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THE
WATER SU PPLY OF TOWNS
AND THE
CONSTRUCTION OF WATERWORKS
ºr a
- - º
º
- Fº
Reproduced by permission from THE ENGINEER.] (See page 77.
LAKE WYRNWY RESERVoIR (LIVERPool, WATER SUPPLY).

THE
WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS
AND THE
CONSTRUCTION OF WATERWORKS
A PRA CT/CA / 7 A&AEA 7/SE AWOR 7//E USA: OA. A. WG/AVEERS
AAV/O S 7"O /O AEAV7'S OF AZAVG//VAZAZAZ //VG
NJ
: BY
rs”
l ft/
\-
f{Y
Wºky’BURTON, Assoc. MEME. Inst. C.E.
**
*
PROFESSOR OF SANITARY ENGINEERING IN THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, TOKYO, JAPAN
SANITARY ENGINEER TO THE HOME DEPARTMENT, JAPAN
iſlith numerous plates and other 3/Ilustrations
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND EXTENDED
L O N D O N
C R O S BY L O C K W O O D A N D S ON
7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
1898

BRADBURY, AGNEw, & Co. L.D., PRINTERs,
LoNDON AND TONBRIDGE.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
—º-
THE time has been so short since the publication of the First
edition of this work, that there has been but little advance in the
science and art of designing and constructing Waterworks. For
this reason, the contents of the Second edition do not differ greatly
from those of the First. The text, however, has been carefully
revised, several errors that had escaped detection in proof-reading
have been corrected, and a substantial amount of new matter has
been added by myself. I consider, however, that by far the most
important addition is to be found in Appendix II., dealing with
Sand Dunes and Dune Sand as a Source of Water Supply, by
John de Rijke, Esq., C.E. Mr. de Rijke's wide knowledge of
Hydraulic Engineering of every description renders his paper
upon this interesting subject particularly valuable.
I have to thank several gentlemen who have pointed out
errors, or suggested alterations, in the text of the First edition. -
W. K. BTURTON.
TOKYO, JAPAN.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
—sº-
THE present volume being largely based upon my own practice
in the particular branch of Engineering with which it is con-
cerned, and the conclusions expressed therein being the result of
careful study of the various questions dealt with, I venture to
hope that it may be found in some respects useful as a book
of reference by many of my brother Engineers. In writing
it, however, I have specially kept in mind the requirements
of those Students of Engineering to whom the subject of Water
Supply may be a novel one.
It would be impossible, even were it desirable, to write such
a book without making frequent use of what has already been
a 60027
****

vi - AA’A. AEA CAE.
written and published; and I have not hesitated to quote from,
or to give the sense of, any writings on the subject that I have
had access to. But I have been careful, as far as possible,
to acknowledge the sources of any information that has not arisen
out of my own practice; and if in any case I have failed to do
so the omission is due to oversight, not to intention, and I shall
be glad to be told of it.” Such standard works as those of
Humber and Fanning (it need not be said) I have freely used.
I do not pretend that every piece of information which has been
gained from these works is individually acknowledged, and I
therefore make this general acknowledgment.
For obvious reasons, I hope that the work may prove of
special interest, as well as utility, to Japanese Students ; and I
have for this reason inserted here and there matter that applies
to Japan alone. Such matter, however, has been relegated to
the position of foot-notes, so that it need not interrupt the
course of what is of interest to the general reader.
It would be impossible to mention even the names of all those
personal friends who in one way or another have kindly rendered
me assistance in regard to the work, although acknowledgments
of the help received from many of them will be found scattered
through the text. I cannot help, however, particularly mention-
ing here my colleagues Dr. E. Divers, F.R.S. ; Professor Charles
Dickinson West, M.A. ; Professor A. Inokuchi; and Professor
John Milne, F.R.S. To the first of these I am indebted for
advice in matters connected with Chemistry, as well as for
revising what I had written touching that subject, and for
having himself written several paragraphs which are duly
acknowledged in their places. Mr. West, and Mr. Inokuchi, I
have to thank for assistance and advice in all matters connected
with Mechanical Engineering ; and Mr. Milne for his interesting
paper on the Effects of Earthquakes on Waterworks, which is
printed as an Appendix. -
W. K. BUIRTON.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY,
TOKYO, JAPAN.
* This book had been written nearly a year before I had an opportunity of
seeing the excellent work, “The Principles of Waterworks Engineering,” by
Mr. J. H. Tudsbery Turner, B.Sc., and Mr. A. W. Brightmore, M.Sc. -
C O N T E N T S.
CHAPTER I. .
INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTER II.
DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WATER
CHAPTER III.
QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE PROVIDED
CHAPTER IV.
ON ASCERTAINING WHETHER A PROPOSED SOURCE OF SUPPLY IS
SUFFICIENT
CHAPTER V.
ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY REQUIRED TO BE PROVIDED
CHAPTER VI.
CLASSIFICATION OF WATERWORKS
IPAGE
18
25
34
43
viii COAV 7TAZAW 7TS
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
IMPOUNDING RESERVoIRs º º e e * <> gº * g 47
CHAPTER VIII.
EARTHWORK DAMS e te * © e & º e © tº 54
CHAPTER IX.
MASONRY DAMS * g e º • * * * º tº * 72
CHAPTER X.
THE PURIFICATION OF WATER ſº º e g © & * As 79
CHAPTER XI.
SETTLING RESERVOIRS. * * e g • * e º . 85
CHAPTER XII.
SAND FILTRATION . © g tº e e & g ſº tº tº 96
CHAPTER XIII.
PURIFICATION OF WATER BY ACTION OF IRON-SOFTENING OF WATER
BY ACTION OF LIME-NATURAL FILTRATION . is & ... II9
CHAPTER XIV.
SERVICE OR CLEAN WATER RESERVOIRs—WATER ToweRs—STAND
PIPES g © * & tº º . e gº º e . . 131
CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER XV.
T.A.G.E.
THE CONNECTION OF SETTLING RESERVOIRS, FILTER BEDs, AND
SERVICE RESERVOIRS . g ę & * * . # & . I48
CHAPTER XVI.
PUMPING MACHINERY & & wº # g * e tº . . 151
CHAPTER XVII.
FLOW OF WATER IN CONDUITs–PIPES AND OPEN CHANNELS . . 172
CHAPTER XVIII.
Distribution SYSTEMS . * g e * tº 9 tº . . I92
CHAPTER XIX.
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR THE EXTINCTION OF FIRE . © † . 2II
CHAPTER XX.
PIPES FOR WATERWORKS e © * * tº e * . . 224
CHAPTER XXI.
PREVENTION OF WASTE OF WATER . * e sº tº g . 246
CHAPTER XXII.
WARIOUS APPLIANCES USED IN CONNECTION WITH WATERWORKS . 272
-
X CONTAE AWTS.
APPENDIX I.
PAGE
CoNSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE PROBABLE EFFECTS OF EARTH-
QUAKES ON WATERWORKS, AND THE SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS TO
BE TAKEN IN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES. BY PROFESSOR: JOHN
MILNE, F.R.S. º e & o - º º * - . 283
APPENDIX II.
ON SAND DUNES AND DUNE SAND AS A SOURCE OF WATER
SUPPLY. BY JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E. . . º - . . 289
APPENDIX III.
NOTES . e o -> g f º & gº º º - . 295
INDEX . º º º º & • & * & -> . . 301
FIG.
1,
2.
5
13.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Lake Wyrmwy Reservoir (Liverpool Water Supply) . . From fispiece.
Weir or Notchboard for Gauging Streams
Metal Plate for do. do.
Section across River showing depth of Stream at various points
(Plate I.) Impounding Reservoir : Diagram illustrating required Storage
Capacity (Yearly Rainfall) . * e º e e facing
(Plate II.) Impounding Reservoir : Tiagram illustrating required
Storage Capacity (Daily Rainfall) . te º * e facing
(Plates III., IV., V.) Forms of Gravitation and Pumping Systems of
Waterworks ſe t * > * e • . e facing
Contour of Sides of Valley forming Site for Reservoir g tº
Do. do. do. (Streams Meeting)
Diagram illustrating Mean Depth of Reservoir with Sloping Side
Do. do. with Steep Sides
Do. Method for determining Necessary Depth of Reservoir
(Plate VI.) Section of Earthwork Dam. tº t e e Jacing
Cross-section of Puddle Trench
Do. do. (another form)
Position of Valve Tower with Culvert in Trench
Do. with Tunnel under Dam * © º
(Plate VII.) Sections of Culverts and Tunnels . e e facing
(Plate VIII.) Section of Puddle Trench ë # & te 5 *
(Plate IX.) Masonry Valve Tower : Sections . s * º 5 2
(Plate X.) Do. Sections of Air-collecting Wessel
for Syphon . e e o . . ë g º . facing
(Plate XI.) Cast-iron Valve Tower: Sections te * e º
Diagram of Main Pipe divided for Meters and Sluice Valves
Waste Weir for Water passing over Dam (Fanning)
(Plate XII.) Impounding Reservoir, in Plan, with Waste Weir and
Flood Channel , *- * e * te º t . facing
PAGE
26
27
29
40
42
~\,
xii
A./S 7" OAZ //, / OS 7TA’ A 7TWO/WS.
FIG.
47.
48.
49.
60–63(A).
64.
65.
66.
85–91.
92.
93, 94.
95.
96–100.
101.
102–105.
106.
107–113.
114–119.
Arrangement for Directing Flow into Reservoir 69
Site of Dam Trenched out . º * o & º º . . 71
(Plate XIII.) Masonry Dams: Comparison of Rankine's Profile and
Wegmann’s Theoretical Profile with Molesworth's . e facing 74
(Plate XIV.) Masonry Dams: Comparison of the same Three Profiles
with same Top thickness . * tº º º facing 74
(Plate XV.) Masonry Dams: Wegmann's Theoretical Profile for
Stone of different gravities . e - º e facing 74
(Plate XVI.) Masonry Dams: Wegmann’s Practical Profiles 3 * 74
(Plate XVII.) Section of Tytam Dam, Hongkong e e * * 78
(Plate XVIII.) Section of Vyrnwy Dam (Liverpool Water Supply) , , 78
(Plate XIX.) Section of Tytam Dam through Valve-Well . 3 3 78
Settling Tanks: Plan . e º e 88
Do. Side and Cross Channels 88
Do. Cross Channel Weir Box in Section . º . . 88
(Plate XX.) Forms of Settling Reservoirs . - e º facing 92
Arrangement of Partition Walls in Reservoir to divert Flow of Water 91
Diagram of Settling Reservoir : Inlet and Outlet at Surface level . 92
Do. Inlet and Outlet at Floor level º . . 92
Do. Inlet at Surface level, and Outlet at Floor level 93.
Do. Inlet at Floor level, and Outlet at Surface level 93
(Plate XXI.) Settling Reservoirs: Arrangement of Inlet Pipes facing 92
(Plate XXII.) DO. do. Draw-off Pipe ,, 92
(Plate XXIII.) Do. Drawing-off by Stand Pipe and by
Floating Pipe tº e & º - e facing 94
(Plate XXIV.) Settling Reservoirs: Drawing-off by Stand Pipe and by
Floating Pipe. Details º e sº e e º . facing 94
(Plate XXV.) Settling Reservoirs : Overflow and Drain Pipe combined
facing 94
Arrangement of Filter Beds : When three, four, six, eight, nine, twelve,
or sixteen in number e • - e - e - º 98, 99
Arrangement of Drains of Filter Bed . 100
Sections of Brick Drain for Filter Bed º te & e 101
Cellular Brick Floor for Filter Beds (New River Company, London) 101
(Plate XXVI.) Arrangement of Filter Beds shown in section (New
River Company, London). º º º - e o facing 102
Diagram illustrating the Filtering Head . º º e º . . 105
(Plate XXVII.) Arrangement for Regulating Speed of Filtering Beds
(J. P. Kirkwood) . º e º e - e facing 108
(Plate XXVIII.) Arrangement for Regulating Speed of Filtering Beds
(Henry Gill) e º * & & e º tº facing 108
(Plate XXIX.) Arrangement for Regulating Speed of Filtering Beds
(Telescopic Tubes) - - e º e facing 110
(Plate XXX.) Arrangement for Regulating Speed of Filtering Beds
(Automatic) . 6 º * © o e © º . . facing 112
PAGE
/L/S 7 OA' W/L/L OS 7TA’A 7TWOAVS. xiii
|FIG. PAGE
120, 121. Valve for Regulating Flow of Water (Section and Plan) 113
122. Sand Washer t º • • e º 115
123 (A) and (B). Walker's Patent Sand Washing Apparatus 1 16
124 (A) and (B). Sand Washing Machine at Berlin Waterworks 117
125–127. “Canal” Sand Washer e & - tº º - º . 118
128–131. (Plate XXXI.) Cylinder for Purifying Water with Metallic Iron facing 124
132–136. (Plate XXXII.) Water Softening and Filtering Apparatus for Loco-
motive Purposes º º e facing 128
137–141. (Plate XXXIII.) Covered Reservoir : Brick or Concrete Arches on
Columns facing 138
142. (Plate XXXIV.) Reservoir with Tile or Slate Roof . º 2 3 13S
143–145. (Plate XXXV.) Water Towers at Liverpool and Shanghai • 3 × 144
146. Diagram illustrating Action of a Stand Pipe e º . 145
147. (Plate XXXVI.) Typical Arrangement for Waterworks . facing 150
148. Section of Open Channel (Curvilinear) 177
149. T).O. (Semi-hexagonal) 177
150. Do. (Embanked) 178
151. Do. (on Slope) . e º º . . 1 79
152–168. (Plate XXXVII.) Cross-sections of Covered Conduit facing 182
169–172. (Plate XXXVIII.) Aqueduct Bridge on line of Loch Katrine Water-
works (Glasgow). e o e ſº te facing 182
173. Diagram illustrating Hydraulic Grade Line . * e 183
174. Diagram illustrating Calculation of Hydraulic Grade Lin . . 190
175–177. Diagrams illustrating Systems of Distribution e e 196–198
177(A). Diagram illustrating System of Distribution for Small District . 199
178. Diagram illustrating Multiplication of Sluice Valves . 200
179, 180. Diagrams illustrating Arrangement of Distributing Mains. 202, 205
181–183. Diagrams illustrating Systems of Centres of Distribution 206, 207
184. (Plate XXXIX.) Waterworks of Tokyo: Distribution System facing 210
185. (Plate XL.) Do. Part of Distribution System
in detail tº. e © tº ſº º facing 210
186, 187. (Plate XLI.) Pillar Hydrant : English form. º t º 5 5 216
188. Pillar Hydrant: American form (Fanning) 215
189. Merryweather’s Hydrant 216
190. Ball Hydrant and Stand Pipe 217
191, 192. Sluice Valve Hydrant . © º 218
193. Stand Pipe for Sluice Valve Hydrant . . . .218
194, 195. Screw-down Hydrant (two examples) 219, 220
196, 197. Sunk Hydrant: American form (Fanning) 221
198, 199. Flanged Joint for Water Pipes * © - e e 225
200–202. Spiggot and Socket Pipes, with Turned and Bored Joints 226
203, 204. Tools used for Caulking Joints of Pipes . © tº 228
205–208. Spiggot and Socket Pipes, with Joints run with Lea 229
209. Water Pipe, with Ball and Socket Joint (Fanning) 230
xiv.
Z/ST OF /ZZO/STRATIONS.
FIG.
210–215.
216, 217.
218.
219.
20.
21.
.
222.
223–225.
226.
227–234.
235.
236, 237.
238,239.
240, 241.
242.
243–245.
246.
247.
248, 249.
250, 251.
252.
53–255.
56, 257.
258.
259.
Bipes for Distribution Systems: Forms of Special
facing
(Plate XLII.)
Castings
Pipe Testing Machine
Stamped Steel Flanged Joint
The Duncan Patent Joint
The Riley Patent Joint . º - e g º e e © tº
Diagram illustrating Results of Experiments to Test Extent of Waste of
Water (Hope) . º e e - º
Arrangement of Pulleys in Waste Meter .
The Venturi Water Meter e º g º
Mr. G. F. Deacon’s “District ’’ Waste Meter . e s s tº º
(Plates XLIII. and XLIV.) Diagrams illustrating Supply and Waste
of Water (Deacon) sº e facing
ICennedy's Patent Water Meter, in section
Siemens and Halske's Patent Water Meter.
(Plate XLV.) Sluice Valve, in section and elevation
Gear for Opening Sluice Valves .
Air Valve for Water Pipe
Spring and Screw-down Safety Valve
Large Safety Valve for use on Water Mains
Blakeborough's Stand Pillar e º &
Tapered Ferrules for Connecting Water Pipes.
Screwed Ferrules for Connecting Water Pipes
Screwed Ferrule attached to Water Pipe º
Gear for Connecting Pipes to Mains
Patent Stop Valve Ferrule . e ſº tº ©
Diagram illustrating Formula for Strength of Wall .
Illustration of Dr. Divers' Theory of Sand Filtration
facing
256,
PAGE
236
239
244
244
245
298
II.
III.-W.
WI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
LIST OF PLATES.
FACING PAGE
Frontispiece.
Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir (Liverpool Water Supply).
. Impounding Reservoir: Diagram illustrating required Storage Capacity
(Yearly Rainfall).
Impounding Reservoir :
Capacity (Daily Rainfall)
Forms of Gravitation and Pumping Systems of Waterworks
Section of Earthwork Dam -
Sections of Culverts and Tunnels
Section of Puddle Trench
Masonry Valve Tower: Vertical and horizontal sections .
Do.
Diagram illustrating required Storage
Sections of Air-collecting Vessel for Syphon .
40
42
46
56
60
60
62
64
64
66
|XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
|XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XTX.
DXX.
XXI.
XXII.
YXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
Cast-iron Valve Tower: Vertical and horizontal sections
Impounding Reservoir, in Plan, with Waste Weir and Flood Channel
Masonry Dams: Comparison of Rankine’s Profile and Wegmann’s
Theoretical Profile with Molesworth’s
Comparison of the same Three Profiles, with same Top thickness.
Masonry Dams: Wegmann’s Theoretical Profile for Stone of different
gravities w
Do.
Section of Tytam Dam, Hongkong . ſº e
Wegmann’s Three Practical Profiles
Section of Vyrnwy Dam (Liverpool Water Supply).
Section of Tytam Dam through Valve-Well .
Forms and Modes of Construction of Settling Reservoirs.
Settling Reservoirs: Arrangement of Inlet Pipes º -
Draw-off Pipe -
Do. do. º
Do. Drawing-off by Stand Pipe and by Floating Pipe
Do. do. do. do. Details
Do. Overflow and Drain Pipe combined
Do. Arrangement of Filter Beds shown in section
74
74
74
74
78
78
78
92
92
92
94
94.
94
102
xvi J. ZS 7" OA' A' /. A 7TAZ.S.
FACING PAGE
XXVII. Arrangement for Regulating Speed of Filtering Beds (J. P. Kirkwood) 108
XXVIII. Do. do. do. (Henry Gill) 108
XXIX. Do. do. do. (Telescopic Tubes). 110
XXX. Do. do. do. (Automatic) 112
XXXI. Cylinder for Purifying Water with Metallic Iron º e . . 124
XXXII. Water Softening and Filtering Apparatus for Locomotive Purposes
(Fitzherbert Pullen). © ſº . 128
XXXIII. Covered Reservoir : Brick or Concrete Arches on Columns 138
XXXIV. Reservoir with Tile or Slate Roof. 138
XXXV. Water Towers at Liverpool and Shanghai 144
DKXXVI. Typical Arrangement for Waterworks . 150
XXXVII. Cross-sections of Covered Conduits . - e e e 182
XXXVIII. Aqueduct Bridge on line of Loch Katrine Waterworks (Glasgow) 182
|XXXIX. Waterworks of Tokyo: Distribution System. . . 210
DXL. Do. Part of do. in detail 210
XLI. Pillar Hydrant (English form) 216
XLII. Pipes for Distribution Systems: Forms of Special Castings 236
XLIII., XLIV. Diagrams illustrating Supply and Waste of Water (Deacon). 264
|XLV. Sluice Valve, in section and elevation 274
THE
WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS.
CHA PTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
IT is superfluous, at the present day, to expound at any great
length the necessity for a plentiful supply of pure water wherever
people are closely congregated together in towns or villages, for
the necessity is known to all. Indeed, although it is only of late
years that the influence of water-supply on the health of a
community has come to be thoroughly understood, the necessity
for a supply of water has been felt from the earliest times, and
the sites of towns and villages have been determined as much
by the possibility of obtaining a supply of water, as by other
considerations. It has often been pointed out how the congeries
of villages that now form London were at first isolated from each
other, each being built over a patch of water-bearing gravel, and
how the filling up of the interstices between them became possible
only when some more general supply of water than that from
wells in the gravel was provided.
Almost instinctively there must have been selected as a site
for a habitation one where water could readily be obtained either
from a stream or a spring, or by digging to no great depth in the
ground, and, as long as houses were isolated, or only in very small
groups, such a supply of water was in many cases all that was
necessary. It was probably plentiful, and likely to be pure in the
sense of being free from dissolved Organic matter, or the like im-
purities, that are known either to cause or to spread disease. Even
the much despised shallow well will give a wholesome supply of
water, if it is suitably situated ; if, for example, it is at the foot
22 & B
2 TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UA’A’/L V OA' 7TO WAVS.
ſ
\
{
of a hill, so that it intercepts the underground flow of the water
from the hill side. A shallow well may, indeed, even in the case
of a single isolated house, be a source of danger when, for example,
as is too often the case, a cesspool is excavated in the same porous
soil at no distance from it. In this case the matter from the
cesspool probably percolates into the well, with the result of
rendering the water most unwholesome; but even here we are
not likely to have the spreading of an epidemic such as we may
have if a common source of water becomes contaminated.
It is when people begin to settle together in rude
communities that the danger really becomes great, for it
is then almost certain that there will be no efficient means
of carrying off the filth that in modern cities and towns
constitutes sewage. A part of it will probably sink into the
ground, another part will find its way by natural channels
to the nearest stream. If the supply of water be from
shallow wells, the quality of the water is sure to get
worse and worse till, at last, the water-bearing stratum is
saturated with sewage, and the wells are full of water that is
nothing better than dilute sewage. If the inhabitants have
built their houses on the banks of a stream, relying on the
water of this for a supply, it is certain that gradually more
and more filthy matter will find its way into the stream and
the community will suffer, especially the part that is down-
stream. In either case—that of the wells or of the stream—
not only is the general health of the community sure to suffer,
but, in the case of certain epidemics that are known to be
communicated through water—notably cholera—it is likely that,
if once the sickness enters the village or town, it will spread “like
wild-fire.” In one case the germs of disease, entering the soil,
find their way into the wells; in the other they are carried into
the stream. In either case the result will be much the same.
Where shallow wells are used, it is the lowest parts of the
town that suffer most. The writer has known cases in which
the impurities in shallow wells within a town were just about
inversely proportional to the heights of the sites of the wells. If
a stream is relied on for supply, it is the down-stream people
that will suffer the most.
Apart, however, from quality, it often happens that as a
community increases in size the quantity of water begins to fall
short, so that in times of long continued drought actual water
famines occur, such famines being the more terrible because, in
//V7'A’O/O OCZ'OA' V CA/AA’ 7TAZAZ. 3
most countries, they are liable to take place when the weather is
at its hottest.
Thus it comes to pass that, in every town that keeps
increasing in size, a time is reached when it becomes necessary
to construct special works either for getting water from a great
depth, or from a distance, else the health of the community will
suffer, and the death-rate increase.
The ancients well appreciated the necessity of a copious
supply of water, and, moreover, seem to have known the bearing
that a pure supply had upon health. The Romans especially,
not only in their own country, but in the countries that they
conquered, carried out works the magnificence of which testifies to
this day to their boldness and skill as engineers.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the question of water
supply seems to have fallen into abeyance, and, indeed, there can
be no doubt that the terribly high death-rate which, so far as
statistics can be got at, existed during the middle ages, as well as
the terrible epidemics that decimated, and much more than
decimated, the populations of whole towns and even countries,
were in great part due to an insufficient supply of water. It
would seem that the supply of water in Mexico and in Peru was
vastly superior to that of Europe till the Spaniards conquered
these countries in the 16th century, and all the monuments of
their early civilization were allowed to go to ruin. The ruins
of some of their works for water supply are eclipsed in grandeur
only by those of the Romans. Nor is the American continent
the only country that has set the example to Europe. There can
be no doubt that, from the time, nearly three centuries ago,
that Tokyo, the capital of Japan, was supplied with water by the
Tamagawa canal, supplemented by a complete system of ingenious
wooden pipes of square section, till about the beginning of this
century, it had a better supply of water than either London or
IParis, or probably any town in Europe of which the natural
supply was not exceptionally good.
Waterworks, as the term is now generally understood, for the
supply of water to villages, towns, and cities, may be said to
have originated only after the beginning of the present century.
Wooden pipes for the distribution of water were used in London
up to about 1820.
There can be no doubt that, in the earlier days of waterworks,
a great deal was done by “private enterprise,” and that many
waterworks were constructed by companies to which concessions
B 2
4 7TP/A2 WA 7TEA S UA’A/L V OA” TO WAVS.
were granted, that would not otherwise have been constructed at
all for a long time to come. It is also true that in many cases
the projectors either gained nothing, or had to wait a long
time till they did gain anything. Even at the present time there
are many who think that it is advantageous to entrust the supply
of water in towns to private companies, and it may be that in
certain places where the work has been so entrusted, supplies of
water have been provided which would not otherwise have been
available. There is, however, a growing feeling that the supply
of water to towns should be municipal work; that a matter of
such vast importance to the public health is not one which should
be left in private hands; and, indeed, that it is not a matter from
which profit should be made at all—that is to say, a direct money
profit for individuals or even a municipality. The profit, of a
most solid kind, to the community, is undoubted.
There should, in fact, in connection with water supply be much
less consideration than there is of pounds, shillings, and pence,
except in the matter of prevention of the waste of water. The
question should not be, “How cheaply can we get a supply of
water 2 " but, “What is the very best supply of water that we can
get at any price that it is practicable for us to pay ?” This is so
far as providing a plentiful supply of wholesome water for domestic
purposes is concerned, so that the public health may be kept as
good as possible. It is different in the case of supplying water for
manufacturing purposes, or for purposes purely of luxury, such as
gardens and fountains. There is no reason why the municipality
should not make a profit out of water supplied for these and the
like purposes.
Another matter in connection with which it is quite legitimate
to consider the question of pounds, shillings, and pence in regard
to water supply, is that of insurance against loss by fire. This is
a question not generally sufficiently considered when new water-
works, or extension of existing waterworks, are proposed. It is
not considered that, very often, the expense of the construction of
waterworks will actually be repaid within a few years by the
saving in the destruction of property by fire. This is probably
Owing, in Europe at any rate, to the fact that waterworks in most
cities have, so to speak, grown up, having gradually been improved
and extended, instead of being suddenly brought into existence, as
well as to the fact that until quite recently very insufficient atten-
tion was given to so proportioning the system of distribution that
the mains can throw plentiful streams of water on any building
AV7'A' O/O OCZ'OA' V CA/A A 7TP A&. 5
at which a fire may occur. And it is much to be regretted
more attention is not given to this aspect of waterworks. In
America, where cities grow up with mushroom-like rapidity, so
that, very soon after only a small congregation of houses has
arisen, there is a great town needing a water-supply system, the
saving of loss of property from fire is better appreciated. The
reduction of fire insurance premiums in towns and cities as soon as
an efficient water-supply has been provided is the surest gauge of
the saving.
It is probable that, in countries like Japan, in which fires are
very frequent, the total expense of providing waterworks would
be recouped in a few years—perhaps in from five to twenty years,
according to the first cost of the work—by the saving of pro-
perty from destruction by fire alone, to say nothing of other
considerations.
CHAIPTER II.
DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WATER.
Quality of Water.—There are two things that have to be
taken into consideration before a source of water is decided on for
a town supply : one is quality of the water, the other is quantity.
|Every one knows that the quality of different waters varies
greatly ; that some are pleasant to the taste and smell, and that
some are not ; and, what is much more important, that some are
perfectly harmless, whilst others are liable to produce ill-health
when habitually drunk, or even to spread epidemic diseases; that
some are good for washing, and others not ; that some are inferior
to others for cooking, and so on. It is necessary, therefore, for
the engineer who is to report on a proposed source of water, to
have some knowledge of the causes of the difference in the
qualities of water, although he need not have any deep know-
ledge of chemistry, far less be able to analyse water himself. He
will find it much more convenient, if he wants an opinion on
water, to hand a sample of it to a professional chemist, getting, if
possible, the latter's opinion on the results of both a chemical and
a biological examination.”
At the same time, I wish here to warn engineers against
relying solely on the report of a chemist, either in adopting or in
condemning a source of water. Should the report of the chemist
be condemnatory, the water may be condemned out of hand, at
any rate after a second analysis has confirmed the first ; but, if
the result of the analysis is to indicate a pure water, more care is
necessary on the part of the engineer. He must make a personal
examination of the source : if it is a river or a stream he should
follow it to its beginnings, noting along both banks what possible
* The writer went through a special laboratory course to learn to make a
thorough water analysis, and never afterwards applied the knowledge he had
gained, finding it far more convenient to hand over the analysis of water, on which
he wanted an opinion, to a professional chemist.
D/FFERENT OUAZ/T/ES OF WA 7'ER. 7
sources of pollution there may be. Whatever the result of a
chemical examination may have been, the water of a river should
be condemned if it is found that there is a copious discharge of
sewage into it a mile or so above the proposed intake. The
writer has known a case where chemical analysis, performed by a
chemist of reputation, failed to discover any organic impurity in
such water. Again, in the case of a mountain stream flowing
over a clear, stony bottom, without either cultivation or habita-
tions on the sides, a chemical analysis is almost unnecessary, except
to determine the hardness of the water.
In any case it must be distinctly understood that no conclusion
can be arrived at from a single analysis. Waters are nearly all
liable to vary from time to time. This is particularly true of
shallow well water, and of river water. In time of floods, river
water is liable to have a large quantity of inorganic matter in
suspension and perhaps in solution, whilst sewage having access
to it is likely to be so much diluted, that the organic matter it
contains cannot be detected. It is quite possible that such was
the state of affairs in the case cited above. Again, in the case of
rivers receiving the drainage of rice cultivation, there can be no
doubt that the quality of the water must vary much. Just after
the newly manured fields have begun to be irrigated, the drainage
water must contain much organic matter of a highly dangerous
nature, whilst, when the rice has grown tall and strong, towards
the end of the time of irrigation, it is likely that the drainage
water is practically as pure when it leaves the paddy fields as
when it is discharged on to them, in fact it is quite possible that,
in some cases, it is purer. No conclusion can be come to as to the
fitness of a river for a water-supply from analyses, chemical or bio-
logical or both, unless these have been performed at short intervals,
say of not more than one month each, during at least one year.
I do not wish it to be thought that I am decrying the useful-
ness of chemical, much less of biological, analysis. By no means
so, but I say that a little intelligence must accompany the use of
the reports of chemists. We do not want, any more, to have the
reports of engineers beginning, “A sample of the water was taken
from the source on such a day, and was handed to Mr. for
analysis. The following is the result of the analysis —
tº tº º g e † º e - it will
be seen that the water is one thoroughly suited for a domestic
8 TAZAZ WA 7TEA S UAEA'ſ Y OF TO WAVS.
supply : ” without anything indicating that an actual examination
of the source has been made.
If a shallow well is on the lower side—in the sense of being
on that side towards which the underground water is flowing—of
a cesspool, midden heap, pig-sty, or the like, from which filth is
soaking into the ground, it could not be pronounced a safe source
of supply though a thousand chemical analyses failed to detect
contamination.
Taking Samples of Water.—If possible the chemist should
draw his own sample of water, but this is often inconvenient. For
this reason a word or two on the collection of samples of water
may not be out of place here. Each sample should consist of
about half a gallon, and should be collected in a clear glass bottle
with a glass stopper. In England nothing is better than the
“Winchester quart,” holding eighty ounces, or just half a gallon.
The bottle must be made scrupulously clean, and, before it is filled,
it should be rinsed out two or three times with the water to be
collected. Care should be taken not to stir up any mud on the
banks of a stream, and if the proposed source is a large river or a
lake, the water should be collected at some distance from the bank,
from a boat, or, in the case of a river, from a bridge, if possible.
The mouth of the bottle should be entirely submerged whilst the
water is being collected. The stopper should not be luted down
with any cementing material, but merely tied with string.
The sample of water should be handed over to the analyst as
soon as possible, as changes are liable to take place. If it has to
be kept for any length of time, it should be kept in a cool place
away from any strong light. -
The Self-purification of Natural Streams.-This may
be the best place in which to discuss the question of the self-
purification of streams of water, when flowing for some distance.
IPremising that the most dangerous contamination of water is
from sewage and the like refuse, which adds decomposing organic
matter to the water—not of itself necessarily dangerous to health,
but forming the vehicle for the multiplication of micro-organisms,
some of which are supposed to be the cause of disease, or at least
to have the power to spread infectious disease—it is admitted on
all hands that water thus contaminated at One point along the
course of its flow becomes gradually purer and purer, the Organic
matter being changed into simple and harmless compounds, till
D/FFERENT OUA//TIES OF WATER. 9
it may seem, from chemical analysis, to be as fit for drinking as it
was before it received the contaminating matter.
It has for long been known that the presence of Oxygen Was
necessary for this change, and it was believed that the oxygen of
the atmospheric air, a certain proportion of which dissolves in
water, was the active agent. It would now appear that this is
merely the passive agent, the active agent being micro-organisms,
commonly, called bacteria. The fact is that the bacteria exhaust
the power of the organic matter to support them, after which it is
harmless. It would appear that this organic matter is attacked
first by a micro-organism that does not need oxygen for its work,
but converts the nitrogenous organic matter into ammonia. This
ammonia is then attacked by different kinds of micro-organisms,
which, making use of the oxygen dissolved in the water, convert
the ammonia into nitrites and nitrates, which are unable to support
bacterial life. Whether this description be scientifically correct or
not, the fact remains that the water is, to all intents and purposes,
rendered pure again if it only flows long enough.
The question is, then, Shall water that is known to have
received sewage, or the like filth, after it has flowed for a certain
distance, be considered as fit for general use in towns : One great
difficulty is the uncertainty of the time or distance taken for the
completion of the process. Could it definitely be said that water
will purify itself from decomposing organic matter by flowing ten
miles, or by flowing twenty miles, or by flowing any particular
distance, there would be a nearer approach to an answer to the
question, but there is no such certainty. It is evident that
several factors enter into the question. Thus the quantity and
nature of the impurity are two ; time is another; the extent that
the water is exposed to the air is another; and temperature is
still another. It will therefore happen that, in the case of a rapid
running stream, the time taken for purification will be shorter
than with a sluggish stream, but the distance flowed may, perhaps,
be longer. Again, with the same average velocities, purification
will take a shorter distance and a shorter time too in a stream
that tumbles over a rough and bouldery bed, than in the case of
one that flows over a smooth bottom. Further, the quantity of
comparatively pure water that the contaminating matter flows
into will certainly have something to do with the time of
purification. -
At the request of Professor von Pettenkofer, Drs. Pfeiffer and
Eiselohr investigated the action in the case of the river Isar, which
IO TA/A WA TA: A S UAE PAL Y OF 7TO WAVS.
receives large quantities of sewage at Munich. This stream is
immortalized as “rolling rapidly; ” and the doctors came to the
conclusion that it practically purified itself within about ten miles.
There are, however, many cases in which a river flows a much
greater distance than this, without purifying itself.
The attitude of those best able to give an opinion on this
question may, perhaps, be summed up as follows:–Water of a
stream that receives a considerable quantity of sewage or the
like impurity, at any part of its course, should not be used for the
supply of a town, even though chemically and bacteriologically it
appears pure, if a water that receives no such contamination can
be got at even considerably greater cost. On the other hand, the
engineer should avoid being famatical in the matter. It should be
borne in mind that it is often better to select a water that is
not ideally perfect, when no better can be had, than to put up
with a distinctly bad water, or a scanty supply. Further, it
should be borne in mind that there is no such thing in existence
as natural stream water that receives no excremental matter.
Every river receives the excrements of fish, birds, and other
animals, and occasionally their dead bodies. It would be absurd
to condemn the water of a large river because there are a few
scattered cottages about the upper parts of the streams feeding it,
although it is almost certain that these cottages will contribute a
little sewage to it. Such sewage will constitute a minute fraction
only of the decomposing organic matter that will inevitably reach
the water.
Nevertheless, in elaborating a scheme for water supply the
abolition of even these causes of minute contamination should, if
possible, be provided for by buying up the necessary properties.
Common Impurities in Water.—From an engineer's point
of view the following rough classification of the common impurities
met with in water may be useful —
(1) Tissolved inorganic matter.
(2) Suspended inorganic matter.
(3) Dissolved Organic matter.
(4) Suspended Organic matter.
(5) Micro-organisms.
Dissolved inorganic matter is not generally hurtful unless it is
present in very large quantities, except inasmuch as it is liable to
lead to the hardness of water. In great quantities it may render
Z)/FFERENT OUA L/7/ES OF WATER. I I
water unfit for general purposes. We have the extremes of such
waters in natural mineral springs, often of use medicinally, but
always unfit for general purposes. Apollinaris and Hunyani-
yados waters are good examples. All dissolved inorganic matter
can be removed by distillation, but this process is not applicable
to the large quantities of water used for the supply of towns.
Hardness in water is that property which causes it to
decompose a certain quantity of soap, forming insoluble compounds,
before a lather can be formed. In fact, the quantity of soap
so decomposed is generally taken as a measure of hardness;
the origin of the term being the water's “hardness” to soap.
Hardness is chiefly due to the presence of the carbonates of
lime and magnesia, also to the sulphates and nitrates of lime
and magnesium. Hardness is either temporary or permanent.
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of the carbonates
above mentioned. These carbonates are not soluble to any
material extent in water, but are soluble in the carbonic acid that
nearly all natural water contains in solution. This carbonic acid
can be driven off by boiling the water, and, in this case, the carbo-
nates are precipitated. It is these precipitated carbonates that
form the incrustation and sediment so commonly seen in kettles
and other cooking vessels that have been long in use for the
boiling of water, and that form a large part of the incrustations
of steam boilers,
Another method of removing temporary hardness is known as
Clark's process. In this process caustic lime, in the form of lime-
water, is added to the water to be softened. This combines with
the carbonic acid, forming carbonate of lime. The carbonates
Originally in the water, and this new carbonate, have now no
solvent, and are precipitated. This is a very interesting process,
involving the apparent paradox that, by adding carbonate of
lime to water, we get rid of carbonate of lime ! When it is said
that water is of a certain number of degrees of hardness (Clark's
scale) it is meant that a gallon of water will precipitate as much
soap as would be precipitated by a gallon of pure water in which
that number of grains of carbonate of lime had been dissolved.
Thus water of ten degrees of hardness will precipitate as much
soap as would pure water to which carbonate of lime to the
amount of ten grains per gallon had been added. The hardness
that is left after the carbonates have been precipitated is
permanent hardness.
It is possible to tell roughly whether water is “hard ” or
I 2 THE WATER SUPPLY OF To WWS.
“soft " by noticing the feeling of it whilst washing the hands
with soap.
Excessive hardness of water leads to great waste of soap, makes
the water unfit for dyeing and some other manufacturing processes,
and gives great trouble to steam users. Much permanent hard-
ness makes water objectionable for cooking, tea making, &c.
The old idea that a certain quantity of hardness is necessary in
potable waters to provide the carbonates used for building up
animal tissue, is now exploded, it having been shown that the
food contains more than enough carbonate, and it is now con-
sidered by many that hard water is often detrimental to health.
Another idea that waters Owe their agreeable taste to dissolved
salts, such as produce hardness, has been shown to be erroneous.
These salts need to be present in much larger quantities than they
ever are in water suitable for domestic supply before they can be
detected by the sense of taste. It is now generally believed that
the superior palatability of some waters over others is due to
dissolved gases, especially carbonic acid gas. This would
account for the old idea that the palatableness was due to
salts producing hardness, these being generally associated with
carbonic acid.
Water for a town supply should not have more than about
eight, or at the outside, ten degrees of total hardness, three to
four degrees of permanent hardness.
The lime process for removing temporary hardness may be
used where no soft water can be got, but the trouble and expense
of working it are very considerable. -
Poisonous metallic salts, such as those of lead, are sometimes
met with in water supplied to houses by waterworks, but they are
almost always due to contamination in the pipes or other parts of
the works. *
Suspended organic matter can be removed by settlement and
ordinary sand filtration. It is, therefore, not objectionable un-
less it is present in very large quantity, or in an extremely fine
state of division, when the expense of removing it may be
considerable.
Dissolved organic matter may or may not in itself be
dangerous to health, but is always a possible source of danger in
water because it forms the vehicle for the multiplication of
pathogenic bacteria. Dissolved organic matter can be removed,
or rendered innocuous, only by processes too expensive for general
* See Note 1, Appendix III.
D/FFERENT OUAZ/7ZES OF WATER. I3
adoption. It is the worst form of contamination of water.
Suspended organic matter can be removed by filtration, but it is
scarcely ever—probably never—totally unassociated with dissolved
Organic matter.
Micro-organisms.-As has been stated already, certain forms
of micro-Organisms perform the useful function of decomposing
organic matter so that it is no longer capable of supporting micro-
organisms. The bacteria that accomplish this seem to be harm-
less, but the danger of water containing them in large quantities,
is that it also likely contains some of the specific micro-organisms
that produce or spread certain diseases, and that the presence of a
large number of bacteria of any kind indicates the presence of the
where withal to support pathogenic bacteria.
With due precautions bacteria can be removed to a very great
extent from water by sand filtration. It is stated that as many as
97 to 98 per cent. have been removed, but it has always to be
borne in mind that, if there is a supply of dissolved organic
matter, which is not removed by filtration, there is the means for
an indefinite process of increase and multiplication in the bacteria
that have passed the filter beds, and that, if the water is stored
long enough, it will certainly become as bad, so far as number
of bacteria is concerned, as if it had not been filtered at all.
IHence the modern practice of “hurrying on " to the consumer
water that has been filtered with the chief object of removing
bacteria.
In cases where water is softened by Clark's process, already
mentioned, the carbonate of lime precipitated in a very fine state
of division carries with it a large percentage of any bacteria, there
may be in the water. -
On a small scale bacteria can be removed entirely by Pasteur's
filters, or by boiling. It is always advisable to boil water that is
to be drunk, unless it is exceptionally pure. By repeated boiling
water can be “sterilized,” so that no further bacteria will appear
in it, unless they reach it from the outside.
Purity of Water.—The purity of water cannot be judged by
its taste. It has even been stated that the particular palatability
of some waters has been due to an admixture of sewage. Whether
this be true or not it is certain that a very appreciable quantity of
sewage may be present without rendering water in any way
unpalatable. There is the now very famous case of the old-time
Tondon well which held so high a reputation for the purity of its
I4. TA/AE WA TA, R S UAE PAE Y OF TO WAVS.
water that people sent from great distances for it, till an epidemic
was traced to the well, when it was found that one of the public
sewers leaked into it !
The following table, issued some years since by the Rivers
|Pollution Commissioners (item 8 added by the writer), has almost
become classical –
1. Spring water Very
Wholesome 2. Deep well water | palatable.
3. Upland surface water Moderately
ſ 4. Stored rain water } palatable.
Suspicious l 5. Surface water from cultivated land
6. Ri ter to which &
lver water to which sewage gains | palatall,
8,CCéSS
Dangerous l 7. Shallow well water
8. Water from paddy fields.” e’
The statements as to water being “very palatable,” “moderately
palatable,” and “palatable,” must, of course, be taken as approxi-
mations only.
Spring Woºter is generally very free from organic matter, and
from any kind of matter in suspension. It often, however,
contains dissolved inorganic matter, in the form of mineral salts,
in such quantities as to make it objectionably hard, or in some
other way unfit for domestic use. We have the extreme of this in
medicinal springs.
*\ Deep Well Water.—A deep well may perhaps be best defined
as a well penetrating an impervious stratum into a water-bearing
stratum below, in distinction from a shallow well which merely
penetrates a surface water-bearing stratum. Although it may
appear a contradiction in terms, it may thus occur that, measured
by feet, a “shallow * well will be deeper than a “deep ’’ well.
With the exception of possible mineral salts present in objection-
able quantities, deep well water is generally looked on as the
purest that can be obtained on any large scale. The mineral salts
present are likely to depend more on the nature of the stratum
from which the water is drawn than on the original source of the
* A term generally used throughout the East to designate fields divided into
small square or rectangular divisions, separated by low turf walls, and irrigated for
a certain part of the year by keeping a layer of several inches of water over the
whole surface. They are most commonly used for rice culture. They are generally
heavily manured (usually with human ordure) before the season of irrigation, and
the overflow, finding its way into natural streams, contaminates the water.
Z)/FFAERAEAVT OUAZ/TIES OF WATER. I 5
water. The red sandstones and chalk formations are famous as
giving particularly pure water, especially the latter; and, strange
to say, the water from deep-lying chalk is generally rather soft
than otherwise. Deep well water is liable to be somewhat
deficient in aération.
Upland Surface Water.—This may be defined as the water from
springs, streams, and rivers above the line of cultivation and of
human habitation. All mountain water is of this nature, and so
is the water of such valleys as, from the precipitous nature of
their sides, do not allow of cultivation or residence. Whether
high or low, unless actually swampy, all water from entirely
uninhabited tracts of land should come under this head. Such
water is a very common source of supply, and, especially if from
really high land, as, for example, in the form of mountain streams,
is one of the most desirable of waters. Water of this class is
sometimes very pure, and it is seldom that it is not pure enough
to be selected as a source of supply; but, within these limits, the
purity varies considerably. “Peatiness,” giving a brown colour,
is a characteristic of the water from many mountain and moorland
districts. This peatiness does not appear, when present to a
moderate extent, to be harmful.”
* The writer some time since came across a paper, in which to the humic acids
of peaty water was attributed the property that some waters have of dissolving lead,
making it dangerous to use lead pipes or lead-lined cisterns with such waters.
Unfortunately he has lost his note of the paper, and can therefore neither refer the
reader to it, nor give the name of the author.
He finds, however, that the question has been made the subject of an
exhaustive inquiry (apparently not yet completed) on the part of the Medical Depart-
ment of the Local Government Board ; and that the results of the inquiry, so far,
are fully set out in the Annual Report of the Medical Officer of the Board
for 1893-94. “For some years past,” says the Medical Officer (Dr. R. Thorne
Thorne, C.B., F.R.S.), “the Board have from time to time had brought under
their notice, in the reports of medical officers of health and otherwise, the fact
that, at intervals, the water supplies of some of our large towns have been dissolving
lead, and producing lead poisoning on a somewhat wide scale amongst the water
consumers. The occurrences in question were understood to be practically limited
to towns and districts receiving soft moorland water. During the year 1885 the
Sheffield water came suddenly to possess the power of vigorously dissolving the lead
of the delivery pipes, with the result that the water was found to be producing
plumbism amongst a large number of the inhabitants of that town. . . . All
Sheffield water samples that dissolved lead were found to afford acid reaction, . . .
but no definite determination was then made as to any single chemical condition,
the presence or absence of which stood in direct co-relation with the variations in
the lead-dissolving power of a water.” Mr. W. H. Power, F.R.S., having in 1887
suggested to the Board “whether the inscrutable behaviour of soft moorland waters
in regard of their plumbo-solvent ability may not be related to the agency of low
forms of organic life,” the sanction of the Board was obtained in 1890 to an inquiry
into the subject by the Medical Department, such inquiry to include not only
chemical and bacteriological study of the circumstances which might give to these
waters the power of dissolving lead, but also simultaneous investigation at the
16 7TAZAZ VVA 7TAZAC S OW/2/2/. V. OAP 7 O WAVS.
Stored Roºin Water.—All water whatever is, in a certain sense,
rain water ; that is to say, it has been over and over again
evaporated and precipitated in the form of rain since the world
began. What is meant here is water stored immediately after it
has fallen, as, for example, when it is collected from the roofs of
houses. The purity of such water varies greatly. In large cities,
it may be very impure, collecting foreign matter both as it falls
through the air, and as it washes the roofs of the houses. In the
pure air of the country, rain water may be nearly as free from
the presence of foreign matter as distilled water, but never quite.
The chief characteristic of rain water is its absolute softness. On
account of this it is very valuable for washing purposes. It is the
custom, in many country houses in England, to collect the water
from the roofs, and to store it specially for washing.
In the experience of the writer rain water, even collected
remote from towns, is far from palatable.
Surface Water from Cultivated Land.—Of this water very little
further can be said than that it is to be looked on with suspicion.
The assumption being that there is no paddy-field cultivation, or
sewage farming, the water may be fairly good, but it may be
far from good, and there is the great danger of frequent
variation in the quality. Such water cannot be looked on as
desirable for a source of supply.
River Water to which Sewage has gained access.-Water of this
class has been so fully treated of under the head of the “self-
purification” of water (pages 8 et seq.) that it seems unnecessary to
say anything further about it here. e
Shallow Well Water.—This water is always to be looked on
with suspicion if the wells are within towns and villages, if they
are near farms with byres, pig-sties, &c., Or, indeed, if they are
various gathering grounds of the origin and characters of the waters having plumbo-
solvent quality.
After referring to the interim report made by Mr. Power, Dr. Thorne (June,
1895) thus sums up the results of the inquiry to that date: “The experiments so
far reported on show that while neither moorland water nor a sterile decoction of
peat can of itself develop acidity, the addition to either of a minimal amount of
moist peat soil will cause bacterial growth in it, with increasing development of acid
reaction and ability to dissolve lead. And they have further indicated two species
of microbes which alone, among the many kinds of micro-organisms found in the
samples of peat examined, have the power of producing acidity when added to a
sterile decoction of peat.”
It may be mentioned that extracts from the Local Government Board Report,
relating to this inquiry concerning “Lead Poisoning by Moorland Waters,” have
been issued by the Board in pamphlet form. No further reference to the subject
appears in the Report of the Medical Officer for 1894-95.
D/FFAERENT OUA L/7/ES OF WATER. I7
near any possible source of contamination of the ground water.
On the other hand, it is a mistake to condemn the water of all
shallow wells out of hand. If the direction of the flow of under
ground water, which generally follows the slope of the land, be
ascertained by making trial borings, or by observing the level of
the surface of the water in existing wells from which no water has
been drawn for some little time, and if it be ascertained that there
is no possible source of contamination in the direction from which
the water is flowing, shallow well water may well be classified
with upland surface water.
Water from Paddy Fields.-This kind of water must be
looked on as highly dangerous. It may be classed with river-
water to which sewage gains access. The principal difference is
that the impurity of river water into which sewage discharges
varies chiefly with the amount of dilution it is subject to, being,
therefore, greatest after long-continued dry weather. The im-
purity of water from paddy fields, on the other hand, varies with
the season of the year. *
The writer has not had the curiosity to test the palatableness
or otherwise of water from paddy fields, and has not, as yet, met
with any one who could speak with authority on the subject.
CHAPTER III.
QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE PROVIDED.
Standard of Measurement.—Before saying anything about
the quantity of water it is found necessary to provide in towns,
let me advocate the cubic foot, in preference to the gallon, as a
standard of measurement [I cubic foot=6:24 (or about 6}) gallons].
The gallon has a certain advantage in cases where weights of
water have to be converted into volumes, or vice versd, in
English measurement, as one gallon of water weighs just 10 lbs. ;
but this conversion is seldom necessary in connection with water-
works, and there are two distinct disadvantages in the gallon as a
standard. In the first place there are two gallons—the Imperial
gallon of Great Britain, and the U.S. gallon—used in the United
States, which differ in capacity as five to four. Then there
is the fact that neither gallon is an even fraction of a cubic foot.
This fact involves a deal of unnecessary calculation which, albeit
of the most simple arithmetical nature, adds greatly to the
trouble of all problems in connection with discharge ; velocities of
flow being always reckoned in feet, and cross-sections—whether
those of pipes, weirs, or other openings through which water flows
—in square feet and inches. It is therefore a much less trouble-
some thing to get out discharge in cubic feet” than in gallons.
Quantity of Water Required per head. —Twenty-four
hours is the period most convenient to reckon for, but it is difficult
to come to any conclusion as to the quantity which in any given
case it will be necessary to provide per head in the twenty-four
hours. In some cases, where large quantities of water are
used for trade or manufacturing purposes, it is possible to make
* In Japan the cubic shaku may, for all waterworks purposes, be taken as
equivalent to the cubic foot.
QUANT/TY OF WA 7'ER TO AAE PAO V/DED. I 9
some estimate of these, but the somewhat indefinite “domestic
supply ’’ is very difficult to estimate. In fact, although cer-
tain attempts to estimate the quantities of water needed in
dwelling-houses have been made from consideration of the
different items of consumption, it is now generally conceded
that it is better to make use of past practice than to depend
on such estimates.
Of late years large reductions in the consumption of water per
head have been made by careful arrangements for saving waste.
Waste has been saved in several ways, for example (1) by the use
of district meters, (2) by the use of house meters, and (3) by
insistence on the use of house-fittings of good quality only, and on
their frequent inspection. The matter of meters will be treated
fully further on. I may say, at present, concerning the third
item, that the difficulty in preventing waste in waterworks has
seldom been felt to any great extent in connection with the
street mains, or the larger appliances belonging directly to the
proprietors of the waterworks. These are fixed under the
charge of skilled engineers, and are under their supervision
afterwards. It thus occurs that leakage is not very likely to
occur in them, and that, if it does, it is soon stopped. In the
case of house-fittings it is quite different. These are put in by
the builder or the householder, who employs whomsoever he likes.
It is not in the least to the advantage of the former of these to be
sure that no water-waste takes place, and it is to the reverse of
the interest of the latter to prevent leakage—except when he
pays for his water by meter—because he has nothing to pay for
leakage, while he has to pay for preventing it.
Very stringent regulations have been introduced in most
English and many Continental towns for the prevention of waste
in houses, and these have been put efficiently in force in at least
a considerable number of cases. It has thus, in some cases, been
possible to reduce the mean consumption, even in water-closet
towns, for all except special trade purposes, to as little as 2 cubic
feet per head per day, or even to a trifle less in the case of some
European towns. We have to contrast with this the case of
American towns in which water is used—or wasted—in quantities
approaching, or perhaps actually equalling, 20 cubic feet per head
per day. It is found that the quantity of water that has to be
supplied per head is commonly rather greater in large towns or
cities, than in small towns or villages, but this cannot be taken as
by any means a fixed rule.
C 2
2O - TAWA, WA TEA S UAE’A/L V OAP TO WAVS.
Berhaps the following estimates will be found fairly correct,
for towns in which a fair amount of care is taken in preventing
waste. The quantities of water are for all purposes except what
are known as trade and manufacturing purposes —
2 (or even 2%) cubic feet of water per head per day is an
unusually small mean supply ;
3 (or at the most 3}) cubic feet mean supply per head per day
ought to be sufficient in nearly all cases;
4 cubic feet per head per day is a very ample mean supply.
To this there is to be added the water used for trade and
manufacturing purposes, and the quantity of this naturally varies
very greatly. Thus, in the case of purely manufacturing towns it
may equal or even exceed the quantity needed for all other purposes.
This is very exceptional, however, and it is much more common
for it not to exceed about 25 per cent. of the water needed for
other purposes. An additional supply at the rate of 1 cubic foot
per head will generally be ample for towns that are not known
specially as manufacturing towns. For American towns and
cities it appears necessary to supply at least double these
quantities, even if excessive waste be checked.
This information may seem meagre enough, and, to tell the
truth, it is. It might readily enough be supplemented by long
lists of the consumption of water in different towns, but this
consumption is constantly varying. As indicated above, the
quantities used are, at present, in many cases undergoing
reduction by prevention of waste, and therefore such lists might,
in a very little time, prove misleading. Moreover, the writer
thinks it best to state plainly that it is not possible to give any
exact information as to the quantity of water needed in any
particular circumstances. The engineer should make use of all
local knowledge that he can arrive at-that is to say, as to the
consumption of water in towns adjacent to the one for which a
new supply is contemplated—and this especially if the towns are
at all alike in situation, trade, wealth, and so forth, and then see
that he makes provision for an unnecessarily large supply, rather
than for one too small. -
Fluctuation in Consumption of Water.—The quantities
just given are to be understood as being the mean daily consump-
tion during the whole year, but this consumption is by no means
uniform. As is natural, water is consumed more largely in hot
summer weather than in cold weather. Again, in countries where
O UANT/TY OF WATER TO BE PAO V/D ED. 2 I
the weather is very severe in winter, it is sometimes found neces-
sary to allow a continual stream of water to run from hydrants, &c.,
to prevent them from freezing up. Of course this adds much
waste to the consumption.
Then again, there is, of course, a great variation in the
quantity of water used during different parts of the twenty-four
hours. Domestic consumption falls nearly to zero during some
hours of the night, and is much above the mean during some
hours of the day.
Commonly the maximum consumption for any one whole
month rises to 10 to 20 per cent. above the mean consumption
for the whole year, and there are cases where it may rise to 30
per cent. above the mean. For a few days at a time, during
intensely hot and dry weather, the consumption may rise to 50
per cent. above the mean, and it is necessary to provide for a
possible consumption at this rate.
The rate of consumption in the daytime may rise to about
50 per cent. above the mean rate of consumption for the whole
twenty-four hours. This means that the total consumption for
any one day may be mean consumption for One day X 1-5, whilst
the consumption for (say) one hour may be the mean hourly con-
sumption for one hour × 1-5.”
Multiplying these two figures together we get 2:25—that is to
say, the rate of consumption for a short time during some parts of
some day may be 2+ times as much as the mean annual consump-
tion. It is not very likely, however, that the days on which the
daily consumption is greatest will just correspond with those on
which the hourly consumption is, in relation to the daily con-
sumption, the greatest. It is, therefore, not really necessary to
provide for a maximum consumption more than equal to twice
the mean annual consumption, though there can be no harm in
making some additional allowance.
This is without taking into consideration the provision for fire
extinctions, a subject that will be treated separately.
Allowance for Increase of Population.—If it is difficult
to make an estimate approaching to exactness of the quantity of
water that is needed per head per day at the time that water-
works are started, it is much more difficult to make an estimate
* Analysis from statistics of a number of German waterworks gives the
following figures:–If mean consumption = 1, maximum daily consumption =
mean daily consumption × 1-4; absolute maximum rate of consumption = 1.4 ×
I-5 = 2-1.
22 THE WATER SUPPL Y OF TOWNS.
of the amount of margin that ought to be allowed for increase
in the population. Naturally, in any particular case, the best
estimate can be made by taking into consideration increase in the
past, and assuming that increase in the future will be at a
proportionate rate. This is a fair guide in the case of old
countries where conditions have been fairly stable for a length
of time, but it is scarcely any guide at all in new countries where
towns may suddenly, after increasing at a moderate rate for a
certain length of time, begin to “boom,” as it is expressively put
in America. -
Bven in an old country, the making or finishing of a railway,
canal, or harbour—the finding of unexpected mineral wealth—the
starting of new industries—or any one of many things, may cause
a sudden increase that could not possibly have been foretold. In
such cases engineers and others are often very unfairly blamed,
the non-technical public seeming to think that an engineer ought
to have, in many matters, a prescience that, if it existed, would be
simply supernatural. The writer remembers a case in point—it
was not a case of waterworks, but it very well might have been—
where an engineer was persistently badgered by members of a
board for which he had sent estimates, because he had not fore-
seen a certain difficulty that no human being could have foreseen.
“And you call yourself an engineer ?” asked one of the block-
heads that constituted the board. “Yes, that's just it,” was the
reply. “If I called myself a prophet, I might be expected to
foresee such things.”
The best that can be done, then, is to look back on the past
increase, and to take every circumstance into consideration that can
be thought of in estimating the probable future increase. In the
simplest possible case, let it be assumed that it has been decided
that the waterworks should need no augmentation for the next
twenty years, and it is found that in the past twenty years the
population has increased 22 per cent. It will be advisable to con-
struct the works for a population say 25 per cent. greater than the
present population.
Besides this, however, the greatest attention should be paid to
so arranging all parts of the system to be established that, when
augmentation does become necessary, it may be carried out at the
least possible cost. Even supposing, for example, that it is
decided that the whole of the works are to be constructed on the
scale for a population 25 per cent. greater than the present, there
will be some parts that may, with advantage, be made on a still
QUAAV777 Y OF WA 7'EA TO AAE PAO V/D ED. 23
greater scale than this. These are parts which can be made, at
first, on a large scale at a comparatively small additional cost, but
which are expensive to augment afterwards.
Take the simple case of a long pipe line, laid in a difficult
position. It should always be borne in mind that of two pipes
having diameters in the ratio of 3 to 4—say 12-inch and 16-inch
pipes-—the larger will deliver more than twice the quantity the
smaller will deliver. The price of the pipes, however, will vary only
as about two to three, while the price for jointing will not vary so
much, and the price for trenching and filling in will be very little
more in one case than in another; the same may be said of bridges or
other supports that may have to be put up at different places. It
may, then, possibly happen that a pipe to give twice as much water
as is needed for present population, will cost only about 20 per
cent. more than one to carry 25 per cent. more than is necessary
for the present population. On the other hand, if the original
pipe has to be taken up and be replaced by a larger one, or if a.
second pipe has to be laid alongside the first (no special provision
having been made for this from the beginning) the additional
expense will probably be very great. In such a case, it will very
often be the best policy to put in the big pipe from the first.
The case of open channels for carrying water is another in
which a great augmentation of water may often be had at a com-
paratively low first cost, but in which the price of afterwards
increasing the quantity carried may be very great.
Of the very opposite nature is the case of filter-beds. It is
customary, in the case of works of any considerable size, to have
several filter-beds, all but one at work together, one generally
being empty of water for sand clearing. If land be provided, or
the possibility of being able to buy land be secured from the
beginning, additional filter-beds can be constructed at practically
the same cost as the first ones. It is, therefore, customary to
allow but little margin in the case of filter-beds, making, however,
all provision for adding new beds one at a time as they may be
needed.
The case of pumping machinery for large works is somewhat
similar. There are generally several sets of pumps, one for
“stand by,” the others to work together. If due provision of
space be made from the beginning, new pumping machinery may
be added as it becomes necessary at about the same rate as the
first.
Reservoirs, especially when covered, come somewhere between
24. 7A/F WA 7TER SUPPL Y OF TO WAVS.
these two cases. Still it is generally possible to arrange that
additional reservoir capacity can be provided at a rate not very
much in excess of that of those first constructed.
In designing distribution systems great attention should be
paid to the possibility of augmenting the supply not only as a
whole, but in particular directions—that is to say, in certain
districts of the town, and in certain directions of extension—at as
small an additional expenditure as may be.
The likelihood that each part of a waterworks system may
have to be augmented, ought, however, to be borne in mind from
the first, and in designing it the means of augmentation at the
least possible cost should never be absent from the mind. *.
CHAPTER IV.
ON ASCERTAINING WHETHER A PROPOSED SourcE OF SUPPLY
Is SUFFICIENT.
Conditions of Supply.—If a source of water supply is in-
vestigated to discover whether it is sufficient in quantity, one of
three things will always be found —
(1) The minimum supply equals or is greater than the
quantity demanded.
(2) The minimum supply is less than the quantity de-
manded, but the average supply is equal to Or
greater than the quantity demanded.
(3) The average supply is less than the quantity demanded.
(1) This is commonly the case when the supply is from rivers
or from large natural lakes. It may also be the case with deep
wells and, in the case of towns of moderate size, with large
upland streams. Naturally this is the case that offers the least
trouble to the engineers.
(2) In this case, which is commonest with upland streams, it
is necessary to have recourse to storage of the water in im-
pounding reservoirs, and the only question—if a storage reservoir
be practicable—is what storage capacity has to be provided, as, in
some cases, only a few days' supply to tide over specially dry
weather may be necessary; while in others—namely, those where
the demand about equals the average supply—such a storage
capacity is necessary as will in effect convert a fluctuating stream
into one of nearly constant discharge.
(3) This is a case in which the supply is wholly insufficient,
and in which it is necessary to search for another, either to supple-
ment it, or to take the place of it.
Gauging Springs, Streams, and Rivers. —In the case of
most springs, and of small streams, the gauging may be done by
26 7TA/A2 WA TEA S UA’AX/L V OA; 7 O WAVS.
damming back the flow to form a pool of some depth, across
which one or more boards are laid, so that one man or more can
readily lift out the water with pails. A stake is driven into this
ground through the water, a mark being made on the stake a
little below the level at which the water will overflow the dam.
Pails of known capacity are used, and the water is lowered some
distance below the mark. Operations are then stopped to allow
the surface of the water to become smooth, and the water is
allowed to rise to the mark, when time is taken. The water is
then rapidly removed till the level of the surface falls somewhat
- - É:
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Section. s
Figs. I and 2.-Weir or notchboard for gauging streams.
below the mark. The level is kept at this, the number of pailfuls
of water being counted for a considerable time, say approaching
an hour. Operations then cease, to let the surface of the water
become again smooth, and the time is carefully watched till the
Water surface reaches the mark again, when it is taken.
Cubic feet of water removed by the buckets
Number of minutes between the two times the surface
of the water reached the mark
= discharge in cub. ft. per min.
This may seem a very crude method of gauging, and, indeed, it
is not a very delicate one, but it must be borne in mind that















































































SOURCES OF SUA’A/L V. 27
nearly all water-gauging appliances give only approximate results.
The writer does not put much faith in gaugings of water either
by notchboards, or by observing the pressure necessary to force
water through an aperture of known area, which profess to be
within a very minute fraction of absolute accuracy. There are
far too many elements of possible error, and it is likely that most
gaugings of the kind just indicated are really as much in error as
the common pail method, if this latter be carefully carried out.
It is not, however, even with several assistants, commonly applic-
able to quantities of over five or six cubic feet a minute, and it is
rº- -
Pºssº sesses;*~A º
fºss E
Tig. 3.-Metal plate for weir or notchboard for gauging streams.
difficult even when such quantities are measured. These quantities
correspond about to a supply for a population of 3,000 people.
For larger streams the common method of gauging is that of
the weir or notchboard illustrated in Figs. I and 2.*
The principle of the notchboard is that, if the breadth of a
rectangular opening such as that shown in the cut is known, and
the depth of water is also known—the depth being, in this case,
the difference of level between the lower edge of the notch and
that of still water at some distance behind the notch—the
discharge of water can be discovered by the application of a com-
paratively simple formula.
For very rough measurements an actual board may be used,
the notch being carefully made, and the wood being chamfered or
bevelled away on the down-stream side. For more accurate work
a metal plate, not more than about one-tenth of an inch thick, is
fastened with screws to the wooden board, as shown in the accom-
panying sketch (Fig. 3). Sheet brass is the best material to use.
* The illustration is taken from “Our Homes and How to Make them Healthy,”
edited by Shirley F. Murphy. (By permission of the Publishers. London: Cassell
& Co.) -


28 7A/E IVA 7-ER SOAA’/ Y OF 7"O WAVS.
The dam must, of course, be watertight, and it should, if
possible, be of such a size and in such a position that there is
a pool of practically still water behind it. If the pool be so small
that the water approaches the dam with appreciable velocity, not
only is the calculation more troublesome, but the results will
probably be less accurate than with still water. The plane of the
opening must be truly vertical, and the bottom and sides of the
notch must be truly horizontal and vertical. The width of the
notch should be such that the depth of water will be a quarter or
less of the length, the depth being, however, not the actual depth
of water on the weir, but the difference of level mentioned above.
Amongst the many formulae” which have been given, that
due to Mr. James B. Wood, C.E., is to be recommended, as giving
results accurate enough for nearly all waterworks purposes, whilst
it is not very complicated. It is :— -
Q = 3-33 (1 – 0.2 H.) H3
Where k
Q = Quantity of water in cubic feet per second, \ ,
! = Length of weir in feet, º
H = The observed depth of water in feet, that is to say, the difference in level be-
tween the bottom of the weir and the surface of still water in the pool behind
the Weir.
In cases where water approaches the weir at an appreciable
velocity—that is to say, when it is moving in the pool before it
comes close to the notch—a corrected formula is used, as follows:–
Q = 3:33 (! — 0-2 H,) H, ;
In which Ha = H + h.
In this case H has the same value as before.
h is an addition to be made on account of the velocity of the
approaching water —
(2) 2
/* = G.I.I.
Where
* = the velocity of the approaching water in feet per second.
Table IV. in “Hydraulic and other Tables for purposes of
Sewerage and Water-Supply,” by Thomas Hennell, M.Inst.C.E.,
is a most handy One for facilitating calculations of the flow of
water over weirs. In it is given (unfortunately in gallons) the
discharge of weirs per inch of length (or width) for depths from
4-inch to five feet. This table gives results sufficiently approxi-
mate for rough gauging of streams.
* This subject is very completely treated by Mr. J. F. Fanning, C.E., in his
treatise on “Hydraulic Water-Supply Engineering,” and all who want to go into the
theory of the flow of water over weirs should read Chapter XIV. of that work.
SOUA’ CAES OA; SOAA’/ Y. 29
Gauging Streams too large to be gauged by Notch-
boards.--In the case of rivers which discharge over dams, it is
generally possible to gauge the rivers at a dam with considerable
accuracy and without much trouble, but readers are referred to
works purely on hydraulics, or on river engineering, for the
methods of such gauging. In ordinary cases the cross-section of
the flow of the river is to be discovered, also the velocity of flow,
when the two multiplied together equal the discharge. *
To gauge roughly a river, a part is selected where the
flow is fairly even for some little distance, say a few hundred
yards for rivers of moderate size, a greater distance for large
rivers. The section is to be taken at several places, say at
least four, along the distance to be used for gauging. The
section is taken by measuring the depth at a number of equally
distant points across the stream as shown in the subjoined
sketch (Fig. 4).
O f. 5 f. Sº 2. J. 2. 6 2.8 J. 2 J.4- 3. Sº 3. 3 a 3
§§
§§ iº
- }
º
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g
ill 2x
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** * * ºzzy * & t 4. *s
: "Sº ºn" is §§ § W &WS i- : : ; W §§ U.
**s wº #Yº FS&WXSºrº irms meWRS §§§º
Jºſly y &\\% } | º N - \t Žºlš M #SS # * 'i,
***!"gººgººse
Fig. 4.—Section across river showing depth of stream at various points.
There are various ways in which the figures thus got may be
used. That now given has the advantage that it is very simple,
and that it is applicable either to streams with shelving sides, or
to those with irregular bottoms but vertical sides.
In this case, we shall suppose the sides to be shelving, the
depths at each end being taken as zero. The object—however we
may set to work—is to find the mean depth which x length gives
the area of cross-section.
The depths in the sketch may be taken as 0, 1:6, 19, 2-3, 2-6,
2.8, 3-2, 3-4, 3:5, 3-3, 2-3, and 0 feet.
We now, beginning at one end—say at the left-hand end—
take the mean depth of the first section. In the particular
case we are considering this will be the mean of zero and 1-6,
or *= 8. Next we take the arithmetical mean of 1:6 and I-9,
which we find to be 1-75. Working in this way, we get the
following figures:— -
‘8, 175, 2:1, 2:45, 27, 3-0, 3-3, 3:45, 3:4, 2:8, and 1:15.
We have now merely to add these together, and divide by the

3O TA/A WA 7TEA S U/2/2/L V OAP 7 O WAVS.
number of the sections—that is to say, by 1.1—to get the mean
depth, thus :—
‘8 + 1.75 + 2*1 + 2.45 + 2*7 -- 3-0 + 3-3 + 3:45 + 3:4 + 2.8 + 1-15
11 gº
Suppose the sides to have a batter, instead of being vertical,
the calculation may be made as for vertical sides, the cross-section
contained between the batter and a vertical line from the
battered side at the water level being deducted.
Several sections are thus taken, and the mean of them is
assumed to be the section of the river.
The next thing is to determine the surface velocity at the
centre of the stream. This is done by taking the time necessary
for a floating body to pass two marks at a known distance apart,
the body having been placed in the water some distance above the
higher mark, so that it may have acquired the full velocity of the
water before it reaches this mark. Three operators are thus
necessary. One places the floating body in the water. In the
case of a small river or stream this may simply be thrown from
the bank, but in the case of a large river it should be thrown from
a bridge or from a boat anchored about the centre of the stream.
Two observers at a measured distance apart stand by upright
stakes, there being other stakes exactly opposite on the other side
of the stream, so that the floating object is sighted as it passes
between the two stakes. Either one or other of the observers
should have a stop watch, or each may have one with advantage,
that they may check each other. In any case the passing of the
floating body is signalled by one observer to the other by a rapid
raising of the arm, or by some other pre-arranged signal. A
number of Observations is made, and the mean is taken as the
surface velocity.
The best floating object is one of specific gravity just a little
less than water, that is to say, a body that will float all but sub-
merged. Slices of turnip are excellent for the purpose ; they
only just float, and their white colour makes them conspicuous.
The surface velocity is greater than the mean velocity of a
stream, and for rough estimations of discharge the mean velocity
may be taken as three-fourths the surface velocity.”
Thus in the case we have imagined, if the surface velocity
* This only holds good, even approximately, when, as is generally the case in
natural streams, the width is much greater than the depth—say not less than twelve
times the mean depth. In very deep streams the mean velocity may be a consider-
ably larger fraction than 75 of the surface velocity. Thus when the depth is half
the width, the mean velocity may equal '920 of the surface velocity (Fanning), but
# is a very safe fraction to take, as it is likely to be exceeded rather than the reverse
2'445 ft.
SO OA’ CES OF SOAA’/L. V. 3 I
were estimated at 4-8 feet per second, we should take the mean
velocity at 4.8 x 5 = 3-6 feet per second, and the discharge at
67.260 × 3-6 = 242.136 cubic feet per second.
More exact measurements can be made by the use of current
meters or tachometers. These are generally in the form of fans,
or, more strictly, of screw propellers, being, in fact, the exact
converse of screw propellers. The revolutions of the fans are
registered by trains of wheel-gearing just as in the case of
water or gas meters, and from the number of revolutions the
velocity of the water can be deduced.
Other tachometers depend on the fact that, if a pipe bent
at right angles, so that one part is vertical, another horizontal,
be placed in flowing water, the horizontal part with its open
mouth up stream, the water in the vertical part of the pipe
will rise above the surface of the water in the stream, the
difference of level varying as the square of the velocity.
With any of these current-meters, velocities may be taken
at different depths at different distances across the stream, and
the mean of all these observations as the mean velocity.”
The Minimum Flow of Streams and Rivers. — In
cases where a river or a large stream is proposed as a source of
water supply, it is often easy, by a mere glance, and by making
use of local information that can readily be obtained, to say
definitely that the minimum capacity of the river will be ample
for the supply, but there often occur cases where it is quite
doubtful whether the minimum will be sufficient or not.f In
these cases it is necessary to do all that is possible to find out
what the minimum discharge is likely to be, and it is as well
to admit that it is often difficult or impossible to do much more
than guess at the minimum discharge of a stream, from all the
data that can be obtained before a report has to be made.
In the rare case where, when a stream is first proposed for
a source of water supply, it is found that systematic gauging
has been carried on for a long series of years, the question is a
simple one ; but it is not often that such cases are met with.
Whenever a stream that has not been gauged is proposed as
a source of supply, steps should be taken to begin systematic
* For a description and drawings of several current-meters, see Chap. XVI. of
Fanning’s “Hydraulic and Water-Supply Engineering.” Indeed, the whole of that
chapter (on the Flow of Water in Open Channels) should be read.
+ See Note 2, Appendix III.
32 THE WA TER SUPPL Y OF TO WAVS.
gaugings at once. There is almost always a good deal of delay
before proposed waterworks get actually taken in hand, and
during the interval it is likely that information may be obtained
that will be very useful. -
If the flow of streams varied directly as the rainfall it would
generally be easy to calculate the minimum flow of any stream,
or rather no calculation would be necessary, for, as it ceases to
rain at times in all places—even in the Highlands of Scotland–
the rainfall is at times zero, and the minimum flow of all streams
would be zero. We know, of course, however, that it is ex-
ceptional for any stream, save a small one draining a non-absorbent
surface, to become totally dry at any time of the year.
If there were any constant ratio between the mean and the
minimum discharge of a stream, the minimum might be dis-
covered with fair accuracy with comparative ease, for the mean
discharge may be estimated fairly exactly by gaugings spread
over a comparatively short time, the rainfall being taken into
consideration, and the mean of the gaugings assumed to be
above or below the mean flow of the stream, in the same pro-
portion that the mean rainfall during the time of observation
was above or below the mean rainfall for a number of years.
There is, however, no fixed ratio between mean flow and
minimum flow, these varying not only with the rainfall, accord-
ing as it is very variable or pretty evenly distributed the year
round, but also varying with the nature of the ground—being
less the more absorbent this is—and with the area of the catch-
ment basin being less the greater this area is.”
We have the extreme case of variability in the drainage from
the roof of a house. Here we have a small catchment area, one
practically non-absorbent, and the flow of water ceases a few
minutes after the rain stops falling. We have the opposite case
in a great river draining large areas of flat or gently sloping ab-
sorbent land, which remains navigable all the year round, and
does not rise in excessive flood at any time. *
The following is part of a table given by Fanning, showing
the minimum, mean, and maximum flow of streams in the average
Atlantic coast basinst of the United States:–
* See Note 3, Appendix III.
+ In some parts of England the variations are greater than those given, in
others less. In Japan, on account of the long dry winter season and the wet
summer season, the variations are generally greater. But in that country the rainfalls
are phenomenal, a foot in 24 hours having been not infrequently observed, on more
than one occasion double that quantity, and on One notable occasion treble !
SO Ú/ú CA. S. OAF SOA’/2/L. V. - 33
Min, in cub. ft. Mean in cub. ft. Max. in cub. ft.
per sec. per per sec. per per sec. per
sq. mile. sq. mile. sq. mile.
Area of watershed 1 square mile •()S3 1-00 200
2 3 2 3 I () 55 3 2 * º •] •99 I 36
- ſº • C) Q
33 53 25 2 3 2 * * º •] I 98 II 7
35 2 3 50 ; 7 3 * * & 4. .97 104
2 3 3 5 J OO * 3 5 * * • - 18 •95 93
2 3 25 250 2 3 25 - • -25 i -90 80
: 2 2 3 500 35 33 - * • 30 -S7 : 7|
It is not likely that there will be any question of the minimum
being insufficient for the water supply of a town, with catchment
areas of over 500 square miles : so the rest of the table is omitted.
It will be seen from this table that the mean discharge
becomes somewhat less per square mile as the catchment area
increases, but that the maximum discharge becomes rapidly less.
The variation also becomes much less. Thus with a catchment
area of only 1 square mile the minimum flow of a stream will be
only about ſº of the mean, with an area of 500 square miles it
will be more than $.”
Even here the “minimum ” refers to a fifteen days’ period of
least summer flow, so it is likely that the minima for a day or two
at a time fall even below those given, especially for very small
catchment areas; but very small storage capacity, such as that of a
settlement reservoir of fair size, would be sufficient to tide over
these few days.
In making enquiries as to the minimum flow of streams,
advantage should always be taken of the local knowledge of
farmers and others who are likely to be observant of the
quantity of water in streams, especially in countries where water
is used for irrigation. Too implicit faith must not, however, be
placed on their testimony. Repeatedly the writer has been told
that a stream. “ has never been known to be lower than it is at
present,” when a glance at tables of the rainfall of the district for
a few years showed conclusively that it must have been lower
even within a comparatively short period of time.f
* In the case of the Kobe waterworks, so far as can be ascertained from the
many gaugings that have been made, and the observations of rainfall over a long
period, it would appear that, whilst the total quantity of water available during the
year is probably more than of the whole rainfall, the quantity available during the
dry months of winter is much less than , of the total rainfall. During the cold dry
months a great part of the ground of the catchment area must be frozen, and a large
proportion of the very small quantity of “precipitation " must be in the form of snow.
+ See Note 4, Appendix III. D
CHA PTER V.
ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY REQUIRED TO BE
PROVIDED.
Phenomena of Rainfall.—It may be well to begin by
noting that the result of observations on rainfall is to show that,
in many countries, with climates otherwise very different, two
phenomena are repeated with remarkable regularity —
(1) It is found that the minimum rainfall for a year is less
than the mean rainfall by 4, or 33 per cent., whilst the maximum
rainfall for a year exceeds the mean by , or 33 per cent.
(2) There may be expected to occur, at considerable intervals,
sets of three consecutive years during which the average yearly
rainfall is only 80 per cent. of the mean yearly rainfall over a
number of years.
An Ideal Reservoir.—It has been stated that when the
average discharge of a stream equals or is greater than the
average consumption, a water supply is practicable, by the aid
of storage reservoirs, even when the minimum discharge is less
than the average consumption.
The case of an average discharge and an average consumption
(including loss by evaporation from the reservoir surface, leakage,
&c.), absolutely equal to each other, is not one met with in
practice, although it is hypothetically possible. It would involve
a reservoir of such dimensions that, when the flow of the stream,
after the longest possible drought had just come, from the first
rain, to equal the supply, the reservoir should be exactly empty,
or empty down to the lowest allowable level; while on the other
hand the reservoir must be such that after the greatest possible
flood it should be exactly full, but should not overflow a drop.
It is evidently beyond the possibility of human calculation to
proportion a reservoir that would just fulfil these conditions.
S 7 OA' A GA. O.A. S. U/2/2/. V. 35
If the average discharge exactly equalled the average con-
sumption, it would be quite possible to make a reservoir so large
that it would never overflow, so that it would not waste a drop of
Water in this way, and that a stream of varying discharge should
thus be converted into one of absolutely constant discharge.
Apart, however, from the fact that in some cases it is advisable
to let storm water pass the reservoir, on account of the detritus it
Would otherwise deposit, it is never economical to make the
reservoirs of such a size as to absolutely equalize the flow of
Water. They are always made of such a size that some of the
storm water will either pass them or cause them to overflow.
The most that is generally done is to so proportion the
reservoir that it will equalize the flow during a set of three dry
years, when the average rainfall is 20 per cent. less than the
mean rainfall over a number of years, the reservoir, during such
three years, neither becoming quite empty, nor losing water by
Overflow.
Capacity of Reservoirs, how Determined.—It is custo-
mary to state the capacity of reservoirs in days’ consumption.
Thus if it is said that a reservoir has a capacity of one hundred
days’ consumption, this means that the reservoir holds, between
the lowest level at which it is intended the water should be
drawn off and the edge of the overflow, enough water to supply
the town for one hundred days, at mean rate of consumption,
without receiving any additional water.
Even to secure the averaging mentioned above, it has been
found necessary occasionally to make reservoirs of a capacity of
250 days' supply, although 150 to 200 days’ is commoner.
It is evident that the capacity needed is greater, the greater
the irregularity of the flow, and that it is increased to the maximum
if a season of maximum demand is just finishing when the season
of maximum rainfall is beginning. This is the case in some parts
of the United States of America,” where more water is consumed
in July, August, and September than during any other months,
whilst the season of maximum rainfall begins in December.
The following is a formula by Mr. Thomas Hawksley for
determining the quantity of storage necessary when the mean
rainfall is known —
* Almost the exact opposite holds in Japan, where the greatest rainfall is during
the warm months, and the cold months are intensely dry.
D 2
36 TA/A2 WA 7TAZA' S OWA’/2/L V OAP 7"O WAVS.
C = 1000
Vr
Where -
C = The capacity in terms of one day's average consumption,
^ = The average rainfall during three consecutive dry years = 8 of the mean
rainfall.”
Evample. The mean rainfall is 45 inches. 4.5 × 8 = 36, therefore
c - " - " - 1666, say 167. That is to say, a stone e
T V36 T 6 T , Say g hat is to say, a storage capacity equal to
an average consumption for 167 days must be provided.
It is difficult to see how this formula provides for differences
in the irregularity of rainfall. It would give, for example, the same
storage capacity, did the rain fall evenly through the whole year, or
did it all fall at one rainy season. It has, however, undoubtedly
been found to apply with approximate accuracy in England.
Where neither a record for a number of years of the gauging
of a stream, nor of the rainfall of a district, has been kept, it is
impossible to do much more than guess at the storage capacity
necessary. When either has been kept, the writer strongly recom-
mends the simplified graphic method described hereafter.
If actual gaugings of a stream have been kept for a number of
years, the matter is comparatively simple, but, as has been said,
it is the exception to find that such gaugings have been kept.
When they have not, it is necessary to make an estimation of the
probable flow of the stream from the rain water.
To do this it is assumed that, for any period of time,
d = a x 7' x 6.
Where
d = The discharge of the stream during that period of time in cubic feet.
a = The area of the catchment area in Square feet.
T = The rainfall during that period of time in feet.
c = A co-efficient which gives, as a fraction, the total quantity of water that is
available, that is to say, the total quantity of rain that falls within the catch-
ment area minus such as is lost by evaporation, and by absorption, not being
returned within the catchment area in the form of springs.
It will be seen that the assumption cannot be taken as correct
except for long periods of time. We see this distinctly if we con-
* In the original formula the average rainfall for three consecutive dry years
was taken as five-sixths of the mean rainfall. A more extended examination of rain-
fall records shows, however, that the average rainfall for three consecutive dry years
not infrequently falls to four-fifths of the mean rainfall. In some very few cases it
has fallen even below this. (See Tables X., XI., and XII. in Hennell’s “Hydraulic
and other Tables,” for many details of rainfall records, arranged in such a form that
a number of useful facts may be deduced from them at a glance. Here we learn,
for example, that, during the years 1854-5, and 6, the average rainfall at Exeter
was less than ; the mean rainfall of that town for fifty-two years.)
S 7 O/C A GA. O.A." SU/2/2/. V. 37
sider that for short periods of time the rainfall is often zero, while
the discharge of the stream is probably never zero. The error of
one short period of time tends, however, to compensate that of
others, so that, for the purpose of calculating the storage capacity
necessary in any particular case, the assumption is safe. The diffi-
culty lies in getting a fairly accurate value for c. Fanning gives
the following approximate values” for different kinds of ground —
From mountain slopes or steep rocky hills. & & . ‘8 to ‘9
Wooded swampy lands gº te e º wº sº . 6 to ‘8
Undulating pasture and wood land . e º g . . ;) to '7
Flat cultivated lands and prairie gº g tº g . “45 to “6
These figures are only intended to be taken as very rough
approximations, and they are liable to variation even in the case
of the same catchment area. Thus during dry seasons c is less
or the same catchment area than during wet seasons. That is to
say, during dry seasons proportionately less of the rainfall is avail-
able for storage than during wet. The reason of this will be
evident if it is considered that the total evaporation for any
season is more nearly a constant than a fixed fraction of the
rainfall as used to be assumed.
Again, c will be greater where the rain is in the habit of
falling violently for short periods of time than when the rainfall
is spread fairly uniformly over the whole year. This fact, it is
true, so far as practice is concerned, is likely to be more than
compensated for by loss of storm water, as explained above.
Yet again, in the case of valleys in which snow lies for
Several months of the year, the flow of a river may fall nearly to
Zero towards the end of such a time, whilst, for some part of the
spring, after the Snow begins to melt, the flow of the river may be
many times greater than the whole of the “precipitation * over the
catchment area. In fact, all deductions of the flow of streams and
rivers from the rainfall over the catchment area must be made, and
used, only with the greatest caution and judgment ; but the writer
can certify that, when so used, they are of the greatest value, in the
absence of actual gaugings spreading over a considerable time. This
especially, considering how very inexact such gaugings often are.
In any case, if it is necessary to assume c from the above
table the smaller of the two values should always be taken.
* Even as approximations, these values can be taken only when considering the
comparatively small catchment areas that are likely to be utilized for the water
supply of towns. In the case of the catchments of large streams, or rivers, a much
smaller percentage only can be relied on.
38 THE WATER SOPPLY OF TOWNS.
If the stream can be gauged for even a moderately long time,
a very fair estimate of c can be made on the principle that
C F —
7"
Where -
c is the co-efficient as before ; - t
d = the total discharge of the stream, in cubic feet, during the whole period of time ;
r = the total rainfall, in feet, over the whole catchment area during the same period
of time.
The longer the period during which the observations have
been made, the more accurate, it may be assumed, is the value
of c. Could the observations be made during a period of three
consecutive dry years, the value of c thereby obtained would be a
very safe one. Even, however, with gaugings extending over a
few months, a very fair approximation of c may be got, if the
weather during these gaugings has been fairly typical, and if the
results of the gaugings be used with intelligence. Thus, if the
weather during the whole of the time has been on the wet side,
some considerable deduction (say 10 per cent.) should be made.
Even if the weather has been normal—the average rainfall
equal to the mean rainfall for a long period, and the rain falling
at about the usual intervals—a small deduction should be made.
If the weather has been on the dry side, no deduction need be
made. No conclusion can be arrived at if the weather has been con-
tinuously much more wet than usual, or much more dry. It is very
desirable to let the observations cover a complete year if possible.
Reservoir Capacity as determined at Nagasaki.-The method
that the writer recommends, c having been estimated, will best
be illustrated by taking a specific case—the case of Nagasaki.
Waterworks were designed for this town by Mr. C. Yoshimura,
these including an impounding reservoir. Some doubt was
expressed as to the sufficiency of the capacity of the proposed
reservoir, and the writer's advice was asked on the subject in
1889. Plates I. and II. (Figs. 5 and 6) are copies, on a reduced
scale, of the diagrams then made to decide what storage capacity
it was desirable to provide.
The following are particulars about the works —It was
proposed to provide for a population of 60,000; the quantity of
water proposed per head per day was twenty gallons.” It was
assumed that the consumption would be uniform during the whole
year, the rains occurring in Japan, and particularly in Kiushu,
* These were figures supplied to the writer, not suggested by him, otherwise
this should have been stated in cubic feet.
S 7'OA' A G B OA' SOAP/L V. 39
during the hot weather, the cold weather being, for the most part,
very dry. Of course, such an assumption can in no case be
absolutely correct, but experience since the waterWorks were
opened has shown that, with an ample allowance for average con-
sumption, it was a safe one. The catchment area was 865 acres.
There was a monthly and a daily record of rainfall from the
beginning of 1879 to the end of 1888. It had been found, by
gauging of the stream, that § or 6 was a very safe value for c.
In other words, more than two-thirds of the total rainfall were
found to be discharged by the stream.
It was necessary, during one-half of the month of June, and
the whole of the months of July, August, September, and
October, to supply water for irrigation at the rate of five-eighths.
of an inch depth in twenty-four hours over an area of about
twenty-five acres.
Description of the Diagrams.-Beginning at the bottom, the
first two columns need no explanation. The third and fourth
columns are headed “Consumption " and “Rainfall.” In a case
where the diagram is worked out from actual gaugings of the
stream for a number of years, these will be in cubic feet, and,
indeed, it would be more consistent to state them in cubic feet in
any case, the column headed “Rainfall” being headed “Dis-
charge,” and discharge being taken as the total rainfall Over the
catchment area × C. In practice this involves much trouble, as
it is necessary to multiply, for each month, a large figure (the
catchment area in square feet) by an odd fraction (the rainfall in
parts of a foot), and then by c.
To save this trouble the figures in the “Consumption " column
are taken as the depth of rainfall that would be necessary to provide
this supply. This is got as follows:–
r = –" -
(!, X (,
Whore
r = the rainfall in one day that would be necessary, allowing for loss by
evaporation and absorption, to supply the consumption for One day :
the actual consumption of water for one day ;
a = the area of the catchment basin ;
the co-efficient of total rainfall available.
Thus it was found that a rainfall of 102 inch per day would
be sufficient to provide the necessary supply of water for the town
consumption alone.
It was found that, when water had to be provided for irriga-
tion, as mentioned above, a rainfall of 126 inch per day would be
-
4O TA/A2 ||VA 7TA: A S U/2/2/. Y OF 7TO WAVS.
sufficient for both the town supply and what the farmers needed.
The monthly requirements were found by multiplying these
figures by 28, 29, 30, or 31, according to the number of days in
the several months of the year.
The fifth column gives the difference between the rainfall
necessary to supply water for any one month and the actual
rainfall. In other words, it is the algebraical sum of the third
and the fourth columns, taking the figures in the third column as
minus quantities, those in the fourth as plus.
The sixth column gives, at any place, the algebraical sum of
all the figures in the fifth column up to that place.
The curve is constructed by drawing Ordinates, to any con-
venient scale, in accordance with the figures in the sixth column.
The resulting curve shows, at a glance, what would have been
the conditions of a reservoir at any time during the years covered
by the investigation. The rising of the curve shows that a
reservoir would have been filling or overflowing ; the falling curve
shows that it would have been becoming more and more nearly
empty. •
The depth of any depression is a direct measure of the
minimum necessary capacity of the reservoir. -
It will be seen how regularly there have been depressions in
the winter months. It will be seen that the depression lasting from
the beginning of November, 1887, to the end of March, 1888,
is a good deal greater than any other. It is found to corre-
spond with a little over forty-four days’ supply. That is to say,
according to this graphic solution the reservoir would need to
hold a minimum of somewhat over 60,000 × 20 × 44 =
52,800,000 gallons.
The results of the monthly curve are only approximate. On
the assumption that all the rain fell during one short period of
time every month, and that a similar time, say the first, or the
middle, or the last day of the month, the results would be quite
exact ; but of course no such conditions are met with. The rain
is spread more or less unevenly over each month. It is just con-
ceivable, for example, that, in the particular case we have before
us, the whole of the rain of October had fallen on the first day of
that month, and the whole of the rain of February had fallen on
the last day. It is evident that, on this assumption, the depres-
sion would be much deeper than it is shown. In fact, it would be
as deep as is shown in the dotted lines, or fully 50 per cent, deeper
than the actual curve. .
PLATE I.
2%
%
2
2
%
%
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W|-
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FIG. 5,-DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING REQUIRED STORAGE CAPACITY (YEARLY RAINFALL).
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S 7'ORA C / OF SU/2/2/. Y. . 4. I
To get Over this probable error, a curve. should be worked out
from the daily rainfalls for the deepest depression, or for several
if there are several nearly equally deep.
Plate II. shows the result of working out the depression
corresponding to the months from October 22nd, 1887, to March
28th, 1888, from the daily rainfall record ; and it will be seen that
the necessity is made evident for considerably more storage than
was indicated by working out from the monthly records. In fact,
a storage capacity for a consumption of over fifty-two days is
indicated.
Estimation of Contingencies.—There are various reasons
why, even when such a result as this is got, it is necessary to
make a considerable addition to cover contingencies. Thus (1) it
is never desirable to entirely empty reservoirs except for cleaning
out or for repairs that cannot be done with the reservoir full.
Reservoirs should be so proportioned that they contain 10 to 15
per cent. of their water when they are reduced to the lowest.
(2) The results of the graphic method cannot be taken as
other than approximate unless the rainfall record extends over a
very considerable time, as there can be no certainty, if it extends
Over only a few years, that as long a spell of dry weather as is
ever likely to occur is included within the time. If we have a
record of forty to fifty years or longer to go upon, it is necessary
to add only a small percentage on this account. If the record
extends, say, over only eight to twelve years, and we have no
definite information that this time included a long spell of
unusually dry weather, it is necessary to add a very considerable
percentage.
(3) There is some loss from evaporation from the surface of
the water in the reservoir. This cannot be even approximately
estimated, as it varies not only with the climate but with the
depth of water in the reservoir—with which, of course, varies the
surface area. It is, fortunately, least when the water-level is
lowest. It may amount to an equivalent of twenty inches over
the mean surface area of the reservoir, or may be more or less.
There is reason to believe that, in the case of climates in which
hot weather is very damp, water is condensed on the surfaces
of reservoirs with a rising thermometer. The writer has some-
times known weather during which, if water were taken from a
reservoir and were poured into a bottle, the sides would imme-
diately become bedeved, and water would be condensed to such
42 TA/AE WA TER S UPAE/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
an extent as even to trickle down them before the temperature
of the water within the bottle rose to that of the air outside.
It is certain that, during such times, water is condensing over
the whole surface of the reservoir to a very appreciable extent.
It is quite conceivable that reservoirs, natural or otherwise, fed
with very cold water, such as that from glacier streams, rather
gain water by condensation than lose it by evaporation.
(4) A certain amount of leakage or percolation has to be
anticipated. With careful work it should be reduced to a very
small percentage, but there is probably always a little.
Taking all this into consideration, it may be said that 30 to 40
per cent. should be added to the estimated capacity of the reservoir
according as the time Over which rain-water records extend has
been short Or long.
In the case for which the diagrams on Plates I. and II. were
prepared it will be seen that it was found that a minimum capacity
of somewhat over fifty-two days’ consumption would have been
necessary to cover the winter of 1887-88. The capacity that had
been proposed was one for sixty-five days. It was thought
advisable in this case to add 40 per cent. to the estimated capacity,
the rainfall record extending over only ten years. The capacity
of the reservoir was increased to one of about seventy-five days'
consumption by excavating all the material for the dam from the
site of it. This is just about 40 per cent, more than the estimated
quantity. So far as experience goes this allowance has been quite
ample.*
The lower shaded portion of the diagram in Plate T. shows
what would have been the condition of a reservoir of the size first
proposed during the years 1879 to 1888 inclusive. Where the line
is horizontal it indicates that the reservoir would have been full or
full and overflowing. A falling line indicates emptying of the
reservoir; a rising one, filling. The distance of the line above the
axis of the curve—that is to say, the length of an ordinate at any
place—is a direct measure of the quantity of water that there
would have been in the reservoir at the time corresponding to the
ordinate.
* In the very exceptionally dry summer of 1894 the reservoir was just exhausted
only a little time before rains came to replenish the supply. It would appear that
there had been some unnecessary waste, but still the experience shows that, with
only ten years’ rainfall record to work from, it would be advisable to add more than
40 per cent.
PLATE II.
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ACCELERATED
SUM
ALGEBRAICAL
RAINFALL
CONSUMPTION
DAY
MONTH
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FIG. 6.-DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING REQUIRED STORAGE CAPACITY (DAILY RAINFALL).
[To face page 42.

CHAPTEER VI.
CLASSIFICATION OF WATERWORKs.
WATERWORKS are generally classified into Gravitation Works
and Pumping Works. -
In gravitation works the pressure in the mains is that due to
gravitation alone. In pumping works the pressure may be due
directly to gravity, enough water being stored in a high-level
reservoir to compensate for the fluctuation in consumption during
the twenty-four hours, but this water has been pumped into the
reservoir from a comparatively low level. In other cases, the
water is pumped from a low-level reservoir directly into air
vessels or “stand-pipes " acting as small accumulators to prevent
undue shock or “ramming " in the mains.
The pumps are nearly always actuated by steam. In some
few cases they are actuated by water power, especially when the
works are on a very small scale, in which case the hydraulic ram
may often be used.
Gravitation works to be complete must consist of (1) either a
high-level impounding reservoir, or a high-level intake with a
settling reservoir; (2) filter beds; (3) a service reservoir near the
impounding or settling reservoir, or, if there is high land con-
veniently situated, a reservoir as near as possible to the town or
within it, or one or more high-level tanks within the town ; (4) a.
distribution system.
A pumping system may consist of —A. (1) a comparatively
low-level intake ; (2) one or more settling reservoirs ; (3) a set of
filter beds; (4) a pumping station, with (5) a high-level reservoir
or tank near or within the town, holding enough water to com-
pensate for the inequality of the consumption during twenty-four
hours; (6) a distribution system.
B. Where there is no high land for a high-level reservoir, and
44 TA/A IVA 7/3 R S UPP/ Y OF 7"O WAVS.
a high-level tank on an artificial support to hold enough water to
compensate for the variation in consumption during twenty-four
hours is considered impracticable—(1) a comparatively low-level
intake ; (2) one or more settling reservoirs; (3) a set of filter
beds; (4) a low-level service reservoir; (5) a pumping station with
engines pumping directly into (6) a distribution system.
C. Where the intake is so low that the water will not gravitate
to any convenient place for settling reservoirs and filtering beds,
and there is room for these only on the low ground—(1) a low-
level intake ; (2) an intake pumping station, with engines pumping
into (3) one or more settling reservoirs; (4) a set of filter beds ;
(5) main pumping station, with engines pumping into (6) a high-
level reservoir or a tank on a high artificial support ; and (7) a
distribution system.
D. The same as before up to (5), but (5) a low-level service
reservoir ; (6) pumping station with engines pumping directly into
(7) a distribution system.
The last case, as that of B, occurs when there is no natural
site for a high-level reservoir, and where the high-level tank of
sufficient size on an artificial support would be too expensive, or is,
for any other reason, impracticable.
Various combinations of these systems, or modifications of
them, are met with in practice.
Plates III., IV., and V. (Figs. 7 to 12) are intended to show
diagrammatically some of the forms of gravitation and pumping
systems that are met with. The letters refer to the following
terms —
I. R. Impounding reservoir.
W. T. Water tower.
I). Dam.
F. B. Filter beds.
C. W. R. Clear water reservoir or service reservoir.
D. S. Distribution system.
S. R. Settling reservoir or reservoirs.
R. River, stream, or lake. In every case supposed to show low-water
level.
P. S. Pumping station.
P. W. Pumping well.
I. P. S. Intake pumping station.
It is to be understood that no attempt has been made to keep
to scale. The illustrations are of an entirely diagrammatic
nature. They very nearly explain themselves, but a few words
may be said of each.
In the first place attention is drawn to the difference between
C/AS,S/A/CA TVOAW OF WA 7TEA’ WOAZ / S. 45
the systems illustrated in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. It will be seen
that the Only difference is that, whereas in the case illustrated
by Fig. 8 there has been, within the town, a position suitable
for a service reservoir, in the case of Fig. 7 there has been no
such position, and the service reservoir has had to be made close
to the impounding reservoir. It might seem that it would make
but little difference which arrangement was adopted. There is,
however, a very considerable difference. In the case illustrated
by Fig. 7 the main must be able to carry the maximum quantity
of water consumed at any part of any day of the year. In
other words, it must be able to carry at least twice the mean
supply. In the case illustrated by Fig. 8, the main need only
be able to carry the maximum daily supply—that is to say, not
more than the mean supply x 1:5. In this case the dis-
tribution system only has to carry the very maximum. The
distribution system must always be capable of carrying the very
maximum consumption.*
In both these cases, had the minimum discharge of the stream
been capable of supplying the necessary quantity of water, instead
of an impounding reservoir there would have been a high-level
intake and a settling reservoir.
The difference between the cases illustrated by Figs. 9 and 10
is nearly the same as that between those illustrated by Figs. 7
and 8, except that it applies to the pumping engines instead of
to the mains.
In the case illustrated by Fig. 7, the engines need only be
capable of pumping the maximum daily supply, or the mean
supply x 1.5 ; those illustrated by Fig. 10 must be capable
of pumping the very maximum needed at any time—that is to say,
at least the mean supply x 2.f
It is to be observed that, in the case illustrated by Fig. 9,
the pumping station might be anywhere between the filter beds
and the position in which it is shown, according to the configura-
tion of the land. It is, in fact, probably more nearly found near
the filter beds than in any other position.
In the case illustrated by Fig. 10 it is advisable to have the
clean water reservoir and the pumping station as near together
as possible, because the pipe between the clean water reservoir
* Fig. 7 illustrates the case of the Nagasaki waterworks in Japan; Fig. 8 that
of the proposed Shimonoseki works. .
f Fig. 9 illustrates the proposed Fukwoka waterworks in Japan; Fig. 10 those
proposed for Okayama.
46 ZTA/A2 WA TEA S (VP/2/. Y OF TO WAVS.
and the pumping well must be capable of carrying the very
maximum of water that is needed, but there may be cases
where they have to be some distance apart.
The same may be said of the case illustrated by Fig. 11 as
of that illustrated by Fig. 9. The pumping station might be
anywhere between the place where it is shown and the site of
the filter beds. *
In the case illustrated here, the main pumping engines need
only be able to do work at the maximum daily rate—that
is to say, at the mean rate × 1-5. The intake pumping
engines need hardly be able to do this, as it seldom happens for
more than a day or two together that the daily consump-
tion keeps up even nearly to the mean consumption × 1-5,
and the settling reservoirs hold, as a rule, two or three days'
supply, some of which can, as settling reservoirs are generally
arranged, be used up in case of emergency. Still it is safer to
make these engines capable of doing the maximum daily work.
This is apart from “stand by,” which will be treated of hereafter.
In the case illustrated by Fig. 11, the main pumping engines
must be capable of doing the very maximum work, that is to
say, at least twice the mean work. This ought to be without
using the “stand by ” engine or engines, but often these are used
whenever the demand is unusually high.
The same may be said of the intake pumping engines in the
case illustrated by Fig. 12 as of those in the case illustrated by
Fig. 11.
* If the pumping station were shown close to the filter beds, this figure would
illustrate the waterworks for Osaka, also the proposed Hiroshima waterworks, both
in Japan—except that, in the case of Hiroshima, the water (except for turbidity,
never lasting for more than two days at a time, and of such a nature that it settles
very quickly) is so clear and free from suspended matter, that the filter beds are
omitted.
- PLATE III.
DLAGRAMs ILLUSTRATING GRAVITATION SYSTEMS OF WATERWORKS. -
- *, - W [To face page 46.

PLATE IV.
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[To face page 46.

CHAIPTER VII.
IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRs.
General Considerations.—If it is decided that it is
desirable, in any particular case, to store water to supplement
the supply during the dry seasons of the year—that is to say, if a
deep-well supply be out of the question, and there are no streams
of pure water at a convenient distance whose minimum discharge
is sufficient for a supply—it is necessary to search for a site for an
impounding reservoir, often for sites for several such reservoirs.
It is generally in a position high among valleys that suitable
sites for impounding reservoirs are to be sought. Indeed one of
the compensating advantages for the great expense of constructing
Fig. 13.−Contour of sides of valley forming site for reservoir.
impounding reservoirs is commonly that water can be got from
them at sufficient pressure by gravitation. There are, however,
cases where water, even from impounding reservoirs, has to be
pumped to get sufficient pressure.” It need scarcely be said that,
in searching for reservoir sites, any maps of the district that are
available should be made use of. If there has been a complete
survey of the ground, contour lines being inserted in the maps,
the labour of the work will be greatly lessened.
The best site for a reservoir is one where a valley widens out
* In Japan this is the case in the proposed Moji waterworks.

48 7TA/A2 WA 7TA: A S (JAXA2/. Y OF TO WAVS.
into a flat bottom bounded by steep sides, the sides coming close
together, forming a contraction just below this flat bed. Thus
the contour lines in Fig. 13 indicate a likely site for a reservoir.
The writer has noticed, both from the study of descriptions
of work executed and from his own practice in searching for
probable sites for reservoirs, how commonly such a formation
occurs just where two streams meet, a contraction of the valley
occurring a little down stream from the junction. It therefore
very often happens that impounding reservoirs are bifurcated.”
The following contour lines (Fig. 14) indicate a likely site for a
reservoir of this kind.
It will be understood, of course, that no impounding reservoir
can be constructed unless there is an impervious bed under the
Fig. 14.—Contour of sides of valley (with meeting streams) forming site for reservoir.
site of it. Such an impervious bed is almost always to be found
at a sufficient depth, but the depth may be so great as to make
the construction of a dam—which must penetrate to the
impervious stratum—impracticable. It has, in some cases, been
considered advisable to construct dams where the watertight
portion of them had to penetrate through as much as 100 feet
of superficial porous material.
Preliminary Works.-A likely site for an impounding
reservoir having been found, the following works are necessary —
(1) Trial borings over the whole site of the proposed reser-
voir. These are particularly necessary along the site of the
proposed dam, as on the results of them, depend not only the
dimensions of the structure, but the material to be selected.
* The Nagasaki reservoir in Japan is bifurcated. So are the proposed reservoirs
for Shimonoseki and for Moji. Some time ago the writer, in searching for a probable
site for impounding water for a certain town, found three likely sites of nearly equal
suitability, in each case at the junction of two streams.

////2O (VAV/O/AVG A&AES E A I/O/A’.S. 49
Great trouble has arisen when it has been found, after work
had begun, that the porous soil penetrated at places to a much
greater depth than had been supposed.
(2) A number of trial pits, exposing the surface of the
supposed impervious bed, so that it may actually be seen and
examined.
(3) Levels must be taken along the valley line, from the sea,
or from some known datum at least as low as the lowest part of
the town to be supplied. The pipe line will very commonly
nearly coincide with the valley line.
(4) A survey, giving the limits of the catchment area. It is
to be noted that the catchment area is nearly always bounded by
the ridge lines of the surrounding hills. It may happen, however,
in the case of nearly flat table lands, that the water is (in part at
least) drained in a direction opposite to what would be expected,
oblique porous strata carrying it in a direction opposite to that of
the slope of the nearly flat ground. Such cases very rarely occur,
however, and it is common practice to assume that the catchment
area is bounded by the ridge lines of the surrounding hills or
mountains.
(5) A careful and minute survey of the proposed site of the
reservoir must be made, putting in contour lines at intervals of
about 2 or 3 feet to a height above the greatest contemplated
high-water level of the reservoir.
Of course, if the country has been accurately surveyed before,
works nos. 3 and 4 need not be done afresh. The catchment
area may be measured, by the planimeter or otherwise, from the
maps. - -
In the case of country that has not been accurately surveyed,
contour lines not being given, a good aneroid barometer is of
much use ; but, to get results even approximately correct, it is
necessary that the fluctuation of a barometer at the sea level, if
that is near, or at the place to which it is proposed to lead the
water, be observed whilst the engineer is making his preliminary
survey ; otherwise his results are likely to be put entirely out by
fluctuation of atmospheric pressure.
Depth of the Reservoir.—It is necessary, at this stage
in the proceedings, to decide what depth of reservoir will be
necessary. -
The mean depth of reservoirs is roughly from somewhat less
than one-third of the greatest depth to somewhat less than two-
- E
5O TA/AF WA 7TPAE S UA’A/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
thirds. If the sides of the valley slope rapidly and evenly to the
stream and the stream itself slopes rapidly, the mean depth will
be at the minimum as compared with the greatest depth. If the
reservoir consists of a nearly flat bottom bounded by steep sides,
the mean depth will be at a maximum as compared with the
greatest depth. The two cuts here given (Figs. 15 and 16), show
types of the two cases.
A knowledge of the above fact makes it possible, a few
Fig. 16.-Diagram illustrating mean depth of reservoir with steep sides.
contour lines having been run, to decide very roughly what need
be the size of the reservoir, and what its greatest depth.
The following very useful and interesting table is taken from
“Water Engineering,” by Charles Slagg : *
No. Ratio. No. Ratio. No. Ratio. No. Ratio.
I • 612 20 •490 39 •452 58 •400
2 •583 21 •487 40 • 450 59 '400
3 •580 22 • 485 41 •450 60 '400
4 • 572 23 • 473 42 '447 61 •400
5 •560 24. • 468 43 •435 62 '400
6 *543 25 • 468 44 •431 63 •496
7 •537 26 •468 45 •427 64 • 495
8 •528 27 •4.66 46 -422 65 '494
9 •526 28 • 466 47 •420 66 “380
10 ‘525 29 •465 48 •4.20 67 •376
II •515 30 '464 49 • 420 68 -350
12 •515 3] • 463 50 •420 69 •350
13 “514 32 •4.62 5 I •420 70 • 345
14 • 510 33 • 460 52 •420 71 •340
15 •504. 34 • 460 53 •417 72 •340
16 500 35 • 460 54 •407 73 •336
17 ‘500 36 •460 || 55 •407 74 •320
I8 • 496 37 •458 56 •405 75 • 28]
I9 • 496 38 •4-55 57 *400
* London : Crosby Lockwood and Son.

JA/AO UAV/D/AWG A&AESA: A VO/A’.S. 5 L
This table is the result of an examination of the dimensions of
75 reservoirs actually in existence. Here “ratio " is mean depth
-- maximum depth. It will be seen that the mean depth of most
reservoirs is less than one-half their maximum depth, and that the
average mean depth is less than half the maximum mean depth.
To get the depth and size of the reservoir much more exactly,
we proceed as follows:–
Let d = the depth of the bottom of the reservoir below the
lowest contour line within the reservoir area.
Let d = the vertical distance between contour lines.
Let al., as, Cls, O, &c. = the area enclosed by the first contour
line, the area enclosed by the second contour line, the area
Fig. 17.—Diagram illustrating method for determining necessary depth of reservoir.
enclosed by the third contour line, the area enclosed by the
fourth contour line, &c. - - -
It is assumed that the capacity below the first contour
line = } × as that the capacity between the first and second
a-
contour lines = * : *. x d: that the capacity between the second
* x d that the capacity between
e - (, , -H Q,
and third contour lines = *–3–
the third and the fourth contour lines = * : *. × d, and so on.
*
It will be best to take the depths in feet, and the areas
in square feet. The results will then be in cubic feet. The
results are added together till the required capacity is reached,
when we know the necessary depth of water in the reservoir.
This method gives a slight error on the side of safety—that
is to say, the capacity of the reservoir is likely to be a little
greater than that estimated in this way.
The only assumption here made is that the space in the
accompanying illustration (Fig. 17) enclosed by the straight and
the curved lines—the straight line representing the surface of the

E 2
52 7THE TWA 7TP R S UAE PAE V OA; 7 O WAVS.
water and the curved line a cross-section of the reservoir—is equal
to the space enclosed by the same straight line and the stepped
lines. If the curve is continuously concave towards the straight
line—representing the usual form of the sections of reservoirs—
the area enclosed by it and the straight line will be somewhat
more than that enclosed by the straight line and the stepped lines.
Some engineers go to the trouble of checking the results thus
got by taking out the areas of vertical sections, sometimes taking
the sections as close as a foot from each other. The writer cannot
see the necessity of this—unless it is simply to check the arith-
metic—as the results will be scarcely any more exact than by the
method described, unless the data are more elaborate, and then
the results would be improved by the other method also.
The depth of the water of course decides the height of the dam.
Material of Dam.—At least an approximate knowledge
of the necessary height of the dam must be gained before material
and form can be finally decided on.
Dams are of two kinds—earthen dams, and masonry or
concrete dams.
Earthen dams are far the commonest, and in most cases
the cheapest. They have the advantage that they can be
founded on any impervious stratum—clay, gravel and clay
mixed, &c. Their disadvantage is that, unless they are very
carefully made, water is apt to penetrate them, when the initial
aperture will probably be rapidly enlarged by the rush of water,
and the dam will be quickly burst; or, if the water overtops the
dam during times of flood, it will begin to cut it away, when the
rapidly increasing flow of water will lead to the total destruction
of the dam. In any one of these cases, the results are likely
to be disastrous, the whole volume of an artificial lake being
suddenly sent rushing down the valley, sweeping everything before
it. It is only necessary to mention the destruction of Johnstown,
U.S.A., in 1890, by the bursting of the earthen dam in the valley
above it, to enforce these considerations.
Masonry dams.-These are generally admitted to be superior to
earthen dams when they can be founded on solid rock, but they
are not suitable for soft foundations, however impervious. It is
true that it needs quite as much care to make them water-tight as
earthen dams, but the result of a leakage in a masonry dam is
not so disastrous as in the case of an earthen dam, as the opening
made does not tend to rapidly increase itself. Moreover, no harm
////2O ÚAV/D/AWG A&AESAEA IVO/A&S. 53
need result if the water overtops the dam. In fact, in the case of
the largest reservoir in England, or indeed in Europe, to be
mentioned hereafter, the dam acts as its own by-wash, the water
simply flowing over the top of it in flood-time.
As might be expected, the question as between earthwork and
masonry dams is chiefly one of expense. Where suitable stone
can be got in sufficient quantity, a masonry dam need not cost
much more than an earthen one, especially if the clay for the
puddle of the latter has to be brought from a considerable dis-
tance. In this case, if the foundation be suitable, a masonry dam
would generally be preferred.
CHAIPTER VIII.
EARTHWORK DAMS.
Order of Construction.—In most cases the works relating
to the construction of earthen dams may be classified as follows.
The Order is as nearly as possible that of the actual progress,
but in practice circumstances will often occur to alter the Order,
and with some works progress may be made concurrently —
(1) The removal of the surface vegetable soil, generally
extending to a depth of a foot or two.
(2) The excavation of a puddle trench passing through all
pervious strata into the impervious bed below.
(3) The excavation of a trench or tunnel afterwards to be
used as a gallery to hold one or more pipes to draw the water
from the masonry.
(4) The filling, if the impervious stratum be of rock, of all
fissures that there may be in the bottom or sides of the puddle
trench with fine rich cement concrete, and the filling up of the
trench with puddle in thin layers to the ground level.
(5) The building of the dam by continuing the puddle wall
upwards, still in thin layers of puddle, whilst at the same time
earth is laid at each side of it to make the body of the dam, this
earth being generally laid in thicker layers than those of the puddle
wall.
(6) Covering the inner face of the dam with stone pitching.
(7) Covering the outer face, and the top, if the latter is not to
be used as a road, with turf.
(8) The construction of arrangements for regulating the flow
of water from the reservoir, consisting generally of (a) a water-
tower or valve tower within the reservoir, or at any rate within
the puddle wall; (b) the gallery above mentioned, generally with
one or more pipes in it for drawing off the water ; and (c) a valve
house at the end of this gallery—that is to say, at the outer toe of
the dam, for controlling the discharge of the water.
(9) The construction of a by-wash, waste-weir, or overflow, to
A. A R 7TA/ MVOA’A /OAA/S. 55
allow of the discharge of surplus water without over-topping the
dam.
(10) The construction of works at the head of the reservoir
for preventing silting up.
(11) The burning of all vegetable matter on the site of the
reservoir before the water is allowed to rise.
Form of Section of Earthwork Dam.—Plate VI. (Fig. 18)
shows a section of an earthwork dam reduced to the simplest form
possible.
There is no question of the stability of an earthen dam as a
whole—that is to say, of its resisting an overturning moment
by its weight, the slope of the inner face being of necessity such
that the vertical thrust of the water is much greater than the
horizontal. The slopes are determined by the angle of repose of
the material of which the dam is made, a considerable allowance
being made for the sake of safety. The slope on the inner side is
made less than that on the outer or lower side because, on the
inner side, the earth becomes saturated with water, and the angle
of repose is reduced in spite of the stone pitching. Even supposing
the inner slope of an earthen dam to become so saturated with
water, that the whole hydrostatic pressure due to the head of the
water may be considered as acting directly on the inner face of the
puddle wall, there need be no question of the stability if the outer
slope of the dam be in accordance with English practice.
The proportions given here may be said to be English standard
proportions. Dams are often made slighter than is shown in the
plate, particularly in America, but it does not seem advisable to
resort to a lighter section, although it must be admitted that, in
the case of most failures of dams it does not seem as if the failure
would have been permanently averted had greater thickness or
smaller slope been adopted, unless certain other mistakes had also
been corrected. In England, the slopes are often made even
slighter than those shown on Plate VI.
Thickness of the Puddle Wall.—The puddle wall is shown
with a thickness of eight feet at the top. There is no means of
theoretically investigating the thickness of a puddle wall, and the
only course is to depend on judgment and the results of past
practice. Dams have been constructed with puddle walls thinner
at the top than this, but the practice is not to be recommended.
They have been made with walls much thicker too, but it is not
56 7A7A. WA 7TPA' S UAE PAE V OAP 7 O WAVS.
evident that any benefit has resulted from the additional
thickness. . . ar
Puddle walls may have any batten from one to two inches to
the foot above the trench, but should nowhere be less in thickness
than one-third the depth of water above them at flood time.
Through the pervious strata the puddle wall may have parallel
vertical sides. The depth of the puddle trench in the impervious
bed may equal the breadth of the bottom of the puddle wall.
Thickness of Selected Material.—It is common to sort the
material that the body of the dam is to be made of, and to build up
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the less pervious next the puddle wall, placing the heaviest
material next the outer or lower slope. The thickness of the
selected material may be the same horizontally as that of the
puddle wall at all heights, or the thickness at the top may be
made (say) four feet, and slopes of one vertical to one horizontal
may be given.
The Removal of Surface Vegetable Soil.—This must
include removal of tree roots and the like, even if they go deeper
than the foot or two mentioned above. There is no object in
leaving the ground very smooth. In fact, probably it is better

PLATE VI.
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[To face page 56.
FIG. 18.—SECTION OF EARTHWORK DAM.
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A. AA 7TA/ WOAZA DA A/S. . 57
to leave it rough. The whole idea of an earthwork dam is that it
should be in perfect unity with the ground it is founded on.
The Puddle Trench. The breadth and depth of the puddle
trench have been given above. The shape of cross-sections varies
considerably in the designs of different engineers. In the hands
of some it is made a square ; in the hands of others it has the
form shown in Fig. 19 ; in others, that shown in Fig. 20.
The idea in adopting the former of these two sections is that
there is less likelihood of water leaking under the puddle if it has
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to pass a number of right angles than if it has to pass two only.
This idea is probably more fanciful than anything else. The
second section saves both puddle and excavation, and there appears
to be no objection to it. -
If springs be met with in excavating the puddle trench, pipes
must be laid to carry the water to discharge at the toe of the
outer slope of the dam. -
The tunnel or trench that is afterwards to hold the culvert for
the discharge pipes from the valve tower is a part of the work that
needs considerable attention. At one time it was the custom to
draw off water by cast-iron pipes sometimes laid in the dam, the
discharge of the water being entirely regulated at the outer end of



58 TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’/2/. Y OF 7TO WAVS.
the pipe. This arrangement was faulty, as, in case of any leakage
from a pipe always of necessity under pressure, the water was
liable to pass through the dam, weakening it till it ultimately failed ;
or, if the pipes went through the made part of the dam, water was
liable to creep along their sides with the like disastrous results.
It was for this reason that water or valve towers were first
designed, and that it was made a rule that the culverts from them
should be founded on the solid ground. The water was admitted
to the culvert by valves placed at different heights on the tower,
connected with apertures penetrating its sides. Thus the water
was under no hydrostatic pressure in the culvert which was always
in compression.
It is now generally considered advisable to allow the culvert to
act merely as a gallery in which are one or more cast-iron pipes,
which are thus open to inspection and repairs. These pipes may
be under pressure or not, according as it is considered advisable to
regulate the discharge of water at a valve house at the toe of the
dam, leaving a valve of the tower full open, or to regulate the flow
at the tower by partly opening a valve, the water being allowed
to escape freely at the toe of the outer slope of the dam, for
immediate filtration or for delivery as compensation water.
Whether the culvert will be built in a trench passing under the
dam, or shall form a tunnel passing the dam at one end, will depend
On circumstances. If the valve tower is to be founded in the
deepest part of the reservoir, as is common in the case of small
reservoirs, the culvert will generally be built in a trench. There
is the advantage that, the culvert being made large enough to
carry off flood water, it may serve to carry the stream during the
construction of the dam.
Where the culvert crosses the puddle trench, this latter should
be filled in with cement concrete from the bottom to the culvert.
In the case of very deep reservoirs it is generally an object to
keep the foundation of the valve tower at some height above the
very lowest part of the reservoir. This may be done, without
making it impossible to draw the reservoir to the bottom, should
that ever become necessary, as the water may be syphoned from
the deepest part of the reservoir. The utmost limit to which
water can be syphoned is within thirty-four feet. In practice it is
very troublesome to syphon it for more than twenty-eight feet,
and it is inadvisable to fix syphons intended to draw more than
twenty-five feet; but the base of the water tower may be placed
at such a height towards one side of the deepest part of the
A. AA 7TA/ WOAZA DA A/S. 59
reservoir, that a syphon passing through it to the culvert will be
anything up to twenty-eight feet above the bottom of the deepest
part of the reservoir. Figs. 21 and 22 show the two positions of
valve tower described.
With the tower in the position shown in Fig. 22, it may be con-
Fig. 21.-Position of valve tower with culvert in trench.
venient, especially if the valley be greatly contracted at the site of
the dam, to make a tunnel, which may be short and often straight,
through the solid ground, passing under the dam where the latter
Fig. 22.—Position of valve tower with tunnel under dam.
is comparatively low. Sometimes the tunnel may, with advantage,
be driven to a parallel valley through the intervening hill.
Various sections of culverts and tunnels are given on
Plate VII. (Figs. 23 to 28).
The Puddle Wall.—It is customary to make the bottom of
the puddle trench in the form of a series of steps, in longitudinal


6O THE WA 7TP R S UPP/L Y OF TO WAVS.
section, rather than to make it parallel with the surface of the
land. This will be seen on Plate VIII.
The puddle may be all clay, or gravel (well screened) may be
added in any proportion up to one part of gravel to one of clay.
Whatever proportion be adopted, the whole must be thoroughly
mixed and worked up with just enough water to make a dense
doughy mass. The puddle is laid in thin layers, as already indicated.
It is common to specify that these be not more than six inches
thick. Each layer must be thoroughly punned, and it should not be
allowed to get dry on the surface before the next one is laid on it.
The surface should not be made smooth, but should be left rough,
so that the next layer will bond in with it.”
It should be borne in mind that, although the wall is con-
structed in layers, the object is to make it into one solid mass.
Selected Material.—This may be laid in somewhat thicker
layers than the puddle, but the layers should never exceed two
feet in thickness, and it is not uncommon to specify that this
material also be laid in layers of only six inches. The layers are
better not laid level, but sloping towards the puddle wall. Nearly
as much care should be taken in laying the selected material as in
making the puddle wall, and it should all be thoroughly incorpo-
rated by punning.
The Body of the Dam.—Less care is generally devoted to
the rest of the earth work; but it should always be borne in mind,
in connection with the dams of impounding reservoirs, that too
much care can nowhere be taken, and this especially in the case of
the puddle wall and all that lies between it and the impounded
water. The heaviest material should be placed towards the lower
slope.
The stone pitching may, with advantage, be about eighteen
inches thick, and may lie on the like thickness of broken stones.t
The Valve Tower.—The object of the valve tower is to
allow water to be drawn from any one of a number of different
levels, the reason being that water in an impounding reservoir is
at its best a few feet below the surface. At its lower depths
it may contain much suspended matter. At the surface it
contains floating matter, and is liable to be warmed by the
sun's rays.
A valve tower ought also to permit of examination of all the
* See Note 5, Appendix III. f See Note 6, Appendix III.
PLATE VII.
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A. AA 7TA/ WOAZA DA A/S. 6 I
valves at any time, and of repairs to them if necessary, without
stopping the flow of the water even for the shortest time. It may
not be possible absolutely to secure this state of affairs for all con-
ditions of the reservoir, but it will presently be seen that it is
possible to secure them for nearly all.
The valve tower may be situated entirely within the reservoir,
founded on its bottom, or it may pass through the inner slope of
the reservoir anywhere within the puddle wall. In the latter case
the pipes leading from the reservoir to the tower have to pass for
a greater or less length through the material of the dam, accord-
ing to their height from the bottom, and according to the distance
of the tower from the puddle wall. This makes it comparatively
troublesome to gain access to the ends of these pipes in case they
have to be closed for the repair of the corresponding sluice valves
within. For this reason it is generally advisable to construct the
valve tower at the toe of the inner slope, a light foot-bridge con-
necting its top with that of the dam.
There are various descriptions of valve towers. Thus in some
the water stands, within the tower, at the level of that in the
reservoir, and the discharge of the water is controlled by a valve
at the foot of the tower communicating with the culvert. With
this arrangement it is possible to get at the valves below the level.
of the water, only by closing all openings between the reservoir
and the inside of the tower and by letting off the water, the
supply being, for the time, stopped. In other cases the water is
allowed to flow into the valve tower by any of the valves, but is
allowed to escape freely at the bottom by the culvert, thus not
standing at the level of the reservoir water. This is some
improvement, but still does not give free access to any valve at
all times.
In yet another arrangement the tower is divided by a vertical
partition into a “wet well’ and a “dry well.” In the former the
water stands at the level of the reservoir. Through the partition
there pass pipes at different heights, and opposite each is an open-
ing from the wet well to the reservoir. From each opening through
the partition a pipe, provided with a third valve, is carried to the
culvert. There is provision for closing the openings in the par-
tition from the wet well side. It is thus possible to get at any
valve at all times for inspection or repair ; but this arrangement
is a very expensive one. In the event of the lowest valve needing
repair whilst the water lies low, the discharge would have to be
stopped for a little time.
62 7TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’/2/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
There is one form of valve tower that has so much the advan-
tage over others—in allowing perfect freedom of inspection at all
times, in permitting of the repair of any valve under nearly all
circumstances, and in simplicity of construction—that in the
writer's opinion it is to be preferred to all others.
In a valve tower so constructed the water is drawn through
the tower at different heights by pipes connected directly with a
stand pipe, there being a sluice valve on each such pipe carrying
water from the reservoir to the stand pipe, and also a means of
closing the opening from outside the tower, the stand pipe being
continued directly along the floor of the culvert or tunnel, which
then becomes an inspection and repairing gallery merely. In fact,
it is possible to enter this gallery at the toe of the outer slope of
the dam, and to emerge at the top of the valve tower. The pres-
sure due to the full head of the reservoir may be made use of, if it
is considered necessary, by entirely opening a valve, or the dis-
charge can be controlled at the tower by partly opening a valve.
By the former arrangement gravitation works sometimes become
possible that would not otherwise be so.
Valve towers, if high, are commonly made of ashlar masonry,
or if only of moderate height, of cast iron. There should be open-
ings to the reservoir water at intervals not greater than about ten
feet in height.
Plate IX. (Figs. 30 to 34), drawn by Mr. K. Sakuma from
hand sketches by the writer, shows a tower of the kind described
made in masonry. An arrangement of flap valves, actuated by
chains whereby it is possible to close any opening from without, is
shown. By making these flaps of bronze it is extremely improb-
able that they should get out of order. In the improbable case
of a flap below water level needing repairs, it would be necessary
to send down a diver to repair it. The reason of the considerable
leverage given to open the flaps is that, after they are once closed,
a very considerable pressure on the back has to be overcome
before they can be opened. .
In the case of very large valves it would be advisable, in addi-
tion to this, to carry a filling pipe from the space between the
valve and the sluice, so that, this space being filled, and a head
of water being created in the filling pipe, there might be a pressure
tending to open the flap.
Leaving the syphon out of the question for the meantime, it
will be seen that any valve with the exception of the lowest could
be removed without stopping the discharge for a moment. The
PLATES IX.
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Figs. 30, 31.-Vertical Sections.
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MASONRY WALVE TOWER. [To face page 62



























FARTH WORK DAMS. 63
lowest could be removed by allowing the discharge to take place
by the syphon.
A syphon is not an essential part of a water tower. Indeed it
ought to be the exception rather than otherwise, as there is always
some trouble and uncertainty in its action. The trouble arises
from the collection of air in the highest part. Unless means
are taken to get rid of this air, the action is liable to stop
altogether, especially when the water is lowest in the reservoir,
and when, therefore, not only is there the greatest vacuum in
the syphon, and hence the greatest tendency for air to be given
off, but when there is a less vigorous action tending to carry the
air down the long limb of the syphon. As long as the velocity
is great, the water will carry the air with it, and discharge it in
the syphon well.
Any leakage in the syphon above the level of the reservoir
water is sure to cause stoppage by the drawing of air.
The syphon, in this case, is put into action in the following
way. Whilst water is still flowing into the stand pipe by A, but
it is anticipated that the water in the reservoir will soon be below
the level of A, the sluice valve B is opened. The sluice valve C is
then closed, when water will be drawn through the syphon with-
Out starting it by an air-pump, and with the arrangement shown
at D for collecting the air, the syphon should work without stop-
ping, till the water in the reservoir is drawn very nearly to the
level of that in the syphon well.
The air-collecting vessel shown in Plate X. (Figs. 35 to 38) is
very simple in action. It consists merely of a cylindrical vessel
with a valve at the bottom communicating with the highest part
of the syphon, one at the top, communicating with a filling cup,
an emptying valve, and a glass gauge to show the height of the
water in the vessel. The action is as follows: Before the syphon
is brought into use the vessel is filled with water by the filling
cup. If this be not done the air in the vessel will suddenly
expand on Opening communication between it and the syphon,
and will partly fill the latter with air.
Whenever the syphon has been started, the communication
between it and the air vessel (which communication must be of
a fair diameter) is opened. All air will now rise into the air
vessel, the height of the water in which will be indicated by the
gauge glass. When the attendant finds that the vessel is nearly
empty of water, he turns off communication between it and the
Syphon, opens the top valve, and fills the vessel again, when the
64 TA/A2 WA 7TP R S UAE’A/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
cycle of operations begins once more. When the syphon is not in
use the vessel is emptied by the drain valve. It would be quite
possible to make this apparatus automatic, but it would probably
not be of advantage to do so. As has been said, the syphon
ought not to cease to act if due care be taken in watching the air
vessel, but an air-pump must, nevertheless, be provided, lest by
any accident the syphon cease to act.
A “syphon well” has been mentioned more than once. This
is a shallow well, with an overflow at a level of at least a foot
or two below the lowest level to which it is intended to draw
water from the reservoir by the syphon. The lower end of the
long limb of the syphon dips into this well.
Plate XI. (Figs. 39 to 43) shows a smaller sized tower of cast-
iron. No syphon is shown in this case.
Very often no particular provision is made for closing the

NZ ZTN NA/
2^N. \l/ ZN
…
\
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N/ \
2^N /N
2s-U-7s
Fig. 44.—Diagram of main pipe divided for meters and sluice valves.
outer faces of the openings of valve towers other than so forming
them that a diver can descend and close them with a temporary
wooden partition. In the case of necessity, to close the lower end
of the syphon shown in Plate IX. some such course would have to
be pursued.” - ~
A Valve House or Meter House is sometimes constructed
at the toe of the outer slope of the dam. It is particularly
needed if, as is often the case, some of the water has to be
deflected for compensation purposes. In this case it will
generally be found convenient to have two pipes in the gallery,
one for tower supply, the other for compensation water, the latter
drawing water from the bottom of the reservoir and having a
sluice valve both where it passes the valve tower and the valve
house.
Sometimes the water is measured by meters in the valve
house. In this case the main pipe is preferably divided into
three branches with a meter and two sluice valves on each as
* See Chapter XXI., p. 255, for description of the Venturi meter.
PLATE X.
Figs. 37, 38.-Horizontal Sections.
º
º
t
sº
º
º
º
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§
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º
º Nº. sº gº” º
º
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§
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[To face page 64.
3 Feet.
'~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ -…-
GNQ
Figs, 35, 36–Vertical Sections.
|
MASONRY WALVE TOWER. SECTIONS OF AIR-COLLECTING vºn. FOR SYPHON.
\




BLATE XI.
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§ 2 - Nº N § N N s §§
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Figs. 41, 42, 43.—Horizontal Sections.
CAST-IRON VALVE TOWER.
20 30 Feet,
[To face page 64.


EA R7A WORK DAMS. 65
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 44, where the meter is shown
as O, and the sluice valves as X. Any two of the meters must be
capable of measuring all the water, so that one may be removed
for repairs or verification.
The By-wash, Waste Weir, or Overflow of a reservoir
is of the greatest importance in all cases, but particularly in the
case of a reservoir with an earthwork dam, as on its sufficiency
depends entirely the safety of the dam, which is all but certain
to burst if the Overflow is too small and allows the water to
overtop the dam. t
The natural tendency, in designing a waste weir without much
consideration, would be to make the waste water pass over a
depression in the dam, and down a channel constructed on the
.." ...”:- a , - - --
---...'Pººjº,
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: *...*.* .2% º % -- -->
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§§ §§ §N
Fig. 45.-Waste weir for water passing over dam (Fanning).
down-stream slope, protecting the course of the flow of water
with masonry ; and, as a matter of fact, Overflow weirs have,
at times, to be constructed in this way. It is considered
preferable, however, to carry the weir round the end of the
dam in the solid ground, or to carry two weirs round the two
ends of the dam rather than to have the best possible design
of waste weir over the dam. The construction of a masonry
weir over an earthwork dam spoils the whole homogeneity of the
structure.
Fig. 45 (taken from Fanning) shows a form of waste weir
that may be adopted when the waste water must pass over the
dam. In this case there is no puddle wall, the whole dam being
constructed of impervious material, as mentioned at the end of
this chapter.
Plate VIII. (p. 60), which gives the longitudinal section of
an earthwork dam, shows the by-wash or waste weir in transverse
F














66 7TA/A; VA 7TA: A SOA’/2/L V OA. TO TWAVS.
section ; and Plate XII. shows a waste weir passing round the
end of a reservoir dam, in plan. -
It is objectionable to keep the sill of a waste weir low, because
the result is to reduce the effective storage capacity of the
reservoir, this capacity reckoning up to the level of the sill of
the waste weir only. It is therefore necessary to get discharge
capacity by considerable length of weir, and this especially as it is
necessary to make a certain allowance for possible waves. That
is to say, if it is decided that a certain length of weir will
discharge the maximum storm water with a certain depth of
water, the sill of the weir must not be made only this depth below
the top of the dam, but this depth + the height of the highest
wave that is likely to beat against the dam. This height is
commonly taken as a minimum of 3 feet. This is for very Small
reservoirs ; for larger ones a greater allowance has to be made.
The maximum height of a wave is a function of the “fetch "
of the reservoir—that is to say, of the longest straight line that
can be measured from any part of the dam to any part of the
shore of the reservoir, when the latter is full and overflowing.
Stevenson's formula for wave height is commonly used in this
connection. It is as follows:–
H = 1.5 / D + (2.5–4 JD)
Where
H = the height of a wave in feet.
D = the fetch in miles.
The meaning of this really is that the allowance for waves in
impounding reservoirs which an engineer is likely to have to do
with, will vary from the minimum of 3 feet, established by
practice, to a maximum of from 5 to 6 feet.
The height here given is the vertical height of a wave if it
meets no resistance. A wave meeting a gentle slope will, how-
ever, as a rule, roll up it to a height considerably greater than
its own height. For this reason it is desirable to continue the
stone pitching 2, 3 or 4 feet up in the form of a dwarf wall,
as shown at A, Plate VI. This wall is not to be relied on to
actually resist water pressure, but only to break waves that would
otherwise roll over the top of the pitching.
If it were necessary to design waste weirs to carry the
quantity of water that may fall over the whole catchment area
for a few minutes at a time, they would have to be enormous in
in fact they would generally be impracticably large. It is,
size
PLATE XII.
FIG. 46.-IMPOUNDING RESERVOIR, IN PLAN, WITH WASTE WEIR AND FLOOD CHANNEL. [To face page 66.

Aſ A A 7TA/ IWVOA’A /) A /l/.S. 67
however, the case, that the maximum flow of a stream never
reaches this limit ; and further, that the possible volume of water
between the level of the sill of the weir and the highest level
to which it is intended the water should ever be allowed to rise
acts as an accumulator, so that it is not necessary to allow for an
Overflow equivalent to the maximum over the whole catchment
area. The difficulty is how much to allow for. An old estab-
lished English custom was to allow 3 feet length of weir for every
100 acres of catchment area, the depth of water over the sill of
the weir being taken as from 2 to 3 feet. There is the great
objection to this practice, that it takes no account of the fact that
the maximum discharge of a stream is less, relative to the mean
discharge, the greater the catchment area. The following table
of length of weir and of depth of water over the weir—based on
one by Fanning—will be found to be on the safe side for countries
not liable to tropical rain storms.” The lengths and depths of
water for intermediate areas may be taken as proportionate —
Catchment Area. Length of Weir. Depth of Water over Weir.
200 acres 16 feet - 1 ft. 5 ims.
400 , , 20 ,, . | 1 ft. 10 ins.
1 square mile 25 ,, 2 ft.
2 ” 37 32 , 2 ft. 5 ims.
3 , , 39 , , 2 ft. 7 ins.
4 , * 5 44 , 2 ft. 9 ins.
| 6 , 53 54 , } 3 ft.
S , 22 61 , , 3 ft. 3 ins.
10 ,, 35 68 ,, 3 ft. 6 ins.
5 , , } } S3 , 3 ft. 9 ins.
20 , 2 3 95 , 4 ft.
25 ,, 52 105 , , i 4 ft. 2 ins.
30 ,, 2 3 116 , , 4 ft. 4 ins.
40 . . 133 , 4 ft. 7 ins.
50 . . 149 ,, 4 ft. 10 ins.
75 ,, 55 183 , , 5 ft. 3 ins.
100 , , , 212 , , 5 ft. Sins.
With the proportions given in Plate VI., every foot additional
in height of dam gives an additional width of 5 feet to the
base. It is, therefore, felt that it is a pity the capacity between
the level of the sill of the weir and of the linnit to which it is safe
* Rainfall being, at times, extraordinarily severe in Japan, the dimensions
given in the second and third columns will not be found at all too large for half the
acreage in the first column. A table suitable for Japan can be made out simply by
dividing the figures in the first column by two.
F 2
68 7TA/A2 IVA T/E/C S OW/2/2/. V. O.A. ZTO JAVAWS.
the water should rise is, with an ordinary weir, practically waste
capacity. To overcome this waste to a certain extent—that is to
say, to so construct the waste weir that water may rise to the safe
limit before overflow begins, no overflow at all taking place if it
rises to any height short of this—and yet to secure Safety, has
been the object of various schemes.
The simplest, and perhaps the best, is to build a miniature
dam of earth and sods on the weir, up to the level of the safe
limit.* If the safe limit is not reached this prevents waste of
water. If the safe limit is reached, the miniature dam is over-
topped and is washed away.f
This plan is successful so long as waves do not beat on the
miniature dam. Should waves overtop it, it will certainly go in a
short time. Waves can be provided against by constructing a
screen opposite the weir, but there is always danger, if this be
done, that the discharge of the weir will be diminished, especially
if the stream brings down much floating matter at flood times.
In the case of short weirs, it can be arranged that a baulk of
timber lies on the weir so as to be fairly water-tight at bottom and
ends, and so that one end will give way on the striking of a bolt,
the other end being held by a chain.
Works at the Head of the Reservoir.—The water of
all natural streams contains some suspended matter that tends to
settle, and this especially during the time of floods. It thus
* See Note 7, Appendix III.
f Whilst writing of impounding reservoirs, the writer would like to say a word
or two on a subject of much importance in Japan and other earthquake countries—
namely, the possible effect of an earthquake on a reservoir with an earthwork dam.
On the Occasion of the great earthquake of 1891, in Japan, a strong partition
wall of the service reservoir of the Yokohama waterworks, some 200 miles distant
from the centre of disturbance, was overturned by the lashing backwards and
forwards of the water, although the reservoir was not otherwise damaged. Even
the water in a small rectangular reservoir of the waterworks of the Imperial
University of Japan (size 82 × 25 feet x 20 feet deep) was thrown into waves
about three feet high, and these effects were at places where the earthquake was
but slightly felt. What would have been the fate of a large impounding reservoir
had there been one in the part of the country most disturbed, it is impossible to
say. Only two observations are to be made. The writer has not heard of the
bursting, at the time of earthquakes, of any of the small reservoirs with earthwork
dams, made by farmers to store water for irrigation. And further, if every
engineering structure had to be made so that it would stand such shaking as that
at the worst of the great earthquake of 1891, no engineering structures would be
made in Japan at all—nay, no structures of any kind, for what will stand when the
very mountains are riven and partly overturned ? The people would have simply to
camp out in the cane brakes (See remarks on this subject by Professor John
Milne, F.R.S., in Appendix I.)
A. AA 7TP/ WOAZA /OA /l/S. 69
happens that all impounding reservoirs show some tendency to silt
up. It is the case, however, that vastly the greater quantity of
the silt is carried down at flood time. It is, therefore, distinctly
objectionable to have flood water “passing through "a reservoir,
as it is commonly put, that is to say, having floods pouring in at
the head of the reservoir, while there is water overflowing by the
waste weir. The result simply is to deposit a certain quantity of
silt in the reservoir without any corresponding advantage.
As has been said, impounding reservoirs are never designed to
take extreme floods. For this reason it is advisable, wherever
practicable—that is to say, wherever the cost is not prohibitive—to
construct a channel, or two channels, to carry flood water past the
reservoir. Such an arrangement is shown in Plate XII. The
waste weir discharges into this channel. By beginning the Works
Fig. 47.-Arrangement for directing flow into reservoir,
by the construction of the channel and the tail race, the water is
conveniently disposed of during the construction of the dam.
It is probably best to control the direction of the flow of the
water by sluices worked by an attendant. The sluice to the
reservoir is normally open, but, whenever the reservoir begins to
Overflow, or, if there is a dwarf dam on the waste weir, before this
is overtopped, the water is deflected to the by-pass channel. By
this arrangement the most is made of such a dwarf dam.
Various automatic arrangements have been designed for effect-
ing the control of the direction of the flow of the water. The
simplest is diagrammatically illustrated here (Fig. 47). The
diagram is almost self-explanatory. The action depends on the
fact that, the greater the volume of water the greater is its
velocity, and the further it will leap Over an Open space. The
plate A shown can be vertically adjusted. It is so adjusted that

7o 7A/A2 WA 7TEA S OWA’/2/. V. OAP 7 O IVAWS.
the water just overleaps it when the stream gets to such a height
that the water is turbid. This arrangement can only be adopted
when the total annual supply is considerably over the total annual
consumption ; for, although the plate A can be regulated so that
the normal flow of the stream will all enter the reservoir, whilst
extreme floods will all enter the by-pass channel, there are inter-
mediate states of the flow in which the plate will divide the water,
sending one portion to the reservoir, and allowing another portion
to run to waste.
If a by-pass channel is out of the question, and if the stream
carries down much silt during floods, it is advisable to construct a
small settling reservoir above the main reservoir by damming the
valley with a masonry or wood crib-work dam, over the top of
which flood-water is allowed to pass.” Even if this hold only one
day's mean discharge, it will hold at least some minutes' discharge
of the extremest floods, and the detritus brought down by such
floods being generally of a heavy nature, a large proportion of it
will be deposited even in this short time. Part of the work
consists of a by-pass channel capable of carrying normal dis-
charges, and of a waste pipe allowing the water to be drawn
from the little reservoir. The small reservoir may be cleared
of deposit at any time when the stream is low, the stream
being allowed to flow along the by-pass channel, and the water
being drawn from the small reservoir slowly, so that it will not
carry the detritus with it.
Burning Vegetation within the Reservoir Area.—
The object of this is to reduce to a minimum the deterioration
which the water impounded in a reservoir is liable to suffer for
the first year or so from the decaying of vegetable matter. It is
not by any means always carried out; but it should be if the
vegetation is dry enough to burn at all readily.
Other Forms of Earthwork Dams.-Many modifications
of the section of earth dams shown here are in use. For examples
of these modifications the reader is referred to Humber’s “Water
Supply of Cities and Towns.” Also in Fanning’s “Treatise on
Hydraulic and Water-Supply Engineering,” will be found very in-
teresting descriptions of dams of much lighter section than that
given in Plate VI., the whole or the greater part of the structure
being of impervious material.
* See Note 8, Appendix III.
/* A A 7TA/ [VOA’A. DA A/S. 7 I
Some engineers have suggested that, in place of a puddle wall,
the puddle should be disposed in the form of a puddle apron pro-
tected by stone pitching on the inner slope of the dam. There
does not appear to be any advantage in this arrangement. The
writer thinks it is, at any rate, a mistake to have both a puddle
wall and a puddle apron.” If the latter is absolutely water-tight,
the former is not needed. If it is not, the earth between the
apron and the wall will become saturated with water if the
reservoir stands full for any length of time; and on the lowering
of the water of the reservoir there will be great danger that the
internal pressure will cause a slip of the inner slope to take place.
Possibility of the Sliding of an Earthwork Dam.—As
has been said, there is no question of the stability of a dam of the
Fig. 48,-Site of dam trenched out.
proportions recommended against Overturning, but the possibility
of the resistance of the dam to the horizontal thrust of the water
tending to cause it to slide in its entirety down the valley has to
be considered. It can easily be shown that, with the valley line
nearly horizontal, the weight of an earth dam causes sufficient
friction to prevent any sliding, and, indeed, the writer does not
know of a case where an earthwork dam has failed by sliding as a
whole.
With a valley having a steep slope, however, it is quite pos-
sible that such sliding might take place. To prevent the possi-
bility of this it is advisable, when the slope of the valley is con-
siderable, to trench out the ground on which the dam rests, as
shown in Fig. 48,
* See Note 9, Appendix III.

CHAPTER IX.
MASONRY DAMS.
THE conditions that make a masonry dam preferable to an
earthwork dam have already been described.
The problem of a masonry dam is entirely different from that
of an earth dam, in which latter case other considerations than
those of the stability of the whole mass determine the form of the
section. The most likely way for an ill-proportioned masonry
dam to give way, is by the overturning of the whole or a part
of it from the pressure of the water in the reservoir.
The Stability of a Masonry Dam.—To be perfectly safe,
a masonry dam should conform to the following conditions —
(1) It must, by its weight alone, without considering either
adhesions to the foundation, or such support” as it gets at the
ends, be able to resist tendency to overturn by water pressure,
wind, and waves. -
(2) It must be able to do the same at any part of its height.
(3) It must be able, by friction alone, to resist all inclination
to slide on its base.
(4) It must be able to do the same at any part of its height.
(5) No part of the masonry must be in tension.
(6) NO part of the masonry may be under more than a certain
pressure from the superincumbent weight.
To satisfy (5) it is necessary that the line of pressure, whether
the reservoir be full or empty, be within the inner third of the
masonry. “The line of pressure (called also the line of resistance)#
is the line intersecting each joint of a structure (whether it is real
or imaginary) at the point of application of the resultant of all the
* See post, p. 75, on Curved Masonry Dams.
See “Design and Construction of Masonry Dams,” by Edward Wegmann,
Jr., C.E. (John Wiley and Sons, New York). This work treats most fully of masonry
dams in a manner which, considering the difficulty of the subject, is remarkable
for its clearness and simplicity. Another work which may be consulted is “Masonry
Dams, from Inception to Completion,” by C. F. Courtney, M.Inst.C.E. (Crosby
Lockwood and Son, London). -
A/ASOAVA’ Y DA /l/S. 73
forces on that point.” By the “inner third,” is meant that part
inclosed by two lines at every part of the height of the dam,
dividing a horizontal line into three equal parts.
It may be shown that if conditions 5 and 6 be fulfilled, all
others will be, except in so much as it is necessary to give the top
a certain thickness to resist waves, and for other reasons that will
suggest themselves, all other conditions being fulfilled by a dam
with zero thickness at the very top.
To find the best section of dam to fulfil all these conditions
is a very complicated problem. The first solution of the problem
which was at all successful was by M. Delocre, a French engineer.
Rankine very much improved upon his method, and Rankine's
profile has been the standard one, with English engineers at any
rate, for a good many years back. Wegmann published, in 1889,
the results of his investigations in connection with the proposed
Quaker Bridge dam, a dam 270 feet high intended to impound
water for the supply of New York City—the highest dam in the
world. In investigating the question of its design he worked out
a “theoretical profile ” suitable to all heights up to 200 feet.
The width of the top of a masonry dam cannot be calculated
theoretically, as there are not sufficient data, but is a matter of
judgment. Wegmann recommends a minimum of five feet, and a
breadth equal to one-tenth the height of the dam for all dams over
fifty feet high, and probably this practice is as good as can be
recommended.
The following formula by Sir Guilford Molesworth” has the
advantage of simplicity, and, with all its simplicity, it gives
results that agree well with those got by much more complicated
methods. It will be seen that it includes an expression for the
thickness of the top of the dam —
3/ = (): (); acº . -(". {C ),
X I (O-05 º' " A / 2
Width of top of dam = 0.4 y, at # H.
Where H =Total height of dam in feet.
A = Limit of pressure allowed on the masonry in tons per square foot.
w = Depth below the surface of the water in feet.
gy = Offset in feet to the outer face of the dam from a vertical line = 0-6 w
as a minimum.
2 = Offset to the inner face.
* It is taken from “Discussion on Impounding Reservoirs,” in vol. CXV. of the
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. The greater part of the whole of
this discussion, and of the several papers that immediately precede it, are devoted to the
subject of masonry dams, and all the matter, as the most important contribution on
the subject during recent years, should be read by those interested in the design
and construction of masonry dams.
74. 7TA/A2 WA 7TA: A SOA/2/. V. OA 7TO ||VAVS.
4 &
Professor Rankine's profile and Mr. Wegmann's do not differ
much for heights not greater than about 150 to 160 feet, and
Rankine's is, on paper at least, the more graceful of the two.
For heights greater than those mentioned, Rankine's profile
becomes very flat at the down-stream slope, the thickness very
rapidly increasing without apparent corresponding advantage.
A comparison of the two profiles, and of that resulting from
Molesworth’s formula, is given on Plate XIII.
The profile according to Molesworth's formula has been worked
out, assuming that the maximum superincumbent weight of
masonry is never to exceed 16,380 lbs. per square foot on the
down-stream face, and 20,480 on the up-stream face. It will be
seen that the thickness of the top is considerably less in the case
of the Molesworth profile than in that of either of the others.
Plate XIV. shows a comparison of the three profiles, assuming
the same top thickness for all.
Plate XV. shows Wegmann's theoretical profile for different
specific gravities of stone. The pressure on the masonry by
superincumbent weight is never allowed to exceed 16,380 lbs.
on the down-stream face, 20,480 lbs. on the up-stream face, per
square foot. Masonry dams have been in existence for many
years that have safely resisted a considerably greater pressure.
From this “theoretical profile ” Wegmann deduces three
practical profiles,” suitable for dams on different scales. These
are shown on Plate XVI. (Figs. 51 to 53). For dams lower
than fifty feet, all dimensions can be taken proportional to
Profile I, but keeping the width of the top always five feet. For
those between fifty and a hundred feet, all dimensions can be
taken proportional to Profile 2. For those above a hundred feet,
the height wanted may be taken from Profile 3.
It may be worth noting here that in the “Discussion on
Impounding Reservoirs,” already referred to, Sir Guilford
Molesworth, in describing the genesis of his own formula, is
reported (Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. CXV.,
page 84) as follows: “At the outset he had discovered a
circumstance which had much simplified his labours—namely,
that the weight of the masonry did not materially affect the
profile of the dam, because, though heavier masonry generally
involved increased pressures on the base of the dam, yet the
resultant of the pressures was thrown further away from
the Outer face, and there was not a greater maximum pressure
on the wall.”
PLATE XIII.
––. 18, 74
! - +
{ !
; - 12,56– - -
( , -
4 r - • It -
| | }
t H
| ſ
t | —r
i !
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|
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— — — — — — — — — — — Wegmann's. -
- |
- , |
– Molesworth’s. - ... ** |
ſ
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i
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- ;
à.
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&
-*: - /0 5 ° 0 10 20 - 30 40 FEET.
|
1––– | I ſ
FIG. 49.—MASONRY DAMs: COMPARISON OF RANKINE’s PROFILE AND WEGMANN’s THEORETICAL PROFILE witH MOLEsworTH's.
[To face page 74.





PLATE XIV. '
- H - 1874 –
Rankine's.
— — — — — — — — — — —- Wegmann's.
Molesworth’s.
$i|!| If4.I:H 1! I#
to 5 G 10 20 30 4c FEE7.
[III º ſ —— I,
FIG. 49(A):-MASONRY DAMs: COMPARISON OF RANKINE’s PROFILE, WEGMANN’s THEORETICAL PROFILE, AND MOLEsworth's PROFILE, WITH
SAME TOP THICKNESS IN EACH, . . .
[To face page 74.

BLATE XV.
scALE OF FEET. -
0 5 10 20 30 40
| | | ; |
------------ Profile No. 3. Weight per cub. ft. of Masonry 12500 lbs. -
-- - - - - - - *- * 72 4 52 » 18542. 9,
2, 5 x 2. - ), - - 145.83 »
— — — — - 22 6
i
i
22 - 2.5
*
N
/
FIG. 50–MASONRY DAMs: WEGMANN’s THEORETICAL PROFILE FOR STONE OF DIFFERENT GRAVITIES.
*
[To face page 74.



PLATE XVI. -
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Fig. 51,–Practical Profile No. 1. Fig. 52.-Practical Profile No. 2. Pig. 53.−Practical Profile No. 3. {
MASONRY DAMS : WEGMANN’s THREE PRACTICAL PROFILES. [To face page 74.








A/A SOAVA’ Y /) A /ſ/.S. 75
Curved Masonry Dams. It must be evident that, in the
case of a narrow gorge, a curved dam, convex up stream, would
act as a horizontal arch abutting on the sides of the valley, and
that the thickness might be reduced. It is evident, further, that
there is a certain limit beyond which the arch principle would not
come into Operation, because the wall would be (partly or entirely)
overturned, and distortion would probably take place, before the
necessary compression to resist as an arch began to take place.
It has been found impossible to state any limit on one side of
which a dann may be considered to act as a horizontal arch, and
on the other side of which it cannot. The investigation is ex-
tremely complicated, and of necessity rests on data that are little
better than pure assumption. For these reasons it is generally
considered that, although the curved plan may, in some cases,
especially when the valley is narrow, be adopted with advantage,
the section should still be such that the dam is stable by its own
weight. -
On the other hand, Messrs. J. P. Davis, J. J. R. Croes, and
W. F. Shunk, who were appointed by the Aqueduct Commis-
sioners to the Quaker Bridge dam as a board of experts, stated
their conclusions in connection with this matter as follows:–
“ (1) That, in designing a dam to close a deep, narrow gorge,
it is safe to give a curved form in plan, and to rely upon arch
action for its stability ; if the radius is short, the cross-section of
the dam may be reduced below what is termed the gravity section,
meaning thereby a cross-section or profile of such dimensions that
it is safe, by the force of gravity alone, to resist the forces tending
to overturn it, or to slide it on its base at any point.
“ (2) That a gravity dam, built, in plan, on a curve of long
radius, derives no appreciable aid from arch action, so long as the
masonry remains intact ; but that, in case of a yielding of the
masonry, the curved form might prove of advantage.
“The division between what may be called a long radius and
what may be called a short radius, is, of course, indefinite, and
depends somewhat on the height of the dam. In a general way,
we would speak of a radius under 300 feet as a short one, and
one of Over 600 feet as a long one, for a dam of the height
contemplated.
“(3) That, in a structure of the magnitude and importance of
the Quaker Bridge dam, the question of producing a pleasing
architectural effect is second only to that of structural stability,
and that such an effect can better be obtained by a plan curved
76 7TA/A5 WA 7TP R S Ü/2/2/. Y OF 7"O WAVS.
regularly on a long radius than by a plan composed of straight
lines with sharp angular deflections.
“ (4) That the curved form better adapts itself to changes of
volume due to changes of temperature.” -
In another part of their report they state that “as to curved
and straight plans generally, without reference to the Quaker
Bridge location, all authorities agree that the same principles
should be followed in the designing of the profile, whatever the
plan, unless the curve has a very short radius, not exceeding,
say, 300 feet.”
Material and Construction of Masonry Dams.-The
best material for masonry dams is rubble, with Portland cement
mortar. The size of the stones may be anything from a cubic
foot or two to several cubic yards, according to the material
available. The spaces between these stones are filled in with
smaller stones and cement mortar, or with cement concrete.
In building the Vyrnwy reservoir dam for the supply of
Liverpool with water, the mortar at the beginning of the work
was made of one part of Portland cement to two parts of washed
river sand. As the work progressed experiments were made, and
it was found that, by pulverising the stone of which the dam was
made (a grey slate rock), mixing two parts of this with one of
sand, and two parts of the mixture with one of Portland cement,
a stronger mortar resulted. This mortar was, therefore, adopted.
For most cases, however, one part of Portland cement to two
parts of clean, sharp sand, may be taken as a normal mortar.
In constructing a masonry dam, the first operation is to clear
the rock on which it is to be founded, and to fill up all fissures
or cracks with rich cement concrete. The actual building then
begins, and this needs the utmost care at every stage. The stones
must be most carefully bedded in mortar, and should not be
moved or violently shaken after once they are bedded. No
grouting should be allowed. The masonry should not be in
regular courses, but should be built up in thick layers, making
one most thoroughly bond with another. In fact, it should be
borne in mind throughout the work that the object is to produce
as near an approach to a monolith as possible, and to so construct
this monolith that leakage shall take place neither under it nor
through it. -
Concrete Dams.-Concrete has not often been used as the
material for the bulk of a dam, but, in the cases where it has been
A/A SOAV/º Y /OA AM/S. 77
used success has been met with, and it seems likely that the use
of this material will spread. -
In the case of the Tytan waterworks, Hongkong, it was
found that Chinese masons were untrustworthy,” or unable to do
a style of work of the excellence necessary for masonry dams,
and a dam of considerable size was constructed entirely of rubble
concrete with a cut stone facing. This has been in existence
for several years, and has given all satisfaction. The section of
this dam is shown in Plate XVII. For a full description of it,
see a paper by Mr. James Orange, C.E., resident engineer, in
the Proceedings of the Institution of Cºw?! Engineers, vol. C., from
which paper Plate XVII. is taken. The whole of the works have
been highly successful, but the concrete dam here illustrated, and
briefly described, is the only part of the work which calls for
special mention.
The By-wash or Waste VVeir.—As has been said, there
is not such great danger from the Overtopping of water in the case
of a masonry dam as in One of earth ; yet this should be avoided
unless the section of the dam is specially designed with a view
to the flow of water Over it, and to do this the waste weir
should be made of the same proportions as those recommended
for reservoirs with earthwork dams. As in the case of earth-
work dams, so in the case of masonry, the Overflow is generally
made round one end of the dam. On the other hand, if a.
suitable profile be adopted, and if a “back-water ’’ pond be
provided at the foot of the Outer toe of the dam, to receive the
concussion of the falling water, the overflow may be allowed to
discharge freely over the top of the dam, which in this case
becomes its own by-wash.
One of the most extensive works in connection with modern
water engineering is that of the dam of the Vyrnwy reservoir
already referred to, of which Mr. Geo. F. Deacon, M.Inst. C.E.,
was engineer. This dam impounds water forming an artificial
lake having a surface area of some 1,120 acres, and has a total
height, including the viaduct, of 161 feet. Its section is shown
in Plate XVIII.i.
In the case of this dam, the flood water is intended to over-
top the general section, the roadway being built above this on a
* See Note 10, Appendix III.
+ The section given in the first edition of this book differs very slightly from
that given in the present.
78 7A/A; WA 7TA: A S (V/2/2/. Y OF 7'O WAVS.
series of arches. There is the great advantage in this arrangement
that not an inch of the height of the dam is lost. The frontispiece,
from a photograph,” shows the dam through nearly the whole of
its length.
The section shown in the plate is taken from Mr. Deacon's
own diagram, illustrating his remarks made in the discussion
on impounding reservoirs (Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, vol. CXI., p. 113). I particularly mention this fact
because, both in the remarks here referred to and in a letter to
the writer, Mr. Deacon states that most of the published sections
of the Vyrnwy dam are incorrect.t
Regulating the Discharge of Water from Reservoirs
with Masonry Dams.--This is done in a manner similar, in
general principles, to that adopted for earthwork dams—that is to
say, the water is drawn through a culvert Or tunnel from a valve
tower, and may be regulated at a valve house at the toe of the
outer slope of the dam. There is this difference, however, that
there is not the same objection to constructing this culvert in the
body of the dam as there is in the case of an earthwork structure.
Again, the batter of the inner face of a masonry dam being
generally but slight, the valve tower may form an actual part of
the wall. In Plate XIX. is shown the valve tower of the
Tytam reservoir, Hongkong. It will be seen that the tower is
divided into a wet well and a dry well by a cast iron partition
penetrated by short pipes to which are fixed sluice valves for con-
trolling the flow of water. A valve tower on the principle here
shown might be adopted with a masonry dam.
In all respects—such, for example, as works at the head of
the reservoir—except those mentioned, the procedure is the same
in the case of a reservoir with a masonry dam as in the case of
one with an earthwork dam.
* Reproduced, by permission, from The Engineer of 15th July, 1892.
f The section given in the first edition of this book differs very slightly from
that given in the present.
PLATE XVII.
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FIG. 54.—TyTAM DAM, HONG KONG : SECTION THROUGH scous PIPE. -
[To face page 78.






























































PLATE XVIII.
/O 0 /O 20 J O FEET
FIG. 55.-SECTION OF WYRNWY DAM (LIVERPOOL WATER SUPPLy).
[To face page 78.


PLATE XIX. -
FIG. 56—TyTAM DAM, HoNGKONG : SECTION THROUGH WALVE-WELL,
[To face page 78.

CHAIPTER X.
THE PURIFICATION OF WATER.
WATER, as found in nature, is never absolutely pure, and it is
seldom that it is so pure but that it may not be improved by
means so moderate in expense that they are applicable to the
large quantities of water dealt with in the supply of cities.
Practically pure water can be got by distillation only, but
such a process is, of course, quite out of the question on the large
scale necessary for the supply of towns, although water is so
purified for use on board ship.
Pasteur's filters of unglazed earthenware are said to remove
all micro-organisms, but they, also, are not applicable on a large
scale. In the case of some deep-well waters, and sometimes in
the case of water that has been stored in impounding reservoirs,
the degree of purity is so great that no improvement can be made
by processes applicable on a large scale, or the improvement
would be so slight that it is not considered worth the expense
involved to establish purifying arrangements. This is the excep-
tion, however.
Purification by Settlement and Sand-filtration.—By
far the commonest methods of purifying water on a large scale are
by settlement and by sand-filtration.
Settlement consists simply in allowing the suspended particles
to settle by their own weight. The possibility of such settlement
assumes that these particles are of a higher specific gravity than
water. The greater quantity of the suspended matter to be
treated is of higher specific gravity than water, and only needs
time enough to settle. A certain quantity is of less specific
gravity than water. This rises to the surface, and can, therefore,
also be separated from the water.
It is possible that some suspended matter is of precisely the
8O THE WATER SOPAL Y OF TO WAVS.
same specific gravity as water, in which case it will incline neither
to sink nor to rise. However this may be, there is generally
some suspended matter in so fine a state of division that it takes
an indefinite time to settle. It will readily be understood that,
the finer the division of the suspended matter the longer it takes
to sink. The reason is that the surface of similarly shaped
particles, offering skin friction resistance to settlement, varies only
as the square of any similar linear dimension : the volume, and
therefore the weight, varies as the cube. In other words, the
surface offering resistance by skin friction is relatively greater
the smaller the particle. -
In every case where there is an impounding reservoir this acts
as a settling reservoir also, and, indeed, as a very efficient one ;
for in spite of the comparatively great depth of impounding
reservoirs, they generally hold so many days' supply that settle-
ment has ample time to take place. This is especially true if
there is a by-pass channel for carrying the water of excessive
floods.
Where there is no impounding reservoir, and the water of a
stream is liable to be turbid at times, it is generally advisable to
have one or more settling reservoirs. These are simply reser-
voirs of moderate size, which can be emptied occasionally for
cleaning, and which hold the water long enough to allow the
grosser particles of suspended matter to settle. The object of the
settling reservoirs really is to spare fatigue to the filters, and
no absolute rule has been evolved for the capacity of settling
reservoirs. Without any settlement, filter beds are liable to
become simply unmanageable at times, when the water is very
turbid, becoming clogged more quickly than they can be cleaned.
The greater the capacity of the settling reservoir, the less often
have the filter beds to be cleaned. A capacity of from two to
three days’ mean consumption is a common one.
Sand-filtration is the almost universal method employed for
completing the purification of water so far as it can be purified at
a moderate cost on a large scale. -
In a recent edition of a deservedly popular Encyclopædia,
filtration is thus defined —“The process of filtration consists in
passing the liquid through some porous substance, the interstices
of which are too small to admit the passage of the solid particles,
the principle of the action being the same as that of a sieve.”
Now this is doubtless true of some kinds of filtration, such as that
of liquids holding insoluble matter in suspension, through filtering
7A7A: PUA’/AW/CA 7TWOAV OAF WA 7TPA’. 8 I
paper, but the action in the case of sand-filtration is quite different
from this—or, perhaps, it would be better to say that there is an
additional action in the case of common sand-filtration.
There are two reasons for stating, with considerable positive-
ness, that the action of sand in filtration is different from the
straining action of a sieve. One is that the sand found to be the
best for filtration of water, is sand the grains of which are so
large that the interstices left must certainly be large enough to
allow many of the particles that are actually filtered out to pass
side by side. Another reason is that, whereas sand-filtration is
efficient so long as a certain very slow velocity of the water is not
exceeded, it rapidly becomes inefficient—fine suspended matter
passing—if a velocity much below what would be perfectly per-
missible were the action merely a sieve-like straining action
is reached.
We probably have the key to the action of sand in filtration if
we consider the action that takes place if a glass filled with turbid
water is allowed to stand for some length of time. It will be
found that the matter constituting the turbidity will slowly
deposit, but that it will deposit nearly as much on the vertical
sides of the glass as on the bottom. There is, in fact, an adhesive
action. This will be particularly noted if a ferruginous water,
tending, after being exposed to the air for some time, to throw
down the iron in the form of an insoluble compound, be used.
It is probable that there is a similar action in the case of sand-
filtration.” It would seem, however, that after a certain amount
of fine filtrate has filled up the interstices of the upper inch or
so of sand, the action is, in part at least, one of actual straining.
It has been stated that impurities in solution are not removed
by sand-filtration, and this is true if the process be looked on as a
continuous one ; but it is a fact, not at all readily understood, that
at the time a filter is first started, either with fresh sand, or with
sand that has been thoroughly washed, a considerable quantity
even of soluble matter is retained by the sand. This cannot,
however, be said to be a fact having much bearing on waterworks
practice, as after a little time the soluble matter begins to pass
freely through the filter.
As has been already stated, sand-filtration will remove the
greater number of micro-organisms from water so long as the
velocity of the filtration is kept very moderate.
* See Note 11, Appendix III.
82 TA/AS WA 7TEA S UAE P/L V OA 7TO WAVS.
Other Methods of Purifying Water.—As has been said,
water that contains any appreciable quantity of dissolved Organic
matter ought not to be selected as a source of water supply, if any
other source can be obtained. There occur, however, cases in
which it is impossible to find any supply of water that is not
more or less impregnated with dissolved Organic matter. In
such a case it becomes necessary to have recourse to some process
that will remove the organic matter or, by oxidizing it, will render
it innocuous. These methods are all somewhat expensive and
cumbrous to work, but there are some of them that are not
impracticable even on a large scale.
Animal charcoal had for long a high reputation as a purifier
of water, and there can be no doubt that, given certain conditions,
its action is wonderful, the Organic matter of Water passed through
a layer of it being completely oxidized. There are some uncer-
tainties, however, about the process, the charcoal in certain cases,
after it has been at work for some time, actually making the
water worse than it Originally was. For this reason its use on
any large scale is now discontinued.*
Various iron ores have a peculiar action on water, causing the
rapid oxidation of organic matter. Notable amongst these is
magnetic iron oxide. If water containing organic matter in
solution be passed through a layer of some inches of any of these
ores in a fine state of division, it is found that oxidation more or
less complete takes place. Iron Ores specially prepared for the
purification of water are sold under such names as “Carfarel,”
“Carbide of Iron,” and “Polarite.” This last mentioned, which
has been very favourably reported on in recent years, is said to
be pure magnetic oxide of iron.
Metallic iron has a powerful action on water containing
organic matter in solution. Thus if a handful of clean iron filings
be placed in a vessel containing water with organic matter in
solution, and the contents be afterwards violently agitated for
two or three minutes, the organic matter will be carried down with
the filings, when these are allowed to subside.
The action that takes place in this case is not very clearly
understood, but the following is the explanation given to the
writer by Dr. E. Divers, F.R.S. :—
“Water containing carbonic acid dissolves iron in the form of
carbonate, at the same time liberating hydrogen when no deoxidis–
* See Note 12, Appendix III.
TA//E POWA’/A/CA 7TWOAV O/7 WA 7T/EA’. 83
able matters are present. One effect, well known, of depriving
water of its dissolved carbonic acid, is to precipitate any calcium,
magnesium, and iron carbonates, which the carbonic acid may
have been keeping in solution. In this way spongy iron will
become coated over and cemented together into a hard mass by
some calcareous waters. What iron carbonate is not thus
precipitated, becomes afterwards changed by atmospheric oxygen
into ferric hydroxide and deposited as a rusty sediment. Oxygen,
nitrite, nitrate, and no doubt some other of the Oxygenous matters
in solution in the water are consumed partly by contact with the
metallic iron in presence of the carbonic acid, and partly after-
wards by the iron dissolved as carbonate.
“It is not easy to admit that the action of iron upon water,
holding carbonic acid in it, can be effective in destroying or
precipitating dissolved albumenoid matters from the water.
Rather must it be considered that the purification of water from
matters indefinitely classed as albumenoid, consists in the removal
of organisms living in the water. The activity of iron in depriv-
ing water of bacteria is just what might be expected, since a
microbe in water holding carbonic acid gets into a field of
powerful chemical action when it comes in contact with bright
iron, and will naturally be paralysed if not killed outright.
Further, water freed, as it is by iron, of both carbonic acid and
Oxygen, must be ill-fitted for bacterial life, while the dissolved
ferrous carbonate will, even in the minute quantity of it present,
be a powerfully poisonous agent, like all such reducing or de-
Oxidising agents.
“In accordance with this account of the probable mode of action
of the iron in killing and removing bacteria is the fact that it is
only quickly after contact of the water with the iron that bacteria
are so strikingly diminished in number, for towards the de-aērated
water the iron becomes passive as glass, and new generations of
bacteria may knock up against it with impunity if otherwise able
to live in the water.”
Spongy iron, obtained by calcining or reducing haematite by
carbonic oxide, is really metallic iron, and if water containing
organic matter in solution be filtered through this, the action above
described will take place. The iron slowly rusts, and for this
reason the method of agitating the water with metallic iron in the
condition in which it is generally found in workshop turnings and
borings, as described in a subsequent chapter, seems more suited
G 2
84 THAE IVA 7TEA S UAE P/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
to the purification of water on a large scale than filtration through
spongy iron.*
Hardness of Water.—As in the case of dissolved organic
matter, so with hardness : it is sometimes impossible to find a
source of supply of water that is not much harder than is desir-
able. In this case a softening process ought to be applied, though
it must be admitted that there is not the same real danger to
health from even excessive hardness of water as there is from the
presence of dissolved organic matter.
The general principle of Clark’s process has been described
already (p. 11). In practice the water is mixed, in settling tanks
or reservoirs, with a certain quantity of lime water, which is merely
a weak solution of caustic lime. Time is allowed for the insoluble
carbonates formed to settle, when the clear water is drawn off. It
is notable that the minute particles entangle with them a large
percentage of any micro-organisms that there may be in the water,
and carry them to the bottom of the tanks, though they do not
kill them.
In a modified form the process is continuous. The water is
mixed with a certain proportion of lime solution before entering a
certain apparatus having a number of horizontal partitions, so
arranged that the water has to pass slowly over the uppermost of
these, then in the opposite direction over the next one below, and
so on. The fine suspended particles having comparatively a short
distance to settle, the action is rapid, and at the same time a very
large reservoir is avoided.
* See Note 13, Appendix III.
CHAPTER XI.
SETTLING RESERVOIRS.
Capacity and Number of Settling Reservoirs.--It has
already been explained that the greater the capacity of settling
reservoirs the less the fatigue of the filters, and the practice in the
matter of proportioning the capacity of such reservoirs has varied
greatly. Any capacity from that corresponding to a fraction of a
day’s consumption to one corresponding to ten or even twenty
days’ consumption has been recommended. The latter may be
useful when a little storage capacity is thought desirable, there
being fear that the minimum supply of water may fall a little
below the consumption for a few days or even a few weeks at a
time ; but in ordinary cases a capacity of from two to four days'
mean consumption is sufficient.
It is, of course, necessary to decide how many settling reser-
voirs there should be. If the intermittent system of settlement
(see farther on in this chapter) be adopted, it is evident that there
must be at least two reservoirs. With the constant system there
need be only one ; and in the case of small works it is often con-
venient, on account of cost, to have one reservoir only. In this
case a by-pass channel has to be provided, so that the reservoir
can be emptied for cleaning. A time for cleaning is selected when
the water of the source is comparatively free from turbidity.
For any but small waterworks it will generally be found
advisable to have two; three, four, or even a greater number of
settling reservoirs. In such case one is emptied for cleaning at a
time, the work proceeding in the case of the others.
Depth of Settling Reservoirs. This has to be decided by
various considerations. It will be evident at once that the
greater the depth the longer the time taken for settlement. On
the other hand, there are various objections to very shallow reser-
voirs. One of these is, of course, the great area of land they
86 THE WA TER SUPPL Y OF To WNS.
need ; another is that for every capacity of reservoir there is a
certain depth that is most economical to construct. It will be
evident that, in the case of small reservoirs, the cost of the sides,
especially if the retaining-wall construction be adopted, will form
a greater proportion of the whole than in the case of large reser-
voirs of the same capacity, the capacity of a reservoir varying,
with constant depth, as the square of the length of line enclosing
it, assuming the shape to remain the same. It thus becomes
economical to make small reservoirs shallow and large ones deep.
Against excessive shallowness there are other objections than
those mentioned. Very shallow water is liable to be heated by
the sun's action, and the growth of vegetation is likely to become
excessively troublesome.
It may be said that standard depths for the water of settling
reservoirs are from twelve feet to sixteen feet. In the case of
very small works a less depth than twelve feet may at times be
permissible. Thus reservoirs may be made as shallow as ten feet,
or even perhaps eight feet in some cases. On the other hand,
there are cases where the depth of sixteen feet may be exceeded,
and a depth of eighteen or even twenty feet become economical ;
but this is to be anticipated only with very large works.
The depths given are those of the actual water. It is necessary,
except in the case of very small reservoirs, to allow a depth beyond
this of about two feet. Even in the case of very small reservoirs,
an additional depth of about one foot six inches should be allowed.
Constant Settlement and Alternating Settlement.—
Settlement may be in accordance with either of these two systems.
In the case of constant settlement water is constantly flowing into
a reservoir at one end, whilst it constantly flows out at the other.
The reservoir may thus, indeed, be looked on as a canal with a
very slow velocity of flow, one seldom exceeding a few feet an
hour. The reservoir is only emptied for cleaning out.
In the case of intermittent settlement two or more reservoirs
are necessary. The action is as follows. Let it be supposed there
are three reservoirs. At any one time one is being filled up, the
water is being drawn from another to within two or three feet of
the bottom to flow to the filter-beds, and the third is in a perfectly
quiescent state. Suppose then the capacity of each reservoir to
be one day's supply. Any given reservoir is being filled during
one day ; it stands full during the next day ; and water is being
drawn from it during the third day. The two or three feet at the
S E 7777/L/AVG A&AESA R VO/A’.S. 87
bottom are drawn off and run to waste only when the reservoir
has to be cleaned out.
In the first place let it be stated that there are circumstances
in which the first (or constant) system of settlement only is avail-
able. It is not always practicable to so adjust the various levels
of the intake, the settling reservoir, and the filter-beds, that it is
possible to draw off, say, three-quarters of the contents of the
settling reservoirs into the filter-beds. It is sometimes, on the
other hand, necessary to keep the level of the water in the filter-
beds only as much below the level of the water in the reservoirs
as will give a head sufficient to make the water flow from the
latter to the former ; that is to say, with only a few inches'
difference of level. This state of affairs will be found illustrated
in Plate XIX. (p. 78).
With this arrangement, when, as is sometimes the case, it is
not possible to find a place to which the settling reservoir can be
drained for cleaning, it is necessary to provide arrangements for
occasionally pumping out the water. The pulsometer class of
pump will be found useful for this purpose.
There is some difference of opinion as to which of the two
systems described is the better, and it is certain that either of
them, carried out with intelligence, results in great improvement
of turbid water. The writer ventures to express a pretty decided
opinion in favour of the constant system : he has more than One
reason for expressing this opinion. Thus with the constant system
there is a much longer time for settlement with water very
nearly absolutely at rest than there is, with the same total capacity
of reservoirs, in the case of the intermittent system, the water
absolutely at rest. Thus—taking again the case of the three reser-
voirs of one day's capacity each, used as an example above—with
the intermittent system the water remains in one reservoir for
twenty-four hours absolutely at rest; with the constant system
the water normally remains practically at rest for three days of
twenty-four hours each ; even when one reservoir is laid off for
cleaning, it remains practically at rest for two days of twenty-four
hours each in two settling reservoirs.
Then again, with the constant system, if the inlet and outlet
pipes be in the proper position cºnd of the proper form, the Water
is always drawn from a position where it is at its purest. With
the intermittent system, on the other hand, when a reservoir is
being emptied, there is a tendency for the settling matter near
the inlet of the reservoir to be drawn towards the outlet, and
88 7TA/AS WA 7TA: A S UAE P/L Y OF 7"O WAVS,
as the level of the water gets low, to mix with the outgoing
Water.
In the case of sewage precipitation, which is, in some respects,
very similar to that of water settlement, the constant system has
been found so much better than the intermittent that, in some
cases, where works were first started on the intermittent system,
the constant has been substituted for it and this in spite of the
fact that, in the case of sewage precipitation, the constant system
has not the advantage that it has in the case of water settle-
ment, that one reservoir, with a by-pass channel, is permissible.
Nº ūšēē §§ §
W &ć N
Y. º - N
§ A. E. C. D. º
W Vºss - - . Aki
WN § §
i
Fig. 57.—Plan of settling tanks.
§
& sº
3 *
§
§
§
Fig. 58.--Side and cross channels of Fig. 59.—Section of cross channel weir
settling tanks. box of settling tanks.
The writer does not know whether, in the case of water settle-
ment, a system that may be described as a set of settling reservoirs
in series instead of parallelly arranged, which has been found
useful in the case of sewage precipitation, has ever been attempted.
The general principle is illustrated in Figs. 57 to 59.”
In this case the water would flow normally through all the
reservoirs, A, B, C and D, the side channels remaining empty. At
any time, however, any one of the reservoirs could be laid off for
cleaning simply by closing the weir leading to and from it, and
opening the sluice on the side channel past it. For example, the
* From “Practical Sewage Purification,” by Peter Spence and Sons.

SAE 777/L/AWG RAES E R VO/A’.S. 89
reservoir B could be laid off for cleaning by closing the weir to and
from it, and by opening the sluices marked b b.
It is the opinion of the writer that if, instead of allowing the
water simply to flow over weirs, it were led to the bottom of the
first reservoir, and afterwards from near the surface level of the
first to the bottom of the second, and so on, very efficient settle-
ment would result from the adoption of a system of this kind for
clarifying water.
Form of Settling Reservoirs. The form of a settling
reservoir in plan will often be decided by the plan of the land
that may be available for it. It may be said that a rectangle, with
the length in the direction in which the water flows, several times
that of the breadth, is a good form merely from the point of
efficient settlement; and it may be an economical form where two
or more settling reservoirs are constructed side by side. When
there is only one reservoir, such a form is evidently not so
economical in first cost as a square or circular reservoir, either of
which, especially the latter, encloses a given quantity of water
with a shorter outline.
The circular form has, further, the advantage that in the case
of small reservoirs, if it be decided to use vertical walls, or such
as have but slight batter, the thickness may be considerably
reduced from that needed in an actual retaining wall resisting
by its weight, the whole wall acting as a circular arch. There
is, however, in this case, a difficulty which often occurs in
engineering works. It would be absurd to make the wall so
thin as to depend on the resistance to crushing of the material
only, as it would then be so slight that it would evidently be
likely to give way by distortion—due to inequalities of radial
pressure at different parts of the circle—which there are no
possible data for calculating. The reduction of the thickness of a
vertical reservoir, acting as an arch, thus becomes nearly entirely a
matter of judgment. Again, as we get to larger sizes, it is a
matter of judgment, with a given height of wall, up to what
diameter of reservoir it is allowable to trust to the resistance as a
circular arch at all.
In section the floor of a settling reservoir should have a slight
slope, so as to facilitate cleansing. It is common to make the
floor slope transversely in two directions towards a longitudinal
drain in the middle of the reservoir, the floor with the drain also
sloping slightly longitudinally. A slope of 1 in 150 or 1 in 200
QO TA/A2 IM/A 7TA: A S OAXA2/L V OA” ZTO IV/VS.
towards the central drain, and a longitudinal slope of 1 in 250 or
300 is sufficient. -
The sides of settling reservoirs are either sloping, covered with
stone pitching, or are in the form of retaining walls. The slope
of sloping sides may be considerably greater than that for the
inner face of the earthwork dam of an impounding reservoir, as,
with the comparatively slight depth, the stone pitching may, to a
certain extent, be said to act as retaining wall with a very great
batter. Thus slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical are common,
and even somewhat steeper slopes are permissible.
If retaining walls are used, they are calculated from the usual
engineering formulae for retaining walls, to resist the earth
pressure behind them. It is not necessary to take the water
pressure into consideration, as this pressure will never force
retaining walls outwards that are heavily enough proportioned
to resist the thrust of the earth behind them ; nor must any
reduction in thickness be made, because the water pressure will
greatly counteract the earth pressure when the reservoir is full.
In fact, all calculations must be made for “reservoir empty.”
It is common to give an inside batter of from 1% inch to
2 inches to the foot to the retaining walls of settling reservoirs.
In comparing sloping sides with nearly vertical sides, it will
be found as a rule that, so far as construction goes, reservoirs with
sloping sides are the cheaper. It is evident that the additional
price needed for the land in the case of sloping sides may balance,
or more than balance, the saving in construction. A little con-
sideration will show that, with the same depth, the addition at
hand necessitated by sloping sides is relatively less the larger the
reservoirs. Where the first cost is about the same in both cases,
breference is generally to be given to the retaining-wall structure,
as the shallow water resulting from sloping sides is liable to
include troublesome vegetation.
Materials for the Construction of Settling Reservoirs.
—Until recently it was the universal practice to trust to puddle
to secure watertightness for such structures as the reservoirs used
in connection with waterworks, and puddle is still largely used.
Increased knowledge of the powers of concrete and cement have,
however, shown that these alone may be thoroughly relied on,” if
* It does not seem advisable to rely alone on so inflexible a substance as concrete
for reservoirs in earthquake countries. In the present state of our knowledge, it
seems best in such countries to keep to the old practice of using puddle, at least as
a stand-by, in case of the fracture of concrete.
S AE 777 //AVG A&AESAA IVO/A’.S. 9 I
properly used, to make such structures as settling reservoirs and
service reservoirs quite watertight, and the puddle is now
commonly dispensed with. -
Plate XX. (Figs. 60 to 63A) shows two reservoirs—one a
reservoir with sloping sides in which the puddle lining is retained,
the other a reservoir with retaining wall in which no puddle
is used. -
Positions of Pipes for Settling Reservoirs.--A great
deal of the efficiency of settlement in the reservoirs we are now
dealing with depends on the manner in which the water is
admitted to and drawn from the reservoirs. What is to be
avoided is the water flowing in a direct line from the inlet to the
outlet pipe with considerable velocity, without mixing with the

Fig. 64.—Arrangement of partition walls in reservoir to divert flow of water.
water already in the reservoir. It has been suggested that, to
prevent this, there should be several partition walls longitudinally
arranged in the reservoir, open at alternate ends, forcing the
water to take a sinuous course, as shown in Fig. 64. This
arrangement seems unnecessary if proper attention be paid to the
admission and the drawing off of the water; and, moreover, it is
likely to so increase the velocity of the flow of water in the
reservoir, considered as a canal, that settlement will rather be
impeded than the reverse.
It is probably seldom that water enters a settling reservoir for
any length of time at exactly the same temperature as the bulk
of the water in the reservoir. It is evident that currents may be
produced, and the mixing of the water with that in the reservoir
may be prevented, if the water entering the reservoir be at a
different temperature from that in it, and that these conditions
may influence the rapidity of settlement.
92 7TA/A WA 7TA: A S UAE PAL Y OF 7'O WAVS.
It is interesting to consider briefly what would take place with
outlets and inlets in different positions, and with the temperature
of the incoming water either higher or lower than that of the
water in the reservoir. First let us suppose both inlet and outlet
at the level of the surface of the water, as shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 65. Suppose first the incoming water warmer, and
N - * ---
tº
Fig. 65.—Diagram of settling reservoir : Inlet and outlet at surface level.
sº 5 sº
therefore of lower specific gravity than the water in the reservoir.
It is evident that the water will travel, as shown by the full
arrows, rapidly on the surface of the reservoir from the inlet to
the outlet. During this travelling some of the suspended matter
will certainly settle, but there will not be the time for settlement
that there should be.
If, on the other hand, the entering water is colder, and,
therefore, of higher specific gravity than that in the reservoir, it
N
Fig. 66.-Diagram of settling reservoir : Inlet and outlet at floor level.
will tend to sink, as shown in the dotted arrows, and settlement
will be much more satisfactory.*
Let us now take the opposite case, where both inlet and
outlet are at the floor level of the reservoir, as shown in Fig. 66.
Here, if the incoming water is colder than the water already in
* Those who have seen the Rhone flow into Lake Leman (or the Lake of
Geneva) will have recognized a natural settling reservoir of this kind (the water
entering and leaving at surface level, the entering water being colder than the water
in the lake), produced by nature on a grand scale. The water of the Rhone carries
down so much detritus that it is of a dull leaden gray colour. It is also mostly
glacier water and is very cold. The dull leaden-coloured stream may be seen, so to
speak, to plunge into the intensely blue waters of the lake and to disappear. This
is, at any rate, the summer aspect of the lake and the river.



PLATE XX.
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EORMS OF SETTLING RESERVoIRs. - [To face page 92.




















PLATE XXI.
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[To face page 92.
SETTLING RESERVOIRS : ARRANGEMENT OF INI,ET PIPES.



















PLATE XXII.
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S E /'77/L/AWG RES E R VO/RS. 93
the reservoir, it will shoot straight across the floor, and the
conditions will be the very worst possible. This state of affairs is
shown in full arrows. If, on the other hand, it is warmer, the
water will rise, as shown by the dotted arrows, and the suspended
matter will have the greatest possible distance to settle.
The next possible supposition is that the water enters at the
top, and has its exit at the bottom of the reservoir, as shown in
Fig. 67. In this case, whether the entering water be colder or
TS TSSIs
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." s== = ~se t -RN N
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Fig. 67.-Diagram of settling reservoir : Inlet at surface level, and outlet at floor level.
warmer than that already in the reservoir, it tends to take too
direct a course from the inlet to the outlet. If it is colder, it
will take the course shown in the full arrows ; if it is warmer, it
will take the course shown by the dotted arrows. The former
gives the better settlement.
The only other possible case is that where the water enters at
the bottom of the reservoir and leaves at or near the surface level,
as shown in Fig. 68. In this case, if the water is colder than that
- ===EE-HEE-F
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Fig. 68.-Diagram of settling reservoir : Inlet at floor level, and outlet at surface level.
already in the reservoir, it will incline to remain towards the
bottom, gradually forcing upwards the water that has been for
some time in the reservoir. These conditions give the very best
possible settlement. If the water entering the reservoir be
warmer than that already in it, it will tend to rise, and to take a
somewhat direct course towards the Outlet, but still the settlement
is very fair; and these conditions of inlet and outlet—that is to
say, in which the water enters the reservoir at the bottom and





94. 7A/E WA 7ER SCIPPL Y OF 70 WAVS.
leaves it near the surface level of the water—are the best possible
for settlement.”
The form of the inlet should be that of a bell mouth, so that
the entering of the water may have the least possible tendency to
cause currents by its velocity merely, and the bell mouth may
with advantage point upwards. This is illustrated in Plate XXI.
(Figs. 69 to 73).
With the position of the inlet and outlet as just described, it
is evident that the settling and the floating matter will tend to
take the positions shown by shading in Fig. 68, there being a
certain part of the reservoir, marked A, clear of both settling and
floating matter. It is further evident that this is the place from
which the water ought to be drawn.
If the constant system be adopted, it is sufficient to have the
draw-off pipe situated with its top about a foot below the level
of the water, and this arrangement may be adopted when the level
of the ground is such that the settling reservoir can never be
emptied into the filter beds It is shown in Plate XXII. in the
case of the reservoir with sloping sides (Fig. 74).
In the intermittent system (and in the constant system if it is
intended occasionally to draw off the water into the filters), it is
desirable to provide some means of drawing the water from a little
below the surface, whatever may be the level of the water in the
reservoir. There are two common methods of bringing this about.
One is by a stand pipe with valves at different levels—a valve
tower on a small scale, in fact ; the other is by means of a
“floating pipe.” Such a pipe is kept floating with its mouth a
foot or so below the surface of the water by floats of copper, or, in
the case of very large sizes, of wrought iron. Both arrangements
are shown in Plate XXIII. (Figs. 77 to 79). Except for the
liability that there nearly always is that an automatic arrange-
ment may get out of Order, the floating pipe is the more efficient
arrangement. Details of the floating pipe are shown in Plate
XXIV. (Figs. 80 to 83). -
In any case, the whole of the water in a settling reservoir is
never run to the filter beds. In the case of the intermittent
system the water is only drawn off to within 2 to 4 feet of
the bottom, when the reservoir is filled up again, except when it
* It has been assumed throughout that the water does not fall below 39°F.
(4° C.), the temperature at which water is at its maximum density. With tempera-
tures between this and the freezing-point, 32°F. (0°C.), the tendency of currents to
rise or fall will be just the reverse of these indicated. . . -
PLATE XXIII.
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i
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*
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Figs. 78, 79.
SETTLING RESERVoIRs: DRAWING-OFF BY STAND PIPE AND BY FLOATING PIPE. [To face page 94.






PLATE XXIV. *
Fig. 80.
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SETTLING RESERVOIRS: DETAILS OF FLOATING PIPE. [To face page 94.









































r PLATE XXV.
}
FIG. 84.—OVERFLOW AND DRAIN PIPE COMBINED.
[To face page 94.

SAE 7TT/L/AWG RAE.S E A VO//*S. 95
needs cleaning. In this case the water is run to the filter beds,
either till it begins to run off turbid, or till the lowest level is
reached to which it is possible to run off to the filter beds. The
rest is then run to waste. The same plan is pursued in the case
of the constant system when a settling reservoir has to be
cleaned.
The intervals of time between cleanings of settling reservoirs
vary very much according to the nature of the water. They may
be any period from a month or two to several years.
A drain pipe or scouring pipe, and in case of any danger
of overfilling, on Ovenſlow pipe, are necessary adjuncts of settling
reservoirs. When both are used, they are commonly made in
conjunction, as shown in Plate XXV. If no overflow is
needed, the scouring pipe may form part of the stand pipe, by
having a diaphragm across it below the lowest draw-off valve, as
shown in Fig. 77, Plate XXIII. Here there is a diaphragm at
A which may consist either of a part of the bottom casting, or of
the one immediately above it, or may be in the form of a wrought-
iron plate bolted in between these two castings.
As already stated, where it is impossible to drain a settling
reservoir by gravity, or where the cost makes it impracticable, it
is necessary to provide a pump for draining it.
CHAPTER XII.
SAND FILTRATION.
The Rate of Filtering Speed Allowable. — When
it is thoroughly understood that sand filtration is not a mere
straining, as by a sieve, but is effected by surface adhesion, it
will readily be understood that it is of the utmost importance
to estimate what filtering speed is allowable, and hence to
estimate the necessary area of filter beds. By “filtering speed "
is meant the velocity with which the whole of the water in a filter
bed approaches the sand in a vertical direction. This velocity,
multiplied by the area of sand surface, gives the quantity filtered.
When filter beds were first introduced, there were no data
for filtering speed, and as the action was looked on merely as a
straining action, it is probable that the only limit was taken as
that speed which, if exceeded, would result in the washing away
~ of the sand. After a time it became evident that it was not
safe to approach such a limit, and it was found that, if certain
very moderate velocities were exceeded, filtration rapidly became
inefficient. Even after this, however, there was great difference
of practice in the matter of the filtration speed allowed. Of late
years great light has been thrown on the subject through the
study of bacteriology, and an approach to uniformity is coming
about. Even now, however, there is considerable variation in
practice. Dr. Koch, the eminent bacteriologist, has (the writer
understands) come to the conclusion that a filtering speed should
never exceed 7; feet in twenty-four hours. It seems unlikely that
any such hard-and-fast rule can hold good for all cases,” for there
can be no doubt that the efficiency of filtration varies with many
circumstances—with the purity or the reverse of the water, for
example ; with the nature of the sand ; and with the temperature.
* A series of experiments, both biological and chemical, carried on in connection
with the Osaka (Japan) waterworks, gave very different results from this.
It has recently been discovered, at the Berlin waterworks, that covered filters
are much less efficient than Open.
SAAWD AW/7, 7 RA 7T/O/W. 97
On the other hand, the much higher velocities—16 feet in twenty-
four hours or even more—adopted by some English engineers, are
undoubtedly too high.
It is with some diffidence that the writer states the conclusion
he has come to-namely, that a maacimum filtering speed of 10 feet
Žn twenty-four hours is quite permissible in the case of water
already fairly good. That is to say, with arrangements properly
made so that the daily filtering speed is constant, the area of the
filtering beds need not be greater than will permit a filtering speed
of 10 feet in twenty-four hours for maximum daily consumption,
or, say, mean annual consumption × 1-4.
In this connection it should be borne in mind that a provision
for additional filtering capacity always is, or Ought to be, part
of a waterworks scheme, and that, if filtration is found to be
inefficient on account of too great filtering speed, it is very easy
to add more filtering capacity. Nevertheless, the writer considers
that there ought always to be, even from the first, such area
of filter beds that the velocity need never exceed 10 feet in
twenty-four hours.
The filtering speed once decided on, in order to get the total
area of filter beds in use at one time we have merely to take
(!, E
where f * .
q = maximum quantity of water consumed in one day in cubic feet ;
f = filtering speed in feet ;
a = area in square feet. -
This naturally leads up to the question of the number of
filtering beds to be provided.
Number of Filtering Beds.-Filtering beds have to be
cleaned—an Operation that will be described farther on—at
periods which vary according to the condition of the water as it
comes on for filtration. The period ought never to be less than
ten days. A common interval between cleaning is about a
month, although the writer knows of one case where water has
been passing through a set of filter beds for several years without
their having been cleaned or showing any approaching need of
cleaning !” This, however, is a case where filtering beds were
simply unnecessary, the water being spring water of almost
* The small waterworks at Hatanomura Osumigori, Japan.
t Filtration through sand is better avoided than availed of, when not needed.
The bed is a possible nidus for germs, and may become a veritable soil, unless the
sand is nearly exclusively silicious. This remark does not apply to a regularly
cleaned bed, but to one undisturbed for a long time.
H
98 TA/AE WA 7TEA S OWAXAX/L V OAP 7"O WAVS.
phenomenal clearness to begin with. To allow of cleaning it
is necessary to provide at least one extra filter bed, that can be
emptied, the filtering being done by the others. In small water-
works, it is never necessary to provide more than one additional
filter bed, there being a total number of two to four beds. In very
large works it is desirable to increase the number of beds, as very
large beds become unwieldy. In this case it may be necessary
to provide two or even three extra beds, especially if the water
comes up for filtration somewhat turbid.
The following table is modified from Hennell. It is only
intended as a very rough guide –
With a Population up to No. of Filter Beds.
2,000 2
10,000 3
60,000 4
200,000 6
400,000 S+
600,000 12%
1,000,000 I6%
Above this in proportion to the population.
These numbers include the filter beds out of use for cleaning.
Form of Filter Beds in Plan,—As in the case of settling


Fig. 85.—Arrangement for Fig. 86.-Arrangement for Fig. 87.—Arrangement for
three filter beds. six filter beds. eight filter beds.
reservoirs, the form of filter beds in plan has often to be adapted
to the shape of the available ground. When this is not the case,
a rectangular form of plan is the commonest. When there are
two or three filter beds they are commonly arranged side by side,
as shown in Fig. 85, and it is generally most convenient to
have the length greater than the breadth. The same applies to
such numbers as 6, 8, and 12, as shown in Figs. 86, 87, 88.
* With these numbers it will probably be necessary to have two or more
filtering beds of 9 at a time for cleaning.
SAAV/O AE//, /TA’A 7T/O/V. 99
On the other hand, with such numbers as 4, 9, and 16, it
is generally convenient to have square beds arranged, as shown in
Figs. 89, 90, 91.



Fig. 88–Arrangement for Fig. 89–Arrangement Fig. 90.—Arrangement for
twelve filter beds. for four filter beds. nine filter beds.
Roughly, in fact, the whole area covered by the filter beds

Fig. 91.—Arrangement for sixteen filter beds.
may conveniently approach a square, but in very many cases local
circumstances will alter this form.
Depth of Filter Beds. The cost of filter beds increases
very rapidly with the depth, and it should be said at Once
that in designing a filter bed it is desirable to make it as shallow
as is consistent with efficient filtration. Some of the older
forms of filter beds show extraordinary depths, as much even
as 14 feet, and we have such successions of material below the
water, and working downwards, as Harwich sand, hoggin, fine
gravel, coarse gravel, and boulders.
:
:
H 2
.
;
:
ºº
:
;
IOO 7TA/AE IVA 7TEA S UAE’/2/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
These great depths were adopted on account of two mis-
apprehensions. First, it was thought necessary to have a
graduated series of particles, from fine sand to gravel, lest
the sand be washed away. Now it has been shown that so
long as a moderate filtering speed is not exceeded, sand laid
directly on gravel will not be washed away. Secondly, it
appears to have been thought that there was some connection
between the depth of water over the sand and the “filtering
head.” As will be seen presently, no such relation necessarily
exists.
Arrangement of Filter Beds. Beginning at the bottom,
a filtering bed consists of the following : –(1) the floor, (2) some
draining arrangement, (3) a bed of sand, and (4) a layer of water.

Fig. 92.—Arrangement of drains of filter bed.
The floor is commonly made of concrete, made watertight
either by careful rendering in cement or by backing with puddle.
For details as to thickness, &c., Plate XXV. may be consulted.
Drainage Arrangement.—There is no difficulty in efficiently
draining away the filtered water. Even the crudest of methods—
namely, that of filling the bottom of the filter bed with boulders,
above which come broken stones, then gravel—is quite efficient,
but what is wanted is an efficient method in itself inexpensive
and taking up the least possible depth.
This puts all methods that the writer knows of, except two,
out of court. These two methods are those in which a bed of
gravel, supporting the sand, is underdrained, in the one case by
SAAWD AE// TRA 7TWOAV. IOI
a set of drains, in the other by a cellular brick false floor laid
on the real floor.
In the former case the drains, of whatever section, will most
naturally take the form shown diagrammatically in Fig. 92—that
--
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Fig. 93.—Section of brick drain Fig. 94.—Section of brick drain for filter bed
for filter bed. (another form).
is to say, a main drain down the centre of the filter bed, with
branches junctioning into it at right angles from either side.
The drains are sometimes made of bricks, as shown in section in
Figs. 93, 94, but stoneware pipes, such as are used for house
drainage, are to be preferred. The size of the branch drains
and their distance apart will be decided by the following
considerations — -
(1) In no case should there be more than 6 feet distance
JFig. 95.—Cellular brick floor for filter bed (New River Company, London).
between branch drains, otherwise certain parts of the filter beds
will do appreciably more work than others, and the efficiency of
filtration will be reduced.
(2) The velocity of flow in the drain should not exceed 2
or, at the very most, 3 feet per second.
Whatever form or size of branch drain be adopted, there must
be at least 6 inches of gravel over the top of it.
The cellular brick floor, first adopted by Mr. Muir for the New
























I O2 THE WA TER S UAE’A/L Y OF TO WAVS.
River Company (London), is, in the writer's opinion, by far the best
method of draining a filter bed. The arrangement of the bricks is
shown in isometric projection in Fig. 95, and in section in
Plate XXVI. (Figs. 96 to 100). The bricks are covered with a
layer of fine gravel, which need not be more than 6 inches deep.
This method has the following advantages —(1) it gives
perfectly uniform drainage over the whole of the filter bed, (2) it
takes up the least vertical space possible, and (3) it forms an
arrangement as easily taken up for cleaning as possible.
The sand bed, as constituting the actual filtering material, is
naturally the item that needs the most careful attention.
First, as to the sand itself. As has been said, the very finest
sand is not the best. The coarseness should be such that the
separate grains are quite distinctly visible to the naked eye. The
sand should be pretty uniform in grain, and sharp. Of course it
should be clean,” but if dirty only in the ordinary sense when
found, it is sufficient to wash it. The nearer an approach the
sand is to pure silica the better.t
The thickness given to the samd bed varies with different
engineers. The actual filtration is done in a very thin film on the
surface of the sand. When a filter bed has to be cleaned, it is
necessary to remove only an inch or so of the upper surface of
the sand. It might, therefore, appear that a very thin bed of
sand only was necessary. There are reasons, however, for not
having less than a fair thickness. Thus the very operation of
cleaning would lead to the destruction of the bed were it very
thin. Then it is the custom not to replace the film of sand that is
removed for cleaning every time that this operation is performed,
but to remove film after film till a foot or so has been removed.
This is merely for the sake of convenience. On account of these
various reasons, it would appear undesirable to have the sand bed
of a thickness of less than about 2 feet 6 inches, and 3
feet may be said as about the standard thickness.
Depth of Water over the Sand.—So far as the mere filtration
* See Note 14, Appendix III.
- f Beautiful sands for filtration are found in Japan. Two Sands in particular,
from Nijima and Shikene, in the District of Idzu, are the most perfect sands for the
purpose the writer has ever seen. These are pure white sands with occasional little
black spots. When looked at with a magnifier, the White grains are seem to be as
clear and transparent as glass, and the black spots consist of magnetic Oxide of iron
There is so much of this that, if a magnet be swept only once through either of
these sands, it will pick up quite a considerable tuft of the magnetic oxide. The
sands contain (the writer believes) about 97 per cent. of silica. They were discovered
by Mr. H. Yoshida about the year 1887. .
PLATE XXVI.
غ.
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Fig. 99,
Fig. 100.
ARRANGEMENT OF FILTER BEDs, IN SECTION (NEW RIVER COMPANy. LONDON).
[To face page 102.



















































SA AV/O AE//, 7 A2A 7TWOZV. IO3
goes, it is necessary to have only such a depth of water over the
sand that it (the water) may be freely distributed over all parts
of the bed, and it is evident that a very thin film of water would
be sufficient for this. There are, however, certain practical con-
siderations that make it advisable to have a depth of water much
greater than is necessary merely to secure even distribution.
Certain opinions that have been held with regard to the
necessity for a considerable depth of water appear to be
delusions. The fallacy of the impression that there is a direct
relation between the depth of water over the sand and the
filtering head has already been mentioned. It seems, however,
to the writer that there is not much more reason in an opinion
often expressed at the present time—namely, that there is a
direct relation between the depth of the water of a filter and
the amount to which it will be heated by the rays of the sun,
the heat being greater the shallower the water.
If the depth over the sand were such that the heat of the sum
could not penetrate the water, there would be reason for such an
assumption, as in this case the water would simply heat through
the uppermost few feet, the heated water remaining stagnant and
protecting the lower layers of water, which would remain cold and
be distributed over the sand. This would, however, involve a depth
of at least 7 or 8 feet, now never given to the water of filter
beds. With the depths commonly given, and with water fairly
clear, it is probable that the greater part of the heat of the sun's
rays passes through the water, is absorbed by the sand, and is
given up by the latter to the water, which becomes uniformly
heated by convection.
This being so, it is simply a case of time multiplied by depth
of water, and the effect is the same whatever be this depth.
Thus, for example, if there is 1 foot depth of water Over the sand,
it will, with a filtering speed of 8 feet in twenty-four hours, be
exposed to the heat of the sun for three hours. If there be 3 feet
of water, there will be three times the quantity to be heated, but
it will be exposed to the sun for three times as long, or nine hours.
General custom is, however, in favour of a fair depth of water
over the sand, and there is the advantage of such depth, that it
facilitates the filling of one filter, on first starting, with filtered water
from others from below, as will be explained farther on. For these
reasons the writer recommends a depth of water of about 3 feet.
There must be a height above the water level of, say,
6 inches for very small filter beds, to 1 foot or even 2 feet for
IC)4 TA/AS WA 7TPA’ SOA’A/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
large ones. Thus the total depth of filter, according to the
system here recommended, will be from 7 feet to 8 feet 6 inches.
Form of Filter Beds in Vertical Section.—The floor
of a filter bed may slope a little—say I in 100 to 200–to the
central drain and to the outlet, but this is by no means necessary,
as it is the hydrostatic pressure of the filtering head that forces
the water along the drains. The main central drain should be
made of such a size that the velocity of flow of water in it is not
more than 2 feet per second, or at the outside 3. Theoretically
it might be tapered from nothing at one end to the full size
necessary to carry all the water, at the velocities mentioned, at the
other, but practically no advantage will be found in this, and it
is best made of the same size throughout.
It is customary to ventilate the main central drain and the
branch drains also, if the branch-drain system be adopted, by cast-
iron pipes, about 3 inches in diameter, carried to the ground level.
This ventilation is by no means necessary. It is intended to
provide a free vent for the air on filling the filter beds, but
the air will find its own way out without such special vents,
particularly if the filling be done from below. The ventilating
pipes can, however, do no harm.
As in the case of settling reservoirs, the sides of filter beds
may be either nearly vertical, or sloping. In case they are
sloping, the slope may be very considerably increased beyond
that permissible even with settling reservoirs, at any rate if the
depth be kept as small as possible. Thus the slope of the sides
of filter beds is often made as great as I vertical to 1 horizontal.
The advantages and disadvantages of nearly vertical and of
sloping sides are about the same in the case of filter beds as in
that of settling reservoirs.
It is commonly laid down that the area of filter beds with
sloping sides must be taken as that of the bottom of the sand bed.
The writer considers, however, that, if only a reasonable filtering
head be allowed to begin with, it is quite permissible to take the
area of the filtering bed as that at half the depth of the sand
before skimming off the surface for cleaning has begun. His
reasons are that the whole of the actual filtration appears to be
done in a very thin film of the uppermost part of the sand; and,
further, that not more than about a foot—less than one-half of
the thickness mentioned above—of the sand should be removed
without filling in again with fresh or washed sand.
SAND FILTRATION. - IO 5
Filtering Head.—This is the head of water necessary to force
the water through the filter beds, overcoming the friction of the
sand and of whatever draining arrangement is adopted. On it
depends the speed of filtration, and it is therefore of the highest
importance that it be accurately regulated.
For the speed of filtration given above, the filtering head will
be only a few inches when the bed is new, or when the sand has
just been washed. It gradually increases, however, as the sand
gets clogged. When it reaches about 2 feet 6 inches, or, at the
Outside, 3 feet, the filter bed needs cleaning, and the head should
never on any account be allowed to exceed this latter figure,
otherwise the sand will be inconveniently compacted, and very
likely fissured, allowing unfiltered water to pass.
The cut shows diagrammatically the drain from a filter and
zº
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º
§§§
SSSSSSSSSS
%
% %
Fig. 101.—Diagram illustrating the filtering head.
ºŽ
Z
a filter well. The level of the water in the filter well is that of
the highest water in the clean-water reservoir plus the small head
necessary to drive the water to this reservoir. The difference in
level of this water in the well and that in the filter bed—that is to
say, A–is the “filtering head.”
Were the arrangement merely that shown diagrammatically in
the cut, there being no check for the water between the filter and
the filter well, the action would be most imperfect. At first the
water would flow through the filter with impetuous velocity, the
filtering head being chiefly absorbed by the draining arrangement,
and the filtration would be very inefficient. Soon the filter bed
would clog, the velocity would be reduced, and the sand would
get compacted, or very likely fissured.
The commonest arrangement for controlling the flow is merely
a sluice valve between the filter bed and the well, which is opened
more or less, as may appear necessary. As, however, the friction
of the bed is constantly varying, this arrangement is most









IO6 7TP/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’/2/L Y OF 7TO IV/VS.
imperfect, it being impossible to so regulate the opening of the
valve that the flow can be kept uniform.
It is necessary to have some arrangement for regulating
accurately the filtering head, and to have such arrangement
cuttached to each filter.
Writing of this matter in 1866, Mr. James P. Kirkwood,
C.E.,” says —
“The English filters are all deficient as regards any arrange-
ment for measuring " (or regulating) “the precise flow from each
filter, or the precise ’’ (filtering) “head of water on each filter
while it is in action. . . . . In London, where the service of each
company is effected by steam power, the daily or hourly delivery
of the pumps forms the measure of the amount of water flowing
through the filters. The engineer knows by this means when the
filtering area is too small, because, in that case, the pumps are
inefficiently supplied ; and he would know if the water was passed
through the filter too rapidly by the want of that perfect clear-
ness that an efficient filtration always produces ; but of the
separate action of each individual filter bed he is ignorant, except
by guess. The attendant can see when the filter bed has ceased
to operate by its ceasing to pass the water thrown on it, and he
can see when it passes the usual amount too rapidly, and can
check this tendency by lowering his stopcocks and allowing the
water to lower upon the filter bed; but his judgment may
frequently be at fault in both cases, and there ought to be some-
thing more than the instincts of an intelligent labourer to regulate
points of so much practical bearing on the proper working of
those filter beds, as the varying amount of water delivered upon
them, and the constantly varying head, required to pass that
water under the changing conditions of the sand bed.”
Filling Filter Beds from below with Filtered Water.
—When filtering plant is first started, it is generally necessary to
fill the filters cautiously from the upper side with unfiltered
water, but once filtration has started, the beds should be filled
* “Report on the Filtration of River Waters, for the Supply of Cities, as
practised in Europe, made to the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of St.
Louis,” by James P. Kirkwood, C.E. (New York : D. Van Nostrand). This book—
although dated 1869, and describing investigations made three years before that
time—is the most complete, and in many ways the best, work on sand filtration of
water that the writer knows. Most that has been written in text-books, encyclo-
paedias, dictionaries, &c., since the above-mentioned date, on Sand filtration, is
simply a repetition of what is in this report—generally used without acknowledgment.
SA AV/O AE//, /TA2A T/O/V. IO7
from below with filtered water. The reason is that otherwise
the filtering speed is not in any way under control till the water
has reached a level a little over that of the surface of the sand.
The water simply spreads itself over the sand in the immediate
vicinity of the inlet orifice, and then sinks through the bed at
whatever speed it may, there being no control at all over this
speed, so that the first water sent into the filter bed after clean-
ing is always imperfectly filtered. By filling from below with
filtered water from the other filters this difficulty is overcome.
Immediately that the water covers the sand for a depth of 2 or
3 inches, water may be admitted in the usual way.
There are several devices for regulating the filtering speed of
filtering beds accurately, some of which also provide for filling
from below. Plates XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., and XXX.
illustrate several such arrangements. The first, shown in Plate
XXVII., Figs. 102 to 105, is that of Mr. J. P. Kirkwood. It is
exceedingly simple. It consists merely of a sluice, s, that can be
lowered so as to allow the water to flow over its top. By
adjusting it from time to time so as to keep the depth of water
over its top constant, the flow of water remains constant. After
the water has been drained off, and the filter has been cleaned,
it might be filled up from below by entirely lowering the sluice,
when the water would “back up " the “gathering drain " from the
“conduit to clear-water well ; ” the water, of course, actually
coming from the other filters.
The next arrangement illustrated is that of Mr. Henry
Gill, M.I.C.E., who has successfully employed it in connection
with the Berlin waterworks. It is thus described by Gen. A.
de C. Scott " (see Fig. 106, Plate XXVIII.):—
“Three small chambers had been constructed which he should
call A, B, and C. A abutted against the outside wall of the
filter, B abutted on the outside wall of A, and C on that of B,
so that the chambers formed a row extending outwards from the
filter. A pipe passed through the wall common to A and the
filter, the mouth being just above the bed of the sand. The pipe
after entering A was bent upwards and carried through the roof
Of A into a room built over A and B ; floats and rods were
fitted to that pipe, to a second pipe in A open to the water, and
to a similar pipe in chamber B. In the wall of A, common to
the filter, and at the floor level, was an aperture opening into the
* Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. C., p. 292 et seq.
108 7TA/AF WA 7TA: A S UAE PAE V OAF 7 O WAVS.
latter at its base, and through which filtered water was free to
pass.
“In the wall of A common to B, and also at the floor level,
was an opening into B that could be closed wholly or partially by
a sluice shutter worked in the upper room. In the wall separating
B and C was formed an aperture rectangular in elevation, with its
sole about I metre 56 centimetres (5-12 feet) above the floor of
chamber B, and opening into C. To that aperture, and flush with
the face of the wall in B, was fitted a brass or gun-metal plate
with bevelled edges. A pipe, controlled by a sluice valve, passed
at floor level from chamber B to chamber C, and gave the means
of flushing out A and B when necessary. In C were outlets con-
trolled by valves, and by which water passed to the filtered water
Or to waste, as the case might be.
“The object of the whole arrangement was to enable a constant
head of water to be maintained in chamber B, on the thin-lipped
rectangular orifice, in the metal plate already referred to, and
thus to secure a constant discharge from the filter. The constant
head on the Orifice was secured by the action of the shutter at
the bottom of chamber A, regulated by the readings of the gauge
rods and floats in chambers A and B.
“The flow of water to the filter was also regulated by a sluice-
valve, which was automatically controlled so as to automatically
maintain a constant depth of water on the filter. As the filter
became gradually foul, the flow through the material would
gradually decrease, but by adjusting the valve in A so as to
increase the aperture into B, the charge on the metal plate could
be kept up, and also the water in A would fall, giving a greater
head on the filter required to maintain the normal rate of flow
through the sand. At last the water level in A would fall to the
normal level of that in B, when the regulated flow through the
Orifice could no longer be maintained. The supply was then shut
off and the filter cleaned. The work of regulation was carried
out with perfect ease and certainty, and the rate of flow through
the orifice was not allowed to exceed 2 gallons per square foot
per hour, or 432 gallons per square yard in twenty-four
hours.” -
Nothing is said in this description of means of filling the filters
with filtered water from below, but Mr. Gill is well known to be
an advocate for so filling filters, and any engineer will be able
readily to design means whereby with this “three chamber"
arrangement water could be run under the sand to fill the filters.
PLATE XXVII.
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[To face page 108.
ARRANGEMENT FOR REGULATING SPEED OF FILTERING BEDs (J. P. KIRKWOOD).













PLATE XXVIII. --
Regulating Chamber
A-
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º Chamber
FIG. 106.—ARRANGEMENT FOR REGULATING SPEED OF FILTERING BEDS (HENRY GILL).
- - [To face page 108.







SAND FILTRATION. IO9
The next system illustrated is a very simple one, by the use of
telescopic tubes. It is shown in Plate XXIX., Figs. 107 to 113.”
The arrangement of having all the telescopic tubes from three
(or more) filter beds in one filter well was designed by the writer,
but he does not know that it has not been used before. It lends
itself conveniently to the filling of the filters from below. The
arrangement is so simple that a very brief description will suffice.
A, B, C are pipes from three filter beds. Each is turned
upwards, and terminates in a trumpet-mouthed pipe within the
filter well that can be raised or lowered by a screw. It is not
essential that the joint between the trumpet-mouthed pipe and
the one on which it slides be absolutely watertight, For this
reason no packing is used, but the pipes are made to slide “brass
to brass.” E leads to the clean-water reservoir, and the level of
the surface water shown in the filter well is that of the highest
water level in the clean-water reservoir plus the small head
necessary to cause the water to flow to that reservoir.
It will be evident that, if a trumpet-mouthed pipe be lifted to
such a height that its upper lip is level with the water in the
filter bed, or above it, no water will flow through the filter but the
small quantity that may leak through the sliding joint. On the
other hand, if the pipe be lowered, the water will overflow the
trumpet mouth, and the discharge will be greater the more the
pipe is lowered. By causing the height of the surface of the out-
flowing water over the lip of the trumpet mouth to remain
constant the discharge remains constant. A very simple form of
gauge may be attached to the trumpet mouth, with an indication
of the height above the lip to which the water should rise.
It will readily be understood that, when a pipe has been
lowered to such an extent that the difference in level of the water
in the filter bed and that of the lip of the pipe amounts to the
maximum filtering head that is to be permitted (say 2 feet
6 inches), the filter needs to be cleaned. The supply to it is
stopped, and the water is allowed to flow away by the telescopic
tube till the rate of flow becomes so slow that it is not worth the
time necessary to allow the rest of the water in the filter bed to
pass through the sand. The telescopic tube is then raised, and
the drain pipe D, F, or G+ is opened to allow as much of the
water to flow to waste as is necessary.
* A slight modification of the arrangement designed by the writer for the
Nagasaki waterworks.
f In the plate these drain pipes are shown smaller than they should be.
I IO 7A/E WA 7 FA SUPPLY OF 7 O WAVS.
When it becomes necessary to fill the filter bed again from
below, the corresponding telescopic tube is lowered as far as pos-
sible, and, if need be, the water flowing from the other filter beds is
made to “ head up "in the well by partially closing the sluice valve E.
Figs. 114 to 119, Plate XXX., illustrate a scheme designed
by the writer in 1888 for the Tokyo waterworks, and afterwards
adopted in the Osaka and other waterworks. The object of this
arrangement is to do automatically what is done by hand in the
case of the telescopic-tube system of Plate XXIX. Figs. 118
and 119 show the general arrangement, and this will be readily
understood if it is perceived that, when not either opened or
closed by hand, the valves A, B and C are of such a nature that
they automatically maintain a constant discharge of water through
them, whatever may be the difference in the pressure at the en-
trance side and at the delivery side, so long as the difference does
not fall below a certain small minimum.
The valve is shown in detail in Figs. 114 to 117. The
working drawings were made by Mr. J. Sakamoto from hand
sketches by the writer. s
The valve depends in its action on keeping a constant differ-
ence of pressure on the two sides of the diaphragm a, which has
a circular opening in the middle of it. A constant difference of
pressure in such a case results in a constant discharge.
The action is as follows. The water enters at b and flows
through the balanced valve c c, an outside view of which is
shown in Fig. 117. It will be seen that water can pass the valve
when its position is at all lower than that shown in Fig. 114, and
that the lower the valve falls the freer will be the flow.
At starting the position of the valve will not be that shown in
the drawing, but the valve will be resting on the bottom of the
cast-iron casing. The water flowing through the valve first meets
considerable resistance at the diaphragm, because the area of
cross-section of flow is there first contracted, and there is produced
a difference in pressure between the water within the valve-casing
and that without. As the piston d is in free communication with
the inside of the casing on its lower surface, with the outside on
its upper, the result of an increase of the pressure on the lower
side, as compared with that on the upper, is to raise the piston, to
reduce the flow of water through the valve c c, and to reduce the
difference of pressure on the two sides of the diaphragm, and con-
sequently on the inside and the outside of the valve-casing, and on
the two sides of the piston. Thus a balance is reached, and the
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Fig. 108.
ARRANGEMENT FOR REGULATING SPEED OF FILTERING BEDS (TELESCOPIC TUBES)
[To face page 110.















































SAAV/) A // 7 AA 7/OAV. I I I
piston and valve remain in a constant position, passing a constant
quantity of water, unless the difference of head at a, and at b
the outlet, changes, when the piston immediately adjusts itself
to a new position, and the discharge becomes again constant, and
the same as before, - - -
The pressures dealt with are very slight, and there is no reason
that either the valves e c or the piston d be absolutely watertight.
The friction may, therefore, be reduced to something quite inap-
preciable. It might, perhaps, be an advantage to turn rectangular
sectioned grooves in the piston, but it has not been found necessary.
In practice a small leakage hole has to be made at d, through
the web of the piston, to allow air to escape which would otherwise
interfere with the action of the valve.
The necessary flow of water being known, the required diameter
of aperture in the diaphragm may very easily be found by a simple
calculation after the other parts of the valve have been weighed.
The whole piece constituting the piston, the balance valve, and the
spindle that is rigidly attached to both, is weighed in water. Then
taking • '
w = this weight in lbs.,
a = the area of the piston in square inches,
p the difference of pressure on the two sides of the diaphragm in lbs.
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and it is only necessary to apply the formula for the flow of water
through openings in thin plates to find the aperture necessary to
give the flow needed with this difference of head.* With a design
similar to that given, p will be found to correspond to a head of
only a few inches of water, say never over 6 inches.
It has been found that even great differences of head at the inlet
to this valve do not result in any appreciable change of discharge.
Indeed, even if a vertical glass tube, acting as a delicate gauge of
the pressure of the water, be connected with the space within the
Casing, with which the under side of the piston is in communication,
no difference of pressure is observable on varying the head at a
between wide extremes, unless it be varied very suddenly, when the
* The writer did not know, when he designed this valve, that a very similar
valve had been designed by the late Prof. Fleeming Jenkin a number of years ago
for a different purpose. The general principle—that of causing what is, to all
intents and purposes, a reducing valve, to produce a constant difference of pressure
on the two sides of a thin plate with an opening in it, and thus to produce a
constant discharge—has, as a matter of fact, often been made use of, but the writer
does not know that the principle has before been applied to regulating the flow of
water through filter beds.
II 2 TA/AE WA 7TAZAZ S UAE’A/L V OA; 7"O WAVS.
inertia of the piston and attachments results in a momentary
change of pressure. The change of discharge varies, moreover, only
as the square root of any change in pressure that there might be.
When the filter bed becomes so foul that the friction absorbs
so nearly the whole of the filtering head—that is to say, the whole
of the difference in level of the water in the filter well and the
filter bed—that there is not sufficient spare head to support the
weight of the piston with its attachments, this latter suddenly
drops on the cast-iron casing. Its so dropping shows that the
filter in connection with this particular valve needs cleaning. It
would be easy to add to the apparatus an indicator that would
show conspicuously when the piston had dropped.
The piston having dropped, the process of draining the filter
bed for cleaning the filter is very nearly the same as with tele-
scopic tubes. The water is shut off from entering the filter bed,
and what is in it is allowed to flow through the now completely
open valve, till the discharge becomes so slow that it is not worth
the time that would be necessary to save the rest of the water.
The valve is then raised by hand, by the screw e, so as to close it,
and the water is drained from the filter by one of the draining
valves, D E F, till it is as low as is necessary for the cleaning of
the filter bed. After cleaning the valve is forced downwards by
the screw e to open it, when the filter will begin to fill again from
below. If necessary, the valve G is partly closed, so as to make
the water “ head up " in the filter-well, to increase the velocity of
flow into the newly cleaned filter-bed. Whenever the sand has
been covered with water a few inches deep, the admission valve is
opened, and unfiltered water flows over the filtering sand in the
usual way. When the level of the water over the sand rises to
that in the filter-well, the screwed spindle is so adjusted that the
valve is under control of the piston only, and, from that time, the
discharge is, once again, automatically regulated.
Admission of Water to Filter Beds.-The water must
be admitted to filter beds in such a way that the sand will not be
disturbed. Sometimes the main central drain is built up to form
a longitudinal channel above the level of the surface of the sand,
and the water is allowed to flow into this channel, whence it
spreads itself over the sand. This arrangement has the objection
that it occupies a very considerable area which would otherwise
be available for filtration.
Sometimes a channel is made in the thickness of the wall of
Plate XXX.
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Fig. 115.
ARRANGEMENT FOR REGULATING SPEED OF FILTERING BEDS (AUTOMATIC). - - - [To face page 112.





































SAND. Aſ ILTRA TVOAV. • * II 3
the filter bed, contouring it at a level just above the sand surface,
and having numerous openings into the filter through which water
enters it. This arrangement certainly secures a very even dis-
tribution of the water, and is not open to the objection mentioned
in connection with the others described, but it seems unnecessarily
complicated. The simple bell- or trumpet-mouthed pipe, shown in
Plate XXVI., has been found to be quite efficient, if the sand, for
Figs. 120 and 121.-Valve for regulating flow of water (in section and in plan).
two or three feet around it, be covered with bricks, tiles, or stones,
to prevent the rush of water from washing it away. The area of
filter bed thus taken up is but trifling. The plate illustrates two
filter beds, one with sloping sides, the other with vertical walls.
The discharge into filter beds is commonly regulated by sluice
valves, but there are various reasons why it is preferable to use an
automatic valve to keep the water at a constant level in the filter
bed. Such a valve is less needed if the automatic discharge-
valves just described are used, than if the filtering head is
regulated in any other way, as these valves compensate for varia-
I

I I4. 7 A/A WA 7TER S UAE PL Y OF TO WAVS.
tion of head on either side. Still, even with these such an auto-
matic arrangement is advisable.
Valves for so regulating the flow of water into a reservoir that
the level will remain nearly constant are articles of commerce, and
scarcely need description. Such a valve is illustrated in Figs.
120 and 121. It will be seen that it is, in fact, merely the
familiar “ball valve,” whereby the discharge of water into cisterns
in houses is regulated, only that it is on a large scale.
There may be one such valve for each filter bed, but the writer
prefers an arrangement whereby its water is admitted to one well, as
shown at A, Plate XXXVI. (p. 150), through a valve on the principle
illustrated by Fig. 120. This valve secures a constant water level
in the well, and, the sluice valves between this well and the filter
beds in action being full open, the water level in each filter bed
may be considered as being at the same level as that in the well,
spite of the fact that there is a slight loss of head between the
well and the nearest filter bed, and a greater loss between it and
those that are somewhat more distant. If there are more than
four filter beds, it will probably be an advantage to have one “dis-
tribution well” with automatic valve for each three or four beds.
Cleaning of Filter Beds.-As has been said, the cleaning
of a filter bed, at Ordinary times, consists chiefly in removing a
thin layer of an inch or so of the sand from the upper surface.
Various details, however, have to be considered. The first of
these is the quantity of water that is to be run off. It will be
evident that merely to remove the upper film of sand it is neces-
sary only to let the water run off to a level immediately below
this film. Sometimes this is all that is done, but it is believed
that there is a distinct advantage, in running the filter dry; as, if
this is done, a certain amount of Oxidation of the whole sand bed
is supposed to take place, this oxidation being beneficial to the
after purification of the water.
However this may be, it is advisable, after removing the
surface layer of completely clogged sand, to stir up and loosen,
with a fork or other pronged instrument, a depth of eight inches
to a foot of the upper surface of the sand. The water should be
run off to a level at least below this depth.
To replace the thin layer of sand removed at every single
cleaning of this kind would involve too much labour; and it is
customary to allow a foot or so of the thickness of the sand to be
thus removed in parings before it is replaced.
SAAV/O AP//, 7 A' A 7T/O/V. II 5
Occasionally clean sand is so near at hand, and so readily and
cheaply got, that the dirty sand may be thrown away altogether ;
but this is rarely the case, as, even if sand is as cheap as may be,
it is seldom in such condition that it is not improvable by Washing,
and it takes little or no more trouble to wash the sand that has
already been used than to wash new sand.
The sand that has been removed for washing from filter beds
is always more or less foul, and often smells badly, sometimes
having a peculiarly offensive “fishy ’’ smell.” It can, however, be
effectually cleaned simply by thorough scouring with water,
which Ought to have been filtered.
Various contrivances have been invented for washing sand.
---
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Fig. 122.--Sand washer.
One of the most popular is illustrated in Fig. 122. Dirty sand is
shovelled into the upper part of this contrivance, water is turned
on from below, and is allowed to flow till that leaving the upper
receptacle, at first thoroughly dirty, becomes quite clear, when
the now purified sand is removed, and another lot is treated.
The next illustration (Figs. 123 (A) and 124 (B)) shows Walker's
patent sand-washing apparatus. The writer has no practical know-
ledge of the working of this machine, but has heard it highly
praised by those who had no interest in its sale. The washer, as
will be seen, is hopper- or funnel-shaped, and is hung on trunnions.
Water is admitted by a rubber pipe, c, connected with the main
at the lower end, and, during the washing, escapes by the spout, B.
The rubber pipe permits of the tipping of the vessel without
* See Note 15, Appendix III.


I 2
II6 7A/E IVA 7 ER SOVPP/ Y OF TO WAVS.
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making any disconnection with the main. When the water comes
off clear, it is an indication that the sand has been sufficiently
washed; the flow is stopped, and the hopper-shaped vessel is
tipped over in the direction A, the sand being received in a wheel-
barrow or truck. +
These sand-washers are made in “batteries,” a trunnion frame
being, in this case, common to the hopper-shaped vessel on each
side of it, except at the two ends of the battery.
In the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (vol. XIX.,
p. 236) is a paper entitled “The Filtration of the Mügell Lake
Water Supply, Berlin,” by the late Mr. Henry Gill, M.Inst.C.E.
The paper is well worth reading throughout, and particularly
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Figs. 123 (A) and 123 (B).-Walker's patent sand-washing apparatus.
8-) g ap)
interesting is the description of the sand-washing machinery, on
a large scale, used in connection with the works. Subjoined is
an abstract of the description : On one side of the floor of the
washing house is the depôt for dirty sand, on the other that
for clean. The floor of these store places, each for about 2,600
cubic feet of sand, is formed of granite slabs set in cement. There
is an 8-HP. steam-engine, which works the sand-washing
machines, and a centrifugal pump to supply them with water.
The construction of the drum of one of these machines is seen
in Figs. 124 (A) and 124 (B). The engine turns the drum at
the rate of 8 turns per minute, and the centrifugal pump






















SAAV/O AE//, 7TA’A 7T/O/V. II 7
supplies 10 cubic yards of water for each cubic yard of sand.
The engine lifts the dirty sand from the depôt into the drum,
which screws it forward against a stream of water to the lift,
whence it falls down a sharp incline, washed down by a second
rose-jet into a trough in the house.
…
Fig. 124 (A).-Longitudinal Section of sand-washing machine at Berlin waterworks.
HA is secºr, on Ha LF section
O N G H . O N J J .
Fig. 124 (B).-Transverse section of Sand-washing machine at Berlin waterworks.
Small sand, which is useless for filtration, is carried over a
small weir at the trough at the delivery end of the drum, falling
by a separate channel into a small sand-catch basin, from which
the water escapes into the waste-water culvert, also over a long
weir, thus insuring the culvert against deposit.
A very simple arrangement for sand-washing, suitable when
the works are not on a large scale, consists of a short, narrow,
shallow canal, as illustrated in Figs. 125, 126 and 127. Water
is allowed to flow continuously into the canal at A, whilst dirty


II 8 TA/AE WA 7TEA S UAE’A/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
sand is continuously introduced at the opposite end B. This
sand is raked by hand towards A, and from A is continuously
removed. A canal of about 30 feet long will, with a flow of
water not likely to wash away the sand, readily serve for water-
works with a population up to 100,000. For larger works, larger
canals may be made, or several may be used instead of one.
The flow of water, the feeding with sand, and the rate at which
the sand is raked along the bottom of the canal should all be so
iºnºvº
~ *-* . . ." - ** ->
* - *
*
* - * ~
• à -
Figs. 125, 126, and 127.-“Canal’’ sand washer (in plan and sections).
regulated that, whilst no sand is washed away at the end B, no
visible dirt is washed out of the sand for several feet before it is
raked up to A.
Such is the routine of cleaning the sand of filter-beds;
but, besides this, at long intervals, varying from six months to
several years, according to the nature of the water—and probably,
also, somewhat according to that of the sand—the whole of the
material constituting the filter-bed, right down to the floor, should
be removed and be thoroughly cleaned.




CHAPTER XIII.
PURIFICATION OF WATER BY ACTION OF TRON.—SOFTENING OF
WATER BY ACTION OF LIME–NATURAL FILTRATION.
THE principles of these processes have already been described.
It only remains to give a short description of the way in which
they may be used in practice.
So far as the use of iron is concerned, it would appear that,
until recent years, it was believed that the action of oxides of
iron—such as magnetic iron oxide, for example—was the same as
that of metallic iron. It would now appear that, although both
have the effect of purifying water containing organic matter in
solution, the action is different in the two cases—may, in fact, be
described as diametrically opposite—for magnetic oxide of iron
seems to act as an oxidizer, while metallic iron is a reducer.
Use of Magnetic Oxide of Iron for Purifying Water.”
—Magnetic Oxide of iron, in a fine state of division, may be used
as a filtering medium, either alone, or mixed with sand. Its
expensiveness has led to the practice of mixing it with a certain
proportion of sand. The following is a quotation from a pamphlet
issued by a company that sells, by name of “Polarite,” a substance
professing to be a porous magnetic oxide of iron, but which,
according to an analysis by Sir Henry Roscoe, contains a good
deal of matter that is not magnetic oxide of iron. The following
is the result of the analysis :—
Magnetic oxide of iron g g e . 53.85 per cent.
Silica . e e * º g * . 25.50 2 3
Lime . * g g º g ge e 2.01 32
Alumina g & wº x * tº º 5-68 2 3
Magnesia º & * º e e . 7:55 5 *
Carbonaceous matter and moisture g * 5'41 5 5
Of the use of this substance the writer has had no experience,
but he has both read and heard good reports of it. For instance —
* See Note 16, Appendix III.
I 2 O TA/AE WA TA, A S UAEA) / Y OF 7TO WAVS.
“The polarite bed, including layers of sand and gravel, need
never exceed three feet in depth. . . . . The granules of
polarite being very porous, water filters through them as well as
around them. Hence about twice the quantity of water will filter
in a given time through a polarite bed than through an Ordinary
sand filter-bed of the same size. . . . . At the same time
polarite . . . . will do what sand cannot do ; will purify
water by oxidizing the . organic matter in solution, and
making them innocuous. . . . . A good plan of a polarite filter
is to place at the bottom rows of three-inch or four-inch agricultural
drain tiles at suitable distances apart, filled in between with large
shingle or broken stones, then a layer of gravel four to six inches
thick, above that four inches of sharp, coarse sand, then polarite
mixed with sharp, coarse sand in proportion to suit the quality of
water to be purified, but so as to form a layer twelve inches in
thickness; and lastly at the top nine to twelve inches of sand,
making a total depth of filter of two feet nine inches to three
feet two inches. Space must be provided above the sand for
a sufficient depth of water according to the speed of filtration
required.* . . . . Every square yard of filter should contain
about 360 pounds of polarite. . . . . The top layer of sand
acts as a strainer, and arrests floating particles suspended in the
water. . . . . The lower layer of sand merely acts as a
cushion to keep the finer particles of polarite from being washed
out of the filter.” - - -
It is difficult to get reliable figures as to the maximum filtering
speed permissible with a polarite filter bed, but it seems to be
higher, in every case, than is effective with a common sand bed,
sometimes much higher. I have read that, at the Reading Cor-
poration waterworks, filtration through polarite is effectual with
a filtering speed of 150 feet in 24 hours.
Use of Metallic Iron for Purifying Water.—The theory
of the action of metallic iron on water which contains organic
matter in solution has already been touched on. Professor Gustav
Bishof has the chief credit of introducing the use of metallic iron
for the purification of water, and to him is due the application of
“spongy iron.” On a small scale, for domestic filters, this sub-
stance has been highly successful. It has also been used with
some success on a large scale. The water is first filtered through
* There would seem to be some confusion, here, between the depth of water
over the sand and the filtering head.
IRON AS PUR/F/ER. , - I 2 I
sand to remove Ordinary matter in suspension ; it then passes
through a layer of spongy iron; when it is exposed for some time
to the action of the air to reduce any iron dissolved to an insoluble
oxide of iron, that can be removed by a second sand-filtration.
Spongy iron was thus used by Mr. William Anderson,
M. Inst.C.E., for the Antwerp waterworks, and its effect, so far as
purification was concerned, seems to have been excellent ;’ but
after a time there was trouble on account of the clogging up—the
Tºusting up, f in fact—of the layer of spongy iron. 3 -
These difficulties caused Mr. Anderson to search for some way
of utilizing the remarkable effect of the action of metallic iron on
organic matter dissolved in water that would not carry with it
the objections that there were in the filtering arrangement just
described. The method ultimately adopted, which appears to
have practical advantages over any others in which iron is made to
act on water, was the outcome of a suggestion by Sir Frederick
Abel, K.C.B., F.R.S. It consists simply in vigorously churning
up the water for a comparatively short space of time with metallic
iron in a fine state of division.
The following is an abstract of the description of the apparatus
used by Mr. Anderson : — - - - .
A wrought-iron cylinder, four feet six inches in diameter by
six feet long, was arranged to revolve on hollow trunnions, and was
fitted up internally with six shelves or ledges, to scoop up the
charge of iron placed inside, and shower it down continuously
amidst the water flowing slowly through. The inlets and outlets
were at first two inches in diameter, the intention being to purify
at the rate of twelve gallons per minute, which would give the
supposed necessary contact of water with the iron for forty-five
minutes. The cylinder was charged with nine hundredweight of
iron, and set revolving at the rate of one-third turn per minute.
The trial showed that vastly too much metal was being taken up
by the water; the rate of flow was therefore increased to thirty
gallons per minute, when 12 grains of iron per gallon was dis-
solved ; and then to sixty gallons, when 0.9 grain was taken up,
a quantity still far in excess of what experience showed to be
sufficient. New trunnions with four-inch pipes were fitted to the
cylinder, and the apparatus was put to regular work at the rate
of 166 gallons per minute, giving a contact of three-and-a-half
* Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. LXII., pp. 24 et seq.
f See Note 13 (to p. 84), Appendix III.
† Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. LXXXI., pp. 280 et seq.
I 22 THE WA 7TEA S UPA2/L Y OF TO WAVS.
minutes only, which proved to be amply sufficient to purify the
Water. It was found that about 0.1 grain of pure iron per gallon
only was taken up by the water.
The great advantage of using iron in the way described arises
from the fact that the surfaces of the material are always kept
clean and in an active condition by rubbing against each other
and against the inner surfaces of the cylinder that contains them,
as well as by continually falling through the mass of water. It is
found that iron in almost any divided form is suitable for the
process. The most active agents are cast-iron turnings — on
account, no doubt, of the way in which each particle is cracked
and fissured ; next, probably, comes spongy iron ; then cast-iron
granulated by being poured into water ; and lastly, wrought-iron
and steel turnings.
The unexpected discovery that the time of contact between
the iron and the water could, in practice, be reduced to one-twelfth
of what had been held necessary, completely changed the aspect of
affairs. At Antwerp it was decided to convert the spongy-iron
filters into sand beds, and the arrangement shown in Plate XXXI.
(Figs. 128 to 131) was adopted for purifying the water with iron.
The apparatus consists of three revolving purifiers, together
capable of dealing with 1,500 gallons per minute (2,160,000 gallons
per day), a small wall engine and line of shafting for driving them,
and a tank fitted with a fine screen for separating coarse particles.
Each purifier consists of a wrought-iron cylinder, 5 feet in
diameter by 15 feet maximum length, supported longitudinally on
hollow trunnions 10 inches in internal diameter, fitted with stuffing
boxes, through which the inlet and outlet pipes pass.
For scooping up the iron and showering it down through the
water, the inside of the cylinder is fitted with five curved ledges
8 inches deep, and one ledge 6 inches deep, the latter formed of
twenty blades 6 inches long, each attached to a #-inch shank,
which passes through the cylinder, and is secured to it by a nut.
The object of this arrangement is to give the means, by placing
the blades askew, of throwing the iron back towards the inlet end
of the cylinder, if the current of water passing along should tend
to make it travel towards the outlet. -
The inlet-pipe, where it opens into the cylinder, is covered b
a disk of iron-plate 2 feet 8 inches in diameter, fitted within
3-inch of the spherical end, so that the entering water is compelled
to spread out radially in all directions into a disk g-inch thick. It
having been ascertained that a velocity of 4 inches per second was
/A’OAV A S A2 UAE /A'/E R. I 23
incompetent to move any but the finest iron in a vertical tube the
outlet pipe was expanded, inside the cylinder, into an inverted
bell-mouth, of such diameter that the current upward would not
exceed 4 inches a second. Experience shows that the iron has
very little tendency to move bodily along the cylinder in the
direction of the flow of water, the feeble current of only about
#-inch per second having little or no power to move it.
The three revolvers are placed side by side and connected, on
the inlet side, by 10-inch branches fitted with sluice cocks to the
20-inch delivery main. The outlet pipes all open into a wrought-
iron tank, 15 feet long, 3 feet 6 inches wide, and 3 feet deep, fitted
with an inclined screen covered with galvanized wire netting,
four meshes to the inch. The object of this screen is to catch the
large quantity of moss and other impurities which, especially in
summer, form in the inlet pipes and, becoming detached, find their
way to the filter-beds. It is noteworthy that no such growths
take place after the water has been purified.
The driving-gear consists of an annular spur-ring secured
round one end of each cylinder, and driven by a train of gearing
working on a self-contained frame, driven by a 24-inch belt driven
from a lay shaft, coupled direct to the crank shaft of a wall engine,
having a cylinder 64-inch diameter, 9-inch stroke. The total weight
of each revolver, filled with water and with its charge of 22 cwt.
of iron, is 14 tons 6 cwt., and the power necessary to drive it at
the rate of one-third of a revolution per minute is 0°4 H.P.
The total capacity of the three revolvers is 15,000,000 gallons
per week.”
The cost of the establishment in England would be, including
a house, f2,300, while the cost of working, after allowing 5 per
cent. deterioration of the building, and 10 per cent. for that of the
machinery, together with 5 per cent. interest on the outlay, would
be 9s. 9d. per million gallons ;f the cost in wages and materials
alone amounting to 2s. 6d. per million. The total quantity of
iron in use is less than 3% tons. Had the original filter beds
been extended so as to do the same work, the weight of iron in
them would have been 1,800 tons. The iron dissolved per week
is about 2 cwt.
The water supplied to the town is reported to be exceptionally
bright and clear, so that no doubt need exist as to the success of
the new method of purification.
* About 343,400 cubic feet in twenty-four hours.
† Somewhat less than three farthings per 1,000 cubic feet.
I 24 TA/A2 WA 7TAZA' | SOAXA2/L V OF 7"O WAVS.
This is the end of the abstract of Mr. Anderson's interesting
paper. It is to be understood that the water needs to be treated
in the usual way by sand filtration after this treatment with iron.
The iron is filtered off in the form of an insoluble oxide, and the
whole or a great part of the carbonates are also removed, so that
this process does not only purify the water of dissolved organic
matter and remove or kill or paralyse micro-organisms, but also
serves to soften it to a great extent.
Softening Water by the use of Lime.—As has already
been stated, in the original process of Clark, a certain quantity
of lime-water—or sometimes of a milky mixture of lime held
in suspension, but only partly dissolved in water—was added to
the water to be softened in reservoirs, the resulting insoluble
carbonate of calcium, which was in a fine state of division, being
allowed to settle. +
The objections to this arrangement were the long time taken
for settlement, and consequently the large reservoir capacity that
it was necessary to provide. This would not hold good where
large settling reservoir capacity was needed for other reasons, as
the lime could be mixed with the water before it entered the
settling reservoirs, and the settlement of the calcium carbonate
might take place along with that of the other suspended matter. Of
late, however, various successful efforts have been made to soften
water by a continuous process, without the use of large reservoirs.
In the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, vol. xoVII., there is a paper by Mr. W. W.
|Fitzherbert Pullen, C.E., on “Water-softening and Filtering
Apparatus for Locomotive Purposes, at the Penarth Dock
Station, near Cardiff, of the Taff Vale Railway Company.”
The paper first treats very ably of the theory of water soften-
ing, and then goes on to describe an apparatus for continuous
softening, that may, if it be desired, be worked under pressure.
The apparatus described, although intended for softening water
for use in locomotive boilers, could undoubtedly be applied to
waterworks, certain modifications in design being, of course,
introduced, if the works were on a large scale. Many cases are
imaginable in which it might be of advantage to soften the water
under pressure.
The part of the apparatus first described has for its object
merely the production of a thoroughly saturated solution of
caustic lime. Calcium hydrate (C.O) is only slightly soluble in
PLATE XXXI.
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Fig. 128.
Fig. 131.
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Fig. 130.
CYLINDER FOR PURIFYING WATER WITH METALLIC IRON. [To face page 124.




















SO/777A2 AV/AVG OA” IVA 7TAZA'. I 25
water, and has the somewhat unusual property of being less
soluble in hot than in cold water. At Ordinary temperatures, its
solubility is very fairly constant, and may be taken to be about
equivalent to one part of quicklime in 700, about 10 grains in
the lb., or about 1% oz. in the cubic foot. In all water-softening
arrangements, the quantity of lime that is to be used must
be accurately adjusted. If too little lime be added, the water
is not sufficiently softened ; if too much be added, there will be
calcium hydrate in the water, which besides again hardening the
water will be otherwise objectionable. Hence the necessity, if a
Scºturated solution of lime is relied on as a standard solution, of
using some arrangement that will insure complete saturation.
The apparatus described in the paper referred to, and shown in
Fig. 132, Plate XXXII., for producing saturation, consists essen-
tially of three vessels, in the first of which water and dry lime
are mixed, and in the other two of which the “cream ” thus
produced is thoroughly churned up with part of the water to be
softened, the arrangement being such that a saturated solution
of hydrate of lime, but no undissolved lime, passes from the third
vessel. Fig. 133, Plate XXXII., shows a section of two more
tanks, in which the final softening takes place. These are each 20
feet high, 7 feet in diameter, and are constructed of 3-inch plates.
The following is an abstract of a part of the paper referred to,
describing the process of softening — -
The saturated lime water is allowed to enter the left-hand
vessel at the bottom, near to where the hard water to be softened
is entering. Here the chemical action takes place, and precipitation
begins. The water and lime solution gradually rise in the tank,
the course of the water being indicated by arrows in the figure;
some of the precipitated calcium carbonate sinks through the
slowly rising water, and finally rests upon the platforms, which
are so arranged that very little of the precipitate reaches the
bottom of the tank. The water flows from the left-hand tank,
through the pipe marked “ connecting pipe,” to the bottom of the
right-hand tank, where it slowly rises, passing between the plat-
forms as represented by the arrows. Here the precipitation is
completed, the insoluble calcium carbonate sinking through the
liquid being caught by the platforms, as in the case of the left-
hand tank. The precipitate resting upon the platforms is un-
affected by the very slowly-rising stream of water, for the stream
is deflected by the under-side of the platforms. The softened
water passes out of the top of the right-hand tank.
I 26 . 7TA//5 IVA 7TAZA' S UA’A/L Y OF 7'O WAV.S.
Over each platform in each of the tanks (but shown in the cut
only in the case of the left-hand one), is a pair of paddles, or
rinsers, attached to a vertical shaft. When it is required to clean
or scour the precipitating tanks, the rinsers are set in motion, and
the precipitate is quickly removed from the platforms. Flushing
valves at the bottom of the two tanks are opened, and the sedi-
ment is run to waste. This is done two or three times a week
when the apparatus is in constant use.”
The particular water here treated had a hardness varying from
15° minimum in wet weather to over 21° in very dry weather,
13° of which were due to temporary hardness. In softening,
the total hardness is reduced to between 6° and 7”. f The cost
of lime for hardening 1,000 cubic feet of water was less than 1+d.
To test whether the quantity of lime added is insufficient,
sufficient, or too great.—By the use of a simple chemical test it
may be discovered whether or not lime is being added to the hard
water in the proper proportions. A solution of silver nitrate pro-
duces a yellow or brownish-yellow colour when it is added to water
containing even a very minute trace of uncombined lime. A small
quantity of water is taken from the large precipitating tanks, is
placed in a white evaporating dish, and a few drops of a nitrate of
silver solution are added. If a brownish colouration is produced,
the lime is in excess; if the colour produced be a faint yellow
only, barely perceptible, the proper proportion of lime has been
added to the hard water. If the liquid continue colourless after
the nitrate of silver has been added, it may be assumed that
insufficient lime is being run into the tanks.
Filter presses are used in this case, and in others where there is
not space available for precipitating tanks.S
The water and lime are mixed in due proportion, as for the
tank precipitation, and the mixture is then allowed to flow, or is
pumped under pressure into the filter presses (Fig. 134, Plate
XXXII.), and comes out clear and comparatively soft.
* In this abstract the use as a softener of lime only is mentioned, but in the
original paper from which the abstract is made, the use of small quantities of
Sodium carbonate, to decompose the sulphates, and of a little alum to hasten the
precipitation, are referred to. These are used because the water is to be softened
specially for use in steam boilers. In softening water for domestic use, lime only is
commonly used.
t All degrees in Clark's scale (the English standard). Water of 1° hardness,
Clark’s scale, is water that will precipitate as much soap as pure water in which
1 graim of calcium carbonate per gallon has been dissolved.
† See Note 17, Appendix III. § See Note 18, Appendix III.
SOFTEAV/AWG OF WA 7 F. K. I27
“The filter press consists of a cast-iron bed plate BP, with a
support or bracket SB at each end. Connecting and rigidly
fastened to them are a couple of horizontal bars HB, each of which
is the same height above the bed plate. On these bars rest the filter
plates and water-space frames (Figs. 135, 136, Plate XXXII.).
“The filter plates are made of cast iron ; each plate has two
lugs L on its periphery for the purpose of support, and for the
insertion of handles for removal. Upon its faces are turned a
series of circular eccentric ribs for facilitating the filtration and
supporting the cloths. A series of wide radial grooves s are cut
in the plate to convey the filtered water to the annular space out-
side the ribs, from which it can flow into the channel FWC, in the
left-hand top corner, and hence out of the press. In the right-
hand top corner is a hole, through which the unfiltered water
passes into the water-space frames. The water-space frames
(Fig 136, Plate XXXII.) are similar to the filter plates, with the
exception that the metal forming the circular ribs in the filter
plate is removed, leaving an annular frame of metal. A passage
is cast connecting the large central space with the hole UWC in the
right-hand top corner, to allow the unfiltered water to gain access
to the filtering cloths.
“A number of filter plates and water-space frames are placed
alternately on the horizontal parallel bars HB, and a cloth or towel
of a superior quality of cotton twill is dropped over each filter
plate (as a towel is placed on a horse), the cloth having holes
worked in it corresponding with the holes in the top corners of
the plates and frames. The frames and plates are tightly pressed
together by a powerful end screw Es (Fig. 136, Plate XXXII.).
Thus the holes Fwo, Uwc, become collectively tubular channels of
the length of the filter press, the channel on one side admitting its
unfiltered water into the circular water press frames ; whilst being
inclosed and under pressure, the water can only escape through
the cloths into the concentric grooves, passing from these along the
radial grooves into the channel FWC, and hence Out of the press.
“After the process has been started, the unfiltered water will
not only have to pass through the cloths, but also through the
residue of carbonate of lime deposited upon the cloths. This acts
as a very fine filtering agent, entirely removing all Organic and
mineral matter held in suspension by the water. On the average
the cloths are changed after being used about twelve hours.
“The unfiltered water and lime are conveyed from the mixing
tanks to the presses by the cast-iron pipe P, the flow being regu-
I 28 THE WA 7'EA SUPP/ Y OF 7 O WAVS.
lated by the stop-cocks so. The softened water passes from the
presses into a trough, FwP (Fig. 134), or into a pipe leading to the
storage tank. A square foot of filtering surface will supply filtered
water at the rate of 30 gallons [say 5 cubic feet] per hour, the
amount varying according to the pressure under which the
filtration takes place. The filter press (Fig. 134) contains about
100 square feet of filtering surface. The cloths are cleansed in a
power washing machine, and are then ready for further use.” -
Natural Filtration (so called).---If a tunnel or gallery be
driven in the sandy and gravelly alluvial deposit that is found in
considerable depths along some parts of the courses of nearly all.
rivers, – especially such as have their sources amongst moun-
tains,—parallel with the river, at a depth below that of the level
of the water of the river, and be so constructed that the bottom,
or the bottom and the sides, will allow water to enter, it will
always be found that more or less water flows into the gallery.
Commonly the quantity that enters is quite copious, and such
sources of water have frequently been used for the supply of
towns. Often (the bottom of the gallery only being left porous)
water will flow continually upwards at the rate of from 20 to
30 lineal feet per day, sometimes much more, and this water is
nearly always free from suspended matter, and is generally clear.
and sparkling. -
It was commonly supposed, until comparatively recent times—
and the supposition was a natural one—that the water entering
these galleries was water that had infiltrated from the river.
|Recent investigations have shown that in some instances this is
not the case, and it is probable that in most it is not. Thus it
has been found that, if there were impurities in the water drawn
from the gallery, these were not of the same nature as the impuri-
ties in the river water, but were rather of the nature of the
impurities in the water of the land in which the gallery was
driven, or between it and the higher ground. In fact the galleries.
did not seem to be filled by receiving water from the river, but
by intercepting the underground water flowing slowly towards the
river. In this connection it has to be borne in mind that a great
part at least of all rain water reaches streams by soaking into the
* See Engineering for March 11th, 1892, p. 318, for a very interesting
description of water-softening apparatus on a large scale, as adopted at Southampton.
In this plant the water and lime are mixed in a tank or open reservoir of consider-
able size, and the carbonate of lime is afterwards removed by a large battery of
filters much of the same pattern as those described here. - .."
PLATE XXXII.
/ ſ .. | - - Fig. 134.—Filter-plate. Fig. 135.—Water-space Frame.
tº) - - . P sº
- * || - Y. a-IHTº-|| S. C
. - t - iHe | ET EH}
/. RA C K E ºr º \ - - - S= ~ - Hº -
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º | Pi-AT FO R Nº- | | | - - - - - * | | | | | | || | | |.
% ; : -r • - - PS= - E IIITTTTTTTTTTT Hill Hill-leſ--- Q *- - IIIll
º i; t { }-\- #H#6. Eſ * # H == H B.
* al | Y - - 1 |||||||||||||||||||||||
º -----|- –– rºt— ..f }^
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- ! | N 5-> 8 P |l ſ |
-> - ——— - - - - - - - - -- - - -
R. T. # * : 7 * * * | 3p Reet. - U l– I - - —l -
Fig. 133–Longitudinal Section of Precipitating Tanks. - “, * Fig. 136. –Filter-press.
Fig. 132–Side Elevation.
WATER-SOFTENING AND FILTERING APPARATUS FOR LOCOMOTIVE PURPOSES (FITZHERBERT PULLEN). [To face page 128.










WATURAL AZL TRATION. I29
ground, and slowly moving in an underground flow towards the
nearest stream, so that, when we see land gradually sloping
towards a river, we have to imagine a water-bearing stratum
under the surface of this sloping land, the water slowly working
its way towards the river. Were it not for this underground
water, the flow of a stream would cease very shortly after rain
has stopped.
- The most remarkable observations in this connection are,
perhaps, those of Mr. Edward Easton, in the neighbourhood of
Brighton (England). He observed that, over a large area of
ground near that town, no stream of any kind was to be seen.
He also noticed that along the sea-shore there were, especially at
low water, innumerable rills of water passing through the sand,
and he found that this was fresh water, the fact being that the
ground is so porous that the rain all soaks into it, and makes its
way underground to the sea. The form of the surface of this
underground mass of water was even estimated by comparing the
depth of water in wells, and it was found to slope steadily towards
the sea. In this case, by driving a tunnel parallel with the sea-
shore, and at the depth of low water, a plentiful supply of fresh
water was obtained.* .
It is probable, in the case of galleries parallel with rivers, that
the greater part of the water is, in most cases, intercepted water
from the surrounding country, but that, in many cases, a part or
the whole of the water is, at certain times, derived from the river.
Thus it is quite conceivable, in some cases, that the water of the
surrounding country is intercepted during rainy weather, whilst
the river may be the source of supply during dry weather.f
* A somewhat similar state of affairs was discovered by the writer at Niigata in
Japan. Here a large river runs parallel to and at only about a mile distant from
the shore, for a distance of several miles, there being a sand bar at the mouth that
offers considerable frictional resistance to the flow of the water. Between the river
and the sea all is porous sand, there being high sand dunes just within the sea-beach.
It seemed likely to the writer that there might be an underground flow of water
through this sand from the river to the sea, and investigation very soon showed this
to be the case. It was found that only a few yards from the actual sea water
barely brackish was got, and it was noticed that fishermen who put up temporary
huts between the dunes and the sea had dug wells and got a plentiful supply
of fresh water from them. On driving a trial gallery just on the inside, or river-side,
of the dunes, a plentiful supply of pure water was obtained.
t In Japan—where, on account of continual embanking of rivers without removing
detritus carried down by storms, the flood level of the rivers after they have left the
mountains is generally considerably above that of surrounding plains; and, indeed
where, at places, the very bed of the river is above the land through which it
passes—very different conditions must prevail; and it is probable that a gallery
alongside such a river would generally be fed more or less by the river, entirely by
it at times.
FC
I 3O TA/AF WA 7TA R S OAA’/ Y OF 7"O WAVS.
However this may be, a gallery of the kind described must be
looked on simply as a shallow well on an extended scale, and the
water from it must be regarded with the same suspicion as is the
water from a shallow well. As has already been said, the water
from a shallow well is not of necessity bad. If there is no possible
source of contamination near it, or above it in the direction from
which the underground water is flowing, it may, in fact, be very
good.
The case of the supply of Perth (Scotland) must be taken as
one of actual natural filtration of river water. This town is (or
was until recently) supplied with water drawn from a gallery
below an island in the middle of a river. Hence it may be
assumed that the water all filtered from the river. It is stated
that, although the water of the river contains much organic
matter in solution, the water drawn from the gallery is remark-
ably pure. This is a particularly interesting case, where Nature
does what man has as yet failed to do by artificial means, even
imitating her as closely as possible.”
In the United States, Mr. Hiram F. Mills, C.E., has used “inter-
mittent downward filtration *-as understood in connection with
the disposal or purification of sewage—for the otherwise very
impure water supply of Lawrence, Mass. In the case of sewage, a
certain area of porous land is sub-drained, preferably a depth of
about six feet. The surface is divided into patches, commonly
four, or a multiple of four, in number, and the sewage is discharged
on these in rotation. Thus each patch may receive sewage for six
hours and have eighteen hours “rest.” It is found that the
eighteen hours “rest * renovates the soil, probably through the
action of oxygen and bacteria, so that the process may be
continuous. Mr. Mills uses sand beds, and gives about half
“work” and half “rest.” He states that 98 per cent of the
bacteria are removed. It will be interesting to hear further
details of this process, as applied to the purification of water for
domestic use.
* See Note 19, Appendix III.
CHAPTER XIV.
SERVICE OR CLEAN WATER RESERVOIRs—WATER TOWERs—
STAND PIPES.
Service Reservoirs.-The chief object of “service ’’ reser-
voirs is to hold a reserve of water, so that, the supply remaining
constant during the twenty-four hours, the consumption may vary
according to the requirements of the consumers. -
Were it not objectionable to vary the speed of filtration, and
were there sufficient reserve either in settling reservoirs or in an
impounding reservoir—or were the supply of water (say from a
large upland stream) larger than the maximum consumption—there
would, in most cases, be no particular object in having service
reservoirs, and the town might be “served” directly from the filter
beds. Indeed, this was by no means an unknown practice in some-
what earlier days. Enough has, however, been said already as
to the desirability of keeping filtering speed uniform, or at least
never permitting it to exceed a certain maximum. Seeing that it
is sufficient to provide that it does not exceed a certain maximum,
it is evident that service reservoirs might be dispensed with by
increasing the filtration area. An increase of about 60 per cent.
would be needed, and it is true that the cost of this might not, in
some cases, be as great as that of the otherwise necessary service
reservoirs, but the convenience of service reservoirs is so great for
other reasons than that of permitting the filtering speed to remain
uniform during the twenty-four hours, that the adoption of them
may now be said to be all but universal.
Another use of service reservoirs will be more fully dealt with
in treating of Distribution Systems; meantime it may be illus-
trated by a single case.
Let us suppose a town to be supplied by gravitation from an
impounding reservoir at a considerable distance, such distances, in
practice, amounting to anything up to sixty miles. It will be
K 2
I 32 TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’A/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
evident that, if the town is supplied directly by a main from the
impounding reservoir, this main must be capable of carrying a
quantity of water equal to the maximum consumption at any part
of any day. In other words, it must be capable of carrying at
least twice the mean consumption. If, on the other hand, there
be within, or near the town—the best possible position is in the
centre of the town—an elevated service reservoir into which the
water can gravitate from the impounding reservoir, to be dis-
tributed from the service reservoir, it is evident that (assuming
the service reservoir to have sufficient capacity) the main need
only be capable of carrying the maximum daily supply, or, say, 40
per cent. more than the mean supply. Thus the main need have
only about two-thirds the capacity with the service reservoir that
would be necessary without it.*
In the case of a long main from a reservoir at a considerable
height, besides the objection of having to make the main capable
of carrying absolute maximum consumption, and still give a fair
pressure in the mains, it often happens that there is further
trouble from excessive variation in pressure.
The Capacity of Service Reservoirs. — Until recently the
practice of engineers commonly was to make service reservoirs of
a very considerable capacity. Thus they were often made to
hold two or three (or even more) days’ consumption. There are
decided advantages in having such a capacity for storing clean
water, and this particularly in the case of pumping systems.
Thus the pumping engines could, in the case of an emergency, be
stopped for a day or two for repairs, so that there would be less
necessity for “stand-by.” pumping power than there is with only
a small reservoir; or it could be so arranged that the pumping
engines would have to work only during the daytime, and this is
a great advantage in the case of small instalments, where the
* In Japan, the waterworks of Hakodate and Nagasaki may be taken as
typifying these two cases. The water for Hakodate is taken from an upland stream,
with a discharge greater than the maximum daily consumption, the intake being at
a very considerable distance from the town. There is, however, a service reservoir
On the hill just at the back of the town, and, therefore, the main from the intake
need carry Only maximum daily supply. In the case of Nagasaki, on the other
hand, the supply is by gravitation from an impounding reservoir at Some distance
from the town, and there is no elevation in, or very near, the town, suitable
for an impounding reservoir. This being the case, it was necessary to make
the main from the reservoir to the town capable of carrying the maximum
quantity of water likely to be consumed at any time. It is true that, in this case,
the impounding reservoir being only a comparatively short distance from the town,
the advantage of a service reservoir would not be as great as it might be in many
cases; still, this case will serve to illustrate the point.
SAE A2 V/CAE A&AESAA VO/A2S. I 33
firing and attendance constitutes the greater part of the expense
of keeping a pumping station going. But above all there is the
advantage of having a reserve in case of fire.
In spite of all these advantages of a large service reservoir,
the modern tendency is to do with the smallest size of clean
water reservoir that will serve its purpose.
This tendency is part of the outcome of the modern study of
bacteriology, and the great weight now given to all sanitary con-
ditions. It has, as has already been stated, been found possible,
by careful sand filtration, or by any of one or two other means,
to get rid of far the greater number of micro-organisms that
all water contains. It is, however, found that, if the water thus
freed from the greater quantity of the microscopic life that it
contained is allowed to remain at rest for any considerable time,
the number of bacteria may increase very rapidly, and, so far as
Organic life goes, the water will tend to become as bad as it was
before filtration. *
As the effect of a water supply on the health of the popula-
tion supplied is now placed before all other considerations, the
advantages that there are in a large service reservoir are
commonly sacrificed for the sake of “hurrying through " the water
to the consumer. The case of a great fire can commonly be pro-
vided for by a “ by-pass" from the intake, the impounding
reservoir, or the settling reservoirs, allowing, as a matter of fact,
the river or the impounding or the settling reservoir to act the
part of a service reservoir for the time being, the water flowing
past the filter beds in the case of a great fire occurring. This
arrangement is, of course, not without its objection, as, in case the
by-pass comes into use, the result is to fill the mains with un-
filtered water, which is not completely cleared away from them for
some considerable time, so that the supply is really contaminated
every time that the by-pass comes into operation. Still, it is now
generally considered that the contingency of an occasional supply
of altogether unfiltered water is to be preferred to the continual
use of water deteriorated from too long storage after filtration.
Investigation has proved that, if a service reservoir has a
capacity corresponding to seven hours' mean supply,” it is capable
of compensating for the inequality of the consumption during the
twenty-four hours, even at times of maximum daily consumption,
and some engineers recommend that the total capacity of the
* Mr. Henry Gill, M.Inst.C.E.
I34 THE WA TEA S OW/2/2/. Y OF 7"O WAVS.
service reservoir be little or no greater than this. This (it seems
to the writer) is a case of rushing to the opposite extreme of old
practice. Nothing whatever is left for contingencies. Even in
the case of a small fire taking place at the time when the service
reservoir was nearly empty, it would be necessary to open the
by-pass, or to put into operation whatever special provision had
been made for fire extinction.
It is, of course, difficult to draw an even balance between the
advantages of a large service reservoir, and one of the least
capacity that will enable it to serve its purpose ; but the writer
ventures to suggest, tentatively at any rate, that the following
be adopted as a standard. The service reservoir should be made
large enough to hold ten hours' mean supply + a reserve for the
extinction of fires (the subject of provision for the extinction of
fires is fully treated in Chapter XIX.). Here it will be sufficient
to say that the quantity suggested is represented by the formula—
Q=200 aſ P.
Where
Q = the quantity of water, in cubic feet, to be stored for the special purpose
of fire extinction.
P=the population.
It will be found, in working out the quantities given by this
equation for different sizes of towns, that the allowance for fire
extinction is relatively less the larger the town. Thus, in the case
of a very large town, the special allowance will be only a fraction
of the ten hours' mean consumption, while in the case of very
small towns it will be found to amount to several times the mean
consumption of ten hours -
It is desirable to divide service reservoirs into several com-
partments, so that one may be cleaned at a time, and if a twelve
hours' supply be taken as the capacity of the whole reservoir, it is
evident that, if it be divided into three compartments, two of
them will still hold enough water to compensate for the variation
in consumption during the twenty-four hours. It is not, however,
really necessary, in the case of service reservoirs, when one com-
partment is off for cleaning, that the other two should have a
capacity sufficient to compensate for variation in the consumption
during the twenty-four hours during a time of maximum daily
consumption, because a clean water reservoir needs cleaning but
seldom, and it is generally possible to select a time for cleaning
when the daily consumption is not at its maximum, and when the
SEA IV/CE R/ZS EA’ WO/A2S. I 35
discharge through the filter beds will equal the maximum daily
discharge during the twenty-four hours, without exceeding the
filtering speed determined on. It is thus possible, by having a
by-pass that will allow the water to flow past the service reservoir,
to manage the cleaning of a whole reservoir that has no parting
division at all. In this case, however, there is, of course, at the
time of cleaning, no reserve for fire at all, so far as the service
reservoir is concerned. It is advisable, therefore, to have at least
one division, dividing the reservoir into two compartments.
Form of Service Reservoirs in plan.—As in the case of settling
reservoirs and filter beds, the form of service reservoirs is often
determined by that of the land that may be available. If, how-
ever, there be no restriction, the form is generally rectangular.
In some cases a circle has been selected as the form, because
the walls, in the case of moderate-sized reservoirs, acting as
horizontal arches, may be made thinner than they would have
to be made if calculated as retaining walls, and, indeed, by adopt-
ing the circular form the total length of wall is, in any case,
reduced to a minimum, as a larger area is included in a circle, than
in a plane of any other form having the same length of bounding
line. A circular form, however, generally involves waste of land.
Moreover, there is the question of covering with a roof–to be
treated presently—and the difficulty of this in the case of a circular
plan is much greater than in the case of a rectangular plan.
The rectangular plan may thus be considered the standard One,
but the writer has known cases where the top of a small conical
hill was the most suitable place for a service reservoir, and where
the circular plan was the only one that was found practicable.
Under this heading of the form of clean water reservoirs in
plan, may be considered the question of the motion of the water in
the reservoir. Conceding that it is desirable that the water be
stored for as short a time as possible in the clean water reservoir,
it is evident that the object of this short storage will be defeated
if the method of admitting and of drawing off the water be such
that a part of the water passes direct from the inlet to the outlet,
whilst another portion remains stagnant, or nearly so. For this
reason it has been the custom in Germany, for some time past, to
divide clean water reservoirs into several compartments by
partitions, open at opposite ends of the reservoir, much as shown
in Fig. 64 (p. 91). The water has thus to travel the length of
the reservoir several times, and stagnation is prevented. There is
not the same objection to this construction in the case of clean
I 36 TA/AE WA 7TA: A SOAA’/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
water reservoirs as in that of settling reservoirs, because, in the
case of the former a slight current is in no way objectionable.
It will be evident, if the system of piping represented diagram-
matically in Plate XXXVI. (p. 150) be adopted, and the pipes
from the filter well to the clean water reservoirs, and those from the
clean water reservoirs to the well delivering to the distribution
system, be each made large enough to carry the whole of the water,
that it will be possible to bring about the same result.
Depth of Clean Water Reservoirs. Although the
reason for the limitations in the depth is not exactly the same in
both cases, the depths given for settling reservoirs (see p. 86)
may be taken as applying to clean water reservoirs also.
Form of Clean Water Reservoirs in section.—Clean water
reservoirs are always, or nearly always, made with sides vertical,
Or having only a moderate internal batter, say not more than
2 inches in the foot. The bottom, as with settling reservoirs, may
with advantage have a slight slope towards a cleaning drain.
The Roofing of Clean Water Reservoirs. —There are several
reasons why clean water reservoirs should be roofed over. One is
that such roofing prevents the suspended dirt of the air from
settling on the purified water, and this necessity has been so
thoroughly realized for some time past that it has been enforced
by law so far as reservoirs at all near towns are concerned, in Great
IBritain, for many years past. It has, moreover, become a nearly
universal practice in Europe, and is a very common one in America.
Apart from the need of keeping the floating dirt of the air
out of reservoirs, there is the further necessity of preventing the
heating of the water by the sun's rays, and the vegetation that
would certainly ensue. The necessity for preventing the Sun's
rays from heating the water, is, of course, specially felt in countries
where the sun is for at least some part of the year nearly vertical.
This will be readily understood if it is remembered the greatest
draught of water is commonly in the morning, so that a service
reservoir is partly empty by the time noon arrives, with the sun
as nearly vertical as it will be during the day, and probably
continues to empty during the early part of the afternoon, whilst
the sun has still great heating power.
The form of roof used in Great Britain is in most cases that of
a series of brick or concrete arches supported on columns,” the
* If, instead of rows of columns, continuous partitions be built, supporting the
arches—each partition having an arched opening at One end, and the arched openings
being at alternate ends of the reservoir—the water will be kept well in motion, and
all stagnation will be avoided.
C/LAZA AV VA 7TAZA' A' AE SAE A* WO/A’.S. I 37
arches being commonly covered with two or three feet of soil.
Such a roof is practically impervious to heat, and keeps out all
floating impurities. It is somewhat costly, even if it be taken
into consideration that the side walls, acting as the abutments
of the arches, may be made considerably thinner than if they
had to sustain the whole thrust of the earth behind them as
retaining walls. In Plate XXXIII. (Figs. 137 to 141) a reservoir
with a roof such as is described is illustrated. It is necessary, of
course, to provide manholes for admission, and, if these be closed
with perforated covers, the covers will act as ventilators.
Tile or slate roofs have not all the advantages offered by arched
roofs of the kind that have just been described, but there may be
cases where, for economical reasons, it is considered advisable to
adopt them. Plate XXXIV. (Fig. 142) shows the section of a
reservoir with such a roof.
Materials for the Construction of Clean Water Reservoirs.-
The bottoms of clean water reservoirs are commonly made with
concrete, rendered in cement ; the side walls either with brick in
cement, or concrete, generally with a brick facing. Until com-
paratively recently puddle was relied on for water-tightness, but
as in the case of settling reservoirs, the modern tendency is to do
without clay. The following description of a service reservoir
made entirely of concrete may be usefully inserted here * :-
“Mr. Thomas Walker stated that in 1887–88 he constructed
a covered service reservoir to hold 5,000,000 gallons of water on
Addington Hill, near Croydon. It was made entirely of concrete,
no puddle having been used ; and, as the reservoir was perfectly
water-tight, a few particulars might be of interest to the
Institution.
“The hills were composed of the water-worn pebbles and fine
sands of the Oldhaven beds, and these materials were chosen for
the concrete, a portion of the sand being removed by screening.
The contour of the ground necessitated the reservoir being oblong ;
the inside dimensions were 420 feet by 124 feet by 163 feet deep.
The floor, outer walls, and roof were of Portland cement concrete,
6 to 1 by measure ; and for the piers and arches of the longitudinal
and cross walls, up to the springing level of the covering arches,
the proportions were 5 to 1, a little Thames sand being used. The
concrete was hand-made, turned over twice dry, wetted from a
rose on india-rubber tubing, and thoroughly mixed on wooden
* Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. C.
I 38 7THAE IVA 7TEA2 S OW/2/2/. Y OF 7TO WAVS.
platforms. It was not dropped from a height into its final
position, but placed there with a shovel in layers, not too thick, so
that the coarse and fine parts of the concrete were laid or mixed
together equally and well worked, ensuring solidity throughout.
Water was rather freely employed, but not so as to stand on the
surface of the concrete when in position. For joining up all old
work when it was set, grout made of one part of cement to two of
Oxted sand was used, and, when necessary, the old work was
cleansed, roughed over with a pick, and brushed before the grout
was applied. -. -
“The floor was 18 inches thick, put down in two layers with
overlapping joints. The inside of the outer walls (which re-
quired to be roughed) and the floor were carefully rendered,
the first coat , inch thick with cement and washed Thames
sand in the proportion of one to one of each, and the finishing
coat of + inch thick was of neat cement put on before the
first coat was quite set, and thoroughly trowelled to a hard face.
A double thickness of rendering was laid under the piers and on
the springing of the arches against the Outer walls. The rendering
might be said to line the floor and sides of the reservoir in every
part to 6 inches above overflow level. Fifteen slight vertical
cracks, that appeared in the Outer walls before they were rendered,
were cut in a V-shape, with a cross section of about 1 square foot,
and filled in with good concrete.
“Careful examination after the reservoir had been in use failed
to detect the slightest fracture in the rendering of any part of
the work. The outside of the concrete arches forming the roof
was covered with asphalt ; inch thick, in two coats, and was
found to be water-tight. The spandrels of the arches were in-
clined from the centre to the ends of the reservoir, and had 3-inch
land drains laid along them to carry off surface water. A party-
wall, 12 feet high across the reservoir, allowed the water on
either side of it to be run off independently of the other. The
main from the pumping station entered each division at the
springing level of the roof arches, which was also the overflow
level, and a water cushion was formed on the floor under each
inlet by walls 2 feet high inclosing a space 10 feet by 6 feet. The
surface of the hills over the reservoir has been restored, and
planted with heather as before.”
Water Towers.-This name is given to tanks, almost
always of wrought or cast iron, erected on the top of towers,
ſ
>
PLATE XXXIII.
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COVERED RESERVOIR: BRICK OR CONCRETE ARCHES ON COLUMNS, [To face page 138.




















PLATE XXXIV.
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FIG. 142.-RESERVOIR WITH TILE OR SLATE ROOF. - [To face page 138.








WA 7TP R 7TO WAEA’.S. I39
either of masonry or ironwork, and acting as service reservoirs.
Water towers are most commonly used in connection with pump-
ing systems.
It is evident that, unless tanks of the kind here men-
tioned be of such a size that they will hold sufficient water
to compensate for the variation in the consumption during the
twenty-four hours, they do not really serve as service reservoirs,
in the sense in which this term has been used up to the present.
Even when they do not they are of very considerable use, for it
is a great convenience, when pumping machinery has to be used,
to have a tank holding a supply corresponding even with the
consumption of an hour or two. Without this the speed of the
engines must absolutely follow the consumption of the water. It
is true that, with any capacity of tank not as great as about seven
hours' mean consumption, engines cannot work at a uniform speed
during the twenty-four hours, but must have the speed of working
varied from time to time. There is, however, in the practical
working of pumping machinery, a great difference between varying
the speed of an engine from time to time and in making it abso-
lutely follow a consumption that is varying from second to second.
Further than this—when, as is common in the case of large pump-
ing plant, the power is divided up amongst several sets of pumping
engines, of which one or more may have to work at a time,
according to the consumption—it is a great convenience to have
even a small service tank at the time that one engine is started to
help those already at work, or when one is stopped, because the
consumption is so slight that the engines at work are working at
too slow a speed to work economically. -
Pumping machinery has, however, been improved to such an
extent of late years, that the tendency is to do away with water
towers, unless it is feasible to make them of such a size that they
will compensate for the variation in consumption during the
twenty-four hours.
* Another use of water towers is to store a reserve of waterſ
in case of fire. A little consideration will show that such
reserve storage is much more necessary in small towns than in
large. The reason is that, in the case of a fire occurring, and
beginning (as it always does) with a single house, the actual \
quantity of water wanted for extinction is the same in the case \
of a small as in the case of a large town, and is of course pro-
portionately much greater in the case of the small town. So
also the spread of the fire, up to a certain point, is likely to be as
)
|
I4O THE WA 7TEA S UAE PAE V OA' TO WAVS.
rapid in the case of a small as in that of a large town, so that still
the same actual quantity of water is desirable in the small as in
the large town, and proportionately much more. Thus it happens
that, in the case of a small town, it should be possible to increase
the supply of water, for a short time at least, to several times the
maximum that is needed for Ordinary purposes, to provide against
fire ; whereas, in the case of a very large town, a mere fractional
increase on the Ordinary maximum supply will be sufficient for the
largest fire that is likely to occur. This can generally be provided
for by setting the “stand-by.” engines in motion. -
From what has been said it will be gathered that water towers,
to act as real service reservoirs, are desirable in the case of
small towns, when the system is a pumping one ; that they are
matters of convenience in the case of large towns, even if they are
not of so great a size as to act as actual service reservoirs, although
the tendency in this latter case is to dispense with them, and to
trust entirely to the pumping power.”
In any case, water towers are expensive structures. If made
large enough to constitute actual service reservoirs, their cost will
always form a large proportion of the whole cost of the works.
The writer does not know of any case in which water-tower tanks
have been made of capacity large enough actually to serve as service
reservoirs, in the sense of compensating for variation in the consump-
tion during the twenty-four hours, for waterworks on a large scale.
Two water towers are illustrated on Plate XXXV. (Figs.
143, 144, 145). Fig. 143 shows a water tower used in connection
with the recently opened Liverpool waterworks, of which Mr.
G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E., was engineer. This water tower is
not used to perform exactly the function above described as that
of a water tower, but it very well might be. The tower itself
is of masonry, and the design is one of real beauty. The design
of the tank itself—a dish of wrought iron without support except
at the edge—is a bold and admirable one.
The tower shown in Figs. 144 and 145, on the same Plate, is
a composite structure of cast and wrought iron. It forms part of the
Shanghai waterworks (Engineer, Mr. J. W. Hart, M.Inst.C.E.),
* In earthquake countries water towers are to be avoided if possible. They are
of necessity top-heavy structures, and specially likely to overset at the time of an
earthquake. The destruction caused by the bursting of the tank at the top of a
water tower, or by the upsetting or overturning of the tower, is likely to be very
great. If water towers have to be erected in earthquake countries, it would seem
that the supports of the tanks were best to be made of wrought iron only. A
compound structure of wrought and cast iron is particularly to be avoided.
Masonry structures appear to be safer.
WVA 7TAZAZ 7TO WAEA’S. I4 t
and the design has been much admired. The following description
of the tower, which stands on a foundation of solid concrete, is
taken from the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
vol. C., p. 223 —
“The superstructure for supporting the tank is exclusively of
iron; octagonal in form, 52 feet 6 inches in diameter from centre
to centre of the columns. There are twenty-four columns erected
in the three tiers of eight each. They are 26 feet long from face
to face of the flanges. The sole-plates for the columns are 3 feet
6 inches square and bed direct on the granite piers built in the
brickwork. The sole-plate for supporting the centre tube is cast
in one piece, with apertures and suitable flanges for the reception
of inlet, outlet, and Overflow pipes. It weighs 5% tons.
“The column sole-plates are connected with and bolted to the
centre tube sole-plate by cast-iron radial girders bedded on the
coping-stones of the radial wall of the foundation walls of the
foundation. These walls radiate from the sole-plate for the
central tube to each pier. -
“The sole-plates and the radial girders are secured in position
by 13-inch foundation bolts built into the brickwork and piers.
By connecting the sole-plates of each of the columns with the
sole-plate of the centre tube by means of the radial girders in the
manner described, the whole weight to be supported is evenly
distributed over the surface of the foundation, and the risk of the
columns spreading or of inequality of pressure in case of settle-
ment is in this manner reduced to a minimum. The centre tube
is 6 feet in diameter, 82 feet 6 inches long, made of boiler-plate
3-inch thick. At the base a strong angle flange-plate riveted to
the tube is bolted to a corresponding flange cast on the sole-plate,
and a perfectly watertight joint is thus made. At the top end of
the tube there is a similar flange-plate, to which are riveted the four
plates of the tank. Eight vertical stiffening ribs of T iron, bedded
into the lower and upper flange-plates, are riveted to the side of the
tube, which thus forms a rigid central column, and does duty with
the Outer columns in supporting the tank and the water therein.
“It also serves the purpose of an ordinary stand-pipe, when it
is found desirable to work with a varying head of water. This
can be done during the greater part of the day, without reducing
the pressure below what is necessary to meet the usual require-
ments of the highest building in the settlement.
“To secure the greatest rigidity, the columns of each tier are
connected at the capitals with tie-girders made in halves, and
I42 TH AE WA 7TP R S UAE’A/L Y OF TO WAVS.
bolted together in the centre, the ends being fastened to flanges
cast on each column.
“Over the centre connecting-joint of the girders an ornamental
shield is placed in the form of a keystone, to screen the flanges
and bolts. Radial tie-girders of light wrought-iron lattice-work
connect the centre tube and the columns, one end of the girders
being bolted to the capitals of each of the columns in the same
manner as the ornamental girders which connect the columns of
each tier, while the other end is provided with a gusset-plate
riveted to the T vertical stiffening ribs of the central tube. The
diagonal bracing consists of screw tie-rods 1, inch in diameter in
every bay between the columns, and radially in every bay between
the columns and the centre tube. There is an ornamental centre
box for receiving the screw ends of the tie-rods; and by means of
screw-nuts inside the box each rod is tightened and adjusted.
“The top or floor girders for supporting the tank and water
are of steel of the lattice type. The outer ends rest direct on the
column flanges to which they are bolted, and to ensure even settle-
ment there is a sheet of lead 3-inch thick between the bed-plate of
the girders and the flange of each of the columns. The inner ends
of the girders next the centre tube have strong gusset-plates with
cheek angle-irons, firmly riveted to the vertical stiffening bars of
T iron and to the sides of the centre tube, so that the whole
weight to be supported is transmitted between the outer cast-iron
columns and the centre tube. In addition to the eight principal
steel floor-girders, they are also connected with intermediate
girders, the whole forming a suitable platform to receive the
hard-wood joists upon which the floor of the tank rests. -
“The tank is 50 feet diameter by 12 feet 3 inches deep, and
contains 670 tons of water. It is made of boiler-plate, the floor-
plates being 3-inch thick, and the side-plates 3- to #-inch thick.
The floor-plates are riveted to, and connected with the upper
flange of the centre tube, and are bedded on hard-wood joists,
resting on the steel floor-girders. The tank is stayed inside with
stiffening bars of T iron riveted to the side and the floor-plates,
to which are secured diagonal gusset stay-plates. There are also
screw stay-bolts from the side plates of the tank to the centre
column which supports the roof.
“The roof is of light construction, the principal and inter-
mediate rafters are of angle-iron, One end being riveted to the
side-plates of the tank, while the other is bolted to a flange-plate
on the top of the central column. This column rises from the
|AVA 7TEA’ TO WAE R.S. * I 43
floor-plates and supports the roof, bolted between another set of
flanges of the centre column. There is a wrought-iron plate, and
to this plate are fastened struts, which radiate at equal distances for
stiffening and supporting the rafters. The roof is covered with
corrugated galvanized iron, and closely resembles the structure of
an ordinary umbrella when open. Round the tank there is a
gallery 6 feet wide, supported by light cantilevers fastened to the
ends of the steel floor-girders. To screen the water from the sun,
the gallery roof is pitched to an acute angle.
“To approach the top and intermediate galleries from the
foundation, there is a set of spiral steps fastened to the centre
tube, and there are landings at the level of each tier of columns.
These facilities for inspection place the tank and the whole super-
structure at all times under immediate view, and render them
accessible for painting and repairs.
Sº. Nº. Nº.
* V * *
**
*/S
“The outlet aperture is cast on the sole-plate of the centre
tube in the same way as the inlet aperture, and Over the outlet,
inside the centre tube, there is a large strainer, through which the
water must pass before leaving the tower.
** •7 -St. --
*S
“To provide against the risk of flooding the tank by over-
pumping, there is, inside the centre tube, an overflow pipe,
20 inches in diameter, with a large bell-mouth at full-water level.
The overflow water escapes through the aperture in the sole-plate
of the centre tube, and is discharged into a well with a division-wall
to break the fall, and then runs to waste through the public drains.
-\º- Z- -Y-
^
** *S -->
“The total height of the water tower from the roadway to the
crest of the terminal on the roof is 121 feet. -
->{- ->{- .*º- cº-
& e ** 7 º’
“When the tank is full the total weight to be supported is
3,725 tons. -
-Y-
-\º-
&\ **
“The following sums represent the total cost of the water-
tower, exclusive of land :—
“Cost of superstructure, including meters, reflux and other valves sº
and other accessories, with freight and insurance tº . 5,378
“Cost of foundation, earthwork, brickwork, and masonry . . 4,371
“Cost of erecting superstructure and riveting tank . e . 2,100
$11,849
I44 7A/A2 WA 7TEA S UA’A’/ Y OF 7TO WAVS.
“The tower has been subject to severe strains by several
typhoons, and not a single defect has been discovered. Except as
regards the cost of painting and cleaning, the cost of maintenance
has been mºl.” -
Stand-pipes.—It is not possible to draw any hard-and-fast
line between water towers and stand-pipes. It will have been
observed that, in the description of the water tower just given, it
is mentioned that, in certain circumstances, the central tube may
act as a stand-pipe. On the other hand, stand-pipes may act as
water towers, in the sense that they may perform the functions
ascribed above to water towers. If, in the case of the water tower
just described, instead of there being a composite iron structure
to carry a wrought-iron tank, there had been built up from the
foundation block of concrete, a boiler-plate shell of the whole
diameter of the tank, so arranged that the water could be pumped
into it at the foot, and could rise to the level it is intended to rise
to in the tank—if, in other words, the depth of the tank had been
made from the present high-water level, right down to the founda-
tion block—it is evident that, as holding a reserve of water, the
arrangement would be as efficient as that actually used, in fact
much more so, for although the whole of it could not be drawn
off except at a gradually diminishing pressure, there would
be a much larger reserve of water. Yet the structure now
suggested would probably be called a stand-pipe rather than a
water tower by many. In fact, a structure for storing a certain
reserve of water may be called a stand-pipe when it is in the
form of a tube or shell, with parallel sides from the level of
the ground upwards. When the upper part is of compara-
tively large diameter, in practice needing some farther support
than the mere tube forming the lower part, it is generally called
a water tower. -
There is another distinction in practice, however. A water
tower generally includes a tank for holding a supply of water of
such quantity that the engines pumping into it may be stopped
for a short time if necessary, and ought when practicable to hold
such a supply of water as will compensate for the irregularity in
consumption during the twenty-four hours. A stand-pipe often
holds only as much water as could be pumped by the engines in
a few minutes, and acts merely as a “cushion * to the engines,
preventing shocks on the pipes, and giving the engines time to
get up speed when the demand for water increases, and to slow
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Fig. 145–Ground Plan of Water Tower at Shanghai.
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Fig. 144.—Water Tower (in Cast and Wrought iron) at Shanghai.
PLATE XXXV.
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?ig. 143.—Water Tower (in Masonry) at Liverpool.
[To face page 144.
WATER TOWERS AT LIVERPool AND SHANGHAI.








S. ZTAAW/O_/2/A2A S. 145
down “comfortably" when the demand decreases, instead of being
quickly “drawn up.” &
The action of a stand-pipe as just described is diagrammatically
illustrated in Fig. 146. Here s w stands for suction well, P for
pumps, E for engines, F M for forcing main, S P for stand-pipe, and
M for main to distribution system. It will be evident to any one
with the slightest knowledge of mechanics how a float within the
stand-pipe might be caused to actuate a valve, or better, the lever
controlling a differential expansion gear, on the pumping engines,
so as to control their speed with the utmost nicety—exactly, in
fact, as the “ accumulator’ controls the speed of the pumping
engines in a high-pressure “hydraulic system ’’ such as is

º
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Fig. 146.—Diagram illustrating action of a stand-pipe.
commonly used in working cranes, coal hoists, capstans, &c.,
around docks, and, in many cases, the greater part of the sub-
sidiary machinery on board large steamships. Stand-pipes (so-
called) may have any diameter from (say) 2 feet to 40 feet.*
The question of stand-pipes cannot be left without saying a
word or two concerning one practice of engineers in connection
with stand-pipes. These, especially when of moderate diameter,
are sometimes made double, in the form of a “breeches-pipe,”
* See Fanning’s “Treatise on Hydraulic and Water-Supply Engineering ” (Fourth
edition), in which a chapter, very fally dealing with the subject, is specially devoted
to Stand-pipes.
|ſ,
I46 THE IVA TER S UPP/L Y OF TO WAVS.
one leg being a rising pipe, another a falling, and there being a
certain farther height of pipe above the junction.
It would seem that some engineers conceive that this arrange-
ment offers some advantage over the single pipe shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 146. But it is difficult to imagine, with modern
pumping machinery, any advantage that can arise from the arrange-
ment, whilst it is easy to point out many disadvantages that attach
to it. Thus, in the case of a sudden demand for a large supply of
water, the level of the water in the leg down which the water flows
will fall below the junction, and the engines will merely be pumping
water up to the junction to fall over it on the other side. In other
words, they are pumping up water for the sake of merely allowing
it to fall down again in a cascade within a pipe Further than this,
the engines, pumping against a constant head, or, at any rate, a
head whose minimum is up to the junction of the two pipes, will
not respond to the demand for a large increase in the supply of
water—most likely to occur in the case of a fire, when it ought to
be met if it can by any possibility : whereas, were the stand-pipe
arranged as shown in the diagram, the pressure against which the
engine has to pump is reduced ; the engine is able, within limits,
to increase the quantity of water pumped; and yet the reduction
of pressure in the mains is less than with the breeches-piece
stand-pipe.
This double stand-pipe was necessary, or nearly so, with some
of the older forms of pumping machinery, which would not work
efficiently except against a constant head. It was probably
adopted with somewhat more modern pumping machinery, to pre-
vent an accident in case of a burst in the mains not very far from
the engines, in which case the latter might “run away ’’ and do
serious damage. At the present time it is easy to provide against
this contingency in any of various ways much less clumsy and
expensive than that of providing a double stand-pipe, and double
stand-pipes may be said to be relics of antiquity.
In the case of water towers it is common to have two pipes,
one rising and the other falling, with a by-pass between them at
the foot to be used when the tank at the top of the tower has to
be put out of use for a time for cleaning or repairs, but even this
is not at all necessary. A single tube will serve all purposes,
as in the case of the tower for the Shanghai waterworks described
in this chapter. During the time of cleaning or repairing the
tank, the pumping can be regulated so that the level of the water
in this tube—a stand-pipe in reality—does not quite reach the
S 7TA AV/O-A2/A2/E.S. I47
tank. The only inconvenience is a slight temporary reduction in
the pressure on the mains.
The modern tendency is to substitute air-vessels for stand-pipes
used merely for the purpose of “cushioning " pumping engines;
the stand-pipes are always expensive structures. The air-vessels
may be made of wrought-iron, as large as is necessary for prevent-
ing shocks in pipes, or the over-sudden increase or diminution in
the speed of engines, however large the pumping plant may be.
More will be said about water towers and stand-pipes in the
chapter on Distribution Systems.
CHAPTER XV.
THE CONNECTION OF SETTLING RESERVoIRs, FILTER-BNDs,
- AND SERVICE RESERVOIRS.
A Typical System of Waterworks.-A typical water-
works system may be said to consist of (1) settling reservoirs; (2)
filtering beds; and (3) clean water (or service) reservoirs, although,
as has been explained, there may be many departures from such
a typical case. Even when such a case does occur, it will often
happen that the conditions make it advisable that the various
appliances be placed in localities somewhat separated from
each other, and it seldom happens that a perfectly symmetrical
arrangement, such as that shown in Plate XXXVI. (Fig. 147), can
be carried out in practice. Such a hypothetical case is taken,
however, for the sake of illustrating certain points. The general
arrangement will be understood without any explanation further
than to say that s R stands for settling reservoir, F B for filtering
bed, and C W R for clean water reservoir. The relative capacities
and areas are taken as within the limits already laid down.
Mention has been made of by-passes and of overflow pipes,
and although nothing has specially been said about the con-
necting pipes, it will of course be understood that there must be
such pipes” to carry water from settling reservoirs to filter-beds,
and from filter-beds to clean water reservoirs. It seems necessary
to give a few words of explanation about these different pipes.
In the first place, let it be understood that in Plate XXXVI.
connecting or distributing pipes are shown in full lines, by-passes
in common dotted lines, and waste and overflow pipes in chain-
dotted lines. Further, that various letters have the following
meanings:–s y, sluice-valve, O, Overflow, W P, waste-pipe, S P,
stand-pipe or floating pipe, B v, ball valve, or valve actuated by a
* In the case of very large waterworks, it is an economy to substitute open
channels for pipes, in distributing the water as far as the filter beds. Open
channels, for the purpose here indicated, are being adopted in Japan, by the author's
advice, in both the Tokyo and the Osaka waterworks.
AA' A' AAVG F / EAV7 OA, WA 7TA: A WOR / S. I49.
float to keep water at a constant level, and F H, an appliance for
regulating the filtering-head. :
Connecting or Distributing Pipes. – These may be
arranged in various ways, but the writer thinks that by adopting
the arrangement shown in Plate XXXVI. the pipes are all con-
veniently under control, those for any one set of appliances being
controlled at one or two “wells.” It is, however, necessary to say
a word or two about the diameters of the pipes.
In every case it would be possible to calculate the diameter of
a pipe, taking as data (1) the quantity of water that has to pass
through it in unit time, (2) the length of the pipe, and (3) the
“head " of water that may be sacrificed in carrying the water
through the pipe, using any standard formula for the discharge of
water through “short pipes; ” but if this be done, it is necessary
to state what the “head" is to be, and practically such statement
comes merely to assuming a certain head. Such being the case, it
seems a reasonable course to take a certain velocity, such as is
known to be thoroughly under control, and such as will not, in the
lengths of pipe that are likely to occur in arrangements such as
that illustrated in Plate XXXVI., use up, or waste, any head that
will interfere in any way with the general working of the system.
Taking this into consideration, the writer has been in the habit of
giving such diameters to the pipes at present under consideration,
that the maximum velocity shall not exceed 3 feet per second.
In other words, the area of cross-section of a pipe may be made
d
a = g .
3
Whero -
a = the area of the cross-section of the pipe in square feet.
d = the maximum discharge in cubic feet per second.
From what has already been said, it will be understood that,
if the water is to circulate through the various compartments of the
clean water reservoirs, so as to prevent any likelihood of stagnation,
it is necessary to make each pipe to and from each clean water
reservoir of such diameter that it will satisfy these conditions
By-passes.—The object of by-passes, or by-pass pipes, is to
so arrange matters that in case of need the water may be allowed
to pass by any single reservoir or filter-bed, or set of reservoirs or
filter-beds. The reason why it is desirable to be able to put any
single reservoir or filter-bed “out of circuit" will readily be under-
stood, as all of these have to be put off work at times for cleaning.
It will also be readily understood why it may, in case of fire, be
H5O THE WATER SUPPLY OF Towys.
desirable to allow the water to pass by any set of reservoirs or
filter-beds. It need only be further added that it is well, in
designing the pipe systems in connection with filter-beds and
reservoirs, to so arrange them that any One, or any number, of
either filter-beds or reservoirs may be “passed by ” if this seems
desirable at any time.” If the system diagrammatically illustrated
in Plate XXXVI. be examined, it will be readily understood how
this can be done. Here (as has been said) the main supply.
pipes are shown in full lines, the pipes that are intended to act as
by-passes only as dotted lines, and the pipes that act as overflow
and waste-pipes as chain-dotted lines.
Overflow and Waste Pipes.—It is difficult to give any
rule for the diameters of these pipes. Overflow pipes ought to be
made of such a diameter that they will carry away the whole of
the supply to the reservoir or filter-bed, in case the discharge from
it be entirely shut off, but they are seldom made so large.
In the case of waste pipes we may be guided by the following
considerations. It is undesirable to waste much time in running
water away when an appliance has to be cleaned. On the other
hand, it is seldom, or never, that the whole of the water is run off
such an appliance by the waste pipe. As much as possible is
allowed to go off by the discharge pipe, and then the remainder
is allowed to run to waste. For example, in the case of a settling
reservoir, or a clean-water reservoir, we may assume that it will
never be necessary to run more than about 3 or 4 feet of water to
waste. We should, therefore, make the waste pipe of such a
diameter that this water may run to waste in, say, 3 hours. Of
course the rate of discharge keeps changing as the appliance
becomes emptier. For the sake of calculation, however, it will be
near enough to assume the depth of water as constant at #rds of
the depth from which we begin to run to waste. For example,
in the above case, we would assume water of a constant depth of
2 feet to 2 feet 8 inches. Any good formula for the velocity of
the flow of water in short pipes may be used, or the diameters
may be taken from tables (see Chapter XVII.).
* The importance of this will be particularly appreciated in an earthquake
country, where it is specially necessary to make provision against unknown seismic
disturbances.
PLATE XXXVI.
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[To face page 150.
FIG. 147.—TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR WATERWORKS.




CHAPTER XVI.
PUMPING MACHINERY.
IT is barely necessary even to mention that pumping machinery
is one of the most important adjuncts of many waterworks; and
that, as a breakdown of such machinery may mean a total stoppage
of supply and a “water famine,” it is of the utmost importance that
the machinery be reliable. Further than this, as the consumption
of coal, in the case of pumping systems, is one of the most con-
siderable of the expenses of working, it is necessary that the
machinery be efficient in the sense of raising the greatest possible
quantity of water per unit of coal burned, or (as it would perhaps
be better to put it) that the consumption of coal should be the
smallest possible for the quantity of water that has to be raised.
For these reasons, it is most desirable that civil engineers
should have some knowledge of the principles of pumping
machinery, although it is not absolutely necessary that they
should understand all details, these being a department of
mechanical engineering. Indeed, however much a civil engineer
may know about pumping machinery, the writer is of opinion that
he should leave the details of construction to the makers of pump-
ing engines, specifying with the utmost precision the work that
the engines have to do, the position in which they are to be
placed, and so forth. The makers of pumping machinery are
certain to know more of the details of such machinery than most
civil engineers. Elaborate specification, have generally the effect
of hampering the makers, and result in machinery inferior to what
would be got were the specifications confined to the general style
of the engine, the work it is to do, the duty it is to develop per
pound of coal, and the position it is to occupy, the makers being
permitted to tender for the form of engines they prefer to make.
Number and Type of Pumping Engines.—It is always
e * |
necessary to have a certain proportion of “stand-by.” power. In
I 52 7TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’/2/, Y OF 7TO WAVS.
N--
other words, there must be more pumping engines than are at any
time needed in actual work, so that at least one engine at a time
may be laid off for cleaning and repairs, and may be ready to be
|put in action in the case of a break-down of any of the other
engines. In the case of small waterworks it is common to have
double the quantity of power needed, in the form of two pumping
engines, either of which is capable of doing all the work. The
reason for this is that the first cost would probably be rather
increased than otherwise, by subdividing the work more, when
the engines are very small, even although the total horse-power
might be less. Thus suppose the total horse-power needed were
six I.H.P. Two engines of six I.H.P. each would probably not
cost more than three of three I.H.P. each ; moreover, in work, the
efficiency of the one pumping engine of six I.H.P. would be greater
than that of the two of three I.H.P. each. Of course there is no
hard-and-fast line between small and large works, but it may be
very roughly said that it is not advisable to subdivide the pump-
ing power into more than two engines if, by so doing, separate
engines of less than ten I.H.P. each have to be adopted.
In the case of large waterworks, the stand-by power need only
equal one-third, one-fourth, or, in the case of very large works,
perhaps one-fifth of the whole, there being, in such case, three,
four, or five pumping engines.”
In the case of large works, it is most economical to pump
during the whole twenty-four hours, but, in the case of small
works it is not so, as the cost for attendance during the whole of
this time would be proportionately excessive. In the case of
small works it is generally advisable to have an engine consider-
ably larger than is necessary to pump at the rate of maximum
daily consumption, and to work it for only a portion of the twenty-
four hours, pumping directly into a high-level reservoir or tank—
that is, of course, One engine besides the stand-by.
The following table, giving the number of hours of working
* In the case of Tokyo, Japan, there are to be three pumping stations. Each
pumping station is to have four pumping engines, and three of these working at
each station will be amply capable of supplying the present population of 1,200,000.
There is, however, provision for fixing a fifth set of engines at each station, when
four of these at work in each station will be amply sufficient for a population of
1,600,000. •
In the case of Osaka, there are to be three sets of centrifugal pumps for raising
the water from the river to the settling reservoirs, any two of them being capable
of supplying water enough for a population of 800,000. There are also to be five
sets of main engines, any four of them being capable of supplying the same
population. -
A UMA2/AWG MA CA///VAEA Y. I53
considered advantageous in the case of waterworks for towns, is
slightly modified from Hennell, the towns being graded according
to population —
Hours during which
Population. it is proposed to * *::::
pump.
5 ()() 4. 1}
1,000 6 1;
2,000 I () 2
3,000 1() 3
5,000 1() 5
6,000 1() 6
8,000 1() 8
10,000 } () 10%
20,000 16 12;
30,000 24. 12;
50,000 24. gº 21
60,000 24. 25}
80,000 24. 33;
100,000 24 42
500,000 24 2 I ()
I,000,000 24 421
It may at first sight seem that, while going to the length of
sixteen hours, it would be just as well to pump during the
twenty-four hours, but there is a decided advantage in working for
only sixteen hours, as this makes two reasonable “shifts” of
men, whereas twenty-four hours is too long for two shifts.
Further, the eight hours are convenient for small repairs.
General Style of Pumps.-For moderate lifts the centri-
fugal pump is very fairly efficient, and its great compactness, and
(when by a good maker) the very small amount of repairing that
it needs, recommend it strongly. It is not possible to give an
exact limit to the lift up to which centrifugal pumps may with
advantage be adopted, but it may be very roughly said that they
are not to be recommended for lifts beyond about 25 feet, unless
compactness of machinery is a first consideration and the consump-
tion of coal only a secondary One. Of late years the “Archimedean’
screw pump has been revived, and (the writer understands) has
given great efficiency in the case of moderate lifts.
For high lifts either single-acting (plunger) or double-acting
(piston, or bucket-and-plunger) pumps may be used, but the modern
tendency is to adopt the latter rather than the former. In the
plunger-pump, water is drawn during the up-stroke and is
iſ 54. THE WA 7TEA S UAEA’/ V OA; 7"O WAVS.
discharged during the down-stroke only, so that the delivery is
intermittent, unless there are several pumps. The Cornish and
Bull engines, often seen at the pit-mouths of mines, but not now
very often manufactured, are examples of plunger pumps. They
were formerly extensively used for waterworks, but (so far as the
writer knows) are now never erected, although there are probably
some old pumps still in use.
A piston pump needs no particular explanation, being simply a
pump with a piston of the same character as in a steam engine.
The bucket-and-plunger pump is really the equivalent of the piston
pump. The cross-section of the piston-rod or “plunger” has half
the area of that of the cylinder and piston. At the down-stroke
one-half the contents of the cylinder is forced into the main, the
other half passes to the upper side of the piston or “bucket ; ” at
the up-stroke the water on the upper side of the piston is forced
into the main, and the cylinder fills with water again under the
piston. The bucket-and-plunger has the advantage of reducing
the number of pump-valves to one-half of those necessary with a
double-action pump.
Pumps may be either horizontal or vertical, but the writer
considers that there are distinct advantages in the vertical form.
In the case of horizontal engines the “in-stroke "-that towards
the cylinder—corresponds with the “up-stroke” in vertical pumps.
Types of Engines.—Steam engines for working pumps
may be divided into direct and crank-shaft with fly-wheel engines.
In direct engines the piston-rod of the engine and the piston-rod of
the pump, or the plunger, are continuous, and there is no crank-
shaft or fly-wheel. A typical direct engine is arranged in the
following way. There are two cylinders side by side, the steam to
each being controlled by an ordinary three-ported slide valve. We
have to imagine steam admitted to the end of One cylinder, the
piston of which is consequently moving towards the other end.
When it comes to a certain distance from this end it strikes a lever
which actuates the slide valve of the other cylinder. The other
piston then begins to travel, and, when it has to a certain extent
approached the other end of the cylinder, it in its turn strikes a
lever that actuates the slide-valve of the first-mentioned cylinder,
causing it to travel over, so as to admit steam to the opposite side
of the piston from that which was supposed to be receiving steam at
first. In fact, each piston actuates the slide valve that admits steam
to actuate the other piston. This is a description of a very crude
/2 UM/A/AWG MACH/AWEA Y. I 55
form of direct pump, but they all depend on the same principle.
Often, however, one of the two cylinders is only a very small one,
whose sole duty is to actuate the slide-valve of the large cylinder.
Direct engines of this kind are quite self-acting, and for
this reason are very convenient. Up to their limit of capacity
they pump just whatever quantity of water may be demanded of
them, and they have the further advantage of being compara-
tively compact. They are, however, very uneconomical, simply
“shoving ” the water ahead, without any expansion of steam.
Of late years, however, direct engines have been vastly improved
in the matter of economy, firstly by “compounding,” and after-
wards by the introduction of “high-duty gear.” This gear is
of various forms, but the object is always the same—namely, to
absorb a certain quantity of power at the beginning of the stroke,
and to give it out again towards the end—so that the steam may
work expansively in the cylinder. It is claimed for some of the
most modern direct-engines, with high-duty gear, that they give
the same duty as a fly-wheel engine of good design working at the
same pressure, or even a higher duty.
The oldest form of crank-shaft and fly-wheel engine is the beam
engine. This form of engine is still occasionally recommended,
but it is gradually falling out of use, greatly because of the very
expensive foundations that it involves. More commonly the
crank-shaft is now placed between the cylinders of the pumps and
the pumps, or beyond the end of the cylinders remote from the
pumps, a tail rod being carried from the piston through the
cylinder-cover remote from the pumps.
The advantage of the crank-shaft form of pumping engine is,
of course, that the steam may be worked expansively. The
disadvantage is to be found in space occupied.
A crank-shaft engine has nearly always at least two cylinders.
The worst form of pumping engine with a crank-shaft is that in
which there is only one single or double-acting pump, worked by
the piston of one of the cylinders, the work of the other cylinder
being all transmitted through the crank-shaft. In the first place,
it is objectionable to transmit the whole of the work of One
cylinder of an engine through the crank-shaft, on account of the
violent strains set up : in the second place, a single pump is very
unequal in its delivery of water.
With two pumps, as well as two cylinders, the cranks at right
angles, as is commonly the case in all kinds of two-cylinder
engines, the delivery of the water is much more uniform ; but
I 56 7A/AE WA 7TA: K S ÜAA’/ Y OF 7"O WAVS.
there is a great advantage in the use of what is known as a
“three-throw ’’ engine—that is to say, one in which there are three
cylinders, each working a pump, preferably double-acting, with
three cranks at angles of 180°. The delivery of water from such
an engine is nearly quite uniform. This is specially important in the
case of engines that have to pump directly into distribution-mains.
Steam pumping-engines may also be divided into condensing
and non-condensing engines. The superior economy of condens-
ing over non-condensing engines need not be dwelt on, and it
is almost universal to have condensers with pumping-engines of
any considerable size. In the case of very small pumping plant,
it is scarcely advisable to go to the expense of condensers. The
reason for this is that, in the case of small pumping plant, the
actual price of coal forms only a comparatively small item in the
working expenses, whilst the saving effected by a condenser is
proportionably less than in the case of large plant. As already
mentioned, it is not possible to draw any exact line between small
and large plant, but the writer may state that he would scarcely
consider it advisable to specify condensing engines, unless the total
ten or more actual HP. were to be in use at One time.
Condensers are either “jet " or “surface.” In the case of the
former, the condensing water actually enters the condenser in the
form of a jet, and has to be pumped out again, at the expenditure
of some power, by the “air-pump.” In the surface condenser, the
condensing water and the steam do not come in contact, being
separated by the large surface of a great number of small tubes.
The jet condenser is considerably cheaper than the surface con-
denser, but it is not well suited to engines that have to work at a
varying velocity. It should not, therefore, be used except in the
case of pumping engines that can be run at a nearly uniform
speed. .
When a surface condenser is used for pumping engines, it is not
necessary to have a separate “circulating pump,” as in the case of
other forms of engines with circulating surface condensers, as the
main water pumped by the engine itself may be allowed to act as
circulating water. It will not be heated to any appreciable extent.
Bumping engines are further divided into simple, compound,
triple expansion (or tri-compound), and quadruple eacpansion.
The object of compounding is to permit of the use of a greater
expansion of steam than can be utilized in the case of simple
engines, without excessive strain on the working parts and the
framing or bed-plate.
PUMA/NG MACHINER Y. I 57
As in the case of condensers, so in that of compounding. It is
not generally worth the expense of compounding in the case of
very small plant. The writer would incline to specify simple high-
pressure engines without condensers, unless there were more than
a total of twenty I.H.P. to be in use at One time, but of course
this is an entirely empirical limit. (The subject of triple and
compound and of triple-expansion engines will be treated later
on in this chapter, in the paragraphs on the Duty of Pumping
Engines.) So far as the writer knows, quadruple engines have
not been used for pumping, and he thinks it scarcely likely they
will be, for a very considerable time at least, although he knows
of a case where they were proposed.
Yet again, pumping engines are divided into vertical and
horizontal. There are advocates for both forms of engine, and
probably each has its advantages. The writer is strongly in favour
of vertical engines, but possibly this is a matter of prejudice.
Length of Suction of Pumps. – In every technical
work in which pumps are touched on at all, we are told that
the atmosphere will balance a column of water 34 feet high,
somewhat more or less, according to the height of the barometer,
but that in practice pumps will not satisfactorily draw more than
about 26 or 28 feet. All this is true, but it would really seem
that some engineers have come to the conclusion that all pumps
ought to be given such suctions. Such a view is certainly a mis-
taken one. It is only with special precautions that a pump will
work satisfactorily with such suctions; and it may be said that it
is almost impossible to make a pump of a form that has a very
variable discharge—such as, for example, is given by one double-
acting pump-work satisfactorily with such suctions except at a
very slow rate. The probabilities are that, at any moderate rate,
the pump will not fill, and at the turn of the stroke the piston will
meet the rising column of water with a violent blow that will
endanger the pump and the valve casings. The writer has known
more cases of trouble, in connection with pumping machinery, to
rise from too long suctions than from almost any other cause. It
may be laid down as a rule, that every effort should be made to
keep the suction of a pumping engine as short as possible ; and
further, that any kind of pumping engine will work most smoothly
when the water actually gravitates into the pump. ' , ,
It will of course be understood that when length of suction, or
height of suction, is mentioned here, vertical height is referred to.
I 58 THE WA 7'EA S (VP/2/. Y OF 7 O WAVS.
Length horizontally is not nearly so detrimental, but it is to be
avoided if possible, as it increases the weight of water that has to
be set in motion and stopped at every stroke, or that, at any
rate, has to have its velocity augmented and retarded. Especially
when the vertical limit is nearly reached, every foot of horizontal
length increases the trouble. For this reason pumping wells should,
whenever possible, be immediately below the pumps.
It is to be observed that the suction is to be measured from
the surface of the water to be pumped, to the highest point of the
inside of the pump barrel, whether this be horizontal or vertical.
It will readily be seen that a vertical engine has an advantage
over a horizontal one in this matter of suction. In the case of a
vertical engine the pump may be, and, indeed, commonly is, fixed
below the engine-room floor, and, in fact, it may be placed as low as
may be considered necessary or advisable.
If a long suction is inevitable, “three-throw ’’ pumps should be
adopted, as the variation in the velocity of the column of water in
the suction pipe is so much less than with other forms of pump.
The Piston or Plunger Speed of Pumps. The piston or
plunger speed of pumps is limited by the capacity of the water to
fill the pump during the time of a single stroke, violent “knocking ”
inevitably taking place, with the result of violent strains on the
pumps and probable break-down. Naturally, the possible piston
speed of pumps duly filling depends greatly on the size and form of
the suction valves. It also depends to a considerable extent on
the length of stroke. A great part of the success in designing
pumping machinery depends on giving the pump valves, and
especially the suction valves, a good form and size.
Other things being equal, the longer the stroke, the greater
the piston speed permissible. This applies, at least, to crank-shaft
engines. The reason is that, with a given piston-speed, the longer
the stroke, the slower the acceleration of velocity at the beginning
of each stroke. The shorter the suction, the greater the piston
velocity than can be got in practice. Pumps of a form that give a
comparatively uniform discharge of water, allow a higher piston-
speed than those that do not, if the suction pipes are properly
arranged. With proper care, it should be easy to get a piston-speed
averaging 240 feet a minute, and it is even possible to reach a
speed of 300 feet a minute in the case of well-designed pumps,
without knocking.
The comparatively slow speed at which engines working pumps
A UMP/AWG MA CH/AVAE R Y. I 59.
directly have to be kept down to, is one reason why such engines
will not develop quite as much power as some that work at a high
piston-speed, such as marine engines. In the case of the latter, the
cylinder has not time to be cooled, at the time of exhaust, before
steam is admitted again, and thus loss by condensation is saved.
Until lately, at any rate, even slower piston-speeds than these
mentioned were considered advisable with pumping machinery.
The consequence is that gearing has not infrequently been esorted
to, so as to combine a high steam-piston speed, with a low pump-
piston speed.
The Duty of Pumping Engines.—The duty of a pumping
engine is the weight of water that it will lift one foot high
per unit of coal used. The old unit of coal introduced by Watt
was the bushel. As, however, the bushel is (strictly speaking) a
measure of capacity and not a weight, the unit was found inconve-
nient, and the cwt. of 112 lbs. was substituted for it. It is now more
common to use a cwt. of 100 lbs. As will be pointed out hereafter,
the writer considers a water unit to be better than any coal unit.
Taking, in the meantime, the unit of 100 lbs., it was, until within
the last twenty or thirty years, considered good work in practice,
if a pumping engine developed 60,000,000 ft. lbs. of duty—or, as it.
was commonly put, had a duty of 60,000,000. This duty has since
then been greatly exceeded. There are two reasons for this : one
has been the use of higher steam pressures, the other the intro-
duction of compounding. The higher the initial pressure, and
consequently the temperature of the steam, the greater the
efficiency possible. This is in accordance with Carnot's now famous
demonstration that the greatest quantity of work that can be got
out of a heat engine—and, of course, a steam engine is a form
//7
of heat engine—is proportionate to **, where T (in the case of
the steam engine) is the temperature of the steam at admission,
measured from absolute zero, and t is the temperature of steam in
the condenser, also measured from absolute zero.
It will readily be seen that the greater this difference can be
made, the greater the efficiency; and, as the temperature in the
condenser is very nearly fixed, the only way in which this difference
can be increased is to increase the initial temperature, which is
done, chiefly at least, by increased pressure, being sometimes also
done to a certain extent by superheating the steam before admission
to the cylinder.
16o TA/E IVA 7"A R S UAE PL V OF 7"O WAVS.
The pressures at which it is found practicable to work steam have
been gradually increasing. Very high-pressure engines need much
more care in designing and in construction, and more skilled attend-
ance, than engines working at moderate pressures. It is only,
therefore, in the case of very large installations that it is considered
advisable to work at the highest pressures possible. It is perhaps
approximately right to say that a pressure above the atmosphere
of 150 to 160 lbs. per square inch is the most that it is advisable
to recommend at the present time for pumping machinery, and
this only in the case of boilers and engines that are in the hands
of really skilled attendants. For many cases it will be found
advisable to limit the steam pressures between 90 and 120 lbs.
above atmospheric pressure. With pressures of less than 90 lbs.
a high economy cannot be expected.
Apart from the cooling effect of the cylinder on the incoming
steam, compounding with fly-wheel engines has no advantage,
beyond that of reducing the strains on the working parts and
on the frame-work and bed-plate. If the material from which
the cylinder and the piston are made were of such a nature as not
to absorb heat, the whole of the power of a compound engine could
be developed in the low-pressure cylinder alone, without in any way
increasing its dimensions. As a matter of fact, however, the
cylinder and piston are of iron, which is a good conductor, and
absorbs and gives off heat rapidly. With great differences of
temperature, therefore, the steam would be condensed to a wasteful
extent at the beginning of each stroke by the iron that had become
cooled at the time of exhaust, and this would be particularly so
with the comparatively slow speeds that pumping engines generally
work at. By compounding, and still more by tri-compounding, the
range of temperature in any one cylinder is greatly reduced.
Again, were an attempt made to do all the work of a compound
engine, working at a high pressure, in the low-pressure cylinder
only, the strains produced by admitting this high pressure to a
cylinder of the large diameter of a low-pressure cylinder would be
enormous. Other matters, such as loss by “clearance,” would
probably also reduce the efficiency.
It will be gathered from what has been said that, the higher the
pressures, the greater the advantage of compounding ; and that,
further, a comparatively high initial pressure is essential to get the
full advantage of compounding. Thus it may be said that the
pressure should not be less than about 90 lbs. per square inch above
atmospheric pressure, when compound engines are used. From
PUMA/AWG MA C///AWER Y. I6 B
90 lbs. to 120 lbs. per square inch is a good economical pressure
for compound engines. If pressures of 150 lbs. or thereabout be
made use of triple expansion, or tri-compound engines are more
economical than compound engines, and have the advantage of
lending themselves readily to the “three-throw ’ arrangement of
pumps with crank-shaft engines. The “three-throw ’ arrangement
can, however, readily be effected in compound engines, by having
one high-pressure and two low-pressure cylinders.
It is probable that, when steam of 200 lbs. pressure and more
has been brought thoroughly under control, quadruple expansion
engines may be applied with advantage to pumping work.
Such engines have already been applied in marine work, but
there appears to be some difference of opinion as to their
usefulness. -
As has been said, the unit of coal now commonly taken is
100 lbs. avoirdupois. The objection to taking coal as a standard
is that coal is a very variable body. Even if, as is commonly
done, it is specified that the coal to be used at the time of trials is
“best Welsh coal,” we are far from having an absolutely uniform
substance. An attempt is sometimes made to get over this
difficulty by weighing all the ash, clinkers, &c., produced, taking
only the difference between this and the coal as the actual con-
sumption. This brings us very near an absolute standard, if our
coal is nearly standard to begin with, but not if we take coal
at random ; for it is a fact not understood by all that—at any
rate, when coal is burned in a steam boiler—less work is got
Out of a given weight of a poor coal, even after deducting
all incombustible matter, than out of a rich coal that is nearly
all combustible. Further than this, even assuming a perfectly
standard coal, it is desirable to separate the performance of the
boilers from that of the engines.
It is sometimes specified that the engine shall have so much duty
per lb. of coal “on the basis of 10 lbs. of water evaporated by
1 lb. of coal.” This seems to be bringing the thing to a reductio
ad absurdum : for why bring in the coal at all ! It is simply a
very clumsy way of specifying that the engines must develop
so much duty “ for 10 lbs. of steam from the boilers.” If it were
put in that way it would, in the writer's mind, be a very sensible
way of specifying duty. In fact, this is just what he recom-
mends. The duty to be done should be stated in lbs. of water
evaporated in the boiler. This, then, leaves the questions of
the efficiency of the boiler and of the engines entirely separate
M
I62 TA/F W.4 7E/K S UPA / Y OF 7"O WAVS.
—a thing which is particularly advisable when, as is very often
the case, the boilers and the engines are by different makers.
It does not matter much what weight of water is taken as
a unit. Ten pounds is as good a unit as another, and may be said
to correspond with 1 lb. of coal, inasmuch as 1 lb. of the best coal
will evaporate 10 lbs. of water in the best forms of boiler, the feed
water being introduced at a temperature of 212° Fahr. Taking,
then, 10 lbs. of water evaporated as our unit, the water being fed
into the boiler at the temperature of the boiling point at
atmospheric pressure, let us consider what duty it is reasonable to
expect from engines of different kinds. - - -
In the first place, the highest duty that an engine is capable of
doing cannot be expected, unless the engine works at a uniform
speed. The duties mentioned here are, therefore, only to be
expected in the case of pumping uniformly, as into a high-level
reservoir. In working irregularly, as when pumping directly into
a main, or even when pumping into a stand-pipe holding only a
few minutes' supply, or, indeed, any supply not sufficient to
compensate for the variation in the consumption during the
twenty-four hours, so high a duty need not be expected. -
With compound engines, having working pressures of steam
between the limits of about 90 and 120 lbs., it is fair to expect a
duty of 1,000,000 for 10 lbs. of water evaporated. With triple
expansion engines, working at a pressure of 150 or 160 lbs., a duty
of 1,200,000 ought to be obtainable. With large centrifugal
pumps, and with a head not exceeding, say, 25 feet, a duty of
600,000 ought to be developed. With ordinary condensing, or
very small compound, a duty of more than 400,000 to 500,000
need not be looked for ; whilst small high-pressure engines, of only
a few horse power, need not be expected to give a duty of over,
perhaps, one-half or one-third of this.
Referring to the high duties of 1,000,000 to 1,200,000—which,
it is stated, should be obtained by large compound condensing
engines, pumping at a uniform speed—the writer is quite aware
that, according to reports issued by the makers of pumping
machinery, these duties have often been exceeded. He has seen
duties stated as being anything up to 1,500,000 for 10 lbs. of
water evaporated. All he can say is, that if the duties he has
indicated in the last paragraph are got in practice, the engineer
has every reason to be well satisfied. .
Lest there should have been want of clearness in what has been
stated above, it is here put in a different form. The duty for any
/2 Ü///2/AWG // A CA///VAE A2 V. I63
engine, taking 10 lbs. of water evaporated as the unit, is got by
the following formula :—
D = H X W
W
Where
D = duty in foot lbs. for every lb. of water evaporated in the boiler;
H = the height in feet to which the water is pumped;
W = the total weight of water in lbs. pumped during any interval of time;
w = the weight of water, in lbs., evaporated in the boiler, during the same
interval of time.
. A word or two ought to be said about H. It is properly the
difference between the level of the water at the surface of the
reservoir or pump-well from which the water is drawn, and the
level of the reservoir or stand-pipe into which it is pumped. If,
however, there is a long forcing main, the pressure necessary to
overcome the friction in this main must be converted into the
equivalent in feet of head of water, and be added to H. In fact,
it is only in such a case as that shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 146 (p. 141), where the engine pumps directly into a stand-pipe
of such diameter that the friction in the pumping main can be
entirely neglected. In the case of a long horizontal suction-pipe
—a thing always to be avoided if possible—the head necessary to
overcome the friction in it should also be added to H, but the
friction in the short vertical suction-pipe that ought always to be
used is not commonly allowed for, as this pipe is, as a matter of
fact, looked upon as part of the pump.
W is readily found by seeing that the water level in the boiler
is the same at the end of the trial as at the beginning, and
measuring the quantity of water that has been fed into the boiler.
Horse Power of Steam Pumping Engines.—The horse
power that ought to be stated in connection with pumping engines
is the actual HP. as measured by a certain quantity of water lifted
a certain height, the friction of the forcing main being taken into
consideration, as explained above. In other words, it is measured
by the quantity of water that could be pumped to a higher level
than the actual one, were the main frictionless. That is to say,
W x H
the horse power = 33,000
Where -
W = the total weight of water in lbs. lifted in one minute of work, and
H = the height in feet to which the water is pumped, with addition for
friction in pumping main, as described above.
Still it is sometimes (indeed, often) useful to be able to
M 2
164 TA/F WA TEA S UPAE L Y OF TO WAVS.
compare the indicated horse power—the horse power developed
in the cylinders—with the actual work done in horse power; as it
is only by so doing that we can ascertain where any loss of
efficiency there may be in the engine is to be found. (It need
searcely be stated that the term “nominal horse power” is one
now having no meaning at all. The sooner it is banished from
all writings on engineering the better.)
e * tº * I
The indicated horse power is the actual horse power × . .
where c is the co-efficient of efficiency of the engine and pumps,
and is always less than unity. The difference between c and unity
represents, in fact, that part of the work done in the cylinder that
is used up by friction in the moving parts of the mechanism, and
in the water passing through the pump valves and the passages
leading thereto and therefrom. In good large engines c should
reach at the very least 8, and 9 is not too much to look for.
The writer has seen a much higher figure than even this latter
stated—one, in fact, very closely approaching unity—but he
imagines there has been some error in the tests made. In fact, it
is almost certain that this is the case, if it is borne in mind that
I.H.P. cannot be taken without a possible error of several per
cent., even with the best indicators, and using all possible care.
Ninety per cent. of the work done in the cylinders, in water
actually pumped, can, as has been indicated, be got in the case of
high-class machinery; but it would not do to design engines capable
of developing in the cylinders only the excess of about 11 per
cent. Over the work as measured by the water to be pumped, that
is represented by the difference between 9 and 1. In fact, even
the largest engines should be made capable of developing in the
cylinder at least 50 per cent. more power than that actually
needed in lifting the water. This involves, for the greatest
economy of working, that the high-pressure cylinder, at least,
should be fitted with variable expansion-gear, to be linked up so
as to reduce the I.H.P., not by wire-drawing the steam, but by
reducing the length of admission when, as ought always to be the
case in normal working, the whole 50 per cent. excess of power
is not being used. * - -
Small engines, whether compound or high-pressure, should be
made capable of developing, in the cylinders, twice the power that
will ever be actually used.
Taking what has just been said into consideration, it will be
found that, if it is necessary to specify what I.H.P. the engines have
A UMAX/AVG MACH/AWAER V. I65
to be capable of developing, the following formulae will be found
to answer —
In the case of large engines —
I.H.P. - W - H & 8
33,000 × 2
In the case of small engines:–
LHP. W x H x 2
33,000
Where
W = the weight of water in lbs. lifted during one minute, and
H = the height in feet lifted, with addition for friction of forcing main as
described above.
We have here the very common difficulty that there is no hard-
and-fast line between small and large engines. The engineer
must, therefore, use some judgment. In any case, however, it is,
as we have indicated, not advisable to specify the horse power of
a pumping engine, but to specify, with all the precision possible,
and giving every detail, the work that the engine has to do, the
position that it has to be in, and so forth.
Whilst on the question of horse power, we may, perhaps, be
allowed to give a figure which is to be taken as very roughly
approximate only, but which we have found very useful at times.
Leaving very small installations out of the question, it will
be found that I I.H.P. is sufficient for each 1,000 of population,
pumping into a reservoir against a head of 100 feet, making ample
allowance for friction, and also for stand-by and pumping. If
pumping into the main direct, it is necessary to provide 13, T.H.P.
per 1,000 of population, the other figures remaining the same.
Pumping into Reservoirs and Pumping directly into
Mains. – There are many advantages in pumping into a
reservoir or tank large enough to compensate for the variation of
consumption during the twenty-four hours, and, in the case of
small instalments, there is advantage in having a tank or reservoir
so large, and engines so powerful, that the whole of the pumping
may be done at a uniform speed during a part only of the
twenty-four hours.
The difficulty in getting sites for elevated reservoirs, however,
and the enormous expense, if not impracticability, of elevated
tanks for large populations, has made it necessary, in many cases,
to do without either reservoirs or tanks holding sufficient water to
166 TA/AE WA 7'EA S (/ P/2/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
compensate for the variation in consumption during the twenty-
four hours, and a system of pumping more or less directly into the
mains has had to be adopted. The first stage in this direction is
the use of elevated tanks that do not hold enough water to allow
the engines to work at uniform speed during the twenty-four
hours, but that hold a supply for, say, an hour's consumption,
thus making it necessary to vary the speed of the engines from
time to time. The next step is the introduction of a stand-
pipe, holding a supply of only a few minutes' consumption.
This can be looked on merely as a regulator, for preventing
quite sudden changes in the working speeds of the engines.
The last stage is that in which the engines pump directly
into the main, there being no further cushion than that afforded
by the air in one or more air-vessels. Such engines must
follow exactly the consumption of water, the air-vessels being of
use only to prevent undue shock on the machinery, and to increase
the uniformity of the flow of water into the mains. It is only
comparatively lately that pumping machinery has been brought
to such perfection that it is possible to depend for a town supply
on such a system, but it is now being adopted in various parts of
the world.*
If this system be adopted, it is to be observed that the
engines, apart from the stand-by, must be capable of pumping at
the rate of absolute maximum consumption (+ an allowance for
fire extinction, to be treated of further on). The engines must be
specially designed to work at variable speeds, and it is best to
have an automatic contrivance for controlling the speed. A
consideration of the manner in which the accumulator of hydraulic
pumping engines controls the speed of the engines, according to
the number of machines at work, will readily suggest how pumping
engines to pump directly into mains may be controlled. The
most perfect arrangement is that in which the controlling gear
actuates a differential expansion gear, varying the length of
admission of steam to the high-pressure cylinder, or to all the
cylinders, instead of wire-drawing the steam by a throttle valve.
Of course, besides this, where there are several engines at work, at
the time of maximum consumption there will be regulation by
hand also, the attendant seeing that there are never more engines
at work than are necessary to do the pumping to correspond
to the consumption without working at an excessive speed. It
* This system is being adopted for the Tokyo waterworks.
PUMA/AWG. M.4 CA///VAEA. V. 167
would not be difficult to design gear for automatically effecting
this stopping and starting of the engines, according to the
demand for water ; but it is likely that such a complication would
not meet with the approval of many engineers. With engine power
divided up into any number of engines common in connection
with waterworks, there will never be more than . One engine
at work during the hours between midnight and early morning,
unless there is great leakage from the mains or house services.
It is to be observed that, although the horse power of the
engines must be sufficient to pump the maximum quantity of
water needed at any time of the twenty-four hours, the whole
duty of the engines during that time will be the same as if pump-
ing into a reservoir, as the engines are nearly at rest for some
of the time.
As has been said, so high a duty per unit of coal burned,
or per unit of steam evaporated, cannot be expected in this
case, as in the case where engines work at a uniform speed.
It will be possible, according to the amount of variation and
the efficiency of the controlling arrangement, to get 50 to 85
per cent. of the duty that can be got from engines working at a
uniform speed.
In conclusion, with regard to steam pumping machinery, what
an engineer will generally find it best to do is to specify exactly
the work that the pumps are expected to do—giving their exact
position, the level of engine-house floor above the level of the
water to be pumped, whether the water is to pump into the main
direct or into a reservoir, and in the latter case the length and
diameter of the force-main, specifying the duty that the engines
will be required to develop, and being very careful in this matter
that there is no room for misinterpretation. If the engineer really
has had considerable experience in estimating the duty of engines
he may specify exactly how the test is to be carried out. Further
than this (assuming the works to be on a considerable scale) he
should generally specify high-pressure compound, or tri-compound
engines (mentioning certain limits of working pressure), with
surface condensers, the main pumps to act as circulating pumps,
double-acting pumps, and, if a crank-shaft design be adopted, the
three-throw arrangement of cranks and pumps, the high-pressure
cylinder to be steam-jacketed,” also the intermediate cylinder in
* There is considerable difference of opinion as to the desirability, or not, of
steam-jacketing low-pressure cylinders. In tri-compound engines the intermediate
ylinder at least should be steam-jacketed.
I68 THE IVA 7TEA’ SUPPLY OF 7TO WAVS.
case the tri-compound design be adopted, the low-pressure cylinder
and all steam-jackets to be lagged with polished wood, &c.
In fact, what is written above, with the usual additions about
“best style of workmanship, the provision of all necessary
fittings, &c.,” would very nearly make a sufficiently complete
specification.
It is generally advisable to allow the makers of pumping
engines to design foundations for the engines they propose.
The writer is tempted to give one or more designs of pumping
engines, but refrains from doing so, as he feels that he might be
falling into something like the fault of those engineers who merely
place difficulties in the way of the makers of pumping machinery
by binding them to special designs, the more so as he holds pretty
strong opinions as to what is the best form of pumping engine for
general waterworks use. He will only say that it is one without
complicated gearing, and one that is covered by no patents.
Pumps of the pulsometer type are useful for many purposes
in connection with waterworks, as with so many branches of
engineering, especially for temporary work or where it is neces-
sary frequently to change the position of the suction-pipe, or
even of the pump, but they are not to be recommended for
constant work. -
Boilers for Pumping Engines.—The boiler that will be
efficient for any other kind of steam engine developing about the
same amount of power, will be efficient for pumping engines, and
this is not the place for a dissertation on boilers in general. A
few general statements only will therefore be made.
Any really good boiler should be capable of evaporating
at atmospheric pressure 10 lbs. of water fed into the boiler at a
temperature of 212° Fahr. per lb. of the very best coal. This is
on the assumption that firing is not forced beyond the point
at which the coal can be burned economically—the assumption,
that is, that the boilers are as large as they should be, and that
all other conditions are favourable. It is not unreasonable to
specify that boilers shall do this duty, weighing only the portion
of the coal actually consumed, that is to say, the difference in
weight of the coal consumed, and of the ash, or even taking the
actual weight of the best Welsh coal.
In the case of locomotive boilers, and to nearly the same
extent in that of marine boilers, the object is to be able to
evaporate the greatest quantity of steam possible, with a given
PUMPING MACHINER Y. I69
capacity of boiler. The consequences are that a fierce combustion
is maintained in the fire-boxes of these boilers, and that the
quantity of water they contain is comparatively small. This makes
it difficult to keep the pressure of steam constant, and causes the
efficiency of the boilers to be less than it might be, unless the
greatest care is exerted in firing, and in the care of the boiler.
In the case of boilers for pumping machinery for waterworks
there is generally no great necessity to economise space, and the
old Cornish or Lancashire boilers—which, after all, if properly
arranged, give a greater economy than any other boiler—are
commonly adopted. Still, the writer has known boilers of the
marine type, and even of the locomotive type, used with great
success to generate steam for pumping machinery.
Boilers of the “tubulous" or “water tube kind, consisting
of a number of tubes with water circulating through them, the
firing being external, with a steam drum overhead to collect the
steam, have the great advantage that they can be packed in small
capacity, and are, therefore, easy of transportation. Moreover,
the best of them are highly economical. They are, therefore,
used with advantage in cases where boilers have to be imported
from distant countries, or where there is, for any reason, great
expense in getting heavy parts into position. -
Manufacturers should be allowed to design chimneys and all
brick-setting for their own boilers. It is quite unreasonable to
expect them to guarantee any particular efficiency, unless they
are allowed to do so. - -
Even if the engineer specify the type of boiler, he should also
specify, with great exactness, the duty that it will be called on to
perform. It is often convenient to get tenders for boilers and
engines from the same firm, even if the firm does not itself
manufacture boilers; as there is thus a certainty—or almost a
certainty—that the boiler power will be properly proportioned to
the work it has to do, and, at any rate, if it is not, the maker of
the engine is responsible.
Other Forms of Motors for Pumping Water.—In not
a few cases—especially, perhaps, in Holland—water-power is used
for pumping water in large quantities for various purposes. It is
evident that, where such power is available, there is a distinct
advantage in using it. In the first place the machinery is not
generally of a complicated nature ; and, in the second, all con-
sumption of coal is saved.
I7O 7TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UACA2/. Y OF 7TO IVAWS.
Wherever there is even a moderate fall, and it is necessary to
raise only a comparatively small portion of the water, this portion
can be raised to a height above the top of the fall, the height that
it can be raised being inversely as the quantity of water that has
to be raised in terms of the whole water. Teaving friction out of
the question, the height to which the water can be raised is
expressed by the formula—
Q
Where H = the height to which the water can be raised;
h = the head of water available for raising it;
Q = the total quantity of water,
q = the quantity to be raised,
H h > Q
| in the same terms.
This is on the assumption that the actual pump is at the
bottom of the fall. There may be cases when it would be
convenient to place it at the top of the fall, connecting it with
connecting rods or other contrivances with a motor at the bottom
of the fall. In this case Q must be taken as the total quantity of
water, less that to be raised. In either case the water will be
raised to the same level.
The quantity of water that can be raised to a given height
is expressed by the following formula, friction being again left out
of consideration :--
× h
Cl - ** 9
the symbols having the same signification as before.
Overshot and breast wheels have probably been more used than
any other kinds of motors for pumping water, and they have the
advantage that, if of considerable size, they revolve slowly, or
pumps may be connected to them through cranks and connect-
ing rods only.
Of late years turbines have been used to some extent ; and,
although the writer does not know of any case of the use of it,
there is no reason why the Pelton wheel, or “hurdy-gurdy,”
should not be used for pumping. The high velocity of either of
these involves gearing between the spindle and the pump.
With any of the motors mentioned, an efficiency of about 3 may
be expected ; that is to say, the water can be pumped to # of the
height got by the first of the two formulae given, or # of the water
got by the second formula can be pumped. * -
It is not at all necessary that a water motor be employed in
A C/A/A/AWG MACH/AWAEA' V. I7 I
pumping part of the water of the same stream that actuates it.
For example, the water of an impure stream may be used to
actuate a motor pumping water from a pure spring.
The hydraulic ram is extensively used for raising water to a
height considerably above the top of the fall available as motive
power, although not for pumping very large quantities of
water. In this ingenious mechanism, advantage is taken of the
force of “ramming ” that exerts itself when the flow of water in a
pipe of some length is suddenly stopped. Water is allowed to flow
along a pipe of considerable length with some fall. When the
water is just approaching its maximum velocity the flow is
suddenly automatically checked, when the pressure immediately
rises, the augmentation of pressure being utilized to force a certain
proportion of the water to a height above the top of the fall pipe.
The usefulness of hydraulic rams has been greatly increased
since the introduction of those forms in which the water for
the motive power may be from one source, that pumped from
another. •
Gos engines and hot-air engines are frequently used for
pumping water, but on a small scale only. They do not, therefore,
call for special description here. The same may be said of
pumping by electric motors.
CHAPTER XVII.
FLow of WATER IN CONDUITs—PIPES AND OPEN CHANNELs.
Channels for Water.—A conduit is properly any channel
that serves to carry water from one place to another, but the term
is, in engineering, only applied to artificial channels. Further than
this, although in the widest engineering sense a pipe must be
considered as a conduit, still in hydraulic engineering a distinction
is generally made. Thus, by a pipe is understood a channel of
circular section, constructed in lengths intended to be jointed
together; and in the case of waterworks, pipes are nearly always
intended to run full of water, which is frequently under pressure.
Conduits are structures excavated or built, or excavated and
built, and are either open or closed, the former being in fact
canals with a considerable velocity of flow. Covered conduits
may be subdivided into (1) those made on the “cut and cover”
principle, and (2) tunnels. In the case of the former a trench is
made, the bottom being excavated, or built to the form of the
lower half of the conduit, this being then covered, and the trench
being filled in. Nearly all sewers are “cut and cover * conduits.
The object of tunnelling is the same as in the case of railways,
either to shorten the distance, or to get through obstacles that it is
impossible to get round or over. Tunnels may be lined, or not,
according as the strata they pass through are pervious or water-
tight. When conduits are of very large size they are commonly
called aqueducts.
Many books, papers, and dissertations have been written about
the laws regulating the flow of water in pipes and conduits, and
innumerable formulae have been deduced. It is not the writer's
purpose to discuss the various merits of these at all, but rather to
describe the way in which practical use may be made of them.
They are to be found in every pocket-book of engineering, in all
works on hydraulic engineering, &c. Those given in books of
7THE A*/O J.W OF WA TER. I73,
established reputation are nearly always near-enough approxima-
tions to be used in practice.”
When water has to be carried under any considerable pressure,
pipes are always used, and these are nearly always of metal.f
When water is to be carried without pressure, either pipes or
conduits may be used. For small sizes pipes are generally to be
preferred, as there are certain conveniences in connection with
their use. Stoneware pipes are strongly to be recommended for
small sizes, when it is intended that there shall be little or no
pressure. They have the advantage of making a clean conduit
that can be put down at a low price. The best quality of glazed
and vitrified pipes only should be used, and, if they are to be
subjected to even slight pressures, each pipe should be tested to
at least twice the pressure that it is ever likely to be subject to.
The trenches for pipes should be carefully excavated, a space being
dug out under each socket, so that the pipes will bed through the
whole of their length. The joints should be made by forcing a
ring of spun yarn into the sockets, and carefully filling up with
strong cement-mortar consisting of one part of Portland cement
with not more than an equal part of clean, sharp sand. Pipes
with joints of the “Stanford ” type may be used with advantage.
As regards built or excavated culverts, open or covered, it is
not possible in the case of open, nor advisable in the case of
covered, conduits, to allow the water to be at pressure. The
“hydraulic grade line,” in this case a line along the surface of the
water, may change its inclination at certain points, where the
area of the cross-section of the flow of water is also changed, but
between these points the grade line must be strictly followed.
The consequences are that great expense is sometimes involved in
contouring the land, or in constructing elevated conduits. With
pipes even of stoneware it is permissible to have at least a slight
pressure in the pipes, so that they need not strictly follow the
hydraulic grade. They must not rise above it, but they may be
allowed to fall somewhat below it, and this is sometimes a great
convenience. It is quite possible, with due care, to lay stoneware
* Those who wish to see the merits of the various formulae most commonly in use
discussed, are recommended to read the chapters in Fanning’s “Treatise on
Hydraulic and Waterworks Engineering ” on the subject. In these it is treated of
at considerable length, and, so far as the writer is able to judge, with great acumen.
f The only exception that the writer knows is that of the small waterworks of
Hatanomura, Japan, designed by Mr. I. Iwata, C.E., where the pipes for the
distribution are of stoneware, jointed with a composition the invention of Mr. Iwata,
and have pressure in them corresponding with a head of 70 feet.
174 THE WA TER SUPPL Y OF 7 O WAVS.
pipes so as to be water-tight under a pressure corresponding to a
head of about 10 feet. This means that, when stoneware pipes are
used for conveying water, the pipes may, at any part of their
course, fall any depth up to 10 feet below the hydraulic grade
line, as will be seen further on, when the hydraulic grade line is
treated of in connection with water flowing under pressure in
pipes. . -
The writer recommends the use of stoneware pipes, in pre-
ference to built conduits, up to a diameter of 24 inches.
Open Channels.-In connection with waterworks, open
channels should be used only for water that is to be filtered,
and even then should not be used in places where there is
danger that the water may become polluted with organic matter.
In other words, open channels should never be allowed through
populous districts. Again, they are not, as a rule, to be recom-
mended along the sides of steep slopes, as they are liable to
become choked with accumulated snow, obstructed by falling
boulders, and so forth : moreover, it is generally objectionable to
allow them to intercept the surface rain water, as they will, unless
provision is made to carry it away ; and such provision is some-
times more or less troublesome to make, involving considerable
additional excavation along the upper side of the channel, to
allow room for a rain-water channel, and arrangements at
short intervals for carrying storm water over, or under the main
channel.
Velocity of Flow of Water in Open Channels.-There are
several factors to take into consideration in connection with the
velocity of the flow of water in channels. In the first place, there
is the very evident one that, the greater the velocity of flow, the
smaller in cross-section need be the channel, and, therefore, the
more cheaply may it be constructed. There are many cases in
which the fall is not at all restricted, and in which it would be
quite possible to have very high velocities. It has been found,
however, in practice, that mean velocities of Over about
5 feet per second are objectionable. Higher velocities are
liable to carry heavy matter along the bottom of the channel and
to abrade it seriously, unless a very expensive construction is
adopted. If the general fall is such that a higher velocity than
this would result from following it, the channel must be carried
for a certain distance with a moderate fall, and then be given a
sudden drop over steps in the form of a tumbling bay. In some.
TA/A PLO W OF WA 7'E/e. I75
cases advantage may be taken of the power otherwise lost at
such drops, by making the water pass over waterwheels, or
through turbines, but great care must be taken that the water is
not thereby subjected to any contamination.
There is an advantage in slow velocities, that parts of the
channel that would otherwise have to be lined, not necessarily to
prevent the leakage of water, but to prevent the erosion of the
banks and sides, may go unlined. Thus with a mean velocity of
not over about 2 feet a second, only fine clay and such like
material is likely to be disturbed ; whereas, if there be a velocity
of only 1 to 13 feet per second, no kind of ground that a channel
is likely to be made through will be eroded. -
On the other hand there is the objection to these low velocities,
that vegetation is likely to flourish in the channels to such an
extent as to seriously obstruct the flow of water. Such vegetation
is entirely prevented by velocities of from 2 to 3 feet per second,
according to the nature of the climate.”
The velocities most favoured by European and American
engineers appear to be from a little under 2 feet a second to a
little over 3 feet a second. -
Form of Cross-section of Open Channels.--In every formula for
determining the velocity of the flow of water in channels, either
open or otherwise, it will be found that the “hydraulic mean
depth '' is a term in some form or other. The hydraulic mean
8,
Where
a = the area of the cross-section of the flow of water ;
p = the “wetted perimeter,” that is to say, the length of that part of the perimeter
of the cross-section of the channel that the water comes in contact with.
Both are, of course, in the same terms, so far as an area and a
line can be in the same terms. If the area be in square feet, the
wetted perimeter must be stated in linear feet, and the hydraulic
mean depth will be in feet. If the area be taken in square inches,
the two linear dimensions will be in inches.
The greater the hydraulic mean depth the higher the velocity
for any given cross-section, or the less need be the area of the
cross-section, or of inclination, or both, for any given velocity or
discharge. It is generally, therefore, an object to give a channel
such a form that the hydraulic mean depth may be as great as is
* In Japan, where the excessively hot and moist Summers engender extremely
rapid vegetation, it would seem that a velocity of at least 3 feet per second is neces-
sary to prevent the obstruction of open channels with weeds. -
176 THE WA TER SUPPLY OF To WNS.
compatible with any form of construction at all economical :
although, in cases where there is ample fall, it may be convenient
to adopt sections that are of forms having the hydraulic mean
depth considerably less than it could be made.
The hydraulic mean depth of a circle, or of a semicircle, is one
quarter the diameter, and the circular, or the semicircular, section
gives the greatest hydraulic mean depth that it is possible to get.
This is simply because a circle is the figure in which a given area.
is bounded by the shortest possible line, and, in the case of the
semicircle, the straight diameter line not being taken into con-
sideration, the relation of area and length of line remains the same
as in the circle.
From this it follows that a semicircular section is hypothetically
the best to adopt for open channels. This section is, however,
very seldom adopted, on account of the expense of construction.
If a mere semicircle were sufficient, the section would not be so
troublesome to use ; but it is to be borne in mind that, to get
advantage of this form, the semicircular section must be that of
the water, not that of the actual channel, and, of course, it is not
permissible to have the water flowing to the very top edge of the
channel. There are several reasons for this. In the first place,
it would be impossible to so regulate the flow of the water that,
normally just touching the upper edge of the channel, it should
never overflow it. Then there are waves to be taken into account.
It is, however, when we come to consider the possibility of the
freezing of the channel that the necessity for some considerable
height of bank above the level of the water is most evident. If
ice forms on the surface of the water of an open channel, the
section of flowing water is, of course, reduced by exactly the area.
of cross-section of the ice. This can be compensated for by
increasing the discharge of water, when the level of the ice surface
rises. But there is much more than this to be taken into con-
sideration. We saw that the “wetted perimeter’ is that length
of the boundary of the cross-section that is wetted by the water.
That part of the boundary that is in contact with the air, in the
case of a semicircular section the diameter line, is not included in
the wetted perimeter. The air offers a certain amount of resistance
undoubtedly, but, in the case of the comparatively slight velocities.
of flow advisable in open channels, the resistance is so small that
it may be left out of consideration. When, however, even the
thinnest film of ice is formed on the surface of the water of an
open channel, the under side of the ice forms part of the wetted
TA/A2 F/LO W OF WA 7T/E R. 177
perimeter, which is thus greatly increased, the flow being retarded
to a very marked extent. This can only be compensated for by
allowing the surface of the water bearing the ice to rise.
For these reasons the banks of open channels must rise for
any height from 1 to 3 feet above the normal level of the water,
according to the size of the channel and other considerations.
The form of a semi-circle with 2 or 3 feet of vertical sides, or
%
%
%
Fig. 148.—Section of open channel of curvilinear form.
even with the corresponding length of sloping sides, above it, would
form a section very awkward and expensive to construct. An
approximation to it, however—somewhat as shown in Fig. 148–
is sometimes adopted.
If the sides are to be straight, the greatest hydraulic mean
depth is got by adopting half of a hexagon as a section, as shown
in Fig. 149, and this is in some cases a very good section to adopt
in practice, though it is generally better to give the sides a less
steep slope.
A rectangular section is occasionally adopted, but not often.
It is a convenient section in the not very common case where
a channel is cut out of solid rock. When a rectangular section is
%22%2%
Fig. 149.—Section of open channel of semi-hexagonal form.
adopted, it should be of such proportions that the depth of the
water is equal to one-quarter the width of the stream—that is to
say, if it is wished to have the smallest area of channel possible.
N


178 7TP/E WA 7TEA S UAEA/L V OAP 7"O WAVS.
Construction of Open Channels. When open channels
are constructed through formations that are water-tight, and that
are of such a nature that the water will not tend to wash them
away, these channels may be without lining, but, as a rule,
channels for conveying water have to be lined.
There are two separate objects in lining channels—one is simply
to prevent erosion, the other is to prevent leakage of water
through a porous soil. Very commonly the lining has as its
object the prevention of both of these objectionable actions.
If lining is needed merely to prevent erosion, stone pitching is
sufficient. If the bed of the channel is not water-tight, this stone
* — -j- - --
º
- %%
3% arº %
Fig. 150.—Section of open channel embanked—scale gig.
pitching must be backed with puddle, or the bottom and sides of
the channel may be made of concrete lined with brick in cement
mortar or rendered in cement.
Open channels have sometimes to be embanked above the
natural surface of the ground. In this case the embanking must
be done with the very utmost care, the earth being very closely
rammed, to prevent danger of settlement, and it is probable that
it is better to depend on puddle than on any other substance for
material for making the channel water-tight, as leakage is less
likely to take place, in the event of slight settlement, with puddle
than with a non-yielding material such as concrete. Fig. 150
shows the form of canal on an embankment adopted for carrying
water into Tokyo.
In the case of open channels carried along the side of a steep
slope—as already stated, an arrangement not advisable in the case








7TAZAZ A / O W OA. W.A 7T/E A2. I 79
of conduits for waterworks---it is common to embank the lower
side, the excavated material being used partly, or entirely, to
construct this outer bank. An example of this construction is
shown in Fig. 151. Sometimes a small puddle wall is constructed
- N
WN
*SW
WNN'
Fig. 151. –Section of Open channel on slope.
in the middle of the bank, somewhat after the method adopted in
the case of the dams of impounding reservoirs.
Covered Conduits.-Covered conduits are divided into
those that are entirely excavated, and those that are constructed
on the “cut and cover" principle. To these might be added
culverts raised entirely above the surface of the ground.
Velocity of Flow in Covered Conduits.-The same considerations
have to be taken into account here as in the case of open channels,
except that the question of vegetation does not come in, for there
is little or no tendency to vegetation in the darkness of covered
conduits. The velocities most favoured by hydraulic engineers in
covered culverts seem to be the same as in open—that is, from
somewhat under 2 feet per second to somewhat over 3 feet.
Form of Cross-section of Covered Conduit.—The factors deciding
the form of the cross-section of a covered conduit are extremely
complicated, so many conditions having to be fulfilled. Thus, in
the case of tunnelling, none of the considerations that go to make
up the practice of that particular form of engineering can be left Out
of the question. Then, again, other things being equal, the form
should be selected that gives the greatest hydraulic mean depth ;
but other things are not equal—if the expression may be allowed—
for it is necessary not to leave out of consideration the greater
facility of constructing certain sections than others. Moreover, in
many cases—indeed, in most—we must take into consideration
the form that is best calculated to resist external pressure, and
the cross-section selected is commonly a compromise ; but the
writer is not aware that it is possible to give any general expres:
sion for the best form of compromise, especially as it must vary

N 2
I8O 7 A/A ||VA 7TP A S O /2/2/L Y OA. TO WAVS.
with the nature of the formation that the covered conduit passes
through. -
It is also necessary to take into consideration cases in which
conduits have to be constructed above ground, and when it is
necessary that the sides should be able to support not only the
internal pressure of the water, but any thrust that they may be
subjected to from the covering roof, generally in the form of an
arch. -
With conduits intended always to run full, a circular section
has an advantage, so far as hydraulic mean depth is concerned, in-
asmuch as, taking a circular section, the area is reduced to the
smallest possible. The circular section is sometimes adopted,
but not often, for it is not the best section for resisting unequal
external pressures; moreover, it is troublesome to construct, and
it is seldom that it is desired to have culverts running quite full;
and, indeed, it is impracticable to make them run quite full, unless
the water in them is under pressure, for the highest velocity is
attained even in a covered circular conduit when it is running only
about ºths full, and even the highest discharge is got when it is
running not quite full. This is because the last stage in filling a
circular conduit adds greatly to the wetted perimeter, and very
little to the section of flow.
As the writer is unable to lay down any general principles to
guide the engineer in designing cross-sections suitable to all con-
ditions, and doubts if it is possible to lay down such general
principles, he is satisfied to give a series of drawings illustrating
the cross-sections of large conduits that have actually been carried
out or suggested by some of the most eminent engineers. These
will be found in Plate XXXVII. (Figs. 152 to 168).
Fig. 152 shows the section adopted for the TLoch Katrine
waterworks, for supplying Glasgow, for tunnels that were through
impervious rocks.
Fig. 153 shows the section adopted in the same waterworks,
where the rock was not impervious.
Fig. 154 shows the section adopted for “cut and cover * where
the rock was impervious.
Figs. 155 and 156 show forms of conduit used in connection
with the Aberdeen waterworks.
Fig. 155 shows the section adopted for tunnels through im-
pervious rock.
Fig. 156 shows a conduit raised above the natural level of the
ground, and enclosed in an embankment.
THE FLOW OF WATER. I8 I
Figs. 157 and 158 show the sections proposed by Mr. Bateman
in connection with the great scheme that was projected some
twenty years ago for supplying London with water from North
Wales.
Figs. 159, 160, and 161 show covered conduits proposed for the
Cumberland lake scheme—one on an equally great scale projected
at about the same time, by Messrs. W. Hemans, M.Inst.C.E., and
R. Hassard, M.Inst.C.E.
Fig. 162 shows the section of proposed covered conduit, raised
above the natural level of the ground, proposed in connection with
the same scheme. -
Figs. 163, 164, and 165 show sections of the great culvert
conduit of the New Croton works, for the supply of water to New
York—the greatest works of the kind carried out in modern times,
or perhaps at any time. - -
Fig. 166 shows a section of the same conduit where it has to
be supported above the natural surface of the ground.
Figs. 167 and 168 show sections used at the Tytam waterworks,
Hongkong, already referred to.
Materials used in the Construction of Covered Culverts.-
Masonry laid in cement mortar is a common material, and
probably this is the best where stone is plentiful, but bricks in
cement mortar are often used. º
It will be seen from the figures in Plate XXXVII. that con-
crete is pretty freely used, and the tendency is, as in so many
engineering works, to use it more and more freely. Indeed, con-
duits have, of late years, been made of concrete alone, and this
construction can be recommended where stones suitable for masonry
are not readily obtainable. Such conduits may be lined with
brick in cement mortar, or may be rendered in cement.
Aqueduct Bridges.—When the ancients found it necessary
to carry water across a valley in constructing the great water-
works, the remains of which form some of the grandest monuments
of antiquity, they continued the hydraulic gradient, carrying the
water in an open channel supported on arches of masonry. It
has repeatedly been stated that the existence of these great
aqueduct bridges shows that the ancients were ignorant of the
rudimentary principle in hydraulics that “water tends to rise to
its own level.” It is highly improbable that this is so. The
ancients did not have the necessary materials, or had not sufficient
knowledge in working them, to construct “inverted syphons” to
I82 TA/A. JAVA 7TAZAZ S Ü/2/2/. Y OA' TO WAVS.
deal under high pressures with the very large quantities of water
that were carried in their aqueducts. -
At the present time, if water has to be carried across a valley,
whatever be the quantity within the limits used for water supply,
this is generally done simply in a pipe, laid a few feet under the
ground, falling down one side of the valley, and rising on the other.
Such a pipe has been somewhat inexactly termed an “inverted
syphon.” There is no difficulty whatever in proportioning such
pipes. The end that the water is flowing to must be lower than
the other end, by a sufficient height to give the “head' necessary
to make the water travel through the pipe ; the pressure at the
different parts of the pipe must, of course, be taken into considera-
tion, and the pipe must be made thick enough to bear them safely.
Further than this, there should be a “scouring valve * at the
lowest part of the pipe. This being opened occasionally, water
will escape with a velocity due to the whole head, and any silt
that may have been collected in the pipe will be carried with it.
Although water is generally, at the present day, so carried across
valleys, there may be cases where an aqueduct bridge across a small
valley may be cheaper than a pipe. Thus, in the case of a conduit
of considerable size, and a narrow valley with declivitous sides, it
would probably be cheaper to carry the conduit without interruption
across the Valley, on a bridge, than to make the necessary connec-
tion with a pipe, carry the pipe down one steep declivity and up
another, and then to make another connection between the iron
pipe and the conduit. This would be especially the case if solid
rock had to be excavated to receive the pipe.
Plate XXXVIII. (Figs. 169 to 172) shows such a short bridge
crossing a small valley on the course of the Loch Katrine water-
works for Glasgow.
The Flow of Water in Pipes.—The flow of water in
pipes differs from the flow of water in conduits, as the word
“conduit * is generally understood in connection with waterworks,
inasmuch as, in the case of pipes, the water is generally supposed
to fill the whole of the pipe, while in the case of conduits it is
seldom supposed to fill the whole conduit. There is no air surface
in the case of the pipes : the water may be at some pressure ; and
it is not, therefore, necessary that the bottom of the pipe should
be everywhere parallel with a surface of free-flowing water. In
other words, a pipe does not need to follow the “hydraulic grade
line '' exactly, or often even nearly.
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[To face page 182.





















































































































































































































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[To face page 182.


























THE FLOW OF WATER. 183.
The hydraulic grade line is the locus of a point to which water
would rise, in vertical pipes with open tops connected with a pipe
through which water is flowing. This will best be understood by
taking a diagram. In Fig. 173, if we suppose A to be a vessel
Fig. 17.3.−Diagram illustrating hydraulic grade line.
containing water, and b c to be a pipe of uniform bore, freely open
at both ends, water will of course escape from this pipe at c. If
there be connected with this pipe b c, any number of vertical pipes,
d, e,f, g, &c., the water will rise in them to different heights, and
a line drawn through the surfaces of the water in the pipes will
be the hydraulic grade line. In the particular case that we have
supposed, when there is no obstruction, the hydraulic grade line
will be a straight line from a very little below the surface of the
water in A, to the free end of the pipe. For our present purpose
we may suppose it as actually beginning at the surface of that
water, and call h c the hydraulic grade line.
Let there be a partial Obstruction at c, however, and the
hydraulic grade line, whilst still straight, and beginning at h, will
not terminate at c, but at some point between c and i, i being level
with the surface of the water. It will, for example, take the
form h, k.
With pipes of uniform bore, the hydraulic grade line is always
straight, so long as the pipe does not rise above what would other-
wise be the hydraulic grade line. Thus the hydraulic grade lines
for the pipes b / c, and b m, c, are the same as for the straight line
pipe b c.
If, however, the pipe were to rise, as shown in dotted lines
between b and c, the hydraulic grade line would be h m c, also shown
in dotted lines; or, to be more correct, there would be two
hydraulic grade lines, one from h m, to the other from n to c. -
Formulae for the discharge of water through pipes.—In causing
water to flow through pipes, the force of gravity has to overcome
three different resistances. In the first place, it has to overcome the
mere inertia of the mass of the water ; it has to put it in motion as

I84 7TAZAZ WA 7TAZAZ S OA’/2/. Y O AE 7TO WAVS.
a falling body is put in motion. This uses up an amount of
“head "equal to the height that a falling body would have to
fall, to acquire the velocity of the water in the pipe, and is
expressed by the Ordinary gravity formula—
V2
H = 3.
29
Where—
H = the head consumed in overcoming the inertia of the water ;
v = the velocity of the water in the pipe ;
g = gravity = (say) 32°2 feet.
To take an example, suppose the velocity of the flow of water
H = º F. º = a very little
over 25, or (say) 3 inches. That is to say, if the velocity of the
flow in a pipe is to be at the rate of 4 feet per second—a common
one in the case of waterworks—3 inches of the total head available
for putting the water in motion in the pipe, will be consumed in
Overcoming the inertia only, and is not available for overcoming
the two other resistances now to be mentioned.
The next resistance is that of entry to the pipe. When water
flows from a reservoir into a pipe, the particles come from all
directions towards the opening of the pipe, and something
approaching a vortex motion is set up, with the effect that a certain
resistance is offered to the flow of the water. This can be pre-
vented altogether, or nearly so, by making the end of the pipe
trumpet shaped ; but this is not often done in practice, the amount
of head lost by the resistance of entry to the pipe being very small.
The head necessary to overcome this resistance is generally taken
as one half that necessary to overcome the inertia of the mass of
the water. Thus, in the case given above, it would be I-5 inches,
making the total head necessary to overcome the two resistances
that have been considered, 4-5 inches.
The next resistance that has to be overcome is that of
friction, and, except in the case of very short pipes, this resistance
is far greater than both the others put together. In fact, so great
is it comparatively that, with all other pipes of considerable length
—say of lengths more than 500 times their diameters—all other
resistances but that of friction become so insignificant that they
may be left out of consideration.
Formulae taking into consideration the head necessary to over-
come the inertia of the mass of the water, and of the resistance of
entry are of necessity very complicated and cumbersome to work
in a pipe is 4 feet per second.
7 A/A A'ſ. O IV OA, WA 7TP /ø. I85
with. The formulae most commonly in use do not take these
factors into consideration at all, and can consequently never be
quite accurate, whilst they generally become very inaccurate indeed
for short pipes. Even these formulae may, however, be made to
give very fairly accurate results by a very simple device.*
The form in which the problem of the flow of water in
pipes most frequently presents itself is the following : Given a
certain necessary discharge of water, and a certain available head
to cause the water to flow through a pipe, what is the necessary
diameter of the pipe As has been said, if the pipe is long, it is
not necessary to allow for Overcoming the resistance of inertia, or
that of entry to the pipe, as they are comparatively so insignificant,
but they must be allowed for in the case of short pipes. This is
done by finding, first, the approximate diameter of the pipe, and
hence the approximate velocity of the flow of water, the velocity
being, of course, the discharge of water -- the area of cross section
of the pipe. It is only necessary now to deduct from the total head
available for giving motion to the water, that portion of the head
that is necessary to Overcome the inertia of the mass of the water,
and the resistance of entry to the pipe. We may now make a
closer approximation, taking as true diameters those that we get
by the second trial.
For example, supposing that the total head of water available
in the case of a comparatively short pipe were 7 feet, and that, by
a first approximation, we found that the velocity of flow of water
through the pipe would be at the rate of 8 feet per second . We
shall find, by the method already described, that as nearly as
possible 1 foot of head is necessary to overcome the inertia of the
water, to set it in motion, that is to say. Again, as the head
necessary to overcome the resistance to entry is one-half that
necessary to put the water in motion, the total head consumed
for overcoming these resistances will be 1 foot 6 inches.
* See Fanning on “Hydraulic and Water-Supply Engineering,” for comparisons
of the result of different formulae in common use, when applied to pipes having
lengths relative to their diameters differing greatly. It will be seen that most of
the results correspond very fairly, and with experimental results, when long pipes
are concerned, but that they differ egregiously in the case of short pipes.
Those who are interested in the question of the theory of the flow of water in
pipes, should also read the exceedingly thorough investigation of this matter by
Fanning. The result of these investigations is a set of formulae in some cases a
little troublesome to handle, but, the writer believes, giving more accurate results
than any formulae that preceded them. They are not quoted here, as they
can be used with advantage only with the aid of a table of co-efficients for different
diameters which it would not be fair to reproduce.
I86 7TA/A IVA ZTA.A. S. OAO/2/. V. OA, 7 O JVAWS.
7 feet — I foot 6 inches = 5 feet 6 inches. We therefore merely
take 5 feet 6 inches as our available head instead of 7 feet.”
This may be put in another form by saying that the hydraulic
grade line does not begin at the level of the surface of water
from which the pipe is drawing, but from that level minus the
head necessary to overcome the resistance of the inertia of the
water added to that necessary to overcome the resistance of entry.
The following is one of the most commonly used formulae,
taking into consideration the frictional resistance of the pipe Only.
It is known as Eytelwein's formula :—
D = 0.538 JD Wº
H. "
Where—
- D = the diameter of the pipe in inches;
H = the head of water in feet ;
L = the length of the pipe in feet ;
W = the cubic feet of water discharged per minute.
Tables cºnd diagrams of discharge.—Tables and diagrams for
ascertaining the discharge of water in pipes, the diameters and
falls being known, or for ascertaining the diameters, the discharges
and falls being known, Or, again, for ascertaining the necessary
falls, the diameters and discharges being known, are now so
common, so reliable, and so convenient, that in practice an engineer
will seldom have recourse to formulae, except to check the diameter
of a long and important line of pipe. -
The writer has made constant use for some years of “Hydraulic
and other Tables for purposes of Sewerage and Water-supply,” by
Thos. Hennell, M.Inst.C.E., and can thoroughly recommend the
little book. He has also used, within the last year or so, “Water
Dipe Discharge Diagrams, showing the relation between the
Diameters, Gradients, and Discharges of Water Pipes : together
with Other Diagrams giving the proper Weights and Thicknesses of
Pipes for various Pressures,” drawn and compiled by E. Brough
Taylor, M.Inst.C.E., and G. Midgley Taylor, A.M.Inst.C.E.
These diagrams are particularly convenient, as they give what tables
cannot, diameters to any fraction of an inch, discharges to any
fraction of a cubic foot, &c. There is a certain slight incon-
venience in the use of them. No steeper gradients are given
* The writer, when applying formulae in this way, wishing to be on the safe side,
takes the total head lost in overcoming inertia and the resistance to entry as
the head necessary to overcome inertia × 2. Mr. E. Sherman Gould points out, in
his very useful “Practical Hydraulic Formulae for the Distribution of Water through
Long Pipes,” that, when a pipe discharges under water, as is most common, there
is a resistance to exit from the pipe equal to that to entry.
7TP//E AWA. O IV. O.A." JVA 7TAZA'. I87
than 5 in 1,000, whereas in waterworks practice we often have
to deal with steeper gradients. This inconvenience is, however,
readily overcome by remembering that the discharge is as the
square root of the fall. Thus, if we have a fall of more than
5 in the 1,000 to treat of, we may divide our discharge by 2, and
Our fall by 4, or even, if necessary, our discharge by 3 and our
fall by 9, when we get the result wanted.
Allowance for Incrustation of Pipes.—After a time the inner
surfaces of pipes used as mains, sub-mains, or the like, for
carrying water, nearly always get at least a thin film of deposit on
the inner surface. This acts in two ways in reducing the discharge
of water. In the first place, the actual diameter of the pipe is
reduced ; in the second place, the incrusted surface is always
rougher than the clean surface of the pipe. Waters differ very
materially in their tendency to incrust pipes. Some incrust
them so rapidly that the pipes may become nearly full within a
few years, others scarcely deposit anything at all on the inner
surfaces. It seems difficult to predict whether a certain water
will have a serious effect in this way or not. All that can be
said is that hard waters incline to produce incrustation more
readily than soft, as a rule. It is therefore naturally very difficult
to say how much, in addition to the diameter got by tables or
diagrams, ought to be added to allow for incrustation. The
following rough rule has been found to work well with pipes
above a foot in diameter —Add one inch to the diameter got
by formula, or from tables or diagrams, and take the next even
inch above this as the actual diameter of the pipe.
This, however, is assuming the pipes to be coated with Angus-
Smith's or some similar composition.” With uncovered uncoated
pipes, an incrustation of “tubercles” of an indefinite thickness, and
having nob-shaped projections that enormously increase the fric-
tion of the water, forms. On the other hand, with proper coating,
it often happens that no incrustation at all takes place. It is not
safe, however, to determine the diameter of a pipe without making
Some allowance for incrustation.
Pipes flowing with Open Ends.-In taking into consideration
the question of hydraulic grade line, we considered the case of a
pipe flowing without obstruction either at One end or the other, or
along the course of the pipe. It does not often happen, in the
case of waterworks, that water flows freely from the end of a pipe
into the air, as shown in our diagrammatical cut, but we have the
* See p. 238.
J 88 7TA/AE WA 7TAZAC S Ü/2/2/. V. OA 7TO WAVS.
equivalent of this, when we have water flowing from an intake to
a reservoir, from a reservoir to a filter-bed well, or from a filter-
bed well to another reservoir. In such cases the hydraulic grade
line is drawn from the level of one surface of water to the level of
the other, making, if it be considered necessary, the deduction
already mentioned from the head, for overcoming the inertia of the
water, and the resistance to entry to the pipe. Thus, for example,
if there is a great distance between the filtering beds and the
clean water reservoir, so that we do not proportion the diameter
of the pipe between the two simply to give a certain velocity of
water, but to deliver the required amount of water with the
available head, we take the surface of the water in the filtering
well as the upper level of the upper end of the hydraulic grade
line, and the level of the water in the clean water reservoir as
the level of the lower end of the hydraulic grade line, making the
deduction above mentioned in the difference of level, if it is likely
appreciably to modify the result.
One thing we should bear in mind, however, and that is, to take
the least favourable conditions that are likely to occur in actual
working. Thus, in discharging from a reservoir, well, or the
like, the level of the water in which is subject to variation, we
should assume the water at the lowest level it is ever likely to be
at in actual working. On the other hand, in discharging into a
reservoir, well, or the like, with water at a variable level, we
should assume the water at the highest level that it is likely to be
at in actual working.
Flow of Water in Pipes Partly Closed at their Lowe, Ends,-
This is the condition always met with in distribution systems, and
in mains leading to distribution systems. Indeed, this partial
obstruction is an essential part of the working of distribution
systems, as without it neither would water rise to the different
levels that it has to rise to to supply the upper floors of houses,
nor would it issue with any force from fire hydrants. .
It thus comes to pass that, in the case of a main leading to a
distribution system, the “head " used in calculating the diameter
of the pipe is not the difference in level between the water in, let
us say, the clean water reservoir and that of the pipes of the
actual distribution system, but is the difference between the level
of the water in the clean water reservoir and the level of the
pipes under the streets plus the statical head that it is desirable
to have in these pipes at the time when the consumption is at its
greatest.
7TA/A) /º/LO IV OA' ||VA TE/e. I89
The first thing thus comes to be, to decide what pressure
of water we wish to have in the pipes under the streets at
all times. Several considerations have to be taken into account.
Thus the water ought certainly to rise to the upper floor of the
highest dwelling-houses. Further than this, it should, so far
as possible, be possible to throw water direct from fire hose,
without the intervention of a pump, over the highest buildings.
But it is not, of course, possible to provide for this in all cases :
the pressure through the whole of a distribution system cannot be
doubled or tripled or multiplied 10 times, because of the existence
of a single Eiffel Tower or even of a Strasburg Cathedral.
Apart from friction, water thrown from a jet would rise to the
same height as it would rise to in a vertical pipe. In practice it
will not rise nearly so high as this. In fact, it is not right to rely
on being able to throw water to more than one-half the height
that it would rise to in a vertical pipe ; and, indeed, in the case of
very high pressures, it will not rise so much as that. The reason
why water can be thrown by a jet to a height equivalent to a
proportionately less fraction of its statical head in the case of
great than of slight pressures, would seem to be that with the high
velocities due to great pressures the solid-like jet very soon
breaks up into spray, and Once so broken up the air offers a great
surface of resistance.” It may be argued that the less relative
efficiency in the matter of throwing to heights, with high than
with low pressures, is merely due to the fact that the air resistance
increases as the square of the velocity ; but it must be borne
in mind that the velocity of the water issuing from the jet varies
only as the square root of the height to which it would, apart from
pressure, rise.
Taking all things into consideration, it is evident that there
are many advantages in a high pressure. There must, however,
be a limit. Very commonly it is determined by the level of the
source of supply, but there comes a point beyond which the
rapidly-increasing difficulty in preventing wasteful leakage with
high pressures imposes a limit. The difficulty is not so much with
* The writer has often seen water thrown from ºths inch nozzels under a pressure
of 800 lbs. per square inch, equivalent to a head of over 1,800 feet. The water broke
into a spray almost as it left the nozzel, and would not rise more than about 100 feet.
These diminutive fire hose were fitted up in connection with hydraulic systems
erected by Messrs. Brown Bros. and Co., of Rosebank Ironworks, Edinburgh. They
are extremely efficient for extinguishing a fire at its beginning. They are attached
to rubber hose which, strange to say, can be procured so strong that they will resist
the enormous pressure mentioned.
I90 TA/A, WA 7TEA S UAE’A/L V OP TO WAVS.
the street mains as with the house fittings. The rapid improve-
ment of these is making higher pressures possible, but there must
always be a limit. It is very difficult to state at what pressure
this is reached, or even to say what head is the most desirable.
Perhaps it will not, however, be very far wide of the mark to say
that a pressure equivalent to a head of about 300 feet is about the
greatest that is advisable with the fittings now in use. In the
case of many towns that still have in the houses fittings of
somewhat antiquated pattern, it would be quite impossible to
increase the pressure to this amount without disastrous leakage
immediately occurring.
In the case of towns on very uneven ground, it is inevitable
that the pressure shall vary greatly in different places, and this
even if there be a high level and a low level service, or if
there be more than two services. It may, in such a case, be
impracticable to avoid a pressure greater than one equivalent to
Fig. 174.—Diagram illustrating calculation of hydraulic grade line.
300 feet head. In such a case the greatest attention must be paid
to the pipes and fittings in that part of the town where the
pressure is the greatest. On the other hand, a town built on
a level—or, still more, one built on ground gently sloping away
from the centre of distribution—permits of a maximum pressure
less than is needed in towns on any other form of ground. It is
probably never advisable to have a pressure equivalent to a
head of less than 100 feet in the mains.” -
Fig. 174 will illustrate what is meant about the head that is
to be used in calculating the diameter necessary for a main leading
to a distribution system. Let us suppose A to be a clean water
reservoir, and the thick line to represent a main leading to a town
on the site B C. We will suppose that we are given the following
data —
* In Japan—the houses being very low, seldom over two stories in height—the
maximum desirable pressure is equivalent to about 200 feet per head, and there
are some towns in which a head of even 100 feet is unnecessary.

7THAE A*/O J.W OF WA 7T/E/º. I9 I
The town is 60 feet above datum ; it is desirable to have a
pressure equivalent to a head of not less than 250 feet in
the mains ; the level of low water in the clean Water reservoir is
350 feet above datum.
We shall call 60 + 250 h, and 350 h". Then H =
h' — h, = 350 — 310, = 40, when H is the head to be used in
calculating the diameter of the main. That is to say, the main
must be made of such diameter that, with a head of 40 feet
available for putting the water in motion, it shall be capable of
carrying a quantity of water equal to the absolute maximum
consumption at any part of the twenty-four hours. -
In the sketch, a b represents the hydraulic grade line.
CHAPTER XVIII.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMs.
THE working out of a distribution system is one of the most
troublesome problems in connection with waterworks, as well as
one on which most text-books are nearly silent, and that in
general is barely referred to in papers describing the carrying-out
of waterworks. It would seem that most engineers consider it a
part of the works of quite minor importance. The writer would
insist that it is of importance minor to no other part of the works,
and that, in connection with that important function of modern
waterworks—the extinction of fire—it is of the very first
importance. Indeed it is only of late years that it seems to have
been understood that the extinction of fires is one of the principal
purposes of waterworks, and even now this fact seems to be fully
appreciated only in America. -
Constant and Intermittent Service.—Before discussing
distribution systems, we must say a word or two about constant
and intermittent service, but it will be only a word, as intermittent
service may be looked on now as altogether a thing of the past.
Not many years ago a constant service was a thing scarcely
known. All waterworks admitted water to the service-pipes of the
houses during an interval of an hour or longer once a day.
During this time, cisterns in the houses of sufficient capacity to
hold a supply for at least twenty-four hours were filled up. During
the rest of the day, the water was shut off from the houses and
from the mains in the street. The owners or occupiers of houses
found it imperative to prevent any very gross leakage in the house-
service system, for the simple reason that, if it continued to exist,
the water in the cisterns would not last for the twenty-four hours.
The disadvantages of the intermittent system are very great.
The very fact of storing water for a minimum of twenty-four hours
in uncovered or imperfectly-covered cisterns is enough to condemn
J)/S 7TA’/APOW 7TWOAV S VS ZTAEA/S. I93
the system, as the water is certain to deteriorate. But there is
worse than this. The cisterns are generally in inaccessible places,
often between the ceiling of the upper rooms and the roof, and
the actual householder seldom sees them. “Out of sight ° is
generally literally “Out of mind” in such a case, and the cisterns
are left uncleaned from year's end to year's end, so that water
used for drinking purposes is drawn from storage tanks the sight
of which would make the users of the cisterns sick.”
Further than this, there was the great inconvenience that, in
case of fire, there was no pressure on the mains until the “turn-
key’ could be found to turn on the water.
When the advantages of a constant service were first pointed
out, it was objected that such a service was impracticable, because
the inevitable waste would be so enormous, and, indeed, when a
constant service was first attempted, the waste was found to be so
great that it had to be abandoned. Since then, however, by
improvements in house-fittings, by systems of regular inspection,
and, in certain cases, by the general introduction of selling water
by meter, waste has been so far reduced that the constant service
system is now all but universal, and soon will certainly be the only
system used, Or, it is to be hoped, permitted.
In the constant service system, water is admitted to the house-
service pipes during the whole twenty-four hours. The water
ought, in all cases except for the use of water-closets, to be drawn
from the service pipes under the town pressure direct ; but from
what can only be called a sort of inveterate conservatism, it is
quite common, in England at any rate, to find that, even where
the constant service has been introduced, the evil cistern system
is still retained.
For the reasons here given, in treating of distribution systems,
we assume a constant service.
Distribution Systems and Extinction of Fire.—Until
recently, distribution systems were commonly designed to be
* If the writer could describe what he has seen, whilst making inspec-
tions of houses in London for the London Sanitary Inspection Association, he is
pretty sure that no cistern would be allowed any more in any house in a civilised
country. Dead rats are a trifle. He remembers once inspecting a house in which
the Cistern supplying drinking water was found to be situated under the floor of
an attic used as a bedroom. There were quite unmistakable evidences that a cer-
tain unmentionable utensil had been upset on the very morning of the day of
inspection, and that some of the contents had dropped into the cistern This was
in the house of a famous London physician It was not at all uncommon to find
cisterms in such positions that, on the washing of a floor, part of the washing Water
must inevitably enter them.
O
I94. 7A/A WA 7TA: A S OW/2/2/. V. O.A. ZTO WAVS.
capable simply of supplying so much water per head of population ;
and—except inasmuch as a certain minimum size of pipe, much
more than large enough to supply the water used in all the houses
of any single street, was generally decided on—little consideration
was given to the water desirable for the extinction of fire. Now
it should be understood that, throughout the whole design of
waterworks, the water desirable for fire extinction ought never to
be left out of consideration, and that in the case of all mains it
ought to be one of the determining factors of the diameter, whilst
the diameter of all mains under a certain size ought to be deter-
mined solely with regard to their capacity to supply water for fire
extinction. -
It is not at all easy to decide what quantity of water it is
necessary to provide for the extinction of fires. It is evident that
it is in no way proportionate to the size of the town. Up to
a certain point the water necessary for extinguishing a fire in a
small village is as great as that needed in a great city. On the
other hand, it is not possible to assign a definite quantity of water
per minute as that necessary for fire extinction whatever be the
size of the town supplied, because, in the first place, a fire may
spread to much greater limits in a large city than in a small town
or village ; and, in the second, there is much greater probability of
more than one fire at a time occurring in a large city than in a
small town or village.
One thing that can be quite definitely stated is that the
quantity of water that must be provided for fire extinction must
be relatively larger in small towns than in large ones. -
Fanning, in one part of his book, has the following:—“There
is the possibility of two or three fires being in progress at the
same time in even the smaller cities, requiring at least twelve
hydrant streams, or, say, 300 cubic feet per minute of water for
each fire.” At another place he says —“For fire supply we
anticipate the possibility of two fires happening at the same time
requiring ten hose-streams each. The minimum fire supply is,
then, twenty hose-streams of, say, 20 cubic feet per minute, or a
total of 400 cubic feet per minute.” In another place he mentions
that the average consumption for fire purposes in American cities
is at the rate of one-tenth gallon per head per day. This is, how-
ever, a very different thing from the necessary provision, for this
one-tenth gallon per day will be all consumed during a few hours
of each year.
It has been pointed out by Mr. Freeman—an American
ZD/S TA2//3 O ZT/OAV S VS 7T/E//.S. I95
engineer who has given special attention to this subject, in
the only country where the subject receives nearly the atten-
tion it deserves—that distribution systems should be designed
with the object, so far as possible, of being able to concen-
trate the whole power of the waterworks on a fire occurring
at any particular place ; and he mentions a case where, on the
occurrence of a large fire in an American city, as much water
from hydrants alone was poured over the area of conflagration
in a few hours as would have drowned it all by a depth of over
12 feet ! *
It is not generally possible, or at least practicable, to so
arrange distribution systems that the whole power of the works
can be concentrated on any one fire ; but the system always can be
and should be so arranged that, if a fire occurs at any one place, jets
from several hydrants can be brought to bear on it, and that, if it
spreads in spite of this, further jets can be brought to bear on it
proportionate to its area.
It is necessary, too, that all this be effected without inter
fering with the general supply of water to the town ; although we
may bear in mind that, naturally, at the place where a fire is
actually occurring, water is not being used for either “domestic ’’
or manufacturing purposes. The water that would otherwise be
thus constantly used is therefore available for fire extinction.
The same applies partly to water that would naturally be used for
domestic and other purposes in houses surrounding the site of a
conflagration. For these reasons it is not necessary to specially
supply quite all the water that would be necessary for fire
extinction were the normal consumption going on. The question
thus becomes greatly one of judgment.
The writer has no objection to the laying down of such large
minimum quantities as have been mentioned above, but does not
see much use in laying them down as minima not to be deviated
from, as he feels sure that they will not be adhered to, at any rate
in the case of European cities. They represent a quantity of
water that would supply the whole of the ordinary needs of a
fairly large town. As a compromise he would suggest as a
minimum, 200 cubic feet per minute. This is the quantity of
water that will be carried by pipes of from 12 to 15 inches in
diameter, with the hydraulic gradients common in the case of
waterworks.
But let there be no mistake here. What is meant is, that all
the principal mains of the distribution system of the waterworks
O 2
I96 TA/A2 WA 7TAZAC S UAE PA. V. OAP 7"O WAVS.
of any fairly large city should be so proportioned that they shall
be capable of carrying water at the rate of 200 cubic feet per
minute in addition to the absolute maximum consumption. More-
ever, it is to be understood that this is suggested as a minimum.
The more water, in addition to this, that is provided for fire extinc-
tion, the better. By all means, if the town can afford it, let there
be provision for fire-extinguishing water at the rate of 400 cubic
feet per minute, or even 600 feet. The latter quantity represents
the whole of the water that would be carried by pipes of from
about 20 to about 24 inches in diameter, with the hydraulic
gradients usual in waterworks. -
2 3
“Dead-end " and “ Interlacing ” “ Gridiron O1"
“Reticulation ” Systems of Distribution.—Systems of
distribution may be subdivided in this way. The former is the
Fig. 175.--1)iagram illustrating system of distribution.
system that naturally first suggests itself, and it has certain
advantages. It may be diagrammatically represented as a sort of
tree-like arrangement of pipes, such as is shown in Fig. 175.
This arrangement has the advantage that the necessary dia-
meters of the pipes can be calculated with comparative ease, and
further, that any part of the system can be isolated by closing a
single sluice-valve, as at x , for example. On the other hand, there
are the disadvantages that the water is liable to remain stagnant
for an indefinite length of time in the “dead-ends " of the pipes,
with the result that it deteriorates in quality. This can be partly
overcome by occasionally flushing out the pipes by hydrants at
the dead-ends, but this involves waste of water, and the pre-
caution is, moreover, liable to be neglected. Further, unless
there is a great multiplication of sluice valves, it is necessary to
shut off a district of considerable area entirely, in case of repairs

JD/S 7TA’/BU 7TWOAV S VS 7TA: /ſ/.S. I97
being necessary to any pipe. This is inconvenient, and might be
disastrous were a fire to occur.
Supposing, however, junctions made between the portions A and
B of the system, by junction pipes, a b and c, shown in dotted
lines, it will be evident that, to a considerable extent, stagnation
would be reduced; for were water drawn from any of the pipes
between A and B, a motion of water would be set up in all the
pipes common to the two portions A and B. On the other hand, it
will be evident that the closing of the single sluice valve x will
not permit of close water from any pipe of either of the parts A

| O2
|
*- ----- C
£2 I .* –––. f
| t
—- d
Fig. 176.-Diagram illustrating system of distribution.
and B of the system, and that it would be necessary to close at
least two sluice valves.
This junctioning of the ends of mains into each other is the
beginning of the system which we have above entitled the “inter-
lacing’ or “gridiron " system. When this system is carried out in
its integrity, the pipes cross each other, forming a complete net-
work, and are junctioned into each other at every crossing. Such
a system is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 176.
It will at once be seen that there is not likely to be much
stagnation in the pipes, for the drawing of water at different places
is certain to keep the whole mass of water in motion. The great
advantage of this system is, however, the possibility of concen-
198 7TA/A2 WA 7TAZAZ S OAX/2/. V. OA 7TO WAVS.
trating the discharge of water at any particular part of the system,
should this become desirable, as in the case of fire. Supposing,
for example, that a fire occurs at a, it is evident that the Water
will flow to hydrants opened around a, not only from the trunk
main pipe, as would be the case with the “dead-end" system, but
will, in fact, flow from all infections. It is true that it is not
possible to calculate the necessary diameters of the pipes with any
exactness, but we may at least be sure that they have diameter
enough. Thus, for example, we may proportion a pipe e d, so
that, drawing water from the trunk main A B, it would be large

b
Fig. 177.-Diagram illustrating system of distribution.
enough to provide all the water needed for the part of the town
shown as inclosed by dotted lines. All parallel pipes being pro-
portioned in the same way, the pipes at right angles, such as ef.
may be looked on merely as auxiliary pipes, serving to concentrate
the water at any particular part of the system, should that become
desirable ; and further, even in normal cases, serving to compensate
for any error in the proper adjustment of the diameters of the
pipes, or for any unlooked for excess in consumption in any part
of the town.
Again, there is another way of working out this interlacing
system, which we attempt to illustrate diagrammatically in Fig. 177.
Ełere the system—not generally the whole of a town system, but
that of a portion, say of a district of it—is surrounded with a pipe
capable of supplying the whole from both ends. That is to say, the
“loop" pipe is of such a diameter throughout that it is capable of
carrying one-half of all the water needed in the district, including
D/S 7TR/BUTION S VS TEMS. I99
allowance for fire extinction. Any pipe, such as a b, is then made
of such a diameter that, supplied from both ends, it is capable of
supplying all the wants of the parts of the district enclosed
in dotted lines. All parallel pipes are proportioned in the
same way, and the pipes at right angles are made of the
diameter necessary to supply one street only—that is to say, they
will generally be the minimum diameter of pipe that is admitted
in the system.
A slight modification of the plan just described is as follows:
Instead of making the pipes in one direction only mains, propor-
tioning them to do all the work—making the pipes at right angles
merely supplementary—the pipes in both directions at right
angles may be made of equal diameter, each pipe being then
Cl

b Ł
Fig. 177(a)-Diagram illustrating system of distribution for small district.
looked on as a main. Such an arrangement is illustrated in
Fig. 177(A). In this case any pipe—as, for example, a b-is made
of a diameter to serve only half the district marked out by the
dotted lines, even considering it as supplied at both ends.
One or the other of the two systems illustrated in Figs. 177
and 177(A) will be the more economical, according to the size
of the district to be served by the “loop.” A small district
will probably be piped most economically by the modification
shown in Fig. 177(A) the pipes being then, very likely, all of
the minimum diameter used in the system ; whereas a large
district will probably be most economically piped by the system
shown in Fig. 177.
It is, however, very difficult to say exactly how it is best to
arrange the pipes. They would be arranged just as shown only
2OO TA/AE WA 7TP A S UAE’AX/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
in the case of a typically American city, with “avenues" and streets
at right angles to each other. In the case of towns of more Or
less irregularity in the matter of streets, the thing becomes very
greatly one of judgment, and one in which practice leads to com-
parative facility. In the case of very irregularly arranged streets,
it is seldom advisable to adopt the interlacing system in its com-
pletest form : it is generally advisable to make a sort of compro-
mise between that and the dead-end system, merely taking care to
have as few dead-ends as possible.
The real difficulty that is found in working out an interlacing
system in its integrity, lies in the enormous multiplication of sluice

M- ITI r) fºr —I
M- º -Jº T -]
—l _ſ T_ H. Phi [-l
T U-T ºf Tur
1. f tºtº. rt, rt-l -ºl
•p- l t-º-W TLT ºr-- -J
—;
E
! l F- 1, 1}_l º-
T. I - I -I ſ
Fig. 178.-Diagram illustrating multiplication of sluice valves.
valves necessary to be able to close off any one part of the system, in
case of repairs. It is never possible to shut off a single pipe without
closing at least two sluices. This is liable to cause great confusion
in case of a burst pipe. On the other hand, there is the fact that
a small part of the system can be closed off without interfering
with any of the rest of it.
The inevitable multiplication of sluice valves will be under-
stood by reference to Fig. 178. In the upper part of this figure to
the right is shown the only arrangement whereby it is possible
to close off any one pipe by closing only two sluice valves.
Sluice valves are represented by short lines intersecting the pipe
/D/S 7TR//5 UT/OAV S VS 7TP // S. 2O I
mains. It will be seen that there are four such valves at every
Crossing of the pipes. -
In the lower part of the figure is shown an arrangement where-
by the number of sluice valves may be reduced to one half, but it
will be seen that it is necessary to close no less than four valves,
to isolate any one pipe from the general system. Further than
this, a comparatively larger area has to be deprived of water in
isolating any one pipe.
At the left-hand side is seen an arrangement that may be
adopted at the edges of a distribution system, whereby three sluice
valves have to be closed to shut off any pipe.
A further difficulty in connection with the interlacing system
is that it makes it difficult to apply “district meters.” This will
be discussed in the chapter on “Prevention of Waste of Water.”
Diameters of the Larger Mains of Distribution
Systems.-In working out the diameters of the large mains of
a town, it is always necessary, first of all, to divide the area into a
certain number of districts—the more the better—and to discover
the approximate population of each. Perhaps a better idea
of the way of setting to work will be got by imagining a
definite case, with certain conditions; and describing this, setting
about to work out the problem. Let us take the following for
example :-
The town, or part of the town that is to be supplied, is long
and narrow—the simplest case to deal with—and it is decided to
supply it by a trunk main running down the chief street, which is
in the midde of it. The population is 100,000. Provision is to be
made for an increase of population of 50 per cent. Mean daily
supply of water is to be taken at 3 cubic feet per head per day;
water is to be provided for the extinction of fire at the rate of
200 cubic feet per minute. -
The town is on flat ground, and it has been decided that the
pressure in the mains is at no time to fall below one equivalent to
a head of 150 feet. Of course this minimum will be reached at the
part of the town farthest from the source of supply.
Water is supplied from a clean-water reservoir, at some distance
from one end of the town ; low-water level in this reservoir is
200 feet above the level of the town. There is, therefore, 50 feet
of head available for giving the water in the pipes motion ; the
distance from the clean-water reservoir to the remote end of the
town is 12,000 feet.
2O2 7TA/A WA 7TP2A S. OAXA2/. V. OAP 7"O WAVS.
- o • º e 5()
The hydraulic gradient is, therefore, strictly Ijoo' To be on the
safe side, and to make ample allowance for overcoming the inertia
48
12,000'
of the water and the resistance to entry, we shall take it at
or four in a thousand.
We imagine Fig. 179 to represent the outline of the town,
divided into 10 districts, having the prospective populations of 8,000,
10,000, 15,000, 20,000, 18,000, 17,000, 19,000, 14,000, 12,000,
9,000 and 8,000, as duly marked on the figure. It is to be noted
that these augmented populations may be proportionate to the
present populations, or may not be, according as the town shows
a tendency to grow uniformly, or to grow in particular directions.
Much judgment and local knowledge is necessary to determine
whether a town is likely to grow uniformly, or more in certain
0
000 18,0
a.o.o.o.) ſoooo 15,000 \º.
Fig. 179.--Diagram illustrating arrangement of distributing mains.
directions than in others, and there is always something of mere
speculation in the matter. 3.
The augmented population—not the present one—is taken, for
reasons given in an early chapter of this book, wherein it was
explained that it is true economy to make certain parts of the
system sufficient for a considerably increased population from
the beginning, instead of allowing for their subsequent enlarge-
ment.
Our problem now is to decide on the diameter of the pipe
from a to c, from c to d, from d to e, from e to f, from f to g,
from g to h, from h to i, from i to j, from 7 to k, from k to l, and
from l to m.
Theoretically the pipe might begin to taper from b, but in
practice the full diameter of the main is carried on to the end of
the first of the districts into which we have divided the town.
In this case we have to deal with absolute maximum con-



D/S 7A/BU 7/ON S YSTEMS. 2O3
Sumption. This, as has been seen, must be taken as at least equal
to twice mean consumption. It will, therefore, be at the rate of
6 cubic feet in 24 hours in this case.
It is thus evident that the rate for domestic supply is repre-
sented by the following equation —
150,000 × 6
D = i. 60-
Whero
D = discharge in cubic feet per minute.
This is found to be 625 cubic feet, and it is evident that
the total that has to be provided for, including water for fire
extinction, is 625 + 200, or 825. -
We could apply a formula to find out the necessary diameter
of the pipe, but prefer to refer to diagrams of Taylor’s “Water-
pipe Discharge Tables,” from which we gather in a moment that
the pipe would need to have a diameter of, as near as may be,
23% inches. On account of what has already been said about
allowance for incrustation, we shall, in practice, give the pipe a
diameter of 25 inches.
We next come to investigate the portion of pipe c d. Here
I42,000 × 6
24 × 60 -
be provided for = 792 cubic feet per minute. We will find that
the pipe to supply this would need to have a diameter of
23-3 inches, but again we should make it 25 inches in diameter in
practice.
Next comes the portion of pipe de. Here we will find that
the total quantity that has to be provided for is 750 cubic feet per
minute, and that the pipe must be 22% inches in diameter, or
allowing for incrustation, 24 inches in diameter.
Taking our pipe in this way by sections, we may tabulate the
results as follows:–
, and the total quantity to
Our formula becomes —D =
From a to c, the pipe must have a capacity of 825 cubic ft. per minute.
2 3 6 to d 3 * 2 3 7 :)2 * 3 3 *
* 3 d to e • 2 • 2 75() 5 * 5 *
2 3 62 to f 5 * 3 * (;87 • ? • ?
., f to g 2 3 3 * 604 , , * *
* 5 h to ) 3 * 2 3 529 55 3
3 * () to / * * 3 * 4.58 : 9 • *
,, .7 to k • 3 • * 349 3 * 2 :
* 3 /* to / • 3 2 : 32 | 2 3 22
,, . to m • * a 3 27 | 3 * 22
,, 770 to ?? • * 3 * 233 • 3 3 *
2O4. TAZAZ WA 7T/5A S OA’/2/C Y OF 7"O WAVS.
Further, we shall find, referring to the diagrams mentioned,
that—
Erom—
a to c, the pipe must have a diameter of 23#ins. Or, allowing for incrustation, 25 ins.
c to d 2 3 • 3 23-3 2 3 22 25 ,
d to e 2 ) 25 22% 2 3 5 * 24 • 2
e to f 52 2 * 22} 2 3 • ? 24 ,
f to (ſ 22 22 21} • 3 32 23 3 *
() to ſh 3 * • 3 20; º • 3 22 ,
// to 7 22 2 3 19; 2 3 • * 21 , ,
* to 7 5 * s 9 17; * * • 3 19 ,
j to k > * 2 3 16# • 2 * 9 18 , ,
k to / • ? 3 * 15% 5 3 s • 17 , ,
! to 177 2 * 55 15 2 3 2 * 16 , ,
The last column gives the diameters of pipes that would be
used were it considered desirable to use pipes of diameters rising
an inch at a time. It is more common, in the case of waterworks,
to have pipes of different sizes varying, at least in the case of pipes
over 12 inches in diameter, 3 inches at a time. Thus it is
common to jump from 12 inches to 15 inches, from 15 inches to
18 inches, from 18 inches to 21 inches, from 21 inches to
24 inches, and so on ; and, indeed, it is the practice in many
cases, with pipes above 3 feet in diameter, to jump as much as
6 inches in diameter.
The question is merely one of expense. If the different sizes
of pipe wanted do not aggregate any very great length, it may be
cheaper to restrict the sizes to a few different diameters than to
have small quantities of pipes of a number of different diameters,
and this in spite of the fact that, with the small number of
different diameters, the aggregate weight of the pipes will be
greater than with a number of different diameters. Naturally pipe-
makers will quote a cheaper price perton for a quantity of pipe all
of one diameter than for smaller quantities of pipes of several
different diameters, aggregating the same length. Then there is
the further necessity, when there are many different diameters, of
a multiplication of bends and other special pipes, and of keeping
a comparatively large number of straight pipes in reserve in case
of breakage. On the other hand, the engineer should bear in
mind that he has not to consider only the cost of the pipes, either
at the foundry or delivered, but the cost of the pipes laid, and
with unnecessarily large diameters the price of handling and laying
is increased, as well as the cost price.
The writer is of opinion that, in the case of large works at
least, pipes of intermediate sizes might be more freely used than
D/STRIBUTION SYSTEMS. 2O5
they are, and he is confirmed in his opinion by a paragraph
in the introduction to Messrs. Taylor's book of “Water-pipe
Discharge Diagrams” (see cºnte, p. 186). The paragraph reads as
follows:– :
“With cast-iron pipes above 10 inches diameter, it is much too
frequently the practice to adopt only those sizes whose diameters
rise 3, 4, or 5 inches respectively, other diameters being much
more rarely met with. To exemplify what is here referred to,
suppose that in a certain case it was found that a main 34 inches
in diameter would carry the volume required, it is probable that a
main of 36 inches would be adopted, notwithstanding the fact that
the latter would require over 100 tons of metal per mile more
than the former.”
Centres of Distribution.—In the particular case we have
taken we have supposed that the water enters the town from

[I]c.w. F
Fig. 180.—Diagram illustrating arrangement of distributing mains.
Outside at one end. Another common arrangement of the mains
of distribution systems is shown in Fig. 180. By this arrange-
ment, other things being equal, the size of mains within the
town is very considerably reduced.”
In the case where there is a natural elevation in the middle of
a town, suitable for the site of a clean-water reservoir, an excellent
distribution system is afforded. In the case of small towns it may
even be worth the expense to erect an artificial elevated tank in
such a position, to give an even distribution throughout the town.
* This is the arrangement proposed for the Kobe and the Shimonoseki water-
Works, Japan.
2O6 7A/AF WA 7TP R S Ü/2/2/L V OA; 7"O WAVS.
Edinburgh is a good example of a town with a central reservoir on
a natural elevation. The reservoir is on the Castle Hill, which,
as every one who has seen the “modern Athens” knows, is nearly
in the middle of the town, or rather was before the town began to
creep so far westwards as it has done recently.
In the case of very large towns it is a great advantage to have
several centres of distribution. The advantage is diagrammatically
illustrated in Figs. 181 and 182.
The hypothetical case of a perfectly square city is taken, and
we imagine pipes in the first place radiating from one centre. It
will be seen that the pipes have to taper from the extreme limits
|
Figs. 181, 182.—Diagrams illustrating systems of centres of distribution.
of the town to this one centre, and that they are of necessity of a
very large size near the centre.
In the second case, we suppose the town divided into four
districts, each with a centre of distribution. It will be seen that
the pipes are much shorter, and a very little consideration will
show that they are of much smaller size where they approach the
centre of the four centres of distribution than are those pipes
approaching the One single centre of distribution.
The fact is that the advantage is almost precisely the same
as that gained by the use of “intercepting sewers ” in the case of
some sewerage systems, the advantage being commonly repre-
sented by a diagram something of the nature of Fig. 183. Here
the whole large triangle represents the total weight of pipe that
would be needed with one centre of distribution ; the shaded part
represents what would be needed with four. Of course, we do


A)/S /TA’//3 (7.7/OAV S VS ZTAEA/S. 2O7
not mean to state that the unshaded portion is an actual measure
of the saving that is effected in the weight of pipe. We merely
mean to say that it diagrammatically represents the sort of saving
to be expected.
It may be urged that with the four distribution centres,
although there is a saving in the diameters of the actual distri-
bution pipes, this is just compensated for by the fact that a
greater length of pipe is necessary to the four centres from
the actual source of supply than in the case of the one centre.
It will be found, however, that in nearly all cases there is an
actual saving. It has to be borne in mind in this connection that
the pipes to the centre or centres have to carry maximum daily
consumption only, while those from
the centres have to carry absolute
maximum consumption.
It will be readily understood that,
in cases where pumping machinery
is used to pump either directly into the
mains, into stand-pipes, or into ele-
vated tanks not holding a sufficiency
of water to compensate for the varia-
tion in consumption during the
twenty-four hours, the pumping
station or stations must be looked
on as centres of distribution; and ... tº & º
© gº tº tº e tº Fig. 183.−Diagram illustrating system
that, if it is permissible to have the of centres of distribution.
station or stations within the town,
it is best, other things being equal, to have one pumping station
in the centre of a town of moderate size ; several stations—two or
more, according to the shape of the plan of the town and the size
—in the case of large towns.
Diameters of the Smaller Mains.—The first thing to be
done in connection with the smaller mains is to decide on the
minimum diameter of pipe to be used in the distribution system.
In many cases a minimum of 3 inches has been allowed, but it is
now generally agreed that this diameter is too small. It is
certainly much too small in the case of pipes for waters that incline
to produce incrustation quickly. A common minimum in English
practice has been 4 inches. This the writer considers to be
certainly the very smallest pipe that should be admitted in any
distribution system ; indeed, he considers that it would be a good

2OS 7TA/A. JAVA 7T/E A2 S OAX/2/. Y OAP 7"O WAVS.
thing” if 5 inches were adopted as a minimum size for mains
in European waterworks' distribution systems. In America it is
not uncommon to have 6 inches as a minimum diameter for
the pipes of distribution systems, and 8 inches has been suggested
as a minimum by Fanning.
Whatever may be decided on as a minimum, the diameters
of all the smaller mains should be determined entirely in con-
sideration of their capacity to supply full streams of water at all
the hydronts likely to be called upon for use at the same time.
To state this is simple enough, but two difficulties are met with
at once. In the first place, At what particular diameters do the
smaller mains begin 7 Secondly, How is it possible to tell what
number of hydrants are likely to be called into use at One time !
So far as the first question is concerned, we have some data
for answering it—namely, the allowance of water for fire extinction.
We took that at 200 cubic feet per second as a minimum. We
may, then, say that smaller mains are those that supply less
than 200 cubic feet per second with the hydraulic gradient allowed
in working. But in this connection it must be borne in mind
that if the interlacing system be adopted most or all of the smaller
mains will be supplied from both ends. Mains open at both ends
will, then, come under the heading of smaller mains only when
they are capable of supplying less than 100 cubic feet from each
end. Thus, in the case illustrated in Fig. 179, with the data
we assumed, it will be found that all mains supplied from one
end only, under 16 inchest in diameter, will rank as smaller
mains ; those supplied from two ends, under 12 inches diameter,
will be so classed.
As to how to come to any conclusion as to what number of
hydrants are likely to be called into use at one time, it is not
possible to say much more than that this is a matter of
judgment, and that, as in nearly all engineering cases where
judgment has to be relied on, it is right to make sure that any
error there may be is on the safe side.
The first thing is to locate all the fire hydrants. Of this more
is said in the next chapter. The next thing is simply to judge, to
* It is useful to remember, in this connection, that a 4-inch pipe carries con-
siderably more than twice as much water, with the same head, as a 3-inch pipe, and
a 5-inch pipe more than four times as much ; a 6-inch pipe carries not very much
less than six times as much.
f A diameter of 16 inches gives barely 1 inch allowance for incrustation; but
it is only in the case of pipes of considerable diameter that it is considered essential
to allow a full inch for incrustation. %
J)/S TR//3 UTIO/W S VS TAZ // S. 2O9.
the best of one's ability, as the plotting down of the distribution
pipes goes On, what number of these hydrants are likely ever to be
called on at one time, on the occurrence of fires in any part of the
district, and to proportion the pipes to be able to supply all these
hydrants.
The following table is a modification of one given by Fanning.
It is intended for European use,” and may be handy in determin-
ing the diameters to be given to the smaller mains —
No. of fire-hose. Diameter of mains if Diameter of mains if
g supplied at one end. supplied at both ends.
1. 4” 4."
2 5” - 4’’
3 6” 5”
4. 8 6
5 9 7
6 9 7
7 1() 7
8 I () 8
9 11 S
10 12 {)
12 14 I ()
Example of a Distribution System.—In conclusion to this
somewhat long chapter, we give a short description of the distri-
bution system of the waterworks of Tokyo, the capital of Japan,
in progress at the time of writing. Present population 1,200,000.
|Plate XXXIX. (Fig. 184) shows the great mains of the
whole system. The town is roughly divided into a plain and a
plateau, shown separated by a dotted line, and there are the three
distribution centres, marked on the plan A B and C.
The height of the water above sea level in the high-level
reservoir at Yodobashi, marked A, is 124 feet. This height is
not sufficient to supply the plateau by gravitation, but is high
enough to supply the service reservoirs at Hongo and Shiba,
marked respectively C and B. At A the water is pumped up to a
head of 116 feet, to supply the plateau.
* In Japan the houses are small (seldom more than two stories high), and of
light construction ; and although fires happen very often, it is considered likely that
a number of nozzles of moderate diameters will probably be more useful in the case
of fire extinction than several of the very large diameters sometimes used in Europe,
and more commonly in America. The diameters of the smaller mains need, there-
fore, not be more than about three-quarters of those given in the tables for given
number of hydrants.
P
2 IO TAZAZ WA 7TAZA' SOAXA2/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
The level of high water in the reservoirs at Shiba and Hongo—
that is to say, B and C, is 90 feet. There are pumping stations at
each of these places, and the pumps will pump against a head
corresponding to 75 feet.
The distribution system for the plateau is more or less radial.
That for the plain consists mainly in two large loop pipes, joining
the two reservoirs at B and C. These loops are marked B a C, and
B b c C, respectively.
The pipes from A to B and C, and the main pipe of the distribu-
tion system for the plateau, are each 42 inches diameter. Each of
the great loops, also, begins with a diameter of 42 inches, but is
reduced down to 20 inches at the middle. -
Plate XL. (Fig. 185) shows a part of the distribution system.
A part is selected that is somewhat thinly populated, but in
which the streets are very irregularly arranged, so that a system
of thorough reticulation is remarkably difficult to work out.
The attempt has been made to so arrange the pipes and sluice
valves that it may never be necessary to shut more than four
valves to isolate any part of the system, whilst, as a rule, any pipe
can be isolated by closing three, or only two, sluice valves. It is
certainly not possible to tell exactly, on this map, from the thick-
nesses of the lines only, the diameters of the mains, but a fair idea
can be got ; and as, in any case, the diameters would not apply to
European or American practice, it is not necessary that they
should be exactly known.
PLATE XXXIX.
() T - 2 MILES.
FIG. 184—WATERWORKS OF TOKYO : DISTRIBUTION SySTEM. [To face page 210.


@ District Meters. PLATE XL
O Fire Hydrants. º
3. Sluice Valves.
s
s
it iſ iſ ſt
viº º,
Autº-eas Fº
*::::::::::::Tºº
tºuriſtºrtiº
sº sº. :
sº-º-º: ---
d ºr-º- º, º as a - w
- --- º - $
==ºffliº S it tº it tº 4 |& I tº i t t is tº tº sº ****** A.
sº º
º: 5 gººmº
º, * * ,sº
==\lſº
isºjº.
* ºº::=º:
Juifſſº, wutu tº
20,000 FEET.
FIG. 185.-WATERworks of Tokyo: PART OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN DETAIL. - it. face 210
- ce page 210.












CHAIPTER XIX.
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR THE ExTINCTION OF FIRE.
A GOOD deal has been said in the last chapter about providing
mains amply large enough to supply all hydrants that are likely
to be wanted in action at the same time, but it is necessary to say
something more about the special precautions that should be taken
to provide for fire extinction.
Extra Storage for Fire Extinction.— Mention has already
been made of the necessity for making a provision, in the way of
special storage, for fire extinction. At first sight, it might seem
that the problem is nearly the same as that of providing a certain
rate of discharge in mains for fire extinction, but it is really
different.
It is true that, up to a certain point, a fire is likely to need as
much water for extinction in the case of a small as of a large town,
but there is a point beyond which a conflagration in a large town
is likely to need more water than in a small. In the case of most
large towns, it will generally be found that this is provided for, in
the method of working out such distribution systems as we have
described, for as a fire spreads in a large town there will soon, as a
rule, be water available from more than one main, or even from
more than one centre of distribution.
Further than this it is to be observed that a fire is likely to
last for a longer time in a large than in a small town. It thus
appears that, whereas so far as the provision in the matter of
carrying power of mains is concerned, the amount may, for
individual mains, be nearly constant for all towns above a certain
very moderate size, the quantity of water stored as a precaution
against fires must increase with the size of the town. On the
other hand, it must be evident that this storage capacity, specially
provided, does not need to increase proportionately with the size
of the town as measured by population.
P 2
212 TAZAZ WA 7TAZAR SOVA2/2/L V OAP 7"O WAVS.
It is difficult, probably impossible, to state just what storage
capacity should be specially provided for fire extinction, in the
case of a town of any particular size. It is therefore with much
diffidence that the author suggests the following formula as fairly
representing the minimum storage capacity that should be pro-
vided for fire extinction alone. He has arrived at it by observa-
tions and reasoning that it would take too long to discuss here,
and that would probably be of no particular interest to the reader,
the more especially as, at best, there has nowhere been more than
approximation —
Q = 200 V P
when
Q = the minimum quantity of water, in cubic feet, to be stored for the special
purpose of fire extinction.
P = the population.
As has already been stated, this storage capacity may either
be provided in the clean water reservoir, or in the settling reser-
voir or the impounding reservoir. In either of the two last-
mentioned cases, a by-pass is provided, to be opened in the case of
fire, so that the water shall not have to pass through the filter-
beds. -
It is evident that there are certain advantages in having the
necessary reserve in the clean water reservoir. If the reserve is
there, it is ready for instant use, without the opening of any
by-pass valves, and, moreover, the objectionable practice of
allowing unfiltered water to enter the mains is avoided. On the
other hand, there is the objection that keeping the reserve
mentioned involves storing a comparatively large quantity of
water in the clean water reservoir, and we have seen that this is
not advisable, as the water, kept stagnant for a considerable time
after filtration, is liable to deteriorate. Measured in days’ con-
sumption, the necessary storage is much greater in the case of
Small towns than in that of large. Thus, in the case of a town
of 10,000 inhabitants, it would be necessary to have a storage
capacity equivalent to sixteen hours' mean supply to provide for
fire extinction only. In the case of a city with a population of
1,000,000, on the other hand, it would be necessary to keep
a reserve corresponding to less than two hours’ mean con-
sumption.
Reserve of Pumping Power for Fire Extinction.—It is
evident that, where pumping engines pump into clean water
PROVISION FOR EX7/VCTION OF FIRE. 2 I 3
reservoirs, if these reservoirs be made large enough to hold the
water that it is desirable to have in reserve in case of fires, as well
as that necessary to compensate for variation in consumption
during the twenty-four hours, there need be no special provision
in the pumping machinery. True, the reservoir may be empty at
the end of a fire, and will have to be filled up again, but this need
only be done slowly, and pumping machinery will always work a
little above its normal capacity, although generally at a sacrifice
of efficiency. Moreover, the stand-by power may be brought
into requisition in an emergency, although it is inadvisable so to
use it.
In all cases where the necessary reserve for fire is not provided
for in the elevated reservoir or tank, the engines ought evidently
to be able to do additional pumping work corresponding to the
quantity of water that may be needed for fire extinction. A
minimum provision of 200 cubic feet per minute has been sug-
gested, and there is no doubt that, in the case of all considerable
towns, there ought to be engine power capable of pumping this
quantity of water in addition to what is needed for maximum
rate of consumption on ordinary occasions. This means an addi-
tional pumping power of nearly forty actual horse power—that is to
say, horse power measured by the water actually pumped—per
100 feet of head against which the pumping is done ; and strictly
speaking, this Ought to be provided in addition to the “stand-by.”
It is not very often, so far as the writer knows, that such a
provision is made in practice. It is not uncommon to rely on the
“stand-by.” for the emergency of a fire, although, as has been
said, the principle is not a good One, because one of the very
reasons for having a certain quantity of stand-by power is that
one of the pumping engines may break down at any time, at the
time of a fire, of course, as well as at any other time.
Sometimes delivery of water for the extinction of fire is
provided for by specifying that, whilst the engines shall be
capable of delivering the normal quantity of water, whilst
developing a certain “duty,” they shall be capable of delivering
a certain percentage more, say 20 per cent., regardless of efficiency
—or at least without any specially-stated efficiency—as regards
coal consumption.
There is no great objection to this arrangement, but that it is
necessary to be very careful in providing ample boiler reserve
in such a case, for it must be borne in mind that, if the engines be
run at a speed, say 20 per cent. in excess of the normal speed, it
2 I4. 7 A/A WA 7-ER S (VPA/ Y OF TO WAVS.
will be necessary to increase the steaming by more than 20 per
cent., because the engines will probably not work as economically
as at their normal rate.
In any case, however much spare boiler power has to be provided,
there is always the trouble, in connection with pumping systems
without a reserve of pumped water, that a sudden demand for an
increased supply of water involves a sudden increase in steam,
whereas it takes some time to increase the steaming of a set of
boilers by bringing additional boilers into work. In this con-
nection, it is worth remembering that steam can be got up much
more rapidly in boilers of the marine or locomotive or of the
“tubulous” or “water tube º kind, than in boilers of the
Lancashire or Cornish type that hold a great mass of water
that has to be heated.
Spacing and Position of Hydrants.--It is not easy to say
anything very definite about the spacing of hydrants, farther than
that the more there are the better, which of course means that the
closer they are spaced the better. The question of expense is the
only limiting quantity. The actual cost of hydrants themselves
forms no small item in the price of waterworks, and there is no
use in scattering hydrants thickly, unless the mains are of size
enough to supply all that may be in the proximity of any building
that may catch fire. It will be evident that the more dense the
population and the more valuable the property the greater is the
reason for thickly scattered hydrants.
Perhaps it may be said that, in thickly populated parts of
cities, particularly in business centres, the spacing of hydrants
should not be over 100 yards, though it may be less, and that it
should be not more than 150 yards at any part of a city.
As to the position of hydrants, it is evident that there is a
distinct advantage in a street-crossing as a position, for a hydrant
there commands any one of two, three, four, or even more streets,
without the necessity of bending the hose round a corner, and is
in a position where the man actuating it can always see the site of
conflagration. It is recommended, then, that a hydrant should be
placed at every street-crossing, and that there be an intermediate
hydrant wherever street-crossings are more than 150 yards apart.
Mr. Freeman, already mentioned (p. 195) as an authority on this
subject, strongly recommends that the positions of hydrants be
decided on the spot, rather than on a plan of the town, and there
is much to be said for this. It is also advisable for the engineer to
A R O V/S/OAV AFOA EX 7TWAVC7/O/V OF AZ/A’ F. 2 I 5.
consult the Fire Brigade authorities, rather than to rely on his own
judgment alone. The writer, indeed, in working out a distribution
system, considers it most satisfactory to hand a clean map of the
town to the Fire Brigade authorities, and to ask them to locate the
hydrants. The mains, up to a certain limit of
size, are then worked out solely with a view to
supply these hydrants, and it is still possible to
modify the proposed positions to a very con-
siderable extent on the ground afterwards, and
yet have a sufficient supply for all hydrants.
Form and Size of Hydrants.-One has
only to look over the pages of any of the large
catalogues of makers of waterworks appliances
to see how many different forms of hydrant
have been invented, and to be struck with the
idea that some of them must have been invented
surely rather for the sake of producing some-
thing new, and perhaps patentable, than on
account of any really useful novel feature.
The requirements of a good fire-hydrant
may be stated as follows:–(1) It must not be
liable to get out of order, either by leaking,
sticking, or in any other way. (2) It must
allow a full and unobstructed flow of water on
opening the valve. (3) It must be of such
form that hose may be connected with it with
the least possible trouble. (4) In countries
where the frosts of winter are severe, it must
be so constructed that it is not liable to freeze
up. (5) The cost must be moderate, as the
providing of fire-hydrants constitutes a con-
siderable item in the first cost of waterworks. Fig. 188 – American
Hydrants may be divided into two classes, tºº hydrant
ſpillar hydrants and sunk hydrants. Pillar
hydrants stand several feet above the street level, and are
commonly fixed on the outside of the side-walk. Plate XLI.
(Figs. 186, 187) illustrates a form not uncommon in England.
Fig. 188 (from Fanning) shows an American form of pillar
hydrant.
The pillar hydrant has the advantage that it is a conspicuous
object, and that the fire-hose can be attached to it without the
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216 TA/A2 WA 7TEA S UAE’A/C Y OF TO WZVS.
intervention of a stand-pipe. It is, however, not commonly used
except in towns of comparatively small size, presumably because it
is considered that it would interfere with the traffic too much. It
is, however, difficult to see how, placed on the outside of the foot-
way, it should do so. It has, undoubtedly, the disadvantage of
being more expensive than a sunk hydrant.
Sunk hydrants are fixed entirely below the level of the street,
access being got to them by opening a small hinged door, and a
short stand-pipe, generally of copper, has to be fixed to the hydrant,
Fig. 189.-Merryweather's hydrant.
either by a screw or a bayonet joint, or a combination of both, for
screwing the fire-hose to at the time of a fire. Here at once comes
one of the inconveniences of sunk hydrants. At times the cast-
iron cover is sure to be covered with mud or snow, and, in the hurry
that there is at the time of a fire, especially at night time, there is
Often delay in finding the door and in opening it, even if its position
be well marked. In every case the position of a sunk hydrant
should be distinctly marked by conspicuous letters on the nearest
wall, and it must be admitted that such letters are not always
Ornamental
Fig. 189 illustrates an ingenious hydrant patented by Messrs.

E’LATE XT.I.
Fig. 186.
PILLAR HYDRANT (ENGLISH FORM). [To face page 216.


AA’O V/S/ON AWOA. A. Y.T/AWCT/O/W OF F/A&AE. 2 I 7
Merryweather and Sons, that possesses many of the advantages of
both the pillar and the sunk hydrant. The tubes A, A are telescopic.
When the hydrant is not wanted for use they are both in the
position shown on the right—that is to say, they are under the street
level. They can, however, be raised into the position shown on the
2
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Fig. 190.
Ball hydrant and stand-pipe.
left, either by hand, or by opening the screw-down valve a little
before the brass caps are removed.
This hydrant, as will be seen, gives a free water-way of con-
siderable diameter, and does not exhibit the common absurdity of
having two 24-inch unions on one 24-inch branch or stand-pipe. The
only present objection to this form of hydrant is its high cost.
Besides classifying hydrants as pillor hydrants and sunk











2 18 7 HE WATER SUPPLY OF To WWS.
hydrants, they may be divided into ball hydrants, sluice-valve
hydrants, and screw-down hydrants.
Ball hydront.—This is the simplest form of hydrant there is.
It is illustrated, along with the stand-pipe that has to be used with
it, in Fig. 190. The action is very simple. The stand-pipe is fixed
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Figs. 191, 192—Sluice-valve hydrant. Pig. 193. –Stand-pipe for
sluice-valve hydrant.
over the hydrant by allowing two projections on the bottom part of
the stand-post to catch under the two lugs of the hydrant, and screw-
ing the stand-pipe home, so that a watertight joint is made between it
and the hydrant. To open the ball valve, the central spindle of
the stand-pipe is screwed down, so as to push the ball from its
seat.
Ball hydrants are more liable to leakage than those of other

PROVISION FOR Ex7/WCTION OF FIRE. 2 IQ
forms. Dirt is liable to lodge between the ball and the seat, and,
in the case of very heavy pressures, the rubber-covered ball is liable
to become distorted, or grooved, in form. Nevertheless considera-
tions of economy often lead to the use of such hydrants, and, indeed,
for moderate pressures—say equivalent to 100, or at the very
most 150 feet head—they appear to be fairly satisfactory.
A sluice-valve hydrant is illustrated in Figs. 191, 192. It

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Fig. 194.—Screw-down hydrant (first example).
scarcely needs any explanation. This form of valve may almost be
said to be the standard in England, where filtered water only is used.
It is not suitable for use with any water that is not filtered, as the
slightest grit is liable to corrugate the face of the sluice-valve, after
which it will no longer be absolutely watertight, and the slightest
leakage in a fire-hydrant is the greatest nuisance, especially at
times of frost, even if only mild frost. -
Fig. 193 shows the form of stand-pipe used with this hydrant for
the fixing of hose pipes.
22O TA/E WA 7TP R S UAEA'ſ Y OF TO WZVS.
There is great variety in the design of screw-down hydrants.
Figs. 194, 195 show two good forms. They need no particular
explanation. + *
In America screw-down hydrants are more commonly used
than sluice-valve hydrants, and, moreover, whereas in England,
where screw-down hydrants are used, the valves may work “brass
to brass,” in America the valves are always made of “sole
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Fig. 195.—Screw-down hydrant (second example).
leather ” or india-rubber, seating in brass. This appears to be on
account of the prevalent use of unfiltered water in America.
Figs. 196, 197 (from Fanning) illustrate a form of American
sunk hydrant that has several features to recommend it. In the
first place it is intended to be fixed at the crossing or junction of two
pipes in an “interlacing ” system, so that it will get the full benefit
of the flow of water from three or four different directions. The
upper piece is portable, being made of brass, as light as is con-
sistent with standing the pressure of the water. This is screwed
to the lower casting if the hydrants have to be brought into
action. It will be seen that there is a centre spindle controlling
the main screw-down valve, and that there are smaller spindles,

A R O V/S/OAV AZOA EX 7/AVC7/OAV O/º AP/A&AE.
22 I
and
each controlling a sluice-valve closing one of the nozzles for the
attachment of a hose pipe.
these nozzles.
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American form (Fanning).
Figs. 196, 197.-Sunk hydrant :
Size of Fire Hydrants.-The commonest size of fire
hydrants until recent years was 2% inches internal diameter






222 7TA/A2 WA 7TA: A S (JAXA2/. V. OAP 7"O WAVS.
it is still only too common, in England, at any rate, to adopt
hydrants of this small size—that is to say, there was a clear
internal space of that diameter throughout the hydrant.
Such hydrants will give a fair jet from one fire nozzle 1 inch
in diameter, or even perhaps 1, inch diameter, or two jets from
fire nozzles g or even ; inch in diameter, and these latter sizes
used to be considered, and unfortunately still are considered, large
enough for jets worked off the main.
At the present time, however, the tendency, especially in
America, is to use larger and larger nozzles. The limit to the
size of nozzle that can be used is the diameter of the hose, and
that is limited by the facility of handling it. The common
diameter of hose pipe is 2% inches. In America 3-inch hose
has been tried, but has been found very troublesome in hand-
ling. 2; inches diameter has been suggested as a compromise,
but the writer is not aware that hose of this diameter has come
into general use anywhere. 2% inches may, therefore, be taken
as the standard diameter for hose pipes. Such hose will throw a
good stream from a nozzle I inch in diameter; a fair jet from a
nozzle 1, inch diameter; and a poor one from a nozzle 1% inch
diameter, assuming a length of hose pipe that ought to be the
maximum used in case of fire.
The commonest number of hose to work from one hydrant is,
in England at least, two. With a hydrant 3, inches diameter,
two nozzles of a diameter of £ inch, or I inch, will give good jets;
with 1, inch will give fair jets; and even with 14 inch will give
some sort of a jet. 3% inches is, therefore, suggested as a mini-
mum standard diameter. Larger sizes may be used for a greater
number of streams, as 4 inches for three streams, 4% inches for
four streams. Even larger sizes than this last mentioned are
Often used in America.
Where a 34-inch hydrant is used, it is recommended that it be
fitted with a 4-inch socket, and that the pipe supplying it be at
least 4 inches in diameter.
Prevention of Freezing in Hydrants.-In countries
where the winters are excessively cold—as, for example, in the
Northern States of America—hydrants, at any rate pillar
hydrants, have to be fitted with “frost cases” to prevent them
from freezing hard. In climates such as that of England this is
not necessary. In the case even of a pillar hydrant, there is no
danger of freezing whilst even a small stream is passing through
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AA’O V/S/OAV AſOAQ A. Y. 7T/AWCT/O/V O/º AP/A’A. 223
the hydrant. Freezing would, however, be liable to take place
were the hydrant to remain for any length of time with the
central tube full of water. The tube would naturally remain full
of water after use, unless there were some special provision for
emptying it.
In a climate such as that of England, water even a foot or so
below the street level does not freeze in an Ordinary winter, so
that it is seldom that a sunk hydrant freezes, even if the water be
allowed to remain in the bend and short upward piece of pipe
belonging to it. There are winters, however, when even sunk
hydrants will freeze if the water be allowed to remain in them.
For this reason it is advisable to provide some drainage arrange-
ment even for such hydrants. Very often this is merely a small
valve or cock, to be opened by hand when the main valve has
been closed. There is always a great chance that the draining in
this way by hand may be forgotten, and an automatic arrange-
ment is for this reason often introduced.
Such an arrangement is shown in Figs. L91, 192 (p. 218).
There it is shown as applied to a sunk hydrant, but it is manifest
that it would suit a pillar hydrant equally well. The means of
adapting this principle to screw-down hydrants, as well as to
sluice-valve hydrants, will suggest themselves to every engineer.
In the particular case illustrated the closing of a sluice-valve opens
a small “clack" valve, which allows the water to drain away. The
opening of the sluice-valve closes the clack valve again.
CHAPTER XX.
PIPES FOR WATERWORKs.
Material for Pipes.—In many countries the first material
that has been used for pipes has been wood. The pipes have been
made either by hollowing out the trunks of trees, or by building
up of staves or planks. Recently in America, there has been
a return for certain purposes to the use of pipes built up of
wooden staves, these staves being bound together by iron hoops.
In Eastern countries bamboos are largely used as waterpipes
of small diameters. The partitions at the joints or nodes are
knocked out with an iron tool, and a light convenient pipe that is
capable of resisting some little internal pressure results.
The first improvement on wood as a material for pipes seems,
in Britain at any rate, to have consisted in the use of lead, the
pipes being either cast as pipes, or being made out of the sheet
lead, which itself was cast until a comparatively recent date.
The standard material for pipes used for waterworks at the
present time may undoubtedly be said to be cast iron. Here we
are referring to pipe conduits, and to the mains and sub-mains
of distribution systems, not to house-service pipes, which are still
principally made of lead. Cast iron is much more perishable than
lead, but it is very much cheaper and stronger. Moreover, it
has probably a longer life, if properly treated, than any other
metal that is really practicable for extensive use in making pipes
of any size for waterworks. -
Of late years wrought-iron and steel riveted pipes have been
used to a very considerable extent. In the case of large sizes they
have distinct advantages in respect of their lightness, on account
of which they are easily handled. It is no trifling matter at all
to handle cast-iron pipes of diameters of 3 feet and upwards.
In America, and also in France, what may be called “com-
posite pipes” have been used to some extent. These consist of a
shell of wrought-iron or steel, stiffened with a lining of cement,
A/A2/ES AWOAZ WA TAEA VOA’A.S. 225
either inside or both inside and outside. The idea is to gain some
of the lightness of wrought-iron or steel pipes, with some of the
stiffness of cast-iron pipes, and also to avoid the likelihood of
rusting.
The use of stoneware or fireclay pipes has already been
mentioned in the chapter on the Flow of Water in Pipes and
Conduits.
Cast-iron Pipes.—These pipes are of two different kinds,
according to the nature of the joint used to connect one with the
other. There are flanged joints and spiggot and faucet (or spiggot
and socket) joints.
The flanged joint is illustrated here (Figs. 198, 199). It is made
Figs. 198, 199.—Flanged joint for waterpipes.
watertight by covering the face of the flange with red-lead putty
(made by working up white lead in linseed oil with dry red lead),
imbedding a piece of string for two or three turns, and screwing up;
or by screwing up on a ring of gutta-percha or lead or soft copper
wire. A rubber ring will also serve between the flanges. Flanged
joints are used extensively in connection with waterworks for con-
necting pipes with valves and other special fittings. They are to be
preferred in any case where it is likely that it may be necessary
to break the joint at any time. A flanged joint can be taken
apart and remade much more readily than a spiggot and socket
joint. Flanged joints are not used on long lengths of straight pipes,
because, for one thing (for no reason that is very evident), they
are considerably dearer than socket pipes. The main objection to
their use is, however, that they do not allow in any way for the
contraction and expansion that take place in every long pipe on
account of change in temperature. There is a further objection
to them when they have to be shipped, that they do not pack so
well as socket pipes.
Q

226 7TA/AE WA 7TP R S UAE/2/L Y OF 7TO WAVS.
Spiggot and socket pipes, again, are divided into two kinds—
namely, those with turned and bored joints, and those with joints
to be run with lead. In the case of turned and bored joints the
pipes are metal to metal, the turned spiggot fitting accurately into
the bored socket. Several common forms of such a joint are shown
in Figs. 200, 201, 202. Of course, it costs something to turn
Figs. 200, 201, 202.-Spiggot and socket pipes with turned and bored joints.
and bore the pipes, but when there are large quantities the cost is
not great, as machines can readily be arranged to turn the work
out very quickly. There is saving in lead and in labour, and it
thus results that it is cheaper to lay a pipe with turned and bored
joints than with lead joints.
The process of laying pipes with turned and bored joints is as
follows:–The turned and bored parts of the pipe are thoroughly
cleaned, and are then smeared over with either a solution of sal-
ammoniac (chloride of ammonium), or with a mixture of tallow
and resin. The spiggot is then entered in the faucet, and the pipe
is well rammed home. This may be done by swinging the next
pipe that is to be laid with a block and tackle, and using it as
a battering-ram, a block of wood intervening to prevent any
breakage. The motive for using sal-ammoniac is to “rust’’ the
pipes together, practically making them one continuous piece. The










A/A) /º S AWOAZ WA 7TA: /ø WO/º/K.S. 227
tallow and resin of course actually prevent any rusting from taking
place, but they make a joint that is watertight, at any rate unless
the joint “draws’ at all. -
In this question of “drawing ” we have the whole trouble of
turned and bored joints. There is no allowance for expansion and
contraction. If the pipes are laid in very cold weather they will
get out of line with an increase of temperature, or will actually
break. On a fall of temperature again the joints will “ draw.” If
the pipes have been laid in warm weather the joints will “draw "
in cold weather, or the first time that cold water passes through
the pipes. Attempts have been made to get over this difficulty by
having one lead joint to every five to ten turned and bored joints,
or by having expansion joints at intervals, but these are clumsy
expedients, and it may be said that turned and bored joints are
not to be recommended for any length of straight pipes that it is
essential should not leak.
Joints run with lead satisfy all the requirements of long
straight pipes. In fact, they are suitable everywhere except where
it is expected that the joint may have to be broken for repair of a
valve or the like. As has been said, flanged joints are best in
such cases. Joints run with lead are, if properly made, quite
watertight, and they allow sufficient expansion and contraction,
through the softness of the lead, to prevent leakage from
“drawing.”
A lead joint is made in the following manner —The spiggot
having been entered in the socket, a “gasket ‘’ of spun yarn, or a
ring of lead, is caulked into the bottom of the socket. This keeps
the two pipes concentric, and makes a joint so far “ lead-tight"
that if the rest of the socket be filled up with molten lead none
will enter the pipe. Spun yarn is most commonly used on account
of its cheapness, and because it is so easily handled. Lead is
certainly to be preferred, inasmuch as it leaves nothing of a
decomposable nature in contact with the water.
Next, the outer end of the socket is closed, to be “lead-tight.”
In the case of small pipes this is commonly done with thoroughly
Rneaded fireclay only, but in the case of large pipes an iron ring
in halves is commonly used. In any case the object is to close
the whole of the outside of the socket, except a hole at the top,
by which it can be filled up with molten lead.
The socket is now run full with molten lead, and time is given
for this to solidify. The ring is then removed and the lead is
thoroughly “caulked ” or “set up " with a short thick caulking
Q 2
228 7TA/AE WA 7TEA S O/2/2/, Y OF 7TO WAVS.
tool. That is to say, it is compressed by hammering so as to bear
outwards on the inside of the socket and inwards on the outside
of the spiggot, and so as to fill up any interstices that there may
be in either surface. Figs. 203, 204 illustrate the tools used for
caulking in the ring of gasket or lead, and for caulking the joint
after running with lead. It is sometimes specified that the joint
must be trimmed entirely with the caulking tool, a chisel not being
used at all. It is supposed that better caulking is thus insured
than if the ragged edge of the joint be trimmed with a chisel.
The lead used should be soft blue pig lead.
The form of the spiggot and socket is a thing that has received
much attention, and the number of designs that have been made
is legion. Each one is supposed to have some special advantage.
The writer believes that these special advantages for the most
part exist only in the imagination of the designer.
Certain things are to be borne in mind in either designing a
Figs. 203, 204.—Tools used for caulking joints of pipes.
spiggot and socket or in selecting one from the very many designs
that already exist. One is that not more lead than is necessary
is to be used; another, that the socket shall have such strength
that it is not likely to be split by the very heavy internal pressure
that is brought about by the caulking process. There are no
data for calculating either the minimum quantity of lead that is
needed to make an efficient joint, or the thickness of metal of the
socket that is necessary to prevent danger of bursting during the
caulking process. The matter of designing a spiggot and socket,
or of selecting one, thus becomes a question of judgment only.
In Figs. 205 to 208 illustrated sections are given of several
forms of spiggot and socket that have found favour. The writer does
not pretend to find much advantage in one over any of the others.
Sometimes a groove, either V-shaped or semicircular, is cast in
the inside of the socket. The object of this is to prevent drawing
of the joint. It is difficult to see wherein there is any advantage
in the adoption of this groove. It has been amply shown that the
resistance to drawing of pipes properly caulked with plain sockets is
very great, and, indeed, it would seem to be a mistake to introduce

A/A2/3 S AWOAZ WA 7TP ſº WOAZ / S. 229
additional resistance, as one of the advantages of the lead-caulked
joint is that it “gives” sufficiently to allow for contraction and
expansion due to change of temperature. Then again there is the
- S
possibility of a less perfect joint than would be got with a plain
tº gº S
º
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º
tS with lead.
sº
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cases this has been º against by boring a small hole into
he pipe being so laid that this hole is at the top.
I’l OllS S ts have been designed, having their internal
surface a part of a sphere. One such (from Fanning) is illustrated
in Fig. 209. The object is to form a “ball and socket ’joint, so
as to allow of a large amount of play. Such joints are of use in
special cases, as when a length of pipe, already jointed, has to be
lowered on to an uneven bed—as, for example, on the bed of a











23O 7TAZAZ WA 7TP A S (JAA/L V OA 7TO WAVS.
river—but they have no advantage for general use. Ordinary lead-
caulked joints will “give ’’ for any amount of settlement that is
not likely to “draw the joints, and if there be such settlement
as is likely to draw the joints, a cylindrical joint is likely to
remain more watertight than a spherical joint.
Length of Cast-iron Pipes.—It is evident that there is
an advantage in considerable length in straight cast-iron pipes.
The greater the length of the individual pipes, the fewer the
joints in any given length of main, and hence a reduction both in
cost and in the possibility of leakage at joints. The limit in the
length of pipes is found in the possibility of casting them straight
and of uniform thickness throughout.
In English practice pipes of small diameter were, until a com-
Fig. 209.-Waterpipe with ball and socket joint (Fanning).
paratively recent date, cast of 8 or 9 feet lengths (exclusive of the
socket), of 10 feet lengths for larger pipes, and of 12 feet lengths
for pipes of, say, 18 inches and upwards. It is now common to
cast pipes from 4 inches diameter upwards of 10 feet lengths.
Longer lengths than these mentioned have been adopted by some
pipe manufacturers, notably by Belgian foundries.
Thickness of Cast-iron Pipes.—If cast-iron pipes were
made only thick enough to resist the internal pressure that they
are to be subject to in the mains and submains of waterworks,
—even allowing for “ramming,” and with an ample “factor of
safety,” let us say six—they would be so thin that they could
not be handled with safety, and, moreover, would be liable to frac-

A/A2/ES AWOA WA 7TP R WOAA S. 23 I
ture from the ramming of the earth on the top of them, and from
the slightest settlement of the ground. This is an all-sufficient
reason for making pipes thicker than they would have to be
according to any calculation based on the internal pressure that
they are to be subject to alone; but there is another, namely, the
necessity for providing against slight inequality of the thickness of
pipes. It is evidently an impossibility to cast pipes of mathe-
matically an equal thickness throughout all parts of their length
and circumference.
Were no allowance made for the contingencies here mentioned,
the formula for the thickness of cast-iron pipes would merely be
t = Pºſ,
S
where
the thickness of the pipe in inches.
the pressure in lbs. per square inch.
the internal radius of the pipe in inches.
== the factor of safety determined on.
the tensile strength of the metal in lbs. per square inch of Section.
:
:
If this formula were used, it would be found that—taking, for
example, a diameter of 4 inches, a pressure of 100 lbs. per square
inch, a tensile strength of iron of 18,000 lbs. per square inch, and
a factor of safety of 5–the thickness would be less than Tº-inch, a
thing that is evidently absurd.
On the other hand, taking a pipe of 40 inches in diameter,
the other conditions the same, it will be found that the thickness
according to formula is nearly 1, inch. This is not nearly so
absurd a thickness for a 40-inch pipe as ,-inch is for a 4-inch
pipe. It is, therefore, evident that it is necessary to add much
less proportionately in the case of large than of small pipes to
cover the contingencies mentioned above, even if it is not
necessary to add less actually.
Ramming of Water in Pipes.—If water be flowing in a
long pipe with any considerable velocity, and the flow be suddenly
stopped by closing a valve at the end of the pipe towards which
the water is flowing, an action called “ramming ” takes place.
This consists in a sudden momentary increase of the pressure of
water, which may be very considerable. In a short description of
the hydraulic ram it has been explained how this ramming may
actually be made use of to raise a portion of water to a greater
height than the whole of the water gravitated from.
In all modern waterworks care is taken to minimise
232 7A/E WA 7TA R S UAE A/L Y OF 7'O WAVS.
ramming by providing valves that can be closed only somewhat
slowly, by providing safety valves at the lower ends of very
long lengths of pipe in which the water flows at any considerable
velocity, &c. Still it is necessary to make some provision against
ramming in the strength of the pipes, and that not an inconsider-
able one. It is to be borne in mind that the additional pressure
due to ramming is a function not of the statical pressure in the
pipes, but of the velocity of flow, so that, other things being equal,
it is likely to be as great in a low-pressure system as in a high-
pressure. Fanning gives 100 lbs. per square inch as a sufficient
allowance for ramming, and it seems to the writer that this is
ample, if the precautions mentioned above be not neglected.
Bearing in mind what has been said above, we shall say a
word or two about various formulae that have been largely used.
Prof. Rankine gives the following rule for the minimum thick-
ness of pipes —“The thickness is never to be less than a mean
proportional between the internal diameter and als-inch.” Put in
the form of an equation this rule is thus stated —
t = V/-0208 d.
Where
t = the thickness of the metal in inches ;
d = the internal diameter in inches.
A formula from Molesworth that has been much used is as
follows:—
# = -0.0125 P d -- (c.
Where
f = the thickness of the metal in inches;
the pressure of water in lbs. per square inch : *
the internal diameter of the pipe in inches;
'37-inch for pipes of less than 12 inches diameter ;
‘5-inch for pipes from 12 to 30 inches in diameter ;
= 6-inch for pipes from 30 to 50 inches in diameter.
-
P
d
Q?
The following is the equation given by Fanning —
(p + 100) d < ( #)
i = -- - - - “333 ( 1 — — — ).
is " +388 100
Where
t = the thickness of the pipe in inches;
p = the pressure of water in lbs. per Square inch :
d = the internal diameter of the pipe in inches;
S = the tensile strength of the metal in lbs. per square inch.
* It is not stated whether this P is to include an allowance for ramming ;
but the factor of safety involved in the formula, when a is left out of consideration,
is such as to indicate that P must include an allowance for ramming. That is to
say, P should be taken as p + r, when p is the actual maximum statical pressure in
the pipes; r is an allowance for the extra pressure to be allowed for ramming, say,
100 lbs. per square inch.
A/AAES APOA WA 7TASA WOA” A S. . 233
In this case the figure 100 that appears in the upper line of
the first part of the equation is allowance for ramming. It is,
therefore, unnecessary to make any further allowance.
If the last two formulae—that by Molesworth and that by
Fanning—be examined, it will be seen that there is a remark-
able discrepancy between them. Thus Molesworth makes a
greater allowance in thickness for contingencies in the case of
large than in that of small pipes; Fanning makes less. In fact, in
the case of Fanning's formula the allowance would become nil
in the case of a pipe of 100 inches in diameter—and pipes not so
very short of that diameter are coming into use.
It does not seem very evident why there should be any point
at which the allowance should cease altogether—leaving out
of the question the minus allowance that would result if the
formula were applied to pipes of over 100 inches in diameter. On
the other hand, there is no very evident reason why the allowance
should increase in the case of large pipes, for it is, if anything,
easier to keep the thickness of metal uniform in large than in
small pipe castings.
In any case, when two authorities such as those in question
disagree, it seems safe to take a middle course. This the writer
has done by adopting a constant allowance for all sizes of pipes.
The following is the formula he has used —
# = (p + 100) ºf + *3.
S
Where
t = the thickness of the metal in inches ;
p = the pressure in lbs. per square inch ;
= the factor of safety adopted :
S = the tensile strength of the iron in lbs. per square inch of section.
In this formula the figure 100 that appears is allowance for
ramming, so that it is not necessary to make any further allow-
ance. The figure 3 is the extra allowance in thickness of metal
On account of contingencies.
The tensile strength of the cast iron used in pipe-founding
ought to run to about 20,000 lbs. per square inch, but not more
than about 8 tons, or, say, 18,000 lbs., is to be counted on.
If ample allowances were not already made, by adding to the
pressure in case of ramming, and by adding to the thickness of the
metal to cover contingencies, it would be necessary to adopt a
factor of safety of about 6. As, however, the allowances men-
tioned have been made, a factor of safety of 4 is sufficient.
234. . 7TA/AS WA 7TAZAC S UA’AX/L V OA” 7TO WAVS.
The subjoined table, compiled for the writer's own use, assumes
an ultimate tensile strength of 18,000 lbs. per square inch and a
factor of safety of 4. The thicknesses are to the nearest gºnd of an
inch above what is given by the formula. The pressures taken
are 50, 100, and 200 lbs. per square inch. For pressures between
any two of these, or for diameters between any two given in the
table, it will be near enough, in practice, to take proportionate
thicknesses, although this procedure is not strictly correct. The
heads corresponding to these pressures are, respectively, 115, 230,
and 460 feet.
The formula and table here given have been used in practice
for some time past, and the writer therefore leaves them unaltered.


THICKNESS OF PIPE IN INCHES.
DIAMETER IN
INoHEs. For pressures up to For pressures up to For pressures up to
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It is very doubtful, however, if a slight modification might not be
an improvement. The following is suggested —
100) 5 r
T - (P + 100) * * + 25,
isºt *
the meaning of the terms remaining as before.
It will be seen that here 5 is taken as a factor of safety, whilst
A/A2A.S AſOA WA TEA’ WOAZ / S. . 235
the thickness added to cover contingencies is reduced from a little
less than ºrd of an inch to 4th of an inch. The result is to make
small pipes for light pressures somewhat less in thickness than the
table gives to make large pipes, especially those for high pressures
considerably greater in thickness. For example, the thickness of
4, 30 and 72-inch pipes for the several pressures given in the
above table would come out as follows:–
4-inch pipe # # . and #
30-inch pipe § 13% . and 1%
72-inch pipe }} 2} . and 3}
The reasons for thinking that this formula might, perhaps, be
an improvement on the one from which the table is calculated, is
that, with the great skill that has in the present day been acquired
in pipe-casting, 4-inch a side Ought really to be an ample allowance
for contingencies, whilst 4 is somewhat a small factor of safety. In
the case of the small pipes the addition of ºrd of an inch, added to
cover contingencies, constitutes so large a proportion of the whole
thickness of the pipe that this is of no consequence. In the case of
very large pipes it is otherwise. The ºrd inch added forms only a
small fraction of the total thickness, and the factor of safety is low.
Against this it may be put that ramming to the extent of
100 lbs. on the square inch is practically impossible in very large
pipes as used in waterworks, because the valves on such pipes can
only be closed very slowly, whilst the sudden closing of a valve on
a small branch from a large main does not retard the flow of water
sufficiently to produce serious ramming.
On the other side, again, it may be argued that the danger from
the bursting of a very large main is so serious that every possible
precaution should be taken to prevent it. On the whole it seems
difficult to decide on one formula in preference to another.
Special Pipes.—Besides flanged pipes already mentioned,
which may really be looked on as special pipes, many other special
castings are needed in connection with distribution systems, besides
valves and other fittings of that order. These are chiefly T pieces,
bends, Y pieces, and so forth. A set of these is illustrated in Plate
XLII. (Figs. 210–215), and scarcely needs explanation. The
“sleeve,” Fig. 215, is used for connecting two spiggot ends together.
It is occasionally convenient to do this when pipes are laid at
first ; it is often convenient when a pipe has to be removed and
replaced by a new one. With the regular spiggot and socket, the
236 TA/A2 WA 7TA: A S UAE’A/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
new pipe cannot be put in place without removing several others,
but by using a pipe with a spiggot at both ends no other pipe need
be disturbed. The sleeve is slipped on the new pipe, and, when
the latter is in position, it is slipped over the two spiggots that have
to be jointed together, and these are both run and caulked. The
sleeve is, in fact, a double socket.
Pipe Casting.—This is by no means the place in which to
enter into a description of the details of pipe-founding. Much
information on the subject is to be found in books treating of iron
foundries, but there are many practical details that are known only
by those who have had long practice in the work. It is not
expected that a waterworks engineer should be acquainted with
all the details of foundry work, but it is necessary that he should
lºnow the requisites of suitable pipes, be able to specify pipes so that
they will possess these requisites if the manufacturers adhere to the
specification, and that he should be able to tell, by testing in various
ways, whether the pipes really fulfil the requirements.
A number of conditions are therefore generally laid down in
specifications, all of which it is expected the manufacturer will
comply with. The following are the principal of them. There are
several, such as tests for the strength of the iron, that may be
considered as alternative. It is right, however, to say, that not all
engineers insist on all these conditions.
The iron to be used should, on fracture, show a close, smooth
grain, gray in colour, should be tough, and of such a nature that it
can readily be chipped with a chisel or filed with a file. It should
be without a nyadmixture of cinder-iron or other inferior metal.
The pipe-founder may be instructed, at any time, by the
inspector, to cast a bar to be tested for transverse strength. These
bars may conveniently be 3 feet 6 inches long, 2 inches deep, and
1 inch broad. These are to be supported on bearings placed 3 feet
apart, and are to be loaded in the middle with weights till they
break; or, at any rate, until they sustain some weight determined on.
Iron fit for pipes ought to bear about 2 tons in this test.
On one of every number of pipes, a stud 8 inches long and
1} inch in diameter should be cast. This stud should afterwards
be cut from the pipe, and be turned down to an area of , square
inch, and be tested for tensile strength. These studs ought
not to break in any case at less than about 3% tons, and the average
of a number of breakages should not be less than about 4 tons.
It is customary to give exact drawings of the sockets and
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PIPES FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS : SPECIAL CASTINGS,
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PLATE XIII.
Fig. 212.
[To face page 236.












































A/A2A S. AſOA WA 7TA: A VOA’A. S. 237.
spiggots of pipes, and to specify the thickness and weights, allow-
ing, in the case of the weights, a small margin (say, 2 or 3 per
cent.) On either side, on account of the impossibility of casting pipes
mathematically to a certain thickness. It is common to specify
that, should the pipes be lighter than the weight mentioned, minus
the allowance, they shall be condemned, and should they be heavier
than the specified weight plus the allowance, the additional weight
shall not be paid for.
There is something to be said for specifying merely the
working pressures and test pressures that the pipes will be sub-
jected to, allowing the pipe-founder to fill in the thicknesses and
weights. The reason is that some pipe-founders prefer to use
iron of greater tensile strength than others, reducing the thickness.
of the pipes accordingly. In such a case the engineer, in considering
tenders, must be careful to observe that the thickness is really
sufficient for safety, and that an unscrupulous tenderer has not
reduced the thickness to a dangerous degree in hopes that, by the
reduction in price he can thereby allow, he may get the contract.
There is a good deal to be said, too, for allowing the tenderer to
tender for the form of socket that he has been in the custom of
making. A pipe-founder is just as likely to know a good form of
socket from a bad, as most engineers; and we may be sure that, in
the case of a pipe-foundry, if the routine of the establishment has
to be altered the alteration has to be paid for. Any pipe-founder
can quote a lower price for a pipe of the form he has been accus-
tomed to cast than one of a new form, at any rate, unless the
quantity to be turned out be very large. -
The lengths of pipes are commonly specified, those without the
socket generally varying from 9 feet for 3-inch pipes to 12 feet for
pipes of 18 inches diameter and over. There is some difference in
practice, however, and here, again, a great deal is to be said for
specifying the length of pipe-run of each diameter needed, allowing
each tenderer to fill in the lengths himself. Some foundries are
in the habit of turning out longer pipes than others. Belgian
foundries, particularly, go in for extra long pipes. Of course, the
advantage of a long pipe is that the number of joints is reduced,
and the cost both of lead and labour. It seems a pity to so write
specifications that the advantage may not be taken of long
pipes, if, taking into consideration the saving in jointing, they
are cheaper per yard run than short pipes; yet it would not do
to so write specifications that all who cannot cast, or have not
been in the custom of casting long pipes, should be shut out from
238 7TA/AS WA 7TAZA' S Ü/2/2/. Y O AE 7"O WZV.S.
tendering. Should the long pipes cost more, as delivered, per
yard run, than the shorter, the engineer can very easily calculate
whether the saving in joints covers this extra cost or not.
All pipes should be cast vertically, in dry-sand moulds, without
the use of chaplets, core nails, or any substitute therefor; the socket
ends should be downwards; and there should be a sufficient head of
metal above the actual pipe to insure compactness of grain of the
spigot end. From one foot to two is sufficient. The flasks should
remain unmoved for some time after the running of the metal, so
that, by slow cooling of the semi-molten iron, all unequal contrac-
tion may, so far as is possible, be prevented. All pipes must be
free from air-holes, cold shuts, cracks, and in fact all visible defects,
and must be smooth both internally and externally. The metal
of the pipes must be throughout of equal section, the transverse
section being perfectly circular and the pipes quite straight.
It is usual to specify that certain letters, generally the initial
letters of the name of the waterworks, be cast on the sockets of the
pipes. The letters may, with advantage, be from 1 inch to 2, or even
3 inches high, according to the size of the pipes, and may stand in
relief from to ſº-inch.
Every pipe, as soon as possible after it has left the mould—
if possible before it is cold—should be dressed and cleaned of
all sand, dust, &c., and then treated with Dr. Angus Smith's com-
position. This is a varnish of coal tar, pitch, and oil. The varnish
should be heated in a tank large enough to take the largest pipe
to a temperature of about 400 Fahr. It is sometimes specified
that the pipes be dipped cold, and be left in the bath till they reach
the same temperature as the iron varnish. It is, however, pro-
bably best to specify that they be heated also to about 400 Fahr.,
and be dipped for five minutes. They are then removed and stood
on end to drain. The surface of the coating should be quite black
and retain a bright gloss. The coating should adhere so firmly
to the surface of the pipe that it shall be impossible to remove it
by mechanical means without removing some of the iron with it.
The reason why it is made a condition that the pipes be coated
as soon as possible after they are cast is that, if they are not, there
is a chance that they may rust, and the composition will not
adhere over rust. This is a matter of great importance, for on the
efficiency of the coating depends greatly, in some cases almost
entirely, the life of the pipe. With really efficient coating, the life
of a pipe may be indefinite. With imperfect coating a pipe will, in
some soils, be completely eaten through in a few years.
A/A/ES AWOR WA 7TP R WO/CAS. 2
Testing Pipes.—It is always specified that pipes be hydrauli-
cally tested to a certain pressure,
and this is a most important
matter. They should be tested
to at least double the statical
working-pressure—that is, to
double the head there would
be in the pipes whilst no water
is being drawn off. It is better
in all cases where there is any
danger of ramming to add 100 lb.
to the pressure corresponding
to double the head. For what-
ever purpose waterworks pipes
are to be used, even if they
follow the hydraulic grade line
so that there is barely any
pressure in them, they should
be tested to 100 lb. per sq. in.
In testing pipes they are
first filled with water, and it is
important that they be quite
filled ; as, if there be no air,
a pipe bursting will do so quite
quietly on account of the com-
parative incompressibility of the
water. If there be air in the
pipe the latter may, if it bursts,
go off with an explosion and
harm may result. The pipe
being filled, pressure is put on
with a pump, being measured
by a pressure gauge. When
the specified pressure is reached
it is maintained for several
minutes, during which the
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inspector strikes the pipe repeatedly in different places with
a hand-hammer.” There should be no leakage, not even a
* It has been customary to recommend that, when the specified pressure is
reached, it be maintained for several minutes, during which time the inspector
should strike the pipe repeatedly in different places with a hand-hammer.
weight of the hammer has even been occasionally specified.
The
Recent experiments



































































24O THE WA 7 ER SOVPPZ Y OF TOWNS.
“sweating” or “weeping” of water through any part of the
metal.
Of course it is necessary, in testing, to close the ends of the
pipes. In testing a few pipes two ordinary blank flanges may be
used, through one of which a hole is bored to receive a pipe from
a hand-pump. The flanges are bolted together by long bolts
outside the pipe, the joints being made with thick sheet rubber,
and water being pumped in by a hand-pump. It is well to stand
clear of the ends of the bolts. The writer remembers a man
having his leg broken by the violence with which a large nut flew
off the end of a bolt that broke during the testing of a pipe.
If very many pipes are to be tested, it is a great convenience
to have a machine such as that shown in Figs. 216, 217. This
will need very little explanation. The water flows in by gravity
by the large pipe, an air-valve being provided for the escape of air.
When the pipe is filled the admission valve is closed. Water is
then pumped in by hand, a very little being necessary to raise the
pressure greatly. Sometimes a pump, worked from shafting, is
provided, the same water being used over and over again. There
is a pressure-gauge to indicate the pressure, and it is unnecessary
to state that before any large number of pipes are tested the
inspector should satisfy himself that the gauge is indicating the
true pressure. A gauge is as likely to indicate too low as too
high a pressure. The writer remembers a case in which a pipe-
founder lost considerably before he found that the gauge was out
of order and indicating much too low a pressure.
Some engineers specify that the pipes be tested with oil. It is
difficult to see what is the exact advantage of this proceeding, and
it is a somewhat expensive process, as, even if the oil be used over
and over again as far as possible, there is sure to be some waste.
The testing is also a very “messy’ operation.
It is common to specify that an inspector appointed by the
waterworks shall have free admission to the foundry during all
working hours, and that he shall have such assistance as is neces-
sary for testing and generally satisfying himself that the pipes are
being turned out as they ought to be.
made by Mr. S. Groves, by dropping metallic weights from different heights on
pipes filled with water, have, however, demonstrated that such striking produces,
or at least is liable to produce, minute fractures on the inner skin of the pipe, thus
weakening the barrel. The test is, in fact, of a destructive nature. The striking
with a hammer should therefore be abandoned, the more particularly as the pipe is
not to be subject to anything of the kind in actual use. “Ramming *—already
mentioned—is something totally different.
A/A2/2S AWOAZ WA 7TAZAZ WOAZ / S. 24. I
It is usual also to specify that if any pipe is condemned it is to
be broken up, or that the distinguishing letters on the socket are
to be chipped off, so that there is no chance that the pipe be slipped
in amongst those that are passed ; also that consecutive numbers
be distinctly painted on all pipes passed. The inspector sees, or is
supposed to see, all such breaking-up of pipes, the chipping-off of
letters, and the numbering of pipes.
Iron and Steel Riveted Pipes. – It has already been
mentioned that, although cast iron may be considered as the
standard material for waterworks pipes, various others are not
infrequently used. Thus, for example, in America even wood
was used not long ago, the pipes being built of longitudinal
staves bound round with hoop iron. The adoption of such pipes
seems rather a backward step, and we shall not consider them
in detail here. In fact the only kind of pipes that seem in any
way likely to compete with cast-iron pipes, for some time at
least, are wrought-iron and steel riveted pipes, and these are the
only ones that we propose to describe at any length here.
The advantages of these pipes over cast-iron pipes are obvious.
They are much lighter, they are generally somewhat cheaper in
first cost, and they are much cheaper in transit, and much more
easily handled.
Roughly speaking, the tensile strength of wrought iron is from
two to three times that of cast iron, and the tensile strength of
good mild steel from three to four times. But the pipes may be
made even less than one-half to one-quarter the weight of cast-
iron pipes of the same diameter, to work at the same pressure.
The reason is that it is not necessary to make anything like the
percentage of allowance over the thickness that would be got by
merely taking a fair factor of safety, that it is necessary to make
in the case of cast-iron pipes. The reason for this, again, is that
there is no practical difficulty in making the pipes as thin as is
desired, whilst cast-iron pipes cannot be cast under a certain
thickness with any chance of even approximate uniformity of
thickness. The wrought-iron and steel pipes are made out of
rolled plates, which are nearly of absolutely uniform thickness.
It is true that it is necessary to make allowance for the iron
that is removed in punching the holes for riveting, but even this
allowance is very much less, proportionally, than has to be made
in the case of cast-iron pipes, especially in the case of those of
moderate diameter.
R.
242 4. TA/A5 WA 7T/EA S (JAE/2/L Y OF 7"O WAVS.
Allowing a very ample factor of safety, allowing for some
inequality in the thickness of the plates from which the pipes are
made, and also allowing amply for the reduction of strength by
the rivet-holes, the weight of mild-steel pipes will be found to vary
from about one-third to one-seventh that of cast-iron pipes.
The advantage in the matter of freight is, however, even in a
higher ratio than this, as the pipes lend themselves more readily
to “nesting " than do cast-iron pipes. This is particularly true
when, as is often done, the pipes are shipped unriveted, the
riveting to be done at the place where they are to be used. In
this case the plates are merely bent into form, and shells to be
used even for the same size of pipe can be nested within each
Other by slightly “springing ” them. Breakage—an item that
has always to be taken into consideration when cast-iron pipes
are shipped—sometimes amounting to quite a large percentage of
the whole—may be said not to occur at all in the case of wrought-
iron or mild-steel pipes.
In fact, were we only sure of one thing—namely, that the pipes
are likely to have the same life as cast-iron pipes—there would be
Only one opinion as to the advisability of using them. We have,
however, not sufficient evidence on this point at the present time.
Wrought iron is more prone to rust than cast iron, mild steel more
prone than wrought iron, and there is only a fraction of the
thickness of material to be rusted through in the case of steel or
wrought-iron pipes that there is in the case of cast-iron.
The difference, however, between the thickness of cast-iron
and of riveted steel pipes is relatively less the larger the pipes, so
that the thinness of the latter is less likely to lead to serious
results with large than with small pipes ; and the convenience of
steel pipes for very large sizes is so great that the author has
no hesitation in recommending them for such sizes in nearly all
C8,SéS.
The only question is, What diameter constitutes a very large
pipe It is difficult to answer, of course, but the convenience of
steel pipes, as compared with cast-iron, begins to get so great in
the case of such sizes as four feet and upwards, that it would seem
advisable to adopt steel pipes in nearly every case where a pipe
of four feet or upwards is needed ; and, as the thickness of steel
pipes increases more rapidly with increase of pressure than does
that of cast-iron pipes, it is evident that for high pressures any
danger that there may be from thinness of the shell is less than
for low pressures. Further, it seems at least likely that, in the
/2/AA.S. APOA WA 7TA: /ø ſºl/O/ø/ S. ‘. 243
case of what must be considered high pressures in waterworks
practice--say 100 lbs. On the square inch and upwards—steel pipes
might with advantage be used for all parts of the work, for
diameters considerably less than four feet.
Assuming the protective coating to be perfect, either cast-iron,
wrought-iron, or steel pipes ought to last for ever, but it is too
much to assume the absolute perfection of the coating. The fact
that a line or two of wrought-iron pipes have been in use in
America for thirty years, or somewhat more, without showing
signs of deterioration, is not sufficient evidence of the capacity
of wrought-iron or steel pipes to last nearly as long as cast-iron
pipes.
This, however, is little more than the writer's private opinion,
and not to be taken for much. There is no doubt that wrought-
iron, and still more mild-steel riveted pipes, have been finding
favour very rapidly with engineers within the last few years, and
that great lengths of them have been laid down for waterworks.
Moreover, it is always right to hear both sides of the question.
The following is a quotation from a letter from one of the largest
British manufacturing firms of such pipes :—
“We believe they " (mild-steel riveted pipes) “will last as
long as cast-iron pipes, possibly longer under favourable circum-
stances. Cast-iron pipes sometimes become spongy, and decay
very rapidly, while steel is not liable to this kind of deterioration.
We have pipes now working most satisfactorily, 24 inches diameter
× 4-inch thick, conveying sewage.* Length of line 2 miles,
laid in 1887, and there is no sign of wear upon them. Experience
in the United States goes to prove that there is no danger or risk
in using steel or wrought-iron pipes instead of cast-iron, and they
have in some cases been in use for thirty-three or more years.
Our bituminous coating is a perfect protection against corrosion,
and the only care that has to be observed is in seeing that the
pipes are properly coated before they are laid in the track.”
There are various methods of jointing these wrought-iron or
steel pipes, and it should have been mentioned as one of the most
decided advantages of them, that there are with them only about
half as many joints as there are in the case of cast-iron pipes, the
* It is to be observed that the resistance of metal pipes to sewage must not be
taken as a measure of their power of resisting the action of pure, or nearly pure,
water. Sewage has the effect of quickly lining pipes with a greasy film, which
effectually prevents rusting. This fact does not, however, have any important
bearing on the subject, as, so far as the rusting of pipes is concerned, action from
the outside is to be more feared than that from the inside.
R. 2
244. 7A/B JAVA 7TEA S OWAX/2/L V OA” 7'O WAVS.
mild-steel pipes being made in lengths up to 25 feet, exclusive of
sockets. Moreover it is claimed that, where socket joints are
used, only 75 per cent. as much lead is needed as with cast-iron
joints, as the lead space can be made narrower. Fig. 218 shows a
stamped steel flanged joint, which needs no explanation.
Fig. 219 illustrates one of a couple of socket joints that have
Fig. 218.-Stamped steel flanged joint.
been patented. It is known as the Duncan patent joint, and is
thus described by Mr. D. J. Russell Duncan”:—
“The Duncan patent joint is better than the last’ (one in
which the end of the pipe itself is expanded into a socket, which is
necessarily comparatively thin), “ because the socket can be rolled
Fig. 219.-The Duncan patent joint for waterpipes.
of steel of greater thickness than the pipe, thereby giving greater
strength when wanted. The socket is shrunk upon or riveted to
the pipe, and, in some cases the pipes are expanded into the
socket in the same manner, and by the same process as the
expansion of boiler tubes into tube plates.
* See “Riveted Steel Pipes,” by D. J. Russell Duncan, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.,
M.Inst.M.E., Manager of the Steel Pipe Company, Ltd., Kirkcaldy, Scotland, read
before the Eleventh Annual Convention of the American Waterworks Association,
Philadelphia, Pa., April 16–19, 1891, for much valuable information about mild-steel
pipes.







A/A2/2S APOA WA 7TP AE WOAZ / S. *
245
“A feature of this joint is the bearing surface of the spiggot on
the bottom of the socket. It is so designed that the surface of
contact is spherical and allows the angular deviation, horizontal or
vertical, up to the limiting point, at which the spiggot end of the
pipe touches the extreme end of the mouth of the socket. The
circle represents a sphere, and it will be seen that the bearing of
the spiggot on the socket is upon its surface.”
Fig. 220.-The Riley patent joint for waterpipes.
Of the Riley patent stamped steel socket and welded spiggot
(Fig. 220), Mr. Duncan says —“The best joint on the socket-and-
spiggot principle is a development of the two former” (that already
described, and that mentioned as inferior to it), “and is known as
the Riley patent stamped steel socket joint. The great advan-
tage of this joint is the stiffness obtained at the mouth of the
socket by the rim, which is favourable for caulking with lead.
Stamped sockets are also truly cylindrical, and being without
welded seams greater strength is obtained.”

CHAPTER XXI.
Prevention OF WASTE OF WATER.
ONE of the most troublesome things in connection with the
administration of waterworks already established is the prevention
of waste, or rather the minimising of it, for some waste there
will always be. In fact the administration of waterworks consists
largely in a struggle against this insidious evil.
Causes of VVaste –There are various causes of the waste
of public water. One is a misapprehension to the effect that a
continual small stream of water along a house drain improves
the sanitary condition of a house. This is a mistake. A short
sudden rus' at intervals has a beneficial effect in flushing drains,
but a continual dribble has none. There is no use, therefore, in
allowing small streams of water to flow continually down water-
closets, or other sanitary appliances. On the other hand it
must be admitted that some of the regulations—in connection, for
example, with the use of water-closets—are harmful from a
sanitary point of view. By improvements in the form of water-
closets and of flushing apparatus, the former have been made quite
self-cleansing with flushes of 2 gallons, or even of considerably less,
and the flush is often restricted to 2 gallons or less, appliances
being insisted on that make it impossible to give a greater flush.
The compilers of such regulations seem to have forgotten
entirely that the function of the water is not to flush the closet
only, but to flush the house-drain right to the sewer, however
far off that may be. Except in the case of very short, well-laid
drains of considerable fall and small diameter, 2 gallons is not
enough to do this, and regulations ought, from a sanitary point of
view, not only not to limit the quantity to 2 gallons, but should
stipulate that it be considerably more.
This is not very much to the point, however, for it must be
admitted that by far the greater part of the waste that takes
A/C E VAZAV7/OAW OF WAS 7 A. O.P JWA 7TASA’. 247
place is due to sheer carelessness on the part of the consumers of
water, often carelessness that can only be considered culpable,
if it be borne in mind that the wilful waste of water supplied by
waterworks is simply stealing. The water is actual public pro-
perty if the works belong to the corporation; and even if they
belong to a company, the water is public property in the sense
that the price that each individual has to pay to the company
must in great part depend on the consumption of the whole,
including waste. It is undoubtedly the case that, in many towns
of Europe, the water wasted has, at any rate until recently, when
there has been much improvement in such matters, actually
exceeded that used for legitimate purposes. It would appear
that, in the case of American towns, the water wasted often many
times exceeds that used legitimately.
It is not at all difficult to understand why the average house-
holder is indifferent to the waste of water in his house, unless he
has to pay for water by meter, as to be described hereafter. Any
waste that he can individually make affects inappreciably the total
consumption of water, and consequently, affects inappreciably the
water rate. It is therefore a matter of indifference to him whether,
for example, a tap be left running the whole night or not. There
is more than this, however, Supposing that there is leakage from
a pipe, or from any fitting, that does not cause actual incon-
venience to the folks of the house, there may evidently be more
than indifference in the matter of repairing this leakage, for the
householder has to pay for the repairing, and beyond the satis-
faction that may arise from a virtuous action performed he has
no reward . It is evidently to his advantage to allow the leakage
to continue. In the Northern States of America it is quite
common to keep taps constantly running in winter, lest the water
in the pipes should freeze, and in many ways water is used
lavishly, if not actually wastefully.
Apart, however, from this, a great deal of leakage takes place
simply because it is difficult to appreciate how large a quantity of
water is lost on account of an apparently very small leakage
continuing through the whole twenty-four hours. It would
astonish most people who see water merely dripping from a tap,
or from a leaky pipe, to be told that the loss is very likely 3 to 4
cubic feet in twenty-four hours, or fully the average consumption
of water of one individual ' Yet, if a measuring glass be taken it
will be found that from 2 to 3 ounces per minute of water may
fall merely in the form of drops, and this corresponds to a large
248 THE WA 7TEA S UA’A/L V OA; 7 O WAVS.
consumption in twenty-four hours for One person. It needs but a
very small “dribble” to discharge 20 cubic feet of water in
twenty-four hours, Or, say, the quantity that ought to be con-
sumed by an average household. t -
This matter of the great quantity
of water that may be lost by a con-
At the rate of tinual leakage is well illustrated by
15 gallons
pººr Mr. W. Hope, C.E. The annexed
day & º e
yºy diagram (Fig. 221) is taken from a
720 perSonS.
paper of his on the subject of the
waste of water,” and is described
in his own words:–
307 , , The diagram “shows a lead pipe
drilled with various sized holes, the
burr on the inside not being re-
25(§ 7) moved. The actual number of
gallons per day which passed
through each hole under a pressure
of 45 lbs. per square inch is noted
on the drawing, together with the
corresponding number of persons
that quantity would supply at the
* " exceptionally high rate of 15 gallons
per head per day.”
Some may not agree with Mr.
Hope that 15 gallons [say 24 cubic
feet] per head per day is an “ex-
ceptionally high rate ’’ of consump-
tion, even if the satisfactory results
of the recent efforts to reduce con-
Fig. 221–Results of experiments on sumption by prevention of waste be
º taken into consideration, but this
sure of 45 lbs. per sq. in., showing does not make his illustration the
number of persons who might be e "º º
supplied by the discharge through less striking.
flaws of various sizes. This matter of the waste of
water in houses is of much greater
importance than that of waste from the mains of the waterworks.
These mains are constructed by, and are under the supervision of,
Discharge.
Gallons per hour
450
I (30
I5
* “The Waste of Water in Public Supplies, and Its Prevention,” by William Hope,
Assoc. Inst.C.E. Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. XC., session 1891–2,
part iv. This interesting paper has been published in pamphlet form, and should
be read by all who are interested in the question of the prevention of waste
of water.

PREVENTION OF WAS 7 E OF WATER. 249
those whose evident interest it is to prevent leakage from them,
and such leakage is kept within small limits without much
difficulty.
Means of Preventing Waste.—The means that have
been adopted to keep the leakage from house fittings within
limits may be put under three heads, leaving out of consideration
the adoption of the intermittent system of supply, which is prac-
tically now a thing of the past. With this system waterworks
were more or less protected, inasmuch as water was not kept at
pressure through the house system during the whole twenty-four
hours, but was only turned on for a comparatively short time—
often not more than an hour or two — during which time cisterns
within each house were filled up. Not only was the house system
under comparatively small pressure, but it was necessary for
the householder to keep leakage within some limits, unless he
wanted to find that all the water in his cistern, or cisterns, had
leaked away, and that he was waterless till the supply was turned
on again. When the constant system was first tried in England,
it had to be discontinued, the leakage being found to be so enormous.
To get to the classification, however —
(1) There is the system of enforcing the adoption of house
fittings of a high class, and of many water-waste-preventing appli-
ances, and the periodical inspection of the same. (2) There is
the introduction of means, outside all houses, and entirely under
the control of the officials of the waterworks, of finding out whether
there is an excessive amount of leakage, or not ; and, if there
is, of localizing it, after which steps can readily be taken to put an
end to it, the means which are now nearly always used being what is
known as the “ district meter system.” (3) There is the custom
of actually selling water by meter—that is to say, of charging
each householder a sum just in proportion to the quantity of water
that he uses, exactly as is commonly done in the case of gas.
Each of these means has resulted, under the direction of men
of intelligence, in the reduction of leakage to such an extent that
it may be said to have been abolished altogether in the most
favourable cases, and there have been endless controversies as to
which of the three systems is to be preferred. Before giving a
brief résumé of the opinions expressed on the subject by those who
appear best able to judge, it will be well to describe the three
systems in a few words.
Enforced Adoption of particular House Fittings, with periodical
25O 7TP/A IVA 7TA: A S UAE/2/L V OAP 7 O WAVS.
Inspection.—It is now common to enforce regulations to the
effect that, in the case of new houses, none but fittings coming
up to a certain standard may be used. Thus, for example, the
materials that may be used for pipes, and the thicknesses that
various diameters of pipes must have, are stipulated. Ball valves
and taps may only be of such construction that their normal
condition is that of water-tightness, instead of continual drip,
as is the case with the common plug-tap of inferior make. Further
than this, they are often so made that it is necessary to keep the
hand on a knob, otherwise the flow of water immediately stops.
Some valves are even so made, that they give out only a measured
quantity of water when opened once, and have to be opened again
to get more.
In connection with water-closets, innumerable inventions have
been made to prevent or minimise waste. The commonest of
these is the “water-waste-preventing cistern.” This is a small
cistern—commonly holding 2 gallons, a quantity that, as has
already been said, the writer considers too small—filled through a
ball valve that allows water to flow into it only very slowly, and
so arranged that on pulling a handle the whole of the water is
rapidly discharged, whether the handle be pulled for an instant
Only, or be held till all the water has drained away. After this the
cistern fills up again slowly, taking several minutes, and in the
case of cisterns of good design it is impossible to get another
discharge till they are full again.
Various appliances have been designed to make it impossible
to use more than a fixed quantity of water for each flushing of a
closet, even when the supply is direct from high-pressure pipes,
but the writer is not aware that any of them has been thoroughly
successful. By the use of an appliance known as a “regulator
valve " it is possible to adjust the flush of a closet approximately
to any particular quantity, but this quantity may be either large
or small.
A great deal has been done by so arranging Overflow pipes,
discharge pipes, &c., that if there is a constant leakage it is
discoverable, or even conspicuous, from the outside. In cisterns,
particularly, the improvement has been very great. With the old
arrangement having the waste pipe of the cistern connected directly
with the drain or a soil pipe, and with the old plug ball-cocks,
whose chronic condition was that of leakage, an indefinite amount
of water might be lost without attracting the attention of any one.
Indeed, it was greatly this leakage of water invisibly into drains
AAA WAZAVT/OAV OAF WAS 7/5 OF WA 7TEA’. 25 I
that made the first attempts to introduce the constant high-
pressure service system abortive.
Cisterns are much less used now than they were before the
constant supply system became prevalent, but when they are used,
the waste or overflow pipe is allowed to project through the Outer
wall of the house. If there is any leakage in the ball valve,
allowing water to run to waste, it makes itself conspicuous or
even inconvenient, and is likely to be attended to at once.
The discharge pipes of sinks, baths, fixed basins, &c., cannot be
made quite so conspicuous as the “warning pipes” just mentioned,
but it is now the universal custom to allow them to discharge Over
or into trapped gullies in the open air ; and therefore a constant
loss by way of one of them, such as will occur if a valve is leaky,
is at any rate much more likely to be noticed than it was when
the custom prevailed of connecting the discharge pipes of these
appliances with drains or soil pipes.
When the constant service system is carried out completely,
water-closets are supplied through water-waste-preventing cisterns,
such as those described above, or through some other arrangement
that makes it impossible that gas from the closets can be drawn
into the pipes, even if the latter have to be emptied for repairing
or for any other reason, and all other appliances are supplied
directly by service pipes from the mains. In such a case it is
evident that a burst pipe is liable to lead to very considerable loss
by leakage. The commonest cause of burst pipes is the freezing
of water in them. Water expands about 10 per cent, when it
freezes, and a closed vessel that held the water cannot hold
the whole of the ice without bursting, unless it has very
elastic sides. Neither iron nor lead pipes can resist this bursting
action.* r
Care should be taken to so arrange pipes that they shall be
well protected from frost. This is very easy in a country such as
England, where the winters are mild. In countries with very
severe climates, such as some of the Northern States of America,
it is very difficult to prevent pipes from freezing, and it is a
custom to allow water to flow through them continually, and to
run to waste, to prevent freezing. Water passing in the form of
* It should be unnecessary to point out here that the old idea, that it is the
thaw that bursts the pipes, is erroneous. It is only when the ice in them thaws
that the water can escape, and, as the slight crack in a pipe burst by the freezing
of the water in it nearly always escapes detection, it is only when the thaw comes
that the water escapes, and a householder becomes aware that his pipes have burst.
2 52 TA/A2 WA 7TP K S UA’/2/L V OAP 7"O WAVS.
a current of even a comparatively moderate velocity through
a pipe freezes at only a very low temperature.
Another cause of the bursting of pipes is the use of valves that
shut suddenly. The concussion or “ram ” that these result in is
sometimes sufficient to burst pipes. Valves of this type should,
therefore, be avoided where the working pressure is already
considerable.
It will be at once evident that there is a great advantage in
having a valve on the service pipe within the house, capable of
closing off the whole water system of the house from the main, in
a conspicuous and accessible place, so that the water may be shut
off in a moment if a pipe bursts.
It is common, especially in some parts of England, to have
something which very closely approaches the constant system,
but has not the whole of its advantages, inasmuch as water is
not drawn directly from the main. Instead of the numerous
large and often nearly inaccessible cisterns that used to be
customary, there are only two, and these of moderate size, placed in
the attic. One is to supply water-closets, the other all other
appliances in the house. The supply is constant, or only shut off
occasionally for short intervals of time. Where the pressure in
the mains is great such a system is likely to save leakage, because
the pressure from the cisterns is less than that from the main
would be. Moreover, it is possible to do something to prevent
excessive waste by fixing a diaphragm with a small aperture in
the rising main, or otherwise constricting the flow to one that will
be more than sufficient to supply all the wants of the house during
the twenty-four hours, but will not allow of reckless waste. The
cistern must be large in this case, enough to provide the consider-
able quantity of water that has sometimes to be drawn within a
short space of time—as, for example, in filling a bath.
On the whole, improvement in the construction and workman-
ship of fittings, and the adoption of a superior style of plumbing
carried out under careful supervision, has probably done more to
prevent the waste of water, or at any rate, to make its prevention
possible, than anything else.
It is not sufficient to make regulations that all fittings within
houses must be up to a certain standard. It is necessary, further,
to ascertain by inspection that they are so, and that they remain
so. For these reasons an essential part of any system of water
supply, in which there is no means outside the houses of
discovering leakage or waste, is the establishment of “house-to-
AA’A, WAEAV7/OAV OA, WA S 7TE OF WA 7TAZAR. 253
house inspection.” This is generally what is considered the most
objectionable part of the system. Leaving on One side the cant
about “every Englishman's house being his castle,” it is at times
inconvenient to have the inspector poking his nose into all parts of
the premises; but what is of much more serious consideration than
this is the fact that it is not always at all easy to discover
leakages, and that it would need a perfect army of inspectors to do
their work properly in a large town. It needs one man to every
four or five thousand houses to make the necessary inspection very
inefficiently, and this is about the number commonly employed.
It would need many times more to make a really efficient inspection.
Detection of Leaking from the Outsides of Houses.—It is
always, or nearly always, the case that means exist in connec-
tion with waterworks of recording, not only the total quantity
of water that has been supplied during any day, but the rate at
which it has been supplied at different times during the twenty-
four hours. Where the water is pumped, the number of strokes
that the pump makes during the twenty-four hours is a measure of
the total quantity of the water that has been pumped, and, if the
pumps are kept in good condition, should be a very fairly accurate
one. When, however, as is common, the engines pump steadily
into a reservoir, no idea is given of variation in consumption
during the twenty-four hours. In the case of pumping into mains
direct, it would be very easy to fit the engines with a recording
instrument that would record not only the total number of revo-
lutions made in any certain length of time, but that would record
the rate of pumping during all times of the twenty-four hours, and
this would constitute as good a system of keeping a check on the
varying consumption as any other.
In the case of gravity systems, where the water is supplied
direct from the source without the intervention of a service
reservoir, and in all cases where water is supplied from a service
reservoir, the water should be measured as it leaves the impounding
reservoir, the intake, or the service reservoir.
When the water has not to be measured under pressure, but
may be allowed to flow for some distance through an open channel,
it is a comparatively easy matter to gauge it. This may be done
simply by a notch-board such as is illustrated and described at
pp. 25, 26. It will suggest itself to any engineer how apparatus
could be designed to keep an automatic record of the height of
water Over the notch.
The following description of a very ingenious arrangement for
254. THAE WA 7TP R S Ü/2/2/. V. O.A. 7"O WAVS.
measuring water in the open is taken from a paper on the
Construction of the Yokohama Waterworks, by J. H. Tudsbery
Turner, B.Sc., Assoc.M.I.C.E.” —
“The gauge, through which the water passes from the depositing
tank to the basin, is a submerged vertical rectangular orifice 2 feet
long by 6 inches high, with squared brass lips 4-inch thick, placed
2 feet 6 inches below the surface of the tank. The head of water
above the orifice is measured by an automatic apparatus, consisting
of two copper floats, immersed in the water at the upper and lower
8
Cordſ fopeocº of aft/feren/Kºſzęcorcór. §
- SS
Y !
§§ S.S.
$ S § $
S §§
tº S S.S
Fig. 222.-Arrangement of pulleys in water meter.
sides of the Orifice respectively, which actuate a differential recorder
and an integrator fixed in a gauge-house at the side of the tank.
The discharge through the orifice is dependent on the head due
to the difference of water-level on the upper and lower sides of the
gauge, which difference is recorded by means of the floats.
“The relative motion of the floats is reduced to one-third for
the differential recorder, which is of the revolving disc form.f
* Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. C., p. 277.
f The writer has often visited the pumping station, at the intake for the
Yokohama waterworks, where this gauging apparatus is fixed. He is of opinion
that, if the discs were made larger and the motion were greater, the gauging would
be much more precise. As the meter now works, the “shake ’’ on the pencil, its
holder, and other parts, is so great, relatively to the small radial motion, that a very
appreciable error is introduced.

A/?/E VA; AV7/OAV OA, WA S 7T/E O/7 WA 7T/5A". 255
“The arrangement of pulleys by which the recording pencil is
actuated solely by the relative water-levels on the two sides of the
Orifice, without reference to the actual water-levels, is shown in
Fig. 222. The diameters of the double pulley A, which turns
On a fixed axle, are 4 to 1 ; those of the double pulley B, which
turns on an axle suspended from A, are 3 to 1; C and D are fixed
guiding pulleys; W is a weight hung on the end of the continuous
cord from the upper float round C and A.
“The discharge through the orifice, under the actual conditions
of working, was ascertained by experiment, and found to be very
accurately expressed by the formula
Q = 2,000 J/,
where Q denotes gallons discharged per minute, and h denotes the
head of water in feet, namely, the difference in level between the
surface of water on the inlet and outlet sides of the gauge.”
When the water has to be measured under pressure, the
measurement must be done by means of one or more meters,
of the kind to be described hereafter. On p. 64 is shown
diagrammatically a set of three meters, any two of which are capable
of measuring the maximum quantity of water that passes.
Any of the meters described farther on can be used for
measurements of this kind, but when the quantity of discharge is
large, and when it is not likely to be a very small fraction of the
maximum discharge, for lengths of time that would make an error
in the measurement of this small discharge a matter of considera-
tion, the Venturi meter, the invention (as an instrument for
accurately measuring the flow of water) of Mr. Clemens Herschel,
seems to have advantages Over all others, On account of its
beautiful simplicity. It is an application of the vend contracto.
It is a well-known scientific fact that, if an opening be made at the
contraction of a pipe tapering in both directions towards this
contraction, and any fluid passes rapidly through the contraction,
the pressure at the contraction will be found to be less than that
in the pipe of full size at either end, and may even, with a con-
siderable pressure in the pipe, fall below the atmospheric pressure,
if the velocity of flow be great enough. Advantage is taken of
this fact in Giffard's injector for feeding water into high-pressure
steam boilers, by a current of steam at a high velocity.
The principle of the Venturi meterisillustrated diagrammatically
in Fig. 223. Here it will be seen that the column of fluid A rises
to a higher level than either that of B or that of C. It is found
256 TA/A WA 7/5A S UAE’/2/L Y OF 7TO WAVS.
that, if the tapers at the up-stream and at the down-stream be of
the proper form, the difference of pressure at the up-stream end of
the veno, contracta, and at the actual contraction or throat, is a
E
C }
- |
=|- - F-- – ºr - + - E
- H. | I.
– T | |--
H — | -
I | zºº. — -- T- T i | –
| ==###### |
| | == H- |
} t H – – – –
- } | |
| | -L |
N.
Q | 2 gy
y }
j _TT– |
ſ | |
| |
} | |
} |
: — — —as º * Sk-- - - º *— — — — —
Fig. 223. --Diagram showing principle of Venturi meter.
function of the velocity of flow of water through the throat.
JHence it is possible to record the velocity by observing this
difference of pressure, and from the velocity the discharge can, of
course, be deduced. The actual section of the meter is shown
Fig. 224.—Section of 32-inch Venturi meter.
in Fig. 224, and the outward appearance (reproduced from a
photograph) in Fig. 225.” -
The general principle of the meter will be understood from the
above description and illustrations. The very remarkable thing
about its action is that, contrary to what might be imagined, it
* The illustrations here given are from a pamphlet entitled, “The Venturi
Meter,” printed by the Press of Livermore and Knight Co., Providence, R.I., U.S.A.


PA: /E VEV7 /O.V. O/7 IVA S 7/5 O/7 || A 7T/EA’. 257
produces barely any obstruction to the flow of the water, or
“back-pressure.” This is due to the long taper of the down-
stream end of the meter, which, so to speak, draws the water
through the contraction. It is, in fact, this drawing or “suction”
that produces the reduced pressure at the “throat.”
The Venturi meter does not seem to be applicable to the
district meter system, to be presently described, because an
essential for meters for that system is that they should be capable
of recording accurately very slight discharges of water. The
Fig. 225.-External view of Venturi meter.
writer gathers that the Venturi meter is not to be relied on
for discharges represented by a velocity of less than about 6 inches
per second in the main pipe.
Returning to the general question of measurement of the
supply, the total amount of water used in twenty-four hours may,
of course, be such as to indicate that there is waste, but a know-
ledge of the rate of consumption during the different times of the
twenty-four hours is a much surer indication of the existence of
waste. The reason is that, except in the case of certain manu-
facturing towns, the actual consumption falls to something very
nearly zero, at some hour between midnight and the time that
people begin to rise in the morning. In the case of manufacturing
S

258 7A/E WA 7TA R S UPA/ Y OF TO WAVS.
towns it is nearly always possible to estimate with fair accuracy
the consumption that goes on even in the small hours of the
morning. At some time during the early morning, the actual
consumption will fall in ordinary cases to a very small fraction
only of the average consumption. In fact, in the case of small
towns, it will certainly fall, at least for short intervals of time, to
zero. In the case of the manufacturing towns that we have
been considering, it will fall to only a very little over the
quantity constantly used, and, as already stated, is capable of
at least approximate estimation. In either case, any great
excess may be put down to waste, due either to leakage, or the
leaving of taps, &c., running. It is now merely a question of
localizing this leakage,
A desideratum at the present time for large mains is a
“shunt " district meter (if the term is allowable)—that is to say,
a meter through which not the whole but only a small fraction
of the water has to pass. The difficulty with this is the same
as with the Venturi meter. It would be easy to design such a
“shunt " meter for moderately great and great velocities, but the
writer does not know of any such meter that is suitable for small
velocities, and he has been unable to design one that seems at
all hopeful. -
District Meter System.—The system known under this title
has proved most useful in facilitating the location of waste,
particularly by leakage. In this system the town is divided into
a number of districts, and the water is admitted into each through
a certain kind of meter. The meter most commonly used for
this purpose is a meter that keeps a record of the rate of con-
sumption of water during all parts of the times of the twenty-
four hours, in contradistinction to a meter that records the
quantity consumed in any particular period of time—that is to say,
an integrating meter. Meters originally designed for the latter
kind of work have, however, been adapted to district meter work,
and it is claimed for them that they have the advantage that,
besides the rate, it is always easy to read from them the total
quantity of water that has been consumed in any particular length
of time, whereas it is somewhat difficult with the differentiating
form of meter.
To Mr. G. F. Deacon, M.I.C.E., we are indebted for the
inception of the general idea of the district meter system, and
also for the perfecting of a meter that is so simple and so efficient
for the purpose for which it is designed, that it seems difficult
AA / VA; AV7 /OAV OA, WAS 7/5 OA, WA 7TPA’. 259
to imagine a better. An illustration of this meter is given below
(Fig. 226).
The flow of water from A, by B, C, D to a is indicated by the
ſ
g’
º
2 Ż, § NS &
%|Nº
%|Š:
grº- **-* = - &
Tº: - cº- *w-º-º: *
~ x- a º E. f
—=r_. z
*SS % § &
| § % N
$ & N
|
| l 2- % N i
| i % - § i §
! # º Žº …—&
3 | .” * § l
\ - | A& % N A
! © C § ! •
* % | t
–é §§ - §§ 2. | t
| g X | l
ſ | | |
| i AN |
! I
* * |
# , ºs. a N i # - -E.- := -
^ - - - --> lº **=ºs
-* • * * º:* - ...:--— = 8. - *::= ~
* *... . ~~' = a- - Tºº • *s- - --> --> zººs "-ſºs
-** r → A. : -. § -- *t:~ === ----. Tº
----. =: "... ... sº- *-* B \ ºf Ağ 2-º- ~~i=~ *-*=
—fx-- a-ºº: - - - *-* - ”----. -e- i. ------s—-
-º-º: -º- **— * , º, _r=":yº. - - -ºf- * * .
->> - - - : ---> *-*., rºl-
- —— – Tº- . Tº ºr ~.
2- . -------- - * =– T =
“res , * * - --> *. jºss ^^c ~~~~
_- ++ *: 2y ≤ 2, ----->†< *- = ** =
- ~5- - - ".. -* 2- . . . ~3-3
-— "... ** —. –2 -- ~~,
- →…→ • *-*- C-
_*-** — ? 2-3% * *
* *** * ...º-º- i. * =>s-
3 I-º ... --
<--, -ºgº assº. -
- fºr 2. ~~ *
.* - - - * *~
Scale º
! • , 2 3 4 5 & 7 & 2 ſo z_{2^*
Fig. 226.-Mr. G. F. Deacon’s “District” water meter.
arrows. It may be stated that the only practical difficulty that
was met with in designing the meter was that of obviating the
disturbing effects of the “swirling” of the water. In the form


S 2
*
260 THE WATER SUPPLY OF To WNS.
of meter shown, this difficulty has been entirely overcome, partly
by a series of veins at B, C.
The disc E tends to fall by gravity, in spite of the counter-
weight G, the use of which is to keep the flexible wire F, J, H
taut. If there is no flow of water, the disc falls down to C, C ;
but if water passes, the disc is forced upwards, and the greater
the quantity that passes, the higher rises the disc, and the lower
falls the weight G carrying with it the pencil K. The intervals
corresponding to given increments of discharge—say 100 cubic
feet per hour—are discovered by experiment, and paper, made to
fit on the drum L, is ruled longitudinally at these intervals. The
drum is carried round by a clock N, and the pencil draws a curve,
in which the ordinates are rate of consumption of water, and
the abscissae intervals of time. This will be made clear by
reference to the diagrams (Figs. 227—234) in Plates XLIII. and
XLIV., which are reproduced from a paper on “The Constant
Supply and Waste of Water,” read before the Society of Arts,
May 17th, 1882, by Geo. F. Deacon, M.I.C.E.”
The description of the method of actually working the district
meter system will be best given in Mr. Deacon's own words:—
“I will now explain the modes in which the waste-water meter
system is employed in practice, and in doing so I will take as an
example the case of a town containing 100,000 persons. The
number of waste-water meter districts into which such a town
could be conveniently divided would depend entirely upon the
arrangement of the water mains, but it would probably be fifty
or sixty. Upon the main supplying each such district, a waste-
water meter is placed in such a manner that the whole of the
water supplying that district passes through the meter. If in such
a town any system of inspection whatever has been adopted, there
are probably not less than three inspectors. If they are fairly in-
telligent men, they may be retained, and no more will be required.
“Having fixed the meters and outside stopcocks upon the
house-service pipes, if such stopcocks do not already exist, all
ordinary systems of inspection are at Once set aside. One inspector
fixes blank diagrams at the rate of about thirty a day, and brings
to the office as many diagrams from meters upon which they may
have been placed from one to seven days before. Examples of such
diagrams are shown by the faint lines in Figs. 227,228, and 229. The
diagrams shown by darker lines were taken from the same districts
* Journal of the Society of Arts, May 19th, 1882.
AA’ F. V.A. W.7/OAV OAF WAS 7 A. O/7 WA 7TP R. 26 I
when much of the waste had been prevented. In a few days from
the commencement of the work, the manager has before him the
whole sixty diagrams, with the waste per hour visible at a glance, and
with the waste in gallons per head, entered by the inspector or a
clerk on the diagram, in the space left for the purpose, as shown in
Fig. 230. He finds, probably to his surprise, that out of the sixty
districts the diagrams show that in ten the waste per head is five
times as great as in ten others, and that without any reason by
which any divergence might have been anticipated. As a matter
of fact, the divergence in the rate of waste per head, even in
adjoining districts, of which the history is the same, and of which
the external conditions are similar, is often greater than five to one.
“Instead of wasting the energy of his men upon all the
districts in rotation, the manager now concentrates his attention
upon the most wasteful ten ; and with the worst of these he pro-
bably begins his work. Two inspectors receive orders at night to
visit that district, and, in order that they may confine themselves
to the right blocks of houses, and omit none, they are provided—in
Liverpool, at least—with a small plan of the district, showing the
houses supplied through the meter in question. Having reached the
district between II and 12 p.m., one of two methods is adopted.
“By the first and most general method, the stopcocks are
sounded in rotation, by using the ordinary stopcock turning-key as
a stethoscope, and any stopcock through which water is heard to
be running is shut off, the time and number being noted by the
inspector. The shutting off and time of shutting off are simul-
taneously recorded by the meter on the main, to which the
inspectors have no access. On the pavement, above each stopcock
so closed, the inspector marks a cross in chalk. If, after closing a
stopcock, the sound continues, it is obviously caused by waste from
the main, or between the stopcock and the main. It is then
generally heard at several stopcocks, and by its relative loudness
at each, an approximation is made as to its position. The footway
and the carriage-way pavements are then sounded, until a spot of
maximum noise is found. Here, again, a chalk mark is left, which
rarely fails to show the position of a burst pipe or ferrule to the
day inspector, who, with his labourer, visits the district on the
following day. At the end of two to four hours the round of the
whole district has been made, and the inspectors find themslves
again not far from the meter. They next close the main-stop valve
near the meter, and leave it closed for a minute or two. Commenc-
ing with this valve, they then reopen all the closed stopcocks, which
262 7TA/AE WA 7T/ER S Ü/2/2/. Y OF 7TO WAVS.
are readily seen by the chalk marks, and return to the night office,
where each inspector writes in copying ink on the left-hand side of
a book the particulars of his inspection. By the second method—
rarely necessary except when waste has already been very much
reduced—the whole of the stopcocks are at first shut off without
sounding. On the return journey, they are opened one by one, and
sounded ; the result is obviously to magnify the sound resulting
from small leaks, supplied by cisterns with ball-taps.
“At 9 o'clock on the same morning the day inspector receives
a press copy of the night inspector's reports. He visits those
premises, and those only, in or under which waste is reported to be
actually taking place, and the work of many days' inefficient house-
to-house inspection is efficiently performed in One. He generally,
on the same evening, writes in red ink, opposite the night
inspector's report, the results of his examination. He also issues
the necessary notices for repairs or renewals.
“On the same day, the manager or his clerk receives and
records the meter diagram from the district in question. Such
diagrams, taken after night inspections, are of the kind shown by
faint lines on Figs. 231 and 232. He sees by the diagram the time
during which the night inspectors were continuously engaged, and
he sees the exact amount of useful work performed in that time.
It would not be possible, even if the inspectors had access to the
meter, to elude this knowledge. He sees, moreover, the total
quantity of waste detected, and one month hence he will see by
another diagram the result of the day inspector's efforts to stop it.
“It is readily seen that the secret of the success of this system,
as compared with that of house-to-house inspection, is due to the
facts—1st,-that the inspectors are always working in the most
wasteful districts; 2nd,-that the time occupied in inspection is
greatly reduced ; 3rd, that the hidden as well as the super-
ficial waste is detected. -
“That the inspectors are always working in the most waste-
ful districts has already been shown. That the time occupied in
inspection is greatly reduced may be shown as follows:—
“Under the Ordinary system of house-to-house visitation, one
man, in One day, can inspect on the average the dwellings of about
180 persons. Under the waste-water meter system, the wages
paid to him frequently suffice for the thorough inspection of the
premises occupied by more than 1,000 persons.
“That the invisible as well as the visible waste is detected
has already been explained. This invisible waste frequently exceeds,
AA’/ WEAVT/OAW OF WAS 7 A. O.A. WA 7TAA’. 263,
on the average, one-half the whole waste, and where a thorough
house-to-house inspection, occupying a given number of men a given
time, and detecting a given quantity of waste, is followed by an
inspection under the waste-water meter system, it is generally
found that the same number of men suffice to detect two or three
times the volume of waste in one-fifth the time. When, in con-
junction with this fact, we take the additional advantage to the
latter system of having the inspectors always engaged in the
most wasteful districts, its relatively high efficiency is sufficiently
obvious.
“Whatever results have been obtained by any other method
could have been brought about by the method I advocate much
Imore cheaply, both to the water authority and to the householder,
and with far less trouble and annoyance to all concerned. This
system has been applied within the last nine years to districts
containing more than 1,500,000 persons.”
“The mode of preventing waste when detected is not affected
by the manner of its detection. It will be agreed on all hands,
that when it is decided to replace a fitting or pipe, that fitting or
pipe should, like those to be used in new premises, be of the best
possible kind, and should be fixed and adjusted in the best possible
manner. A description of the fittings that have stood the test of
time and experience would increase this paper to double its length.
I can, therefore, merely state that the soundness and efficiency of
water fittings can only be determined by taking each to pieces,
examining each part in detail, and finally testing the whole under
pressure. Such an inquisition finds defects in a certain proportion
of the fittings made by firms even of the highest and most deserved
repute. It has been adopted in Liverpool with marked success.
“The fittings there used are such as encourage, rather than
discourage, the proper use, while restricting the waste of water.
No pea ferrules or other obstruction to the flow of water are per-
mitted; no taps in which the duration of flow is limited are
required, except for Out-door stand-pipes; and water-closets are
not allowed to have new cisterns providing a flush of less than
two gallons.
“The respectable local plumbers have been invited to sign an
agreement to conform to the water regulations issued by the Cor-
poration. The incentive to them to do so is the advertisement of
* Since 1882, when Mr. Deacon's paper, from which the above is quoted, was
read, the system has been applied to districts containing many times the number of
persons here indicated. -
264 TA/A2 WA 7TAZA’ SUPPLY OF TO WAVS.
their names on the backs of the waste-water notices. A plumber's
name may at any time be erased if he fails to comply. In
practice it is found that work is rarely performed except by men
whose names appear in the list, and there is, therefore, no sale
except for fittings tested and stamped by the proper officer of the
Corporation.” -
There is some difficulty in working out the district meter
system just described in cases where the “interlacing ” system of
distribution mains is adopted. It is quite possible, however, by
a little ingenuity to get over this difficulty. It will have been
observed that the district meter is really not brought into opera-
tion to measure water except during the night, or at any rate
need not be brought into operation. Where the “interlacing ”
system of distribution mains is adopted, it is not possible to divide
a town into districts each of which is supplied by one inlet only.
This has been fully explained in Chapter XVIII. As, however,
it is necessary to take readings by the district meter during the
night only, there is no objection to closing all the inlets but one to
any particular district. At the inlet allowed to remain open
there is a district meter. The only objection there can be
to this arrangement is that, in the case of a fire in the district
being “metered,” there might be delay in opening the sluice
valves that had been closed to isolate the district, with the
effect that the water supplied to extinguish the fire would be
only at the rate that could be obtained with a dead-end
system. - -
Sale of Water by Meter.—In this system the water used in
every house is charged for at a uniform rate just as gas is, the
price being, as a rule, from a few pence per thousand gallons
upwards. - -
* At first sight it might appear that there is little difference
between this system and the district meter system—at any rate
so far as the results are concerned. There is, however, a great
difference. If the district meter system be properly carried out,
leakage can be detected and stopped, but every inhabitant of the
town is free to misuse water to any extent that he likes, and there
are always many who use water extravagantly if there is no
check on them. With the domestic meter system every house-
holder has to pay for all water either used or misused in his house,
and he naturally inclines to do all that he can to prevent the
IYALSU1S62. -
The sale of water by meter has been customary for long in the
{ſº
P 4,000
+ 3,000
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE RATE OF SUPPLY DURING EACH INSTANT OF 24 HOURS IN A DISTRICT OF 1933 PERSONS Fig. 227.
20,000
15,000
10,000
7,000
5,000
4,500
'4000
* ſy. 3,500
Tº 3,000.
2,500
à
2,000
i
1,000
500
7PM 8PM (9 PM /0PM //FM
C H O R L E Y * --~~~~~ * –- -
- - - £ne Avazrazzº)ec.4%/v4/4 trºpécºèon tº aerhſh/
; º § º ; Example of Waste Water. Dua Žućcº Dražramz.Jazz fö32. répazr of Čeo/as
- from a Destrict of 4,095 - * - V : N
3 PM 4. 5 PM 6PM
/PM
rve D .7332 na/º a -
L V E R P O O L % Żºł Jº &#ſº
yº 7.
Bacample of Waste Water Meter Di P07725 Høed, at £ 30 p.ſra, 4% % a!eſ&czó.
#º gº, ſº A. frº, *** *gº, so
/Wooy 2PM
Y ||.
20,000
15,000
ICP, OOO
7,000
5,000
4.
3,000
2,500
5AM 6am 7am 8AM 9am /04m // /0pm //PA4 47, o 2a, 34m 4am 5am 6am 7am 84%
Áoow /Pń, 2PM
| Mohr
4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8pm 9PM /0pm ſlem M/D /Am 24m 34m 4am
M/G//7 -
Fig. 231.
MiD WighT
*
(0,000
S,000
or 8, 000
-)
C 7,000
E
o:*
Lil
{l. 5,000
994,000
2.
—l
—l
< 2,000
C
/, 000
- - -- DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING SUPPLY AND WASTE OF WATER (DEACON).
| -
000
3,000
N Mazer Maszed &y Zºdden ze/eczs ... . . . . . . . . . 99 ya!!ons per Žead per day
-
º ºxº
exexc lº
4 × 333333333;
23.283 &
* , , Ö/sed oz. .7/?seased. ........................... ZZ 8 > * ; : * > *
AM AM
M - - A M - 5AM 6AM 7AM 8AM 3AM
B O S T O N U. S.A.
Eacarple. of Waste, Water Meter, ſº
fromy &y District of 8/0 Perºoras
L O N DO NOLAMBETH WATER Co.);v.o.º.º.º. º.º.o.w…, . º
'...},” ºr ºf
from/a/ District of 2,744 Persons. - S AV 1 N G
.#
|
Moon lºw 2PM 3PM 4°w 5PM 6PM 7en 8PM 9ew /Oew //en. Mio ſaw 24, 34M 4am 5A* 6am 7aw 8am 9aw /Oam //amſoon/Woow /Pn 22m 3PM 4pm 5PM 6A, 7AM &ºm 9AM /0°n ſ/PM M10
M/G#7" A// chºr
Fig. 230, - - - Fig. 233.
33%fº . > * 2 9 , , Szczezžega/.................... .. 5’ O 3 * 2 3 2 3 Zoëa/= 29.7 ya//ozes per Žead per day.
000
;
000
,500
:
,000
500
/0AM //AM - Woow
ºffé/ºré appſzcozzoz. g7 ºf 5 yºtezzº.
76% after ºffo/cazzon of Płłł'Aſ. Syºğzerzº,
Šºšić
/AM 2A4ſ 3A4, 4AM 5AM 6AM 7AM 8am 9AM /04m //awſoow
PLATE XLIII.
[To face page 264.




















































Fig. 228.
WASTE WATER METER C*LIMITED LIVERPOOL, DIAGRAM FOR FOUR-INCH METER.
of Dustrzcz -- --
of sº sº sº me • * * * * * * * * * * * *
Aºotcaa.on.--—
of
/* 2pm 3pm 42* 5pm 6am 7AM 8am 9am 10am, *Aft: /4A, 2A4s 3Aas 444, 5A at 6AM 74m 8AM 9AAt 10AM ſlaº ſºw
. -/W/G//7
LO N DO N LAM BETH WATER C2)/ºcample of a Waste haterMeter
- ... =: Apriz768Z. from a District of 1.256 P &al rught .."; *:::::
e” Biagram, . 77°0772 (2, Z/7.5/7"LC p : * ~ : / * Wºwº ºr . <2 ºzºrº
# * on, commezzced at 6.25 a.m. bei Žiž.” % #. ſº &
* 2,500
2,000
* /,500
i
/,000
<500
Koow /P& 2PM 324 °47 -5 PM 6AM 724, 3PM 924. /OPa //Pai Mi o Aar 2A4ſ 3A4, 4a.s. 5am 6As, Zaar &as 9aa ſoaa. 4, º,
/W/c/yr.
Fig. 229.
R E F E R E N C E
- D A C R A M
Shewing yearwofoonstant&
ty within the City of Irverpool
eachiyaar of intermittent
supplydavng which the
-er was cut off.
f) J A G R AM
&helingewººperhead per
end theółty fºr all domestic&
sanitary purposes andfor
ecc30ting on&3.
perDayatpresentsold
to the larger Trades. ôy
In 1873 and/874 the
widerønstant Supply was
certained and the &
betweenthosekars &
in the other
D ! A G R A M
of
sons within theółyń
fontheſillowing
eases-Riegeles.
rhea..I).sentery.(holera and
|
1
S
ſ
I
i
Fig. 234.
CONSTANT AND INTERMITTENT WATER SUPPLY, LIVERPOOL.
SYSTEM OF HOUSE ro HOUSE VISITATION FOR RESTRICTION OF
CO/VS 74 W T S UPA'ſ y
/860 /86/ | |062 (863
t | N TERMITTENT
/864. /865 /866 (867 ſºë8
1860 1861 t&62 1863 (864. | 1865 1866 1867 1868
DIAGRAMs ILLUSTRATING SUPPLY AND WASTE OF WATER (DEACON).
SUPALY FOR RESTF/CTION OF WASTE TA’A/S, r/ow i
WASTE i WASTE WATER METER SYSTEM FOR RESTRIC7/OW OF WASTE
CO /V S TA ſv T S U PPL Y
/872 | /873 /874. (87.5 ! /876 1877 /878 1879 /880 /88/ | 1882 /883 /3.94.
/869 ; /870 /87/
:
i
|
/869 ; ;&TO 187 / | 1872 1873 1877 /878 1882 /883 || || 884.
1874. 1875 1876 1879 1880 188]
PLATE XLIV.
ſ To face page 264.




A RAE VEAWT/OAV OA” IVA S 7/5 OF WA 7TP R. 265
case of factories or other establishments that use a disproportion-
ately large quantity of water, and at first sight it might seem the
simplest thing possible to apply the system to every house in a
town, and that there are very decided advantages in so doing ;
but the matter is not so simple as it may at first appear, and there
are some doubts as to its advantage. Those who are opposed to
the sale of water by meter argue that the custom leads not only
to a great reduction of the misuse of water, but is liable to
lead people to stint themselves in the legitimate use of water—
especially by the poorer people, who need particularly to be
encouraged in the legitimate use of water, as it is with them that
epidemics most commonly break out. To this the advocates of
the complete domestic meter system reply that experience has
proved that there is no harmful stinting in the use of water when
people have to pay for it as for gas; that statistics point to a
diminution of diseases commonly attributed to insanitary con-
ditions where the sale of water by meter has been introduced.
It is not to be argued from this that the diminution in the
use of water arising from the introduction of the domestic
system actually results in an improvement of the health of the
people, but merely that it does not check the improvement pro-
ceeding on account of decided in provements in the general
sanitary condition of a town.
A great and very palpable difficulty in the way of adopting
the domestic meter system lies in the first cost. In some Con-
tinental cities where the average number of people to one house
is very large—a notable case will be mentioned farther on—the
first cost of meters may not be very great ; but where, as in
Ordinary cases, there is one house to every six to eight people, the
first cost of providing meters bears a very large proportion to the
whole first cost of waterworks. It may increase the total cost of
the works by 50 per cent. In a recent discussion on the meter
system, it was stated that in a certain instance where it was
tried the saving of water did not cover the interest on the first
cost of meters, together with wear and tear and depreciation.
Then comes one more difficulty, which is that, in spite of all
the ingenuity that has been spent on the matter—and it is very
great—it can barely be said that a perfect meter has yet been
invented—that is to say, there is no meter that has not some
objectionable features, at least when used in certain cases. If we
are to take the word of water-meter makers themselves, there is
no meter approaching perfection. Each maker condemns the
266 THAE WA 7TP R S UAE P/L V OAF 7 O WAVS.
productions of every firm but his own, without stint, generally
giving figures in support of his statements
It would appear, at first sight, a very much simpler thing to
design a meter to measure water, at a comparatively high pressure,
than to measure so very light a fluid as coal gas, under a pressure
corresponding to an inch or two of water, but it has not proved so.
Meters may be classified as positive and inferential. In a
positive meter some vessel of known capacity, generally a cylinder,
is filled and emptied as the water passes, and a record is kept of the
filling and emptying. A positive meter is, in fact, a water-motor,
with a counter to keep a record of the number of strokes or revolu-
tions.” In an inferential meter a vane, or fan, is caused to revolve
by the velocity of flow of water. An inferential meter may be said
to be the converse of a screw-propeller, with a counter to keep
a record of the revolutions. It is, in fact, a kind of turbine.
Positive meters of the best designs are very exact in their
measurements, whether the rate of flow be small or large. They
are, however, of comparatively large size, are expensive, and some
of them—some positive meters, not some of the best of them—
have the effect of putting considerable “back pressure * on the
water, that is to say, of reducing the pressure to a very
appreciable extent, and even in some cases of sticking altogether,
when the flow of water is completely stopped.
Inferential meters of the best designs will measure water with
all the degree of exactness that is necessary so long as the flow of
water is not very small. (“All the exactness that is necessary,”
because it seems it is absurd, when the only alternative is no
measurement whatever, to insist on extreme accuracy in the
registration of water meters. If the registration is within 5, or
even 10, per cent. Of the actual consumption it is near enough.)f
* This is not strictly true of the particular positive meter illustrated on p. 268.
In that meter, the travel of the piston, not the number of strokes, is measured.
Thus, even if the stroke varies, the reading is correct ; and it is claimed that the
error is less than 1 per cent., and that this particular meter is more accurate than
any other. The author has certainly not had experience of one more accurate.
# The writer has had a letter from Mr. Kennedy, the inventor of the meter
illustrated on p. 268, objecting to the statement that “if the registration is within
5, or even 10, per cent. of the actual consumption it is near enough.” While
willing to give up the 10 per cent. he cannot help still believing that, for
ordinary metering of domestic consumption, an error of plus or minus—not greater
than 5 per cent.—is of so little consequence, that it is not worth the expenditure
of more than a trifle, in either trouble or money, to get greater accuracy. At the
same time, he admits, of course, that a meter cannot be too accurate ; and he is well
aware that there are cases, other than that under consideration, in which extreme
accuracy is of high importance.
A RAE VAEAV7/OAV OA, WA STE OF WA 7T/EA’. 267
The trouble with inferential meters is that there is always
some small flow of water with which, or with anything less, the
meter registers nothing whatever; and that, with flows not greatly
more than those that will just bring the meter into operation, the
measurement is very inaccurate, the flow indicated being always
less than the actual flow.
Inferential meters can be made to measure, with all the
accuracy that is necessary, the flow of water through a domestic
tap of even small size. It is therefore possible, by the use of
inferential meters, to measure all the water actually used, provided
the constant supply system be adopted in its integrity, without
any cisterns at all in houses, all water being drawn from the
service pipes direct, through taps of such design that it is not
easy to let them “dribble.” A slight continual leakage–really
wasting a large quantity of water—may, however, continue
undetected by an inferential meter. There is also the difficulty
with them that they will not register all the flow of water into
cisterns. If only a moderate quantity of water is drawn from a
Cistern, the ball-valve falls but a very short distance, and the
cistern is filled up merely by a dribble of water. Indeed,
however much water is drawn off, the last part of the operation of
filling up the cistern is by a dribble. Several arrangements have
been worked out whereby, in the case of a cistern, the ballcock
does not act till the water in the cistern is considerably lowered,
when it suddenly opens “full bore,” and discharges full bore till
the cistern is filled up again. The writer is not, however, aware that
these appliances have anywhere been extensively adopted. They
all have the objection of reducing the useful storage capacity of a
cistern, without of necessity reducing the average length of time
that water stagnates in it, and if there is any apology for the
storage of water in cisterns in houses, when the constant system
is adopted, it is that it provides a certain storage of water that
may be useful at the time of an emergency.
Inferential meters are generally compact in form and of
comparatively low cost, and they do not put any appreciable back
pressure on the water unless they are worked beyond their
capacity. In this connection it must, however, be observed that
some makers of meters advertise their sizes as capable of measuring
quantities of water that they are not capable of measuring without
considerably reducing the pressure. This is done to make their
prices compare favourably with those of other makers who are
more scrupulous. º
268 7TA/AE WA 7TAZAZ S OWAE/2/. V. O.A. ZTO WAVS.
Kennedy's patent water meter,
which is illustrated here in
section (Fig. 235), may be taken as typical of positive meters.
It will be seen that it consists essentially of a cylinder and
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Fig. 235.--Kennedy’s patent water meter.
piston. The piston is actuated
by the water, and there is a
train of wheels, with dials
and pointers, that keep a
record of the travel of the
piston, and this travel, for
any given time, multiplied
by the area of the piston, is,
of course, the actual con-
sumption of water. -
The first, or among the
first, inventors of inferential
meters were Messrs. Siemens
and Halske, whose meter in
its most recent form is illus-
trated by Figs. 236 and 237.
The arrows show the direc-
tion in which the water flows.
# The openings B, B, are tan-
§ gential, and the water flow-
ing through them causes the
Vanes to revolve with a
velocity that ought to be pro-
portionate to the discharge
of water—that is so to all
intents and purposes for any
but very small discharges.
The vanes actuate the
spindle C, and this, in its
turn, actuates the train of
wheels at D, which again
actuate pointers, indicating
on a dial the amount of water
that has passed the meter
in a given length of time.
When it is taken into con-
sideration that the drawings are two-fifths of full size, it will be
seen how very compact this meter is.”
* The writer wishes it to be distinctly understood that he does not recommend
the meters he has illustrated and briefly described to the exclusion of others. He

























AAA, VAZAV7/OAW OF WAS 7'E OF WA 7TAZA’. 269
Many are the suggestions that have been made as to the means
of doing away with the difficulties attending the application of the
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Figs. 236, 237.—Siemens and Halske's patent water meter.
domestic meter system, and the objections that have been advanced
against it. Thus, in connection with the statement that selling
water by meter is likely to lead to a stinting in its legitimate
use, it has been suggested that any quantity of water not
has selected these two as typical, and because he believes that each was, of its
kind, the first in the field.




27O 7 A/A WA 7'EA S (VPAZ Y OF TO WAVS.
exceeding that considered essential to health should be sold for
the use of all inhabitants at a comparatively low rate, all used in
excess of this at a higher rate. This suggestion seems a very
reasonable One.
Again, in connection with the high first cost of meters, it has
been suggested that municipalities or companies supplying water
should obtain power to supply water by meter and to charge for
it in proportion to the quantity used, yet should not “meter’ a
whole town, but take advantage of the privilege of selling the
water by meter only in those cases where it is suspected, or
ascertained, that the consumption is much above the average.
Certainly it would be a check on the extravagant consumption of
water, if all consumers knew that, if they were extravagant with
the water, they were liable to have a meter clapped on, and to be
charged according to their consumption at a pretty stiff rate.
The gradual introduction of the domestic meter system in
Berlin, from 1865 to 1885, with the most marked success, gave a
great stimulus to the sale of water in measured quantities.” It is
not, however, to be concluded that, because the system has been
so successful in the case of Berlin, it will of necessity be successful
in all other cases. There are certain circumstances that make the
system particularly applicable in the case of Berlin, the principal
of these being the fact of the existence of the “flat" system of
residence. Families, with their servants, do not, as a rule, live in
separate houses, but live each on a flat, or part of a flat, of a large
house. The consequence is that there is an average of very nearly
seventy people to each house. This means that there are about
ten times as many as is usual, and as Only one-tenth part the
number of meters are necessary, the first cost is not much more
than one-tenth what it would be in most cases.
Whatever may be said on one side or the other, the fact
remains that the general adoption of the sale of water by domestic
meters has greatly increased on the Continent of Europe during
the last few years. To judge by the advertisements in technical
periodicals, the use is increasing rapidly in America too. Domestic
meters appear to have found less favour in England than in most
other countries. *
* See “The Sale of Water by Meter in Berlin,” by Henry Gill, M.I.C.E.,
Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. CVII. Figs. 236 and 237 are taken
from this paper, which, with the discussion and correspondence printed with it,
affords the fullest information that is, at the time of writing, to be had on this
much disputed question of the sale of water by meter, or in accordance with some
empirical standard. .
AAA IV/EAVT/OAV OAF WAS TAE OF WA 7TASA’. 27 I
There are certain circumstances that point to the adoption
of the domestic meter system in particular cases. One is that
already indicated, that is to say the residence, on an average, of an
unusually large number of people in each house.
Again when, on account of the great first cost of waterworks,
or the high cost of working, it is necessary to collect, in one way
or another, a comparatively large sum per head of population—in
other words, if the water is unusually dear—it is evident that the
meter system is more applicable than where water is cheap.
There are cases in which the general adoption of the domestic
meter system is clearly advisable. Thus let us suppose the
case of a town with a limited supply of water, the consumption
increasing partly on account of increase of population, but un-
doubtedly also partly on account of the extravagant use, or the
misuse, of water, not to mention leakage; and let us further
suppose that the price of increasing the supply would be greatly
more than the price of “metering” the town—or that, perhaps, it
is prohibitive altogether : there can be no doubt that the general
introduction of domestic meters would be the best step to take.
The reason is that, by this means, the consumption can be reduced
to a lower point than by any other means.
CHAPTER XXII.
VARIOUS APPLIANCES USED IN CONNECTION WITH WATERworks.
MANY of the most important appliances used in connection
with waterworks—such as fire-hydrants, meters, and the like—
have already been incidentally described at sufficient length, but
there are others which have merely been mentioned or have not
been mentioned at all. It seems necessary to give some descrip-
tion of the most important of them here.
Sluice Valves.—If number and first cost be a criterion,
sluice valves—or, as they are commonly called in America,
“gates "-must be considered as the most important subsidiary
appliance that is used in connection with waterworks, except where
the domestic meter system is introduced for all the houses, when
the meters have the honourable position of being first in the
matter of number and cost. The necessary number of sluice
valves is particularly great where the interlacing system is
adopted. &
The general object in the use of sluice valves has been pretty
fully described in the chapter on “Distribution Systems,” and
practice has resulted in the evolution of a form of sluice valve
that is not much departed from by different designers or makers.
As long as a sluice valve fulfils certain conditions it is suited
to its purpose. Thus it must not, when open, obstruct the flow
of water in any way. This involves that, when open, it should
leave a clear way of the full area of the pipe. Not only this, but
sharp bends should be avoided, although the ill effects of these
have, the writer thinks, been over-estimated. This puts the screw-
down stop-valve type out of the question, and the type now
universally adopted is the true sluice valve, in which a gate across
the full bore of the water closes the valve, the gate being com-
pletely withdrawn from the bore of the pipe into a recess on
opening the valve.
A PAX/L/AAVCAES OWSAE/O / W PVA TE/K V/O/C A.S. 273
Sluice valves should be perfectly watertight when they are
closed, and, moreover, should not be liable to “stick" if left for
an indefinite length of time either open or closed. This involves
the necessity of having at least one of every two parts that rub,
of brass or gun-metal. That is to say, all rubbing parts must
either be “brass to brass,” or “brass to iron.” “Iron to iron "
is not permissible, as the result would probably be fast sticking
through rusting up. The valve faces, and the seats on which these
bear, should both be of gun-metal. The spindle also should be of
gun-metal, although it is sometimes made of iron. In either case
it should work in gun-metal bushes or liners.
Figs. 238 and 239 (Plate XLV.) illustrate a good type of
sluice valve. ar
There is often much difficulty in opening very large sluice
ſº
Figs. 240, 241.-Gear for opening sluice valves.
valves, entirely apart from any actual “sticking.” This is especially
So where the pressure is high, the friction caused by this pressure
on the back of the slide being such that the force needed to open
the valve, to such an extent that the difference of pressure on the
two sides of the slide is nearly equalized, is very great.
Several arrangements have been devised for getting over this
difficulty. In one of the neatest, a comparatively small slide works.
On the back of the large slide : the diameter of the small slide may,
for example, be only one-third that of the pipe. The action is as
follows:–On screwing the valve spindle to the right—in the direc-
T

2 74. THE WATER SUPPL Y OF To WWS.
tion of the hands of a watch—the first effect is to open the small
valve. Water flows through the aperture thus made with great
velocity, not more than a few pounds of head at the most being,
however, needed to produce this velocity. This few pounds of
difference in pressure between the one side and the other of the
great valve is not sufficient to cause much friction, and the effect
of continuing to turn the spindle is to open the great valve.
Somewhat less neat, but nearly as effective, is the plan of
having a by-pass with sluice valve, say one-third the diameter of
the great valve. The small
sluice valve is opened first, the
great one afterwards. -
An arrangement that is
more common than either of
these is to apply the force
necessary to open the great
valve through certain gearing,
giving a man enough purchase
to move it in spite of the pres-
sure on the back. Such gear
is illustrated in Figs. 240 and
241. Unless the water pressure
is inconsiderable, such gear as
this is advisable for all sizes of
Fig. 242. –Air valve for waterpipe. sluice valves above about 2 feet
in diameter. For extraordi-
narily large valves, or even for such as are not extraordinarily
large but have to work with an unusually high pressure, even
more powerful gearing than that illustrated may be needed.
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Air Valves.—At any place where a pipe rises over any
eminence, however slight, air is liable to accumulate, and to inter-
fere seriously with the flow of water. It is customary, especially
on long lengths of pipe where such eminences occur, to fix an
air valve—a simple automatic device whereby any air accumulating
is allowed to escape.
All air valves are on the same principle. One which is
illustrated here (Fig. 242) barely needs description. It will be seen
that the whole arrangement consists of a ball in a cast-iron casing.
The ball is made of some material lighter than water, and floats (as
shown in dotted lines) as long as there is no air in the pipe, bear-
ing against a rubber sheet or ring above it, and closing a small











- PLATE XLV.
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A PP/L/AAVCAES USA; D /AW WA 7TA: A WOAZ / S. 275
hole that can barely be seen in the cut. If any air accumulates in
the pipe, it rises to the highest place to which it can get access—
that is to say, to the casing holding the ball. The ball has now no
longer any support and falls, for the area of the hole is so small
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Figs. 243, 244, 245.—Spring and screw-down safety valve. Scale, 1% in. to 1 ft.
that the pressure of the air will not sustain the ball. When the
ball falls, the air is forced through the small hole till the water
rises again and once more floats the ball and closes the opening.
Safety Valves.—“Ramming,” as a danger in connection with
the flow of water in pipes, has already been mentioned (p. 231).
It is particularly likely to show itself in the case of long pipes, with






























































T 2
276 T//E JAVA 7TAZA' S UA’/2/L Y OA 7TO WAVS.
water running at any high velocity, if there is a reduction at all
sudden in the velocity. As a safeguard against accidents by
ramming, it is advisable to fix a safety valve at the lower end
of any pipe where it is expected that the evil results of ramming
may show themselves.
It is to be observed that a “ dead-weight º' safety valve is
objectionable, as the inertia of the dead weight may allow of
just as severe ramming as if there were no safety valve at all.
There is not the same objection to a spring, and springs with
screw-down arrangements are often used (Figs. 243, 244, 245).
Some, however, like the idea of the “posi-
tiveness" of a weight, and it is possible to
get the advantages of both a spring and a
weight, by compressing the spring with the
weight. In case of ramming, the spring is
first compressed, then raises the weight.
(Such a valve is illustrated in Fig. 243.)
A safety valve to be of real service
must be of large size, and there is the
difficulty, with a valve of the form shown,
that, especially in the case of pressures at
all high, the springs must be very strong.
Fig. 246 shows a large safety valve
designed by the writer and Mr. Hasegawa,
in which these difficulties are overcome.
It is intended for attachment to the lower
Fig. 246.-Large safety valve end of a 20-inch main, several miles long,
for use on water mains. in which the velocity will be considerable,
to be used in connection with the water-
works of Kobe, Japan. The arrangement consists of a balanced
valve connected with a piston of considerably smaller area than
either of the halves of the valve, actuating the balance valve in case
the water pressure becomes great enough to lift the weights shown.
It is to be observed that such a valve would probably not be
quite watertight. In the position in which it is to be fixed, at the
lower end of a long pipe constantly discharging into a filter well,
some leakage is of no consequence. Such leakage has simply to
be carried to the filtering well.
Stand-Posts, Drinking Fountains, &c.—Drinking foun-
tains in public places, for man and cattle, are familiar objects to
all, and it would be superfluous to describe them here.

A PP/L/AAVCAES USA; D /AW WA 7T/E/C WOAA S. 277
Stand-posts, or draw-off posts, are sometimes largely used in
the poorer districts of towns to enable people who are too poor to
have water carried into their houses to draw the supply they
want. These people are commonly taxed a small sum for the
privilege of drawing as much water as they need. As the water
has all to be carried away from the stand-posts by hand, there is
not likely to be any great waste. Very often
pillar hydrants are used as draw-off posts, an
additional small valve being attached; or rather,
stand-posts perform the functions of both pillar º º
hydrants and draw-off posts. If the catalogue of §º
any maker of waterworks fittings be consulted, a
number of designs for draw-off pillars will be %
found. -
The stand-pillar shown in Fig. 247 is from
the catalogue of Messrs. J. Blakeborough and
Sons, Tondon. It has the advantage of being very
cheap. It is not, however, as some more expen-
sive posts are, fitted with a “self-closing * valve.
The object of the self-closing valve is, of course,
to prevent waste by leaving the valve open after
the drawing of water so that there is a con-
tinuous flow. Such self-closing valves are cer-
tainly an advantage, but it will be seen that they
are not as essential as might at first sight appear,
if it is considered that stand-posts are generally
purposely placed in somewhat conspicuous posi-
tions, and that a continuous flow is nearly sure f
to be very quickly noticed. *=
Connection of Service Pipes with Mains.— ... . .
g e e e te Fig. 247 — Blake-
Service pipes—pipes, that is, leading water from Forough's stand-
the mains of waterworks into houses—are most Piº
commonly made of lead, spite of much that has been
said and written about the possibility of lead poisoning from the
use of such pipes. It is true that there are a few waters—very
soft, and generally in other respects very pure—that have a con-
tinuous solvent action on lead,” and that it is dangerous, in the
case of such waters, to use lead pipes or lead-lined cisterns. Such
waters are, however, very exceptional. The writer has not actually
come across an instance of one. In nearly all cases the effect

* See footnote to p. 15.
278 THE WA TER SUPPL Y OF TO WAVS.
of the water is quickly to cover the lead with a thin film of an
insoluble salt of lead, after which all further action ceases.
The great durability of lead, the ease with which it may be
handled, and especially the facility there is, in the case of pipes,
of bending it cold, make it commonly preferred for service pipes,
although wrought iron is used to some extent (the writer believes)
—more in America than in other countries.
To make a connection between a cast-iron main and a service
pipe of lead, a ferrule of brass is used. A hole is bored in the
east-iron pipe, and this hole is either “ tapered '' or screwed,
according to the kind of ferrule that is to be used. Tapered
ferrules are shown in the Figs. 248,249. They are simply hammered
into a coned hole in the cast-iron pipe.
- Şks ſº
Rs
Figs. 248, 249.--Tapered ferrules Figs. 250, 251.—Screwed ferrules
for connecting waterpipes. for connecting waterpipes.
Screwed ferrules are illustrated in Figs. 250 and 251. They
are much to be preferred to tapered ferrules. In hammering a
tapered ferrule into a pipe, there is always the possibility of split-
ting the latter, especially if it is thin. Moreover, if the water
pressure be high, there is the chance that the ferrule will be driven
out, though it must be admitted that such a thing very seldom
takes place unless some other force be applied besides that of
the water pressure. Even a slight tapping with a light hammer
will, however, sometimes loosen a taper ferrule, when out it goes
with the water pressure. It is conceivable that the vibration
produced by heavy traffic overhead may act in the same way



A PP/L/AAWCES US ED /AV WA 7TP R WOAA S. 279
at times. In any case the screwed ferrule is to be preferred, and
the difference in price is not great.
The ferrules illustrated are generally sent out ready “tinned,”
so that a lead pipe can quickly be attached to them by a wiped
joint.
There are certain advantages in a ferrule, or coupling, that does
not involve a soldered joint. These advantages will be particu-
larly felt in remote countries,
where it is difficult to get the
services of skilled plumbers.
|Fig. 252 illustrates such a
ferrule or coupling. It scarcely
needs explanation. By coning
out the end of the lead pipe a
little, so as to give it the shape
of a trumpet-mouth, and screw-
ing home the nut, a watertight O º - - - - -
e e 252. –Screwed ferrule attached
joint at once results. Some- to waterpipe.
times “screw-down " or “plug’
ferrules are used. These form, in fact, a combination of a ferrule
and a stopcock. One of the many forms of these is illustrated in
connection with a pipe-tapping tool on the next page.
Wrought-iron pipes may be screwed directly into the mains,
though it would be better to have a brass coupling screwed at one
end to enter the cast-iron pipe, at the other to receive either a
coupling, a nipple, or the screwed end of a pipe.
Boring and Tapping Pipes under Pressure.—Naturally
an attempt will be made, as waterworks come near to completion,
to see that there is a ferrule inserted at every place where a service
pipe is likely to be wanted before the pressure is finally turned
On ; but it must often happen that after a time the need for further
connection of service pipes with the mains occurs. With the
intermittent system there is no difficulty. The pipe is bored
and tapped, and the ferrule inserted during the hours that
the water is “off.” Even with the constant system it is a
common custom to turn the water off a certain district during the
Small hours of the morning, to permit of the making of a con-
nection, but this is a custom by no means to be encouraged, as
will be understood if the possibility of the occurrence of a fire
be taken into consideration.
The undesirability of shutting the water off a whole district to

28O THE WA 7TAZA' S Ü/2/2/. Y O AE 7TO WAVS.
permit of the making of a single house connection has resulted in
the invention of various ingenious machines, whereby it is possible,
whilst a pipe is under pressure, to bore it, tap the hole, and screw
in a ferrule. One such is illustrated here (Figs. 253, 254, 255),
which will be readily understood with only a very short explana-
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Figs. 253, 254, 255.-Gear for connecting pipes to mains.
tion. It will be seen at once how, by the aid of the chain, bolts,
and nuts, the whole gear can be attached to a main where a
connection has to be made. The packing-piece A has to be
changed for different diameters of pipe. The rest of the gear
does equally well for all diameters of pipe.
The slide B, it should be understood, really forms a sluice valve,









A PAE//A AVC/ES OS/3/) /AW WA 7TA: A WOAZ / S. 28 I
by means of which, after the hole has been bored, water can be
shut off from the upper part of the apparatus.
The spindle C carries a combined drill and tap to be worked by
the ratchet at D. Cup leathers prevent water from escaping
around the sides of this spindle. The pipe is, of course, first
drilled, then tapped. After this the drill and tap are withdrawn
to such a height that the slide B can be closed, when the spindle
bearing them is withdrawn altogether. It is then replaced by the
spindle E,” by means of which the lower half of the patent stop
valve ferrule can be screwed into the cast-iron pipe.
This ferrule is illustrated in Figs. 256 and 257. The plug A, when
it is screwed down, closes the passage from B to C ; when it is raised,
it leaves that passage open. At the time that the lower part of
the ferrule is screwed into the pipe the plug A is screwed home.
D
Figs. 256, 257.—Patent stop-valve ferrule.
The whole of the gear may now be removed, and the upper half
of the ferrule may be screwed to the lower half.
The lead pipe is afterwards connected to C, and at any time the
plug A is screwed upwards till it reaches the position seen on the
left-hand side cut, when the passage from the main to the service
pipe is clear. A cap, D, serves to prevent the possibility of a slight
continuous leakage past the screw of the plug. If it is necessary
to shut off the water from the service pipe at any time the plug
can be screwed down again.
The gear here described is that known as Morris's apparatus,
manufactured by Messrs. J. Stone & Co., of London. It is
certainly about the best of several gears all having the same
object. The only objection that there can be to it is that the
combined drill and tap is an expensive tool liable to be broken just
below the tap in careless hands. In another apparatus, of which
* By a mistake in the drawings, the spindles C and E are shown of different
diameters. They are, of course, of the same diameter.

282 TA/A WA 7TEA S (JAA/L V OA 7'O WAVS.
the writer has not drawings by him, there are three separate
spindles, one holding a drill, the next a tap, and the third the
ferrule. The whole gear slides on a saddle in the direction of
the axis of the main, and thus the drill first, then the tap, and
finally the ferrule, are brought over the same point, and are
actuated each by its special spindle. The difficulty of the
combined tool is thus overcome, but it is naturally at a sacrifice
in the matter of the portability of the gear.
In this chapter there have been described only a few out of
almost innumerable appliances that have been specially designed
in connection with waterworks. They are (the writer thinks)
the most important. To describe all would be an interminable
work. Any engineer who takes up waterworks practice will
naturally provide himself with a collection of the catalogues of the
well-known manufacturers whose specialty it is to provide fittings
for waterworks, and from these he will get a very good idea of the
numerous minor fittings. -
A PIPE NIDIX I.
—Q-
CoNSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE PROBABLE EFFECTS OF EARTH-
QUAKES ON WATERWORKS, AND THE SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS TO
BE TAKEN IN EARTHQUAKE Count RIES. By PROFESSOR: JoHN
MILNE, F.R.S.
Prefatory Note.—In different parts of this volume, principally
in footnotes, will be found brief references to the effects of earth-
quakes on waterworks, but they are the merest references. Indeed,
the writer does not know of any book or paper treating specially on
this subject. -
It is probably not too much to say that the greater part of all that
is scientifically known about earthquake motion and its effects has
come from Japan; and there is not much doubt that as that country is
rapidly adopting modern waterworks there will be, before long, prac-
tical examples of the effects of earthquakes on waterworks that will
teach much to engineers as to the proper construction of such works.
in countries liable to earthquake shock ; but in the meantime it is
possible only to make deductions from theoretical reasoning and from
the effects of earthquake on engineering structures generally.
It need scarcely be said that there is no man better able to
make deductions of the kind referred to than Professor John Milne, as
no man has a more thorough knowledge of the subject. I therefore
consider it a matter of congratulation that Mr. Milne has acceded
to my request that he write this Appendix, which will be found
interesting and instructive to all engineers—not only to those who
are specially engaged with waterworks.
W. R. BURTON.
Although an engineer of waterworks, when laying pipes, building
reservoirs, or erecting water towers, is carrying out work peculiar to his
own profession, the principles that should guide him so that the effects
due to earthquakes may be minimised are practically the same as those
284 THE WA 7 ER SUPPL Y OF TOWNS.
that have been laid down for the guidance of engineering work in
general. * *
The first point to which an engineer's attention may be directed,
and a point that cannot be too strongly emphasized, is the selection
of a site for the work to be carried out, where experience or experi-
ment shows that the least quantity of motion is likely to be met
with.
The history of all great earthquakes—as, for example, that of
Lisbon in 1755—has shown that certain districts have suffered severely
whilst neighbouring districts have only suffered partially. One general
rule is, that buildings founded upon hard material, which is generally
the high ground, suffer less than those that are founded on soft, which
is generally the low ground. The difference in motion that is ex-
perienced on hard ground, as compared with that experienced on soft,
has very often been absolutely measured by seismographs, a fact
that indicates the possibility of a seismic survey. Even within a
Small area, where to the eye the ground will appear to be uniform in
character, it has been repeatedly shown that one part of it suffers
more motion than another.
On wet and swampy ground, although the period of motion may
be long, the amplitude is usually so great that such ground is unsafe.
Steep sloping ground is also bad, soft material often sliding down
in consequence of the shaking. The edges of cliffs, scarps, and river
banks are also dangerous sites, these forming free surfaces that swing
back and forth through a range of motion so great that their outer
faces are often completely detached from what is behind them.
For example, it would be unwise either to erect buildings or to
lay a line of pipes close to and parallel with the edges of a river with
steep banks, whereas a hundred yards back from these banks the
situation might be comparatively safe.
The same remark applies to a sunk reservoir ; for in the case of
such a reservoir of large area, without an arched roof–such as a
settling reservoir—it should be borne in mind that the retaining walls
or sloping sides act as free surfaces with regard to earthquakes,
especially when the reservoir is nearly or quite empty.
That great advantages can be gained by selecting a proper site is
indicated by the fact that, in building regulations for districts where
earthquakes are frequent—as, for example, in Manilla and Ischia
special references are made to the methods of founding on soft ground,
and, in many cases, certain areas have been marked off as unsuitable
for buildings of any description.
In making foundations, experiment and experience have shown
AAEA, CA UTVOAWS AGA/AWS 7 AEA A 7TP/O UA KAES. 285.
that great advantages result from allowing the building to rise from
a basement with an open area surrounding it, the motion at a distance,
removed from the origin of a disturbance, being not unlike that of
water-waves, the amplitude of motion of which is less beneath the
surface than it is on the surface.
Regulations in certain parts of Italy respecting buildings require
that, when they are erected on soft ground, the foundations should
consist of a platform of masonry or concrete, to extend from 3 feet
2 inches to 4 feet 9 inches in every direction beyond the base of the
building, the platform itself being, for a one-story building, 2-3 feet
thick, and for a two-story building, 3.91 feet thick.
In Japan several buildings have been erected on what are called
“free foundations,” that is to say the buildings are carried on a layer
of shot, or iron balls. On account of the movement experienced at
the time of high winds, and also for other reasons, such construction
is not to be recommended.
Another principle of great importance which is not to be neglected
when designing high structures is that the stresses arising out of
earthquake motion, that have to be contended against, are to a large
extent applied horizontally. For example, ordinary archwork is
condemned in Italy, Manilla, and other places where earthquakes
are frequent, as being unsafe. In Ischia it is allowed underground,
where the motion is less than on the surface ; even in this case it is
specified that the arches have a rise of one-third of their span, and
that the minimum thickness at the crown shall be '82 foot (one brick)
thick. The application of these figures to the construction of reservoirs.
with arched roofs will readily be understood.
In making dams for impounding reservoirs, it must not be for-
gotten that these may be subjected to a horizontal shaking, with the
result, if they are made of loose material, that this may be disinte-
grated much in the same way as a pile of sand would be on a shaking
table. For this reason it is better, in earthquake countries, to follow
the English rather than the American practice in designing dams for
impounding reservoirs. In connection with these dams it must be
remembered that they may possibly be topped by waves caused by
the earthquake motion. This is a strong argument for the adoption
of a dwarf wall as a “breakwater ’’ along the top of an earthwork
dam in an earthquake country. It might be further advisable to
pitch with stones the top and lower slope of the dam, as well as
the upper slope, so that if it were merely a case of topping with
a few waves in succession, there would not be the danger of cutting
away of the earthwork that there would be without the pitching.
286 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS.
In the construction of walls, whether for a building or for a
water tower, we should remember that they should be both light
and strong. The opinion sometimes held, that weight in itself
actually gives strength, holding down a building, so to speak, is a
complete delusion. The very contrary is true. Weight, or mass, in
itself is a cause of weakness only. Lightness may be gained by the
use of hollow bricks, strength by the use of good cement mortar, a
cement joint having a tensile strength of perhaps 100 lbs. or more to
the square inch, whilst a joint made with bad lime mortar may not
have a tensile strength greater than 4 or 5 lbs. to the square inch.
The height to which walls are allowed to be carried in the Island
of Ischia, for two-storied buildings, is 32.8 feet. Walls of 13 feet
high, constructed of simple masonry, must have a thickness of not
less than 2-3 feet.
The height to which an ordinary wall of good thickness can be
carried with safety, depends upon the material of which it is con-
structed, and the weight of the top load it has to carry. An ordinary
wall of uniform section, when moved backwards and forwards with
sufficient rapidity, will finally snap at its base. Therefore it would
seem that the strength of a wall Ought to decrease from its base
upwards. -
As the result of experiments made in Japan, an outline for a
column of square section may be obtained from the following
formula:—
a 10 % Flº.
(ſ. 20)
7
Where
a = half the horizontal dimension of any given section measured in
inches whose distance from the top is / ;
10 = the weight of a cubic inch of building material in lbs. (if brick
is the material, it equals :0608);
F = the force of cohesion, or the force upon 1 Square inch of surface,
which, when suddenly applied, produces fracture (in other words,
the tensile strength per square inch when the force is applied
suddenly); -
g = the acceleration due to gravity, in millimetres, which may be
taken at 96.60;
a = the greatest acceleration per second, per second, measured in
millimetres, which the structure may have to resist.
As an illustration, suppose
a = 1,000 millimetres per second, per second;
F = 5 lbs. per square inch.
Then, taking our units in inches, y' = 8,1002. The outline of
such a figure is given in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 258).
Brick piers of this form, some of which are 110 feet high, were
A RAE CA UTVOAVS A GA/AWS 7 FAA' THQ C/AA E.S. 287
constructed by Mr. C. A. W. Pownell, M.Inst.C.E., for the railway
over the Usui Pass in Japan.
If the section be rectangular, and the
to the direction of motion be constant, as
in a wall, then—
(, 20
The equation gives a wall of Zero
thickness at the top—a thing that, of
course, does not occur in practice. In
the actual designing of walls according to
this principle, the mean thickness—say
the length of one brick—may be added
to the hypothetical section got by the
equation, or a sufficient length of the
impractically thin top part of the section
for a higher wall got by the equation
may simply be cut off. In either case
the section will be as near the theoreti-
cally correct one as practice demands.
On the occasion of the great earth-
quake of Japan, on October 28th, 1891,
which overturned railway bridges and engi-
neering structures generally, the greatest
acceleration calculated was about 4,000
millimetres per second, per second, or say
about 13 feet—in most cases it ran
between 5 and 10 feet—per second, per
Second. These accelerations mean the
same as a jerk such as would be produced
if a building were standing on a truck,
which began to move with velocities equal
to the above numbers; or if, moving with
these velocities, it was suddenly stopped.
The third general principle not to be
forgotten is to keep centres of inertia as
dimension perpendicular

W
Fig. 258.-Diagram illustrating
formula for strength of wall.
low as possible. For example, the upper parts of walls should carry
only very light roofs, or else the roof should be free to move upon
the wall. Water towers are about the worst structures that can be
erected in earthquake countries. In the earthquake of 1891 in
Japan, even the small water tanks which supply railway engines at
288 TA/AE WA 7TEA S UAEA/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
stations were entirely destroyed on account of the inertia of their
upper parts.
With regard to roofs and floors, all tie beams should extend at
least ºrds into the thickness of the wall.
In erecting any structure, it must be remembered that its
different parts, if not strongly tied together, will tend to vibrate in
different periods, and in consequence of this want of synchronism
in their motion they will be mutually destructive. For example, a
brick chimney and a wooden building, if entirely free from each
other, may stand with safety, but directly they come in contact, the
wooden building almost invariably cuts the chimney in two and
causes its collapse. ..
In putting up a building, either of two general principles may be
followed. One is to make the structure light and flexible, like a
wicker basket that may be shaken without damage ; another is to
make it strong and rigid, but at the same time also as light as
possible. Here we approximate to a steel box, which will also resist
considerable motion without suffering damage. One is cheap, but
fragile and liable to decay and to destruction by fire ; whilst the other
one is expensive but lasting.
Perhaps the most important thing is to use only good materials,
particularly good cement.”
* The subject of the effects of earthquakes on engineering structures in general,
and of the steps to be taken to minimise those effects, has been treated by the writer
(John Milne) in vol. XIV. of the Transactions of the Seismological Society of
Japan, and in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. LXXIII.,
pp. 278 et seq.
A PPE N ID IX II.
ON SAND DUNES AND DUNE SAND As A Source: OF WATER.
- SUPPLY. By JoHN DE RIJKE, C.E.
Prefatory Note.—My friend and colleague Mr. John de Rijke has.
been kind enough to write for me the following Appendix on Sand
Dunes as a Source of Water Supply, a subject whereon he is most
thoroughly qualified to write. Himself a native of Holland—the
land of sand dunes—he has had a wide experience in all branches of
Hydraulic Engineering, and he has made a special study of dune
sand as a source of water supply. As in the case of Professor Milne
(see the preceding Appendix), it is to me a matter of great gratifica-
tion that I am enabled to supplement my own work with a contri-
bution of so much interest and value from the pen of Mr. de Rijke.
I may mention that some experience that I have had in sand
dunes as a source of water supply in Japan, since the first edition of
this book was written, confirms what Mr. de Rijke writes.
- W. K. BURTON.
There are sea dunes, land dunes, and also river dunes.” The
most common are sea dunes, and they are found in almost all.
countries having sea-boards. They are elevated and undulated Sand
ridges, more or less mobile, and drifting when strong winds are
prevailing ; sometimes they are shifting. In many cases the dunes.
have been made more mobile, and even brought about, by mankind.
Dr. Winkler says:–Strabo, Plinius, and other Roman writers.
had no name for dunes. The old German name, Düne, was not in
use before the Middle Ages, and then meant such sandhills as caused
much harm by drift. Dr. Westerhoff speaks of an old record in
Latin, from the year 839, in which the word dunos is mentioned.
He thinks Duin, pr. Duinen (modern Dutch), comes from the old
* Dune formation in a river in Japan may be seen in the Kisogawa, 4 ri
below the Takaido railway bridge. --
U
29O 7A/E WA 7TA: A S (VPA/ Y OF 7TO WAVS.
Friesic word dinen – to grow thicker or higher, to swell (dimeren
means to dine).
When the terms high and low sea dunes are used, it means that
the former are elevated 20 m. or more above the sea.
The Dunes of Holland as a Source of Water Supply.
—Since the year 1854 the city of Amsterdam has been supplied with
drinking water drawn from the dunes near Haarlem, about 20 km.
distant. Before that, only river water from the Amstel and from the
river Vecht was used.
Dune water is generally considered much more wholesome than
river water. Since the year 1888, when the population of Amsterdam
had much increased, dune water has been supplied for ordinary
domestic use with a minimum pressure of 20 m. ; other works, for
public service, industries, &c., being supplied with water from the
river Vecht. The dune waterworks are for Haarlem as well as for
Amsterdam. In 1889 the supply of dune water to the two towns
was about 20,000 m.” minimum, and 24,000 m.” maximum per day.
The Vecht waterworks, for Amsterdam only, and having there a
pressure of 25 m., are constructed for an ultimate supply of 40,000 m.”
per day. This water has been used as drinking water from the
sixteenth century up to 1854, and was considered reasonably whole-
some till the people became accustomed to drink dune water, since
which time that from the river Vecht is not found in a single house.
The water is drawn from the dunes at Haarlem by a system of
open canals or trenches. The total length of these canals—main
canal and branches—was in 1889 24.2 km. ; thus the maximum
quantity of water drawn from the sands and led to the pumping
station by each one-metre length of canal was about one cubic metre,
and the minimum about 0-300 cubic metre. The canals, of course,
run through the lowest places—i.e., through the valleys found between
the dune ridges. Generally there is found one sea ridge, and one,
two, or more land ridges, of sand, all running about parallel to the
coast line.
The breadth of the dunes at Haarlem is about 3 km., and the
highest of the Sandhills there 60 m. above the sea level. The average
height of the ridges along the whole coast of North and South Holland
is not quite 10 m. At Haarlem the dunes are more or less overgrown
with wood or covered with “helm ’’ or “marram” (Arundo arenaria);
otherwise the system of draining the sands with open canals would
be very difficult, and protection against sand drift very expensive.
The canals have a bottom width of about 2 m., and slopes of from
SAAV/O /O UAVAES AS A SOURCE OF S Ü/2A/L Y. 29 I
1% to 2 in I vertical, or slopes of about 3:1, including the berms.
The inclination is small, not more than 0.0002, and the velocity of
the stream not over 0:20 m. per second. The area of drainage of a
canal section depends on the difference in height of the water in the
canal and that of the sand surface on either side.
All the water held by the sands tends to move canalward, down
to a line inclining about 1 : 200 from the water surface across.
The limit of drainage is often about 400 m. from the canal, the
distance apart of the branches about from 800 to 1,000 m.
There is a great advantage in dividing the main canal of the
drain system into sections separated by single sluices. The sluice
being closed, the water above it will rise, and, consequently, the
motion canalward will decrease much or stop altogether. .
In very wet seasons only the lower half of the system may thus
be used, and in the upper half large quantities of water may be
stored in the sands, to be available in dry seasons when One sluice
after the other is opened.
The annual rainfall on the prise dean of Haarlem is about
0-60 m. ; the quantity of water pumped up and led away is more
than half of this.
A remarkable fact, fully demonstrated, but not completely
explained, is that a greater quantity of water may occasionally be
drawn from sand dunes than that given by the area × the precipita-
tion as recorded by a rain-gauge. It would appear that the sand has
the property of extracting moisture from the air—moisture that does
not fall in the form of rain, and that is not attracted by the material
of which the receiving surface of a rain-gauge is made.
Hydrographical Condition of the Dunes of Holland.
—The physical condition of the dune grounds is such that the rain-
water not immediately evaporating drains away subterraneously.
In most places the slopes of the undulating ground would afford a
strong surface drainage, were it not that the pores in the dune sand
present to the water a shorter way of gravitation. These pores, or
interstices, are, in the first place, the direct stores for the rainfall.
Being connected with each other, the water sinks down through them
deeper and deeper into the sands until arrested by more solid layers,
or by the ground water underneath. When digging the canal of
Kortsvijh a stratum of solid clay was found; in other places closely
pressed layers of peat have been found underneath the dunes. Such
layers often appear during ebb-tide along the sea-beach.
The draining capacity of the sand is the greater as the sand
U 2
292 - TA/A WA 7TP R S UAE P/L Y OF 7'O WAVS.
grains are larger ; and on account of this the velocity of the water in
sinking downward will be different in different places of the dunes.
For instance, in the fine sand near Harzen the velocity will be less
than in coarser sand found in other places.
It has been found that generally dune sand is finer than other
Sands, and that drifting top layers are the finest. It follows that the
motion of the water in dunes is slower than in other sandhills, and
that, other conditions being equal, the velocity is greater in the solid
body of a dune than in the drifting upper layers.
The Water in the Dunes in relation to the Physical
Nature of the Sand.—The following is from Dr. Blink's “Neder-
land en Lijne Cervoners and its Inhabitants,” vol. II., pp. 548, 550
(Amsterdam : Van Looy and Gerlings, 1892):–
“The dunes, out of which the water (for the Amsterdam and
Haarlem drinking supply) is drawn, consist of sand from the surface
of the hills down to some depth below the sea level. Exceptions
here and there are more or less isolated layers of peat, clay, &c.,
mixed with sand. About 94 per cent. of the dune sands are grains
of a smaller diameter than 0-5 mm. They are so small that they
can be examined only by means of a lens.
“The situation of the sand grains with respect to each other may
be very unequal in different spots, but in every case open spaces are
left between them, and these form a continued network of channels
(or veins), each having numerous branches. In a dry state these
channels are filled with air ; in a damp state they are partly, and in
a wet state completely, filled with water. Thus only a part of a
certain quantity of sand is solid matter; another part is either air or
water. The volume of the latter, the pores, will be smaller according
as Sand grains lay closer together.
“Supposing the sand grains to be globular balls, or shot, of an
equal diameter, the volume of the pores can be calculated by the
closest and by the loosest grouping of the balls. In the closest
position the space between is 26 per cent. of the mass; in the loosest
47 per cent. This percentage is the same for smaller and larger
globes; each space is larger as the diameter of the balls is greater,
but the aggregate space in a heap is the same, for instance, for
diameters of 1 and of 10 mm. In every case a considerable volume
of air is closed up in a mass of granular matter.
“According to experiments the volume of the pores in a mass of
dune Sand is on an average 34°6 per cent. Because of the pores
the dune sand is accessible to water. The water, however, moves
SAND DUAVES AS A SOURCE OF SUPPZ V. 293
through the pores with but a very small velocity. For sand some-
what coarser than dune sand, and containing 1 in 100 of water, this
velocity is given as 0-000008 m. By experiments with saturated
dune sand in a tube 80 cm. long, and with a head of water of 2.5 m.,
the velocity was 0-00135 m. per second. By their fineness these
pores work, to a certain degree, as capillary vessels. A column of dry
sand being kept wet at the bottom, the water will be drawn upward
between the grains. From a series of experiments made in various
ways it has been shown that in dry sand free from Organic matter,
the water is sucked up to a height of from 30 to 32 cm. above the
level of the water.
“In layers of sand above the water level the moistening by
capillarity decreases gradually upward to that which remains perfectly
dry, and this will be higher than 32 cm. above the water level. In
other earth matter different from dune Sand, the capillary action
will be, of course, not the same.
“When pouring water into a vessel filled with sand and open
below, not all the water will run through ; a certain percentage of it
will be retained in the sand. This will be the case even when the
condition for running through is the most favourable—for instance, by
adding pressure above or by sucking the water below. The quantity
of water held by the sand in this way is not the same in different
kinds of matter; it is in proportion to the width of the pores and not
to the volume of the pores in a mass, the same as the capillary
absorption. Thus in gravel the water remaining would be but 3
or, at most, 4 per cent., whilst in fine-grained dune sand it would be
10 or 11 per cent. of the Sand mass. - --
“For the present, disregarding evaporation, we find that dune sand,
once saturated, is kept moist at every height above that effected by
capillary absorption from the ground water, and that the quantity of
water held is from 6 to 10 per cent. Of the sand volume.
“There is no doubt that the dune sand above the capillary layer
contains a quantity of water pretty nearly constant, and that generally
this quantity does not depend on the level of the ground water
underneath. We may further suppose that the water quantity in
these upper layers is the same, whether the ground water level is at
a depth of one or ten metres below the sand surface.
“Water falling on the surface of the dunes will replace downward
that already present, or held, in the Sand ; the quantity of water
above that of the holding power of the Sand will go down to raise the
ground water level.
“The volume of water in different layers may be sometimes, and to
294 TAZAZ VVA 7TP R S ÜA/2/L V OA” 7TO WAVS.
some degree, irregular, according to the weather, and according to the
nature of the sand ; but, on the whole, the quantity held in the sand
layers above the capillary zone is but little variable.
“From experiments made in drying up sand it appears that,
without extraordinary atmospherical conditions—the sand not being
artificially made loose—the effect of evaporation on the water
capacity of the dunes is not felt to any great depth, probably not
deeper, or not as deep as the water is sucked up into the sand by
capillarity. A drying up of deeper sand layers is commonly owing
to the dunes being overgrown ; it may be more or less according
to the density and the nature of the woods or herbs, which all draw
more or less water from the sand.
“Not regarding local influences, dunes can be divided into four
strata or vertical zones, all acting differently with respect to bearing
water. The lowest, more or less deep in different places, is the
ground water zone, in which all the pores of the sand (+ 37 per cent.
of the mass) are filled with water. By drawing water from this
zone the water level will sink. Supposing the subsequent holding
capacity of the sand to be 10 per cent., the water level will sink
one metre, after drawing 270 litres per square metre.
“The next above is a sand layer of some 30 to 40 cm. thick, in
which the water sucked up from the ground water by capillarity is
present. The pores of this layer are filled with water to an average
of + 26 per cent. of the mass.
“In these two zones the degree of moisture is well-nigh constant.
“On the second rests a third zone, in which the degree of moisture
depends on the capacity of the sand to hold water. The quantity of
water, which may be from 6 to 11 per cent. of the mass (according
to the nature of the sand), is variable within certain narrow limits.
“A fourth Zone with respect to moisture is formed by the upper
or surface layers. In this the degree of moisture is more or less
according to the weather, and is very variable. During rains it
may be fully saturated, and after that the water may diminish to
less than 10 per cent. of the mass. This zone may be called the
evaporation Zone, and lies about 30 or 40 cm. beneath the surface
of the dunes.”
APPEN DIX III.
NOTEs.
THE remarks and criticisms in these notes, attributed to Dr. E.
Divers, F.R.S. and Mr. John de Rijke, C.E., respectively, were com-
municated to me privately, and were not intended for publication.
I consider them, however—even where the opinions expressed are not
in unison with my own—too valuable not to be utilized here, and I
have the sanction of the writers to their communications being repro-
duced accordingly. .
W. K. BURTON.
Note 1, page 12.—Service of water through lead pipes &nd
cisterns. I have the following from Dr. Divers on this subject —
“Outside the London and Paris basin, it is a very serious matter
for the water engineer to consider that he may, with an otherwise
excellent water, poison a town which has intrusted itself to his
hands. There is some uncertainty in the matter, but you may
venture thus far, and be of use to your readers:—
“(1) Hard natural waters are seldom active on lead pipes in
Service.
“(2) Soft potable natural waters owe their activity apparently to
the presence of acids in minute quantities. Hence a soft water may
be practically inactive in virtue of its freedom from acidity.
“(3) Addition of a minute quantity of sodium carbonate destroys
the activity of a water.
(4) Over-liming of water, by generating in it some sodium or
potassium hydrate, is apt to make, or leave, a water active.”
Note 2, page 31. —I am indebted to Mr. de Rijke for pointing
296 THE WA 7TAZA' S UAEA/L V OF 7"O WAVS.
out that in some cases it is necessary to inquire also whether the
minimum is not decreasing.
“The ordinary and minimum discharge of water’ (he remarks)
“has already decreased, and is still decreasing, in a great many
streams of Japan, where the population is dense and is growing. By
arbitrary burning and clearing of hillsides, bringing sloping forest
land into cultivation, by quarrying, roadmaking, denudations,
firewood gathering, and other operations, the régime of many a
stream has altered ; the minimum discharge has decreased, whilst the
maximum has increased.” *** -- . ~. -
Note 3, page 32.-Mr. de Rijke has kindly furnished the
following particulars as to the Ardeche in France —
“Area of drainage, 2,429 square km.
“Maximum discharge, 7,000 cub.m. per second.
“Minimum discharge, 5 cub.m. per second.
“Maximum rainfall, 792 mm. in 21 hours.
“Maximum discharge in three days of October, 1827, more than a
milliard cub.m.”
Note 4, page 33.-For the following instructive particulars I am
indebted to Mr. de Rijke :—
“The minimum flow from the source called Arlot, near Nuits
sous Ravière, in the valley of Armançon, is 30,000 m.” in 24 hours,
and the maximum 800,000 mº. The supply per year is much more
than the rainfall from there up to the watershed. *
“The source called Rhunebron, in Hanover, is probably the
most remarkable. The average discharge of water per year is
128,124,000 m.” ; reception basin up to the watershed is but
5,625,000 m.” If it were only rain-water from its own catch basin,
the average precipitation would be 22.74 m. per year, whilst this,
according to observations at Clausttral, Walkenried, Heiligenstadt,
and Göttingen, is only 0.8365 m. If all the rain-water were flowing
to the Rhunebron, without any loss by evaporation, absorption,
&c., the mean supply would be 149 instead of 4,060 litres of water
per minute. Thus by a flow from subterranean channels (probably
from the Hartz) the yearly average supply is 27 times the rainfall on
the visible catchment area.” -
Note 5, page 60.-Mr. de Rijke remarks that if each layer be
“thoroughly panned” it will be all right, but unless the work be closely
watched “it is almost useless. Japanese work officials are inclined to
AWOTES. - 297
use old men, women, and boys for this, but a single horse led by a
boy is better than a crowd of stampers.” -
Note 6, page 60.-Mr. de Rijke suggested that there should be
two feet of clay underneath the stone crust, but he has since
explained that he considers this necessary only when the earth used
for the dam is very sandy. It need scarcely be said that such earth
should not be used if a stiffer quality can be procured. See further
under Note 9, post. -
{
Note 7, page 68.-Mr. de Rijke suggests “anchoring a bamboo
raft opposite the waste weir.” Presumably wood would serve as well
as bamboo in countries where this latter most useful plant does not
grow, or is not plentiful. . . . .
Note 8, page 70.—Mr. de Rijke remarks —“ In Japan I have
seen many places where it would be advisable to impound water, and
to retain detritus in every one of the branch valleys upward.”
Note 9, page 71.-Criticising my suggestion that it is “at any
rate a mistake to have both a puddle wall and puddle apron,”
Mr. de Rijke says: —
“Supposing a dam built of Sandy or pervious material with a
puddle wall in the middle, then I think the puddle apron is not a
mistake. The stone-pitching on the inner slope supposes at least
some wave action. This stone-pitching laid directly on Sandy soil
would be a mistake. It requires a layer of clay of from 0-30 m. to
I'50 m. thick to prevent working out and undermining of the stones.
It is especially by the receding of a wave that sandy matter is trans-
ported from underneath stone-pitching.”
Note 10, page 77.-Mr. de Rijke says that, in his experience,
in the case of dry-dock construction (which, as regards water
pressure, is a work of the same nature and importance) he has
found a crowd of coolies, especially in contract work, with their
under-paid overseers, to be untrustworthy, and he would not “ dare
at all ” to advise the use of large masses of concrete, even when
using the best materials. When the workmen are not to be trusted,
he thinks good bricks (“because they are small ”) and mortar the
best materials. , * - -
Note 11, page 81.—Dr. Divers makes the following criticism of
298 TA/F WA 7TEA S UA’A/L V OA' 7"O WAVS.
these statements, with the sketch reproduced here (Fig. 259):—
“On the theory of filtration you are of course sound as far as you
go, but you leave out the best part
of the true theory. But on p. 82,
the last paragraph on lime purifica-
tion contains the essence of the true
theory of sand or any other filtration,
as contrasted with straining. If in
twelve hours matters have just settled
in the plain vessel shown in the
sketch, then in one hour they will
have settled in the vessel with eleven
trays. Exchange the trays for the
Fig. 259.—Illustration of Dr. Divers’ sand of a filter, and the fact remains.
theory of sand filtration. Rush the water through the filter,
and, as you point out, the sediment
is carried out of it. Hence so-called ‘upward filtration,’ or in reality
drawing off water at nearly the same level as that of the surface
of unfiltered water (vide side pipes).”
==
-
— —
—
Note 12, page 82.—Dr. Divers has the following remarks on this
paragraph —“It has never been demonstrated that animal charcoal
will completely oxidize organic matter, and it is against all experience
that it should. Animal charcoal purification is familiar to the
chemist, and is certainly known to be, though marvellous and unex-
plained, positively only ‘absorption,’ or temporary fixation of the
matters to the charcoal, so that by appropriate washings with
solvents these matters can be recovered afterwards. Hence the
cause of the positive fact which you yourself refer to, that purer
water following other water through a charcoal filter long enough in
use becomes reduced in purity by the foul charcoal—it dissolves out
the matters in the charcoal.”
Note 13, page 84.—Dr. Divers has the following remarks on this
paragraph —“Spongy from. —You are not justified in saying
what you do. It or any metallic iron can only act chemically, and
therefore by consumption and quantitatively to its effect ; and if the
water is flowing the local deposit of rust will be slight, and in any
case will not protect the iron and water from each other. If the
latter contain carbonic acid it will be active on iron ; if not, probably
not ; but any iron, ab initio very rusty, will suffer by use, not by
rusting badly in running water, but by crusting by calcareous matter.

AVO 7TP.S. 299
There is no rationality in exalting nails and borings (oily and dirty
from the drills”) at the expense of spongy iron clean from the
furnace. Spongy iron chokes; therefore it soon becomes useless.”
Note 14, page 102.—Concerning this, Dr. Divers remarks:– “The
‘clean here does not cover the point to be insisted on, which is, that
the sand must be as nearly purely silicious as possible—inactive, that
is, in furnishing mineral matters for food to vegetable organisms.”
Note 15, page 115.--Dr. Divers says:—“The fishy smell is
due, with hardly a doubt, to trimethylamine formed by bacteria out
of albuminous matters. . . . . I should recommend ačration and
Sunning [of Sand] in addition to washing [scouring] if feasible.”
Note 16, page 119.—The following remarks with regard to the
use of magnetic oxide of iron are by Dr. Divers :-‘‘To Thomas
Spencer [long dead] is due the merit of recognising the value of
magnetite, and introducing porous fragments [not ‘in a fine state of
division '', obtained by calcination of spathic iron or other iron ores,
into domestic filters and filter beds of waterworks. Unfortunately
he called his preparation ‘magnetic carbide,’ because, from his mode
of preparing it, it sometimes contained carbon. Frankland tried
artificial magnetic oxide, which of course reacted with the water and
was inapplicable, and this led him to discredit Spencer's oxide and
Spencer's theory. But full experiments made by me for the Lancet
established for so-prepared magnetic oxide a power equal to the
finest charcoal, and a renovating property, when aérated occasionally,
that is very remarkable. There is, however, this need for ačration
and that is the objection to the use of magnetic oxide of iron. It
must be allowed to act on clear water, out of which it removes dis-
solved organic matter, and then it must be ačrated by ačrated water,
or air itself, which means extensive disturbance of the filter. If we
could make a filter bed all of porous magnetic oxide, and treat it as
sand, the result would be admirable, but we cannot, on account of the
expense and the weight due to the density of the material. . . . .
* I believe cast-iron turnings and borings have, in practice, proved superior to
spongy iron for the purpose of purifying water by agitating the iron and water
together, and I consider this a rational reason for exalting the said turnings and
borings. The oil and other dirt can readily be removed. -
I have recently heard of a case in which the consumption of cast-iron turnings
and borings was so unnecessarily or even objectionably great, that boiler-plate
punchings were substituted for them.—W. K. B.
3CO. THE WA 7TAEA S UAEA/L V OA' TO WAVS.
At a time when I was acting as sanitary commissioner, I broke up a
‘Silicated carbon filter, and found the interior packed with ‘mag-
netic oxide or ‘carbide.’ The fact was published at the time.”
Note 17, page 126.--Dr. Divers remarks –“I do not like the
silver nitrate test. Why not use litmus paper ? Red or violet must
not become a marked blue. The silver nitrate will detect alkalinity
in calcium hydrate; and suppose not enough lime has been added, the
pale yellowish turbidity will detect the presence of calcium carbonate,
but only in the very rare case of the entire absence of chlorides.”
Note 18, page 126.—Dr. Divers says further —“The case does
not depend on space alone; there is another thing. Usually, limed
water settles well enough ; but if not, or for any other reason the
water is allowed to stand for many hours over or with the carbonate,
carbonic acid will be taken up from the air, and some will go again
into solution. But for this, settlers would be all that could be
desired.”
Note 19, page 130.--Dr. Divers says about this case of Perth :—
“Your illustration of Perth is, in my opinion, entirely wrongly inter-
preted—that is, against the facts and against your previous correct
account that water may rise to a river, and not always go down from
it; and therefore your moralising about Nature's work is as weak as
all such moralising usually is. That sub-insular water is surely not
purified by downward passage through the river bottom. It is the
pure water from below.”
INDEX.
*...* In those cases where a figure referring to a page is printed in large and conspicuous type, this
indicates that the subject referred to is more fully treated on that page—or beginning at that
page—tham 0m (ºny other.
BEL, Sir Frederic, 121
Aberdeen waterworks, 180
Addington Hill reservoir, 137
Admission of water to filter beds, 112
Aérating sand of filter beds, 299
magnetite, 299
vessel for
Air-collecting syphon for
emptying reservoirs, 63
Air pump for condensers, 156
for syphon for emptying reser-
voirs, 63
Air valves, 274
Air vessels for pumping engines, 166
for pumping machinery, 147
Allowance for increase of population, 21
for incrustation of pipes, 203
Alum for softening water, 126
America, use of water meters in, 270
American pillar hydrant, 215
screw-down hydrants, 220
section of earthwork dam, 55
towns and cities, consumption
of water in, 20
Analysis of water, 6
Anderson, William, 121
Angus-Smith's composition for cast-iron
pipes, 187, 238
Animal charcoal, action of on water, 82
Antwerp waterworks, water purifying at,
121
Apollinaris water, 11
Appliances used in connection with water-
works, 273
Apron of puddle, 71
Aqueduct bridges, 181
Aqueducts, 172
Arch principle in masonry dams, 75
Arched roof for clean water or service
reservoirs, 136
roofs of reservoirs in earthquake
countries, 284, 285
Archimedean pump, 153
Archwork in earthquake countries, 285
Area of filter beds, 131
of filtering surface, 97, 104
Ashlar masonry for valve towers, 62
Automatic valve for regulating filtering
speed, 110
ACTERIA, 133
as a purifier of water, 9
forming trimethylamine in
sand of filter beds, 299
in water, 13
Bacteriology in relation to filtering speed, 96.
Ball hydrants, 218
— valves, 148
— — in houses, 250, 267
Bamboo pipes, 224
Basins, fixed, discharge pipes of, 251
Bateman, Mr., 181
Baths, discharge pipes of, 251
Beam engines, 155
Belgian pipe foundries, 237
3O2
AAV/OA: Y.
Bell-mouthed pipe for admitting water to
filter beds, 113
for inlet to settling reservoir,
94.
Berlin, sale of water at, 270
waterworks, covered and open
filters at, 96
— sand-washing machine at, 116
Bishof, Professor Gustav, 120
Blakeborough's stand-pillar, 267
Blink, Dr., 292
Boiler chimneys, 169
reserve for cases of fire, 213
Boilers, Cornish and Lancashire, 169
—— for pumping engines, 161, 168
— locomotive and marine, 168, 169
tubular, or water tube, 169
Bored and turned joints for cast-iron pipes,
226
Boring and tapping pipes under pressure,
279
Borings, trial, for impounding reservoirs,
48 -
Boulders for draining filter beds, 99, 100
Brass ferrule for connecting main and
service pipe, 278
Breakwater on top of dams, 285
Breast-water wheels, 169
Breeches-pipe as stand-pipe, 145
Brick arches for roof of clean-water or
service reservoirs, 136
— floor for draining filter beds, 101
— chimneys in earthquake countries,
288 -
— in cement for covered conduits, 181
piers in earthquake countries, 286
Bridge at Usui Pass, Japan, 287
Brightmore, A. W., vi.
Brighton water supply, 129
Brown, Bros. and Co., 189
Bucket-and-plunger pumps, 153
Bull pumping engines, 154
Burning vegetation within reservoir area,
70
Bursting of pipes by frost, 251
By-pass channels for impounding reser-
voirs, 69
—— for
Service or clean water
reservoir, 133
By-pass for sluice valve, 274
pipes, 149
By-passes for fire extinction, 212
By-wash for masonry dams, 77
for reservoir, 55, 65
APACITY (cubic), of reservoirs, 34
of impounding reservoirs,
estimation of 51
reservoir determined
graphically, 40
of service or clean water
reservoir, 132
of settling reservoirs, 85
of tanks of water towers,
I 39
“Carbide of iron,” 82
Carbonate of soda for softening water, 126
Carbonates of lime and magnesia in water,
II.
Carbonic acid gas in water, 12, 82
“Carfarel,” 82
Carnot's law, 159
Casting pipes, 236
Cast iron in tanks for water towers, 140
pipes, 224, 225
—— Dr. Angus-Smith's compo-
sition for, 238
length of 230
table of thickness of 234
— thickness of 230
—— weight of 237
tensile strength of 233
valve towers, 62, 64
Catchment areas for waterworks, 49
*-ºr
*º-º-º-º-º-º-º: Of
area of impounding reservoir,
49, 66
Caulking lead joints, 227
Caustic lirne for softening water, 124
Cellular brick floor for draining filter beds,
10]
Cement for settling reservoirs, 90
for structures in earthquake
countries, 288
— for waterpipes, 225
mortar for covered conduits,
181
MAV/OAX. 303
Cement mortar for masonry dams, 76
Centres of distribution, 205
Centrifugal pumps, 153
duty of 162
Chalk formations, 15
Channels, conduits, and pipes, flow of
water in, 172
— Open, 174 .
construction of, 178
— — cross-section of, 175
— — (duplicating), 23
— — velocity of flow of water
in, 174
Charcoal, animal, action of on water, 82,
298
Chemical analysis of water, 6
Chimneys for boilers, 169
in earthquake countries, 287
Circular service or clean-water reservoirs,
135
— settling reservoirs, 89
Circulating pump for condensers, 156, 167
Cisterns in houses, 193, 251, 252
— lead-lined, 277
Clark’s process for softening water, 11,
13, 84, 124
-—— scale for hardness of water, 11,
124
Classification of waterworks, 43
Clay and gravel puddle, 60
Clean-water or service reservoir, 43, 45, 46,
131, 212
— -— capacity and position of,
I 32
— — depth of 135
in middle of town, 205
––– or service reservoirs, connec-
tion with settling reser.
voirs and filter beds, 148
form of, in plan, 134
materials for, 137
rectangular and cir-
cular, 135
--- —— roofing of, 136
--- — section of 135
Cleaning filtering beds, 97, 102, 114
— settling reservoirs, 85, 87, 95
“Clearance ’’ in steam engines, 161
Closed conduits, 172, 179
Coal for steaming, 161
Coating pipes with varnish, 238
Compacting of sand in filter beds, 105
Compensation water, 64
Composition for coating cast-iron pipes,
238
Compound engines, 156, 161, 167
duty of 162
Compounding pumping engines, 155, 160,
167
Concrete arches for roof of clean water or
service reservoirs, 136
— dams, 52, 77
—- for clean water or service reser-
voirs, 137
— for covered conduits, 181
— for lining of open channels, 178
— for setting reservoirs, 90
Condensers, jet and surface, 156
Condensing engines, duty of, 162
pumping engines, 156
Conduits, flow of water in, 172
— Open, closed, “cut and cover,”
and tunnel, 172
Connecting pipes for settling reservoirs,
filter beds, and clean-water or service
reservoirs, 148
Connection of service pipes with mains, 277
— of settling reservoirs, filter
beds, and service or clean-
water reservoirs, 148
Constant service of water, 192, 249, 251,
252
— system of settlement of water,
S5, 86
Construction of earthwork dams, 54
--- of masonry dams, 76
----------- of open channels, 178
Consumption of water per head, 18, 20
Contingencies in estimation of the capacity
of reservoirs, 41
Contour lines for impounding reservoirs, 48
Controlling speed of pumping engines, 166
Cornish boilers, 169
Jornish pumping engines, 154
Covered conduits, 179
— — cross-section of, 179
—— — material used in the
construction of 181
3O4
ZAV/DEX.
Covered filters at Berlin waterworks, 96
Crank-shaft and fly-wheel pumping
engines, 154, 160, 167
Crib-work dam, 70
Croes, James J. R., 75
Cross-section of covered conduits, 179
of open channels, 175
of puddle trench, 57
Cultivated land, water from, 14
Culvert for discharge of water
reservoirs, 58, 59
through masonry dams, 78.
Current meters, 30
Curved masonry dams, 75
“Cut and cover * conduits, 172, 180
Cylinders, high- and low-pressure, 161
from
smºs-ºs-mº
AILY maximum consumption of water,
2I
rainfall, in graphic method of
determining capacity of
reservoir, 39
Dams, earthwork, 52, 54
for impounding reservoirs in earth-
quake countries, 285
masonry, 52, 72
Dangerous waters, 14
Davis, Joseph P., 75
de Rijke, John, on sand dunes as source
. . of water supply, v., 289
notes by, 295, 296,297
Deacon, G. F., 77, 78, 140, 258
Deacon's district meter, 258
Dead-end distribution system, 196
Dead-weight safety valve, 276
Deep-well water, 14, 24
Delocre, Mons., 73
Depth, mean hydraulic, 175
of filter beds, 99
of impounding reservoirs, 49
of service or clean-water reservoirs,
I 36
of settling reservoirs, 85
of waste weir, 67
of water over filtering sand, 102
Detection of leakage outside houses, 253
*mºs
Detritus carried by floods, 70
Diagrams of the discharge of water in
pipes, 186, 203
Diameters of pipes between settling reser-
voirs, filter beds, and clean-
water or service reservoirs,
149 -
of overflow and waste pipes, 150
of large mains of distribution
systems, 201
of smaller mains, 207
Diagrammatic illustration of stand-pipe
and pumping engine, 145
Differential expansion gear, 166
Differentiating meter, 258
Direct pumping engines, 154
Discharge of water in pipes, tables and
diagrams of 186
through pipes, for-
mulae for, 183
pipes in houses, 250
Dissolved organic matter in water, 10, 12
Distillation of water, 79
Distribution centres, 205
pipes between settling reser–
voirs, filter beds, and clean-
water or service reservoirs,
149
system, example of 209
systems, 43, 46, 192
augmenting, 24
— dead-end and inter-
lacing gridiron or
reticulation, 196
diameters of large
mains of, 201
diameters of smaller
mains of 207
arrangement of mains.
of 202, 205
in relation to the ex-
tinction of fire, 193.
well for filter beds, 114
District meter, Deacon’s, 258
system, 19, 201, 258
meters, with interlacing distri-
bution system, 264
Divers, Dr. E., vi., 82, 295, 297, 298, 299,
300
*-
*-*
*º-sº
º-º-º-º-º-º-mº
*-*-e
*** ****
AV/O AEX.
3O5,
Domestic meter system, 264
supply of water, 19
Double acting pumps, 153
stand-pipes, 144
Drain pipe for settling reservoirs, 95
Drainage of filter beds, 100
Draining settling reservoirs, 89
Draw-off pipe for settling reservoir, 94
posts, 276
Drinking fountains, 276
Dry and wet well valve towers, 61
Dry-sand casting of pipes, 236
Duncan, D. J. Russell, 244
Dune sand as source of water supply, 289
Duty of centrifugal pumps, 162
of high pressure, compound and
triple expansion engines, 162
of pumping engines, 159
speed, 167
of pumping machinery, testing, 167
of small engines, 164
Dwarf wall at top of earthwork dam, 66,
285
working at a varying
ARTHENWARE filters, 79
Earthquake countries, importance
of by-pass pipes in, 150
Earthquake countries, precautions in con-
nection with settling
reservoirs in, 90
buildings in, 288
site of waterworks
in, 284
effect of, on reservoir of Yoko-
hama waterworks, 68
great, at Lisbon, 284
of Japan (1891), 287
waves in reser voirs, 68
Earthquakes, effect of, on water towers, 140
on waterworks, vi., 283
possible effect of, on earth-
work dams of reservoirs, 68
Earthwork dams, 52, 54, 70, 71
Easton, Edward, 129
Edinburgh waterworks, 206
Efficiency of boilers and engines, 161
* *-* *wº-
Efficiency of pumping engines, 213
Eiffel tower, 189
Eiselohr, Dr., 9
Electric motors for raising water, 170
Elevated reservoir, 213
tanks, 138, 152, 207, 213
in earthquake countries,
287
Engine foundations, 168
Engines for pumping, simple, compound,
triple expansion (or tri-com-
pound), and quadruple expan-
sion, 156
high pressure, 157, 167
pumping, 154, 158
duty of 159
steam pressure in, 160
English section of earthwork dams, 55
Estimation of capacity of impounding
reservoirs, 51
Evaporation from water in reservoirs, 41
of water by coal, 161
Expansion gear, 164
differential, 166
of steam in pumping engines,
155
Extinction of fire, provision for, 211
Eytelwein's formula for the discharge of
water in pipes, 186
cº-º-º-º-º-º-º:
ACTOR of safety for cast-iron pipes,
231
Fanning, v., 28, 30, 31, 32, 37, 65, 67, 70,
I45, 173, 185, 194, 208, 209, 215, 220,
229, 232
Faucet and spiggot joints for cast-iron.
pipes, 225, 226, 235, 236
joints, steel, 244
Feed-water for boilers, 162
Ferrule, brass, for connecting main and
service pipe, 278
for connecting service pipe with
main, without soldering, 278
for use with machine for boring
and tapping pipes under pres-
sure, 281
gººm-m-mºsº
smºs-m-mºs
X.
3O6
JAWADA, X.
Ferrule, stop-valve, 281
Ferrules (pea), in service pipes, 263
screw and tapered, for connecting
main and service pipe, 278
“screw-down" and “plug,” for
connecting service pipes with
mains, 279
Filling filter beds, 106
Filter beds, 43, 44, 45, 46, 87, 94, 95, 96
adding to number of 23
admission of water to, 112
allowance of spare, 97
arrangement of, 100
cleaning of 114
connection with settling reser-
voirs and clean-water or
service reservoirs, 148
depth of 99
distribution well for, 114
form of plan of, 98
regulating the flow into, 113
vertical section of 104
Filtered water for filling filter beds, 106, 109
Filtering beds, number of 97
-— heating of water in, 103
admission of water to, 112
—— cleaning of 114
head, 103, 105
speed, 96, 131, 135
regulating, 106, 107
Filter press for filtering off carbonate of
lime after softening water by Clark’s
process, 126
Filters, Pasteur’s, 13
Filtration area, 131
natural, 128
of water by sand, 13, 81
best avoided when not neces-
sary, 9
rate of 94, 127
through sand, 79, 86, 96
theory of, 81
of Dr. Divers,
297
Fire-clay pipes, 224
Fire extinction, boiler reserve necessary
for, 213
distribution systems suit-
able for, 192
Fire extinction, provisions for, 211
- provision of pumping
power for, 166
reserve of pumping power
for, 212
small mains to be pro-
portioned with a view
to fire extinction only,
208, 215
water to be provided for,
193
Fire hose, 214, 216, 222
– hydrants, 195, 198, 208, 215
American pillar, 215, 221
Merryweather's, 216
ball, sluice-valve, and screw-
down, 217
form and size of 215
locating, 20, 215
prevention of freezing of, 222
- -
- ****
requirements of 215
size of 215, 221
spacing and position, 214
stand-pipe, 217, 218
sunk and pillar, 215
— insurance by waterworks, 4, 5
— jet nozzles, 221
— provision against, by high pressure in
water mains, 188
in Service or clean-
water reservoirs, 133
— provision for in water-tower tanks, 139
Fissuring of sand in filter beds, 105
Flanged joints for cast-iron pipes, 225
for steel pipes, steel flanged
joints, 243
Flap valves for valve towers, 62
Floating pipe for drawing off water from
settling reservoirs, 94
pipes, 148
Flood water in impounding reservoir, 69
Floor of filter beds, 100
of settling reservoirs, 89
Flow of water in conduits, pipes, and open
channels, 172
in pipes, 182, 187
Fluctuation in consumption of water, 20
Flushing water-closets, 250
Fly-wheel engines, 154, 159
-w
M/V/) A. Y.
3O7
Form of cross-section of covered conduit,
179
of open channels, 175
of filter beds in plan, 98
in vertical section, 104
of fire hydrants, 215
of inlet and outlet pipes for settling
reservoirs, 87, 94
of settling reservoirs, 89
Foundations for pumping engines, 168
in earthquake countries, 284
of earthwork dams, 52
52, 76
*= *-* =
------- of masonry dams,
Fountains, drinking, 276
Frankland's experiments in the filtering of
water, 299
Free foundations for buildings in earth-
quake countries, 285
Freeman, Mr., 195, 214
Freezing of hydrants, prevention of, 222
— of water in open channels, 176
of waterpipes, 247, 251
Friction of water in pipes, 184
Frost cases for hydrants, 222
protection of pipes from, 251
Fukwoka waterworks, 45
Gº for natural filtration, 128
Gas engines for raising water, 170
Gases dissolved in water, 12
Gates (or sluice valves) on waterpipes, 272
Gauge for measuring quantity of water
filtered, 109
Gauging apparatus of Yokohama water-
works, 254
springs, streams, and rivers, 25
Gearing for opening sluice valves, 273
for pumping machinery, 159
}eneva, lake of 92
Gill, Henry, on sale of water in Berlin, 270
of filtering
regulation
speed, 107
on service reservoirs, 133
O]].
Glasgow waterworks, 180, 182
Glazed pipes, 173
Gould, E. Sherman, 186
Grade line, hydraulic, 183
Graphic method for determining capacity
of reservoir, 38
Gravel, coarse and fine for filtering, 99
—— in filter beds, 101
Gravitation water works, 43
Gravity systems, 253
Gridiron (or reticulation) distribution
system, 196
Gun-metal for sluice valves, 273
HAº waterworks, Japan, 132
Halske's water meter, 269
Hardness of water, 11, 83
Hart, I. W., 140
Harwich sand for filtering, 99
Hasegawa, Mr., 276
Hassard, R., 181
Hatamomura waterworks, Japan, 97, 173
Hawksley, Sir John, formula for the
capacity of storage reservoirs, 35
Head of impounding reservoir, works at,
55, 58
necessary to produce flow of water
in pipes, 184, 188
— of water in filtering, 103, 105
of water pumped against, 163
Hemans, W., 181
Hennell, Thomas, 28, 98, 153, 186
Herschel, Clemens, 255
Hexagonal open channel, 177
High duty gear in pumping engines, 155
level impounding reservoirs and
intakes, 43
sº- wºm- reservoir of the Tokyo
waterworks, 209
— -— reservoir, pumping into,
162, 166
tanks, 43
—— pressure cylinders, 161
engines, 157, 160, 167
duty of, 162
Hiroshima, waterworks at, 45
Hoggin for filtering, 99
Hongkong waterworks, 77, 78, 181
Hongo reservoir, Tokyo, 209
Hope, W., 248
Horizontal pumps, 154
X 2
3O8
MAV/O AE X.
Horse power of pumping engines, 157, 163
Hose from hydrants, 213, 215, 221
streams, 194
Hot-air engines for raising water, 170
House fittings, inspection of, 193, 249, 252
to house inspection, 252
Houses, waste of water in, 249, 260
Humber's Water Supply, vi.
Humic acids as a solvent of lead, 15
Hunyani-yados water, 11
“Hurdy-gurdy’ for raising water, 169
Hydrant stand-pipe, 217, 218
Hydrants, ball, sluice valve, and screw
down, 217
fire, 195, 198, 208, 215
form and size of, 215
prevention of freezing of, 222
requirements of, 215
size of, 221
spacing and position, 214
sunk and pillar, 215
Hydrate of lime for softening water, 125
Hydraulic grade line, 173, 182, 183, 188,
190
gradient, 196
mean depth, 175
ram, 170
test for pipes, 239
=
=
CE on open channel water, 176
Ideal impounding reservoir, 34
Idzu filtering sands, 102
Impounding reservoirs, 47
(high level), 43, 44
capacity of 34
— in earthquake
-
countries, 285
sites for, 47
Impurities in water, 10
Increase of population, allowance for, 21,
201 tº
Incrustation of pipes, 187
allowance for, 203
Indicators, 164
Inferential meters, 266
Inlet pipes for settling reservoirs, 87, 91
Inokuchi, Professor A., vi.
Inorganic matter in water, 10
Inspection and repair of the valves of
valve towers, 61
of house fittings, 192, 249, 252
of pipes, 236, 240
against fire by
Insurance waterworks,
4, 5
Intake, high level, 43
pumping station, 44, 46
Intakes, low level, 44
Integrating meter, 258
Intercepting sewers, 206
Interlacing distribution system, 196, 220,
264.
Intermittent service of water, 192, 249
system of settlement of water,
85, 86
Inverted syphon, 182
Iron (cast) turnings for purifying water,
121
for pipes, testing, 237
for purifying water, 119
(granulated cast), for purifying water,
122
— magnetic, oxide of, for purifying
-- water, 119
Oxide of, in Japanese
sands, 102
— metallic, action of, on water, 82
for purifying water, 119,
120
— Ores, action of, on water, 82
— Oxide, magnetic, action of, on water,
82
— spongy, action of, on water, 8.2, 83,
298
— to be used in pipe-casting, 236
— valve towers, 62, 64
(wrought) for purifying water, 122
Irrigation, provision for, 39
Tsar river, 9
Ischia, 284, 285
Italian regulations anent earthquakes, 285
Iwata, I., 173
APANESE filtering sands, 102
Japan, great earthquake of (1891), 287
/AV/O AEX.
309
Japan, natural filtration in, 129
Jenkin, Fleeming, 111
Jet condensers, 156
Johnstown, U.S.A., bursting of dam at, 52
Joints for cast-iron pipes, flanged, spiggot,
and faucet, turned and bored, and
jeints run with lead, 225, 226, 227
-— for steel pipes, 243
of pipes, spherical, 229
ENNEDY'S patent water meter, 268
Kirkwood, James P., On regulation
of filtering speed, 106
Robe waterworks, Japan, 205, 276
Roch, Dr., 96
Lº G steam cylinders, 168
Lakes as a source of supply, 25, 44
Lancashire boilers, 169
J.ancet experiments in filtering water, 299
Large mains, diameters of, 201
— sluice valves, 273
steel pipes, 224, 241
Lead dissolved by humic acids, 15
poisoning by moorland waters, 15
for service pipes, 277
joints for cast-iron pipes, 226
lined cisterns, 277
pipes, 224
Leakage from house fittings, 246, 251
- from mains, 248
from reservoirs, 41
in pipes outside of houses, 253
Leman, lake, 92
Length of cast-iron pipes, 230
of steel pipes, 243
of stroke of pumps, 158
Lime carbonates in Water, 11
* *-*.
water, 124
— for softening water, 13, 84, 124, 298
—— nitrates in water, 11
— purification, 298
—— sulphates in water, 11
caustic and hydrate for softening
Line of pressure or resistance in masonry
dams, 72 -
Lines of pipes in earthquake countries, 284
Lining of open channels, 178
Lisbon, great earthquake at, 284
Litmus paper, use of, as test for lime in
softening water, 300 --
Liverpool, district meter system in, 263
plumbers in, 263
waterworks, 76
water tower, 140
Locating fire hydrants, 208, 214
hydrants, 208, 214
Loch Katrine waterworks, 180, 182
Locomotive boiler, 168, 169
London, growth of 1
Sanitary Protection Association,
results of inspections for, 193
Loop pipes in distribution systems, 198, 199 \\
Low-level intakes and service reservoirs, 44
— pressure cylinders, 161
nitrates in Water, 11
º \ | AGNESIA carbonates in water, 11
** sulphates in water, 11
Magnetic “carbide,” 299
iron oxide, action of, on water,
82
oxide of iron for purifying
water, 119, 299
oxide of iron in Japanese sands,
I O2
Magnetite for purifying water, 119, 299
Main, pumping directly with, 162, 163, 166
Mains, connection of service pipes with, 277
large, diameters of, 201
— leakage from, 248
water pressure, 189
Manilla, 284, 285
Marine boilers, 168, 169
engines, 159
Masonry dams, 52, 72
curved, 75
—— construction of 76
for covered conduits, 181
valve towers, 62
Material for waterworks pipes, 224
3IO
//V/D/EX.
Material of masonry dams, 76
Materials for service reservoirs, 137
for settling reservoirs, 90
for structures in earthquake
countries, 288
for the construction of covered
conduits, 181
Maximum consumption of water (monthly,
daily, and absolute), 21
discharge of streams, 32
rainfall, 34
Mean consumption of water, 21
— depth, hydraulic, 175
— depths of impounding reservoirs, 50
discharge of streams, 32
Means of preventing waste of water, 249,258
Merryweather and Sons’ hydrant, 216
Metallic iron, action of, on water, 82
– for purifying water, 119, 120
salts (poisonous) in water, 12.
Meter, Deacon’s district, 258
(domestic) system, 264
house at reservoir dams, 64
sale of water by, 193, 249, 264
— the Venturi, 255
— (district) system, 258
Water waste, 258
Meters, 19
district, 201
with interlacing distribu-
tion system, 264
— integrating and differentiating, 258
—— positive and inferential, 266
Mexican water supplies, 3
Micro-organisms as a purifier of water, 9
in water, 10, 13, 133
removed from water by
sand filtration, 81
Mills, Hiram, F., 130
Milne, Professor John, vi., 283
Minimum diameter of pipes for distribu-
tion systems, 207
flow of streams and rivers, 31
provision of water for fire ex-
tinction, 195
rainfall, 34
storage capacity for fire extinc-
tion, 211
Moji waterworks, 47, 48
4-º-º-º-º:
Molesworth's (Sir Guilford) formula for
profile of masonry dams,
73, 74
formula, for
pipes, 232
Monolithic masonry dams, 76
Monthly maximum consumption of water,
21
rainfall in graphic method of
determining capacity of reser-
thickness of
º-º-º-º-º:
voirs, 41
Morris's apparatus for boring and tapping
pipes under pressure, 281
Motors for raising water, 169
Muir's cellular brick floor, 101
Municipal work, supply of water a, 4
AGASAKI, determination of capacity
of reservoirs at, 38
waterworks, Japan, 45, 48,
109, 132
Natural filtration, 128
—— streams, self-purification of 8
New River Company, 102
York City waterworks, 73
Niigata, water supply from sand bar at, 129
Nijima filtering sand, 102
Nitrate of silver for testing water after it
has been softened, 126, 300
Nitrates of lime and magnesia in water, 11
Nominal horse power, 164
Non-condensing pumping engines, 156
Notch-board for gauging streams, 26, 253
Nozzles for fire jets, 222
Number of filtering beds, 97
of pumping engines, 152
of settling reservoirs, S5
O" test for pipes, 240
Okayama waterworks, 45
Open channels, construction of, 178
cross-section of, 175
duplicating, 23
for distribution from set-
tling reservoirs, &c., 148
velocity of flow of water in,
174. -
AV/OAZ X. 3II
Open conduits, 172, 174
— filters at Berlin waterworks, 96
Orange, James, on concrete dam, 77
Organic matter in water, 10
Osaka waterworks, Japan, 46, 110, 148
bacteriological
examination
of filtered
water, 96
--- - — pumping en-
gines, 152
Osumigori waterworks, Japan, 97
Outlet pipes for settling reservoirs, 87, 91
Overflow for impounding reservoir, 55, 65
— pipe for settling reservoirs, 95
— pipes, 148, 150
— —— in houses, 250
Overshot water wheels, 169
Oxide of iron (magnetic) for purifying
water, 119, 299
Oxygen as a purifier of water, 9
ADDY field water, 14, 17
Partitions in settling reservoirs, 91
Pasteur's filters, 13, 79
Pea ferrules in service pipes, 263
Peatiness in water, 15
Peaty water, action of, on lead, 15
Pelton wheel for raising water, 169
Penarth Dock station, water softening and
filtering apparatus at, 124
Percolation from reservoirs, 42
Perimeter, wetted, 175
Perth (Scotland), water supply of 130, 300
Peruvian water supplies, 3
Pettenkofer, Professor von, 9
Pfeiffer, Dr., 9
Piers of bridges in earthquake countries, 286
Pillar hydrants, 215, 222, 277
Pipe casting, 236
— foundries, Belgian, 237
— inspecting, 236, 240
— joints, spherical, 229
— lines in earthquake countries, 284
— service, of lead, 277
— specifications, 236
— tenders, 237
Pipe testing, 239
Pipes, boring and tapping under pressure,
279
— bursting through freezing of water,
251
cast-iron, 236
Angus-Smith’s composi-
tion for, 238
— — flanged and spiggot and
socket joints, 225
— -— length of 230
— — table of thickness of 234
---— — thickness of 230
—— — weight of 237
— conduits and open channels, flow of
water in, 172
—— discharge of water through, formulae,
183
— duplicating, 23
—— flow of water in, 182, 187
— for connecting settling reservoirs,
filter beds, and clean-water or
service reservoirs, 148
— for discharge and overflow from
houses, 250
— incrustation of, 187
— iron for, 236
—-- material of, 224
— of bamboo, 224
— of cast iron, 224, 225, 234
— of lead, 224
— of stoneware, glazed and vitrified,
168, 225
—- of wood, 224, 241
— of wrought iron and cement, 225
--- steel, 224, 241
— protection of, from frost, 251
— riveted steel, 241
—— special, T pieces and Y pieces, 235
— tables and diagrams of discharge of
water in, 186
— tenders for, 237
— water ram in, 231, 252
— wrought-iron and steel, weight Of,
241
Piston pumps, 153
— speed of pumps, 158
Pitching inside slope of dam with stone,
54, 60
3I2
AVADA2_X.
Pitching top and outer slope of earthwork
dams in earthquake countries, 285
Pitch warnish for coating pipes, 238
Pits, trial, for impounding reservoirs, 50
Plan of filter beds, 98
— of service or clean-water reservoirs,
134
Plug ferrules for connecting service pipes
with mains, 279
Plumbing in houses, 252
Plunger pumps, 153
speed of pumps, 158
Poisonous metallic salts in water, 12
« Polarite,” 82, 119
Population, increase of, allowance for, 21,
202
Portland cement concrete for clean-water Or
service reservoirs, 137
mortar for masonry dams,
76
Position and spacing of hydrants, 214
—— of inlet and outlet pipes
settling reservoirs, 87, 91
of service or clean-water reservoir,
I 32
Positive meters, 266
Posts for drawing water at, 276
Power, W. H., 15
Powpell, C. A. W., 287
Practical profiles of masonry dams, 73
Practical Sewage Purification, 88
Precipitation of sewage, 88
Prelimináry works on impounding reser-
voirs, 48
Pressure, line of, in masonry dams, 72
of water in mains, 189
Pressures of steam in pumping engines,
I 60
Prevention of freezing in hydrants, 222
of waste of water, 246, 249
Profiles of masonry dams, practical and
theoretical, 73
Puddle apron, 71
for settling reservoirs, 90
in open channels, 178
in the construction of clean-water
or service reservoirs, 137
trench for earthwork dams, 54, 57
wall for earthwork dams, 55, 59
for
*-*
*mºmºmºmº-º
*sºmºmº-º-º-º-º:
Puddle wall, thickness of, 55
with and without gravel, 60
Pullen, W. W. Fitzherbert, 124
Pulsometer pumps, 85, 168
Pump, centrifugal, 153
— test for pipes, 239
valves, 154, 168
Pumping engine boilers, 168
—— diagrammatic illustration
of, with stand-pipe, 145
engines, 132, 154, 158
condensing and
condensing, 156
direct and crank-shaft,
154, 160, 167
duty of, 159
efficiency of 213
foundations of, 168
high pressure, 157, 163
horse power of, 157
mumber and type of, 152
simple, compound, triple
expansion (or tri-
compound), and quad-
ruple-expansion, 156,
161, 167
types of, 154
workmanship of 168
machinery, 139, 151, 207
adding to, 23
fittings for, 168
testing duty of, 162
varying speed of, 139
power, reserve of, for fire extinc-
tion, 212
stations, 44, 45, 46, 207
Tokyo waterworks, 209
systems, 253
waterworks, 43
wells, 158, 163
Pumps, air and circulating, for condensers,
156, 167
for settling reservoirs, 87
plunges and piston, speed of, 158
pulsometer, 85, 168
length of suction of, 157
single acting, double acting, and
bucket and plunger, 153
Purification of water, 79
**-*ssºr
I] OIl-
= -s-tº-stºre esº
MAV/O AE_X.
3I3
Purification of water by charcoal, 8
by iron, 82, 119, 120
by lime, 13, 84, 124,
280
by natural filtration,
128
— by Oxygen and bac-
teria, 9
by sand filtration, 79
by settlement and
sand filtration, 79
Purifier, revolving (for causing iron to act
on water), 121
Purity of water, 13
(YUADRUPLE expansion engines, 156,
Q 157, 161
Quaker Bridge dam, 73, 75, 76
Qualities, different, of water, 6, 14
Quantity of water to be provided, 18
-— for extinction offire, 211
method of
determining capacity
of reservoir, 40
maximum and minimum
and average, 34
phenomena of 34
Rain-water, 14, 16
Ram, hydraulic, 171
Ramming of water in pipes, 231, 275
Rankine's profile of masonry dam, 74
rule for minimum thickness of
pipes, 232
Rectangular service or clean-water reser-
voirs, 135
settling reservoirs, 89
Red Sandstone formation, 14
Reducing valve for constant discharge, 111
Regulating filtering speed, 106, 107
the discharge of water from
RAIN FALL in graphic
*-* * *
reservoirs with masonry
dams, 78
— the flow of water into filter
beds, 113
Regulator valve for water-closets, 250
Removal of surface vegetable soil from
site of dam, 56
Repairs to distribution pipes, 196
valves of valve towers, 61
Reserve of boiler power for cases of fire,
212
of pumping power for fire extinc-
tion, 211
Reservoir area, burning vegetation within,
70
capacity, adding to, 23
capacity of, determined graphi-
cally, 40
elevated, 212
high level, pumping into, 162,
166
roofs in earthquake
285
works at head of, 68
Reservoirs, impounding, 47
settling and service, 43, 44, 89
in earthquake countries, 284
of Tokyo waterworks, 209
service or clean-water, 131
storage capacity of, 34
Resistance, line of, in masonry dams, 72
Retaining walls for settling reservoirs, 90
—— of reservoirs in earthquake
countries,
countries, 284
Reticulation (or gridiron) distribution
system, 196
Revolving purifier, for causing iron to act
on water, 121
Rhone, river, 92
Rice-field water, 14, 16
Bice fields, 7
Riley joint for steel pipes, 245
River Pollution Commissioners, classifica-
tion of waters by, 14
River water to which sewage gains access,
14, 16
Rivers as source of supply, 25
gauging, 25, 29
minimum flow of, 31
and steel pipes,
Riveted wrought-iron
224, 241
Roman empire, water supply under the, 3
Roofing of clean-water or service reservoirs,
136
3I4
INDEx.
Roofs in earthquake countries, 287
of reservoirs, arched, in earthquake
countries, 285
Rosebank ironworks, 189
Rubble, concrete, for dams, 76
for masonry dams, 76
“Rusting” turned and bored joints, 226
AFETY valves for mains, 274
Sakamoto, J., 110
Sakuma, K., 62
Sal-ammoniac for turned and bored pipe
joints, 226
Sale of water by meter, 193, 249, 264
Samples of water, taking for analysis, 8
Sand bed of filters, thickness of 102
dunes as source of water supply, 289
—— Mr. de Rijke on, v., 289
— — Dr. Blink on, 292
— filtration, 13, 96
best
necessary, 97
avoided when not
— for purifying water, 79, 80
theory of 81
— for filters, 102
— silicious, for filtration, 299
— washing, 115
apparatus, Walker's, 116
at Berlin waterworks, 116
canal sand washer, 117
Sanitary considerations, 133
Sanitary Protection Association, results of
inspections for, 193
Scott, General A. de C., 107
Scouring pipe for settling reservoirs, 95
Screw-down ferrules for connecting service
pipes with mains, 278
hydrants, 218, 220, 223
safety valves, 275
stop valve, 272
-s-- ---
--->
Screw ferrules for connecting main and
service pipe, 278
Section of clean-water or service reservoir,
135
— of earthwork dam, 55
- of settling reservoirs, 89
Seismological Society of Japan, 288
Self-closing valves for stand-posts, 276
Self-purification of natural streams, 8
Service of water, constant and inter-
mittent, 192, 249
Service or clean water reservoirs, 43, 44,
45, 91, 131, 136
capacity and position
of,132
connection with Set-
tling reservoirs and
filter beds, 148
form of, in plan, 134
materials for, 137
rectangular and cir-
cular, 135
section of, 135
— pipe, lead, 277
— pipes, connection of, with mains, 277
of wrought iron, 277
reservoirs, low level, 44
“Setting up ’’ lead joints, 227
Settlement, constant and intermittent, 86
for purifying water, 79 -
of lime, 300
Settling reservoir at head of impounding
reservoir, 70
form of, 89
depth of 85
materials of 90
number of 85
positions of pipes, 91
section of 89
reservoirs, 43, 44, 46, 85
Sewage, effect of, on pipes, 243
in river water, 9, 13
precipitation, 88
Sewers, 172
intercepting, 207
Shallow settling reservoirs, 86
wells, 1
well water, 14
Shanghai waterworks, water tower at, 140
Shiba reservoir, Tokyo, 209
Shikene filtering sand, 102
Shimonoseki waterworks, 45, 48, 205
Shunk, William F., 75
Shunt meter, 258
Sides of filter beds, vertical and sloping, 104
of settling reservoirs, 90
Siemens and Halske's Water meter, 269
INDEX.
3I5,
Silica in sands for filtration, 102
Silicated carbon filters, 300
Silicious sand for filtration, 299
Sill of waste weir, 66
Silting up of reservoirs, 69
Silver nitrate for testing water after it has
been softened, 126, 300
Simple pumping engines, 156
Single acting pumps, 153
Sinks, discharge pipes of, 251
Slagg, Charles, 50
Slate roofs for
reservoirs, 136
Sleeve for pipes, 235
Sliding of earthwork dam, possibility of,
71
Sloping sides for filter beds, 104
of settling reservoirs, 90
walls of reservoirs in earthquake
clean-water or service
countries, 284
Sluice valve hydrants, 217, 219
—- valves, 143, 272
-— for valve towers, 62
— large, gearing for opening,
273
on distribution pipes, 196,
200
on waterpipes, 272
*-*.
Small engines, duty of 164
—- mains, diameters of 207
Snow as affecting the flow of rivers and
streams, 37
Soap test for hardness of water, 11
Socket and spiggot joints for cast-iron
pipes, 225, 226, 235, 236
—— joints, steel, 244
Sodium carbonate for softening water,
126
Softening water by the use of lime, 84,
124
Soldered joints for pipes, 278
Source of supply, sufficiency of, 25
Southampton, proposed water-softening
apparatus at, 128
Spacing and position of hydrants, 214
Speed of filtration, 96, 131, 135
regulating, 106, 107
— of piston or plunges of pumps, 158
of pumping engines, controlling, 166
gma- =
Speed of pumping machinery, variation
in, 139
Spence, Peter, and Sons, 88
Spencer, Thomas, 299
Spherical pipe joints, 229
Spiggot and faucet joints for cast-iron
pipes, 225, 226, 235, 237
Spongy iron, 119, 120
action of, on water, 8.2, 83,298.
Spring safety valves, 275
water, 14
* *º-sº-sº
Springs, gauging, 25
- under dams, 57
Stability of a masonry dam, 72
of earthwork dam, 55
Standard of measurement of water, 18
Stand-by pumping power, 46, 132, 139,
151, 166, 213
Stand-pipe for drawing off water from
settling reservoir, 9.4
for hydrants, 218, 219
Stand-pipes, 141, 144, 148, 207
and mains, 162, 166
pumping into, 162, 167
Stand-posts, 276
Stanford pipes, 173
Steam-jacketing of engines, 167
pressures in pumping engines, 160
—— temperature of, 159
Steel and wrought-iron pipes, weight Of,
24.1
— pipes, 224, 241
––– joints of 244
— —— length of 244
—- socket joints, 244
turnings for purifying water, 122
Stevenson's wave-height formula, 66
Stone and Co., 281
Stone pitching for inside slope of dam,
54, 60
for open channels, 173
Stoneware pipes, 172, 225
— for draining filter beds,
10]
Stop-cocks on service pipes, 261
Stop-valve ferrule, 281
screw-down, 272
Storage capacity of reservoirs, 34
extra for fire extinction, 211
3I6
AAV/OAZ X.
Storage reservoirs, 25
Stored rain-water, 14, 16
Strasburg cathedral, 189
Stream as source of supply, 31
Streams, gauging, 25, 29
minimum flow of, 31
Stroke of pumps, length of, 158
Sub-insular water, 300
Suction of pumps, 157, 163
Sufficiency of source of water supply, 25
Sulphates in water, 126
of lime and magnesia in Water,
| 1
Sunk hydrants, 215, 223
-—— reservoir in earthquake countries,
284. -
Sunning sand of filter beds, 299
Supply of water, conditions of, 25
Surface condensers, 156, 167
— water from cultivated lands, 14,
16
vegetable soil, removal of from
site of dam, 56
Survey for impounding reservoir, 49
Suspended inorganic matter in water, 10
matter in matural streams, 68
organic matter in water, 10, 12
Suspicious waters, 14
Syphon for emptying reservoirs, 59, 62,
63
— inverted, 182
well, 63, 64
Taº of thickness of cast-iron pipes,
234.
Tables of discharge of water in pipes, 186
Taff Vale Railway Company, water-softening
at station of, 124
Tamagawa canal, 3
Tank, high level, pumping into, 162, 166
Tanks, elevated, 138, 152, 207, 213
in earthquake countries,
287
Tapered ferrules for connecting main and
service pipe, 278
Tapping and boring pipes under pressure,
27
Taps and valves in houses, 250, 251
Tar varnish for coating pipes, 238
Taylor, E. Brough, 186
—— G. Midgley, 186
Taylor's Waterpipe discharge diagrams, 203,
205
Telescopic tube for regulating filtering
speed, 109
—— hydrant, 217
Temperature of steam, 159
of water as affecting action
of settling reservoirs, 91
Tensile strength of cast iron, 233
Test for water after it has been softened,
I 26
Testing iron for pipes, 236
pipes, 239
– the duty of pumping machinery,
I67
Theoretical profile of masonry dam, 73
Theory of filtration, 298
of sand filtration, 81
Thickness of cast-iron pipes, 230
table of 234
of puddle wall, 55
of sand bed of filters, 102
of top of masonry dam, 73
of wrought-iron and steel pipes,
241
Thorne Thorne, Dr., 15
Three-throw pumping engines, 155, 158,
161, 167
Tile roofs for clean-water or
reservoirs, 136
Tokyo, distribution system of waterworks,
209
waterworks, 110, 283
early, 3
Open channel, 178
pumping engines, 152
- pumping system, 166
Tower, valve, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60
— for masonry dams, 78
Towers, water, 138
service
— in earthquake countries,
286, 287
T pieces for pipes, 235
AV/OAZ X.
3I7
Trench under dam for discharge pipe
from reservoirs, 57
Trial borings for impounding reservoirs,
48
pits for impounding reservoirs, 49
Tri-compound engines, 156, 161, 169
duty of 162
Trimethylamine in sand of filter beds, 299
Triple expansion engines, 156, 161, 169
- duty of 162
Trumpet-mouthed pipe admitting water to
filter beds, 113
tubes for regulating fil-
tering speed, 109
Tubercles in pipes, 187
Tubulous or water-tube boilers, 169
Tunnel conduits, 172
for discharge pipes from reservoirs,
57, 59
— for natural filtration, 129
through masonry dams, 78
Tunnels (water) through impervious rock,
180
Turbines for raising water, 169
Turf for top and outside slope of dam,
54
Turned and bored joints for cast-iron
pipes, 226
Turner, J. H. Tudsbery, vi., 254
Types of pumping engines to be adopted,
152, 154
Typical system of waterworks, 148
Tytam waterworks, 77, 78, 181
NGLAZED earthenware filters, 79
Upland streams as a source of Sup-
ply, 24
|Upland surface water, 14, 15
Usui Pass bridge, 287
ALVE for regulating the flow of water
into filter beds, 113
Valve-house at reservoir dam, 64
for impounding reservoir, 54
Valve-house for masonry dams, 78
Valve, automatic, for regulating filtering
speed, 110
– tower, 44, 54, 58, 59, 60
for masonry dams, 78
Valves, air, 274
and taps in houses, 250, 252, 267
of pumps, 154, 164
on by-passes, 212
self-closing, for stand-posts, 277
sluice, 272
Variable expansion gear, 164
Warnish for coating pipes, 238
Vegetation in reservoir area, burning of, 70
Velocity of flow in drains of filter beds,
101, 104
of water in covered con-
duits, 179
open chan-
nels, 174
in pipes, 184
— in
Vema contracta, 255
Ventilation of drains of filter beds, 104
Venturi meter, 255
Vertical casting of pipes, 238
pumps, 154, 158
section of filter beds, 104
sides for filter beds, 104
Vitrified pipes, 173
Vyrnwy reservoir, 76, 77, 78 (and see
Frontispiece)
ALKER'S patent sand-washer, 115
Walker, Thomas, 137
Walls in earthquake countries, 287
Warning pipes, 251
Washing sand, 115
Waste of water, 19
cause of and prevention,
246, 249
in houses, 250, 260
with constant service, 193
Waste pipes, 148, 150
from houses, 250
Waste weir for masonry dams, 77
for reservoir, 55, 65
passing over dam, 65
length and depth of 67
*-*.
º-mºm-
318
//V/OAZ X.
Water analysis, 6
different qualities of, 6
— discharge of in pipes (tables and
diagrams of), 186
— flow of, in conduits, pipes, and open
channels, 172
in pipes, 182
-— how admitted to filter beds, 112
closets, 44, 45, 46, 246
-— gauge (Turner's), 254
meters, 19
— motors for raising water, 169
— over sand in filter beds, 100
pressure in mains, 189
quantity of, evaporated by coal, 161
— rain, in pipes, 211, 231, 252
– selling by meter, 193, 249, 264
— to be provided, 18
— for extinction of fires, 194
— towers, 138, 144
and stand-pipes, 144
earthquake countries,
2S6, 287
– tube or tubulous boilers, 169
— velocity of flow in pipes, 184
— waste, cause and prevention of 246,
249
meter, 260
Water-waste preventing appliances, 249
cistern, 250, 251
Waterworks under private enterprise, 3
classification of, 43
site of, in earthquake coun-
tries, 284
typical system of, 148
— — in
Waves caused by earthquake motion, 68,
285
in impounding reservoirs, 66
in relation to masonry dams, 73
Wells, pumping, 158, 163
—- shallow, 1
Welsh coal, 161
Wegmann, Edward, Jr., 73, 74
West, C. D., vi.
Wet and dry well-valve towers, 61
Wetted perimeter, 175
Wheels, water, 169
Wholesome waters, 14
Wiped joint for lead pipes, 278
Wood, James B., 28
Wooden pipes for waterworks, 3, 11, 241
Wrought iron and steel pipes, 224, 241
tanks for water towers, 140
service pipes, 277
ODOBASHI reservoir, 209
Yokohama waterworks,
earthquake on, 68
Yokohama waterworks, gauging apparatus
at, 254
Yoshimura, C., 38
Y pieces for pipes, 235
effect of
ERO, absolute, temperature of steam
as measured from, 159
THE END.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & Co. LD., IRINTERS, LONDON AND TONERILGE.
STATIONERs' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C.
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MR. HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS.
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MR. HUTTON's PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS-continued.
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gives as well not a little valuable information about their working, repair and management. We can
safely recommend it as a useful general treatise on the subject.”—The Engineer.
MOTºgaRS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON
By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, A.M. Inst.C.E. Author of “Modern Cycles,” &c.
212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . g . 4|6
“The book is clearly expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that an engineer,
thinking of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a preliminary to
starting operations.”—Engineering.
PLATING AND BOILER IVIAKING,
A Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. By Joseph G. HORNER,
A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp., with 338 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth * . 7/6
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will render the book exceedingly acceptable to the practical hand. We have no hesitation in com-
mending the work as a serviceable and practical handbook on a subject which has not hitherto received
much attention from those qualified to deal with it in a satisfactory manner.”—Mechanical World.
PATTERN IVIAKING.
A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction,
and including Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns,
Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam
and Greensand, Estimating the Weight of Castings, &c. By Joseph G. HORNER,
A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. With 486 Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
cloth. [Just Published. Net 7/6
“A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has practised
what he has written about. . . . . . We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young
journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making.”—Builder.
“An excellent vade in ecum for the apprentice who desires to become master of his trade.”—English
Mechanic.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMS
(Lockwood's Dictionary of). Embracing those current in the Drawing Office,
Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler Shops, &c., &c.
Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by J. G. HoRNER, A.M.I.M.E.
Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth . g Net 7/6
“Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical engineer-
ing. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and every foreman
engineer and mechanic should have a copy.”—Building News. .
TOOTHED GEARING. -
A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By J. HoRNER, A.M.I.M.E.
With 184 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth & • 6|-
“We give the book our unqualified praise for its thoroughness of treatment and recommend it to
all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet written.”—Mechanical World. .
FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES.
With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management;
Foreign Fire Systems; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. By C. F. T. YoUNG, C.E.
8vo, cloth g - 24-
“To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most
heartily commend this book.”—Engineering. - -- -
MAE CAE/AAV/CA/C ZAVG/NEAER/AVG, &c. - 7
AERIAL NAVIGATION.
A Practical Handbook on the Construction of Dirigible Balloons, Aérostats,
Aéroplanes, and Aéromotors. By FREDERICK WALKER, C.E., Associate Member
of the Aéronautic Institute. With Io.4 Illustrations. Large Crown 8vo, cloth.
[Just Published. Net 7/6
STONE-WORKING MACHINERY.
A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. With
Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis
BALE, M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth. . º 9|-
“The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stonework.”—Colliery Guardian.
“A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental purposes.”—
Machinery Market.
PUMPS AND PUMPING,
A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, and
Management. By M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E. Fourth Edition. Crown
8vo, cloth . e * 3/6
“The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuseness
has been the author's aim throughout; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of
use.”—Journal of Gas Lighting. “Thoroughly practical and clearly written.”—Glasgow Herald.
IVIILLING IVIACHINES AND PROCESSES.
A Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including Informa-
tion on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of
“Lathe Work.” With upwards of 300 Engravings. Large Crown 8vo, cloth 12/6
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“A capital and reliable book which will no doubt be of considerable service both to those who are
already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate its adoption.”—Industries.
LATHE WORK.
A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in the
Art of Turning. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. Seventh Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/-
“Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to
do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable.”—
Engineering.
“We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur it will simply be
invaluable. To the student it will convey a great deal of useful information.”—Engineer.
SCREW THREADS.
And Methods of Producing Them. With numerous Tables and complete
Directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of
“Lathe-Work,” &c. Fifth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size . e * 1/6
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are illustrated and their action described.”—Mechanical World.
“It is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe ; in fact a multum-in-
parvo on all the subjects it treats upon.”—Carpenter and Builder. -
TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS,
MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c.
Selected and Arranged by FRANCIS SMITH. Sixth Edition, Revised, including
ELECTRICAL TABLEs, FoRMULAE, AND MEMORANDA. Waistcoat-pocket size,
limp leather. . © * º e g * e º ge e * 1/6
“It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae to
suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat-pocket
collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt.”—Engineer.
“The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed into the dimensions of
a card case.”—Building News. “A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge.”—Iron.
POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS.
English-French, French-English; with Tables suitable for the Architectural,
Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By JOHN JAMES
FLETCHER. Third Edition. 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather 1/6
: “It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have so
large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufactures collected in a liliputian volume.
The little book will be useful both to students and travellers.”—Architect.
“The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the Tables are new and well-arranged. We
cordially commend the book.”—Mechanical World.
8 CA’OSAE V ZOCA WOOD & SOAV’.S. CA 7Azo&UE.
THE ENGINEER's YEAR-BOOK FOR 1903.
Comprising Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical,
Electrical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. KEMPE, A.M.Inst.C.E.,
M.I.E.E., Principal Technical Officer, Engineer-in-Chief's Office, General Post
Office, London, Author of “A Handbook of Electrical Testing,” “The Electrical
Engineer's Pocket-Book,” &c. With I, ooo Illustrations, specially Engraved for
the work. Crown 8vo, about I, Ooo pages, leather. [Just Published. 8/-
“Kempe's Year-Book really requires no commendation. Its sphere of usefulness is widely known,
and it is used by engineers the world over.”—The Engineer. - -
“The volume is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country.”—Engineering.
“This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands of all descriptions of
engineers.”—Saturday Review. -
“Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering and construction.”—Building
News.
“The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, complete
and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort,
and that may justly be said of it.”—Mining Journal.
“There is certainly room for the new comer, which supplies explanations and directions, as well
- º ſºle and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical annuals.”—
rohitect.
“Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an engineer has to use day by
day. It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful.”—Scotsman.
“The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy
people for whom the work is intended.”—Glasgow Herald.
THE PORTABLE ENGINE.
A Practical Manual on its Construction and Management. For the Use
of Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By WILLIAM DYSON
WANSBROUGH. Crown 8vo, cloth e * - - 3/6
“This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every one
who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere.”—Mark Lane Express.
“We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who have
to do with their construction or use.”—Timber Trades Journal.
“Such a general knowledge of the steam-engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader should
be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.”—Building AVews.
“An excellent text-book of this useful form of engine. The “Hints to Purchasers’ contain a good
deal of common-sense and practical wisdom.”—English Mechanic.
IRON AND STEEL.
A work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, useful,
and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock-takers; Managers
of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal Founders; Iron
Ship and Bridge Builders; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers;
Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By CHARLEs HoARE, Author of “The
Slide Rule,” &c. Ninth Edition. 32mo, leather * 6|-
“For º the book has not its equal.”—Iron.
“One of the best of the pocket books.”—English Mechanic.
CONDENSED MECHANICS.
A Selection of Formulae, Rules, Tables, and Data for the Use of Engineering
Students, &c. By W. G. C. HUGHEs, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/6
“The book is well fitted for those who are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their
knowledge by going through their formulae again.”—Marine Engineer.
THE SAFE USE OF STEAM.
Containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam-users. By an ENGINEER. Seventh
Edition. Sewed º - e . 6d.
| “..If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sensa-
tions by their rarity.”—English Mechanic.
THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY
ENGINES.
A Practical Handbook for Men-in-charge. By C. HURST. Crown 8vo, cloth.
[Just Published. Net 1/-
A/AE CAAAW/CAZ ZAVGZAVZZA'/AVG, &c. 9
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
The Autobiography of an Old Locomotive Engine. By ROBERT WEATHERBURN,
M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portraits of GEORGE and ROBERT STEPHEN-
son. Crown 8vo, cloth . * ge e q. * Net 2/6
SUMMARY OF Contents. ProLog UE.—CYLINDERs.—MoTIONS.–CONNECTING RODS.–FRAMEs.-
WHEELs.-PUMPs, CLAcks, &c.—INJECTORs.-BoILERs.—SM OKE Box.-CHIMNEY.-WEATHER BOARD
AND Aw NING.—INTERNAL DISSENSIONS.–ENGINE DRIVERS, &c.
“It would be difficult to imagine anything more ingeniously planned, more cleverly worked out,
and more charmingly written. Readers, whether young or old, of a mechanical turn, cannot fail to
find the volume most enjoyable as well as most instructive.”—Glasgow Herald.
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE & IT'S DEVELOPMENT.
A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines
between 1803 and Igo3. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E. Sixth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. With I2O Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth.
- [Just Published. Net 4/6
* Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution of the modern locomotive
will find much to attract and entertain in this volume.”—The Times.
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of LOCOmotive Engines. By
MICHAEL REYNoLDs, formerly Locomotive Inspector, L. B. and S. C. R. Eleventh
Edition. Including a KEY TO THE LocoMotive ENGINE. Cr. 8vo, cloth. 4/6
“Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the
book not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of
locomotive engines.”—The Engineer.
“Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical
treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation.”—Athenaeum.
THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER,
Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer
Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNoLDs. Second
Edition, with Revised Appendix. Crown 8vo, cloth e * e 4/6
“We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever
laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine.”—Iron.
CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES.
A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom :
their Construction and Performance. By MICHAEL REYNoLDs. 8vo, cloth 9|-
“A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public
opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake.”—Equglish Mechanic.
STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING,
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By.
MICHAEL REYNOLDs. Sixth Edition. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown
8vo, cloth . e & & g & e e & e * 4/6
“The author's advice on the various points treated is clear and practical.”—Engineering.
“Our author leaves no stone unturned. ... He is determined that his readers shall not only know
something about the stationary engine, but all about it.”—Engineer.
ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE.
Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine-Drivers.
By MICHAEL REYNoLDs. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. & g 1/6
“From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown into
the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page.”—North British Mail.
THE ENGINEMAN’S POCKET COMPANION,
And Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics.
By MICHAEL REYNoLDs. With Forty-five Illustrations and numerous Diagrams.
Fourth Edition, Revised. Royal 18mo, strongly bound for pocket wear 3/6
“A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an engine-
minder desirous of Imastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require.”—The Miller.
Io croSBy LockwooD & SON'S CA7AZOGUE.
civil ENGINEERING, surveying, ETC.
LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM,
INDIA, AND THE COLONIES. -
A Practical Handbook setting forth the Principles on which Light Railways
should be Constructed, Worked, and Financed ; and detailing the cost of
Construction, Equipment, Revenue and Working Expenses. By J. C. MACKAY,
F.G.S., A.M.Inst.C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 8vo, cloth 15|-
“Mr. Mackay's volume is clearly and concisely written, admirably arranged, and freely illustrated.
The book is exactly what has been long wanted. We recommend it to all interested in the subject.
It is sure to have a wide sale.”—Railway News. -
TUNNELLING.
A Practical Treatise.
With I5o Diagrams and Illustrations.
PRACTICAL TUNNELLING.
Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading-driving,
Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering and
the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels. By F. W. SIMMs, M.Inst.C.E.
Fourth Edition, Revised and Further Extended, including the most Recent
(1895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and other Tunnels by D. KINNEAR CLARK,
M.Inst.C.E. With 34 Folding Plates. Imperial 8vo, cloth . £2 2s.
“The present (1896) edition has been brought right up to date, and is thus rendered a work to
which civil engineers generally should have ready access, and to which engineers who have con-
struction work can hardly afford to be without, but which to the younger members of the profession
is invaluable, as from its pages they can learn the state to which the science of tunnelling has
attained.”—Railway News.
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS, AND THE CON.
STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS.
A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of Engineering. By
W. K. BURTON, A.M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-
Works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With numerous Plates and
Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckram. [Just Published. 25|-
I. INTRODUCTORY..—II. DIFFERENT QUALITIES CHINERY.—XVII. FILow of WATER IN CONDUITS
By C. PRELINI, C.E., with Additions by C. S. HILL, C.E.
Royal 8vo, cloth. * Net 16|-
OF WATER.—III. QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE
PROvIDED.—IV. ON AscerTAINING wheth ER A
PROPOSED SOURCE OF SUPPLY Is SUFFICIENT.
—V. ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY
REQUIRED To BE PROVIDED.—VI. CLAssIFICA-
TION OF WATERw ORKs.—VII. IMPOUNDING RE-
sERvo.IRs. – VIII. EARTH work DAMs. – IX.
MAson RY DAMS.–X. THE PURIFICATION OF
VVATER.—XI. SETTLING RESERVoIRs.—XII. SAND
FILTRATION.—XIII. PURIFICATION OF WATER
BY ACTION OF IRON, SOFTENING OF WATER BY
ACTION OF LIME, NATURAL FILTRATION.—XIV.
SERVICE or CLEAN WATER RESERVOIRS–
VVATER Tow ERs—STAND PIPEs.—XV. THE CON-
NECTION OF SETTLING RESERVoIRS, FILTER BED's
AND SERVICE RESERVoIRs.—XVI. PUMPING MA-
—PIPES AND OPEN CHANNELs.-XVIII. DISTRI-
BUTION SYSTEMs.—XIX. SPECIAL PROVISIONS
For THE Extſ NCTION OF FIRE.-XX. PIPES FOR
WATER works.—XXI. PREven TIon OF WASTE
OF WATER.—XXII. VARIOUS APPLIANCES USED
IN CONNECTION witH WATERWORKS.
APPENDIx I. By PROF. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S.
—ConsIDERATION's conce RNING THE PROB-
ABLE EFFECTs of EARTHQUAKES ON WATER-
works, AND THE SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS TO
BE TAKEN IN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES.
By JOHN DE RIJ KE, C.E.-
SAND AS A
APPENDIX II.
ON SAND DUNEs AND DUNE
SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY.
“The chapter upon filtration of water is very complete, and the details of construction well illus-
trated.
The work should be specially valuable to civil engineers engaged in work in Japan,
but the interest is by no means confined to that locality.”—Engineer. * • * * *
“We congratulate the author upon the practical commonsense shown in the preparation of this
work.
The plates and diagrams have evidently been prepared with great care, and cannot
fail to be of great assistance to the student.”—Builder.
RURAL WATER SUPPLY.
A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of waterworks
for small Country Districts.
CURRY, A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S.
Crown 8vo, cloth
“We conscientiously recommend it as a very
By ALLAN GREEN well, A.M.I.C.E., and W. T.
With Illustrations.
Second Edition, Revised.
* g . 5/-
useful book for those concerned in obtaining water
for small districts, giving a great deal of practical information in a small compass.”—Builder.
“The volume contains valuable information upon all matters connected with water supply. .
It is full of details on points which are continually before waterworks engineers.”—Nature.
CZWZZ EvGAMEzz/wo, SURVEYING, &c. II
THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS.
By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.-M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E., Author of “Cast and
Wrought Iron Bridge Construction,” &c., &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates,
I Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and
containing 400 pages of Text.
in morocco º - e -
- LIST OF
I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SOME OF THE MEANS
THAT HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR THE SUPPLY OF
WATER To CITIES AND Towns.—II. WATER AND
THE FOREIGN MATTER USUALLY Associate D
witH IT.—III. RAIN FALL AND EVAPORATION.—
IV. SPRINGS AND THE WATER-BEARING FORMA-
TIONS OF VARIOUS DISTRICTs.-V. MEASUREMENT
AND ESTIMATION OF THE FLOW OF WATER.—
VI. ON THE SELECTION OF THE SOURCE OF
SUPPLY. — VII. WELLS.–VIII. RESERVOIRS.—
IX. THE PURIFICATION OF WATER.—X. PUMPs.
—XI. PUMPING MACHINERY.—XII. ConDUITs.—
CONTENTS.
Imp. 4to, elegantly and substantially half-bound
e [Net £6 6s.
XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER.—XIV. METERs,
SERVICE PIPES, AND HOUSE FITTINGS.–XV.
THE LAw AND EconoMY OF WATER Works.—
XVI. Constan T AND INTERMITTENT SUPPLY.-
XVII. DEscRIPTION OF PLATES.—APPENDICES,
GIVING TABLEs OF RATES OF SUPPLY, VELo-
CITIEs, &c., &c., Tog ETHER WITH SPECIFICA-
TIONS OF SEVERAL Works ILLUSTRATED, AMONG
which will BE Foun D : ABERDEEN, BIDEFORD,
CANTERBURY, DUNDEE, HALIFAx, LAMBETH,
Roth ERHAM, DUBLIN, AND OTHERS.
“The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or in any
other language.
Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness
much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises.”—Engineer.
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
A Practical Manual on the Concentration and Transmission of Power by
Hydraulic Machinery. By G. CROYDON MARKs, A.M.Inst.C.E. With nearly
2Oo Illustrations. 8vo, cloth .
Net 9|-
- e -
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICs.—THE FLOW OF
WATER. — HYDRAULIC PRESSURES.. — MATERIAL.
—TEST LOAD.—PACKING's For SLIDING SUR-
FACEs.-PIPE Joints.-CoNTROLLING VALVES.
—PLATFORM LIFTS.—WoRKSHOP AND Foun DRY
CRANEs. –WAREHOUSE AND DoCK CRANES. —
HYDRAULIC Accum ULATORs – PREsses For
BALING AND OTHER PURPoSES.–SHEET METAL-
“We have nothing but praise for this thoroughly valuable work.
work ING AND FoRGING MACHINERY.—HYDRAULIc
RIVETERs.—HAND AND Pow ER PUMPs.—STEAM
PUMPS.—TURBINES.–IMPULSE TURBINEs.—RE-
ACTION TURBINES.–DESIGN OF TURBINES IN
DETAIL. — WATER WHEELs. – HYDRAULIC EN-
GINES.—RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS.—PRESSURE OF
WATER.—ACTION OF PUMPs, &c.
The author has succeeded in
rendering his subject interesting as well as instructive.”—Practical Engineer.
“Can be unhesitatingly recommended as a useful and up-to-date manual on hydraulic transmission
and utilisation of power.”—Mechanical World.
HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, & FORMULAE.
For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and
Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall,
Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill
Power.
cloth
“It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness.”—A 1-chitect.
HYDRAULIC VIANUAL,
Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text.
Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations.
of “Aid to Survey Practice,” “Modern
Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, cloth
By JoHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, carefully
Revised, with considerable Additions.
Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
14|-
Intended as a Guide in
By Low Is D’A. JACKSON, Author
Metrology,” &c. Fourth Edition,
- 16|-
“The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this branch
of the engineer's profession.”—Engineering.
WATER ENGINEERING.
A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation
of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By
CHARLEs SLAGG, A.M.Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 7|6
“As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of water-
power, the work is in many respects excellent.”—Engineering.
“The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent
authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear
and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very carefully
and exhaustively.”—Builder. , - - - - . . . . - - - -
12 CROSBy A.OCA VOO/O & SOAV’.S CA 74 ZOG OAZ.
THE RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM TIDAL WATERS.
A Handbook for Engineers, Landed Proprietors, and others interested in Works
of Reclamation. By ALEx. BEAzELEy, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth Net 10/6
“The book shows in a concise way what has to be done in reclaiming land from the sea, and the
best way of doing it. The work contains a great deal of practical and useful information which cannot
fail to be of service to engineers entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to land owners
intending to reclaim land from the sea.”—The Engineer.
“The author has carried out his task efficiently and well, and his book contains a large amount of
information of great service to engineers and others interested in works of reclamation.”—Nature.
MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION.
Including numerous Formulae, Forms of Specification and Tender, Pocket
Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining Engineers. By C. F.
COURTNEY, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth. . * 9|-
“The volume contains a good deal of valuable data. . Many useful suggestions will be found in
the remarks on site and position, location of dam, foundations and construction.”—Building News.
RIVER BARS.
The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by “Induced Tidal Scour; ”
with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of the Bar at
Dublin. By I. J. MANN, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board.
Royal 8vo, cloth º e e * e e g * 7|6
“We recommend all interested in harbour works—and, indeed, those concerned in the improve-
ments of rivers generally—to read Mr. Mann's interesting work.”—Engineer.
TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION & WORKING.
Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System; with an exhaustive Analysis
of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, Steam, Cable
Traction, Electric Traction, &c.; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock;
and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly
Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction,
&c. &c. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. With 4oo Illustrations. 8vo,
780 pages, buckram . g * & * º - 28|-
“The new volume is one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested in
tramway working, with the author's world-famed book on railway machinery.”—The Equgineer.
SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS
AND SURVEYORS.
Including the Setting-Out of Works for Construction and Surveys Abroad, with
many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for use in the Field
and the Office, intended also as a Text-book for Students. By JoHN WHITE-
LAW, Jun., A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of “Points and Crossings.” With about 260
Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. - [Just Published. Net 10/6
“This work is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found of distinct value both
to students and to those engaged in actual practice.”—The Builder.
PRACTICAL SURVEYING.
A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in the
Colonies. By GEORGE W. USILL, A.M.I.C.E. With 4 Lithographic Plates and
upwards of 330 Illustrations. Seventh Edition. Including Tables of Natural Sines,
Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown 8vo, 7/6 cloth; or, on THIN PAPER, leather,
gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use . & & & * w 12|6
“The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of employ-
ment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his experience as
Surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student in his inexperience
will find most serviceable.”—Fngineer.
“The first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering.”—Architect.
AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE.
For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out; and in Route Surveys
of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By
LOWIS D'A. JACKSON, A.M.I.C.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, cloth 12/6
“Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend this book
as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor.”—Athenaeum.
“The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided
by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one.”—Builder.
CZWZZ ENGINEERING, SUAE VE V/AWG, &c. I3
SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER.
A Practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Surveyors.
Including two series of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of Readings
in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By NEIL KENNEDY, M.Inst.C.E.
With Diagrams and Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth e Net 10/6
“The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the way of any surveyor
desirous of making use of this useful and rapid instrument.”—Nature.
ENGINEER’S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK.
Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of
Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy
by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodo-
lite; Setting-out Curves with and without the Theodolite; Earthwork Tables,
&c. By W. DAvis HAskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition,
Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . e º 12/-,
“The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it
useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same.”—Athenæum.
LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING.
In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways; Canals, Rivers,
Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of
Surveying Instruments. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. Second Edition, Revised,
with Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . - - g * e & 9|-
“This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommending it,
feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study.”—Mechanical World.
“A most useful book for the student. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and
valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors.”—Builder.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING.
Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in the
Construction of Roads; with Mr. TELFORD's Rules for the same. By FREDERICK
W. SIMMs, M.Inst.C.E. Eighth Edition, with LAw's Practical Examples for
Setting-out Railway Curves, and TRAUTwſNE's Field Practice of Laying-out
Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo. e e 8/6
*...* TRAUTwin E on CURVEs may be had separate . * º tº gº 5|-
“The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges.”—Engineer.
“The publishers have rendered a substantial Service to the profession, especially to the younger
members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work.”—Engineering.
AN OUTLINE OF THE IVIETHOD OF CONDUCTING
A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY,
|For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military
Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, and
Tables. By Lieut.-General FROME, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly
Re-written by Major-General Sir CHARLES WARREN, G.C.M.G., R.E. With Ig
Plates and II 5 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, cloth e * 16|-
“No words of praise from us can strengthen the position. So well and so steadily maintained by
this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary
to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date.”—Broad Arrow.
TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES & MULTIPLES.
For Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By A. BEAZELEY, M.Inst.C.E.
Sixth Edition, Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for
Measuring up Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-
pocket size - t; § 3/6
“Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free
to manipulate the instrument—no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work.”—Engineer.
“Very handy: a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he
puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind.”—Athenaeum.
HANDY GENERAL EARTHWORK TABLES.
Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings and
Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use with either
66 feet Chain or Ioo feet Chain. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C.E. On a
Sheet mounted in cloth case, * s e * t g 3|6
I4 CA2O.S.BY ZOCATWOO/O & SOAV’.S CA 7TAZO GOVAE.
EARTHWORK TABLES.
Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights
or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By JosEPH BROADBENT, C.E., and
FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth º o - - * * 5|-
“The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three
elements, two of which are constant and one variable, is ingenious.”—Athenaeum.
A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK.
By ALEX. J. GRAHAM, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. I8mo,
cloth . - - . 2/6
THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS.
A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. WATson BUCK, M.Inst.C.E.,
Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, 8vo, cloth . 12|-
“Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and the observations on
the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates, will be found
of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession.”—Building News.
“Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time and
obviate many mistakes.”—Colliery Guardian.
CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION.
(A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. In
Three Parts—Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By WILLIAM HUMBER,
A.-M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Revised and much improved,
with II5 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and
numerous Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., imp. 4to, half-bound in morocco.
“A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to
elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very much enhance the instructive
worth of those illustrations.”—Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal.
“Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued—in which the most important bridges erected during
the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunel, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page,
Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in
great detail.”—Engineer.
ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES
(Practical and Theoretical). With 13 large Plates. By the late GEORGE
WATson BUCK, M.I.C.E. Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. WATson
BUCK, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating
the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. BARLow, M.I.C.E. Royal 8vo,
cloth . - 12|-
“The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it
would be impossible to consult a better.”—Engineer.
“Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the subject
of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and architect, on a
confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed.”—Building News. -
THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES
(A practical Treatise on). By JoHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial
8vo, cloth. . e º e e s . - - 8|-
GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS.
In their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders,
Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and
other Frameworks. By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. Containing Diagrams and
Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures.
Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth . e - - - * 16|-
“Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied.”—
Engineer.
gº The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much
care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well-selected
examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman.”—Athenaeum.
WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS.
A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of Wrought
Iron and Steel Girders, &c., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H.
WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C. E. On a Sheet . . o . . o tº 2|6.
CZWZZ ZAVGZAVZZZe/AWG, SUA' VZ YZWG, &c. I5
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation
and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures, and Curves. By E. W.
TARN, M.A., Architect. 8vo, cloth . e * 9|-
. “No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules
laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory.”—Scotsman.
THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES.
Or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of
Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By OLIVER BYRNE. Coloured Plates.
Crown 8vo, cloth. * e º e e * * * * & - e 3/6
HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS
In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of Formulae
and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Application,
&c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo,
with nearly Ioo Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth. g & e - * 7|6
“The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good.”—Athenaeum.
“We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers.”—English
Mechanic.
TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON.
Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights,
Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction. With Complete Working
Drawings. By WILLIAM GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere
School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, cloth. e & g 4/6
“This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of roof
trusses that no student need be ignorant of these matters.”—Practical Engineer.
THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK.
With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. SHEILDs, M.I.C.E.
8vo, cloth . & § º º & e & 5|-
A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF VIATERIALS.
With Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension
Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER BARLow, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by
his Sons, P. W. BARLow, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOw, F.R.S. , to which are
added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, and KIRKALDY; and Formulae
for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by WM. HuMBER, A.-M.Inst.
C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with Ig large Plates and numerous Woodcuts, cloth.
18|-
“Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank in º:
as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject.”—Engineer.
“As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every
civil engineer and practical mechanic.”—English Mechanic.
SAFE RAILWAY WORKING.
A Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention ; with a Descrip-
tion of Modern Appliances and Systems. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E.,
Vice-President and Consulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway
Servants. With Illustrations and Coloured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, cloth g † º & e * º 3/6
“A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers; and, in short, all who wish for information
On railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in “Safe Railway Working.’”—Railway Review.
“We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a
uniform code and practice is advocated.”—Herepath's Railway Journal.
“The author may be congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable
information on the principal questions affecting the safe working of railways.”—Railway Engineer.
EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT.
By JOHN KEILY, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. Crown
8vo, cloth . * * * & e. * * * * tº * º 3/6
“The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other
structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or architect can
find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books.”—Builder.
I6 CROSBY ZoCKTVooD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING.
Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, half-morocco, price £12 12s.
Each volume sold separately, as follows:—
FIRST SERIES, Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway,
Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.-M.Inst.C.E.,
&c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, Photographic
Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress,
Specifications, &c., half-morocco - e º - . £3 3s.
LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMS.
VICTORIA STATION AND Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. (8 PLATEs); SouTHPoRT PIER (2 PLATEs);
VICTORIA STATION AND Roof, L. C. & D. AND G. W. R. (6 PLATEs); Roof of CREMoRNE MUSIC
HALL ; BRIDGE over G. N. RAILwAY ; Roof of STATION, DUTCH RHENISH RAIL (2 PLATEs);
BRIDGE over THE THAMEs, WEST LoNDON ExtENSION RAILwAY (5 PLATEs); ARMOUR PLATES :
SUSPENSION BRIDGE, THAMEs (4 PLATEs); THE ALLEN ENGINE ; SUSPENSION BRIDGE, Avon
(3 PLATEs); UNDERGROUND RAILWAY (3 PLATES).
“Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in
a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for
many important engineering works.”—Engineer.
HUMBER'S MODERN ENGINEERING.
SEcoRD SERIES. Imperial 4to, with 3 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of
Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress,
Specifications, &c., half-morocco - - - e - . £3 3s:
LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMs.
BIRKEN HEAD Docks, Low WATER BASIN (15 PLATEs); CHARING CRoss STATION Roof, C. C.
RAILwAY (3 PLATEs); DIGSweLL VIADUCT, GREAT NorthERN RAILwAY ; Rob BERY WooD VIADUCT,
GREAT NORTHERN RAILw AY ; IRoN PERMANENT WAY ; CLYDACH VIADUCT ; MERTHYR, TREDEGAR,
AND ABERGAVENNY RAILwAY ; EBB w VIADUCT, MERTHYR, TREDEGAR, AND ABERG Aven NY RAILwAY ;
CoLLEGE WooD VIADUCT, CORN wall, RAILwAY ; DUBLIN WINTER PALACE ROOF (3 PLATEs);
BRIDGE over THE THAMES, L. C. AND D. RAILWAY (6 PLATEs); ALBERT HARBOUR, GREENock
(4 PLATES). -
“Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he
has here brought before the profession and the public.”—Practical Mechanic's Journal.
HUIVIBER'S VIODERIN ENGINEERING.
THIRD SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 4o Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R.
M“Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifica-
tions, &c., half-morocco , - m - e £3. 3s.
LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMs.
MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIs.—North Side.—MAP show ING INTERCEPTION OF SEWERs; MIDDLE
LEVEL SEw ER (2 PLATEs); OUTFALL SEwBR, BRIDGE OVER RIVER LEA (3 PLATEs); OUTFALL
SEw ER, BRIDGE over MARSH LANE, North Woolwich RAILWAY, AND BOW AND BARKING
RAILWAY JUNCTION ; OUTFALL SEw ER, BRIDGE over Bow AND BARKING RAILWAY (3 PLATEs);
OUTFALL SEw ER, BRIDGE over EAST LoNDoN WATERwo RKs' FEEDER (2 PLATEs) ; OUTFALL
SEw ER RESERVoIR (2 PLATEs); OUTFALL SEw ER, TUMBLING BAY AND OUTLET ; OUTFALL SEWER,
PENSTocks. South Side.—CUTFALL SEwer, BERMon Ds EY BRANCH (2 PLATEs); OUTFALL SEWER,
RESERVoIR AND OUTLET (4 PLATEs); OUTFALL SEwBR, FILTH HOLST ; SECTIONs of SEWERs
(North AND SouTH SIDEs).
THAMEs EMBANKMENT.—SECTION OF RIVER WALL ; STEAM BoAT PIER, WESTMINSTER (2
PLATEs); LANDING STAIRS BETween CHARING CRoss AND WATERLOO BRIDGES ; York GATE
(2 PLATEs); OverFLow AND OUTLET AT SAvoy STREET SEw ER (3 PLATEs); STEAMBOAT PIER,
WATERLOO BRIDGE (3 PLATEs); JUNCTION OF SEw ERs, PLANS AND SECTIONS ; GULLIES, PLANs,
AND SECTIONs ; Rolling STOCK ; GRANITE AND IRoN ForTs.
“The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear representa-
tions of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber's
volume.”—Engineer.
HUMBER'S MODERN ENGINEERING.
FOURTH SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of
John Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifi-
cations, &c., half-morocco . º - - e £3. 3s.
LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMs.
ABBEY MILLS PUMPING STATION, MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPolis (4 PLATEs); BARRow Docks
(5 PLATEs); MAN QUIS VIADUCT, SANTIAGO AND VALPARAIso RAILwAY (2 PLATEs); ADAM’s LocoMo-
TIVE, ST. HELEN's CANAL RAILWAY (2 PLATEs); CANNoN STREET STATION Roof, CHARING CRoss
RAILWAY (3 PLATES); ROAD BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER Mo KA (2 PLATEs); TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS
FOR MESOPOTAMIA ; VIADUCT over THE RIVER WYE, MIDLAND RAILwAY (3 PLATEs); ST. GERMANs
VIADUCT, CORN wall, RAILwAY (2 PLATEs); WRoughT-IRoN CYLINDER For DIvi NG BELL ; MILL-
WALL DOCKS (6 PLATES); MILROY's PATENT ExcAvATOR ; METROPOLITAN DISTRICT RAILWAY
(6 PLATES); HARBOURS, Ports, AND BREAKw ATERs (3 PLATEs).
“We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr.
Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its usefulness in
giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by
the most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly prized.”—Artizan.
A/A/e/AVAE AEAVGZAVZZACAVG, AVA V/GA ZZOAV, & c. 17
MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING,
NAVIGATION, ETC.
THE NAVAL ARCHITECT’S AND SHIPBUILDER'S
POCKET-BOOK
Of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy
Book of Reference. By CLEMENT MACKRow, M.I.N.A. Eighth Edition, care-
fully Revised and Enlarged. Feap., leather. [Just Published. Net 12/6
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
SIGNS AND SYM Bols, DECIMAL FRACTIONs.—TRIGono METRY.—PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.-MEN-
surATION.—CENTRES AND MOMENTS OF FIGURES.—MoMENTs of . INERTIA AND RAD II GYRATION.—
ALGEBRAICAL ExPRESSION's For SIMPson's RULEs.--MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES.–CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
—LAws OF MOTION.—DIsPLACEMENT, CENTRE OF BUoyANCY.—CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SHIP's HULL.
—STABILITY CURVES AND METACENTREs.--SEA AND SHALLow-water WAVES.—ROLLING OF SHIPs.-
PROPULSION AND RESISTANCE of VEssELs.-SPEED TRIALs.-SAILING, CENTRE OF EFFORT.-
DISTANCES Dow N RIVERs, CoAst LINEs.-STEERING AND RUDDERS OF VESSELS.—LAUNCHING
CALCULATIONS AND VELocITIES.—WEIGHT OF MATERIAL AND GEAR.—GUN PARTICULARS AND
WEIGHT.-STANDARD GAUGEs.-RIvETEO Joints AND RIvETING.—STRENGTH AND TESTs OF
MATERIALs.—BINDING AND SHEARING STRESSEs, ET.c.—STRENGTH OF SHAFTING, PILLARS, WHEELS,
ET.c.—HYDRAULIC DATA, ETC.—Con IC SECTIONs, CATENARIAN CURVEs.—MECHANICAL Pow ERs,
WoRK.—BoARD OF TRADE REGULATION's For BoILERs AND ENGINEs.-BoARD OF TRADE REGULA-
TIONS FOR SHIPs.-LLoy D's RULEs For BoILERs.-LLoy D's WEIGHT OF CHAINs.—LLOYD'S SCANT-
LING's For SHIPs.--DATA OF ENGINEs AND VEssels.-SHIPs' FITTINGS AND TESTs.-SEASONING
PRESERVING TIMBER.—MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER.—ALLoys, PAINTs, VARNISHES.–DATA FOR
STowAGE. — ADMIRALTY TRANSPORT REGULATIONs. – RULEs For HoRSE-Powe R, SCREw PRO-
PELLERs, Etc.—PERCENTAGEs For BUTT STRAPs, ETc.—PARTICULARs of YACHTS.–MASTING AND
RIGGING VESSELs.—DISTANCEs OF FOREIGN PORTs.—Ton NAGE TABLES.–VOCABULARY OF FRENCH
AND ENGLISH TERMs.—ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASUREs.-Foreig N WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.—
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTs.—lºor EIGN Mon Ey.—DIsco UNT AND WAGE TABLEs.-USEFUL NUMBERS AND
READY RECKONERs.-TABLEs of CIRCULAR MEASUREs.-TABLEs of AREAs of AND CIRCUMFERENCES
OF CIRCLES.–TABLES OF AREAs of SEGMENTs of CIRCLEs.—TABLEs OF SQUARES AND CUBES AND
ROOTS OF NUMBERs.--TABLEs of Log ARITHMs of NUMBERs.-TABLEs of HYPERBOLIC Log ARITHMs.
—TABLEs of NATURAL SINEs, TANGENTs, ET.c.—TABLEs of Log ARITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, ETC.
“In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value. It contains a vast
amount of information. We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation for its specific
purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, seaman, wood or iron
shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work.”—Nautical Magazine.
“Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . . . Will be
found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected from
the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form. The book is one of exceptional
merit.”—Engineer. .
“The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for
Solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work.”—Iron.
“There is no doubt that a pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the shipbuilding
trade. . . . The volume contains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and presented in
a handy form.”—Marine Engineer.
WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER’S GUIDE
To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Containing
all latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct Solutions;
302 Elementary Questions with Illustrated Answers, and Verbal Questions and
Answers; complete Set of Drawings with Statements completed. By A. C.
WANNAN, C.E., Consulting Engineer, and E. W. I. WANNAN, M.I.M.E.,
Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. Illustrated with numerous Engrav-
ings. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 500 pages. Large crown 8vo,
cloth. [Just Published. Net 10/6
“The book is clearly and plainly written and avoids unnecessary explanations and formulas, and
we consider it a valuable book for students of marine engineering.”—Nautical Magazine.
“This is an excellent book. The young engineer with the world before him could hardly make a
sounder base. The feature of the volume is its simplicity.”—Glasgow Herald.
“The work covers all points on which information is indispensable, and does so in a manner
which affords those who go to it for guidance an opportunity of not only gaining knowledge, but of
testing to what extent they have succeeded in mastering the multifarious details with which the
volume abounds.”—Scotsman.
WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER’S POCKET-BOOK.
Containing latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. By
A. C. WANNAN, C.E. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up to
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B
I8 CROSBy Zock WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS
(Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages. (English-
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builders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. PIRRIE, late of the
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ELECTRIC SHIP LIGHTING.
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the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians and Sea-going
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MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK, -
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ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING.
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Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction
and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. With an
Appendix of Useful Tables. By JOHN SHERREN BREWER, Government Marine
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THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING.
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M/AW/AWG, MAE 7.4// URGY, AAWD COZZZZZºº Y WORA /AVG. I9
MINING, METALLURGY, AND
COLLIERY WORKING.
MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES.
A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists and Managers of
Mines. By E. HENRY DAv1Es, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with Folding Plates
and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 25|-
WATER AS A MoTIVE Power. — WIND ENGINES AND VENTILATING MACHINERY. — STEAM
BoILERS, STEAM ENGINES, AND OIL ENGINEs.-HorsTING MACHINERY.—THE DRAINAGE OF MINES
AND PUMPING MACHINERY.—Rock DRILLING MACHINERY.—Bor1NG MACHINERY.—CoARSE Con-
CENTRATION MACHINERY.—SIZING AND CLAssi FICATION TROMMELS.–JIGGERS AND JIGGING.—
MACHINERY FOR FINE CONCENTRATION.—THE MILLING OF GOLD OREs.—THE MILLING OF SILVER
ORES.—AMALGAMATING PLATES AND MACHINERY. — DRYING AND ROASTING MACHINERY.—THE
CHLORINATION AND CYANIDE PRocess Es For THE Extraction of GoLD.—ConcENTRATION MILLs
oR DRESSING FLOORS FOR THE OREs of LEAD, ZINC, CoPPER, ETc.—OTHER METHODs of Con-
CENTRATION, THE WORKING OF MILLs, ETC.—ELECTRICITY As A MoTIVE Power For MINING
MACHINERY.—ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND ELECTRIC BLASTING.—AERIAL WIRE RoPEwAYS AND WIRE
RoPEs.—TRANSPORT BY RAIL AND RoAD. - - - -
“Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which go to make up the sum total of
machinery and other requirements for the successful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of
ready reference is of the highest value to mine managers and directors.”—Mining Journal.
“Mr. Davies has done the advanced student and the manager of mines good service. Almost every
kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, and the woodcuts and plates are good.”—Athenaeum.
THE DEEP LEVEL VIINES OF THE RAND
AND THEIR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT.
Considered from the Commercial Point of View. By G. A. DENNY (of Johannes-
burg), M.N.E.I.M.E., Consulting Engineer to the General Mining and Finance
Corporation, Limited, of London, Berlin, Paris, and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated
with Diagrams and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, buckram. [Just Published. Net 25|-
“Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the deep-level mines of the
Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the subject rather from a commercial standpoint than
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value to investors in South African mines.”—Mining Journal. wº
“Will interest all who are concerned in any way with the Witwatersrand Goldfields.”—The Times.
PROSPECTING FOR GOLD, :
A Handbook of Practical Information and Hints for Prospectors based on
Personal Experience. By DANIEL J. RANKIN, F.R.S.G.S., M.R.A.S., formerly
Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of African Gold Pros-
pecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the
Work. FCap. 8vo, leather. [Just Published. Net 716
“This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of useful knowledge for the
prospector's benefit. A special table is given to accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals
associated with gold.”—Mining Journal.
THE METALLURGY OF GOLD.
A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores.
Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. E.IssLER,
M.Inst...M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 3oo Illustrations and
Numerous Folding Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 21|-
“This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ‘Practical Treatise.” The whole process of gold
mining, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly
narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail.”—Saturday Review. -
“The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it to all
professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry.”—Mining Journal. .
THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION.
And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and elsewhere.
By M. EISSLER, M.Inst...M.M. With Diagrams and Working Drawings. Third
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 7/6
“This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual working of a process
which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extraction of
gold from tailings.”—Mining Journal.
DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS.
A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core-Drills in Prospect-
ing and Exploiting Mineral-bearing Properties, including Particulars of the Cost
of Apparatus and Working. By G. A. DENNY, M.N.E.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.M.M.
Medium 8vo, I68 pp., with Illustrative Diagrams . ſº & tº 12/6
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B 2
2O - CAEOSAE Y ZOCA WOOD & SOAV'S CATAZOGUE.
FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER.
A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. MERRITT,
M.N.E.Inst.M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other Illustra-
tions. Foap. 8vo, leather. s Net 5/-
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information likely to be most valuable to the miner in the field. The contents cover all the details of
sampling and testing gold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospector's kit.”—Mining Journal.
THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. *
A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other
Valuable Minerals. By J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S. Ninth Edition.
Small crown 8vo, 3/6 cloth ; or, leather, pocket-book form, with tuck . . 4/6
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mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine.”—Engineer.
“How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading
points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical detail into
inis pages as would supply material for a book three times its size.”—Mining Journal.
THE METALLURGY OF SILVER.
A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver
Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By
M. E.Issler, M.Inst...M.M. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth e . 10/6
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amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected
with the industries.”—Mining Journal.
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“For chemists, practical miners, assayers, and investors alike, we do not know of any work on the
subject so handy and yet so comprehensive.”—Glasgow Herald.
THE HYDRO-METALLURGY OF COPPER.
Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical Treatment
of Cupriferous Ores, including the Manufacture of Copper Vitriol. With
Chapters on the Sources of Supply of Copper and the Roasting of Copper
Ores. By M. E.IssLER, M.Inst. M.M. Medium 8vo, cloth.
[Just Published. Net 1216
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detailed. . . . Costs are given when available, and a great deal of useful information about the
copper industry of the world is presented in an interesting and attractive manner. . . . A very
welcome addition to the literature of copper.”—Mining Journal.
THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS, LEAD.
A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of
Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and
Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America.
By M. E.IssLER, M.Inst.M.M., Author of “The Metallurgy of Gold,” &c.
Crown 8vo, 4oo pp., with 183 Illustrations, cloth . t & ſº . 12/6
“The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace all the
stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery
as an article of commerce.”—Practical Engineer.
“The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author. Those who wish to obtain a
thorough insight into the present state of this industry cannot do better than read this volume, and all
mining engineers cannot fail to find many useful hints and suggestions in it.”—Industries.
METALLIFEROUS IVIINERALS AND MINING.
By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged
by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with 173 Illustrations.
Large crown 8vo, cloth. Net 12/6
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for his companion and his guide.”—Miſting Journal.
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it supplies an actual want.”—Athenaeu11t.
EARTHY AND OTHER IVIINERALS AND MINING.
By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Author of “Metalliferous Minerals,” &c. Third
Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S.
With about Ioo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . e * . 12/6
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same amount of information packed in equally convenient form.”—Academy.
BRITISH MINING. -
A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future
Prospects of Metalliferous. Mines in the United Kingdom. By RoPERT HUNT,
F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustra-
tions. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth g g 332 2s.
AZZZVZAVG, MA. Z.AZZ UAEG Y, AAVZ) COZZZZZº Y WOA’ATAVG. 2 I
POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS & METALLURGIST.S.
Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes, for Use in Field and Office
Work. By F. DANVERs Power, F.G.S., M.E. Second Edition, Corrected.
Foap. 8vo, leather . - - e & - te 9|-
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English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers.”—Engineering.
THE MINER'S HANDBOOK.
A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining
Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested in
Mining matters. Compiled by JoHN MILNE, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the
Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. FCap. 8vo, leather . 7/6
“Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with mining, and
will be extremely popular among students.”—Athenaeum.
IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND :
Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for
and Working them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By
J. D. KENDALL, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. Crown 8vo, cloth . - . 16|-
MINE DRAINAGE.
A Complete Practical Treatise on Direct-acting Underground Steam Pumping
Machinery. By STEPHEN MICHELL. Second Edition, Re-written and Enlarged,
With 250 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth. Net 25/-
HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES-ROTARY AND NON-ROTARY Horizon TAL ENGINEs—
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STEAM PUMPs—VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINES-RotARY AND NON-
ROTARY VERTICAL ENGINEs—SIMPLE AND CoM Poun D STEAM PUMPs—TRIPLE-ExPANSIon STEAM
PUMPS–PULSATING STEAM PUMPs—PUMP VALVEs—SINKING PUMPs, &c., &c.
“This volume contains an immense amount of important and interesting new matter. The book
should undoubtedly prove of great use to all who wish for information on the subject.”—The Engineer.
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING.
By ARNOLD LUPTON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of Coal
Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer and
Colliery Manager ; G. D. As PINALL PARR, M.I.E.E., A. M.I.M.E., Associate of
the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London, Head of the
Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University;
and HERBERT PERKIN, M.I.M.E., Certificated Colliery Manager, Assistant
Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University.
With about I70 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 9|-
(For SUMMARY OF CONTENTS, see page 23.)
THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK.
A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries,
Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of
Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By CALEB PAMELY,
Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers; and Member of the South Wales Institute
of Mining Engineers. With 7oo Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations.
Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 964 pp. Medium 8vo, cloth . 25/-
GEology.—SEARCH For CoAL.—MINERAL LEASEs AND OTHER HOLDINGS.–SHAFT SINKING.-
FITTING UP THE SHAFT AND SURFACE ARRANGEMENTs.-STEAM BOILERS AND THEIR FITTINGS.—
TIMBERING AND WALLING.—NARRow Work AND METHODs of WoRKING-UNDERGROUND CONVEY-
ANCE.-DRAINAGE.--THE GASEs MET witH IN MINEs ; VENTILATION.—ON THE FRICTION OF AIR IN
MINES.–THE PRIEST MAN OIL ENGINE ; PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS.–SURVEYING AND PLAN-
NING-SAFETY LAMPS AND FIRE-DAMP DETECTORs.-SUN DRY AND INCIDENTAL OPERATIONS AND
APPLIANCEs.-Collie Ry ExPLoSIONs.—MrscELLANEOUs QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.—Appendix :
SUMMARY OF REPORT OF H.M. CoMMIssion ERs on AccIDENTS IN MINEs.
“Mr. Pamely's work is eminently suited to the purpose for which it is intended—being clear,
interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest machines in every
department. A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed this work.”—Colliery Guardian.
“Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order, Suitable
to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but has also provided mining students
with a class-book that is as interesting as it is instructive.”—Colliery Manager.
“This is the most complete ‘all-round' work on coal-mining published in the English language.
. . . No library of coal-mining books is complete without it.”—Colliery Engineer (Scranton, Pa., U.S.A.).
22 . CAEOSAE Y ZOCATWOOZ) & SOAV’S CA 74/OGOE.
COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAGEMENT.
Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrangement
of Labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal Seams. By
H. F. BULMAN and R. A. S. REDMAYNE. 350 pages, with 28 Plates and other
Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. Medium 8vo, cloth 15|-
“This is, indeed, an admirable Handbook for Colliery Managers, in fact, it is an indispensable
adjunct to a Colliery Manager's education, as well as being a most useful and interesting work on the
subject for all who in any way have to do with coal mining. The underground photographs are an
attractive feature of the work, being very life-like and necessarily true representations of the scenes
they depict.”—Colliery Guardian. -
“Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne, who are both experienced Colliery. Managers of great literary
ability, are to be congratulated on having supplied an authoritative work dealing with a side of the
subject of coal mining which has hitherto received but scant treatment. The authors elucidate their
text by 119 woodcuts and 28 plates, most of the latter being admirable reproductions of photographs
taken underground with the aid of the magnesium flash-light. These illustrations are excellent.”—
Nature. -
COAL AND COAL IVIINING,
By the late Sir WARINGTON W. SMyTH, M.A., F.R.S., Chief Inspector of the
Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Eighth Edition, Revised
and Extended by T. ForstER BROwn, Mining and Civil Engineer, Chief
Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Crown
8vo, cloth . te t e & tº & º gº e i.e. e . 3/6
“As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the
principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers.”—
Miłiing Journal.
NOTES AND FORMULAE FOR MINING STUDENTS,
By JoHN HERMAN MERIVALE, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and
Enlarged, by H. F. BULMAN, A.M.Inst.C.E. Small crown 8vo, cloth. . 2/6
“The author, has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be of
service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations.”—Engineer.
INFLAMMABLE GAS AND VAPOUR IN THE AIR
(The Detection and Measurement of). By FRANK CLOWEs, D.Sc., Lond., F.I.C.
With a Chapter on THE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF PETROLEUM VAPOUR,
by Boverton REDwooD, F.R.S.E., Consulting Adviser to the Corporation of
London under the Petroleum Acts. Crown 8vo, cloth te e Net 5/-
“Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial importance. . . .
Those interested in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of compre-
hension and contains many good things.”—The E11gineer.
COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal,
with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special
Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams;
Analyses of each Variety; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron
Manufacture. By RICHARD MEADE. 8vo, cloth . º ſº º . 28/-
“Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. . . . .
A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his library.”—
Iron and Coal Trades' Review. -
ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC.
Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Rob ERT H. Jon Es, F.S.A.,
Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With Ten
Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth g g . 16|-
“An interesting and invaluable work.”—Colliery Guardian.
GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES.
By GEORGE F. HARRIs, F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/6
TRAVERSE TABLES.
For use in Mine Surveying. By WILLIAM LINTERN, C.E. With two Plates.
Small crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 3|-
AZACTRZCZ 7"Y, ZZZCTA/CAZ AENG/WAEAEA'ZAVG, &c. 23
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, ETC.
THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
A First Year's Course for Students. By Tyson SEWELL, A.I.E.E., Assistant
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic, Regent
Street, London. With upwards of 200 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth.
[Just Published. Net 7/6
OHM’s LAw.—UNITs EMPLOYED IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.— SERIES AND PARALLEL
CIRCUITs; CURRENT DENSITY AND POTENTIAL DROP IN THE CIRCUIT.--THE HEATING EFFECT of
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT.—THE MAGNETIC EFFECT of AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.--THE MAGNETISA-
TION OF IRoN.— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY ; . . PRIMARY BATTERIES. — ACCUMULATORS. – INDICATING
INSTRUMENTs ; AMMETERS, VolTMETERs, OHMMETERs.-ELECTRICITY SUPPLY METERs.—MEASURING
INSTRUMENTs, AND THE MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.-MEASUREMENT OF PotentIAL
DIFFERENCE, CAPACITY, CURRENT STRENGTH, AND PERMEABILITY..—ARC LAMPS.–INCANDESCENT
LAMPS ; MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION ; PHOTOMETRY.--THE CONTINUO US CURRENT DYNAMO.
—DIRECT CURRENT MoToRs.
“An excellent treatise for students of the elementary facts connected with electrical
engineering.”—The Electrician.
“Distinctly one of the best books for those commencing the study of electrical engineering.
º is explained in simple language which even a beginner cannot fail to understand.”—The
ngtºneer.
“One welcomes this book, which is sound in its treatment, and admirably calculated to give
students the knowledge and information they most require.”—Nature.
CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line Con-
struction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A. C. PERRINE, A.M.,
D.Sc. ; formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering, Leland Stanford, Jr.,
University; Member American Institute Electrical Engineers. Demy 8vo,
cloth. [Just Published. Net 20/-
CoNDUCTOR MATERIALS-ALLOYED CONDUCTORs—MANUFACTURE OF WIRE-WIRE-FINISHING—
WIRE INSULATION.—CABLES-CALCULATION OF CIRCUITs—KELVIN's LAw of EconoMY IN ConDUc-
ToRs—MULTIPLE ARC DISTRIBUTION.—ALTERNATING CURRENT CALCULATION.—Over HEAD LINEs—
Pole LINE–LINE INSULATORS–UNDERGROUND CONDUCTORS.
ARMA.RE WINDINGS OF DIRECT CURRENT DY-
Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule. By E. ARNOLD,
Engineer. Assistant Professor in Electrotechnics and Machine Design at the
Riga Polytechnic School. Translated from the Original German by FRANCIS
B. DE GREss, M.E., Chief of Testing Department, Crocker-Wheeler Company.
With 146 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. - [Just Published. Net 12|-
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING.
By ARNOLD LUPTON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of
Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer
and Colliery Manager ; G. D. AsPINALL PARR, M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E.,
Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London, Head
of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria Univer-
sity; and HERBERT PERKIN, M.I.M.E., Certificated Colliery Manager,
Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria
University. With about I70 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth.
- . [Just Published. Net 9|-
INTRODUCTory.—DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. —DRIVING OF THE DYNAMo.—THE STEAM TURBINE.
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY.—STARTING AND STOPPING ELECTRICAL GENERATORS AND
MoToRs. –ELECTRIC CABLEs.—CENTRAL ELECTRICAL PLANTs.—ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO PUMPING
AND HAULING...—ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO COAL-CUTTING...—TYPICAL ELECTRIC PLANT'S RECENTLY
ERECTED.—ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY ARC AND GLOW LAMPS.—MISCELLANEOUs APPLICATIONS OF
ELECTRICITY.-ELECTRICITY As CoMPARED witH OTHER MoDEs of TRANSMITTING Power.—
DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY.
24 CAEOSA Y ZOCATWOOZ) & SOAV'S CATAZOGUE.
DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: ITS CONSTRUCTION,
DESIGN, AND OPERATION.
By SAMUEL SHELDON, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Physics and Electrical
Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by HOBART
MASON, B.S,
In two volumes, sold separately, as follows :-
Vol. I.—DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES. Third Edition, Revised. Large
Crown 8vo. 280 pages, with 200 Illustrations.
[Just Published. Net 12|-
Vol. II.—ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES. Large Crown 8vo.
260 pages, with 184 Illustrations. [Just Published. .Net 12|-
gº Designed as Text-books for use in Technical Educational Institutions, and by Engineers whose
work includes the handling of Direct and Alternating Current Machines respectively, and for
Students proficient in mathematics.
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS.
For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, and all
others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricity and Magnetism.
By A. A. ATKINson, Professor of Electricity in Ohio University. Crown 8vo,
cloth. [Just Published. Net 9|-
“To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their subject we can recommend
this book as being useful to consult when requiring data or formulae which it is neither convenient
nor necessary to retain by memory.”—The Electrician. -
HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF ELECTRICIANS
In the Operation and Care of Electrical Machinery and Apparatus of the U. S.
Sea-coast Defences. By GEO. L. ANDERSON, A.M., Captain U. S. Artillery.
Prepared under the direction of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the
Army. Royal 8vo, cloth. - [Just Published. Net 21|-
SUBIVIARINE TELEGRAPHS.
Their History, Construction and Working. Founded in part on WüNSCHEN-
DoRFF's “Traité de Télégraphie Sous Marine,” and Compiled from Authoritative
and Exclusive Sources. By CHARLEs BRIGHT, F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E.
780 pp., fully illustrated, including maps and folding plates. Royal 8vo, cloth.
Net £3 3s.
“There are few, if any, persons more fitted to write a treatise on submarine telegraphy than Mr.
Charles Bright. He has done his work admirably, and has written in a way which will appeal as
much to the layman as to the engineer. This admirable volume must for many years to come hold the
position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy.”—Engineer.
“This book is full of information. It makes a book of reference which should be in every engineer's
library.”—Nature.
“Mr. Bright's interestingly written and admirably illustrated book will meet with a welcome
reception from cable men.”—Electrician. *
“The Author deals with his subject from all points of view—political and strategical as well as
scientific—the work will be of interest not only to men of science, but to the general public. We can
strongly recommend it.”—Athenaeum.
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER’S POCKET-BOOK.
Consisting of Modern Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. By H. R. KEMPE,
M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer, Postal Telegraphs, Author of
“A Handbook of Electrical Testing,” &c. Second Edition, Thoroughly Revised,
with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather 5|-
“It is the best book of its kind.”—Electrical Engineer.
“The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book is a good one.”—Electrician. e
“Strongly recommended to those engaged in the electrical industries.”—Electrical Review.
POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY.
And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction.
By P. ATKINson, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, fully Revised, and New Matter
added. With 94 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. Net 9|-
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
By PHILIP ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of “Elements of Static Electricity,”
&c. Crown 8vo, 4I'7 pp., with I2O Illustrations, cloth. . * & . 10/6
A ZA, C 7/8/C/7 V, Z, ZA, CZ"R/CA / ZAVG/WAEAEA’/AVG, &c. 25
THE . IVIANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS,
A Handybook of Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers,
Students and others in Charge of Dynamos. By G. W. LUMMIS-PATERSON.
Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 4/6
“An example which deserves to be taken as a model by other authors. The subject is treated in a
manner which any intelligent man who is fit to be entrusted with charge of an engine should be able to
understand. It is a useful book to all who make, tend or employ electric machinery.”—Architect.
THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.
A Popular Encyclopaedia of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical
Engineering. Containing upwards of 3,000 Definitions. By T. O'CONOR SLOANE,
A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, with Appendix. Crown 8vo, 690 pp., 390
Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. Net 716
“The work has many attractive features in it, and is, beyond doubt, a well put together and useful
publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index about
5,ooo references will be found.”—Electrical Review.
ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING.
A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on
Installation Management. By J. W. URQUHART, Electrician, Author of “Electric
Light,” &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised, with
Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth . s & * & 5|-
“This volume deals with the mechanics of electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are
already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses a great deal of ground, and
may be read as a sequel to the author's useful work on ‘Electric Light.’”—Electrician.
“The book is well worth the perusal of the workman, for whom it is written.”—Electrical Review.
ELECTRIC LIGHT.
Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of
Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By
J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
“The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered and explained in a very clear and
concise manner.”—Electrical Review. & e
“A vade-ºnecum of the salient facts connected with the science of electric lighting.”—Electrician.
DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. -
A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer Constructors and Electricians-in-
Charge. Embracing Framework Building, Field Magnet and Armature Winding
and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. URQUHART. Second Edition,
Enlarged. With II4 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . s tº $ 7/6
“Mr. Urquhart's book is the first one which deals with these matters in such a way that the
engineering student can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads his readers
up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple tests.”—Engineering Review.
ELECTRIC SHIP-LIGHTING.
A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ship's Electrical Plant.
For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Sea-going
Engineers in Charge. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Second Edition. Revised
and Extended. With 88 Illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth . e º † 7|6
“The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance, and Mr. Urquhart is to be highly
complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of marine electricians.”—The Steamship.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF).
By ALAN A. CAMPBELL Sw1NTON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. Fourth Edition,
Revised. With Sixteen Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth e * g 116
ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES.
A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with
Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. KNIGHT. Third
Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, wrapper. [Just Published. 1|-
HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO.
A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustrations and Detailed
Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light.
By ALFRED CROFTs. Sixth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth * 2|-
THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY.
By H. M. NOAD, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 9|-
26 CROSAE V ZOCATWOOZ) & SOAV'S CATAZOGUE.
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC.
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.
A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference
for Persons Engaged in Building. By JOHN PARNELL ALLEN, Surveyor,
Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-
on-Tyne. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 450 pages, with
I,ooo Illustrations, cloth. . º - º º e e - º * 7|6
‘The most complete exposition of building construction we have seen. It contains all that is .
necessary to prepare students for the various examinations in building construction.”—Building News.
“The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest the
hand of a man of experience in building operations—and the volume must be a blessing to many
teachers as well as to students.”—The A1 chitect. .
“The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids fair
to take a permanent place as a favourite student's text-book. The large number of illustrations deserve
particular mention for the great merit they possess for purposes of reference, in exactly corresponding
to convenient scales.”—Jour. Inst. Brit. A "chts. - -
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting-out,
and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Pendentives,
Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c. For the Use of Students, Masons, and otherWork-
men. By WILLIAM R. PURCHASE, Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove.
Third Edition, with Glossary of Terms. Royal 8vo, 142 pages, with 52 Litho-
graphic Plates, comprising 4oo separate Diagrams, cloth º - * 7|6
“Mr. Purchase's “Practical Masonry' will undoubtedly be found useful to all interested in this
important subject, whether theoretically or practically. Most of the examples given are from actual
work carried out, the diagrams being carefully drawn. The book is a practical treatise on the subject,
the author himself having commenced as an operative mason, and afterwards acted as foreman mason
on many large and important buildings prior to the attainment of his present position. It should be
found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to those to whom it is specially
addressed.”—Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. -
MODERN PLUMBING,
STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING.
A New Practical Work for the Plumber, the Heating Engineer, the Architect,
and the Builder. By J. J. LAwLER, Author of “American Sanitary Plumbing,”
&c. With 284 Illustrations and Folding Plates. 4to, cloth. . . Net 21|-
CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES.
A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By GEORGE
L. SUTCLIFFE, A.R.I.B.A. 350 pages, with Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
“The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The manual fills a long felt gap. It is
careful, and exhaustive; equally useful as a student's guide and an architect's book of reference.”—
Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects. -
LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK FOR 1903.
A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders,
Architects, Engineers, and Contractors. Re-constructed, Re-written, and
Greatly Enlarged. By FRANCIS T. W. MILLER. 8oo closely-printed pages,
Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 4|-
... “This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in every English office connected with the
building and engineering professions.”—Industries. “An excellent book of reference.”—Architect.
. . In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a work of this kind should be—comprehensive,
reliable, well arranged, legible, and well bound.”—British Architect.
DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERs, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an
EXAMINATION OF GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, by JosepH Gwilt, F.S.A. Revised
and Edited by W. H. LEEDs. 66 Plates, 4to, cloth . * Q . . . . 21|-
A RCA//7ZCTUAEA, AE UZZZO/AWG, &’c. 27
THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE.
A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects.
By E. W. TARN, M.A., Author of “The Science of Building,” &c. Second
Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with 125 Diagrams. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7|6
“The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechanics.”—Builder.
A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline
Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKEs, Architect, Author of “The Spires
and Towers of England,” &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half-morocco, gilt edges £1 11s. 6d.
“The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they
will prove very valuable and suggestive.”—Building News.
THE ARCHITECT’S GUIDE.
Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors,
Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c., &c. By F. RogERs. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE.
The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large
House in Linear Perspective, Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O.
FERGUson. Third Edition. 8vo, boards. [Just Published. 3/6
“It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-treated subject that I have met with.”—
E. INGRESS BELL, Esq., in the R.I.B.A. Journal. -
PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING.
For the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By GEORGE
PYNE. I4 Plates, 4to, boards . e e & º g g s . 7/6
MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS’ WORK
(The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for taking
Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with
Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas
and Solidities. Originally edited by E. Dobson, Architect. With Additions by
E. W. TARN, M.A. Seventh Edition, Revised. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo, cloth & * * & * * & • . * - 7|6
“This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing
artificers' work that has yet been published.”—Building News. .
TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR.
For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Measuring
Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and
Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the parts of a Building collectively.
By A. C. BEATON. Ninth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, gilt edges . 1/6
“No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ‘Beaton.’”—Building News. .
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay On
the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work
by ALFRED BARTHOLOMEw, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added
to by FREDERICK ROGERs, Architect. Third Edition, Revised. 8vo, cloth 15/-
“The work is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with
which every young architect must be equipped.”—Architect.
THE HOUSE-OVWNER'S ESTINIATOR. .
Or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair 2 A Price Book for Unpro-
fessional People, as well as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By J. D.
SIMON. Edited by F. T. W. MILLER, A.R.I.B.A. Fifth Edition, carefully
Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. Net 3/6
“In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over.”—Field.
28 CAEOSBY A.OCKWOOD & SON'S CATAZOGUE.
SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY.
THE HEALTH OFFICER’S POCKET-BOOK.
A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health,
Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By EDwARD F,
WILLOUGHBY, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and Eniarged. .
FCap. 8vo, leather. *: [Just Published. Net 10/6
“It is a mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind on the various subjects of
y; it treats. The different subjects are succinctly but fully and scientifically dealt with.”—The
ancet.
“We recommend all those engaged in practical sanitary work to furnish themselves with a copy
for reference.”—Sanitary Journal. -
THE BACTERIAL PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE :
Being a Practical Account of the Various Modern Biological Methods of
Purifying Sewage. By SIDNEY BARwise, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. (Camb.), &c.
With Io Page Plates and 2 Folding Diagrams. Royal 8vo, cloth. Net 6|O
THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE.
Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification, and
their Practical Application. By SIDNEY BARwise, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S.,
D.P.H. (Camb), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute, Medical Officer of Health to
the Derbyshire County Council. Crown 8vo, cloth. e g ſº tº 5|-
WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION.
A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others
interested in Water Supply. By S. RIDEAL, D.Sc., Lond., F.I.C. Second Edition,
Revised, with Additions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables. Large
crown 8vo, cloth. Net 9|-
RURAL WATER SUPPLY.
A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Waterworks
for Small Country Districts. By ALLAN GREEN well, A.M.I.C.E., and W. T.
CURRY, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth g & . 5|-
THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS.
By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Imp. 4to, half-bound
morocco. (See page II) . te & g e g & [Net £6 6s.
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS
AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS.
By Professor W. K. BURTON, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised and
Extended. Royal 8vo, cloth. (See page Io) . tº th * & £1 5s.
WATER ENGINEERING.
A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation
of Water for the Supply of Towns. By C. SLAGG, A.M.Inst.C.E. . 716
SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES.
By CHARLEs SLAGG, A.M.Inst.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth. . & e e 3|-
PLUIVIBING.
A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P.
BUCHAN. Ninth Edition, Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations. Crown 8vo 3/6
VENTILATION.
A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P.
BUCHAN, R.P. Crown 8vo, cloth * & © g e & g g 3/6
CAA' PAEAVTR V, 7./M.B.AEA’, &c. 29
CARPENTRY, TIMEER, ETC.
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY.
A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance
of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron
and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay On the Nature and
Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in
Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different
purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E.
With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illustrated.
Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. WYNDHAM
TARN, M.A., Author of “The Science of Building,” &c. With 61 Plates,
Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large Vol., 4to, cloth.
£1 5s.
“Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library.”—Builder.
“A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry is concerned.
The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great
intrinsic value.”—Building News.
WOODWORKING MACHINERY.
Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw
Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of
Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M.
PowIs BALE, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large
Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth . - - - *- - • 9|-
“Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much information that his
book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber.”—A rehitect.
“The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author is
a thorough master of his subject.”—Building News.
SAW MILLS.
Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of Timber.
(A Companion Volume to “Woodworking Machinery.”) By M. Powis BALE,
A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth - . 10/6
“The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined from a
financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and the like are gone
into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted
state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise.”—Builder.
THE CARPENTER’S GUIDE.
Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters; comprising all the Elementary Principles
essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER
NICHOLSON's standard work. A New Edition, Revised by ARTHUR Ash PITEL,
F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With
74 Plates, 4to, cloth . 4. - º - - #1 1s.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING,
Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing
the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By GEORGE
COLLINGs. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A
TREATISE ON STAIR-BUILDING. With Plates and Diagrams. I2mo, cloth 2/6
“Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery.”—Builder.
“Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the aid
of plates and explanatory letterpress.”—Furniture Gazette. -
CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By
GEORGE COLLINGs. With Diagrams. Third Edition, 12mo, cloth. . 2/6
“An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in definition,
and practical in the examples selected.”—Builder.
THE CABINET-MAKER'S GUIDE -
TO THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION OF CABINET WORK.
Including Veneering, Marquetrie, Buhlwork, Mosaic, Inlaying, &c. By RICHARD
BITMEAD. Illustrated with Plans, Sections, and Working Drawings. Crown 8vo,
cloth e º - º - - - e 2/6
3O CA2O.S.A. V. Z. OCA WOO/O & SOAV’.S. CATAZOG OA.
HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS.
On the Square-Cut System. By J. S. GOLDTHORP, Teacher of Geometry and
Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanics' Institute. With Eight Plates
and over I5o Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth e 3/6
“Likely to be of considerable value to joiners and others who take a pride in good work. The
arrangement of the book is excellent. We heartily commend it to teachers and students.”—Timber
Trades Journal. ,
TIMBER IVIERCHANT'S & BUILDER'S COMPANION,
Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement
of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, and other useful Tables for the use of
Timber Merchants and Builders. By WILLIAM DowsING. Fourth Edition,
Bevised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth tº * tº ge e 3|-
“We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity
of arrangement leave nothing to be desired.”—Timber Trades Journal.
THE PRACTICAL TIMBER IVIERCHANT.
Being a Guide for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c.,
comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade,
Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of
Timber, &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Second Edition. FCap. 8vo, cloth 3/6
“This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders,
foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber.”—Journal of
Forestry.
PACKING-CASE TABLES.
Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six
inches square and upwards. By W. RICHARDson, Timber Broker. Third
Edition. Oblong 4to, cloth © e ſº & g 3/6
“Invaluable labour-saving tables.”—Ironmonger.
“Will save much labour and calculation.”—Grocer.
GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREVIENT.
Tables calculated from I to 200 inches in length, by I to Io& inches in breadth.
For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders,
&c. By JAMES HAwKINGs. Fifth Edition. FCap., cloth * g . 3/6
“These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in superficial
measurement.”—English Mechanic.
PRACTICAL FORESTRY.
And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By CHARLEs E. CURTIs,
F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General Estate Manage-
ment, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, cloth e & s e g g º e e e & 3/6
PREFATORY REMARKS.—OBJECTS OF PLANTING.-CHOICE OF A For EstER.—CHOICE of Sorll AND
SITE.-LAYING OUT OF LAND FOR PLANTATIONS.—PREPARATION OF THE GROUND FOR PLANTING.—
DRAINAGE.-PLANTING.-DISTANCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF TREES IN PLANTATIONS.—TREES AND
GROUND GAME.-ATTENTION AFTER PLANTING...—THINNING OF PILANTATIONs.—PRU NING OF FOREST:
TREEs.—REALIZATION.—METHODS OF SALE.-MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER.—MEASUREMENT AND
VALUATION OF LARCH PLANTATION.—FIRE LINEs.-Cost of PLANTING.
“Mr. Curtis has in the course of a series of short pithy chapters afforded much information of a
useful and practical character on the planting and subsequent treatment of trees.”—Illustrated Carpenter
and Builder.
THE ELEMENT'S OF FORESTRY.
Designed to afford Information concerning the Planting and Care of Forest
Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care of
Woodlands. By F. B. Hough. Large crown 8vo, cloth tº & . 10/-
TIMBER IMPORTER’S, TIMBER MERCHANTS,
AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE.
By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Comprising:—An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home
and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Net
Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate
Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. &c.; together with copious Information for
the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. I2mo, cloth . e 2|-
“Everything it pretends to be : built upgradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws
in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c.”—English Mechanic.
AXA COAEA 7/VA. AAE 7S, & c. 3I.
DEcoRATIVE ARTs, ETC.
SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF
WOODS AND MARBLES.
As Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P. VAN DER BURG,
Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, I8; by 12; in.,
Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also I2 plain Plates, comprising
I54 Figures. Fourth Edition, cloth. [Just Published. Net 25s.
LIST OF PLATES.
I. VARIOUS Tools REQUIRED For WooD PAINTING.—2, 3, WALNUT ; PRELIMINARY STAGEs of
GRAINING AND FINISHED SPECIMIEN.—4. Tools Used For MARBLE PAINTING AND METHOD of
MANIPULATION.—5, 6. ST. REMI MARBLE ; EARLIER OPERATIONS AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—
7. METHODS OF SKETCHING DIFFERENT GRAINs, KNors, &c.—8, 9. As H. : PRELIMINARY STAGES AND
FINISHED SPECIMEN.—IO, METHODS OF SKETCHING MARBLE GRAINs.-II, 12. BRECHE MARBLE ;
PRELIMINARY STAGES OF Workin G AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—13. MAPLE ; METHoDs of PRODUCING
THE DIFFERENT GRAINs.—I4, 15. BIRD's-EYE MAPLE ; PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED
SPECIMEN.—I6. METHODs of SKETCHING THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF WHITE MARBLE.—17, 18.
WHITE MARBLE ; PRELIMINARY STAGEs of PRocess AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—19. MAHogany ;
SPECIMEN OF VARIOUS GRAINS AND METHODS OF MANIPULATION.—20, 2I. MAHog ANY ; EARLIER
STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—22, 23, 24. SIENNA MARBLE ; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, PRELIMINARY
STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—25, 26, 27. JUNIPER WooD ; , METHODs of PRODUCING GRAIN,
&c.; PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—28, 29, 30, VERT DE MER MARBLE ; VARIETIES
OF GRAIN AND METHODs of WoRKING, UNFINISHED AND FINISHED SPECIMENs.-31, 32, 33. OAK ;
VARIETIES OF GRAIN, Tools EMPLOYED AND METHODs of MANIPULATION, PRELIMINARY STAGEs
AND FINISHED SPECIMIEN.—34, 35, 36. WAULso RT MARBLE ; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, UNFINISHED AND
FINISHED SPECIMENs.
“Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage in
consulting this book. . . ... Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the
opportunity to study it.”—Builder.
“A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and
management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the
student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature.”—Building News. -
“Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a work.”—
The Architect,
ELEMENTARY DECORATION.
A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL
HOUSE DECORATION. By JAMEs W. FACEy. With numerous Illustrations.
In One Vol., strongly half-bound ve g g & e s 5|-
HOUSE-PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING,
AND SIGN WRITING,
A Practical Manual of. By ELLIs A. DAVIDSON. Eighth Edition. With
Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth . g º 6|-
“A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man.”—English Mechanic.
THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT.
A Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders,
&c. Containing upwards of 6oo Receipts, Rules and Instructions; with a variety
of Information for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and
Exterior Decorations, &c. Seventh Edition. I52 pp., crown 8vo, in wrapper.
* Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger
treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full of varied
information on the painter's art.”—Building News.
MARBLE DECORATION - -
And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for
Students. By GEORGE H. BLAGROVE, Author of “Shoring and its Application,”
&c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth * º g tº . 3/6
“This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and
builder.”—Building World. - -
“A carefully and usefully written treatise; the work is essentially practical.”—Scotsman.
32 CA’OSAE V / OCA VOO VD & SOAV’.S. CA 7.1 / O GOA.
DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION
AND ALPHABETs.
ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDIAEVAL.
From the Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large
and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms,
Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen,
Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers,
&c. &c. Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and Printed in Colours.
New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards * 2/6
“For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over
shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be useful. '
—Athettaunt.
MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL.
Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew,
Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with
several Original Designs, and an analysis of the Roman and Old English
Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur-
veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c.
Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMoTTE, and printed in Colours. New and
Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards e s . 2/6
“There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals
can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plain and
ornamental letters is wonderful.”—Standard.
MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS.
By F. G. DELAMoTTE. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in
Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. WILLIS BROOKs. Fifth
Edition. Small 4to, Ornamental boards . tº * g Net 5|-
“A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of
the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled.”—Sun.
A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
For the Use of Beginners; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical
Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed
in Gold and Colours, By F. DELAMoTTE. New and Cheaper Edition. Small
4to, Ornamental boards & & g g & e * 6|-
“The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the
author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as
taste.”—Athenaeum.
THE EMIBROIDERER’S BOOK OF DESIGN.
Containing Initials, JEmblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders,
Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems.
Collected by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo,
Ornamental wrapper . g * $ Net 2]-
“The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art
of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work.”—East Anglian Times. -
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
With Hints on Design. By A LADY. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper
Edition. Crown 8vo, in emblematic wrapper . s $g g 2|-
“The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ‘A
Lady's' publication.”—Athenaeum.
PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED,
By THOMAs JoHN GULLICK, Painter, and JoHN TIMBs, F.S.A. Including Fresco,
Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting
on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/-
*...* Adopted as a Prize book at South Kensington.
“Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful
perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise.”—Art Journal.
AVA 7'URA / SC/AAVCAE, & 'c. 33
NATURAL SCIENCE, ETC.
THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE.
Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. GoRE,
F.R.A.S., Author of “Star Groups,” &c. Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs and
I2 Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth. . . g º e © • , . 16|-
STAR GROUPS.
A Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S.,
M.R.I.A., &c., Author of “The Visible Universe,” “The Scenery of the Heavens,”
&c. With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth . º º º º ſº 9. 5|-
AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY.
Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of
Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S.,
Author of “The Visible Universe,” &c. Small crown 8vo, cloth. . º 2/6
THE MICROSCOPE.
Its Construction and Management. Including Technique, Photo-micrography,
and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. HENRI v AN HEURCK.
Re-edited and Augmented from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by
WYNNE E. BAXTER, F.G.S. Imp. 8vo, cloth - • 18/-
A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.
A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. WooDwARD, A.L.S., F.G.S.
With an Appendix on RECENT AND FossIL CONCHOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES, by
RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts.
Reprint of Fourth Edition (1880). Crown 8vo, cloth . e º 7/6
THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION.
Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By
G. W. V. LE VAUx. 8vo, cloth º - º º º tº º º 5|-
LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE,
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and re-written by B. Loewy,
F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . g - º s º º Q * 6|-
HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMIATICS. Revised
and Enlarged by B. LOEwy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . º º 5|-
HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and re-written by B. LOEwy, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, cloth g - º - - e - t º º 6|-
HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING,
B.A. Small 8vo, cloth e tº º & e º e º tº 5|-
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ACOUSTICS. Edited by GEO. C.
Fost ER, B.A. Small 8vo, cloth - t- e º º 5|-
HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Revised and Edited by EDw1N
DUNKIN, F.R.A.S. 8vo, cloth . - e - - * - e 9/6
MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings.
In Six Double Volumes, 1/1]-. Cloth, or half-morocco . #31 11s. 6d.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS o o 3/6
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS . 3/6
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Revised by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S.
FCap. 8vo, cloth. - & g º g º º º & 6 2/6
C
3
4
CA’OS/3 V Z. OCA IVOO/D & SOAV’.S. CA 7.4 / OC O'ZZ.
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES,
CHEMISTRY, ETC.
THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES.
--- By A. C. WRIGHT, M.A.Oxon., B.Sc.Lond., formerly Assistant Lecturer in
" Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemistry at the
Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 9|-
THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET BOOK.
Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture,
, Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By
H. O'Connor, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pages, Crown 8vo,
fully Illustrated, leather . º g & sº & sº º g tº 10/6
“The book contains a vast amount of information. The author goes consecutively through the
engineering details and practical methods involved in each of the different processes or parts of a
gas-works. He has certainly succeeded in making a compilation of hard matters of fact absolutely
interesting to read.”—Gas World. *
“A useful work of reference for the gas engineer and all interested in lighting or heating by gas,
while the analyses of the various descriptions of gas will be of value to the technical chemist. All
matter in any way connected with the manufacture and use of gas is dealt with. The book has
evidently been carefully compiled, and certainly constitutes a useful addition to gas literature."—
Builder. -
“The volume contains a great quantity of specialised information, compiled, we believe, from
trustworthy sources, which should make it of considerable value to those for whom it is specifically
produced.”—Engineer.
LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE
Generators, Burners and Electric Furnaces. By WILLIAM E. GIBBS, M.E.
With Sixty-six Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . g e * * 7|6
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY.
A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron
Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis
and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with
numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. JOSHUA PHILLIPS,
F.I.C., F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 420 pages, with Plates
and other Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 10/6
“In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. . .
The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the despatch required
of engineering chemists permits.”—Chetnical News.
“The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trustworthy
results in experienced hands. . . . There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the
chapter on ‘Oils and Lubrication' being specially noticeable in this respect.”—Engineer.
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of
Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders and Cellu-
loid. By P. GERALD SANFORD, F.I.C., Consulting Chemist to the Cotton
Powder Company, Limited, &c. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 9|-
“One of the very few text-books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes
steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any given explosive and tells us
of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book is excellent throughout."—The Engineer.
A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES.
- A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton,
Nitro-Glycerine, and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton.
With Chapters on Explosives in Practical Application. By M. EISSLER, M.E.
Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth g ſº te * s 12/6
“A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining and
b lasting purposes.”—Army and Navy Gazette. -
DANGEROUS GOODS.
Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes
and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. A Guide for the Use of Govern-
ment and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, &c. By H. Joshu A PHILLIPs,
F.I.C., F.C.S. Crown 8vo, 374 pages, cloth º º 9|-
“Merits a wide circulation and an intelligeht, appreciative study.”—Chemical News.
CA/AEAZZCA Z MAAVUAEA C7'CVA’AºS, CA/AEAZZST/8 V, &c. 35
A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE.
Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching
Powder. By JOHN LOMAs, Alkali Manufacturer. With 232 Illustrations and
Working Drawings. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, cloth.
321 1 Os.
“We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but
a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali
works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological authors.”—Chemical
Review.
THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc.
Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples,
and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.-Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A.,
F.G.S. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . - e º 5|-
“The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down will
gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had “got up any of the best
text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents.”—Chemical News.
THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES.
Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities, and Sophistications.
For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER.
Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth º 7/6
“There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing for
examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful.”—Chemical News.
A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS.
Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the
Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By
HERBERT EDwARDS WRIGHT, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo,
530 pp., cloth. . - e • - º - - tº 12/6
“May be consulted with advantage by the student who is preparing himself for examinational
tests, while the scientific brewer will find in it a résumé of all the most important discoveries of modern
times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes great care
to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts.”—Brewers’ Journal.
“We have great pleasure in recommending this handy book, and have no hesitation in saying that
it is one of the best—if not the best—which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing in this
country, it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer's library.”—Brewers’ Guardian.
“Although the requirements of the student are primarily considered, an acquaintance of half-an-
hour's duration cannot fail to impress the practical brewer with the sense of having found a trustworthy
guide and practical counsellor in brewery matters.”—Chemical Trade Journal.
FUELS; SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS.
Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By
H. J. PHILLIPs, F.C.S., Formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the
Great Eastern Railway. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo,
cloth . - e - e g - - º - e - 2|-
“Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever fuel
is used on a large scale.”—Chemical News.
THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS.
Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and
Adulterations, &c., with Tests of Purity. By H. C. STANDAGE. Third Edition,
crown 8vo, cloth - e e - g - 2/6
“This work is indeed multum-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all who
come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or users.”—Chemical Review.
A POCKET-BOOK OF MENSURATION & GAUGING.
Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit
Merchants, &c. By J. B. MANT (Inland Revenue). Second Edition, Revised,
I8mo, leather . - - e - & d º º g 6. d 4|-
“Should be in the hands of every practical brewer.”—Brewers' Journal.
36 CROSBy ZockwooD & Soy's CA7Azo&UE.
INDUSTRIAL ARTs, TRADES AND
MANUFACTURES.
TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES.
A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the Cultivation
of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. By A. J. WALLIS-
TAYLER, A.M.Inst.C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 218 Illustrations.
- Net 25|-
SUMMARY OF CONTENTs.
MECHANICAL CULTIVATION or TILLAGE OF THE SOIL.-PLUCKING OR GATHERING THE LEAF.—
TEA FACTORIES. —THE DREssING, MANUFACTURE, or PREPARATION OF TEA BY MEcHANICAL
MEANS.—ARTIFICIAL WITHERING OF THE LEAF.—MACHINEs For Rollſ NG OR CURLING THE LEAF.—
FERMENTING PRocess. – MACHINEs For THE AUTOMATIC DRYING OR FIRING OF THE LEAF.—
MACHINES FOR NON-AUTom ATIC DRYING or FIRING OF THE LEAF.—DRYING OR FIRING MACHINEs.—
BREAKING OR CUTTING, AND SORTING MACHINEs.-PAcKING THE TEA.—MEANS OF TRANSPORT ON
TEA PLANTATIONS.–MISCELLANEOUs MACHINERY AND APPARATUS.–FINAL TREATMENT OF THE
TEA.—TABLES AND MEMORANDA.
“The subject of tea machinery is now one of the first interest to a large class of people, to whom
we strongly commend the volume.”—Chamber of Commerce Journal. & g *
“When tea planting was first introduced into the British possessions little, if any, machinery was
employed, but now its use is almost universal. This volume contains a very full account of the
machinery necessary for the proper outfit of a factory, and also a description of the processes best
carried out by this machinery.”—Journal Society of Arts.
FLOUR MANUFACTURE.
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By FRIEDRICH KICK, Imperial
Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German
Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and
Revised Edition, with Supplement. By H. H. P. PowLEs, Assoc. Memb.
Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 4oo pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding
Plates, and I67 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth. . . , gº º . 25/-
“This invaluable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . . .
The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a successful
career; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this
handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, sound English,
which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom.”—The Miller.
“The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers will we
are Sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages.”—Millers' Gazette.
COTTON IVLANUFACTURE.
A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding,
Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of Dyeing, &c.
For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. By JoHN LISTER,
Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, cloth . g * e ſº ... • 7/6
“This invaluable volume is a distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture.”—Machinery.
“It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements desired.”—Glasgow Herald.
MODERN CYCLES. -
A Practical Handbook on their Construction and Repair. By A. J. WALLIS-
TAYLER, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of “Refrigerating Machinery,” &c. With
upwards of 300 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. . • iº º: 10/6
“The large trade that is done in the component parts of bicycles has placed in the way of men
mechanically inclined extraordinary facilities for building bicycles for their own use. . . . The
book will prove a valuable guide for all those who aspire to the manufacture or repair of their own
machines.”—The Field.
“A most comprehensive and up-to-date treatise.”—The Cycle.
“A very, useful book, which is quite entitled to rank as a standard work for students of cycle
construction.”—Wheeling.
MOTOR CARS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON
ROADS. -
By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., Author of “ Modern
Cycles,” &c. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . & 4/6
“The book is clearly expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that an engineer, thinking
of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a preliminary to starting
operations.”—Engineering.
AVZ) U.S7/ē/A/ AAVD USAEA’O/C AA’ 7.S. 37
PRACTICAL TANNING.
A Handbook of Modern Recipes and Processes, including all American
Improvements. By L. A. FLEMMING, Practical Tanner. Upwards of 400 pages.
8vo. cloth. . [Just Published. Net 25/-
THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE.
Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and
Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained,
and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the Estimation of
Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c. By
ALEXANDER WATT. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . & g . 9|-
“A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. ... The book, is an eminently
valuable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers.”—Chemical Review.
THE ART OF SOAP-IVIAKING, -
A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps,
&c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of
Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALExANDER WATT. Sixth Edition, including
an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. Crown 8vo, cloth . e d 7/6
“The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical
soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art.”—Chemical News.
“A thoroughly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to
fill a void in English technical literature.”—Nature.
PRACTICAL PAPER-IVIAKING,
A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With
Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. CLAPPERTON, Paper-Maker. With Illustrations
of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, cloth . *. e º 5|-
“The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c., whilst his
manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper-makers
and mill-owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature."—The World's Paper Trade Review.
THE ART OF PAPER-IVIAKING,
A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw,
and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood
Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are
added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By
ALEXANDER WATT. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . ū; tº 7/6
“It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable information.
The “Art of Paper-Making' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical class, or for
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MODERN HOROLOGY IN THEORY AND PRACTICE.
Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, ex-Director of the School of
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ELECTRO-PLATING & ELECTRO-REFINING OF METALS,
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CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
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WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
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COMMERCAE, COUAV7/AWG-AZO USA. WORA, 7AB ZFS, &c. 4 l
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TABLES, ETC.
LESSONS IN COMMERCE.
By Professor R. GAMBARO, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa.
Edited and Revised by JAMES GAULT, Professor of Commerce and Commercial
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THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT.
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FACTORY ACCOUNTS: THEIR PRINCIPLES AND
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By EMILE GARCKE and J. M. FELLs. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 7/6
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MODERN METROLOGY.
A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the Present Century. With an
Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Low Is D'A. JACKSON,
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cloth g * . 3- s & & & e 12/6
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A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES.
In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those
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IRON AND METAL TRADES’ COMPANION.
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per pound. By THOMAS DownIE. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp. . 9|-
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42 CAE. O.S.A. V. Z.OCA WOOZ) & 3 SOAV’S CA 7.4/.OGUE. `
NUMBER, WEIGHT, & FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR.
Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the
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THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR.
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with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed
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lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By HENRY
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Independent. -
THE DISCOUNT GUIDE.
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New Edition, Corrected. Demy 8vo, half-bound . * i- e £1 5s.
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TABLES OF WAGES.
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IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES. &
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AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDEWING, &c. 43
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, Etc.
THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S AND
CATTLE BREEDER'S ASSISTANT.
A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written by WILLIAM YoUATT.
Fourteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably Enlarged, and brought up
to Present Requirements, by WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., Assistant Commissioner
Royal Commission on Agriculture, Author of “The Elements of Agriculture,” &c.
Royal 8vo, I, IOO pp., 450 Illustrations.
Handsomely bound. £1 11s. 6d.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTs.
Book. I. ON THE VARIETIES, BREEDING, REAR-
ING, FATTENING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE.
Book II. ON THE EconoMY AND MANAGEMENT
of THE DAIRY.
|Book III. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND
MANAGEMENT OF HORSES.
Book IV. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND
FATTENING OF SHEEP.
Book V. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND
FATTENING OF Swſ NE.
Book VI. ON THE DISEASEs OF LIVE STock.
Book VII. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND
MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. -
Book VIII. ON FARM OFFICES AND IMPLE-
MENTS OF HUSBAN DRY.
Book IX. ON THE CULTURE AND MANAGE-
MENT OF GRASS LANDS.
Book X. ON THE CULTIVATION AND APPLICA-
TION OF GRASSES, PULSE AND ROOTS.
Book XI. ON MANURES AND THEIR APPLI-
CATION To GRAss LAND AND CROPS. .
Book XII. Mont HLY CALEN DARS OF FARMwo RK.
*...* OPINIONS OF THE PREss.
“Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work which
will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that it will be
found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . . . . The illustrations
are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, New Year's Gift, bred by
the Queen, is a work of art.”—The Times.
“The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work of
reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals.”—Athenaeum. -
“The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists in the English language
to-day. The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land
owner.”—Mark Lane Express.
“In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique
position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricultural library
of itself.”—Nörth British Agriculturist. - -
FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN.
By ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c., Professor of Agricultural and Rural
Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised
and considerably Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy
8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps. Cloth * - 12/6
... “A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great
#; and one which is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's library.”—
& I ???!&S. -
“The ‘Farm Live Stock of Great Britain' is a production to be proud of, and its issue not the
least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science.”—Scottish Farmer.
NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND
FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARVI STUDENTS.
By PRIMROSE McCONNELL, B.Sc., Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural
Society, Author of “Elements of Farming.” Sixth Edition, Rewritten, Revised,
and greatly Enlarged. Fºcap. 8vo, 480 pages, leather, gilt edges . - 6|-
CONTENTS. – SURVEYING AND LEvELLING. —WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. – MACHINERY AND
BUILDINGS.–LABOUR.—OPERATIONS.–DRAINING-EMBANKING-GEoLog ICAL MEMORANDA.—SoTLs.
--MANURES.–CROPPING.—CROPs.—RotATIONs.-WEEDs.—FEEDING.— DAIRYING.-LIVE STock.--
HORSES.–CATTLE.-SHEEP.-PIGs.—PoulTRY.-Forest Ry.-HoRTICULTURE.-MiscellANEous.
“No farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this multum in parvo manual
of all subjects connected with the farm.”—North British Agriculturist.
.” This little pocket-book contains a large amount of useful information upon all kinds of agricultural
subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted.”—Mark Lane Express.
“The amount of information it contains is most surprising; the arrangement of the matter is so
methodical—although so compressed—as to be intelligible to every one who takes a glance through its
pages. They teem with information.”—Farm and Home.
THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY.
A Scientific Aid to Practical Farming. By PRIMRose McConnELL, B.Sc., Author
of “Notebook of Agricultural Facts and Figures,” &c. Royal 8vo, 330 pp., with
Coloured Map and numerous Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. Net 21|-
“On every page the work bears the impress of a masterly knowledge of the subject dealt with,
and we have nothing but unstinted praise to offer.”—Field. • . -
44 croSBy Zockwoop & SON'S CATALOGUE.
BRITISH DAIRYING. * . . .
A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy-Farm. For the Use of Technical
Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural Colleges and the Working Dairy-
Farmer. By Prof. J. P. SHELDoN. With Illusts. Second Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, cloth. ſº * $º 2/6
“Confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy farming.”—Agricultural Gazette. . . .
“Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced.”—North British
Agriculturist. -
“It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject.”—The Times.
MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER.
A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their Production.
Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk.
By JoHN OLIVER, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, Berkeley. With
Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth e * 7/6
“An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students and
practitioners of dairy science.”—N.B. Agriculturist. -
“We recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers and students
of dairying. It is a distinct acquisition to the library of the agriculturist.”—Agricultural Gazette.
SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING.
Or, The Lessons of my Farm. Being an introduction to Modern Farm Practice
for Small Farmers. By R. Scott BURN, Author of “Outlines of Modern
Farming,” &c. Crown 8vo, cloth sº p * e * * 6|-
“This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer will read
with pleasure, and accept as a guide.”—Field.
OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.
By R. Scott BURN. Soils, Manures, and Crops—Farming and Farming Economy
—Cattle, Sheep, and Horses—Management of Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry—
Utilization of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In one vol., I,250
pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated tº * & & * . . . 12|-
FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF.
Comprising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply; Farm
Roads, Fences, and Gates; Farm Buildings; Barn Implements and Machines;
Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By Professor
John Scott. In one vol., 1,150 pp., half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 12|-
“Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work
well; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume
will be of great value to agricultural students.”—Mark Lane Express.
THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
A Text-Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art
Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH CLEMENTS
(Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. 18mo, cloth . 2/6
“It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a
vast and useful fund of knowledge.”—Educational Times.
TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR FARMERS, GRAZIERS,
AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, SURVEYORS, LAND AGENTS,
AUCTIONEERS, &c.
With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. By SIDNEY FRANCIS. Fifth
Edition. 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather . º g * 1/6
“Weighing less than 1 oz., and occupying no more space than a match box, it contains a mass of
facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every operation
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having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it.”—Bell's Weekly Messenger.
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PRACTICAL LESSONS FOR FARMERS.
Part I. Stock. Part II. Crops. By C. J. R. TIPPER. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
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in agriculture.”—Standard.
A GAZCUZZ'URAE, FAA’M/AWG, GAA’/DAEAV/AWG, & 'c. 45
FERTILISERS AND FEEDING, STUFFS,
Their Properties and Uses. A Handbook for the Practical Farmer. By
BERNARD DyBR, D.Sc. (Lond.). With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding
Stuffs Act of 1893, &c. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth g 1|-
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BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT :
Guide to the Manipulation of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the General
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BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARVIERS AND ESTATE OWNERS.
A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all
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Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 2/6
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WOODMAN's YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK.
Giving Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and
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With Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of
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Folio, half-bound . > s $ Net 716
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THE FORCING-GARDEN.
Or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans and
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By SAMUEL WooD. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
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A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING,
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Edition, with considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown
8vo, cloth . * tº 3/6
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directions are excellent.”—Athenaeum.
MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING.
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Fruits and Vegetables; also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses,
so as to realise £176 per annum clear Profit. By SAMUEL WooD, Author of
“Good Gardening,” &c. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, sewed , © * 1|-
THE LADIES’ VIULTUVI-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN.
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POTATOES: HOW TO GROW AND SHOW THEVI.
A Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the Potato.
By J. PINK. Crown 8vo . & s º g e * e tº º 2|-
MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING.
By C. W. SHAw, late Editor of “Gardening Illustrated.” Crown 8vo, cloth.
3/6
46 CROSBY ZocKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING,
LAND SURVEYING, ESTATE AGENCY, ETC.
INWOOD's TABLES FOR PURCHASING ESTATES
AND FOR THE VALUATION OF PROPERTIES.
Including Advowsons, Assurance Policies, Copyholds, Deferred Annuities,
Freeholds, Ground Rents, Immediate Annuities, Leaseholds, Life Interests
Mortgages, Perpetuities, Renewals of Leases, Reversions, Sinking Funds,
&c., &c. 26th Edition, Revised and Extended by WILLIAM SCHOOLING,
F.R.A.S., with Logarithms of Natural Numbers and THOMAN's Logarithmic
Interest and Annuity Tables. 360 pp., demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 8/-
“Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases,
as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent
service.”—Engineering.
“This valuable book has been considerably enlarged and improved by the labours of Mr. Schooling,
and is now very complete indeed.”—Economist.
“Altogether this edition will prove of extreme value to many classes of professional men in saving
them many long and tedious calculations.”—Investors' Review.
THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE
AND ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'S POCKET, ASSISTANT,
For the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and
Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By
JOHN WHEELER, Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly Extended
by C. NORRIS. Royal 32mo, cloth . e . . * - & g 5/-
“A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of prices
for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c.”—Standard.
“Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase, sale, or
renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices for inventories, and
a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects.”—Builder.
AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES.
A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By ROBERT
SQUIBBs, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised. Demy 8vo, cloth . 12/6
“The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much information in a compendious
and satisfactory form.”—Builder.
“May be recommended as giving a great deal of information on the law relating to auctioneers, in
a very readable form.”—Law Journal.
THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT.
A Practical Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates; including Example
of a Detailed Report on Management and Realisation ; Forms of Valuations of
Tenant Right ; Lists of Local Agricultural Customs ; Scales of Compensation
under the Agricultural Holdings Act, and a Brief Treatise on Compensation
under the Lands Clauses Acts, &c. By ToM BRIGHT, Agricultural Valuer,
Author of “The Agricultural Surveyor and Estate Agent's Handbook.” Fourth
Edition, ‘Revised, with Appendix containing a Digest of the Agricultural Holdings
Acts, 1883–Igoo. Crown 8vo, cloth . * • = tº g Net 6|-
“Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour,
contents and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds.”—Agricultural Gazette.
“An éminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and value
to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds.”—Farmer.
POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODs.
A Practical Handbook on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, Improv-
ing, and Grubbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for Purposes of
Transfer, Rental, Sale or Assessment. By Tom BRIGHT. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
“To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome aid.”—North British Agriculturist.
“Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted interest and
use both to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds.”—Kent Herald,
A C/CTVOAVEZAZWG, V.47 (7/AVC, Z4 WD SOR PAE V/AWG, &c. 47
AGRICULTURAL SURVEYOR AND ESTATE AGENT'S
HANDBOOK.
Of Practical Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. A Comprehensive Manual for
the Use of Surveyors, Agents, Landowners, and others interested in the Equip-
ment, the Management, or the Valuation of Landed Estates. By TOM BRIGHT,
Agricultural Surveyor and Valuer, Author of “The Agricultural Valuer's
Assistant,” &c. With Illustrations. Foap. 8vo, Leather º * Net 716
“An exceedingly useful book, the contents of which are admirably chosen. The classes for whom
the work is intended will find it convenient to have this comprehensive handbook accessible for
reference.”—Live Stock Journal.
“It is a singularly compact and well informed compendium of the facts and figures likely to be
required in estate work, and is certain to prove of much service to those to whom it is addressed.”—
Scots?ſlaºt. -
THE LAND VALUER’S BEST ASSISTANT.
Being Tables on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates.
With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to
Statute Measure, &c. By R. HUDson, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32mo,
leather, elastic band . º * * * & * e - t &
“Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man.”—Farmers' Journal.
THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK.
Comprising Formulae, Tables, and Memoranda required in any Computation
relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By JOHN EwART,
Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised, Royal 32mo, oblong, leather & 4|-
“A compendious and handy little volume.”—Spectator.
THE LAND VALUER'S COMPLETE POCKET-BOOK.
Being the above Two Works bound together. Leather . * *
7/6
HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY.
A Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale
of Houses and Land, including Dilapidations and Fixtures : with Examples of
all kinds of Valuations, Information on Building and on the right use of
Decorative Art. By E. L. TARBUCK, Architect and Surveyor. Sixth Edition.
I2mo, cloth º * * e º e g 5|-
“The advice is thoroughly practical.”—Law Journal.
“For all who have dealings with house property this is an indispensable guide.”—Decoration.
“Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on Fine Art. A
well-written and thoughtful work.”—Land Agents' Record.
LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS.
MODERN JOURNALISM.
A Handbook of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Journalist. By JOHN B.
MACKIE, Fellow of the Institute of Journalists. Crown 8vo, cloth . - 2|-
“This invaluable guide to journalism is a work which all aspirants to a journalistic career will read
with advantage.”—Journalist.
HANDBOOK FOR SOLICITORS AND ENGINEERS
Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders, for
the authorization of Railways, Tramways, Gas and Water Works, &c. By
L. L. MACASSEY, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, M.I.C.E. 8vo, cloth.
31 5s.
PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS, HOW TO PROCURE THEM.
Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M.
HARDINGHAM, Assoc. Mem. Inst.C.E., &c. Demy 8vo, cloth . - & 1/6
CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION,
IN LABOUR DISPUTES.
A Historical Sketch and Brief Statement of the Present Position of the Question
at Home and Abroad. By J. S. JEANs. Crown 8vo, 200 pp., cloth . 2/6
48 CA’OS/3 V ZOCATWOOZD & SOZV’.S. CA 74/ OGO/AE.
EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER.
A Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. With a Concise
Dictionary of Legal Terms. By A BARRISTER. Fortieth Edition, carefully
Revised, and including New Acts of Parliament of 1902. Comprising the
Licensing Act, 1902; the Shop Clubs Act, 1902; the Midwives Act, Igo2 : the
Cremation Act, 1902, and other enactments of the year. Judicial Decisions during
the year have also been duly noted. Crown 8vo, 800 pp., strongly bound in cloth.
[Just Published. 6/8
*.* This Standard Work of Reference forms A CoMPLETE EPITOME OF THE LAws OF
- ENGLAND, comprising (amongst other matter) :
THE RIGHTS AND WE&ONGS OF INDIVIDUALS
LANDLORD AND TENANT CRIMINAL LAW
VENDORS AND PURCHASERs PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS
LEASES AND MORTGAGEs COUNTY COUNCILS
JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES DISTRICT AND PARISH COUNCILS
MASTERs, SERVANTS AND WORKMEN BOROUGH CORPORATIONS
CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTs TRUSTEES AND EXECUTORS
TMONEY-LENDERs, SURETISHIP CLERGY AND CHURCHWARDENS
PARTNERSHIP, SHIPPING LAw COPYRIGHT, PATENTs, TRADE MARKS
SALE AND PURCHASE OF GooDs HUSBAND AND WIFE, DIVORCE
CHEQUES, BILLS AND NOTES INFANCY, CUSTODY OF CHILDREN
BILLS OF SALE, BANKRUPTcy PUBLIC HEALTH AND NUISANCES
LIFE, FIRE, AND MARINE INSURANCE INNKEEPERS AND SPORTING
LIBEL AND SLANDER TAXES AND DEATH IDUTIES
ForMs of WILLs, AGREEMENTs, NOTICEs, ETC.
& The object of this work is to enable those who consult it to help themselves to
the law, and thereby to dispense, as far as possible, with professional assistance and advice.
There are many wrongs and grievances which persons submit to from time to time through
not knowing how or where to apply for redress ; and many persons have as great a dread
of a lawyer's office as of a lion's den. With this book at hand it is believed that many
a SIX-AND-EIGHTPENCE may be saved ; many a wrong redressed; many a right reclaimed;
many a law suit avoided ; and many an evil abated. The work has established itself as
the standard legal adviser of all classes, and has also made a reputation for itself as a
wseful book of reference for lawyers residing at a distance from law libraries, who are glad
to have at hand a work embodying recent decisions and enactments.
*...* OPINIONS OF THE PREss.
“The amount of information given in the volume is simply wonderful. The continued popularity
of the work shows that it fulfils a useful purpose.”—Law Journal.
“As a book of reference this volume is without a rival.”—Pall Mall Gazette.
“No Englishman ought to be without this book.”—Engineer.
“Ought to be in every business establishment and in all libraries.”—Sheffield Post.
“The ‘Concise Dictionary' adds considerably to its value.”—Westminster Gazette.
“It is a complete code of English Law written in plain language, which all can understand. . . .
Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills.”—Weekly Times.
“A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care.”—Law Magazine.
“A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English law.”—Globe.
“Admirably done, admirably arranged, and admirably cheap.”—Leeds Mercury.
“A concise, cheap, and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who runs.
may read, and he who reads may understand.”—Figaro.
y 8
“A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one.”—Spectator.
LABOUR CONTRACTS.
A Popular Handbook on the Law of Contracts for Works and Services. By
DAviD GIBBONs. Fourth Edition, with Appendix of Statutes by T. F. UTTLEY,
Solicitor. Foap. 8vo, cloth e - - e - • - - . 3/6
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & Co. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
WEALE'S SERIES
SCIENTIFIC & TECHNICAL
WORKS.
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popular with or more useful to young engineers and others than the
excellent treatises comprised in WEALE’s SERIES.”—Engineer.
A 32etu (ſlaggified 3ſist.
PAGE PAGE
Civil Engineering and Surveying 50 Industrial and Useful Arts . . 57
Mining and Metallurgy . . . 51 Agriculture, Gardening, Etc. .. 58
Mechanical Engineering . . . 52 Mathematics, Arithmetic, Etc. . 60
Navigation, Shipbuilding, Etc. . 53 Books of Reference and Mis-
Architecture and Building . . 54 cellaneous Volumes . . . . 62
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON,
7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C.
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50 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
*
CIVIL ENGINEERING & SURVEYING.
Civil Engineering.
By HENRY LAW, M. Inst. C. E. Including a Treatise on HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
by G. R. BURNELL, M.I.C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, witH LARGE ADDITIONS ON
RECENT PRACTICE by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C. E. 6/6, cloth boards 7/6
“An admirable volume, which we warmly recommend to young engineers.”—Baez/dez.
Pioneer Engineering.
A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste
Ilands in New Countries. By E. DOBSON, M. Inst. C. E. Second Edition.
“Mr. Dobson is familiar with the difficulties which have to be overcome in this class of work, and
much of his advice will be valuable to young engineers proceeding to our colonies.”—Engineering.
Iron and Steel Bridges and Viaducts.
A Practical Treatise upon their Construction. For the use of Engineers, Draughtsmen,
and Students. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. . & e e tº & & . 3/6
Iron Bridges of Moderate Span:
Their Construction and Erection. By H. W. PENDRED. With 4o illustrations 2|0
“Students and engineers should obtain this book for constant and practical use.”—Colliery Guardian.
Constructional Iron and Steel Work,
As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. 3/6
“This practical book may be counted a most valuable work.”—British Architect.
Tubular and other Iron Girder Bridges,
Describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. With a Sketch of Iron
Bridges, &c. By G. DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, C. F. Fourth Edition . g . 2/O
Materials and Construction.
A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erection of
Works of Construction. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. Second Edition O
“No better exposition of the practical application of the principles of construction has yet been
published to our knowledge in such a cheap comprehensive form.”—Building /Wews.
Sanitary Work in Small Towns and Villages.
By CHARLES SLAGG, Assoc. M. Inst. C. E. Second Edition, Enlarged . e
“This is a very useful book. There is a great deal of work required to be done in the smaller towns
and villages, and this little volume will help those who are willing to do it.”—Builder.
Construction of Roads and Streets. -
By H. LAW, C.E., and D K. CLARK, C. E. Sixth Edition, revised, with Additional
Chapters by A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, A. M. Inst. C. E. [Just £zzö/ished. 6/O
“A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will be of considerable
Service to architects, builders, and property owners generally.”—Building ZVezvs.
Construction of Gas Works,
And the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. By S. HUGHES, C.E. Re-written .
by WILLIAM RICHARDs, C.E. Eighth Edition, with important Additions . 5/6
“Will be of infinite service alike to manufacturers, distributors, and consumers.”—Foremzazz Engineer.
Water Works, for the Supply of Cities and Towns.
With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing
Supplies of Water. By SAMUEL HUGHES . * & º e g . 4/O
“Everyone who is debating how his village, town, or city shall be plentifully supplied with pure.
water should read this book.”—ZVezvoastle Cozzzzzzzz.
POWer. Of Water».
As applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other Hydrostatic
Engines. By JOSEPH GLYNN, F.R.S., &c. New Edition. Illustrated . . 2/O.
Wells and Well-Sinking.
By J. G. Sw1NDELL, A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. BURNELL, C.E. Revised Edition 2/0,
“Solid practical information, written in a concise and lucid style. The work can be recommended,
as a text-book for all surveyors, architects, &c.”—Iron and Coal Trades Rezniew.
Drainage of Lands, Towns, and Buildings.
By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on Recent Practice in.
Drainage Engineering, by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.I.C.E. Third Edition 4/6.
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 5I
Blasting and Quarrying of Stone,
For Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of Bridges.
By Gen. Sir J. BURGOYNE, K.C.B. . . . . . . - - - s ... • -
Foundations and Concrete Works.
With Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Béton, Pile-driving,
Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson, M. R.I.B.A. Seventh Edition 1/6
Prmeunmatics, -
Including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the use of Beginners.
By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S. Fourth Edition, enlarged. Illustrated 1/6
Land and Engineering Surveying. -
For Students and Practical Use. By T. BAKER, C. E. Eighteenth Edition, revised
and extended by F. E. DIxon, A.M. Inst. C. E. With Plates and Diagrams 2/O
Mensuration and Measuring,
With the Mensuration and Levelling of Land for the purposes of Modern Engineering.
By T. BAKER, C.E. New Edition by E. NUGENT, C.E. . - - º . 1/6
MINING AND METALLURGY.
Mining Calculations.
For the use of Students Preparing for the Examinations for Colliery Managers'
Certificates, comprising numerous Rules and Examples in Arithmetic, Algebra, and
Mensuration. By T. A. O'DONAHUE, M.E., First-class Certificated Colliery Manager.
[Just published. 3/6
Mineralogy,
Rudiments of. By A. RAMSAY, F.G.S. Third Edition. Woodcuts and Plates 3/6
. “The author throughout has displayed an intimate knowledge of his subject, and great facility in
imparting that knowledge to others. The book is of great utility.”—M.ining Journal.
Coal and Coal Mining,
By the late Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., Eighth Edition, Revised and
Extended by T. FORSTER BROWN, Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of
the Duchy of Cornwall. e e - º [Just published. 3/6
. “Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and as an outline is
given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the two principal methods of
working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers.”—Mining Journal.
Metallurgy of Iron. -
Containing History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores,
Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., A. R.S.M.
With numerous Illustrations. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged . e . 5/O
“Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points; while all
material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into.”—Standard.
Mineral Surveyor & Valuer’s Complete Guide.
Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation of Mining
Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By W. LINTERN, C.E., Third Edition, with an
Appendix on Magnetic and Angular Surveying, with Records of the Peculiarities of
Needle Disturbances. With Four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c. - e . 3/6
“Contains much valuable information, and is thoroughly trustworthy.”—Iron & Coal Trades Rezniezv.
Slate and Slate Quarrying,
Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c.
With numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. Third Edition - g . 3/O
“One of the best and best-balanced treatises on a special subject that we have met with.”—-Engizzeer.
A First Book of Mining and Quarrying.
By J. H. COLLINS, F. G.S. . e - s e - - - - 1/6
“For those concerned in schools in the mining districts, this work is the very thing that should be in
the hands of their schoolmasters.”—Iron.
Subterraneous Surveying.
By THOMAS FENw ICK. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Surveys
without the use of the Magnetic Needle, &c. By T. BAKER, C. E. . º . 2/6
Mining Tools,
- Manual of. By W. MORGANs, Lecturer on Mining at the Bristol School of Mines 2/6
Mining Tools, Atlas
Of Engravings to the above, containing 235 Illustrations drawn to Scale. 4to. . 4/6
“Students, Overmen, Captains, Managers, and Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful
hints by the study of Mr. Morgans' Manual.”—Colliery Guardian.
52 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Physical Geology,
Partly based on Major-General PORTLOCK's “Rudiments of Geology.” By RALPH
TATE, A. L.S., &c. Woodcuts . * ge t sº & ſº * gº . 2/O
Historical Geology,
Partly based on Major-General PORTLOCK's “Rudiments.” By RALPH TATE 2/6
Geology,
PHYSICAL and HISTORICAL. Consisting of “Physical Geology,” which sets forth the
Leading Principles of the Science; and “Historical Geology,” which treats of the
Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch. By RALPH
TATE, F.G.S. With 25o Illustrations & & e g s & *
“The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exhaustive and
well-arranged, so that any subject may be opened upon at once.”—School Board Chronicle.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
Workman’s Manual of Engineering Drawing.
By JOHN MAXTON, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval College, Green-
wich. Seventh Edition. 300 Plates and Diagrams . e ge s . 3/6
“A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office.”—Fangineering.
Fuels : Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous.
Their Analysis and Valuation. For the use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J.
PHILLIPS, F. C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the Great Eastern
Railway. Second Edition, revised & º 2|O
“Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever fuel is
used on a large scale.”—Chezzzical AVezvs.
Fuel, Its Combustion and Economy.
Consisting of an Abridgment of “A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the
Prevéntion of Smoke.” By C. W. WILLIAMs, A.I.C.E. With extensive Additions
by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C. E. Third Edition, corrected . g . 3/6
“Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satisfactory treatises on
the combustion and economy of fuel to be had.”—Foºgineer.
Boiler-maker’s Assistant,
In Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work, &c. By J. COURTNEy,
Practical Boilermaker. Edited by D. K. CLARK, C. E. Third Edition, revised 2/O
“With very great care we have gone through the “Boiiermaker's Assistant,’ and have to say that it
has our unqualified approval. Scarcely a point has been omitted.”—Foremzazz Engineer.
Boilermaker’s Ready Reckoner,
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and Riveters. By JOHN CourTNEY. Edited by D. K. CLARK, M.I.C.E.
*...* The last two Works in One Vol., hałżóound, entitled “THE BOILERMAKER'S READy
RECKONER AND Assist ANT.” By J. CourTNEY and D. K. CLARK. Price 7|O
“A most useful work. No workman or apprentice should be without it.”—Iron Trade Circular.
Steam Boiler’s.
Their Construction and Management. By R. ARMSTRONG, C.E. Illustrated . 1/6
“A mass of information suitable for beginners.”—Design, and Woré.
Steam and Machinery Management.
A Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of Machinery, with Hints on
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“Gives the results of wide experience.”—D/oyd’s ZVezyszłażer. -
Steam and the Steam Engine,
Stationary and Portable. Being an Extension of the Treatise on the Steam Engine of
Mr. J. SEwBLL. By D. K. CLARK, C.E. Third Edition
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The Steam Engine, -
A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules and Examples for Practical
Men. By T. BAKER, C.E. *
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The Steam Engine. ... •
For the use of Beginners. By Dr. LARDNER. Illustrated & & tº . 116
Locomotive Engines.
A Rudimentary Treatise on. By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. With large Additions treating
of the Modern Locomotive, by D. K. CLARK, M. Inst. C. E. With Illustrations 3/O
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WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 53
Locomotive Engine-Driving. -
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. By MICHAEL
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“We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who
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Stationary Engine Driving.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By MICHAEL
REYNOLDS, M.S. E. Sixth Edition. 3/6 limp ; cloth boards . 4/6
“The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and has produced a manual which is an
exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially intended.”—Engineering.
Smithy and Forge.
Including the Farrier's Art and Coach Smithing. By W. J. E. CRANE.
“The first modern English book on the subject. Great pains have been bestowed by the author
upon the book ; shoeing-Smiths will find it both useful and interesting.”—Builder.
Modern Workshop Practice,
As applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, Dredging
Machines, Bridges, Ship-Building, &c. By J. G. WINTON. 4th Edn., Illustrated 3/6
g { % Whether for the apprentice determined to master his profession, or for the artisan bent upon raising
himself to a higher position, this clearly-written and practical treatise will be a great help.”—Scotsmazz.
Mechanical Engineering.
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery,
Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam Engine, &c. By FRANCIS CAMPIN,
C.E. Third Edition, Re-written and Enlarged [/ust published. 2/6
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Details of Maehinery.
Comprising lnstructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in the Fitting-
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Elementary Engineering : -
A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions
and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, &c. By J. S. BREWER.
Second Edition . & g & . 1/6
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POWer, in Motion :
Horse-power Motion, Toothed-Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular
Forces, &c., By JAMES ARMOUR, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. Third Edition . 2/O
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Iron and Heat. -
Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars and
, Girders. By J. ARMOUR, C. E. . . . & * & e * 2/6
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Practical Mechanism,
And Machine Tools. By T. BAKER, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and Machinery
g # & sº gº & 2/6
by J. NASMYTH, C. E. * & * sº &
Mechanics.
Being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical Science, and their
Applications. By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S. e º g gº ſº . 1/6
Cranes,
The Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies for the Erection
of Buildings, &c. By JOSEPH GLYNN, F.R.S. . * e s
NAVIGATION, SHIFEUILDING, ETC.
Sailor’s Sea Book:
A Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. By JAMES GREENWOOD, B.A. With numerous
Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. New and Enlarged Edition. By W. H. ROSSER 2/6
‘‘Is perhaps the best and simplest epitome of navigation ever compiled.”—A’ze/a.
Practical Navigation. .
Consisting of the SAILOR'S SEA BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. RossER ;
together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by
HENRY L.Aw, C. E., and Prof. J. R. YOUNG. Half-bound in leather . g
“A vast amount of information is contained in this volume, and we fancy in a very short time that it
will be seen in the library of almost every ship or yacht afloat.”—Hunt's Pachting Magazine.
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy,
- In Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. YoUNG. New Edition. Illustrated . 2/6
“A very complete, thorough, and useful manual for the young navigator.”–Observatory.
54 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Mathermatical Tables,
For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations; to which is prefixed a
Treatise on Logarithms, by H. LAw, C.E. Together with a Series of Tables for
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Professor J. R. YOUNG. New Edition 4/0
Masting, Mast-Making, and Rigging of Ships.
Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, &c., relative
to every class of vessels. By ROBERT KIPPING, N.A. * g tº e . 2/O
Sails and Sail-Making.
With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. Weights and Sizes of Ropes;
Masting, Rigging, and Sails of Steam Vessels, &c. By R. KIPPING, N.A. . 2/6
Marine Engines and Steam Vessels.
By R. MURRAY, C. E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Additions by the
Author and by GEORGE CARLISLE, C.E. . g º & e $º te . 4/6
An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineering.”—Zizierżoo/ Mezczęzy. -
Naval Architecture.
{ %
An Exposition of the Elementary Principles. By JAMES PEAKE . & 3/6
Ships for Ocean and River Service,
- Principles of the Construction of. By H. A. SOMMERFELDT . & . . . 1/6
An Atlas of Engravings
To Illustrate the above. Twelve large folding Plates. Royal 4to, cloth . . 7/6
Ships and Boats.
By W. BLAND. Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and Models 1/6
ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING.
Constructional Iron and Steel Work,
As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. 3/6
“Anyone who wants a book on ironwork as employed for stanchions, columns, and beams, will find
the present volume to be suitable.”—British Architect.
Building Estates:
A Treatise on the Development, Sale, Purchase, and Management of Building Land.
By F. MAITLAND. Second Edition, revised $ 2/O
“This book should undoubtedly be added to the library of every professional man dealing with
building land.”—/Land Agent’s ſº ecord. -
Seience of Building :
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M. A. Lond. Third Edition, revised and enlarged * & e g 3/6
Art of Building, -
Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Strength, and Use of Materials,
Working Drawings, Specifications, &c. By EDwARD DOBSON, M. R.I.B.A. &c. 210
“A good book for practical knowledge, and about the best to be obtained.”—Batilding ZVezvs.
Book on Building, r
Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F. R. A.S.,
Author of “Clocks and Watches and Bells,” &c. Second Edition, enlarged. . 4/6
“A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive.”—Tzzzzes.
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Erection of, Illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, Elevations, and Sections of a Pair
of Villas, with the Specification, Quantities, and Estimates. By S. H. BROOKS 2/6
Cottage Building.
By C. BRUCE ALLEN. Eleventh Edition, with Chapter on Economic Cottages for
Allotments, by E. E. ALLEN, C. E. & g • * $ * e º
Acoustics of Public Buildings :
The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings. By Professor
T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A. New Edition, revised. With numerous Illustrations.
[Just published. 1/6
Practical Bricklaying. - -
General Principles of Bricklaying ; Arch Drawing, Cutting and Setting ; Pointing ;
Paving, Tiling, &c. By ADAM HAMMOND. With 68 Woodcuts . . . g . 1/6
“The young bricklayer will find it infinitely valuable to him.”—Glasgow Herala.
Art of Practical Brick-Cutting and Setting.
By ADAM HAMMOND. With 90 Engravings * g 1/6
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 55
Brickwork:
Embodying the General and Higher Principles of Bricklaying, Cutting and Setting;
with the Application of Geometry to Roof Tiling, &c. By F. WALKER g . 1/6
“Contains all that a young tradesman or student needs to learn from books.”—Building Wezvs.
Bricks and Tiles, -
Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of. Containing an Outline of the Principles
of Brickmaking. By E. DOBSON, M. R.I.B.A. Additions by C. TOMLINSON, F.R.S.
Illustrated . 3/O
“The best handbook on the subject. We can safely recommend it as a good investment.”—Bazz/aſer.
Practical Brick and Tile Book.
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LAYING, by A. HAMMOND ; BRICK-CUTTING and SETTING, by A. HAMMOND. 550 pp.
with 270 Illustrations, strongly half-bound e & . e º g . 6/O
Carpentry and Joinery—
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. Chiefly composed from the Standard
Work of THOMAS TREDGOLD, C. E. With Additions, and a TREATISE ON
JOINERY by E. W. TARN, M.A. Sixth Edition, revised and extended *
Carpentry and Joinery. -
Atlas of 35 Plates to accompany and illustrate the foregoing book. With Descriptive
Letterpress. 4to. tº - g e tº & & * x e e e º
“These two volumes form a complete treasury of carpentry and joinery, and should be in the hands of
every Carpenter and joiner in the Empire.”—Izozz.
Practical Treatise on Handrailing :
Showing New and Simple Methods. By GEO. COLLINGS. Second Edition, Revised,
including a TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING. With Plates & & . . . 2/6
“Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery.”—Buildez.
Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery.
A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By GEORGE
COLLINGS. Second Edition * e & ge e g tº & . 2/6
“Cheap in price, clear in definition, and practical in the examples selected.”—Builder.
Roof Carpentry : -
Practical Lessons in the Framing of Wood Roofs. For the use of Working Carpenters.
By GEO. COLLINGS, Author of “Handrailing and Stairbuilding,” &c.
Construction of Roofs, of Wood and Iron :
Deduced chiefly from the Works of Robison, Tredgold, and Humber. By E.
WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, revised & * . 1/6
“Mr. Tarn is so thoroughly master of his subject, that although the treatise was founded on the works
of others he has given it a distinct value of his own. It will be found valuable by all students.”—Builder.
The Joints Made and Used by Builder's
By Wyvill, J. CHRISTY, Architect. With 160 Woodcuts e * e . 3/O
& 4 The work is deserving of high commendation.”—Builder.
Shoring,
And its Application: A Handbook for the use of Students. By G. H. BLAGROVE 1/6
{ { We recommend this valuable treatise to all students.”—Building Wezvs.
Timber Importer's, Timber Merchant's, and
Builder’s Standard Guide.
By R. E. GRANDY. * º e e e º g * * g g
“Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treemail, and throws
in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c.”—English Mechanic.
Plumbing :
A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With Chapters upon
House Drainage and Ventilation. By WM. PATON BUCHAN, R. P., Sanitary Engineer.
Eighth Edition, Re-written and Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations. & e *
“A text-book which may be safely put into the hands of every young plumber, and which will also
be found useful by architects and medical professors.”—Bazilder.
Ventilation :
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R. P., Author of “Plumbing,” &c. With 170 Illustrations & tº . 3/6
The Practical Plaster»er :
A Compendium of Plain and Ornamental Plaster Work. By WILFRED KEMP 2/O
House Painting, Graining, Marbling, and Sign
Writing :
With a Course of Elementary Drawing, and a Collection of Useful Receipts. By ELLIS
A. DAVIDSON. Eighth Edition. Coloured Plates g g # e . 5/O
*...* The above, in cloth boards, strongly bound, 6/0.
“A mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man.”—English Mechazzic.
56 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Grammar of Colouring. -
Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By GEORGE FIELD. New Edition,
revised and enlarged by ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. With Coloured Plates * te
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Elementary Decoration :
As Applied to Dwelling-Houses, &c. By JAMES W. FACEY. Illustrated . . 2/O
“The principles, which ought to guide the decoration of dwelling-houses are clearly set forth, and
elucidated by examples; while full instructions are given to the learner.”—Scotsmaazz.
Practical House Decoration.
A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments,
and the Principles of Decorative Design. By JAMES W. FACEy e
*...* The last two Works in One handsome Vol., half-àound, entitled “House DECORATION,
ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL,” price 5/O.
Portland Cerment, for User’s. -
By HENRY FAIJA, A. M. Inst. C. E. Third Edition, corrected . 2|O
“Supplies in a small compass all that is necessary to be known by users of cement.”—Building Vews.
Limes, Cennents, Mortars, Concretes, Mastics,
Plastering, &e. -
By G. R. BURNELL, C. E. Thirteenth Edition . º º * * e . 1/6
Masonry and Stonecutting,
The Principles of Masonic Projection, and their Application to Construction. By
E. DOBSON, M. R. I. B. A. . ſº e * g 2/6
Arches, Pier's, Buttresses, &c.
Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction in. By WILLIAM BLAND 116
Quantities and Measurements,
In Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters’, Paperhangers', Gilders',
Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C. BEATON, Surveyor . . 1/6
“This book is indispensable to builders and their quantity clerks.”—English Mechazzic.
Complete Measurer”;
Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, Timber, and Stone. By R. HoRTON.
Fifth Edition tº * . 4
* g
*.* The above, strongly bound 272 leather, price 5ſo.
Light :
An Introduction to the Science of Optics. Designed for the Use of Students of
Architecture, Engineering, and other Applied Sciences. By E. W. TARN, M.A. . 116
Hints to Young Architects.
By GEORGE WIGHTWICK, Architect, Author of “The Palace of Architecture,” &c., &c.
Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged by G. HUSKISSON GUILLAUME, Architect . 3/6
“A copy ought to be considered as necessary a purchase as a box of instruments.”—Azchitect.
Architecture—Order’s. *
The Orders and their AEsthetic Principles. By W. H. LEEDs. Illustrated . 1/6
Architecture—Styles. -
The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various Countries, from
the Earliest to the Present Period. By T. TALBOT BURY, F.R.I.B.A., &c. Illus-
trated . g * & e & & © g & º * * & . 2/O
“ORDERS AND STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE,” in One Vol., 3/6.
Architecture—Design.
The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and exemplified in
the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By EDw. L. GARBETT, Architect 2/6
“We know no work that we would sooner recommend to an attentive reader desirous to obtain clear
views of the nature of architectural art. The book is a valuable one.”—Builder.
*...* The Žhree preceding Works in One handsome Voſ., half-bound, entitled “MODERN
- ARCHITECTURE,” price 6/O.
Architectural Modelling in Paper,
The Art of. By T. A. RICHARDSON. With Illustrations, engraved by O. JEWITT 1/6
“A valuable aid to the practice of architectural modelling.”—Bazz/dez’s Week/y Zºe?oz-Żer.
Perspective for Beginners. -
For Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By G. PYNE . • 2/O
Glass Staining, and the Art of Painting on Glass.
- From the German of Dr. GESSERT and EMANUEL OTTO FROMBERG. With an
Appendix on THE ART OF ENAMELLING . e e g * * * . 2/6
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 57
Vitruvius—The Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius
POIlio.
In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by JOSEPH G WILT, F.S.A., F. R.A.S.
With 23 Plates . - - - - - e - • - e • , 5/O
AV. B.-This is the only Edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a moderate price.
Greeian Architecture,
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in ; with an Historical View of the Rise and
Progress of the Art in Greece. By the EARL OF ABERDEEN - - . 1/O
*...* The two preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half-bound, entitled “ANCIENT
- ARCHITECTURE,” price 6/O.
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFU L ARTS.
Cements, Pastes, Glues, and Gums.
A Guide to the Manufacture and Application of Agglutinants for Workshop, Laboratory,
or Office Use. With 9oo Recipes and Formulae. By H. C. STANDAGE . . 2/O
“As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of curiosity
among the large number of industries it touches.”—Daily Chronicle.
Clocks and Watches, and Bells,
A Rudimentary Treatise. By Sir EDMUND BECKETT. Seventh Edition. . 4/6
*** The above, handsomely bound, Cloth Boards, 5/6.
“The best work on the subject probably extant. The treatise on bells is undoubtedly the best in the
language.”—Engineering. “The only modern treatise on clock-making.”—Horological /ournal.
Electro-Metallurgy,
Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER WATT. Tenth Edition, enlarged and revised.
With Additional Illustrations, and including the most Recent Processes . . 3/6
“From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary.”—ſrooz.
Goldsmith’s Handbook,
Containing full Instructions in the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring,
Collecting, and Refining. The processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste,
Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold ; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules
and Recipes, &c. By GEORGE E. GEE. Third Edition, considerably enlarged 3/O
“A good, sound, technical educator.”—Horological Jozermal.
Silversmith’s Handbook,
On the same plan as the above. By GEORGE E. GEE. Second Edition, Revised 3/O
“A valuable sequel to the author's “Practical Goldworker.’”—Silversizzițh's Trade /ozernal.
*...* The two preceding Works, in One handsome Vol., ha!/-bound, entitled “THE
GOLDSMITH's AND SILVERSMITH's COMPLETE HANDBOOK,” 7/O.
Hall-Marking of Jewellery.
Comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United Kingdom ; with
the Stamps at present employed ; also the Laws relating to the Standards and Hall-
Marks at the various Assay Offices. By GEORGE E. GEE. º e e º
Deals thoroughly with its subject from a manufacturer's and dealer's point of view.”—Jeweller.
French Polishing and Enamelling.
A Practical Book of Instruction, including numerous Recipes for making Polishes,
Varnishes, Glaze-Lacquers, Revivers, etc. By RICHARD BITMEAD.
- [Just published. 1/6
{ %
Practical Organ Building.
By W. E. DICKSON, M.A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Second Edition, Revised 2/6
: “The amateur builder will find in this book all that is necessary to enable him personally to construct
a perfect organ with his own hands.”—Acadezzay.
Coach-Building :
A Practical Treatise, Historical and Descriptive. By JAMES W. BURGESS . . 2/6
“This handbook will supply a long-felt want, not only to manufacturers themselves, but more
particularly apprentices, and others connected with the trade of coach-building.”—Europeazz //ai/.
The Cabinet-Maker’s Guide
To the Entire Construction of Cabinet-Work, including Veneering, Marqueterie, Buhl-
Work, Mosaic, Inlaying, Working and Polishing Ivory, Trade Recipes, &c. By
RICHARD BITMEAD. With Plans, Sections, and Working Drawings.
[Just published. 2/6
Brass Founder’s Manual:
Instructions for Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding, Turning, &c. By W.
GRAHAM ſº º tº e & º e - e º & 6. g . 2/O
Sheet, Metal-Worker’s Guide.
. A Practical Handbook for Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c., with 46
Diagrams and Working Patterns. By W. J. E. CRANE. Second Edition, revised 1/6
“The author has acquitted himself with considerable tact in choosing his examples, and with no
less ability in treating them.”—P/u?/zóer.
58 CROSBY LOCKwooD & SON's CATALOGUE.
Sewing Maehinery.
Construction, History, Adjusting, &c. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. . g . 2/O
Gas Fitting : --
- A Practical Handbook. By JOHN BLACK. Revised Edition. With 130 Illustrations 2/6
“It is written in a simple practical style, and we heartily recommend it.”—P/azmáez and ZOecorazor.
Construction of Door” Locks.
From the Papers of A. C. HOBBS. Edited by CHARLEs TOMLINSON, F.R.S. With
a Note upon IRON SAFES by ROBERT MALLET. Illustrated. . g & . 2/6
The Model Loeomotive Engineer, Fireman, and
Engine-Boy.
By MICHAEL REYNOLDs . g & e re * e
Art of Letter Painting made Easy.
By JAMES GREIG BADENOCH. With 12 full-page Engravings of Examples. . 1/6
“Any intelligent lad who fails to turn out decent work after studying this system, has mistaken his
vocation.”—Fnglish Mechanic.
Art of Boot and Shoemaking,
Including Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing and Making ; with a
Description of the most Approved Machinery employed. By J. B. LENO . 2/O
“By far the best work ever written on the subject.”—Scozzis/. Aleather 77%dez.
Mechanical Dentistry:
A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of Artificial Dentures,
comprising also Useful Formulae, Tables and Receipts. By C. HUNTER
Wood Engraving :
A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study of the Art. By W. N. BROWN 1/6
Laundry Management. ---
A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries. Including Accounts of Modern
3/6
Machinery and Appliances. By the EDITOR of The Lazzzzdry Jourma/ . . 2/O
“This book should certainly occupy an honoured place on the shelves of all housekeepers who wish
to keep themselves aze courant of the newest appliances and methods.”—The Queen.
AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC.
Draining and Embanking.
A Practical Treatise. By JOHN SCOTT, late Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy
at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. With 68 Illustrations. . 1/6
“A valuable handbook to the engineer as well as to the surveyor.”—Zazza.
Irrigation and Water Supply:
A Practical Treatise on Water Meadows, Sewage Irrigation, Warping, &c.; on the
Construction of Wells, Ponds, and Reservoirs, &c. By Professor J. SCOTT . 1/6
“A valuable and indispensable book for the estate manager and owner.”—Forestry.
Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates:
A Practical Treatise on the Roads, Tramways, and Waterways of the Farm ; the Prin-
ciples of Enclosures; and on Fences, Gates, and Stiles. By Prof. JoHN SCOTT . 1/6
“A useful practical work, which should be in the hands of every farmer.”—Farmiez.
Farm Buildings:
A Practical Treatise on the Buildings necessary for various kinds of Farms, their
Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates. By Professor J. Scott 2/O
“No one who is called upon to design farm buildings can afford to be without this work.”—Basilder.
Barºn Implements and Machines:
Treating of the Application of Power to the Operations of Agriculture ; and of the
various Machines used in the Threshing-barn, in the Stockyard, Dairy, &c. By
Professor JOHN SCOTT. With 123 Illustrations . * º * ſº e . 2/O
Field Implements and Machines:
With Principles and Details of Construction and Points of Excellence, their Manage-
ment, &c. By Professor JOHN SCOTT. With 138 Illustrations . * & . 2/O
Agricultural Surveying : -
A Treatise on Land Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; with Directions for
Valuing and Reporting on Farms and Iº.states. By Professor J. SCOTT
Farºnn Engineering.
By Professor JoHN SCOTT. Comprising the above Seven Volumes in One, 1,150 pages,
and over 600 Illustrations. Half-bound . e & # * te ſº . 12/0
“A copy of this work should be treasured up in every library where the owner thereof is in any way
connected with land.”—Farm, awza! Aſozize. -
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 59
Outlines of Farm Management. -
Treating of the General Work of the Farm ; Stock; Contract Work ; Labour, &c. By
R. SCOTT BURN, Author of “Outlines of Modern Farming,” &c. - . . 2/6
“The book is eminently practical, and may be studied with advantage by beginners in agriculture,
while it contains hints which will be useful to old and successful farmers.”—Scotszzzazz.
Outlines of Landed Estates Management.
Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming, the Setting-out of Farms, &c.;
Roads, Fences, Gates, Irrigation, Drainage, &c. By R. S. BURN - . 2/6
“A complete and comprehensive outline of the duties appertaining to the management of landed
estates.”—/ozzzzza! of Forestry.
Soils, Manures, and Crops. -
(Vol. I. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING...) By R. SCOTT BURN. Woodcuts. 2/O
Farming and Farming Economy,
Historical and Practical. (Vol. II. OUTLINEs OF MODERN FARMING...) By R. SCOTT
BURN º «» * e g ge - - º g e - . 3/O
“Eminently calculated to enlighten the agricultural community on the varied subjects of which it
treats; hence it should find a place in every farmer's library.”—City Press.
Stoek: Cattle, Sheep, and Horses.
(Vol. III. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING...) By R. Scott BURN. Woodcuts 2/6
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mend this excellent treatise.”—Weekly Dispatch.
Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry.
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best authorities.”—/.ozzdoza Zºezjiezw.
Utilization of Sewage, Irrigation, &e.
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farming.”—Field.
Outlines of Modern Farming.
By R. SCOTT BURN, Author of “Landed Estates Management,” &c. Consisting of the
above Five Volumes in One, I,250 pp., profusely Illustrated, half-bound . 12/O
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this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit.”—Morning Advertiser.
Book-keeping for Farmer’s and Estate Owners.
• A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all classes of
Farms. By J. M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Fourth Edition . . 2/6
“Will be found of great assistance by those who intend to commence a system of book-keeping, the
author's examples being clear and explicit, and his explanations full and accurate.”—Dive Stock Jozzzza!.
Ready Reckoner for Admeasurement of Land.
By A. ARMAN. Third Edition, revised and extended by C. NORRIS, Surveyor . 2/O
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“Should be in the hands of all persons having any connection with land.”—Irish Farmſz.
Ready Reckoner for Miller’s, Corºn Merchants,
And Farmers. Second Edition, revised, with a Price List of Modern Flour Mill
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“Will prove an indispensable zade meczema. Nothing has been spared to make the book complete and
perfectly adapted to its special purpose.”—Miller.
The Hay and Straw. Measurer :
New Tables for the use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Farmers, Hay and Straw Dealers, &c.,
forming a complete Calculator and Ready Reckoner. By JOHN STEELE O
“A most useful handbook. It should be in every professional office where agricultural valuations are
conducted.”—Zand Ageyaz’s Record.
Meat Production :
A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' Meat. By JOHN
EWART e º º o º . 2/6
“A compact and handy volume on the meat question.”—Meat and Prozºision Trades Rezniew.
6O CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
**
Sheep: - .
The History, Structure, Economy, and Diseases of. By W. C. SPOONER. Fifth Edition,
with Engravings, including Specimens of New and Improved Breeds . & . 3/6
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Market and Kitchen Gardening.
By C. W. SHAw, late Editor of “Gardening Illustrated."
sº
“The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published. —Karmer.
Kitehen Gardening made Easy.
Showing the best means of Cultivating every known Vegetable and Herb, &c., with
directions for management all the year round. By GEO. M. F. GLENNY. Illustrated 1/6
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Cottage Gardening;
Or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. HoBDAY . . 1/6
“Definite instructions as to the cultivation of small gardens.”—Scotsman.
Garden Receipts. * .
Edited by CHARLEs W. QUIN. Third Edition . e
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Fruit Trees,
The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of M. DU BREUIL. Fourth
Edition, carefully Revised by GEORGE GLENNY. With 187 Woodcuts & . 3/6
“The book teaches how to prune and train fruit trees to perfection.”—Field.
Tree Planter and Plant Propagator:
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Pits, &c. By S. WOOD, Author of “Good Gardening,” &c. 2/O
“Sound in its teaching and very comprehensive in its aim. It is a good book.”—Gardeners’ Magazine.
Tree Pruner :
Being a Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees, including also their Training and
Renovation, also treating of the Pruning of Shrubs, Climbers, and Flowering Plants. With
numerous Illustrations. By SAMUEL WooD, Author of “Good Gardening,” &c. 1/6
“A useful book, written by one who has had great experience.”—Mark Zane Fażress.
*...* ZThe above Zºo Vols. i2. One, handsome/y half-bound, entitled “THE TREE PLANTER,
PROPAGATOR AND PRUNER.” By SAMUEL WooD. Price 3/6.
Art of Grafting and Budding.
By CHARLES BALTET. With Illustrations e
“The one standard work on this subject.”—Scotszzzazz.
3/6
1/6
4 &
t e g ſº . 2/6
MATHE MATICS, ARITH METIC, ETC.
Descriptive Geometry,
An Elementary Treatise on ; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective, extracted
from the French of G. MONGE. To which is added a Description of the Principles and
Practice of Isometrical Projection. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A. With 14 Plates. 2/O
Practical Plane Geometry: -
- Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane and
Geometrical Construction of the Ground. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A. . 2/O
“The author is well-known as an experienced professor, and the volume contains as complete a
Collection of problems as is likely to be required in ordinary practice.”—Architect.
Analytical Geormetry and Conic Sections.
By JAMES HANN. New Edition, Enlarged by Professor J. R. YOUNG . . 2/O
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and those who may be obliged to have recourse to self-tuition.”—A'mgineer.
Euelid, -
THE ELEMENTS OF ; with many Additional Propositions and Explanatory Notes; to
which is prefixed an Introductory Essay on Logic. By HENRY LAW, C. E. , 2/6
*...* Sold also separately, viz. –
EUCLID. The First Three Books. By HENRY LAW, C.E. . * & * . 1/6
EUCLID. Books 4, 5, 6, II, I2. By HENRY LAW, C. E. e 4 * & . 1/6
Plane Trigonometry, -
The Elements of. By JAMES HANN, M.A. Sixth Edition & * tº . 1/6
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 6I
Spherical Trigonometry,
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*...* Or with “ The Elements of Plane Trigonometry,” in One Vol., 2/6.
Differential Calculus,
Elements of the. By W. S. B. WoolHouse, F.R.A.S., &c. - • º . 1/6
Integral Calculus.
By HOMERSHAM Cox, B.A. . º e e - - e - - º . 1/6
Algebra,
The Elements of. By JAMES HADDON, M.A., formerly Mathematical Master of King's
College School. With Appendix, containing Miscellaneous Investigations, and a col-
lection of Problems - - g - º - - e - - e . 2/O
Key and Companion to the Above.
An extensive repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Illustration of the
various Expedients necessary in Algebraical Operations. By J. R. YOUNG
Commercial Book-keeping.
With Commercial Phrases and Forms in English, French, Italian, and German. By
JAMES HADDON, M.A., formerly Mathematical Master, King's College School . 1/6
Arithmetic,
A Rudimentary Treatise on : with full Explanations of its Theoretical Principles, and
numerous Examples for Practice. For the use of Schools and for Self-Instruction. By
J. R. YoUNG, late Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. Eleventh Edition 116
Key to the Above.
By J. R. YoUNG . - e
Equational Arithmetic,
Applied to Questions of Interest, Annuities, Life Assurance, and General Commerce :
with various Tables by which all calculations may be greatly facilitated. By W.
HIPSLEY º - • e • º - • q - - - . 1/6
Arithmetic,
Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and Self-Instruction. By JAMES HADDON, M.A.
1/6
Revised by ABRAHAM ARMAN 1/6
Key to the Above.
By A. ARMAN e - 1/6
Mathermatical Instruments,
A Treatise on ; Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use concisely explained.
By J. F. HEATHER, M.A., of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Fourteenth
Edition, Revised with Additions, by A. T. WALMISLEY, M.I.C.E., Fellow of the
Surveyors' Institution. Original Edition in One Vol., Illustrated - ... 2
*...* In ordering be careful to say “Original AEdition,” to distinguish ºf from the AEm/arged
Edition in Three Vols. (see below).
Drawing and Measuring Instruments.
Including—I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, and in
the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps and Plans. II. Instruments
used for the purposes of Accurate Measurement, and for Arithmetical Computations.
By J. F. HEATHER, M.A. . º - º - • s • • - . 1/6
Optical Instruments.
Including (more especially) Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for producing
copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A. Illustrated 1/6
Surveying and Astronomical Instruments.
Including—I. Instruments used for Determining the Geometrical Features of a portion
of Ground. II. Instruments employed in Astronomical Observations. By J. F.
HEATHER, M.A. Illustrated e e g - º p © e -> . 1/6
*...* The above Three Volumes form an enlargement of the Azºthor's origina/ zworé,
“Mathematical Instruments," price 2/0.
Mathematical Instrument S :
Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing and Use. Comprising Drawing, Measuring,
Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A.
Enlarged Edition, for the most part re-written. Three Parts as above º . 4/6
“An exhaustive treatise, belonging to the well-known Weale's Series. Mr. Heather's experience
well qualifies him for the task he has so ably fulfilled.”—Engineering and Batilding Timzes.
Slide Rule, and How to Use It.
Containing full, easy, and simple Instructions to perform all Business Calculations with
unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By CHARLES HOARE, C. E. With a Slide Rule,
in tuck of cover. Fifth Edition . º * * º g tº 2/6
62 CROSBY LOCIS WOOD & SON'S CATALOG.U.E.
Mathematical Tables,
For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations; to which is prefixed a
Treatise on Logarithms. By H. LAW, C. E. Together with a Series of Tables for
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Professor J. R. YoUNG. New Edition 4/O
Logarithms.
With Mathematical Tables for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calcula-
tions. By HENRY LAW, C.E. Revised Edition. (Forming part of the above work) 3/O
Theory of Compound Interest and Annuities:
With Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount,
Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes.
O
By FEDOR THOMAN, of the Société Crédit, Mobilier, Paris. Fourth Edition . 4|
“A very powerful work, and the author has a very remarkable command of his subject.”—Professor
A. DE MORGAN. “We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accountants.”—Athenazzazz. -
Treatise on Mathermatics,
As applied to the Constructive Arts. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E., &c. 2nd Edn. 3/O
“Should be in the hands of every one connected with building construction.”—Builders' Reporter.
Astronomy. - . .
By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S. Third Edition, revised and corrected.
By WILLIAM THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S. . º tº s g . 2/O
“A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners.”—Knowledge.
Statics and Dynamics,
The Principles and Practice of ; embracing also a clear development of Hydrostatics,
Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. BAKER, C. E. Fourth Edition 6
EOOPQS OF REFERENCE AND
MISCE LLA NEO US VOLUM ES.
Manual of the Mollusca :
A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. WooDwARD, A.L.S. With
Appendix by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300
Woodcuts & * e & iº g & tº * & G g . 7/6
“A storehouse of conchological and geological information.”—Hardwicke's Science Gossiń.
Dictionary of Painter’s,
And Handbook for Picture Amateurs; being a Guide for Visitors to Public and Private
Picture Galleries, and for Art Students, including Glossary of Terms, &c. By PHILIPPE
DARYL, B.A. ge º tº - e e . 2/6
“Considering its small compass, really admirable. We cordially recommend the book.”—Builder.
Painting Popularly Explained.
By THOMAS JOHN GULLICK, Painter, and JOHN TIMBS, F.S.A. Including Fresco,
Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on
Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition. g e O
*...* Adopted as a Prize Book at Sozzáh Rezszzagãozz.
“Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful
perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise.”—Az-z Jozzzzza!.
Dictionary of Terms used in Architecture,
Building, Engineering, Mining, Metallurgy, Archaeology, the Fine Arts, &c.
By JOHN WEALE. Sixth Edition. Edited by ROBT. HUNT, F.R.S., Keeper of
Mining Records, Editor of ‘‘Ure's Dictionary.” Numerous Illustrations . . 5/O
*** The above, strongly bound in cloth boards, price 6/O.
“The best small technological dictionary in the language.”—Azchāţect.
Music,
A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. By CHARLES CHILD SPENCER . 2/6
“Mr. Spencer has marshalled his information with much skill, and yet with a simplicity that must
recommend his works to all who wish to thoroughly understand music.”—Weekly Tizzzes.
Pianoforºte,
The Art of Playing the. With Exercises and Lessons. By C. C. SPENCER . 1/6
“A sound and excellent work, written with spirit, and calculated to inspire the pupil with a desire to
aim at high accomplishment in the art.”—School Board Chronicle.
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 63
House Manager :
Being a Guide to Housekeeping, Practical Cookery, Pickling and Preserving, House-
hold Work, Dairy Management, the Table and Dessert, Cellarage of Wines, Home-
brewing and Wine-making, the Boudoir and Dressing-room, Travelling, Stable
Economy, Gardening Operations, &c. By AN OLD HOUSEKEEPER * , . 3/6
“We find here directions to be discovered in no other book, tending to save expense to the pocket, as
well as labour to the head.”—/o/izz Bzz/7.
Manual Of DOrmestic Medicine. -
By R. GOODING, B.A., M.D. Intended as a Family Guide in all Cases of Accident and
Emergency. Third Edition, carefully revised g e |- & & º . .2/O
“The author has performed a useful service by placing at the disposal of those situated at a distance
from medical aid, a reliable and sensible work in which professional knowledge and accuracy have been
well seconded by the ability to express himself in ordinary untechnical language.”—Public Health.
Management of Health.
A Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene. By the Rev. JAMES BAIRD, B.A. , 1/O
“It is wonderfully reliable, it is written with excellent taste, and there is instruction crowded into
every page.”—Jºnglish Mechanic.
House Book,
Comprising—I. THE HOUSE MANAGER. By AN OLD HOUSEKEEPER. II. DOMESTIC
MEDICINE. By RALPH GOODING, M.D.. III. MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH. By
JAMES BAIRD. In One Vol., strongly half-bound * & g tº tº . 6/O
Natural Philosophy,
For the Use of Beginners. By CHARLEs TOMLINSON, F.R.S. . * e . 1/6
Electric Lighting :
The Elementary Principles of. By ALAN A. CAMPBELL Sw1NTON, M. Inst.C.E.,
M. Inst. E. E. With 16 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised [/ust published. 1/6
Electric Telegraph : -
Its History and Progress; with Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. By R. SABINE,
C. E., F.S.A., &c. e * º e e s . 3/O
“Essentially a practical and instructive work.”—Daily Telegraž/.
Handbook of Field Fortification.
By Major W. W. KNOLLys, F.R.G.S. With 163 Woodcuts. 3/O
.“A well-timed and able contribution to our military literature. . . . . . The author supplies, in clear
business style, all the information likely to be practically useful.”—Chazzaffers of Cozzzzzzerce Chrozzicle.
Logic,
Pure and Applied. By S. H. EMMENs. Third Edition. 1/6
“This admirable work should be a text-book not only for schools, students, and philosophers, for all
27#teražezers and men of science, but for those concerned in the practical affairs of life, &c.”—The ZVezws.
Locke’s Essays on the Human Understanding.
Selections, with Notes by S. H. EMMENs . g e & e g i- . 1
Compendious Caleulator
(In tuitive Calculations); or Easy and Concise Methods of performing the various
Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Transactions ; together
with Useful Tables, &c. By DANIEL O'GORMAN. Twenty-seventh Edition, carefully
revised by C. NORRIS tº g * . 2/6. Strozzg/y half-bound 3/6
“It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of this book to every one engaged in commerce or
manufacturing industry. It is crammed full with rules and formulae for shortening and employing
calculations in money, weights and measures, &c., of every sort and description.”—Kºzlozv/edge.
Measures, Weights, and Moneys of all Nations,
And an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars. By W. S. B.
WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S., F.S.S. Seventh Edition * * & º . 2/6
“A work necessary for every mercantile office.”—Building Trades Journal.
Grammar of the English Tongue,
Spoken and Written. With an Introduction to the Study of Comparative Philology.
By HYDE CLARKE, D.C.L. Fifth Edition t & e g & ſº . 1/6
Dictionary of the English Language,
As Spoken and Written. Containing about roo, Ooo Words. By HYDE CLARKE,
D.C.L. . e g g . 3/6
/6
*...* Complete with the GRAMMAR, 5/6.
Composition and Punctuation,
Familiarly Explained for those who have neglected the Study of Grammar. By JUSTIN
BRENAN. Eighteenth Edition . g * e * g & e * . 1/6
64 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
French Grammar. . * -
With Complete and Concise Rules on the Genders of French Nouns. By
G. L. STRAUss, Ph.D. . . gº e ſº . . . . 1/6
English-French Dictionary. -
By ALFRED ELWES tº t t tº ſº 2|O
French Dictionary.
In Two Parts : I. French-English. II. English-French. Complete in One Vol. 3|O
.* *...* Or with the GRAMMAR, 4/6. -
French and English Phrase Book.
Containing Introductory Lessons, with Translations, Vocabularies of Words, Collection
of Phrases, and Easy Familiar Dialogues . e e e g • * e . 1/6
German Grammar. - -
Adapted for English Students, from Heyse's Theoretical and Practical Grammar, by
Dr. G. L. STRAUSS . g * * tº & g -
German Triglot, Dictionary. .
By N. E. S. A. HAMILTON. Part I. German-French-English. Part II. English-
German-French. Part III. French-German-English . 3|O
German Triglot Dictionary
(As above). Together with German Grammar in One Vol. & • . 5|O
Italian Grammar,
Arranged in Twenty Lessons, with Exercises. By ALFRED ELWEs . . 1/6
Italian Triglot Dictionary,
Wherein the Genders of all the Italian and French, Nouns are carefully noted down.
By ALFRED ELWES. Vol. I. Italian-English-French g & * it. . 2/6
Italian Triglot Dictionary. -
By ALFRED ELWES. Vol. II. English-French-Italian . g * e . 2/6
Italian Triglot Dictionary.
By ALFRED ELWES. Vol. III. French-Italian-English . 3. sº . . 2/6
Italian Triglot Dictionary
(As above). In One Vol. . & * Lº G & ºt g . 716
Spanish Grammar.
In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By ALFRED ELWES , . 1/6
Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary.
Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, &c., with
the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By ALFRED ELWEs . 4/O
*x* Or with the GRAMMAR, 6/0.
Portuguese Grammar,
In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By ALFRED ELwÉs . , 1/6
Portuguese-English and English-Portuguese Die-
tionary. -
Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, &c., with
the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By ALFRED ELWES. Third
Edition, revised g & sº & º e e * g . 5|O
*...* Or with the GRAMMAR, 7/O.
Animal Physics,
Handbook of. By DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L. With 520 Illustrations. In One Vol.
(732 pages), cloth boards . * e • . º * . 7/6
*...* Sold also in Two Parts, as follows:—
ANIMAL PHYSICS. By Dr. LARDNER. Part I., Chapters I. —VII. . . . 4/O
ANIMAL PHYSICS. By Dr, LARDNER. Párt II. Chapters VIII.—XVIII. . 3|O
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