowan, 246
carvi, 243
Carya alba, 402
Caryophylleæ, 124
Caryophyllus, 224
Cascara amarga, 159
sagrada, 166
Cascarilla, 391
Cashew nut, 174
Cassava starch, 457
Cassia acutifolia, 182
angustifolia, 182
bark, 374
cinnamon, 374
fistula, 186
marilandica, 184
Castanea dentata, 407
Castor, 483
fiber, 483
oil, 393
seed, 391
Castoreum, 483
Cataria, 354
Catechin, 194
pallidum, 272
Caulophyllum, 100
thalictroides, 100
Catechu, 193
Catnep, 354
Cayenne pepper, 340
Ceanothus, 169
Cedar oil, 605
Cedron seed, 159
Celery fruit, 246
americana, 169
Celastrineæ, 163
Celastrus scandens, 164
Cell division, 554
formation, 552
by budding, 558
Centaury, 323
Cephaëlis ipecacuanha, 257
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 270
Cera alba, 476
flava, 476
Ceratonia siliqua, 187
Cercis canadensis, 178
Cerium, cadmium, aluminum, 26
Cetaceum, 475
Cetraria islandica, 462
Ceutorynchus, 505
Cevadilla, 438
Ceylon cinnamon, 374
Chamælirium luteum, 439
Chaparro amagoso, 159
Character of cell walls and cell con-
tents, methods of demonstrating
the, 633
Chaulmoogra, 118
Chekan, 224
Chelidonium, 110
Chemicals, inorganic, 17
majus, 110
Chelone, 346
glabra, 346
organic, 31
ambrosioides, 356
Chenopodiaceæ, 356
Chenopodium, 356
Cherry laurel, 214
Chestnut, 407
Chewstick, 169
Chickweed, 124
Chicory, 277
water, 214
Chimaphila, 298
umbellata, 298
Chinchirocoma, 287
Chinosol, 42
Chionanthus, 306
virginica, 306
Chirata, 322
Chiretta, 322
Chitin, 638
Chloral carmine, 605
hydrate, 605
hydrate-iodine, 605
Chloralamide, 42
Chloretone, 42
Chloroform, 606
Chloroiodide of calcium, 606
of zinc, 606
676
INDEX.
Chlorophyl, 598, 639
functions of, 599
solution, 606
Chloroplasts, forms of, 598
functions of, 598
Choke cherry, 204
Chondodendron tomentosum, 97
Chondrus, 67
crispus, 467
Chromatin, 554
Chromosomes, 554
Chrysarobinum, 191
Cibotium, 460
Cichorium, 277
intybus, 277
Cicuta maculata, 251
Cimicifuga racemosa, 78
Cinchona, 261
calisaya, 261
succirubra, 267
corticosum, 118
Cochlearia amoracia, 117
Cocillana, 162
Cocklebur, 283
Cockroach, 472
Cocoanut oil, 449
Cocos nucifera, 449
Cod-liver oil, 475
Coffea arabica, 271
Coffee, 271
Cola, 131
acuminata, 131
Colchici radix, 442
semen, 444
Colchicine, 639
Colchicum autumnale, 444
Colic root, 429
Collateral bundle, 574
Collinsonia, 355
canadensis, 355
Collodion, 607
Colocasia esculenta, 457
Colocynthis, 233
Colophony, 415
Coltsfoot, 287
Columbo, 94
officinalis, 261
rubra, 267
Cinnamodendron, 188
Colorado cough root, 251
Cinnamomum camphora, 392
cassia, 374
saigonicum, 378
Combretaceæ, 220
zeylanicum, 374
Comfrey, 325
Cinquefoil, 216
Cistineæ, 117
Citrullus, 237
Citrus aurantium, 151
bergamia, 155
colocynthis, 233
limonum, 154
medica, 155
vulgaris, 153
Civet, 484
Civetta, 484
Classification, 17
botanical, 18
chemical, 17
geographical, 18
physical, 18
therapeutical, 17
Claviceps purpurea, 463
Clearing agents and mounting media, 657
media, 607
Cleavers, 271
Climbing staff-trce, 164
Closed bundle, 574
Clotbur, 283
Cloves, 224
Commelina, 451
Commelinaceæ, 451
Commiphora africana, 161
mukul, 161
myrrha, 160
Companion cells, development of, 574
Compositæ, 275
Compounds, condensed rings, 32, 39
double ring, 32, 38
pectic, 646
Comptonia asplenifolia, 402
Concentric bundle, 574
Concrete juices, 57
Condenser, copper sulphate, 575
Condurango, 311
Cone flower, 287
Conessi, 309
Congo red, 607
Coniferæ, 410
Conii folia, 243
Conium, 242
maculatum, 242
Conjugation, 552
Club mosses, 56
Cnicus arvenis, 282
benedictus, 287
marianus 287
Coca, 136
Cocaine, 136
Cocculus, 100
indicus, 100
Coccus cacti, 471
Cochineal, 471
Conspectus A, 48
B, 59
Consumptive's weed, 324
Convallaria majalis, 435
Convolvulaceæ, 325
Convolvulus scammonia, 327
Coolwort, 217
Copaiba, 196
langsdorffii, 196
Copal, 198
Copernica cerifera, 448
Copper acetate, 607
INDEX.
Copper sulphate for condenser, 515
Coptis, 84
trifolia, 84
Coral, 136
root, 420
Corallin, 607
Corallium, 474
Corallorrhiza odontorrhiza, 420
Coriander, 244
Coriandrum, 244
Cuminum, 247
cyminum, 247
Cunila mariana, 353
Cuprammonia, 607
Cuprea bark, 270
Cupuliferæ, 402
Curara, 319
Curarine, 639
Curcas purgans, 394
677
sativum, 244
Cork, 517
cambium, 571
Corms, 51, 63
Corn silk, 455
smut, 466
Cornaceæ, 252
Cornus circinata, 253
florida, 252
sericea, 253
Corrosive sublimate, 607
Cortex, function of, 582
Corydalin, 639
Corydalis, 113
Coto, 381
bark, 381
Cotton derivatives, 129
hairs, 130
oil, 131
-root bark, 129
Cotula, 289
Couch-grass, 452
Cowage, 191
Crabs' stone, 474
Cramp bark, 255
Cranesbill, 141
Crassulaceæ, 217
Cratægus, 214
oxyacantha, 214
Crawley, 420
Creasotal, 42
Cresol, 42
Crimean rhubarb, 361
Crocin, 639
Crocus sativus, 430
Croton chloral, 42
•
eluteria, 391
oil, 394
tiglium, 393
Crowfoot, 78
Cruciferæ, 114
Cryptogams, 48, 56
Crystalloid, 550
Cubeb, 366
Cubebæ, 366
Cucumber seed, 237
Cucumis citrullus, 237
sativus, 237
Cucurbita pepo, 236
Cucurbitaceæ, 233
Cudbear, 463
Culver's root, 344
Cumin seed, 247
Curcuma longa, 427
Curcumin, 639
Cusparia bark, 144
Cusso, 214
Cutch, 193
Cuticle, 566
Cutin, 639
Cutinized walls, 544
Cuttlefish bone, 474
Cyanin, 608
Cydonium, 205
Cynips, 508
Cyperaceæ, 451
Cyperus articulatus, 451
Cypripedium parviflorum, 418
Cytisine, 639
pubescens, 418
Cytisus scoparius, 185
Cytoplasm, 537, 538
behavior of, in cell division,
539
Dacus oleæ, 507
Daggett, 415
Dahlia, 608
Damiana, 233
Dammar lac, 608
Dammara, 417
Dandelion, 275
D.
Daphne mezereum, 384
Datiscin, 640
Datura stramonium, 335
tatula, 336
Daucus carota, 248
Deadly nightshade, 329
Dead-nettle, 354
Decalcification, 608
Decolorizing, 608
Deer tongue, 282
Dehydration, 609
Delphinium, 88
consolida, 88
staphisagria, 86
Demulcents, 24
Depressants, 21
cerebral, 21
hepatic, 24
motor, 21
renal, 22
Derivatives, benzene or aromatic, 31, 36
methane, 31, 32
678
INDEX.
Derivatives of cotton plant, 129
Dermatol or Bismuth subgallate, 42
Desilicification, 609
Dextrine, 640
Duboisia myoporoides, 339
Dulcamara, 339
Dulcite, 64
Dwarf elder, 252
Dextrose, 640
Diabetin, 42
Diaphoretics, 23
Diaphragm, substage, adjusting, 513
Diastase, 609, 640
Dicentra canadensis, 113
Dichopsis gutta, 301
Digestants, 30
Digitalis, 342
purpurea, 342
Dill seed, 246
Dimethyl-xanthin, 652
Di-iodoform, 43
Dionin, 43
Dioscoraceæ, 431
Dioscorea villosa, 431
Diospyros virginiana, 301
Diphenylamine, 609
Dipterocarpeæ, 126
Dipterocarpus tubinatus, 126
Dipteryx, 188
odorata, 188
Distribution of the tissue in leaves, 594
Dita, 309
Dittany, 353
Diuretics, 22
Diuretin, 43
Dog button, 312
rose, 211
Dogbane, 306
Dogtooth violet, 447
Dogwood, 252
Dorema ammoniacum, 250
Double staining, 609
Draconis resina, 448
Dragon's blood, 448
Drawing, directions for, 517
Drimys granatensis, 94
winteri, 94
rotundifolia, 217
Drosera, 217
Droseraceæ, 217
Drug, assay of, 76, 497
Drugs, animal, 48, 59, 74
secretion of, 59
tissues of, 59
cellular, 70
insects injurious to, 500
non-cellular, 48, 57, 71
official, 48, 59
organic, 78
remedies for insects injurious
to, 508
unofficial, 59
vegetable, 49
Dryobalanops aromatica, 127
Dryopteris filix-mas, 458
marginalis, 458
Duboisia, 339
Eau de javelle, 612
Ebenaceæ, 301
E.
Ecballium elaterium, 237
Ecbolics, 24
Echinacea, 281
angustifolia, 281
purpurea, 281
Ectobia germanica, 472
Effects of pulverization upon identi
fication, 653
Egg, 476
albumen, 476
shell, 476
yolk, 476
Elæis guineensis, 449
Elaioplasts, 640
Elastica, 390
Elaterin, 239
Elaterium, 237
Elder, 253
Elecampane, 279
Elemi, 161
Elephanotopus tomentosus, 287
Elephant's foot, 287
Elettaria repens, 428
Elodea canadensis, 539
Embelia ribes, 301
Emetics, 23
Emetine, 260
Emmenagogues, 24
Emodin, 154
Emollients, 24
Emulsin, 640
Endodermis, 592
Englemann's bacterium method, 600
Eosin, 612
Ephedra antisyphilitica, 409
Epicauta vittata, 470
Epidermis, origin of, 564
Epigæa, 300
repens, 300
Epilobium angustifolia, 232
Epiphegus, 346
Equisetaceæ, 458
Equisetum hyemale, 458
Erechthites hieraciflua, 282
Ergot, 463
Ergota, 463
Ericaceæ, 296
Erigeron, 286
annus, 286
canadense, 286
philadelphicus, 286
strigosus, 286
Eriodictyon, 324
Errhines, 23
Eryngium aquaticum, 251
• Erythronium americanum, 447
Erythrophloum, 178
guineense, 178
Erythroxylon coca, 136
Eschscholtzia californica, III
Eserin, 190
Ether, 612
method of vaporizing, 517
Ethyl bromide, 43
chloride, 43
Eucaine hydrochlorate, 43
Eucalyptol, 43
Eucalyptus globulus, 221
Eugenia aromatica, 224
chekan, 224
jambolana, 228
Eugenol, 641
Euonymus atropurpureus, 163
Eupatorium, 283
perfoliatum, 283
purpureum, 284
Euphorbia corollata, 389
ipecacuanha, 389
pilulifera, 389
Euphorbiaceæ, 387
Euphorbium, 389
Euphorin, 43
Euphrasia officinalis, 344
Euquinine, 43
Evening primrose, 232
Exalgin, 43
Excitants, cerebral, 21
Exodin, 43
motor, 21
renal, 23
Extractum glycyrrhiza, 177
Eyebright, 344
INDEX.
Fever root, 257
Feverfew, 288
Ficus carica, 400
Fig, 400
Figwort, 346
Filices, 458
Fireweed, 282
Fish berries, 100
679
Fisher's method of demonstrating cilia,
613
Fixatives, 613
Flaxseed, 134
Fleabane, 286
Florida allspice, 92
Flowers, parts of, 54, 68
Fluids, digestive, 609
Foeniculum, 240
Fænum græcum, 188
Foxglove, 342
Fragaria vesca, 214
Frangula, 164
Frangulin, 641
Frankenia grandiflora, 123
Frankeniaceæ, 123
Frankincense, 161
Frasera, 322
walteri, 322
Fraxinus americana, 306
sambucifolia, 306
Free cell formation, 556
Fringe tree, 306
Frostwort, 117
Fruits, parts of, 55, 68
Fuchsin, 615
Fucus nodosus, 468
vesiculosus, 468
Fumariaceæ, 113
Fundamental tissue, 580
Fungi, 463
Fungus cellulose, 641
F.
Fabiana imbricata, 339
Fagus ferruginea, 404
False hellebore, 86
jalaps, 327
sarsaparilla, 252
unicorn, 439
Fats, 641
and oils, 641
Fatty substances, 58
Fehling's solution, 612
Fel bovis, 478
Fennel, 240
Fenugreek, 188
Ferric ammonium sulphate, 613
chloride, 613
cyanide of potassium, 613
Ferrocyanide of potassium, 613
Ferula foetida, 248
galbaniflua, 249
sumbul, 250
G.
Gadus morrhua, 475
Galanga, 425
Galangal, 425
Galbanum, 249
Galega, 184
Galipea cuspari, 144
Galium, 271
aparine, 271
triflorum, 271
verum, 271
Galla, 404
Gallic acid, 406
Galls, 404
Gambir, 194, 272
Gamboge, 124
Garcinia hanburii, 124
mangostana, 126
Garden lavender, 355
lettuce, 288
680
INDEX.
Garden purslane, 124
thyme, 355
Garlic, 439
Garrya fremontii, 253
Gaultheria, 298
procumbens, 298
Gelatinous sheaths, 641
Gelatine, 615
Gelatinum, 480
Gelechia cerealella, 506
Gelsemium, 315
Gentian violet, 616
Gentiana, 319
catesbæi, 320
lutea, 319
sempervirens, 315
punctata, 320
purpurea, 3201
quinqueflora, 321
Gentianeæ, 319
Geraniaceæ, 141
Geranium, 141
maculatum, 141
German chamomile, 289
Germander, 354
Geum rivale, 216
urbanum, 216
Gigartina mamillosa, 467
Gillenia, 216
stipulacea, 216
trifoliata, 216
Ginger, African, 423
black, 423
Chinese, 423
East Indian, 423
green, 423
Jamaica, 423
Ginseng, 252
Glechoma, 354
hederacea, 354
Globoids, 550, 642
Gouania domingensis, 169
Gourd towel, 231
Grains of paradise, 429
Gramineæ, 451
Gram's method, 617
Granati frucus cortex, 232
Granatum, 229
Granum paradisi, 429
Grape sugar, 455
Grass-tree resin, 447
Gravel plant, 300
Great laurel, 300
Green dragon, 451
hellebore, 84
Greenhart bark, 381
Grindelia, 285
robusta, 285
squarrosa, 285
Ground ivy, 354
Growths, abnormal, 48, 57
Guaco, 283
Guaiaci lignum, 139
resina, 140
Guaiacum officinale, 139
sanctum, 139
Guarana, 170
Guinea rush, 451
Gum arabic, 191, 618
camphor, 382
copal, 198
dammar, 417
guaiac, I4o
tragacanth, 193
Gums, 642
Gurjun balsam, 126
Gutta percha, 301
Guttiferæ, 124
Gynocardia odorata, 118
Gysophila paniculata, 124
Glucose, 616, 642
Glycerine, 616
gelatine, 616
gum, 617
Glycogen, 642
H.
Hæmatein, 618
Hæmatics, 26
Glycyrrhiza, 174
glabra, 174
Gnaphalium polycephalum, 287
Gnetaceæ, 409
Goa powder, 191
Goanese ipecac, 162
Gold and mercury, 26
Gold chloride, 617
size, 617
thread, 84
Goldenrod, 288
Goldenseal, 81
Gonolobus condurango, 311
Gossypii radicis cortex, 129
Gossypium herbaceum, 129
purificatum, 130
Gouania, 169
Hæmatoxylin and eosin, 618
and safranin, 618
Delafield's, 618
Hæmatoxylon campechianum, 178
Hæmodoraceæ, 429
Hagenia abyssinica, 214
Hair-cap moss, 468
Hairs of seed, 130
Hamamelidaceæ, 217
Hamamelidis cortex, 218
Hamamelis virginica, 218
Hanging-drop culture, 618
Hardening processes, 619
Hardhack, 217
Heart's ease, 117
Hedeoma pulegioides, 352
Helenium, 287
INDEX.
681
Helenium autumnale, 287
Helianthella tenuifolia, 281
Helianthemum, 117
canadense, 117
Helianthus annuus, 294
Helleborus niger, 84
Helonias dioica, 439
viridis, 84
Hemicelluloses, 548, 643
Hemidesmus, 311
indicus, 311
Hemlock leaves, 243
seed, 242
spruce, 412
Hemp seed, 400
Henbane, 336
Hepatica, 92
Herbs, 51, 66
Heroin, 43
Hesperidin, 643
Heuchera, 217
americana, 217
High bush cranberry, 255
Hips, 211
Hirudo, 473
Hoang-nan, 315
Holarrhena antidysenterica, 309
Holly, 162
Hollyhock, 129
Honduras bark, 159
Holocain, 43
Honey, 476
Hop-hornbeam, 408
Hops, 397
Hordeum, 457
Horehound, 352
Horse-chestnut, 171
Horsemint, 354
Horse-nettle, 340
distichum, 457
Horseradish, 117
Houttuynia californica, 370
Humulus lupulus, 397
Hundred leaved rose, 211
Hydrangea arborescens, 217
Hydrastis, 81
canadensis, 81
Hydrogen peroxide, 620
Hydrophyllaceæ, 324
Hydrous wool-fat, 483
Hyoscyami semen, 338
Hyoscyamus, 336
niger, 336
Hypericineæ, 124
Hypericum perforatum, 124
Hypnone, 43
Hypnotics, 21
Hypoderma, 564
Iceland moss, 462
Ichthyocolla, 474
Ichthyol, 43
I.
Identification by color, 655
Ignatia, 314
by odor, 656
by taste, 656
of adulterants, 656
Ilex opaca, 162
paraguayensis, 162
Ilicineæ, 162
Illicium verum, 92
Imbedding in collodion, 534
in elder pith, etc., 526
in paraffine, 529
Impatiens pallida, 142
Imperatoria ostruthium, 251
India ink, 620
rubber, 390
Indian cannabis, 398
hemp, 398
licorice, 178
sarsaparilla, 311
tobacco, 294
turnip, 451
Indican, 643
Infiltration, 620
Insect powder, 279
Insects, 59
Intercellular spaces, 560
Introduction to study of drugs, 17
Inula, 279
helenium, 279
Inulin, 549, 644
Iodine, 620
and alcohol, 621
and aluminum chloride, 621
and glycerine, 621
and phosphoric acid, 621
and potassium iodide, 621
and sulphuric acid, 621
green, 621
Ipecac, 257
Ipecacuanha, 257
spurge, 389
Ipomoea pandurata, 327
Irideæ, 429
Iris florentina, 429
versicolor, 429
Irish moss, 467
Iron acetate, 621
hæmatoxylin, 621
Iron-wood, 408
Irritants, 24
Isinglass, 474
Hyraceum, 483
Hyssop, 354
Hyssopus, 354
J.
officinalis, 354
Jaborandi, 147
Jacaranda procera, 347
682
INDEX.
Jack-in-the-pulpit, 451
Jalap, 325
Jamaica dogwood, 178
Jambu assu, 370
Jambul, 228
Jateorrhiza palmata, 94
Java plum, 228
tea, 355
Jeffersonia diphylla, 104
Jequirity, 178
Jewel weed, 142
Jimpson weed, 142
Juglandaceæ, 401
Juglans cinerea, 40
nigra, 402
Juniper berries, 411
Juniperus communis, 411
oxycedrus, 412
sabina, 410
virginiana, 4II
K.
Kalmia latifolia, 300
Kamala, 394
Kauri resin, 417
Kava-kava, 370
Kino, 195
Knives, microtome, method of sharpen-
ing, 523
Kousso, 214
Krameria, 118
ixina, 118
triandra, 118
Labiatæ, 348
Labrador tea, 300
Lac, 479
Lacca, 390
L.
Laciniaria spicata, 281
Lactophenin, 44
Lactuca canadensis, 288
sativa, 288
virosa, 288
Lactucarium, 288
Ladies' slipper, 418
Lady's bedstraw, 271
Laminaria digitata, 468
Lamium album, 354
Lanolin, 483
Lappa, 279
Lappæ fructus, 280
Lard, 481
oil, 481
Large flowering spurge, 389
Larix americana, 412
Larkspur seed, 88
Laserpitium latifolium, 251
Lasioderma serricorne, 504
Latex, constitution of, 581
Laurel, 381
Laurinaceæ, 373
Laurocerasus, 214
Laurus nobilis 381
Lavandula, 355
vera, 355
Lead acetate, 621
Lead, copper, silver and bismuth, 26
Leaf, termination of bundles in, 597
Leafy tops, 54, 65
Leaves, 53, 64
functions, of, 594
structure of, 594
Ledum, 300
latifolium, 300
Leech, 473
Leguminosa, 174
Lemon products, 154
Lenticels, 572
Leonurus, 354
cardiaca, 354
Lepisma saccharina, 507
Leptandra, 344
Lettuce opium, 288
Leucin, 644
Leucoplastids, 546
Leucoplasts, 644
Levant wormseed, 292
Levisticum, 251
Lichenes, 462
Life-everlasting, 287
Life-root, 287
Lignified walls, 544
Lignum vitæ, 139
Ligusticum filicum, 251
levisticum, 251
Ligustrum, 306
vulgare, 306
Liliaceæ, 431
Lily of the valley, 435
Limonis cortex, 155
succus, 154
Linden flower, 133
Lindera benzoin, 381
Lineæ, 134
Linseed, 134
Linum, 134
usitatissimum, 134
Lipochromes, 644
Lippia dulcis, 347
mexicana, 347
Liquidambar orientalis, 219
styraciflua, 220
Liriodendron tulipifera, 71
Lithium carbonate, 621
Litmus, 462
Liverleaf, 92
Liverwort, 92
Lobelia, 294
inflata, 294
Loganiaceæ, 312
Logwood, 178
Long pepper, 369
Loranthaceæ, 387
Lovage, 251
Lucuma glycyphlæa, 301
Luffa, 236
ægyptiaca, 236
echinata, 236
Lungwort, 325
Lupulin, 397
Lupulinum, 347
Lycopersicum esculentum, 342
Lycopodiaceæ, 460
Lycopodium clavatum, 460
Lycopus virginicus, 354
INDEX.
Marshmallow, 127
Masterwort, 251
Mastiche, 172
Material, fresh, fixing of, 528
hardening of, 529
reserve, 546
683
sealing, in balsam, 533
sectioning, imbedded in paraf-
fin, 530
Matico, 370
Matricaria, 289
chamomilla, 289
parthenium, 288
Lysidin, 44
Lysigenous intercellular spaces, 561
Maw seed, IIO
M.
Macassar oil, 171
Maceration, 621
Macis, 373
Madder, 261
Magnesium, 644
sulphate and ammonium
chloride, 622
Magnification, determination of, 518
Magnolia, 93
glauca, 93
Magnoliaceæ, 92
Maidenhair, 460
Maize oil, 455
Majorana, 354
Male-fern, 458
Mallotus philippinensis, 394
Mallow, 129
Malt, 459
Maltose, 644
Maltum, 457
Malus, 205
Malva, 129
Malvaceæ, 127
sylvestris, 129
Man of the earth, 327
Manaca, 333
Mandrake, IOI
Manganese, iron and chromium, 26
Mango fruit, 126
Mangostana, 126
May apple, 1OI
weed, 289
Meadow saffron, 442
Medullary rays, 582
Mel, 476
vertical extent of, 587
Melaleuca leucadendron, 228
Melia azedarach, 162
Meliaceæ, 162
Melilotus, 184
officinalis, 184
Melissa officinalis, 353
Melon tree, 233
Membranes, lignified, 644
lining, 537
the plasma, 542
Menispermaceæ, 94
Menispermum canadense, 99
Mentha piperita, 349
viridis, 350
Menthol, 350
trifoliata, 323
Menyanthes, 323
Mercurialis annua, 390
Mercuric chloride, 622
Mercurol, 44
Mercury weed, 390
Meristematic tissues, 561
Metabolic processes, 541
Methane or fatty acid series, 32
Methyl-alcohol, 622
-blue, 622
-green, 623
and acetic acid, 623
-violet, 624
Mangosteen, 126
Manihot aipi, 457
Manna, 305
utilissima, 457
Manzanito, 298
Map of South America, 264
Maple, red or swamp, 171
Maranta arundinacea, 457
Maregamia alata, 162
Margosa bark, 162
Marigold, 293
Marrubinum, 353
vulgare, 353
Marsh rosemary, 300
Methylene-blue, 623
and carbol-fuchsin, 623
Methylene-violet, 44
Methysticum, 370
Metroxylon rumphii, 457
sagu, 457
Mezereon bark, 384
Micromeria douglasii, 355
Microscope, the use of, 509
drawing from, 517
Microscopical examination of powdered
drugs, 653
Microtome, 521
knives, sharpening of, 523
684
INDEX.
Middle lamella, 559
Migranin, 44
Milfoil, 287
Milk, 479
Milkweed, 311
Millon's reagent, 624
Mineral crystals, 550
deposits, 546
Mistletoe, 387
Mitchella, 270
repens, 270
Mitella nuda, 217
Mites, 502
Momordica balsamina, 236
Monarda, 354
fistulosa, 354
punctata, 354
Monesia, 301
Monimiaceæ, 371
Monkshood, 88
Moraceæ, 67
Morphine, 644
Morus, 401
Moschus moschiferus, 477
Mother cloves, 226
Motherwort, 354
Mountain laurel, 300
mint, 355
sage, 286
Mounting sections, 532
Mounts, making permanent, 535
permanent from material im-
bedded in elder pith, 536
Movements of protoplasm, 539
Mucilages, 645
Mucilaginous walls, 546
Mucuna, 191
pruriens, 191
Mugwort, 286
Mulberry, 401
Mullein, 344
Musk, 477
root, 250
Mutisia viciæfolia, 287
Mutton suet, 480
Mydriatics, 24
Mylabris bifasciata, 470
cichorii, 470
phalerata, 470
Mylois ceratonia, 506
Myotics, 24
Myrcia acris, 224
Myrica cerifera, 402
Myristica fragrans, 371
Myristicaceæ, 371
Myrobolanus, 220
Myrosin, 645
Myrrha, 160
Myrseneæ, 301
Myrtaceæ, 220
Myxomycete, movement of cytoplasm of,
539
Naphtalium, 44
Naphthol, 624
Narceine, 645
Narcotics, 21
Narcotine, 645
Nargol, 44
Neat's-foot oil, 480
Nectandra, 381
N.
Nepeta cataria, 354
Nerium oleander, 311
Nessler's reagent, 624
Nettle, 400
Newbouldia, 347
lævis, 347
New Jersey tea, 169
Nicotiana tabacum, 338
Nicotine, 645
Nigella, 88
damascena, 88
Night-blooming cereus, 238
Nitrates, 645
Nosophen, 44
Nuclear division, 554
Nucleus, 537, 540, 645
structure and functions of, 540
Nuphar advena, 106
Nut-gall, 404
Nutmeg, 371
Nutrient media, 624
Nux vomica, 312
Nymphæa, 100
odorata, 106
Oatmeal, 457
0.
Ocimum basilicum, 355
Oculiana virginea, 474
Enanthe phellandrium, 247
Enothera biennis, 232
Official drugs, 48
Oil-immersion objective, use of, 515
Oil of amber, 417
of bay, 224
of bitter almonds, 206
of cade, 412
of caraway, 234
of cedar, 605
of clover, 607
of fennel, 240
of fleabane, 286
of horsemint, 354
of pennyroyal, 352
of peppermint, 349
of petit-grain, 153
of spearmint, 351
of spike, 355
of sweet birch, 408
of tar, 416
of wintergreen, 298
Oils, 549, 645
ethereal, 641
fatty, 641
Old man, 286
Olea europæа, 304
Oleaceæ, 303
Oleander, 311
Oleoresins, 58
Oleum adipis, 481
amygdala amara, 207
INDEX.
Oleum sesami, 347
sinapis expressum, 116
succini, 417
terebinthinum, 414
theobromatis, 132
thymi, 355
tiglii, 394
valerianæ, 273
Olibanum, 161
Onagrarieæ, 232
Opium, 107
expressum, 208
Opii pulvis, 109
anethi, 246
anisi, 239
aurantii corticis, 152
florum, 154
bergamottæ, 155
betulæ volatile, 408
bubulum, 480
cadinum, 412
cajuputi, 228
camphoræ, 384
cannabis, 400
cari, 244
caryophylli, 226
chenopodii, 356
cinnamomi, 376
cocois, 449
copaibæ, 198
coriandri, 245
cubebæ, 368
erigerontis, 286
eucalypti, 223
fœniculi, 241
gaultheriæ, 298
gossypii seminis, 131
hedeomæ, 352
juniperi, 412
lauri, 381
lavandulæ florum, 355
limonis, 155
lini, 135
maydis, 455
mentha piperitæ, 350
viridis, 351
monardæ, 354
morrhuæ, 475
myrciæ, 224
myristicæ, 373
neroli, 154
olivæ, 304
expressum, 373
deodoratum, 109
Opuntia coccinilifera, 471
Orange products, 151
Orchella, 629
Orchideæ, 418
Orchil, 463
Orchis mascula, 420
morio, 420
Oregon grape, 105
Orexin, 44
Organic drugs, 78
chemicals, 31
Organs of cell, 537
Oriental cashew nut, 174
Origanum, 353
majorane, 354
vulgare, 353
Orobanchaceæ, 346
Orris root, 429
Orseillin and aniline blue, 629
Orthosiphon stamineus, 355
Oryza sativa, 457
Os, 479
sepiæ, 474
Osha, 251
Osmorrhiza longistylis, 252
Osmunda regalis, 460
Ostrea edulis, 474
virginiana, 474
Ostrya virginica, 408
Outgrowths, glandular, 59
Ovis aries, 483
Ovum, 476
Ox-gall, 478
Oxydendrum arboreum, 300
Oxytocics, 24
Oyster shell, 474
685
origani, 353
palmæ, 449
picis liquidæ, 416
pimentæ, 228
ricini, 393
rosæ, 211
rosmarini, 354
rusci, 415
rutæ, 150
sabinæ, 411
santali, 386
sassafras, 380
Pæonia, 92
P.
officinalis, 92
Paku-kidang, 460
Pale rose, 211
Palisade parenchyma, 596
Palma christi, 391
Palmæ, 447
Palm oil, 449
Panax, 252
quinquefolium, 252
686
INDEX.
Pancreatin, 482
Pancreatinum, 482
Pansy, 117
Papaver, 110
rhœas, 113
somniferum, IIO
Papaveraceæ, 106
Papaveris semen, 110
Papaw, true, 233
Paraffin, 629
Paraform, 44
Paragalactan, 646
Paraguay tea, 162
Paraldehyde, 44
Paramylum, 646
Parasites, 48, 57
Pareira brava, 97
Paromalus, 505
Parsley, fruit, 347
root, 247
Parthenium, 288
Partridge berry, 270, 298
Pasque flower, 85
Passiflora, 233
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 44
Phenograms, 48, 49
Phenol, 605
Phloëm, 574
Phloridzin, 646
Phloroglucin, 629, 646
Phoradendron flavescens, 387
Phostosyntax, 600
Physeter macrocephalus, 475
Physostigma, 189
venenosum, 189
Phytolacca decandra, 306
Phytolacca fructus, 357
radix, 356
Phytolaccaceæ, 356
Pichi, 339
Picræna excelsa, 159
Picro-nigrosin, 630
Pilocarpus, 147
jaborandi, 147
selloanus, 147
Pimenta, 226
officinalis, 226
Pimpernel, 251
incarnata, 233
Pimpinella, 251
Passifloreæ, 233
Passion flower, 233
Paullinia cupana, 170
Pineapple, 429
Peach leaves, 205
Pink root, 317
Pedalineæ, 347
Pellitory, 278
Pencil flower, 184
anisum, 239
saxifraga, 251
Pinus palustris, 412
Piper, 68
album, 369
angustifolium, 370
Penghawar, 460
Pennyroyal, 352
Penthorum, 217
sedoides, 217
Peony, 92
Pepo, 236
Pepper, 368
Peppermint, 349
Pepsin, 481, 629
Pepsinum, 481
Pericycle, 594
Periderm, 571
Periplaneta americana, 471
orientalis, 471
Permanent mounts, from material im-
bedded in elder
pith, etc., 536
making of, in gly-
cerine jelly, 535
Peronin, 44
Persea gratissima, 384
Persica, 205
Persimmon, 301
Peruvian bark, 261
Petroselinum, 247
sativum, 247.
Peumus boldus, 371
Pezizin, 646
Phellandrium, 247
Phellogen, 571
Phenacetin, 44
cubeba, 366
jaborandi, 370
longum, 369
methysticum, 370
nigrum, 368
Piperaceæ, 366
Piperazine, 44
Piperine, 647
Pipsissewa, 298
Piscidia erythrina, 178
Pistacia lentiscus, 172
terebinthus, 173
Pitcher plant, 106
Piths, 53
Pix burgundica, 416
canadensis, 416
liquida, 415
Plant cell and products, 537
hairs, 54
Plantagineæ, 355
Plantago, 355
major, 355
Plantain, 355
Plastids, 542
Plumbagineæ, 300
Podophyllum, 100
Poison ivy, 171
peltatum, 101
oak, 171
Poke berries, 357
687
Poke root, 356
Polemoniacæa, 324
Polemonium reptans, 324
Polygala rubella, 123
senega, 121
Polygaleæ, 118
Polygonatum biflorum, 439
Polygoneæ, 357
Polygonum acre, 363
bistorta, 363
Polymnia uvedalia, 281
Polypodium vulgare, 460
Polypody, 460
Polyporus fomentarium, 466
officinalis, 466
Polytricaceæ, 461
Polytrichum juniperum, 461
Pomegranate, 229
rind, 232
Pond dogwood, 270
Pongamia glabra, 198
oil, 198
Poppy capsules, 110
seed, IIO
Populus balsamifera, 409
tremuloides, 409
Portulaca oleracea, 124
Portulaceæ, 124
Potassium alcohol, 630
hydrate, 630
Potato beetle, 470
Potentilla canadensis, 216
tormentilla, 218
Prayer beads, 178
Premna taitensis, 348
Prickly-ash bark, 143
fruit, 144
INDEX.
Pulmonaria officinalis, 325
Pulsatilla, 85
Pulverization-powdering, 65+
Pumpkin seed, 236
Punica granatum, 229
Punicaceæ, 229
Purgatives, 23
Purging cassia, 186
nuts, 394
Purified ox-gall, 478
Pycnanthemum montanum, 355
Pyrenoids, 648
Pyrethri flores, 279
Pyrethrum, 278
Germanicum, 278
Pyrogallic acid, 407
Pyrogallol, 407
Pyrus cydonia, 205
malus, 205
Quaker button, 312
Quassia, 156
Q.
amara, 157
bark, 159
Surinam, 158
Quassiæ cortex, 159
Quebracho, 308
Queen of the meadow, 284
Queen's delight, 387
root, 387
Quercus alba, 402
lusitanica, 404
Quillaja, 208
saponaria, 208
Quince seed, 205
Proteids, 647
Primulaceæ, 300
Prince's pine, 298
Prinos, 162
Privet, 306
Procambium bundle, 572
Protargol, 44
Protein crystalloids, 647
R.
Ragweed, 283
Ragwort, 287
Raisin, 169
grains, 549
Protoplasm, 648
movements of, 648
bulbosus, 86
Protoplasmic connections, 648
Protoplast, 537
Prunum, 204
Prunus amygdalus, var. amara, 206
domestica, 204
dulcis, 207
laurocerasus, 214
persica, 205
serotina, 202
Virginiana, 2O2, 204
Ptelia trifoliata, 145
Pterocarpus marsupium, 195
santalinus, 180
Pterocaulon pycnostachyon, 282
Ptinus brunneus, 504
Ranunculaceæ, 78
Ranunculus, 86
Raspberry, 213
Rattlesnake's master, 251
Reagents and processes, 601
use of, 516
Red clover, 184
poppy, 113
root, 169
rose, 21O
sandalwood, 180
saunders, 180
sedge, 451
Redbud, 178
Rejuvenescence, 552
Remedies, external, 20
internal, 19
688
INDEX.
•
Remedies, synthetical, 17
Remijia pedunculata, 270
purdieana, 270
Sabbatia elliotti, 323
paniculata, 323
Resin, 415, 649
Resina, 415
Resorcin, 44
Rhamneæ, 164
Rhamnus cathartica, 169
frangula, 164
purshiana, 166
Rhatany, 18
Savanilla, 119
Rheum officinale, 358
rhaponticum, 361
Rhizomes, 50, 61
Rhododendron, 300
Rhœas, 113
Rhubarb, 358
Rhus aromatica, 171
glabra, 172
radicans, 171
toxicodendron, 171
Ricinus communis, 391
Ring of annular growth, constituţion
Roman chamomile, 290
increase in thickness of, 589,
of, 589
Roots, 49, 59
591
Rosa canina, 211
centifolia, 2II
damascena, 2II
gallica, 210
Rosaceæ, 201
Rosemary, 354
Rosin, 415
Sabina, 410
Saccharum, 72
lactis, 479
officinarum, 452
uvenum, 455
Safflower, 293
Saffron, 430
Safranin, 630
Safrol, 44
Sage brush, 286
Sago, 457
Saigon cassia, 378
cinnamon, 378
St. Ignatius' bean, 314
St. John's bread, 187
Salep, 420
-wort, 124
Salicaceæ, 408
Salicin, 649
Salicinum, 408
Salicylate of soda, 631
Salix, 408
alba, 408
Salol, 44
Salophen, 45
Salt, 631
Salvia, 65
officinalis, 354
Sambucus, 253
canadensis, 253
Sandalwood, 386
Sandarac, 417
Sandaracca, 417
weed, 287
Rosmarinus, 354
officinalis, 354
tinctorium, 261
Rottlera, 397
Rubia, 261
Rubiaceæ, 257
Rubus, 212
canadensis, 213
idæus, 213
Sanguinaria, III
canadensis, III
Sanguis, 479
Sanguisuga medicinalis, 473
Santalaceæ, 386
Santalin, 649
Santalum album, 386
rubrum, 180
Santonica, 292
Sapindaceæ, 169
villosus, 212
Rudbeckia laciniata, 287
Rue, 150
Rumex, 363
crispus, 363
hymenosepalus, 363
graveolens, 150
Ruta, 150
Rutaceæ, 143
Ruthenium red, 630
Saponaria, 124
levantica, 124
officinalis, 124
Saponin, 209, 649
Sapotaceæ, 301
Saraca indica, 178
Sarracenia flava, 106
purpurea, 106
Sarraceniaceæ, 106
Sarsaparilla, 432
Brazilian, 432
Honduras, 432
Rutin, 649
Jamaica, 432
Mexican, 432
S.
Sassafras, 379
Sabal, 436
bark, 379
Sabbatia, 323
lignum, 380
angularis, 323
medulla, 380
Sassafras, pith, 380
variifolium, 379
Sassy bark, 178
Satureia hortensis, 355
INDEX.
Silvanus surinamensis, 505
Silver nitrate, 631
Simaba cedron, 159
Simaruba, 159
officinalis, 159
689
Savine, 410
Saw palmetto, 448
Saxifrageæ, 217
Scammonium, 327
Scammony, 327
Scarlet pimpernel, 300
Simarubeæ, 156
Sinapine, 650
Sinapis alba, 114
nigra, 115
Sitodrepa panicea, 503
Schizogenous intercellular spaces, 560 Skullcap, 355
Schlerchera trijuga, 171
Scilla, 410
Scitamineæ, 422
Scoparius, 185
Scopola, 334
Scouring rush, 458
Scrophularia nodosa, 346
Scrophularineæ, 342
Scutellaria lateriflora, 353
Sea-girdles, 468
Sealing in balsam, 533
Skunk cabbage, 451
Slippery-elm bark, 395
Smart weed, 363
Smilax medica, 432
officinalis, 432
papyracea, 432
Snakehead, 346
Sneezewort, 287
Soapbark, 208
Soapwort, 124
Levant, 124
Section-cutting, different
methods of,
Sodium cacodylate, 45
525
ethylate, 45
preparation of material
Solanin, 65o
for, 525
Solanum, 339
Sectioning, 530
carolinense, 340
Sections, imbedding of, in collodion, 53+
dulcamara, 339
in paraffin, 520
tuberosum, 457
mounting of, on slide, 532
Solidago, 288
staining the, 533
odora, 288
Sedatives, cardiac, 22
pulmonary, 23
local, 24
renal, 23
vascular, 22
vesical, 22
Sedum acre, 217
Seed coverings, 56
anacardium, 174
Semecarpus, 174
Seminose, 649
Senecio aureus, 287
Senega, 121
Senna, 182
Alexandria, 182
India, 182
Sepia officinalis, 474
Serenoa serrulata, 448
Serpentaria, 363
Serpyllum, 354
Serum antitoxins, 45, 484
Sesamum, 347
Sevum, 480
Shellac, 631
indicum, 347
Shellbark hickory, 402
Shepherd's purse, 117
Sialagogues, 23
Sieve-tubes, development of, 573
Silica, 556, 649
Silphium laciniatum, 287
Silvanus advena, 505
Solomon's seal, 439
Sourwood, 300
Southern-wood, 286
Sozoiodol, 45
Spanish flies, 469
needles, 287
Sparteine, 186
Spearmint, 350
Speedwell, 346
Spergulin, 650
Spermaceti, 475
Spice bush, 381
Spigelia, 317
marilandica, 317
Spindle, kinoplasmic, 554
Spinosum, 283
Spiny clotbur, 283
Spiræa tomentosa, 217
Spiral vessels, development of, 572
Sponge, 473
Spongia officinalis, 473
Spongy parenchyma, 594
Squaw root, 100
vine, 270
Squill, 440
Stachys betonica, 355
Staining the sections, 533
intra vitam, 631
Staphisagria, 86
Star anise, 92
Starch, 456, 546, 650
mounting for examination, 509
44
690
INDEX..
Starwort, 429
Statice, 300
brasiliensis, 300
Statice limonium, 300
Stavesacre, 86
Stearoptens, 73
Stele, 594
Stellaria, 124
media, 124
Sterculiaceæ, 131
Sternutatories, 23
Stillingia sylvatica, 381
Stimulants, cardiac, 22
hepatic, 23
vascular, 22
Stinging-nettle, 400
Stomachics, 23
Stomata, action of, 570
Stone root, 355
Storax, 219
Stramonium, 335
leaves, 336
seeds, 335
Strawberry, 214
Strophanthus, 309
hispidus, 309
Strumarium, 283
Strychnine, 650
Strychnos castelnæana, 319
ignatia, 314
malaccensis, 315
nux vomica, 312
Stylosanthes elatior, 184
Styraceæ, 301
Styrax, 219
benzoin, 301
Suberin, 650
Suberized walls, 544
Substances, extractive, 71
fatty, 73
mucilaginous, 72
resinous, 72
saccharine, 72
Succinum, 417
Sudorifics, 23
Suet, 480
Sugar, 452
mite, 502
of milk, 479
Sulphonal, 45
Sumac, 172
Sumbul, 250
Summer savory, 355
Sundew, 217
Sunflower, 294
Surgeon's agaric, 466
Sus scrofa, 481
Swamp milkweed, 311
Sweet almond, 207
basil, 355
bay, 381
cicely, 252
clover, 184
Sweet fern, 402
flag, 449
gum, 220
marjoram, 354
oil, 304
orange peel, 151
sumach, 172
Swertia chirata, 322
Symphytum, 325
officinale, 325
Symplocarpus fœtidus, 451
Synopsis of natural orders, 488
Syringin, 651
Tabacum, 338
T.
Table of therapeutic agents, 19
Tag alder, 407
Tamarac, 412
Tamarind, 187
Tamarindus, 187
indica, 187
Tanacetum vulgare, 286
Tannic acid, 406
Tannin, 132
and antimonium-potassium tar-
trate, 632
Tannins, 651
Tansy, 286
Tapioca, 457
Tar, 415
Taraxacum, 275
officinale, 275
Taro flour, 457
Tea, 126
Tegumentary tissues, 564
Tenebrio obscurus, 505
Terebinthina, 412
canadensis, 416
chia, I73
Terminalia chebula, 220
Ternstræmiaceæ, 126
Terra japonica, 272
Testa, 474
ovi, 476
Tetronal, 45
Teucrium, 354
chamædrys, 354
Texas sarsaparilla, 100
Thapsia garganica, 251
Thea, 126
Theobroma, 132
cacao, 132
Theobromine, 652
Therapeutical agents affecting nervous
and muscular sys-
tems, 19
affecting nutrition,
19
affecting
organs, 19
defined, 20
special
INDEX.
Therapeutical agents of chemical nature,
25
table of, 19, 25
which act upon or-
ganisms
Turkey corn, 113
Turmeric, 427
Turnera diffusa, 233
Turneraceæ, 233
Turpentine, 412, 623
Chian, 173
Thimble weed, 287
Thiocol, 45
Thornapple, 335
Thoroughwort, 283
which infest the
human body, 20
Venetian, 632
Tussilago, 287
farfara, 287
Thuja occidentalis, 411
Thymelaceæ, 384
Thymol, 246
serpyllum, 354
Thymus, 355
vulgaris, 355
Tiglium, 393
Tilia americana, 133
Tiliaceæ, 133
Tinea, 506
Tissues, 558
distribution of, in leaves, 594
fundamental, or ground, 580
rings, of, 589
secondary increase in thickness,
584
meristematic, 561
systems of, 561
tegumentary, 564
vascular, 572
Titles, descriptive, 41
of new remedies, 41
of organic chemicals, 40
Twigs, 53, 63
Twin-leaf, 104
Tyrosin, 652
Ulmus fulva, 395
Umbelliferæ, 238
U.
Umbellularia californica, 381
Uncaria gambir, 272
Urechites, 31I
Urethane, 45
Urginea maritima, 440
Uricedin, 45
Urotropin, 45
Urtica dioica, 400
Urticaceæ, 394
Ustilago, 466
Uva passa, 169
ursi, 296
V.
Vaccinium crassifolium, 300
Vacuoles, 537
Valerian, 272
Valeriana, 272
officinalis, 272
leaf, 282
691
Tobacco, 338
Tomato, 342
Tonga, 347
Tonics, 22
vesical, 22
Tonka bean, 188
Tormentilla, 216
Torula cerevisiæ, 466
Tracheids, formation of, 586
Tragacantha, 193
Trailing arbutus, 300
Tree of heaven, 159
Trichloracetic acid, 45
Trichomes, 568
Tricresol, 45
Trifolium pratense, 184
repens, 184
Trigonella fœnum græcum, 188
Trilisa odoratissima, 282
Trillium erectum, 439
Trional, 45
Triosteum perfoliatum, 257
Triticum, 452
vulgare, 453
Tropical bindweed, 315
Trypeta arnicivora, 507
Tsuga canadensis, 412
Tubers, 51, 62
Tulip-tree bark, 94
Valerianeæ, 272
Vanilla planifolia, 420
Vanillin, 652
Vascular bundles, constitution of, 574
course of, 576
development of, 572
functions of, 576
relation of, to increase
in thickness of plant
members, 579
Vegetable sponge, 236
sulphur, 460
Venice turpentine, 413
Veratrine, 652
Veratrum album, 436
sabadilla, 438
viride, 436
Verbascum thapsus, 344
Verbena hastata, 347
urticæfolia, 347
Verbenaceæ, 347
Veronica officinalis, 346
virginica, 344
Vetiveria, 452
Vetivert, 452
Viburnum opulus, 255
692
INDEX.
Witchhazel, 218
bark, 218
Woodbine, 169
Viburnum prunifolium, 255
Viola tricolor, 117
Violaceæ, 117
Virginia snake-root, 363
stonecrop, 217
Vitellus, 476
Vitis vinifera, 169
Viverra civetta, 484
zibetha, 484
W.
Wafer ash, 145
Wahoo, 163
Wake robin, 439
Wood-fibers, formation of, 586
Wood-oil, 126
Woods, 53, 63
Woorari, 319
Wormwood, 286
Wound gum, 652
X.
Water avens, 216
dropwort, 247
eryngo, 251
lily, 106
pepper, 363
shamrock, 323
Watermelon seed, 237
Wax, 652/
incrustations, 566
myrtle, 224
White agaric, 466
ash, 306
clover, 184
Xanthin, 653
Xanthium spinosum, 283
Xanthorrhoea australis, 447
strumarium, 283
Xanthorrhiza, 84
apifolia, 84
hastilis, 447
americanum, 144
clava-herculis, 143
Xanthoxyli fructus, 144
Xanthoxylum, 143
Xylem, 574
Xylol, 632
cohosh, 84
gentian, 251
hellebore, 436
mustard, 114
oak, 402
pepper, 369
poplar, 409
vervain, 347
wax, 476
zapote, 156
Wild bergamot, 354
chamomile, 289
cherry bark, 202
ginger, 365
indigo, 178
jalap, 327
lettuce, 288
liquorice, 252
marjoram, 353
parsnip, 251
thyme, 354
yam, 431
Willow, 408
herb, 232
Wintera, 94
Wintergreen, 298
Winter's bark, 94
Yarrow, 287
Yellow dock, 363
Y.
-flowered nightshade, 311
jasmine, 315
parilla, 99
pond lily, 106
puccoon, 81
-root, 84
wax, 476
Yerba mansa, 370
nuena, 355
reuma, 123
santa, 324
Zea, 455
mays, 455
Zedoaria, 427
Zedoary, 427
Z.
Zingiber officinale, 423
Zygophylleæ, 139
NOV 15 1917
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 07505 3218