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23
897.
25°46.
$’
THE
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS,
AND
CLASS B00K OF ASTRONOMY;
A CCOMPANIED BY
A CELESTIAL ATLAS.

—“
V&W-"
By ELIJAH H. BURRITT, A. M.
*==
WITH AN INTRODUCTION,

BY THOMAS DICK, LL.D., & 6.
Authorof the “Christian Philosºs.c.
& j4. ** s'
**
* i-º
$’ *
NEW YORK : .*-
HUNTINGTON & SAyAGE,
216 PEARL STREET.
184 6.
F. J. HUNTINGTON & Co. have recently published, in one small
volume 16mo., suitable for children just entering upon the study of
Astronomy, and introductory to the “Geography of the Heavens.”
ASTRONOMY FOR BEGINNERS,
with a Map and 27 Engravings. By Francis Fellowes, A. M.
“This is one of the most successful attempts to simplify sublime sci-
ence to the comprehension of children. The author has employed an
arrangement and style entirely new, with a clear and luminous pen, and
in the happiest manner. . I cordially commend to parents, to teachers.
to children, this result of his labours.”—Mrs. Sigourney.

ENTERED,
according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by
F. J. HUNTINGTON,
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut.
s!
***As
*S*.
}
.
º:
*S*w-
<
s
PUBLISHER'S NOTICE.
In presenting a new edition of this work to the public, it is pro-
|. to point out several very important improvements which have
en mºvde. -
Dr. Dick of Scotland, so well known both in Europe and in this
country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, and other
scientific and popular works, has prepared, expressly for the
work, an Introduction on the Advantages of the Study of Astrono-
my. So far as authority and name can go to give currency to the
work, and to establish the confidence of teachers in it as a proper
text book, this simple fact, the publisher flatters himself, furnishes
every testimonial which can be desired: beside which, the con-
tributions of Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, cannot but be
read with extreme interest. -
The work has been thoroughly revised, and the errors of for-
mer editions corrected: subsequent to which, it has undergone a
thorough examination from one of our most eminent mathema-
ticians and astronomers. It will be observed that several new
Chapters, on the important subjects of Planetary Motion, The Phe-
momena of Day and Night, The Seasons, The Tides, The Obliquity
of #. Ecliptic, The Precession of the Equinoaces, £c., have been
added.
It is Čnly necessary to observe the Atlas, to discover that the
Plates have been engraved entirely anew, upon steel, and in a
very superior and beautiful style. The figures of the Constella-
tions are far more natural and spirited than those of the former
Atlas. Especially, the characters which represent the stars are
distinct, so that the pupil can discern, at once, to what class they
belong. One new plate has been introduced, illustrating to the
eye, the Relative Magnitudes, Distances, and Positions of the dif-
ferent bodies which compose the Solar System. This plate the
teacher will find to be of very important service, and to aid him
much in his verbal explanations. The arrangement of the Plates
in the present Atlas, is such, that the teacher and pupil can easily
place them, in mind, so as to have a distinct view of the entire
surface of the visible Heavens.
Such are the principal improvements which have been made
in the work. They speak for themselves. The publisher knows
not what could express his satisfaction with the past, or his hopes
for the future success of the work, better than such improv ments.
x *
• , , - : " . -> ~5.
2 : . . . . ; 2 ºn '...} :
- - * - - ‘. ; : * * *
4. ... - —- -- ~ * * **-
P. R. E. F. A. C. E.
I HAVE -ong felt the want of a Class Book, which should be to the
starry heavens, what Geography is to the earth; a work that should
exhibit, by means of appropriate delineations, the scenery of the
heavens: the various constellations arranged in their order, point
out and classify the principal stars, according to their magnitudes
and places, and be accompanied, at the same time, with such fami-
liar exercises and illustrations, adapted to recitation, as should bring
it within the pale of popular instruction, and the scope of juvenile
understandings.
Such a work I have attempted to supply. I have endeavoured to
make the descriptions of the stars so #ia, and the instructions
for finding them so plain, that the most inexperienced should no
fail to j them. In accomplishing this, I have relied but
little upon globes and maps, or books. I very early discovered
that it was an easy matter to sit down by a celestial globe, and, by
means of an approved catalogue, and the help of a little graduated
slip of brass, make out, in detail, a minute description of the stars,
and discourse quite familiarly of their position, magnitude and ar-
rangement, and that when all this was done, I had indeed given
the#. a few additional facilities for finding those stars upon the
artificial globe, but which left him, after all, about as ignorant of
their apparent situation in the heavens, as before. I came, at length,
to the conclusion, that any description of the stars, to be practically
useful, must be made from a careful observation of the stars them.
selves, and made at the time of observation.
To be convinced of this, let any person sit down to a celestia!
globe or map, and from this alone, make out a set of instructions
in regard to some favourite constellation, and then desire his pupil
to trace out in the firmament, by means of it, the various stars which
he has thus described. The pupil will find it little better than a
fancy sketch. The bearings and distances, and especially, the com:
parative brightness, and relative positions, will rarely be exhibited
with such accuracy that the young observer will be inspired with
much confidence in his guide. te
I have demonstrated to myself, at least, that the most judicious in-
structions to put on paper for the guide of the young in this study.
are those which I have used most successfully, while in a clear eve
ning, without any chart but the firmament above, I have pointed
out, with my finger, to a group of listeners, the various stars which
compose this and that constellation.
In this way, the teacher will describe the stars as they actually
appear to the pupil—taking advantage of those ºbvious and more
striking features that serve to identify and to distinguish them from
all others. Now if these verbal instructions be committed to wri-
PREFACE.
ting and placed in the hands of any other pupil, they will answe
nearly the same end. This is the methºl which I have pursued in
this work. The descriptive part of it, at least, was not composed
by the light of the Sun, principally, nor of a lamp, but by the light
of the stars themselves. Having fixed upon the most conspicuous
star, or group of stars, in each constellation, as it passed the meri-
dian, and with a pencil carefully noted all the identifying circum-
stances of position, bearing, brightness, number and distance—their
geometrical allocation, if any, and such other descriptive features
as seemed most worthy of notice, I then returned to my room to tran-
scribe and classify these memoranda in their proper order; repeat-
ing the same observations at different hours the same evening, and
on other evenings at various periods, for a succession of years; al-
ways adding such emendations as subsequent observations matured.
To satisfy myself of the #. of these descriptions, I have
given detached portions of them to different pupils, and sent them
out to find the stars; and I have generally had the gratification Cf
hearing them report, that “everything was just as I had described
it.” If a pupil found any difficulty in recognizing a star, I re-ºx-
amined the . to see if it could be made better, and when
I found it susceptible of Improvement, it was made on the spot. It
is not pretended, however, that there is not yet much room for im-
provement; for whoever undertakes to delineate or describe every
visible star in the heavens, assumes a task, in the accomplishment
of which, he may well claim some indulgence.
The maps which accompany the work, in the outlines and ar-
rangement of the constellations, are essentially the same with those
of Dr. Wollaston. They are projected upon the same principles
as maps of Geography, exhibiting a faithful portraiture of the hea-
vens for every month, and consequently for every day in the year,
and do not require to be rectified, for that purpose, like globes.
They are calculated, in a good measure, to supersede the neces
sity of celestial globes in schools, inasmuch as they present a more
natural view of the heavenly bodies, and as nearly all the problems
which are peculiar to the celestial globe, and a great number be-
sides, may be solved upon them in a very simple and satisfactory
manner. They may be put into the hands of each individual in a
class at the same time, but a globe cannot be. The student may
conveniently hold them before his eye to guide his survey of the
heavens, but a globe he cannot. There is not a conspicuous star
in the firmament which a child often years may not readily find by
their aid. Besides, the maps are always right and ready for use,
while the globe is to be rectified and turned to a particular meri-
dian; and then if it be not held in that position for the time being
it is liable to be moved by the merest accident or breath of wind.
There is another consideration which renders an artificial globe
of very little avail as an auxiliary for acquiring a knowledge of the
stars while at school... It is this:—the pupil spends one perhaps
two weeks, in solving the problems, and admiring the figures on it,
in which time it has been turned round and round a hundred times;
it is then returned safely to its case, and some months afterwards,
or it may be the next evening, he directs his eve upwards to lecog-

PREFACE
nize his acquaintance among the stars. He may find hit is ºlt able
to recollect the names of the principal stars, and the uncoutin forms
by which the constellations are pictured out; but which ol' all the
positions he has placed the globe in, is now so present to his minº
that he is jºi to identify it with any portion of the visible hea.
vens ‘l
B a looks in vain to See,
“Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise,
And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.”
He finds, in short, that the bare study of the globe is one thing
and that of the heavens quite another; and he arrives at the con
clusion, that if he would be profited, both must be studied and com
pared together. This, since a class is usually furnished with but
one globe, is impracticable. In this point of view also, the maps
are preferable.
I have endeavoured to teach the Geography of the heavens in
nearly the same manner as we teach the Geography of the earth
What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, popula-
tion and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, I
have done in regard to the constellations; and I am persuaded,
that a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained, as of the
other. The systems are similar. It is only necessary to change the
terms in one, to render them applicable to the other. For this rea-
son, I have yielded to the preference of the publisher in calling this
work “Geography of the Heavens,” instead of URANoGRAPHY, or
some other name more etymologically apposite.
That a serious contemplation of those stupendous works of the
Most High, which astronomy unfolds, is calculated above all other
departments of human knowledge, to enlarge and invigorate the
powers of religious contemplation, and subserve the interests of ra-
tional piety, we have the testimony of the most illustrious charac-
ters that have adorned our race.
If the work which I now submit, shall have this tendency, I shall
not have written in vain. Hitherto, the science of the stars has
been but very superficially studied in our schools, for want of pro-
per helps. They have continued to gaze upon the visible heavens
without comprehending what they saw. They have cast a vacant
eye upon the splendid pages of this vast volume, as children amuse
themselves with a .# which they are unable to read. They have
caught here and there, as it were a capital letter, or a picture, but
they have failed to distinguish those smaller characters on which
the sense of the whole depends. Hence, says an eminent English
Astronomer, “A comprehensive work on Descriptive Astronomy,
detailing, in a popular manner, all the facts which have been ascer-
tained respecting the scenery of the heavens, accompanied with a
variety of striking delineations, accommodated to the capacity of
youth, is a desideratum.” How far this desirable end is accom-
§: by the following work, I humbly leave to the public to
€ClC6. **
Hartford, Feb. 1833.




IND EX.
Page
Andromeda, e e º º e º 'º e º a tº º ſº g º O ſº tº ſº º ºs
Aries, the Ram, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auriga, the Charioteer, . . . . . . . . .
Argo Navis, the Ship Argo, .......
Asterion et Chara, wel Canes Vo-
natici, the Greyhounds, ........ 94
Aquila et Antinous, the Eagle and
Antinous, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Aquarius, the Water Bearer, ..... 135
Asteroids........ & sº a tº e º tº a tº ſº e s tº gº ºs & 226
Aurora Borealis, the
Lights, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 290
Bootes, the Bear Driver,......... 95
2assiopeia,................. tº e º 'º º
Cepheus,........................
Cetus, the Whale, ...............
Columba the Dove, ..............
gº. the Camelopard,
Canis Minor, the Little Dog, ......
Canis Major, the Great Dog,......
Cancer, the Crab, ................
Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair,
Corvus, the Crow,...............
Centaurus, the Centaur,. . . . . . . . .
Corona Borealis, the Northern
Crown, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cygnus, the Swan, ...... . . . . . . . . . 1
Capricornus, the Goat,...........
Constellations—origin oſ..........
Comets, ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Draco, the Dragon, ............... 1
Delphinus, the Dolphin...........
Dick’s Introduction..............
Geography,........ * * * g e º a s tº º
Navigation, ... . . . . . . .........
Agriculture, . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . *
Chronology, ..................
Propagation of Religion. ......
issipates superstitious No-
tions * tº g º º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º e
Days and Nights different lengths
Olyā . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Eridanus, River Po, ............ . .
Equiulus, vel Equi Sectio, the Lit-
tle Horse, or the Horse's IHead,
Earth, ........ e tº e º 'º is is º ºs º is tº º e º 6 e º 'º
Etiuinoxes, Precession of........
Ecliptic,+Obliquity of . . . . . . . . . . .
Eclipses Solar and Lunar, .......
Forêes, Attractive and Projectile,.
Gemini, the Twins,..... tº s ∈ e º is ºn tº & tº
Gravitation, Universal Law of, .... 257
Hydra, the Water Serpent and the
up, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
83
Hercules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Page
Herschel,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24l
Heavenly Bodies, Parallax of . . . . .293
Jupiter, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Lepus, the Hare, ......... . . . . . . . tº
Lynx, tº e s e e º e s a t e º e º e º 'º e s is e e º e º & 8 35
Leo, the Lion,.................... 78
Leo Minor, the Little Lion,........ 83
Lupus, the Wolf, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Libra the Balance,............... 100
Lyra, the Harp, ..... ... . . . . . . . . . 121
onoceros, the Unicorn, ... . . . . . . 71
Mars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mercury, . . . . . . . . .
Moom, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moon—Harvest and Horizontal,...
Meteoric Showers, Professor Olm-
Sted's Remarks upon, . . . . . . . . . .
Orion,. . . . . . . . . * & we e º ſº º e º ºs º is tº e º º tº tº
Pisces, the Fishes........ . . . . . . . .
Perseus et Caput Medusae, Perseus
and Medusa's Head, . . . . . . . . . . .
Pegasus, the Flying Horse,.... . . .
Piscis Australis, vel Notius, the
Southern Fish, ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Chapter,........ . . . .
Planets, ſorces by which they ar
retained in their Orbits,........
Problems and Tables, . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refraction,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sextans, the Sextant,. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Serpens, the Serpent,............ 102
Scorſ.o, the Scorpion,............ 109
Sagittarius, the Archer, .......... 124
Serpentarius, vel Ophiuchus, the
Serpent Bearer, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stars—variable,........ . . . . . . . . . .
Double,................. 138
Clusters of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Nebulae, ............. . . . 142
Number, Distance, and Eco-
nomy of ......... e tº º is e º ſº tº ſº
Falling, or Shooting, . . . . . . . . .
Solar System—General Phenome-
na of ...
Sun, s & © tº e º ſº tº º e º e º ſo e º º ſº tº gº tº e º 'º e º e &
Saturn,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seasons, s is e s e e º a º e º ſº tº º º e º ſº tº e º 8 & 8
Taurus, the Bull,............. . . . 52
ides,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Twilight, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Ursa Major, the Great Bear, ... . . . .85
Ursa Minor, the Little Bear,...... 106
Virgo, the Virgin... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Via Lactea, the Milky Way, ... . . . .44
enus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
:
~
e e º gº g º e º e º a dº e º ºs º º sº e º e º º
INTRODUCTION.
ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF ASTRONOMY
BY
THOMAS DICK, L.L. D.
ASTRONoMY is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the at-
tention of the poet, the #. and the divine, and been the
subject of their study and admiration. Kings have descended from
their thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched it
with their labours; and humble shepherds, while watching their
flocks by night, have beheld with rapture the blue vault of heaven,
with its thousand shining orbs moving in silent grandeur, till the
morning star announced the º of day.—The study of this
science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For
there is no rational being who, for the first time, has lifted his eyes
to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brightness
among the planetary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been
struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sub-
lime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature,
the motions, and the destinations of those far-distant orbs. Com-
pared with the splendour, the amplitude, the august motions, and
the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most re-
splendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear unworthy
of being set in competition with the glories of the sky.
Independentl º the sublimity of its objects, and the pleasure
arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast
utility, in consequence of its connexion with terrestrial arts and
sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations and the
º: of this science for that degree of perfection to which they
ave attained.
Astronomy has been of immense utility to the seience of
GEOGRAPHY,
for it is chiefly in consequence of celestial observations taat the
true figure of the earth has been demonstrated and its density as:
certained. It was from such observations, made on the mountain
Schehallien in Scotland, that the attraction of mountains was de-
ermined. The observations were made by taking the meridian
distances of different fixed Stars near the zenith, first on the south,
and afterwards on the north side of the hill, when the plumb line of
INTRODUCTION iX
..he Sector was found, in both cases, to be deflected from the per-
pendicular towards the mountain; and, from calculations founded
on the quantity of this deflection, the mean density of the earth was
ascerained. It was likewise by means of celestial observations
that the length of a degree of the meridian was measured, and the
circumference of the globe, with all its other dimensions accurately
ascertained; for, to ascertain the number of degrees between any
two parallels on the Earth's surface, observations must be taken,
with proper instruments, of the sun or of the stars, at different sta-
tions; and the accurate measurement of the terrestrial distance be-
tween any two stations or parallels, partly depends on astronomical
observations combined with the principles and operations of Trigo-
nometry. So that without the aids of this science, the figure and
density, the circumference and diameter of our terrestrial habita-
tion, and the relative position of places on its surface, could never
have been ascertained.
Astronomy is likewise of great utility to the art of
NAVIGATION:
without a certain knowledge of which the mariner could neven
have traced his course through pathless oceans to remote regions—
the globe would never have been circumnavigated, nor an inter-
course opened between the inhabitants of distant lands. It is of
essential importance to the navigator, not only to know the situation
of the port to which he is bound, but also to ascertain with pre-
cision, on what particular portion of the terraqueous globe he is at
any time placed—what course he is pursuing—how far he has tra-
velled from the port at which he embarked—what dangerous rocks
or shoals lie near the line of his course—and in what direction he
must steer, in order to arrive, by the speediest and the safest course,
to his destined haven. ... It is only, or chiefly, by astronomical obser-
vations that such particulars can be determined. By accurately
observing the distance between the moon and certain stars, at a
particular time, he can calculate his distance East or West from a
given meridian; and, by taking the meridian altitude of the sun or
of a star, he can learn his distance from the Equator or from the
poles of the world. In such observations, a knowledge of the con-
Stellations, of the polestar, and of the general positions of all the
stars of the first and second magnitude, is of particular importance;
and, therefore, a navigator who is unacquainted with the science
of the heavens, ought never to be appointed to conductaship through
the Indian, the Atlantic, or the Pacific oceans, or through any por-
tions of the sea which is not within sight of land. By the observa-
tions founded on astronomical science, which have been made in
different regions, by mariners and travellers of various descriptions,
the latitudes and longitudes of the principal places on the globe,
and their various bearings and relations have been determined, so
that we can now take a view of the world we inhabit in all its mul-
tifarious aspects, and direct our course to any quarter of it, either
for business, for pleasure, or for the promotion of philanthropic ob-
jects. Thus, Astronomy has likewise become of Immense utility
to Trade and Cominerce, in opening up new empt ruums for our
X INTRODUCTION
manufactures, in augmenting and multiplying the sources of wealt
In promoting an intercourse between the most distant nations, and
enabling us to procure, for our accommodation or luxury, the pro-
ductions of every climate. . If science has now explored almost
every region; if Politics and Philosophy have opened a communi-
cation between the remotest inhabitants of the globe; if alliances
have been formed between the most distant tribes of mankind; if
Traffic has explored the multifarious productions of the earth and
seas, and transported them from one country to another, and, if
heathen lands and barbarous tribes have been “visited with the
Day-spring from on high, and the knowledge of salvation,”—it is
owing to the aids derived from the science of the stars, without
which the continents, the islands, and the different aspects of our
globe would never have been explored by those who were separa-
ted from them by intervening oceans.
This science has been no less useful to
AGRICULTURE,
and to the cultivators of the earth. The successful cultivation of the
soil depends on a knowledge of the course of the sun, the exact length
of the seasons, and the periods of the year most proper for the opera-
tions of tillage and sowing. The ancients were directed in these
operations, in the first instance, by observing the courses of the
moon, and that twelve revolutions of this luminary corresponded
nearly with one apparent revolution of the sun. But finding the
coincidence not exact, and that the time of the seasons was chang-
ing—in order to know the precise bounds of the sun's annual course,
and the number of days corresponding to his apparent yearly revo-
lution, they were obliged to examine with care what stars were
successively obscured in the evening by the sun, or overpowered
by the splendour of his light, and what stars were beginning to
emerge from his rays, and to . before the dawn of the
morning. By certain ingenious methods, and numerous and at-
tentive observations, they traced out the principal stars that lay in
the line of the sun's apparent course, gave them certain names by
which they might be afterwards distinguished, and then divided
the circle of the heavens in which the sun appears to move, first
into quadrants, and afterwards into 12 equal parts, now called the
signs of the Zodiac, which they distinguished by names ;
ing to certain objects and operations connected with the different
seasons of the year. Such were the means requisite to be used for
ascertaining the length of the year, and the commencement of the
different seasons, and for directing the labours of the husbandman;
—and, were the knowledge of these things to be obliterated by any
extensive moral or physical convulsion, mankind would again be
under the necessity of º recourse to astronomical observations
for determining the limits of the solar year, and the course of the
seasons Although we find no difficulty, in the present day, and
require no anxious observations, in determining the seasons, yet,
before astronomical observations were made with some degree of
accuracy, the ancient Greeks had to watch the rising of Arcturus
the Pleiades and Orion, to mark their seasons, and to determine the

INTRODUCTION. X]
proper time for their agricultural labours. The rising of the star
Sirius along with the sun, announced to the Egyptians the period
when they might exnect the overflowing of the Nile, and, conse-
quently, #. time when they were to sow their grain, cut their ca-
nals and reservoirs, and prepare the way for their expected harvest.
The science of
C HR ON OLOGY,
likewise depends on celestial observations. The knowledge of an
exact measure of time is of considerable importance in arranging
and conducting the affairs of life, without which, society in its
movements would soon run into confusion. For example, if we
could not ascertain, within an hour or two, when an assembly
or any concourse of human beings was to meet for an important
purpose, all such purposes would soon be frustrated, and human
improvement prevented. Our ideas of time or succession in du-
ration, are derived from motion; and in order to its being divi-
ded into equal parts, the motions on which we fix as standards of
time must be constant and uniform, or at least, that any slight de-
viation from uniformity shall be capable of being ascertained.
But we have no uniform motion on earth by which the lapse of
duration can be accurately measured. Neither the flight of birds,
the motion of the clouds, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirl-
wind, the smooth-flowing river, the roaring cataract, the falling
rain, nor even the flux and reflux of the ocean, regular as they
generally are, could afford any certain standard for the measure
of time. It is, therefore, to the motion of the celestial orbs alone
that we can look for a standard of duration that is certain and inva-
riable, and not liable to the changes that take place in all terrestrial
movements. Those magnificent globes which roll around us in
the canopy of the sky—whether their motions be considered as
real or only apparent, move with an order and regularity which is
not found in any physical agents connected with our globe; and
when from this quarter we have derived any one invariable mea-
sure of time, we can subdivide it into the minutest portions, to
Subserve all the purposes of civil life, and the improvements of
science. Without the aids of astronomy, therefore, we should have
had no accurate ideas of the lapse of time, and should have been
obliged, like the rude savage of the desert, to compute our time by
the falls of snow, the succession of rainy seasons, the melting of the
ice, or the progress and decay of vegetation.
Celestial observations, in consequence of having ascertained a
regular measure of time, have enabled us to fix chronological dates,
and to determine the principal epochs of History. Many of those
epochs were coincident with remarkable eclipses of the sun or
moon, which the ancients regarded as prognostics of the loss cºf
battles, the death of monarchs, and the fall of empires; and which
are recorded in connexion with such events, where no dates are
inentioned. The astronomer, therefore, knowing the invariable
movements of the heavenly orbs, and calculating backwards through
the past periods of time, can ascertain what remarkable eclipses
must have been visible at any particular time and place, and con-
sequently, can determine the precise date of contemporary events.
XIl INTRODUCTION.
Calvisius, for example, founds his Chronology on 144 eclipses o.
tre sun, and 127 of the moon, which he had calculated for the pur-
pose of determining epochas and settling dates. . The grand con-
junction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which occurs once in
800 years, in the same point of the zodiac, and which has happened
only eight times since the Mosaic Creation, furnishes Chronology
with incontestable proofs of the date of events, when such phenomena
happen to be recorded. On such data, Sir Isaac Newton deter-
mined the period when Thales the philosopher flourished, particu-
larly from the famous eclipse which he predicted, and which hap-
É. just as the two armies under Algattes, king of Lydia, and
yaxares the Mede were engaged; and which has been calculated
to have happened in the 4th year of the 43d Olympiad, or in the
E. before Christ 603. On similar grounds Dr. Halley, a cele-
rated astronomer of the last century, determined the very day and
hour of the landing of Julius Cesar in Britain, merely from the
rircumstances stated in the “Commentaries” of that illustrious
general.
Astronomy has likewise lent its aid to the
PROPAGATION OF RELIGION,
and the conversion of the heathen world. For, without the light
derived from this celestial science, oceans would never have been
traversed, nor the continents and islands explored where benighted
nations reside, and, consequently, no messengers of Peace could
have been despatched to teach them “the knowledge of salvation, and
to guide their steps in the way of peace.” But, with the direction
afforded by the heavenly orbs and the magnetic needle, thousands
of Christian missionaries, along with millions of bibles, may now
be transported to the most distant continents and islands of the ocean,
to establish among them the “Law and Testimony” of the Most
High—to illume the darkness and counteract the moral aborhina-
tions and idolatries of the Pagan.world. If the predictions o. an-
cient prophets are to be fulfilled; if the glory of Jehovah is to cover
the earth; if “the isles afar off,” that have not yet heard of the fame
of the Redeemer, nor seen his glory, are to be visited with the
66 º from on high,” and enrolled among the citizens of
Zion; if the world is to be regenerated, and Righteousness and
Praise to spring forth before all nations—those grand events will
be accomplished partly through the influence and direction of those
celestial luminaries which are placed in the firmament to be for
signs, and for seasons, and for days and years. The light reflected
from the material heavens will lend its aid in illuminating the minds
of the benighted tribes of mankind, till they be prepared for being
transported into those celestial mansions where knowledge shall
be perfected, and Sovereign power triumphant. . It will be likewise
from aid derived from the heavenly orbs that the desolate wastes
of the globe in every region will be cultivated and replenished with
inhabitants. For the Almighty “created not the earth in vain, bu
formed it to be inhabited ;” and his purpose in this respect must ul
timately be accomplished; and the process of§ and cultiva-
tion is now going forward in New Holland, Van Diemen's Lanu,


Introduction. * xili
Africa, the Western States of America, and other regions where
sterility and desolation have prevailed since the universal Deluge,
But how could colonies of men be transported from civilized na-
tions to those distant regions unless by the guidance of celestial lu-
minaries, and by the aid of those arts which are founded on the ob-
Servations of astronomy? So that this science exerts an extensive
and beneficial influence over the most important affairs of mankind.
In short, astronomy, by unfolding to us the causes of certain ce.
lestial phenomena, has tended to
D IS SIP A T E SU P E R S T IT IO U S N OT I O N'S
and vain alarms. In former ages the approach of a blazing comet,
or a total eclipse of the sun or moon, were regarded with universa;
consternation as prognostics of impending calamities, and as har.
bingers of Divine vengeance. And even in the present day, such
notions prevail among most of those nations and tribes that are un-
acquainted with astronomical science. During the darkness occa-
sioned by a solar eclipse, the lower orders of Turkey have been
seen assembling in clusters in the streets, gazing wildly at the sun,
running about in wild distraction, and firing volleys of muskets at
the sun to frighten away the monster by which they supposed it
was about to be devoured. The Moorish song of death, or the
howl they make for the dead, has been heard, on such occasions,
resounding from the mountains and the vales, while the women
brought into the streets all the brass pans, and vessels, and iron
utensils they could collect, and striking them with all their force,
and uttering dreadful screams, occasioned a horrid noise that was
heard for miles around. But astronomy has put to flight such ter-
rific phantoms and groundless alarms, by unfolding to us the true
causes of all such phenomena, and showing us that they happen in
exact conformity with those invariable laws by which the Almighty
conducts the machine of the universe—that eclipses are merely the
effects of the shadow of one opaque globe falling upon another, and
that comets are bodies which move in regular, but long elliptical
orbits—which appear and disappear in stated periods of time, and are
destined to subserve some grand and beneficent designs in the sys-
tem to which they belong. So that we may now contemplate all
such celestial phenomena, not only with composure and tranquillity,
but with exultation and delight. In short, astronomy has under-
mined the absurd and fallacious notions by which the professors of
Judicial Astrology have attempted to *: on the credulity of
mankind, under pretence of disclosing the designs of Fate, and
the events of futurity. It shows us, that the stars are placed at im-
measurable distances from our terrestrial sphere—that they can
have no influence upon the earth, but what arises from the law of
universal gravitation—that the great end for which they were crea-
ted was to diffuse light, and to perform other important services in
regions infinitely distinct from the sphere we occupy—that the pla-
nets are bodies of different sizes, and somewhat similar to the globe
on which we live—that all their aspects and conjunctions are the
result of physical laws which are regular and immutable—and that
no data can be ascertained on yhich it can be proved that they
xiv. INTRODUCTION.
&
exert a moral influence on the temperaments and destinies of men
except in so far as they tend to raise our affections to their Al-
mighty Author, and excite us to confide in his care, and to contem-
plate the effects of his wisdom and omnipotence. The heavens
are set before us, not as the “Book of Fate,” in which we may pry
into the secrets of our future destiny, which would only serve to
destroy activity, and increase the pressure of our present afflictions
—but as the “Book of God,” in which we may read his wondrous
works, contemplate the glory of his eternal empire, and be excited
to extend our views to those expansive scenes of endless felicity
which await the faithful in the realms above.
Independently of the considerations above stated, the study of as-
tronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intellectual,
and religious point of view.
1. This department of science unfolds to us the most striking dis-
lays of the perfections of the Deity,+particularly the grandeur of
is Omnipotence. His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the
general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly in reference
to the globes which compose the solar system—in placing near the
centre of this system that immense luminary the Sun, from whence
light and heat might be distributed, in due proportion, to all the
worlds th: roll around it—in nicely proportionating the motions
and distances of all the planets primary and secondary—in uniting
them in one harronious system, by one grand universal law which
prevents them -1 om flying off in wild confusion through the infini-
ty of space—in the constancy and regularity of their motions, no
one infe-fering with another, or deviating from the course pre-
scribed—in the exactness with which they run their destined
rounds, finishing their circuits with so much accuracy as not to de-
viate from their periods of revolution, the hundredth part of a mi-
nute in a thousand years—in the spherical figures given to all those
mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed upon them, by
which a due proportion of light and heat is #. over every part
of their surface. The Benevolence of the Deity shines no less con-
spicuous in those upper regions, in ordering all the movements and
arrangements of the celestial globes so as to act in subserviency to
the comfort and happiness of sentient and intelligent beings. For,
the wisdom of God is never employed in devising means without
an end; and the grand end of all his arrangements, in so far as our
views extend, is the communication of happiness; and it would be
inconsistent with the wisdom and other perfections of God not to
admit, that the same end is kept in view in every part of his domin-
ions, however far removed from the sphere of our contemplation.
The heavens, therefore, must be considered as presenting a bound-
less scene of Divine benevolence. For they unfold to view a count-
less number of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations
of various orders of beings, and which are, doubtless, destined to be
the abodes of intellectual life. For the character of the Deity would
be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to sup-
pose him to arrange and establish a magnificent series of means
without an end corresponding, in ; and dignity, to the gran-
deur of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the innu-

INTRODUCTION. XY
.# *
merable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of
space, the countless myriads of intelligences that people them, the
various ranks and orders of intellect that may exist among them,
the innumerable diversified arrangements which are made for pro-
moting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displays of Divine benig-
nity enjoyed in every world—we are presented with a scene of Di-
vine goodness and beneficence which overpowers our conceptions,
and throws completely into the shade all that we perceive or enjoy
within the confines of this sublunary world. And, although the
minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant worlds are not
yet particularly unfolded to our view, yet this circumstance does
not prove that no such displays exist;-and as we are destined to
an immortal life, in another region of creation, we shall, doubtless,
be favoured with a more expansive view of the effects of Divine
benignity in that eternal scene which lies before us.
But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other
df the Omanipotent emergies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before
us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendour—planetary
globes a thousand times larger than the earth—magnificent rings
which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would
enclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as
ours—suns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diffusing
their light over distant worlds—and these sums scattered in every
Hirection through the immensity of space, at immeasurable distances
from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man can
number, presenting to the eye and the imagination a perspective of
starry systems, boundless as immensity.—It presents to our view
motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost º the Ima-
gination—bodies a thousand times larger than the earth flying with
a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing circuits more than
three thousand millions of miles in circumference, and carrying
along with them a retinue of revolving worlds in their swift career;
nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles an hour, have been per-
ceived among the celestial orbs, which as far surpass the motions
we behold around us in this lower world, as the heavens in height
surpass the earth. Such motions are perceived not only in the so-
lar system, but in the most distant regions of the universe, among
double stars—they are regular and uninterrupted—they have been
going forward for thousands, perhaps for millions of years—there
is perhaps no body in the universe but is running its round with
similar velocity; and it is not unlikely that the whole machine of
universal nature is in perpetual motion amidst the spaces of immen-
sity, and will continue thus to move throughout all the periods of
endless duration. Such objects and such motions evidently º
the omnipotence of the Creator beyond every other scene whic
creation presents; and, when seriously contemplated, cannot but
inspire us with the most lofty and impressive conceptions of the
“eternal power” and majesty of Him who sits on the throne of the
universe, and by whom all its mighty movements are conducted.
They demonstrate, that his agency is universal and uncontrollable
-—that he is able to accomplish all his designs, however incompre-
aensible to mortals—that no created being can frustrate his pur
MV1 nTRoDUCTION.
poses, and that he is worthy of our highest affection, and our inces-
sant adoration. *
2. Astronomy displays before us the extent and grandeur of God's
inversal empvre. The globe we inhabit, with all its appendages,
torms a portion of the Divine empire, and, when minutely investi.
gated, exhibits a striking display of its Creator's power, benignity,
and intelligence. But it forms only one small province of his uni-
versal dominions—an almost undistinguishable speck in the great
map of the universe; and if we confine our views solely to the lim-
1ts of this terrestrial ball, and the events which have taken place on
its surface, we must form a very mean and circumscribed idea of
the extent of the Creator's kingdom and the range of his moral go-
vernment. But the discoveries of astronomy have extended our
views to other provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, far more
spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this earth, with
all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numerous population,
ranks among the smaller provinces of this empire—that the globes
composing the system to which it belongs, (without including the
sun,) contain an extent of territory more than two thousand times
larger than our world—that the sun himself is more than 500 times
larger than the whole, and that, although they were all at this mo-
ment buried in oblivion, they would scarcely be missed by an eye
that could survey the whole range of creation.—They demonstrate,
that ten thousands of suns, and ten thousand times ten thousands of
revolving worlds are dispersed throughout every region of bound-
less space, displaying the creating and supporting energies of Om-
nipotence; and consequently, are all under the care and superin-
tendence of Him “who doth according to his will in the armies of
heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth.” Such an empire,
and such only, appears, corresponding to the perfections of Him
who has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible,
whose goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immen.
sity of space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted senti-
ments of admiration at the infinite intelligence implied in the super-
intendence of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficence
displayed among the countless myriads of sensitive and intellectual
beings which must people his wide domains.
3. The objects ...; this science discloses, afford subjects of sub-
lime contemplation, and tend to elevate the soul above vicious passions
and grovelling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and solitude
what can be more delightful, than to wing our way in Imagination
amidst the splendid objects which the firmament displays—to take
our flight along with the planets in their wide career—to behold
them running their ample rounds with velocities forty times swifter
than a cannon ball—to survey the assemblages of their moons, re-
volving around them in their respective orders, and carried at the
same time, along with their primaries, through the depths of space
—to contemplate the magnificent arches which adorn the firmament
gf Saturn, whirling round that planet at the rate of a thousand miles
in a minute, and displaying their radiance and majestic movements
o an admiring population—to add scene to scene, and magnitude
to magnitude, till the mind acquire an ample conception of suen



INTRODUCTION. x71.
august objects—to dive into the depths of infinite space till we be
surrounded with myriads of suns and systems of worlds, extending
oeyond the range of mortal comprehension, and all running their
appointed rounds, and accomplishing the designs of beneficence in
obedience to the mandate of their Almighty Author | Such objects
afford matter for rational conversation, and for the most elevated
contemplation. In this ample field the most luxuriant imagination
may range at large, representing scenes and objects in endless va
riety and extent; and, after its boldest excursions, it can scarcel,
o beyond the reality of the magnificent objects which exist withii
ă. range of creating power and intelligence.
The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the
capacity of the mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the
soul above grovelling affections and vicious pursuits. For the dis-
positions of mankind and their active pursuits generally correspond
to the train of thought in which they most frequently indulge. If
these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, such will be
the general character of their affections and conduct. If their train
of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of their actions, and
the passions they display, will, in some measure, be correspondent.
Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant with
the noble and expansive objects to which I have adverted, would
fave his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyranny, oppres-
sion, war, and devastation :
Would he rush like a madman through burning cities, and man-
2-ed carcasses of the slain, in order to trample under foot the rights
of mankind, and enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fellows—and
find pleasure in such accursed pursuits?
Would he fawn on statesmen and princes, and violate every
moral principle, in order to obtain a pension, or a post of opulence or
honour ! Would he drag his fellow-men to the stake, because they
worshipped God according to the dictates of their consciences, and
behold with pleasure their bodies roasting in the flames :
Would he drive men, women, and children from their homes,
loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in misery and to perish in a
distant land, merely because they asserted the rights to which they
were entitled as citizens and as rational beings 3
Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes by a
daily indulgence in rioting and drunkenness, till his faculties were
benumbed, and his body found wallowing in the mire
It is scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct
would be displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in celes-
tial contemplations, and whose mind is familiar with the august ob-
jects which the firmament displays. “If men were taught to act
in view of all the bright worlds which are looking down upon
them, they could not be guilty of those abominable cruelties”
which some scenes so mournfully display. We should then expect,
that the iron rod of oppression would be broken in pieces—that war
would cease its horrors and devastations—that liberty would be
2+
YW 111 INTRoDUCTION.
proclaimed to the captives—that “righteousness would run down
our streets as a river,” and a spirit congenial to that of the inhabit-
ants of heaven would be displayed by the rulers of mations, and by
all the families of the earth. For all the scenes which the firma-
ment exhibits have a tendency to º tranquillity—to produce a
love of harmony and order, to stain the pride of human grandeur-—
to display the riches of Divine beneficence—to excite admiration
and reverence—and to raise the soul to God as the Supreme Director
5f universal nature, and the source and centre of all true enjoy-
ment;-and such sentiments and affections are directly opposed to
the degrading pursuits and passions which have contaminated the
society of our world, and entalled misery on our species.
I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject
has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental fac
ulties. It requires a considerable share of attention and of intel,
\ectual acumen to enter into all the particulars connected with the
principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical form
of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the muta-
lion of the earth's axis, the causes of the seasons, the difficulty of
reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their real mo-
tions in circular or elliptical orbits, the effects produced by centri-
fugal and centripetal forces, the precession of the equinoxes, the ab-
erration of light, the method of determining the distances and mag-
nitudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent time, the irregu-
larity of the moon's motion, the difficulty ; forming adequate ideas
of the immense spaces in which the heavenly bodies move, and
their enormous size, and various other particulars, are apt, at firs'
view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as if they were beyond the
reach of its comprehension. But, when this science is imparted to
the young under the guidance of enlightened instructors—when
they are shown not merely pictures, globes and orreries, but direct-
ed to observe with their own eyes, and with the assistance of teles-
copes, all the interesting phenomena of the heavens, and the mo-
tions which appear, whether real or apparent—when they are shown
the spots of the sun, the moons j of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the mountains and vales which
diversify the surface of the moon—such objects tend to awaken the
attention, to º the faculties, to produce a taste for rational in-
vestigation, and to excite them to more eager and diligent inquiries
into the subject. The objects appear so grand and novel, and strike
the senses with so much force and pleasure, that the mind is irre-
sistibly led to exert all its energies in those investigations and ob-
servations by which it may be enabled to grasp all the principles
and facts of the science. And every difficulty which is surmounted
adds a new stimulus to the exertions of the intellect, urges it for-
ward with delight in the path of improvement, and thus invigorates
the mental powers, and prepares them for engaging with spirit and
alacrity in every other investigation.
4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride of
man, and to promote humility. Pride is cºme of the distinguishing
characteristics of puny man, and has been one of the chief causes
of all the contentions, wars, devastations, oppressions, systems of
INTRODUCTION. XIX
f
slavery, despotisms, and ambitious projects which have desolated
and démoralized our sinful world. Yet there is no disposition more
incongruous to the character and circumstances of man. Perhaps
there are no rational beings throughout the universe among whom
pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible than in man;
considering the abject situation in which he is placed. He is ex-
posed to innumerable degradations and calamities, to the rage of
storms and tempests, the devastations of earthquakes and volcanoes,
the fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous billows of the ocean,
the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, and numerous dis
eases, and, at length, he must sink into the grave, and his body be.
come the companion of worms. The most dignified and haughty
of the sons of men are liable to such degradations, and are frequent-
ly dependent on the meanest fellow creatures whom they despise,
or the greater part of their accommodations and comforts. Yet,
in such circumstances, man, that puny worm of the dust, whose
knowledge is so limited, whose follies are so numerous and glaring
—has the effrontery to strut in all the haughtiness of pride, and to
#. in his shame. When scriptural arguments and motives pro-
uce little effect, I know no considerations which have a more pow-
erful tendency to counteract this deplorable propensity of human
beings than those which are borrowed from #. objects connected
with astronomy. They show us what an insignificant being—what
a mere atom, indeed, man º: amidst the immensity of crea-
tion. What is the whole of this globe, compared with the solar sys-
tem, which contains a mass of matter ten hundred thousand times
greater 4 What is it in comparison of the hundred millions of suns
and worlds which the telescope has descried throughout the starry
regions, or of that infinity of worlds which doubtless lie beyond the
range of human vision in the unexplored regions of immensity ?
What, then, is a kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of
which we are as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and
for which we engage in so much devastation and carnage What
are they when set in competition with the glories of the sky | Could
we take our station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and look down
on this . distinguishable speck of earth, we should be ready
to exclaim with Seneca, “Is it to this little spot that the great dé-
signs and vast desires of men are confined? Is It for this there is
So much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many ru-
inous wars? O folly of deceived men, to imagine great kingdoms
in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a point of earth
with the sword!”. It is unworthy of the dignity of an immortal
mind to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing splendours of
earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry possessions and
distinctions of this sublunary scene. To foster a spirit of pride and
vainglory in the presence of Him who “sitteth on the circle of the
heavens,” and in the view of the overwhelming grandeur and im-
mensity of his works, is a species of presumption and arrogance of
which every rational mind ought to feel ashamed. And, therefore,
we have reason to believe, that those multitudes of fools, “dressed
m a little brief authority,” who walk in all the loftiness of pride
t f *e not yet considered the tank they hcld in the scale of universa'
XX INTRODUCTION.
being;-and that a serious contemplation of the immensity of crea-
tion would have a tendency to convince us of our ignorance and
nothingness, and to humble us in the dust, in the presence of the
Former and Preserver of all worlds, "we have reason to believe
that the most exalted beings in the universe—those who are fur-
nished with the most capacious powers, and who have arrived at
the greatest perfection in knowledge—are distinguished by a pro-
portional share of humility; for, in proportion as they advance in
their surveys of the universal kingdom of Jehovah, the more wil.
they feel their comparative ignorance, and be convinced of their
limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects and operations which
lie beyond their ken. At the same time they will feel, that all the
faculties they possess were derived from Him who is the original
fountain of existence, and are continually dependent for their exer-
cise on his sustaining energy. Hence we find, that the angelic
tribes are eminently distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly
virtue. They “cover their faces with their wings” in the presence
of their Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to
our degraded world, “to minister to the heirs of salvation.” It is
only in those worlds where ignorance and depravity prevail (if there
be any such besides our own) that such a principle as pride is known
or cherished in the breast of a dependent creature—and therefore
•very one in whom it predominates, however, high his station or
worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be,
must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more prop-
erly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the one
being the natural and necessary result of the other.
5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the soul
for the employments of the future world. In that world, the glory of
the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the illimitable
tracts of creation, is one of the objects which unceasingly employ the
contemplation of the blessed. For they are represented in their ado-
rations as celebrating the attributes of the Deity displayed in his
operations: “Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Al-
mighty thou art worthy to receive glory and honour and power,
for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and
were created.” Before we can enter that world and mingle with
its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their employments, and
some acquaintance with the objects which form the subject of their
sublime investigations; otherwise, we could feel no enjoyment in
Jhe society of heavenly intelligences, and the exercises in which
they engage. The investigations connected with astronomy, and
the frequent contemplation of its objects, have a tendency to pre-
pare us for such celestial employments, as they awaken attention to
such subjects, as they invigorate the faculties, and enlarge the ca-
acity of the intellect, as they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires
or further information which may afterwards be gratified; as they
form the groundwork of the Fº we may afterwards make in
that state in our surveys of the Divine operations, and as they ha-
bituate the mind to take large and comprehensive views of the em-
pire and moral government of the Almighty. Those who have
made progress in such studies, under the influence of holy disposi-




INTRODUCTION XX).
tions. Inay be considered as fitted to enter heaven with peculiar ad-
vantages, as they will then be introduced to employments and inves-
tigations to which they were formerly accustomed, and for which
they were prepared—in consequence of which they may be prepared
for filling stations of Superior eminence in that world, and for di-
recting the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed
few opportunities of instruction and improvement in the present
state. For we are informed, in the sacred records, that “they who
are wise,” or as the words should be rendered, “they who excel in
wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that
turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever.”
6. The researches of astronomy demonstrate, that it is in the
power of the Creator to open to his intelligent offspring endless sour-
ces of felicity. In looking forward to the scene of our future desti-
nation, we behold a series of ages rising in succession without any
. of a termination; and, at first view, it might admit of a
oubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and
boundless, that intelligent beings, during an endless duration, could
expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be continually
opening to their view, or, whether the same series of perceptions
and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce satiety and
indifference. Without attempting positively to decide on the par-
ticular Scenes or sources of happiness that may be opened in the
eternal world, it may be admitted, that the Deity has it in his power
to gratify his rational creatures, during every period of duration,
with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, that it is the
science of astronomy alone which has presented us with a demon-
stration, and a full illustration of this important truth... For, it has
displayed before us a universe boundlessin its extent, diversified as
to its objects, and infinite as to their number and variety. Even
within the limits of human vision the number of worlds which exist
cannot be reckoned less than three thousand millions; and those
which are nearest to us, and subject to our particular examination,
present varieties of different kinds, both as to magnitude, motion,
splendour, colour and diversity of surface—evidently indicating,
at every world has its peculiar scenes of beauty and grandeur.
But, as no one will be so presumptuous as to assert, that the bound-
aries of the universe terminate at the limits of human vision, there
may be an assemblage of creation beyond all that is visible to us,
which as far exceeds the visible system as the vast ocean exceeds
in magnitude a single drop of water; and this view is nothing more
than compatible with the idea of a Being whose creating energies
are infinite, and whose presence fills immensity. Here, then, we
have presented to our contemplation a boundless scene, correspond-
ing in variety, and extent of space, to the ages of an endless dura
tion; so that we can conceive an Immortal mind expatiating amids
objécts of benignity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and even
new, throughout an eternal round of existence, without ever arr
wing at a point, where it might be said, “Hitherto shalt thou come,
but no farther.” And we have reason to conclude that such will
be the privilege and enjoyment of all holy beings. For we are in-
formed on the authority of inspiration, that “in God's presenc,
Y-xxu INTRODUCTION.
there is fulness of joy, and at has right hand are pleasures for ever
$77,076.
7. The science of astronomy is a study which will be prosecuted
without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferred
from what has been already stated. For, it is chiefly among the
numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is
seen, his perfections manifested, and the plans of his moral govern-
ment displayed before the eyes of unnumbered intelligences. The
heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion
of the empire of Omnipotence ; and if it shall be one part of the
happiness of immortal Spirits to behold and investigate the beauty,
grandeur and beneficence displayed throughout this empire, we
may rest assured, that they will be perpetually employed in such
exercises; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as
immensity;-or, in other words, astronomy, among other branches
of celestial Science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. As
it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenomena,
scenery, and the ultimate destination of the great bodies of the uni-
verse, the subject can never be exhausted. 'whatever may be said
in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences, astronomy can
never be said, at any future period of duration, to have arrived at
perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite minds; and, at
this moment, even in the view of the Infinite Mind that created the
universe, its objects may not yet be completed. For we have reason
to believe that the work of creation is still going forward, and, con-
sequently, that new worlds and systems may be continually emerg-
ing from nothing under the energies of Creating Power. However
capacious, therefore, the intellects of good men, in a future world,
may be, they will never be able fully to explore the extent and va-
riety, “the riches and glory” of Him “who dwells in light unap-
proachable;”—yea, the most exalted of created intelligences, where-
ever existing, although their mental powers and activities were
incomparably superior to those of man, will be inadequate to a full
investigation and comprehension of the grandeur and sublimities of
that kingdom which extends throughout the regions of immensity.
And this circumstance will constitute one ingredient of their hap-
piness, and a security for its permanency. For, at every period
of infinite duration, they will be enabled to look forward to a suc-
cession of scenes, objects and enjoyments different from all they
had previously contemplated or experienced, without any prospect
of a termination. We may therefore conclude, that, unless the
material universe be demolished, and the activities of immortal
minds suspended, the objects of astronomy will continue throughout
eternity to be the subject of study, and of unceasing contemplation.
Such are some of the advantages attending the study of the sci-
ence of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographica.
knowledge—it serves as a handmaid and director to the traveller
and navigator—it is subservient to the purposes of universal com-
merce—it determines the seasons, and directs the operations of the
husbandman—it supplies us with an equable standard of time, and
settles the events of º: lends its aid to the propagation of le-
ligion, and undermines the foundation of superstition and astrology
INTRODUCTION, XXIII .
Above all, it illustrates the glory of the perfections of the Deity:-
displays the extent and grandeur of his universal empire—affords
subjects of sublime contemplation enlarges the conceptions, and in-
vigorates the mental powers—counteracts the influence of pride,
and promotes the exercise of humility—prepares the soul, for the
employments of the future world—and demonstrates, that the Cre.
ator has it in his power to º up endlessly diversified sources of
happiness to . order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all
the revolutions of eternity. The moral advantages arising from the
study of this science, however, cannot be appreciated or enjoyed,
unless such studies and investigations be prosecuted in connexion
with the facts and principles of Revelation. But, when associated
with the study of the Scriptures, and the character of God therein
delineated, and the practice of Christian precepts, they are calcula-
ted “to make the man of God perfect,” to enlarge his conceptions
of Divine perfection, and to expand his views of “the inheritance
of the saints in light.”
Such being the advantages to be derived from the study of this
science, it º to form a subject of attention in every seminary
intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In
order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its
objects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should be
directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on
the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the
facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. ... And,
while they mark the different constellations, the apparent diurnal
motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses,
and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars—
they should be indulged with views of the rings of Saturn, the belts
. satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the
numerous groups of stars in the Milky Way, the double and treble
stars, the most remarkable Nebula, the mountains and plains, the
caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of
the moon, as they appear through good achromatic or reflecting
telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of such
interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, comparatively,
little impression on the mind. Our school books on astronomy
should be popular in their language and illustrations, but, at the
same time, they should be comprehensive in their details, and every
exhibition should be clear and well defined. They should contain,
not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on the authority of
the author or the instructer, but illustrations of the reasons or argu.
ments on which the conclusions of astronomy are founded, and of
the modes by which they have been ascertained. And, while pla-
netariums, celestial globes, and planispheres of the heavens are ex-
nibited, care should be taken to direct the observations of the pupils
as frequently as possible, to the objects themselves, and to guard
them against the limited and distorted notions which all kinds of
artificial representations have a tendency to convey.
There is still room for improvement in all the initiatory books
on this subject I have czamined; but such bocks are now rapidly
{mproving, both as to their general plan, and the 1nteresting nature


*... \
XXIV INTRODUCTION,
of their details. I have seen nothing superior in this respect, or
Detter adapted to the purpose of rational instruction, than Mr. Bur-
rett's excellent work, entitled “The Geography of the Heavens,”
second edition, comprising 342 closely º pages. . It contains,
in the first place, a full and interesting description of all the con-
stellations, and principal stars in the heavens, interspersed with a
great variety of mythological, historical and philosophical informa-
tion, calculated to amuse and instruct the general reader, and to
arrest the attention of the young. The descriptions of the bodies
connected with the solar system, are both popular and scientific,
containing a lucid exhibition of the facts which have been ascer-
tained respecting them, and a rational explanation of the phenomena
connected with their various aspects and motions. The Celestial
Atlas which accompanies the work is varied, comprehensive, and
judiciously constructed, and forms the most . set of planis-
heres, for the purpose of teaching, which has hitherto been pub-
ished. It consists of four maps about fourteen inches square, de-
.ineated on the same principles as geographical projections, exhi-
Diting the stars that pass near the meridian at a certain hour, along
with the circumjacent constellations for every month, and for .#
day of the year. Besides these there are two circumpolar maps o
the northern and southern hemispheres of the heavens, and a pla-
misphere on the principle of Mercator's projection, which exhibits
at one view the sphere of the heavens, and the relative positions of
the different constellations and principal stars. With the assistance
of these maps, which in a great measure supersede the use of a
cclestial globe, an intelligent teacher may, at certain intervals in
the course of a year, render his pupils familiar with most of the
visible stars in the heavens; and they will make a deeper impres-
Sion on their minds when taught in this way, than by the use of a
globe. This work, on the whole, indicates great industry and re-
search on the part of the author, and a familiar acquaintance with
the various departments of the science of the heavens. He has de-
rived his materials from the most valuable and modern works of
Science, and has introduced not a few illustrations and calculations
of his own, which tend to enhance the general utility of the work.
The moral and religious reflections which the objects of this science
naturally suggest, have not been overlooked, and, I trust, will have
a tendency to raise the minds of the young to hat Almighty Being
whose power, wisdom, and superintending * >"ii"nce are so stri-
Ringly displayed throughout the regi)ns of the 5 unavu nt.

PR E LIMIN A R Y CHA PTE R.
In entering upon this study, the phenomena of the heavens,
as they appear in a clear evening, are the first objects that
demand our attention. Our first step is to learn the names
and positions of the heavenly bodies, so that we can identify,
and distinguish them from each other.
In this manner, they were observed and studied ages before
books were written, and it was only after many, careful and
repeated observations, that systems and theories of Astronomy
were formed. To the j heavens, then, the attention of
the pupil should be first directed, for it is only when he shall
have become in some measure, familiar with them, that he
will be able to locate his Astronomical knowledge, or fully
comprehend the terms of the science.
For the sake of convenient reference, the heavens were
early divided into constellations, and particular names assign-
ed to the constellations and to the stars which they contain. A
constellation may be defined to be a cluster or group of stars
embraced in the outline of some figure. These figures are in
many cases, creations of the imagination, but in others, the
stars are in reality so arranged as to form figures which have
some resemblance to the objects whose names have been as
signed to them.

These divisions of the celestial sphere, bear a striking analogy to the civil
divisions of the globe. The constellations answer to states and kingdoms, the
most brilliant clusters to towns and cities, and the number of stars in each, to
their respective population. The pupil can trace the boundaries of any constel-
lation, and name all its stars, one by one, as readily as he can trace the bounda-
ries of a state, or name the towns and cities from a map of New England. In
this sense, there may be truly said to be a Geography of the Heavens.
The stars are considered as forming, with reference to their
magnitudes, six classes; the brightest being called stars ol
the first magnitude, the next brightest, stars of the second
magnitude, and so on to the sixth class, which consists of the
smallest stars visible to the naked eye. In order to be able
Why, in entering upon the study of Astronomy, should the attention of the pupil bo
first directed to the visible heavens? Why were the heavens early divided into con-
stellations, and nauxes assigned to the constellations and the stars? What is a coº-
stellation? Do these figures really exist in the skies? In what sense may there ºr
said to be a Geography of the Heavens? How many classes are the stars consider
as forming with reference to their *.
di
26 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER
to designate, with precision their situations, Imaginary circles
have been considered as drawn in the heavens, most of which
correspond to and are in the same plane with similar circles,
supposed, for similar purposes, to be drawn on the surface of
the Earth.
In order to facilitate the study of it, artificial representations
of the heavens, similar to those of the surface of the Earth,
have been made. Thus, a Celestial Atlas, composed of se-
veral maps, accompanies this work. Before, however, pro-
ceeding to explain its use, it is necessary to make the pupil
acquainted with the imaginary circles alluded to above.
CIRCLEs of THE SPHERE.-The Aacis of the Earth is an
imaginary line, passing through its centre, north and south,
about which its diurnal revolution is performed.
The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its axis.
The Aaris of the Heavens is the axis of the Earth pro-
duced both ways to the concave surface of the heavens.
The Poles of the Heavens are the extremities of their axis.
The Equator of the Earth is an imaginary great circle
passing round the Earth, east and west, everywhere equally
distant from the poles, and dividing it into northern and
southern hemispheres.
The Equator of the Heavens, or Equinoctial, is the great
circle formed on the concave surface of the heavens, by pro-
ducing the plane of the Earth's equator.
A plane is that which has surface but not thickness. The plane of a circle is
that imaginary superficies which is bounded by the circle.
The Rational Horizon is an imaginary great circle, whose
F. passing through the centre of the Earth, divides the
eavens into two hemispheres, of which the upper one is
called the visible hemisphere, and the lower one, the invisi-
ble hemisphere. It is the plane of this circle which deter-
mines the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies.
The Sensible or Apparent Horizon, is the circle which
terminates our view, where the Earth and sky appear to meet.
To a person standing on a plain, this circle is but a few miles in diameter. It
the eye be elevated five feet, the radius of the sensible horizon will be less than
two miles and three quarters; if the eye be elevated six feet, it will be just three
miles. The observer being always in the centre of the sensible horizon, it will
* as he moves, and enlarge or contract, as his station is elevated or depress-
—-g

What expedient has been devised for designating, with precision, the situations of
e heavenly bodies? What is the axis of the Earth? What are the poles of the Earth?
t is the axis of the heavens? What are the poles of the heavens? ...What is the
equator of the Earth? What is ſhe equator of the heavens or the equinoctial? What is
a plane? What zs the plane gf a circle?...What is the rational horizon? What is the
sensible or apparent horizon? What is the diameter of this circle to a person stand-
tng on a plain.” What will its radius be ºf the eye be elevated five feet? If it be e.g.
baſed sia, feet? On what does the place qf its centre and its circumference depend?

PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 27
The Poles of the Horizon are two points, of which the one
is directly over head, and is called the Zenith; the other is
directly under foot, and is called the Nadir.
Vertical Circles are circles drawn through the Zenith and
Nadir of any place, cutting the horizon at right angles.
The Prime Vertical is that which passes through the east
and west points of the horizon.
The Ecliptic is the great circle which the Sun appears to
describe annually among the stars. It crosses the Equinoc-
tial, a little obliquely, in two opposite points which are called
the Equinoaces. The Sun rises in one of these points on the
21st of March; this point is called the Vernal Equinox. It
sets in the opposite point on the 23d of September; this point
is called the Autumnal Equinox. One half of the ecliptic lies
on the north side of the Equinoctial, the other half on the
south side, making an angle with it of 23#9. This angle is
called the obliquity of the Ecliptic. The axis of the Eclip-
tic makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens; so
that the poles of each are 23#0 apart.

This angle is Pºpºſal. decreasing. At the commencement of the Christian
era, it was about 23°45′. At the beginning of 1836, it was only 23°27'38 '', show.
ing an annual diminution of about half a second, or 45".79 in a hundred years.
A time will arrive, however, when this angle, having reached its minimum, will
again increase in the same ratio that it had before diminished, and thus it will
continue to oscillate at long periods, between certain limits, which are said to be
eomprised within the space of 20°42'.
The ecliptic, like every other circle, contains 360°, and it is
divided into 12 equal arcs of 30° each, called signs, which the
ancients distinguished by particular names. This division
commences at the vernal equinox, and is continued east-
wardly round to the same point again, in the following order:
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scor-
po, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. The Sun,
commencing at the first degree of Arles, about the 21st of
March, passes, at a mean rate, through one sign every month.

The Zodiac is a zone or girdle, about 16 degrees in breadth,
extending quite round the heavens, and including all the
heavenly bodies within 89 on each side of the ecliptic. It in-
cludes, also, the orbits of all the planets, except some of the
asteroids, since they are never seen beyond 8o either north or
south of the ecliptic.
Parallels of Latitude are small circles imagined to be

What are the tº: of the horizon? What are vertical circles? What is the prime
vertical? What is the ecliptic? What are the equinoxes? The vernal equinox; The
autumnal equinox? How is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equinoctial? What
is the obliquity of the ecliptic?. Describe the manner in which this angle varies. De-
&cribe the division of the ecliptic into signs. How much, at a mean rate, does the Sun
;,” the ecliptic every month? What is the Zodiac What are parallels of
&
28 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
drawn on the Earth's surface, north and south of the equator,
and parallel to it.
Parallels of Declination are small circles, imagined to be
drawn on the concave surface of the heavens, north and south
of the equinoctial, and parallel to it; or they may be consid-
ered as circles formed by producing the parallels of latitude
to the heavens.
The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, which lies 2339
north of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. The Tropic of
Capricorn is a small circle, which lies 234° south of the
equinoctial, and parallel to it. On the celestial sphere, these
two circles mark the limits of the Sun’s farthest declimation
north and south. On the terrestial sphere, they divide the
torrid, from the two temperate zones. That point in the
ecliptic which touches the tropic of Cancer, is called the Sum-
mer Solstice; and that point in the ecliptic which touches
the tropic of Capricorn, is called the Winter Solstice.
The distance of these two points from the equinoctial, is always equal to the
obliquity of the ecliptic, which, in round numbers, is 23c.9; but as we have seen
the obliquity of the ecliptic is continually changing; therefore the position of the
tropics unust make a correspondent change.
The Colures are two great circles which pass through the
poles of the heavens, dividing the ecliptic into four equal
parts, and mark the seasons of the year. One of them passes
through the equinoxes at Aries and Libra, and is thence
called the Equinoctial Colure; the other passes through the
solstitial points or the points of the Sun's greatest declination
north and south, and is thence called the Solstitial Colure.
The Sun is in the equinoctial points the 21st of March and the 23d of Septem,
ber. He is in the solstitial points the 22d of June and the 22d of December.
The Polar Circles are two small circles, each about 6630
from the equator, being always at the same distance from the
poles that the tropics are from the equator. The northern is
. the Arctic circle, and the southern the Antarctic
CºfCle.
Meridians are imaginary great circles drawn through the
poles of the world, cutting the equator and the equinoctial at
right angles.
Every place on the Earth, and every corresponding point in the heavens, is
& & e
wonsidered as having a meridian passing through it; although astronomers apply
What are parallels of declimation? What is the tropic of cancer? What is the tropis
of capricorn? What is the summer solstice? What is the winter solstice? Wha? £s
their distance from the equator, compared with the obliquity of the ecliptic? Is this
distance always the same? What are the colures? What is the equinoctial colure?
What is the solstitial colure? . On what days of the year is the sum in the equinoctiai
points? On what days, is he in the solstitial pointsi What are the polar circles!. By
what names, are they distinguished? What are meridians? How many meridians
are there? How many, do astronomers apply to the heavens 2
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 29
but 24 to the heavens, thus dividing the whole concave surface into 24 sections,
sºiášin with. These meridians marºne space which the heavenly bodies
appear to describe, every hour, for the 24 hours of the day. They are thence
sometimes denominated Hour Circles.
In measuring distances and determining positions on the Earth, the equator,
and some fixed meridian, as that of Greenwich, contain the primary starting
points; in the heavens, these points are in the ecliptic, the equinoctial, and that
great meridian which passes through the first point of Aries, called the equinoe-
tial colure.
Latitude on the Earth, is distance nortn or south of the
equator, and is measured on a meridian.
Latitude in the Heavens, is distance north or south of the
ecliptic, and at right angles with it.
Longitude on the Earth, is distance either east or west
from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator.
Longitude in the Heavens, is distance east from the first
point of Aries, measured on the ecliptic.
Declination is the distance of a heavenly body either north
or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meridian.
Right Ascension is the distance of a heavenly body east
from the first point of Aries, measured on the equinoctial.
It is more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their
declination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude, since the
former correspond to terrestrial latitude and longitude.
Latitude and declination may extend 90° and no more. , Terrestrial longitude
may extend 180° either east or west; but celestial longitude and right ascen.
§ being reckoned in only one direction, extend entirely round the circle, or
In consequence of the Earth’s motion eastward in its orbit,
the stars seem to have a motion westward, besides their
apparent diurnal motion caused by the Earth's revolution on
its axis; so that they rise and set sooner every succeeding
day by about four minutes, than they did on the preceding.
This is called their daily acceleration. It amounts to just
two hours a month.
ExAMPLE.-Those stars and constellations which do not rise until 10 o’clock
this evening, will, at the same hour, one month hence, be 30° above the
horizon; and, for the same reason, those stars which we see directly over head
this evening, will at the same hour, three months hence, be seen setting in the
tº: having in this time, performed one fourth of their apparent annual revo-
tion.
The following table of sidereal revolutions, shows the difference between solar
and sidereal time. The first column contains the numbers of complete revolu-
tions of the stars, or of the Earth's rotation on its axis; the second exhibits the
Into how many sections, do these meridians divide the concave surface ofthe heavens;
what width are these sections? Why are these meridians sometimes called hour cir.
es? In measuring distances on the Earth, what circles contain the primary starting
; 2. Where are these points in measuring distances in the heavens 2 What is la:
itude on the Earth? What is latitude in the heavens? What is longitude on the Earthy
What is longitude in the heavens? What is declimation? What is right ascension?
Why is it more convenzent to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their de-
elination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude? How many de-
grees may latitude and declination extend? How many terrestrial longitude? Hong
many celestial longitude 2, What is meant by the daily acceleration of the stars? To
now many uninutes does it amount? Illustſ; this subject with an easample.
$0. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER,
times in which these revolutions are made; and the third, shows how much
the Stars gain on the Sun every day—that is, how much sooner they rise and
eeme to the meridian every succeeding day, than they did on the preceding
Revolutions Times in which Revolutions Daily acceleration of the
of the Stars. are made. Stars.
days. ho. min. Sec. h. min. $60,
1 0 23 58 4 0. 8 55
2 | 23 52 8 0. 51
8 2 28 48 12 0 11 47
4 S 23 44 16 0. 15 43
5 4 23 40 20 0 19 89
6 5 23 86 24 0 23 3;
7 6 23 32 28 0. 27 31
8 7 23 28 32 0 31 27
9 8 23 24 86 0. 85 23
70 9 23 20 41 0. 39 19
J1 10 23 16 45 0 43 14
12 11 23 12 49 0 47 10
13 12 23 8 53 0 51 6
14 13 23 4 57 0 55 2
15 14 23 l I 0. 58 58
16 15 22 57 5 1. 2 54
17 16 22 53 9 1 6 50
18 17 22 49 13 I 10 46
19 18 22 45 17 I 14 42 "
20 19 22 41 22 I 18 38
21. 20 22 87 25 1 22 33
22 21 22 83 30 l 29
23 22 22 29 34 I 30 25
24 23 22 25 88 1 34 21
25 24 22 21 42 1. 38 17
26 25 22 17 46 l 42 13
27 26 22 13 50 I , 46 9
28 27 22 9 54 l * 50 5
29 28 22 5 58 ) 54 I
30 29 22 2 3 l 57 57
40 39 21 22 44 2 37 16
50 49 20 43 25 3 16 35
100 99 17 26 50 6 33 10
200 199 10 53 40 13 6 9
300 299 4 20 30 19 39 29
S60 359 0. 24 36 23 85 23
385 $64 0. 4 56 23 55 3
$66 365 0. 1. 0. 23 59 0
On this account, we have not always the same constella
tions visible to us throughout the year. While some, that
were not visible before, are successively rising to view in the
east, and ascending to the meridian, others sink beneath the
western horizon, and are seen no more, until, having passed
through the lower hemisphere, they again reappear in the east.
It is easy to convert right ascension into time, or time into right ascension
for if a heavenly body is one hour in passing over 159, it will be one fifteenth o
an hour, or 4 minutes, in passing over 19.
If the first point of Aries be on the meridian at 12 o'clock, the next hour line,
which is 15° E. of it, will come to the meridian at 1 o'clock; the second hour
Wine at 2 o'clock; the third at 3, &c. ...Of any two bodies whose right ascensions
are given, that one will pass the meridian first which has the least right ascension.
The first map of the atlas represents, upon a large scale
a general view of the solar system.
This will be more fully described in the Second Part of the work.
Do we always see the same constellations? Explain themanner of converting right
vcension into time, and time into right # *
FRELIMINARY CHAPTER, 3}
Tile next six maps represent different sections of the concave
surface of the heavens. The first of these exhibits the principal
constellations visible to us in October, November and Decem-
ber; the second, those visible in January, February and March;
the third, those visible in April, May and June; and the
fourth, those visible in July, August and September; with
the exception, however, of the constellations which ſiebe.
yond the 50th degree of north and south declination, of which,
indeed, those around the North Pole are always, and those
around the South Pole, never, visible to us.
These constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh
maps, called circumpolar maps, which are an exact continu-
ation of the others, and if joined to them at their correspond-
Ang degrees of right ascension and declination, they might be
considered as constituting one map. The scale on which all
the above-mentioned maps are drawn is that of a 16 inch
globe. The lines drawn on the maps have been already de-
fined; and their use, being nearly the same with those in
Geography, will be readily understood. Those which are
drawn from right to left, on each side of the equinoctial and
parallel to it, are called Parallels of Declination. Those
which are drawn up and down through the maps, at intervals
of 159, are called Meridians of Right Ascension, or Hour
Circles. The scale at the top and bottom of the first four
maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps, in-
dicates the daily progress of the stars in right ascension, and
shows on what day of the month any star will be on the me
ridian at 9 o'clock in the evening.
The constellation called the Great Bear is an exception to this rule; in this
ºnstellation the principal stars are marked in the order of their right ascension.
That point of projection for the maps which would exhibit each successive
p. of the heavens directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening, was chosen,
ecause in summer at an earlier hour the twilight would bedim our observation
of the stars, and at other seasons of the year it is easier to look up to stars that
i. an hour of their meridian altitude than to those which are directly over
€3.01.
It will be readily seen that the stars are so represented on the maps as to show
their relative magnitudes. The method invented by Bayer, of designating them
by the letters of the Greek and Roman alphabets, is adopted. Thus in each con-
stellation the stars are marked alpha, beta, &c., and should the letters of the
Greek alphabet be exhausted, those of the Roman are employed. Some of the
stars have also proper names.
The first four maps of the heavens are so constructed that the
For what months does the first map represent the heavens? For what months does
the second map represent the heavens?, The third? The fourth? What constellations
are represented on the sixth and seventh maps? In what manner must these six maps
pe arranged to form one complete map of the heavens? On what scale are these maps
§rawn? What is the use of the scale at the top and bottom of the first four maps, and
in the circumference of the circumpolar maps? Why was that point of projection for
the maps, which would represent each successive £º. of the heavens directly over
head at 9 o'clock in the evening, chosen 2 What is the method by which the stairs are
designated on the maps? How must the pupil, in using either of the first four maps
ºmagine himself to stand and to hold it?
82 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER,
pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, and
°o hold them directly over head in such manner that the top of
the map shall be towards the north, and the bottom towards
the south; the right hand side of the map will then be west,
and the left hand east. In using the circumpolar maps he
must suppose himself to face the pole, and to hold them in
such a manner that the day of the given month shall be u
ermost. The Celestial Planisphere represents the whole
eavens lying between 70 degrees of north and south decli-
nation, not as the surface of a concave sphere, but of a con-
cave cylinder, and spread out so as to form a plain surface:
A great variety of interesting problems, including almost all
those that are peculiar to the celestial globe, may be solved
upon it with facility and readiness.
We may now imagine the pupil ready to begin the study
of the visible Heavens. The first thing of importance is to
fix upon the proper starting point. This, on many accounts,
would seem to be the North Polar Star. Its position is ap-
parently the same every hour of the night throughout the
year, while the other stars are continually moving. Many of
the stars also in that region of the skies never set, so that
when the sky is clear, they may be seen at any hour of the
night. They revolve about the Pole in small circles, and
never disappear below the horizon. On this account they are
said to be within the circle of perpetual apparition. On the
other hand, the identity of the North Polar Star, strange as
it may appear, is not so easily determined, by those who are
just entering upon this study, as that of some others. For
this reason, the point directly over head, called the zenith,
is preferable, since upon this point every one can fix with cer-
tainty in whatever latitude he may be. It will be alike to all
tne, central point of the visible heavens, and to it the pupil
will learn imperceptibly to refer the bearing, motion, and dis.
ances of the heavenly bodies.
That, meridional º in each map, whose declination corresponds with
the latitude of the place of observation, represents the zenith of the heavens
at that place; and those constellations of stars which occupy this position
on the maps, will be seen directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening of the
day through which the meridian passes.—Thus in Georgia, for instance, the
starting point should be those stars which are situated in this meridian near the
33d degree of north declination, while in New England it should be those which
are situated in it near the 42d degree.
How, in using the circumpolar maps? Describe the construction and use of the Co.
lestial Plamisphere. When the pupil is ready to begin the study of the visible heav
ens, what is the first step to be taken? What advantages has the North Polar Star, as
a proper starting point? What disadvantages? What point is preferable to the Polar
Star? Why is it preferable? How may the point corresponding to this be found upon
the maps? At what time in the evening, will the stars which are near this point on
the maps, be seen directly over head? Is it indispensably necessary to begin with the
Stars near this Central meridian?
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER, 33
We might, nowever, begin with the stars near either of the
meridians represented on the maps, the only rule of selection
being to commence at that which approaches nearest to being
over head at the time required.
We have chosen for our starting point in this work, that
meridian which passes through the vermal equinox at the first
point of Aries, not only because it is the meridian from which
the distances of all the heavenly bodies are measured; but
especially because the student will thus be enabled to observe
and compare the progressive motion of the constellations ac-
cording to the order in which they are always arranged in
catalogues, and also to mark the constellations of the Zodiac
passing over head as they rise one after another in their or-
der, and to trace among them the orbits of the Earth and of
the other planets.
As Greek letters so frequently occur in catalogues and maps of the stars and
on the celestial globes, the Greek alphabet is here introduced for the use of those
who are unacquainted with it. The capitals are seldom used for designating the
stars, but are here given for the sake of regularity.
THE GREEK ALPHABET.
A 6: Alpha &l
# 8 Beta b
A % Delta. §
E S Epsilon e short
Z. § Zeta Z
H n Eta e long
6 0 Theta th
k : * ,
º al
A. A #a *
M. | Mu IT!
N p Nu Il
:E § Xi X
O Q Omicron o short
II 3r I p
P p Rho p
X $ Sigma §
T ºr Tau t
Y 9 Epion Ul
§ % Phi ph
X % Chi ch
*F t!, Psi ps
Sº (a) Omega o long
In 1603, John Bayer, of Augsburg, in Germany, published a complete Atlas of
all #º with the useful invention of denoting the stars in every
What is the only rule of selection? What is the starting point chosen for this work
What advantages has this meri iian as a starting point?
*- 34 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER,
Constellation by the letters of the Greek and Roman Alphabets; assigning the
Greek letter a to the principal stars in each constellation, {3 to the second in
magnitude, 7 to the third, and so on; and when the Greek alphabet was ex-
hausted, the notation was carried on with the Roman letters, a, b, c, &c. That
the memory might not be perplexed with a multitude of names, this convenient
method of designating the stars has been adopted by all succeeding astronomers,
who have farther enlarged it by the Arabic notation, 1, 2, 3, &c. whenever the
stars in the constellations outnumbered both alphabets.

INCREASE of SIDEREAL TIME IN MEAN SOLAR Hours, &c.


Increase. Incr. Incr. Incr. Incr.
Hours. m. sec. || Min. I sec. | Min. Sec. || Sec. sec. Sec. sec.
0 9.857 1 || 0.164 || 31 || 5,093 1 0.003 || 31 0.085
2 19.713 2 329 || 32 257 || 2 006 || 32 088
3 .569 3 493 || 33 421 3 008 || 33 090
4 .426 4 657 || 34 585 || 4 011 || 34 093
5 49.282 5 821 || 35 750 || 5 014 || 35 096
6 59,139 6 986 || 36 914 6 016 || 36 099
7 || 1 8,995 7 | 1.150 || 37 6,078 || 7 019 37 101
8 18,852 8 314 || 38 242 || 8 022 || 38 104
9 28.708 9 479 || 39 407 || 9 0.25 39 107
10 38.565 || 10 643 | 40 571 || 10 027 40 110
11 48.421 || 11 807 || 41 735 || 11 030 41 112
12 .278 || ] 971 || 42 900 || 12 033 42 115
13 || 2 8.134 || 13 2.136 43 || 7.064 || 13 0.36 || 43 118
14 17.991 || 14 44 228 || 14 038 || 44 121
15 ,847 || 15 464 || 45 392 || 15 041 || 45 123
I6 37.704 || 16 628 || 46 557 || 16 044 || 46 126
17 47.560 || 17 793 || 47 721 || 17 047 47 129
18 B7.417 | 18 957 : 48 885 || 18 049 || 48 131
19 || 3 7.273 || 19 || 3.121 49 .050 || 19 052 49 134
20 17.130 || 20 286 || 50 214 || 20 055 || 50 137
21 26. 21 450 || 51 378 || 21 058 51 140
36. 22 614 || 52 542 || 22 060 || 52 }42
23 46,699 || 23 778 || 53 707 || 23 063 53 145
24 56. 24 943 || 54 871 || 24 O66 54 148
--—|| 25 4,107 55 9.035 || 25 069 || 55 151
Daily acceleration 26 271 56 199 || 26 0.71 56 153
of a star in passing; 27 435 57 364 || 27 074 [ 57 156
the meridian, 28 600 58 528 || 28 077 || 58 159
Itº, SéC, 29 764 59 692 || 29 079 59 162
3 55. 30 928 60 857 || 30 082 || 60 $64
THE
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
C H A P T E R. I.
£RECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN NOWEMBER,
ANDROMEDA.
If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock, on the 10th o
November, we shall see the constellation celebrated in fable,
by the name of ANDROMEDA. It is represented on the map by
the figure of a woman having her arms extended, and chained
by her wrists to a rock. It is bounded N. by Cassiopeia, E.
by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. by the Triangles
and the Northern Fish. It is situated between 200 and 500
of N. declination. . Its mean right ascension is nearly 159;
or one hour E. of the equinoctial colure.
It consists of 66 visible stars, of which three are of the 2d
magnitude, and two of the 3d; most of the rest are small.
The stars directly in the zenith, are too small to be seen in
the presence of the moon, but the bright star Almaack, of the
2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 139 due E., and
Merach, of the same magnitude, in the girdle, 79 south of the
zenith. This star is then nearly on the meridian, and with
two others N. W. of it forms the girdle.
The three stars forming the girdle are of the 2d, 3d, and
4th magnitude, situated in a row, 30 and 40 apart, and are
called Merach, Mu and Nu.
About 20 from Nu at the northwestern extremity of the
girdle, is a remarkable nebula of very minute stars, and the
only one of the kind which is ever visible to the naked eye. It
resembles two cones of light, joined at their base, about $o in
length, and #9 in breadth.

If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock on the 10th of November, what constella-
tion shall we see? How is it represented on the 1 How is it bounded? What are its
ht ascension and declination? How many visible stars has it? Describe the girdle
of Andromeda. Describe the appearance iſ a rentºrkable nebula which lies at its
Uorthwestern Cºttremity.
Jö
36 Pr0TURE OF THE HEAVENS.

If a straig tº line, connecting Almaack with Merach, be
produced southwesterly, 80 farther, it will reach to Delta, a
star of the 3d magnitude in the left breast. This star ma
be otherwise known by its forming a line, N. and S. wit
two smaller ones on either side of it; or, by its constituting,
with two others, a very small triangle, S. of it.
Nearly in a iine with Almaack, Merach and Delta, but
curving a little to the N. 79 farther, is a lone star of the 2d
magnitude, in the head, called Alpheratz. This is the N. E.
j of the great “Square of Pegasus,” to be hereafter de-
§CI10&Ole
... It will be well to have the position of Alpheratz well fixed in the mind, because
it is but one minute west of the great equinoctial colure, or first meridian of the
heavens, and forms *8. a right line with Algenib in the wing of Pegasus, 14°
S. of it, and with Beta in Cassiopeia, 30° N. of it. If a line, connecting these three
stars, be produced, it will terminate in the pole. These three guides, in connex,
ion with the North Polar Star point out to astronomers the position of that great
circle in the heavens from which the right ascension of all the heavenly bodies
is measured.
History.--The story of Andromeda, from which this constellation derives its
name, is as follows: She was daughter of Cepheus, king of AEthiopia, by Cassio-
peia. She was promised in marriage to Phineus, her uncle, when Neptune
drowned the kingdom, and sent a sea monster to ravage the country, to appease
the resentment which his favourite Nymphs bore against Cassiopeia, because
she had boasted herself fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The oracle of Ju-
piter Ammon was consulted, and nothing could pacify the anger of Neptune
unless the beautiful Andromeda should be exposed to the sea monster. She was
accordingly chained to a rock for this purpose, near Joppa, (now Jaffa, in Syria,)
and at the moment the monster was going to dévour her, Perseus, who was then
returning through the air from the conquest of the Gorgons, saw her and was
captivated by her beauty.
“Chained to a rock she stood; young Perseus stay’d
His rapid flight, to woo the beauteous maid.”
He promised to deliver her and destroy the monster if Cepheus would give
her to him in marriage. Cepheus consented, and Perseus instantly changed the
sea monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's head, which was still reeking
in his hand. The enraged Phineus opposed their nuptials and a violent battle
ensued, in which he, also, was turned into a stone by the petrifying influence of
the Gorgon’s head. º
The morals, maxims, and historical events of the ancients, were usually com-
municated in fable or allegory. The fable of Andromeda and the sea monster,
might mean that she was courted by some monster of a sea-captain, who at-
...; toºrry her away, but was prevented by another more gallant and suc-
(388Siull ITV
PISCES.
THE FISHEs.—This constellation is now the first in order,
of the 12 constellations of the Zodiac, and is usually repre-
sented by two fishes tied a considerable distance apart, at the
extremities of a long undulating cord, or riband. It occupies
Describe the magnitude and position of Delta. How may this star be otherwise
known? Bescribe the position and magnitude of Alpheratz. What position does this
*śr occuavy in the great square of Pegasus?, Why is it important to have the pos
*.*ēs ºr well ſized in the mind? What is the present order of the Fishes among
ºf 'lations of the Zodiacº. How is it represented? Describe its Outline and space
sº * {}}AS.
sº
PISCES. 37
a large triangular space in the heavens, and its outline at first
is somewhat difficult to be traced.
In consequence of the annual precession of the stars, the constellation Pisceſs
ſlas now come to occupy the sign Aries; each constellation having adva...ced
one whole sign in the order of the Zodiac. The sun enters the sign Pisces,
while the earth enters that of Virgo, about the 19th of February, but he does not
reach the constellation Pisces before the 6th of March. The Fishes, therefore,
tre now called the “Leaders of the Celestial Hosts.”—See Aries.
That loose assemblage of small stars directly south of
Merach, in the constellation of Andromeda, constitutes the
Northern Fish, whose mean length is about 169, and breadth,
79. Its mean right ascension is 150, and its declination 256
N. Consequently, it is on the meridian the 24th of Novem-
ber; and, from its breadth, is more than a week in passing
over it. The Northern Fish and its riband, beginning at
Merach, may, by a train of small stars, be traced, in a S. S.
easterly direction, for a distance of 339, until we come to the
star El Rischa, of the 3d magnitude, which is situated in the
node, or flexure of the riband. This is the principal star in
the constellation, and is situated 20 N. of the equinoctial, and
53 minutes east of the meridian.
Seven degrees S. E. of El Rischa, passing by three or four very small stars
we come to Mira, in the Whale, a star of about the 3d magnitude, and known as
the “Wonderful Star of 1596.” El Rischa may be otherwise identified by means
of a remarkable cluster of five stars in the forin of a pentagon, about 15° E. of
it.—See Cetus.
From El Rischa the riband or cord makes a sudden flexure,
doubling back across the ecliptic, where we meet with three
stars of the 4th and 5th magnitude situated in a row 30 and
40 apart, marked on the map Zeta, Epsilon, Delta. From
Delta the riband runs north and westerly along the Zodiac,
and terminates at Beta, a star of the 4th magnitude, 11o S.
of Markab in Pegasus.
This part of the riband including the Western Fish at the
end of it, has a mean declination of 5° N., and may be seen
throughout the month of November, passing the meridian
slowly to the W., near where the sun passes it on the 1st of
April. Twelve degrees W. of this Fish, there are 4 small
stars situated in the form of the letter Y. The two Fishes,
and the cord between them, make two sides of a largé
triangle, 309 and 40° in length, the open part of which is
towards the N. W. When the Northern Fish is on the
What are the size and position of the Northern Fish? When, and how longisit on the
meridian? How may it be traced? What is the principal star in this constellation, and
where is it situated? How far, and in what direction from Alpha, is Mira, in the Whale?
By what paculiarappellation is this star known? What is the direction of the riband from
Alpha” What stars do we meet with, where the riband doubles back across the eclip-
tic? What is the direction of this part of the riband from Delta, and where does it ter.
niinate? What are its mean declination, and the time of its passing the meridian? What
striking cluster is seen about 12° W. of the Western Fish? What geometrie" ºrgüre
may be conceived to be formed by the two Fishes and the cord between them : Where
is the Western Fish when the Northern is on the meridian *
$8 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |rg
meridian, the Western is nearly 2 hours past it. . This co.
stellation is bounded N. by Andromeda, W. by Andromet,
and Pegasus, S., by the Cascade, and E. by the Whale, this
Ram and the Triangles.
When, to enable the pupil to find any star, its direction from another is giver,
the latter is always understood to be on the meridian. -
After a little experience with the maps, even though unaccompanied by &
rections, the ingenious youth will be able, of himself, to devise a great many e2.
pedients and facilities for tracing the constellations, or selecting out particula:
StarS.
HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks, who have some fable to account for the or".
of almost every constellation, say, that as Venus and her son Cupid were on.
day on the banks of the Euphrates, they were greatly alarmed at the appearance
of a terrible giant, named Typhon. Throwing themselves into the river, ther
were changed mto fishes, and by this means escaped danger. To commemorate
this event, Minerva placed two fishes among the stars.
According to 8. Iłormer, and Virgil, this Typhon was a famous giant. He
had a hundred heads, like those of a serpent or dragon. Flames of devouring
fire darted from his mouth and eyes. #. was no sooner born, than he made
war against heaven, and so frightened the gods, that they fled and assumed dif
ferent shapes. Jupiter became a ram; Mercury, an ibis; Apollo, a crow ; Juno,
a cow; Bacchus, a goat ; Diana, a cat; Venus, a fish, &c. The father of the
gods, at least, put Typhon to flight, and crushed him under Mount AEtna.
The obvious sentinent implied in the fable of this hideous monster, is evi.
dently this: that there is in the world a description of men whose mouth is so
“full of cursing and bitterness,” derision and violence, that modest virtue is
sometimes forced to disguise itself, or ſlee from their presence,
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is allotted to the escutcheon of Simeon.
No sign appears to have been considered of more malignant influence than
Pisces. The astrological calendar describes the emblems of this constellation
as indicative of violence and death. . Both the Syrians and Egyptians abstained
from eating fish, out of dread and abhorrence; and when the latter would re-
ºn: any thing as odious, or express hatred by hieroglyphics, they painted a
In using a circumpolar map, face the pole, and hold it up in your hands in
such a manner that the part which contains the name of the given month shall
be uppermost, and you will have a portraiture of the heavens as seen at that
£.
The constellations about the Antarctic Pole are not visible in the United
States; those about the Arctic or northern pole, are always visible.
CASSIOPEIA.
CAssioPEIA is represented on the celestial map, in regal
state seated on a throne or chair, holding in her left hand the
branch of a palm tree. Her head and body are seen in the
Milky Way. Her foot rests upon the Arctic Circle, upon
which her chair is placed. She is surrounded by the chier
personages of her royal family. The king, her husband, is
on her right hand—Perseus, her son-in-law, on her left—and
Andromeda, her daughter, just above her.
This constellation is situated 26° N. of Andromeda, and
midway between it and the North Polar Star. It may be
Whatas, ºne boundar, ºs of this constellation? How is the constellation Cassiopeia
resº on tº max By whom is she surrounded? How is this constellation
Yº...º.º. ºf ºaneda and the polar star?
MAP V1. I CASSIOPEIA. 39
seen, from our latitude, at all hours of the night, and may be
traced out at almost any season of the year. Its mean decli-
nation is 60° N. and its right ascension 129. It is on our
meridian the 22d of November, but does not sensibly change
its position for several days; for it should be remembered
that the apparent motion of the stars becomes slower and
slower, as they approximate the poles.
Cassiopeia is a beautiful constellation, containing 55 stars
that are visible to the naked eye; of which five are of the 3d
magnitude, and so situated as to form, with one or two
smaller ones, the figure of an inverted chair.
“Wide her stars
Dispersed, nor shine with mutual aid improved;
Nor dazzle, brilliant with contiguous flame:
Their number fifty-five.”
Caph, in the garland of the chair, is almost exactly in the
equinoctial colure, 30° N. of Alpheratz, with which, and the
Polar Star, it forms a straight line. [See note to Androme-
da.] Caph is therefore on the meridian the 10th of Novem-
ber, and one hour past it on the 24th. It is the westernmost
star of the bright cluster. Shedir”, in the breast, is the up-
permost star of the five bright ones, and is 50 S. E. of Caph:
the other three bright ones, forming the chair, are easily dis-
tinguished, as they meet the eye at the first glance.
There is an importance attached to the position of Caph
that concerns the mariner and the surveyor. It is used, in
connexion with observations on the Polar Star, for determi-
ning the latitude of places, and for discovering the magnetic
variation of the needle.
It is generally supposed that the North Polar Star, so called, is the real immove
able pole of the heavens; but this is a mistake. It is so near the true pole that
it has obtained the appellation of the North Polar Star; but it is, in reality, more
than a degree and a half distant from it, and revolves about the true pole every
24 hours, in a circle whose radius is 1° 35'. It will consequently, in 24 hours, be
twice on the meridian, once above, and once below the pole; and twice at its
greatest elongation E. and W. [See North Polar Star.]
The Polar Star not being exactly in the N. pole of the
heavens, but one degree and 35 minutes on that side of it
which is towards Caph, the position of the latter becomes
Important as it always shows on which side of the true pole
the polar star is.
There is another important fact in relation to the position
* Shedir, from El Seder, the Seder tree; a name given to this constellation by
Ulugh Beigh.
When may it be seen from this latitude? When is it on our meridian? How is the
motion of the stars affected as they approach the poles? How many pringipal stars in
this constellation, and what is their appearance? Describe the situation of Caph.
When is Caph on the meridian! What is the relative position of Shedir? Why is the
position of Caph important?
** {{). PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. NOW
of this star. It is equidistant from the pole, and exactly op-
* another remarkable star in the square of the §§
ear, on the other side of the pole. [See Megrez.] It also
serves to mark a spot in the starry heavens, rendered memo-
rable as being the place of a lost star. Two hundred and fifty
years ago, a bright star shone 50 N. N. E. of Caph, where
now is a dark void 1
On the 8th of November, 1572, Tycho Brahe and Corne-
lius Gemma saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopeia,
which became, all at once, so brilliant, that it surpassed the
splendour of the brightest planets, and might be seen even at
noonday ! ... Gradually, this great brilliancy diminished, until
the 15th of March, 1573, when, without moving from its place,
it became utterly extinct.
Its colour, during this time, exhibited all the phenomena
of a prodigious flame—first it was of a dazzling white, then
of a reddish yellow, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which
its light expired. It is impossible, says Mrs. Somerville, to
imagine any thing more tremendous than a conflagration that
could be visible at such a distance. It was seen for sixteen
months.
Some astronomers imagined that it would reappear again
after 150 years; but it has never been discovered since.
This phenomenon alarmed all the astronomers of the age,
who beheld it; and many of them wrote dissertations con
cerning it.
Rev. Professor Vince, one of the most learned and pious
astronomers of the age, has this remark:—“The disappear-
ance of some stars may be the destruction of that system at
the time appointed by the DEITY for the probation of its in-
habitants; and the appearance of new stars may be the for
mation of new systems for new races of beings then called
into existence to adore the works of their Creator.”
Thus, we may conceive the Deity to have been employed from all eternity,
and thus he may continue to be employed for endless ages; forming new sys-
terms of beings to adore him; and transplanting beings already formed into hap-
pier regions, who will continue to rise higher and higher in their enjoyments,
and go on to contemplate system after system through the boundless universe.
LA PIACE says:—“As to those stars which suddenly shine forth with a very
vivid light, and then immediately disappear, it is extremely probable that great
conflagrations, produced by extraordinary causes, take place on their surface.
This conjecture, continues he, is confirmed by their change of colour, which is
analogous to that presented to us on the earth by those bodies which are set on
fire and then gradually extinguished.”
The late eminent Dr. Good also observes that—Worlds and systems of worlds
What memorable spot does Caph serve to mark out? Describe the phenomenon of
the lost star. What does Mrs. Somerville say of it? How long was it seen? Has any
thing been discovered of it since? How did this phenomenon affect the astronomers
of the age? What does Vince say of the disappearance of some stars; and the new ap-
pearance of others? Repeat the observations of Dr. Good upon the subject of new mass
&g pearing and disappearinº.
MAP VI. I CEPHEUS. 4!
tre not only perpetually creating, but also perpetually disappearing... It is an
extraordinary fact, that within the period of the last century, not less than thir
£en stars, in different constellations, seem to have totally perished, and ten new
ones to have been created. In many instances it is unquestionable, that the stars
themselves, the supposed habitation of other kinds or orders of intelligent be-
ings, together with the different planets by which it is probable they were sur.
rounded, have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occupied in tº e hea-
vens, have become blanks : What has befallen other systems, will assuredly
befall our own. Of the time and the manner we know nothing, but the fact is
incontrovertible; it is foretold by revelation; it is inscribed in the heavens; it
is felt through the earth. Such is the awful and daily text; what then ought to
be the comment?
The great and good Beza, falling in with the superstition of his age, attempted
to prove that this was a comet, or the same luminous appearance which conduct.
ed the magi, or wise men of the East, into Palestine, at the birth of our Saviour
and that it now appeared to announce his second coming !

About 69 N.W. of Caph, the telescope reveals to us a
grand nebula of small stars, "apparently compressed into one
mass, or single blaze of light, with a great number of loose
stars surrounding it.
History.—Cassiopeia was wife of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and mother of An-
dromeda. She was a queen of matchless beauty, and seemed to be sensible of it;
for she even boasted herself fairer than Juno, the sister of Jupiter, or the Nerei-
des—a name given to the sea nymphs. This so provoked the ladies of the sea that
they complained to Neptune of the insult, who sent a frightful monster to ravage
her coast, as a punishment for her insolence. But the anger of Neptune and the
jealousy of the nymphs were not thus appeased. They demanded, and it was
finally ordained that Cassiopeia should chain her daughter Andromeda, whom
she tenderly loved, to a desert rock on the beach, and leave her exposed to the
fury of this monster. She was thus left, and the monster approached; but just
as he was going to devour her, Perseus killed him.
“The saviour youth the royal pair j,
And with heav'd hands, their daughter's bridegroom bless.”
Eusden's Ovid.
CEPHEUS
CEPHEUs is represented on the map as a king, in his royal
robe, with a sceptre in his left hand, and a crown of stars upon
his head. He stands in a commanding posture, with his }.
foot over the pole, and his sceptre extended towards Cassio-
peia, as if for ſavour and defence of the queen.
- “Cepheus illumes
The neighbouring heavens; still faithful to his queen,
With thirty-five faint luminaries mark'd.”
This constellation is about 250 N. W. of Cassiopeia, near
the 2d coil of Draco, and is on the meridian at 8 o’clock the
3d of November; but it will linger near it for mâny days.
Like Cassiopeia, it may be seen at all hours of the night,
when the sky is clear, for to us it never sets.
By reference to the lines on the map, which all meet in the pole, it will be evi-
dent that a star, near the pole, moves over a much less space in one hour, than
There is a remarkable nebula in this constellation; describe its stuation and ap-
pearance. How is Cepheus represented 3 What is his posture? Whº is thºr ºom
$tellation situated? 4%
42 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ! Nov.
one at the equinoctial; and generally, the nearer the pole, the narrower the
space, and the slower the motion.
Thé stars that are so near the pole may be better described by their polar
distance, than by their declination. By polar dislº, is meant—the distance
iron the pole; and is what the declination wants of 90°.
In this constellation there are 35 stars visible to the naked
eye; of these, there glitters on the left shoulder, a star of the
3d magnitude, called Alderamin, which with two others of
the same brightness, 89 and 129 apart, form a slightly-curved
line towards the N. E. The last, whose letter name is Gam-
ma, is in the right knee, 198 N. of Caph, in Cassiopeia. The
middle one in the line, is Alphirk, in the girdle. This star is
one third of the distance from Alderamin to the pole, and
nearly in the same fight line.
It cannot be too well understood that the bearings, or direction of one star from
another, as given in this treatise, are strictly applicable only when the former
orie is on, or near the meridian. The bearings given, in many cases, are not the
least approximations to what appears to be their relative position; and in Sonne,
if relied upon, will lead to errours. For example:—It is said, in the preceding
paragraph, that Gamma, in Cepheus, bears 19°N. of Caph in Cassiopeia. This
is true, when Caph is on the meridian, but at this very moment, while the author
is writing this line, Gamma appears to be 19° due west of Caph; and six months
hence, will appear to be the same distance east of it. The reason is obvious;
the circle which Cepheus appears to describe about the pole, is within that of
Cassiopeia, and consequently when on the east side of the pole, will be within,
or between Cassiopeia and the pole—that is, west of Cassiopeia. And for the
same reason, when Cepheus is on the west side of the pole, it is between that
and Cassiopeia, or east of it.
Let it also be remembered, that in speaking of the poie, which we shall have
frequent occasion to do, in the course of this work, the North Polar Star, or an
imaginary point very near it, is always meant; and not as some will vaguely ap-
prehend, a point in the horizon, directly N. of us. The true pole of the heavens
is always elevated just as many degrees above our horizon, as we are north of
the Equator. If we live in 42° N. latitude, the N. pole will be 42° above our
horizon. (See North Polar Star.)
There are also two smaller stars about 90 E. of Alderamm
and Alphirk, with which they form a square; Alderamin
being the upper, and Alphirk the lower one on the W. 89
apart. In the centre of this square there is a bright dot, or
semi-visible star.
The head of Cepheus is in the Milky-Way, and may he
known by three stars of the 4th magnitude in the crown,
which form a small acute triangle, about 90 to the right of
Alderamin. The mean polar distance of the constellation is
259, while that of Alderamin is 28° 10'. The right ascension
of the former is 3388; consequently, it is 220 E. of the equi-
noctial colure.
The student will understand that right ascension is reckoned on the equinoc-
tial, from the first point of Aries, E., quite round to the same point again, which
How many, and what are the principal stars in it? Describe the last star, In, the
eurve. Describe the middle one. What four stars form a square in this constellation?
Where is the head of Cepheus, and how may it be known? What is the mean polar
&istance of this constellation? How far, and which way is it from the equinoctia.
ure?
Map II.] ARIES, * 43
is 350°. Now .338°, measured from the same point, will reach the same point
*gain, within 229; which is the difference between 360° and 3389. This rule,
will apply to any other case &
HISTORY.—This constellation immortalizes the name of the king of Æthiopia.
The name of his queen was Cassiopeia. They were the parents of Andromeda, who
was betrothed to Perseus. Cepheus was one of the Argºnauts who accompanied
Jason on his perilous expedition in quest of the golden fêece. Newton supposes
that it was owing to this circumstance that he was placed in the heavens; and
that not only this, but all the ancient constellations, relate to the Argonautic ex-
; Or to Pº some way connected with it. . Thus, he observes that as
usaeus, one of the Argonauts, was the first Greek who made a celestial sphere,
he would naturally delineate on it those figures which had some reference to
the expedition. Accordingly, we have on our globes to this day, the Golden Ram,
the ensign of the ship in which Phryxus fled to Colchis, the scene of the Argo-
nautic achievements. We have also the Bull with brazen hoofs, tamed by Ja-
son; the Twins, Castor and Pollux, two sailors, with their mother Leda, in the
form of a Swan, and Argo, the ship itself; the watchful Dragon Hydra, with the
Cup of Medea, and a raven upon its carcass, as an emblem of death; also Chi-
ron, the Master of Jason, with his Altar, and Sacrifice; Hercules, the Argonaut,
with his club, his dart, and vulture, with the dragon, crab and lion which he slew;
and Orpheus, one of the company, with his harp. All these, says Newton, refer
to the Argonauts.
Again; we have Orton, the son of Neptune, or, as some say, the grandson of
Minos, with his dogs, and hare, and river, and scorpion. We have the story of
Perseus in the constellation of that name, as well as in Cassiopeia, Cepheus, An-
dromeda and Cetus; that of Calisto and her son Arcas, in Ursa Major; that of
Icareus and his daughter Erigone, in Bootes and Virgo. Ursa Minor relates to
one of the nurses of Jupiter; Auriga, to Erichthonius; Ophiuchus, to Phorbas;
Sagittarius, to Crolus, the son of one of the Muses; Capricorn, to Pan, and
Aquarius to Ganymede. We have also Ariadne's crown, Bellerophon's horse,
Neptune's dolphin, º eagle, Jupiter's goat with her kids, the asses of
Bacchus, the fishes of Venus and Cupid, with their parent, the southern fish.
These, according to Deltoton, comprise the Grecian constellations mentioned by
the poet Aratus; and all relate, as Newton supposes, remotely or Immediately,
to the Argonauts.
It may be remarked, however, that while none of these figures refer to any
transactions of a later date than the Argonautic expedition, yet the great disa-
greement which appears in the mythological account of them, proves that their
invention must have been of greater antiquity than that event, and that these
constellations were received for some time among the Greeks, before their poets
referred to them in describing the particulars of that memorable exhibition.
C H A P T E R II.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACINT. THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN DECEMBER.
ARIES.
THz RAM.–Twenty-two centuries ago, as Hipparchus n
forms us, this constellation occupied thé first sign in the
ecliptic, commencing at the vernal equinox. But as the con-
stellations gain about 50/1 on the equinox, at every revolution
of the heavens, they have advanced in the ecliptic nearly 310
beyond it, or more than a whole sign: so that the Fishes now
What was the position of Arles in the ecliptic, 22 centuries ago?
***
*.
*~44-". PICTURE DF THE HEAVENS. | DEC.
occupy the same place in the Zodiac, that Aries did, in the
time of Hipparchus; why e the constellation Aries is now in
the sign Taurus, Taurus in Gemini, and Gemini in Cancer,
and so on.
ARILs is therefore now the second constellation in the
Zodiac. It is situated next east of Pisces, and is midway
between the Triangles and the Fly on the N. and the head
of Cetus on the S. It contains 66 stars, of which, one is of
the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th magnitudes.
“First, from the east, the Ram conducts the year;
Whom Ptolemy with twice nine stars adorns,
Of which two only claim the second rank;
The rest, when Cynthia fills the sign, are lost.”
It is readily distinguished by means of two bright stars in
the head, about 49 apart, the brightest being the most north-
easterly of the two. The first, which is of the 2d magnitude,
situated in the right horn, is called Alpha Arietis, or simply
Arietis; the other, which is of the 3d magnitude, lying near
the left horn, is called Sheratan, and may be known by an-
other star of the 4th magnitude, in the ear, 13° S. of it, called
Mesarthim, which is the first star in this constellation.
Arietis and Sheratan, are one instance out of many, where
stars of more than ordinary brightness are seen together in
É. as in the Twins, the Little Dog, &c., the brightest star
ing commonly on the east.
The position of Arietis affords important facilities to nau-
tical science. Difficult to comprehend as it may be, to the
unlearned, the skilful navigator who should be lost upon an
unknown sea, or in the midst of the Pacific ocean, could, by
measuring the distance between Arietis and the Moon, which
often passes near it, determine at once not only the spot he
was in, but his true course and distance to any known meri-
dian or harbour on the earth.
Lying along the moon’s path, there are nine conspicuous
stars that are used by nautical men for determining their lon
gitude at sea, thence called nautical stars.
These stars are Arietis, Aldebaran, Pollua, Regulus,
Spica Virginis, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, and Markab.
The true places of these stars, ſor every day in the year, are given in the Naul-
tical Almanac, a valuable work published annually by the English “Board of Ad-
miralty,” to guide mariners in navigating the seas. They are usually published
two or three years in advance, for the benefit of long voyages.
That a man, says Sir John Herschel, by merely measuring the moon’s appa-
rent distance from a star, with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and
What is its ºntº How is it now situated with respect to the surround-
ing constellations? at are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is this
constellation readily distinguished? Describe the two bright, stars in the head. For
what purposes is the position of some of the stars in Arietis important? How many
stars are used for determining longitude at sea, and where are they situated? By what
general name are they called? Enumerate them
MAP II.] ARIES. - 4.,
applied to his eye, even with so unstable a footing as the deck of a ship, sual say
positively within five miles, where he is, on aboundless ocean, cannot but appear
to persons ignorant of physical astronomy, an approach to the miraculous. And
§ says he, the alternatives of life and death, wealth and ruin, are daily and
ourly staked, with perfect confidence, on these marvellous computations.
Capt. Basil Hall, of the royal navy, relates that he had sailed from San Blas on
the west coast of Mexico, and after a voyage of 8000 miles occupying eighty-nine
days, arrived off Rio Janeiro, having in this interval passed through the Pacific
ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic without making any
land or seeing a single Sail on the voyage. Arrived within a few days’ sail of
Rio, he took a set of lunar observations, to ascertain his true position, and the
bearing of the harbour, and shaped his course accordingly. “I hove to,” says
he, “ at 4 in the morning, till the day should break, and then bore up ; for
although it was lazy, we could see before us a couple of miles or so. About 8
o'clock it became so foggy that I did not like to stand in farther, and was just
bringing the ship to the wind again before.sending the people to breakfast, when
it suddenly cleared off, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the great Sugar-loaf
rock, which stands on one side of the harbour's mouth, so nearly right ahead
that we had not to alter our course above a point in order to hit the entrance of
Rio. This was the first land we had seen for three months, after crossing so
many seas, and being set backwards and forwards by innumerable currents and
foul winds.”
Arietis comes to the meridian about 12 minutes after She-
ratan, on the 5th December, near where the sun does in mid-
summer. Arietis, also, is nearly on the same meridian with
Almaach, in the foot of Andromeda, 190 N. of it, and culmi-
nates only four minutes after it. The other stars in this con-
stellation are quite small, constituting that loose cluster which
we see between the Fly on the north, and the head of Cetus
on the south.
When Arietis is on the meridian, Andromeda and Cassio-
peia are a little past the meridian, nearly over head, and Per-
seus with the head of Medusa, is as far to the east of it.
Taurus and Auriga are two or three hours lower down;
Orion appears in the S. E., and the Whale on the meridian
just below Aries, while Pegasus and the Swan are seen hał
way over in the west.
The manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac into 12 equal parts, was
both simple and ingenious. , Having no instrument that would measure time
exactly, “They took a vessel, with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled
it with water, suffered the same to distil, drop by drop, into another vessel set
beneath to receive it, beginning at the moment when some star rose, and con-
tinuing till it rose the next following night, when it would have performed one
complete revolution in the heavens. The water falling down into the receiver
they divided into 12 equal parts; and having twelve other small vessels in readi-
ness, each of them capable of containing one part, they again poured all the wa-
ter into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of some star in the Zodi
at the same time suffered the water to drop into one of the small vessels. An
as soon as it was full, #. removed it, and set an empty one in its place. . Just
as each vessel was full, they took notice what star of the Zodiac rose at that
time, and thus continued the process through the year, until the 12 vessels were
filleº ’’
Thus the Zodiac was divided into 12 equal portions, corresponding to the 12
When does Arietis pass the meridian? What other brilliant star is on the meridian
nearly at the same time? When Aries is on the meridian, what other constellations
are mmediately in view? Describe the manner in which the ancients divided ºhā
Zodiac. At what point of the Zodiac did this division commence
4
* r - a - * ~ *-
wk *
46 -- . PICTURE OF 'THE HEAVENS, | DEC.
months of the year, commencing at the vermal equinox. Each of these portions
served as the visible representative or sign of the month it appeared in.
All those stars in the Zodiac which were observed to rise while the first vessel
was filling, were constellated and included in the first sign, and called Aries, an
animal held in great esteem by the shepherds of Chaldea. All those stars in the
Zodiac which rose while the second vessel was filling, were constellated and
included in the second sign, which for a similar reason, was denominated Tau-
rus; and all those stars which were observed to rise while the third vessel was
filling, were constellated in the third sign, and called Gemini, in allusion to the
twin season of the flocks.
Thus each sign of 30° in the Zodiac, received a distinctive appellation, accord-
ing to the fancy or superstition of the inventors; which mames have ever since
been retained, although the constellations themselves have since left their nom-
inal signs more than 30° behind. The sign Aries, therefore, included all the stars
embraced in the first 30° of the Zodiac, and no more. The sign Taurus, in like
manner, included all those stars embraced in the next 30° of the Zodiac, or those
between 30° and 60°, and so of the rest. Of those who imagine that the twelve
constellations of the Zodiac refer to the twelve tribes of Israel, some ascribe
Aries to the tribe of Simeon, and others, to Gad.
HISTORY..—According to fable, this is the ram which bore the golden fleece,
and carried Phryxus and his sister Helle through the air, when they fled to Col.
chis from the persecution of their stepmother Ino. The rapid motion of the ran
in his aerial flight high above the earth, caused the head of Helle to turn with
giddiness, and she fell from his back into that part of the sea which was after-
wards called Hellespont, in commemoration of the dreadful event. Phryxus
arrived saſe at Colchis, but was soon murdered by his own father-in-law, AEtes,
who envied him his golden treasure. This gave rise to the celebrated Argo-
. expedition under the command of Jason, for the recovery of the golden
€62C e.
Nephele, queen of Thebes, having provided her children, Phryxus and Hell
with this noble animal, upon which they might elude the wicked designs o
those who sought their life, was afterwards changed into a cloud, as a reward
for her parental solicitude; and the Greeks ever after called the clouds by her
name. But the most probable account of the origin of this constellation is given
º 3. ºins paragraph, where it is referred to the flocks of the Chaldean
epherds.
During the campaigns of the French *. Fº General Dessaix discov
ered among the ruins at Dendera, near the banks of the Nile, the great temple
supposed by some to have been dedicated to Isis, the female deity of the Egyp-
tians, who believed that the rising of the Nile was occasioned by the tears which
#. fºnually shed for the loss of her brother Osiris, who was murdered by
ypnon.
Others suppose this edifice was erected for astronomical purposes, from the
circumstance that two Zodiacs were discovered, drawn upon the ceiling, on op-
posite sides. On both these Zodiacs the º: points are in Leo, and not
in Aries; from which it has been concluded, by those who pertinaciously en-
deavour to array the arguments of science against the chronology of the Bible
and the validity of the Mosaic account, that these Zodiacs were constructed when
the sun entered the sign Leo, which must have been 9720 years ago, or 4000 years
before the inspired account of the creation. The infidel writers in France and
Germany, make it 10,000 years before. But we may “set to our seal,” that what-
ever is true in fact and correct in inference on this subject will be found, in the
end, not only consistent with the Mosaic record, but with the common meaning
of the expressions it uses.
The discovery of Champollion has É. this question for ever at rest; and M.
Latronne, a most learned antiquary, has very satisfactorily demonstrated that
these Egyptian Zodiacs are merely the horoscopes of distinguished personages,
or the precise situation of the heavenly bodies in the Zodiac at their nativity.
The idea that such was their purpose and origin, first suggested itself to this
gentleman on finding, in the box of a mummy, a similar Zodiac, with such
What did each of these portions of the Zodiac serve? What stars ºpere placed in the
Jirst sign 2 What name was given to the constellation thus formed? What stars were
laced in the second sign 2 What was the second constellation called? What stars were
laced ºn the third sign, and what waſ it called? Are the same names still retained 2
What does this precession, or going fºrward of the stars amount to in a year?
MAP II.] CETUS, 47
hscriptions and characters as determined it to be the horoscope of the deceased
person.
Of all the discoveries of the antiquary among the relics of ancient Greece, the
ruins of Palmyra, the gigantic pyramids of Egypt, the temples of their gods, or
the sepulchres of their kings, scarcely one so aréused and riveted the curiosity
of the learned, as did the discovery of Champollion the younger, which deciphers
the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt.
The potency of this invaluable discovery has already been signally manifested
in settling a formidable controversy between the champions of infidelity and
those who maintain the Bible account of the creation. It has been shown that
the constellation Pisces, since the days of Hipparchus, has come, by reason of
the annual precession, to occupy the same apparent place in the heavens that
Aries did two thousand years ago. The Christian astronomer and the infidel are
perfectly agreed as to the fact, and the amount of this yearly gain in the appa-
rent motion of the stars. They both believe, and both can demonstrate, that the
fixed stars have gone forward in the Zodiac, about 50” of a degree in every revo-
lution of the heavens since the creation; so that were the world to light upon any
authentic inscription or record of past ages, which should give the true position
or longitude of any particular star at that time, it would be easy to fix an unques-
tionable date to such a record. Accordingly, when the famous “Egyptian Zo-
diacs,” which were sculptured on the walls of the temple at Dendera, were
brought away en masse, and exhibited in the Louvre at Paris, they enkindled a
more exciting interest in the thousands who saw them, than ever did the en-
trance of Napoleon. “Educated men of every order, and those who had the
vanity to thmk themselves such,” says the commentator of Champollion, “rush-
ed to behold the Zodiacs. These Zodiacs were immediately published and com-
mented upon, with more or less good faith and decorum. Science struck out
into systems very bold; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discovery,
flattered itself with the hope of drawing from thence new support. It was unjus-
tifiably taken for granted, that the ruins of Egypt furnished astronomy with mon-
uments, containing observations that exhibited the state of the heavens in the
most remote periods. Starting with this assumption, a pretence was made of
demonstrating, by means of calculations received as infallible, that the celestial
appearances assigned to these monuments extended back from forty-five to six-
ty-five centuries; that the Zodiacal system to which they must belong, dated
back fifteen thousand years, and must reach far beyond the limits assigned by
Moses to the existence of the world.” Among those who stood forth more or
less bold as the adversaries of revelation, the most prominent was M. Dupuis,
the famous author of L' origine de tous les Cultes.
The infidelity of Dupuis was spread about by means of pamphlets, and the ad-
vocates of the Mosaic account were scandalized “until a new Alexander arose
to cut the Gordian knot, which men had vainly sought to untie. This was Cham-
pollion the younger, armed with his discovery,” The hieroglyphics now speak
a language that all can understand, and no one gainsay. “The Egyptian Zodiacs,
then,” says Latronne, “relate in no respect to astronomy, but to the idle phan.
tasies of judicial astrology, as connected with the destinies of the emperors who
made or completed them.”
f
CETUS.
THE WHALE.—As the whale is the chief monster of the
deep, and the largest of the aquatic race, so is it the largest
constellation in the heavens. It occupies a space of 500 in
length, E. and W., with a mean breadth of 20° from N. to S.
It is situated below Aries and the Triangles, with a mean
declination of 12° S. . It is represented as making its way to
the E., with its body below, and its head elevated above the
equinoctial: and is six weeks in passing the meridian. Its
What is the comparative size of the Whale? What is its extent? Where is it situ.
ated? How long is the Whale in passing the meridian?
48 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. IDEO,
tail comes to the meridian on the 10th of November, and its
mead leaves it on the 22d of December.
This constellation contains 97 stars; two of the 2d mag-
nitude, seven of the 3d, and thirteen of the 4th. The head,
of Cetus may be readily distinguished, about 20° S. E. of
Aries, by means of five remarkable stars, 4° and 39, apart,
and so situated as to form a regular pentagon. The brightest
of these is Menkar, of the 2d magnitude, in the nose of the
Whale. It occupies the S. E. angle of the figure. It is 3}o
N. of the equinoctial, and 150 E. of El Rischa in the bight of
the cord between the Two Fishes. It is directly 37° S. of
Algol, and nearly in the same direction from the Fly. It
makes an equilateral triangle with Arietis and the Pleiades,
being distant from each about 23° S., and may otherwise be
known by a star of the 3d magnitude in the mouth, 30 W. of
it, called Gamma, placed in the south middle angle of the
pentagon.
Nu is a star of the 4th magnitude, 40 N. W. of Gamma,
and these two constitute the S. W. side of the pentagon in
the head of the Whale, and the N. E. side of a similar oblong
figure in the neck.
Three degrees S. S. W. of Gamma, is another star of the 3d
magnitude in the lower jaw, marked Delta, constituting the
E. side of the oblong pentagon; and 60 S. W. of this, is a
noted star in the neck of the Whale, called Mira, or the
“wonderful star of 1596,” which forms the S. E. side. This
variable star was first noticed as such by Fabricius, on the
13th of August, 1596. It changes from a star of the 2d mag-
nitude so as to become invisible once in 334 days, or about
7 times in 6 years. Herschel makes its period 331 days, 10
hours, and 19 minutes; while Hevelius assures us that it once
disappeared for 4 years; so that its true period, perhaps, has
not been satisfactorily determined.
The whole number of stars ascertained to be variable, amounts to only 15;
while those which are suspected to be variable, amount to 37.
Mira is 79 S. S. E. of El Rischa, in the bend or knot of the
riband which connects the Two Fishes. Ten degrees S. of
Mira, are 4 small stars, in the breast and paws, about 39 apart,
which form a square, the brightest being on the E. Ten de
When does it approach, and when does it leave the meridian? What is the whole
mumber of stars in Cetus? What is the º: of the principal ones? How
may the head of Cetus be distinguished? What are the name and position of the
brightest? How far is it from the equinoctial, and the principal star in the Fishes?
What is its direction from Algol and the Fly? With what stars does it form an equi-
lateral triangle? How may it otherwise be known; describe the position of Nu.
Describe the situation of Delta and Mira. When and by whom was this star discover.
ed to be variable? What are the extent and period of this variation? How long does
Herschel make it? What does Hevelius say of it? Has the true perio, of Mira been
satisfactorily determined? How far, and which way is Mira frºm Alpha, in the knot
of the riband? What four small stars do you observe 10° S. of Mira?
MAP II.] PERSEUs, ET CAPUT MEDUSAE. 49
grees S. W. of Mira, is a star of the 3d magnitude n the
heart, called Baten Kaitos, which makes a scalene trangle
with two other stars of the same magnitude 7° and 10° W. of
it; also, an equilateral triangle with Mira and the eastern:
most one in the square.
A great number of geometrical figures may be formed from the stars in this,
mrd in most of the other constellations, merely by reference to the maps; but
it is better that the student should exercise his own ingenuity in this way with
reference to the stars themselves, for when once he has constructed a group
into any letter or figure of his own invention, he never will forget it.
The teacher should therefore require his class to commit to writing the result
of their own observations upon the relative position, magnitude and figures of
the principal stars in each constellation. One evening's exercise in this way
will disclose to the student a surprising multitude of crosses, squares, triangles,
arcs and letters, by which he will be better able to identify and remember thein,
than by any instructions that could be given.
For example: Mira and Baten in the Whale, about 10° apart, make up the
S. E. or shorter side of an irregular square, with El Rischa in the node of the
riband, and another star in the Whale as far to the right of Baten, as El Rischa
is above Mira. Again,
There are three stars of equal magnitude, forming a straight line W. of Baten;
from which, to the middle star is 10°, thence to the W. one 12%; and 8° or 9° S.
of this line, in a triangular direction, is a bright star of the second magnitude in
the coil of the tail, called Diphqa.
In a southerly direction, 25° below Diphqa, is Alpha in the head of the Phe-
mix, and about the same distance S. W., is Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the
iºn Fish, forming together a large triangle, with Diphda in the vertex or
) of it.
tºº. fine cluster of small stars S. of the little square in the Whale, constitutes
a part of a new constellation called the Chymical Furnace. The two stars N. E.
and the three to the southward of the little square, are in the river Eridanus.

History.—This constellation is of very early antiquity; though most writers
consider it the famous sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda be.
cause her mother º: had boasted herself fairer than Juno or the Sea
Nº mphs; but slain by Pērseus and placed among the stars in honour of his
aw aievement.
“The winged hero now descends, now soars,
And at his pleasure the vast monster gores.
Deep in his back, swift stooping from above,
His crooked sabre to the hilt he drove.”
It is quite certain, however, that this constellation had a place in the heavens
long prior to the time of Perseus. When the equinoctial sun in Aries, which is
right over the head of Cetus, opened the year, it was denominated the Preserver
cr Delirerer, by the idolaters of the East. On this account, according to Pausa-
p'as, the sun was worshipped, at Eleusis, under the name of the Prese, ver or
Saviour
“With gills pulmonic breathes the enormous whale,
And sponts aquatic columns to the gale;
Sports on the shining wave at noontitle hours,
And shifting rainbows crest the rising showers.”—Darwin
PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSAF.
PERSEus is represented with a sword in his right hand, the
head of Medusa in his left, and wings at his feet. It is situ-
How is Baten Kaitos situated? What is said of the various figures that different
oonstellations exhibit? Give an eſtample, Qfºghat constellation does that fine cluster
of stars of the little squal 6 in the W7tale, constitute a part? How is the constellation
Perseus represented 2 E
50 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | DEC
º
ated directly N. of the Pleiades and the Fly, between Andro-
meda on the W. and Auriga on the E. Its mean declination
is 490 N. It is on the meridian the 24th of December. It
contains, including the head of Medusa, 59 stars, two of which
are of the 2d magnitude, and four of the 3d. According to
Eudosia, it contains, including the head of Medusa, 67 stars,
—“Perseus next,
Brandishes high in heaven his sword of flame,
And holds triumphant the dire Gorgon’s head,
Flashing with fiery snakes , , the stars he counts
Are sixty-seven ; and two of these he boasts,
Nobly refulgent in the second rank—
One in his west, one in Medusa's head.”
THE HEAD OF MEDUSA is not a separate constellation, but
forms a part of Perseus.
It is represented as the trunkless head of a frightful Gor-
gon, crowned with coiling snakes, instead of hair, which the
victor Perseus holds in his hand.
There are, in all, about a dozen stars in the Head of Me
dusa ; three of the 4th magnitude, and one, varying alter
nately from the 2d to the 4th magnitude. This remarkable
star is called Algol. It is situated 120 E. of Almaach, in the
foot of Andromeda, and may be known by means of three
stars of the 4th magnitude, lying a few degrees S. W. of it,
and forming a small triangle.
It is on the meridian the 21st of December; but as it
continues above the horizon 18 hours out ºf 24, it may be seen
every evening from September to May. It varies from the 2d
to the 4th magnitude in about 3% hours, and back again in the
same time; after which it remains steadily brilliant for 23
days, when the same changes recur.
The periodical variation of Algol was determined in 1783,
by John Goodricke of York (Eng.) to be 2 days, 20 hours, 48
minutes, and 56 seconds.
Dr. Herschel attributes the variable appearance of Algol to
spots upon its surface, and thinks it has a motion on its axis
similar to that of the sun. He also observes, of variable stars
generally:—“The rotary motion of stars upon their axes is a
capital feature in their resemblance to the sun. It appears to
me now, that we cannot refuse to admit such a motion, and
that indeed it may be as evidently proved as the diurnal mo-
Where is it situated? What is its declination, and when is it on the meridian? What
is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of its principal ones? Or
what constellation does Caput Medusae form a parº. How Is it represented? What
is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? What
are the name and position of the variable star in this constellation? When is it on the
wneridian, and how long may it be seen 1 In what time does it vary from the 2d to the
4th magnitude, and back again? How long Is it steadily brilliant? When and by whom
was its periodical variation determined? What is its exact period? To what does Dr
Herschel attribute its variable appearance?
d
MAP III.] PERSEUs, ET CAPUT MEDUSAE. 51
tion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the surface.
less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in certain di
zections either towards, or from us, will account for all the
phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so
satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look out for any other
cause.”
It is said, that the famous astronomer Lalande, who died at Paris in 1807, was
wont to reinain whole nights, in his old age, upon the Pont Neuf, to exhibit to
the curious the variations in the brilliancy of the star Algol.
Nine degrees E. by N. from Algol, is the bright star Alge-
nib, of the 2d magnitude, in the side of Perseus, which with
Almaack, makes a perfect right angle at Algol, with the open
art towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strikingly perfect
#. the three stars last mentioned may always be recog-
nised without the possibility of mistaking them. Algenib
may otherwise be readily distinguished by its being the
brightest and middle one of a number of stars lying four and
five degrees apart, in a large semicircular form, curving to
wards Ursa Major.
Algenib comes to the meridian on the 21st December, 15
minutes after Algol, at which time the latter is almost di-
rectly over head. When these two stars are on the meridian
that beautiful cluster, the Pleiades, is about half an hour E.
of it; and in short, the most brilliant portion of the starry
neavens is then visible in the eastern hemisphere. The
glories of the scene are unspeakably magnificent; and the
student who fixes his eye upon those lofty mansions of being,
cannot fail to covet a knowledge of their order and relations,
and to “reverence Him who made the Seven Stars and
Orion.”
The Milky-Way around Perseus is very vivid, being un-
doubtedly a rich stratum of fixed stars, presenting the most
wonderful and sublime phenomenon of the Creator's power
and greatness. Kohler, the astronomer, observed a beautiful
nebula near the face of Perseus, besides eight other nebulous
clusters in different parts of the constellation.
The head and sword of Perseus are exhibited on the circumpolar map. That
very bright star 23° E. of Algol, is Capella in the Charioteer.
History.—Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. IIe was no sooner born
than he was cast into the sea with his mother; but being driven on the coasts
of one of the islands of the Cyclades, they were rescued by a fisherman, and
carried to Polydectes, the king of the place, who treated them with great hu-
manity, and intrusted them to the care of the priests of Minerva's Temple. His
rising genus and manly courage soon made him a favourite of the gods. At a
How may Algenib be distinguished? ...When is it on the meridian?, How long after
Algola When those two stars are on the meridian, what heautiful cluster is half an
mour east of it? What is the general appearance of the eastern hemisphere at that time?
What is the appearance of the Milky Way around Perseus? What nebulae have
2UServed in this constellation 2
#2 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, [JAN.
great least of Polydectes, all the nobles were expected to present the king with
a superb and beautiful horse; but Perseus, who owed his benefactor inuch,
not wishing to be thought less munificent than the rest, engaged to bring him,
the head of Medusa, the only one of the three Gorgons who was subject to mor-
tahty. The names of the other two were Stheno and Euriale. They were re-
*resented with serpents wreathmg round their heads instead of hair, having
yellow wings and brazen hands; their bodies which grew indissolubly together
were covered with impenetrable scales, and their very looks had the power of
urning into stones all those on whom they fixed their eyes. -
To equip Perseus for this perilous enterprise, Pluto, the god of the inferna.
regions, lent him his helmet, which had the power of rendering the wearer in-
visible. Mmerva the goddess of wisdom, furnished him with her buckler, which
was as resplendent as a polished mirror; and he received from Mercury, wings
for his feet, and a dagger made of diamonds. Thus equipped, he mounted into
the air, conducted by Minerva, and came upon the monsters who, with the
watchful snakes about their heads, were all asleep. He º: them, and
with a courage which amazed and delighted Minerva, cut off with one blow Me-
dusa's head. The noise awoke the two immortal sisters, but Pluto’s helmet reh-
dered Perseus invisible, and the vengeful pursuit of the Gorgons proved fruitless.
“In the mirror of his polished shield
Reflected, saw Medusa slumbers take,
And not one serpent by good chance awake;
Then backward an unerring blow he sped,
And from her body lopped at once her head.”
. Perseus then made his way through the air, with Medusa's head yet reeking
in his hand, and from the blood which dropped from it as he flew, sprang alº
#. Innumerable serpents that have ever since infested the Sandy deserts of
yola.
The victor Perseus, with the Gorgon head,
O'er Lybian sands his airy journey sped,
The gory drops distilled, as swift he flew,
And from each drop envenomed serpents grew.”
The destruction of Medusa rendered the name of Perseus immortal, and he
was changed into a constellation at his death, and placed among the stars, with
the head of Medusa by his side.
C H A P T E R III.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JANUARY.
The constellations which pass our meridian in the months of January, Febru.
ary and March, present to us the most brilliant and interesting portion of the
heavens; embracing an annual number of stars of the highest order and bright-
ness, all so conspicuously situated, that the most inexperienced can easily trace
them out.
TAURUS.
THE BULL is represented in an attitude of rage, as if about
to plunge at Oriou, who seems to invite the onset by provo
cations of assault and defiance. Only the head and shoulders
of the animal are to be seen; but these are so distinctly
What is the comparative brilliancy of the constellations which pass the meridian ºn
January, February and March A How is Taurus represented? What parts of the
animal are to be seen 7
MAP. III.] TAURUS. 53
marked that they cannot be mistaken. Taurus is now the
second sign and third constellation of the Zodiac; but ante
rior to the time of Abraham, or more than 4000 years ago,
the vernal equinox took place, and the year opened when the
sun was in Taurus ; and the Bull, for the space of 2000 years,
was the prince and leader of the celestial host. The Ram
succeeded next, and now the Fishes lead the year. The head
of Taurus sets with the sun about the last of May, when the
Opposite constellation, the Scorpion is seen to risé in the S.
E. It is situated between Perseus and Auriga on the north,
Gemini on the east, Orion and Eridanus on the south, and
Aries on the west, having a mean declination of 160 N.
It contains 141 visible stars, including two remarkable
clusters called the PLEIADEs and HyADEs. The first is now
On the shoulder, and the latter in the face of the Bull.
The Pleiades, according to fable, were the seven daughters
of Atlas and the nymph Pleione,” who were turned into stars,
with their sisters the Hyades, on account of their amiable
Virtues and mutual affection.
. Thus we every where find that the ancients, with all their barbarism and
idolatry, entertained the belief that umblemished virtue and a meritorious life
would meet their reward in the sky. Thus Virgil represents Magnus Apollo as
bending from the sky to address the youth lulus:—
“Macte nova virtute puer; sic itur ad astra;
Dils genite, et geniture Deos.”
“Go on, spotless boy, in the paths of virtue ; it is the way to the stars; offspring
of the gods thyself—so shalt thou become the father of gods.”
Our disgust at their superstitions may be in some measure mitigated, by seri.
gusly reflecting, that had some of these personages lived in our day, they had
been ornaments in the Christian church, and Inodels of social virtue.
The names of the Pleiades are Alcione, Merone, Maia,
Electra, Tayeta, Sterope and Celeno. Merope was the only
one who married a mortal, and on that account her star is
dim among her sisters.
Although but six of these are visible to the naked eye, yet
Dr. Hook informs us that, with a twelve feet telescope, he
saw 78 stars; and Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars
In thus small cluster.
The most ancient authors, such as Horner, Attalus, and Geminus, counted only
star Pleiades; but Simonides, Varro, Pliny, Aratus, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy,
reckon them seven in number; and it was asserted, that the seventh had been
seen before the burning of Troy; but this difference might arise from the dif.
ference in distinguishing them with the naked eye.
* Dr. Hutton is of opinion that Atlas being the first astronomer who disco-
vered these stars, called them by the names of the daughters of his wife Pleione.
What is the numerical order of Taurus among the signs and constellations of the
Zodiac What was its position in the Zodiac before the time of Abraham'. How long
did it continue to lead the celestial host? What constellation succeeded next? Where
is Taurus now situated? How many stars does it contain? What remarkable clusters
are in this constellation? Where are these placed? Mention the names of the Pleiades.
Which of these seven stars is not seen, and why? Are these six all that can be seen
through the telescope? 5*
54 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, |JAN
The Pleiades are so called from the Greek word, TAcety
pleein, to sail; because, at this season of the year, they
were considered “the star of the ocean” to the benighted
Imariner.” Alcyone, of the 3d magnitude, being the brightest
star in this cluster, is sometimes called the light of the Ple-
iades. The other five are principally of the 4th and 5th
magnitudes.
The Pleiades, or as they are more familiarly termed, the
seren stars, come to the meridian 10 minutes before 9 o'clock,
on the evening of the 1st of January, and may serve, in place
of the sun, to indicate the time, and as a guide to the sur-
rounding stars.
According to Hesiod, who wrote about 900 years before the birth of our Sa
viour, the heliacal rising of the Pleiades took place on the 11th of May, about the
time of harvest.
“When, Atlas-born, the Pleiad stars arise
Before the sun above the dawning skies,
'Tis time to reap; and when they sink below
The morn-illumin’d west, 'tis time to sow.”
Thus, in all ages, have the stars been observed by the husbandman, for
* signs and (or seasons.”
Plmy says that Thales, the Miletan astronomer, determined the cosmical setting
ºf the Pleiades to be 25 days after the autumnal equinox. This would make a
difference between the setting at that time and the present, of 35 days, and as a
day answers to about 59' of the ecliptic, these days will make 34° 25'. This di-
yid d by the annual precision (50}”), will give 2465 years since the time of
Thales. Thus does astronomy become the parent of chronology.
If it be borne in mind that the stars uniformly rise, come to the meridian, and
set about four minutes earlier every succeeding night, it will be very easy to
determine at what time the seven stars pass the meridian on any night subse-
quent or antecedent to the 1st of January. For example: at what time will the

* Virgil, who flourished 1200 years before the invention of the magnetic needle, says
that the stars were relied upon, in the first ages of nautical enterprise, to guide the
rude bark over the SeaS.
“Tung almos primum fluvii sensere cavatas;
Navitatum stellis numeros, et nomina fecit,
Pleiadas, Hyadas, claramgue Lycaonis Arcton.”
“Then first on seas the shallow alder swam;
Then Sailors quarter'd heaven, and found a name
For every fix’d and every wand'ring star—
The Pleiads, Hyads, and the Northern Car.”
The same poet also describes Palinurus, the renowned pilot of the Trojan fleet, as
watching the face of the nocturnal heavens.”
“Sidera Cuncta, notat tacito iahentia coelo,
Arcturum, pluviasque Hyadas, geminosque Triones,
Armatumque auro circumspicit Orioma.”
“Observe the stars, and notes their sliding course,
The Pleiads, Hyads, and their wat'ry force;
And both the Bears is careful to behold
And bright Orion, arm'd with ournish'd gold.”
Indeed, this sagacious pilot was once so intent in gazing upon the stars while at thin
helm, that he fell overboard, and was lost to his companions.
“Headlong he fell, and, struggling in the main,
Cried out for helping hands, but cried in vain.”
From what circumstance do the Pleiades derive their name? What is the brightest
of the Pleiades called? What is the size of the rest? When are the Pleiades on the
meridian? How much earlier do the stars rise, come to the meridian, and set, every
succeeding night?
MAP III.] TAURUS, 55
seven stars culminate on the 5th January 1 Multiply the 5 days by 4 and take
the result from the time they culminate on the 1st, and it will give 30 minutes
after 8 o’clock in the evening.
The Pleiades are also sometimes called Vergilia, or the
* Virgins of spring;” because the sun enters this cluster in
the “season of blossoms,” about the 18th of May. He who
made them alludes to this circumstance when he demands
of Job: “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Ple
iades,” &c.—[Job 38: 31.]
The Syrian name of the Pleiades is Succoth, or Succoth-Benoth, derived from
a Chaldaic word, which signifies “to speculate, to observe,” and the “Men of
Succoth,” (2 Kings i7 : 30.) have been thence considered observers of the
StarS.
The Hyades are situated 110 S.E. of the Pleiades, in the
face of the Bull, and may be readily distinguished by means
of five stars” so placed as to form the letter W. The most
brilliant star is on the left, in the top of the letter, and called
Aldebaran ; from which the moon’s distance is computed.
“A star of the first magnitude illumes
His radiant head; and of the second rank.
Another beams not far remote.”
Aldebaran is of Arabic origin, and takes its name from two
words which signify, “He went before, or led the way”—
alluding to that period in the history of astronomy when this
star led up the starry host from the vernal equinox. It comes
to the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 10th of January, or 48%
minutes after Alcyone, on the 1st. When Aries is about 276
high, Aldebaran is just rising in the east. So MANILIUs:—
“Thus when the Ram hath doubled ten degrees,
And join’d seven more, then rise the Hyades.”
A line 15% o E. N. E. of Aldebaran will point out a bright
star of the 2d magnitude in the extremity of the northern
horn, marked Beta or El Nath; (this star is also in the foot
of Auriga, and is common to both constellations.) From
Beta in the northern horn, to Zeta, in the tip of the southern
horn, it is 89, in a southerly direction. This star forms a
right angle with Aldebaran and Beta. Beta and Zeta, then,
in the button of the horns, are in a line nearly north and south,
80 apart, with the brightest on the north. That very bright
star 17% o N. of Beta, is Capella, in the constellation Auriga.
# The ancient Greeks counted seven in this cluster:-
“The Bull's head shines with seven refulgent flames,
Which, Grecia, Hyads, from their showering, names.”
At what time will the seven stars culminate on the 5th January 2 By what other
names are they sometimes called, and why? What allusion is made to this cluster
in the ancient Scriptures'. Describe the situation and appearance of the Hyades.
What is the brightest of them called? What is the origin of the word Aldebaran, and
to what does it allude? When does Aldebaran culminate? Describe the position of
Beta? What are the name and direction of the star in the southern horn? What is the
relative position of these stars? What very bright star is seen 17° 30′ N, of Beta?
56 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, |JAN
#
History --According to the Grecian mythology, this is the animal which bore
Europa ovel the seas to that country, which derived from her its name. She was
the daughter of Agenor, and princess of Phoenicia. She was so beautiful that
... upiter became enamoured of her; and ..º. shape of a snow-white
i. he mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her female at-
tendants, were gathering flowers in the meadows., Europa caressed the beau
tiful animal, and at last had the colurage to sit upon his back. The god now took
advantage of her situation, and with precipitate steps retired towards the shore,
and crossed the sea with Europa upon his back, and arrived safe in Crete. Some
suppose she lived about 1552 years before, the Christian era. It is probaqle.
however, that this constellation had a place in the Zodiac before the Greeks be:
gan to cultivate a knowledge of the stars; and that it was rather an invention of
the Egyptians or Chaldeans. Both the Egyptians and Persians worshipped a
deity under this figure, by the name of Apis; and Belzoni is said to have found
an embalmed bull in one of the notable sepulchres near Thebes
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Taurus is ascribed to Joseph.
ORION
Whoever looks up to this constellation and learns its name,
will never forget it. It is too beautifully splendid to need a
description. When it is on the meridian, there is then above
the horizon the most magnificent view of the celestial bodies
that the starry firmament affords; and it is visible to all the
nabitable world, because the equinoctial passes through the
middle of the constellation. It is represented on celestial
maps by the figure of a man in the attitude of assaulting the
Bull, with a sword in his belt, a huge club in his right hand,
and the skin of a lion in his left, to serve for a shield.
Manilius, a Latin poet, who composed five books on as-
tronomy a short time before the birth of our Saviour thus
describes its appearance:—
“First next the Twins, see great Orio rise,
His arms extended stretch o'er half the skies
His stride as large, and with a steady pace
He marches on, and measures a vast space;
On each broad shoulder a bright star display'd,
And three obliquely grace his hanging blade.
In his vast head, immers'd in boundless spheres,
Three stars, less bright, but yet as great, he bears,
But farther off removed, their splendour's lost;
Thus grac'd and arm'd he leads the starry host.”
The centre of the constellation is midway between the
poles of the heavens and directly over the equator. It is alsc
about 8° W. of the solstitial colure, and comes, to the me
ridian about the 23d of January. The whole number of
visible stars in this constellation is 78; of which, two are of
the first magnitude, four of the 2d, three of the 3d, and fif.
teen of the 4th.
Those four brilliant stars in the form of a long square or
What is the general appearance of the constellation Orion? When this constellation
is on the meridian, what is the appearance of the starry firmament? To whom is it
visible, and why? How is Orion represented on celestial maps? Describe its position.
How is it situated with respect to the solstitual colure, and when is 't on the meridian?
What remarkable stars form the outline of the constellation?
MAP III.] QRION, 57
parallelogram, Intersected in the middle by the “Three
Stars,” or “Ell and Yard,” about 250 S. of the Bull's horns,
form the outlines of Orion. The two upper stars in the par
allelogram are about 150 N. of the two lower ones; and,
being placed on each shoulder, may be called the epaulets of
Orion. The brightest of the two lower ones is in the left
foot, on the W., and the other, which is the least brilliant of
the four, in the right knee. To be more particular: Bella-
trix is a star of the 2d magnitude on the W. shoulder; Be-
telguese is a star of the 1st magnitude, 7}o E. of Bellatrix,
on the E. shoulder. It is brighter than Bellatrix, and lies a
little farther towards the north; and comes to the meridian
30 minutes after it, on the 21st of January. These two form
the upper end of the parallelogram.
Rigel is a splendid star of the 1st magnitude, in the left
foot, on the W. and 150 S. of Bellatrix. Saiph, is a star of
the 3d magnitude, in the right knee, 8% o E. of Rigel. These
two form the lower end of the parallelogram.

*First in rank
The martial star upon his shoulder flames:
A rival star illuminates his foot;
And on his girdle beams a luminary
Which, in vicinity of other stars,
Might claim the proudest honours.”
There is a little triangle of three small stars in the head of
Orion, which forms a larger triangle with the two in his
shoulders. In the middle of the parallelogram are three stars
of the 2d magnitude, in the belt of Orion, that form a straight
line about 30 in length from N. W. to S. E. They are usu-
ally distinguished by the name of the Three Stars, because
there are no other stars in the heavens that exactly resemble
them in position and brightness. They are sometimes de-
nominated the Three Kings, because they point out the
Hyades and Pleiades on one side, and Sirius, or the Dog-star
on the other. In Job they are called the Bands of Orion;
while the ancient husbandmen called them Jacob’s rod, and
sometimes the Rake. The University of Leipsic, in 1807,
gave them the name of Napoleon. But the more common
appellation for them, including those in the sword, is the Ell
and Yard. They derive the latter name from the circum
stance that the line which unites the “three stars” in the belt
measures just 39 in length, and is divided by the central star
Describe the two upper Ones in the group. Describe the two lower ones. Give a
more particular description of the stars in the shoulder. How do you distinguish Be-
telguese from Bellatrix? When does Betelguese come to the meridian? Describe the
stars which form the lower end of the parallelogram. What stars do you observe in
the head of Orion? Describe the situation and appearance of the “Three Stars?” Why
are they called the three stars? What else are they denominated, and way? What
names were given to them by the ancients? What by the University of Leiusic? What
As the more familiar term for them, and whence is it derived?
58 FICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | JAN
into two equal parts, like a yard-stick; thus serving as a
graduated standard for measuring the distances of stars Irom
each other. When therefore any star is described as being
so many degrees from another, in order to determine the dis-
tance, it is recommended to apply this rule.
It is necessary that the scholar should task his ingenuity only a few evenings
an applying such a standard to the stars, before he will learn to Judge of their
relative distances with an accuracy that will seldom vary a degree from the truth.
The northernmost star in the belt, called Mintika, is less
than $o S. of the equinoctial, and when on the meridian, is
almost exactly over the equator. It is on the meridian, the
24th of January.*
The “three stars” are situated about 80 W. of the solstitial
colure, and uniformly pass the meridian one hour and fifty
minutes after the seven stars.
There is a row of stars of the 4th and 5th magnitudes, S. of
the belt, running down obliquely towards Saiph, which forms
the sword. This row is also called the Ell because it is
once and a quarter the length of the Yard or belt.
A very little way below Thabit, in the sword, there is a ne-
bulous appearance, the most remarkable one in the heavens.
With a good telescope an apparent opening is discovered,
through which, as through a window, we seem to get a
glimpse of other heavens, and brighter regions beyond.

As the telescope extends our knowledge of the stars and greatly increases
their visible number, we behold hundreds and thousands, which, but for this
almost divine improvement of our vision, had forever renuained, unseen by us,
in an unfathomable void.
A star in Orion's sword, which appears single to the unassisted vision, is mul-
tiplied into six by the telescope; and another, into twelve. . Galileo found 80 in
the belt, 21 in a nebulous star in the head, and about 500 in another part of
Orion, within the compass of one or two degrees. Dr. Hook saw 78 stars in the
Fleiades, and Rheita with a better telescope, saw about 200 in the same cluster
and more than 2000 in Orion.
About 9° W. of Bellatrix are eight stars, chiefly of the 4th
magnitude, in a curved line running N. and S. with the con
cavity towards Orion; these point out the skin of the lion in
his left hand. Of Orion, on the whole, we may remark with
Eudosia:—
“He who admires not, to the stars is blind.”
HistoRY.—According to some authorities, Orion was the son of Neptune and
queen Euryale, a famous Amazonian huntress, and possessing the disposition of
* Though the position of this star, with respect to the equator, is the same at all
‘imes, whether it be on the meridian or in the horizon; yet it appears to occupy this
position, only when it is on the meridian.
How may the distances of the stars from each other be measured by reference to the
yard? How are the three stars situated with respect to the solstitial colure, and how
with respect to the seven stars? Describe the stars which form the Sword of Qrion.
What else is this row called? Describe the nebulous appearance which is visible hº
this cluster. What other discoveries has the telescopé made in this constellation 2
What stars about 9° W. of Bellatrix?
ºf AP HI. | ORION, 59
his mother, he became the greatest hunter in the world, and even boasted that
there was not an animal on earth which he could not conquer. . To punish this
vanity, it is said that a scorpion sprung up out of the earth and bit his foot, that
he died; and that at the request of Diana he was placed among the stars directly
opposite to the Scorpion that caused his death. Others say that Orion had no
mother, but was the gift of the gods, Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, to a peasant
of Boeotia, as a neward of piety, and that he was invested with the power of walk-
ing over the sea without wetting his feet. In strength and stature he surpassed
all other Imortals. IHe was skilled in the working of iron, from which he fabri.
cated a subterranean palace for Vulcan; he also walled in the coasts of Scily
against the inundations of the sea, and built thereon a temple to its gods. .
Orion was betrothed to the daughter of OEnopion, but he, unwilling to give up
his daughter, contrived to intoxicate the illustrious hero and put out his eyes on
the seashole where he had laid himself down to sleep. Orion, finding himself
blind when he awoke, was conducted by the sound to a neighbouring forge,
where he placed one of the workmen on his back, and, by his directions, went
to a place where the rising sun was seen with the greatest advantage. Here he
turned his face towards the luminary, and, as it is reported, immediately recov-
ered his sight, and hastened to punish the perfidious cruelty of OEnopion.
The daughters of Orion distinguished themselves as much as their father;
and, when the oracle had declared that Boeotia should not be delivered from a
dreadful pestilence, before two of Jupiter's children were immolated on the
altars, they joyfully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacrificed themselves for
the good of their country. The deities of the infernal regions were struck at the
patriotism of the two females, and immediately two stars were seen to ascend
up flom the carth, still smoking with their blood, and they were placed in the
heavens in the form of a crown. Ovid says their bodies were burned by the
Thebans and that two persons arose from their ashes, whom the gods soon after
changed into constellations.
As the constellation Orion, which rises at noon about the 9th day of March,
and sets at moon about the 21st of June, is generally supposed to be accompani
ed, at its rising, with great rains and storms, it became extremely terrible to
mariners, in the early adventures of navigation. Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, with
some of the Greek poets, make mention of this.
Thus Eneas accounts for the storm which cast him on the African coast on his
way to Italy:—
“To that blest shore we steer'd our destined way,
When sudden. dire Orion rous’d the sea;
All charg’d with tempests rose the baleful star,
And on our navy pour’d his wat'ry war.”
To induce him to delay his departure, Dido's sister advises her to
“Tell him, that, charg’d with deluges of rain,
Orion rages on the wintry main.”
The name of this constellation is mentioned in the books of Job and Amos, and
in Homer. The inspired prophet, penetrated like the psalmist of Israel, with
the omniscience and power displayed in the celestial glories, utters this sublime
injunction: “Seek Him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the
shadow of death into morning.” Job also, with profound veneration, adores His
awful malesty who “commandeth the sum and scaleth up the stars; who alone
spreadeth out the heavens, and maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the
chambers of the south :” And in another place, the Almighty demands of him—
* Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? Canst thou bind the sweet in ſluen-
ces of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion; canst thou bring for th Mazza-
roth in his season, or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons ‘l’”
Calmet supposes that Mazzaroth is here put for the whole order of celestial
bodies in the Zodiac, which, by their appointed revolutions, produce the varions
seasons of the year, and the regular succession of day and night. Arcturus is
he name of the principal star in Bootes, and is here put for the constellation
tself. The expression, his sons, doubtless refors to Asterion, and Chara, the
two greyhounds, with which he seems to be pursuing the great bear around the
North pole.
The following lines are copied from a work entitled “Astronomical Recrea.
tions,” by J. Green, of Pennsylvania, to whom the author is indebted for many
valuable hints concerning the mythology of the ancient constellations.
60 PICTURE OF THE HEAVEN +, | JAN
“When chilling winter spreads his azura kies,
Bellold Orion's giant form arise;
His golden girdle glutters on the sight,
And the broad falchiom beams in splendour bright
A lion's brindled hide his bosom shields,
And his right hand a ponderous weapon wields.
The River's Shining streams beneath him pour,
And angry Taurus rages close before;
Behind him Procyon barks, and Sirius growls,
While full n front, the monster Cetus howls.
See bright Capella, and Medusa there,
With horrid serpents hissing through her hair,
See Cancer too, and near the Hydra dire,
With roaring Leo, filled with furious fire.
The timid Hare, the Dove with olive green,
And Aries, fly in terrour from the scene;
The warrior Perseus gazes from above,
And the Twin offspring of the thunderer Jove.
Lo! in the distance, Cassiope fair
In state reposes on her golden chair;
Her beauteous daughter, bound, before ner stands,
And vamly strives to free her fettered hands;
For aid she calls on royal Cepheus near,
But shrieks from her reach not her father's ear.
See last of all, around the glowing pole,
With shining scales, the spiry Dragon roll
A grizzly Bear on either side appears,
Creeping with lazy motion 'mid the stars ”
These lines are easily committed to memory, and would assist the pupil in re.
:alling the names of the constellations in this very interesting portion of the
ałęd WéIlS.
LEPUS.
THE HARE.—This constellation is situated directly south
of Orion, and comes to the meridian at the same time;
namely on the 24th of January. It has a mean declination
180 S. and contains 19 small stars, of which, the four princi-
pal ones are of the 3d magnitude. It may be readily distin-
#. by means of four stars of the 3d magnitude, in the
orm of an irregular square, or trapezium.
Zeta, of the 4th magnitude, is the first star, and is situa-
ted in the back, 50 S. of Saiph, in Orion. About the same
distance below Zeta are the four principal stars, in the legs
and feet. These form the square. They are marked Alpha
Beta, Gamma, Delta. Alpha and Beta otherwise called
Arneb, form the N. W. end of the trapezium, and are about
39 apart. Gamma and Delta form the S. E. end, and are
about 230 apart. The upper right hand one, which is Arneb,
is the brightest of the four, and is near the centre of the con-
Where is the constellation of the Hare situated? When does it come to the meri:
dian n What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of its principal
ones? How may it be distinguished? In what part of the animal are these stars pla-
ced? Describe the principal star in Lepus Whāt are the distance and direction of the
square from Zetal Describe the stars at each end of this square. Which is the
wrightest of the four?
MAP III. COLUMEA-ERIDANUS. 6]
stellation. Four or five degrees S. of Rigel are four very
minute stars, in the ears of the Hare.
History.—This constellation is situated about 189 west of the Great Dog,
which, from the motion of the earth, seems to be pursuing it, as the Greyhounds
do the Bear, round the circuit of the skies. It was one of those animals which
Orion is said to have delighted in hunting, and which, for this reason, was made
into a constellation and placed near him among the stars.
COLUMBA.
NoAH's Dove.—This constellation is situated about 16° S.
of the Hare, and is nearly on the same meridian with the
“Three Stars,” in the belt of Orion. It contains only 10
stars; one of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th mag-
nitudes ; of these, Phaet and Beta are the brightest, and are
about 23° apart. Phaet, the principal star, lies on the right
and is the highest of the two ; Beta may be known by means
of a smaller star just east of it, marked Gamma. A line
drawn from the easternmost star in the belt of Orion, 329 di-
rectly south, will point out Phaet; it is also 11% o S. of the
lower left hand star in the square of the Hare, and makes
with Sirius and Naos, in the ship, a large equilateral triangle,
HISTORY..—This constellation is so called in commemoration of the dove which
Noah “sent forth to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the
ground,” after the ark had rested on mount Ararat. “And the dove came in to
him in the evening, and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off.”
“The surer messenger,
A dove sent forth once, and again to spy
Green tree or ground, whereon his foot may light:
The second time returning, in his bill
An olive leaf he brings, pacific signſ”
ERIDANU.S.
THE RIVER Po.—This constellation meanders over a large
and very irregular space in the heavens. It is not easy, nor
scarcely desirable, to trace out all its windings, among the
stars. Its entire length is not less than 1309; which, for the
sake of a more easy reference, astronomers divide into two
sections, the northern and the southern. That part of it
which lies between Orion and the Whale, including the great
bend about his paws, is distinguished by the name of the
Northern stream ; the remainder of it is called the Southern
Strea'm.
The Northern stream commences near Rigel, in the foot
off. these all the stars that are visible in this constellation? Describe the situation
oah's Dove. How many stars does it contain, and what are the principal? Which
of these are the brightest, and how situated? How may Beta be known? What is the
osition of Phaet with regard to Orion? Describe the general form of the constellation
ridanus. What is its entire length, and how is it divided? By what names are these
Sections distinguished? What are the *: and distance of the Northern stream?
62 PICTURE OF THF, HFAW ENS. JJAN
of Orion, and flows out westerly, in a serpentine course
nearly 400, to the Whale, where it suddenly makes a com-
plete circuit and returns back nearly the same distance to-
wards its source, but bending gradually down towards the
south, when it again makes a similar circuit to the S. W.
and finally disappears below the horizon.
West of Rigel there are five or six stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, arching
up in a semicircular ſorm, and marking the first bend of the northern stream.
º: 80 below these, or 19° W. of Rigel, is a bright star of the 2d imagnitude,
in the second bend of the northern stream, marked Gamma. This star cuk.
minates 13 minutes after the Pleiades, and one hour and a quarter before Rigel.
Passing Gamma, and a smaller star west of it, there are four stars nearly in a
row, which bring us to the breast of Cetus. 8° N. of Gamma, is a small star
gº Kied, which is thought by some to be considerably nearer the earth than
li’i llS
Theemim, in the southern stream, is a star of the 3d magnitude, anout 17° S.
W. of the square in Lepus, and may be known by means of a smaller star, 19
above it. Acherrar is a brilliant star of the 1st magnitude, in the extremity of
i. southern stream; but having 58° of S. declination, can never be seen in this
atitude.
The whole number of stars in this constellation is 84; of
which, one is of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven
are of the 3d. Many of these cannot be pointed out by ver-
bal description; they must be traced from the map.
History.—Eridanus is the name of a celebrated river in Cisalpine Gaul, also
called Padus. Its modern name is Po. Virgil calls it the king of rivers. The Latin
poets have rendered it memorable ſtom its connexion with the fable of Phaeton,
who, being a son of Phoebus and Clymene, became a ſavourite of Venus, who
intrusted fliºn with the care of one of her temples. This favour of the goddess
made him vain, and he sought of his father a public and incontestable sign of his
tenderness, that should convince the world of his origin. Phoebus, after some
herºtation, made oath that he would grant him whatever he required, and no
sºner was the oath uttered, than—
“The youth, transported, asks without delay,
To guide the sun’s bright chariot for a day.
The god repented of the oath he took,
For anguish thrice his radiant head he shook;--
My son, Pays he, some other proof require,
Rash was my promise, rash was thy desire—
Not Jove himself, the ruler of the sky,
That hurls the three-forked thunder from above,
Dares try his strength; yet who as strong as Jove?
Besides, consider what impetuous force
Turns stars and planets in a diff'rent course.
I steer against their Inotions; nor am I
Borne back by all the current of the sky:
But how could you resist the orbs that roll
In adverse whirls, and stem the rapid poll?”
Phoebus represented the dangers to which he would be exposed in vain. He
wndertook the aerial journey, and the explicit directions of his father were for-
gotten. No sooner had Phaeton received the reins than he betrayed his igno-
Yance of the manner of guiding the chariot. The flying coursers became sen-
sible of the confusion of their driver, and immediately departed from the usual
track. Phaeton repented too late of his rashness, and already heaven and earth
Describe its first bend? Describe the position of Gamma, and tell when it comes tº
she meridian? What stars are between Gamma and the Whale? What small star
about 89 above Gamma, and what is its distance from the earth compared toith that
Sirius 2 Describe the situation of Theemim. Describe the position and magnit
of Archernar? What is the whole number of stars in this constellation? What is tha
roagnitude of the principal ones? *
MAP III.] AURIGA, 63
were threatened with a universal conflagration as the consequence, when Jupi-
ter, perceiving the disorder of the horses, struck the driver with a thunderbolt,
and hurled him headlong from heaven into the river Eridanus. His body, con-
sumed with fire, was found by the nymphs of the place, who honoured nunſ with
a decent burial, and inscribed this epitaph upon his tomb :-
“ Hic situs est Phaeton, currus auriga paterni :
Quene si mon tenuit, magnis tamen earcidit ausis.”
His sisters mourned his unhappy end, and were changed by Jupiter into
poplars.
“All the long night their mournful watch they keep,
And all the day stand round the tomb and weep.”—OvID.
It is said the tears which they shed, turned to amber, with which the Phoen!.
cians and Carthaginians carried on in secrecy a most lucrative trade. The great
heat produced on the occasion of the sun's departing out of his usual course, is
said to have dried up the blood of the Ethiopians, and turned their skins black;
and to have produced sterility and barrenness over the greater part of Lybia.
“At once from life and from the chariot driven,
Th? ambitious boy fell thunderstruck from heaven.”
“The breathless Phaeton, with flaming hair,
Shot from the chariot like a falling star,
That in a summer's evening from the top
Of heav'n drops down, or seems at least to drop,
Till on the Po his blasted corpse was hurl’d,
Far from his country, in the western world.”
The fable of Phaeton evidently alludes to some extraordinary heats which
were experienced in a very remote period, and of which only this confused tra.
dition has descended to later times.
AURIGA.
THE CHARIOTEER, called also the Wagoner, is represented
on the celestial map by the figure of a man in a declining
posture, resting one foot upon the horn of Taurus, with a
goat and her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right.
It is situated N. of Taurus and Orion, between Perseus on
the W. and the Lynx on the E. Its mean declination is 450
N.; so that when on the meridian, it is almost directly over
head in New England. It is on the same meridian with
Orion, and culminates at the same hour of the night. Both
of these constellations are on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the
24th of January, and 1 hour and 40 minutes east of it on the
1st of January.
The whole number of visible stars in Auriga, is 66, inclu-
ding one of the 1st and one of the 2d magnitude, which mark
the shoulders. Capella is the principal star in this constel-
lation, and is one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It
takes its name from Capella, the goat, which hangs upon the
left shoulder. It is situated in the west shoulder of Auriga,
How is the constellation Auriga represented? Where is it situated? What is its mean
declination, and what its position on the meridian? ... How is it situated in respect to
Örion? When are these constellations on the meridian? What is the whole number
of visible stars in Aurigaº How many of the 1st and 2d magnitude? What is the nama
of the principal star, and whence derived? Where is this situated?
$4 PICTTTRE OF THE HEAVENS. | JAN
240 E. of Algol, and 28° N. E. of the Pleiades. It may be
known by a little sharp-pointed triangle formed by three stars,
30 or 40 this side of it, on the left. It is also 18° N. of E:
Nath, which is common to the northern horn of Taurus, and
the right foot of Auriga. Capella comes to the meridian on
the 19th of January, just 2% minutes before Rigel, in the foot
of Orion, which it very much resembles in brightness.
Menkalina, in the east shoulder, is a star of the 2d magnitude, 74° E, of Capella.
and culminates the next minute after Betelguese, 37;9 S. of it. Theta, in the
right arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, 89 directly south of Menkalina.
It may be remarked as a curious coincidence, that the two stars in the shoul-
ders of Auriga are of the same magnitude, and just as far apart as those in Orion,
and opposite to them. Again, the two stars in the shoulders of Auriga, with the two
in the shoulders of Orion, mark the extremities of a long, marrow parallelograin,
lying N. and S., and whose length is just five times its breadth. Also, the two
stars in Auriga, and the two in Orion, make two slender and similar triangles,
both meeting in a common point, halfway between them at El Nath, in the north-
ern horn of Taurus.
Delta, a star of the 4th magnitude in the head of Auriga, is about 9° N. of the
two in the shoulders, with which it makes a triangle, about half the height of
those just alluded to, with the vertex at Delta. The two stars in the shoulders
are therefore the base of two similar triangles, one extending about 9° N., to the
head, the other 18° S., to the heel, on the top of the horn: both figures together
resembling an elongated diamond.
Delta in the head, Menkalina in the right shoulder, and Theta in the arm of
Auriga, make a straight line with Betelguese in Orion, Delta in the square of the
Hare, and Beta in Noah's Dove; all being very nearly on the same meridian,
4° W. of the solstitial colure.
“See next the Goatherd with his kids; he shines
With seventy stars, deducting only four,
Of which Capella never sets to us,”
And scarce a star with equal radiance peams
Upon the earth : two other stars are seen
Due to the second order.”—Eudosia.
HISTORY..—The Greeks give various accounts of this constellation; some sup
pose it to be Erichthonius, the fourth king of Athens, and son of Vulcan and Mi.
nerva, who awarded him a place among the constellations on account of his many
useful inventions. He was of a monstrous shape. He is said to have invented
chariots, and to have excelled all others in the management of horses. In allu-
sion to this, Virgil has the following lines:—
“Primus Erichthonius currus et quatuor ausus
Jungere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor.”
Georgic. Lib. iii. p. 113
“Bold Erichthonius was the first who join’d
Four horses for the rapid race design'd,
And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sate "—Dryden.
Other writers say that Bootes invented the chariot, and that Auriga was the
son of Mercury, and charioteer to OEnomaus, king of Pisa, and so experienced,
...hat he rendered his horses the swiftest in all Greece. But as neither of these
fables seems to account for the goat and her kids, it has been supposed that they
refer to Almathaba and her sister Melissa, who fed Jupiter, during his infancy,
* In the latitude of London; but in the latitude of New England, Capella disappears
below the horizon, in the N. N.W., for a few hours, and then reappears in the N. N. E.
How may it be known? What are its distance and direction from El Natn, in the
horn of Taurus? When does Capella come to the meridian . Describe the star in the
east shoulder of Auriga. Describe Theta. What curious coincidence exists between
the stars in the shoulders of Auriga and those in the shoulders qf Orion? Describe the
situation of Delta. The two stars in the shoulders of Awriga form the base of two tri-
angles; please describe them... What stars in Auriga, Orion, the Hare, and the Dove,
are on the same meridian 2 How far is this line of stars west of the solatitial colume?
MAP III.] t"AMELOPARDALUS.--THE LYNX. 65
will goat's miłk, and that, as a reward for their kindness, they were placed in
the heavens. But there is no reason assigned for their being placed in the arms
of Auriga, and the inference is unavoidable, that mythology is in fault on his
point.
Jamieson is of opinion that Auriga is a mere type or scientific symbol of the
beautiful fable of Phaeton, because he was the attendant of Phoebus at that re-
unote period when Taurus opened the year.
CAMELOPARDALUS.
THE CAMELOPARD.—This constellation was made by He-
velius out of the unformed stars which lay scattered between
Perseus, Auriga, the head of Ursa Major, and the Pole Star.
It is situated directly N. of Auriga and the head of the Lynx,
and occupies nearly all the space between these and the pole.
It contains 58 small stars; the five largest of which are only
of the 4th magnitude. The principal star lies in the thigh.
and is about 20° from Capella, in a northerly direction. It
marks the northern boundary of the temperate zone; being
less than one degree S. of the Arctic circle. There are two
other stars of the 4th magnitude near the right knee, 120 N. E.
of the first mentioned. They may be known by their standing
19 apart and alone.
The other stars in this constellation are too small, and too
much scattered to invite observation.

HISTORY..—The Camelopard is so called from an animal of that name, peculiar
to Ethiopia. This animal resembles both the camel and the leopard. Its body
is spotted like that of the leopard Its neck is about seven feet long, its fore and
hind legs, from the hoof to the second joint, are nearly of the same length; but
from the second joint of the legs to the body, the fore legs are so long in colu-
parison with the hind ones, that no person could sit upon its back, without in-
stantly sliding off as from a horse that stood up on his hind feet.
C H A P T E R I W.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN FEBRUARY.
THE LYNX.
The constellation of the Lynx, like that of the Camelopard,
exhibits no very interesting features by which it can be dis-
unguished. It contains only a moderate number of inferior
stars, scattered over a large space N. of Gemini, and between
Auriga and Ursa Major. The whole number is 44, including
Of what was the Camelopard made? Where is it situated 3 What is the whole nam-
ber of stars? What is the magnitude of the largest? What are the name and position
of the principal one? Where are the other principal stars situated? How may they
be known, Whence does it derive its name? What is the situation of the Lynx"
What are the number and magnitude of *
66 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENR [FEB.
only three that are so large as the 3d magnitude. The largest
of these, near the mouth, is in the solstitial colure, 144° N., of
Menkalina, in the E. shoulder of Auriga. The other two prim
cipal stars are in the brush of the tail, 3}o S.W. of another
star of the same brightness in the mouth of the Lesser Lion,
with which it makes a small triangle. Its centre is on the
meridian at 9 o'clock on the 23d, or at half past 7 on the 1st,
of February.
HistoRY —This constellation takes its name from a wild beast which is said to
be of the genus of the wolf.
GEMINI.
THE Twins.—This constellation represents, in a sitting
losture, the twin brothers, Castor and Pollux.
Gemini is the third sign, but fourth constellation in the
order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Lynx, be-
tween Cancer on the east, and Taurus on the west. The
orbit of the earth passes through the centre of the constella-
tion. As the earth moves round in her orbit from the first
point of Aries to the same point again, the sun, in the mean-
time, will appear to move through the opposite signs, or those
which are situated right over against the earth, on the other
side of her orbit. -
Accordingly, if we could see the stars as the sun appeared
to move by them, we should see it passing over the constel-
lation Gemini between the 21st of June and the 23d of July;
but we seldom see more than a small part of any constellation
through which the sun is then passing, because the feeble
lustre of the stars is obscured by the superior effulgence of the
Bllil. -
When the sun is just entering the outlines of a constellation on the east, its
western limit may be seen in the morning twilight, just above the rising sun. SD.
when the sun has arrived at the western limit of a constellation, the eastern part
of it may be seen lingering in the evening twilight, just behind the setting sun.
Under other circumstances, when the sum is said to be in, or to enter, a particu-
lar constellation, it is to be understood that that constellation is not then visible,
but that those opposite to it, are. For example: whatever constellation sets with
the sun on any day, it is plain that the one opposite to it must be then rising,
and continue visible through the night. . Also, whatever constellation rises and
sets with the sun to-day, will, six months hence, rise at sun-setting, and set at
sun-rising. For example: the sun is in the centre of Gemini about the 6th of
Describe the position of the largest. Describe the position of the other two principal
stars. What are their distance and direction from the one in the head?. When is its
centre on the meridian? Describe the position and appearance of the Twins. What
is the relative position of Gemini among the signs and constellations of the Zodiagº
How is the orbit of the earth situated, with respect to these constellations? How do
the sun and earth appear to move through these signs? When does the sun appear to
pass through the constellation Gemini? Do we usually see the constellations while .
the sum is passing through them? Under what circumstances can we see some part ºf
them? When the sun is in or entering any constellation, are the opposite constellg
tions visible or not? If a constellation rise with the sun to-day, how will it rise sia
months hence 2 Give an ea'ample.
MAP III.] GEMINI, 67
July, and must rise and set with it on that day; consequently, six months from
that time, or about the 4th of January, it will rise in the east, just when the sun
is setting in the west, and will come to the meridian at midnight; being then ex-
actly opposite to the sun.
Now as the stars gain upon the sun at the rate of two hours every month, it
follows that the centre of this constellation will, on the 17th of February, come
to the meridian three hours earlier, or at 9 o'clock in the evening.
It would be a pleasant exercise for students to propose questions to each
other, somewhat like the following:—What zodiacal constellation will rise and
set with the sun to-day ? What one will rise at sun-setting? What constellation
is three hours high at Sun-set, and where will it be at 9 o'clock 3 What constel-
lation rises two hours before the sun ? How many days or months hence, and
at what hour of the evening or morning, and in what part of the sky shall we see
the constellation whose centre is now where the sun is ? &c., &c.
. In solving these and similar questions, it may be remembered that the sun is
in the vernal equinox about the 21st of March, from whence it advances through
one sign or constellation every succeeding month thereafter; and that each con-
stellation is one month in advance of the sign of that name: wherefore, reckon
Pisces in March, Aries in April, Taurus in May, and Gemini in June, &c.; be.
ginning with each constellation at the 21st, or 22d of the month.
Gemini contains 85 stars, including one of the 1st, one of
the 2d, four of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitudes. It is
readily recognised by means of the two principal stars, Cas-
tor and Polluar, of the 1st and 2d magnitudes, in the head of
the Twins, about 40 apart.
There being only 11 minutes' difference in the transit of
these two stars over the meridian, they may both be consid-
ered as culminating at 9 o'clock about the 24th of February.
Castor, in the head of Castor, is a star of the 1st magnitude,
4}o N. W. of Pollux, and is the northernmost and the bright-
est of the two. Polluv, is a star of the 2d magnitude, in the
head of Pollux, and is 4}o S. E. of Castor. This is one of
the stars from which the moon’s distance is calculated in the
Nautical Almanac.
— “Of the famed Ledean pair,
One most illustrious star adorns their sign,
And of the second order shine twin lights.”
The relative magnitude or brightness of these stars has
undergone considerable changes at different periods; whence
it has been conjectured by various astronomers that Pollux
must vary from the 1st to the 3d magnitude. But Herschel,
who observed these stars for a period of 25 years, ascribes the
variation to Castor, which he found to consist of two stars,
very close together, the less revolving about the larger once
in 342 years and two months.
Bradly and Maskelyne found that the line joining the two stars which form
Castor was, at all times of the year, parallel to the line joining Chstor and Pollux;
and that both of the former move around a common centre between them, in

If a constellation come to the meridian at midnight to-day, how long before it will
come to the meridian at 9 o'clock in the evening 2 the constellation Gemint come to
the meridian at midnight, on the 4th of January, when will it cºminate at 9 o'clock?
What is the number of stars in Geminiº By what means is it readily recognised?
When do these stars culminate? Describe Castor. Describe Pollux. For what our
pose is it observed at sea? Is the brightness of these two stars always the same? W . .
ascribes this variableness to Castor, and for what reason?
t;S PlöTURE OF THE HEAVENS FM, B
rbuts nearly circular, as two balls attached to a red would do, if suspended by ,
string affixed to the centre of gravity between them. -
“These men,” says Dr. Bowditch, “were endowed with a sharpness of vision,
and a power of penetrating into space, almost unexampled in the history of as:
tronomy.”
º 200 S. W. of Castor and Pollux, and in a line nearly parallel with thein,
is a row of stars 3° or 4° apart, chiefly of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, which dis.
tinguish the feet of the twins. The brightest of these is Alhena, in Pollux's upper
foot; the next small star S. of it, is in his other foot: the two upper stars in the
line next above Gamma, mark Castor's feet.
This row of feet is nearly two thirds of the distance from Pollux to Betelguese
hi Orion, and a line connecting them will pass through Alhena, the principal star
in the feet. About two thirds of the distance from the two in the head to those
in the feet, and nearly parallel with them, there is another row of three stars
about 6° apart, which mark the knees.
There are, in this constellation, two other remarkable P. rows, lying at
right angles with the former; one, leading from the head to the foot of Castor,
the brightest star being in the middle, and in the knee; the other, leading from
the head to the foot of Pollux, the brightest star, called Wasat, being in the body,
and Zeta, next below it, in the knee.
Wasat is in the ecliptic, and very near the centre of the constellation. The
two stars, Mu and Tejat; in the northern foot, are also very near the ecliptic:
Tejat is a small star of between the 4th and 5th magnitudes, 2° W. of Mu, and
deserves to be noticed because it marks the spot of the summer solstice, in the
tropic of Cancer, just where the sun is on the longest day of the year, and is,
moreever, the dividing limit between the torrid and the N. temperate zone.
Propus, also in the ecliptic, 249 W. of Tejat, is a star of only the 5th magni-
tude, but rendered memorable as being the star which served for imany years to
deterinine the position of the planet Herschel, after its first discovery.
Thus as we pursue the study of the stars, we shall find continually new and
more wonderful developments to engage our feelings and reward our labour. We
shall have the peculiar satisfaction of reading the same volume that was spread
out to the patriarchs and poets of other ages, of admiring what they admired, and
of being led as they were led, to look upon these lofty mansions of being as hav-
ing, above them all, a common Father with ourselves, “who ruleth in the armies
of heaven, and bringeth forth their hosts by number.”
History.—Castor and Pollux were twin brothers, sons of Jupiter, by Leda,
the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. The manner of their birth was very sin.
gular. They were educated at Pallena, and afterwards embarked with Jason in
the celebrated contest for the golden fleece, at Colchis; on which occasion the
behaved with unparalleled courage and bravery. Pollux distinguished j.
by his achievements in arms and personal prowess, and Castor in equestrian
exercises and the management of horses. Whence they are represented, in the
temples of Greece, on white horses, armed with spears, riding side by side,
their heads crowned with a petasus, on whose top glittered a star. Among the
ancients, and especially among the Romans, there prevailed a superstition that
Castor and Pollux often appeared at the head of their armies, and led on their
troops to battle and to victory.
“Castor and Pollux, first in martial force,
One bold on foot, and one renown'd for horse.
Fair Leda's twins in time to stars decreed,
One fought on foot, one curb’d the fiery steed.”—Pirgil.
*Castor alert to tame the foaming steed,
And Pollux strong to deal the manly deed.”—Martial.

The brothers cleared the Hellespont and the neighbouring seas from pirates.
after tiyeir return fºom Colehis; from which circumstance they have ever since
been regarded as ºne friends and protectors of navigation. In the Argonautic
expedition, during a violent storm, it is said two flames of fire were seen to play
around their heads, and immediately the tempest ceased, and the sea was calm.
JOescribe the º, 7mark the feet of the Twins. Specify the stars in each. How
is this rov' situated toº respect to Orion ?, Describe the second row of stars in this
constellatºon. Are there yet other rows in this constellation 2 Describe them. What
is the #. of Wasat?. Two other stars are very near the ecliptic; mention them,
bescribe the position of Tějat. Give a description of the star Propus.
MAP III.] CANIS MINOR. 69
From this circumstance, the sailors inferred, that whenever both fires appeared
. the sky, it would be fair weather; but when only one appeared, there would
€ Storms. -
St. Paul, after being wrecked on the island of Melita, embarked for Rome “in
a ship whose sign was Castor and Polluz;” so formed, no doubt, in accordance
with the popular belief that these divinities presided over the science and safetv
of navigation. s r -
They were initiated into the sacred mysteries of Cabiri, and into those of Ceres
and Eleusis. They were invited to a feast at which Lyncéus and Idas were going
to celebrate their nuptials with Phoebe and Telaria, the daughters of Leucippus,
brother to Tyndarus. They became enamoured of the daughters, who were
about to be married, and resolved to supplant their rivals: a battle ensued, in
which Castor killed Lynceus, and was himself killed by Idas. Pollux revenged
the death of his brother by killing Idas; but, being himself immortal, and most
tenderly attached to his deceased brother, he was unwilling to survive him; he
therefore entreated Jupiter to restore him to life, or to be deprived himself of
imumortality; wherefore, Jupiter permitted Castor, who had been slain, to share
the immortality of Pollux; and consequently, as long as the one was upon earth,
so long was the other detained in the infernal regions, and they alternately lived
and died every day. Jupiter also further rewarded their fraternal attachment
by changing them both into a constellation under the name of Gemini, Twins,
which, it is strangely pretended, never appear together, but when one rises the
other sets, and so on alternately.
“By turns they visit this ethereal sky,
And live alternate, and alternate die.”—Homer.
“Pollux, offering his alternate life,
Could free his brother, and could daily go.
By turns aloft, by turns descend below.”— Virgil.
Castor and Pollux were worshipped both by the Greeks and Romans, who
sacrificed white lambs upon their altars. In the Hebrew Zodiac, the constella-
tion of the Twins refers to the tribe of Benjamin. -
CANIS MINOR.
THE LITTLE Dog.—This small constellation is situated
about 5° N. of the equinoctial, and midway between Canis
Major and the Twins. It contains 14 stars, of which two are
very brilliant. The brightest star is called Procyon. It is
of the 1st magnitude, and is about 40 S. E. of the next bright-
est, marked Gomelza, which is of the 2d magnitude.
These two stars resemble the two in the head of the Twins.
Procyon, in the Little Dog, is 230 S. of Pollux in Gemini,
and Gomelza is about the same distance S. of Castor.
A great number of geometrical figures may be formed of
the principal stars in the vicinity of the Little Dog. For ex-
ample; Procyon is 23° S. of Pollux, and 260 E. of Betelguese,
and forms with them a large right angled triangle. Again
Procyon is equidistant from Betelguese and Sirius, and forms
with them an equilateral triangle whose sides are each about
269. If a straight line, connecting Procyon and Sirius, be
produced 230 farther, it will point out Phaet, in the Dove.
Describe the situation of Canis Minor. What is its whole number of stars? What
is the magnitude of its principal ones? What is the brightest one called, and how is . .
it situated? What other stars do Procyon and Gomelzaresemble? What are the distance
and directicn of Procyon from Pollux? Of Gomelza from Castor? What are their distance
and direction from Castor and Pollux? What kind of figures may be formed of the
stars in the neighbourhood of the Little Dog 2 Give some examples.
70. PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. iFEB.
Procyon is often taken for the name of the Little Dog, or
for the whole constellation, as Sirius is for the greater one;
hence it is common to refer to either of these constellations
by the name of its principal star. Procyon comes to the me-
ridian 53 minutes after Sirius, on the 24th of February;
although it rises, in this latitude, about half an hour before it.
For this reason, it was called Procyon, from two Greek words
which signify (Ante Canis) “before the dog.”
“Canicula, fourteen thy stars; but far
Above them all, illustrious through the skies,
Beams Procyon ; Justly by Greece thus calléd
The bright forerunner of the greater Dog.”
History.—The Little Dog, according to Greek fable, is one of Orion's hounds,
Some suppose it refers to the Egyptian god Anubis, which was represented with
a dog's head: others to Diana, the goddess of hunting; and others, that it is the
faithful dog Māºra, which belonged to Icarus, and discovered to his daughter
Erigone the place of his burial. Others, again, say it is one of Actaeon's hounds
that devoured their master, after Diana had transformed him into a stag, to pre-
vent, as she said, his betraying her.

“This º the man began to disappear
By slow degrees, and ended in a deer.
Transform'd at length, he flies away in haste,
And wonders why he flies so fast.
But as by chance, within a neighb'ring brook,
He saw his branching horns, and alter'd look,
Wretched Actaeon I in a doleful tone
He tried to speak, but only gave a groan ;
And as he wept, within the watery glass,
He saw the big round drops, with silent pace,
Run trickling down a savage, hairy face.
What should he do? or seek his old abodes,
Or herd among the deer, and skulk in woods?
As he thus ponders, he behind him spies
His opening hounds, and now he hears their cries.
From shouting men, and horns, and dogs, he flies.
When now the fleetest of the pack that press'd
Close at his heels, and sprung before the rest,
Had fasten’d on him, straight another pair
Hung on his wounded side, and held him there,
Till all the pack came up, and every hound
Tore the sad huntsman grovelling on the ground.”
It is most probable, however, that the Egyptians were the inventors of this con
stellation; and as it always rises a little before the Dog-star, which, at a particu-
lar season, they so much dreaded, it is properly represented as a little watchful
creature, giving notice like a faithful sentinel of the other's approach.
* It is not difficult to deduce the moral of this fable. The selfishness and caprice of
human friendship furnish daily illustrations of it. While the good man, the philan-
thropist, or the public benefactor, is in affluent circumstances, and, with a heart to
devise, has the power to minister blessings to his numerous beneficiaries, his virtues
are the #. theme: but when adverse storms have changed the ability, though
they could not shake the will of their benefactor, he is straightway pursued, like Ac-
taeon, by his own hounds; and, like Actaeon, he is “torn to the ground” by the fangs
tha; fed upon his bounty.—L. Q. C. L.
what name is usually given to the Little Dog? When does Procyon rise and culmi-
nate, with respect to the Dog-star? What name, for this reason, was given to this
constellation?
MAP III.] MONOCEROS-CANIS MAJOR,
MONOCEROS.
THE UNIcorn.—This is a modern constellation, which was
made out of the unformed stars of the ancients that lay scat.
tered over a large space of the heavens between the two
Dogs. It extends a considerable distance on each side of the
equinoctial, and its centre is on the same meridian with
Procyon.
It contains 31 small stars, of which the seven principal . .
ones are of only the 4th magnitude. Three of #: are *
situated in the head, 39 or 40 apart, forming a straight line
N. E. and S. W. about 90 E. of Betelguese in Orion’s shoul-
der, and about the same distance S. of Alhena in the foot of
the Twins.
The remaining stars in this constellation are scattered over
a large space, and being very small, are unworthy of particu-
lar notice.
HISTORY.—THE Monoceros is a species of the Unicorn or Rhinoceros. It is
about the size of a horse, with one white horn growing out of the middle of its
forehead. It is said to exist in the wilds of Ethiopia, and to be very formidable.
Naturalists say that, when pursued by the hunters, it precipitates itself from
the tops of the highest rocks, and pitches upon its horn, which sustains the whole
force of its fall, so that it receives no damage thereby. Sparmann informs us
that the figure of the unicorn, described by some of the ancients, has been foun
delineated on the surface of the rock in Caffraria; and thence conjectures that
such an animal, instead of being fabulous, as some suppose, did once actually
exist in Africa. Lobo affirms that he has seen it.
The rhinoceros, which is akin to it, is found in Bengal, Siam, Cochin China,
part of China Proper, and the isles of Java and Sumatra. tº
CANIS MAJOR.
THE GREAT Dog.—This interesting constellation is situa-
red southward and eastward of Orion, and is universally
Known by the brilliance of its principal star, Sirius, which is
jº, the largest and brightest in the heavens. It glows
un the winter hemisphere with a lustre which is unequalled
by any other star in the firmament.
Its distance from the earth, though computed at 20 millions
of millions of miles, is supposed to be less than that of an
other star: a distance, however, so great that a cannon ball,
which flies at the rate of 19 miles a minute, would be two
amillions of years in passing over the mighty interval; while
sound, moving at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would reach
Sirius in little less than three millions of years.
What stars compose the constellation Monoceros ? How is this constellation stºn-
9ted, and when is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars?
is the magnitude of its principal ones? Describe those in the head. Describe *:
sition and appearance of Canis Major. What is its appearance in the winter? atº,
is its distance from the earth computed to be, and how is it compared with that of the
other stars? How long would it take a cannon-ball to pass over this distance Inwhat
time would sound reach Sirius from the earth?
72 PICTURE OF THE HEAVEN's, FEB,
It may be shown in the same manner, that a ray of light, which occupies only
8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the sun, which is at the rate of
nearly two hundred thousand miles a second, would be 3 years and 82 days in
passing through the vast space that lies between Sirius, and the earth. Conse.
uently, were it blotted from the heavens, its light would continue visible to us
'or a period of 3 years and 82 days after it had ceased to be.
If the nearest stars give such astonishing results, what shall we say of those
which are situated a thousand times as far beyond these, as these are from us?
In the remote ages of the world, when every man was his
own astronomer, the rising and setting of Sirius, or the Dog-
star, as it is called, was watched with deep and various so-
licitude. The ancient Thebans, who first cultivated astro-
nomy in Egypt, determined the length of the year by the
number of its risings. The Egyptians watched its rising
with mingled apprehensions of hope and fear; as it was
ominous to them of agricultural prosperity or blighting
drought. It foretold to them the rising of the Nile, which
they called Siris, and admonished them when to sow. The
Romans were accustomed yearly, to sacrifice a dog to Sirius
to render him propitious in his influence upon their herds and
fields. The eastern nations generally believed the rising of
Sirius would be productive of great heat on the earth.
Thus Virgil:— º tº ſº
“Tum steriles exurere Sirius agros:
Ardebant herba’, et victum seges agra negabat.”
“Parched was the grass, and blighted was the corm:
Nor 'scape the beasts; for Sirius, from on high,
With pestilential heat infects the sky.”
Accordingly, to that season of the year when Sirius rose
with the sun and seemed to blend its own influence with the
heat of that luminary, the ancients gave the name of Dog-
days, (Dies Caniculares). At that remote period the Dog-
days commenced on the 4th of August, or four days after the
summer solstice, and lasted forty days or until the 14th of
September. At present the Dog-days begin on the 3d of
July, and continue to the 11th of August, being one day less
than the ancients reckoned.
Hence, it is plain that the Dog-days of the moderns have no
reference whatever to the rising of Sirius, or any other star,
because the time of their rising is perpetually accelerated by
the precession of the equinoxes: they have reference then
only to the summer solstice which never changes its position
in respect to the seasons.
How long is light in coming from Syrius to the earth? Suppose this star ºpere now to
be blotted from the heavens, how long before zts twinklägg would expire 2 How was the
rising of Sirius regarded in the remote ages of the world?, What use was made of it
by the ancient Thebans? How did the Egyptians regard it, and for what reason?
hat did it foretel to them? What did the Romans offer in sacrifice to Sirius annually
Why?. How was it regarded by the eastern nations generally? What season of the
ear did the ancients call Dog-days? When did these begin, and how long did they
§h At present, when do they begin and end? Have our Dog-days any reference to
Og Star?
MAP III.] CANIS MAJOR. 73
The time of Sirius' rising varies with the latitude of the place, and in the same
latitude, is sensibly *# after a course of years, on account of the preces-
sion at the equinoxes, is enables us, to determine with approximate accu-
racy, the dates of many events of antiquity, which cannot be well determined
by other records. We do not know, for instance, in what precise period of the
world Hesiod flourished. Yet he tells us, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. v. 185, that
Arcturus in his time rose heliacally, 60 days after the winter solstice, which,
then was in the 9th degree of Aquarius, or 39° beyond its present position. Now
399ºš. –2794 years since the time of Hesiod, which corresponds very nearly
with history.
When #ir rose at Sun-setting, or set at sun-rising, it was called the Achroni.
cal rising or setting. When a planet or star º; above the horizon just *
before the sun, in the morning, it was called the Heliacal rising of the star; and
when it sunk below the horizon immediately after the sun, in the evening, it was
called the Heliacal setting. According to Ptolemy, stars of the first magnitude
are seen rising and setting when the sun is 12° below the horizon; stars of the
2d magnitude . the sun's depression to be 139; stars of the 3d .
4°, and so on, allowing one degree for each magnitude. The rising and setting
of the stars described in this way, since this mode of description often occurs
in Hesiod, Virgil, Columella, Ovid, Pliny, &c. are called poetical rising and set.
ting. They served to mark the times of religious ceremonies, the seasons al.
lotted to the several departments of husbandry, and the overflowing o" ºr Nile

The student may be perplexed to understand how the
Dog-star, which he seldom sees till mid-winter, should be
associated with the most fervid heat of summer. This is
explained by considering that this star, in summer, is over
our heads in the daytime, and in the lower hemisphere at
night. As “thick the floor of heaven is inlaid with patines
of bright gold,” by day, as by night; but on account of the
superior splendour of the sun, we cannot see them.
Sirius is situated nearly S. of Alhena, in the feet of the
Twins, and about as far S. of the equinoctial as Alhena is
N. of it. It is about 100 E. of the Hare, and 260 S. of Be.
telguese in Orion, with which it forms a large equilateral
triangle. It also forms a similar triangle with Phaet in the
Dove, and Naos in the Ship. These two triangles being joined
at their vertex in Sirius, present the figure of an enormous
X, called by some, the Egyptian X. Sirius is also pointed
out by the direction of the Three Stars in the belt of Orion.
Its distance from them is about 23°. It comes to the meri-
dian at 9 o'clock on the 11th of February.
Mirzam, in the foot of the Dog, is a star of the 2d magni-
tude, 5}o W. of Sirius. A little above, and 40 or 50 to the
left, there are three stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, form-
ing a triangular figure somewhat resembling a dog's head.
What is meant by the Achronical rising and setting of the stars 2 What, by their
Heliacal rising and setting 7. By whom were the terms thus applied, and 20hat were
these risings and settings called?...What did they serve? Explain how it is, that the
Dog-star, which is seldom seen till mid-winter, should be associated with the most
fervid heat of summer. Are there as many stars over our head in the daytime as in
the night? Describe the situation of Sirius. What is its position with regard to Be-
telguese and Procyon, and in connexion with them what figure does it form? With
what other stars does it form a similar triangle? What is the appearance of these twº
triangles taken together? How else is Sirius pointed out? Describe the position and
magnitude of Mirzam. What stars mark * Of the DOg?
74 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAR.
The brightest of them, on the left, is called Muliphen. It
entirely disappeared in 1670, and was not seen again for
more than 20 years. Since that time it has maintained a
steady lustre.
Wesen is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, in
the back, 11° S. S. E. of Sirius, with which, and Mirzam in
the paw, it makes an elongated triangle. The two hinder
feet are marked by Naos and Lambda, stars of the 3d and 4th
magnitudes, situated about 30 apart, and 120 directly S. of
the fore foot. This constellation contains 31 visible stars,
including one of the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and two
of the 3d ; all of which are easily traced out by the aid of
the map.
HISTORY...—Manilius, a Latin poet who flourished in the Augustan age, wrote
an admirable poem, in five books, upon the fixed stars in which he thus speaks
of this constellation:—
“All others he excels; no fairer light e
Ascends the skies, none sets so clear and bright.”
But EUdosia best describes it:—
“Next shines the Dog with sixty-four distinct;
Fam’d for pre-eminence in envied song,
Theme of Homeric and Virgilian lays:
His fierce mouth flames with dreaded Sirius ;
Three of his stars retire with feeble beams.”
According to some mythologists, this constellation represents one of Orion 1
hounds, which was placed in the sky, near this celebrated huntsman. Others
say it received its name in honour of the dog given by Aurora to Cephalus,
which surpassed in speed all the animals of his species. Cephalus, it is said at:
tempted to prove this by running him against a fox, which, at that time, was
thought to be the fleetest of all animals. Aſter they had run together a long
time without either of them obtaining the victory, it is said that Jupiter was so
i. gratified at the fleetness of the dog that he assigned him a place in the
leavens.
But the name and form of this constellation are, no doudt, derived from the
Egyptians, who, carefully watched its rising, and by it judged of the swelling of
the Nile, which they called Siris, and, in their hieroglyphical manner of writing,
since it was as it were the sentinel and watch of the §. represented it under
the figure of a dog. They observed that when Sirius became visible in the east,
#. before the morning dawn, the overflowing of the Nile immediately followed.
ãº. it warned them, like a faithful dog, to escane from the region of the inun
IOIle
C H A P T E R W .
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN MARCH.
ARGO NAVIS.
THE SHIP ARgo.—This constellation occupies a large space
in the southern hemisphere, though but a small part of it can
Which is the of these, and what remarkable circumstance in its history?
How has it its return? Describe the situation and magnitude of Wesent
What stars feet? What is the number of visible stars in this con-
stellation? Constellation Argo Navis?



M.AP III ARGO NAWIS, 75
be seen in the United States. It is situated S. E. of Canis
Major, and may be known by the stars in the prow and deck
of the ship.
If a straight line joining Betelguese and Sirius, be produ-
ced 180 to the southeast, it will point out Naos, a star of the
2d magnitude, in the rowlock of the ship. This star is in
the S. E. corner of the Egyptian X., and of the large equi-
lateral triangle made by itself with Sirius and the Dove.
When on the meridian, it is seen from this latitude about 8°
above the southern horizon. It comes to the meridian on the
3d of March, about half an hour after Procyon, and continues
visible but a few hours.
Gamma, in the middle of the ship, is a star of the 2d mag-
nitude, about 70 S. of Naos, and just skims above the south-
ern horizon for a few minutes, and then sinks beneath it.
The principal star in this constellation is called, after one of
the pilots, Canopus; it is of the 1st magnitude, 36° nearly
S. of Sirius, and comes to the meridian 17 minutes after it;
but having about 539 of S. declination, it cannot be seen in
the United States. The same is true of Miaplacidus, a star
of the 1st magnitude in the oars of the ship, about 25° E. of
Canopus, and 619 S. of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra.
An observer in the northern hemisphere, can see the stars as many degrees
south of the equinoctual in the southern hemisphere, as his own latitude lacks
of 90°, and no more.
Markeb, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the prow of the
ship, and may be seen from this latitude, 16° S. E. of Sirius,
and about 100 E. of Wesen, in the back of the Dog. This
star may be known by its forming a small triangle with two
others of the same magnitude, situated a little above it, on
the E., 30 and 40 apart.
This constellation contains 64 stars, of which, two are of
the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and nine of the 3d. Most
of these are too low down to be seen in the United States.
HistoRY.—This constellation is intended to perpetuate the memory of the
famous ship which carried Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when they
resolved upon the perilous expedition of recovering the golden fleece. The de-
rivation of the word Argo has been often disputed. Some derive it from Argos,
; this was the name of the person who first proposed the expedi-
tion, and built the ship. Others maintain that it was built at Argos, whence its
name. Cicero calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, commonly called Ar.
gives. Diodorus derives the word from , which signifies swift. Ptolemy
says, but not truly, that Hercules built the ship and called it Argo, after a son on
Jason, who bore the same name. This ship had fifty oars, and being thus pro-
pelled must have fallen far short of the bulk of the smallest ship craft used by
Where is it situated? ... Point out the situation of Naos, in the ship? When may it be
seen in this latitude? When is it on the meridian? Describe the position and magni-
tude of Gamma. What are the situation and name of the principal star in this constel-
lation? can it not be seen in the United States? Is any other considerable star
in the ship similarly situated? Describe Mackeb. How may this star be known? What
as the number of visible stars in this constellation? What is the magr. iude of its prin-
cipal ones?
75 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [MAR
moderns. It is even said that the crew were able to carry it on their backs
from the Danube to the Adriatic, e
According to many authors, she had a beam on her prow, cut in the ſorest of
Dondona by Minerva, which had the power of giving oracles to the Argonauts,
This ship was the first, it is said, that ever ventured on the sea. After the expa-
dition was finished, and Jason had returned in triumph, he ordered her to be
3. ashore at the isthmus of Corinth. and consecrated to Neptune, the god of
6 Sea,
Sir Isaac Newton endeavours to settle the period of this expedition at about 30
ears before the destruction of Troy; and 43 years after the death of Solomon.
r. Bryant, however, rejects the history of the Argonautic expedition as a mere
fiction of the Greeks, and supposes that this group of stars, which the poets de-
nominate Argo Navis, refers to Noah’s ark and the deluge, and that the fable of
the Argonautic expedition, is founded on certain Egyptian traditions that related
to the preservation of Noah and his family during the flood.
CANCER.
THE CRAB, is now the fifth constellation and fourth sign
of the Zodiac. It is situated in the ecliptic, between Leo on
the E. and Gemini on the W. It contains 83 stars, of which,
one is of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitude. Some
place the first-mentioned star in the same class with the other
seven, and consider none larger than the 4th magnitude.
Beta, is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, in the south-
western claw, 10° N. E. of Procyon, and may be known from
the fact that it stands alone, or at least has no star of the
same magnitude near it. It is midway between Procyon and
Acubens.
Acubens, is a star of similar brightness, in the southeastern
claw, 100 N. E. of Beta, and nearly in a straight line with it
and Procyon. An imaginary line drawn from Capella through
Pollux, will point out Acubens, at the distance of 249 from
Pollux. It may be otherwise distinguished by its standing
between two very small stars close by it in the same claw.
Tegmine, the last in the back, appears to be a small star,
of between the 5th and 6th magnitudes, 840 in a northerly
direction from Beta. It is a treble star, and to be distinctly
seen, requires very favourable circumstances. Two of them
are so near together that it requires a telescopic power of 300
to separate them.
About 70 northeasterly from Tegmine, is a nebulous
cluster of very minute stars, in the crest of Cancer, suffi
ciently luminous to be seen by the naked eye. It is situated
in a triangular position with regard to the head of the Twins
and the Little Dog. It is about 200 W. of each. It may
otherwise be discovered by means of two conspicuous stars

What is the relative position of Canger among the signs and constellations of the
Zodiac! How is it situated? What are the mumber and magnitude of its stars? Where
is Beta situated, and how may it be known? Which way from Procyon and Acubºng;
Describe Acubens. What are its distance and direction from Pollux? How may it be
otherwise known? Describe Tegmine. There is a remarkable cluster in this con.
stellation—describe its position. How may it otherwise be discovered”
MAP III. I CANCFR. 77
of the 4th magnitude lying one on either side of it, at the dis.
tance of about 29, called the northern and southern Aselli.
By some of the Orientalists, this cluster was denominated
Praesepe, the Manger, a contrivance which their fancy fitted
up for the accommodation of the Aselli or Asses; and it is
so called by modern astronomers. The appearance of this
nebula to the unassisted eye, is not unlike the nucleus of a
comet, and it was repeatedly mistaken for the comet of 1832,
which, in the month of November, passed in its neighbour-
hood.
The southern Asellus, marked Delta, is situated in the
line of the ecliptic and in connexion with wasa and Tejat,
marks the course of the earth's orbit for a space of 369 from
the solstitial colure.
There are several other double and nebulous stars in this
constellation, most of which are too small to be seen; and in-
deed, the whole constellation is less remarkable for the bril-
liancy of its stars than any other in the Zodiac.
The sun arrives at the sign Cancer about the 21st of June,
but does not reach the constellation until the 23d of July.
The mean right ascension of Cancer is 1289. It is conse-
quently on the meridian the 3d of March.
A few degrees S. of Cancer, and about 17° E. of Procyon, are four stars of the
4th magnitude, 3° or 4° apart, which mark the head of Hydra. This constella-
tion will be described on Map III.
The beginning of the sign Cancer (not the constellation) is called the Tropic
of Cancer, and when the sun arrives at this point, it has reached its utmost limit
of north declination, where it seems to remain stationary a few days, before it
begins to decline again to the south. This stationary attitude of the sun is called
the summer solstice; from two Latin words signifying the sun's standing still.
The distance from the first point of Cancer to the equinoctial, which at present,
is 23° 273', is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. . It is a remarkable and well as:
certained fact, that this is continually growing less and less. The tropics are
slowly and steadily approaching the equinoctial, at the rate of about half a second
every year; so that the sun does not now come so far north of the equator in
summer, nor decline so far south in winter, as it must have dome at the creation,
by nearly a degree.
History.-In the Zodiacs of Esne, and Dendera, and in most of the astrological
remains of Egypt, a Scarabaeus, or Beetle, is used as the symbol of this sign;
but in Sir William Jones's Oriental Zodiac, and in some others ſoundin India, wé
meet with the figure of a crab. As the Hindoos, in all probability, derived their
knowledge of the stars from the Chaldeans, it is supposed that the figure of the
orab, in this place, is more ancient than the Beetle.
In some eastern representations of this sign, two animals, like asses, are found
ha this division of the Zodiac; and as the Chaldaic name for the ass may be
translated muddiness, it is supposed to allude to the discolouring of the Nile,
which river was rising when the sun entered Cancer. The Greeks, in copying
this sign, have placed two asses as the appropriate symbol of it, which still re

What is the name of this cluster? What is its appearance to the naked eye, and for
what has it been mistaken? How is the Star called the southern Asellus, situated,
with respect to the ecliptic?...What other stars in this constellation 2. At what time
does the sun enter the sign Cancer? At what time the constellation? Where is the
tropic ºf Cancer situated? When the sun reaches this point what is said ºf its de-
clination? What is this stationary attitude of the sun called? What is the ºl
of the ecliptic? What remarkable fact in respect to this distance? Does his
stability ºf the tropics. 7%
78 PICTURE OF TáE. HEAVE"W.S. LAPRii.
$º.
*. º
main. They explain their reason, however, for adopting this figure, by saying
that these are the animals that assisted Jupiter in his victory over the giants.
Dopuis accounts for the origin of the asses in the following words:-Le Can-
cer, dū sont les étoiles appellées lºs anes, forme l'impreinte du pavillon d’Is-
sachar que Jacob assimile à l'ane.
Mythologists give different acco nts of the origin of this constellation. The
prevailing opinion is, that while Hercules was engaged in his famous contest
with the dreadful Lernaean monster, Juno, envious of the fame of his achieve-
ments, sent a sea-crab to bite and annoy the hero's feet, but the crab being soon
ºtched the goddess to reward its services, placed it among the constella.
Oils,
“The Scorpion's claws here clasp a wide extent,
And here the Crab's in lesser clasps are bent.”

C H A P T E R W I.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN APRIL.
L.F.O.
THE LION.—This is one of the most brilliant constellations
in the winter hemisphere, and contains an unusual number
of very bright stars. It is situated next E. of Cancer, and
directly S. of Leo Minor and the Great Bear.
The Hindoo Astronomer, Varaha, says, “Certainly the southern solstice was
once in the middle of Zºsieha (Leo); the northern in the first degree of Dhan-
ishta” (Aguarius). Since that time, the solstitial, as well as the equinoctial
§: have gone backwards on the ecliptic 759. This divided § º gives
3 years; which carry us back to the year of the world 464. Sir W. Jones,
says, that Varaha lived when the solstices were in the first degrees of Cancer
and Capricorn; or about 400 years before the Christian era.
Leo is the fifth sign, and the siarth constellation of the Zo-
diac. The mean right ascension of this extensive group is
1500, or 10 hours. Its centre is therefore on the meridian the
6th of April. Its western outline, however, comes to the
meridian on the 18th of March, while its eastern limit does
not reach it before the 3d of May.
This constellation contains 95 visible stars, of which two
are of the 1st magnitude, two of the 2d, six of the 3d, and
fifteen of the 4th.
“Two splendid stars of highest dignity,
Two of the second class the Lion boasts,
And justly figures the fierce summer's rage.”
The principal star in this constellation is of the 1st mag-
nitude, situated in the breast of the animal, and named Re-
gulus, from the illustrious Roman consul of that name.
What is the general appearance of the constellation Leo? Where is it situated:
what is the relative order among the signs and constellations of the Zodiagº What is
the right ascension of Leo, and when is its centre on the meridian? When do the
outlines of the figure come to the meridian 2 What number of visible stars does it con
tain, and how large are the principal ones? What is the name of the first star in the
constellation, and whence is it derived?
*AP iv.) L.E.O. 79
It is situated almost exactly in , he ecliptic, and may be
readily distinguished on account of its superior brilliancy. It
is the largest and lowest of a group of five cir six bright
stars which form a figure somewhat resembling a sickle, in
the neck and shoulder of the Lion. There is a little star of
the 5th magnitude about 29 S. of it, and one of the 3d mag-
nitude 50 N. of it, which will serve to point it out.
Regulus is the brightest star in the constellation, except
Denebola, in the tail, 25° E. of it. Great use is made of Re-
gulus by nautical men, for determining their longitude at sea.
Its latitude, or distance from the ecliptic, is less than #9; but
its declination, or distance from the equinoctial is nearly
13° N.; so that its meridian altitude will be just equal to that
of the sun on the 19th of August. Its right ascension is very
nearly 1509. It therefore culminates about 9 o'c.ock on the
6th of April.
When Regulus is on the meridian, Castor and Pollux are seen about 400 N.
W. of it, and the two stars in the fittie Dog, are about the same distance in a S
W. direction; with which, and the two former, it makes a large isosceles tri-
angle whose vertex is at Regulus.
The next considerable star, is 50 N. of Regulus, marked
Eta, situated in the collar; it is of between the 3d and 4th
magnitudes, and, with Regulus, constitutes the handle of the
sickle. Those three or four stars of the 3d magnitude, N. and
W. of Eta, arching round with the neck of the animal, de-
scribe the blade.
Al Gieba, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, situated in
the shoulder, 49 in a N. E. direction from Eta, and may be
easily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle
one of the three stars lying in a semicircular form, curving
towards the west; and it is the first in the blade of the sickle.
Adhafera, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the
neck, 4° N. of Al Gieba, and may be known by a very mi-
nute star just below it. This is the second star in the blade
of the sickle.
Ras al Asad, situated before the ear, is a star of the 3d or
4th magnitude, 69 W. of Adhafera, and is the third in the
blade of the sickle. The next star, Epsilon, of the sºme
magnitude, situated in the head, is 24° S.W. of Ras al Asad,
and a little within the curve of the sickle. About mid-way

Describe the situation of Regulus. What other stars serve to point it out? Wrat is
its comparative brightness? What use is made of it in nautical astronomy? What are
its latitude and declination? On what day will Regulus culminate at 9 o'clock in the
evening? When is it on the meridian, with what stars does it form a large triang
and in what direction are they from it? What are the name and positior of the next
considerable star in its vicinity?, What stars form the blade of the sickle?, Where is
Al Gieba situated, and how may it be distinguished? What is *Pºsition *f Adhafera
and how may it be known?"describe the situation of Rasai Asad.
80 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, [APRIL.
between these, and a little to the E., is a very small star
hardly visible to the naked eye.
Lambda, situated in the mouth, is a star of the 4th magni.
tude, 3}o S. W. of Epsilon, and the last in the sickle's point.
Iſappa, situated in the nose, is another star of the same
magnitude, and about as far from Lambda as Epsilon. Epsilon
and Kappa are about 54° apart, and form the longest side of
a triangle, whose vertex is in Kappa. *.
Zozma, situated in the back of the Lion, is a star of the
2d magnitude, 180 N. E. of Regulus, and midway between
it and Coma Berenices, a fine cluster of small stars, 189 N.
E. of Zozma.
Theta, situated in the thigh, is another star of the 3d mag-
nitude, 59 directly S. of Zozma, and so nearly on the same
meridian that it culminates but one minute after it. This star
makes a right angled triangle with Zozma on the N. and
Denebola on the E., the right angle being at Theta,
Nearly in a straight line with Zozma, and Theta, and
south of them, are three or four smaller stars, 40 or 50 apart,
which mark one of the legs.
Denebola, is a bright star of the 1st magnitude, in the
brush of the tail, 109 S. E. of Zozma, and may be distin-
guished by its great brilliancy. It is 50 W. of the equinoc-
tial colure, and comes to the meridian 1 hour and 41 minutes
after Regulus, on the 3d of May; when its meridian altitude
is the same as the sun's at 12 o'clock the next day.
When Denebola is on the meridian, Regulus is seen 25° W., of it, and Phad,
fn the square of Ursa Major, bears 395 Nºfit. It forms, with these two, a large
right angled triangle; the right angle being at Denebola. It is so nearly on the
same meridian with Phad that it culminates only four minutes before it.
Denebola is 35}o W. of Arcturus, and about the same dis-
tance N. W. of Spica, Virginis, and forms, with them, a
large equilateral triangle on the S. E. It also forms with
Arcturus and Cor Caroli a similar figure, nearly as large on
the N. E. These two triangles, being joined at their base,
constitute a perfect geometrical figure of the forms of a Rhom-
bus: called by some, the DIAMOND OF WIRGo.
A line drawn from Denebola through Regulus, and continued 7° or 89 further
th the same direction, will jº out Xi and Omicron, of the 3d and 4th magni.
tudes, situated in the fore claws, and about 3° apart.
What star is next? Describe the position of Lambda? What are the situation and
magnitude of Kappa? What is the distance between Epsilon and Kappa.º., Describe the
position of Zozma? What are the magnitude and position of Theta;. What geometri-
cal figure may be formed with this star, Zozma and Denebola? What stars in this
neighbourhood mark one of the legs of Leo? Describe Denebola. How far is it from
the equinoctial colure, and when does it come to the meridian? ... When Denebola is on
the meridian, what geometrical figure does it form, in connexiom.twith Régulus and
Phº? With what other star is it nearly on the same meridian 2 What is the position
of Denebola in regard to Arcturus and Spica Virginis, and what figure does it form
with them, with what other stars does Denebola form a similar figure?, What large
eometrical figure is formed by these two slangles? What stars point out those in
e claws?
MAP IV.] LEQ, 81.
There are a number of other stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes in this con-
stellation, which require no description, as the scholar will easily trace them out
froin the map. The position of Regulus and Denebola are often referred to in
the geography of the heavens, as they serve to point out other clusters in the
same neighbourhood.

HISTORY..—According to Greek fable, this Lion represents the formidable ani
mal which infested the forests of Nemäea. It was slain by Hercules, and placed
by Jupiter among the stars in commemoration of the dreadful conflict. "Some
writers have applied the story of the twelve labours of Hercules to the progress
of the sun through the twelve signs of the ecliptic; and as the combat of that
celebrated hero with the Lion was his first labour, º have placed Leo as the
§ sign. The figure of the Lion was, however, on the Egyptian charts long
efore the invention of the fables of Hercules. 'It would seem, moreover, ac-
cording to the fable itself, that Hercules, who represented the sun, actually slew
the Nemaean Lion, because Leo was already a zodiacal sign.
In hieroglyphical writing, the Lion was an emblem of violence and fury; and
the representation of this animal in the Zodiac, signified the intense heat occa-
sioned by the sun when it entered that part of the ecliptic. The Egyptians were
much annoyed by lions during the heat of summer, as they at that season, left
the desert, and hunted the banks of the Nile, which had then reached its greatest
elevation. It was therefore natural for their astronomers to place the Lion where
we find him in the zodiac.
The figure of Leo, very much as we now have it, is in all the Indian and Egyp.
dam Zodiacs. The overflowing of the Nile, which was regularly and anxiously
expected every year by the Egyptians, took place when the sum was in this sign.
They therefore paid more attention to it, it is to be presumed, than to any other.
This was the principal reason. Mr. Green supposes, why Leo stands first in the
zodiacs of Dendera.
The circular zodiac, mentioned in our account of Aries, and which adorned
the ceiling in one of the inner rooms in the famous temple in that city, was
brought away en masse in 1821, and removed to Paris. On its arrival at the Louvre,
it was purchased by the king for 150,000 francs, and, after being exhibited there
for a year, was paced in one of the halls of the library, where it is now to be
seen in apparently perfect preservation. This most interesting relic of astrology,
after being cut away from the ruins where it was found, is about one foot thick,
and eight feet square. The rock of which it is composed, is sandstone. On the
face of this stone, appears a large square, enclosing a circle four feet in diame-
ter, in which are arranged in an irregular spiral line, the zodiacal constellations,
commencing with the sign Leo. On each side of this spiral line are placed ā
eat variety of figures. These are supposed to represent other constellation
though they bear no analogy, in form, to those which we now have. Many o
these figures are accompanied with hieroglyphics, which probably express their
names. The commentator of Champollion, from whom we have derived many
Interesting facts in relation to them, has furnished merely a general history of
their origin and §. but does not add particulars. Copies of these drawings
and characters, have been exhibited in this country, and the wonderful conclu-
sions that have been drawn from them, have excited much astonishment.
Compared with our present planispheres, or with stellar phenomena, it abounds
with contradictory and irrelevant matter. So far from proving what was strenu-
susly maintained by infidel writers, soon after its discovery, that the Greeks
took from it the model of their zodiac, which they have transmitted to us, it
seems to demonstrate directly the reverse. The twelve signs, it is true, are
there, but they are not in their proper places. Cancer is between Leo and the
pole; Virgo bears no proportion to the rest; some of the signs are placed double;
they are all out of the ecliptic, and by no means occupy those regular and equai
portions of space which Egyptian astronomers are said to have exactly measured
by means of their clepsydra. º e
The figures, without what may be termed the zodiacal circle, could never have
included the same stars in the heavens which are now circumscribed by the
figures of the constellations. . Professor Green is of opinion, that the small
apartment in the ruins of Dendera, which was mysteriously ceiled with this zo-
i. was used for the purposes of judicial astrology, and that the sculptured
figures upon it were .#. in horoscopical predictions, and in that casting of
nativities for which the Egyptians were so famous.

Why is the position of Regulus and Denebola often referred to?
82 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. {April.
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Leo is assigned to Judah, on whose standard, according
to all traditions, a Lion is painted. is is clearly intimated in numerous passa.
es of the Hebrew writings: Ex-" Judah is a Lion's whelp; he stoopeth down
e croucheth as a Lion ; and as an old Lion; who shall rouse him up tº Gen
xlix. 9 “The Lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed.” Rev. v. 5.
LEO MINOR.
THE LITTLE LION.—This constellation was formed b
Hevelius, out of the Stellae informes, or unformed stars o
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Zodiacal con-
stellation Leo, on the S. and Ursa Major, on the N. Its mean
right ascension is the same with that of Regulus, and it
comes to the meridian at the same time on the 6th of April.
The modern constellations, or those which have been added to our celestial
maps since the adoption of the Greek notation, in 1603, are referred to by the
letters of the English alphabet, instead of the Greek. This is the case in regard
to #: Minor, and all other constellations whose origin is subsequent to that
period.
Leo Minor contains 53 stars, including only one of the 3d
magnitude, and 5 of the 4th. The F. star is situated
in the body of the animal, 130 N. of Gamma Leonis,* in a
straight line with Phad, and may be known by a group of
smaller stars, a little above it on the N. W.
It forms an equilateral triangle with Gamma and Delta Leonis, the vertex being
in Leo Minor. This star is marked with the letter l, in modern catalogues, and
being the principal representative of the constellation, is itself sometimes called
the ſittlefion '86 E. of this star (the Little Lion) are two stars of the 4th mag-
nitude, in the last paw of Ursa Major, and about 10° N. W. of it, are two other
stars of the 3d magnitude, in the first hind paw.
“The Smaller Lion now succeeds; a cohort
Of fifty stars attend his steps;
And three, to sight unarm’d, invisible.”
SEXT ANS.
THE SExTANT, called also URANIA's SExTANT, f is a modern
constellation that Hevelius made out of the unformed stars of
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Lion, on the
N., and Hydra, on the S.
It contains 41 very small stars, including only one as large
* Leonis is the §: or possessive case of Leo, and Gamma Leon is means the
Gamma of Leo. Thus also the principal star in Aries is marked Alpha Arietis, mean-
ing the Alpha of Aries, &c.
f Urania was one of the muses, and daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre-
sided over astronomy. She was represented as a young virgin, dressed in an azure-
coloured robe, crowned with stars, holding a robe in her hands, and having many
mathematical instruments about her.
What is the origin of Leo Minor, and how is it situated 7 What is its mean right as-
eension? When is it on the meridian What are the number and magnitude of its
stars? What is the position of the principal star in this constellation, and how may it
be known? What figure does it fºrm with some other stars? What letter represents
thºs star, and what else is it called?. What nebulae do we find in this constellation?
What are the origin and position of the Sextant? How many stars does ſº contain a
ri
d
**
tº
is
MAP iv.] HYDRA AND THE CUP. 83
as the 4th magnitude. This is situated very near the equi-
noctial, 130 S. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian about
the same time on the 6th of April. The other stars in this
constellation are too small to engage attention. A few of the
largest of them may be traced out from the map.
History.—A sextant, in mathematics, is the sixth part of a circle, or an arck
comprehending 60 degrees. But the term is more particularly used to denote
an astronomical instrument well known to mariners. Its use is the same as that
of the quadrant; namely, to meåsure the angular distance, and take the altitude
of the sun, moon, planets, and fixed stars. It is indispensable to the mariner in
finding the latitude and longitude at sea, and should be in the hands of every
surveyor and practical engineer. It may serve the purpose of a theodolite, in
measuring inaccessible heights and distances. It may gratify the young pupil to
know, that by means of such an instrument, well adjusted, and with a clear *.
and a steady hand, he could readily tell, within a few hundred yards, how far
north or south of the equator he was, and that from any quarter of the worl
known or unknown. This constellation is so called, on account of a suppose
resemblance to this instrument.
HYDRA AND THE CUP.
Hydra, THE WATER SERPENT, is an extensive constella-
tion, winding from E. to W. in a serpentine direction, over
a space of more than 100 degrees in length. It lies south of
Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, and reaches almost from Canis Mi
nor to Libra. It contains sixty stars, including one of the 2d
magnitude, three of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th.
Alphard, or Cor Hydra, in the heart, is a lone star of the
2d magnitude, 230 S. S. W. of Regulus, and comes to the
meridian at the same time with Lambda, in the point of the
sickle, about 20 minutes before 9 o'clock on the 1st of April.
There is no other considerable star near it, for which it can
be mistaken. An imaginary line drawn from Gamma Leonis
º Regulus, will point out Cor Hydrae, at the distance
Of 230.
The head of Hydra may be distinguished by means of four
stars of the 4th magnitude, 249 and 49 apart, situated 60 S. of
Acubens, and forming a rhomboidal figure. The three upper
stars in this cluster, form a small arch, and may be known b
two very small stars iº below the middle one, making wit
it a very small triangle. The three western stars in the head,
also make a beautiful little triangle. The eastern star in this
group, marked Zeta, is about 60 directly S. of Acubens, and
culminates at the same time.
When Alphard is on the meridian, Alkes, of the 4th mag-
nitrade, situated in the bottom of the Cup, may be seen 24°


What is the position of the largest one? Describe the situation and extent of the
constellation Hydra. What are the number and magnitude of its stars? Describe the
§: and magnitude of Alphard. What are the distance and direction of Cor Hy-
raº from Gamma Leonis?, How may the head of Hydra be distinguished? How may
the three upper stars in this cluster be known? Which stars form a beautiful little
triangle? How is Alkes situated, and when may it be seen 1
84 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, |APRIL.
S. E. of it, and is distinguished by its forming an equilateral
triangle with Beta and Gamma, stars of the same magnitud
(3° S. and E. of it. , Alkes is common both to Hydra .
the Cup. Beta, on the S., is in Hydra, and Gamma, on the
N. E., is near the middle of the Cup. A line drawn from
Zozma, through Theta Leonis, and continued 38%2 directly
S. will reach Beta; it is therefore on the same meridian, and
will culminate at the same time on the 23d of April.
The Cup itself, called also the Crater, may be easily dis-
tinguished by means of six stars of the 4th magnitude, form-
ing a beautiful crescent, or semicircle, opening to the W. The
centre of this group is about 159 below the equinoctial, and
directly S. of the hinder feet of Leo. The crescent form of
the stars in the Cup is so striking and well defined, when the
moon is absent, that no other description is necessary to point
them out. Its centre comes to the meridian about two hours
after Alphard, on the same evening; and consequently, it
culminates at 9 o'clock, one month after Alphard does. The
remainder of the stars in this constellation may be easily
traced by aid of the map.
When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, its other ex-
tremity is many degrees below the horizon, so that its whole
length cannot be traced out in the heavens until its centre, or
the Cup, is on the meridian.
—“Near the equator rolls
The sparkling H drº, proudly eminent
To drink the Galaxy's refulgent sea;
Nearly a fourth of the encircling curve
Which girds the ecliptic, his vast folds involve;
Yet ten the number of his stars diffused
O'er the long track of his enormous spires:
Chief beams his heart, sure of the second rank,
But emulous to gain the first.”—Eudosia.

HISTORY..—The astrologers of the east, in dividing the celestial nosts into vari.
Qus compartments, assigned a popular and allegorical meaning to each. Thus
the sign Leo, which passes the meridian about midnight, when the sum is in
Pisces, was called the House of the Lions, Leo being the domicil of Sol.
The introduction of two serpents into the constellations of the ancients, had its
origin, it is supposed, in the circumstances that the polar one represented the
oblique course of the stars, while the Hydra, or Great Snake, in the southern
hemisphere, symbolized the moon’s course: hence the Nodes are called the
Dragon's head and tail, to this day.
The #. was a terrible monster, which, according to mythologists, inſested
the neighbourhood of the lake Lerma, in the Peloponnesus. It had a hundred
heads, according to Diodorus; fifty, according to Simonides; and mine, accord-
ing to the more commonly received opinion of Apollodorus, Hyginus, and others.
As soon as one of these heads was cut off, two immediately grew up if the wound
was not stopped by fire.
If Alkes be situated in the Cup, why is iſ also included in Hydra? How are the other
two stars that make a triangle with Alkes, situated? How is Beta situated with respect
to Zozma and Theta Leonis? When is Bf ta on the meridian? How may the Cup be
distinguished?, How is the centre of this group situated with respect to Leo, and the
º What single circumstance is sufficient to designate the stars in the Cup?
When is it on the meridian? When the head of Hydra is on the meridian where is
$he other xtremity of the constellation?
MAP. VI.] ..., URSA MAJOR. 85
“Art J. & 1 Proportion'd to the hydra's length,
Who, by his wounds, received augmented strength 1
He raised a bundred hissing heads in air,
When ore I lopp'd, up sprang a dreadful pair.”
Te destroy this dreadfu. Emonster, was one of the labours of Hercules, and
this he easily effected with the assistance of Iolaus, who applied a burning iron
to the wounds as soon as one head was cut off. While Hercules was destroying
the hydra, Juno, jealous of his glory, sent a sea-crab to bite his foot. This new
enemy was soon despatched; and Juno was unable to succeed in her attempts
to lessen the fame of Hercules. The conqueror dipped his arrows in the gall of
he hydra, which ever after rendered the wounds inflicted with them incurable
Cºld Inoſtall.
This fable of the many-headed hydra may be understood to mean nothing more
han that the marshes of Lerna were infested with a multitude of serpents, which
seemed to multiply as fast as they wers destroyed.
C H A P T E R W II.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONST fºll,ATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN MAY.
URSA MAJOR,
THE GREAT BEAR.—This great constellation is situated.
between Ursa Minor on the north, and Leo Minor on the
south. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous in the
northern hemisphere. It has been an object of universal ob-
servation in all ages of the world. The priests of Belus, and
the Magi of Persia; the shepherds of Chaldea, and the Phoe-
nician navigators, seem to have been equally struck with its
peculiar outlines. And it is somewhat remarkable that a re-
mote nation of American aborigines, the Iroquois, and the
earliest Arabs of Asia, should have given to the very same
constellation the name of “Great Bear,” when there had
probably never been any communication between them; and
when the name itself is so perfectly arbitrary, there being no
resemblance whatever to a bear, or to any other animal.
It is readily distinguished from all others by means of a
remarkable cluster of seven bright stars, forming what is
familiarly termed the Dipper, or Ladle. In some parts of
England it is called “Charles's Wain,” or wagon, from its
fancied resemblance to a wagon drawn by three horses in a
line. Others call it the Plough. The cluster, however, is
more frequently put for the whole constellation, and called,
simply, the Great Bear. But we see no reason to reject the

How is Ursa Major situated? How has, it always been reº What people
seem to have been peculiarly struck with its Yº..., at remarkable cir-
cunnstance respecting its name? Is there any resemblance between the outlines of
this constellation and the figure of a bear? By what is this constellation readily dis
tinguished from all others? By What other names is the Dipper called? What is this
cluster more frequently called? 8
86 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, |MAY,
very appropriate appellation of the shepherds, for the resem-
blance is certainly in favour of the Dipper: the four stars in
the square forming the bowl, and the other three, the handle.
When the Dipper is on the meridian, above the pole, the
bottom lies towards us, with the handle on the right.
Benetnasch is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, and is the
first in the handle. The second, or middle star in the handle,
is Mizar, 79 distant from Benetmasch. It may be known by
means of a very minute star almost touching it, called Alcor,
which appears to be double when seen through a telescop
and of a silver white. The third star in the handle is calle
Alioth, and is about 40 W. of Mizar. Alioth is very nearly
opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal distance from
the pole. Benetmasch, Mizar, and Alioth, constitute the han-
#: while the next four in the square form the bowl of the
Ipper.
Five and a half degrees W. of Alioth is the first star in the
top of the Dipper, at the junction of the handle, called Megrez;
it is the smallest and middle one of the cluster, and is used
in various observations both on sea and land, for important
purposes.* At the distance of 440 S. W. of Megrez, is Phad,
the first star in that part of the bottom, which is next the
handle.
The stars in this cluster are so well known, and may be so easily described
without reference to their relative bearings, that they would rather confuse than
assist the student, were they given with ever so much accuracy. The several
bearings for this cluster were taken when Megrez was on the meridian, and will
not apply at any other time, though their respective distances will remain the
Saſikē.
At the distance of 80 W. of Phad, is the westernmost star
in the bottom of the Dipper, called Merak. The bright star
50 N. of it, towards the pole, is called Dubhe; but these two,
Merak and Dubhe, are, by common consent, called the Point.
ers, because they always point towards the pole; for, let the
line which joins them be continued in the same direction 28}o
farther, it will just reach the north pole.
The names, positions, and relative distances of the stars in
this cluster, should be well remembered, as they will be fre-
* When Megrez and Caph have the same altitude, and are seen in the same hori
zontal line east and west, the polar star is then at its greatest elongation from the true
pole of the heavens; and this is the proper time for an observer to take its angle of
elevation, in order to determine the latitude, and its azimuth or angle of declination.
in order to determine the magnetic variation.
What, on the whole, is an appropºlate appellation for it, and why? Describe the po-
sition of the Dipper when on the dian. Describe the position of Benetnasch. What
is the next star in the Dipper, and how may it be known What is the next, or third
star in the Dipper? What stars form the bowl and handle of the Dipper” Describe the
position and use of Megrez. What star is situated next to Megrezº Describe the po-
sition of Merak and Dubhe. What are these stars called, and why?
Map vi.) * - URSA MAJOR. 87
quently adverted to. The distance of Dubhe, or the Pointer
‘mearest to the north pole, is 283°. The distance between the
two upper stars in the Dipper is 10°; between the two lower
Ones is 8°: the distance from the brim to the bottom next the
handle, is 43°; between Megrez and Alioth is 53°; between
Alioth and Mizar 49, and between Mizar and Benetnasch, 79
The reason why it is important to have these distances clearly settled in the
inind is, that these stars, being always in view, and more familiar than any other,
the student will never fail to have a standard measure before him, which the eye
can easily make use of in determining the distances between other stars.
The position of Megrez in Ursa Major, and of Caph in
Cassiopeia, is somewhat remarkable. They are both in the
equinoctial colure, almost exactly opposite each other, and
equally distant from the pole. Caph is in the colure, which
passes through the vernal equinox, and Megrez is in that
which passes through the autumnal equinox. The latter
}. the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 10th of May, and the
ormer just six months afterwards, at the same hour, on the
10th of November.
Psi, in the left leg of Ursa Major, is a star of the 3d mag-
nitude, in a straight line with Megrez and Phad, distant from
the latter 12}o. A little out of the same line, 39 farther, is
another star of the 3d magnitude, marked Epsilon, which
may be distinguished from Psi, from its forming a straight
line with the two Pointers.
The right fore paw, and the two hinder ones, each about
15° from the other, are several y distinguished by two stars
of the 4th magnitude, between 19 and 20 apart. These three
duplicate stars are nearly in a right line, 20° S. of, and in a
direction nearly parallel with, Phad and Dubhe, and are the
only stars in this constellation that ever set in this latitude.
There are few other stars of equal brightness with those
just described, but amidst the more splendid and interesting
group with which they are clustered, they seldom engage our
observation.
The whole number of visible stars in this constellation is
87; of which one is of the 1st, three are of the 2d, seven of
the 3d, and about twice as many of the 4th magnitude.
History.—URSA MAJOR is said to be Calisto, or Helice, daughter of Lycaon,
What is the distance of Dubhe from the north pole? Mention the relative distances
between the other stars in this group. Why is it important to have the relative dis-
tances of these sºars from each other well settled in the mind? What is there remark-
able in the posits w of Megrez, and Caph in Cassiopeia? When do they pass the me-
dian? Describe, he position of Psi. Twhere is Epsilon situated, and how may it be
distinguished? He w are the paws of the Bear distinguished? What is the situation
of these stars with r. spect to Phad and Dubhe; What are the only stars in this con-
stellation that ever se in this latitude? What is the whole number of visible stars in
this constellation, and )w many of each magnitude."

88 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, IMAY
king of Arcadia. She was an attendant of Diana," and mother of Ar, ps, twº lu.
outer, who placed her among the constellations, after the jealousy of -i v. pi
thanged her into a bear. *
“This said, her hand within her hair she wound,
Swung her to earth, and dragg’d her on the ground;
The prostrate wretch liſts up her hand in prayer;
Her arms grow shaggy and deform'd with hair,
Her nails are sharpen'd into pointed claws,
Her hands bear half her weight, and turn to paws;
Her lips, that once could tempt a god, begin
To grow distorted in an ugly grin;
And lest the supplicating brute might reach
The ears of Jove, she Waş deprived of speech.
How did she fear to lodge in woods alone,
And haunt the fields and meadows, once her own |
How often would the deep-mouth'd dogs pursue,
Whilst from her hounds the frighted hunters flew.”—Ovid's Met.
Some suppose that her son Arcas, otherwise called Bootes, was changed into
Ursa Minor, or the Little Bear. It is well known, that the ancients represented
both these constellations under the figure of a wagon drawn by a team of horses;
hence the appellation of Charles's Wain, or wagon. This is alluded to in the
Phenomena of Aratus, a Greek poem, from which St. Paul quotes, in his address
to the Athenians:—
“The one call’d Helix,t soon as day retires,
Observed with ease, lights up his radiant fires:
* Diana was the goddess of hunting, and the patroness of modesty and chastity -
“The huntress Dian,
Fair, silver-shafted queen, for ever chaste,
set at naught
The frivolous bolt of Cupid ; gods and men
Fear her stern frown, and shě was queen o' th' woods.”—Milton.
The most famous of her temples was that of Ephesus, near Smyrna, in Asia, which
was one of the seven wonders of the world. It is related in the Acts of the Apostles,
that “Demetrius, a silversmith, who made silver shrines for Diana,” endeavoured to
excite opposition to the Christian religion, because “this Paul had persuaded much
people that they be no gods which are made with hands,” and “that the temple of the
great goddess Diana should be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed,
whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. And when they heard these sayings they
were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians / And thus
they continued shouting for the space of two hours.” And again, “When the town
Clerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that
knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess
Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?”
The “image which fell down from Jupiter,” doubtless alludes to the fable that Juno
cast her out of heaven, and that Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, raised the
island of Belos, from the Egean sea, for her birth and habitation; for it was in this
island that the twins, Apollo and Diana, were born. Diana is therefore sometimes
called Delia, from the name of the island that gave her birth. She was represented
under the figure of a very beautiful virgin, in a hunting dress, a head taller than any
of her attendant nymphs, with a bow in her hand, a quiver suspended across her
shoulders, and her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent “which Jews might
kiss and infidels adore.” The inhabitants of Taurica sacrificed upon her altars all the
strangers that were shipwrecked upon their coast. The Lacedemonians yearly offer.
ed her human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who changed this barbarous custom of
immolation to flagellation. The Athenians generally offered her goats, while others
offered white kids and eves. sº
“Haste the sacrifice;
Seven bullocks yet unyoked for Phoebus choose,
And for Diana, seven unspotted ewes.”—Virgil.
Wno does not bow with grateful veneration at hat Christian intrepidity of St. Paul.
who risked his life in exposing the delusion and idolatry of the worshippers of the
goddess Diana : g
It is a remarkable circumstance, that the temple of Diana was burnt to the ground
the very day on which Alexander the great was born

t Calisto was a native of the city of Helice, in Achaia, a district near the bay of Co-
rinth; hence the Greater Bear is sometimes, called Helice :-
“Night on the earth pour’d darkness; on the sea,
The watchful sailor, to Orion’s star
And Helice, turn'd heedful.”-Apollonitia.
MAP IV.] ~COMA BERENICES. 8%
The other, smaller, and with feebler beams,
In a less circle drives its lazy teams;
But more adapted for the sailor's guide,
Whene'er, by night, he tempts the briny tide.”
In the Egyptian planispheres of remote antiquity, these two constellations are
represented by the figures of bears, instead of wagons; ančº the Greeks, who
derived most of their astronomical symbols from the Egyptians, though they
usually altered them to emblems of their own history or superstition, have, nev.
ertheless, retained the original form of the two bears. It is said by Aratus, that
the Phenician navigators made use of Ursa Minor in directing their voyages:-
“Observing this, Phemicians plough the main:”
while the Greeks confined their observations to Ursa Major.
Some imagine that the ancient Egyptians arranged the stars near the north
pola, within the outlines of a bear, because the polar regions are the haunts of
this * and also because it makes neither extensive journeys nor rapid
Kſ & " "Ihes.
At what period men began to sail by the stars, or who were the first people
that did so, is not clear; but the homour is usually given to the Phenicians. That
it was practised by the Greeks, as early as the time of the Trojan war, that is,
about 1200 years B. C., we learn from Homer; for he says of Ulysses, when
sailing on his raft, that
“Placed at the helm he sate, and mark'd the skies,
Nor closed in sleep his ever watchful eyes.”

It is rational to suppose that the stars were first used as a guide to travellers
by land, for we can scarcely imagine that men would venture themselves upon
the sea by night, before they had first learned some safe and sure method of
directing their course by land. And we find, according to Diodorus Siculus, that
travellers in the sandy plains of Arabia were accustomed to direct their course
by the Bears.
That people travelled in these vast deserts at night by observing the stars, is
directly proved by this passage of the Koran:—“God has given you the stars to
be guides in the dark, both by land and by sea.”
COMA BERENICES.
BERENICE’s HAIR.—This is a beautiful cluster of small
stars, situated about 5° E. of the equinoctial colure, and mid-
way between Cor Caroli on the northeast, and Denebola on
the southwest. If a straight line be drawn from Benetmasch
through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola, it will pass
through it.
The principal stars are of between the 4th and 5th magni-
tudes. According to Flamsted, there are thirteen of the 4th
magnitude, and according to others there are seven ; but the
student will find agreeably to his map, that there is apparently
but one star in this group, entitled to that rank, and this is
situated about 70 S. E. of the main cluster.
Although it is not easy to mistake this group for any other
in the same region of the skies, yet the stars, which compose
it are all so small as to be rarely distinguished in the full pre-
sence of the moon. The confused lustre of this assemblage
Describe the appearance and situation of Coma Berenices. What are the magnitudes
of the principal stars in this cluster? What are they, according to Flamstell and
others? How many stars of the 4th magnitude will the student find on the map? Is it
easy to mistake this group, and is it *g in presence of the moon?
3G PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. LMAY-
of small stars somewhat resembles that of the Milky-Way. It
contains besides the stars already alluded to, a number of
nebulae.
The whole number of stars in this constellation is 43; its
mean right ascension is 1859. It consequently is on the me-
ridian the 13th of May.
“Now behold
The glittering maze of Berenice's Hair;
Forty the stars; but such as seem to kiss
The flowing tresses with a lambent fire:
Four to the telescope alone are seen.”
History.—Berenice was of royal descent, and a lady of great beauty, who
married Ptolemy Soter, or Evergetes, one of the kings of Egypt, her own bro-
ther, whom she loved with much tenderness. When he was going on a danger-
ous expedition against the Assyrians, she vowed to dedicate her hair to the
goddess of beauty, if he returned in safety. Sometime after the victorious re-
turn of her husband, Evergetes, the locks which agreeably to her oath, she had
deposited in the temple of Venus disappeared. The king expressed great re-
gret at the loss of what he so much prized; whereupon Conon, his astronomer,
publicly reported that J º: had taken away the queen's locks from the temple,
and placed them among the stars.
“There Berenice's locks first rose so bright,
The heavens bespangling with dishevelled light.”
Conon, being sent for by the king, pointed out this constellation, sayi
*There behold the locks of the queen.” This group being among the unforme
stars until that time, and not known as a constellation, the king was satisfied with
the declaration of the astronomer, and the queen became reconciled to the par-
tiality of the gods.
Callimachus, an historian and § who flourished long before the Christiae
era, has these lines as translated by Tytler:-

“Immortal Conon, blest with skill divine,
Amid the sacred skies behold me shine;
E’en me, the beauteous hair, that lately shed
Refulgent beams from Berenice's head;
The lock she fondly vowed with lifted arms,
Imploring all the powers to save from harms
Her dearer lord, when from his bride he flew,
To wreck stern vengeance on the Assyrian crew.”
CORVUS.
THE CRow.—This small constellation is situated on the
eastern part of Hydra, 150 E. of the Cup, and is on the same
meridian with Coma Berenices, but as far S. of the equinoc-
tial as Coma Berenices is N. of it. It therefore culminates
at the same time, on the 12th of May. It contains mine visi-
º: stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and two of the
4th.
This constellation is readily distinguished by means of
three stars of the 3d magnitude and one of the 4th, forming a
trapezium or irregular square, the two upper ones being
about 34° apart, and the two lower ones 60 apart.
What does its lustre resemble? What is the number of stars in this constellation,
and when is it on the meridian? Where is the Crow situated” When is it on the me-
;% ww. are the number and magnitude of its stars? IIow is it readily distin.
gu
MAP IV.] ~... CORWUS, 91--"
The brightest of the two upper stars, on he left, is called
Algorab, and is situated in the E. wing of the Crow ; it has
nearly the same declination S. that the Dog-star has, and is
on the meridian about the 13th of May. It is 21%.9 E. of
Alkes in the Cup, 14° S. W. of Spica Virginis, a brilliant
star of the 1st magnitude to be described in the next chapter.
Beta, on the back of Hydra and in the foot of the Crow, is
a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 7° S. of Algorab. It is the
brightest of the two lower stars, and on the left. The right-
hand lower one is a star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the
neck, marked Epsilon, about 6° W. of Beta, and may be
known by a star of the same magnitude situated 2° below it,
in the eye, and called Al Chiba. Epsilon is 213° S. of the
vernal equinox, and if a meridian should be drawn from the
pole through Megrez, and produced to Epsilon Corvi, it would
mark the equinoctial colure.
Gamma in the W. wing, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 34°
W. of Algorab, and is the upper righthand one in the square.
It is but 1° E. of the equinoctial colure.
10° E. of Beta is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the tail of
Hydra, marked Gamma; , these two, with Algorab, form
nearly a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Beta.
History.—The Crow, it is said, was once of the purest white, but was changed
for tale-bearing to its present colour. A fit punishment for such a ſault!
“The raven once in snowy plumes was drest,
White as the whitest dove's unsullied breast,
Fair as the guardian of the capitol,
Soft as the Swan; a large and lovely fowl;
His tongue, his prating tongue, had changed him quite,
To sooty blackness from the purest white.”
According to Greek fable, the Crow was made a constellation by Apollo. This
god being jealous of Coronis, (whom he tenderly loved,) the daughter of Phle;
gyas and mother of OEsculapius, sent a crow to watch her behaviour; the bird
perceived her criminal partiality for Ischys the Thessalian, and immediately
acquainted Apollo with her conduct, which so fired his indignation that he lodged
an arrow in her breast, and killed her instantly.
“The god was wroth; the colour left his look,
The wreath his head, the harp his hand forsook;
His silver bow and feather'd shafts he took,
And lodged an arrow in the tender breast,
That had so often to his own been prest.”
To reward the crow, he placed her among the constellations.
Others say that this constellation takes its name from the daughter of Coro-
naeus, king of Phocis, who was transformed into a crow by Minerva, to rescue
the maid from the pursuit of Neptune. The following, from an eminent Latin
poet of the Augustine age, is her own account of the metamorphosis as transla-
ted into English verse by Mr. Addison:-
‘For as my arms I lifted to the skies,
I saw black feathers from my fingers rise:
Describe the position of Algorab. How does its declination compare with that of
Sirius? What are its distance and direction from Alkes and Spica Virginis? De-
scribe the situation of Beta. Describe the situation of the righthand lower star. What
is the distance of Epsilon_from the vermal equinox, and how may the equinoctial
be traced out by it? What are the magnitude and position of Gamma? Of Beta?
*-92 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS: |MAr
I strove to fling my garment on the ground;
My garment turned to plumes, and girt me round:
My #. to beat my naked bosom try;
Nor naked bosom now nor hands had I:
Lightly I tripp'd, nor weary as before
Sunk in the sand, but skimm'd along the shore;
Till, rising on my wings, I was preferr'd
To be the chaste Minerva’s virgin bird.”
VIRGO.
THE VIRGIN.—This is the sixth sign, and seventh constel:
lation in the ecliptic. It is situated next east of Leo, and
about midway between Coma Berenices on the N. and Cor-
vus on the S. It occupies a considerable space in the hea-
vens, and contains, according to Flamsted, one hundred and
ten stars, including one of the 1st, six of the 3d, and ten of
the 4th magnitudes. Its mean declination is 5° N., and its
mean right ascension is 1959. Its centre is therefore on the
meridian about the 23d of May.
The sun enters the sign Virgo, on the 23d of August, but does not enter the
constellation before the 15th of September. When the sun is in this sign, the
earth is in Pisces; and vice versa.
Spica Virginis, in the ear of corn” which the virgin holds
in her left hand, is the most brilliant star in this constella-
tion, and situated nearly 15° E. N. E. of Algorab in the Crow,
about 35° S. E. of Denebola, and nearly as far S. S. W.
of Arcturus—three very brilliant stars of the 1st magnitude
that form a large equilateral triangle, pointing to the S. Arc
turus and Denebola are also the base of a similar triangle on
the north, terminating in Cor Caroli, which, joined to the
former, constitutes the Diamond of Virgo. The length of this
figure, from Cor Caroli on the north to Spica Virginis on the
south, is 500. Its breadth, or shorter diameter, extending from
Arcturus on the east, to Denebola on the west, is 3549. Spica
may otherwise be known by its solitary splendour, there being
no visible star near it except one of the 4th magnitude, situ-
ated about 19 below it, on the left.
The position of this star in the heavens, has been deter-
mined with great exactness for the benefit of navigators. It
* In the Egyptian Zodiac, Isis, whose place was supplied by Virgo, was represented
with three ears of corn in her hand. According to the #. mythology, Isis was
said to have dropped a sheaf of corn, as she fled from Typhon, who, as he continued
to pursue her, scattered it over the heaven'. The Chinese call the Zodiac the yellow
road, as resembling a path over which the ripened ears of corn are scattered.
What is the relative position of Virgo among the signs and constellations of the
ecliptic? How is it situated? How many stars does it contain, and how large are the
principal ones? What are its mean declination and right ascension? When is the
centre of the constellation on themeridian? Describe the principal star in Virgo What
are the distance and direction of Virgo from Algorab, Denebola and Arcturus? What
are the magnitude and appearance of these three stars, and what figure do they forms
How may Spica be otherwise distinguished? Why has its position been determined
with great exactness?
MAP Iv.] VIRGO, 93-
is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance is taken
for determining the longitude at sea. Its situation is highly
favourable for this purpose, as it lies within the moon’s path,
and little more than 2° below the earth's orbit.
Its right ascension being 1999, it will come to our meridian
at 9 o'clock about the 28th of May, in that point of the heav-
ens where the sun is at noon about the 20th of October.

Windemiatriz, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the right arm, or northern wing
of Virgo, and is situated nearly in a straight line with, and midway between
Coma Bérenices, and Spica Virginis. It is 1939 S.W. of Arcturus, and about the
same distance S. E. of Coma Berenices, and forms with these two a large tri-
angle, pointing to the South. It bears also isós. S. E. of Denebola, and comes
to the meridian about 23 minutes before Spica Virginis.
Zeta, is a star of the 3d magnitude 1139. N. of Spica, and very near the equi-
noctial. Gamma, situated near the left side, is also a star of the 3d magnitude,
and very near the equinoctial. It is 139 due west of Zeta, with which and Spică
it forms a handsome triangle. Eta, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the southern
wing, 5° W. of Gamma, and but 23° E. of the autummal equinox.
Beta, called also Zavijava, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the shoulder of
the wing, 7#9 W. of Eta, with which and Gamma, it forms a line near the Earth’s
orbit, and parallel to it. Beta, Eta, Gamma and Spica, form the lower and longer
side of a large spherical triangle whose vertex is in Beta. The other stars in this
figure may be easily traced by means of the map. About 13° E. of Spica, there
are two stars of the 4th magnitude, 3° apart, which mark the foot of Virgo.
These two stars are on nearly the same meridian with Arcturus, and culminate
Hºg at the same time. The lower one, marked Lambda, is on the south, and
but 8° W. of the principal star in Libra. Several other stars of the 3d magni.
tude lie scattered about in this constellation, and may be traced out by the map,
“Her lovely tresses glow with starry light;
Stars ornament the bracelet on her hand;
Her vest in ample fold, glitters with stars:
Beneath her snowy feet they shune; her eyes
Lighten, all glorious, with the heavenly ray
But first the star which crowns the golden sheaf.”
History.—The famous zodiac of Dendera, as we have already noticed, com-
mences with the sign Leo ; but another zodiac, discovered among the ruins at
Estne, in Egypt, commences with Virgo; and from this circumstance, some
have argued, that the regular precession of the equinoxes established a date to
this at least 2000 years older than that at Dendera. The discoveries of Cham-
pollion, however, render it probable that this ancient relic of astrology at Estne
was erected during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and consequently did
not precede the one at Dendera more than fourteen years.
Of this, however, we may be certain : the ºilox now corresponds
with the first degree of Virgo; and, consequently, if we find a zodiac in which
the summer solstice was placed where the autumnal equinox now is, that zodiac
carries us back 90° on the ecliptic; this divided by the annual precession 50+",
must fix the date at about 6450 years ago. This computation, according to the
chronology of the Sacred writings, carries us back to the earliest ages of the
human species on earth, and proves, at least, that astronomy was among the
first studies of mankind. The most rational way of accounting for this zodiac,
says Jamieson, is to ascribe it to the family of Noah; or perhaps to the patriarch
himself, who constructed it for the benefit of those who should live after the
deluge, and who preserved it as a monument to perpetuate the actual state of
the heavens immediately subsequent to the creation.
Fable represents the ancient Egyptians as believing that the yearly and regu-
lar inundations of the Nile proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed
Why is its situation favourable for taking the moon’s distance? When does it pass
our meridianº Describe the situation of Windemiatria. Describe the figure which it
forms with other stars in the same neighbourhood. What are its distance and bearins
from Denebola 2 Describe Zeta. Describe Gamma. Describe the position of Eta Dę
º#. ; of Beta. What geometrical figure may be formed qf the stars in this
*62g/tt0147 h90
PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAY
for the loss of Osiris, whom º had basely murdered. By cor founding
the simple allegory of the learned with the mythological creed of the vulgar, the
historical account ſurnished us, respecting Isis, becomes perplexed and uni
telligible. Perhaps with the following key, we may unlock the mystery:-
sun in Leo, was adorned as the god Ösiris; in Virgo, it was worshipped as
sister Isis; at its passage into Scorpio, the terrible reign of º Commenced.
Columella fixes the transit of the sun into Scorpio, on the 13th of the calends of
November; and this period nearly corresponds with that in which Osiris was
feigned to have been slain by Typhon, and the death of Orion was to have been
occasioned by the sting of a scorpion. When Scorpio begins to rise, Orion sets’
when Scorpio comes to the meridian, Leo begins to set .*ś then reigns.
Osiris is slain, and his sister follows him to the tomb weeping. The traditions allo
'the sign Virgo to Naphtali, whose standard had for its symbol, a tree “bearing
goodly branches.”
Thus mythology, in describing the physical state of the world. Invented a
symbolical language which personified inanimate objects; and the priests redu-
ced the whole of their noblest science to ſables, which the people believed as
true histories representing the moral condition of mankind during the first aces
of civil government. *
According to the ancient poets, this constellaº, represents the virgin AS-
traea, the goddess of justice, who lived upon the earth during the golden age;
but being offended at the wickedness and impiety of mankind during the brazen
and iron ages of the world, she returned to heaven, and was placed among the
constellations of the zodiac, wiih a pair of scales (Libra) in one hand and a
sword in the other.
Hesiod, who flourished nearly a thousand years before the birth of our
Saviour, and later writers, mention four ages of the world; the golden, the
silver, the brazen, and the iron age." In the beginning of things, say they, all
men were happy, and all men were good; the earth brought forth her fruits
without the labour ºf man; and cares, and wants, wars and diseases, were un-
known. But this fiappy state of things did not last long. To the golden age, the
silver age succeeded; to the silver, the brazen; and to the brazen, the iron.
Perpetual spring no longer reigned; men continually quarrelled with each other;
crime succeeded to crime; and blasphemy and murder stained the history of
every day. In the golden age, the gods did not disdain to mix familiarly with
the sons of men. The innocence, the integrity and brotherly love which they
found among us, were a pleasing spectacle even to superior natures; but as
mankind degenerated, one god after another deserted their late beloved haunts;
Astraea lingered the last; but finding the earth steeped in human gore, she her.
self flew away to the celestial regions.
“Victa jacet pietas; et virgo cade madentes
Ultima coelestum terras Astraºa reliquit.”
Met. Lib, i. v. 149.
“Faith flees, and piety in exile mourns;
And justice, here oppress'd, to heaven returns.”
Some, however, maintain, that Erigone was changed into the constellation
Virgo. The death of her father Icarius, an Athenian, who perished by the
hands of some #". whom he had intoxicated with wine, caused a fit of
despair, in which Erigone hung herself; and she was afterwards, as it is sai º
laced among the signs of the zodiac. She was directed by her faithful *
aera to the P. where her father was slain. The first bough on which sº
3.
hung herself, breaking, she sought a stronger, in order to effect her purpose.
“Thus once in Marathon's impervious wood,
Erigone beside her father stood,
When hastening to discharge her pious vows,
She loos'd the knot, and cull'd the strongest boughs.”
LEwis's Statius, B. xi.
ASTERION ET CHARA; VEL CANES WENATICI.
THE GREYHounds.-This modern constellation, embracing
two in one, was made by Hevelius out of the unformed star.
Twhat is the origin of the constellation called the Greyhounds?

\ MAP Iw " * ~e a 3rº * * BOOTFS,
of the ancients which were scattered between Bootes on the *
east, and Ursa Major on the west, and between the handle of
the Dipper on the north, and Coma Berenices on the south.
These Hounds are represented on the celestial sphere as
being in pursuit of the Great Bear, which Bootes is hunting
round the pole of heaven, while he holds in his hand the leash
by which they are fastened together. The northern one is
called Asterion, and the southern one, Chara.
The stars in this group are considerably scattered, and are
principally of the 5th, and 6th magnitudes; of the twenty-five
stars which it contains, there is but one sufficiently large to
engage our attentiotſ. Cor Caroli, or Charles's Heart, so
named by Sir Charles Scarborough, in memory of King
Charles the First, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the neck
of Chara the Southern Hound.
When on the meridian, Cor Caroli is 1739 directly S. of Alioth, the third star
in the handle of the Dipper, and is so nearly on the same meridian that it culmi-
nates only one minute and a half aſter it. This occurs on the 20th of May.
A line drawn from Cor Caroli through Alioth will lead to the N. polar star.
This star may also be readily distinguished by its being in a straight line wit
and midway between Benetmasch, the first star in the han f the Dipper, an
Coma Berenices: and also by the fact that when Cor Caro on the meridian,
Denebola bears 28° S. W., and Arcturus 26° S. E. of it, foruññg with these two
stars a very large triangle, whose vertex is at the north; it is also at the north-
erm extremity of the large Diamond, already described.
The remaining stars in this constellation are too small, and too much scattered
to excite our interest.
2%.
C H A P T E R W III.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JUNE,
BOOTES.*
THE BEAR-DRIVER is represented by the figure of a hunts.
man in a running posture, grasping a club in his right hand,
and holding up in his left the leash of his two greyhounds,
Asterion and Chara, with which he seems to be pursuing the
Great Bear round the pole of the heavens. He is thence called
Arctophylax, or the “Bear-Driver.”
* Pronounced Bo-o'-tes.
How are the Greyhounds represented? By what names are they distinguished?
What are the magnitudes of the stars which compose this group, and how are they sit-
uated with respect to each other?. Describe the principal star." Iſhen on the meridian
what is its situation voith regard to Alioth 2 How is Cor Caroli situated with respect
to the polar star? How may this star be otherwise readzly distinguished? What large
geometrical figure does it form with two other bright stars in its vicznity? How is the
constellation Bootes represented? Why is Bootes called the Bear-Driver?

PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS - {JUNE.
This constellation is situated between Corona Borealis, on
the east, and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the west. It
contains fifty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude,
seven of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. Its mean declination is
200 N., and its mean right ascension is 2129; its centre is
therefore on the meridian the 9th of June.
Bootes may be easily distinguished by the position and
splendour of its principal star, Arcturus, which shines with a
reddish lustre, very much resembling that of the planet Mars.
Arcturus is a star of the 1st magnitude, situated near the
left knee, 260 S. E. of Cor Caroli and Coma Berenices, with
which it forms an elongated triangle, whose vertex is at Arc-
turus. It is 35%0 E. of Denebola, and nearly as far N. of
Spica Virginis, and forms with these two, as has already
been observed, a large equilateral triangle. It also makes,
with Cor Caroli and Denebola, a large triangle whose vertex
is in Cor Caroli.
A great variety of geometrical figures may be formed of the stars in this bright
region of the skies. For example; Cor Caroli on the N., and Spica Virginis in
the S., constitute the extreme Wºn: of a very large figure in the shape of a dia.
mond; while Denebola on the and Arcturus on the E., limit the mean diam-
eter at the other ppints.
Arcturus is supposed, by some, to be nearer the earth than
any other star in the northern hemisphere.
Five or six degrees S. W. of Arcturus are three stars of the 3d and 4th magni-
tudes, lying in a curved line, about 29 apart, and a little below the left knee of
Bootes; and about 7° E. of Arcturus are three or four other stars of similar mag-
nitude, situated in the other leg, making a larger curve N. and S.
Mirac, in the girdle, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° N. N. E. of Arcturus,
and about 11° &# of Alphacca, a star in the Northern Crown. Seginus, in the
west shoulder, is a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 20° E. of Cor Caroli, and
about the same distance N. of Arcturus, and forms, with these two, a right an-
gled triangle, the right angle being at Seginus. The same star forms a right an-
§. §º with Cor Caroli and Alioth, in Ursa Major, the right angle being at
aroll.
Alkatwrops, situated in the top of the club, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about
1049 in an easterly direction from Seginus, which lies in the left shoulder; and
about 44° S. of Alkaturops is another star of the 4th magnitude, in the club near
the east shoulder, marked Delta. Delta is about 99 distant from Mirac, and 74°
from Alphacca, and forms, with these two, a regular triangle.
Nekkär is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the head, and is about 6° N.
E. of Seginus, and 5° W. of Alkaturops; it forms, with Delta and Seginus, nearly
a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Nekkar.
These are the principal stars in this constellation, except the three stars of
the 4th magnitude situated in the right hand. These stars may be known, by
two of them being close together, and about 5° beyond Benetnasch, the first star
How is this constellation situated? How many stars does it contain? How large are
the principal ones? What is its mean right ascension? What is its mean declination?
When is its centre on the meridian? How is it easily distinguished from the sur-
rounding constellations? Describe Arcturus. What is its situation with respect to
Denebola and Spica Virginis? How is it situated with respect to Cor Caroli and Dene-
bola? What remarkable configuration in this part of the sky? What is the distance
of Arcturus from the earth, compared with that of the other stars in the northern hem-
isphere?, What stars five or six degrees southwest of Arcturus? What stars in the
other leg 2 Describe the star Mirac. Describe Seginus....With what other stars does
§eginus form a right angled triangle 2 Describe the position of Alicaturops. Describe
the position of Delta Describe Nekkar.

MAP iv.j -- ~ BOOTES. g7-
in the handle of the Dipper. About 69 E. of Benetmasch is another star of the
4th magnitude, situated in the arm, which forms, with Benetnasch and the three
in the hund, an equilateral triangle.
The three stars in the left hand of Bootes, the first in the handle of the Dipper,
Cor Caroli, Coina Berenices, and Denebola, are all situated nearly in the same
right line, running from northeast to southwest. '
“Bootes follows with redundant light;
Fifty-four stars he boasts; one guards the Bear,
Thence call’d Arcturus, of resplendent front,
The pride of the first order: eight are veil'd,
Invisible to the unaided eye.”
MANILIUS thus speaks of this constellation:—
“And next Bootes comes, whose order'd beams
Present a figure driving of his teams
Below his girdle, near É. knees, he bears
The bright Arcturus, fairest of the stars.”
Arcturus is mentioned by name in that beautiful passage
in Job, already referred to, where the Almighty answers “out
of the whirlwind,” and says:—
“Canst thou the sky's benevolence restrain,
And cause the Pleiades to shine in vain 7
Or, when Orion sparkles from his sphere,
Thaw the cold seasons and unbind the year?
Bid Mazzaroth his station know,
And teach the bright Arcturus where to glow?”
oung's Paraphrase.
HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks called this constellation Lycaon—a name de-
rived from Auxor, which signifies a wolf. The Hebrews called it Caleb Anubach,
the “Barking Dog ;” while the Latins, among other names, called it Canis. If
we go back to the time when Taurus ºpened the year, and when Virgo was the
fifth of the zodiacal signs, we shall find that brilliant star Arcturus, so remarka-
ble for its red and fiery appearance, corresponding with a period of the year as
remarkable for its heat. Pythagoras, who introduced the true system of the
universe into Greece, received it from OEnuphis, a priest of On, in Egypt. Anº
this college of the priesthood was the noblest of the east, in cultivating the studies
of philosophy and astronomy. Among the high honours which Pharaoh confer:
red on Joseph, he very wisely gave him in marriage “a daughter of the priest of
On.” The supposed era of the book of Job, in which Arcturus is repeatedly
mentioned, is 1513 B.C.
Bootes is supposed by some to be Icarus, the father of Erigone, who was killed
by shepherds for intoxicating them. ... Others maintain that it is Ericthonius, the
inventor of chariots. According to Grecian fable, as well as later authorities,
Bootes was the son of Jupiter and Calisto, and named Arcas. Ovid relates, that
Juno, being incensed at Jupiter for his partiality to Calisto, changed her into a
bear, and that her son Arcas, who became a famous huntér, one day roused a
bear in the chase, and not knowing that it was his mother, was about to kill her,
when Jupiter snatched them both up to heaven and placed them among the con
stellations. Met. b. ii. v. 496-508.
“But now her son had fifteen summers told,
Fierce at the chase, and in the forest bold;
When as he beat the woods in quest of prey,
He chanced to rouse his mother where she lay.
She knew her son, and kept him in her sight,
And ºf gazed: the boy was in a fright,
And aim'd a pointed arrow at her breast;
And would have slain his mother in the heast ;
But Jove forbad, and snatch'd them through the air
In whirlwinds up to heaven, and fix’d 'em there;
Describe the three stars in the left hand of Rootes. What stars in this heighbourhood
form a long line through the heavens? Where is Arcturus mentioned ñthe Scrip.
$ureş% A * *
9 *, *. *.
• . *
*
Y-8s PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ! JUNE.
f
Where the new constellations nightly rise,
And add a lustre to the northern skies.”
& Garth's Translatz07.
LucAN, in his Pharsalia, says,
“That Brutus, on the busy times intent,
To virtuous Cato's humble dwelling went.
'Twas when the Solemn dead of night came on,
When bright Calisto, with her shining son,
Now half that circle round the pole had run.”
This constellation is called Bootes, *. Cicero, (Nat. Deo. Lib. ii. 42.) from a
Greek word signifying a wagoner, or ploughman; and sometimes Arctophylaz,
from two Greek words signifying bear-keeper or bear driver.
“Arctophylax, vulgo qui dicitur esse Bootes,
Quod quasi temone adjunctum praese quatit Arctum.”
The stars in this region of the skies seem to have attracted the admiration of
almost all the eminent writers of antiquity. Claudian observes, that
“Bootes with his wain the north unfolds;
The southern gate Orion holds.”
And Aratus,” who flourished nearly 800 years before Claudian, says,
“Behind, and seeming to urge on the Bear,
Arctophylax, on earth Bootes named,
Sheds o'er the Arctic car his silver light.”
CENTAURUS.
THE CENTAUR.—This fabulous monster is represented by
* This is the poet whom St. Paul refers to when he tells the Athenians, Acts xvii.
28, that “some of their own poets have said,” “Tow yap wºu Yevo; so Azey: For We are
also his offspring.” . These words are the beginning of the 5th line of the “Phenome-
ma,” of Aratus; a celebrated Greek poem written in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
two thousand one hundred years ago, and afterwards translated into Latin verse ly
Cicero. Aratus was a poet of St. Palić own country. The apostle borrows again from
the same poet, both m his Epistle to the Galatians, and to Titus. The subject of the
poem was grand and interesting: hence we find it referred to in the writings of St.
Clement, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, (Ecumenius, and others. As this poem describes
the nature and motions of the stars, and the origin of the constellations, and is, more-
over, one of the oldest compositions extant, upon this interesting subject, the author
has taken some pains to procure a Polyglot copy from Germany, together with the As-
tronomicon of Manilius, and some other works of similarantiquity, that nothing should
be wanting on his part which could impart an interest to the study of the constella-
#. or illustrate the frequent allusions to them which we meet with in the Scrip-
UlrCS.
Dr. Doddridge says of the above quotation, that “these words are well known to he
found in Aratus, a poet of Paul’s own country, who lived almost 300 years before the
apostle's time; and that the same words, with the alteration of only one letter, are to
be found in the Hymn of Cleanthes, to Jupiter, the Supreme God; which is, beyond
comparison, the purest and finest piece of natural religion, of its length, which I know
in the whole world of Pagan antiquity; and which, so far as I can recollect, contains
nothing unworthy of a Christian, or, I had almost said, of an inspired pen...The apos-
tle might perhaps refer to Cleanthes, as well as to his countryman Aratus.”
Many of the elements and fables of heathen mythology are so blended with the in-
spired writings, that they must needs be studied, more or less, in order to have a more
proper understanding of numerous passages both in the Qld and New Testament.
The great apostle of the Gentiles, in uttering his inspired sentiments, and in pen-
ning his epistles, often refers to, and sometimes quotes verbatim from the distinguished
writers who preceded him. sº
Thus, in 1 Cor. xv. 33, we have “Mn raayaa-fle bºugovaty ºn 3.pnot cºux,
saxau.” Be not deceived; evil communications corrupt good manners;” which is a
literal quotation by the apostle from the Thais of Menander, an inventor of Greek
comedy, and a celebrated Athenian poet, who flourished nearly 400 years before the
apostle wrote his epistle to the Corinthians. Thus Paul adopts the sentiment, of the
comedian, and it becomes ballowed by “the divinity that stirred within him.” Ter-
tallian remarks, that “ in quoting this, the apostle hath sanctified the poet's sentiment "
How is the Centaur represented?
MAP iv.1 LÜ FUS 99
the figure of a man terminating in the body of a horse, hold-
ing a wolf at arm's length in one hand, while he transfixes its
body with a spear in the other.
Although this constellation occupies a large space in the
southern hemisphere, yet it is so low down that the main
part of it cannot be seen in our latitude. It is situated south
of Spica Virginis, with a mean declination of 50°. It con-
tains thirty-five stars, including two of the 1st magnitude, one
of the 2d, and six of the 3d; the brightest of which are not
visible in the United States.
Theta, is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitude, in the east shoulder, and
may be seen from this latitude during the month of June, being about 27° S, by
E. from Spica Virginis, and 12° or 139 above the southern horizon. It is easily
recognised, in a clear evening, from the circumstance that there is no other Star
of similar brightness, in the same region, for which it can be mistaken. It is so
; on the same meridian with Arcturus that it culminates but ten minutes
efore it.
Iota, is a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, in the west shoulder, 949
W. of Theta. It is about 26° almost directly south of Spica Virginis, and is on
the meridian nearly at the Sanue timue.
Mu and Nu, are stars of the 4tn magnitude, in the breast, very near together,
and form a regular triangle with the two stars in the shoulders.
A few degrees north of the two stars in the shoulders, are four small stars in
the head. The relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders is very
similar to that of the stars in the head and shoulders of Orion.
HISTORY..—Centaurs, in mythology, were a kind of fabulous monsters, half men
and half horses. This fable is, however, differently interpreted; some suppose
the Centaurs to have been a body of shepherds and herdsmen, rich in cattle, who
inhabited the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention of
pastoral poetry. But Plutarch and Pliny are of opinion, that such monsters have
really existed. Others say, that under the reign of Ixion, king of Thessaly, a
herd of bulls ran inad, and ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains
inaccessible; and that some young men, who had found the art of taming and
mounting horses, undertook to expel these noxious animals, which they pur-
sued on horseback, and thence obtained the appellation of Centaurs,
This success rendering them insolent, they insulted the Lapithae, a people of
Thessaly; and because, when attacked, they fled with great rapidity, it was Sup-
posed that they were half horses and half men; men on horses being at that
period a very uncommon sight, and the two appearing, especially at a distance,
to constitute but one animal. So the Spanish cavalry at first seemed to the as-
tonished Mexicans, who imagined the horse and his rider, like the Centaurs of
the ancients, to be some monstrous animal of a terrible form.
The Centaurs, in reality, were a tribe of Lapithae, who resided near Moun
Pelion, and first invented the art of breaking horses, as intimated by Virgil —
“The Lapithae to chariots add the state
Of bits and bridles; taught the steed to bound;
To turn the ring, and trace the mazy ground;
To stop, to fly, the rules of war to know;
To obey the rider, and to dare the foe.”
LUPU.S.
THE Wolf.-This constellation is situated next east of
.he Centaur, and south of Libra; and is so low down in the
What is the situation of this constellation? What are the number and magnitude of
its stars? Describe the situation of Theta. How is it easily recognised in a clear even-
ing 2 . What is its distance from the meridian of Arcturits? Describe the star in the
west shoulder. Describc the stars in the breast. Where is the Wolf situated?
wº-
--
f{|0 PICTURE OF THY BEAVENS. LJUNE.
Juthern hemisphere, that only a few stars in the group are
visible to us.
It contains twenty-four stars, including three of the 3d mag
nitude, and as many of the 4th; the brightest of which, when
on the meridian, may be seen in a clear evening, just above
the southern horizon. Their particular situation, however
will be better traced out by reference to the meap than by writ-
ten directions.
The most favourable time for observing this constellation,
is towards the latter end of June.
History.—This constellation, according to fable, is Lycaon, king of Arcadia,
who lived about 3,600 years ago, and was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, because
he offered human victims on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute this met-
amorphosis to another cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, had become
so enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to punish its wickedness and impiety.
He came to Arcadia, where he was announced as a god, and the people began
to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, who used to sacrifice
all strangers to his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his subjects,
and to try the divinity of the god, served up human flesh on his table. Thia im.
piety so offended Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house o Lycºon,
and changed him into a wolf.
“Of these he murders one ; he boils the flesh,
And lays the Inangled morsels in a dish;
Some part he roasts; then serves it up, so dress'd,
And bids me welcome to his human feast.
Moved with disdain, the table I o'erturn'd,
And with avenging flames the palace burn'd.
The tyrant in a fright for shelter gains
The neighb’ring º and scours along the plains:
Howling he fled, and fain he would have spoke,
But human voice his brutal tongue forsook.
His mantle, now his hide, with rugged hairs,
Cleaves to his back; a famish’d face he bears;
His arms descend, his shoulders sink away
To multiply his legs for chase of prey;
He grows a wolf”—Ovid, Met. B. i.
LIBRA.
THE BALANCE.-This is the seventh sign, and eighth con-
stellation, from the vernal equinox, and is situated in the Zo-
diac, next east of Virgo.
The sun enters this sign, at the autumnal equinox, on the
23d of September; but does not reach the constellation before
the 27th of October.
Virgo was the goddess of justice, and Libra, the scales,
which she is usually represented as holding in her left hand,
are the appropriate emblem of her office. When the sun en-
ters the sign Libra, the days and nights are equal all over the

How many stars does it contain? Under what circumstances may the brightest of
them be seen? How may the stars in this group be most conveniently traced out?
When is the most favourable time for observing this censtellation? How is Libra sit-
uated among the constellations of the Zodiacº. At what season ºf the year dogs the
sun enter Libra?, Who was Virgo, and what was the emblem of her office? What is
the relative length of the days and nights when the sun enters Libral
MAP IV.] LIBRA. 10.
world, and seem to observe a kind of equilibrium, like e
balance.
When, however, it is said that the vernal and autumna
equinoxes are in Aries, and Libra, and the tropics in Cance"
and Capricorn, it must be remembered that the signs Arlet
and Libra, Cancer and Capricorn, and not the constellations
of these names are meant; for the equinoxes are now in the
constellations Pisces and Virgo, and the tropics in Gemin,
and Sagittarius; each constellation having gone forward
one sign in the ecliptic. º
About 22 centuries ago, the constellation Libra coincided
with the sign Libra; but having advanced 30° or more in the
ecliptic, it is now in the sign Scorpio, and the constellation
Scorpio is in the sign Sagittarius, and so on.
While Aries is now advanced a whole sign above the equi-
noctial point into north declination, Libra has descended as
far below it into south declination.
Libra contains fifty-one stars, including two of the 2d mag-
nitude, two of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Its mean decli-
nation is 89 south, and its mean right ascension 2260. Its
centre is therefore on the meridian about the 22d of June.
It may be known by means of its four principal stars, form-
ing a quadrilateral figure, lying northeast and southwest, and
having its upper and lower corners, nearly in a line running
north and south. The two stars which form the N. E. side of
the square, are situated about 7° apart, and distinguish the
Northern Scale. The two stars which form the S. W. side
of the square, are situated about 69 apart, and distinguish the
Southern Scale.
Zubeneschamali, in the Southern Scale, about 21° E. of Spica, and 8° E. of
Lambda Virginis, is a star of the 2d magnitude, and is situated very near the
ecliptic, about 42}^ E. of the autumnal equinox. The distance from this star
down to Theta Centauri, is about 23°, with which, and Spica Virgins, it forms a
large triangle, on the right.
2ubemelgemahi, the uppermost star in the Northern Scale, is also of the 2d
magnitude, 9}9 above Zubeneschamali, towards the northeast, and it comes to
the meridian about twenty-six minutes after it, on the 23d of June. Zubenelge-
mab is the northernmost of the four bright stars in this figure, and is exactly
opposite the lower one, which is 11° south of it.
Zubenhakrabi, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the Northern Scale, 79 S. E. of
Zubenelgemabi, and nearly opposite to Zubeneschamali, at the distance of 11°

on the east. These two make the diagonal of the square east and west.
Iota. is a star of the 3d magnitude, and constitutes the southernmost corner of
*
When it is said that the Vernal and autumnal equinoxes are in Aries and Libra, and
the tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, what is meant? In what constellations, them, are
the equinoxes and the tropics situated? ... When did the constellation of Libra coincide
with the sign of that name? In what sign is the constellation Libra now situated;
What are the number and magnitude of the stars in fibra? what are its right ascen
Błon and declination? When Is its centre on the meridian How may this constella
tion be known? What figure do the three upper stars in this figure form? What stars
distinguish the Northern Sgale? What the Southern? Describe Zubeneschamali. With
what other stars does it Jorm a large triangle 2 . Describe the principal star in the
Norther n Scale. Describe the position of * Describe théºposition ºf Iota.
f"
102 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JUNE.
the square. It is about 6° S. E. of Zubeneschamali, and 11° S. o. Zubenelge.
inapi, with which it forms the other diagonal north and south.
Zebenelgubi, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated below the Southern Scale,
at the distance of 69 from Iota, and marks the southern limit of the Zodiac. It is
situated in a right line with, and nearly midway between, Spica Virginis and Beta
Scorpions; and comes to the meridian nearly at the same moment with Nekkar,
in the head of Bootes.
The remaining stars in this constellation are too small to engage attention.
The scholar, in tracing out this constellation in the heavens, will perceive triat
Lambda and Mu, which lie in the feet of Virgo on the west, form, with Zubenes-
chamali and Zubenelgenlabi, almost as handsome and pérfect a figure, as the
other two stars in the Balance do on the east.
HistoRy.—The Libra of the Zodiac, says Maurice, in his Indian Antiquities, is
perpetually seen upon all the hieroglyphics of Egypt; which is at once an ar
inent of the great antiquity of this asterism, and of the º of its having
been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Misraim. In soine few
zodiacs. Astraea, or the virgin who holds the balance in her hand as an emblem
of equal justice, is not drawn. Such are the zodiacs of Estne and Dendera.
Humiboldt is of opinion, that although the Romans introduced this constellation
into their zodiac in the reign of Julius Cesar, still it might have been used by the
Egyptians and other nations of very remote antiquity
It is generally supposed that the figure of the balance has been used by all
nations to denote the equality of the days, and nights, at the period of the sun’s
arriving at this sign. It has also been observed, that at this season there is a
greater uniformity in the temperature of the air all over the earth’s surface.
Others affirm, that the beam only of the balance was at first placed among the
stars, and that the Egyptians thus honoured it as their Nilometer, or instrument
by which they measured the inundations of the Nile. To this custom of measur-
ing the watcrs of the Nile, it is thought the prophet alludes, when he describes
file Almighty as measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand.—Isa. xl. 12.
The ancient husbandmen, according to Virgil, were wont to regard this sign
as indicating the proper time for sowing their winter grain:—
“But when Astraa's balance, hung on high,
Betwixt the nights and days divides the sky,
Then yoke your oxen, sow your winter grain,
Till cold December comes with driving rain.”
The Greeks declare that the balance was placed among the stars to perpetuate
the memory of Mochus, the inventor of weights and measures.
Those who refer the constellations of the Zodiac to the twelve tribes of Israel,
ascribe the Balance to Asher.
SERPENS.
THE SERPENT.-There are no less than four kinds of ser
pents placed among the constellations. The first is the Hydra,
which is situated south of the Zodiac, below Cancer, Leo and
Virgo; the second is Hydrus, which is situated near the south
pole; the third is Draco, which is situated about the north
pole; and the fourth is the Serpent, called Serpens Ophiuchi,
and is situated chiefly between Libra and Corona Borealis.
A large part of this constellation, however, is so blended with
Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, who grasps it in both hands,
that the concluding description of it will be deferred until we
come to that constellation.
“The Serpens Ophiuchi winds his spire
Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace;
*
What star in this constellation marks the southern limit of the Zodiac 2 How man
Rinds of serpents have been placed among the constellations? Mention them and the
wituations. With what is a large part of this constellation blended?
MAP v., SER}^ENS, 103
One of the second rank; ten shun the sight;
And seven, he who bears the monster hides.”
Those stars which lie scattered along for about 250, in a
serpentine direction between Libra and the Crown, mark the
3ody and head of the Serpent.
About 100 directly S. of the Crown there are three stars of
the 3d magnitude, which, with several smaller ones, distin-
guish the head.
Unuk, of the 2d magnitude, is the principal star in this con-
stellation. It is situated in the heart, about 100 below those
in the head, and may be known by its being in a line with,
and between, two stars of the 3d magnitude—the lower one,
marked Epsilon, being 239, and the upper one, marked Delta,
about 5% oftom it. The direction of this line is N. N. W. and
S. S. E. Unuk may otherwise be known by means of a small
star, just above it, marked Lambda.
In that part of the Serpent which lies between Corona Bo-
realis and the Scales, about a dozen stars may be counted, of
which five or six are conspicuous.
For the remainder of this constellation, the student is refer-
red to Serpentarius.
“Vast as the starry Serpent, that on high
Tracks the clear ether, and divides the sky

And southward winding from the Northern Wain,
Shoots to remoter spheres its glittering train.”—Statius.
HIsroRy.—The Hivites, of the Old Testament, were worshippers of the Ser-
pent, and were called Ophites. The idolatry of these Ophites was extremely
ancient, and was connected with Tsabaism, or the worship of the host of heaven.
The heresy of the Ophites, mentioned by Mosheim in his Ecclesiastical History,
originated, perhaps, in the admission into the Christian church of some remnant
of the ancient and popular sect of Tsabaists, who adored the celestial Serpent.
According to ancient tradition, Ophiuchus is the celebrated physician AEscu-
lapius, son of Apollo, who was instructed in the healing art by Chiron the Cen-
taur; and the serpent, which is here placed in his hands, is understood by some
to be an emblem of his sagacity and prudence; while others suppose it was
designed to denote his skill in healing the bite of this reptile. Biblical critics
º that this constellation is alluded to in the following passage of the book
of Job :—
“By his spirit He hath garnished the heavens; his hand hath formed the
crooked serpent.” Mr. Green supposes, however, that the inspired writer here
refers to Draco, because it is a more obvious constellation, being nearer the pole
where the constellations were more universally noticed; and moreover, because
it is a more ancient constellation than the Serpent, and the hieroglyphic by which
the Egyptians usually represented the heavens.
CORONA BOREALIS.
THE NoFTHERN CRowN.—This beautiful constellation ma
be easily known by means of its six principal stars, whic
are so placed as to form a circular figure, very much resem-
What stars mark the head and body of the Serpent? Describe the principal star in
this constellation. How may it be known? What stars distinguish the head? How
Amany stars may be counted in that part of the constellation which lies between Corone
Borealis and the Scales? How may Corona Borealis be easily known?
słr
'04 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |Juny
bling a wreath or crown. It is situated directly north of the
Serpent's head, between Bootes on the west and Hercules on
the east.
This asterism was known to the Hebrews by the name of Ataroth, and by this
name the stars in Corona Borealis are called, in the East, to this day.
Alphacca, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest and middle
star in the diadem, and about 11° E. of Mirac, in Bootes. It
is very readily distinguished from the others both on account
of its position and superior brilliancy. Alphacca, Arcturus,
and Séginus, form nearly an isoscelés triangle, the vertex of
which is at Arcturus.
This constellation contains twenty-one stars, of which
only six or eight are conspicuous; and most of these are not
larger than the 3d magnitude. Its mean declimation is 30°
north, and its mean right ascension 2350 ; its centre is
º on the meridian about the last of June, and the first
of July.
“And, near to Helice, effulgent rays
Beam, Ariadne, from thy starry crown:
Twenty and one her stars; but eight alone
Conspicuous; one doubtful, or to claim
The second order, or accept the third.”
HISTORY.—This beautiful little cluster of stars is said to be in commemoration
of a crown F." by Bacchus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, second king
of Crete. Theseus, king of Athens, (1235 B.C.,) was shut up in the celebrated
labyrinth of Crete, to be devoured by the ferocious Minotaur which was con-
fined in that place, and which usually fed upon the chosen young men and
maidens exacted from the Athenians as a yearly tribute to the tyranny of Minos,
but Theseus slew the monster, and being ſurmished with a clue of thread by
Ariadne, who was passionately ênamoured of him, he extricated himself froln
the difficult windings of his confinement.
He afterwards married the beautiful Ariadne, according to promise, and car.
ried her away; but when he arrived at the island of Naxos, he deserted her,
ºnotwithstanding he had received from her the most honourable evidence of at-
tachment and endearing tenderness. Ariadne was so disconsolate upon being
abandoned by Theseus, that, as some say, she hanged herself; but Plutarch
says that she lived many years after, and was espoused to Bacchus, who loved
ther with much tenderness, and gave her a crown of seven stars, which, after
her death, was placed among the stars.

“Resolves, for this the dear engaging dame
Should shine forever in the rolls of fame;
And bids her crown among the stars be placed,
And with an eternal constellation grac'd,
The golden circlet mounts; and, as it flies,
Its diamonds twinkle in the distant skies;
There, in their pristine ſorm, the gemmy rays
Between Alcides and the Dragon blaze.”
Manilius, in the first book of his Astronomicon, thus speaks of the Crown.
“Near to Bootes the bright crown is view'd
An i shines with stars of different magnitude:
Where is it situated?, Describe the principal star in the group. What geometrical
§gure is formed by the stars in this neighbourhood? What are the number and mag
nitude of the stars in this constellation? What are its inean declination and right as
cension? When is it on Cur méridian
MAP vi.) t/RSA MINOR, 105
Or placed in front apove the rest displays
A vigorous light, and darts º; rays.
This shone, since Theseus first his faith betray'd
The mon, iment of the forsaken maid.”
URSA MINOR.
THE LITTLE BEAR.—This constellation, though not re-
markable in its appearance, and containing but few conspi-
cuous stars, 1s, nevertheless, justly distinguisned from all
others for the peculiar advantages which its position in the
neavens is well known to afford to nautical astronomy, and
especially to navigation and surveying.
The stars in this group being situated near the celestlak
pole, appear to revolve about it, very slowly, and in circles
to smalf as never to descend below the horizon.
In all ages of the world, this constellation has been more
universally observed, and more carefully noticed than any
other, on account of the importance which mankind early at-
tached to the position of its principal star.
This star which is so near the true pole of the heavens,
has, from time immemorial, been denominated the NORTH
Polar STAR. By the Greeks it is called Cynosyre ; by the
Romans, Cynosura, and by other nations; Alruccabah.
It is of the 3d magnitude, or between the 2d and 3d, and
situated a little more than a degree and a half from the true
pole of the heavens, on that side of it which is towards Cassi-
opeia, and opposite to Ursa Major. Its position is pointed
out by the direction of the two Pointers, Merak and Dubhe,
which lie in the square of Ursa Major. A line joining Beta
Cassiopeiae, which lies at the distance of 32° on one side, and
Megrez, which lies at the same distance on the other, will
pass through the polar star.
So general is the popular notion, that the North Polar Star
is the true pole of the world, that even surveyors and
navigators, who have acquired considerable dexterity in the
use of the compass and the quadrant, are not aware that it
ever had any deviation, and consequently never make allow-
ance for any. All calculations derived from the observed posi-
tion of this star, which are founded upon the idea that its
bearing is always due north of any place, are necessarily er-
roneous, since it is in this position only twice in twenty-four
hours; once when above, and once when below the pole.
What renders Ursa Minor an important constellation? What is its situation with

respect to the North Pole, and how do its stars appear to revolve around this pole?
Why has this constellation becn more universally observed, in all ages §:
than any other What is this star genominated 3 , What are its magnitude posi-
tion? How is its position pointed 6tut? How is it situated with respect to
and Beta Cassiopeiae? Is it generally considered to be the north poie of the hed
Are calculations founded upon this notion Correct?
€2.
7",
*#8. §
.s.º.”
**
106 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |Junk
According to the Nautical Almanac, the mean distance of
this star from the true pole of the heavens, for the year 1832
is 1° 34' 53!!, and its mean right ascension is 1 hour and 19
seconds. Consequently, when the right ascension of the me-
ridian of any place is 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will be
exactly on the meridian at that time and place, but 1” 34'
53” above the true pole. , Six hours after, when the right as-
cension of the meridian is 7 hours and 19 seconds, the star
will be at its greatest elongation, or 1934/53// directly west
of the true pole, and parallel to it, with respect to the horizon;
and when the right ascension of the meridian is 13 hours and
19 seconds, the star will be again on the meridian, but at the
distance of 1° 34' 53// directly below the pole.
In like manner, when the right ascension of the meridan is
19 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest east-
ern elongation, or 1934/53!! east of the true pole; and when
it has finished its revolution, and the right ascension of the
meridian is 25 hours and 19 seconds, Ör, what is the same
thing, 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will now be on the
meridian again, 1° 34' 53'ſ above the pole.
N. B. The right ascension of the meridian or of the mid-heaven, is the dis-
tance of the first point of Aries from the meridian, at the time and lyace of ob-
servation. The right ascension of the meridian for any time, is found, by adding
to the given time the sun’s right ascension at the same time, and deducting 24
hours, when the sum exceeds 24 hours.
From the foregoing facts we learn, that from the time the
star is on the meridian, above the pole, it deviates farther and
farther from the true meridian, every hour, as it moves to the
west, for the space of six hours, when it arrives at its greatest
elongation west, whence it reapproaches the same meridian
below the pole, during the next six hours, and is then again
on the meridian; being thus alternately half the time west
of the meridian, and half the time east of it.
Hence, it is evident that the surveyor who regulates his
compass by the North Polar Star, must take his observation
when the star is on the meridian, either above or below the
pole, or make allowance for its altered position in every other
situation. For the same reason must the navigator, who ap-
plies his quadrant to this star for the purpose of determining
the latitude he is in, make a similar allowance, according as
its altitude is greater or less than the true pole of the hea-
What is the present distance of this star from the true pole of the heavens? What is
its mean right ascension? When is it on the meridian, and what then is its bearing
from the pole. What is its situation six hours afterwards? What is its situation six
hours after that? What is its situation when in its third quadrant? What do you un-
derstand by the right ascension of the meridian, or of the mid-heaven 2 Hugo do tyou
jīnā the right ascension of the mid-heaven? In what manner does the north star de-
viate from the meridian during one revolution? How do these facts concern the sur
veyor?
MAP vi.) DRSA MINOR. 107
vens; for we have seen that it is alternately half the time
above and half the time below the pole.
The method of finding the latitude of a place from the alti-
tude of the polar star, as it is very simple, is very often re-
sorted to. Indeed, in northern latitudes, the situation of this
star is more favourable for this purpose than that of any other
of the heavenly bodies, because a single observation, taken at
any hour of the night, with a good instrument, will give the
true latitude, without any calculation or correction, except
that of its polar aberration.
If the polar star always occupied that point in the heavens which is directly
opposite the north pole of the earth, it would be easy to understand how latitude
could be deterinined from it in the northern hemisphere; for in this case, to a
person on the equator, the poles of the world would be seen in the horizon.
Consequently, the star would appear just visible in the northern horizon, with
out any elevation. Should the person now travel one degree towards the north,
º: would see one degree below the star, and he would think it had risen one
egree. sa
And since we always see the whole of the upper hemisphere at one view,
when there is nothing in the horizon to obstruct our vision, it ſollows that if wé
should travel 10° north of the equator, we should see just 10° below the pole,
which would then appear to have risen 109; and should we stop at the 42d de.
gree of north latitude we should, in like manner, have our horizon just 42° below
the pole, or the pole would appear to have an elevation of 42°. Whence we de-
rive this general truth: The elevation of the pole of the equator, is always equal
to the latitude of the place of observation.
Any instrument, then, which will give us the altitude of the north pole, will
give us also the latitude óf the place.
The method of illustrating this phenomenon, as given in most treatises on the
globe, and as adopted by teachers generally, is to tell the scholar that the north
pole rises higher and higher, as he travels farther and farther towards it. In
other words, whatever number of degrees he advances towards the north pole,
so many degrees will it rise above his horizon. This is not only an obvious errour
in principle, but it misleads the apprehension of the pupil. It is not that the pole
is elevated, but that our horizon is depressed as we advance towards the north.
The same objection lies against the artificial globe; for it ought to be so fixed
that the horizon might be raised or depressed, and the pole remain in its own
invariable position.
Ursa Minor contains twenty-four stars, including three of
the 3d magnitude and four of the 4th. The seven principal
stars are so situated as to form a figure very much resembling
that in the Great Bear, only that the Dipper is reversed, and
about one half as large as the one in that constellation.
The first star in the handle, called Cynosura, or Alrucca-
bah, is the polar star, around which the rest constantly re-
volve. The two last in the bowl of the Dipper, corresponding
to the Pointers in the Great Bear, are of the 3d magnitude,
Why is the method of finding the latitude by the polar star, often resorted to? Why
ts the position of this star fayourable to this purpose? the north star perfectly co-
incided with the north pole of the heavens, tohere would it be seen from the Or?
Show?d a person travel one degree north of the or, where would the star appear
then 2 Suppose he should travel 10 degrees north of the equator? Suppose he were to
stop at the 42d degree of north latitude? What general truth results from these facts?
What, then, is all we want, to find the latitude of any place? Of what advantage to a
mariner, is an instrument which will give the altitude of the pole? What are the
number and magnitude of the stars, contained in Ursa Minor? What figure do the
seven principal stars form? Describe the first in the handle of the Little Dipper. De
$cribe the two last in the bowl of the Dipper

- 108 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. 1 JUNE
and situated about 15° from the pole. The brightest of them
is called Kochab, which signifies an axle or hinge, probably
in reference to its moving so near the axis of the earth.
Kochab may be easily known by its being the brightest
and middle one of three conspicuous stars forming a row, one
of which is about 29, and the other 39, from Kochab. The
two brightest of these are situated in the breast and shoulder
of the animal, about 30 apart, and are called the Guards or
Pointers of Ursa Minor. They are on the meridian about the
20th of June, but may be seen at all hours of the night, when
the sky is clear.
Of the four stars which form the bowl of the Dipper, one
is so small as hardly to be seen. They lie in a direction to-
wards Gamma in Cepheus; but as they are º
changing their position in the heavens, they may be much
better traced out from the map, than from description.
Kochab is about 259 distant from Benetnasch, and about
249 from Dubhe, and hence forms with them a very nearly
equilateral triangle.

“The Lesser Bear
Leads from the pole the lucid band: the stars
Which form this constellation, faintly shine,
Twice twelve in number; only one beams forth
Conspicuous in high splendour, named by Greece
The Cynosure; by us the Polar STAR.”
History.—The prevailing opinion is, that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are the
nyinph Calisto and her son Arcas, and that they were transformed into bears
by the enraged and imperious Juno, and afterwards translated to heaven by the
ſavour of Jupiter, lest they might be destroyed by the huntsmen.
The Chinese claim that the emperor Hong-ti, the grandson of Noah, first dis.
covered the polar star, and applied it to purposes of navigation. It is certain that
it was used for this purpose in a very remote period of antiquity. From various
passages in the ancients, it is maniſest that the Phoenicians steered by Cynosura,
or the Lesser Bear; whereas the mariners of Greece, and some other nations,
steered by the Greater Bear, called Helice, or Helix.
Lucan, a Latin poet, who flourished about the time of the birth of our Saviour.
thus adverts to the practice of steering vessels by Cynosura:—
“Unstable Tyre now knit to firmer ground,
With Sidon for her purple shells renown'd,
Safe in the Cynosure their glittering guide
With well-directed navies stem the tide.”
Rowe's Translation, B. iii.
The following extracts from other poets contain allusions to the same fact: ,
“Phoenicia, spurning Asia's bounding strand,
By the bright Pole star's steady radiance led,
e to the winds her daring sails expand,
And fearless plough’d old Ocean’s stormy bed.”
MAURICE’s Elegy on Sir W. Jones
*Ye radiant signs, who from the etherial plain
Sidonians guide, and Greeks upon the main,
Who from your poles all earthly things explore,
And never set beneath the western shore.”
OvID’s Tristia.
How may Kochab be easily known? What are the position and name of the twº
brightest of these? When are they on the meridian? How is Kochab situated with
respect to Benetmasch and Dubhe"
Map v.] $CORPIO, 109
“Of all yon multitude of golden stars,
Which the wide º sphere incessant bears,
The cautious mariner relies on none,
But keeps him to the constant pole alone.” * * *
LucAN's Pharsalia, B. viii. v. 225.
tyrsa Major and Ursa Minor, are sometimes called Triones, and sometimes the
Greater and Lesser Wains. in Pennington's Memoirs of the learned Mrs. Car.
ter, we have the following beautiful lines:—
“Here, Cassiopeia fills a lucid thron
There, blaze the splendours of the Northern Crown'
While the slow Car, the cold Triomes roll
O'er the pale countries of the frozen pole:
Whose faithful beams conduct the wand'ring ship
Through the wide desert of the pathless deep.”
Thales, an eminent geometrician and astronomer, and one of the seven wise
men of Greece, who flourished six hundred years before the Christian era, is
generally reputed to be the inventor of this constellation, and to have taught the
rise of it to the Phoenician navigators; it is certain that he brought the knowledge
of it with him from Phoenice into Greece, with many other discoverios both in
astronomy and mathematics
Until the properties of the magnet were known and applied to the use of mayi-
gation, and for a long time after, the north polar star was the only sure guide.
At what time the attractive powers of the magnet were first known, is not cer.
cain; they were known in Europe about six hundred years before the Christian
bra; and by the Chinese records, it is said that its polar attraction was known in
that country at least one thousand years earlier.
C. H. A. P. T. E. R. I X.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JULY.
SCORPIO.
THE ScoRPION.—This is the eighth sign, and ninth constek
lation, in the order of the Zodiac. It presents one of the most
interesting groups of stars for the pupil to trace but that is tr
be found in the southern hemisphere. It is situated south-
yºnd eastward of Libra, and is on the meridian the 10th
of July.
The sun enters this sign on the 23d of October, but does not reach the constella.
tion before the 20th of November. When astronomy was first cultivated in this
t, the two solstices and the two equinoxes took place when the sun was in
Aquarius and Leo, Taurus and Scorpio, respectively.
Scorpio contains, according to Flamsted, forty-four stars
including on of ye 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven
of the 3d. * : Aeadily distinguished from all others by the
peculiar lus' - and the position of its principal stars.
Antares, is the principal star, and is situated in the heart
What is the position of Scorpio, among the signs and constellations of the Zodiaci
How is it situated with respect to Libra, and when is it on our meridian? What are
Il er and magnitude of its stars? How is it readily distinguished from all
&thers? Describe the principal star in this fºlium *s
10 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY.
of the Scorpion, about 19° east of Zubenelgubi, the southern-
most star in the Balance. Antares is the most brilliant star
In that region of the skies, and may be otherwise distinguish-
ed by its remarkably red appearance. Its declination is about
260 S. It comes to the meridian about three hours after
Spica Virginis, or fifty minutes after Corona Borealis, on the
10th of July. It is one of the stars from which the moon's
distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea.
There are four great stars in the heavens, Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus,
and Antares, which formerly answered to the solstitial and equinoctial points'
and which were much noticed by the astronomers of the East.
About 83° northwest of Antares, is a star of the 2d mag-
nitude, in the head of the Scorpion, called Graffias. It is but
one degree north of the earth’s orbit. It may be recognised
by means of a small star, situated about a degree northeast
of it, and also by its forming a slight curve with two other
stars of the 3d magnitude, situated below it, each about 3°
apart. The broad part of the constellation near Graffias, is
powdered with numerous small stars, converging down to a
point at Antares, and resembling in figure a boy’s kite.
As you proceed from Antares, there are ten conspicuous
stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, which mark the tail of the
kite, extending down, first in a south, southeasterly direction,
about 17°, thence easterly about 8° further, when they turn,
and advance about 80 towards the north, forming a curve like
a shepherd's crook, or the bottom part of the letter S. This
crooked line of stars, forming the tail of the Scorpion, is very
conspicuous, and may be easily traced.
The first star below Antares, which is the last in the back, is of only the 4th
.# It is about 2° southeast of Antares, and is denoted by the Greek
Inānī6. Of 'l'.
Epsilon, of the 3d º is the second star from Antares, and the first in
the tail. It is situated about 7° below the star T, but inclining a httle to the east.
Mu, of the 3d thagnitude, is the third star from Antares. It is situated 43° be.
º It may otherwise be known by means of a small star close by it,
On the left.
Zeta, of about the same magnitude, and situated about as far below Mu, is the
fourth star from Antares. Here the fine turns suddenly to the east.
Eta, also of the 3d magnitude, is the fifth star from Antares, and about 34°
east of Zeta.
Theta, of the same magnitude, is the sixth star from Antares, and about 44°
east of Eta, Here, the line turns again, curving to the north, and terminates in
a couple of stars.
Iota, is the seventh star from Antares, 34° above Theta, curving a little to the
left. It is a star of the 3d magnitude, and may be known by means of a small
star, almost touching it, on the east.
Kappa, a star of equal brightness, is less than 2° above Iota, and a little to the
Ingalu.
How is Antares otherwise distinguished? What is its declination? What is the
time of its passing the meridian? What nautical importance is attached to its position?
Describe Graffias? How may it be º What is the appearance of the constel-
lation between Graffias and Antares? How many conspicuous stars below Antares?
What are their magnitude and general direction? Describe the first star belovº An-
tares. Describe the second star below Antares. Describe the third star, and tell hoto
# *mayit.#k Desertbe the fourth. Describe the fifth. Describe Theta. Describe
Jone. 6 tº
MAP v. SCORPIO. 111
Lesuth, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest of the two last in the tail, and is
situated about 3° above Kappa, still further to the right. It may readily he
known by means of a smaller star, close by it, on the west.
This is a very beautiful group of stars, and easily traced
Gut in the heavens. It furnishes striking evidence of the fa-
cility with which most of the constellations may be so accu-
rately delineated, as to preclude every thing like uncertainty
in the knowledge of their relative situation.
“The heart with lustre of amazing force,
Refulgent vibrates; faint the other parts,
And ill-defined by stars of meaner note.”
History.—This sign was anciently represented by various symbols, sometimes
by a snake, and sometimes by a crocodile; but most commonly by the scorpion.
This last symbol is found on the Mithraic monuments, which is pretty good evi-
dence that these monuments were constructed when the vernal equinox accord-
ed with Taurus.
On both the zodiacs of Dendera, there are rude delineations of this animal;
that on the portico differs considerably from that on the other zodiac, now in
the Louvre.
Scorpio was considered by the ancient astrologers as a sign accursed. The
Egyptians fixed the entrance of the sun into Scorpio as the commencement of
the reign of Typhon, when the Greeks fabled the death of Orion. When the sun
was in Scorpio, in the month of Athyr, as Plutarch informs us, the Egyptians
enclosed the body of their god Osiris in an ark, or chest, and during this cere-
mony a great annual festival was celebrated. Three days after the priests
had enclosed Osiris in the ark, they pretended to have found him again. The
death of Osiris, then, was lamented when the sun in Scorpio descended to the
lower hemisphere, and when he arose at the vernal equinox, then Osiris was
said to be born anew.
The Egyptians or Chaldeans, who first arranged the Zodiac, might have placed
Scorpio in this part of the heavens to denote that when the sun enters this sign,
the diseases incident to the fruit season would prevail; since Autumn, which
abounded in fruit, often brought with it a great variety of diseases, and might be
thus fitly represented by that venomous animal, the scorpion, who, as he re-
cedes, wounds with a sting in his tail.
Mars was the tutelary deity of the scorpion, and to this circumstance is owing
all that jargon of the astrologers, who say that there is a great analogy between
the malign influence of the planet Mars, and this sign. To this also is owing the
doctrine of the alchymists, that iron, which metal they call Mars, is under the
dominion of Scorpio; so that the transmutation of it into gold can be effected
only when the sun is in this sign. -
he constellation of the Scorpion is very ancient. Ovid thus mentions it in his
peautiful fable of Phaeton :-
“There is a place above, where Scorpio bent,
In tail and arms surrounds a vast extent;
In a wide circuit of the heavens he shines,
And fills the place of two celestial signs.”
According to Ovid, this is the famous scorpion which sprang out of the earth
at the command of Juno, and stung Orion; of which wound he died. It was in
this way the imperious goddess chose to punish the vanity of the hero and the
hunter, for boasting that there was not on earth any animal which he could not
conquer,
“Words that provok'd the gods once from him fell,
*No beasts so fierce,” said he, “but I can quell;’
When lo l the earth a baleful scorpion sent,
To kill Latona was the dire intent;
Orion saved her, tho' himself was slain,
But did for that a spacious place obtain
In heaven: “to thee my life,” said she, “was dear,
And for thy merit shine illustrious there.’”
Describe Léºuth.
}}}} PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. Jurv,
Although both Orion and Scorpio were honoured by the celestials witn a
place among the stars, yet their situations were so ordered that when one rose
the other should set, and vice versa; so that they never appear in the same
hemisphere at the same time. tº gº tº e
the Hebrew zodiac this sign is allotted to Dan, because it is written, “Dan
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path.”
HERCULES.
Hercules is represented on the map Invested with the skin
of the Nemasan Lion, holding a massy club in his right hand,
and the three-headed dog Cerberus in his left.
He occupies a large space in the northern hemisphere,
with one foot resting on the head of Draco, on the north, and
his head nearly touching that of Ophiuchus, on the south.
This constellation extends from 12° to 50° north declination,
and its mean right ascension is 255°; consequently its centre
is on the meridian about the 21st of .
It is bounded by Draco on the north, Lyra on the east,
Ophiuchus or the Serpent-Bearer on the south, and the Ser-
pent and the Crown on the west.
It contains one hundred and thirteen stars, including one
of the 2d, or of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, nine of the
3d magnitude, and nineteen of the 4th. The principal star
is Ras Algethi, is situated in the head, about 25° southeas
of Corona Borealis. . It may be readily known by means of
another bright star of equal magnitude, 5° east, southeast of
it called Ras Alhague. Ras Alhague marks the head of
Ophiuchus, and Ras Algethi that of Hercules. These two
stars are always seen together, like the bright pairs in Aries,
Gemini, the Yi. Dog, &c. They come to our meridian
about the 28th of July, near where the sun does, the last of
April, or the middle §f August.

About midway between Ras Algethi on the southeast, and Ariadne's Crown
on the northwest, may be seen Beta and Gamma, two stars of the 3d magnitude,
situated in the west shoulder, about 3° apart. The northernmost of these two
is called Rutilicus.
Those four stars in the shape of a diamond, 89 or 10° southwest of the two
in the shoulder of Hercules, are situated in the head of the serpent.
About 12° E. N. E. of Rutilicus, and 104° directly north of Ras Algethi, are
two stars of the 4th magnitude, in the east shoulder. They may be known b
two very minute stars a little above them on the left. The two stars in eac
shoulder of Hercules, with Ras Algethi in the head, form a regular triangle.
The left, or east arm of Hercules, which grasps the triple-headed Inonster
Cerberus, may be traced by means of three or four stars of the 4th magnitude,
How is the constellation Hercules represented? What space does it occupy, and
what is its situation in the heavens? What are its declination and right ascension?
When is its centre on the meridian! How is it bounded? What are the number and
magnitude of its stars? Describe the principal star. What do Ras Algethi and Ras
Alhague serve to mark? When are they on our meridian? Describe the situa-
tion of Beta and Gamma, , What is the northernmost of these two called? What four
stars are situated 89 or 10° S. W. of the two in the shoulder? Describe the stars in the
east shoulder. How may these be known 2 What geometrical figure do the stars in
% #aa and shoulders of Hercules form 2 How may the left arm of Hercules be tra-
G
MAP W. 1 HERCULES, H3
situated in a row 3° and 4° apart, extending from the shoulder, in a northeastery
direction. That small cluster, situated in a triangular form, about 14° northeast
of Ras Algethi, and 13° east, southeast of the left shoulder, distinguish the head
of Cerberus.
Eighteen or 20° northeast of the Crown, are four stars of the 3d and 4th mag.
tlitudes, forming an irregular square, of which the two southern ones are about
;: apart, and in a line 6° or 7° south of the two northern ones, which are nearly
apart.
Pº, in the northeast corner, may be known by means of one or two other small
Stars, close by it, on the east. Eta, in the northwest corner, may be known by
its being in a row with two smaller stars, extending towards the northwest, and
about 49 º: The stars of the 4th magnitude, just south of the Dragon's head
point out the left foot and ankle of Hercules.
Several other stars, of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, may be traced out in this
constellation, by reference to the map.
HISTORY...—This constellation is intended to immortalize the name of Hercules,
the Theban, so celebrated in antiquity for his heroic valour, and invincible
prowess. According to the ancients, there were many persons of this name. Of
all these, the Son of Jupiter and Alcmena is the most celebrated, and to him the
actions of the others have been generally attributed.
The birth of Hercules was attended with many miraculous events. He was
brought up at Tirynthus, or at Thebes, and before he had completed his eighth
month, the jealousy of Juno, who was intent upon his destruction, sent two
snakes to devour him. Not terrified at the sight of the serpents, he boldly seized
them, and Squeezed them to death, while his brother Iphicles alarmed the house
with his frightful shrieks.
He was early instructed in the liberal arts, and soon became the pupil of the
centaur Chiron, under whom he rendered himself the most valiant and accom-
plished of all the heroes of antiquity. In the 18th year of his age, he com-
menced his arduous and glorious pursuits. He subdued a lion that devoured
the flocks of his supposed ſatner, Amphitryon. After he had destroyed the lion,
he delivered his country from the annual tribute of a hundred oxen, which it
paid to Erginus.
As Hercules, by the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power of Eurystheus,
and obliged to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus, jealous of his rising famé
and power, ordered him to appear at Mycenae, and perform the labours which,
by priority of birth, he was empowered to impose upon him. Hercules refused,
but aſterwards consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must be sub-
servient, for twelve years, to the will of Eurystheus, in compliance with the
commands of Jupiter; and that, after he had achieved the most celebrated la-
bours, he should be reckoned in the number of the gods. So plain an answer
determined him to go to Mycenae, and to bear with fortitude whatever gods or
men should impose upon him. Eurystheus, seeing so great a man totally sub-
jected to him, and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, commanded him to
achieve a number of enterprises the most difficult and arduous ever known,
generally called the Twelve LABours of HERCULEs. Being furnished with
§º armour by the favour of the gods, he boldly encountered the imposed
OUITS.
1. He subdued the Nemaean Lion in his den, and invested himself with his
Siłł.
2. He destroyed the Lernaean Hydra, with a hundred hissing heads, and dip-
ped his arrows in the gall of the monster to render their wounds incurable.
3. He took alive the stag with golden horns and brazen feet, so famous for its
incredible swiftness, after pursuing it for twelve months, and presented it, un-
hurt, to Eurystheus. *
4. He took alive the Erimanthian Boar, and killed the Centaurs who opposed
him.
5. He cleansed the stables of Augias, in which 3000 cren had been confined
for many years.
6. He killed the carniverous birds which ravaged the country of Arcadia, and
fed on human flesh. º
7. He took alive, and brought into Peloponnesus, the wild bull of Crete, which
no mortal durst look upon.
How is the head of Cerberus distinguished? There are four stars ºn the ºm fºrm
irregular square, in the body qf Hercules—describe them. Pescribe tºe ºftes-º-to 4
Pi. #:# the situation of Eta. wº point onct the Sºft Joot Q). He *…
#14 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, [JULY.
!
8. He obtained for º: the mares of Diomedes, which fed on human
tlesn, after having given their owner to be first eaten by them. .
9. He obtamed the girdle of the queen of the Amazons, a formidable nation of
warlike females. &
10. He killed the monster Geryon, king of Gades, and brought away his mu-
laerous flocks, which fed upon human flesh. e
ll. He obtained the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which
were watched by a dragon
12. And finally, he brought up to the earth the three-headed dog Cerberus, the
guardian of the entrance to the infernal regions.
According to Dupuis, the twelve labours of Hercules are only a figurative rep-
resentation of the annual course of the sun through the twelve signs of the 20-
diac; Hercules being put for the sun, inasmuch as it is the powerful planet which
animates and imparts fecundity to the universe, and whose divinity has been
honoured, in every quarter, by temples and altars, and consecrated in the reli-
gious strains of all nations.
Thus Virgil, in the eighth book of his AEneid, records the deeds of Hercules,
and celebrates his praise :-
“The lay records the labours, and the praise,
And all the immortal acts of Hercules.
First, how the mighty babe, when swath’d in bands,
The serpents strangled with his infant hands;
Then, as in years and matchless force he grew,
The Echalián walls and Trojan overthrew;
Besides a thousand hazards they relate,
Procured by Juno's and Euristheus' hate.
Thy hands, unconquer’d hero, could subdue
Thé cloudſborn Centaurs, and the monster crew;
Northy resistless arm the bull withstood;
Nor he, the roaring terrour of the wood.
The triple porter of the Stygian seat
With lolling tongue lay fawning at thy feet,
And, seized with fear, . the mangled meat.
The infernal waters trembled at thy sight:
Thee, god, no face of danger could ght;
Nor huge Typhaeus, nor the unnumber'd snake,
Increased with hissing heads, in Lerna’s lake.”

Besides these arduous labours which the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon
him, he also achieved others of his own accord, equally celebrated. Before he
qelivered himself up to the king of Mycenae he accompanied the Argonauts to
Colchis. He assisted the gods in their wars against the giants, and it was through
*: º: that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered Laomedon, and pil-
€01 ITOY,
At th ºdifferent times he experienced fits of insanity. In the second, he slew
the brother of his beloved Iole; in the third he attempted to carry away the sa-
cred tripod from Apollo's temple at Delphi, for which the oracle told him me
must be sold as a slave. He was sold accordingly to Omphale, queen of Lydia,
who restored him to liberty, and married him. After this he returned to Pelo-
Fº and re-established on the throne of Sparta his friend Tyndarus, who
ad been expelled by Hippocoon. He became enamoured of Dejanira, whom,
after having overcome all his rivals, he married; but was obliged to leave his
father-in-law's kingdom, because he had inadvertently killed a man with a blow
of his fist. He retired to the court of Ceyx, king of Trachina, and in his way was
stopped by the streams of the Evenus, where he slew the Centaur Nessus, for
presuming to offer indignity to his beloved Dejanira. The Centaur, on expiring,
rave to Dejanira the celebrated tunic which afterwards caused the death of Her.
cules. “This tunic,” said the expiring monster, “has the virtue to recall a hus-
pand from unlawful love * Dejanira, fearing lest Hercules should relapse again
into love for the beautifid Iole, gave him the fatal tunic, which was so infected
with the poison of the Lermaan Hydra, that he had no sooner invested himself
ith it, than it began to penetrate his bones, and to boil through all his veins.
e attempted to pull it off, but it was too late.
“As the red iron hisses in the flood,
So boils the venom in his curdling blood.
Now with the greedy flame his entrails glow,
And livid sweats down all his body flow;
MAP v. SERPENTARIUS, 115
The cracking nerves, burnt up, are burst in twain,
The lurking venom melts his swimming brain.”
As the distemper was incurable, he implored the protection of Jupiter, gave
his bow and arrow to Thiloctetes, and erected a large burning pile on the top of
Mount CEta. He spread on the pile the skin of the Nemaan lion, and laid him.
self down upon it, as on a bed, feaning his head upon his club. Philoctetes set
fire to the pile, and the hero saw himself, on a sudden, surrounded by the most
appalling flames; yet he did not betray any marks of fear or astonishment., Ju-
piter saw him from heaven, and told the surrounding gods, who would have
drenched the pile with tears, while they entreated that he would raise to the
skies the immortal part of a hero who had cleared the earth from So many mon
sters and tyrants; and thus the thunderer spake :—

“Be all your fears forborne:
Th’ OEtean fires do thou, great hero, scorn.
Who vanquish’d all things shall subdue the flame.
That part alone of gross maternal frame
Fire shall devour; while what from me he drew
Shall live immortal, and its force subdue :
That, when he’s dead, I’ll raise to realms above;—
May all the powers the righteous act approve.”
id's Met, lib. ix.
Accordingly, after the mortal Fº of Hercules was consumed, as the ancient
poets say, he was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn by four horses
“Quem pater omnipotens inter cava nubila raptum,
Quadrijugo curru radiantibus intulit astris.”
“Almighty Jove
In his swift car his honour’d offspring drove;
High o'er the hollow clouds the coursers fly,
And lodge the hero in the starry sky.”
Ovid's Met, lib. ix. v. 271.
SERPENTARIUS, VEL OPHIUCHUS.
THE SERPENT-BEARER is also called AEsculapius, or the
god of medicine. He is represented as a man with a venera
Ele beard, having both hands clenched in the folds of a pro
digious serpent, which is writhing in his grasp.
The constellation occupies a considerable space in the mid-
heaven, directly south of Hercules, and west of Taurus Po.
niatowski. Its centre is very nearly over the equator, oppo.
site to Orion, and comes to i. meridian the 26th of July. It
contains seventy-four stars, including one of the 2d magni
tude, five of the 3d, and ten of the 4th.
The principal star in Serpentarius is called Ras Alhague.
It is of the 2d magnitude, and situated in the head, about 59
E. S. E. of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules. Ras Al-
hague is nearly 13° N. of the equinoctial, while Rho, in the
southern foot, is about 250 south of the equinoctial. These
two stars serve to point out the extent of the constellation
from north to south. Ras Alhague comes to the meridian on
the 28th of July, about 21 minutes after Ras Algethi.
How is the constellation Serpentarius represented? What is its extent, and where
ls it situated? When is its centre on the meridian? What are the number and mag-
nitude of its stars? What are the name and position of its principal star? What two

stars mark the extremes of the constellation, north and south? When is Ras Alhagus
on the meridian?
# 16 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JULY
About 10° S.W. of Ras Alhague are two small stars of the 4th magnitude,
Searcely more than a degree apart. They distinguish the left or west shoulder.
The northern one is marked Iota, and the other Kappa.
Eleven or twelve degrees S. S. E. of Ras Alhague are two other stars of the 3d
magnitude, in the east shoulder, and about 29 apart. The upper ene is called
Cheleb, and the lower one Gamma. These stars in the head and shoulders of
Serpentarius, form a triangle, with the vertex in Ras Alhague, and pointing to-
wards the northeast.
About 40 E. of Gamma, is a remarkable cluster of four or
five stars, in the form of the letter V, with the open part to
the north. It very much resembles the Hyades. This beau
tiful little group marks the face of TAURUs Poniatowski. The
solstitial colure passes through the equinoctial about 20 E. of
the lower star in the vertex of the W. The letter name of this
star is k. There is something remarkable in its central posi-
tion. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being
nearly equidistant from the poles, and midway between the
vernal and autumnal equinoxes. It is, however, about one
and a third degrees nearer the north than the south pole, and
about two degrees nearer the autumnal than the vernal equi
nox, being about two degrees west of the solstitial colure.
Directly south of the V, at the distance of about 12°, are two very small stars,
about 2° apart, situated in the right hand, where it grasps the serpent. Abou.
halfway between, and nearly in a line with, the two in the hand and the two in
the shoulder, is another star of the 3d magnitude, marked Zeta, situated in the
; opposite the right elbow. It may be known by means of a minute star,
tlSt under it.
Marsic, in the left arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about 10° S. W. of Iota
and Cappa. About 79 farther in the same direction are two stars of the 3d mag
nitude, situated in the hand, and a little more than a degree apart. The upper
one of the two, which is about 16° N. of Graffias in Scorpio, is called Yed; the
other is marked Epsilon. These two stars mark the other point in the folds of
the monster where it is grasped by Serpentarius.
The left arm of Serpentarius may be easily traced by means of the two stals
in the shoulder, the one (Marsic) near the elbow, and the two in the hand; all
lying nearly in a line N. N. E. and S. S. W. In the same manner may the right
arm be traced, by stars very similarly situated; that is to say, first by the two
in the east shoulder, Just west of the V, thence 8° in a southerly direction in,
clining a little to the east, by Zeta, (known by a little star right under it,) and then
by the two small ones in the right hand, situated about 66"below zeta.
About 12° from Antares, in an easierly direction, are two stars in the right
foot, about 29 apart. The largest and lower of the two, is on the lefthand. It is
of between the 3d and 4th Imagnitudes, and marked Rho. There are several other
stars in this constellation of the 3d and 4th magnitudes. They may be traced out
from the maps.
“Thee, Serpentarius, we behold distinct,
With seventy-four refulgent stars; and one
Graces thy helmet, of the second class:
The Serpent, in thy hand grasp'd, winds his spire
Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace;
Describe the stars in the west shoulder of Serpentarius. What stars distinguish the
east shoulder? How are these two stars denominated? What is the relative position
of the stars in the head and shoulders ? What remarkable cluster of stars in this
neighbourhood? To what constellation does this group belong?, How is this clustef
situated with respect to the solstitial colure? What is remarkable in the central posi
tion of Kappa, Describe the stars in the right hand of Serpentarius. Describe the
situation } Zeta. Describe Marsic, and the two stars in the left hand. Which of the
ºwo is called Yed, and how is it situated 2 . How may the left arm of Serpentarias be
traced? How may the right arm be traccd? Describe the stars, in the right foot ºf
Serpentarius. What other stars may be traced out in this constellation 2
MAP v | DRACO, 117
One of the second rank; ten shun the sight; *: ...-- ~ *
And seven, he who bears the monster hides.”—Eudosia.
HISTORY..—This constellation was known to the ancients twelve hundred years
before the Christian era, Homer mentions it. It is thus referred to in the As.
tronomicon of Manilius:-
“Next, Ophiuchus, strides the mighty snake,
Untwists his winding folds, and smooths his back,
Extends his bulk, and o'er the slippery scale
His wide-stretch'd hands on either side prevail.
The snake turns back his head, and seems to rage:
That war must last where equal power prevails.”
Esculapius was the son of Apollo, by Coronis, and was educated by Chiron
the Centaur, in the art of medicine, in which he became so skilful, that he was
considered the inventor and god of needicine. At the birth of Æsculapius, the
mspired daughter of Chiron uttered, “in sounding verse,” this prophetic strain:
“Hail, great physician of the world, all hail!
Hail, mighty infant, who, in years to come,
heal the nations and defraud the tomb!
Swift be thy growth ! thy triumphs unconfined 1
Make kingdoms thicker, and increase mankind:
Thy daring art shall animate the dead,
And draw the thunder on thy guilty head:
Then shalt thou die, but from the dark abode
Rise up victorious, and be twice a god.”

He accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis, in the capacity of physician. He
is said to have restored many to life, insomuch that Pluto complained to Jupiter,
that his dark dominion was in danger of being depopulated by his art.
AEsculapius was ..º. at §: a city of Peloponnesus, and hence
he is styled by Milton, “the god in Epidaurus.” Being sent for to Rome in the
time of a plague, he assumed the form of a serpent and accompanied the ambas-
sadors, but though thus changed, he was MEsculapius still, in serpente deus, -
the deity in a serpent, and under that form he continued to be worshipped at
me. The cock and the serpent were sacred to him, especially the latter.
The ancient physicians used them in their prescriptions.
One of the last acts of Socrates, who is accounted the wisest and best man of
Pagan antiquity, was to offer a cock to AEsculapius. He, and Plato, were both
idolaters; they conformed, and advised others to conform, to the religion of their
country; to gross idolatry and absurd superstition. If the wisest and must learn-
ed were so blind, what must the foolish and ignorant have been 3
C H A P T E R X.
BIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN AUGUST.
DRACO.
The DRAGON.—This constellation, which compasses a .
large circuit in the polar regions . its ample folds and con-
tortions, contains many stars which may be easily traced.
From the head of the monster, which is under the foot of
Hercules, there is a complete coil tending eastwardly, about
17o N. of Lyra ; thence he winds down northerly about 14°
What is the situation of the constellation Draco} Describe, if yºu Clcase, the vari
bus coils of the Dragon.
&
$18 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. AltGs
to the second coil, where he reaches almost to the girdle of
Cepheus, then he loops down somewhat in the shape of the
letter U, and makes a third coil about 150 below the first,
From the third coil he holds a westerly course for about 139,
then goes directly down, passing between the head of the
Lesser and the tail of the Greater Bear.
This constellation contains eighty stars, including four of
the 2d magnitude, seven of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th.
“The Dragon next, winds like a mighty stream;
Within its ample ſolds are eighty stars,
Four of the second order. Far he waves
His ample spires, involving either Bear.”
The head of the Dragon is readily distinguished by means
of four stars, 39, 49, and 50 apart, so situated as to form an
irregular square; the two upper ones being the brightest, and
both of the 2d magnitude. The righthand upper one, called
Etamin, has been rendered very noted in modern astronomy
from its connexion with the discovery of a new law in phys-
ical science, called the Aberration of Light.
The letter name of this star is Gamma, or Gamma Draco-
mis; and by this appellation it is most frequently called. The
other bright star, about 40 from it on the left, is Rastaben.
About 40 W. of Rastaben, a small star may, with close at
tention, be discerned in the nose of the Dragon, which, with
the irregular square before mentioned, makes a figure some-
what resembling an Italic V, with the point towards the west,
and the open part towards the east. The small star in the
nose, is called Er Rakis.
The two small stars 5° or 6° S. of Rastaben are in the left foot of Hercules.
Rastaben is on the meridian nearly at the same moment
with Ras Alhague. Etamin, 400 N. of it, is on the meridian
about the 4th of August, at the same time with the three
western stars in the face of Taurus Poniatowski, or the V. It
is situated less than 29 west of the solstitial colure, and is
exactly in the zenith of London. Its favourable position has
led English, astronomers to watch its appearance, for long
periods, with the most exact and unwearied scrutiny.
In the year 1725, Mr. Molyneux and Dr. Bradley fitted up a very accurate and
costly instrument, in order to discover whether the fixed stars had any sensible
parallax, while the earth moved from one extremity of its orbit to the other; or
which is the same, to determine whether the nearest fixed stars are situated at
such an immense distance from the earth, that any star which is seen this night
directly north of us, will, six months hence, when we shall have gone 190 mill-
--
What is the course of the monster from the third coil? What are the number and
magnitude of the stars ºntained in this constellation? How is the head of the Dragon
distinguished?” ich Star is callèd Etamin, and for what is it noted? By what other
§: it generally known? What stars in the head of Draco form the letter Y,
ańd how is it situated? men is Rastaben on the meridian? When is Etanin on the
meritſian; and whºstars inithis region culminate at he same time? How is Rastaben
sitdated with respect to the solstitial colure, and the zenith of London.

Map. vi.] DRAUO. 119
tons of miles to the eastward of the place we are now in, be then seen exactly
R rth of º still, without changing its position so much as the thickness of a spi
der’S web.
These observations were subsequently repeated, with but little intermissicn,
for twenty years, by the most acute observers in Europe, and with telescopes
varying from 12 feet to 36 feet in length. In the meantime, Dr. Bradley had the
bonour of announcing to the world the very nice discovery, that the motion q
&ght, combined with the progressive motion of the earth in its orbit, causes t
heavenly bodies to be seen in a wlifferent position from what they would be, if
the eye were at rest. Thus was established the principle of the Aberration of
Eight.
#. principle, or law, now that it is ascertained, seems not only very plain.
but self-evident. For if light be progressive, the position of the telescope, in order
to receive the ray, must be different from what it would have been, if hght had
been instantaneous, or 1f the earth stood still. Hence the Pº to which the tel-
escope is directed, will be different from the true place of the object.
The quantity of this aberration is determined by a simple proposition. The
earth describes 59'8" of her orbit in a day =3548’’, and a ray of light comes
from the sun to us in 8'13'' = 493’’ : now 24 hours or 86400” : 493’’; : 3548’’:
22’’; which is the change in the star's place, arising from the cause abovemen-
tloned.
Of the four stars forming the Irregular square in the head, the lower and right-
hand one is 54° N. of Etanin. It is called Grumium, and is of the 3d magnitude.
A ſew degrees E. of the square, may be seen, with a little care, eight stars of the
5th magnitude, and one of the 4th, which is marked Omicron, and lies 8° E. of
Grumlum. This group is in the first coil of the Dragon.
The second coil is about 13° below the first, and may be recognised by means
of four stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, so situated as to form a small square,
about half the size of that in the head. *
The brightest of them is on the left, and is marked Delta. A line drawn from
Rastaben through Grumium, and produced about 14°, will point it out. A line
drawn from Lyra through Zi Draconis, and produced 109 further, will point out
Zeta, a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the third coil. Zeta may otherwise
‘be known, by its being nearly in a line with, and midway between, Etanin and
Rochab. From Zeta, the remaining stars in this constellation are easily traced
Eta, Theta, and Asich, come next; all stars of the 3d magnitude, and at the
distance, severally, of 6°, 49, and 5° from Zeta. At Asich, the third star from
Zeta, the tail of the Dragon makes a sudden crook. Thuban, Kappa, and Gian-
sar, follow next, and complete the tail.
Thuban, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, 119 from
Asich, in a line with, and about midway between, Mizar and
the southernmost guard in the Little Bear. By nautical men
this star is called the Dragon's Tail, and is considered of
much importance at sea. It is otherwise celebrated as being
formerly the north polar star. About 2,300 years before the
Christian era, Thuban was ten times nearer the true pole of
the heavens than Cynosura now is.
Kappa is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° from Alpha, between Megrez and the
le. Mizar and Megrez, in the tail of the Great Bear, form, with Thuban and
appa, in the tail of the Dragon, a large quadrilateral figure, whose longest side
is from Megrez to Kappa. º
Giansar, the last star in the tail, is between the 3d and 4th magnitudes, and 50
from Kappa. The two pointers will also point out Giansar, lying at the distance
of little more than 8° from them, and in the direction of the pole.
Describe the stars in the first coil of Draco. . Describe the stars in the second coil.
What is the brightest of this group called, and how may it be pointed out? What is
the principal star of the third coil, and how may it be found? How else may Zeta be
known 2 What stars come next to Zeta, in this constellation 2 What stars follow
these ? Describe Thuban. By what other name is this star known, and for what is it
gelebrated? When was Thuban within ten minutes of the pole?... Describe Kg
What figure do Mizar and Megrez, in the tail of the Great Bear, form with Thúñºn
and Kappa, in the tail of the Dragon 7 Describe the position of Giarºsar, and tell
fº is pointed out. *
120 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG.
- “Here the vast Dragon twines
Between the Bears, and like a river winds,
The Bears, that still with fearful caution keep,
Untinged beneath the surface of the deep.”
Warton's Virgil, G. i.
HISTORY.--Whoever attends to the situation of Draco, surrounding, as it does.
the pole of the Ecliptic, will perceive that its tortuous'windings are symbolical
of the oblique course of the stars. Draco also winds round the pole of the world,
as if to indicate, in the symbolical language of º astronomy, the motion
of the pole of the Equator around the pole of the Écliptic, produced by the pre-
cession of the heavens. The Egyptian hyeroglyphic for the heavens, was a
serpent, whose scales denoted the stars. en astronomy first began to be cul-
tivated in Chaldea, Draco was the polar constellation.
Mythologists, however, give various accounts of this constellation; by some
it is represented as the watchful dragon which guarded the golden apples in the
famous garden of the Hesperides,” near Mount Atlas in Africa; and was slaim by
Hercules. Juno, who presented these apples to Jupiter on the day of their nup-
tials, took Draco up to heaven, and made a constellation of him, as a reward for
his faithful services. Others maintain, that in the war with the giants, this dragon
was brought into combat, and opposed to Minerva, who seized it in her hand, and
hurled it, twisted as it was, into the heavens round the axis of the world, befºre
it had time to unwind its contortions, where it sleeps to this day. Other writers
of antiquity say, that this is the dragon killed by Cadmus, who was ordered Oy
als father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away
and never to return to Phoenicia without her.

“When now Agenor had his daughter lost,
He sent his son to search on every coast;
And sternly bade him to his arms restore
The darling maid, or see his face no more.”
His search, however, proving fruitless, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and
was ordered to build a city where he should see a heifer stop in the grass, and
to call the country Boeotia. He saw the heifer according to the oracle, and as he
wished to render thanks to the god by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to
fetch water from a neighbouring grove. The waters were sacred to Mars, and
guarded by a most terrific dragon, who devoured all the messengers. Cadmus,
.. of ".seeming delay, went to the place, and saw the monster still feeding
OIl tilell flesh.
“Deep in the dreary den, conceal’d from day,
Sacred to Mars, a mighty dragon lay,
Bloated with poison to a monstrous size;
Fire broke in flashes when he glanced his eyes:
* Those who attempt to explain the mythology of the ancients, observe that the Hes-
perides were certain persons who had an immense number of flocks; and that the
Bºrnbiguous Greek word Aznaoy, melon, which sometimes signifies an apple and some-
times a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the golden apple of these gardens.
The “Hesperian gardens famed of old,” as Milton observes, were so called from
Pasperus Vesper, because placed in the west, under the evening star. Some suppose
them to have been situated near Mount Atlas, in Africa; others, maintain that they
were the isles about Cape Verd, whose most westerly point is still called Hespèrium,
# the Horn of the Hesperides; while others contend, that they were the Canary
ands.
Atlas, said to have been contemporary with Moses, was king of Mauritania, in the
north part of Africa, and owner of a thousand flocks of every kind. For refusing hos:
pitality to Perseus, he was changed into the mountain that still bears his name; and
which is so high, that the ancients imagined that the heavens rested upon it; summit.
and, consequently, that Atlas, supported the world on his shoulders. Virg; has this
idea, where he speaks of “Atlas, whose brawny back supports the skies;” and He
siod, wefse 785, advances the same notion :-
“Atlas, so hard necessity ordains,
Erect, the ponderous vault of stars sustains.
Not far from the Hesperides he stands, 33
Nor from the load retracts his head or hands.
From this very ancient and whimsical notion, Atlas is represented by artists, and ºn
works of mythºlogy, as an old man hearing the world on his shoulders. Hence it is,
that a collection of maps, embracing the whole world, is called an Atlas.
MAP v LYRA, 121
2–’
Histowering crest was glorious to behold, …”
His shoulders and his sides were scaled with gold; ~~~~
Three tongues he brandish’d when he charged his foes,
His teeth stood jaggy in three dreadful rows
The Tyrians in the den for water sought,
Ö And with their urns explored the hollow vault:
From side to side their empty urns rebound,
And rouse the sleeping serpent with their sound.
Straight he bestirs him, and is seen to rise;
And now with dreadful hissings fills the skies,
And darts his forky tongues, and rolls his glaring eyes.
The Tyrians drop their vessels in the fright,
All pale and trembling at the hideous sight.
Spire above spire uprear'd in air he stood,
And gazing round him, overlook'd the wood:
Then floating on the ground in circles roll’d;
Then leap'd upon them in a mighty fold.
All their endeavours and their hopes are vain;
Some die entangled in the winding train;
Some are devour’d, or feel a loathsome death,
Swoll'n up with blasts of pestilential breath.”

Cadmus, beholding such a scene, boldly resolved to avenge, or to share their
fate. He therefore attacked the monster with slings and arrows, and, with tab
assistance of Minerva, slew him. He then plucked out his teeth, and sowed
: at the command of Pallas, in a plain, when they suddenly sprung up into
TºrſåCCI IOleIl.
“Pallas adest: motaque jubet supponere terrae
Viperos dentes, populi incrementa futuri.
Paret: et, ut presso sulcum patefecit aratro,
Spargit humi jussos, mortalia semina dentes.
Inde (fide majus) glebae capere moveri:
Primaque de sulcis acies apparuit hastae
Tegmina mox capitum picto mutantia cono.
Existunt : crescitaue seges clypeata virorum.”
Ovid’s Met. lib. iii. v. 102.
“He sows the teeth at Pallas's command,
And flings the future people from his hand.
The clods grow warm, and crumāle where he sows;
And now the pointed spears adwańce in rows;
Now nodding plumes appear, and shining crests,
Now the broad shoulders and the rising breasts;
O'er all the field the breathing harvest swarms,
A growing host! a crop of men and arms 1”
Entertaining worse apprehension from the direful offspring than he had done
from the dragon himself, he was about to fly, when they all fell upon each other
and were all slain in one promiscuous carnage, except five, who assisted Cadmus
to build the city of Boeotia.
LYRA.
THE HARP.-This constellation is distinguished by one of
the most brilliant stars in the northern hemisphere. It is sit-
uated directly south of the first coil of Draco, between the
Swan, on the east, and Hercules, on the west; and when on
the meridian, is almost directly over head.
It contains twenty-one stars, including one of the 1st mag-
nitude, two of the 3d, and as many of the 4th.
By what is the constellation of the Harp gistinguished, Where is it situated? What
*
ale the number and magnitude of its stars
122 PICTURE OF THE HEAvens. |AUg
".
`-- *|†here Lyra, for the brightness of her stars,
More than their number enuinent; thrice seven
She counts, and one of these illuminates
The heavens far around, blazing imperia.
In the first order.” {}
This star, of “the first order, blazing with imperial” lustre,
is called Vega, and sometimes Wega; but more frequently
It is called Lyra, after the name of the constellation.
There is no possibility of mistaking this star for any other.
It is situated 143° S. E. of Etanin, and about 30° N. N. E. of
Ras Alhague and Ras Algethi. It may be certainly known
by means of two small, yet conspicuous stars, of the 5th mag-
nitude, situated about 29 apart, on the east of it, and making
with it a beautiful little triangle, with the angular point at
Lyra.
The northernmost of these two small stars is marked Epsilon, and the south-
ern one, 2eta. About 29 S. E. of Zeta, and in a line with Lyra, is a star of the
4th Imagnitude, marked Delta, in the middle of the Harp; and 4° or 5° S. of
Delta, are two stars of the 3d magnitude, about 29 apart, in the garland of the
Harp, ſorming another triangle, whose vertex is in Delta. The star on the east,
is marked Gamma; that on the west, Beta. If a line be drawn from Etanin
through Lyra, and produced 69 farther, it will reach Beta. *
This is a variable star, changing from the 3d to nearly the 5th magnitude in the
space of a week; it is supposed to have spots on its surface, and to turn on its
axis, like our snn. e
Gamma comes to the meridian 21 minutes after Lyra, and precisely at the
same moment with Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, 17#9 S. of it.
The declination of Lyra is about 383° N.; consequently
when on the meridian, it is but 2° S. of the zenith of Hart-
ford. It culminates at 9 o'clock, about the 13th of August.
It is as favourably situated to an observatory at Washington,
as Rastaben is to those in the vicinity of London.
Its surpassing brightness has attracted the admiration of
astronomers in all ages. Manilius, who wrote in the age of
Augustus, thus alludes to it:—
“ONE, placed in front above the rest, displays
A vigorous light and darts surprising rays.”
Astronomicon, B. i. p. 15.
HISTORY..—It is generally asserted that this is the celestial Lyre which Apollo
or Mercury gave to Orpheus, and upon which he played with such a masterly
hand, that even the most rapid rivers ceased to flow, the wild beasts of the forest
º their wildness, and the mountains came to listen to his song.
f all the nymphs who used to listen to his song, Eurydice was the only one
who made a deep impression on the musician, and their nuptials were yelebra
ted. Their happiness, however, was short. Aristaeus became enamoured of
Eurydice, and as she fled from her pursuer, a serpent, lurking in the grass, bit
her foot, and she died of the wound. Orpheus resolved to recover her, or perish
in the attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he entered the infernal regions, and
gained admission to Pluto. The king of hell was charmed with his strains, the
What is the name of the principal star? Describe its position. º what means may
ſt be certainly known? What are the names of the two small stars forming the base
the triangle 2 Describe the star in the middle of the Harp, and those with which it
Jorms another triangle, Homo are the stars in the base of this triangle marked on the
vap 2 How else may Beta be pointed out? What is there remarkable in the appear.
ance of this star? When is Gamma on the meridian 2 What is the declination of
Lyra? When does it culminate * What ancient poet mentions it?
Map v. LYRA. 123
wf.eel of Ixion stopped, the stone of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot his
thirst, and even the furies relented.
I'luto and Proserpine were moved, and consented to restore him Eurydice,
provided he forbore looking behind him till he had come to the extremest bor.
ders of their dark dominions. The condition was accepted, and Orpheus was
already in sight of the upper regions of the air, when he forgot, and turned back
to look at his long lost Eurydice. He saw her, but she instantly vanished from
his sight. He attempted again to follow her, but was refused admission.
From this time, Orpheus separated himself from the society of mankind, which
so offended the Thracian women, it is said, that they tore his body to pieces, and
threw his head into the Hebrus, still articulating the words Euridice TEurydice?
as it was carried down the stream into the Ægean sea. Orpheus was one of the
Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account, which is
still extant. After his death, he received divine honours, and his lyre became
one of the constellations.
This fable, or allegory, designed merely to represent the power of music in
the hands of the great master Jſ the science, is similarly described by three of
the most renowned Latin poets. Virgil, in the fourth book of his Georgics, thus
describes the effect of the lyre:—

“E’en to the dark dominions of the night
He took his way, through forests void of light,
And dared amid the trembling ghosts to sing,
And stood before the inexorable king.
The infernal troops like passing shadows glide,
And listening, crowd the sweet musician's side;
Men, matrons, children, and the unmarried maid,
The mighty hero's more majestic shade,
And youth, on funeral piles before their parents laid.
E’en from the depths of hell the damn’d advance;
The infermal mansions, nodding, seem to dance;
The gaping three-mouth’d dog forgets to snarl;
The furies hearken, and their snakes uncurl;
Ixion, seems no more his pain to feel,
But leans attentive on his standing wheel,
All dangers past, at length the lonely bride
In safety goes, with her melodious guide.” *
Pythagoras and his followers represent Apollo º upon a harp of seven
itlings, by which is meant (as appears from Pliny, b. ii. c. 22—Macrobius i. e.
29, and Censorinus c. ii.) the sun in conjunction with the seven planets; for they
made him the leader of that septenary chorus, and the moderator of nature, and
thought that by his attractive force he acted upon the planets in the harmonical
ratio of their distances.
The doctrine of celestial harmony, by which was meant the music of the
spheres, was common to all the nations of the East. To this divine inusic Euri-
É. beautifully alludes:—“Thee I invoke, thou self-created Being, who gave
irth to Nature, and whom light and darkness, and the whole train of globes en-
circle with eternal music.”—So also Shakspeare:—
“Look, how the floor of heaven
Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold;
There's not the smallest orb, which thou behold'st,
But in his motion like an angel sings,
Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim :
Such harmony is in immortal souls;
But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay
Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it”
The lyre was a famous stringed instrument, much used among the ancien’s,
said to have been invented by Mercury about the year of the world 2000; though
some ascribe the invention to Jubal. (Genesis iv.21.). It is universally allowed,
that the lyre was the first instrument of the string king ever used in Greece.
The different lyres, at various periods of time, had from four to eighteen strings
each. The modern lyre is the Welsh harp The lyre, among painters, is an
attribute of Apollo and the Muses º
All poetry, it has hern conjectured, was in its origin lyric.; that is, º: to
recitation or song, with the accompaniment of music and distinguished by the
:24 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ! ADG
utmost boſſiless of thought and expression; being at first employed in celebra
ting the praises of gods and heroes,
Lesbos was the principal seat of the Lyric Muse; and Terpander, a native of
this island, who flourished about 650 years B. C., is one of the earliest of the
lyric poets whose name we find on record. Sappho, whose misfortunes have
united with her talents to render her name memorable, was born at Mitylene, the
chief city of Lesbos. She was reckoned a tenth muse, and placed without con-
troversy at the head of the female writers in Greece. But Pindar, a native of
Thebes, who flourished about 500 years B. C., is styled the prince oł lyric poets.
To him his fellow-citizens erected a monument; and when the Lacedemºnians
ravaged Boeotia, and burnt the capital, the following words were written upon
#. door of the poet: Forbear To BURN THIs House, IT was THE Dwelling og
INDAR.
SAGIT TARIUS.
THE ARCHER.—This is the linth sign and the tenth con-
stellation of the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Scorpio,
with a mean declination of 350 S. or 12° below the ecliptic.
The sun enters this sign on the 22d of November, but does
not reach the constellation before the 7th of December.
It occupies a considerable space in the southern hemisphere,
and contains a number of subordinate, though very conspicu-
ous stars. The whole number of its visible stars is sixty-
nine, including five of the 3d magnitude, and ten of the 4th.
It may be readily distinguished by means of five stars of
the 3d and 4th magnitudes, forming a figure resembling a
little short, straight-handled Dipper, turned nearly bottom up-
wards, with the handle to the west, familiarly called the
Milk-Dipper, because it is partly in the Milky-Way.
This little figure is so conspicuous that it cannot easily be
mistaken. It is situated about 33° E. of Antares, and comes
to the meridian a few minutes after Lyra, on the 17th of Au-
gust. Of the four stars forming the bowl of the Dipper, the
two upper ones are only 3° apart, and the lower ones 59.


The two smaller stars forming the handle, and extending westerly about 43°,
and the easternmost one in the bowl of the Dipper, are all of the 4th magnitude.
The star in the end of the handle, is marked Lambda, and is placed in the bow
of Sagittarius, just within the Milky-Way. Lambda may otherwise be known
by its being nearly in a line with two other stars about 44° apart, extending to-
wards the S. E. It is also equidistant from Phi and Delta, with which it makes
8 handsome triangle, with the vertex in Lambda. About 5° above Lambda, and
* little to the west, are two stars close together, in the end of the bow, the bright-
est of which is of the 4th magnitude, and marked Mu. This star serves to point
out the winter solstice, being about 29 N. of the tropic of Capricorn, and loss
than one degree east of the solstitial colure.
If a line be drawn from Sigma through Phi, and produced about 69 farther to
(he west, it will point out Delta, and produced about 30 from Delta, it will point
out Gamma; stars of the 3d magnitude, in the arrow. The latter is in the point
What is the order in the Zodiac, of Sagittarius? How is it situated? When does
the sun appear to enter this constellation? What are its extent and appearance". What
are the number and magnitude of 1ts stars? How may it be readily distinguished,
What is this figure called, and why? Where is this figure to be found, and when is it
pn the meridian? How far apart are the two upper stars in the bowl of the Dipper?
How far apart are the two lower ones? Describe the stars in the handle. Describe tha
position of Lambda. How may Lambda be otherwise known 2 With that other stars
does it form a handsome triangle? Describe the position of Mu. How may Delta and
Gamºnd be pointed out?
MAP v.] AQUILA. ET ANTINOU.S. I25.
of the arrow, and may be known by means of a small star just above it, on the
rigſ.t. This star is so nearly on the same meridian with Etamin, in the head of
Draco, that it culminates only two minutes after it. *
A few other conspicuous stars in this constellation, forming a variety of geo-
metrical figures, may be easily traced from the Inap.
History.—This constellation, it is said, commemorates the famous Centaur
Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, who changed himself into a horse, to elude
the jealous inquiries of his wife Rhea. 4
Chiron was famous for his knowledge of music, medicine, and shooting. He
taught mankind the use of plants and medicinal herbs; and instructed, in all the
polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age. . He taught Æsculapius physic;
Apollo in usic; and Hercules astronomy; and was tutor to Achilles, Jason, and
Eneas. According to Ovid, he was slam by Hercules, at the river Evenus, for
ffering indignity to his newly married bride.
“Thou monster double shap’d, my right set free—
Swift as his words, the fatal arrow flew :
The Centaur's back admits the feather'd wood,
And through his breast the barbed weapon stood;
Which, when in anguish, through the flesh he tore,
From both the wounds gush’d forth the spumy gore.”
The arrow which Hercules thus sped at the Centaur, having been †: tn
he blood of the Lernaean Hydra, rendered the wound incurable, even by the
father of medicine himself, and he begged Jupiter to deprive him of immortality
if thus he might escape his excruciating pains. Jupiter granted his request, and
translated him to a place among the constellations.
“Midst golden stars he stands refulgent now
And thrusts the scorpion with his bended bow.”
This is the Grecian account of Sagittarius; but as this constellation appears on
the ancient zodiacs of Egypt, Dendera, Esme, and India, it seems conclusive that
the Greeks only borrowed the figure, while they invented the fable. This is
known to be true with respect to very many of the ancient constellations.
Hence the jargon of the conflicting accounts which have descended to us.
AQUILA, ET ANTINOUS.
THE EAGLE, AND ANTINoUs.—This double constellation is
situated directly south of the Fox and Goose, and between
Taurus Poniatowski on the west, and the Dolphin, on the
east. It contains seventy-one stars, including one of the 1st
magnitude, nine of the 3d, and seven of the 4th. It may be
readily distinguished by the position and superior brilliancy
of its principal star.
Altair, the principal star in the Eagle, is of the 1st, or be-
tween the 1st and 2d magnitudes. It is situated about 140 S.
W. of Dolphin. It may be known by its being the largest
and middle one of the #: bright stars which are arranged
in a line bearing N. W. and S. E. The stars on each side
of Altair, are of the 3d magnitude, and distant from it about
29. This row of stars very much resembles that in the
Guards of the Lesser Bear.
How is Gamma situated with respect to Etamin 2 In what part of the heavens is the
Eagle situated? ... What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it distin-
guished? Describe its principal star. How may it be known? What is the magnitude
ºf “he stars on each side of Áltair? How far distant from it are they? What row ºf
ºrs does this row resemble? 11+
126 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG,
Altair is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance
is taken for computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination
is nearly 84° N., and when on the meridiah, it occupies
nearly the same place in the heavens that the sun does at
noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates about 6 minutes
before 9 o'clock, on the last day of August. It rises acrony-
cally about the beginning of June. -
Ovid alludes to the rising of this constellation; or, more probably, to that of
be principal star, Altair:-
— “Now view the skies,
And you’ll behold Jove's hook'd-bill bird arise.”
Massey's Fasti
— “Among thy splendid grou
ONE dubious whether of the second ** p
Or to the FIRST entitled ; but whose claim
Seems to deserve the FIRST.”
Eudosia.
The northernmost star in the line, next above Altair, is called Tarazed. In
the wing of the Eagle, there is another row composed of three stars, situated 4°
or 5° apart, extending down towards the southwest; the middle one in this line
is the smallest, being only of the 4th magnitude; the next is of the 3d magnitude,
marked Delta, and situated 8° S. W. of Altair.
As you proceed from Delta, there is another line of three stars of the 3d mag
nitude, between 5° and 6° apart, extending southerly, but curving a little to the
west, which mark the youth Antinous. The northéºn wing of the Eagle is not
distinguished by any conspicuous stars.
Zeta and Epsilon, of the 3d magnitude, situated in the tail of the Eagle, are
about 2° apart, and 12° N. W. of Altair. The last one in the tail, marked Epsi-
É. # on the same meridian, and culminates the same moment with Gamma, in
e Harp.
From Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, to Theta, in the wrist of Antinous, may
be traced a long line of stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, whose letter names
are Theta, Eta, Mu, Zeta, and Epsilon. The direction of this line is from S. E.
to N W., and its length is about 25°.
Eta is remarkable for its changeable appearance. Its greatest brightness con-
tinues but 40 hours; it then gradually diminishes for 66 hours when its lustre
remains stationary for 30 hours. It then waxes brighter and brighter, until it
*p. again as a star of the 3d magnitude.
rom these phenomena, it is inferred that it not only has spots on its surface,
Xike our sun, but that it also turns on its axis.
Similar phenomena are observable in Algol, Beta, in the Hare, Delta, in Ce-
nheus, and Omicron, in the Whale, and many others.
“Aquila the next,
Divides the ether with her ardent wing:
Beneath the Swan, nor far from Pegasus,
PoET1c EAGLE.”
HISTORY..—Aquila, or the Eagle, is a constellation usually joined with Antinous.
Aquila, is supposed to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the Ar-
chipelago, and the husband of Clymene, the mother of Phaeton; this monarch
having been transformed into an eagle, and placed among the constellations:
Some have imagined that Aquila was the eagle whose form Jupiter assumed
when he carried away Ganymede; others, that it represents the eagle which
brought nectar to Jupiter while he lay concealed in the cave at Crete, to avoid
Of what importance is this star at sea? What is its declination? What place does
it occupy in the heavens when on the meridian, and when does it culminate? When
does it rise acronycally? Describe the position of Tarazed. Describe the row of stars
in the wing of the Eagle. Describe the row of stars which mark the youth Antinous.
What stars tº the northern wing 2. Describe Zeta and Epsilon. When is Epsilon on
the meridian 2 What long iºne of stars terminates at Epsilon 2 What are the direc-
tion and extent of this iine? Describe the remarkable appearance of Eta.
&nferred from these phenomena?
MAP v.] DELPHINUS. 127
the fury of his father, Saturn. Some of the ancient poets tºy, that this is the
eagle which furnished Jupiter with weapons in his war with the giants:—
“The tow'ring Eagle next doth boldly soar,
As if the thunder in his claws he bore;
He's worthy Jove, since he, a bird, supplies »;
The heaven with sacred bolts, and arms the skies.” .'
Manilius.'
The eagle is justly styled the “sovereign of birds,” since he is the largest,
strongest, and swiftest of all the feathered tribe that live by prey. Homer galls
the eagle, “the strong sovereign of the plumy race;” Horace styles him—
“The royal bird, to whom the king of heaven
The empire of the feather'd race has given:”
And Milton denominates the eagle the “Bird of Jove.” Its sight is quick.
strong and piercing, to a proverb: Job xxix. 28, &c.
“Though strong the hawk, though practis'd well to fly,
An eagle drops her in the lower sky;
An eagle when deserting human sight,
She seeks the sun in her unwearied flight;
Did thy command her yellow pinion liſt
So high in air, and set her on the clift
Where far above thy world she dwells alone,
And proudly makes the strength of rocks her own;
Thence wide o’er nature takes her dread survey,
And with a glance predestinates her prey !
She feasts her young with blood; and how’ring o'er
Th’ unslaughter'd host, enjoys the promis'd gore.”
ANTINOUS.
Antiº ous is a part of the constellation Aquila, and was invented by Tycho
Brahe. Antinous was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. So greatly was his
death Bamented by the emperor Adrian, that he erected a temple to his memory
an. built in honour of him a splendid city, on the banks of the Nile, the ruins &
wr ºn are still visited by travellers with much interest.
C H A P T E R XI.
JIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN SEPTEMBER,
DELPHINUS.
THE Dolphin.-This beautiful little cluster of stars is sit-
uated 139 or 14° N. E. of the Eagle. It consists of eighteen
stars, including five of the 3d magnitude, but none larger. It
is easily distinguished from all others, by means of the four
principal stars in the head, which are so arranged as to form
the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and S.W. To many,
this cluster is known by the name of Job’s Coffin; but from
whom, or from what fancy, it first obtained this appellation,
is not known.
—-
is the constellation Delphinus situated? What are the number and magni.
ts stars? How is this constellation distinguished from all *:::::: * What sin-
gular name is sometimes given to this cluster, and whence was it deriv

128 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [ssPT.
There is another star of the 2d magnitude, situated in the
body of the Dolphin, about 39 S.W. of the Diamond, and
marked Epsilon. The other four are marked Alpha, Beta,
Gamma, Delta. Between these are several smaller stars, too
small to be seen in presence of the moon.
The mean declination of the Dolphin is about 15° N.
It comes to the meridian the same moment with Deneb
Cygni, and about 50 minutes after Altair, on the 16th of

September.
“Thee I behold, majestic Cygnus,
On the Inarge dancing of the heavenly sea,
Arion's friend; eighteen thy stars appear—
One telescopic.”
HISTORY.—The Dolphin, according to some mythologists, was made a constel-
lation by Neptune, because one of these beautiful fishes had persuaded the god.
dess Amphitrite, who had made a vow of perpetual celibacy, to become the wife
of that deity; but others maintain, that it is the dolphin which preserved the
famous lyric poet and inusician Arion, who was a native of Lesbos, an island in
the Archipelago.
He went to Italy with Periander, tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense
riches by his proſession, Wishing to revisit his native country, the sailors of
the ship in which he embarked, resolved to murder him, and get possession of
his wealth. Seeing them immoveable in their resolution, Arion begged permis
sion to play a tune upon his lute before he should be put to death. The melody
of the instrument attracted a number of dolphins around the ship; he immedi
ately precipitated himself into the sea; when one of them, it is asserted, carried
him safe on his back to Taenarus, a promontory of Laconia, in Peloponnesus,
whence he hastened to the court of Perlander, who ordered all the sailors to be
crucified at their return.
“But, (past belieſ,) a dolphin’s arched back
Preserved Ariori from his destined wrack;
Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.”
When the famous poet Hesiod was murdered in Naupactum, a city of Ætolia,
h Greece, and his body thrown into the sea, some dolphins, it is said, brough
back the floating corpse to the shore, which was immediately recognised by hit
friends; and the assassins being afterwards discovered by the dogs of the de.
parted bard, were put to death, by immersion in the same sea.
Taras, said by soune to have been the founder of Tarentum, now Tarento, in
the south of Italy, was saved from shipwreck by a dolphin; and the inhabitants
of that city preserved the memory of this extraordinary event on their coin.
The natural shape of the dolphin, however, is not incurvated, so that one
Daight ride upon its back, as the poets imagined, but almost straight. When it
is first taken from the water, it exhibits a variety of exquisitely beautiful but
evanescent tints of colour, that pass in succession over its body until it dies.
They are an extremely swift-swimming fish, and are capable of living a long
time out of water; in fact, they seem to delight to gambol, and leap out of their
native element.
“Upon the swelling waves the dolphins show
Their bending backs; then swiftly darting go,
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies show.”
CYGNU.S.
The Swan.—This remarkable constellation is situated in
Jhe Milky-Way, directly E. of Lyra, and nearly on the same
it.
te

Mention some other stars in the Dolphin, What is the mean declimation of
phin, and when is it on the meridian'. In what part of the heavens is the Cons
Cygnus situated?
MAP v. ) CYGNUS. 129
meridian with the Dolphin. It is represented on outspread
wings, flying down the Milky-Way, towards the southwest.
The principal stars which mark the wings, the body and
the bill of Cygnus, are so arranged, as to form a large and
regular Cross; the upright piece lying along the Milky-
Way from N. E. to S. W., while the cross piece, repre-
senting the wings, crosses the other at right angles, from
S. E. to N. W.
Arided, or Deneb, Cygni, in the body of the Swan, is a
star of the 1st magnitude, 24° E. N. E. of Lyra, and 300 di-
rectly N. of the Dolphin. It is the most brilliant star in the
constellation. It is situated at the upper end of the cross,
ºnes to the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 16th of Sep-
tember.
Sadºr, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 6° S W. of Deneb, situated exactly in the
º or where the upright piece intersects the cross pièce, and is about 20° E.
yra.
JDelta, the principal star in the west wing, or arm of the cross, is situated N.
W. of Sad’r, at the distance of little more than 8°, and is of the 3d magnitude.
Beyond Delta, towards the extremity of the wing, are two smaller stars about 5°
apart, and inclining a little obliquely to the north; the last of which reaches
nearly to the first coil of Draco. These stars mark the west wing; the east wing
mº, e traced by means of stars very similarly situated.
enah, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the east wing, just as far east of Sad’r
in the centre of the cross, as Delta is west of it. This row of three equal stars,
Delta, Sad’r, and Giemah, form the bar of the cross, and are equidistant from
each other, being about 8° apart. Beyond Gienah on the east, at the distance of
6° or 79 there are two other stars of the 3d magnitude; the last of which marks
the extremity of the eastern wing.
The stars in the neck are all too small to be noticed. There is one, however,
in the beak of the Swan, at the foot of the cross, called Albireo, which is of the
3d magnitude, and can be seen very plainly. It is about 16° S. W. of Sad’r, and
about the same distance S. E. of Lyra, with which it makes nearly a right angle.
“In the small space between Sad’r and Albireo,” says Dr. Herschel, “the stars
in the Milky-Way seem to be clustering into two separate divisions; each divi-
sion containing more than one hundred and sirty-five thousand stars.”
Albireo bears northerly from Altair about 20°. Immediately south and south-
east of Albireo, may be seen the Fox and Goose; and about midway between
Albireo and Altair, there may be traced a line of four or five minute stars, called
the ARRow; the head of which is on the S. W., and can be distinguished by
tneans of two stars situated close together.
According to the British catalogue, this constellation con-
tains eighty-one stars, including one of the 1st or 2d mag-
nitude, six of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. The author
of the following beautiful lines, says there are one hundred
and seven.
“Thee, silver Swan, who, silent, can o'erpass?
A hundred with seven radiant stars compose
Thy graceful form: amid the lucid stream
How is it represented? What remarkable figure is formed by its principal stars?
Describe the position and appearance of Arided, or Deneb Cygni. When döes it cul-
te at 9 o'clock? Describe the position of Sad’r. Describe Delta. What stars be:
# elta? What stars in the east wing 2 What stars form the bar of the crgsº
hat stars beyond Gienah on the east? Describe the stars in the neck and bill qf the
Swan. How is the star in the till situated with respect to Sad'r and Lyra 2
clusters south and southeast of Albireo? What are the number and magnitudé of the
StarS in the Swan 3
130 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |SEPr.
Of the fair Milky-Way distinguisn’d; one
Adorns the second order, where she cuts
The waves that follow in her utmost track;
This never hides its fire throughout the night,
And of the rest, the more conspicuous mark
Her snowy punions and refulgent neck.”—Eudosia, b, iv.
Astronomers have discovered three variable stars in the Swan. , Chi, situated
in the neck, between Beta and Sadºr, was first observed to vary its brightness,
in 1686. Its periodical changes of light are now ascertained to be completed in
405 days. Sad’r is also changeable. Its greatest lustre is somewhat less than that
of a star of the 3d magnitude, and it gradually diminishes till it reaches that of
the 6th. Its changes are far from being regular, and, from present observations,
they do not seem to recur till after a period of ten years or more.
A third variable star was discovered in the head on the 20th of June, 1670, b
Anthelme. It appeared then to be of the 3d magnitude, but was so far diminishe
in the following October, as to be scarcely visible. In the beginning of ;
1671, it was again seen, and was rather brighter than at first. After sever
changes, it disappeared in March, 1672, and has not been observed since.
These remarkable facts seem to indicate, that there is a brilliant planetary
system in this constellation, which, in some of its revolutions, becomes visible
to us.
History.—Mythologists give various accounts of the origin of this constella-
tion. Some suppose it is Orpheus, the celebrated musician, who, on being mur.
dered by the cruel priestess of Bacchus, was changed into a Swan, and placed
near his Harp in the heavens. Others suppose it is the swan into which Jupiter
transformed himself when he deceived Leda, wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta.
Some affirm that it was Cicnus, a son of Neptune, who was so ...? etely invul-
nerable that neither the javelins nor arrows, nor even the blows of Achilles, in
furious combat, could make any impression.
“Headlong he leaps from off his lofty car,
And in close fight on foot renews the war;--
But on his flesh nor wound nor blood is seen,
The sword itself is blunted on the skin.”
But when Achilles saw that his darts and blows had no effect on him, he im-
mediately threw nim on the ground and smothered him. While he was attempt.
ing to despoil him of his armour, he was suddenly changed into a swan.
“With eager haste he went to strip the dead;
The vaulsh’d body from his arms was fled.
His seagod sire, tº immortalize his fame,
Had turn’d it to a bird that bears his name.”
According to Ovid this constellation took its name from Cygnus, a relative of
Phaeton, who deeply lamented the untimely ſate of that youth, and the melan-
º end of his sisters, who, standing around his tomb, wept themselves into
O'Dars.
“Cicnus beheld the nymphs transform’d, allied
To their dead brother on the mortal side,
In friendship and affection nearer bound;
He left the cities, and the realms he own’d,
f Through pathless fields, and lonely shores to range;
And woods made thicker by the sisters' change,
Whilst here, within the dismal gloom alone,
* * The melancholy monarch made his moan;
His voice was lessen’d as he tried to speak,
And issued through a long-extended neck:
His hair transforms to down, his fingers meet
In skinny films, and shape his oary feet;
From both his sides the wings and feathers break:
And from his mouth proceeds a blunted beak:
All Cicnus now into a swan was turn'd.”—Ovid's Met. b. ii.
What variable stars have astronomers discovered in this constellation? Which of
these was first discovered to be variable in 1686 In what period are its periodical
changes of light completed? Describe the appearance qf Sad'ſ. Describe théond dis.
covered in 1670. What do these remarkable facts indicate?
MAP v. ) CAPRICORNUs. 131.
Virgil, also, in the 10th book of his AEneid, alludes to the same fable:-
“For Cicnus loved unhappy Phaeton,
And sung his loss in poplar groves alone, .#
Beneath the sister shades to sooth his grief; ;
Heaven heard his song, and hasten’d his relief;
And changed to Snowy plumes his hoary hair,
And wing’d his flight to sing aloft in air.”
Of all the feathered race, there is no bird, perhaps, which makes so beautiful
and majestic an appearance as the swan. , Almost every poet of eminence has
taken notice of it. The swan has, probably, in all ages, and in every country
where taste and elegance have been cultivated, been considered as the emblem
of poetical dignity, purity, and ease. By the ancients it was consecrated to Apollo
and the Muses; they also entertained a notion that this bird foretold its own end,
and sang more sweetly at the approach of death. ..
“She, like the swan
Expiring, dies in melody.”—AEschylus.
“So on the silver stream, when death is migh,
The Inournful swan sings its own elegy.”—Ovid, Tristia.
CAPRICORNUS.
THE GOAT.—This is the tenth sign, and eleventh constel-
lation, in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the
Dolphin, and next east of Sagittarius. Its mean declination
is 200 south, and its mean right ascension, 310°. It is there-
fore on the meridian about the 18th of September. It is to
be observed that the first point of the sign Capricorn, not the
constellation, marks the southern tropic, or winter solstice.
The sun, therefore, arrives at this point of its orbit the 21st
of December, but does not reach the constellation Capricorn
until the 16th of January.
The sun, having now attained its utmost declination south,
after remaining a few days apparently stationary, begins once
more to retrace its progress northwardly, affording to the
wintry latitudes of the north, a grateful presage of returning
spring.
At the period of the winter solstice, the sun is vertical to
the tropic of Capricorn, and the southern hemisphere enjoys
the same light and heat which the northern hemisphere en-
joys on the 21st of June, when the sun is vertical to the tropic
of Cancer. It is, at this period, mid-day at the south pole,
and midnight at the north pole.
The whole number of stars in this constellation is fifty
one ; none of which are very conspicuous. The three largest
are only of the 3d magnitude. There is an equal number
of the 4th.
Where is Capricornus situated? What are its mean right ascension and declination?
When is the main body of the constellation on the meridian A When does the Sun enter
the sign, and when the constellation Capricorn? Does the sun ever extend beyond
this point into the southern hemisphere 3 What is the position of the sun with re-
spect to the tropic of Capricorn, at the winter solstice, and what are the seasons in
the two hemispheres? What are the number and magnitude of the stars in this con-
$tellation? • fº,"
* , *
~ *
* * *
~ *s .
!
* -
t
.
132 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [sept,
The head of Capricorn may be recognised by means of
two stars of the 3d magnitude, situated a little more than 20
apart, called Giedi and Dabih. They are 28° from the Dol-
phin, in a southerly direction.
Giedi is the most northern star of the two, and is double.
If a line be drawn from Lyra through Altair, and produced
about 23° farther, it will point out the head of Capricorn.
These two stars come to the meridian the 9th of September,
a few minutes after Sad’r, in Cygni.
A few other stars, of inferior note may be traced out by
reference to the maps.
The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient oriental
1sts the “Southern gate of the Sun,” as Cancer was denom
inated the “Northern gate.” The ten stars in the sign Ca
pricorn, known to the ancients by the name of the “Tower
of Gad,” are probably now in the constellation Aquarius.
HISTORY..—Capricornus is said to be Pan, or Bacchus, who, with some other
deities were feasting near the banks of the Nile, when suddenly the dreadful
#. Typhon came upon them, and compelled them all to assume a different
ape, in order to escape his fury. Ovid relates,
“How Typhon, from the conquer'd skies, pursued
Their routed godheads to the seven-mouth’d flood:
Forced every god, (his fury to º
Some beastly form to take, or earthly shape.
Jove (sings the bard) was chang'd into a ram,
From whence the horns of Lybian Ammon came.
Bacchus a goat, Apollo was a crow;
Phoebe a cat; the wife of Jove a cow,
Whose hue was whiter than the falling snow
Mercury to a nasty Ibis turned—
While Venus from a fish protection craves,
And once more plunges in her native waves.”
On this occasion it is further related that Bacchus, or Pan, led the way and
plunged into the Nile, and that the part of his body which was under the water,
assumed the form of a fish, and the other part that of a goat; and that to pre
serve the memory of this frolic, Jupiter made him into a constellation, in his
metamorphosed shape.
Some say that this constellation was the goat Amalthea, who supported the in
fant Jupiter with her milk. To reward her kindness, the father of the gods
placed her among the constellations, and gave one of her horns to the nymphs
who had taken care of him in his infantile years. This gift was ever after called
the horn of plenty; as it possessed the virtue of imparting to the holder what-
ever she desired."
The real sense of this fable, divested of poetical embellishment, appears to be
this; that in Crete, some say in Lybia, there was a small territory shaped very
much like a bullock's horn, and exceedingly fertile, which the king presented
to his daughter Amalthea, whom the poets ſeigned to have been Jupiter's nurse.
“The bounteous Pan,” as he is styled by Milton, was the god of rural scenery
shepherds, and huntsmen. Virgil thus addresses him:—
* On this account the Latin term Cornweapia, denotes plenty, or abundance of good
things. The word Amalthea, when used figuratively, has also the same meaning.
How may it be recognised? How are Giedi and Dabih situated with respect to the
Dolphinº. How are these two stars distinguished from each other, and what is their
position in respect to the Eagle? When are they on our meridian? What were the
signs capricorn and Cancer originally called? Where are the ten stars, known to the
; the name of the “Tower of Gad,” now to be found"
MAP II | PEGASUS. 13.3%
...”
‘And thou, the shepherd's tuitelary god
Leave, for a while, O Pan thy loved abode.”
The name of Pan is derived from a Greek word signifying all th:ngs; ifid Ke
was often considered as the greatgº; of vegetable and animal life. He re-
aided, chiefly in Arcadia, in woods and the most rugged mountains: Aº, Pan
usually terrified the inhabitants of the adjacent country, even when he was no-
where to be seen, that kind of fear which often seizes men, and which is only
ideal or imaginary, has received from him the name of Panic.
C H A P T E R XII.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN OCTOBER.
PEGASUS.
THE FLYING HoRSE-This constellation is represented in
an Inverted posture, with wings. It occupies a large space
in the heavens, between the Swan, the Dolphin and the
Eagle, on the west, and the Northern Fish and Andromeda,
on the east. Its mean right ascension is 340°, or it is situa-
ted 20° W. of the prime meridian. It extends from the
equinoctial N. 35°. Its mean length E. and W. is about 40°,
and it is six weeks in passing our meridian, viz. from the 1st
of October to the 10th of November.
We see but a part of Pegasus, the rest of the animal,
being, as the poets imagined, hid in the clouds.
It is readily distinguished from all other constellations by
means of four remarkable stars, about 15° apart, forming the
figure of a square, called the square of Pegasus. The two
western stars in this square come to the meridian about the
23d of October, and are 13° apart. The northern one, which
is the brightest of three triangular stars in the martingale, is
of the 2d magnitude, and is called Scheat. Its declination is
26#o N. Markab, also of the 2d magnitude, situated in the
bead of the wing, is 13° S. of Scheat, and passes the meri-
dian 11 minutes after it.
**
* Pales, the female deity corresponding to Pan, was the goddess of sheepfolds and
of pastures among the Romans. Thus Virgil :-
“Now, sacred Pales, in a lofty strain,
I sing the rural honours of thy reign.”
The shepherds offered to this Fº milk and honey, to gain her protection ovet
their flocks. She is represented as an old woman, and was worship ed with great
solemnity at Rome. Her festivals which were called Palilia, were celebrated on the
toth of April, the day on which Romulus laid the foundations of the city.
How is Pegasus represented? What space and position does it occupy in the hea
ens? What are the distance and direction of its centre from the prime meridian?
What are its mean length and breadth” . How loog is it in passing our meridian”
When does it pass the meridian? How is this corºstellation distinguished from ai,
2thers? Describe the two stars Which º the West side of the square?
p :
134 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, | oct
The two stars which form the eastern side of the square,
come to the meridian about an hour after those in the western.
The northern one has already been described as Alpheratz
in the head of Andromeda, but it also belongs to this cºnstel-
lation, and is 14° E. of Scheat. 14° S. of Alpheratz, is Al-
genib, the last star in the wing, situated 164° E. of Makab.
Algenib, in Pegasus, Alpheratz, in Andromeda, and º: in Cassiopeia are
situated on the prime meridian, and point out its direction through the pole. For
this reason, they are sometimes called the three guides. They form an arc, of
that great circle in the heavens from which the distances of all the heavenly bo-
dies are measured. It is an arc of the equinoctial colure which passes through
the vernal equinox, and which the sun crosses about the 21st of March. It is, in
astronomy, what the meridian of Greenwich is in geography. If the sun, or a
planet, or a star, be said to have so many degrees of right ascension, it means
that the sun or planet has ascended so many degrees from this prime meridian.
Enif, sometimes called Emir, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the nose of Pe-
gasus, about 20° W. S. W. of Markab, and halfway between it and the Dolphin.
About # of the distance from Markab towards Eniſ, but a little to the S., there is
a star of the 3d magnitude situated in the neck, whose letter name is Zeta. The
loose cluster directly S. of a line joining Enif and Zeta, forms the head of Pe-
gasus.
In this constellation, there are eighty-nine stars visible to
the naked eye, of which three are of the second magnitude
and three of the third.
History.—This, according to fable, is the celebrated horse which sprung from
the blood of Medusa, after Ferseus had cutoff her head. He received his name
according to Hesiod, from his being born near the sources (rhyn, Pege) of the
ocean. According to Ovid, he fixed his residence on Mount Helicon, where by
striking the earth with his foot, he raised the fabled fountain called Hippocrene.
He became the favourite of the Muses; and being tamed by Neptune or Mi-
nerva, he was given to Bellerophon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyre, to aid him
in conquering the Chimaera, a hideous monster that continually vomited flames.
This monster had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. The fore
parts of its body were those of a lion, the middle those of a goat, and the hinder
those of the dragon. It lived in Lycia, of which the top, on account of its deso-
late wilderness, was the resort of lions, the middle, which was fruitful, was cov-
ered with goats, and at the bottom, the marshy ground abounded with serpents.
Bellerophon was the first who made his habitation upon it.
Plutarch thinks the Chimaera was the captain of some pirates who adorned
their ship with the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon.
After the destruction of this monster, Bellerophon attempted to fly up to hea-
ven upon Pegasus; but ºl. was so displeased at this presumption, that he
sent an insect to sting the horse, which occasioned the melancholy fall of his
rider. Bellerophon fell to the earth, and Pegasus continued his flight up to hea.
ven, and was placed by Jupiter among the constellations.
“Now heav'n his further wand'ring flight confines,
Where, splendid with his num’rous stars, he shines.”
Ovid's Fasts
EQUULUS, VEL EQUI SECTIO.
THE LITTLE HORSr., or THE Horse's HFAD.—This Aste-
rism, or small cluster of stars, is situated about 7° W. of
Enif, in the head of Pegasus, and about halfway between it
Describe the two On the east Side. What is the name of the star in the N. E. corner
of the square? In the S. E. corner? In the S. W. corner? In the N. W. corner De-
scribe the position and magnitude ºf Enif ...What is the whole number of stars in
§ p H º “s the magnitude of the principal ones? Describe the situati Jn of Jha
tig HO
Map ul AQUARIUS, 135
and the Dolpnin. It is on the meridian at 8 o'clock, on the
11th of October. It contains ten stars, of which the four
principal are only of the 4th magnitude. These may be
readily distinguished by means of the long irregular square
which they form. The two in the nose, are much nearer to-
gether than the two in the eyes; the former being 1° apart,
and the latter 24°. Those in the nose are uppermost, being
4o N. of those in the eyes. This figure also is in an inverted
position. These four stars are situated 100 or 12° S. E. of
the diamond in the Dolphin's head. Both of these clusters,
are noticeable on account of their figure rather than their
brilliancy.
History.—This constellation is supposed to be the brother of Pegasus, named
Celeris, given by Mercury to Castor, who was so celebrated for his skill in the
management of horses; others take him to be the celebrated horse which Nep-
tune struck out of the earth with his trident, when he disputed with Minerva for
superiority. The head only of Celeris is visible, and this, also, is represented
in an inverted position.
AQUARIUS.
THE WATER-BEARER.—This constellation is represented
by the figure of a man, pouring out water from an urn. It is
situated in the Zodiac, immediately S. of the equinoctial,
and bounded by the Little Horse, Pegasus, and the Western
Fish on the N., the Whale on the E., the Southern Fish on
the S. and the Goat on the W. It is now the 12th in order,
or last of the Zodiacal constellations; and is the name of the
11th sign in the ecliptic. Its mean declination is 14° S, and
its mean right ascension 335°, or 22 hours, 20 min. ; it being
1 hour and 40 min. W. of the equinoctial colure; its centre
is, therefore, on the meridian the 15th of October.
It contains one hundred and eight stars; of which the four
largest are all of the 3d magnitude.
“His head, his shoulders, and his lucid breast,
Glisten with stars; and where his urn inclines
Rivers of light brighten the wat'ry track.”
The northeastern limit of Aquarius may be readily distin-
guished by means of four stars of the 4th magnitude, in the
hand and handle of the urn, so placed as to form the letter
Y, ..º.º. to be seen, 15° S. E. of Enif, or 18° S. S.
W. of Markab, in Pegasus; making with the two latter nearly
a right angle.

When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the
magnitude of the principal ones? How may the principal stars be distinguished!
How are the two in the nose distinguished from the two in the eyes? What are their
distance and direction from the Dolphinº. On what account are these clusters noticea.
ble? How is Aquarius represented? Where is it situated? What is its present Order
among the constellations of the Zodiacº What are its right ascension and declination?
What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones?
How may the N. E. limit of Aquarius be readily distinguished? What are the distance
and direction of this letter Y, from Markab and Enif, in Pegasus?

136 F[CTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |oct.
*
*
w
About 44° W, of this figure is El Melik, a star of the 3d magnitude, in the E.
shoulder, and the principal one in this constellation, 10° S. W. of El Melik, is
jºr star of the same magnitude, situated in the W. shoulder, called Sades
Q?&Cº.,
Ancha of the 4th magnitude, is in the right side, 8° S. of El Melik. 99 E. of
Ancha, is another star of the 4th magnitude, whose letter name is Lambda.
Scheat, of the 3d magnitude, lying Telow the knee, is situated 84° S., of Lamb-
da; and 14° S. of Scheat, the brilliant star . of between the 1st and
2d magnitudes, terminates the cascade in the mouth of the Southern Fish. This
star is common to both these constellations, and is one of those from which the
lunar distance is computed for ascertaining the longitude at sea. It culminates
at 9 o'clock on the 22d of October.
Fomalhaut,” Deneb Kaitos, and Alpha in the head of the Phoenix, make al
triangle, whose vertex is in Deneb Kaitos. Those two stars of the 4th magnitu
situated 4° S. of Sad es Saud, and nearly the same distance from Ancha, are in
the tail of Capricorn. They are about 29 apart. The western one is called
Deneb Alged.
The rest of the stars in the cascade are quite small; they may be traced from
the letter Y, in the urn, in a southeasterly direction towards the tail of Cetus,
from which the cascade suddenly bends off near Scheat, in an opposite course,
and finally disappears in the mouth of the Southern Fish, 30° S. of Y.
History.—This constellation is the famous Ganymede, a beautiful youth of
Phrygia, son of Tros, king of Troy, or, according to Lucian, son of Dardanus.
He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he was tending his father's flocks on
Mount Ida, and became the cupbearer of the gods in place of Hebe. There are
various opinions, however, among the ancients respecting its origin. Some Sup-
pose it represents Deucalion, who was placed among the stars after the celebra-
ted deluge of Thessaly, 1500 years before the birth of our Saviour; while others
think it designed to commemorate Cecrops, who came from Egypt to Greece,
founded Athens, established science, and introduced the arts of polished liſe.
The ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance of Aquariu
caused the Nile to rise, by the sinking of his urn in the water.—In the Zodiac o
• the Hebrews, Aquarius répresents the tribe of Reuben.
PISCIS AUSTRALIS, VEL NOTIUS.
The SouthERN Fish.--This constellation is directly S. of
Aquarius, and is represented as a fish drinking the water
#Which Aquarius pours from his urn. Its mean declination is
31° S. and its mean right ascension and time of passing the
meridian are the same as those of Aquarius, and it is seen on
the meridian at the same time; viz., on the 15th of October.
It contains 24 visible stars, of which one is of the 1st magni-
tude or between the 1st and 2d, two are of the 3d, and five of
the 4th. The first and most beautiful of all is Fomalhaut,
situated in the mouth. This is 14° directly S. of Scheat in
Aquarius, and may be seen passing the meridian low down
In the southern hemisphere, on the 22d and 23d of October.
* Pronounced Fo-ma-lo.
What is the name of the principal star in this constellation? What is its position?
What star in the W. shoulder? Describe the situation of Ancha. What is th
tion of Scheat and Fomalhaut 2 . To what constellations is Fomalhaut common 2 O.
what nautical importance is it? When does it culminate 2 With what other stars
does it form a large triangle? How may you trace the stars in the cascade? Describe
the situation and yº of the Southern Fish. What are its mean right ascension,
and declination? en is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars?
What is the magnitude of its principal ones? What are the name and position of the
most brilliant star in the Constellation? When and where does it pass the meridian *
v.ARIABLE AND DouBLE STARs, &c. 137
Its position in the heavens has been determined with the
#. possible accuracy, to enable navigators to find their
ongitude at sea.
The mode of doing this cannot be explained here. The problem is one of some
difficulty. It consists in finding the angular distance between some star whose
position is well known, and the moon when she is passing near it; also, the
altitude of each, at the same instant, with good sextants. These data furnish the
elements of a spherical triangle, the solution of which, after various intricate
corrections, is made to result in the longitude of the given place.—See note to
Arieties. In 1714, the British Parliament offered a reward of 10,000 pounds ster-
ling, to any man who should discover a method of determining the longitude
within 19, or 60 geographic miles of the truth; 15,000 pounds to the man who
should find it within 40 miles, and 20,000 pounds, if found within 30 miles. These
rewards in part have been since distributed among eminent mathematicians, in
Europe, agreeably to the respective merits of their discoveries.
History.—This constellation is supposed to have taken its name from the
transformation of Venus into the shape of a fish when she fled, terrified at the
horrible advances of the monster Twphon, as we have related in the mythology
of the Fishes.—(See Pisces.)
C H A P T E R XIII. *
WARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS–CLUSTERS–NEBULE,
1. WARIABLE STARs.-The periodical variations of brilliancy
to which some of the fixed stars are subject, may be reckoned
among the most remarkable of their phenomena. Several
stars, formerly distinguished by their splendour, have entirely
disappeared; others are now conspicuous which do not seem
to have been visible to the ancient observers; and there are
some which alternately appear and disappear, or, at least, of
which the light undergoes great periodic changes. Some
seem to become gradually more obscure, as Delta in the Great
Bear; others, like Beta in the Whale, to be increasing in
brilliancy. Some stars have all at once blazed forth with
great splendour, and, after a gradual diminution of their light,
again become extinct. The most remarkable instance of this
kind is that of the star which appeared in 1572, in the time
of Tycho Brahe. It suddenly shone forth, in the constella-
tion Cassiopeia, with a splendour exceeding that of stars of
the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and of Venus, at their
least distances from the earth; and could be seen, with the
naked eye, on the meridian, in full day ! Its brilliancy gradu-
ally diminished from the time of its #. appearance, and at
the end of sixteen months, it entirely disappeared, and has

For what purpose has its position been very accurately determined? Describe the
riodical variations of brilliancy to which some of the fixed stars are subject? Mention
; of the most remarkable instances of such variations, and describe them particut
J.
12+
138 DOUBLE STARS,
never been seen since. (See a more particular account of
this phenomenon, page 40.)
Another instance of the same kind was observed in 1604,
when a star of the first magnitude suddenly appeared in the
right foot of Ophiuchus. It presented, like the former, all the
phenomena of a prodigious flame, being, at first, of a dazzling
white, then of a reddish yellow, and, lastly, of a leaden pale-
ness; in which its light expired. These instances prove that
the stars are subject to great physical revolutions.—Page 41.
A great number of stars have been observed whose light
seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and diminution.
They are properly called Variable Stars. One in the Whale
has a period of 334 days, and is remarkable for the magni-
tude of its variations. From being a star of the second mag”
nitude, it becomes so dim as to be seen with difficulty through
powerful telescopes. Some are remarkable for the shortness
of the period of their variation. Algol has a period of between
two and three days; Delta Cephei, of # days; Beta Lyrae,
of 62-5 days; and Mu Antinoi, of 7 days.
The regular succession of these variations precludes the
supposition of an actual destruction of the stars; neither can
the variations be supposed to arise from a change of distance;
for as the stars invariably retain their apparent places, it would
be necessary to suppose that they approach to, and recede
from the earth in straight lines, which is very improbable.
The most probable supposition is, that the stars revolve, like
the sun and planets, about an axis. “Such a motion,” says
the elder Herschel, “may be as evidently proved, as the diur-
nal motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the
surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in
certain directions, either towards or from us, will account for
all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the
stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for any
other cause.”
2. Double STARs.—On examining the stars with telescopes
of considerable power, many of them are found to be com-
posed of two or more stars, placed contiguous to each other,
or of which the distance subtends a very minute angle. This
appearance is, probably, in many cases, owing solely to the
optical effect of their position relative to the spectator; for it
is evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they are
What are such stars denominated? Describe the variations of one in the Whale.
‘What stars are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their variations? Why
may we not suppose that the stars which disappear are actually destroyed? Why
dot the variations arise from a change of distance? What is the most probable suppé-
sition in regard to their cause? How does Dr. Herschel explain these phenomena?
on ox.mining the stars with a telescope of considerable power, what other peculiarity
do wº 1,1) . " To what is this appearance, in many cases, owing?
& º
ÞOUBLE STARS. 133
placed nearly in the same line of vision, although their real
distance may be immeasurably great.
'There are, however, many instances in which the angle of
position of the two stars varies in such a manner as to indi-
cate a revolution about each other and about a common cert-
tre. In this case they are said to form a Binary System,
performing to each other the office of sun and planet, and are
connected together by laws of gravitation like those which
revail in the solar system. The recent observations of Sir
ohn Herschel and Sir James South, have established the
truth of this singular fact, beyond a doubt. Motions have been
detected, so rapid as to become measurable within very short
periods of time; and at certain epochs, the satellite or feebler
star has been observed to disappear, either passing behind or
before the primary, or approaching so near to it that its light
has been absorbed by that of the other.
The most remarkable instance of a regular revolution of
this sort, is that of Mizar, in the tail of the Great Bear; in
which the angular motion is 6 degrees and 24 minutes of a
great circle, annually; so that the two stars complete a revo-
ſation about one another in the space of 58+ years. About
eleven twelfths of a complete circuit have been already de-
scribed since its discovery in 1781, the same year in which
the planet Herschel was discovered.
A double star in Ophiuchus presents a similar phenomenon,
and the satellite has a motion in its orbit still more rapid.
Castor, in the Twins,” Gamma Virginis, Zeta in the Crab,
Zi Bootis, Delta Serpentis, and that remarkable double star
61 Cygni, together with several others, amounting to 40 in
number,t exhibit the same evidence of a revolution about each
other and about a common centre. But it is to be remem-
bered that these are not the revolutions of bodies of a planet-
ary nature around a solar centre, but of sun around sun—
each, perhaps, accompanied by its train of planets, and their
satellites, closely shrouded from our view by the splendour
of their respective suns, and crowded into a space bearing
hardly a greater proportion to the enormous Interval which
separates them, than the distances of the satellites of our plan-

* Fage 67. * Herschel's Astronomy, page 391.
Are there, however, any instances where one star revolves with another around a
common centre? When two stars are thus situated, what system are they said to
form? Why is it thus denominated? What modern astronomers of great celebrity
have established the truth of this theory 7 What rates of motion did they detect in
these binary systems? What other interesting phenomena, indicating a mutual revo-
ution, did they discover? What is the most remarkable instance of this fact? Men-
tion some other instances. Are these revolving stars of a planetary nature? Of what
uature are they :
140 DOUBLE STARS,
ets from their primaries, bear to their distances from the su.
itself.
The examination of double stars was first undertaken by the late Sir Willian
Herschel, with a view to the question of parallax. His attention was, however
soon arrested by the new and unexpected phenomena which these bodies pre
sented. Sir William observed of then, in all, 2400. Sir James South and Her
schel have given a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the Royal Society, fo.
1824, and South added 458, in 1826. Sir John Herschel, in addition to the above
published an account of 1000, before he left England for the Cape of Good Hope,
where he is, at the time we write, pushing his discoveries in the southern hem-
isphere with great perseverance and success. Professor Struve, with the great
Dorpat telescope, has given a catalogue of 3,063 of the most remarkable of these
starS.
The object of these catalogues is not merely to fix the place of the star within
such limits as will enable us easily to discover it at any #. time, but also to
record a description of the appearance, position, and mutual distances, of the
individual stars composing the system, in order that subsequent observers may
have the means of detecting their connected motions, or any changes which they
may exhibit, Professor Struve has also taken notice of 52 triple stars, among
which No. 11 of the Unicorn. Zeta of Cancer, and Zi of the Balance, appear to
be termary systems in motion. Quadruple and quintuple stars have likewise
been observed, which also appear to revolve about a common centre of gravity;
in short, every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these curious phe-
{10}ſileila,
Colour of the Stars.-Many of the double stars exhibit the
curious and beautiful phenomenon of contrasted colours, or
complimentary tints. In such instances, the larger star is
usually of a ruddy or orange hue, while the smaller one ap-
pears blue or green, probably in virtue of that general law of
optics, which provides, that when the retina is under the in-
fluence of excitement by any bright, coloured light, feebler
º which seen alone would produce no sensation but that
of whiteness, shall for the time appear coloured with the tint
complimentary to that of the brighter. Thus, a yellow colour
º in the light of the bright. star, that of the less
right one, in the same field of view, will appear blue; while,
if the tint of the brighter star verge to crimson, that of the
other will exhibit a tendency to green—or even appear a vivid
green. The former contrast is beautifully exhibited by Iota,
ºn Cancer; the latter by Almaach, in Andromeda—both fine
double stars. If, however, the coloured star be much the less
bright of the two, it will not materially affect the other. Thus,
for instance, Eta Cassiopeiae exhibits the beautiful combina
tion º: a large white star, and a small one of a rich ruddy
urple.
p It is not easy to conceive what variety of illumination two
suns—a red and a green, or a yellow and a blue one—must
afford to a planet revolving about either; and what charming

What beautiful and curious phenomenon has been observed, as it regards the colour
of double stars? Explain how these colours are usually contrasted. Mention an ex-
ample of this phenomenon. How, if the coloured star be much the less bright of the
twó, will the 6ther be affected? Give an instance. What may be the effect of such a
*ariety of color” in solar light?
CLUSTERS, | 4 ||
contrasts and grateful vicissitudes—a red and a green day,
for instance, aſternating with a white one and with darkness
—might arise from the presence or absence of one or the other,
or both, above the horizon. Insulated stars of a red colour,
almost as deep as that of blood, occur in many parts of the
heavens, but no green or blue star (of any decided hue) has,
we believe, ever been noticed, unassociated with a companion
brighter than itself.
CLUSTERs.--When we cast our eyes over the concave sur-
face of the heavens in a clear night, we do not fail to observe
that there are, here and there, groups of stars which seem to
be compressed together more densely than those in the neigh-
bouring parts; forming bright patches and clusters.
There is a group called the Pleiades, in which six or seven
stars may be noticed, if the eye be directed full upon it; and
many more if the eye be turned carelessly aside, while the at-
tention is kept directed” upon the group. Telescopes show
fifty or sixty large stars thus crowded together in a very mod-
erate space, and comparatively insulated from the rest of the
heavens. Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars in this
small cluster. The constellation, called Coma Berenices, is
another group, more diffused, and consisting of much larger
StarS.
In the constellation Cancer, there is a nebulous cluster of
very minute stars, called Praesepe, or the Beehive, which is
sufficiently luminous to be seen by the naked eye, in the ab-
sence of the moon, and which any ordinary spyglass will re-
solve into separate stars. In the sword-handle of Perseus, also,
is another such spot, crowded with stars. It requires, however,
rather a better telescope to resolve it into individual stars.
These are called Clusters of Stars. Whatever be their
nature, it is certain that other laws of aggregation subsist in
these spots, than those which have determined the scattering
of stars over the general surface of the sky. Many of them,
undeed, are of an exactly round figure, and convey the idea
of a globular space filled full of stars, and constituting, in it-
self, a family or society apart, and subject only to its own
Internal laws.
“It would be a vain task,” says the younger Herschel, “to
* “It is a very remarkable fact,” says Sir John Herschel, “that the centre of the
visual organ is by far less, sensible to feeble impressions of light, than the exterior
portions of the retina.”—Ast. p. 398.
Are individual stars of a deep colour ever found separate from others? What are
tlusters of stars 1 Mention some instance. Describe it. Mention some otherin.9tance.
Describe the position and appearance of Praesepe. Describe any other cluster which
you may recollect. What are the constitution and figure of such groups? What did
the younger Herschel say of the number of stars which compose these clustfits?
142 NEBULEE.
attempt to count the stars in one of these globular clusters,
They are not to be reckoned by hundreds; for it would an-
ear that many clusters of this description must contain, at
east, ten or twenty thousand stars, compacted and wedged
together in a round space, not more than a tenth part as large
as that which is covered by the moon. |
}
4. NEBULE:-The Nebulae, so called from their dim, cloudy
appearance, form another class of objects which furnish mat-
ter for curious speculation, and conjecture respecting the for-
mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When exam-
ined with a telescope of moderate powers, the greater part of
the nebulae are distinctly perceived to be composed of little
stars, imperceptible to the naked eye, becauseſ on account of
their apparent proximity, the rays of light proceeding from
each are blended together, in such a manner as to produce
only a confused luminous appearance.)
\ In other nebulae, however, no individual stars can be per-
ceived, even through the best telescopes; and the nebulae
exhibit only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores-
cent patch of gaseous vapour, though it is possible that even
in this case, the appearance ſhay be owing to a congeries of
stars so minute, or so distant, as not to afford, singly, sufficient
light to make an impression on the eye.
!. In some instances a nebula presents the appearance of a
faint luminous atmosphere, of a circular form, and of large
extent, surrounding a central star of considerable brilliancy. )
V One of the most remarkable nebulae is in the sword-handle
of Orion. It is formed of little flocky masses, like wisps of
cloud, which seem to adhere to many small stars at its out-
skirts. It is not very unlike the mottling of the sun's disk,
but of a coarser grain, and with darker intervals. These wisps
of light, however, present no appearance of being composed
of small stars; but in the intervals between them, we fancy
that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little
more, we should see them. These intervals may be compa-
red to openings in the firmament, through which, as through
a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and
brighter regions beyond.-Page 58.
JAnother very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of An-
àºomeda, which, on account of its being visible to the naked
ey e, has been known since the earliest ages of astronomy. It
is ºften mistaken for a comet, by those unacquainted with the

*-
Why are the nebulae so called? Describe the usual appearances of nebulae, as seen
through a telescope, What other appearance do nebulae sometimes exhibit? Mention
some in Stances of the most remarkable nebula”. Describe the one in the 'sword
handle o "Qrion. Describe the one which is in the girdle of Andromeda.
NEBULE, 143
neavens. Marius, who noticed it in 1612, describes its ap-
pearance as that of a candle shining through horn; and the
resemblance is certainly very striking; (Its form is a long
oval, increasing, by insensible gradations of brightness, from
the circumference to a central point, which, though very much
brighter than the rest, is not a star, but only a nebula in a
high state of condensation.) No power of vision hitherto di-
rected to this nebula has been able to resolve it into the least
appearance of stars. It occupies an area comparatively large
—equal to that of the moon in jº. º, may
be considered as a type, on a large scale, of a very numerous
class of nebulae, of a round or oval figure, increasing more o
less in density towards the centre. , |
Annular nebulae also exist, but are among the rarest ob-
jects in the heavens. The most conspicuous of this class, is
to be found exactly halfway between the stars Beta and
Gamma Lyrae, and may be seen with a telescope of moderate
power. It is small, and particularly well defined; appearing
like a flat oval ring. The central opening is not entirely
dark, but is filled with a faint, hazy light, uniformly spread
over it, like a fine gauze stretched overa hoop.) * {
Planetary nebulae are very extraordinary objects. The
have, as their name imports, the appearance of planets, wit
round or slightly oval disks, somewhat mottled, but approach-
ing, in some instances, to the vividness of actual planets. .
Some of them, upon the supposition that they are equally dis-
tant from us with the stars, must be of enormous magnitude.
That one, for instance, which is situated in the left hand of
Aquarius, must have a volume vast enough, upon the lowest
computation, to fill the whole orbit of Herschel ! :
The nebulae furnish an inexhaustible field of spéculation
and conjecture. That by far the larger number of them con-
sists of stars, there can be little doubt; and in the intermina-
ble range of system upon system, and firmament upon firma-
ment, which we thus catch a glimpse of, the imagination is
bewildered and lost, Sir William Herschel conjectured that
the nebulae might form the materials out of which nature
elaborated new suns and systems, or replenished the wasted
light of older ones. J But the little we know of the physical
constitution of these sidereal masses, is altogether insufficient
to warrant such a conclusion. *
Of what class of nebulae may this be considered as a type? What other species of
nebulae exist in the heavens? Describe the most conspicuous of this class. What
other species of nebulae are more rarely found? Describe the appearance of planetary
nebulae. What do we know in regard to their magnitude? How large must the Orie be
which is situated in the left hand of Aquarius? What did Sir Wilſlaºm He, chel cºp-
€cture as to the use of the nebulae? Have we facts sufficient to was ran stich a cow-
cture
144 VIA LACTEA, or (MAP vin
C H A P T E R XIV. ***
WIA LACTEA.
"Throughout the Galaxy's extended line,
Unnumber'd orbs in gay confusion shine:
Where every star that gilds the gloom of night
With the faint tremblings of a distant light,
Perhaps illumes some system of its own,
With the strong influence of a radiant sun.”—Mrs. Carter
\THERE is a luminous zone or pathway of singular white-
ness, varying from 49 to 20° in width, which passes quite
round the heavens,j(The Greeks called it. GALAXY, on ac-
count of its colour ànd appearance: the Latins, for the same
reason, called it VIA LACTEA, which, in our tongue, is Milky
Q,
! § all the constellations which the heavens exhibit to our
view, this fills the mind with the most indescribabłe gran-
deur and amazement. (When we consider what unnumbered
millions of mighty suns compose this cluster, whose distance
is so vast that the strongest telescope can hardly separate
their mingled twilight into distinct specks, and that the most
contiguous of any two ol, them may be as far asunder as our
sun is from them, we fall as far short of adequate language
to express our ideas of such immensity, as we do of instru-
ments to measure its boundaries.)
It is one of the recent achievements of astronomy that has
resolved the Milky-Way into an infinite number of small
stars, whose confused and feeble lustre occasions that pe-
culiar whiteness which we see in a clear evening, when the
moon is absent. It is also a recent and well accredited doc-
trine of astronomy, that all the stars in the universe are ar.
ranged into clusters, or groups, which are called NEBULE or
STARRY SYSTEMs, each of which consists of many thousands
of stars.
* The fixed star which we call our SUN, belongs, it is said,
to that extensive nebula, the Milky-Way; and although ap-
parently at such an immeasurable distance from its fellows,
is, doubtless, as near to any one of them, as they are to one
another.
Of the number and economy of the stars which compose
this group, we have very little exact knowledge. , Dr. Her-
schel informs us that, with his best glasses, he saw and
What do you understand by the Milky-Way? By what different names is it called
Why does the contemplation of this constellation fill the mind with ideas of grandeur
and amazement? What causes the whiteness of the Milky-Way? Into what are all
the stars in the universe arranged? To what nebula does the sun belong, and what
is probably its distance from its fellows? What knowledge have we of the number and
economy of the stars in this group?
MAP viii.) MILKY-WAY. 145
af
counted 588 stars in a single spot, without moving his tele-
scope; and as the gradual motion of the earth carried these
out of view and introduced others successively in their places,
while he kept his telescope steadily fixed to one point, “theré
passed over his field of vision, in the space of one quarter of
an hour, no less than one hundred and sixteen thousand
stars, and at another time in forty-one minutes, no less than
two hundred and fifty-eight thousand.”
(In all parts of the Milky-Way he fouñd the stars unequally
dispersed, and appearing to arrange themselves into separate
clusters." In the small space, for example, between Beta and
Sad’r, in Cygni, the stars seem to be clustering in two di-
visions; each division cont ining upwards of one hundred
d sixty-five thousand º
* other observations, whén examining a section of the
Milº Way, not apparently more than a yard in breadth, and
six inflength, he discovered fifty thousand stars, large enough
to be distinctly counted; and he suspected twice as many
more, which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he
saw only now and then. )
* It appears from numerous observations, that various changes
are taking place among the nebulae-that several nebulae are
formed by the dissolution of larger ones, and that many ne-
bulae of this kind are at present detaching themselves from
the Milky Way, In, that part of it which is in the body of
Scorpio, there is a large opening, about 4° broad, almost
destitute of stars) These changes seem to indicate that
mighty movements and vast operations are continually going
on in the distant regions of the universe, upon a scale of mag-
nitude and grandeur which baffles the human understanding.

More than twp thousand five hundred nebulae have already"
been observed ¥and, if each of them contains as many stars
as the Milky-Wäy, several hundreds of millions of stars must
exist, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open
to our observation.
“O what a confluence of ethereal fires,
From urns unnumber'd down the steep of heaven
Streams to a point, and centres on my sight.”

Although the Milky-Way is more or less visible at all
seasons of the year, yet it is seen to the best advantage du-
ring the months of fº, August, September, and/9ctober.
When Lyra is on, or near the meridian, it ma ge seen
***
How many did Dr. Herºchel count in a single spot during the space of 15 minutes?
How did he find the stars dispersed, throughout the Milky Way?". Give an example.
Give another instance. What changes are taking place in the Milky Way and I
nebulae? What do these changes indicate? How many nebulae have been discovéred?
If each of these rebulae contains as many stars as the Milky-Way, how many;stars
ust exist even in that portion of the heavens which lies open to our observâtion?
here and at what period may the **be seen to the best advantage?
)
Lºri
146 ORIGIN OF THE
stretching obliquely over the heavens from northeast to soutn-
west, gradually moving over the firmament in common with
other constellations.
(Its form, breadth, and appearance are various, in different
arts of its course. In some places it,is dense and luminous;
in others, it is scattered and faint. (Its breadth is often not
more than five degrees; though sofmetimes it is ten or fifteen
degrees, and even twenty. In some places it assumes a
double path, but for the most part it is single.)
It may be traced in the heavens, beginning near the head of Cephens, about
30° from the north pole, through the constellations Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga,
and part of Orion and the feet of Gernini, where it crosses the Zodiac ; thence
over the equinoctial into the southern hemisphere, through Monoceros, and tho
middle of the ship Argo, where it is most luminous, Charles's Oak, the Cross, the
feet of the Centaur, and the Altar. Here it is divided into two branches, as it
passes over the Zodiac again into the Porthern hemisphere. One branch runs
through the tail of Scorpio, the bow of Sagittarius, the shield of Sobieski, the feet
of Antinous, Aquila, Delphinus, the Arrow, and the Swan. The oth ranch
§. through the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the side of Se tarius,
aurus Poniatowski, the Goose and the neck of the Swan, where it again unites
with the other branch, and passes on to the head of Cepheus, the place of its be
Binlling.
There are several other nebulae in the heavens as large as
the Milky-Way, but not visible to the naked eye, which may
exhibit the phenomenon of a lucid zone to the planetary
worlds that may be placed within them.
Some of the pagan philosophers maintained that the Milky-Way was formerly
the sun's path, and that its present luminous appearance is the track which its
scattered beams left visible in the heavens.
The ancient poets and even philosophers, speak of the Galaxy, or Milky Way,
as the path which their deities used in the heavens, and which le”. Jirectly to the
throne of Jupiter. Thus, Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, Book i.:—
“A way there is in heaven’s extended plain,
Which when the skies are clear is seen below,
And mortals, by the name of Milky, know ;
The groundwork is of stars, through which the road
Lies open to the Thunderer’s abode.”
Milton alludes to this, in the following lines:—
“A broad and ample road, whose dust is gold,
And pavement, stars, as stars to thee appear,
Seen in the Galaxy, that Milky-Way,
Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest
Powdered with stars.”
C H A P T E R XV. X
ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS.
THE science of astronomy was cultivated by the Imme
diate descendants of Adam. Josephus informs us that the
-ºr
Describe the breadth and appearance of the MJ cy-Way. How % it be traced in
•ſhe heavens? Are there other hebulae in the heaverns as large as the Milky-Way? How
early was the science of astronomy cultivated? YI hat authority have we for affixing
so fºurly a date to the Science?
CONSTELLATIONS. 14t
sons of SETH employed themselves in the study of astronomy,
and that they wrote their observations upon two pillars, one
of brick, and the other of stone,” in order to preserve them
against the destruction which ADAM had foretold should come
upon the earth. He also relates, that Abraham argued the
unity and power of God, from the orderly course of things
both at sea and land, in their times and seasons, and from his
observations upon the motions and influences of the sun,
moon, and stars; and that he read lectures in astronomy and
arithmetic to the Egyptians, of which they understood noth-
ing till Abraham brought these sciences from Chaldea to
Egypt; from whence they passed to the Greeks.
ERosUs also observes that Abraham was a great and just
man, and famous for his celestial observations; the making
of which was thought to be so necessary to the human wel-
fare, "at he assigns it as the principal reason of the Al-
mighty’s prolonging the life of man. This ancient historian
tells us, in his account of the longevity of the antediluvians,
that Providence found it necessary to prolong man’s days, in
order to promote the study and advancement of virtue, and
the improvement of geometry and astronomy, which required,
at least, six hundred years for making and perfecting obser-
vations.f
When Alexander took Babylon, Calisthenes found that the
most ancient observations existing on record in that city, were
made by the Chaldeans about 1903 years before that period,
which carries us back to the time of the dispersion of mankind
by the confusion of tongues. It was 1500 years after this
that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire about the
shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz.
It is therefore very probable that the Chaldeans and Egyp-
łians were the original inventors of astronomy; but at what
period of the world they marked out the heavens into constel-
lations, remains in uncertainty. La Place fixes the date
thirteen or fourteen hundred years before the Christian era,
since it was about this period, that Eudoxus constructed the
first celestial sphere upon which the constellations were de-
* Josephus affirms, that “he saw himself that of stone to remain in Syria in his
O e.”
* Wince's Complete System of Astronomy, Vol. ii. p. 244.
What does Josephus relate concerning Abraham's knowledge of astronomy? Who,
does he say, first introduced this Science into Egypt? What other historian of remote
antiquity speaks of Abraham's attention to this science? What reason does Berosus
assign for the longevity of the antediluvians ? When Alexander took Babylon, what
ancient observations did he find in that city?...To what period of the world do these
observations carry us back? How long after this was it that the Babylonians sent to
Hezekiah, to inquire about the shadow’s going back on the dial of Ahaz? Who, º:
may we conclude, were the original inventors of astronomy, and at what period
they arrange the fixed stars into constellations. When does La Place ſix the date;

148 oRIGIN OF THE
lineated.* Sir Isaac Newton was of opinion, that all the old
constellations related to the Argonautic expedition, and that
they were invented to commemorate the heroes and events of
that memorable enterprise. It should be remarked, however,
that while none of the ancient constellations refer to transac-
tions of a later date, yet we have various accounts of them,
of a much higher antiquity than that event.
Some of the most learned antiquarians of Europe have
searched every page of heathen mythology, and ransacked all
the legends of poetry and fable for the purpose of rescuing
this subject from that impermeable mist which rests upon it,
and they have only been able to assure us, in general terms,
that they are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics, intended
to perpetuate by means of an imperishable record, the memory
of the times in which their inventors lived, their religion and
manners, their achievements in the arts, and whatever tº their
history, was most worthy of being commemorated. "There
was at least, a moral grandeur in this idea; for an event thus
registered, a custom thus canonized, or thus enrolled among
the stars, must needs survive all other traditions of men, and
stand forth in perpetual characters to the end of time.
In arranging the constellations of the Zodiac, for instance,
it would be natural for them, we may imagine, to represent
those stars which rose with the sun in the spring of the year,
by such animals as the shepherds held in the greatest esteem
at that season; accordingly, we find, Aries, Taurus, and
Gemini, as the symbols of March, April, and May.
* The usual size of artificial globes, designed to represent the celestial sphere, is
from 9 to 18 inches in diameter. Globes have been recently constructed in Germany,
which are said to be more splendid and complete than º in the world. The largest
ever made are that of Gottorp, two in the library of the late king of France, and one
in Pembroke college, Cambridge. -
The globe of Göttorp, now in the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, is a large
hollow sphere, eleven and a half feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for
twelve persons. The inside represents the visible surface of the heavens, bespangled
With gilded Stars, ranged in their proper order and magnitude, and by means of a cu-
rious piece of mechanism by which it is put in motion, exhibits the true position of
the stars, at any time, together with their rising and setting. The convex surface, or
outside of this globe, represents the terrestrial sphere.
In 1704, two globes of equal dimensions, it is said, were made for Cardinal d’Estrees,
by Cornelli, a Venitian; and deposited in the king's library at Paris. These, however,
are far inferior in size to one of similar construction, erected at Pembroke college, in
the University of Cambridge, by the late Dr. Long, president of that Institution. This
is a hollow sphere, sufficiently capacious to admit thirty persons to sit within it,
where they can observe the artificial world of stars and planets, revolving over their
heads, in* Same order as they are seen in the heavens. This sphere is eighteen feet
ameter.
—A—
What opinion has Sir Isaac Newton advanced upon this subject? Have we however
any accounts of the constellations, of a higher antiquity than that event? Do o:
the ancient constellations refer to transactions of a later date? What have the most
learned antiquarians of Europe done upon this subject, and of what do they assure us?
How long would the memory of an action, or event, thus registered, be likely to
*::: In arranging the Constellations of the Zodiac, how was it natural to represent
© StarS 7
CONSTELLATIONS. 14.
When the sun enters the sign Cancer, at the summer sol-
swice, he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and
begins to return towards the south pole. This retrograde mo
tion was fitly represented by a Crab, which is said to go back-
wards. The sun enters this sign about the 22d of June.
The heat which usually follows in the next month, was
represented by the Lion ; an animal remarkable for its fierce-
ness, and which at this season was frequently impelled by
thirst, to leave the sandy desert, and make its appearance on
the banks of the Nile.
The sun entered the sixth sign about the time of harvest,
which season was therefore represented by a Virgin, or female
reaper, with an ear of corn in her hand.
At the autumnal equinox, when the sun enters Libra, the
days and nights are equal all over the world, and seem to ob-
serve an equilibrium or balance. The sign was therefore
represented under the symbol of a pair of Scales.
Autumn, which produces fruit in great abundance, brings
with it a variety of diseases, and on this account was repre-
sented by that venomous animal the Scorpion, which, as he
recedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. The fall of the leaf
was the season for hunting, and the stars which mark the
sun's path at this time were represented by a huntsman, or
archer, with his arrows and weapons of destruction.
The Goat, which delights in climbing and ascending some
mountain or precipice, is the emblem of the winter solstice
when the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and
gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year.
Aquarius, or the Water-Bearer, is represented by the figure
of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the
dreary and uncomfortable season of winter.
The last of the zodiacal constellations was Pisces, or a
couple of fishes, tied back to back, representing the fishing
season. The severity of winter is over; the flocks do not
afford sustenance, but the seas and rivers are open and abound
with fish. *

“Thus monstrous forms, o'er heaven's nocturnal arch
Seen by the sage, in pomp celestial march;
See Aries there his glittering bow unfold,
And raging Taurus toss his horns of gold;
With bended bow the spllen Archer lowers,
And there Aquarius comes with all his showers;
What sign was represented under the figure of a Crab, and why? When does this
sun enter this sign? What animal represented the heat of surnºver, and why? When
does the sun enter the sixth sign, and how is this season represen’ég. Why was the
sign which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox represented unºer the symbol of
a Balance? Why were the autumnal signs, Scorpio and Sagittarius, represented 5 ,
they are? What does the Goat represent? What is signified by thé Wá er-Betfor?
What do the Fishes represent?
13%
150 ORIGIN OF THF
Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise,
And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.”
Whatever may have led to the adoption of these rude names
at first, they are now retained to avoid confusion.
The early Greeks, however, displaced many of the Chal-
dean constellations, and substituted such images in their place
as had a more special reference to their own history. The
Romans, also, pursued the same course with regard to their
history; and hence the contradictory accounts that have de-
sce ded to later times.
Some, moreover, with a desire to divest the science of the
stars of its pagan jargon and profanity, have been induced to
alter both the names and figures of the constellations. In
doing this, they have committed the opposite fault; that of
blending them with things sacred. The “venerable Bede,”
for example, instead of the profane names and figures of the
twelve constellations of the Zodiac, substituted those of the
twelve apostles. Julius Schillerius, following his example,
completed the reformation in 1627, by giving Scripture names
to all the constellations in the heavens. Weigelius, too, a
celebrated professor of mathematics in the university of Jena,
made a new order of constellations, by converting the firma-
ment into a coelum HERALDicuM, in which he introduced the
arms of all the princes of Europe. But astronomers, gene-
rally, never approved of these innovations; and for ourselves,
we had as lief the sages and heroes of antiquity should con-
tinue to enjoy their fancied honours in the sky, as to see their
places supplied by the princes of Europe.
The number of the old constellations, including those of
the Zodiac, was only forty-eight. As men advanced in the
knowledge of the stars, they discovered many, but chiefly in
southern latitudes, which were not embraced in the old con-
stellations, and hence arose that mixture of ancient and mod
ern names which we meet with in modern catalogues.
* The order of the signs is thus described by Dr. Watts —
The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins
And next the Crab, the Lion shines,
The Virgin, and the Scales;
The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-Goat,
The Man that holds the IWater-Pot,
And Fish, with glittering tails.
Similar to this are the Latin verses:—
Sunt, aries, taurus, genini, cancer, leo, virgo,
Libraque, scorpius, arcitenens, caper, amphora, pisces.
Why have attempts been made to change the names and figures of the ancient con-
stellations? What fault has been committed in doing this? What did the venerable
Bede substitute for the profane names and figures of the twelve constellations of the
Zodiacº Who followed his example, and to what extent? What other change was
attempted, and by whom?... Have astronomers generally approved of these innova:
tions i . What was the number of the old constellations? Whence is the mixture of
ancient and modern names Whick we meet with in modern catalogues?
CONSTELLATIONS. 151
Astronomers divide the heavens into three parts, called the
northern and southern hemispheres, and the Zodiac. In the
northern hemisphere, astronomers usually reckon thirty-four
constellations; in the Zodiac twelve, and in the southern
hemisphere forty-seven; making, in all, ninety-three. Besides
these, there are a few of inferior note, recently formed, which
are not considered sufficiently important to be particularly
described.
About the year 1603, John Bayer, a native of Germany,
invented the convenient system of denoting the stars in each
constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, applying
to the largest star the first letter of the alphabet; to the next
largest the second letter, and so on to the last. Where there
are more stars in the constellation than there are Greek let-
ters, the remainder are denoted by the letters of the Roman
alphabet, and sometimes by figures. By this system of no-
tation, it is now as easy to refer to any particular star in the
heavens, as to any particular house in a populous city, by its
street and number.
Before this practice was adopted, it was customary to de-
note the stars by referring them to their respective situations
in the figure of the constellation to which they severally be-
longed, as the head, the arm, the foot, &c.
It is hardly necessary to remark that these figures, which
are all very curiously depicted upon artificial globes and maps,
are, purely, a fanciful invention–answering many convenient
ends, however, for purposes of reference and classification, as
they enable us to designate with facility any particular star,
or cluster of stars; though these clusters very rarely, if ever,
represent the real figures of the object whose names they bear.
And yet it is somewhat remarkable that the name of “Great
Bear,” for instance, should have been given to the very same
constellation by a nation of American aborigines, (the Iro-
quois,) and by the most ancient Arabs of Asia, when there
never had been any communication between them I Among
other nations, also, between whom there exists no evidence
of any intercourse, we find the Zodiac divided into the same
number of constellations, and these distinguished by nearly
the same names, representing the twelve months, or seasons
of the year.
The history of this whimsical personification of the stars
carries us back to the earliest times, and introduces us, as we
have seen, to the languages and customs, the religion and
do astronomers usually divide the heavens, and what is the number of Con-
in each division? What convenient system of notation has been Invented
the stars in each constellation? Who invented this system 3 Before this
introduced, what was the practice?



...*
152 NUMBER, DisrANCE, AND
poetry, the sciences and arts, the tastes, talents, and peculia,
genius, of the early nations of the earth. The ancient Atlan-
tides and Ethiopians, the Egyptian priests, the magi of Per-
sia, the shepherds of Chaldea, the Bramins of India, the man-
darins of China, the Phoenician navigators, the philosophers
of Greece, and the wandering Arabs, have all added more
or less to these curious absurdities and ingenious inven-
tions, and have thus registered among the stars, as in a sort
of album, some memorial of themselves and of the times in
which they lived. The constellations, or the uncouth figures
by which they are represented, are a faithful picture of the
rüder stages of civilization. They ascend to times of which
no other record exists; and are destined to remain when all
others shall be lost. Fragments of history, curious dates and
documents relating to chronology, geography, and languages,
are here preserved in imperishable characters. The adven-
tures of the gods, and the inventions of men, the exploits of
heroes, and the fancies of poets, are here spread out in the
heavens, and perpetually celebrated before all nations. The
Seven stars, and Orion, present themselves to us, as they
appeared to Amos and Homer: as they appeared to Job, more
than 3000 years ago, when the Almighty demanded of him—
“Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven 2 Canst thou bind
the sweet influences of the PLEIADEs, or loose the bands of
ORION ? Canst thou bring forth MAzzARoth in his season,
or canst thou guide ARCTURUs with his sons 3" Here, too,
are consecrated the lyre of Orpheus, and the ship of the Ar-
gonauts; and, in the same firmament, glitter the mariner's
compass and the telescope of Herschel.
\
y
*
4
\
^
C H A P T E R X I V.
NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND EconoMY of THE STARs.
THE first conjecture in relation to the distance of the fixed
stars, is, that they are all placed at an equal distance from the
observer, upon the visible surface of an immense concave
vault, which rests upon the circular boundary of the world,
and which we call the Firmament.
We can with the unassisted eye, form no estimate of their
respective distances; nor has the telescope yet enabled us to
arrive at any exact results on this subject, aß it has re-
vealed to us many millions of stars that are as far removed
What is the first conjecture which we form in relation to the distances of the fixed
stars? What means have we for ascertaining their number and distance 1
ECONOMY OF THE STArtS. 153
beyond those which are barely visible to the naked eye, as
these are from us. Viewed through the telescope, the hea-
vens become quite another spectacle—not only to the under-
standing, but to the senses, New worlds burst upon the sight,
and old ones expand to a thousand times their former dimen-
sions. Several of those little stars which but feebly twinkle
on the unassisted eye, become immense globes, with land
and water, mountains and valleys, encompassed by atmos:
pheres, enlightened by moons, and diversified by day and
night, summer and winter.
Beyond these are other suns, giving light and life to other
systems, not a thousand, or two thousand merely, but multi-
plied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense dis-
tances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten
thousand worlds, all in rapid motion; yet calm, regular and
harmonious—all space seems to be illuminated, and every
particle of light a world.
It has been computed that one hundred millions of stars
which cannot be discerned by the naked eye, are now visible
through the telescope. And yet all this vast assemblage of
suns and worlds may bear no greater proportion to what lies
beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, than a drop
of water to the ocean; and, if stricken out of being, would be
no more missed, to an eye that could take in the universe,
than the fall of a single leaf from the forest.
We should therefore learn, (says an eminent divine of the
present century,”) not to look on our earth as the universe of
od, but as a single, insignificant atom of it; that it is only
one of the many mansions which the Supreme Being has
created for the accommodation of his worshippers; and that
he may now be at work in regions more distant than geome-
try ever measured, creating worlds more manifold than num-
bers ever reckoned, displaying his goodness, and spreading
over all, the intimate visitations of his care.
The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known
to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size,
not inferior to our sun, and that they shine, not by reflected rays,
but by their own native light. It is therefore concluded, with
good reason, that every fixed star is a sun, no less spacious
than ours, surrounded by a retinue of planetary worlds, which
* Chalmers.
How do the heavens appear through the telescope What are beyond those little
stars which are scarcely visible to the naked eye? How many stars are visible
through the telescol ( ? What proportion may this vast assemblage of suns and worlds
pear to what lics eyond the utmost boundaries of human vision? How should we
learn ſrom this to regard our own earth? What does the immense distance of the Stars
$rove in regard to their indignitude and light?
... --
154 NUMBER, DisrANCE, AND
revolve around it as a centre, and derive from it light and
heat, and the agreeable vicissitudes of day and night.
These vast globes of light, then, could never have been de-
signed merely to diversify the voids of infinite space, nor to
shed a few º rays on our far distant world, for the
amusement of a few astronomers, who, but for the most pow-
erful telescopes, had never seen the ten thousandth part of
them. We may therefore rationally conclude, that wherever
the All-wise Creator has exerted his creative power, there
also he has placed intelligent beings to adore his goodness.

Hipparchus, the father of astronomy, first made a catalogue of the fixed
stars. It contained 1022. The accuracy with which the places of these were
recorded, lias conferred essential benefit upon the science, and has enabled us
to solve many celestial phenomena and problems of chronology, which other-
wise had been difficult.
During the 18th century, upwards of 100,000 were catalogued by the various
astronolmers of Europe, and their position in the heavens determined with an
exactness that seldom varied a second from the truth; insomuch that it has
been Justly remarked, that “there is scarcely a star to be seen in the heavens,
whose place and situation is not better known than that of most cities and towns
upon the earth.”
But the stargazers of our times are not idle. Professor Bessell of Konigs-
berg, observed in three years, it is asserted, between 30,000 and 40,000 stars,
comprehended within a zone of 15° on each side of the equator; but even this
#. number is but a small portion of the whole number which lie within the
mit of the zone which he examined. To procure a more complete survey, the
academy of Berlin proposed that this same zone should be parcelled out among
twenty-four observers, and that each should confine himself to an hour of right
ascension, and examine it in minute detail. This plan was adopted; and the löth
hour was confided to Professor Inghirami, of Florence, and examined with so
much care, that the positions of 75,000 stars in it, have been determined. Pro-
ſessor M. Struve, of the Dorpat university, has examined in person, 120,000 stars,
of which 800 (double ones) were before unknown to science.
The labours of Sir Wm. Herschel were chiefly devoted to exploring the sys-
tems of nebulae and double stars that lie, for the most part, beyond the reach of
ordinary telescopes. No fewer than two thousand five hundred nebulae were
observed by this indefatigable astronomer, whose places have been computed
from his observations, reduced to a common epoch, and arranged into a cata-
logue in order of their right ascension, by his sister Miss CARoline HERsCHEL,
a lady so justly celebrated in Europe for her astronomical knowledge and dis-
coveries, but whose name, strange as it is, is seldoun mentioned in this country.
Be it remembered, nevertheless, for her fame, that she discovered two of the
satellites of the planet which bears her brother's name, besides a multitude of
COmets.
The greatest possible ingenuity and pains have been taken
by astronomers to determine, at least, the approximate dis-
tance of the nearest fixed stars. If they have hitherto been
unable to arrive at any satisfactory result, they have at least,
established a limit beyond which the stars must necessarily
be placed. If they have failed to calculate their true distan-
ces from the earth, it is because they have not the requisite
data. The solution of the problem, if they had the data,
would not be more difficult than to compute the relative dis-
What conclusion may be drawn from this fact as to their great design? What pains
have astronomers taken to find the distance of the stars, and what result have they
come to? For what reason have they failed to calculate their distance 2 Is the prop-
lem a difficult one?
*
ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 155
tances of the planets—a thing which any school-boy can do.
In estimating so great a distance as the nearest fixed star,
it is necessary that we employ the longest measure which
astronomy can use. Accordingly, we take the whole diame-
:er of the earth’s orbit, which, in round numbers, is 190 millions
of miles, and endeavour, by a simple process in mathematics,
to ascertain how many measures of this length are contained
In the mighty interval which separates us from the stars.
The method of doing this can be explained to the appre-
hension of the pupil, if he does not shrink from the illustra-
tion, through an idle fear that it is beyond his capacity.
For example; suppose that, with an instrument construct-
ed for the purpose, we should this night take the precise bear-
ing or angular direction from us of some star in the northern
hemisphere, and note it down with the most perfect exact-
ness, and, having waited just six months, when the earth
shall have arrived at the opposite point of its orbit, 190 mill-
ions of miles east of the place which we now occupy, we
should then repeat our observation upon the same star, and
see how much it had changed its position by our travelling
so great a distance one side of it. Now it is evident, that if
it changes its apparent position at all, the quantity of the
#. will bear some proportion to the distance gone over;
at is, the nearer the star, the greater the angle; and the
more remote the star, the less the angle. It is to be observed,
that the angle thus found, is called the star's Annual Par-
allaar.
But it is found by the most eminent astronomers of the
age, and the most perfect instruments ever made, that this
parallax does not exceed the four thousandth part of a de-
gree, or a single second ; so that, if the whole great orbit of
the earth were lighted up into a globe of fire 600 millions of
miles in circumference, it would be seen from the nearest star
only as a twinkling atom; and to an observer placed at this
distance, our sun, with its whole retinue of planetary worlds,
would occupy a space scarcely exceeding the thickness of a
spider's web.* If the nearest of the fixed stars are placed at
* A just idea of the import of this term, will impart a force and sublimity to an ex-
pression of St.James, which no power of words could improve. . It is said, Chapter I.
verse 17., of Him from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift, that there is
“ove art rapaxxºn h ºrpornº anoaxiaoga.” Literally, There is “neither par
gllaz nor shaāow of change:”. As if the apostle had said—Peradventure, that in tra:
veiling millions and millions of miles through the regions of immensity, there maybe
a sensible parallax to some of the fixed stars; yet, as to the Father of Lights, view
; º whatever point of his Empire we may, he is without parallaz or shadow of
4236
What measure is employed in estimating the distances of the fixed stars? How
is it used? What is the angle thus found called? What is the greatest magnitude of
the annual parallax?
..ºf
•oº & . . . . Nº Pisº, a, , .
such inconceivable distances in the regions of space, with
what line shall we measure the distance of those which are
a thousand or a million of times as much farther from them,
as these are from us. º
If the annual parallax of a star were accurately known, it
would be easy to compute its distance by the following rule:
As the sine of the star's parallax:
. . . . Is to radius, or ninety degrees: :
ſ So is the Earth’s distance from the sun:
clº , . To the star’s distance from the sun.
If we allow the annual parallax of the nearest star to be
111, the calculation will be,
As 0.000004848.1368=Nat. Sine of 1/7.
Is to 1.0000000000000–Nat. Sine of 90°.
So is 95,273,868.867748554=Earth's distance from the sun.
To 19,651,627,683,449=Star's distance from the sun.
In this calculation we have supposed the earth to be placed at the mean dis-
tance of 24,047 of its own semi-diameters, or 95,273,868.867748554 miles from the
sun, which makes the star's distance a very little less than twenty billions of
miles. Dr. Herschel says that Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 times the
diameter of the earth's orbit, or 19,007,788,800,000 of miles.
Biot, who either takes the earth's distance greater than he lays it down in his
Traité’ Elementaire d'Astronomie Physique, or has made an errour in figure
makes the distance 20,086,868,036,404. Dr. Brewster makes it 20,159,665,000,
miles. A mean of these tºtations, is 20 billions; that is, 20 millions of mill-
ions of miles, to a parallax of 1" &
Astronomers are generally agreed in the opinion that the annual parallax of
the stars is less than 1", and consequently that the nearest of them is placed at
a much greater distance from us, than these calculations make it. It was, how-
ever, announced during the last year, that M. D’Assas, a French astronomer
had satisfactorily established the annual parallax of Keid, (a small star 8° N. o
Gamma, Eridani,) to be 2", that of Rigel, in Orion to be 1”. 43, and that of Sirius
to be 1’’. 24. If these results may be relied on, Keid is but 10 billions, Rigel but
14 billions, and Sirius 16 billions of miles from the earth. This latter distance is,
however, so great that, if Sirius were to fall towards the earth at the rate of a
million of miles a day, it would take it forty three thousand, three hundred years
to reach the earth; or, if the Almighty were now to blot it out of the heavens, its
brilliance would continue undiminished in our hemisphere for the space of three
9&FS.
The most brilliant stars, till recently, were supposed to be
situated nearest the earth, but later observations prove that
this opinion is not well founded, since some of the smaller
stars appear to have, not only a greater annual parallax, but
an absolute motion in space, much greater than those of the
brightest class.
What conclusion may be drawn from this fact in regard to the distances of the fixed
stars? If the annual parallax of a star were known, by what simple rule could
you compute. Its distance? If we allow the annual parallax of the nearest star to be
i’’, what will its distance be? What is a mean of the calculations of different astron-
omers, for a parallaz of 1' 2 What recent observations & € tº greater parallaº;
to some of the stars? the parallaz of Sirius be 1’’.24, what will be its distance?
How long would it require, passing through this distance, at the rate of a million
wniles a day, to reach the earth, and how long would its light continue, undiminish
to us, were it to be blotted from the heavens & What has been supposed to be the rela-
tive distance of the most brilliant stars from the earth? What do later observations
prove, in regard to this opinion?

*
£CONOMY OF THE STARS, 157
It has been computed that the light of Sirius, although
twenty thousand million times less than that of our Sun, is,
nevertheless, three hundred and twenty-four times greater than
that of a star of the sixth magnitude. If we suppose the two
stars to be really of the same size, it is easy to show that the
star of the sixth magnitude is fifty-seven and one third times
farther from us than Sirius is, because light diminishes as the
square of the distance of the luminous body increases.
By the same reasoning it may be shown, that if Sirius were placed where the
sun is, it would appear to us to be four times as large as the Sun, and give four
times as much light and heat. It is by no means unreasonable to suppose, that
many of the fixed stars exceed a million of miles in diameter.
We may pretty safely affirm, them, that stars of the sixth
magnitude, are not less than 900 millions of millions of miles
distant from us; or a million of times farther from us than the
º: Saturn, which is scarcely visible to the naked eye.
ut the human mind, in its present state, can no more appre-
ciate such distances than it can infinity; for if our earth,
which moves at more than the inconceivable velocity of a mill-
ion and a half of miles a day, were to be hurried from its orbit,
and to take the same rapid flight over this immense tract, it
would not traverse it in sixteen hundred thousand years;
and every ray of light, although it moves at the rate of one
hundred and ninety-three thousand miles in a single second
of time, is more than one hundred and seventy years in com-
ing from the star to us.
But what is even this, compared with that measureless ex-
tent which the discoveries of the telescope indicate 7 Ac-
cording to Dr. Herschel, the light of some of the nebulae,
just perceptible through his 40 feet telescope, must have been
a million of ages in coming to the earth; and should any of
them be now destroyed, they would continue to be perceptible
for a million of ages to come.
Dr. Herschel informs us, that the glass which he used, would separate stars
at 497 times the distance of Sirius.
It is one of the wonders of creation that any phenomena
of bodies at such an immense distance from us should be
perceptible by human sight; but it is a part of the Divine
Maker's plan, that although they do not act physically upon
us, yet they should so far be objects of our perception, as

Suppose the light of Sirius to be twenty thousand million times less than that of
our stin, how would it compare with that of a star of the sixth magnituden If we
§: the two stars to be of the same size, how much farther off is the star of the
ixth magnitude, than Sirius is? Supposé Sirius to be placed where our Sun is, how
would its apparent mºgrätude, and its light and heat compare with those of the sun ?
What may we generally affirm of the distance of stars of the sixth magnitude : Can
the human mind *Pºº such distances? What illustrations can you give to show
their imn.ensity hat is this distance compared with that of the telescopic stars,
wºnd the nehula'. Why are we able to See podies at S0 great a distance?

.” *
158 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND
to expand our ideas of the vastness of the universe, and of
the stupendous extent and operations of his omnipotence.
“With these facts before us,” says an eminent astronomer
and divine, “it is most reasonable to conclude, that those ex-
pressions in the Mosaic history of Creation, which relates to
the creation of the fixed stars, are not to be understood as
referring to the time when they were brought into existence,
as if they had been created about the same time with our
earth; but as simply declaring the fact, that, at whatever pe-
riod in duration they were created, they derived their eacist-
ence from God.”
“That the stars here mentioned,” (Gen. i. 16.) says a dis-
tinguished commentator,” “were the planets of our system,
and not the fixed stars, seems a just inference from the fact,
that after mentioning them, Moses immediately subjoins,
“And Elohim set them in the firmament of the heaven to
give light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and over
the night; evidently alluding to Venus and Jupiter, which
are alternately our morning and evening stars, and which
‘give light upon the earth,’ far surpassing in brilliancy any
of the fixed stars.”
However vast the universe now appears; however numerous the worlds
which may exist withm its boundless range, the language of Scripture, and
Scripture alone, is sufficiently comprehensive and sublime, to express all the
emotions which naturally arise in the mind, when contemplating its structure.
This shows not only the harmony which subsists between the discoveries of
the Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms by itself, a strong
presumptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and divine.
We have hitherto described the stars as being immoveable
and at rest; but from a series of observations on double stars
Dr. Herschel found that a great many of them have changed
their situations with regard to each other; that some perform
revolutions about others, at known and regular periods, and
that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is re-
trograde; and that many of them have dark spots upon their
surface, and turn on their axes, like the sun.
A remarkable change appears to be gradually taking place
in the relative distances of the stars from each other in the
constellation Hercules. The stars in this region appear to
be spreading farther and farther apart, while those in the
opposite point of the heavens seem to close nearer and nearer
together in the same manner as when walking through a
* S. Turner, F. S. A. R. A. S. L., 1882.
With these facts before us, what may we reasonably conclude with #. to the
expressions in the Mosaic history which relate to the greation of the fixed stars?
What is the opinion of Mr. Turner in regard to the stars here mentioned? To what
is the expression, “To rule over the day and over the might,” supposed to allude:
Give some account of the real motions of the fixed stars. What remarkable changes
are taking place in the constellation Hercules?
ECONOMY OF THE STARS. -- 159
torest, the trees towards which we advance, appear to be
constantly separating, while the distance between those
which we leave behind, is gradually contracting.
From this appearance it is concluded, that the Sur, with
all its retinue of planetary worlds, is moving through the re-
gions of the universe, towards some distant centre, or around
some wide circumference, at the rate of sixty or seventy
thousand miles an hour; and that it is therefore highly prob
able, if not absolutely certain, that we shall never occupy
that portion of absolute space, through which we are at this
moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity.*
The author of the CHRISTIAN PHILosopher endeavours to
convey some idea of the boundless extent of the universe,
by the following sublime illustration:-
“Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is
endº with a power of rapid motion superior to that of
light, and with a corresponding degree of intellectual energy;
that he has been flying without intermission, from one pro-
vince of creation to another, for six thousand years, and will
continue the same rapid course for a thousand millions years
to come; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that,
at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no far-
ther than the ‘suburbs of creation,'—and that all the magnifi-
cent systems of material and intellectual beings he had sur-
veyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages,
Dear no more proportion to the whole empire of Omnipotence,
than the smallest grain of sand does to all the particles of
matter contai ed in ten thousand worlds.”
Were a se ph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the
manner now stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which
no farther plays of the Divinity could be perceived, the
thought wo I overwhelm his faculties with unutterable emo-
tions; he would feel that he had now, in some measure,
comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence,
and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remain-
ed to be explored. But we may rest assured that this can
never happen in the case of any created intelligence.
There is moreover an argument derivable from the laws of the physical
world, that seems to strengthen, I had almost said, to confirm, this idea of the
Infinity of the material universe. It is this—If the number of stars befinit
and occupy only a part of space, the outward stars would be continually attracte
* Professor Bessel does not fall in with this prevailing opinion.
What conclusion is drawn from this appearance? Shall we then probably ever
pccupy that portion of space through which we are now passing, again? What illus-
tration does the author of the Christian Philosopher give in order to convey some
klea of the boundless extent of the universe?. Were a seraph ever to arrive at a limit
beyond which no farther displays of the divine glory could be perceived, how would
he idea affect him? Is it probable that such a place exists in the uriverse, or Withºn
the scope of any created intelligence 2
*
160 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS.
to those within, and in time would unite w one. But if the number be infinite, and
they occupy an infinite space, all parts would be nearly in equilibrio, and con
sequently each fired star, being equally attracted in every direction, would
keep its place.
No wonder, then, that the Psalmist was so affected with
the idea of the immensity of the universe, that he seems
almost afraid lest he should be overlooked amidst the im-
mensity of beings that must needs be under the superintend-
ence of God; or that any finite mortal should exclaim, when
contemplating the heavens—“What is man, that THOU art
mindful of him P”
C H A P T E R X W II. ... • T
FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs.
THE phenomenon of shooting stars, as it is called, is com-
mon to all parts of the earth; but is most frequently seen in
tropical regions. The unerring aim, the startling velocity,
and vivid brightness with which they seem to dart athwart
the sky, and as suddenly expire, excite our admiration; and
we often ask, “What can they be?”
But frequent as they are, this interesting phenomenon is
not well understood. Some imagine that they are occasioned
by electricity, and others, that they are nothing but luminous
i. Others again have supposed, that some of them are
uminous bodies which accompany the earth in its revolution
around the sun, and that their return to certain places might
be calculated with as much certainty and exactness as that
of any of the comets.
Dr. Burney, of Gosport, kept a record of all that he ob-
served in the course of several years. The number which
he noticed in 1819, was 121, and in 1820, he saw 131. Pro-
fessor Green is confident that a much larger number are an-
nually seen in the United States.
Signior Baccaria supposed, they were occasioned by elec-
tricity, and thinks this opinion is confirmed by the following
observations. About an hour after sunset, he and some
friends, that were with him, observed a falling star, directing
its course directly towards them, and apparently growing
larger and larger, but just before it reached them it disap-

Where does the phenomenon of falling, or shooting stars occur? What is there to
excite our admiration in this phenomenon? Is this interesting phenomenon well un-
derstood? What are the different opinions in regard to them?, How many shooting
stars did Dr. Burney observe in the years 1819 and 1820? Is it probable that a much
larger number is seen every year in the United States? What did Baccaria suppose
§ were occasioned by, and what observations did he make to strengthen his
Cpinion?
FALLING, oft SHOOTING STARs. 16a
peared. On vanishing, their faces, hands, and clothes, with
the earth, and all the neighbouring objects, became suddenl
illuminated with a diffused and lambent light. It was attend-
ed with no noise. During their surprise at this appearance,
a servant informed them, that he had seen a light shine Sud-
denly in the garden, and especially upon the streams which
he was throwing to water it.
The Signior also observed a quantity of electric matter col-
lect about his kite, which had very much the appearance of a
falling star. Sometimes he saw a kind of halo accompanying
the kite, as it changed its place, leaving some glimmering of
light in the place it had quitted.
Shooting stars have been supposed by those meteorologists
who refer them to electricity or luminous gas, to prognosticate
changes in the weather, such as rain, wind, &c.; and there
is, perhaps, some truth in this opinion. The duration of the
brilliant tract which they leave behind them, in their motion
through the air, will probably be found to be longer or shorter,
according as watery vapour abounds in the atmosphere.
The notion that this phenomenon betokens high winds, is
of great antiquity. , Virgil, in the first book of his Georgics,
expresses the same idea:—
“Saepe etiam stellas vento impendente videbis
Præcipites coelo labi; noctisque per umbram
Flammarum longos a tergo albescere tractus.
And oft, before tempestuous winds arise,
The seeming stars fall headlong from the skies,
And shooting through the darkness, gild the night
With sweeping glories and long trails of light.”
The number of shooting stars, observed in a single night,
though variable, is commonly very small. There are, how-
ever, several instances on record of their falling in “showers”
—when every star in the firmament seems loosened from its
sphere, and moving in lawless flight from one end of the
heavens to the other. As early as the year 472, in the month
~f November, a phenomenon of this kind took place near
$onstantinople. As Theophanes relates, “The sky appeared
to be on fire,” with the corruscations of the flying meteors.
A shower of stars, exactly similar took place in Canada, between the 3d and
4th of July, 1814, and another at Montreal, in November, 1819. In all these cases,
a residuum, or bluck dust, was deposited upon the surface of the waters, and upon
the roofs of buildings, and other objects. In the year 1810, “inflamed sub-
stances,” it is said, fell into and around lake Van, in Armenia, which stained the
water of a blood colour, and cleft the earth in various places. On the 5th of
What was the appearance upon streams of water? What did he observe at this
time about his kité? What connexion are they supposed to have with meteorology?
What circumstance may we probably find to confirm this idea? Is this notion of very
ancient, or of modern date? What is, usually, the number of shooting stars observed
nº single night? When, and where, occurred the first instance, on record, of their
falling in great numbers? Mention seme other instances. What remarkable vestiga
was left by these meteoric showers?
T- 14%
162 FALLING, or shooting stars.
September, 1819, a like phenomenon was seen in Moravia. History furnishes
many more instances of meteoric showers, depositing a rea dust, in solne places.
So plentiful as to admit of chymical analysis.
The commissioner, (Mr. Andrew Ellicott,) who was sent
out by our government to fix the boundary between the Spanish
possessions in North America and the United States, witness
ed a very extraordinary flight of shooting stars, which filled
the whole atmosphere from Cape Florida to the West India
Islands. This grand phenomenon took place the 12th of
November, 1799, and is thus described:—“I was called up,”
says Mr. Ellicott, “about 3 o'clock in the morning, to see the
shooting stars, as they are called. The phenomenon was
grand and awful. The whole heavens appeared as if illu-
minated with skyrockets, which disappeared only by the light
of the sun, after daybreak. The meteors, which at any one
instant of time, appeared as numerous as the stars, flew in
all possible directions except from the earth, towards which
they all inclined more or less, and some of them descended
perpendicularly over the vessel we were in, so that I was in
constant expectation of their falling on us.”
Mr. Ellicott further states that his thermometer which had
been at 80° Fahr. for the four days preceding, fell to 56°
about 4 o’clock, A. M., and that nearly at the same time, the
wind changed from the south to the northwest, from whence
it blew with great violence for three days without intermission.
These same appearances were observed, the same might,
at Santa Fe de Bogota, Cumana, Quito, and Peru, in South
America; and as far north as Labrador and Greenland, ex-
tending to Weimar in Germany, being thus visible over an
extent on the globe of 640 of latitude, and 949 of longitude.
The celebrated Humboldt, accompanied by M. Bompland, then in S. America,
thus speaks of the phenomenon:—“Towards the morning of the 13th of No.
vember, 1799, we witnessed a most extraordinary scene of shooting meteors.
Thousands of bolides, and falling stars succeeded each other during four hours.
Their direction was very regular from north to south. From the beginning of
the phenomenon there was not a space in the firmament, equal in extent to
three diameters of the moon, which was not filled, ‘. instant, with bolides
or falling stars. All the meteors left luminous traces, or phosphorescent bands
behind them, which lasted seven or eight seconds.”
This phenomenon was witnessed by the Capuchin missionarv at San Fer-
nando de Afiura, a village situated in lat. 7°53' 12", amidst the savannahs of the
province of Warinas; by the Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of
the Oronoco, and at Marca, on the banks of the Rio Negro, lat. 2° 40' long.
70° 21', and in the west of Rrazil, as far as the equator itself; and also at the
city of £orio Cabello, lat. 10° 6' 52”, in French Guiana, Popayan, Quito, and
Peru. It is somewhat surprising that the same appearances, observed in places
so widely separated, amid the vast and lonely deserts of Solith America, should
have been seen, the same night, in the United States, in Labrador, in Greenland,
and at Itterstadt, near Weimar, in Germany
Recite instances gſa similar kind, in which a red dust has been deposited Describe
the phenomenon of shooting stars described by Mr. Ellicott, in 1799. Describe the
same phenomenon as seen, in South America, by Humboldt and others. In what other
parts of the earth, was it witnessed, and by whom?
FALLING, or shooting stars. 163
We are told that thirty years before, at the city of Quito,
There was seen in one part of the sky, above the volcano
of Cayamburo, so great a number of falling stars, that the
mountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight
lasted more than an hour. The people assembled in the
plain of Exida, where a magnificent view presents itself of
the highest summits of the Cordilleras. A procession was
already on the point of setting out from the convent of St.
Francis, when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon
was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the sky in all
directions, at the altitude of 12 or 13 degrees.”
But the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars, of
which the world has furnished any record, was witnessed
throughout the United States on the morning of the 13th of
November, 1833.
The entire extent of this astonishing exhibition has not
been precisely ascertained, but it covered no inconsiderable
É. of the earth's surface. It has been traced from the
ongitude of 61°, in the Atlantic ocean, to longitude 100° in
Central Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the
West Indies.

It was not seen, however, any where in Europe, nor in South America, nor in
any part of the Pacific ocean yet heard from.
Every where, within the limits abovementioned, the first
appearance was that of fireworks of the most imposiug
grandeur, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads
of fireballs, resembling skyrockets. Their corruscations
were bright, gleaming and incessant, and they fell thick as
the flakes in the early snows of December. To the splen-
dours of this celestial exhibition, the most brilliant skyrockets
and fireworks of art, bear less relation than the twinkling of
the most tiny star, to the broad glare of the sun. The whole
heavens seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful
grandeur of the image employed in the apocalypse, upon
the opening of the sixth seal, when “the stars of heaven
fell unto the earth, even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely
figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind.”
One of the most remarkable circumstances attending this
display was, that the meteors all seemed to emanate from Que
and the same point, a little southeast of the zenith. Following
the arch of the sky, they ran along with immense velocity,

Describe another phenomenon of a similar kind, seen in South America about thirty
years before. When occurred the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars of
which the world has any record? How extensively was it witnessed? hat Was
the first appearance of the phenomenon? What scene in the apocalypse, did it sug-
§#.somé? From what point did the meteors appear to emanate? Describe their
tº O w
164 FALLING, OR SHooting stºrs.
describing in some instances, an arc of 300 or 40° in a few
seconds.
On more attentive inspection it was seen, that the meteors
exhibited three distinct varieties; the first, consisting of
phosphoric lines, apparently described by a point; the second,
of large fireballs, that at intervals darted along the sky, leav-
ing luminous trains, which occasionally remained in view for
a number of minutes, and, in some cases, for half an hour or
more; the third, of undefined luminous bodies, which remain-
ed nearly stationary in the heavens for a long time.
Those of the first variety were the most numerous, and
resembled a shower of fiery snow driven with inconceivable
velocity to the north of west. The second kind appeared
In Ore lie falling stars—a spectacle which was contemplated
by the more unenlightened beholders with great amazement
and terrour. The trains which they left, were commonly
white, but sometimes were tinged with various prismatic
colours, of great beauty.
These fireballs were occasionally of enormous size. , Dr.
Smith, of North Carolina, describes one which appeared larg-
er than the full moon rising.” “I was,” says he, “startled
by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was
exhibited, rendering even small objects quite visible.” The
same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Haven, passed off in a
northwest direction, and exploded a little northward of the
star Capella, leaving, just behind the place of explosion, a
train of peculiar beauty. The line of direction was at first
nearly straight; but it soon began to contract in length, to
dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serpent scroL-
LING itself up, until it appeared like a luminous cloud of va-
pour, floating gracefully in the air, where it remained in full
view for several minutes.
Of the third variety of meteors, the following are remark-
able examples:—At Poland, Ohio, a luminous body was dis-
tinctly visible in the northeast for more than an hour. It was
very brilliant, in the form of a pruning-hook, and apparently
twenty feet long, and eighteen inches broad. It gradually

* If this body were at the distance of 110 miles, from the observer, it must have had
a diameter of one mile ; if at the distance of 11 miles, its diameter was 528 feet; and
if only one mile off, it must have been 48 feet in diameter. These considerations
leave no doubt, that many of the meteors were bodies of large size.
What other appearances were observed, upon more attentive inspection? Give a
more particular account of the first variety. Of the second. What do we know in
regard to the size of these fireballs? How does Dr. Smith describe one seen by him
in North Carolina? What Was the appearance of the same or a similar ball, as seen
at New Haven? What was there peculſar in the course, and final disappearance of it?
Suppose this meteor was 110 miles distant from the place of observation, what mats!
have been its dwameter? What, ºf it were 11 miles distant? What, if only one mile?
Mention soune examples of the third variety of meteors


FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs 16.5
settled towards the horizon, until it disappeared. At Niagara
Falls, a large, luminous body, shaped like a square table,
was seen near the zenith, remaining for some time almost
stationary, emitting large streams of light.
The point from which the meteors seemed to emanate,
was observed by those who fixed its position among the stars,
to be in the constellation Leo; and, according to their concur-
rent testimony, this, RADIANT POINT was stationary among the
stars, during the whole period of observation; that is, it did
not move along with the earth, in its diurnal revolution east-
ward, but accompanied the stars in their apparent progress
westward. *
A remarkable change of weather from warm to cold, ac-
companied the meteoric shower, or immediately followed it.
In all parts of the United States, this change was remarkable
for its suddenness and intensity. In many places, the day
preceding had been unusually warm for the season, but, be-
fore the next morning, a severe frost ensued, unparalleled, for
the time of year.
In attempting to explain these mysterious phenomena, it is
argued, in the first place, that the meteors had their origin
beyond the limits of our atmosphere; that they of course
did not belong to this earth, but to the regions of space exte-
T10r to 11.
The reason on which this conclusion is founded is this:—All bodies near the
earth, including the atmosphere itself, have a common motion with the earth
around its axis from west to east; but the radiant point, that indicated the
Source from which the meteors emanated, followed the course of the stars
from east to west; therefore, it was independent of the earth’s rotation, and
consequently, at a great distance from it, and beyond the limits of the atmos-
phere. The height of the meteoric cloud, or radiant point, above the earth's
surface was, according to the mean average of Professor Olmsted’s observa-
tions, not less than 2238 miles. ,"
That the meteors were constituted of very light, combus-
tible materials, seems to be evident, from their exhibiting the
actual phenomena of combustion, they being consumed, or
converted into smoke, with intense light; and the extreme
tenuity of the substance composing them is inferred from the
fact that they were stopped by the resistance of the air. Had
their quantity of matter been considerable, with so prodigious
a velocity, they would have had sufficient momentum to dash
tnem upon the earth; where the most disastrous consequences
might have followed.
In what constellation was the point from which the meteors seemed to radiate?
What changes were 00sºryed in the weather during or soon after this phenomenon?
in attempting to account for these phenomena, what hypothesis has been advanced
In regard to the place where the meteors had their origin? What is the reasoning
which this hypothésis is sustained? How high was the meteoric cloud supposed to 54
above the earth 2 What do we know in regard to the substance of which the meteors
were composed? What might have been the consequences, if their quantity of º,
tºad befºrm considerable? qu o | y Of matter #

166 FALLING, OR SHooting STARs.
The momentum of even light bodies of such size, and in such numbers, tray
ersing the atmosphere with such astonishing velocity, must have produced ex-
tensive derangements in the atmospheric equilibrium. Cold air from the upper
regions would be brought down to the earth; the portions of air incumbent
over districts of country, remote from each other, being mutually displaced,
would exchange places, the air of the warm latitudes be transferred to colder,
and that of cold latitudes, to warmer regions.
Various hypotheses have been proposed to account for this
wonderful phenomena. The agent which most readily suggests
itself in this, and in many other unexplained natural appear-
ances, is electricity. But no known properties of electricity
are adequate to account for the production of the meteors, for
the motions, or for the trains which they, in many instances,
left behind them. Others, again, have referred their proximate
cause to magnetism, and to phosphoretted #. ; both
of which, however, seem to be utterly insufficient, so far as
their properties are known, to account for so unusual a phe-
IlOIIleIl OIl,
Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, who has taken much
pains to collect facts, and to establish a permanent theory for
the periodical recurrence of such phenomena, came to the
conclusion, that— k-
The meteors of November 13th, 1833, emanated from a
nebulous body, which was then pursuing its way along with
the earth around the sun; that this body continues to re-
volve around the sun, in an elliptical orbit—but little in-
clined to the plane of the ecliptic, and having its aphelion
near the orbit of the earth; and finally, that the body
has a period of nearly sia: months, and that its perihelion
is a little below the orbit of Mercury,
This theory, at least accommouates itself to the remarkable
fact, that almost all the phenomena of this description, which
are known to have happened, have occurred in the two opposite
months of April and November. A similar exhibition of
meteors to that of November, 1833, was observed on the same
day of the week, April 20th, 1803, at Richmond, in Virginia,
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and at Halifax, in British Amer-
ica. Another was witnessed in the autumn of 1818, in the
North sea, when, in the language of the observers, “all the
surrounding atmosphere was enveloped in one expansive sea
of fire, exhibiting the appearance of another Moscow in
flames.”
Exactly one year previous to the great phenomenon of
1833, namely, on the 12th of November, 1832, a similar me-
What effect must the momentum gfeven light bodies of such size, moving with such
velocity, have had upon the atmosphere? Mention some hypotheses which have been
, proposed to account for these meteors. To what conclusion did Professor Olmsted,
tº after a long investigation, come, in regard, to them? To what remarkable facts in
ºuch phenomena, is this theory adapted. At what other corresponding periods have
similar phenomena been observed?


*...
FALLING, ÖR shooting STARs. 167
teoric display was seen near Mocha, on the Red sea, by
Capt. Hammond and crew, of the ship Restitution.
A gentleman in South Carolina, thus describes the effect of the phenomenon
of 1833, upon his ignorant blacks:–“I was suddenly awakened by the most
distressing cries that ever fell on my ears. Shrieks of horrour, and cries of
Imercy, I could hear from most of the negroes of three plantations, amount-
ing in all to about six or eight hundred While earnestly listening for the
cause, I heard a ſaint voice near the door calling my name; I arose, and
taking my sword, stood at the door. At this moment, I heard the same voice
still beseeching me to rise, and saying, “O ! my God, the world is on fire P
I then opened the door, and it is difficult to say which excited me most—the
awfulness of the scene, or the distressed cries of the negroes; upwards of
one hundred lay prostrate on the ground—some speechless, and some with
the bitterest cries, but most with their hands raised, imploring God to save
the world and them. The scene was truly awful; for never did rain fall much
thicker, than the ineteors fel' towards the earth; east, west, north, and south,
it was the same !” +
Since the preceding went to prass, the Author has been po-
litely furnished, by Professor Olmsted, with the accom-
panying communication.
“I am happy to hear that you propose to stereotype
your ‘Geography of the Heavens.’ It has done much, I
believe, to diffuse a popular knowledge of astronomy, and
I am pleased that your efforts are rewarded by an ex-
tended patronage.
“Were ſ now to express my views on the subject (Me-
teoric Showers) in as condensed a form as possible, I should
state them in some such terms as the following: The mete-
oric showers which have occurred for several years past on
or about the 13th of November, are characterized by four
peculiarities, which distinguished them from ordinary
shooting stars. First, they are far more numerous than
common, and are larger and brighter. Secondly, they are
in much greater proportion than usual, accompanied by
luminous trains. Thirdly, they mostly appear to radiate
from a common centre, that is, were their paths in the
heavens traced backwards, they would meet in the same
ºf of the heavens: this point has for three years past,
# *ast, been situated in the constellation Leo. Fourthly,
tº greatest display is every where at.nearly the same
time of night, namely, from three to four o'clock—a time
jº



168 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs,
about half way from midnight to sunrise. The meteors
are inferred to consist of combustible matter, because they
are seen to take fire and burn in the atmosphere. They
are known to be very light, because, although they fall
towards the earth with immense velocity, few, if any, ever
reach the earth, but are arrested by the air, like a wad
fired from a piece of artillery. Some of them are inferred
to be bodies of comparatively great size, amounting in di-
ameter to several hundred feet, at least, because they are
seen under so large an angle, while they are at a great dis-
tance from the spectator. Innumerable small bodies thus,
consisting of extremely light, thin, combustible matter,
existing together in space far beyond the limits of the at-
mosphere, are believed to compose a body of immense
extent, which has been called ‘the nebulour body.” Only
the skirts or extreme portions of this are brought down to
the earth, while the entire extent occupies many thousand,
and perhaps several millions of miles. This nebulous body
is inferred to have a revolution around the sun, as well as
the earth, and to come very near to the latter about the
13th of November each year. This annual meeting every
year, for several years in succession, could not take place
unless the periodic time of the nebulous body is either
nearly a year, or half a year. Various reasons have in-
duced the belief that half a year is the true period; but
this point is considered as somewhat doubtful. The zodi-
acal light, a faint light that appears at different seasons of
the year, either immediately preceding the morning or
following the evening twilight, ascending from the sun in
a triangular form, is with some degree of probability
thought to be the nebulour body itself, although the exist-
ence of such a body, revolving in the solar system, was
inferred to be the cause of the meteoric showers, before
any connexion of it with the zodiacal light was even
thought of.”
GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE solaB SYSTEM. 169
G E N E R A L PH E N O M E N A
OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM.
C H A P T E R X W III.
OUR attention has hitherto been directed to those bodies
which we see scattered every where throughout the whole
telestial concave. These bodies, as has been shown, twinkle
with a reddish and variable light, and appear to have always
the same position with regard to each other. We know
hat their number is very great, and that their distance
from us is immeasurable. We are also acquainted with
their comparative brightness and their situation. In a
word, we have before us their few visible appearances, to
which our knowledge of them is well nigh limited ; al-
most all our reasonings in regard to them being founded
on comparatively few and uncertain analogies. Accord-
ingly our chief business, thus far, has been to detail their
number, to describe their brightness and positions, and to
give the names by which they have been designated.
There now remain to be considered certain other ce-
lestial bodies, all of which, from their remarkable appear-
ance and changes, and some of them from their intimate
connection with the comfort, convenience, and even ex-
istence of man, must have always attracted especial ob
servation, and been objects of the most intense contemplation
and the deepest interest. Most of these bodies are situ-
ated within the limits of the Zodiac. The most important
of them are, the Sun, so superior to all the heavenly bodies
for its apparent magnitude, for the light and heat which
it imparts, for the marked effects of its changes of position
with regard to the Earth; and the Moon, so conspicuous
among the bodies which give light by night, and from
her soft and silvery brightness, so pleasing to behold; re-

To what particulars is our knowledge ºf the fixed, stars, those heavenly bodies which
we have heretofore been considering; well nigh confined? Where are the es which
towººminto bºonsidered, situated?" which of them are thºj 3.
170 GENERAL pHENOMENA
markable not on ly for changes of position, but for the
varied phases or appearances which she presents, as she
waxes from her crescent form through all her different
stages of increase to a full orb, and wanes back again to
her former diminished figure.
The partial or total obscuration of these two bodies, which
sometimes occurs, darkness taking place even at mid-day,
and the face of night, before lighted up by the Moon's beams,
being suddenly shaded by their absence, have always been
among the most striking astronomical phenomena, and so
powerful in their influence upon the beholders, as to fill them
with perplexity and fear. If we observe these two bodies,
we shall find, that, besides their apparent diurnal motion
across the heavens, they exhibit other phenomena, which
must be the effect of motion. The Sun during one part of
the year, will be seen to rise every day farther and farther
towards the north, to continue longer and longer above
the horizon, to be more and more elevated at mid-day,
until he arrives at a certain limit; and then, during the other
part, the order is entirely reversed. The Moon sometimes is
not seen at all; and then, when she first becomes visible,
appears in the west, not far from the setting Sun, with a slen-
der crescent form; every night she appears at a greater
distance from the setting Sun, increasing in size, until at
length she is found in the east, just as the Sun is sinking
below the horizon in the west.
The Sun, if his motions be attentively observed, will be
found to have another motion, opposite to his apparent diurnal
motion from east to west. This may be perceived distinct-
ly, if we notice, on any clear evening, any bright star, which
is first visible after sunset, near the place where he sunk
below the horizon. The following evening, the star will
not be visible on account of the approach of the Sun, and all
the stars on the east of it will be successively eclipsed by
his rays, until he shall have made a complete apparent revo-
lution in the heavens. These are the most obvious pheno-
mena exhibited by these two bodies.
There are, also, situated within the limits of the Zodiac
certain other bodies, which, at first view, and on a superficial
examination, are scarcely distinguishable from the fixed
stars. But observed more attentively, they will be seen to
shine with a milder and steadier light, and besides being
carried round with the stars, in the apparent revolution of
the great celestial concave, they will seem to change their
-g
Describe the most obvious phenomena of the Sun and Moon. Describe the most obvious
ohenomena of the planets.
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 17]
places in the concave itself. Sometimes they are station.
ary; sometimes they appear to be moving from west to east.
and sometimes to be going back again from east to west;
being seen at sunset sometimes in the east, and sometimes
in the west, and always apparently changing their position
with regard to the earth, each other, and the other heaven-
ly bodies. From their wandering as it were, in this man-
ner, through the heavens, they were called by the Greeks
zXavnrat, planets, which signifies wanderers.
There also sometimes appear in the heavens, bodies of a
very extraordinary aspect, which continue visible for a con-
siderable period, and then disappear from our view; and noth-
ing more is seen of them, it may be for years, when they
again present themselves, and take their place among the
bodies of the celestial sphere. They are distinguished from
the planets by a dull and cloudy appearance, and by a train
of light. As they approach the sun, however, their faint and
nebulous light becomes more and more brilliant, and their
train increases in length, until they arrive at their nearest
point of approximation, when they shine with their greatest
brilliancy. As they recede from the Sun, they gradually
lose their splendour, resume their faint and nebulous appear-
ance, and their train diminishes, until they entirely disap-
pear. They have no well defined figure; they seem to move
in every possible direction, and are found in every part of
the heavens. From their train, they were called by the
Greeks kopmrat, comets, which signifies having long hair.
The causes of these various phenomena must have early
constituted a very natural subject of inquiry. Accordingly,
we shall find, if we examine the history of the science, that
in very early times there were many speculations upon
this subject, and that different theories were adopted to ac-
count for these celestial appearances.
The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, and Chinese, early possessed many astro-
nomical facts, many observations of important phenomena, and many rules
and methods of astronomical calculation; and it has been imagined, that they
had the ruins of a great system of astronomical science, which, in the earliest
ages of the world, had been carried to a great degree of perfection, and that
while the principles and explanations of the phenomena were lost, the isolated,
unconnected facts, rules of calculation, and phenomena themselves, remain-
ed. Thus, the Chinese, who, it is generally agreed, possess the oldest authen-
tic observations on record, have recorded in their annals, a conjunction of
five planets at the same time, which happened 2461 years before Christ, or 100
years before the flood. By mathematical calculation, it is ascertained that this
conjunction really occurred at that time. . The first observation of a solar
eclipse of which the world has any knowledge, was made by the Chinese, 2128
years before Christ, or 220 years after the deluge. It seems, also, that the
Chinese understood the method of calculating eclipses; for, it is said, that the
Whence do they derive their name? Describe the comets. . Whence is their name
derived? What oriental matzons early possessed many important astronomical facts
observations, and rules? Whence is it supposed that they obtained them?
172 GENERAL PHENOMENA
emperor was so irritated against the great officers of state for neglecting to pre:
dict the eclipse, that he caused them to be put to death.*. The astronomical
epoch of the Chinese, according to Bailly, commenced with Fohi, their first
emperor, who flourished 2952 years before the Christian era, or about 350
years before the deluge. If it be asked how the knowledge of this antedilu-
vian astronomy was preserved and transmitted, it is said that the columns on
which it was registered have survived the deluge, and that those of Egypt are
only copies which have become originals, now that the others have been for.
gotien. " The Indians, also, profess to have many celestial observations of a
very early date. The Chaldeans have been justly celebrated in all ages for
their astronomical observations. When Alexander took Babylon, his precep-
tor, Callisthenes, found a series of Chaldean observations, made in that city,
and extending back with little interruption, through a period of 1903 years pre-
ceding that event. This would carry us back to at least 2234 years before the
birth of Christ, or to about the time of the dispersion of mankind by the con-
fusion of tongues. Though it be conceded, that upon this whole period in the
history of the science, the obscurity of very remote antiquity must necessari.
ly rest, still it will remain evident that the phenomena of the heavenly bodies
had been observed with great attention, and had been a subject of no ordinary
interest.
But however numerous or important were the observations of oriental an-
tiquity, they were never reduced to the shape and symmetry of a regular
SV Stern.
*i. Greeks, in all probability, derived many notions in regard to this sc.
ence, and many facts and observations, from Egypt, the great fountain ºf an-
cient learning and wisdom, and many were the speculations and hypotheses
of their philosophers. In the fabulous period of Grecian history, Atlas. Her-
cules, Linus, and Orpheus, are mentioned as persons distinguished for their
knowledge of astronomy, and for the improvements which they made in the
science. But in regard to this period, little is known with certainty, and it
must be considered, as it is termed, fabulous.
The first of the Greek philosophers who taught Astrono-
my, was Thales, of Miletus. He flourished about 640
years before the Christian era. Then followed Anaximan.
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Plato.—Some
of the doct.ines maintained by these philosophers were, that
the Earth was round, that it had two motions, a diurnal mo-
tion on its axis, and an annual motion around the Sun, that
the Sun was a globe of fire, that the Moon received her light
from the Sun, that she was habitable, contained mountains
seas, &c.; that her eclipses were caused by the Earth’s
shadow, that the planets were not designed merely to adorn
our heavens, that they were worlds of themselves, and that
the fixed stars were centres of distant systems. Some of
them, however, maintained, that the Earth was flat, and
others, that though round, it was at rest in the centre of the
universe.
When that distinguished school of philosophy was estab-
lished at Alexandria, in Egypt, by the munificence of the
* It is well known that the Chinese have, from time immemorial, considered Solar
Eclipses and Conjunctions of the planets, as prognostics of importance to the Empire, and
that they have been predicted as a matter of State policy.
Give some instances. Were these facts, however, reduced to a scienge?...Whence,
is it probable, that the Greeks derived their first notions of astronomy? What is the
name of the first of the Greek philosophers who taught astronomy? At what time did
he flourish?. What Greek philosophers after him, taught upca the same subject Men
tion some of the doctrines which they maintained.
OF I HE SOLAR SYSTEM. 173
sovereigns to whom that portion of Alexander's empire had
tallen, astronomy received a new impulse. It was now, in
the second century after Christ, that the first complete sys-
tem or treatise of astronomy, of which we have any know-
ledge, was formed. All before had been unconnected and
incomplete. Ptolemy, with the opinions of all antiquity,
and of all the philosophers who had preceded him, spread
out beforé him, composed a work in thirteen books, called
the Meyaxn Xuvračis, or Great System. Rejecting the doc-
trine of Pythagoras, who taught that the Sun was the centre
of the universe, and that the Earth had a diurnal motion on
its axis and an annual motion around the Sun, as contrary
to the evidence of the senses, Ptolemy endeavoured to ac-
count for the celestial phenomena, by supposing the Earth
to be the centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies
to revolve around it. He seems to have entertained an idea
in regard to the supposition, that the Earth revolved on its
axis, similar to one which some entertain even at the pre-
sent day. “If,” says he, “there were any motion of the
Earth common to it and all other heavenly bodies, it would
certainly precede them all by the excess of its mass being
so great ; and animals and a certain portion of heavy bodies
would be left behind, riding upon the air, and the Earth
itself would very soon be completely carried out of the
heavens.”
In explaining the celestial phenomena, however, upon his hypothesis, he
met with a difficulty in the apparently stationary attitude and retrograde mo-
tions which he saw the planets sometimes have. To explain this, however,
he supposed, the planets to revolve in small circles which he called epi-
cycles, which were, at the same time, carried around the Earth in larger
circles, which he called deferents, or carrying circles. In following out his
th2ory and applying it to the explanation of different phenomena, it became
necessary to add new epicycles, and to have recourse to other expedients,
until the system became unwieldy, cumbrous, and complicated. This
theory, although astronomical observations continued to be made, and some
distinguished astronomers appeared from time to time, was the prevailing
theory until the middle of the 15th century. It was not, however, always
received with implicit confidence; nor were its difficulties always entirely
unappreciated.
Alphonso X., king of Castile, who flourished in the 13th century, when
contemplating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, “Were the universe
thus constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at the creation
of the world, I could have given huin good advice.” He did not, however,
mean any impiety or irreverence, except what was dire ted against the system
of Ptolemy. e e
About the middle of the 15th century, Copernicus, a
native of Thorn in Prussia, conceiving a passionate attach-
ment to the study of astronomy, quitted the profession of
When was the first complete system of Astronomy written, and by whom 1 In how
many books was it comprised, and what was the work called What was the
system of Ptolemy? Hoºp ded Ptolemy explain the stations and retrogradations
gf the planets 2 . How long was the system of Ptolemy the prevailing system 2 Was
it always received with implicit conſidence 2 Who established a new System of
Astronomy about * gº of the 15th century?
,74 GENERAL PHENQMENA
medicine, and devoted himself, with the most intense ardour
to the study of this science, kāis mind,” it is said, ºad
long been imbued with the idea that simplicity and harmony
should characterize the arrangements of the planetary sys-
tem. In the complication and disorder which, he saw,
reigned in the hypothesis of Ptolemy, he perceived insuper-
able objections to its being considered as a representation of
nature.”
In the opinions of the Egyptian sages, in those of Pytha-
goras, Philolaus, Aristarchus and Nicetas, he recognised his
own earliest conviction that the Earth was not the centre of
the universe. His attention was much occupied with the
speculation of Martinus Capella, who placed the Sun be-
tween Mars and the Moon, and made Mercury and Venus
revolve around him as a centre, and with the system of Ap-
pollonius Pergoeus, who made all the planets revolve around
the Sun, while the Sun and Moon were carried around the
Earth in the centre of the universe.
The examination, however, of these hypotheses, gradual-
ly expelled the difficulties with which the subject was beset,
and after the labour of more than thirty years, he was per-
mitted to see the true system of the universe. . The Sun he
considered as immoveable, in the centre of the system
while the earth revolved around him, between the orbits of
Venus and Mars, and produced by its rotation about its axis
all the diurnal phenomena of the celestial sphere. The
other planets he considered as revolving about the Sun, in
orbits exterior to that of the Earth. (See the Relative Po-
sition of the Planets' Orbits, Plate I. of the Atlas.)
Thus, the stations and retrogradations of the planets were
the necessary consequence of their own motions, combin-
ed with that of the Earth about the Sun. He said that
“by long observation, he discovered, that if the motions
of the planets be compared with that of the Earth, and be esti-
mated according to the times in which they perform their
revolutions, not only their several appearances would fol-
low from this hypothesis, but that it would so connect the
order of the planets, their orbits, magnitudes, and distances,
and even the apparent motion of the fixed stars, that it would
be impossible to remove one of these bodies out of its place
without disordering the rest, and even the whole of the uni-
verse also.”
Soon after the death of Copernicus, arose Tycho Brahe,
** * * *

What led him to doubt the system of Ptolemy? How long was he employed in the ex
amination of different hypotheses before he cáme to a satisfactory result 7 ...What was
the system of Copernicus? What distinguished, astronomer, soon e time of Co-
pernicus, enriched astronomy with many valuable observations?
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 175
torn at Knudstorp, in Norway, in 1546. Such was the
distinction which he had attained as an astronorner, that
when dissatisfied with his residence in Denmark, he had re-
solved to remove, the king of Denmark, learning his inten-
tions, detained him in the kingdom, by presenting him with
the canonry of Rothschild, with an income of 2000 crowns
per annum. He added to this sum a pension of 1000 crowns,
gave him the island of Huen, and established for him an ob
servatory at an expense of about 200,000 crowns. Here
Tycho continued, for twenty-one years, to enrich astronomy
with his observations. His observations upon the Moon
were important, and upon the planets, numerous and precise,
and have formed the data of the present generalizations in
astronomy. He, however, rejected the system of Coperni-
cus; considering the Earth as immoveable in the centre of
the system, while the Sun, with all the planets and comets
revolving around him, performed his revolution around the
earth, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, the stars also
revolved about the central body. This theory was not as
simple as that of Copernicus, and involved the absurdity of
making the Sun, planets, &c. revolve around a body com-
paratively insignificant.
Near the close of the 15th century, arose two men, who
wrought most important changes in the science, Kepler,
and Galileo, the former a German, the latter an Italian.
Previous to Kepler, all investigations proceeded upon the
supposition that the planets moved in circular orbits, which
had been a source of much error. This supposition Kepler
showed to be false. He discovered that their orbits were
ellipses. The orbits of their secondaries or moons he also
found to be the same curve. He next determined the di-
mensions of the orbits of the planets, and found to what
their velocities in their motions through their orbits, and the
times of their revolutions, were proportioned; all truths of
the greatest importance to the science. j-
While Kepler was making these discoveries of facts, very
essential for the explanation of many phenomena,(Galileo
was discovering wonders in the heavens never before seen
by the eye of man. JOHaving improved the telescope, and
applied it to the heavens, he observed mountains and valleys
upon the surface of our Moon ; satellites or secondaries
What inducements did the king of Denmark offer him to remain in the kingdom? How
long did he continue to make observations in his observatory in the island of Huen? How
were the heavenly bodies arranged, in his system? What absurdity did it involve? What
two illustrious astronomers made several very important discoveries soon after the time
of É Brahe: What were the discoveries of Kepler? What were the discoveries of
ileo 7

176 GENERAL PHENOMENA
were discovered revolving about Jupiter 3)(and Venus, as
Copernicus had predicted, was seen exhibiting all the differ-
ent phases of the Moon, waxing and waning as she does,
through various forms.) (Many minute stars, not visible to
the naked eye, were descried in the milky-way ; and the
largest fixed stars, instead of being magnified, appeared to
be small brilliant points, an incontrovertible argument in fa-
vour of their immense distance from us) (All his discoveries
served to confirm the Copernican theory, and to show the
absurdity of the hypothesis of Fº
( Although the general arrangement and motions of .the
planetary bodies, together with the figure of their orbits,
had been thus determined, the force or power which car-
, ries them around in their orbits, was as yet unknown.)
The discovery of this was reserved for the illustrious New-
ton.” By reflecting on the nature of gravity—that power
which causes bodies to descend towards the centre of the
earth—since it does not sensibly diminish at the greatest dis-
tance from the centre of the earth to which we can attain, be-
ing as powerful on the loftiest mountains as it is in the deep-
est caverns, he was led to imagine that it might extend to the
Moon, and that it might be the power which kept her in her
orbit, and caused her to revolve around the Earth. He was
next led to suppose that perhaps the same power carried the
primary planets around the Sun. By a series of calculations,
he was enabled at length to establish the fact, that the same
force which determines the fall of an apple to the Earth, car-
ries the moons in their orbits around the planets, and the
planets and comets in their orbits around the Sun.
To recapitulate briefly : the system, (not hypothesis, for
much of it has been established by mathematical demonstra-
tion,) by which we are now enabled to explain with a beauti-
ful simplicity the different phenomena of the Sun, planets,
moons, and comets, is, that the Sun is the central body in
the system ; that the planets and comets move round him in
clliptical orbits, whose planes are more or less inclined to
each other, with velocities bearing to each otherf a cer-
tain ascertained relation, and in times related to their dis-
tances; that the moons, or secondaries, revolve in like Inam-
ner, about their primaries, and at the same time accompany
d T. discovery of Newton was in some measure anticipated by Copemicus, Kepler
sºld HOOKę.
t The orbits or#. of the planets were discovered by tracing the course of the planet
by reans of the fixed stars.
What was the i. of Newton How was he led to make it?, Recapitulate
briefly the system by which we are enabled to explain the different celestial phenomena.
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 17?
them in their motion around the Sun; all meanwhile revol-
ving on axes of their own ; and that these revolutions in their
orbits, are produced by the mysterious power of attraction.
The particular mode in which this system is applied to the
explanation of the different phenomena, will be éxhibited
as we proceed to consider, one by one, the several bodies
above mentioned. ** " .
These bodies, thus arranged and tâus revolving, consti
tute what is termed the solar system. "The planets have
been divided into two classes, primaries and secondaries.
The latter are also termed moons, and sometimes satellites.
The primaries are those which revolve about the Sun, as
a centre. The secondaries are those which revolve about
the primaries. There have been discovered eleven prima-
ries; namely, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Westa,
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel; of which,
Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and the others follow,
in the order in which they are named. Vesta, Juno, Ceres,
and Pallas, were discovered by means of the telescope, and,
because they are very small, compared with the others, are
called asteroids. There have been discovered, eighteen
secondaries. Of these, the Earth has one, Jupiter four,
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. All these, except our
Moon, as well as the asteroids, are invisible to the naked
eye.
Plate 1, of the Atlas, “exhibits a plan of the Solar System,” comprising the
relative magnitudes of the Sun and Planets; their comparative distances from
the Sun, and from each other; the position of their orbits, with respect to
each other, the Earth, and the Sun; together with many other particulars
which are explained on the map. There, the first and most prominent object
which claims attention, is the representation of the Sun's circumference, with
its deep radiations, bounding the upper margin of the map. It is apparent,
however, that this segment is hardly one sixth of the whole circumference of
which it is a part. ere the map sufficiently large to admit the entire orb
of the Sun, even upon so diminutive a scale as there represented, we should
then see the Sun and Planets in their just proportions—the diameter of the
former being 112 times the diameter of the Earth.
It was intended, originally, to represent the Earth upon a scale of one inch
in diameter, and the other bodies in that proportion; but it was found that it
would increase the map to 4 times its size; and hence it became necessary to
assume a scale of half an inch for the Earth's diameter, which makes that of
the Sun 56 inches, and the other bodies, as represented upon the map.
The relative position of the Planets' Orbits is also represented, on a scale
as large as the sheet would permit. Their relative distances from the Sun as a
centre, and from each other, are there shown correctly : But had we wished
to enlarge the dimensions of these orbits, so that they would exactly corres-
yond with the scale to which we have drawn the planets, the map must have
}. nearly 4 miles in length. Hence, says Sir John Herschel, “the idea that

What is meant by the Solar System 2 Into what two classes have the planets been di.
vided Define a primary planeſ. , Define a secondary planet. How many primary plan
ets have been discovered? What are their names, and what the order of their distance
from the sun.] Which of them were discovered by means of the telescope? Why are
these termed asteroids? . How many secondaries have been discovered " . How are they
distributed among the primaries Which of the primaries and secondaries are invis
eye?

178 THE SUN.
we can convey correct motions on this subject, by drawing circles on paper
is out of the question.”
To illustrate this.--Let us suppose ourselves standing on an extended plane,
or field of ice, and that a globe 4 feet 8 inches in diameter is placed in the
centre of the plane, to represent the Sun. Having cut out of the map, the
dark circles representing the planets, we may proceed to arrange them in
their respective orbits, about the Sun, as follows:
First, we should take Mercury, about the size of a small currant, and place
it on the circumference of a circle 194 feet from the Sun; this circle would
represent the orbit of Mercury, in the proper ratio of its magnitude. Next,
we should take Venus, about the size of a rather small cherry, and place it on
a circle 362 feet from the Sun, to represent the orbit of Venus: Then would
come the Earth, about the size of a cherry, revolving in an orbit 500 feet from
the Sun:-After the Earth, we should place Mars, about the size of a cranber-
ry, on a circle 762 feet from the Sun:—Neglecting the Asteroids, some of which
would not be larger than a pin's head, we should place Jupiter, hardly equal
to a moderate sized melon, on a circle at the distance of half a mile (2601 feet)
from the Sun;–Saturn, somewhat less, on a cirle nearly a mile (4769 feet)
from the Sun; and last of all, we should place IIerschel, about the size of a
gºh, on the circumſerence of a circle nearly 2 miles (959) feet) from the
ll II.
To imitate the motions of the planets, in the abovementioned orbits, Mercu-
ry must describe its own diameter in 41 seconds; Venus, in 4 minutes 14
seconds; the Earth, in 7 minutes; Mars, in 4 minutes 48 seconds; Jupiter,
in 2 hours 56 minutes; Saturn, in 3 hours 13 minutes; and Herschel, in 2 hours
16 minutes.
Many other interesting subjects are embraced in Plate l; but they are
either explained on the map, or in the following Chapters, to which they res-
pectively relate.
C H A P T E R XIX.
THE SUN.
The sum is a vast globe, in the centre of the solar system,
dispensing light and heat to all the planets, and govern-
ing all their motions.
It is the great parent of vegetable life, giving warmth to
the seasons, and colour to the landscape. Its rays are the
cause of various vicissitudes on the surface of the earth and
in the atmosphere. By their agency, all winds are pro-
duced, and the waters of the sea are made to eirculate in
vapour through the air, and irrigate the land, producing
springs and rivers.
The Sun is by far the largest of the heavenly bodies
whose dimensions have been ascertained. Its diameter is
something more than 887 thousand miles. Consequently, it
contains a volume of matter equal to fourteen hundred thou-
sand globes of the size of the Earth. Of a body so vast in
its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can
Mention some of the effects produced by the Sun. What is its magnitude compared
with #. of the other jº. whose dimensions have been estimated? º: º
tº diameter? How much larger is the Sun than the Ear
THE SUN, 179
**
*
form no adequate conception. The whole distance between
the Earth and the Moon would not suffice to embrace one
third of its diameter.
Here let the student refer to Plate I. where the Relative Magnitudes of the
Sun and Planets are exhibited. Let him compare the segment of the Sun’s
circumference, as there represented, with the entire circumference of the
Earth. They are both drawn upon the same scale. The segment of the Sun's
circumference, since it is almost a straight line, must be a very small part of
what the whole circumference would be, were it represented entire. Let the
student understand this diagram, and he will be in some measure able to con-
ceive how like a mere point the Earth is, compared with the Sun, and to form
in his mind some image of the vast magnitude of the latter.
Were the Sun a hollow sphere, perforated with a thousand
openings to admit the twinkling of the luminous atmosphere
around it—and were a globe as large as the Earth placed
at its centre, with a satellite as large as our Moon, and at
the same distance from it as she is from the earth, there
would be present to the eye of a spectator on the interior globe,
a universe as splendid as that which now appears to the un-
instructed eye—a universe as large and extensive as the
whole creation was conceived to be, in the infancy of astron-
GIſlW.
The next thing which fills the mind with wonder, is the
distance at which so great a body must be placed, to occupy,
apparently, so small a space in the firmament. The Sun’s
mean distance from the Earth, is twelve thousand times the
Earth’s diameter, or a little more than 95 millions of miles.
We may derive some faint conception of such a distance,
by considering that the swiftest steamboats, which ply our
waters at the rate of 200 miles a day, would not traverse it
In thirteen hundred years; and, that a cannon ball, flying
night and day, at the rate of 16 miles a minute, would not
reach it in eleven years.
The Sun, when viewed through a telescope, presents the
appearance of an enormous globe of fire, frequently in a
state of violent agitation or ebullition; dark spots of irregu-
lar form, rarely visible to the naked eye, sometimes pass
over his disc, from east to west, in the period of nearly
fourteen days.
These spots are usually surrounded by a penumbra, and
that, by a margin of light, more brilliant than that of the
Sun. A spot when first seen on the eastern edge of the
Sun, appears like a line which progressively extends in
breadth, till it reaches the middle, when it begins to contract,
What is the whole distance between the Earth and the Moon, ºp. with the di
ameter of the Sun? Give some illustration to enable us to conceive of the magnitude of
the Sun. What is the distance of the Sun from the Earth? Give some illustration teen;
able us to conceive of the distance. What is the appearance of the Sun when view
through a telescope 1. In what time do the spots seen on the Sun pass across the
in what direction do they move Describe their appearance.
3.


180 THE SUN.
and ultimately disappears, at the western edge. In some
rare instances, the same spots re appear on the east side,
and are permanent for two or three revolutions. But, as
a general thing, the spots on the Sun are neither permanent
nor uniform Sometimes several small ones unite into a
large one ; and, again, a large one separates into numer
ous small ones. Some continue several days, weeks, and
even months, together; while others appear and disappear,
in the course of a few hours. Those spots that are formed
gradually, are, for the most part, as gradually dissolved ;
whilst those that are suddenly formed, generally vanish as
quickly.
It is the general opinion, that spots on the Sun were
first discovered by Galileo, in the beginning of the year
1611; though Scheiner, Harriot, and Fabricius, observed
them about the same time. During a period of 18 years
from this time, the Sun was never found entirely clear of
spots, excepting a few days in December, 1624; at other
times, there were frequently seen, twenty or thirty at a
time, and in 1625, upwards of fifty were seen at once.
From 1650, to 1670, scarcely any spots were to be seen ;
and, from 1676, to 1684, the orb of the Sun presented an un-
spotted disc. Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen
tury, scarcely a year has passed, in which spots have not
been visible, and frequently in great numbers. In 1799,
Dr. Herschel observed one nearly 30,000 miles in breadth.
A single second of angular measure, on the Sun’s disc, as seen from the
earth, corresponds to 462 miles; and a circle of this diameter (containing there-
fore nearly 220,000 square miles) is the least space which can be distinctly dis.
cerned on the Sun as a visible an ea, even by the most powerful glasses. Spots
have been observed, however, whose linear diameter has been more than
44,000 miles; and, if some records are to be trusted, of even still greater
extent,
DR. DICK, in a letter to the author, says, “I have for many years examined
the solar spots with considerable minuteness, and have several times seen
spots which were not less than the one twenty-fifth part of the Sun's diameter,
which would make them about 22,192 miles in diameter, yet they were visible
neither to the naked eye, nor through an opera glass, magnifying about three
times. And, therefore, if any spots have been visible to the maked eye—which
we must believe, unless we refuse respectable testimony—they could not
have been much less than 50,000 miles in diameter.”
The apparent motion of these spots over the Sun's sur-
face, is continually varying in its direction. Sometimes
they seem to move across it in straight lines, at others in
curve lines. ... These phenomena may be familiarly illustra-
ted in the following manner.

to the same spots ºver re-appear on the east side? Are the spots generally permanent
and uniform? Describe their irregularities? Who, is it generally supposed, first discover-
3d spots on the Sun? Who else observed them about the same time 3. What was the
Ç. of the one seen by Dr Herschel in 1799 ln what direction do the spots on the
adpear to move?
THE SUN. 1$1
Let E E represent the ecliptic; N S, its north and sourh poles, M the point
where the spot enters, and m the point where it leaves the Sun's disc. At the
end of November, and the beginning of December, the spot will º to
move downwards, across the Sun's disc, from left to right, describing the
straight lines M m, Fig. 1; soon after this period, these lines begin gradually
to be inflected towards the north, till about the end of February, or the begin-
ning of March, when they describe the curve lines represented in Fig.2. After
the beginning of March, the curvature decreases, till the latter end of May, or
the beginning of June, when they again describe straight lines tending up-
wards, as in Fig. 3. By and by these straight lines begin to be inflected down-
wards, till about the beginning of September, when they take the form of a
curve, having its convex side towards the south pole of the Sun, as in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
As thusc phenomena are repeated every year, in the
same order, and belong to all the spots that have been per-
ceived upon the Sun's disc, it is concluded, with good rea-
son, that these spots adhere to the surface of the Sun, and
revolve with it, upon an axis, inclined a little to the plane
of the ecliptic. The apparent revolution of a spot, from any
particular point of the Sun's disc, to the same point again,
is accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 26 minutes, and 24 se.
conds; but during that time, the spot has, in fact, gone
through one revolution, together with an arc, equal to that
described by the Sun, in his orbit, in the same time, which
reduces the time of the Sun's actual rotation on his axis, to
25 days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes.
The part of the sun's disc not occupied by spots, is far
from being uniformly bright. Its ground is Hº: mottled
with an appearance of minute, dark dots, or pores, which,
Illustrate these phenomena by diagrams. What conclusions have been drayn from
these phenomena? What is the apparent time occupied by a spot in revolving from any
particular point of the Sun's disc to the same point again? What is the actual time oc.
•ºupied by the *f; of the spot, and of course by the Sun on its axis?


182 * THE SUN,
attentively watched, are found to be in a constant state of
change. *
What the physical organization of the Sun may be, is a
question which astronomy, in its present state, cannot solve,
It seems, however, to be surrounded by an ocean of inex-
haustible flame, with dark spots of enormous size, now and
then floating upon its surface. From these phenomena, Sil
W. Herschel supposed the Sun to be a solid, dark body, sur-
rounded by a vast atmosphere, almost always filled with
luminous clouds, occasionally opening and disclosing the
dark mass within. The speculations of Laplace were dif.
ferent. He imagined the solar orb to be a mass of fire, and
the violent effervescences and explosions seen on its surface,
to be occasioned by the eruption of elastic fluids, formed
in its interior, and the spots to be enormous caverns, like
the craters of our volcanoes. Others have conjectured
that these spots are the tops of solar mountains, which are
sometimes left uncovered by the luminous fluid in which
they are immersed.
Among all the conflicting theories that have been ad-
vanced, respecting the physical constitution of the Sun, there
is none entirely free from objection. The prevailing one
seems to be, that the lucid matter of the Sun is neither a
liquid substance, nor an elastic fluid, but that it consists of
luminous clouds, floating in the Sun's atmosphere, which
extends to a great distance, and that these dark spots are the
opaque body of the Sun, seen through the openings in his
atmosphere. Herschel supposes that the density of the lu-
minous clouds need not be greater than that of our Aurora
Borealis, to produce the effects with which we are ac-
quainted.
The similarity of the Sun, to the other globes of the sys-
tem, in its supposed solidity, atmosphere, surface diversified
with mountains and vallies, and rotation upon its axis, has
led to the conjecture that it is inhabited, like the planets, by
beings whose organs are adapted to their peculiar circum-
stances. Such was the opinion of the late Dr. Herschel,
who observed it unremittingly, with the most powerful tele-
scopes, for a period of fifteen years. Such, too, was the
opinion of Dr. Elliott, who attributes to it the most delight-
ful scenery ; and, as the light of the Sun is eternal, so, he


Have we been able to determine what the physical organization of the Sun is? What
was the theory of Sir W. Herschelia regard to this subject? . What was that of Laplace?
What is the prevailing theory?, What circumstances have led to the conjecture that the
Sun is inhabited? What was the opinion of Dr. Herschel on this point? How long had
me observed it i.º. and with the most powerful telescopes What was the
upinion of Dr. Elliott upon the same point?
MERCURY. 183
magined, were its seasons. Hence he infers that this
luminary offers one of the most blissful habitations for Intel-
ligent beings of which we can conceive.
MERCURY.
MERCURY is the nearest planet to the Sun that has yet
been discovered ; and with the exception of the asteroids,
is the smallest. Its diameter is only 2984 miles. Its bulk
therefore is about 18+ times less than that of the Earth. It
would require more than 20 millions of such globes to com-
pose a body equal to the Sun.
Here the student should refer to the diagrams, exhibiting the relative magni.
tudes and distances of the Sun and planets, Plate L. And whenever this sub-
ject recurs in the course of this work, the student should recur to the figures
of this plate, until he is able to form in his imind distinct conceptions of the
relative magnitudes and distances of all the planets. The Sun and planets
being spheres, or nearly so, their relative bulks are estimated by comparing
the cubes of their diameters: thus, the diameter of Mercury being 2984 miles,
and that of the earth 7924; their bulks are as the cube of 2984, to the cube of
7924, or as 1 to 18}, nearly.
It revolves on its axis from west to east in 24 hours, 5
minutes, and 28 seconds; which makes its day about 10
minutes longer than ours. It performs its revolution about
the Sun in a few minutes less than 88 days, and at a mean
distance of nearly 37 millions of miles. The length of
Mercury’s year, therefore, is equal to about three of our
months.
The rotation of a planet on its axis, constitutes its day; its revolution about
the Sun constitutes its year.
Mercury is not only the most dense of all the planets,
but receives from the Sun seven times as much light and
heat as the Earth. The truth of this estimate, of course,
depends upon the supposition that the intensity of solar light
and heat at the planets, varies inversely as the squares of
their distances from the Sun.
This law of analogy, did it exist with rigorous identity at
all the planets, would be no argument against their being
inhabited ; because we are bound to presume that the All-
*—


What is the distance of Mercury from the Sun? What is its magnitude compared with
that of the other planets? What is its diameter? How many such bodies .# it re-
qure to gompose a body equal to the Sun? How are the relative bulks of the planets eg-
timated? ...In what direction does it revolve on its axis, and what time does it occupy in
the revolution? In how longtime does it, perform its revolution about the Sun? What is its
mean distance from the Sin? What, then, is the length of its year, compared with ours}
t measures a planet's day?, What measures its year? ...What is the density of
Mercury, compared with that 9f the other planets? ... How much light and heat does it re-
ceive, compared with the Earth 3, Qn what supposition does the truth of this estimate
depend?... If this were really the fact in regard to the planets, would it be any argument
against their being inhabited 3
f$4 MERCURY.
wise Creator has attempered every dwelling place in his
empire to the physical constitution of the beings which he
has placed in it.
From a variety of facts which have been observed in relation to the procłac.
tion of caloric, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on the sur-
face of the diffel ent planets depends on their respective distances, from the
Sun. It is more pro’ able, that it depends chiefly on the distribution of the
substance of caloric on the surfaces, and throughout the atmospheres of these
bodies, in different quantitles, according to the different situations which they
occupy in the Sular system ; and that these different quantities of caloric are
put into action by time influence of the solar rays, so as to produce that degree
of sensible heat reuuisite to the wants, and to the greatest benefit of each
of the planets. On this hypothesis, which is corroborated by a great variety
of facts and experiments, there may be no more sensible heat experienced
on the planet Mercury, than on the surface of Herschel, which is fifty times
farther reimoved from the Sun.
Owing to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the swift-
ness of its motion, and its nearness to the Sun, astronomers
have made but comparatively few discoveries respecting
it. When viewed through a telescope of considerable
magnifying power, it exhibits at different periods, all the
various phases of the Moon; except that it never appears
quite full, because its enlightened hemisphere is never turned
directly towards the Earth, only when it is behind the Sun,
or so near to it, as to be hidden by the splendour of its
beams. Its enlightened hemisphere being thus always turn-
ed towards the Sun, and the opposite one being always dark,
prove that it is an opaque body, similar to the Earth, shining
only in the light which it receives from the Sun.
he rotation of Mercury on its axis, was determined from
the daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not
only discovered spots upon its surface, but several mountains
in its southern hemisphere, one of which was 10% miles
high:-nearly three times as high as Chimborazo, in South
America.
It is worthy of observation, that the highest mountains which have been dis-
covered in Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and perhaps we may add the Earth, are
all situated in their southern hemispheres.
During a few days in March and April, August and Sep-
tember, Mercury may be seen for several minutes, in the
morning or evening twilight, when its greatest elongations
happen in those months; in all other parts of its orbit, it is
too near the Sun to be seen by the naked eye. The greatest

On what does the degree of heat at the different planets, probably depend? Why
have astronomers been able to make but comparatively few discoveries, respecting Mer-
eury What is its appearance when viewed through a telescope of considerable ºft.
ing power? What circumstances prove that it is an opaque body, shining only with the
# of the sun.” How was the rotation of Mercury on its axis determined, and by whom?
What did he discover on its surface? What was the altitude of the highest mountain
which he saw In tehich hemisphere an e the highest mountains which have been
discovered in Mercury, Venus, and the Moon, situated? Does the same fact ...;
regard to the Earth? During what months inay Mercury be seen for a few days,
in what parts of the day? Why is it visible at these times, and not at others?
MERCURY, 185
distance that it ever departs from the Sun, on either side,
varies from 16°12', to 28° 48', alternately.
The distance of a planet from the Sun, as seen from the Earth, (measured in
degrees) is called its elongation. The greatest absolute distance of a planet
from the Sun is denominated its aphelion, and the least its perihelion. On the
diagram, exhibiting the Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, [Plate [...] these
oints are represented by little dots in the orbits at the extremities of the right
É. which meet them; the Perihelion points being above the Ecliptic, the
Aphelion points below it.
. The revolution of Mercury about the Sun, like that of all
the planets, is performed from west to east, in an orbit which
is nearly circular. Its apparent motion as seen from the
earth, is, alternately, from west to east, and from east to west,
nearly in straight lines; sometimes, directly across the face
of the Sun, but at all other times, either a little above, or a
little below it. *
Being commonly immersed in the Sun’s rays in the
evening, and thus continuing invisible till it emerges from
them in the morning, it appeared to the ancients like two
distinct stars. A long series of observations was requisite,
before they recognised the identity of the star which was
seen to recede from the Sun in the morning with that which
approached it in the evening. But as the one was never
seen until the other disappeared, both were at last found to
be the same planet, which thus oscillated on each side of
the Sun.
Mercury’s oscillation from west to east, or from east to
west, is really accomplished in just half the time of its revo-
lution, which is about 44 days; but as the Earth, in the mean-
time, follows the Sun in the same direction, the apparent
elongations will be prolonged to between 55 and 65 days.
The passage of Mercury over the Sun’s disc, is deno-
minated a Transit. This would happen in every revo-
lution, if the orbit lay in the same plane with the orbit of
the Earth. But it does not ; it cuts the Earth's orbit in two
opposite points, as the ecliptic does the equator, but at an
angle three times less.
See diagram, Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, and their Inclination
to the Plane of the Ecliptic. [Plate I.] The dark lines denote sections in the
planes of the planets' orbits. The dotted limes continued from the dark lines
denote the inclination of the orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic, which inclina.
tion is marked in figures, on them. Let the student fancy as many circular
pieces of paper, intersecting each other at the several angles of inclination
---
What are the greatest distances which it departs from the Sun, on either side 7 What
is the Elongation of a planet 2 , What is its Aphelion? What is its Perihelion 2 . In
what direction does Mercury revolve about the Sun ? What is the figure of its orbit? De-
scribe its apparent motion, as seen from the Earth. How did it appear to the ancients 1
What was the cause of this appearance? How were these apparently two distinct stars
at last found to be but one? What is the actual period of each elongation of Mercury?
What the apparent period? What is the cause of this difference? What does the expres-
Sion, transit of *#.signify? Why does it not make a transit at every revolution?


1S6. MERGUHY,
marked on this diagram, and he will be enabled to understand more easily
what is meant by the inclination of the planets' orbits.
It will be perceived on the º that the inclination of Mercury's orbit
to the plane of the ecliptic is 7°9'.
These points of intersection are called the Nodes of the
orbit. Mercury's ascending node is in the 16th degree of
Taurus; its descending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio.
As the Earth passes these nodes in November and May.
the transits of Mercury must happen, for many ages to come ,
in one of these months.
The following is a list of all the Transits of Mercury from the time the first
was observed By Gassendi, November 6, 1631, to the end of the present cen.
tury.
#31 Nov. 6. 1707 May 5. 1776 Nov. 2, 1835 Nov. 7.
1644 Nov. 6. 1710 Nov. 6. 1782 Nov. 12. 1845 May 8.
}651 Nov. 2. 1723 Nov. 9. 1786 May 3. 1848 Nov. 9.
1661 May 3. 1736 Nov. 10, 1789 Nov. 5. 1861 Nov. 11.
1664 Nov. 4. 1740 Nov. 2. 1799 May 7. 1868 Nov. 4.
1674 May 6. 1743 Nov. 4. 1802 Nov. 8, 1878 May 6.
1677 Nov. 7. 1753 May 5. 1815 Nov. 11. 1881 Nov. 7.
1690 Nov. 9. 1756 Nov. 6. 1822 Nov. 4. 1891 May 9.
1697 Nov. 2. 1769 Nov. 9, 1832 May 5. 1894 Nov. 10.
º comparing the mean motion of any of the planets with the mean motion
of the Earth, we may, in like manner, determine the periods in which these
bodies will return to the same points of their orbit, and the same positions
with respect to the Sun. The knowledge of these periods will enable us to
determine the hour when the planets rise, set, and pass the meridian, and in
general, all the phenomena dependent upon the relative position of the Earth,
the planet, and the Sun; for at the end of one of these periods they commence
ain, and all recur in the same order. We have only to find a number of
sidereal years, in which the planet completes exactly, or very nearly, a certain
number of revolutions; that is, to find such a number of planetary revolutions,
as, when taken together, shall be exactly equal to one, or any number of re-
volutions of the Earth. In the case of Mercury, this ratio will be, as 87.969 is
to 365.256. Whence we find, that,
7 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 29 of Mercury:
13 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 54 of Mercury:
33 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 137 of Mercury:
46 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 191 of Mercury.
Therefore, transits of Mercury, at the same node, may happen at intervals of
7, 13, 33, 46, &c. years. Transits of Venus, as well as eclipses of the Sun and
Moon, are calculated upon the same principle.
The sidereal revolution of a planet respects its absolute motion; and is
measured by the time the planet takes to revolve from any fixed star to the
game star again.
The synodical revolution of a planet respects its relative motion ; and is
measured by the time that a planet occupies in coming back to the same posi-
tion with respect to the Earth and the Sun.
The sidereal revolution of Mercury, is 87d. 23h. 15m. 44s. Its synodical re-
volution is found by dividing the whole circumference of 360° by its relative
whotion in respect to the Earth. Thus, the mean daily motion of Mercury is

What are the points where the orbits of the planets intersect the orbit of the Earth call-
ed? Where is Mercury's ascending node? Where is its descending mode 3...In what
months must the transit of Mercury occur for many ages to come? Why must they occur
in these months ; How can we determine the periods in which the planets will return
to the same points of their orbits, and the same positions in respect to the Sun? Why
is it useful to know these periods 2. State the method of making the computation.
What will the ratio be in the Case#. Mercury 2 State the ratic between the period?-
cal revolutions of the Earth and Mercury. At what intervals when møy transits of
Mercury at the same node happen 2 Upon what principle are transits of Venus
and eclipses of the Sun and Moon, calculated? ...What is the sidereal revolution of a
lanet 2 What is the synodical revolution ? What is the time of the sidereal revo-
ution of Mercury? State the method of computing the time of the synodical revo
*ution. Compute the synodical revolution of Mercuru.

VENUS, 187
1432”.555; that of the Earth is 3548” .318; and their difference is 11184; 237,
being Mercury's relative motion, or what it gains on the Earth every §º: Now
by imple prºportion, iiišº is tºi is ºilàºjīāºšº.
period of a synodical revolution of Mercury.
The absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit, is 109,757
miles an hour; that of the Earth, is 68,288 miles: the
difference, 41,469 miles, is the mean relative motion of
Mercury, with respect to the Earth.
VENUS.
THERE are but few persons who have not observed a beau-
tiful star in the west, a little after sunset, called the evening
star. This star is Venus. It is the second planet from the
Sun. It is the brightest star in the firmament, and on this
account easily distinguished from the other planets.
If we observe this planet for several days, we shall find
that it does not remain constantly at the same distance from
the Sun, but that it appears to approach, or recede ſrom him
at the rate of about three fifths of a degree every day; an
that it is sometimes on the east side of him, and sometimes
on the west, thus continually oscillating backwards and for-
wards between certain limits.
As Venus never departs quite 48° from the Sun, it is
never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that luminary
being visible only about three hours after sunset, and as long
before sunrise, according as its right ascension is greater
or less than that of the Sun. At first, we behold it only a
few minutes after sunset; the next evening we hardly dis-
cover any sensible change in its position; but after a few
days, we perceive that it has fallen considerably behind the
Sun, and that it continues to depart farther and farther from
him, setting later and later every evening, until the distance
between it and the Sun, is equal to a little more than half
the space from the horizon to the zenith, or about 46°.
It now begins to return towards the Sun, making the same
daily progress that it did in separating from him, and to set
earlier and earlier every succeeding evening, until it final-
ly sets with the Sun, and is lost in the splendour of his
light.
sº few days after the phenomena we have now described,


what is the rate per hour of the absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit? ...Qf the Earth?
what is the mean relative motion of Mercury with respect to the Earth? What beautif
star sometimes appearsinthe west a little after sunset? What is the comparative dis
tance of Venus from the Sun? What is its comparative brightness?...In what direction is
its apparent motion? Wig is it neverseen at midnight, nor in º; to the Sun? At
what times is it visible? How long after sunset is it when we first behold it in the west."
Describe its changes of pesition. #
18S VENUS,
we perceive, in the morning, near the eastern horizon, a
bright star which was not visible before. This also is
Wenus, which is now called the morning star. It departs
farther and farther from the Sun, rising a little earlier every
day, until it is seen about 46° west of him, where it appears
stationary for a few days; then it resumes its course towards
the Sun, appearing later and later every morning, until it
rises with the Sun, and we cease to behold it. In a few days,
the evening star again appears in the west, very near the
setting-sun, and the same phenomena are again exhibited.
Such are the visible appearances of Venus.
Venus revolves about the Sun from west to east in 2243
days, at the distance of abont 68 millions of miles, moving
in her orbit at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour. She
turns around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and
7 seconds. Thus her day is about 25 minutes shorter than
ours, while her year is equal to 7% of our months, or 32
WeekS.
The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is estimated
at 95 millions of miles, and that of Venus being 68 millions,
the diameter of the Sun, as seen from Venus, will be to his
diameter as seen from the Earth, as 95 to 68, and the surface
of his disc as the square of 95 to the square of 68, that is, as
9025 to 4626, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The intensity of light
and heat being inversely as the squares of their distances
from the Sun, Venus receives twice as much light and heat
as the Earth.
Her orbit is within the orbit of the Earth; for if it were
not, she would be seen as often in opposition to the Sun, as
in conjunction with him; but she was never seen rising in
the east while the Sun was setting in the west. Nor was
she ever seen in quadrature, or on the meridian, when the
Sun was either rising or setting. Mercury being about 23°
from the Sun, and Venus 46°, the orbit of Venus must be
outside of the orbit of Mercury.
The true diameter of Venus is 7621 miles; but her ap-
parent diameter and brightness are constantly varying, ac-
cording to her distance from the Earth. When Venus and
the Earth are on the same side of the Sun, her distance


In what direction, and in what time, does Venus revolve about the Sun ?, What is her
distance from the Sun? What is the rate per hour of her motion in her orbit? In what
time does she revolve on her axis How are the lengths of her day and year, compared
with those of the 3 How much larger does the Sun appear at Venus than he dºes at
e Earth? How much more light and heat does she receive from him,thap the Earth?
ow much farther is Venus from the Sun than Mercury'ſ dn which side of the ºrbit of
Mercury must her orbit be? What is her, true diameter a . In what proportion do her ap-
parent diameter and brightness constantly vary? What is her distance from the Earth
when they are both on the same side of the Sun?

WENúð, 189
from the Earth is only 26 millions of miles; when they are
on opposite sides of the Sun, her distance is 164 millions
of miles. Were the whole of her enlightened hemisphere
turned towards us, when she is naarest, she would exhibit
a light and brilliancy twenty-five times greater than she
generally does, and appear like a small brilliant moon; but,
. º time, her dark hemisphere is turned towards the
arth.
When Venus tºp. nearest to the Earth, her apparent, or observed
diameter, is 61”.2; when most remote, it is only 9”.6 : now 61”.2-i-9”.6 =
hence when nearest the Earth her apparent diameter is 6; times great f than
ºwhen most distant, and surface of her disc (63)”, or nearly 41 times ºr eater.
n this work, the apparent size of the heavenly bodies is estimated fivin the
apparent surface of their discs, which is always proportional to the squares of
their apparent diameters.
When Venus’ right ascension is less than that of the Sun,
she rises before him; when greater, she appears after his
setting. She continues alternately morning and evening
star, for a period of 292 days, each time.
To those who are but little acquainted with astronomy,
it will seem strange, at first, that Venus should apparently
continue longer on the east or west side of the Sun, than
the whole time of her periodical revolution around him. But
it will be easily understood, when it is considered, that while
Venus moves around the Sun, at the rate of about 1° 36' of
angular motion per day, the Earth follows at the rate of 59;
so that Venus actually gains on the Earth, only 37' in a
day.
Now it is evident that both planets will appear to keep on
the same side of the Sun, until Venus has gained half her
orbit, or 180° in advance of the Earth; and this, at a mean
ºil. require 292 days, since 292X37’—10804, or 180°
Ilear IV.
Mºeury and Venus are called Inferior” planets, because
their orbits are within the Earth’s orbit, or between it and
the Sun. The other planets are denominated Superior,
because their orbits are without or beyond the orbit of the
* In almost all works on Astronomy, Mercury and Venus are denominated inferior
planets, and the others, superior. But as these terms are employed, not to express th
relative size of the planets, but to indicate their situation with respect to the Earth, it
would be better to adopt the terms interior and easterior.

----------- --- a. *
what is it when they are on opposite sides of the Sun? ...Which hemisphere is turned
towards the Earth when she is nearest to us? Were her enſightened hemisphere, turned
towards us at that time, how would her light and brilliancy be compared with that which
she generally exhibits, and what would be her appearance? What is the length of her
apparent diameter when she is nearest to the Earth? - What is it when she is ºnos:
remote2. How is the apparent size of a heavenly body estimated in this work 3. In
what circumstances does. Venus, rise before, and in what set after, the Sun ?, How long
does she continue, each time, alternately morning and evening star 3, Why does she ap-
; longer on the east or west side of the Sun than the whole time of her periodical revo-
t


tion around him? Why are Mercury and Venus called Inferior planets? Why are the
other planets termed Superior planets?
190 VENUS.
Earth. [Plate I.], . As the orbits of Mercury and Venus
lie within the Earth's orbit, it is plain, that once in every
synodical revolution, each of these planets will be in con-
junction on the same side of the Sun. In the former case, the
lanet is said to be in its inferior conjunction, and in the
atter case, in its superior conjunction; as in the following
figure.
CONJUNCTION AND OPPOSITION OF THE PLANETS.
Fig. 5.
32.
~~~~
The period of Venus' synodical revolution is ſound in the same manner as
that of Mercury; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of her orbit
dy her mean, relative motion in a day. Thus, Venus’ absolute mean daily
motion is 1° 36' 7’’.8, the Earth's is 59' 8”.3, and their difference 36'59”.5.
Divide, 360° by, 36' 59.5, and it gives 583.920, or nearly 584 days, for
Venus' Synodical revolution, or the period in which she is twice in conjunc-
tion with the Earth.
Venus passes from her inferior to her superior conjunction
in about 292 days. At her inferior conjunction, she is 26
millions of miles from the Earth; at her superior conjunc-
tion, 164 millions of miles.
How often, in every synodical revolution, will each of these planets be in º;
on the same side of the Sun that the Earth is? How often on the opposite side?...Ex.
plain this. What names distinguish these two species of conjunction,? How is the sy-
aodical revolution of Venus found? ..Make the calculation. , How long is she in pass.
- # from her inferior to her superior conjunction? How far is she from the Earth at her
ior conjunction? How far ather superior

WENUS. 192
It might be expected that her brilliancy would be propor
“ionally increased, in the one case, and diminished, in the
other; and so it would be, were it not that her enlightened
hemisphere is turned more and more from us, as she ap
proaches the Earth, and comes more and more into view as
she recedes from it. It is to this cause alone that we must
attribute the uniformity of her splendour as it usually ap-
pears to the naked eye.
Mercury and Venus present to us, successively, the
various shapes and appearances of the Moon; waxing and
waning through different phases, from the beautiful crescent
to the full rounded orb. This fact shows, that they revolve
around the Sun, and between the Sun and the Earth. Let
the pupil endeavour to explain these phases on any other
#. and he will be convinced that the system of
Ptolemy is erroneous, while that of Copernicus is confirmed.
It should be remarked, however, that Venus is never seen when she is entire-
ly full, except once or twice in a century, when she passes directly over the
Šun's disc. At every other conjunction, she is either behind the Sun, or So
near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light.” The diagram on the
next page will better illustrate thc various appearances of Venus, as she
nioves around the Sun, than any description of them could do.
From her inferior to her superior conjunction, Venus ap-
pears on the west side of the Sun, and is then our morning
star; from her superior to her inferior conjunction she ap-
pears on the east side of the Sun, and is then our evening
Star. {

* The eminent astronomer, TIIoMA's DICK, LL.D., well known in this country as the
author of the Christian Philosopher, Philosophy of a Future State, &c., in a review ofthi
remark, observes—" This ought not to be laid down as a general truth. About the year
1813, I made a #. variety of observations on Venus in the day time, by an equatorial
instrument, and found, that she could be seen when only 1° 27' from the Sun's margin,
and consequently may be seen at the moment of her superior conjunction, when her geo:
centric latitude, at that time, equals or eaceeds 1°43'. I have some ſaint expectations of
being able to see Venus, in the course of two or three days, at her superior conjunction,
if the weather be favourable.”—March 3, 1834.

Why is not her brilliancy proportionably increased in the former case, and diminished
in the latter?...What appearances do Mercury and Venus present to us at different times?
What supposition is necessary for the explanation of these phases? What system do
they tend to refute?, What system do they confirm A How often is Venus seen when
ghe is entirely full? Why is she not seen at the full oftener?. In what part of her or
bit does Venus appear on the west side of the Sun? In what on the east, in what parts
is file, alternately, morning and evening star?
3
APPEARANCES OF VENUS AS SHE MOVES AROUND THE SUN
Fig. 6.
Superior Conjunction.
O
~ *-C
rº-O-C
* "E. Elongation.
??
f :
O-Od
W. Elongation.
#
Inferior Conjunction.





VENUS, 193
Like Mercury, she sometimes seems to be stationary.
Her apparent motion, like his, is sometimes rapid; at one
time, direct, and at another, retrograde; vibrating alternate-
ly backwards and forwards, from west to east, and from east
to west. These vibrations appear to extend from 45° to 47°,
on each side of the Sun.
Consequently she never appears in the eastern horizon, more than three
hours before sunrise, nor continues longer in the western horizon, after sun-
set. Any star or planet, therefore, however brilliant it may appear, which is
seen earlier or later than this, cannot be Venus.
In passing from her western to her eastern elongation, her
motion is from west to east, in the order of the signs; it is
thence called direct motion. In passing from her eastern
to her western elongation, her motion with respect to the
Earth, is from east to west, contrary to the order of the
signs; it is thence denominated retrograde motion. Her
motion appears quickest about the time of her conjunctions
and she seems stationary, at her elongations. She is bright
est about 36 days before and after her inferior conjunction,
when her light is so great as to project a visible shadow in
the night, and sometimes she is visible even at noon-day.
In the following figure, the outer circle represents the Earth's orbit, and the
inner circle, that of Venus, while she moves around the Sun, in the order of the
letters a, b, c, d, &c. When Venus is at a, she is in her inferior conjunction,
between the Earth and Sun; and is in a situation similar to that of the Moon
at her change, being then invisible, because her dark hemisphere is towards
the Earth. At c, she appears half enlightened to the Earth, like the Moon in
her first quarter; at d, she appears almost full, her enlightened side being
then almost directly towards the Earth ; at e, she is in her superior conjune.
tion, and would appear quite full, were she not directly behind the Sun, or
so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light; at f, she appears
to be on the decrease; and at g, only half enlightened, like the Moon in her
last quarter: at a, she disappears again between the Earth and the Sun. In
moving from g to c, she seems to go backwards in the heavens, because she
moves contrary to the order of the signs. In turning the arc of the circle
from retrograde to direct motion, or from direct to retrograde, she appears
nearly statigiary for a few days; because, in the former case, she is going
almost diréâly from the Earth, and in the latter, coming towards it. As she
descrihes athuch larger portion of her orbit in going ſrom c to g, than from g
to c, she appears much longer direct than retrograde. At a mean rate, her re-
trogradations are accomplished in 42 days.

Describe her apparent motion. How far on each side of the Sun do the vibrations ºf
Venus extend?' 'What then is the longest time before sunrise that she appears in the
eastern horizon 2 What the longest time after sunset that she appears in the west-
ern ? What is the direction of her motion while she passes from her western to her east-
ern elongation? Why is it called direct motion? What is, its direction as she passes
from her eastern to her western º * Why is it, called retrograde When is her
parent motion *:: ..When does she appear stationary? When is she brightest
How great is her light at this time?
17
194 venus
DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION,
Fig. 7.
woulow 4024Q-
If the orbit of Venus lay exactly in the plane of the
Earth's orbit, she would pass centrally across the Sun's
disc, like a dark round spot, at every inferior conjunction;
but as one half of her orbit lies about 34° above the ecliptic,
and the other half as far below it, she will always pass the
Sun a very little above or below it, except when her in-
ferior conjunction happens in, or near, one of her nodes;
in which case she will make a transit. [Relative position
of the Planet's Orbits, Plate I—Plane of Venus—Inclina-
tion 3° 23'.] -
This phenomenon, therefore, is of very rare occurrence:
it can happen only twice in a century; because it is only
twice in that time that any number of complete revolutions
of Venus, are just or nearly equal to a certain number of
the Earth's revolutions.
The principle which was illustrated in predicting the transits of Mercury
applies equally well to those of Venus; that is, we must find such sets o
numbers, (representing complete revolutions of the Earth and Venus,) as
shall be to each other in the ratio of their periodical times, or as 365,256 is to
.7. . Thus; the motion of Venus, in the Julian years, is 2106591.52
that of the Earth for the same period being 129627”.45, the ratio will be
Why does not Venus pass centrally across the Sun's disc at every inferior conjunction
Yn what circumstances will she make a transit across the sung How often can this phe
momenon happen? Why can it not happen oftener? State the method of predicting tie
transits of Venus … "
*
* * ,

VENUS. 195
##### 1 Ap .##. As the two terms of this fraction cannot be reduced by a
common divisor, we must multiply them by such numbers as will make one
a multiple of the other; accordingly, 13 times the denominator will be nearly
equal to 8 times the numerator; and 475 times the denominator will equal 291
times the numerator. e
By combining these two periods and their multiples by addition and sub-
traction, we shall obtain the period of all the transits that have ever happened.
Thus ; 291–8×7-235, another period; and 291—6X8=243, another period,
and sq j.n. Whence we find that,
8 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 13 of Venus.
235 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 382 of Venus,
243 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 395 of Venus.
251 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 408 of Venus.
291 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 475 of Venus.
Hence a transit of Venus may happen at the same node, after an interval
of 8 years; but if it do not happen then, it cannot take place again, at the
same node, in less than 235 years. The orbit of Venus crosses the ecliptic
near the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius; and these points mark the po-
sition of her nodes. At present, her ascending node is in the 14th degree of
Gemini, and her descending node, in the same degree of Sagittarius.
The Earth passes her ascending node in the beginning of
December, and her descending node, in the beginning of
June. Hence, the transits of Venus, foſſ, ges to come, will
happen in December and June. Theºrst transit even
<nown to have been seen by any human béing, took place
at the ascending node, December 4th, 1639.” If to this
date, we add 235 years, we shall have the time of the next
‘ransit at the same mode, which will accordingly happen in
i874. There will be another at the same node in 1882,


* This phenomenon was first witnessed by Horrox, a young gentleman about 21 years
f age, living in an obscure village 15 miles north of Liverpool. The tables of Kepler, con-
structed upon the observations of Tycho Brahe, indicated a transit of Venus in it;31, but
none was observed. Horrox, without much assistance from books and instruments, set
himself to inquire into the error of the tables; and found that such a phenomenon, might
be expected to happen in 1639. He repeated his calculations during this interval, with
all the carefulness and enthusiasm of a scholar ambitious of being the first to predict and
observe a celestial phenomenon, which, from the creation of the world, had never been
witnessed. Confident of the result, he communicated his e triumph to a confi-
dential friend residing in Mº.; and desired him to watch for the event, and to take
observations. So anxious, was florox not to fail of witnessing it elf, that he com-
menced his observations the day before it was expected, and resumed them at the rising
of the Sun on the morrow. But the very hour when his calculations led him to expect
the visible appearance of Venus upon the Sun's disc, ºpus also the appointed hour for
the public worship of God on the Sabbath, The delay of a few iminutes might deprive
him forever of an opportunity of observing the transit... If its very commencement were
not noticed, clouds might intervene, and conceal it until the Sun should set; and nearly a
Yentury and a half would elapse before another opportunity would occur. He had been
waiting for the event with the most ardent anticipation foreight years, and the result pro-
mised much benefit to the science Notwithstanding all this, Horrow twice suspend-
ed his observations, and twice repaired to the Hºuse, of God, the Great Author of the
# world's he º: to contemplate. When his duty was thus perſormed, and he
had returned to his chamber the second time, his love of science was gratified with full
success; and he saw what no mortal eye had observed before - -
If anything can add interest to this incident, it is the modesty with which the young
astronomer apologizes to the world, for suspending his observations at all.
“I observed it,” says he, “from sunrise till nine o'clock, * a little before ten, and
lastly at noon, and from one to two o'clock; the rest of the day
duties, which might not be neglected for these pastimes.”
After how long an interval may a transit of Venus happen again at the same node?
If it do not happen then, how long a period must elapse before it will occur agaiº.
at the same node? Where does the orbit of Venus cross the ecliptic, and where dré
her nodes? In what months, for † to come, will the transits of Venus happen, an
why? At which node, and when, did the first transit of Venus ever known to have
observed, take place 3 When will the next two transits occur;
being devoted to higher .
196 VENUS
eight years afterwards. It is not more certain that this phe-
nomenon will recur, than that the event itself will engross
the attention of all the astronomers then living upon the
Earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and observ-
ed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an inten-
sity of solicitude which no natural phenomena, since the
creation, has ever excited.
The reason why a transit of Venus should excite so great
an interest, is, because it may be expected to solve an im-
portant problem in astronomy, which has never yet been
satisfactorily done:—a problem whose solution will make
known to us the magnitudes and masses of all the planets,
the true dimensions of their orbits, their rates of motion
around the Sun, and their respective distances from the Sun,
and from each other. It may be expected, in short, to furnish
a universal standard of astronomical measure. Another
consideration willºrender the observation of this transit pe-
culiarly favourable; and that is, astronomers will be supplied
with better instruments, and more accurate means of obser-
vation, than on any former occasion.
So important, says Sir John Herschel, have these observations appeared to
astronomers, that at the last transit of Venus, in 1769, expeditions were fitted
out, on the most efficient scale, by the British, French, Russian, and other
governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for the express purpose
of making them. The celebrated expedition of Captain Cook to Otaheite,
was one of them. The general result of all the observations made on this
most memorable occasion, gives 8”.5776 for the Sun's horizontal parallax.
The phenomena of the seasons, of each of the planets,
like those of the Earth, depend upon the inclination of the
axis of the planet, to the plane of its orbit. The inclination
of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit, though not
precisely known, is commonly estimated at 75°; which is
more than three times as great as the inclination of the
Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic. The north pole of
Venus’ axis inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius;
the Earth’s towards the beginning of Cancer; consequently,
the northern parts of Venus have summer in the signs where
those of the Earth have winter, and vice versa.
The declination of the Sun on each side of her equator,
must be equal to the inclination of her axis; and if this ex
tends to 75°, her tropics are only 15° from her poles, and
her polar circles 15° from her equator. It follows, also, that

Why will the next transit excite a very great and universal interest? Upon what do the
phenomena of the seasons of each of the planets depend? What is the estimated inclina-
tion of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit? How does this inclination.com
with that of the Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic? What seasons have the north-
ern parts of Venus, when those of the Earth, have winter How do we know this? To
what must the declination of the Sun on each side of her equator be equal? How far are
bertropics from her poles, and her Dolar circles from her equator? dº.
WENUS. 197
the Sun must change his declination more in one day at
Venus, than in five days on the Earth; and consequently,
that he never shines vertically on the same places for two
days in succession. . This may perhaps be providentially
ordered, to prevent the too great effect of the Sun’s heat,
which, on the supposition that it is in inverse proportion to
the square of the distance, is twice as great on this planet
as it is on the Earth.
At each pole, the Sun continues half a year” without set-
ting in summer, and as long without rising in winter; con-
sequently, the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the
earth, have only one day and one night in the year; with
this difference, that the polar days and nights of Venus are
not quite two thirds as long as ours.
Between her polar circles, which are but 15° from her
equator, there are two winters, two summers, two springs,
and two autumns, every year. But because the Sun stays
for some time near the tropics, and passes so quickly over
the equator, the winters in that zone will be almost twice as
long as the summers.
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF WENUS.
Fig. 8.
When viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits
not only all the moon-like phases of Mercury, but also a va-
riety of inequalities on her surface; dark spots, and brilliant
shades, hills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But
on account of the great density of her atmosphere, these in-
* That is, half of Venus' year, or 16 weeks.
How much more must the Sun change his declination in one day at Venus than on the
Earthi "Why, perhaps, is this so ordered? How many days and nights have hºr Rolar
inhabitants during the year? How long are these days and nights, compared with thºs
ofour polar inhabitants How many, and what seasons, has Venus between her po
circles'; what is the length of the winters in this zone, compared with that of the sum-
mers what appearances, besides her moon-like phases, does Venus exhibit when seen
a good telescope?
17+

198 THE EARTH,
equalities are perceived with more difficulty than those up.
on the other planets.
The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the
Moon, are highest in the southern hemisphere. According
to M. Schroeter, a celebrated German astronomer, who
spent more than ten years in observations upon this planet,
some of her mountains rise to the enormous height of from
10 to 22 miles.* The observations of Dr. Herschel do not
indicate so great an altitude ; and he thinks, that in general
they are considerably overrated. He estimates the diame
ter of Venus at 8,649 miles; making her bulk more than
one sixth larger than that of the Earth. Several eminent
astronomers affirm, that they have repeatedly seen Venus
attended by a satellite, and they have given circumstantial
details of its size and appearance, its periodical revolution,
and its distance from her It is said to resemble our Moon
in its phases, its distance, and its magnitude. Other astro-
nomers deny the existence of such a body, because it was
not seen with Venus on the Sun's disc, at the transits of
1761, and 1769.
THE EARTH.
THE Earth is the place from which all our observations
of the heavenly bodies must necessarily be made. The ap
parent motions of these bodies being very considerably af.
fected by her figure, motions, and dimensions, these hold
an important place in astronomical science. It will there-
fore be proper to consider, first, some of the methods by
which they have been determined.
If, standing on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a
ship leaving the coast, in any direction, the hull or body of
the vessel first disappears; afterwards the rigging, and lastly
the top of the mastvanishes from our sight. Those on board
the ship, observe that the coast first sinks below the horizon,
then the buildings, and lastly the tallest spires of the city
* 1st, 22.05 miles; 2d, 18.97 miles; 3d, 11.44 miles; 4th, 10.84 miles.

Why is it more difficult to perceive the inequalities on, her surface than those on the
other planets? ...In which hemisphere are her mountains highest ? What does M. Schroe
termake the altitude of some of the highest ? Is this estimate confirmed by the 9bserva
tions of Dr. Herschel ; How long is the diameter of Venus, according to Herschel's es-
imatº. How much larger, then must she be than the farth; some astronomers affirm
that they have seen venºs attended by a satellite, why do others deny the existence of
such a body Why is, it important, in an astronomical view, to be acquainted with
figure, dimensions, and motions of the Earth? Mention some of the proofs of the con-
vexity of its surface?

THE EARTH, 199
which they are leaving. Now these phenomena are evi-
dently caused by the convexity of the water which is be-
tween the eye and the object; for, were the surface of the
sea merely an extended plain, the largest objects would be
visible the -ongest, and the smallest disappear first.
CONVEXITY OF THE EARTH.
Fig. 9.
Again : navigators have sailed quite around the Earth,
and thus proved its convexity.
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, was the first who carried this enterprise
into execution. He embarked from Seville, in Spain, and directed his course
towards the west. After a long voyage, he descried the continent of America.
Not finding an opening to enable him to continue his course in a westerly
direction, he sailed along the coast towards the south, till, coming to its sou-
thern extremity, he sailed around it, and found himself in the great Southern
Ocean. He then resumed his course towards the west. After some time he
arrived at the Molucca Islands, in the Eastern Hemisphere; and sailing con-
tinually towards the west, he made Europe from the east; arriving at the place
from which he set out."
The next who circumnavigated the Earth, was Sir Francis Drake, who sail-
ed from Plymouth, December 13, 1577, with five small vessels, and arrived at
the same place, September 26, 1580. Since that time, the circumnavigation of
the Earth has been performed by Cavendish, Cordes, Noort, Sharten. Here-
mites, Dampier, Woodes, Rogers, Schovten, Roggewin, Lord Anson, Byron,
Carteret, Wallis, Bougainville, Cook, King, Clerk, Vancouver, and many others.
These navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, al-
lowance being made for promontories, &c. arrived at the
country they sailed from. Hence, the Eºth must be either
cylindrical or globular. It cannot be cylindical, because,
if so, the meridian distances would all be equal o each other,
which is contrary to observation. The figure of the Earth
is, therefore, spherical.
The convexity of the Earth, north and south, is proved
by the altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars,
* Magellan sailed from Seville, in Spain, August 10, 1519, in the ship called the Victº
ry, accompanic d by four other vessels. In April, 1521, he was killed in a s h with
# natives, at the island of Sebw, or Zebu, sometimes called Matan, one of the Philip-
pines. One of his vessels, however, arrived at St. Lucar, near Seville, September 7, 1522.
Who first sailed around the Earth?, Describe briefly his voyage. Who neºt Cir-
cumnavigated the Earth 2. Describe his voyage, Mention the names of sºme % those
who have since accomplished this enterprise. What may we infer from these facts in
regard to the figure of the Earth? How is the convexity of her surface proved?



200 THE EARTH,
which is found uniformly to increase as we approach them
while the inclination to the horizon, of the circles described
by all the stars, gradually diminishes. While proceeding
in a southerly direction, the reverse of this takes place.
The altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, con-
tinually decreases; and all the stars describe circles whose
inclination to the horizon increases with the distance.
Whence we derive this general truth: The altitude of one
pole, and the depression of the other, at any place on the
Earth's surface, is equal to the latitude of that place.
Another proof of the convexity of the earth's surface is,
that the higher the eye is raised, the farther is the view ex-
tended. An observer may see the setting sun from the top
of a house, or any considerable eminence, after he has ceas
ed to be visible to those below.
The curvature of the Earth for one mile is 8 inches; and this curvature
increases with the square of the distance. From this general law, it will be
easy to calculate the distance at which any object whose height is given, may
be seen, or to determine the height of an object when the distance is known.
1st. To find the height of the object when the distance is given.
RULE. Find the square of the distance in miles, and take two thirds of that
number for the height in feet.
Ex. 1.-How high must the eye of an observer be raised, to see the surface
of the ocean, at the distance of three miles º Ans. The square of 3 ft., is 9
ft., and # of 9 ft. is 6 ft. Ex. 2. Suppose a person can just see the top of a
spire over an extended plain of ten miles, how high is the steeple? Ans. The
square of 10 is 100, and 3 of 100, is 66%, feet.
2. To find the distance, when the height is given.
RuLE. Increase the height in feet one half, and extract the square root, for
the distance, in miles.
Ex. 1.-How far can a person see the surface of a plain, whose eye is ele-
wated six feet above it 7 Ans. 6, increased by its half, is 9, and the square
root of 9 is 3; the distance is then 3 miles. Ex. 2.--To what distance can a
person see a light-house whose height is 96 feet from the level of the ocean 7
Ans. 96 increased by its half, is 144, and the square root of 144 is 12; the
distance is therefore 12 miles,
3. To find the curvature of the Earth when it exceeds a mile.
RULE. Multiply the square of the distance by .000126.
Although it appears from the preceding facts, that the
Earth is sphe º it is not a perfect sphere. If it were,
the length of £ degrees of latitude, from the equator to the
º wouldº"uniformly the same ; but it has been found,
y the most careful measurement, that as we go from the
equator towards the poles, the length increases with the lati-
tude.
These measurements have been made by the most eminent mathematicians
et different countries, and in various places, from the equator to the arctic
To what is the convexity proportional 2 State the rule, deduced from this fact,
for finding the height of an object, when its distance from us is given. State thé.
zulé for finding the distance when the height is given. State the rule for §
the curvature of the Earth when the distance exceeds a mile, Is the figure of the Earth.
an exact sphere Were the Earth a perfect sphere, how would the length of the degrees’
oflatitude be, compared with each other? How are they, in fact?


THE EARTH. 201
circle. They have found that a degree of latitude at the arctic circle was
nine birteenths of a mile longer than a degree at the equator, and that the ratio
of increase for the intermediate degrees was nearly as the squares of the
sines of the latitude. Thus the theory of Sir Isaac Newton was conſil med,
that the body of the Earth was inore rounded and convex between the tropics,
but considerably flattened towards the poles.
Places o º Length of a degree
o:#. Latitude. in English miles. Observers.
Peru Equator. 68.732 Bouguer.
Pennsylvania 39° 12° N. 68.896 Mason and Dixon.
Italy 43 01 68,998 Boscovich and Lemaire.
France 46 69,054 Delambre and Mechain.
England 51 29' 54” 69. 146 Mudge.
Sweden 66 20 10 69,292 Swamberg.
These measurements prove the Earth to be an oblate
spheroid, whose longest or equatorial diameter is 7924 miles,
and polar diameter, 7898 miles. The mean diameter is,
therefore, about 7912, and their difference 26 miles. The
French Academy have determined that the mean diameter
of the Earth, from the 45th degree of north latitude, to the
opposite degree of south latitude, is accurately 7912 miles.
If the Earth were an exact sphere, its diameter Fig. 10.
might be determined by its curvature, from a single Al R
measurement. Thus, in the adjoining figure, we have
A B equal to 1 mile, and B D equal to 8 inches, to 'A
find A E, or B E, which does not sensibly differ from
A E, since B D is only 8 inches. Now it is a propo-
sition of Euclid, (B. 3, prop. 36,) that, when from a
point without a circle, two lines be drawn, one cutting
and the other touching it, the touching line (BA) is a
mean proportional between the cutting line (B E) and .
that part of it (BD) without the circle.
B D : :: B A : B E or A E very nearly.
That is, 1 mile being equal to 63.360 inches,
8 : 63360 : : § : 50181120 inches, or 7920 miles.
This is very nearly what the Inost elaborate calculations make the Earth's
equatorial diaineter. '
The Earth, considered as a planet, occupies a favoured
rank in the Solar System. It pleased the All-wise Crea-
tor to assign its position among the hea
nearly all the sister planets are visible t
It is situated next to Venus, and is the thir
Sun.
To the scholar who for the first time takes up a book on astronomy, it will
no doubt seeſh strange to find the Earth classed with the heavenly bodies.
What is the length of a degree at the Arctic circle, compared with a degree at the
equator, a found by the measurements of different mathematicians? What have
they found to be the ratio ºf increase for the intermediate degrees 2 What theo
go these facts confirm 2 hat is the length of the Earth's equatorial diameter, as foun
by these measurements? What, her polar diameter What is the difference between the
two? What is her mean diameter?...What have the French academy determined to be
the exact mean diameter from the 45th degree of north latitude to the opposite degree of
south latitude, Illustrate the method of finding the diameter of the Earth from her
curvature, on the supposition that her figure is an ea act sphere. What is the length
of her diameter as thus found 2 How is this, compared with the equatºrial diameter,
§: by the most elaborate calculations? What is the position of the Earth in the
lar System?

202 THE EARTH,
For what can appear more unlike, than the Earth, with her vast and seeming
immeasurable extent, and the stars, which appear but as W.". * The Eart
is dark and opaque, the celestial bodies are brilliant. e perceive in it nº;
motion; whiſe in them we observe a continual change of place, as we view
them at different hours of the day or night, or at different seasons of the year
It moves round the Sun, from west to east, in 365 days
5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds; and turns, the same
way, on its axis, in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds
The former is called its annual motion, and causes the
vicissitudes of the seasons. The latter is called its diurnal
motion, and produces the succession of day and night.
The Earth’s mean distance from the Sun is about 95
millions of miles. It consequently moves in its orbit at the
mean rate of 68 thousand miles an hour. Its equatorial di-
ameter being 7924 miles, it turns on its axis at the rate of
1040 miles an hour.
Thus, the earth on which we stand, and which has serv-
ed for ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest struc-
tures, is every moment turning swiftly on its centre, and, at
the same time, moving onwards with great rapidity through
the empty space.
This cómpound motion is to be understood of the whole
earth, with all that it holds within its substance, or sustains
upon its surface—of the solid mass beneath, of the ocean
which flows around it, of the air that rests upon it, and of
the clouds which float above it in the air.
That the Earth, in common with all the planets, revolves
around the Sun as a centre, is a fact which rests upon the
clearest demonstrations of philosophy. That it revolves,
like them, upon its own axis, is a truth which every rising
and setting sun illustrates, and which very many phenomena
concur to establish.
Either the Earth moves around its axis every day, or the
whole universe yes around it in the same time. There
is no third opinigºthat can be formed on this point. Either
the Earth my evölve on its axis every 24 hours, to pro-
duce the alteffate succession of day and night, or the Sun
Moon, planets, comets, fixed stars, and the whole frame of
the universe itself, must move around the Earth, in the same
time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would be
to cast a reflection on the wisdom of the Supreme Architect,
whose laws are universal harmony. As well might the
beetle, that in a moment turns on its ball, imagine the heav-
What revolutions does it perform, and in what direction? What is the time º in
each of these revolutions? By what terms are these revolutions distinguished, and what
important effects do they produce? What is the Earth's mean distance from the Sun?
§. is the mean rate of its motion in its orbit per hour? What is the rate of its revolu-
tion on its axis per hour? What are the proofs, that it performs these two revolutions?


THE EARTH, 203
ens and the Earth had made a revolution in the same instant.
It is evident, that in proportion to the distance of the ce-
lestial bodies from the Earth, must, on this supposition, be
the rapidity of their movements. The Sun, then, would
move at the rate of more than four hundred thousand miles
in a minute ; the nearest stars, at the inconceivable velocity
of 1400 millions of miles in a second; and the most distant
luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers
could express, and all this, to save the little globe we tread
upon, from turning safely on its axis once in 24 hours.
The idea of the heavens revolving about the Earth, is en-
cumbered with innumerable other difficulties. We will
mention only one more. It is estimated on good authority,
that there are visible, by means of glasses, no less than one
hundred millions of stars, scattered at all possible distances
in the heavens above, beneath, and around us. Now, is it
in the least degree probable, that the velocities of all these
bodies should be so regulated, that, though describing circles
so very different in dimensions, they should complete their
revolutions in exactly the same time. -
In short, there is no more reason to suppose that the heav-
ens revolve around the Earth, than there is to suppose that
they revolve around each of the other planets, separately,
and at the same time; since the same apparent revolution is
common to them all, for they all appear to revolve upon
their axis, in different periods.
The rotation of the Earth determines the length of the
day, and may be regarded as one of the most important el-
ements in astronomical science. It serves as a universal
measure of time, and forms the standard of comparison for
the revolutions of the celestial bodies, for all ages, past and
to come. Theory and observation concur in proving, that
among the innumerable vicissitudes that prevail throughout
º the period of the Earth's diurnal rotation is immu.
table. ~
The Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis
in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds, of solar time
This is called a sidereal day, because, in that time, the
stars appear to complete one revolution around the Earth.
But, as the Earth advances almost a degree eastward in
its orbit, in the time that it turns eastward around its axis,
it is plain that #: one rotation never brings the same me-
ridian around from the Sun to the Sun again; so that the
Earth requires as much more than one complete revolution
gr-
What important purposes does the period of the Earth's rotation serve 7 What is a sk.
alº a solar day? perl $ 10
$
204 THE EARTH.
on its axis to complete a solar day, as it has gone forward
in that time. Hence in every natural or solar day, the
Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis, and the
365th part of another revolution. Consequently, in 365
days, the Earth turns 366 times around its axis. And as
every revolution of the Earth on its axis completes a side-
real day, there must be 366 sidereal days in a year. And,
generally, since the rotation of any planet about its axis is
the length of a sidereal day at that planet, the number of
sidereal days will always exceed the number of solar days,
by one, let that number be what it may, one revolution be-
ing always lost in the course of an annual revolution. This
difference between the sidereal and solar days may be il-
ustrated by referring to a watch or clock. When both
nands set out together, at 12 o'clock for instance, the minute
hand must travel more than a whole circle before it will
overtake the hour hand, that is, before they will come into
conjunction again.
In the same manner, if a man travel around the Earth
eastwardly, no matter in what time, he will reckon one day
more, on his arrival at the place whence he set out, than
they do who remain at rest; while the man who travels
arround the Earth westwardly will have one day less. From
which it is manifest, that, if two persons start from the same
place at the same time, but go in contrary directions, the
one travelling eastward and the other westward, and each
goes completely arcund the globe, although they should both
arrive again at the very same hour at the same place from
which they set out, yet they will disagree two whole days
in their reckoning. Should the day of their return, to the
man who travelled westwardly, be Monday, to the man who
travelled eastwardly, it W.ſi be Wednesday; while to
those who remained at the place itself, it would be Tuesday.
Nor is it necessary, in order to produce the gain or loss
of a day, that the journey be performed either on the equa-
tor, or on any parallel of latitude; it is sufficient for the
purpose, that all the meridians of the Earth be passed
through, eastward or westward. The time, also, occupied
in the journey, is equally unimportant; the gain or loss of
a day being the same, whether the Earth be travelled
around in 24 years, or in as many hours.


What part of a second revolution does the Earth complete in every solar day How
many times, then, does it turn on its axis in 365 days ; How many sidereal days are there
in a §. On any planet, what is the number of the sidereal days compared with the
number of the solar? Illustrate the difference between the sidereal,and solar days #:
º
ferring to a watch or clock... lllustrate it by referring to two travellers going aroun
glºbe, one eastwardly and the other westwardly.
THE EARTH. 205
It is also evident, that if the Earth turned around its axis
but once in a year, and if the revolution was performed the
same way as its revolution around the Sun, there would be
ºnal day on one side of it, and perpetual night on the
Other.
From these facts the pupil will readily comprehend the principles involved
in a curious problem which appeared a few years ago: It was gravely report-
ed by an American ship, that, in sailing over the ocean, it chanced to find siz
Sundays in February...The fact was insisted on, and a solution demanded.
There is nothing absurd in this.-The man who travels around the Earth east.
toardly, will see the Sun go down a little earlier every succeeding day, than
lf he had remained at rest ; or earlier than they do who live at the place from
which he set out. The faster he travels towards the rising sun, the sooner
will it appear above the horizon in the morning, and so much sooner will it set
in the evening. , What he thus gains in time, will bear the same proportion to
a solar day, as the distance travelled does to the circumference of the Earth.
—As the globe is 360 degrees in circumference, the Sun will appear to move
over one twenty-fourth part of its surface, or 14°, every hour, which is 4
minutes to one degree.—Consequently, the Sun will rise, come to the meri-
dian, and set, 4 minutes sooner, at a place 19 east of us, than it will with us;
at the distance of 2° the Sun will rise and set 8 minutes sooner; at the dis-
tance of 39, 12 minutes sooner, and so on.
Now the man who travels one degree to the east,-the first day, will have the
Sun on his meridian 4 minutes sooner than we do who are at rest; and the
second day, 8 minutes sooner, and on the third day, 12 minutes sooner, and so
on ; each successive day being completed 4 minutes earlier than the preced-
ing, until he arrives again at the place from which he started; when this con-
tinual gain of 4 minutes a day will have amounted to a whole day in advance
of our time ; he having seen the Sun rise and set once more than we have.
Consequently, the day on which he arrives at home, whatever day of the week
it may be, is one day in advance of ours, and he must needs live that day over
again, by calling the next day by the same name, in order to make the accounts
harmonize.
If this should be the last day of February in a bissextile year, it would also
be the same day of the week that the first was, and be six times repeated
and if it should happen on Sunday, he would, under these circutnstances,
have six Sundays in February.
Again:--Whereas the man who travels at the rate of one degree to the east
will have all his days 4 minutes shorter than ours, so, on the contrary, the
man who travels at the same rate towards the west, will have all his days 4
minutes longer than &urs. When he has finished the circuit of the Earth
and arrived at the place from which he first set out, he will have seen the
Sun rise and set once less than we have. Consequently, the day he gets homa
will be one day after the time at that place: for which reason, if he arrives at
home on Saturday, according to his own account, he will have to call the next
day Monday; Sunday having gone by before he reached home. Thus, on
whatever day of the week January should end, in commonP. he would
find the same day repeated only three times in February. January ended
on Sunday, he would, under these circumstances, find only three Sundays in
February.
The Earth's motion about its axis being perfectly equa-
ble and uniform in every part of its annual revolution, the
sidereal days are always of the same length, but the solar or
natural days vary very considerably at different times of the
year. This variation is owing to two distinct causes: the
If the Earth revolved on its axis but once a year, and in the same direction as it revolves
around the Sun, what wo e consequence as it regards day and night? It was
#. Teported some years ago by an American ship, that in sailing over, the QCéan,
found gia, Sundays in Februgry; please explain, this....Why are the sidereal da
## the same length; What are the causes of the difference in the length of



$3
18
206 THE EARTH,
inclination of the Earth's axis to its orbit, and the megua.ity
of its motion around the Sun. From these two causes
is, that the time shown by a well regulated clock and that
of a true sun-dial are scarcely ever the same. The difference
between them, which sometimes amounts to 164 minutes
is called the Equation of Time, or the equation of solar
days.
The difference between mean and apparent time, or, in other words, be.
tween Equinoctial and Ecliptic time, may be further shown by Figure 11,
which represents the circles of the sphere. Let it be first premised, that
equinoctical time is clock time; and that ecliptic time is solar or apparent
time. It appears, that from Aries to Cancer, the sun in the ecliptic comes to
the meridian before the equinoctial sun; from Cancer to Libra, after it; from
Libra to Capricorn, before it; and from Capricorn to Aries, after it. If we
notice what months the Sun is in these several quarters, we shall find, that
from the 25th of December to the 16th of April, and from the 16th of June to
the 1st of September, the clock is faster than the sun-dial; and that, from t
16th of April to the 16th of June, and from the 1st of September to the 25
of December, the sun-dial is faster than the clock.
EQUATION OF THME,
Fig. 11.
* \c
ºr I —ſh–
} €
.9 f
Yºj
S

It is a universal fact, that, while none of the planets are
perfect spheres, none of their orbits are perfect circles. The
planets all revolve about the Sun, in ellipses of different
degrees of eccentricity; having the Sun, not in the centre
of the ellipse, but in one of its foci.
What is meant by the expressign, equation of time? Illustrate the difference between
tmean and apparent time by reference to Fig.11. What is the figure §: orbits of the
elanets? #: point of the orbits is § situated?
THE EARTH. 207

}} The figure A D B E is an ellipse. The line
A B is called the transverse axis, and the line
drawn through the middle of this line, and per.
pendicular to it, is the conjugate axis. The
point C, the middle of the transverse axis, is
the centre of the ellipse. The points F and f;
A. Hequally distant from C, are caiſed the foci (;
F, the distance from the centre to one of the
foci, is called the eccentricity. . The orbits of
the planets being ellipses, having the Sun in
one of the foci, if A D B E be the orbit of a
planet, with the Sun in the focus F, when the
planet is at the point A, it will be in its peri-
helion, or nearest the Sun; and when at the point B in its aphelion, or at its
greatest distance from the Sun. The difference in these distances is evident
ly equal to Ff, that is, equal to twice the eccentricity of its orbit. In every re-
volution, a planet passes through its perihelion and aphelion... The eccentri-
city of the Earth's orbit is about one and a half millions of miles; hence' she
i. three millions of miles nearer the Sun in her perihelion, than in her aphe-
10II.
Now as the Sun remains fixed in the lower focus of the Earth's orbit, it is
easy to perceive that a line, passing centrally through the Sun at right angles
with the longer axis of the orbit, will divide it into two unequal segments.
Precisely thus it is divided by the equinoctial.
That portion of the Earth’s orbit which lies above the
Sun, or north of the equinoctial, contains about 184 degrees;
while that portion of it which lies below the Sun, or south
of the equinoctial, contains only 176 degrees. This fact
shows why the Sun continues about 8 days longer on the
north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the
south side in winter. The exact calculation, for the year
1830, is as follows:
d. h. m.
From the vermal equinox to the summer solstice, =92 21 19 d. h. m.
Froin the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox, =93 14 l ; 1
From the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, -89 17 17 § d. h. m.
From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox, =89 1 13 :
Difference in favour of the north side, †: ; 7, 16, 49.
The points of the Earth's orbit which correspond to its greatest and least
distances from the Sun, are called, the former the Apogee, and the latter the
Perigee ; two Greek words, the former of which signifies from the Earth,
and the latter about the Earth. These points are also designated by thé
common name of Apsides. [See these points represented, Plate I.]
The Earth being in its perihelion about the the 1st of Janu-
ary, and in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millions
of miles nearer the Sun in winter than in midsummer. The
reason why we have not, as might be expected, the hottest
weather when the Earth is nearest the Sun, is, because the
What is the eccentricity of an orbit 2. How many times is a planet in its aphe-
lion, and hºno lºny in its perihelion, in every revolution ? How much farther
is it from the Sun in the yº'ſ. case than in the latter 2 In which focus of the
Earth's orbit is the Sun ? How does the equinoctual divide the Earth's orbit 2
Why does the Sunremain longer on the north side of the equator in summer, than it does
on the south side in winter? What are the Earth's Apogee and Perigee 2. By what
common name are these two points designated 2 When is the Earth in its Perihelion?
When in its Aphelion? Are we nearer the Sun in summer than in winter? How much
nearer are we in winter than in summer ? Why do we not have the hottest weathem
when we are nearest the Sun?

208 THE MOON,
Sun, at that time, having retreated to the southern tropic,
shines so obliquely on the northern hemisphere, that its rays
have scarcely half the effect of the summer Sun; and con-
tinuing but a short time above the horizon, less heat is ac-
cumulated by day than is dissipated by night.
As the Earth performs its annual revolution around the
Sun, the position of its axis remains invariably the same;
always pointing to the North Pole of the heavens, and al-
ways maintaining the same inclination to its orbit. This
seems to be providentially ordered for the benefit of man-
kind. If the axis of the Earth always pointed to the centre
of its orbit, all external objects would appear to whirl about
our heads in an inexplicable maze. Nothing would appear
permanent. The mariner could no longer direct his course
by the stars, and every index in nature would mislead us.
THE MOON.
THERE is no object within the scope of astronomical ob-
servation which affords greater variety of interesting inves-
tigation than the various phases and motions of the Moon.
From them the astronomer ascertains the form of the Earth,
the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes of eclipses and oc-
cultations, the distance of the Sun, and, consequently, the
magnitude of the solar system. These phenomena, which
are perfectly obvious to the unassisted eye, served as a stand-
ard of measurement to all nations, until the advancement
of science taught them the advantages of solar time. It is
to these phenomena that the navigator is indebted for that
precision of knowledge which guides him with well grounded
confidence through the pathless ocean.
The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general
all the ancients, used to assemble at the time of new or full
Moon, to discharge the duties of piety and gratitude for her
unwearied attendance on the Earth, and all her manifold
UISCS.
When the Moon, after having been in conjunction with
the Sun, emerges from his rays, she first appears in the
evening, a little after sun-set, like a fine luminous crescent,
with its convex side towards the Sun. If we observe her

As the Earth revolves about the Sun, what is the position of its axis Should its axis
always point to the centre of its orbit, how would external objects appear to us? What
important purposes does the Moon serve to the astronomer? . Of what importance are her
phenomena to the navigator? ...What nations used to assemble at the time of the new or
of the fuji Moon, to express their gratitude for her benefits? Describe the apparent motion
of the Moon, and her phases.
THE MOON. 209
the next evening, we find her about 13° farther east of the
Sun than on the preceding evening, and her crescent of light
sensibly augmented. Repeating these observations, we per-
ceive that she departs farther and farther from the Sun, as
her enlightened surface comes more and more into view, un-
til she arrives at her first quarter, and comes to the meridian
at sun-set. She has then finished half her course from the
new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere is turn-
ed towards the Earth.
After her first quarter, she appears more and more gib-
bous, as she recedes farther and farther from the Sun, until
she has completed just half her revolution around the Earth,
and is seen rising in the east when the Sun is setting in the
west. She then presents her enlightened orb full to our
view, and is said to be in opposition ; because she is then
ul, the opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun.
In the first half of her orbit she appears to pass over out
heads through the upper hemisphere; she now descends be:
low the eastern horizon to pass through that part of her or-
bit which lies in the lower hemisphere.
After her full she wanes through the same changes of ap-
earance as before, but in an inverted order; and we see hel
in the morning like a fine thread of light, a little west of the
rising-sun. For the next two or three days she is lost to
our view, rising and setting in conjunction with the Sun ;
after which, she passes over, by reason of her daily motion,
to the east side of the Sun, and we behold her again a new
Moon, as before. In changing sides with the Sun, she
changes also the direction of her crescent. Before her con-
junction, it was turned to the east; it is now turned towards
the west. These different appearances of the Moon are
called her phases. They prove that she shines not by any
light of her own ; if she did, being globular, we should al-
ways see her a round full orb like the Sun.
The Moon is a satellite to the Earth, about which she re-
volves in an elliptical orbit, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min-
utes, and 3 seconds: the time which elapses between one
new moon and another. This is called her synodic revo-
lution. Her revolution from any fixed star to the same star
again, is called her periodic or siderial revolution. It is
accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 114 sec-
onds; but in this time, the Earth has advanced nearly as
many degrees in her orbit; consequently the Moon, at the
How is it known that the Moon does not shine by her own light? . About what does the
Moon revolve, and what is the figure of her orbit?, What is the time of her revolution
from one new Moon to another 3 What is this revolution denominated? What is her per
c or sidereal * * In what time is this accomplished?
210 THE MOON.
end of one complete revolution, must go as many degrees
farther, before she will come again into the same position
with respect to the Sun and the Earth.
The Moon is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies, being
about 30 times the diameter of the Earth, or 240,000 miles,
distant from us. Her mean daily motion, in her orbit, is
nearly 14 times as great as the Earth's ; since she not only
accompanies the Earth around the Sun every year, but, in
the ºnline performs nearly 13 revolutions about the
Earth.
although the apparent motion of the Moon, in her orbit, is greater than
...at of any other heavenly body, since she passes over, at a mean rate, me
less than 13° 10' 35" in a day; yet this is to be understood as angular motion
—motion in a small orbit, and therefore embracing a greatnumber of degrees,
and but comparatively few miles.
As the Moon, while revolving about the Earth, is carried
with it at the same time around the Sun, her path is ex-
tremely irregular, and very different from what it seems to
be. Like a point in the wheel of a carriage, movin
over a convex road, the Moon will describe a succession o
epicycloidal curves, which are always concave towards the
#. not very unlike their presentation in the following
gure.
THE Moon's Motion.
Fig. 12.
|B
To what is the difference of time in these two revolutions owing? How great is the
distance of the Moon from the Earth, compared with that of the 9ther heavenly bodies?
What is her distance from us? What is her motion in her orbit, compared with the
Earth's A. How many times does she revolve around the Earth, every year? The #.
rent motion ºf the Moon is greater in her orbit than that of any other heavenly bo #
is it to be understood that she passes through a correspondent space? Describe f
Moon's path.
Cº-
;

THE MOON, 211
Let A d & B represent a portion of the Earth’s orbit; and a b c d e the
lunar orbit. When the Earth is at b, the new Moon is at a ; and while the
Earth is moving from 5 to its position as represented in the figure, the Moon
has moved through half her orbit, from a to c, where she is full; so while
the Earth is moving from its present position to d, the Moon describes the
other half of her orbit from c to e ; where she is again in conjunction.
The Moon, though apparently as large as the Sun, is the
smallest of all the heavenly bodies that are visible to the
naked eye. Her diameter is but 2162 miles; consequently
her surface is 13 times less than that of the Earth, and her
bulk 49 times less. It would require 70 millions of such
bodies to equal, the volume of the Sun. The reason why
she appears as large as the Sun, when, in truth, she is so
gº less, is because she is 400 times nearer to us than the
Ul Ił.
The Moon revolves once on her axis exactly in the time
that she performs her revolution around the Earth. This
is evident from her always presenting the same side to the
Earth; for if she had no rotation upon an axis, every part
of her surface would be presented to a spectator on the
Earth, in the course of her synodical revolution. It follows,
then, that there is but one day and night in her year, con-
taining, both together, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3
seconds.
As the Moon turns on her axis only as she moves around
the Earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of one half of the
lunar world are totally deprived of the sight of the Earth,
unless they travel to the opposite hemisphere. This we
may presume they will do, were it only to view so sublime
a spectacle ; for it is certain that from the Moon the Earth
appears ten times larger than any other body in the universe.
As the Moon enlightens the Earth, by reflecting the light
of the Sun, so likewise the Earth illuminates the Moon, ex-
hibiting to her the same phases that she does to us, only in
a contrary order. And, as the surface of the Earth is 13
times as large as the surface of the Moon, the Earth, when
full to the Moon, will appear 13 times as large as the full
moon does to us. That side of the Moon, therefore, which
is towards the Earth, may be said to have no darkness at all,
the Earth constantly shining upon it with extraordinary
splendour when the Sun is absent; it therefore enjoys suc-
cessively two weeks of illumination from the Sun, and two



What is her magnitude, compared with that of the other heavenly bodies? -What is her
iameter? How great are her surface and her bulk, compared with those of the Earth?
How many such bodies would it require to equal the volume of the Sun ? Why does she
as large as the Sun, when in reality she is so much less? What is the time of her
revolution on her axis, º with that of her revolution around the Earth 3 How is
this proved?... How many days and nights then has she in the course of her º: Cºll re-
volution? What is the length of both united? Describe the phenomena of the Earth as
ween by the inhabitants of the Moon.
.
º
#12 THE Moon.
weeks of earth-light from the Earth. The other side of the
Moon has alternately a fortnight's light, and a fortnight's
darkness. -
As the Earth revolves on its axis, the several continents,
seas, and islands, appear to the lunar inhabitants like so
many spots, of different forms and brightness, alternately
moving over its surface, being more or less brilliant, as they
are seen through intervening clouds. By these spots, the
lunarians can not only determine the period of the Earth's
rotation, just as we do that of the Sun, but they may also
find the longitude of their places, as we find the latitude of
OUlſ.S.
As the full Moon always happens when the Moon is di-
rectly opposite the Sun, all the full Moons in our winter,
must happen when the Moon is on the north side of the equi-
noctial, because then the Sun is on the south side of it; con-
sequently, at the north pole of the Earth, there will be a
fortnight's moon-light and a fortnight's darkness by turns,
for a period of six months, and the same will be the fact du-
. the Sun's absence the other six months, at the south
UOle.
The Moon's axis being inclined only about 14° to her
orbit, she can have no sensible diversity of seasons; from
which we may infer, that her atmosphere is mild and uni-
form. The quantity of light which we derive from the Moon
when full, is at least 300 thousand times less than that of
the Sun.”
When viewed through a good telescope, the Moon pre-
sents a most wonderful and interesting aspect. Besides the
large dark spots, which are visible to the naked eye, we
perceive extensive valleys, shelving rocks, and long ridges
of elevated mountains, projecting their shadows on the
plains below. Single mountains occasionally rise to a great
height, while circular hollows, more than three miles deep,
seem excavated in the plains.
Her mountain scenery bears a striking resemblance to the
towering sublimity and terrific ruggedness of the Alpine re-
.* This is Moms, Bouquer’s inference, from his experiments, as stated by La Place, in
his work, p. 42. The result of Dr. Wollaston's computations was different. Professor
£eslie makes the light of the Moon 150,000 times less than that of the Sun; it was former-
'y reckoned 100,000 times less. *

As the Earth revolves on its axis, how do its continents, seas, and islands, appear to
the lunar inhabitants? For what purposes #. spots serve to the lunarians? What
are the periods of the Moon's presence and absence to the polar inhabitants 3, Explain
is, Why cannot the Moon have any sensible diversity of seasons?...What then ma
weinfer to be the character of her atmosphere? What is the quantity of light whic
e affords when full, compared with that of the Sun ? Describe the º: of the
Moon when seen through a good telescope. What mountains of the does her
mountain scenery resemble 7

THE MOON. 2f}
gions, or of the Appenines, after which some of her moun-
tains have been named, and of the Cordilleras of our own
continent. Huge masses of rock rising precipitously from
the plains, lift their peaked summits to an immense height
in the air, while shapeless crags hang over their projecting
sides, and seem on the eve of being precipitated into the
tremendous chasm below.
Around the base of these frightful eminences, are strewed
numerous loose and unconnected fragments, which time
seems to have detached from their parent mass; and when
we examine the rents and ravines which accompany the
overhanging cliffs, the beholder expects every moment that
they are to be torn from their base, and that the process of
destructive separation which he had only contemplated in
its effects, is about to be exhibited before him in all its
reality. -
The range of mountains called the Appenines, which tra-
verses a portion of the Moon's disc from north-east to south-
west, and of which some parts are visible to the naked eye,
rise with a precipitous and craggy front from the level of
the Mare Imbrium, or Sea of showers.” In this extensive
range are several ridges whose summits have a perpendicu-
lar elevation of four miles, and more ; and though they
often descend to a much lower level, they present an inac-
cessible barrier on the north-east, while on the south-west
they sink in gentle declivity to the plains. -
There is one remarkable feature in the Moon's surface
which bears no analogy to any thing observable on the
Earth. This is the circular cavities which appear in every
part of her disc. Some of these immense caverns are nearly
four miles deep, and forty miles in diameter. They are
most numerous in the south-western part. As they reflect
the Sun's rays more copiously, they render this part of her
surface more brilliant than any other. They present to
us nearly the same appearance as our Earth might be sup-
posed to present to the Moon, if all our great lakes and seas
were dried up. -
The number of remarkable spots on the Moon, where
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined,
exceeds 200. The number of seas and lakes, as they were
formerly considered, whose length and breadth are known,
" * The name of a lunar spot.

Describe the appearance of her mountains. On what part of her disc is that range of
mountains galled the Appenines, situated 3. Describe it. "What remarkable feature in the
Moon's surface, bears,no analogy to any thing observable on the Earth's sufacg? Des;
their appearance. What is the number of remarkable spots in the Moon's surfage, whose
latitude and longitude have been agcurately determined What is the number of seas and
lakes, as they were formerly considered, whose dimensions are known?
214 THE MOON,
is between 20 and 30; while the number of peaks and
mountains, whose perpendicular elevation varies from a
fourth of a mile to five miles in height, and whose bases
are from one to seventy miles in length, is not less than one
hundred and fifty.”
Graphical views of these natural appearances, accompanied with ninute
and familiar descriptions, constitute what is called Selenography, ſroin two
Greek words, which mean the same thing in regard to the Moon, as Geog-
raphy does in regard to the Earth.
An idea of some of these scenes may be formed by con-
ceiving a plain of about 100 miles in circumference, encircled
by a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in
perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the
centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level
of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the
whole plain, with all its scenery, would be distinctly visible,
and the view would be bounded only by a lofty amphitheatre
of mountains, rearing their gummits to the sky.
The bright spots of the Moon are the mountainous
regions; while the dark spots are the plains, or more
level parts of her surface. There may be rivers or small
lakes on this planet; but it is generally thought, by astrono-
mers of the present day, that there are no seas or large col-
lections of water, as was formerly supposed. Some of
these mu’intains and deep valleys are visible to the naked
eye; and many more are visible through a telescope of but
moderate powers.
A telescope which magnifies only 100 times, will show a
spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards;
and one which magnifies a thousand times, will enable us
to perceive any enlightened object on her surface whose di-
mensions are only 122 yards, which does not much exceed
the dimensions of some of our public edifices, as for instance,
the Capitol at Washington, or St. Paul’s Cathedral. Pro-
fessor Frauenhofer, of Munich, recently announced that he
had discovered a lunar edifice, resembling a fortification,
together with several lines of road. The celebrated as-
tronomer Schroeter, conjectures the existence of a great
* Brewster's Selenography. . The best maps of the Moon hitherto published, are those
by Schroeter; but the most curious and complete representation of the telescopic and na-
appearances,of the Moon, is to be seen on Russel's Lunar Globe. See also Seleno-
graphia, by C. Blunt.

What is the number of peaks and mountains whose perpendicular elevation varies from
a fourth of a mile to five miles, and whose bases are from one to seventy miles in length;
What is iºnº, ?. Give an illustration to enable us to form some idea of some of
these scenes. Which spots are the mountainous regions, and which the plains? }. 8S*
tronomers now suppose, as they did formerly, that there are large collections of yater on
the Moon's surface? Are any of her, mountains and valleys visible to the naked eye?
How small a spot ºn the MQon's surface can be seen by a telescope which magnifies 100
times? How small an enlightened object can be seen by one j magnifies 1000 times?
Mention any public edifices which are of nearly the same dimensions.

Eclipses: 215
eity on the east side of the Moon, a little north of her equator,
Rn extensive canal in another place, and fields of vegeta-
<non in another.
SOLAR AND LUNAR. ECLIPSES.
Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none
which engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses
of the Sun and Moon; and to those who are unacquainted
with astronomy, nothing appears more wonderful than the
accuracy with which they can be predicted. In the early
iges of antiquity they were regarded as alarming devia-
tions from the established laws of nature, presaging great
public calamities, and other tokens of the divine displeasure.
In China, the prediction and observance of eclipses are Inade a matter of
state policy, in order to operate upon the fears of the ignorant, and impose on
them a superstitious regard for the occult wisdom of their rulers. In Mexico,
the natives fast and afflict themselves, during eclipses, under an apprehen-
sion that the great spirit is in deep sufferance. Some of the northern tribes
of Indians have imagined that the Moon had been wounded in a quarrel; and
others, that she was about to be swallowed by a huge fish.
It was by availing himself of these superstitious notions, that Columbus,
when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, extricated himself and crew
from a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for want
of provisions, and the natives refusing him any assistance, when all hope seem-
ed to be cut off, he bethought himself, of their superstition in regard to
eclipses. Having assembled the principal men of the island, he remonstrated
against their inhumanity, as being offensive to the Great Spirit; and told them
that a great plague was even ready to fall upon them, and as a token of it, they
would that night see the Moon hide her face in anger, and put on a dreadfully
dark and theatening aspect. This artifice had the desired effect; for the
eclipse had no sooner begun, than the frightened barbarians came running
with all kinds of provisions, and throwing themselves at the feet of Columbus
implored his forgiveness.-Almagest, Vol. I. 55 c. v. 2.
An eclipse of the Sun takes place, when the dark body
of the Moon, passing directly between the Earth and the
Sun, intercepts his light. This can happen only at the in-
stant of new Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction ; for
it is only then that she passes between us and the Sun.
An eclipse of the Moon takes place when the dark body of
the Earth, coming between her and the Sun, intercepts his
light, and throws a shadow on the Moon. This can happen
only at the time of full Moon, or when the Moon is in oppo-
sition; for it is only then that the Earth is between her
and the Sun.
As every planet belonging to the solar system, both pri-
How were eclipses regarded in the early ages of antiquity? To what *f; do the
rulers of Ching make their prediction and observance subservient? . How do the
natives of Merico demean themselves during an eclipse 2 Why do they do this?
motions have some of the northern tribes of Indians entertained with regard
to eclipses of the Moon & Relate the anecdote gf Columbus extricating §and
his crew from distress, by availing himself of the superstitious notions & the nº
gives of Jamaica in regard to eclipses. What causes eclipses of the Sun? Wil teausºs
eclipses of the Moon? psed
|\

215 ECLIPSES.
mary and secondary, derives its light from the Sun, it must
cast a shadow towards that part of the heavens which is o
posite to the Sun. This shadow is of course nothing but
a privation of light in the space hid from the Sun by the
opaque body, and will always be proportioned to the mag-
nitude of the Sun and planet. -
If the Sun and planet were both of the same magnitude
the form of the shadow cast by the planet, would be that of
a cylinder, and of the same diameter as the Sun or planet.
If the planet were larger than the Sun, the shadow would
continually diverge, and grow larger and larger; but as the
Sun is much larger than any of the planets, the shadows
which they cast must converge to a point in the form of a
cone; the length of which will be proportional to the size
and distance of the planet from the Sun.
The magnitude of the Sun is such, that the shadow cast by each of the
primary planets always converges to a point before it reaches any other
planet; so that not one of the primary planets can eclipse another. The
shadow of any planet which is accompanied by satellites, may, on certain
occasions, eclipse its satellites; but it is not long enough to eclipse any
other body. The shadow of a satellite, or Moon, may also, on certain occa-
sions, fall on the primary, and eclipse it.
When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth,
and the Moon at her least distance, her shadow is suffi-
ciently long to reach the Earth, and extend 19,000 miles
beyond. When the Sun is at his least distance from the
Earth, and the Moon at her greatest, her shadow will not
reach the Earth's surface by 20,000 miles. So that when
the Sun and Moon are at their mean distances, the come of
the Moon's shadow will terminate a little before it reaches
the Earth’s surface.
In the former case, if a conjunction take place when the
centre of the Moon comes in a direct line between the
centres of the Sun and Earth, the dark shadow of the Moon
will fall centrally upon the Earth, and cover a circular area
of 175 miles in diameter. To all places lying within this dark
spot, the Sun will be totally eclipsed, as illustrated by Fig. 13.
In consequence of the Earth's motion during the eclipse, this circular area
becomes a continued belt over the earth’s surface; being, at the broadest,

In what direction does every planet of the solar system cast a shadow?, What is this
shadow, and to what is it proportional? If the Sun and planet were both of the same
magnitude, what would be the form of the shadow, and its diameter 1 If the planet were
larger than the Sun, what would be the form of the shadow But as the Sun is much
larger than any of the planets, what must be the form of their shadows, and to what are
they proportional 3, Why can no one of the primary planets eclipse another? Ez.
plain hºto, on certain occasions, they may eclipse their satellites, and or others be
eclipsed by them. ...When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, and the
Moon at her least distance, how far will her shadow extend ? When the Sun is at his
least distance, and the Moon at her greatest?. When the Sun and Moon are bºth at their
mean distances 3. In the first case, in what circumstances will the Moon's shadow fall
sentrally on the Earth, and what will be its figure and diameter 3. How will the Sun ap
pear to all places lying within this dark spot? Describe the effect of the Earth's motion.
during the eclipse, upon this circular area. -


ECLIPSES. - 217
175 miles wide. This belt is, however, rarely so broad, and often dwindles
to a mere nominal line, without total darkness. 43 .
In March, this line extends itself from S. W. to N. E., and in September,
from N. W. to S. E. In June, the central line is a curve, going first to the
N. E., and then to the S. E.; in December, on the contrary, first to the S.
E., and then to the N. E....To all places within 2000 miles, at least, of the
central line, the eclipse will be visible; and the nearer the place of obser.
vation is to the line, the larger will be the eclipse. . In winter, if the central
trace be but a little northward of the equator, and in summer, if it be 25°
N. latitude, the eclipse will be visible all over the northern hemisphere.
As a general rule, though liable to many modifications, we may observe,
that places from 200 to 250 miles from the central line, will be 11 digits
eclipsed; from thence to 500 miles, 10 digits; and so on, diminishing one digit
an about 250 miles.
ECLIPSES OF THE SUN,
Fig. 13.
If, in either of the other cases, a con-
junction take place when the Moon's
centre is directly between the centres
of the Sun and Earth, as before, the
Moon will then be too distant to cover
the entire face of the Sun, and there
will be seen, all around her dark body,
a slender ring of dazzling light.
This may be illustrated by the adjoining fig-
ure. Suppose C D to represent a part of the
Earth's orbit, and the Moon's shadow to termi-
nate at the vertex V. The small space between
ef will represent the breadth of the luminous
ring which will be visible all around the dark
body of the Moon.
Süch was the eclipse of February 12, 1831,
which passed over the southern states from
S. W. to N. E. It was the only annular eclipse
ever visible in the United States. Along the
path of this eclipse, the luminous ring remained
perfect and unbroken for the space of two min-
utes. The next annular eclipse which will be
visible to any considerable portion of the Uni-
ted States, will take place Sept. 18th, 1838.
From the most elaborate calculations, compar-
ed with a long series of observations, the length
of the Moon's shadow in eclipses, and her dis-
tance from the Sun at the same time, vary with-, ..."
in the limits of the following table : -
In either of the other cases, the same circumstances occurring as before, what will be
º; of the Sun? Why does not the Moon, in this case, cause a totaleglipsº,
did the only eclipse of this kind, evervisible in the United States, happen?
19ng did the Zuminous ring, along its path, remain unbroken 2 When will the *
drinular eclipse, *: to any considerable portion of the United States, hºp

$18 *4.
ECLIPSEs.
-

Length of shadow, Length of shadow in Length Distance in Distance
Dist. of Moon. Semidiameters. in miles. Semidiameters. º miles.
Least 57.760X3956= 223,499 || 55.902X3956= º;
Mean 58.728X3956= 232,328 60.238X3956= 238,
Greatest 59.730×3956= 236,292 || 63.862×3956= | 252,638
Thus it appears that the length of the cone of the Moon's shadow, in
eclipses, varies from 228,499 to 236,292 miles; being 7,793 miles longer in the
one case, than in the other, . The inequality of her distances from the Earth
is much greater; they vary from 221,448 to 252,638 miles, making a difference
of 31,490 miles.
Although a central eclipse of the Sun can never be total
to any spot on the Earth more than 175 miles broad; yet
the space over which the Sun will be more or less partially
eclipsed, is nearly 5000 miles broad.
The section of the Moon's shadow, or her penumbra, at the Earth's sur-
face, in eclipses, is far from being always circular. If the conjunction hap-
pen when the centre of the Moon is a little above or a little below the line
joining the centres of the Earth and Sun, as is most frequently the case,
the shadow will be projected obliguely over the Earth's surface, and thus
cover a much larger space.
To produce a partial eclipse, it is not necessary that the shadow should reach
the Earth ; it is sufficient that the apparent distance between the Sun and
Moon be not greater than the sum of their semidiameters.
If the Moon performed her revolution in the same path in
which the Sun appears to move; in other words, if her orbit
lay exactly in the plane of the Earth’s orbit, the Sun would
be eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon
at the time of every full. But one half of the Moon's orbit
lies about 5° on the north side of the ecliptic, and the other
half as far on the south side of it; and, consequently, the
Moon’s orbit only crosses the Earth's orbit in two opposite
points, called the Moon's modes.
When the Moon is in one of these points, or nearly so, at
the time of new Moon, the Sun will be eclipsed. When
she is in one of them, or nearly so, at the time of full Moon,
the Moon will be eclipsed. But at all other new Moons,
the Moon either passes above or below the Sun, as seen
from the Earth; and, at all other full Moons, she either
asses above or below the Earth's shadow; and consequent-
y there can be no eclipse.

What are the limits between which the Moon's shadow varies in eclipses? What
$s the difference between these two limits? What are the limits of her distances from?
the Earth? What is the difference between them? What is the greatest, breadth, of
§. on the Earth's surface, to which a central eclipse of the Sun can be total? What
is the breadth of the greatest space over which the Sun can be more or less partially º:
Is the penumbra of the Moºn at the Earth's surface in eclipses ºg circular? I??
tohat circumstances wiłł the shadow be projected obliquely over the Earth's sufface?
#. the shadow reach the Earth, to produce a partial eclipse 2. What is the great;
tapparent distance between the Swn and Moon, within which such a result wik
take place? Why is not the Sun eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon
at every full? . In what circumstances will an eclipse of the Sun, and in what an eclipsº,
of the Moon, happen?

º,
r"
ECLIPSkºk, 219
If the Moon be eacactly in one of her nodes at the time of
her change, the Sun will be centrally eclipsed. If she be
13° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun will
appear at the equator to be about 11, digits eclipsed. If
she be 3° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun
will be 10 digits eclipsed, and so on; a digit being the twelfth
part of the Sun's diameter. But when the Moon is about 18°
from her node, she will just touch the outer edge of the Sun,
at the time of her change, without producing any eclipse.
These are called the ecliptic limits. Between these limits,
an eclipse is doubtful, and requires a more exact calcula-
tion.
The mean ecliptic, limit for the Sun is 16#9 on each side of the mode; the
mean ecliptic limit for the Moon is 10#9 on each side of the node. In the
former case, then, there are 33° about each mode, making, in all, 66° out of
360°, in which eclipses of the Sun may happen: in the latter case, there
are 219 about each node, making, in all, 42° out of 360° in which eclipses of
the Moon usually occur. The proportion of the solar, to the lunar eclipses,
therefore, is as 66 to 42, or as 11 to 7. Yet, there are more visible eclipses
of the Moon, at any given place, than of the Sun; because a lunar eclipse
is visible to a whole hemisphere, a solar eclipse only to a small portion of it.
The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance
of a solar eclipse, is 12 minutes and 24 seconds; and the
greatest possible time during which the Sun can be totally
eclipsed, to any part of the world, is 7 minutes and 58
seconds. The Moon may continue totally eclipsed for one
hour and three quarters.
Eclipses of the Sun always begin on his western edge,
and end on his eastern ; but all eclipses of the Moon com-
mence on her eastern edge, and end on her western.
If the Moon, at the time of her opposition, be exactly in her
node, she will pass through the centre of the Earth's shadow,
and be totally eclipsed. If, at the time of her opposition,
she be within 6° of her node, she will still pass through the
Earth’s shadow, though not centrally, and be totally eclipsed:
but if she be 12° from her node, she will only just touch the
Earth’s shadow, and pass it without being eclipsed.
The duration of lunar eclipses, therefore, depends upon the difference .
between the diameter of the Moon and that section of the Earth’s shadow

In what circumstances is the Sun centrally eclipsed?, What, is the ratio. between the
Moon's distance from her node, and the number of digits that the Sun is eclipsed? What
are these limits called? Will there always be eclipses when the Moon is within these
timits? What is the ecliptic limit for the Sun ? What is it for the Moon?
number of degrees, then, are there about each mode, and how many out of 360°, in
which solar eclipses can happen? How many in which lunar eclipses usually hap-
pen 2 What then is the proportion of the solar to the lunar eclipses? Why then gre
there more eclipses of the Moon pisible at any given place than of the Sun ?...What
is the greatest possible duration of the annular *. of a solar eclipse? What is
the greatest possible duration of a total solar eclipse to any part of the world? What is
the greatest duration of a total lunar eclipse 3 On which side of the Sun do solar eclipses
always begin, and on which do they end? On which side of the Moon do lunar eclipses
always begin, and on which do they end? In what circumstanges is the Moon totally
eclipsed? Beyond what distance from her node, if she be, will she only touch the Earth's
shadow, andmotbe eclipsed? On what then does the duration of lunar eclipses dependſ

g
220 ECLIPSES
.*
through which she passes. , When an eclipse of the Moon is both total and
gentral, its duration is the longest possible, amounting nearly to 4 hours
§: º duration of all eclipses not central varies with her distance from
© IſlòCle,
ECLIPBEs of THE Moon.
Fig. 15.
The diameter of the Earth’s shadow, at the distance of
the Moon, is nearly three times as large as the diameter of the
Moon; and the length of the Earth’s shadow is nearly four
times as great as the distance of the Moon; exceeding it in
the same ratio that the diameter of the Earth does the diame-
ter of the Moon, which is as 3.663 to 1.
The length of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter at Diameter | Length ºf
the distance of the Moon, are subject to the variations of the the shad-
exhibited in the following table. shadow, low in me.
Moon at the apogee 5,232 R
Sun at the perigee Moon at her mean distance 5,762 842,217
Moon at the perigee 6,292 §
Moon at the apogee 5,270
sun at his mean distance & Moon at her mean distance 5,799 856,597
Moon at the perigee 6,329
Moon at the apogee 5,306
Moon at her mean distancel 5,836 871,262
Moon at the perigee 6,365 *
Sun at the apogee
The first column of figures expresses the diameter of the Earth's shadow
at the Moon: and as the diameter of the Moon is only 2162 miles, it is evident
that it can always be comprehended by the shadow, which is more than twice
as broad as the disc of the Moon.
The time which elapses between two successive changes
of the Moon is called a Lunation, which, at a mean rate, is
about 294 days. If 12 lunar months were exactly equal
to the 12 solar months, the Moon’s nodes would always
occupy the same points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses
would happen in the same months of the year, as is the
case with the transits of Mercury and Venus: but, in 12
lunations, or lunar months, there are only 354 days; and
in this time the Moon has passed through both her nodes,
In what circumstances is the duration of the lunar eclipse the longest possible?
What is the length of the greatest duration of a lunar eclipse 2. With what does the
Ǻration of eclipses, not central, vary 2, What is the diameter of the Earth's shadow at
the distance of the Moon 2 What is the length of the Earth's shadow 7 What is their
ratio to each other 7. Between what limits does the length #: Earth’s shadow, and
its diameter at the distance of the Moon, vary? What is the breedth of the Earth's
o compared with that of the disc of the Moon 2 What is a lunation? How j
days º a lunation embrace? Why do not all eclipses happen in ºne same months
year

ECLIPSES. 22:1
but has not quite accomplished her revolution arcund the
Sun: the consequence is, that the Moon's nodes fall back
In the ecliptic at the rate of about 194° annually ; so that
the eclipses happen sooner every year by about 19 days.
As the Moon passes from one of her nodes to the other
in 173 days, there is just this period between two succes-
sive eclipses of the Sun, or of the Moon. In whatever time
of the year, then, we have eclipses at either node, we may
be sure that in 173 days afterwards, we shall have eclipses
at the other node.
As the Moon's nodes fall back, or retrograde in the ecliptic, at the rate of
1949 every year, they will complete a backward revolution entirely around
the ecliptic to the same point again, in 18 years, 225 days; in which time
there would always be a regular period of eclipses, if any complete number
of lunations were finished without a remainder. But this never happens ;
for if both the Sun and Moon should start from a line of conjunction with
either of the nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the Sun would perform 18
annual revolutions and 2229 of another, while the Moon would perform
230 lunations, and 85° of another, before the node would come around to the
same point of the ecliptic again : so that the Sun would then be 138° from the
node, and the Moon 859 from the Sun.
But after 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days,” 7 hours, 42 minutes, and 31
Seconds, the Sun, Moon, and Earth, will return so nearly in the same position
with respect to each other, that there will be a regular return of the same
eclipses for ſº ages. This grand period was discovered by the Chaldeans,
and by them called Saros. If therefore, to the mean time of any eclipse,
either of the Sun or Moon, we add the Čhaldean period of 18 years and 11
days, we shall have the return of the same eclipse. This mode of predict-
ing eclipses will hold fº for a thousand years. In this period there are
usually 70 eclipses; 41 of the Sun, and 29 of the Moon.
The number of eclipses in any one year, cannot be less
than two, nor more than seven. In the former case, they
will both be of the Sun; and in the latter, there will be five
of the Sun, and two of the Moon—those of the Moon will be
total. There are sometimes six; but the usual number is
four: two of the Sun, and two of the Moon.
The cause of this variety is thus accounted for. Although the Sun usually
passes by both nodes only once in a year, he may pass the same node again
a little before the end of the year. In consequence of the retrograde motion
* If there are four leap years in this interval, add 11 days ; but if there are five, add
only ten days.


How far do the Moon's nodes fall back in the º: annually, and how much sooner
do the eclipses, happen every year? In what time does, the Moon pass from one of her
nodes to the other? What is the length of the time which elapses between two successive
eclipses of the Sun or the Moon?... After there have been eclipses at one node, in what
time may we be sure that there will be eclipses at the other? In what time do the Moom's
modes complete a ba ard revolution around the ecliptic? Why is there not always
a regular period of eclipses in this time?. If the Sun and Moon should both start
from a line of conjunction with either mode, how many revolutions would the Sun
3erform, and how many lignations the Moon, before the mode would come around to
he same point again? After how many lunations will the Sun, Moon, and Earth,
etwºrn so nearly to the same position with respect to each other, that there will be
z regular return gf the same éclipses for many ages? What nation discovered this
grand period, and what did they call it 2 What is the mode of predicting eclipses,
woith which this fact furnishes us?, How many eclipses are there usually in this ps-
riod? What is the least, and what the greatest number of eclipses, in any one year?. In
the former case, what eclipses will they be? What, in the latter? What is the usual
number of eclipses in the year, and what eclipses are they Please explain the cause ºf
this variety.
19%
* -
222 MARS,
of the Moon's holes, he will come to either of them 173 days after passing
the other. He may, therefore, return to the same mode in about 346 days,
having thus passed one node twice and the other once, making each time, at
each, an eclipse of both the Sun and the Moon, or, six in all. And, since 1:
lunations, or 354 days from the first eclipse in the beginning of the year,
leave room for another new Moon before the close of the year, and sincó
this new Moon may fall within the ecliptic limit, it is possible for the Sun
to be eclipsed again...Thus there may be seven eclipses in the same year.
Again; when the Moon changes in either of her nodes, she cannot come
within the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full, (though if she be full in one
of her nodes, she may come into the solar ecliptic limit at her next change.)
and six months afterwards, she will change near the other node ; thus mak-
ing only two eclipses.
The following is a list of all the solar eclipses that will be visible in Europe
and America during the remainder of the present century. To those which
will be visible in New-England, the number of digits is annexed.


|
Year. Month Day & hour. Digits || Year. Month Day and Hour. Digits
1834, Nov. 30 1 22 P. M. 10}o 1869, Aug. || 7 5 21 A. M. 10}
iš Mây Tà 725 A.M.'s; 1870, Dec. 22 6 0 A. M.
1838, Sept. 18 327 P. M. 11 1873, May 26 3 0 A. M.
1841, July 18 10 0 A. M. 1874, Oct. 10 4 0 A. M.
1843, July 8 Q 9 Mer: , , 1875, Sept. 29 556 A. M. 114
1844, Dec. 9 346 P. M. 2ſ) 1876, Mar. 25 4 11 P. M. 3#
1845, May | 6 455 A.M. # 1878, July 29 456 P. M. 7#
1846, Apr. 25 11 15 A. M. 6 1879, July 19 2 0 A. M.
iš4. oët g i ö A. M. 1880, Dec. 31 730 A. M. 5%
1848, Mar. 5 750 A. M. 6 1882, May 17 1 0 A. M.
1851, July 28 7 48 A.M. 3 1885, Mar. 16 0 35 A. M.
1854, May 25 426 P. M. 11 1886, Aug. 29 6 30 A. M.
1858, Mar. [15 614 A. M. 1 1887, Aug. 18 10 0 P.M.
1859, July 29 532 P. M. 2; 1890, June 17 3 0 A. M.
1860, July 18 7 23 A. M. 6} 1891, June 0 0 Mer.
1861, Dec. 31 7 30 A.M.) 4; 1892, Oct. 20 0 19 P. M. 8:
1863, May 17 1 0 P. M. 1895, Mar. 26 4 0 A. M.
1865, Oct. 19 9 10 A.M. 3; 1896, Aug. 9 0 0 Mer.
1866, Oct. 8 11 12 A. M. 0 1897, July 9 8 A. M. 4}
1867, Mar. 6 3 0 A. M. 1899, June 8 0 0 Mer.
1868, Feb. 23 10 0 A. M. 1900, May 28 8 9 A. M. 11
The eclipses of 1838, 1854, 1869, 1875, and 1900, will be very large. In those
of 1845, 1858, 1861, 1873, 1875, and 1880, the Sun will rise eclipsed.
In that of 1844, the Sun will set eclipsed. Those of 1838, 1854, and 1875, will
be annular. The scholar can continue this table, or extend it backwards,
§ adding or subtracting the Chaldean period of 18 years, 11 days, 7 hours,
minutes, and 31 seconds.
MARS.
MARs is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying
immediately without, or beyond, that of the Earth, while
those of Mercury and Venus are within.
Mars appears to the naked eye, of a fine ruddy.com.
plexion; resembling, in colour, and apparent magnitude,
the star Antares, or Aldebaran, near which it frequently
passes. It exhibits its greatest brilliancy about the time
What is the position of Mars in the solar system? Describe its appearance to the na,
ked eye. When does it exhibit its greatest brilliancy?
MARS, 2%3
that it rises when the Sun sets, and sets when the Sun
rises; because it is then nearest the Earth. It is least
brilliant when it rises and sets with the Sun; for then it is
five times farther removed from us than in the former case.
Its distance from the Earth at its nearest approach is about
50 millions of miles. Its greatest distance from us is about
240 millions of miles. In the former case, it appears
nearly 25 times larger than in the latter. When it rises
before the Sun, it is our morning star; when it sets after
the Sun, it is our evening star.
The distance of all the planets from the Earth, whether they be interior
or exterior planets, varies within the limits of the diameters of their orbits;
for when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest the Earth, it
is evidently nearer by the whole diameter of its orbit, than when it is in
the opposite point, on the other side of its orbit. The apparent diameter of
the planet will also vary for the same reason, and to the same degree.
Mars is sometimes seen in opposition to the Sun, and
sometimes in superior conjunction with him ; sometimes
gibbous, but never horned. In conjunction, it is never
seen to pass over the Sun’s disc, like Mercury and Venus.
This proves not only that its orbit is eacterior to the Earth's
orbit, but that it is an opaque body, shining only by the re-
flection of the Sun.
The motion of Mars through the constellations of the
zodiac is but little more than half as great as that of the
Earth; it being generally about 57 days in passing over
one sign, which is at the rate of a little more than half a
degree each day. Thus, if we know what constellation
Mars enters to day, we may conclude that two months hence
it will be in the next constellation; four months hence, in the
next ; six months, in the next, and so on.
Mars performs his revolution around the Sun in 1 year
and 104 months, at the distance of 145 millions of miles;
moving in its orbit at the mean rate of 55 thousand miles
an hour. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in
24 hours, 39 minutes, and 21+ seconds; which makes its
day about 44 minutes longer than ours.

Why is it most brilliant at this time? What are its least and greatest distances from
us? How much larger does it appear in the former case than in the latter q Within
what limits does the distance of all the planets from the Earth vary? With
what does, the apparent diameter of a planet vary 2 What moon-like phases has
Mars 7. What does the fact, that it never assumes the crescent form at its conjunction,
prove, in regard to its situation ?, How do we know it to be opaque? What is ağ
of its motion through the constellations of the zodiac, º with that of the Earth?
How long is it in passing over one sign At what rate per day is this? How, then if we
know in what constellation it is at any one time, may we determine in what constellation
it will be at any subsequent time?, in what time does it perform its revolution argãº
Sun? What is its distance from the Sun? What is the mean rate of its motion in its ar.
bit per hour . In what time does it perform its revolution on its axis 7 What, then, is the
length of its day, compared with that of the Earth?
`----
224 MARS,
Its mean sidereal revolution is performed in 685,9796458 solat days; or
la 686 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes, 41.4 seconds. Its synodical revolution is
É. in 779.936 solar days; or in 779 days, 22 hours, 27 minutes, and
SęCOINCIS.
Its form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame-
ter is to its equatorial, as 15 is to 16, nearly. Its mean
diameter is 4222 miles. Its bulk, therefore, is 7 times less
than that of the Earth; and being 50 millions of miles
farther from the Sun, it receives from him only half as much
light and heat.
The inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, is about
2839. Consequently, its seasons must be very similar to
those of the Earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and
the Earth is greater than the analogy between the Earth
and any other planet of the solar system. Their diurnal
motion, and of course the length of their days and nights, are
nearly the same ; the obliquity of their ecliptics, on which
the seasons depend, are not very different; and, of all the
superior planets, the distance of Mars from the Sun is by far
the nearest to that of the Earth ; nor is the length of its
year greatly different from ours, when compared with the
years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel.
To a spectator on this planet, the Earth will appear al-
ternately, as a morning and evening star; and will exhibit
all the phases of the Moon, just as Mercury and Venus do
to us; and sometimes, like them, will appear to pass over
the Sun's disc like a dark round spot. Our Moon will never
.. more than a quarter of a degree from the Earth,
although her distance from it is 240,000 miles. If Mars
be attended by a satellite, it is too small to be seen by the
most powerful telescopes.
When it is considered that Vesta, the smallest of the asteroids, which is
once and a half times the distance of Mars from us, and only 269 miles in
diameter, is perceivable in the open space, and that without the presence of
a more conspicuous body to point it out, we may reasonably conclude that
Mars is without a moon.
The progress of Mars in the heavens, and indeed of all the superior pla:
nets, will, like Mercury and Venus, sometimes appear direct, sometimes
retrograde, and sometimes he will seem stationary. When a superior
lanet first becomes visible in the morning, west of the Sun, a little after
its conjunction, its motion is direct, and also most rapid. When it is first
seen east of the Sun, in the evening, soon after its opposition, its motion is
retrograde. These retrograde movements and stations, as they appear to a


In what time does, it perform its mean sidereal revolution? . In what time, its sy-
modigal revolution,? What are its form and dimensions? What, then, is its bulk, com-
§: with the Earth's, and how much less light, and heat does it receive from the Sun?
hat is the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit? How are its seasons, compa-
red with those of the Earth In what particulars is there a greater analogy between Mars
and the Earth, than between the Earth and any other planet in the solar system? What
must be the º: of the Earth to a spectator at Mars? What is the greatest dis-
tance from the Earth at which our Moon will appear to him to be? Why may we rea-
#. conclude that Mars has no satellite?" Describe th” progress of Mars through
ºj6728,
IMARS. 225
spectator from the Earth, are common to all the planets, and demonstrate
the truth of the Copernican system.
The telescopic phenomena of Mars afford peculiar in-
terest to astronomers. They behold its disc diversified
with numerous irregular and variable spots, and ornamented
with zones and belts of varying brilliancy, that form, and
disappear, by turns. Zones of intense brightness are to be
seen in its polar regions, subject, however, to gradual
changes. That of the southern pole is much the most bril-
liant. Dr. Herschel supposes that they are produced by
the reflection of the Sun’s light from the frozen regions, and
that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the cause of
the variation in their magnitude and appearance.
He was the more confirmed in these opinions by observ-
ing, that after the exposure of the luminous zone about the
north pole to a summer of eight months, it was considerably
decreased, while that on the south pole, which had been in
total darkness during eight months, had considerably in-
creased.
He observed, farther, that when this spot was most lu-
minous, the disc of Mars did not appear exactly round, and
that the bright part of its southern limb seemed to be swollen
or arched out º the proper curve.
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF MARS.
Fig. 16.
The extraordinary height and density of the atmosphere
of Mars, are supposed to be the cause of the remarkable
redness of its light.
It has been found by experiment, that when a beam of
white light passes through any colourless transparent me-
dium, its colour inclines to red, in proportion to the densit
of the medium, and the space through which it has travelle
Thus the Sun, Moon, and stars, appear of a reddish colour
What system, do these retrograde movements and stations, common to all the plar
meets as seen from the Earth, serve to establish 2 What are the telescopic phenomena
of Mars? How does Dr. Herschel aceount for them? How may the remarkable
of the light of Mars be accounted for?

226 THE ASTEROIDS,
when near the horizon; and every luminous object, seen
through a mist, is of a ruddy hue.
This phenomenon may be thus explained:—The momentum of the red,
or least refrangible rays, being greater than that of the violet, or most refran.
gible rays, the former will make their way through the resisting medium,
while the latter are either reflected or absorbed. The colour of the beam,
inerefore, when it reaches the eye, must partake of the colour of the leasi
refrangible rays, and this colour must increase with the distance. The “im.
fight, therefore, by which Mars is illuminated, having to pass twice through
its atmosphere before it reaches the Earth, must be deprived of a great pro.
portion of its violet rays, and consequently then be red. Dr. Brewster sup:
#. that the difference of colour among the other planets, and even the
; stars, is owing to the different heights and densities of their atmos.
pheres.
THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS.
ASCENDING higher in the solar system, we find, between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, a cluster of four small plan-
ets, which present a variety of anomalies that distinguish
them from all the older planets of the system. Their names
are Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. They were all dis-
covered about the beginning of the present century.
f #. dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoverers, are as
OHIOWS :
Ceres, January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, of Palermo.
Pallas, March 28, 1802, by M. Olbers, of Bremen.
Juno, September 1, 1804, by M. Harding, of Bremen.
Vesta, March 29, iš07, by M. Olbers, of Bremen.
The scientific Bode*entertained the opinion, that the plane-
tary distances, above Mercury, formed a geometrical series,
each exterior orbit being double the distance of its next
interior one, from the Sun; a fact which obtains with re-
markable exactness between Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel.
But this law seemed to be interrupted between Mars and
Jupiter. Hence he inferred, that there was a planet want-
ing in that interval ; which is now happily supplied by the
discovery of the four star-form planets, occupying the very
space where the unexplained vacancy presented a strong
objection to his theory.
* According to him, the distances of the planets may be expressed nearly as follows t
the Earth's distance from the Sun being 10.

Mercury 4 = 4: Asteroids 4–H3X28 – 28
Venus +H: = 7|Jupiter 4-H 3X24 = 52
The Earth 4–H3X2 = 10|Saturn ×25 = 100
Mars 4–H3X22 = . 161 Herschel 4-4–3X25 = 196
Comparing these values with the actual mean distances of the planets from the Sun, we

cannot but remark the near agreement, and can scarcely hesitate to pronounce that
the respective distances of the planets from the Sun, were assigned according to a law,
though we are entirely ignorant of the exact law, and of theºn for that law.-Brinº.
ley's Elements, p. 89.
* * , what new planets have been discovered within the present century? Where are they
situated 3. What are the dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoversrs?
Why did Bode infer that there was a planet wanting between Mars and Jupiter?
THE ASTEROIDS. 227
These bodies are much smaller in size than the older
planets—they all revolve at nearly the same distances
from the Sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the
same periods,-their orbits are much more eccentric, and
have a much greater inclination to the ecliptic,+and what
is altogether singular, except in the case of comets—all cross
each other; so that there is even a possibility that two of
these bodies, may, some time, in the course of their revolu-
tions, come into collision.
The orbit of Vesta is so eccentric, that she is sometimes
farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno,
although her mean distance is many millions of miles less
than theirs. The orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the
other three, in two opposite points.
The student should here refer to the Figures, Plate I. of the Atlas, and veri-
fy such of these particulars as are there represented. It would be well for
the teacher to require him to observe particularly the positions of their orbits,
and to state their different degrees of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic.
From these and other circumstances, many eminent as-
tronomers are of opinion, that these , four planets are the
fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved
between Mars and Jupiter, and which burst asunder by
some tremendous convulsion, or some external violence.
The discovery of Ceres by Piazzi, on the first day of the
present century, drew the attention of all the astronomers
of the age to that region of the sky, and every inch of it
was minutely explored. The consequence was, that, in
the year following, Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, announced
to the world the discovery of Pallas, situated not many
degrees from Ceres, and very much resembling it in size.
From this discovery, Dr. Olbers first conceived the idea
that these bodies might be the fragments of a former world;
and if so, that other portions of it might be found either in the
same neighbourhood, or else, having diverged from the same
point, “they ought to have two common points of reunion, or
two modes in opposite regions of the heavens through which
all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.”
One of these nodes he found to be, in the constellation
Virgo, and the opposite one, in the Whale; and it is a re-
markable coincidence that it was in the neighbourhood of


In what particulars do these new planets differ from the older planets? How is it pos-
; that two of them should ever come intº collision? How is it that Vesta is sometimes
rther from the Sun than either Ceres; Pallas, or Juno, when her mean distance is #
millions of miles less than theirs? ...What, is the position of her orbit with regard to th
orbits? What theory in regard to the origin of these planets have some astronomers de-
rived from these and some other circumstances? Who first conceived this idea How.
sºme he to have this idea Where did he imagine other fragments might be found? Is
what constellations did he find these nodes to be?
228 THE ASTEROIDS,
the latter constellation that Mr. Harding discovered the
lanet Juno. In order therefore to detect the remaining
ragments, if any existed, Dr. Olbers examined, three times
every year, all the small stars in Virgo, and the Whale;
and it was actually in the constellation Virgo, that he dis-
covered the planet Vesta. Some astronomers think it not
unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may
hereafter be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes the fall
of meteoric stones to the smaller fragments of these bodies
happening to come within the sphere of the Earth's at-
traction.
Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites, are stones which
sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere, upon the Earth.
The substance of which they are composed, is, for #. most part, metallic ;
but the ore of which it consists is not to be found in the same constituent
ſº. in any known substance upon the Earth. Their fall is general,
y preceded by a luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explo-
sion; and, when found immediately after their descent, they are always
; and usually covered with a black crust, indicating a state of exterior
UISIOIl,
Their size varies from that of small ſº of inconsiderable weight,
to that of the most ponderous masses. They have been found to weigh
from 300 pounds to several tons; and they have descended to the Earth
with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the surface.
Some have supposed that they are projected from volcanoes in the
Moon; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the Earth; while others
imagine that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ; but
the truth, probab# is not yet ascertained. In some instances, these stones
have penetrated through the roofs of houses, and proved destructive to the
inhabitants.
If we carefully compute the force of gravity in the Moon, we shall find,
that if a body were projected from her surface with a momentum that
would cause it to move at the rate of 8,200 feet in the first second of time,
and in the direction of a line joining the centres of the Earth and Moon, it
would not fall again to the surface of the Moom ; but would become a sa-
tellite to the Earth. Such an impulse might, indeed, cause it, even after
many revolutions, to fall to the Earth. The fall, therefore, of these stones,
from the air, may be accounted for in this manner.
Mr. Harte calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet in a second, would
be sufficient to carry a body projected from the surface of the Moon beyond
the power of her attraction. If so, a projectile force three times greater
than that of a cannon, would carry a body from the Moon beyond the point
of equal attraction, and cause it to reach the Earth. A force equal to this
is often exerted by our volcanoes, and by subterranean steam. Hence,
there is no impossibility in the supposition of their coming from the Moon ;
but yet I think the theory of aerial consolidation the more plausible.

Vesta appears, however, like a star of the 5th or 6th
magnitude, shining with a pure steady radiance, and is the
only one of the asteroids which can be discerned by the
naked eye.

Where were Juno and Vesta actually found? How did Dr. Olbers discover Vestaº. Tº
what does Lt. Brewster attribute the of meteoric stones 7 What is meant by the
expression, meteoric stones? Of what substance are they composed?, Iº.ºphºt. Tº
spect do they differ from any metallic substances known on the Earth?, What indº
cutions genérally precede their fall 2. In what state are they found to be after their
descent? What is their magnitude? What theories have been adopted togccoºt
or their origin. 2. Explain how it is not impossible that they may come from the
oom. Describe the appearance of Westa.
THE ASTEROIDS, 229
JUNo, the next planet in order after Westa, revolves
around the Sun in 4 years, 4}-months, at the mean distance
of 254 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of
41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at
1393 miles. This would make hºmagnitude 183 times less
than the Earth's. The light aſ feat which she receives
from the Sun is seven times less than that received by the
Earth.
The eccentricity of her orbit is so great, that her great-
est distance from the Sun is nearly double her least distance;
so that, when she is in her perihelion, she is nearer the Sun
by 130 millions of miles, than when she is in her aphelion.
This great eccentricity has a corresponding effect upon
her rate of motion; for being so much nearer, and there-
fore so much more powerfully attracted by the Sun at one
time than at another, she moves through that half of her
orbit which is nearest the Sun, in one half of the time that
she occupies in completing the other half.
According to Schroeter, the diameter of Juno is 1425 miles; and she is
surrounded by an atmosphere more dense than that of any of the other
planets. Schroeter also remarks, that the variation in her brilliancy is
chiefly owing to certain changes in the density of her atmosphere; at the
same time he thinks it not improbable that these changes may arise from
a diurnal revolution on her axis.
CEREs, the planet next in order after Juno, revolves about
the Sun in 4 years, 74 months, at the mean distance of 263}
millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41
thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 1582
miles, which makes her magnitude 125 times less than the
Earth’s. The intensity of the light and heat which she re-
ceives from the Sun, is about 7+ times less than that of those
received by the Earth. -
Ceres shines with a ruddy colour, and appears to be only
about the size of a star of the 8th magnitude. Consequent-
ly she is never seen by the naked eye. She is surrounded
by a species of cloudy or nebulous light, which gives her
What is the planet next in order after Westa 2. In what time does she complete her re-
volution around the Sun? What is her mean distance from him? What the rate of her
motion per hour?, What is the length of her diameter? How much less, then, is her
magnitude, than that of the Earth?. How much light and heat does she receive #om the
Sun, compared with those received by the Earth? How much greater is her greatest dis-
tance from the Sun, than her least distance? How much, less time, does she occupy in
moving through that half of her orbit which is nearest to the Sun, than she does in mo-
ving through that half which is farthest from him? What is her diameter according to
Schroeter? According to the same astronomer, what is the density of her atmos-
phere, compared ºpith that Qf the other planets 2'. To what does he attribute the va-
riation in her, brilliancy 2. What is the next planet in order after Juno In what time
does she complete her revolution about the Sun? What is her mean distance from him
What is the rāte of her motion per hour?, What is her diameter? How great is her mag.
nitude, compared with that of the Earth? What is the intensity of the light, and heal
which she receives from the Sun, compared with that of those received by the Earth


20
Bascribe her appearance.
230 JUPITER,
#
somewhat the appearance of a comet, forming, according to
Schroeter, an atmosphere 675 miles in height.
Ceres, as has been said, was the first discovered of the asteroids. At
her º astronomers congratulated themselves upon the harmony of
€

the system being restored, , ºey had long wanted a º to fill up the
great void between Mars and iter, in order to make the system complete
in their own eyes; but the, S Éssive discoveries of Pallas and Julio again
introduced confusion, and presented a difficulty which they were unable to
solve, till Dr. Olbers suggested the idea that these small anomalous bodies
were merely the fragments of a larger planet, which had been exploded by
some mighty convulsion. Among the most able and decided advocates of
this hypothesis, is Dr. Brewster, of Edinburgh.
PALLAs, the next planet in order after Ceres, performs her
revolution around the Sun in 4 years, 73 months, at the
mean distance of 264 millions of miles, moving in her orbit
at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter
is estimated at 2025 miles, which is but little less than that
of our Moon. It is a singular and very remarkable pheno-
menon in the solar system, that two planets, (Ceres and
Pallas,) nearly of the same size, should be situated at equal
distances from the Sun, revolve about him in the same
period, and in orbits that intersect each other. The dif-
ference in the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas is
less than a million of miles. The difference in their side-
real revolutions, according to some astronomers, is but a
single day ! f
The calculation of the latitude and longitude of the asteroids, is a labout
of extreme difficulty, requiring more than 400 equations to reduce their
anomalous perturbations to the true place. This arises from the want of
auxiliary tables, and from the fact that the elements of the star-form planets,
are very imperfectly determined. Whether any of the asteroids has a ro-
tation on its axis, remains to be ascertained.
JUPITER.
JUPITER is the largest of all the planets belonging to the
solar system. It may be readily distinguished from the
fixed stars, by its peculiar splendour and magnitude; ap
pearing to the naked eye almost as resplendent as Venus,
although it is more than seven times her distance from the
Sun.
How high, according to Schroeter, is the atmosphere formed by this nebulous light?
Why did astronomers congratulate themselves at the discovery of this planet?...What
again introduced confusion and ºft, into their system? How were they at
length enabled to solve the difficulty? What planet is #. next in order after Ceres?
In what time does she complete her revolution around the Sun? What is her mean dis-
tance from him What is the rate of her motion in her orbit per hour?...What is her di-
ameter How, greatis it compared with the diameter of the Moon? What is the differ-
ce between the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas from the Sun? What is the
erence between the times of their sidereal revolutions? Why is the calculation of the
§: and longitude of the asteroids glabozºr of extreme #: Have any of
asteroids rotations on their awes? Which is the largest planet of the solar systemſ:
How may Jupiter be readily distinguished from the fixed stars? How much farther is ho
§om the Sun than Venus?
*


JUPITER, 231
When his right ascension is less than that of the Sun, he
is our morning “star, and appears in the eastern hemi-
sphere before the Sun rises; when greater, he is our
evening star, and lingers in the western hemisphere after
the Sun sets. -
Nothing can be easier, than to trace Jupiter among the
constellations of the zodiac ; for in whatever constellation
he is seen to-day, one year hence he will be seen equally
advanced in the neart constellation; two years hence, in the
next; three years hence, in the next, and so on; bein
just a year, at a mean rate, in passing over one constel-
ation.
The exact mean motion of Jupiter in its orbit, is about one twelfth of a
degree in a day; which amounts to only 30°20'32” in a year.
For , 12 years to come, he will, at a mean rate, pass
through the constellations of the zodiac, as follows:
-sº
1834 || Aries. 1838 Leo. 1842 | Sagittarius.
1835 | Taurus. | 1839 || Virgo. 1843 || Capricornus.
1836 Gemini. 1840 | Libra. 1844 || Aquarius.
1837 | Cancer. 1841 || Scorpio. 1845 || Pisces.
Jupiter is the next planet in the solar system above the
asteroids, and performs his annual revolution around the
Sun in nearly 12 of our years, at the mean distance of 495
millions of miles; moving in his orbit at the rate of 30,000
miles an hour.
The exact period of Jupiter's sidereal revolution is 11 years, 10 months,
17 days, 14 hours, 21 minutes, 25% seconds. His exact mean distance from
the Sun is 495,533,837 miles; consequently, the exact rate of his motion in
his orbit, is 29,943 miles per hour.
He revolves on an axis, which is perpendicular to the
plane of his orbit, in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 50 seconds;
so that his year contains 10,471 days and nights; each
about 5 hours long. *
His form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame
ter is to its equatorial, as 13 to 14. He is therefore consid-
erably more flattened at the poles, than any of the other
planets, except Saturn. This is caused by his rapid rotation
on his axis; for it is a universal law that the equatorial
parts of every body, revolving on an axis, will be swollen
In what case is he 9tur morning star, and in what our evening? How may he be traced
among the constellations of the Zodiac 2. In what constellation will he be, each year, for
twelve years to come?...What is his position in the sglar system? What is his mean dis-
tance from the Sun? What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit? What is the
exact period of his sidereal revolution?...What is his exact mean distance from the
Sun ?, What the 6tact rate per hour of his motion in his orbit 2, What is the posi-
tion of his axis with respect to the plane of his orbit? How many days and nights does
year contain How long are they, each?...What is his form 3. What is the ratio be:
tween his polar and equatorial diameters? What is the cause of his being more flattened
at the poles than any of the other planets?

232 JUPITER,
out, in proportion to the density of the body, and the rapidi-
ty of its motion.
The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters of Jupiter,
exceeds 6000 miles. The difference between the polar and equatorial di.
ameters of the Earth, is only 26 miles. Jupiter, even on the most careless
view through a good telescope, º to be oval; the longer diameter
being parallel to the direction of his belts, which are also parallel to the ecliptic.
By this rapid whirl on his axis, his equatorial inhabitants
are carried around at the rate of 26,554 miles an hour;
which is 1600 miles farther than the equatorial inhabitants
of the Earth are carried, by its diurnal motion, in twenty-
four hours.
The true mean diameter of Jupiter is 86,255 miles; which
is nearly 11 times greater than the Earth's. His volume
is therefore about thirteen hundred miles larger than that
of the Earth. ºr. are his magnitude with that of the
Earth. Plate I.) 3. account of his great distance from
the Sun, the degree of light and heat which he receives
from it, is 27 times less than that received by the Earth.

When Jupiter is in conjunction, he rises, sets, and comes to the meridian
with the Sūn; but is never observed to make a transit, or pass over the
Sun's disc; when in opposition, he rises when the Sun sets, sets when the
Sun rises, and comes to the meridian at midnight, which never happens in
the case of an interior planet. This proves that Jupiter revolves in an orbit
which is earterior to that of the Earth.
As the variety in the seasons of a planet, and in the length
of its days and mights, depends upon the inclination of its axis
to the plane of its orbit, and as the axis of Jupiter has no
inclination, there can be no difference in his seasons, on
the same parallels of latitude, nor any variation in the
length of his days and nights. It is not to be understood,
however, that one uniform season prevails from his equator
to his poles; but that the same parallels of latitude on each
side of his equator, uniformly enjoy the same season, what-
ever season it may be. -
About his equatorial regions there is perpetual summer;
and at his poles everlasting winter; but yet equal day and
equal night at each. This arrangement seems to have been
kindly ordered by the beneficent Creator; for had his axis
been inclined to his orbit, like that of the Earth, his polar
winters would have been alternately a dreadful night of
sia, years darkness.
What is the difference between his polar and equatorial diameters 2 What does
his form appear, to be, through a good telescope? What is the direction % his
longer diameter 2. At what rate per hour are his equatorial inhabitants carried by his
motion on his axis 3 How much farther is this than the equatorial inhabitants of the
Earth are carried in 24 hours?...What is Jupiter's true mean diameter? How much
treater is it than the Earth's 3, What is his volume, compared with the Earth's Q, What
is the degree of light and heat which he receives from the sun, compared with that re-
ceived by the Earth? How do we know that Jupiter's orbit is ۼterior to that gf the
Earth? What is the arrangement of Jupiter's seasons, and of his days and nights?
Had his axis been inclined to the plane of his orbit, like that of our Earth, how long would
his polar nights have been



JUPITER, 333
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF JUPITER,
Fig. 17.
Jupiter when viewed through a telescope, appears to be
surrounded by a number of luminous zones, usually termed
belts, that frequently extend quite around him. These belts
are parallel not only to each other, but, in general, to his
equator, which is also nearly parallel to the ecliptic. They
are subject, however, to considerable variation, both in
breadth and number. Sometimes eight have been seen at
once; sometimes only one, but more usually three. Dr.
Hºhel once perceived his whole disc covered with small
eltS.
Sometimes these belts continue for months at a time with
little or no variation, and sometimes a new belt has been seen
to form in a few hours. Sometimes they are interrupted in
their length; and at other times, they appear to spread in
width, and run into each other, until their breadth exceeds
5,000 miles.
Bright and dark spots are also frequently to be seen in
the belts, which usually disappear with the belts themselves,
though not always, for Cassini observed that one occupied
the same position more than 40 years. Of the cause of
these variable appearances, but little is known. They are
generally supposed to be nothing more than atmospherical
phenomena, resulting from, or combined with, the rapid mo-
tion of the planet upon its axis.
Different opinions have been entertained by astronomers respecting the
cause of these belts and spots. . By some they have been regarded as clouds,
or as openings in the atmosphere of the planet, while others imagine that
they are of a more permanent nature, and are the marks of great physical
revolutions, which are Pº.". agitating, and changing the surface of
the planet. The first of these opinions sufficiently, explains the variations
in the form and magnitude of the spots, and the parallélism of the belts.
The spot first observed by Cassini, in 1665, which has both disappeared
and re-appeared in the same form and position for the space of 43 years,
could not possibly he occasioned by any atmospherical variations, but seems
evidently to be connected with the surface of the planet. The form of the
Describe Jupiter's appearance, as seen through a telescope. What is supposed to be
the cause of these phenomena? 'Relate some of the different opinions entertained by
Gºč7074077ters on *;#4.

234 JUPITER,
belt, according to some astronomers, may be accounted for by º
that the atmosphere reflects more light than the body of the planet, an
that the clouds which float in it, being thrown into parallel strata by the
rapidity of its diurnal motion, form regular interstices, through which are
seen its opaque body, or any of the permanent spots which may come within
\he range of the opening.
Jupiter is also attended by four satellites or moons, some
of which are visible to him every hour of the night; exhib-
iting, on a small scale and in short periods, most of the phe-
momena of the solar system. When viewed through a tele-
scope, these satellites present a most interesting and beau-
tiful appearance. The first satellite, or that nearest the
planet, is 259,000 miles distant from its centre, and revolves
around it in 423 hours; and appears, at the surface of Jupi-
ter, four times larger than our Moon does to us. His second
satellite, being both smaller and farther distant, appears
about the size of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the
fourth, which is more than a million of miles from him, and
takes 163 days to revolve around him, appears only about one
third the diameter of our Moon.
These satellites suffer frequent eclipses from passing
through Jupiter's shadow, in the same manner as our Moon
is eclipsed in passing through the Earth's shadow. The
three nearest satellites fall into his shadow, and are eclips-
ed, in every revolution; but the orbit of the fourth is so
much inclined, that it passes by its opposition to him, two
years in six, without falling into his shadow. By means of
these eclipses, astronomers have not only discovered that
light is 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the
Sun, but are also enabled to determine the longitude of pla-
ces on the Earth with greater facility and exactness than .
by any other methods yet known.
It was long since found, by the most careful observations, that when the
Earth is in that part of her orbit which is nearest to Jupiter, the eclipses
appear to happen 8' 13’’ sooner than the tables predict; and when in
that part of her orbit which is farthest from him, 8' 13" later than the
tables predict; making a total difference in time, of 16' 26". From the
mean of 6000 eclipses observed by Delambre, this disagreement between
observation and calculation, was satisfactorily settled at 8° 13', while both
were considered equally correct. Now when the eclipses happen sooner
than the tables, Jupiter is at his nearest approach to the Earth—when later,
at his greatest distance ; so that the difference in his distances from the
Earth, in the two cases, is the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, or about
190 millions of miles. Hence, it is concluded that light is not instantane-

How many satellites has Jupiter? How often are they visible to him? What is the
distance from him of his first or nearest satellite? What is the time of it; revolution?
What is its apparent magnitude at the surface of Jupiter, compared, with the magnit
of the Moon, as seen oy us? What are the apparent magnitudes of his other satellites,
as seen at his surface, compared with that of the Moon as seen at the Earth? What is
the distance of his fourth satellite from him What is the time of its revolution? How
often are his three nearest, satellites, eclipsed? How often his fourth? Why is it not
eclipsed as often as the others? What important purposes have these eclipses served to
astronomers' State the method by which the progressive motion of light, and the
time which it occupies in coming to us from the Sun, were discovered.
SATURN, 235
ows, but that it occupies 16'26"’ in passing across the Earth's orbit, or 8'13"
º coming from the Sun to the Earth; being nearly 12 millions of miles a
nute.
The revolutions of the satellites about Jupiter are pre-
cisely similar to the revolutions of the planets about the
Sun. In this respect they are an epitome of the solar sys-
tem, exhibiting, on a smaller scale, the various changes that
take place among the planetary worlds.
Jupiter, when seen from his nearest satellite, appears a
thousandtimes larger than our Moon does to us, exhibiting
on a scale of inconceivable magnificence, the varying forms
of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon,
every 42 hours.
The apparent diameters of Jupiter's satellites, their mean distances from
him, and their periodical revolutions, are exhibited in the following table.
Satellites. Revolution. #. Mean Dist.
First, ld, TTSh,T25m. I.T657 T253,000
Second, 3 13 14 *. 1. 189 414,000
Third, 7 3 43 1. 050 647,000
Fourth, 16 - 16 32 0. 550 1,164,000

SATURN.
Saturn is situated between the orbits of Jupiter and Her-
schel, and is the most remote planet from the Earth of any
that are visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distin-
ished from the fixed stars by its pale, feeble, and steady
ight. It resembles the star Fomalhaut, both in colour and
size, differing from it only in the steadiness and uniformity
of its light.
From the slowness of its motion in its orbit, the pupil,
throughout the period of his whole life, may trace its appa-
tent course among the stars, without any danger of mistake.
Having once found when it enters a particular constella-
tion, he may easily remember where he is to look for it in
any subsequent year; because, at a mean rate, it is just 24
years in passing over a single sign or constellation.
Saturn's mean daily motion among the stars is only about
2', the thirtieth part of a degree.
Saturn entered the constellation Virgo about the beginning of 1833, and
continued in it until the middle of the year 1835, when he passed into Li-
In what respect are Jupiter's satellites an epitome of the solar system What is Jupi-
ter's appearance, as seen from his nearest satellite? What are the diameters, mean dis-
tances, and times ºf the revolution of his satellites?. Where, in the solar system, is
Saturn situated . How may it be distinguished from the fixed stars 7 What star does it
resemble? In what respects is it like it, and in what is it different from it? How may
place among the stars be ...}, found? What is about the rate of his mean daily mo-
tion among the stars? When did Saturn enter the constellation Virgo, and how long
: #.§ in it 2 What constellation did he enter newt, and hoto long will he
146 ºf ,

236 SATURN,
ora. He will continue in that constellation until 1838; and so on; occur
ying about 23 years in each constellation, or nearly 30 years in one revo.
Ulil Oil,
The mean distance of Saturn from the Sun is nearly
double that of Jupiter, being about 909 millions of miles.
His diameter is about 82,000 miles; his volume therefore
is eleven hundred times greater than the Earth's. Moving
in his orbit at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, he requires
29} years to complete his circuit around the Sun; but his
diurnal rotation on his axis is accomplished in 10+ hours.
His year, therefore, is nearly thirty times as long as ours,
while his day is shorter by more than one half. His year
contains about 25,150 of its own days, which are equal to
10,759 of our days.
The surface of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is diversified
with belts and dark spots. Dr. Herschel sometimes per-
ceived five belts on his surface ; three of which were dark,
and two bright. The dark belts have a yellowish tinge, and
generally cover a broader zone of the planet than those of
Jupiter.
To the inhabitants of Saturn, the Sun appears 90 times
less than he appears to the Earth; and they receive from
him only one ninetieth part as much light and heat. But
it is computed that even the ninetieth part of the Sun’s light
exceeds the illuminating power of 3,000 full moons, which
would be abundantly sufficient for all the purposes of life.
ºil The telescopic appearance
|of Saturn is unparalleled. It
* ||is even more interesting than
| |Jupiter, with all his moons
land belts. That which emi.
|nently distinguishes this
|planet from every other in
... the system, is a magnificent
#2One or ring, encircling it
with perpetual light.
g| The light of the ring 1s
Élmore brilliant than the pla-
How long time does he occupy in passing through each constellation, and whº is
the length #: ºfeſſºr Å what is his distance from the Sun? How much greater is this
#ºn fibiter's distance? What is his diameter 3. How much greater is his vºlume than
#. of the Earth What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit?, in what time is
his diurnaimotion on his axis performed? How many of his own days does his year con-
tin, and how many of ours?, "What is the appearance ºf his surfaçë to us?....Hºw many
j; ; ). Herschei perceive on his surface; Describe them; How much less does
jappear to the inhabitants of Saturn than to us? What degree of light, and heat
jº from the Sun, compared with that received by the Earth? To the lightof
i. ſ.aºli moons is this degree of light equal? Describe the telescopic appearance
of Saturn?










SATURN, 23?
net itself. It turns around its centre of motion in the same
time that Saturn turns on its axis. When viewed with a
good telescope, it is found to consist of two concentric rings,
divided by a dark band.
By the laws’ of mechanics, it is impossible that the body of the rings
should retain its position by the adhesion of the particles alone; it must me.
cessarily revolve with a velocity that will generate centrifugal force suffi.
cient to balance the attraction of Saturn. Observation confirms the truth
of these, principles, showing that the rings rotate about the planet in 10%
hours, which is considerably less than the time a satellite would take to re-
volve about it at the same distance. Their plane is inclined to the ecliptic
in an angle of 31°. In consequence of this obliquity of position, they al-
ways appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity so variable as to ap-
pear, occasionally, like a straight line drawn across the planet; in which
case they are visible Ҽ by the aid of superior instruments. Such was
their position in April, 1833; for the Sun was then passing from their south
to their north side. The rings intersect the ecliptic in two opposite points,
SATURN’s RINGs.
Fig. 19.

arºº
©º.
Sºº
<O2



ºſ *sº 3{}
sºsºsºs
Why should we judge, previous to observation, that these rings must revºlve
wround him 2 Does observation confirm this opinion 2 In what time do the rings
revolve about the planet 2 Is this a greater or less time than a satellite at the samed
tance would require to revolve aboutit 2. Why do the rings always appear ellipticº,
to us? To what extent does the eccentricity of the rings vary 2 What is the post-
tion of the rings with regard to the ecliptic?
938. SATURN.
which may be called their modes. These points are in longitude 1739, and
350 degrees. When, therefore, Saturn is in either of these points, his ºgº
will be invisible to us. On the contrary, when his longitude is 80°, or 20°,
the rings may be seen to the greatest advantage. As the edges of the rings
will present themselves to the Sun twice in each revolution of the planet, it is
obvious that the disappearance of them will occur once in about 15 years ;
; however, to the variation dependent on the position of the Earth at
that time.
The preceding diagrams are a very good representation of the form and
position of the rings as they appear to a spectator during one complete revolu-
tion of Saturn through the signs of the ecliptic.
By reference to the figure, it will be seen, that when Saturn is in either of
the first six signs, the Sun shines on the south side of the rings; and that
while he is in either of the last six signs, upon their north side.
The following are the dates during the ensuing revolutions of the planet,
when its mean heliocentric longitude is such that the rings will (if the Earth
be ſavourably situated) either be invisible, or seen to the greatest advan.
tage.
1833 April. $3° of Virgo. Invisible.
; #. #. : *:::::::: iº.” illuminated.
€C. of Aquarius. Il WłSible.
1855 April. | 209 of Gemini. South side illuminated.
1863 Nov. | 200 of Virgo. Invisible.
The distance between Saturn and his inner ring, is only
21,000 miles; being less than a tenth part of the distance of
our Moon from the Earth. The breadth of the dark band,
or the interval between the rings, is hardly 3,000 miles.—
The breadth of the inner ring is 20,000 miles. Being only
about the same distance from Saturn, it will present to his
inhabitants a luminous zone, arching the whole concave
vault from one hemisphere to the other with a broad girdle
of light.
The most obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect
light upon the planet in the absence of the Sun; what other
º it may be intended to subserve, is to us unknown.
he sun, as has been shown, illuminates one side of it during
15 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution ;
and, during the next 15 years, the other side is enlightened
In its turn. f
, Twice in the course of 30 years, there is a short interval
of time when neither side is enlightened, and when, of course
it ceases to be visible;—namely, at the time when the Sun
ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the
–
What is the longitude of these nodes 2 In what position of Saturn, thers, will the
rings be invisible to us, and in what §§ will they be seen to the best advantage 2
How often will the disappearance of the rings occur? Explain this. In what signs
will the planetbé when the Sun shines on the south side º rings, and in what on the
north side? What is the distance between Satum, and his inner ring?, How great is
this, compared with the distance, of our Moon from the Earth? What is the distance be-
tween the two º What is the breadth of the inner ring What must be its appear.
ce at Saturn?...What is the most obvious use of this je ring 3. How long a time
oes the Sun enlightºn Bach side of it alternately? How often, and in what circumstan-


*
ses, is neither side enlightened, and the ring, of course, invisible?
SATURN, 239
other.” It revolves around its axis, and consequently,
around Saturn, in 10#9 hours, which is at the rate of a thou-
sand miles in a minute, or 58 times swifter than the revolu-
tion of the Earth's equator.
When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the
absence of the Sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous
arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the
eastern to the western horizon, exceeding in breadth a hun-
dred times the apparent diameter of our Moon.
Besides the rings, Saturn is attended by seven satellites,
which revolve about him at different periods and distances,
and reciprocally reflect the Sun’s rays on each other and
on the planet. The rings and moons illuminate the nights
of Saturn; the moons and Saturn enlighten the rings, and
the planet and rings reflect the Sun's beams on the satel-
lites.

The fourth of these satellites (in the order of their distance) was first
discovered by Huygens, on the 25th of March, 1655, and, in honour of the
discoverer, was called the Huigenian Satellite. This satellite, being the
largest of all, is seen without much diſficulty. Cassini discovered the 1st,
2d, 3d, and Šth satellites, between October, 1671, and March, 1684. Dr.
Herschel discovered the 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to Saturn than
any of the rest, though, to avoid confusion, they are named in the order of
their discovery.
The sixth and seventh are the smallest of the whole ; the
first and second are the next smallest; the third is greater
than the first and second; the fourth is the largest of them
all ; and the fifth surpasses the rest in brightness.
Their respective distances from their primary, vary from
half the distance of our Moon, to two millions of miles.
Their periodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days.
The orbits of the six inner satellites, that is, the 1st, 2d, 3d
4th, 6th, and 7th, all lie in the plane of Saturn's rings, an
revolve around their outer edge; while the 5th satellite de-
viates so far from the plane of the rings, as sometimes to be
seen through the opening between them and the planet.
Laplace imagines that the accumulation of matter at Saturn's equator re-
tains the orbits of the first six satellites in the plane of the equator, in the
same manner as it retains the rings in that plane. It has been satisfactorily
ascertained, that Saturn has a greater accumulation of matter about his

* This happens, as we have already shown, when Saturn is either in the 20th degree of
Pisces, or the 20th degree of Virgo. . When he is between these points, or in the 20th de-
e either of Gemini or of Sagittarius, his ring appears most open to us, and more in
brm of an oval, whose longest diameter is to the shortest as 9 to 4.
In what time does, the ring complete its revolution on its axis, and, of course, around
the planet What is the rate per minute of its motion? How rapid is this, º
with the motion of the Earth's equator? ... What would be the appearance of the rings, i
yiewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the Sun? How many moons.
as Saturn? How are Saturn, his rings and satellites, severally, enlightened?, What ar.
the dates of their discovery; and the names of their discoverers?. What are the
§. magnitudes, distances, gºd times of revolution? What is the position o
orbits with respect to the rings of Saturn? What does Laplace imagine retains
ſhe orbits ºf Saturn's first sia &gtellites in the plane of his equator?
240 SATURN,
equator, and consequently that he is more flattened at the poles, than Jupi-
ter, though the velocity of the equatorial parts of the former is much less
than that of the latter. This is sufficiently accounted for by the fact, that
the rings of Saturn lie in the plane of his equator, and act more powerfully
upon those parts of his surface than upon any other; and thus, while they
aid in diminishing the gravity of these parts, also aid the centrifugal ſorce in
flattening the poles of the planet. Indeed, had Saturn never revolved upon
his axis, the action of the rings would, of itself, have been sufficient to give
him the form of an oblate spheroid.
The theory of the satellites of Saturn is less perfect than
that of the satellites of Jupiter. The difficulty of observing
their eclipses, and of measuring their elongations from their
primary, have prevented astronomers from determining,
with their usual precision, their mean distances and revo-
lutions.
We may remark, with the Christian Philosopher, that
there is no planet in the solar system, whose firmament
presents such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects
as that of Saturn.
The various aspects of the seven moons, one rising above
the horizon, while another is setting, and a third approach
ing to the meridian ; one entering into an eclipse, and an
other emerging from one ; one appearing as a crescent, and
another with a gibbous phase ; and sometimes the whole
of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright as-
semblage . The majestic motion of the rings, at one time
illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the
stars; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions
of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders of the
starry firmament, are scenes worthy of the majesty of the
Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to con
template.
Such displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to
conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with
this planet, were not created merely to shed their lustre on
naked rocks and barren sands; but that an immense popu,
lation of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to
enjoy the bounty, and adore the goodness, of their great
Creator.
The following table exhibits the apparent and mean distances of the satellites
from their primary, and the times of their periodical revolution. Their dis-
tances in miles were computed from their observed micrometer distances;
the diameter of Saturn's equator being considered equal to 80,000 miles.
~4–-
Why are astronomers less acquainted with the mean distances and revolutions of Ša.
turn's satellites, than with those of Jupiter 3 Describe the firmament of Satum, §§
minated by his rings and satellites.
HERSCHEL, 24l

Satel- Periodic Distance in Distance in
lites. revolution. diameters. miles.
1 Od. 22h. 38m. 1.540 123,200
2 I 8 53 1.976 158,080
3 1 21 I8 2.447 195,720
4 2 17 45 3.134 250,7
5 4. 12 25 4.377 350,160
6 15 22 41 10,143 811,400
7 79 7 55 29,577 2,366,160
HERSCHEL.
Herschel is the most distant planet from the Sun that has
yet been discovered. To the naked eye, it appears like a
star of only the 6th or 7th magnitude, and of a pale, bluish
white; but it can seldom be seen, except in a very fine,
clear night, and in the absence of the Moon.
As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in 85 days,
It will be seven years in passing over one sign or ciº:
tion. At present,” its mean right ascension is 3324°, and
its declination 1548 S. It is therefore in the tail of Capri-
corn, making a small triangle with Deneb and Delta Algedi.
When first seen by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, it was in the
foot of Gemini ; so that it has not yet completed two thirds
of a revolution since it was first discovered to be a planet.
It is remarkable that this body was observed as far back as 1690. It was
seen three times by Flamstead, once by Bradley, once by Mayer, and eleven
times by Lemonnier, who registered it among the stars; but not one of them
suspected it to be a planet.
The inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn,
which could not be accounted for from the mutual attrac-
tions of these planets, led astronomers to suppose that there
existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose
action these irregularities were produced. This conjecture
was confirmed March 13th, 1781; when Dr. Herschel dis-
covered the motions of this body, and thus proved it to be a
lanet. . *
p Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which
revolve about him in different periods, and at various dis-
* Beginning of the year 1884.

What is the relative distance of the planet Herschel from the Sun? What is its appear.
ance to the naked eye?. In what circumstances can it be seen? What is the rate of its
motion in its orbit? What is its present position ? What was its position when first dis.
covered to be a planet?. How much, then, of its revolution has been completed, since it
was first discovered?. At how early a date was this body observed in the heapens?
who observed it, before it was discovered to be a planet 2 How many times was tº
seen by them, respectively? What did consider it to be 2 What led astronomers
to suppose that there existed another planet beyond Saturn? When and by whom was
#ºf:* be a planet? How many moons has it !
2
242 HERSCHEL,
tances. Four of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel,
and two by his sister, Miss Caroline Herschel. It is possi-
ble that others remain yet to be discovered.
Herschel’s mean distance from the Sun is 1828 millions of
miles; more than twice the mean distance of Saturn. His
sidereal revolution is performed in 84 years and 1 luonth,
and his motion in his orbit is 15,600 miles an hour. He is
supposed to have a rotation on his axis, in common with the
other planets; but astronomers have not yet been able to
obtain any occular proof of such a motion.
His diameter is estimated at 34,000 miles; which would
make his volume more than 80 times larger than the Earth's.
To his inhabitants, the Sun appears only the 3+s part as large
as he does to us; and of course they receive from him
only that small proportion of light and heat. . It may be
shown, however, that the #g part of the Sun's light ex-
ceeds the illuminating power of 800 full Moons. This add-
ed to the light they must receive from their six satellites,
will render their days and nights far from cheerless.
Such was the celestial system with which our Earth was
associated at its creation, distinct from the rest of the starry
hosts. Whatever may be the comparative antiquity of our
globe, and the myriads of radiant bodies which nightly gem
the immense vault above us, it is most reasonable to conclude,
that the Sun, Earth, and planets, differ little in the date of
their origin.
This fact, at least, seems to be philosophically certain,
that all the bodies which compose our solar system must
have been placed at one and the same time in that arrange-
ment, and in those positions in which we now behold them;
because all maintain their present stations, and motions, and
distances, by their mutual action on each other. Neither
could be where it is, nor move as it does, nor appear as
we see it, unless they were all coexistent. The presence
of each is essential to the system—the Sun to them, they
to the Sun, and all to each other. This fact is a strong
indication that their formation was simultaneous.
By whom were Herschel's satellites discovered? What is the distance of Herschel's
3. from the Sun? How much greater is this distance than that of Saturn?. In what
e is his sidereal revolution performed ...What is the rate per hour of his motion in his
orbit?, Has he a rotation on his axis? What is his diameter estimated to be?, How
much larger would this make his volume than the Earth? How much less does the Sun
§: tº be to the inhabitants of Herschel, than he does to us? What degree of light and
at do they receive from him, compared with that received by the Earth? To the light
ef how many moons is degree of light equal 7. What reason have we to suppose
that the different bodies of the solar system were created at the same time?

COMETS. 243
COMETS
Comets, whether viewed as ephemeral meteors, or as
substantial bodies, forming a part of the Solar system, are
objects of no ordinary interest.
When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards, to the
clear sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes of
heavenly bodies, one, blazing with its long train of light,
and rushing onward towards the centre of our system, we
insensibly shrink back as if in the presence of a supernatu-
ral being.
But when, with the eye of astronomy, we follow it through
its perihelion, and trace it far off, beyond the utmost verge
of the solar system, till it is lost in the infinity of space, not
to return for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a
sence of that power which could create and set in motion
such bodies.
Comets are distinguished from the other heavenly bodies,
. their appearance and motion. The appearance of the
anets is globular, and their motion around the Sun is near-
y in the same plane, and from west to east; but the comets
have a variety of forms, and their orbits are not confined to
any particular part of the heavens; nor do they observe any
one general direction. -
The orbits of the planets approach nearly to circles,
while those of the comets are very elongated ellipses. A
wire hoop, for example, will represent the orbit of a planet.
If two opposite sides of the same hoop, be extended, so that
is shall be long and narrow, it will then represent the orbit
of a comet. The Sun is always in one of the foci of the
comet’s orbit.
There is, however, a practical difficulty of a peculiar nature which em-
barrasses the solution of the question as to the form of the cometary orbits.
It so happens that the only part of the course of a comet which can ever
be visible, is a portion throughout which the ellipse, the parabola, and hy-
perbola, so closely resemble each other, that no observations can be obtain-
ed with sufficient accuracy to enable us to distinguish them. In fact, the ob-
served path of any comet, while visible, may belong either to an ellipse, pa-
rabola, or hyperbola.
That part which is usually brighter, or more opaque,
than the other portions of the comet, is called the nucleus.
This is surrounded by an envelope, which has a cloudy, or
hairy appearance. These two parts constitute the body,
and, in many instances, the whole of the comet.

..What ; does the contemplation of comets naturally excite? How are comets
#. om the other heavenly bodies? Describe their º: and motion.
: three parts may comets be considered to be composed? Describe these parts
weverally.
244 COMETS.
Most of them, however, are attended by a long train,
called the tail : though some are without this appendage,
and as seen by the naked eye, are not easily distinguishe
from the planets. Others, again, have no apparent nucleus,
and seem to be only globular masses of vapour. -
Nothing is known with certainty of the composition of
these bodies. The envelope appears to be nothing more
than vapour, becoming more luminous and transparent when
approaching the Sun. As the comets pass between us and
the fixed stars, their envelopes and tails are so thin, that
stars of very small magnitudes may be seen through them.
Some comets, having no nucleus, are transparent throughout
their whole extent.
The nucleus of a comet sometimes appears opaque, and it
then resembles a planet. Astronomers, however, are not
agreed upon this point. Some affirm that the nucleus is
always transparent, and that comets are in fact nothing
but a mass of vapour, or less condensed at the centre.
By others it is maintained that the nucleus is sometimes
solid and opaque. It seems probable, however, that there
are three classes of comets; viz.: 1st. Those which have
no nucleus, being transparent throughout their whole ex-
tent; 2d. Those which nave a transparent nucleus; and,
3d. Those having a nucleus which is solid and opaque.
A comet, when at a distance from the Sun, viewed
through a good telescope, has the appearance of a dense
vapour surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes flowing far
into the regions of space. As it approaches the Sun, its
light becomes more briiilant, till it reaches its perihelion,
when its light is more dazzling than that of any other celes-
tial lº the Sun excepted. In this part of its orbit are
seen to the best advantage the phenomena of this wonderful
body, which has, from remote antiquity, been the spectre
of alarm and terrour.
The luminous train of a comet usually follows it, as it
approaches the Sun, and goes before it, when the comet
recedes from the Sun; sometimes the tail is considerably
curved towards the region to which the comet is tending,
and in some instances, it has been observed to form a right
angle with a line drawn from the Sun through the centre
of the comet. The tail of the comet of 1744, formed near-
ly a quarter of a circle; that of 1689 was curved like a
Have all comets these three parts? What apparent differences maybe, perceived in
the composition of different comets? ...Into what classes, with reference to their *#.
tion, may comets be divided? ... Describe the different appearances of comets at different
istances from the Sun. In what part of tneir orbit are their phenomena Feen tºt


advantage? What is usually the direction ºf the luminous train? What was the direc.
tion of the tail of the comet of 1744? Of that of 1689?
COMETS. 245
A
Turkish sabre. Sometimes the same comet has several
tails. That of 1744 had, at one time, no less than sia,
which appeared and disappeared in a few days. The
©Onnet p 1823 had, for several days, two tails; one ex-
tending towards the Sun, and the other in the opposite
direction.
Comets, in passing among and near the planets, are
materially drawn aside from their courses, and in some
cases have their orbits entirely changed. This is remarka-
bly true in regard to Jupiter, which seems by some strange
fatality to be constantly in their way, and to serve as a per-
petual stumbling block to them.
“The remarkable comet of 1770, which was found by Lexell to revolve in
a inoderate ellipse, in a period of about five years, actually got entangled
among the satellites of Jupiter, and thrown out of its orbit by the attrac-
tions of that planet,” and has not been heard of since.—Herschel, p. 310.
º this extraordinary rencontre, the motions of Jupiter's satellites suffer-
ed not the least perceptible derangement;—a sufficient proof of the aeriform
nature of the comet's mass.
It is clear from observation that comets contain very
little matter. For they produce little or no effect on the
motion of the planets when passing near those bodies; it is
said that a comet, in 1454, eclipsed the moon ; so that it
must have been very near the Earth ; yet no sensible effect
was observed to be produced by this cause, upon the mo-
tion of the Earth or the Moon.
The observations of philosophers upon comets, have as
yet detected nothing of their nature. Tycho Brahe and
Appian supposed their tails to be produced by the rays of
the Sun, transmitted through the nucleus, which they sup-
posed to be transparent, and to operate as a lens. Kepler
thought they were occasioned by the atmosphere of the
comet, driven off by the impulse of the Sun's rays. This
opinion, with some modification, was also maintained by
Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured, that they were a
thin vapour, rising from the heated nucleus, asºsmoke as-
cends from the Earth; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them
to be streams of electricity. ". #.
“That the luminous part of a comet,” says Sir Jºhn Herschel, “is some-
thing in the nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transparent
atmosphere, is evident from a fact which has been n noticed, viz. that
How many tails had the comet of 1744 at one time, and how long did they continue to
appear? How many had that of 1823, and what was their direction? Whº comets pºss
rear planets, how does the attraction of the planets affect them? . In regiº
net is this remarkably true? Mention an example of comets being so ºffºd.
Jact connected with this case proves the aeriform nature of the cornet's mass 2, How
isit Cie., from observation that comets contain very little matter? What were the opi.
pions of Tycho Brahe, Appian, Kepler, Euler, Sir Isaac Newton, and Dr. Hamilton, in
; to the tails of comets 3 was the opinion of Sir John Herschel, and 2n
what founded ?


216 COME FS.
s
*
the portion of the tail where it comes up to, and surrounds the head, is yet
separated from it by an interval less luminous; as we often see one layer
of clouds laid over another with a considerable clear space between them.”
And again—“It follows that these can only be regarded as great masses of
thin vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole substance
by the sunbeams.”
Comets have always been considered by the ignorant and
superstitious, as the harbingers of war, pestilence, and fam-
ine. Nor has this épinion been, even to this day, confined
to the unlearned. It was once universal. And when we
examine the dimensions and appearances of some of these
º we cease to wonder that they produced universal
allaſ Iſl.
According to the testimony of the early writers, a comet
which could be seen in day light with the naked eye, made
its appearance 43 years before the birth of our Saviour. "
This date was just after the death of Caesar, and by the Ro-
mans, the comet was believed to be his metamorphosed
soul, armed with fire and vengeance. This comet is again
mentioned as appearing in 1106, and then resembling the
Sun in brightness, being of a great size, and having an im-
mense tail. - .* -
In the year 1402, a comet was seen, so brilliant as to be
discerned at noon-day. . -
In 1456 a large comet made its appearance. It spread
a wider terrour than was ever known before. The be-
lief was very general, among all classes, that the comet
yº. jºy the Earth, and that the Day of Judgment was
at hand 1
This comet appeared again in the years 1531, 1607,1682, 1758, and is now
approaching the Sun with accelerated velocity. It will pass its perihelion in
November, 1835, and every 75% years thereaſter. We now [October, 1835,) See
this self same cornet, so often expelled the Church of Rome, returning to re-
assert his claim to a fellowship with the solar family.
At the time of the appearance of this comet, the Turks
extended their victorious arms across the Hellespont, and
seemed desºined to overrun all Europe. This added not a
little to the general gloom. Under all these impressions,
the people seemed otălly regardless of the present, and
anxious only for"tº future. The Romish Church held at
this time unbounded sway over the lives, and fortunes, and
consciences of men. To prepare the world for its expected
doom, Pope Calixtus III. ordered the Ave Maria to be re-
fee times a day, instead of two. He ordered the
peated tº te tº a
church bºſs to be rung at noon, which was the origin of
How have comets been regarded by the ignorant and superstitious 3 Mention sqme ºf
the most remarkable comets which have appeared. Describe them severally, and relat
in .# manner they were severally regarded? What is the periodic time of this
Cº6%




* * *
come Ts. 247
that practice, so universal in Christian churches. To the
Ave Maria, the prayer was added—“Lord, save us from
the Devil, the Turk, and the Comet:” and once, each day,
these three obnoxious personages suffered a regular excom-
munication. .
The pope and clergy, exhibiting such fear, it is not a
matter of wonder that it became the ruling passion of the
multitude. The churches and convents were crowded for
confession of sins; and treasures uncounted were poured
into the Apostolic chamber.
The comet, after suffering some months of daily cursing
and excommunication, began to show signs of retreat, and
soon disappeared from those eyes in which it found no fa-
vour. Joy and tranquillity soon returned to the faithful sub-
jects of the pope, but not so their money and lands.
The people, however, became satisfied that their lives, and
the safety of the world, had been cheaply purchased. The
pope, who had achieved so signal a victory oven the mon-
ster of the sky, had checked the progress of the Turk, and
kept, for the present, his Satanic majesty at a safe distance;
while the Church of Rome, retaining her unbounded wealth,
was enabled to continue that influence over her followers,
which she retains, in part, to this day.
The comet of 1680 would have been still more alarm-
ing than that of 1456, had not science robbed it of its ter-
rours, and history pointed to the signal failure of its prede-
cessor. This comet was of the largest size, and had a
tail whose enormous length was more than ninety-sia: mil-
lions of miles.
At its greatest distance, it is 13,000 millions of miles
from the Sun; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles
from his centre;” or about 130,000 miles from his surface.
In that part of its orbit which is nearest the Sun, it flies
A.

* In Brewster's edition of Ferguson, this distance is *ś ãs only 49,000 miles. This
is evidently a mistake; for if the comet approached the Súil's centre within 49,000 miles,
it would penetrate 390,000 miles below the surface l. Taking Ferguson's own elements
for computing the perihelion distance, the result will be 494;gº miles. The mistake may
be accounted for by supposing that the cipher had been omitted in the copy, and the period
pointed off one figure farther to the left. Yet, with this alteration, it would still be incor-
rect; because the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, which is the integer of this calcu-
lation, is assumed at 82,000,000 of miles. The ratio of the comet's perihelion distance
from the Sun, to the Earth's mean distance, as given by M. Pingré, is as 0.00603 to 1. This
multiplied into 95.273,869; gives 574,500 miles for the comet's perihelion distance from the
Sun's centre; from which, if we substragt his semi-diameter, 443,840 miles, we shall have
130,660 miles, the distance of the comet from the surface of the Sun.
...Again, if we divide the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, by the comet's perihelion
distance, we shall find that the latter is only the 1-166th part of the Earth's distance. Now
the square of 166 is 27,556; and this expresses the number of times that the Sun appears
targer to the comet, in the above situation, than it does to the Earth. SQUIRE makes it
84,596 times larger. * * *
According to Newton, the velocity is 880,000 miles per hour. More recent discoveries
indicate a velocity of 1,240,108 miles per hour.

248 COMETS,
with the amazing swiftness of 1,000,000 miles in an hour,
and the Sun, as seen from it, appears 27,000 times larger than
1t appears to us ; consequently, it is then exposed to a heat
27,000 times greater than the solar heat at the Earth. This
intensity of heat exceeds, several thousand times, that of
red-hot iron, and indeed all the degrees of heat that we are
able to produce. A simple mass of vapour, exposed to a
thousandth part of such a heat, would be at once dissipated
in space—a pretty strong indication that, however volatile
are the elements of which comets are composed, they are,
nevertheless, capable of enduring an unconceivable intensity
of both heat and cold.
This is the comet which, according to the reveries of
Dr. Whiston and others, deluged the world in the time of
Noah. Whiston was the friend and successor of Newton :
but, anxious to know more than is revealed, he passed the
bounds of sober philosophy, and presumed not only to fix
the residence of the dammed, but also the nature of their
punishment. According to his theory, a comet was the
awful prison-house in which, as it wheeled from the remotest
regions of darkness and cold into the very vicinity of the
Sun, hurrying its wretched tenants to the extremes of per-
ishing cold and devouring fire, the Almighty was to dispense
the severities of his justice.
Such theories may be ingenious, but they have no basis
of facts to rest upon. They more properly belong to the
chimeras of Astrology, than to the science of Astronomy.
When we are told by philosophers of great caution and
high reputation, that the fiery train of the comet, just allud-
ed to, extended from the horizon to the zenith; and that
that of 1744 had, at one time, six tails, each 6,000,000 of
miles long, and that another, which appeared soon after,
had one 40,000,000 of miles long, and when we consider
also the inconceivable velocity with which they speed their
flight through the solar system, we may cease to wonder if,
in the darker ages, they have been regarded as evil omens
But these idle phantasies are not peculiar to any age or
country. Even ifi our own times, the beautiful comet of
1811, the most splendid one of modern times, was generally
considered among the superstitious, as the dread harbinger


What is the degree of heat to which the comet of 1680 is exposed, when in its perihelion
compared to that experienced at the Earth 2 ...What is the intensity of such a degree *
heat, compañd with that of red-hot iron, or with any degree of heat which we are able tº
produce? What inference may be derived from this fact in regard to the composition of
comets? What were the reveries of Dr. Whiston and others in i. to this comet?
What facts ought to make us cease to wonder that comets were in darker ages consider,
ed as hº of evil? Have these phantasies, however, been confined to the darker
ages } jor what event was the comet of 1811 considered, in our country, to be the har
inger
COMETS, 249
of the war which was declared in the following spring. It
is well known that an indefinite apprehension of a more
dreadful catastrophe lately pervaded both continents, in an-
ticipation of Biela’s comet of 1832.
The nucleus of the comet of 1811, according to observa-
tions made near Boston, was 2,617 miles in diameter, cor-
responding nearly to the size of the Moon. . The brilliancy
with which it shone, was equal to one tenth of that of the
Moon. The envelope, or aeriform covering, surrounding
the nucleus, was 24,000 miles thick, about five hundred
times as thick as the atmosphere which encircles the Earth;
making the diameter of the comet, including its envelope,
50,617 miles. It had a very luminous tail, whose greates
length was one hundred million of miles. -
This comet moved, in its perihelion, with an almost inconceivable velocity—
fifteen hundred times greater than that of a ball bursting from the mouth of a
cannon. According to Regionnontanus, the comet of 1472 moved over an ar:
of 120° in one day. Brydone observed a comet at Palermo in 1770, which pass-
ed through 50° of a great circle in the heavens in 24 hours. Another come
which appeared in 1759, passed over 410 in the same time, The conjecture o
Dr. Halley therefore seems highly probable, that if a body of such a size,
having any considerable density, and moving with such a velocity, were to
strike our Earth, it would instantly reduce it to chaos, mingling its elements
in rulil.
The transient effect of a comet passing near the Earth, could searcely
amount to any great convulsion, says Dr. Brewster: but if the Earth were
actually to receive a shock from one of these bodies, the consequences
would be awful. A new direction would be given to its rotary motion, and
it would revolve around a new axis. The seas, forsaking their beds, would
be hurried, by their centrifugal force, to the new equatorial regions ; islands
and continents, the abodes of men and animals, would be covered by the
universal rush of the waters to the new equator, and every vestige of hu-
sman industry and genius would be at once destroyed. -
The chances against such an event, however, are so very
numerous, that there is no reason to dread its occurrence.
The French government, not long since, called the atten-
tion of some of her ablest mathematicians and astronomers
to the solution of this problem; that is, to determine, upon
mathematical principles, how many chances of collision the
Earth was earposed to. After a mature examination, they re-
ported,—“We have found that, of 281,000,000 of chances,
there is only one unfavourable, there exists but one which
can produce a collision between the two bodies.”
“Admitting, then,” say they, “for a moment, that the comets which may
strike the Earth with their nucleuses, would annihilate the whole human
race; the danger of death to each individual, resulting from the ap-
*

Describe this comet. Give some &amples of the velocity of comets. What would
probably be the effect upon the Earth, should d comet strike if? What does Dr. Breto.
eter say would be the effect of a comet passing near the Earth 2 But ºf the Earth
were #. receive a shock from a comet, what does he say would be thé results?
How did the French mathematicians and astronomers find the chances of a collision
tween the Earth and comets to stand? ... What, then, on the supposition that a stroke ºf
tº comet would annihilate the to hole human race, is the danger y death to each int-
dividual, resulting from the appearance of an unknown comet
250 COMETS.
pearance of an unknown comet, would be exactly equal to the risk he would
run, if in an urn there was only one single white ball among a total num-
ber of 281,000,000 balls, and that his condemnation to death would be the
inevitable consequence of the white ball being produced at the first draw-
jy
We have before stated that comets, unlike the planets
observe no one direction in their orbits, but approacn to, and
recede from their great centre of attraction, in every possi-
ble direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or better
calculated to fill the mind with profound astonishment, than
to contemplate the revolution of comets, while in that part
of their orbits which comes within the sphere of the tele-
scope. Some seem to come up from the immeasurable
depths below the ecliptic, and, having doubled the heavens'
mighty cape, again plunge downward with their fiery trains,
“On the long travel of a thousand years.”
Others appear to come down from the zenith of the uni-
verse to double their perihelion about the Sun, and then re-
ascend far above all human vision.
Others are dashing through the solar system in all possi-
ble directions, and apparently without any undisturbed or
undisturbing path prescribed by him who guides and sus-
tains them all. -
Until within a few years, it was universally believed that
the periods of their revolutions must necessarily be of prodi-
gious length; but within a few years, two comets have
been discovered, whose revolutions are performed, compa-
ratively, within our own neighbourhood. To distinguish them
from the more remote, they are denominated the comets of
a short period. The first was discovered in the constella-
tion Aquarius, by two French astronomers, in the year
1786. The same comet was again observed by Miss Caro-
line Herschel, in the constellation Cygnus, in 1795, and
again in 1805. In 1818, Professor Encke determined the
dimensions of its orbit, and the period of its sidereal revolu-
tion; for which reason it has been called “Encke's Comet.”
This comet performs its revolution around the Sun in about
3 years and 4 months,” in an elliptical orbit which lies wholly
within the orbit of Jupiter. Its mean distance from the Sun
is 212 millions of miles; the eccentricity of its orbit is 179

* Owing to the disturbing influences of the surrounding planets, the periodic return of
ihis comet, like that of all others, is liable to be .# or retarded several days. Its
2eriod varies from about 1203 to 1312 days.

What is the direction of comets in their orbits? What has been, until within a few
years, the universal opinion in regard to the length of the times of their revolution ? Why
does not, the same Qpinion prevail now A What are these two comets denominated?, Re-
late the history of the discovery of the first. Why is it called Encke's comet?, What is
the time of the revolution of Encke's comet? t is the form of its orbit, and what its
sition with regard to the orbit of Jupiter?...What is this comet's mean distance from
Sun? What is the eccentricity of its orbit?
COMETS. 251 .
millions of miles; consequently it is 358 millions of miles
nearer the Sun in its perihelion, than it is in its aphelion.
It was visible throughout the United States in 1825, when
it presented a fine appearance. It was also observed at its
next return in 1828; but its last return to its perihelion, on
the 6th of May, 1832, was invisible in the United States,
on account of its great southern declination.
The second “Comet of a short period,” was observed
in 1772; and was seen again in 1805. It was not until
its re-appearance in 1826, that astronomers were able to
determine the elements of its orbit, and the exact period of
its revolution. This was successfully accomplished by M.
Biela of Josephstadt; hence it is called Biela’s Comet.
According to observations made upon it in 1805, by the cele-
brated Dr. Olbers, its diameter, including its envelope, is
42,280 miles. It is a curious fact, that the path of Bie-
la’s comet passes . near to that of the Earth ; so near,
that at the moment the centre of the comet is at the point
nearest to the Earth’s path, the matter of the comet extends
beyond that path, and includes a portion within it. Thus, if
the Earth were at that point of its orbit which is nearest to
the path of the comet, at the same moment that the comet
should be at that point of its orbit which is nearest to the
path of the Earth, the Earth would be enveloped in the ne-
bulous atmosphere of the comet.
With respect to the effect which might be produced upon
our atmosphere by such a circumstance, it is impossible to
offer any thing, but the most vague conjecture. Sir John
Herschel was able to distinguish stars as minute as the 16th.
or 17th magnitude through the body of the comet / Hence it.…..
seems reasonable to infer, that the nebulous matter of which
it is composed, must be infinitely more attenuated than our
atmosphere; so that for every particle of cometary matter
which we should inhale, we should inspire millions of par-
ticles of atmospheric air. --
This is the comet which was to come intºſsion with
the Earth, and to blot it out from the Solar System. In re-
turning to its perihelion, November 26th, 1832, it was com-
puted that it would cross the Earth's orbit at a distance of
How much nearer the Sun, then, is the comet, when in its perihelion than when in its
aphelion ? . In what years has this comet been seen in the United States? W as i:
not visible in the United States at the time of its return in 1832?, Relate the history of the
discovery of the second comet of a short period 3 Why is it called Biela’s comet? at,
according to the observations of Dr. Olbers in 1805, was the diameter of Biela’s ſomet, in-
luding the envelope?_How near does the path of Biela's comet lie to that of the Earth?
hat would be the effect upon our atmosphere should the nebulous atmosphere of
comet envelope it? What reason have we to suppose that it is more attenuated than our
atmosphere? It was predicted that this, comet would come into collision with *:
#. gºers the grounds of probability that such an event wºuld take place.
Why did it not 3 º: ---


252 comers.
only 18,500 miles. It is evident that if the Earth had been
in that part of her orbit at the same time with the comet
our atmosphere would have mingled with the atmosphere o
the comet, and the two bodies, perhaps, have come in contact.
But the comet passed the Earth's orbit on the 29th of Oc-
tober, in the 8th degree of Sagittarius, and the Earth did
not arrive at that point until the 30th of November, which
was 32 days afterwards.
If we multiply the number of hours in 32 days, by 68,000
(the velocity of the Earth per hour,) we shall find that
the Earth was more than 52,000,000 miles behind the comet
when it: crossed her orbit. Its nearest approach to the
Earth, at any time, was about 51 millions of miles; its near-
est approach to the Sun, was about 83 millions of miles. Its
mean distance from the Sun, or half the longest axis of its
orbit, is 337 millions of miles. Its eccentricity is 253 mil-
lions of miles; consequently, it is 507 millions of miles
nearer the Sun in its perihelion than it is in its aphelion.
The period of its sidereal revolution is 2,460 days, or about
6# years. *
Although the comets of Encke and Biela are objects of very great inter-
est, yet their short periods, the limited space within which their motiën is
circumscribed, and consequently the very slight disturbance which they
sustain from the attraction of the planets, render them of less interest to
physical astronomy than those of longer periods.
They do not, like them, rush from the invisible and inaccessible depths
of space, and, after sweeping our system, depart to distances with the con-
r £; tion of which the imagination itself is confounded. They possess none
£f that grandeur which is connected with whatever ºpº to break
through the fixed order of the universe. It is reserved ſor the comet of
Halley alone to afford the proudest triumph to those powers of calculation
by which we are enabled to follow it in the depths of space, two thousand
millions of miles beyond the extreme verge of the solar system ; and, not-
withstanding disturbances which render each succeeding period of its return
different from the last, to foretel that return with precision.
The following representation of the entire orbit of Biela’s
comet, was obtained from the Astronomer Royal of the
Greenwich Observatory. It shows not only the space and
osition it occupies in the solar system, but the points where
its orbitºsects all the planetary orbits through which it
passes. By"ºffs, it is seen that its perihelion lies between
the orbits of the Earth and Venus, while itsaphelion extends
a little beyond that of Jupiter.
‘w
What was its nearest approach to the Earth at any time? What its nearest approach
to the Sun? ...What its mean distance from the Sun? What its eccentricity? What
then, is the difference between its perihelion and aphelion distances? What is the period
of its sidereal revolution? Why are the comets of Encke and Biela objects of less iºtº-
rest to physical astronomy than those of longer periods 2 What is the situation of the
orbit of Biela's cometim the solar system?



COMETS.
25?
Fig. 20.
# --
º §§ -*.
# $º º
**º-º
§§
s
f *
*A
vºº ~- -
*ś. orbit ºf Jºãº
:
º
&,


254 COMETS,
This diagram not only exhibits the course of the comet
at its last return, but also denotes its future positions on the
first day of every year during its next revolution. It is also
apparent that it will return to its perihelion again in the
autumn of 1839, but not so immediately in our vicinity as
to be the proper cause of alarm. To be able to predict the
very day and circumstances of the return of such a bodi-
less and eccentric wanderer, after the lapse of so many
years, evinces a perfection of the astronomical calculus that
may justly challenge our admiration.
“The re-appearance of this comet,” says Herschel,
“whose return in 1832 was made the subject of elaborate
calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, did
not disappoint the expectation of astronomers. It is hardly
possible to imagine any thing more striking than the ap-
pearance, after the lapse of nearly seven years, of such an
all but imperceptible cloud or wisp of vapour, true, however,
to its predicted time and place, and obeying laws like those
which regulate the planets.”
Herschel, whose Observatory is at Slough, England, observed the daily
progress of this come from the 34th of September, until its disappearance,
compared its actual position from day to day with its calculated position,
and found them to agree within four or five minutes of time in right ascene
sion, and within a few seconds of declination. Its position, then, as repre-
sented on a º which the author prepared for his pupils, and af.
terwards published, was true to within a less space than one third of its
É. diameter. Like some others that have been observed, this comet
no luminous train by which it can be easily recognized by the naked eye,
except when it is very near the Sun. This is the reason why it was not more
generally observed at its late return.
Although this comet is usually denominated “Biela’s comet,” yet it seems
that M. Gambart, director of the Observatory at Marseilles, is equally en-
titled to the honour of identifying it with the comet of 1772, and of 1805.
Iſe discovered it only 10 days after Biela, and immediately set about calcu-
lating its elements from his own observations, which are thought to equal,
if they do not surpass, in point of accuracy, those of every other as-
tronomer,
Up to the beginning of the 17th century, no correct no
tions had been entertained in respect to the paths of comets.
Kepler’s first conjecture was that they moved in straight
lines; but asthat did not agree with observation, he next
concluded that they were parabolic curves, having the Sun
near the vertex, and running indefinitely into the regions of
space at, both extremities. There was nothing in the ob-
servations of the earlier astronomers to fix their identity, or
to lead him to suspect that any one of them had ever been
seen before ; much less that they formed a part of the solar
When will this comet retun again? How much did its actual position from day to
day, as observed by Herschel, differ from its calculated position ? Why was it no
more generally observed at its late return ? What astronomer besides Biela ident
fied it with the comet of 1772 and 1805?. What were the opinions of astronomers in re-
gard to the paths of comets, up to the beginning of the 17th century | What were Kepler's
rounions on this subject?
COMETS, 255
system, revolving about the Sun in elliptical orbits that re-
turned into themselves.
This grand discovery was reserved for one of the most
industrious and sagacious astronomers that ever lived—this
was Dr. Halley, the contemporary and friend of Newton.
When the comet of 1682 made its appearance, he set him-
self about observing it with great care, and found there was
a wonderful resemblance between it and three other comets
that he found recorded, the comets of 1456, of 1531, and
1607. The times of their appearance had been nearly at
equal and regular intervals ; their perihelion distances were
nearly the same; and he finally proved them to be one and
the same comet, performing its circuit around the Sun in a
period varying a little from 76 years. This is therefore
called Halley’s comet. It is the very same comet that filled
the eastern world with so much consternation in 1456, and
became an object of such abhorrence to the church of
Rome.
Of all the comets which have been observed since the
Christian era, only three have had their elements so well
determined that astronomers are able to fix the period of
their revolution, and to predict the time and circumstances
of their appearance. These three are, Encke's, whose last
revolution about the Sun was performed in 1212 days;
Biela’s, whose period was 2461 days; and Halley’s, which is
now accomplishing its broad circuit in about 28,000 days.
Encke's and Halley’s will return to their perihelion the
present year (1835), and Biela’s in 1839.
Halley’s comet, true to its predicted time and place, is now (Oct. 1835,)
visible in the evening sky. But we behold none of those phenomena which
threw onrancestors of the middle ages into agonies of superstitious terrour.
We see not the cometa horrenda magnitudinis, as it appeared in 1305, nor
that tail of enormous length, which, in 1456, extended over two thirds of
the interval between the horizon and the zenith, nor even a star as brilliant
as was the same comet in 1682, with its tail of 309.
Its mean distance from the Sun is 1,713,700,000 miles; the eccentricity of
Its orbit is 1,658,000,000 miles; consequently it is 3,316,000,000 miles 'far-
ther from the Sun in its aphelion than it is in its perihelion. In the latter
ease, its distance from him is only 55,700,000 miles; but in the former, it is
3,371,700,000 miles Therefore, though its aphelion distance be great, its
mean distance is less than that of Herschel; and great as is the aphelion
distance, it is but a very small fraction less than one five-thousandth part of
that distance from the Sun, beyond which, the very nearest of the fixed
stars must be situated; and, as the determination of their distance is mega-
Who first discovered the identity of comets?, Relate the manner by which he came tº
this discovery. How many of all the comets observed since the Christian era, have had
their elements so well determined, that astronomers are able to fix the period of their re-
volutions, and to predict the time and circumstances of their appearance? What comets
are these? in what time, dº they accomplish their revolutions? When will they, seve-
rally, return to their perihelion 3 What comet is now (Oct. 1835) visible? What are
the mean, and the aphelton and perihelion distances of Halley's comet from the Sun ?
What part of the distance beyond which the nearest of the ſized stars must be pla.
ced, is its aphelion distance 3
y
%
!
**


256 LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
§: and not positive, the nearest of them may be at twice or ten times that
istance.
The number of comets which have been observed since the Christian
era, amounts to 700. Scarcely a year has passed without the observation
of one or two. And since multitudes of them must escape observation, b
reason of their traversing that part of the heavens which is above the hori-
zon in the day time, their whole number is º many thousands.
Comets so circumstanced, can only become visible by the rare coincidence
of a total eclipse of the Sun—a coincidence which happened, as related by
Seneca, 60 years before Christ, when a large comet was actually observed
very near the Sun.
But M. Arago reasons in the following manner, with respect to the num-
ber of comets:—The number of ascertained coinets, which, at their least
distances, pass within the orbit of Mercury, is thirty. Assuming that the
comets are uniformly distributed throughout the solar system, there will
be 117,649 times as many comets included within the orbit of Herschel, as
there are within the orbit of Mercury. But as there are 30 within the orbit
of Mercury, there must be 3,529,470 within the orbit of Herschel !
Of 97 comets whose elements have been calculated by astronomers, 24
§: between the Sun and the orbit of Mercury; 33 between the orbits of
ercury and Venus; 21 between the orbits of Venus and the Earth ; 15
between the orbits of Ceres and Jupiter. Forty-nine of these comets move
from east to west, and 48 in the opposite direction.
The total number of distinct comets, whose paths during the visible part of
their course had been ascertained, up to the year 1832, was one hundred and
thirty-seven.
What regions these bodies visit, when they pass beyond
the limits of our view; upon what errands they come, when
they again revisit the central parts of our system ; what
is the difference between their physical constitution and that
of the Sun and planets; and what important ends they are
destined to accomplish, in the economy of the universe, are
inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which sur-
pass the limited powers of the human understanding at pre-
sent to determine.
C H A P T E R X. X.
OF THE FORCES BY whiêH THE PLANETS ARE
RETAINED IN THEIR ORBITS,
Having described the real and apparent motions cf the
bodies which compose the solar system, it may be interest-
ing next to show, that these motions, however varied or com-
lex they may seem, all result from one simple principle, or
aw, namely, the
*--

What is the number of comets which have been observed since the Christian era?
Why must some qf them escape observation 2 . How great is probably their actual
number? In what case alone can comets which traverse the horizon in the da
time become visible? Mention an instance of a comet thus becoming gisible
What is the reasoning of M. Arago in regard to the number of comets 2'. Describe
the track among the orbits of the É. ets, of the 97 cornets whose elements have been
calculated by astronomers. In what direction do they move What, up to the year
i832, was the whole number of distinct comets, whose path, during the visible part
of their course, has been determined? By what principle. or law, are the planets re-
.auned in their orbits?

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 257
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GI;AWITATION.
It is said, that Sir Isaac Newton, when he was drawing
to a close the demonstration of the great truth, that gravity
is the cause which keeps the heavenly bodies in their orbits,
was so much agitated with the magnitude and importance of
the discovery he was about to make, that he was unable to
#: and desired a friend to finish what the intensity of
is feelings did not allow him to do. By gravitation is meant,
that universal law of attraction, by which every particle of
matter in the system has a tendency to every other particle.
This attraction, or tendency of bodies towards each other,
is in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. The
Earth, being immensely large in comparison with all other
substances in its vicinity, destroys the effect of this attrac-
tion between smaller bodies, by bringing them all to itself.
The attraction of gravitation is reciprocal. All bodies not
only attract other bodies, but are themselves attracted, and
both according to their respective quantities of matter
The Sun, the largest body in our system, attracts the Earth
and all the other planets, while they in turn attract the Sun.
The Earth, also, attracts the Moon, and she in turn at-
tracts the Earth. A ball, thrown upwards from the
Earth, is brought again to its surface; the Earth's attraction
not only counterbalancing that of the ball, but also producing
a motion of the ball towards itself.
This disposition, or tendency towards the Earth, is mani-
fested in whatever falls, whether it be a pebble from the
hand, an apple from a tree, or an avalanche from a moun-
tain. All terrestrial bodies, not excepting the waters of the
ocean, gravitate towards the centre of the Earth, and it is
by the same power that animals on all parts of the globe
stand with their feet pointing to its centre.
The power of terrestrial gravitation is greatest at the earth's
surface, whence it decreases both upwards and downwards;
but not both ways in the same proportion. It decreases
upwards as the square of the distance from the Earth’s centre
ncreases; so that at a distance from the centre equal to
twice the semi-diameter of the Earth, the gravitating force
would be only one fourth of what it is at the surface. But
below the surface, it decreases in the direct ratio of the dis
Who discovered this great truth, and how was he affected in view of it? What is
meant º gravitation?...To what is, it proportioned? Give some example. . How is it
known that the attraction of gravitation is reciprocal? Give some examples to illustrate
this principle. Where is the power of terrestrial gravitation the greatest? From this
oint, does the power degrease equally, both upwards, and downwards? What is th;
i. of decrease upwards? Give an example. What is the law of decreas, downwards?
Give an example.
25%

258 LAW OF UNIVERSAL G.W.AWITATION.
tance from the centre; so that at a distance of half a sem
diameter from the centre, the gravitating force is but half
what it is at the surface.
Weight and Gravity, in this case, are synonymous terms,
We say a piece of lead weighs a pound, or 16 ounces; but if
by any means it could be raised 4000 miles above the surface
of the Earth, which is about the distance of the surface from
the centre, and consequently equal to two semi-diameters of
the Earth above its centre, it would weigh only one fourth of
a pound, or four ounces; and if the same weight could be
raised to an elevation of 12,000 miles above the surface, or
four semi-diameters above the centre of the Earth, it would
there weigh only one sixteenth of a pound, or one ounce.
The same body, at the centre of the Earth, being equally
attracted in every direction, would be without weight; at
1000 miles from the centre it would weigh one fourth of a
pound; at 2000 miles, one half of a pound ; at 3000 miles,
three fourths of a pound; and at 4000 miles, or at the sur-
face, one pound.
It is a universal law of attraction, that its power decreases as the square of
the distance increases. The converse of this is also true, viz., The power
increases, as the square of the distance decreases. Giving to this law the form
of a practical rule, it will stand thus:
The gravity of Šodies above the surface of the Earth, decreases in a dupli
cate ratio, (or as the squares of their distances) in semi-diameters of the earth,
..from the earth's centre. That is, when the gravity is increasing, multiply
the weight by the square of the distance ; but when the gravity is decreasing,
diºde the weight by the square of the distance.
Suppose a body weighs 40 pounds at 2000 miles above the Earth's sur-
face, what would it weigh at the surface, estimating the Earth’s semi-diameter
at 4000 miles?, From the centre to the given height, is 13 semi-diameters:
the square of 1%, or 1.5 is 2.25, which, multiplied into the weight, (40,) gives 90
pounds, the answer.
Suppose a body which weighs 256 pounds upon the surface of the Earth,
be raised to the distance of the Moon, (240,000 miles,) what would be its
weight. Thus, 4000)240,000(60 semi diameters, the square of which is 3600.
As the gravity, in this case, is decreasing, divide the weight by the square of
the distance, and it will give 3600)256(1-16th of a pound, or 1 ounce.
2. To find to what height a given weight must be raised to lose a certain
portion of its weight.
RULE.— Divide the weight at the surface, by the required weight, and ex-
tract the square root of the quotient. Ex. A boy weighs 100 pounds, how high
must he be carried to weigh but 4 pounds? Thus, 100 divided by 4, gives
25, the square root of which is 5 semi-diameters, or 20,000 miles above the
Cènſ l'e.
Bodies of equal magnitude do not always contain equal

What is the relation between weight and gravity? Illastrate it by some examples:
What, then, is the general law in regard to the increase and decrease of attraction?
How may this law be expressed, in the form of a practical rule? Suppose, for 62-
ample, the semi-diameter of the Earth be estimated, in round numbers, at 4000 miles,
and that a body, elevated 2000 miles above its surface, should ;” 40 pounds, what
would the same body weigh, if brought to the Earth's surface §. a body
which weighs 256 pounds upon the surface of the Earth, be raised to the distance of
the Moon, what would be its weight at such an elevation ? [The pupil should beye.
quired to give the calculation, as well as the answer.] By what rule can be deteºming
the height to which a body must be raised, in order to its losing a certain portion 9
its weight?. Give an example, Dobodies of the same magnitude always contain :
quantities of matter?

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 259
quantities of matter; a ball of cork, of equal bulk with one
of lead, contains less matter, because it is more porous. The
Sun, though fourteen hundred thousand times larger than
the Earth, being much less dense, contains a quantity of
matter only 355,000 times as great, and hence attracts the
Earth with a force only 355,000 times greater than that
with which the Earth attracts the Sun.
The quantity of matter in the Sun is 780 times greater
than that of .# the planets and satellites belonging to the
Solar System; consequently their whole united force of at-
traction is 780 times less upon the Sun, than that of the
Sun upon them.
The Centre of Gravity of a body, is that point in which
its whole weight is concentrated, and upon which it would
rest, if freely suspended. If two weights, one of ten pounds,
the other of one pound, be connected together by a rod
eleven feet long, nicely poised on a centre, and then be thrown
into a free rotary motion, the heaviest will move in a circle
with a radius of one foot, and the lightest will describe a cir-
cle with a radius of ten feet: the centre around which they
move is their common centre of gravity. See the Figure.
Thus the Sun and planets move around an imaginary
point as a centre, always preserving an equilibrium.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Fig. 21.
If there were but one body in the universe, provided it
were of uniform density, the centre of it would be the centre
of gravity towards which all the surrounding portions would
uniformly tend, and they would thereby balance each other.
Thus the centre of gravity, and the body itself, would for-
ever remain at rest. It would neither move up nor down;
there being no other body to draw it in any direction.
In this case, the terms up and down would have no meaning,
What are the comparative bulks and densities of the Sun and the Earth? , How great is
the quantity of matter in the Sun, compared with that of all the planets belonging to the
solar system? What is the centre of gravity of a body? Give an ; e: How does
this illustration apply to planetary motion? If there were but one ; ody in the uni-
verse, where would the centre of gravity be? What motion would the body have? What
wouli the terms up and down, in such case, mean?

260 ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES.
except 28 applied to the body itself, to express the direction
of the surface from the centre.
Were the Earth the only body revolving about the Sun,
as the Sun’s quantity of matter is 355,000 times as great as
that of the Earth, the Sun would revolve in a circle equal
only to the three hundred and fifty-five thousandth part of
the Earth’s distance from it: but as the planets in their seve-
ral orbits vary their positions, the centre of gravity is not
always at the same distance from the Sun.
The quantity of matter in the Sun so far exceeds that of
all the planets together, that were they all on one side of him
he would never be more than his own diameter from the
common centre of gravity; the Sun is therefore justly con-
sidered as the centre of the system.
The quantity of matter in the Earth being about 80 times
as great as that of the Moon, their common centre of gravity
is 80 times nearer the former than the latter, which is about
3000 miles from the Earth’s centre.
The secondary planets are governed by the same laws
as their primaries, and both together move around a com-
mon centre of gravity. -
Every system in the universe is supposed to revolve, in
like manner, around one common centre.
ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES.
All simple motion is naturally rectilinear; that is, all
bodies put in motion would continue to go forward in straight
lines, as long as they met with no resistance or diverting
force.
On the other hand, the Sun, from his immense size, would,
by the power of attraction, draw all the planets to him, if
his attractive force were not counterbalanced by the primi-
tive impulse of the planetary bodies to move in straight lines.
The attractive power of a body drawing another body
towards the centre, is denominated Centripetal force; and
the tendency of a revolving body to fly from the centre in
a tangent line, is called the Projectile or Centrifugal force.
The joint action of these two central forces gives the planets

..If the Earth were the only body revolving about the Sun, what would be their relativº
distances from their common centre of gravity? If instead of the Earth alone, the Earth
with all the planets, and satellites of the system were on one side, and the Sun alone on
the other, at what distance from their gommon centre of gravity must the Sun be, fo bal-
ance them all? Where is the centre of gravity between the Earth and Moon? How do
yºu know this? By what laws are the secondary planets govemed; and the other #ystems
of the universe? What is meant by all simple motion being rectilinear? Why does no
the Sun, by its great attraction, bring all bodies to its surface?. Explain what is meant
by ºf petal and contrifugai for. “what results from the joint action of these twe
OłCCS -
ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 261
a circular motion, and retains them in their orbits as they
revolve, the primaries about the Sun, and the secondaries
about their primaries.
The degree of the Sum’s attractive power at each particu-
lar planet, whatever be its distance, is uniformly equal to
the centrifugal force of the planet. The nearer any plan-
et is to the Sun, the more strongly is it attracted by him ;
the farther any planet is from the Sun, the less is it at-
tracted by him; therefore, those planets which are the near-
er to the Sun must move the faster in their orbits, in order
thereby to acquire centrifugal forces equal to the power of
the Sun’s attraction; and those which are the farther from
the Sun must move the slower, in order that they may not
have too great a degree of centrifugal force, for the weaker
attraction of the Sun at those distances.
The discovery of these great truths, by Kepler and New-
ton, established the UNIVERSAL LAW of PLANETARY MOTION ;
which may be stated as follows:
1. Every planet moves in its orbit with a velocity vary-
ing every instant, in consequence of two forces; one tending
to the centre of the Sun, and the other in the direction of a
tangent to its orbit, arising from the primitive impulse given
at the time it was launched into space. The former is call-
ed its Centripetal, the latter, its Centrifugal force. Should
the centrifugal force cease, the planet would fall to the Sun
by its gravity; were the Sun not to attract it, it would fly
off from its orbit in a straight line.
2. By the time a planet has reached its aphelion, or that
point of its orbit which is farthest from the Sun, his attrac-
tion has overcome its velocity, and draws it towards him
with such an accelerated motion, that it at last overcomes
the Sun's attraction, and shoots past him; then gradually
decreasing in velocity, it arrives at the perihelion, when the
Sun's attraction again prevails.
3. However ponderous or light, large or small, near or
remote, the planets may be, their motion is always such
that imaginary lines joining their centres to the Sun, pass
over equal areas in equal times: and this $ true not only
with respect to the areas described every hºur by the same
planet, but the agreement holds, with rigid exactness, be-
tween the areas described in the same time, by all the plan-
ets and comets belonging to the Solar System.’ “
From the foregoing principles, it follows that the force of gravity, and
the centrifugal force, are mutual opposing powers—each continually acting
**-- *
To what is the Sun's attractive rower at each particular planet equal?, Explain this
§: fully. By whom was the universal aw of planetary motion established? Repeat
W, -
3/
~ * * *
£62 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINoxEs, &c.
liminished by the centrifugal force of her diurnal rotation, in the propor.
tion, of one pound for every 290 pounds: that is, had the Earth no mºn
on her axis, all bodies on the equator would weigh one two hundred gº
eighty-ninth part more than they now do.
On the contrary, if her diurnal motion were accelerated, the centrifugal
force would be proportionally increased, and the weight of bodies at flie
equator would be, in the sanie ratio, diminished. Should the Earth revolve
upon its axis, with a Velocity which would make the day but 84 minutes long,
instead of 24 hours, the centrifugal force would counterbalance that of gravity,
and all bodies at the equator would then be absolutely destitute of weight ;
and if the centrifugal force were further augmented (the Earth revolving
in less time than 84 minutes,) gravitation would be completely overpowered,
#. fluids and loose substances near the equator would fly off #. the
SUIT face.
The Weight of bodies, either upon the Earth, or on any other planet having
* mºtion around its axis, depends jointly upon the mass of the planet, and
its diurnal velocity. A body Weighing one pound upon the equator of the
Earth, WQuld weigh, if removed to the equator of the Sun, 27.9 lbs. Of Mer:
çury, 1.03 lbs. Of Yenus, 0.98 lbs. Of the Moon, lb. of Mars, 4 lb. of
Jupiter, 2.716 lbs. Of Saturn, 1.01 lbs. r
j the ºther. Thus, the weight of bodies, on the Earth's equator, is
CHA PTE R xxi.
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES—OBLIQUITY OF
THE ECLIPTIC.
Of all the motions which are going forward in the Solar
System, there is none, which it is important to notice, more
difficult to comprehend, or to explain, than the PREcession
of THE EquinoxEs, as it is termed.
The equinoxes, as we have learned, are the two opposite
points in the Earth’s orbit, where it crosses the equator.
The first is in Aries; the other, in Libra. By the preces-
&ion of the equinoxes is meant, that the intersection of the
equator with the ecliptic is not always in the same point:--
in other words, that the Sun, in its apparent annual course,
does not cross the equinoctial, Spring and Autumn, exactly
in the same points, but every year a little behind those of
the preceding year. .*,
This annual falling back of the equinoctical points, is call-
ed by astronomers, with reference to the motion of the
heavens, the Precession of the Equinoaces; but it would bet.
ter accord with fact as well as the apprehension of the learn-
Pr, to call it, as it is, the Recession of the Equinoxes: for the
equinoctial points do actually recede upon the ecliptic, at the
rate of about 50+” of a degree every year. It is the name
How is the weight of bodies on the Earth's equator affected by its diurnal rotation?
What would be the effect if the diurnal motion of the Earth were accelerated? What
would be the consequence if the Earth revolved about its avis in 84 gºinutes, 67 in
§§§ 2. What are the equinºxes! What is meant by the§§ of the equinoxes?
by is it callêd precession of the equinoxes, and what would be a better term?
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXEs, &c. 263
only, and not the position, of the equinoxes which remains
permanent. Wherever the Sun crosses the equinoctial in
the spring there is the vernal equinox; and wherever he
crosses it in the autumn there is the autumnal equinox,
nd these points are constantly moving to the west.
S Fig. 22.
~s). To render this subject fa- . . . . .
*Y iniliar, we will suppose two
S. carriage roads. extending
& jºquite around the Earth: one,
§§. the equator,
**śrunning due east and west;
*S* , and the other, representing
º ecliptic, running nearly
in the same direction as the
former, yet so as to cross it
*... with a small angle, (say of
* .2349,) both at the point
~... where we now stand, for in-
* * stance, and in the nadir,
exactly opposite ; let there
also be another road, to
Sã represent the prime meridi-
an, running north and south,
and crossing the first at
;
Equinoctia
>
~.
*
\, x -º
se
*,
right angles, in the common
`-- point of intersection, as in
>\º the annexed figure. -
Wºº. . Let a carriage now start
* from this point of intersec- *
tion, not in the road leading
>, >, directly east, but along that of the ecliptic, which leaves the former a little to
2 the north, and let a person be placed to watch when the carriage comes
around again, after having made the circuit of the Earth, and see whether the
~ carriage will cross the equinoctial road again precisely in the same track
~ as when it left the goal. Though the person stood exactly in the former track,
he need not fear being run over, for the carriage will cross the road 100 rods
**, west of him, that is, 100 rods west of the meridian on which he stood. It
*~ #. be observed, that 100 rods on the equator is equal to 504 seconds on a
: egree. •
<! if the carriage still continue to go around the Earth, it will, on completing
‘. its second circuit, cross the equinoctial path 200 rods west of the meridian
A whence it first set out; on the third circuit, 300 rods west; on the fourth
<-- circuit,400 rods, and so on, continually; . After 713 circuits, the point of in-
*- tersection would be one degree west of its place at the commencement of
the route. At this rate it would be easy to determine how many complete
A circuits the carriage must perform before this continual falling back of the
intersecting point would have retreated over every degree of the orbit, until
it reached again the point from whence it first departed. The application of
this illustration will be manifest, when we consider, further, that,
The Sun revolves from one equinox to the same equinox
again, in 365d. 5h. 48' 47".81. This constitutes the natu-
ral, or tropical year, because, in this period, one revolution
of the seasons is exactly completed. But it is, mean-
The equinoctial points, are continually moving; how, then, is their position defined,
Give, at length, a familiar illustration by which this subject may be understood.
Suppose the carriage continues its circuit around the earth, where would it crges
the équinoctial the 2d, 3d, and 4th times, 4-c. 2 . After how many circuits would this
falling back qf the equinoctial points amount to one degree on the eclipticº in what
§ ºf sun revolve from one equinox to the same equinox again? What is this
*}SITOO! Calie


264 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINoxEs, &c.
while, to be borne in mind, that the equinox itself, during
this period, has not kept its position among the stars, but
has deserted its place, and fallen back a fittie way to meet
the Sun; whereby the Sun has arrived at the equinox before
he has arrived at the same position among the stars from
which he departed the year before; and consequently, must
perform as much more than barely a tropical revolution, to
reach that point again. .
To pass over this interval, which completes the Sun's side-
real revolution, takes (20.22".94) about 22 minutes and 23
seconds longer. By adding 22 minutes and 23 seconds to
the time of a tropical revolution, we obtain 365d. 6h. 9m.
10}s. for the length of a sidereal revolution ; or the time
in which the Sun revolves from one fixed star to the same
star again.
As the Sun describes the whole ecliptic, or 360°, in a trop-
ical year, he moves over 59'83" of a degree every day, at a
mean rate, which is equal to 50+” of a degree in 20 min-
utes and 23 seconds of time; consequently he will arrive at
the same equinox or solstice when he is 50+" of a degree
short of the same star or fixed poin in the heavens, from
which he set out the year before. So that, with respect to
the fixed stºº, the Sun and equinoctial points fall back, as
it were, 1°ºn 713 years. This will make the stars appear
to have gone forward 1°, with respect to the signs in the
ecliptic, in that time : for it must be observed, that the same
signs always keep in the same points of the ecliptic, with-
out regard to the place of the constellations. Hence it be-
comes necessary to have new plates engraed for celes-
tial globes and maps, at least once in 50 years, in order to
exhibit truly the altered position of the stars. At the pres-
ntrate of motion, the recession of the equinoxes, as it should
e called, or the precession of the stars, amounts to 30°, or
one whole sign, in 2140 years.


Why is it so called? Does the equinox remain stationary during this period?, What
results from this? How long does it take the Sun to pass over the interval through which
the equinpx has thus retreated? ...What is the length of a sidereal revolution, and how is
it determined? What portion of the ecliptic does the Sun describe, at a mean rate, every
day? What portion does it describe in 20 minutes and 23 seconds? If the Sun and equi-
noctial points fall back in the ecliptic 501-4” of a degree §§ how many years before
this regression will, ampunt to a degree?, How will this affect the appearance of the
stars What practical inconvenience results from this fact? In what period of time does
the precession of the stars amount to 30°, or one whole sign?
. PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXEs, &c. 265
MOTION OF THE STARS,
Fig 23.
To explain this by a figure; Suppose the Sun to have bºn conjunction
with a fixed star at S, in the first degree of Taurus, (the secónd sign of the
ecliptic,) 340 years before the birth of our Saviour, or about the 17th year of
Alexander the Great; then having made 2140 revolutions through the ecliptic,
he would be found again at the end of so many sidereal years at S; but at
the end of so many Julian years, he would be found at J, and at the end of
so many tropical years, which would bring it down to the beginning of the
Fº: century, he would be found at T, in the first degree of Aries, which
as receded from S_to T in that time by the precession of the equinoc.
tial points Aries and Libra. The arc S T would be equal to the amount of
the precession (for precession we must still call it) of the equinox in 2140
years, at the rate of 50,” 23572 of a degree, or 20 minutes and 23 seconds of
time annually, as above stated.
From the constant retrogradation of the equinoctial points,
and with them of all the signs of the ecliptic, it follows that
the longitude of the stars must continually increase. The
tame cause affects also their right ascension and declination.
Hence, those stars which, in the infancy of astronomy were
in the sign Aries, we now find in Taurus ; and those which
were in Taurus, we now find in Gemini, and so on. Hence
likewise it is, that the star which rose or set at any particu-
lar time of the year, in the time of Hesiod, Eudoxus, Virgil,
Pliny, and others, by no means answers at this time to their
descriptions.
Eºplgin this by a diagram. How does the retrogradation of the equinoctial points
affect the longitºde of the stars 3 Does the same cause extend to their right ascension
declination also adHow is this rendered apparent?

266 PRECESSION OF THE EquinoxEs, &c.
Hesiod, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. verse 185, says:
When from the solstice sixty wintry days
Their turns have finish'd, mark, with glitt’ring rays,
From Ocean’s Sacred flood, Arcturus rise,
Then first to gild the dusky evening skies.
But Arcturus now rises acronycally in latitude 37° 45' N. the latitude
Hesiod, and nearly that of Richmond, in Virginia, about 100 days after the
winter solstice. Supposing Hesiod to be correct, there is a difference of 4.
days, arising from the precession of the equinoxes since the days of Hesiod.
Now as there is no record extant of the exact period of the world when thiſ
poet flourished, let us see to what result astronomy will lead us. tº
As the Sun moves through about 39° of the ecliptic in 40 days, the winter
solstice, in the time of Hesiod, was in the 9th degree of Aquarius. , Now es
timating the precession of the equinoxes at 50}” in a year; we shall have
50}”: 1 year: : 39°:27.94 years since the time of Hesiod; if we substract from
this our present era, 1836, it will give 958 years before Christ. Lempriere, in
his Classical Dictionary, says Hesiod lived 907 years before Christ See a
similar calculation for the time of Thales. age 54.
The retrograde movement of the equinoxes, and the an-
nual extent of it, were determined by comparing the longitude
of the same stars, at different intervals of time. The most
careful and unwearied attention was requisite in order to
determine the cause and extent of this motion ;-a motion
so very slow as scarcely to be perceived in an age, and oc-
cupying not less than 25,000 years in a single revolution.
It has not yet completed one quarter of its first circuit in
the heavens since the creation.
Thus, obºvation has not only determined the abso-
lute motion of the equinoctial points, but measured its limit;
it has also shown that this motion, like the causes which pro-
duce it, is not uniform in itself: but that it is constantly ac-
celerated by a slow arithmetical increase of 1" of a degree
in 4,100 years.-A quantity which, though totally inappre-
ciable for short periods of time, becomes sensible after a
lapse of ages. For example: The retrogradation of the
equinoctial points is now greater by nearly #2' than it was
in the time of ºp. the first who observed this mo-
tion ; consequently, the mean tropical year is shorter now by
about 12 seconds than it was then. For, since the retro-
gradation of the equinoxes is now every year greater than
it was then, the Sun has, each year, a space of nearly $1.
less to #. through in the ecliptic, in order to reach the
plane of the equator. Now the Sun is 12 seconds of time in
passing over #" of space.
At present, the equinoctial points move backwards, or
from east to west along the path of the ecliptic at the rate of
Meſtign ºgºgºple. History does not enable us to fia: the precise age of the worla

$n which Hesiod Jiºurished; what light does astronomy shed w this guestion;
By what means was the retrogradation of the equinoxes determined?, Why was it #.
cult to determine the cause and extent of this motion? Not to specify particular cases
wnat has observation at length determined, with respect to the limit and minifºrnity of
this backward movement of the equinoctial points? Give an example. ... Why should the
trºpical year, on this account, be shorter now than it was then? What is the present rate
motion of the equinoctial points?
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXEs, &c. 267
1° in 713 years, or one whole sign, in 2140 years. Con-
tinuing at this rate, they will fall back through the whole
of the 12 signs of the ecliptic in 25,680 years, and thus re-
turn to the same position among the stars, as in the beginning.
But in determining the period of a complete revolution
of the equinoctial points, it must be borne in mind that the
motion itself is continually increasing ; so that the last quar-
ter of the revolution is accomplished several hundred years
sooner than the first quarter. Making due allowance for this
accelerated progress, the revolution of the equinoxes is com-
pleted in 25,000 years; or, more exactly, in 24,992 years.
Were the motion of the equinoctial points uniform: that
is, did they pass through equal portions of the ecliptic in
equal times, they would accomplish their first quarter, or pass
through the first three signs of the ecliptic, in 6,250 years.
But they are 6,575 years in passing through the first quar-
ter; about 218 years less in passing through the second
quarter; 218 less in passing through the third, and so on.
The immediate consequence of the precession of the equi-
noxes, as we have already observed, is a continually pro-
gressive increase of longitude in all the heavenly bodies.
For the vernal equinox being the initial point of longitude,
as well as of right ascension, a retreat of this point on the
ecliptic tells upon the longitudes of all alike, whether at rest
or in motion, and produces, so far as its amount extends, the
appearance of a motion in longitude common to them all,
as if the whole heavens had a slow rotation around the poles
of the ecliptic in the long period above mentioned, similar to
what they have in everyºtwenty-four hours around the poles
of the equinoctial. As the Sun loses one day in the year
on the stars, by his direct motion in longitude; so the equi-
nox gains one day on them, in 25,000 years, by its retrograde
motion.
The cause of this motion was unknown, until Newton
proved that it was a necessary consequence of the rotation
of the Earth, combined with its elliptical figure, and the un-
equal attraction of the Sun and Moon on its polar and equa-
torial regions. There being more matter about the Earth’s
equator than at the poles, the former is more strongly at-
tracted than the latter, which causes a slight gyratory or

In what time, continuing at the same rate, will they fall back through the twelve signs
of the ecliptic? In determining the exact period of a complete revolution of the equinoctial
ints, what important circumstance must be borne in mind? Making due allowange for
§. accelerated progress, in what time is a revolution of the equinoxes completed? Is
this motion as quick in the first quarter of their revolution as in the last? What is the
time and difference, of describing each quarter? What is the immediate consequence of
the precession of the equinoxes upon the position of the heavenly bodies? Explain how
this takes place. How does this resemble the annual loss of a sidereal day by the Sun?
What is the cause of this motion?

A
268 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOxps, &c.
wabbling motion of the poles of the Earth around those of
the ecliptic, like the pin of a top about its centre of motion,
when it spins a little obliquely to the base.
The precession of the equinoxes, thus explained, consists
in a real motion of the pole of the heavens among the stars,
in a small circle around the pole of the ecliptic as a centre,
keeping constantly at its present distance of nearly 23#8
from it, in a direction from east to west, and with a progress
so very slow as to require 25,000 years to complete the cir-
cle. During this revolution it is evident that the pole will
point successively to every part of the small circle in the
heavens which it thus describes. Now this cannot happen
without producing corresponding changes in the apparent
diurnal motion of the sphere, and in the aspect which the
heavens must present at remote periods of time.
The effect of such a motion on the aspect of the hea-
vens, is seen in the apparent approach of some stars and con-
stellations to the celestial pole, and the recession of others
The bright star of the Lesser Bear, which we call the pole
star, has not always been, nor will always continue to be,
our polar star. At the time of the construction of the ear-
liest catalogues, this star was 12° from the pole ; it is now
only 1° 34' from it, and it will approach to within half a
degree of it; after which it will again recede, and slowly
give place to others, which will succeed it in its proximity
to the pole.
The pole, as above considered, is to be understood, merely, as the van-
ishing point of the Earth’s axis; or that point in the concave sphere which
is always opposite the terrestrial pole, and which consequently must move
as that moves.
The precession of the stars in respect to the equinoxes,
is less apparent the greater their distance from the ecliptic ;
for whereas a star in the zodiac will appear to sweep the
whole circumference of the heavens, in an equinoctial year,
a star situated within the polar circle will describe only a
very small circle in that period, and by so much the less,
as it approaches the pole. The north pole of the earth
being elevated 23° 274/ towards the tropic of Cancer, the
circumpolar stars will be successively, at the least distance
from it, when their longitude is 3 signs, or 90°. The posi
i
*

Admitting this explanation, in what does the precession of the equinoxes really epnsist?
Towhat pointin the heavens will the pole of the Earth be directed, during the revolution?
How must this affect the diurnal motion and aspect of the heavens, in remote ages?
Wherein will the effects of such a motion be particularly visible? Give_an instance.
When you speak of the Pole as in motion, what is to be iznderstood by that term 2 is
the precession of the stars, with respect to the equinoxes, equally apparent in every part
of the heavens? At what longitude do the circumpolar stars approach mcarest the role?
PRECESSION OF THE EquiNOXEs, &c. 26*
tion of the north polar star in 1836, will be in the 17° of Tau.
rus ; when it arrives at the first degree of Cancer, which it
will do in about 250 years, it will be at its nearest possible
approach to the pole—namely, 29' 55". About 2900 years
before the commencement of the Christian era, Alpha Dra-
conis, the third star in the Dragon's tail, was in the first de-
gree of Cancer, and only 10 from the pole; consequently
it was then the pole star. After the lapse of 11,600 years,
the star Lyra, the brighest in the northern hemisphere, will
occupy the position of a pole star, being then about 5° from
º pole ; whereas now its north polar distance is upwards
Of 519.
The mean average precession from the creation (4004 B. C.) to the year
1800, is 49”.51455; consequently the equinoctial points have receded since
the creation, 2 s. 1498' 27’’. The longitude of the star Beta Arietis, was, in
1820, 31°27′28’’: Meton, a famous mathematician of Athens, who flourished
430 years before Christ, says this star, in his time, was in the vernal equinox.
If he is correct, then 31° 27' 28’’, divided by 2250 years, the elapsed time
will give 50}^' for the precession. Something, however, must be allowe
for the imperfection of the instruments used at that day, and even until the
sixteenth century.
Since all the stars complete half a revolution about the
axis of the ecliptic in about 12,500 years, if the North Star
be at its nearest approach to the pole 250 years hence, it
will, 12,500 years afterwards, be at its greatest possible
distance from it, or about 47° above it:—That is, the star
itself will remain immoveable in its present position, but the
pole of the Earth will then point as much below the pole of
the ecliptic, as now it points above. This will have the
effect, apparently, of elevating the present polar star to twice
its present altitude, or 47°. Wherefore, at the expiration
of half the equinoctial year, that point in the heavens which
is now 19 18' north of the zenith of Hartford, will be the
place of the north pole, and all those places which are situa-
ted 1° 18′ north of Hartford, will then have the present pole
of the heavens in their zenith.
OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC.
The distance between the equinoctial and either tropic,
measured on the meridian, is called the Obliquity of the
Ecliptic: or, this obliquity may be defined as the angle form-
what is the position, at present, of the north polar star, and when will it make.its
nearest possible approach to the true pole of the heavens? At what period has any giher
star been the polar star? When will the star Lyra, which is more than 50° from it, be
the north polar star? What was the mean annual precession from the creation to the
year 1800, and how much did it amount to in that period?. When was Betº. 4 eºs
ºn the equinoz, and what is its longitude nºw?...When will our present north star be
at its least, and when at its greatest distance from the pole? In this case, is it meant that
the star itself will move, or the pole? In what manner? What, then, must be the ap:
É.;’ Titºgºrate these phenomena, by a diagram. What is the obliquity of
ecliptic?


23%
270 OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC.
ed by the intersection of the celestial equator with the eclip-
tic. , Hitherto, we have considered these great primary
circles in the heavens, as never varying their position in
space, nor with respect to each other. But it is a remarkable
and well ascertained fact, that both are in a state of constant
change. We have seen that the plane of the Earth's equator
is constantly drawn out of place by the unequal attraction
of the Sun and Moon acting in different directions upon the
unequal masses of matter at the equator and the poles;
whereby the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic is
constantly retrograding—thus producing the precession of
the equinoaces.
The displacement of the ecliptic, on the contrary, is pro-
duced chiefly by the action of the planets, particularly of
Jupiter and Venus, on the Earth; by virtue of which the
plane of the Earth’s orbit is drawn nearer to those of these
two planets, and consequently, nearer to the plane of the
equinoctial. The tendency of this attraction of the planets,
therefore, is to diminish the angle which the plane of the
equator makes with that of the ecliptic, bringing the two
planes nearer together; and if the Earth had no motion of
rotation, it would, in time, cause the two planes to coincide.
But in consequence of the rotary motion of the Earth, the
inclination of these planes to each other remains very nearly
the same; its annual diminution being scarcely more than
three fourths of one second of a degree in a year.
The obliquity of the ecliptic, at the commencement of the present &entury
was, according to Baily, 23° 27' 56%.”, subject to a yearly diminution of
(Y’.4755. According to Bessel, it was 23° 27' 54".32, with an annual dimi-
mution of 0”.46. This diminution, however, is subject to a slight semian-
nual variation, from the same causes which produce the displacement of
the plane of the ecliptic, in precession.
The attraction of the Sun and Moon, also, unites wºu, that
of the planets, at certain seasons, to augment the diminution
of the obliquity, and at other times, to lessen it. On this
account the obliquity itself is subject to a periodical varia-
tion; for the attractive power of the Moon, which tends to
produce a change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, is variable,
while the diurnal motion of the Earth, which tends to pre-
vent the change from taking place, is constant. Hence
the Earth, which is so nicely poised on her centre, bows a
In what light have we hitherto considered the great, circles of the heavens?, But what
is the fact? By what cause is the displacement of the equinoctial, or the plana of the
Earth's equator, effected? How is the displacement of the }. of the ecliptic effected?
If the planetary attraction, tends, constantly to draw the planes of the equinogtial and
ecliptic nearer together; what is to prevent them from coinciding in one and the same
plane? How much is the distance or angle between them diminished every year? What
was the obliquity of the ecliptic, or the quantity of this angle, at the commencement
of the present century? Is the annual diminution of the obliquity subject to any
tariation? From what cause? What effect has the attraction of the Sun and Moon
on this obliquity?

OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 271
little to the influence of the Moon, and rises again, alternate-
ly, like the gentle oscillations of a balance. This curious
phenomenon, is called Nutation.
In consequence of the yearly diminution of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the tropics are slowly and steadily approach-
ing the equinoctial, at the rate of little more than three
fourths of a second every year; so that the Sun does not
now come so far north of the equator in summer, nor de-
cline so far south in winter, by nearly a degree, as it must
have done at the creation. * * .*
The most obvious effect of this dimintition of the obliqui-
ty of the ecliptic, is to equalize the length of our days and *
nights; but it has an effect also to change the position of
the stars near the tropics. Those which were formerly
situated north of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, are
now found to be still farther north, and farther from the
lane of the ecliptic. On the contrary, those which, accord-
ing to the testimony of the ancient astronomers, were situ-
ated south of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, have ap-
proached this plane, insomuch that some are now either
situated within it, or just on the north side of it. Similar
changes have taken place with respect to those stars situ-
ated near the winter solstice. All the stars, indeed, parti-
cipate more or less in this motion, but less, in proportion to
their proximity to the equinoctial.
It is important, however, to observe, that this diminution
will not always continue. A time will arrive when this
motion, growing less and less, will at length entirely cease,
and the obliquity will, apparently, remain constant for a
time; after which it will gradually increase again, and con-
tinue to diverge by the same yearly increment as it before
had diminished. This alternate decrease and increase will
constitute an endless oscillation, comprehended between cer-
tain fixed limits. Theory has not yet enabled us to deter-
mine precisely what these limits are, but it may be demon-
strated from the constitution of our globe, that such limits
exist, and that they are very restricted, probably not exceed-
ing 2°42'. If we consider the effect of this ever varying
attribute in the system of the universe, it may be affirmed

What results from this alternate and ºpposite influence?. By what token does, the
Earth show her respect to this influence of the Moon? What is this phenomenon called?
What is the consequence of the §§ diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic in respect
to the position of the tropics, and the declination of the Sun? What other obvious effects
result from this diminution? How does it affect the declination of the stars near the
solstices? Do all the stars partake; more or less, in this motion? Will this diminution
of the obliquity always continue? What are the limits of its alternate yariation?...What
would be the consequence; in respect to the seasons, should the plane of the ecliſtic evet
goincide with the plane of the equator 1
272 THE TIDES.
that the plane of the ecliptic never has coincided with the
plane of the equator, and never will coincide with it. Such
a coincidence, could it happen, would produce upon the
Earth perpetual spring.
The method used by astronomers to determine the obli-
quity of the ecliptic is, to take half the difference of the
greatest and least meridian altitudes of the Sun.
The following table exhibits the mean obliquity of the
ecliptic for every ten years during the present century.
1800 23o 27' 54// .78 || 1860 23S 277 276 .36
1810 23 27 50 .21 1780 23 27 22 .79
1820 23 27 45 ,64 1880 23 27 18 .22
1830 23 27 41 .07 1890 23 27 13 .65
1840 23 27 36 .50 1900 23 27 9 .08
1850 23 27 31 .93 1910 23 27 4 .52
C H A P T E R XXII.
THE TIDES.
THE oceans, and all the seas, are observed to be incessant-
ly agitated for certain periods of time, first from the east
towards the west, and then again from the west towards the
east. In this motion, which lasts about six hours, the sea
gradually swells; so that entering the mouths of rivers, it
drives back the waters towards their source. After a con-
tinual flow of six hours, the seas seem to rest for about a
quarter of an hour; they then begin to ebb, or retire back
again from west to east for six hours more; and the rivers
again resume their natural courses. Then after a seem-
ing pause of a quarter of an hour, the seas again begin to
flow, as before, and thus alternately. This regular alternate
motion of the sea constitutes the tides, of which there are
two in something less than twenty-five hours.
The ancients considered the ebbing and flowing of the tides as one of the
greatest mysteries in nature, and were utterly at a loss to account for them.
Galileo and Descartes, and particularly Kepler, made some successful
advances towards ascertaining the cause ; but Sir Isaac Newton was the
first who clearly showed what were the chief agents in producing these
motions.
The cause of the tides, is the attraction of the Sun and
Moon, but chiefly of the Moon, upon the waters of the
What is the method used by astronomers for determining the obliquity of the ecliptic?
What regular motion is observed in the great body of waters upon the #;". ..In what
periods of time is this alternate ebbing and flowing accomplished? What is it called?
How were these phenomena regarded by the ancients? Who ascertained their true
cause 2 What is the cause of the tides?
"THE TIDES, 273
ocean. In virtue of gravitation, the Moon, by her attrac-
tion, draws, or raises the water towards her; but because
the power of attraction diminishes as the squares of the dis-
tance increase, the waters on the opposite side of the Earth,
are not so much attracted as they are on the side nearest
the Moon.
That the Moon, says Sir John Herschel, should, by her attraction, heap
up the waters of the ocean under her, seems to most persons very natural;
but that the same cause should, at the same time, heap them up on the oppo-
site side, seems, to many, palpably absurd. . Yet nothing is more true, nor
indeed more evident, when we consider that it is not by her whole attraction,
but by the differences of her attractions at the opposite surfaces and at the
centre, that the waters are raised.
That the tides are dependent upon some known and determinate laws, is
evident from the exact time of high water being previously given in every
aphemeris, and in many of the common almanacks.
The Moon comes every day later to the meridian than on the day preceding,
and her exact time is known by calculation; and the tides in any an
every place, will be found to follow the same rule; happening exactly so
much later every day as the Moon comes later to the meridian. From this
exact conformity to the motions of the Moon, we are induced to look to her
as the cause; and to infer that these phenomena are occasioned principally
by the Moon's attraction.
THE TIDES.
Fig. 24. Fig. 26.
*
If the Earth were at rest, and there were no attractive in-
fluence from either the Sun or Moon, it is obvious from the
rinciples of gravitation, that the waters in the ocean would
; truly spherical; (as represented by Fig. 24;) but daily
observation proves that they are in a state of continual agi-
tat 10n.
If the Earth and Moon were without motion, and the Earth
covered all over with water, the attraction of the Moon would
raise it up in a heap, in that part of the ocean to which the
Moon is vertical, as in Figure 25, and there it would, prob-
How does the attraction of the Sun and Moon produce tides upon both sides of the
earth at the same time? What is Sir John. Herschel’s remark won this theory?
#ow is it known that the tides are governed by any ascertained law & What coinci-
dence is observed between the meridian passage of the Moon. and the time of high
water? What conclusion may we derive from this coincidence? If the Earth were
at rest, and under no influence from the attraction of the Sun or Moon, what shape would
the waters assume? Suppose the attractive power of the Moon upon the Earth to be as
it is, and neither the Earth or Moon to have any motion, what would be the result? How
would this condition of things be affected by the Earth's rotation?

274 IHE TIDES,
ably, always continue ; but by the rotation of the Earth
upon its axis, each part of its surface to which the Moon is
vertical is presented to the action of the Moon: wherefore,
as the quantity of water on the whole Earth remains the
same, when the waters are elevated on the side of the Earth
under the Moon, and on the opposite side also, it is evident
they must recede from the intermediate points, and thus the
attraction of the Moon produce high water at two opposite
places, and low water at two opposite places, on the Earth,
at the same time, as represented by Figure 26.
This is evident from the figure. The waters cannot rise in one place,
without falling in another; and therefore they must fall as low in the horizon,
at C and D, as they rise in the zenith and nadir, at A and B. Fig. 27
THE TIDES.
Fig. 27.
It has already been shown, under the article gravitation
that the Earth and Moon would fall towards each other, by
the power of their mutual attraction, if there were no centri-
fugal force to prevent them; and that the Moon would ſall
as much faster towards the Earth than the Earth would fall
towards the Moon, as the quantity of matter in the Earth is
greater than the quantity of matter in the Moon. . The same
law determines also the size of their respective orbits around
their common centre of gravity.
If follows then, as we have seen, that the Moon does not revolve, strict-
ly speaking, around the Earth as a centre, but around a point between them,
which is 80 times nearer the Earth than the Moon, and consequently is situ.
ated about 3000 miles from the Earth’s centre. It has also been shown, that
all bodies moving in circles acquire a centrifugal ſorce proportioned to their
respective masses and velocity. From these facts, some philosophers account
If the Earth and the Moon mutually attract each other with so much force, what pre
vents their coming together? But centrifugal force results only from circular motion,
does the Earth than circulate around the Moon to acquire the centrifugal force by which
it is kept from falling upon the Moon? [Ans. The Earth does not circulate around the
Moon, but around the common centre of gravity between it and the Moºn..] Where is this
centre situated, and in what time does the Earth revolve about it? I Ans. The centre of
grayity, between the Earth and Moon, is about 3000 miles from the Earth's centre, firound
which it revolves every lunar month, or as often as the Moon revolves around the Earth.]
From the fact of the Earth's motion, as in the case described, how do some philoso-
phers account for high water on the side of the Earth, opposite to the Moon

THE TIDES. 275
*
for high water on the side of the Earth opposite to the Moon, in the following
Irianſler
As the Earth and Moon move around their common centre of gravity, that
§ of the Earth which is at any time turned from the Moon, being about
000 miles farther from the centre of gravity, than the side next the Moon,
would have a greater centrifugal force than the side meat her. At the Earth's
centre, the centrifugal force will balance the attractive force; therefore as
much water is thrown off by the centrifugal force on the side which is turned
from the Moon, as is raised on the side next her by her attraction.
From the universal law, that the force of gravity dimin-
ishes as the square of the distance increases, it results, that
the attractive power of the Moon decreases in intensity at
every step of the descent from the zenith to the nadir; and
consequently that the waters on the zenith, being more at-
tracted by the Moon than the Earth is at its centre, move
faster towards the Moon than the Earth’s centre does: And
as the centre of the Earth moves faster towards the Moon
than the waters about the nadir do, the waters will be, as it
were, left behind, and thus, with respect to the centre, they
will be raised.
The reason why the Earth and waters of our globe do not seem to be af.
fected equally by the Moon's attraction, is, that the earthy substance of the
globe, being firmly united, does not yield to any difference of the Moon's at-
tractive force; insomuch that its upper and lower surface must move equally
fast towards the Moon; whereas the waters, cohering together but very light-
ly, yield to the different degrees of the Moon's attractive force, at different
distances from her.
The length of a lunar day, that is, of the interval from
one meridian passage of the Moon to another, being, at a
mean rate, 24 hours, 48 minutes and 44 seconds, the inter-
val between the flux and the reflux of the sea is not, at a
mean rate, precisely six hours, but twelve minutes and
eleven seconds more, so that the time of high water does
not happen at the same hour, but is about 49 minutes later
every day.
The Earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four hours;
if the Moon, therefore, were stationary, the same part of our
globe would return beneath it, and there would be two tides
every twenty-four hours; but while the Earth is turning once
upon its axis, the Moon has gone forward 13° in her orbit—
which takes forty-nine minutes more before the same meri-
dian is brought again directly under the Moon. And hence
every succeeding day the time of high water will be forty-
nine minutes later than the preceding.
For example:—Suppose at any place it be high water at 3 o'clock in the
afternoon, upon the day of new Moon; the following day it will be high water
about 49 minutes after 3; the day after, about 38 minutes after 4; and so on.

How is this phenomenon otherwise explained, by the laws of gravity, merely? Are the
£arth and waters of the globe affected equally, by the Moon's attraction ? Why not?
What is the average interval between the flux and reflux of the sea? What is the length
of a lunar day, and of the interval of the flux and reflux of the sea? How is this daily
'etardation of the tides accounted for? Give an excºmple?
276 THE TIDES,
wº
till the next new Moon. The exact daily mean retardation of the tides is thus
idetermined :
The mean motion of the Moon, in a solar day, is 139.17639639
The mean motion of the Sun, in a solar day, in 0 .98564722
Now, as 15° is to 60 minutes, so is 129.19074917 to 48’44”.
It is obvious that the attraction of the Sun must produce
upon the waters of the ocean a like effect to that of the
Moon, though in a less degree; for the great mass of the
Sun is more than compensated by its immense distance.
Nevertheless, its effect is considerable, and it can be shown,
that the height of the solar tide is to the height of the lunar
tide as 2 to 5. Hence the tides, though constant, are not
equal. They are greatest when the Moon is in conjunction
with, or in opposition to, the Sun, and least when in quad
rature. For in the former case, the Sun and Moon set to-
gether, and the tide will equal the sum of the solar and lunar
tides, and in the latter they act against each other, and the
tide will be the difference.
The former are called Spring Tides; the latter, Neap
Tides. The spring tides are highest, when the Sun and
Moon are near the equator, and the Moon at her least distance
from the Earth ºne neap tides are lowest, when the Moon
in her first and second quarters is at her greatest distance
from the Earth. The general theory of the tides is thus:
When the Moon is nearest the Earth, her attraction is strong-
est, and the tides are the highest ; when she is fartnest
from the Earth, her attraction is least, and the tides are the
lowest.
From the above theory, it might be supposed that the tides
would be the highest when the Moon was on the meridian.
But it is found that in open seas, where the water flows
freely, the Moon has generally passed the north or south
meridian about three hours, when it is high water. The
reason is, that the force by which the Moon raises the tide
continues to act, and consequently the waters continue to
rise, after she has passed the meridian.
For the same reason, the highest tides, which are pro-
duced by the conjunction and opposition of the Sun and
Moon, do not happen on the days of the full and change ;
neither do the lowest tides happen on the days of their
quadratures.—But the greatest spring tides commonly hap-

Are the tides uniformly high?, When, and on what account do they differ? What are
these extreme tides called? When are the º tides highest? When are the .#
tides lowest? What is the #. theory upon this subject? Does it necessarily result
from this theory, that the tide is highest when the Moon is on the meridian? What reason
is assigned for this? What similar fact is accounted for upon the same principle?
THE TIEES. 277
pen 1% days after the new and full Moons; and the east
neap tides 1; days after the first and third quarters.
The Sun and Moon, by reason of the elliptical form of their orbits, are al
ternately nearer to and farther from the Earth, than their mean distances,
In consequence of this, the efficacy of the Sun will fluctuate between the ex-
tremes 19 and 21, taking 20 for its mean value, and between 43 and 59 for
that of the Moon. Taking into account this cause of difference, the highest
spring tide will be to the lowest neap as 59-H21 is to 43—19, or as 80 to 24,
or 10 to 3. The relative mean influence is as 51 to 20, or as 5 to 2, nearly.—
Herschel's Astr. p. 339.
Though the tides, in open seas, are at the highest about
three hours after the Moon has passed the meridian, yet the
waters in their passage through shoals and channels, and by
striking against capes and headlands, are so retarded that,
to different places, the tides happen at all distances of the
Moon from the meridian; consequently at all hours of the
lunar day.
In small collections of water, the Moon acts at the same
time on every part ; diminishing the gravity of the whole
mass. On this account there are no sensible tides in lakes,
they being generally so small that when the Moon is verti-
cal, it attracts every part alike; and by rendering all the
waters equally light, no part of them can be raised higher
than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic Seas have
very small elevations, partly for this reason, and partly be-
cause the inlets by which they communicate with the ocean
are so narrow, that they cannot, in so short a time, either
receive or discharge enough, sensibly to raise or sink their
surfaces.
Of all the causes of difference in the height of tides at
different places, by far the greatest is local situation. In
wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the direction of the stream
of the tides, and whose channels are growing gradually
narrower, the water is accumulated by the contracting
banks, until in some instances it rises to the height of 20,
30, and even 50 feet.
Air being lighter than water, and the surface of the at-
mosphere being nearer to the Moon than the surface of the
sea, it cannot be doubted but that the Moon raises much
higher tides in the atmosphere than in the sea. According
to Sir John Herschel these tides are, by very delicate ob-
servations, rendered not only sensible, but measurable.
Upon the supposition that the waters on the surface of the Moon are of
—º

What is the comparative fºrce of the solar and lunar attraction upon the Earth?
To what is owing the great rence in the time of high water at places lying under the
same meridian? Why are theſe no tides upon lakes, and small collections of water?
To what cause, more than to all others, is the different height of tides owing? º
this. Is it probable that the Moon exerts any influenge of attraction on the atmosphere?
Why is it probable? gº the atmospheric tides sufficiently sensible to be appreciatet,”

278 THE SEASONS,
the same specific gravity as our own, we might easily determine the height
to which the Earth would raise a lunar tide, by the known principle, that the
attraction of one of these bodies on the other's surface is directly as its
quantity of matter, and inversely as its diameter. By making the calculation
we shall find the attractive power of the Earth upon the Moon to be ...}}
times greater than that of the Moon upon the Earth.
C H A P T E R XXIII.
‘THE SEASONS-DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF THE DAYS AND NIGHTS.
The vicissitudes of the seasons and the unequal lengths
of the days and nights, are occasioned by the annual revo-
lution of the Earth around the Sun, with its axis inclined to
the plane of its orbit.
The temperature of any part of the Earth’s surface depends
mainly, if not entirely, upon its exposure to the Sun’s rays.
Whenever the Sun is above the horizon of any place, that
place is receiving heat; when the Sun is below the horizon
it is parting with it, by a process which is called radiation.
The quantities of heat thus received and imparted in the
course of the year, must balance each other at every place,
or the equilibrium of temperature would not be supported.
Whenever, then, the Sun remains more than twelve hours
above the horizon of any place, and less beneath, the gen-
eral temperature of that place will be above the mean state;
when the reverse takes place, the temperature, for the same
reason, will be below the mean state. Now the continuance
df the Sun above the horizon of any place, depends entirely
upon his declination, or altitude at noon. About the 20th
of March, when the Sun is in the vernal equinox, and con-
sequently has no declination, he rises at six in the morning
and sets at six in the evening; the day and night are then
equal, and as the Sun continues as long above our horizon
as below it, his influence must be nearly the same at the
same latitudes, in both hemispheres.
From the 20th of March to the 21st of June, the days
grow longer, and the nights shorter, in the northern hemis-
phere the temperature increases, and we pass from spring
to mid-summer; while the reverse of this takes place in the
How much greater is the attractive power of the Earth upon the Moon, than that of
the Moon upon the Earth? What occasions the vicissitudes of the seasons, and the
unequal lengths of the days and nights? Upon what does the temperature a differ-
ent places depend?... Under what circumstances do the same places change, their
temperature? Are the quantities of heat, received and imparted, every year always
equal at the same places? Why is it soi When is the temperature of a place above,
and when is it belong its mean state?. Upon what does the continuange of the Sup
above the horizon of any place, depend? When is the Sun as long above our hori-
zon as below it? During what season of the year is the temperature increasing?
THE SEASONS. 27g
southern hemisphere. From the 21st of June to the 23d of
September, the days and nights again approach to equality,
and the excess of temperature in the northern hemisphere
above the mean state, grows less, as also its defect in the
southern ; so that, when the Sun arrives at the autumnal
equinox, the mean temperature is again restored. From
the 23d of September until the 21st of December, our nights
grow longer and the days shorter, and the cold increases as
before it diminished, while we pass from autumn to mid-
winter, in the northern hemisphere, and the inhabitants of
the southern hemisphere from spring to mid-summer. From
the 21st of December to the 20th of March, the cold relaxes
as the days grow longer, and we pass from the dreariness of
winter to the mildness of spring, when the seasons are com-
pleted, and the mean temperature is again restored. The
same vicissitudes transpire, at the same time, in the southern
hemisphere, but in a contrary order.—Thus are produced
the four seasons of the year.
But I have stated not the only, nor, perhaps, the most
efficient cause in producing the heat of summer and the cold
of winter. If, to the inhabitants of the equator, the Sun
were to remain 16 hours below their horizon, and only 8
hours above it, for every day of the year, it is certain they
would never experience the rigours of our winter; since it
can be demonstrated, that as much heat falls upon the same
area from a vertical Sun in 8 hours, as would fall from him,
at an angle of 60°, in 16 hours.
Now as the Sun's rays fall most obliquely when the days
are shortest, and most directly when the days are longest,
these two causes, namely, the duration and intensity of
the solar heat, together, produce the temperature of the dif-
ferent seasons. The reason why we have not the hottest
temperature when the days are longest, and - the cold-
est temperature when the days are shortest, but in each
case about a month afterwards, appears to be, that a body
once heated, does not grow cold instantaneously, but grad-
ually, and so of the contrary. Hence, as long as more heat
comes from the Sun by day than is iost by night, the heat
will increase, and vice versa.

What, at the same time, takes place in regard to the temperature, in the southem
isphere? During what portion of the year is the temperature decreasing? For what
reason? During what portion of the year is the cold increasing? Why is it so? What
change of seasons, them, takes place, in the northern and southern hemisphere? What
pther changes complete the seasons of the year? Whence is it evident that the unequal
lengths of the days and nights are nºt the only, nor perhaps the most efficient cause of the
eat of summer, an e cold of winter? What two causes produce the greatest
vicissitudes of heat and cold? Why, then, do we not have the hottest weather when
the days are longest, and the contrary?

280 THE SEASONS.
BEGINNING AND LENGTH OF THE SEASONS,
h. m. s.
Sun enters V3 º: begins) 1833, Dec. 21st, 72546M. T. Wash
* “ ” (Spring “ ) 1834, March 20,85638 “ “
* “ a c (Summer “ “June 21st,6 3 9 “ {{
{{ {{ §§." {{ “ Sept22d, 1958.21 “ ”
)
“ “ V3(Winter “ “ Dec. 21, 132157 “ “
d. h. m. S.
Bun in the Winter Signs . - tº e 89 1 30 52
* * Spring * º g * 92 21 631
* * Summer te º & & 93 13 55 22
* “ Autumn . * - e º
* north of Equator §. and Summer) 186 11 l 53
** south ſ (Winter and Autumn) 178 18,54 18
Longest north of the equator, º º 7 16. 7 35,
Length of the tropical year, beginning at
365 5 56 11
the winter solstice 1833, and ending at
the winter solstice 1834,
Mean or average length of the tropical year, 365 5 48 48
The north pole of the Earth is denominated the elevated
pole, because it is always about 234° above a perpendicular
to the plane of the equator, and the south pole is denomina-
ted the depressed pole, because it is about the same distance
below such perpendicular.
As the Sun cannot shine on more than one half the Earth’s
surface at a time, it is plain, that when the Earth is moving
through that portion of its orbit which lies above the Sun, the
elevated pole is in the dark. This requires six months, that
is, until the Earth arrives at the equinox, when the elevated
pole emerges into the light, and the depressed pole is turned
away from the Sun for the same period. Consequently,
there are six months day and six months night, alternately,
at the poles.
When the Sun appears to us to be in one part of the eclip-
tic, the Earth, as seen from the Sun, appears in the point di-
ametrically opposite. Thus, when the Sun appears in the
vernal equinox at the first point of Aries, the Earth is actu-
ally in the opposite equinox at Libra. The days and nights.
are then equal all over the world. i
As the Sun appears to move up from the vernal equinox
o the summer solstice, the Earth actually moves from the
tutumnal equinox down to the winter solstice. The days
wow lengthen in the northern hemisphere, and shorten in t
"outhern. The Sun is now over the north pole, where it is
mid-day, and opposite the south pole, where it is mid-night.

Why is the north pole denominated the elevated pole? Why is the south pole denomi-
ated the depressed pole? Whyarethere six months day and six month night, alternately
& the poles? What is always the relative position of the Sun and Earth in the ecliptic
five an example. When do the days lengthen in the northern hemisphere, and shorten in
he southern? When is it mid-day at the north pole, and mid-night at the south?
THE SEASON:S. 2S1
As the Sun descends from the summer solstice towards
the autumnal equinox, the Earth ascends from the winter
solstice towards the vernal equinox. The summer days in
the northern hemisphere having waxed shorter and shorter,
now become again of equal length in both hemispheres.
While the Sun appears to move from the autumnal equi-
nox down to the winter solstice, the Earth passes up from
the vernal equinox to the summer solstice; the south pole
comes into the light, the winter days continually shorten in
the northern hemisphere, and the summer days as regularly
increase in length in the southern hemisphere.
While the Sun appears again to ascend from its winter
solstice to the Vernal equinox, the Earth descends from the
summer solstice to the autumnal equinox. The summer
days now shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the win-
ter days lengthen in the northern hemisphere.
When the Sun passes the vernal equinox, it rises to the
arctic or elevated pole, and sets to the antarctic pole. When
the Sun arrives at the summer solstice, it is noon at the
north pole, and midnight at the south pole. When the Sun
passes the autumnal equinox, it sets to the north pole, and
rises to the south pole. When the Sun arrives at the win-
ter solstice, it is midnight at the north pole, and noon at the
south pole; and when the Sun comes again to the vernal
equinox, it closes the day at the south pole, and lights up
the morning at the north pole.
There would, therefore, be 1864 days during which the
Sun would not set at the north pole, and an equal time du-
ring which he would not rise at the south pole; and 1784.
days in which he would not set at the south pole, nor rise
at the north pole. -
At the arctic circle, 23° 27.4% from the pole, the longest
day is 24 hours, and goes on increasing as you approach the
pole. In latitude 67° 18' it is 30 days; in lat. 69° 30' it is
60 days, &c. (See Table XII.) The same takes place be-
tween the antarctic circle and the south pole, with the ex-
ception, that the day in the same latitude south is a little
shorter, since the Sun is not so long south of the equator,
as at the north of it. In this estimate no account is taken
of the refraction of the atmosphere, which, as we shall

When do the summer days in the northern hemisphere grow shorter and shorter? When
do they begome of equal length in both hemispheres? When do the winter days shorten
in the northern hemisphere, and the summer days lengthen in the southern? When do
the summer days shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the winter days lengthen in the
northern? When does the sunrise to the north pole, and set to the south? When is it
noon at the north pole, and mid-night at the south pole? When does the Sun set at the
north pole, and rise to the south? When is it mid-night at the north pole, and noon at the
south?...What is the length of the day at the north pole? What at the south pole? At
the arctic circle? *g, ge antarctic circle and the pole?
gº? THE SEASON.3,
see hereafter, increases the length of the day, by ºf
i. Sun appear more elevated above the horizon than it real-
y is.
THE SEASONS-UNEQUAL LENGTHS OF DAYS AND NIGHTS.
Fig. 28.
The above cut represents the inclination of the Earth’s axis to its orbit in
every one of the twelve signs of the ecliptic, and consequently for each
month in the year. The Sun enters the sign Aries, or the vermal equinox, on
the 20th of March, when the Earth’s axis inclines neither towards the Sun, nor
from it, but sideways to it; so that the Sun then shines equally upon the
Earth from pole to pole, and the days and nights are every where equal
This is the beginning of the astronomical year; it is also the beginning of
day at the north pole, which is just coming into light, and the end of day at
the south pole, which is just going into darkness.
By the Earth's orbitual progress, the Sun appears to enter the second sign,
Taurus, on the 20th of April, when the north pole, N, has sensibly advanced
into the º while the south pole, S. has been declining from it; whereby
the days become longer than the nights in the Northern Hemisphere, and
shorter in the Southern. --
On the 21st of May, the Sun appears to enter the sign Gemini, when the
north pole, N, has advanced considerably further into the light, while the
south pole, S, has proportionally declined from it; the summer days are now
waxing longer in the Northern Hemisphere, and the nights shorter.
The 21st of June, when the Sun enters the sign Cancer, is the first day of
summer, in the astronomical year, and the longest day in the Northern Hemis-
; : The north pole now has its greatest inclination to the Sun, the
ight of which, as is shown by the boundary of light and darkness, in the
figure, extends to the utmost verge of the Arctic Circle; the whole of which
is included in the enlightened hemisphere of the Earth, and enjoys, at this
season, constant day during the complete revolution of the Earth on its axis.
The whole of the Northern Frigid Zone is now in the circle of perpetual illu-
mination. -
On the 23d of July, the Sun enters the sign Leo, and as the line of the
Earth’s axis always continues parallel to itself, the boundary of light and
darkness begins to approach nearer to the poles, and the length of the day,

IHARWEST MOON, 283
in the Northern Hemisphere, which had arrived at its maximum, pegins
gradually to decrease. On the 23d of August, the Sun enters the sign Virgo,
increasing the appearances mentioned in Leo.
On the 23d of September, the Sun enters Libra, the first of the autumnal
signs, when the Earth's axis, having the same inclination as it had in the op.
Fº sign, Aries, is turned neither from the Sun, nor towards it, but oblique
y to it, so that the Sun again now shines equally upon the whole ºf the Earth's
surface from pole to pole. The days and nights are once more of equal
length throughout the world.
On the 23d of October, the Sun enters the sign Scorpio ; the days visibly
decrease in length in the Northern Hemisphere, and increase in the South-
© TIA.
On the 22d of November, the Sun enters the sign Sagittarius, the last of
the autumnal signs, at which time the boundary of light and darkness is al
a considerable distance from the north pole, while the south pole has pro-
portionally advanced into the light; the length of the day continues to increase
in the Southern Hemisphere, and to decrease in the Northern.
On the 21st of December, which is the period of the winter solstice, the
Sun enters the sign Capricorn. At this time, the north pole of the Earth’s
axis is turned from the Sun, into perpetual darkness; while the south pole,
in its turn, is brought into the light of the Sun, whereby the whole Antarctic
region comes into the circle of perpetual illumination. It is now that the
Southern Hemisphere enjoys all those advantages with which the Northern
Hemisphere was favoured on the 21st of June; while the Northern Hemis-
; in its turn, undergoes the dreariness of wintér, with short days and long
nights. 3.
C H A P T E R X. X I V.
HARVEST MOON-HORIZONTAL MOON.
The daily progress of the Moon in her orbit, from west
to east, causes her to rise, at a mean rate, 48 minutes and
44 seconds later every º than on the preceding. But
in places of considerable latitude, a remarkable deviation
from this rule takes place, especially about the time of
harvest, when the full Moon rises to us for several nights
together, only from 18 to 25 minutes later in one day, than
ôn that immediately preceding. From the benefit which
her light affords, in lengthening out the day, when the hus-
bandmen are gathering in the fruits, of the Earth, the full
moon, under these circumstances, has acquired the name of
Harvest Moon.
It is believed that this fact was observed by persons engaged in agriculture,
at a much earlier period than that in which it was noticed by astronomers
The former ascribed it to the goodness of the Deity; not doubting but that
he had so ordered it for their advantage.
About the equator, the Moon rises throughout the year
with nearly the equal intervals of 48# minutes; and there
the harvest moon is unknown.
What is the mean difference of timé in the daily rising of the Moon? Under what cir.
cumstances is there a material deviation from this rule? Whence the name of Harpest
Moon 2. By whom was this phenomenon first observed, and to what did they attributé
it? Why is the Harvest Moon unknown at the equator?
284 HARVEST MOON.
At the polan circles, the autumnal full Moon, from her first
to her third quarter, rises as the Sun sets; and at the poles,
where the Sun is absent during one half of the year, the
winter full Moons, from the first to the third quarter, shine
constantly without setting.
By this, it is not meant that the Moon continues full from her first to her
third quarter; but that she never sets to the North Polar regions, when, at
this season of the year, she is within 90° of that point in her orbit where
she is at her full. In other words: as the Sun illumines the south pole
during one half of its yearly revolution, so the Moom, being opposite to the
Sun at her full, must illumine the opposite pole, during half of her revolution
about the Earth. The phenomenon of the harvest Moon may be thus exem.
plified by means of the globe :
Rectify the globe to the latitude of the place, put a patch or piece of war
fer in the ecliptic, on the point Aries, and mark every 129 preceding and
following that point, to the number of ten or twelve marks on each side
of it; bring the equinoctial point marked by the wafer to the eastern edge
of the horizon, and set the index to 12; turn the globe westward till the
other marks successively come to the horizon, and observe the hours passed
over by the index; the intervals of time between the marks coming to the
horizon, will show the diurnal difference of time between the Moon’s rising.
If these marks be brought to the western edge of the horizon in the same
manner, it will show the diurnal difference between the Moon's setting.
From this problem it will also appear, that, when there is the least difference
between the times of the Moon's rising, there will be the greatest difference
between the times of her setting, and the contrary.
The reason why you mark every 129 is, that the Moon gains 12° 11’
on the apparent course of the Sun every day, and these marks serve te
denote the place of the Moon from day to day. It is true, this º Sup-
poses that the Moon revolves in the plane of the ecliptic, which is not the
case; yet her orbit so nearly coincides with the ecliptic, (differing only
5°9′ from it,) that they may, for the convenience of illustration, be consid-
ered as coinciding; that is, we may take the ecliptic for the representative
of the Moon's orbit.
The different lengths of the lunar night, at different lati-
tudes, is owing to the different angles made by the horizon
and different parts of the Moon's orbit; or in other words,
by the Moon’s orbit lying sometimes more oblique to the
horizon than at others. In the latitude of London, for ex-
ample, as much of the ecliptic rises about Pisces and Aries
in two hours as the Moon goes through in six days; there-
fore while the Moon is in these signs, she differs but two
hours in rising for six days together; that is, one day with
another, she rises about 20 minutes later every day than on
the preceding.
The parts or signs of the ecliptic which rise with the
smallest angles, set with the greatest 5 and those which rise
with the greatest, set with the least. And whenever this
angle is least, a greater portion of the ecliptic rises in equal
times than when the angle is larger. Therefore, when the
How is it at the polar circles, and the poles? What is meant by the full Moon's
shining from the first to the third quarter? How may the phenomenon be exempli-
ed by means of the artificial globé? Why do you mark, every 12° of the ecliptic in
this problem 2 What does this process of illustration suppose, which is not true,
gnd why is it adopted? To what is the different lengths of the lunar night, in different

'atitudes, owing 3 Giye an example. . How do *hose parts of the ecliptic set, which rise
with the smallest angles, and the contrary 3
HARVEST MOON. 285
Moon is in those signs which rise or set with the smallest
angles, she rises or sets with the least difference of time;
but when she is in those signs which rise or set with the
greatest angles, she rises or sets with the greatest differ-
ence of time.
Let the globe, for example, be rectified to the latitude of New York,
40°42' 40", with Cancer, on the meridian, and Librarising in the east. In
this position, the ecliptic has a high elevation, making an angle with the ho-
rizon of 72}o.
But let the globe be turned half round on its axis, till Capricorn comes
to the meridian, and Aries rises in the east, then the ecliptic will have a
low elevation above the horizon, making an angle with it of only 2549. This
angle is 47° less than the former angle, and is equal to the distance between
the tropics. /
In northern latitudes, the smallest angle made by the
ecliptic and horizon, is when Aries rises; at which time
Libra sets; the greatest is, when Libra rises and Aries sets.
The ecliptic rises fastest about Aries, and slowest about
Libra. Though Pisces and Aries make an angle of only
25}* with the horizon when they rise, to those who live in
the latitude of New York, yet the same signs, when they
set, make an angle of 72.4°. The daily difference of the
Moon's rising, when in these signs, is, in New England,
about 22 minutes; but when she is in the opposite signs,
Virgo and Libra, the daily difference of her rising is al-
most four times as great, being about one hour and a
quarter.
As the Moon can never be full but when she is opposite
to the Sun, and the Sun is never in Virgo or Libra except
in our autumnal months, September and October, it is evident
that the Moon is never full in the opposite signs, Pisces and
Aries, except in those two months. We can therefore have
only two full Moons in a year, which rise, for a week togeth-
er, very near the time of sun-set.—The former of these is
called the Harvest Moon, and the latter, the Hunter's Moon.
Although there can be but two full Moons in the year
that rise with so little variation of time, yet the phenomenon
of the Moon's rising for a week together so nearly at the
same time, occurs every month, in some part of her course
or the other.
In Winter, the signs Pisces and Aries rise about noon ; hence the rising of
the Moon is not then regarded nor perceived.
In Spring, these signs rise with the Sun, because he is then in them; and
as the Moon changes while passing ; the same sign with the Sun, it
must then be the change, and hence invisible,
-- ~~~- ---> -- sº-sº
What results from this in regard to the Moon 7 . How may this be illustrated on the
globe 2 in northern latitudes, what signs rise and set with the least angles? What with
the greatest? What parts of the ecliptic, rise fastest, and which slowest?. Give an ex-
ample. What is the daily difference of the Moon's rising and setting, in these signs, ig
the ſatitude of New York? How many full Moons in a year, which rise with so little dif
ference oftime? Why are not these phenomena observed in the same signs, in Włº
ter, Spring, and Summer R
286 HORIZONTAL MOON.
In Summer, they rise about midnight, when the Moon is in her third unr
ter. On account of her rising so late, and giving but little light, her risins
passes unobserved.
To the inhabitants at the equator, the north and south
poles appear in the horizon; and therefore the ecliptic makes
the same angle southward with the horizon when Aries rises,
as it does northward when Libra rises; consequently the
Moon rises and sets not only with angles nearly equal, btrº
at equal intervals of time, all the year round: Hence, there
is no harvest Moon at the equator. The farther any place
is from the equator, if it be not beyond the polar circles, the
angle which the ecliptic makes with the horizon gradually
diminishes when Pisces and Aries rise.
Although in northern latitudes, the autumnal full Moons
are in Pisces and Aries; yet in southern latitudes it is just
the reverse, because the seasons are so:—for Virgo and
Libra rise at as small angles with the horizon in southern
latitudes, as Pisces and Aries do in the northern ; and there-
fore the harvest Moons are just as regular on one side of the
equator as on the other.
At the polar circles, the full Moon neither rises in summer,
nor sets in winter. For the winter full Moon being as high
in the ecliptic as the summer Sun, she must continue, while
passing through the northern signs, above the horizon; and
the summer full Moon being as low in the ecliptic as the
winter Sun, can no more rise, when passing through the
southern signs, than he does.
THE HORIZONTAL Moon.—The great apparent magnitude
of the Moon, and indeed of the Sun, at rising and setting, is
a phenomenon which has greatly embarrassed almost all
who have endeavoured to account for it. According to the
ordinary laws of vision, they should appear to be least when
nearest the horizon, being then farthest from the eye; and
yet the reverse of this is found to be true. The apparent
diameter of the Moon, when viewed in the horizon by the
naked eye, is two or three times larger than when at the
altitude of thirty or forty degrees; and yet when measured
by an instrument her diameter is not increased at all.
Both the Sun and the Moon subtend a greater angle when on the meridi.
an, than they do in the horizon, because they are then actually nearer the
place of the spectator, by the whole semi-diameter of the Earth. #

Explain why there is no Harvest Moon at the equator. The farther any place is from
the equator, how is the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, when Pisces *.
Aries rise? Do the Harvest Moons happen as regularly, and in the same months, on the
south side of the equator, as on the north? Why does not the full Moon rise in suminer
nor set in winter, to the inhabitants of the polar circles? According to the ordinax" tawa
of vision, how ought the magnitudes of the Sun and Moon to appear, whºp uses *-*
est the horizon? What is the fact? How much larger does the Moon • “ . . "
naked eye, when in the horizon, than when at the altitude of thirty or A., ºf 3
Where, in reality, do the Sun and Moon subtend the largest angle? Why is it s2)

REFRACTION, 287
This apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontal
Moon, is chiefly an optical illusion, produced by the concav-
. of the heavens appearing to the eye to be a less portion
of a spherical surface than a hemisphere. . The eye is ac-
customed to estimate the distance between any two objects
in the heavens by the quantity of sky that appears to lie be-
tween them; as upon the Earth we estimate it by the quan-
tity of ground that lies between them. Now when the Sun
or Moon is just emerging above the eastern horizon, or
sinking beneath the western, the distance of the intervening
landscape over which they are seen, contributes, together
with the refraction of the atmosphere, to exaggerate our
estimate of their real magnitudes.
CHAP T E R XXV.
REFRACTION-TWILIGHT.
The rays of light in passing out of one “medium into ano-
ther of a different density, deviate from a straight course;
and if the density of the latter medium continually increas
the rays of light in passing through it, will deviate more an
more from a right line towards a curve, in passing to the eye
of an observer. From this cause all the heavenly bodies,
except when in the zenith, appear higher than they really
are. This bending of the rays of light, giving to the heaven-
ly bodies an apparent elevation above their true places, is
called Refraction.
It is in consequence of the refracting power of the atmos-
phere that all heavenly bodies are seen for a short time be-
fore they rise in the horizon, and also after they have sunk
below it. At some periods of the year the Sun appears 5
minutes longer, morning and evening, and about 3+ minutes
longer every day, at a mean rate, than he would do were
there no refraction. The average amount of refraction for
an object half way between the horizon and the zenith, ºr
at an apparent altitude of 45°, is but one sixtieth of a degree,
a quantity hardly sensible to the naked eye; but at the visi-
ble horizon it amounts to 33° of a degree, which is rather

How is the apparent, increase of magnitude in the horizontal Moon, accounted for?
How are the rays of lig ected in passing out of one medium into another, of a differ-
ent density? How, if the density of the latter medium continually increase 3, What as:
tronomical phenomenon results from
hi
this cause? What is this, bending of the rays of
tight out of their course called? What effect does refraction have upon the apparent
rising and setting of the heavenly bodies;. How much longer do...we see the Sºn,
mºrning and evening. than we should; if theſe were no refraction?...What in the
average amount of refraction for an object half way between tho horizon and tº
senith? What is it in the h risea?
288 REFRACTION.
more than the greatest apparent diameter of either the Sun
or the Moon.
Hence it follows, that when we see the lower edge of the
Sun or Moon just apparently resting on the horiz, a, their
whole disc is in reality below it, and would be entirely Out
of sight and concealed by the convexity of the Earth, but for
the bending, which the rays of light have undergons, in their
passage through the air to the observer's eye.
The following general notions of its amount, ar, l law of
variations, should be borne in mind:
1. In the zenith there is no refraction; a celestial object,
situated directly over head, is seen in its true position, as if
there were no atmosphere.
2. In descending from the zenith to the horizon, the refrac-
tion continually increases; objects near the horizon appear-
ing more elevated by it than those of a higher altitude.
3. The rate of its increase is nearly in proportion to the
. apparent angular distance of the object from the zenith.
But this rule, which is not far from the truth, at moderate
zenith distances, ceases to give correct results in the vicinit
of the horizon, where the law becomes much more compli-
cated in its expression.
The effects of refraction must be familiar to every person who has seen
a walking stick partially plunged into a river, or other collection of water.
While the stick is held upright, it appears straight, as usual, because there
is no refraction in this position ; but if it be ever so little inclined, the re-
fraction takes place, and the stick appears bent; if the inclimation be in-
creased, the refraction is also increased,
* Another easy and familiar illustration of the effect of refraction may be
thus obtained :-Put any small object, as a piece of money, into an empty
basin, as near the centre as possible, and retire to such a distance as Just to
lose sight of the object. Let an assistant then pour water in the basin, and
the object will soon appear. Retire again till it is no longer seen; let more
water be added, and it will again appear. The experiment may be re-
peated till the basin is ſull. The edge of the basin may be ºp. 10
represent the horizon; the water, the atmosphere; and the piece of money,
the Sun, or other object which is thus made to appear by the power of re-
fraction, when otherwise it would be invisible.
It follows from this, that one obvious effect of refraction
must be to shorten the duration of night and darkness, by
prolonging the apparent stay of the Sun and Moon above
the horizon. But even after they appear to have set, the in-
fluence of the atmosphere still continues to send us a portion
Yf their light; not, indeed, by direct transmission, but by
reflection:-for as long as the Sun continues to illuminate

Wha. interesting facts result from this truth?. What is the first general law of atmos-
pheric refraction? What is the second general law? What is the third?, Mention a
familiar instance of rººfraction often seen in water. Mention some familiº experi-
7ment, to illustrate refraction, and show ºts application to º; 2. How
this principle affect the duration of noctuinal darkness? By what principle is it that the
atmosphere sends us a portion of the solar light, for a considerable time *efore the Sun
rises, and after it has set?
REFRASTION, 289
any portion of the atmosphere which is above the horizon,
the light from this portion is reflected to the Earth, and it is
this that causes twilight.
In the morning, when the Sun arrives at 18° below the
horizon, his rays pass over our heads into the higher region
of the atmosphere, and are thence reflected, or as it were,
bent down to the Earth. The day is then said to dawn, and
the light gradually increases until the Sun appears above
the horizon: this is called Morning Twilight, or Aurora,
which the heathens personified as a goddess. They assigned
to her the office of opening the Gates of the East, to intro-
duce the chariot of Apollo or Phaebus.
In the evening, after sunset, the rays of the Sun continue
to illuminate the atmosphere, till he sinks 18° below the
horizon, and a similar effect, called the Evening Twilight,
is produced, only in an inverse progression, for the twilight
now gradually becomes fainter till it is lost in dark night.
The quantity of reflection and the duration of twilight are
much influenced by the changes which are perpetually tak-
ing place with respect to the heat and cold, the dryness or
moisture, &c. of the atmosphere. The height of the atmos-
phere, also, has an influence in determining the duration of
twilight: . Thus in winter, when the air is condensed with
cold, and the atmosphere upon that account lower, the twi-
light will be shorter; and in summer, when the limits of the
atmosphere are extended by the rarefaction and dilation of
the air of which it consists, the duration of the twilight will
be longer. And for the same reason, the morning twilight,
(the air being at that time condensed and contracted by the
cold of the preceding night,) will be shorter than the even-
ing twilight, when the air is more dilated and expanded.
It is entirely owing to the reflecting power of the atmos-
phere that the heavens appear bright in the day time. For
without such a power, only that part of the heavens would
be luminous in which the Sun is placed; and, if we should
turn our backs to the Sun, the whole heavens would appear
as dark as in the night, and the stars, even at noon day,
would be seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky.
In regions of the Earth situated towards the poles, the
Sun, during their summer months, is never more than 18°
below the horizon; consequently their twilight continues

What is Twilight?. How is R occasioned? How is the Evening Twilight produced,
By what are the quantity of reflection, and the duration of twilight, considerably influ-
enced?. Why, is twilight shorter in winter?... Why longer is summer; Why is the morn-
ing twilight shorter than the evening twilight? To what is, it entirely owing, that the
heavens appear bright in the day ºne? How would the heavens appear, if it wave not
&r this power? What are ; duration and advantages of twilight in high latitudas;

£3. AURORA. BC REALIS,
during the whole night. . The same cause has a tendency
to diminish the gloom of the long polar nights; for as far
north as in lat. 84° 32}' the Sun even when at the winter
solstice º: to within 18° of the horizon, and affords
a short twilight once in 24 hours, and the pole itself is left
in total darkness not more than 80 days.
There is still another cause which has a tendency to di-
minish the length of the polar nights, the extraordinary
refraction occasioned by the extreme density of the air in
those regions. This is so great, as to bring the Sun above the
horizon some days before it should appear, according to
calculation.
A remarkable phenomenon of this kind was observed by the Dutch navi.
gators who wintered in Nova Zembla, in the year 1596. After enduring a
continual night of three months, they were agreeably surprised to find that
the Sun began to rise seventeen days sooner than according to computation 1
The observed altitude of the pole, at the place, (says Dr. Smith,) being only
76°, it is impossible to account for the phenomenon, otherwise, than by sup:
posing an extraordinary refraction of the Sun's rays. Kepler computes that
the Sun was almost 5° below the horizon when he first appeared ; and con-
jºy, that the refraction of his rays was about 10 times greater than
WIll U18.
C H A P T E R X. X W I.
AURORA BOREALIS,
The sublime and beautiful phenomena presented by the
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, as they are called,
have been in all ages a source of admiration and wonder
alike to the peasant and the philosopher. In the regions of
the north, they are regarded by the ignorant with supersti-
tious dread, as harbingers of evil; while all agree in placing
them among the unexplained wonders of nature.
These lights, or meteoric coruscations, are more brilliant
in the arctic regions, appearing mostly in the winter season
and in frosty weather. They commonly appear at twilight
near the horizon, and sometimes continue in that state for
several hours without any sensible motion; after which
they send forth streams of stronger light, shooting with
great velocity up to the zenith, emulating, not unfrequently
the lightning in vividness, and the rainbow in colouring; an
again, silently rising in a compact majestic arch of steady

Reli te a remarkable phenomenon of this kind. How are the phenomena of the Att-
rora B realis regarded by the ignorant? In what do all agree, respecting them? Whe
are these appearances most frequent and brilliant? Describe the timos and manner
tº appearanco
AURORA BOREALIS. 29]
*
white light, apparently durable and immoveable, and yet so
avanescent, that while the beholder looks upon it, it is gone
At other times, they cover the whole hemisphere with
their fluckering and fantastic coruscations. On these oc-
casions their motions are amazingly quick, and they aston-
tsh the spectator with rapid changes of form. They break
out in places where none were seen before, skimming brisk-
ly along the heavens; then they are suddenly extinguished,
leaving behind a uniform dusky track, which, again, is bril-
liantly illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left
a dull blank. Some nights they assume the appearance of
vast columns; exhibiting on one side tints of the deepest
yellow, and on the other, melting away till they become un-
distinguishable from the surrounding sky. They have gen-
erally a strong tremulous motion from end to end, which
continues till the whole vanishes.
Maupertuis relates, that in Lapland, “the sky was some-
timestinged with so deep a red that the constellation Orion
looked as though it were dipped in blood, and that the peo-
ple fancied they saw armies engaged, fiery chariots, and a
thousand prodigies.” Gmelin relates, that, “in Siberia, on
the confines of the icy sea, the spectral forms appear like
rushing armies; and that the hissing crackling noises of
those aerial fire-works so terrify the dogs and the hunters,
that they fall prostrate on the ground, and will not move
while the raging host is passing.”
Kerguelen describes “the night, between Iceland and the
Ferro Islands, as brilliant as the day,”—the heavens being
on fire with flames of red and white light, changing to col-
umns and arches, and at length confounded in a brilliant
º: of cones, pyramids, radii, sheaves, arrows, and globes
Iſe. t
But the evidence of Capt. Parry is of more value than
that of the earlier. travellers, as he examined the pheno-
mena under the most favourable circumstances, during a
period of twenty-seven consecutive months, and because his
observations are uninfluenced by imagination. He speaks
of the shifting figures, the spires and pyramids, the majestic
arches, and the sparkling bands and stars which appeared
within the arctic circle, as surpassing his powers of descrip-
tion. They are indeed sufficient to enlist the superstitious
feelings of any people not fortified by religion and philosophy.


Describe their appearance in Lapland as related by Maupertuis, and its effect upon the
inhabitants. De ; its appearançºgbetween Iceland and the Ferro islands, as j
§º Whose testimony, on this subject is of more value than that of former trav
3 Why? How does he describe the scenes he witnessed during the polar nights?
292 AURORA BOREALIS.
The colours of the polar lights, are of various tints. The
rays or beams are steel gray, yellowish ; pea green,
celandine green, gold yellow, violet blue, purple, sometimes
rose red, crimson red, blood red, greenish red, orange red,
and lake red. The arches are sometimes nearly black, pass
ing into violet blue, gray, gold yellow, or white bounded
by an edge of yellow. The lustre of these lights varies in
kind as well as intensity. Sometimes it is pearly, some-
times imperfectly vitreous, sometimes metallic. Its degree
of intensity varies from a very faint radiance to a light near-
ly equalling that of the Moon.
Many theories have been proposed to account for this
wonderful phenomenon, but there seems to be none which
is entirely satisfactory. One of the first conjectures on record
attributes it to inflammable vapours ascending from the Earth
into the polar atmosphere, and there ignited by electricity.
Dr. Halley objects to this hypothesis, that the cause was in-
adequate to produce the effect. He was of opinion that the
poles of the Earth were in some way connected with the au-
rora; that the Earth was hollow, º: within it a mag-
netic sphere, and that the magnetic effluvia, in passing from
the north to the south, might become visible in the northern
hemisphere. * .
That the aurora"borealis is, to some extent, a magnetical
phenomenon, is thought, even by others, to be pretty clearly
established by the following considerations.
1. It has been observed, that when the aurora appears
near the northern horizon in the form of an arch, the middle
of it is not in the direction of the true north, but in that of
the magnetic needle at the place of observation; and that
when the arch rises towards the zenith, it constantly crosses
. heavens at right angles, not to the true magnetic meri-
I3 Il.
2. When the beams of the aurora shoot up so as to pass
the zenith, which is sometimes the case, the point of their
convergence is in the direction of the prolongation of the
dipping needle at the place of observation.
3. It has also been observed, that during the appearance
of an active and brilliant aurora, the magnetic needle of
ten becomes restless, varies sometimes several degrees
i. does not resume its former position until after several
OUITS.
From these facts, it has been generally inferred that the
*- —-m

Describe the colours of the Aurora light. What is one of the earliest theories advanced
to explain this phenomenon 2 How did Dr. Halley ; to account for it? What ob.
servations have led pretty generally to the conclusion, that the northern lights are to some
extent a magnetical phenomenon?
PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES, 293
aurora is in some way connected with the magnetism of
the Earth; and that the simultaneous appearance of the
meteor, and the disturbance of the needle, are either rela-
ted as cause and effect, or as the common result of some
more general and unknown cause. Dr. Young, in his lec-
tures, is very certain that the phenomenon in question is in-
timately connected with electro-magnetism, and ascribes
the light of the aurora to the illuminated agency of electri-
city upon the magnetical substance.
It may be remarked, in support of the electro-magnetic theory, that in
magnetism, the agency of electricity is now clearly established; and it can
hardly be doubted that the phenomena both of electricity and magnetism
are produced by one and the same cause; inasmuch as magnetism may be
induced by electricity, and the electric spark has been drawn ºfcom the
magnet. -
Sir John Herschel also attributes the appearance of the
aurora to the agency of electricity. This wonderful agent,
says he, which we see in intense activity in lightning, and
in a feebler and more diffused form traversing the upper
regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is present,
probably, in immense abundance in every form of matter
which surrounds us, but becomes sensible, only when dis-
turbed by excitements of peculiar kinds.
C H A P T E R. X. X W II.
PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.
Parallax is the difference between the altitude of any
celestial object, seen from the Earth's surface, and the alti-
tude of the same object, seen at the same time from the
Earth’s centre; or, it is the angle under which the semi-
diameter of the Earth would appear, as seen from the object.
The true place of a celestial body, is that point of the
heavens in which it would be seen by an eye placed at the
centre of the Earth. The apparent place is that point of
the heavens where the body is seen from the surface of
the Earth. The parallax of a heavenly body is greatest,
when in the horizon; and is called the horizontal parallaa.
Parallax decreases, as the body ascends toward the zenith,
at which place it is nothing.
The nearer a heavenly body is to the Earth, the greater

What is the opinion of Dr. Young in regard to their causar . What consideretiºn may
be adduced in farther support ºf the electro-magnetic theory? To “ºtt * F:
Puhn Herschel ascribe the aurora? What are his of ºr...iiuus upon the subject? ºut
is parallax? What is the true place of a celestial body ...What is the apparent place;
Where is the parallax "ga heavenly body the greatest? What is this parallax cabed?
pº
5%
2.94 PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.
ls its parallax ; hence the Moon has the greatest parallax
of all the heavenly bodies, while the fixed stars, from their
immense distance, have no parallax;* the semi-diameter of
the Earth, at such a distance, being no more than a point.
As the effect of parallax on a heavenly body, is to depress
it below its true place, it must necessarily affect its right
ascension and declination, its latitude and longitude. On
this account, the parallax of the Sun and Moon must be
added to their apparent altitude, in order to obtain their
true altitude.
The true altitude of the Sun, and Moon, except when in the zenith, is al-
ways affected, more or less, both by parallax and refraction, but always
in a contrary manner. Hence the mariner, in finding the latitude at sea,
always adds the parallax, and substracts the refraction, to and from the
Sun's observed altitude, in order to obtain the true altitude, and thence the
latitude.
The principles of parallax are of great importance to as-
tronomy, as they enable us to determine the distances of
the heavenly bodies from the Earth, the magnitudes of the
planets, and the dimessions of their orbits.
The Sun’s horizontal parallax being accurately known,
the Earth’s distance from the Sun becomes known; and the
Earth's distance from the Sun being known, that of all the
planets may be known also, because we know the exact
periods of their sidereal revolutions, and according to the
third law of Kepler, the squares of the times of their revolu-
tions are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances.
Hence, the first great desideratum in astronomy, where
measure and magnitude are concerned, is the determination
of the true parallax.
At the late council of astronomers, assembled in Lon-
don, from the most learned nations in Europe, the Sun’s
mean horizontal parallax was settled, as the result of their
united observations, at 0° 0' 8".5776.-Now the value of
radius, expressed likewise in seconds, is 206264".8; and
this divided by 8".5776, gives 24047 for the distance of the
Sun from the Earth, in semidiameters of the latter. If we
take the equatorial semidiameter of the Earth as sanction-
ed by the same tribunal, at (7924+2=) 3962 miles, we
shall have 24047X3962=95,273,869 miles for the Sun’s
true distance.
j
* See Chapter XIV., on the number and distance of the Stars.


How does the parallax of a body vary, with its altitude” How is it affected by die-
tence? Give an example, What, then, are the necessary effects of parallax,9n the ap-
pearance of a heavenly body? How, then, can we obtain the true altitude of the Sun or
Moon? Do parallaº and réfraction affect the altitude alike?, G# agº.
Why are the principles of parallax of great importance to astronomy? If the Sun's paral-
3e.... hºw ov. the distances of all the planets be known also? What inference
may be derived from this in regard to the importance of parallax?
PROBLEMS, 295
Both the principle and the calculation of this element may
be illustrated by a reference to the diagram on Plate I, of
the Atlas: Thus—the parallactic angle AES = 87.5776:
is to the Earth's semidiameter as = 3962 miles: : as radius
beºws: is to the distance ES = 95,273,869 miles, as
eIOTe.
Again: The mean horizontal parallax of the Moon is
9°57' 11", or 3431". In this problem, the parallactic angle
AMS is 0°57'11" = 3431/; and 3431”: is to 3962 miles::
as 206264".8: is 238,161 miles, for the Moon's mean dis-
tance from the Earth MS.—See Chapter on the Number
and Distance of the Stars.
CH A P T E R XI.
* PROB L E M S AND TAB L E S.
PROBLEM I.
TO CONVERT DEGREES, &C, INTO TIME.
RULE 1.-Divide the degrees by 15, for hours; and mul-
tiply the remainder, if any, by 4, for minutes.
2. Divide the odd minutes and seconds in the same man-
ner by 15 for minutes, seconds, &c. and multiply each re- i.
mainder by 4, for the next lower denomination.
ExAMPLE 1.-Convert 32° 34'45" into time.
Thus, 32° -- 15 = 2h. 8,
34 -- 15 = 2 16//
45 -- 15 = 3
Ans. 32°34′45'→ 2h. 10' 19° the time.
ExAMPLE 2.—If it is 12 o'clock at this place, what is the
time 20° east of us 2
Thus, fifteen in 20°, once, and five over; the once is 1
hour, and the 5 multiplied by 4, gives 20 minutes: the time
is then 1 hour and 20 thinutes past 12.
ExAMPLE 3.—The longitude of Hartford is 72° 50' west
of Greenwich ; what time is it at Greenwich when it is 12
o'clock at Hartford 7 &
Ans. 4 h. 51 min. 20 sec. . .
ExAMPLE 4.—When it is 12 o'clock at Greenwich, what
“is the time at Hartford 7 Ans. 7h. 8m. 40 sec. A. M.
3. NoTE.—Table VIII. is designed to facilitate calculations of this kind. The
degrees being placed in one column, and the corresponding time in another
-
...
º
º PROBLEMS,
J
". ... *
u needs no *. except to observe that degrees in the left hand
columns may be considered as so many minutes, instead of degrees; in
which case, the corresponding, time in the adjoining column, must be read
as minutes and seconds, instead of hours and minutes. In like manner, the
degrees in the left hand column may be read as seconds, and the correspond-
‘ng time, as seconds and thirds.
ExAMPLE.-Find, by the table, the time corresponding to 32° 34'45".
Thus: Against ; is 2 h. 8 inin.
2 l6 sec.
{{ 45’’ {{ 3
Answer as above, 2h. 10m, 19s.
PROBLEM II.
To convert TIME INTo DEGREEs, &c.
Rule.—Multiply the hours by 15, and to the product add
one fourth of the minutes, seconds, &c., observing that eve-
ty minute of time makes +8, and every second of time, 4'.
ExAMPLE 1.-In 2 hours, 10 minutes, and 19 seconds,
how many degrees 7
Thus: 2h. 10 m. 19 s.
15
- 309
Add 10 quarters, or + of the min. 2 30’
Add 19 quarters, or 4 of the sec. 4 45°
ºs Ans. 32° 34' 45.”
This problem is readily solved by means of Table IX, without the labour of
calculation :
Thus: 2 hours =30°
10 minutes - 2 30’
19 seconds = 4 45°
Ans. 32O 34” 45’
Ex. 2.--When it is 12 o'clock at Hartford, it is 4 hours
51 minutes, and 20 seconds past noon at Greenwich ; how
many degrees is Hartford west of Greenwich 3
Thus: 15 times 4 is 60—added to + of 51, is 72° 45"
and this increased by + of 20, is 72° 50.' Ans.
Ex. 3.-A Liverpool packet, after sailing several days
from New York, finds the time by the Sun 2 hours and 40
:minutes later than by the ship's chronometer: how far has
the ship progressed on her way ? t
Ex. 4.—A vessel leaves Boston, and having been tossed
about in foul weather for some days, finds, that when it is
12 o'clock by the Sun, it is only 11 o'clock and 50 minutes
by the watch; is the vessel east or west of Boston; and
how many degrees?
Ex. 5.—The moment of greatest darkness during the anf *
4
~,
a
PROBLEMS, - 297
nular eclipse of 1831, took place at New Haven, 10 minutes
after 1 o'clock. A gentleman reports that it happened pre-
cisely at 1, where he observed it; and another, that it was
5 minutes after 1 where he saw it: Quere. How far east
or west were these gentlemen from each other, and how
many degrees from New Haven 7
PROBLEM III.
To FIND whAT STARS ARE ON THE MERIDIAN AT NINE O'CLOCK
IN THE EVENING OF ...ANY GIVEN DAY.
RULE.—Look for the given day of the month, at the bot-
tom of the maps, and all the stars having the same degree
of right ascension will be on the meridian at that time.
ExAMPLE 1.-What stars will be on the meridian at 9
o'clock, the 19th of January 2
Solution.—On Plate III. I find that the principal stars
standing over against the 19th of January, are Rigel and
Capella.
Ex. 2.—What stars are on the meridian the 20th of De-
cember 2 Ans. Menkar and Algol.
PROBLEM IV.
ANY STAR BEING GIVEN, To FIND when IT CULMINATEs.
RULE.—Find the star's right ascension in the table, or by
the map, (on the equinoctial,) and the day of the month at
the top or bottom of the map will be the day on which it
culminates at 9 o'clock.
ExAMPLE 1.-At what time is the bright star Sirius on the
meridian'?
Solution.--I find by the table, and by the map, that the
right ascension of Sirius is 6 hours and about 38 minutes;
and the time corresponding to this, at the bottom of the
map, is the 11th of February.
Ex. 2–At what time is Alpheratz, in the head of Andro-
meda, on the meridian 2 Ans. The 9th of November.
PROBLEM V.
THE RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION OF A PLANET BEING
GIV >N, TO FIND ITS PLACE ON THE MAP.
RULE.—Find the right ascension and declination of the
* on the map, and that will be its place for the given
ay; •
298 PROBLEMS,
ExAMPLE 1.-Venus's right ascension on the 1st of Jan-
uary, 1833, was 21 hours, 30 minutes, and her declination
16#9 south; required her situation on the map?
Solution.—On the right hand of the Plate II. I count off
16#9 from the equinoctial, on the marginal scale south, and
from that point, 30 minutes to the left, or just half the dis-
tance between the XXI. and XXII. meridian of right as-
cension, and find that Venus, that day, is within two degrees
of Delta Capricorni, near the constellation Aquarius, in the
zodiac.
NoTE.—It is to be remembered, that the planets will always be found
within the limits of the zodiac, as represented in the maps. By means of
Table VII. the pupil can find at any time the situations of all the visible
Fº on the maps; and this will énable him to determine their position
n the heavens, without a chance of mistake. By this means, too, he can
draw for himself the path of the planets from month to month, and trace
their course among the stars. This is a pleasant and useful exercise, and
is practised extensively in some academies. The pupil draws the map in
the first place, or such a portion of it as to include the zodiacal constella-
tions; then, having dotted the position of the planets from day to day, as
indicated in Table VII., their path is easily traced with a pen or pencil.
Ex. 2.-Mars’ right ascension on the 13th of March, 1833,
is 5 hours, 1 minute, and his declination 2439 north; requir-
ed his situation on the map * -
Solution.—I find the fifth hour line or meridian of right
ascension on Plate III. and counting upwards from the equi-
noctial 24??, I find that Mars is between the horns of
Taurus, and about 5° S. W. of Beta Aurigae.

Ex. 3.—Required the positiqu of Jupiter and Saturn on
the 13th of February and the 25th of May ?
When the right ascension and declination of the planets are not given,
they are to be sought in Table VII.
PROBLEMI VI.
TO FIND AT WHAT MOMENT ANY STAR WILL PASS THE MERIDIAN
ON A. GIVEN DAY.
RULE.—Substract the right ascension of the Sun from the
star’s right ascension, found in the tables; observing to add
24 hours to the star’s right ascension, if less than the Sun's,
and the difference will show how may hours the star culmi.
nates after the Sun.
ExAMPLE 1.-At what time will Procyon pass the meridi
an the 24th of February 7
Solution.—R. A. of Procyon 7h. 30m. 33s.--24h.
31 30', 33”
R. A. of Sun, 24th of Feb. 22 29 1
Ans. 9 1 32 ;
That is, 1m. 32s. past 9 o'clock in the evening. *
ROBLEMS, --- 299
*}.
Ex. 2–At what time will Denebola pass the meridian on
*he first of April?
Solution.—R. A. of Denebola is 11h. 40' 32”
R. A. of Sun, April 1, 0 41 25
Ans. 10 59 7
That is, at 59 minutes, 7 seconds, past 10 in the evening.
Ex. 3.−At what time on the first day of each month, from
January to July, will Alcyone, or the Pleiades, pass the me-
ridian 2
Ex. 4.—At what time will the Dog Star, or Sirius, culmi-
nate on the first day of January, February, and March 3
Ex. 5.-How much earlier will Spica Virginis pass the
meridian on the 4th of July, than on the 15th of May ?—
Ans. 3 hours, 25 minutes.
PROBLEM VII.
TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL BE ON OR NEAREST THE MERIDIAN
AT ANY GIVEN TIME,
RULE.—Add the given hour to the Sun's right ascension,
found in Table III., and the sum will be the right ascension
of the meridian, or mid-heaven; and then find in Table II.
what star's right ascension corresponds with, or comes near-
est to it, and that will be the star required.
ExAMPLE 1.—What star will be nearest the meridian at
9 o'clock in the evening of the 1st of September?
Solution.—Sun's right ascension 1st September,
10h 40' 30°
Add the time from noon 9 0 0
Right ascension of the meridian 19h 40' 30”
Now all the stars in the heavens which have this right as-
cension, will be on the meridian at that time: On looking
into Table II, the right ascension of Altair, in the Eagle,
will be found to be 19h. 40m.; consequently Altair is on
the meridian at the time proposed; and Delta, in the Swan,
is less than two minutes past the meridian.
Ex. 2.-Walking out in a bright evening on the 4th of Sep
tember, I saw a very brilliant star almost directly over
head; I looked on my watch, and it wanted 20 minutes of
8; required the name of the star 7
Solution.—Sun's declination 4th of September,
10h 51' 22”
Add the time from noon 7 40 0
Gives R. A. of Lyra, nearly 18 31 22
#
300 PROBLEMS,
Ex. 3.—About 8+ minutes after 8 in the evening of the
11th of February, I observed a bright star on the meridian
a little north of the equinoctial, and 1 minute before 9a still
brighter one, further south; required the names of the stars?
PROBLEM VIII.
To FIND what STARs will culminATE AT 9 o'cLOCK IN THE
EVENING OF ANY DAY IN THE YEAR.
RULE.—Against the day of the month in Table IV., find
the right ascension of the mid-heaven, and all those stars in
Table II. which have the same, or nearly the same right as-
cension, will culminate at 9 P.M. of the given day.
ExAMPLE 1.—What star will culminate at 9 in the even-
ing of the 26th of March 2
Solution.—I find the right ascension of the meridian, at 9
o'clock in the evening of the 26th of March, is 9h 19' 37";
and on looking into Table II., I find the right ascension of
Alphard, in the heart of Hydra, is 9h 19723”. The star is
Alphard.
Ex. 2.-What star will culminate at 9 in the evening of
the 28th of June 2 Ans. Aphacca.
PROBLEM IX.
& &
ro find THE SUN's LoNGITUDE'6R PLACE IN THE ECLIPTic, ox
ANY GIVEN DAY.
RULE.—On the lower scale, at the bottom of the Plan-
isphere, (Plate VIII.) look for the given day of the month .
then the sign and degree corresponding to it on the scale
immediately above it, will show the Sun's place in the
ecliptic.
ExAMPLE 1.-Required the Sun's longitude, or place in
the ecliptic, the 16th of September.
Solution.—Over the given day of the month, September
16th, stands 5 signs and 23 degrees, nearly, which is the
Sun's place in the ecliptic at noon on that day; that is, the
Sun is about 23 degrees in the sign W.rgo.
N. B. If the 5 signs be multiplied by 30, and the 23 degrees be added to i
it will give the iºd: in i. 1%. 3 e grees be a t,
Ex. 2.-Required the Sun’s place in the ecliptic at noon,
on the 10th of March. . • ‘s, f
, f;
33 tag
*.* º
# ,
*:
PROBLEMS, 30)
PROBLEM X.
Given THE SUN's LoNGITUDE, or PLACE IN THE ECLIPTIO, to
FIND HIS RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION,
RULE.—Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic, (the curved
line which runs through the body of the planisphere,) and
with a pair of compasses take the nearest distance between
it and #. nearest meridian, or hour circle, which being ap
plied to the graduated scales at the top or bottom of the
planisphere, (measuring from the same hour circle,) will
show the Sun's right ascension. Then take the shortest
distance between the Sun's place in the ecliptic and the
nearest part of the equinoctial, and apply it to either the
east or west marginal scales, and it will give the Sun's de-
clination.
ExAMPLE 1.-The Sun's longitude, September 16th, 1833,
is 5 signs, 23 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension,
and declination.
Solution.—The distance between the Sun's place in the
ecliptic and the nearest hour circle being taken in the com-
passes, and applied to either the top or bottom graduated
scales, shows the right ascension to be about 11 hours 35
minutes; and the distance between the Sun's place in the
ecliptic, and the nearest part of the equinoctial, being applied
to either the east or west marginal scales, shows the decli-
nation to be about 2°45′, which is to be called north, because
the Sun is to the northward of the equinoctial : hence the
Sun's right ascension, on the given day, at noon, is about 11
hours 35 minutes, and his declination 2° 45' N.
Ex. 2.—The Sun's longitude March 10th, 1833, is 11
signs, 19 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension and
declination ? f
Ans. R. A. 23 h. 21 min. Decl. 4°11′ nearly.
PROBLEM XI.
TO FIND THE RIGHT ASCENSION OF THE MERIDIAN AT ANY
GIVEN TIME,
RULE.—Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic by Problem IX.
and his right ascension by Problem X., to the eastward of
which, count off the given time from noon, and it will show
the right ascension of the meridian, or mid-heaven.
ExAMPLE 1.-Required the right ascension of the meridi. ?
an 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, September 16th, 1833.
Solution.—By Problems IX. and X, the Sun's right ascen:
26
302 PROBLEMS,
sion at noon of the given day, is 11 hours 35 minutes; to
the eastward of which, 9 hours and 25 minutes (the given
time) being counted off, shows the right ascension of the
meridian to be about 21 hours.
Ex. 2.-Required the right ascension of the meridian at
6 hours past noon, March 10th, 1833 2
Solution.—By Problems IX. and X. the Sun's right ascen-
sion at noon of the given day, is 23 hours and 21 minutes;
to the eastward of which, the given time, 6 hours being
counted off, shows the right ascension of the meridian to
be about 5 hours 21 minutes.
REMARK.—In this example, it may be necessary to observe, that where
the eastern, or left hand extremity of the planisphere leaves off, the west-
ern, or right hand extremity, begins ; therefore, in counting off the given
time on the top or bottom graduated scales, the reckoning is to be trans-
ſerred from the left, and completed on the right, as if the two outside edges
of the planisphere were joined together.
PROBLEM XII.
To FIND what STARs will, BE ON or NEAR THE MERIDIAN AT
ANY GIVEN TIME,
RULE.—Find the right ascension of the meridian by
Problem XI. over which lay a ruler, and draw a pencil line
along its edge from the top to the bottom of the planisphere,
and it will show all the stars that are on or near the meridian.

ExAMPLE 1.—Required what stars will be on or near the
meridian at 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, Sept. 16th, 1833?
Solution.--The right ascension of the meridian by Prob-
lºn XI. is 21 hours: this hour circle, or the line which passes
and down through the planisphere, shows that no star
will be directly on the meridian at the given time; but that
Alderamin will be a little to the east, and Deneb Cygni
a little to the west of it; also Zeta Cygni, and Gamma an
Alpha in the Little Horse, very near it on the east.
PROBLEM XIII.
To FIND THE EARTH's MEAN DISTANCE FROM THE SUN.
RULE.—As the Sun's horizontal parallax is to radius, so
is the semi-diameter of the Earth to its distance from the
Sun.
By Logarithms.-As tangent of the Sun's horizontal par-
allax is to radius, so is the Earth's semi-diameter to hel
mean distance from the Sun.
8”.5776: 206:404”.8:: 3962: 95,273,869 miles
PHOBLEMS. 303
By Logarithms.
As tangent of Sun's horizontal parallax, 8”.5776 - 5.618940:
Is to radius, or 90°, ** 10.0000000
So is the Earth's semi-diameter, 3962 - 3.5979145
To the Earth's distance, 95.273,869 - 7.9789738
PROBLEM XIV.
To FIND THE DISTANCE OF ANY PLANET FROM THE SUN, THAT
OF THE EARTH BEING KNOWN.
RULE.—Divide the square of the planet's sidereal revolu-
tion round the Sun, by the square of the Earth's sidereal re-
volution, and multiply the cube root of the quotient by the
Earth’s mean distance from the Sun. -
By Logarithms.--From twice the logarithm of the plan-
et's sidereal revolution, substract twice the logarithm of the
Earth’s sidereal revolution, and to one third of the remain-
der, add the logarithm of the Earth's mean distance from
the Sun.

ExAMPLE.-Required Mercury's mean distance from the Sun, that of the
Earth being 95,273,869 miles.
Mercury's sidereal revolution is 87.969.258 days, or 7600543”.8912 : The
Earth's sidereal revolution is 365.256374417 days, or
31 zº. 7600543.9
31558151’’.5 7600543.9
995916962096952.25 by which divide 5776825757582721 -
and the quotient will be 0.052005106713292, the cube root of which in 0.3870977,
and this multiplied by 94,881,891, gives 36,727,607 miles, for Mercury's distancé
from the Sun. . This problem may be performed by logarithms is as many
minutes as the former method requires hours.
Mercury's Sid. Rev. 7600543’.9 log. = 6.8808447X2 13,7616894
Earth's Sid. Rev. 31558151’’. log. = 7.499.1302X2 14.9982604
#)—2.7634290
1,5878097
Add. log. of the Earth's mean distance, 7.978973S
Mercury's distance, 36,880422. Ans. , 7.5667835
If the Fºl. have not already learned the use of lº. this problem
will satisfy him of their unspeakable advantage over all other modes of com:
putation. By reviewing the above calculation, he will perceive that instead of
multiplying 31558151’’.5 by itself, he need only multiply its logarithms by two 1
and, instead of extracting the cube root of 0.05800510671 he need onl
divide its lº.; three / and, instead of multiplying 0.3870977, by 95,
869, he need º their logarithms together. He need not think himself a
did, scholar, if by the former method he come to the true result in five
$ours, nor remarkably quick, if by the latter he come to it in five minutes.
PROBLEM XV.
TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET IN ITS ORBIT,
RULE.—Multiply the planet's mean distance from the
Sun by 6,2831853, and divide the product by the time of
he planet's sidereal revolution, expressed in hours, and the
ecimals of an hour. -
3

304 PROBLEMS,
By Logarithms.-Add 0,7981799 to the logarithm of the
planet's mean distance from the Sun, and from the sum
substract the logarithm of the planet's revolution expressed
in hours.
ExAMPLE.-Required the Earth’s hourly motion in its orbit.
Log. of Earth’s distance = 7 9789738–H 0.798.1799 - 8,777.1537
substract log. of Earth's revolution 3.9428090
Gives Earth’s horary motion, 68,288 miles, – 4.8343447
PROBLEM XVI.
TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET ON ITS AXIS.
RULE.—Multiply the diameter of the given planet by
3.14159, and divide the product by the period of its diurnal
TOtat 101).
By Logarithms.-Add 4,0534524 to the logarithm of the
planet's diameter, and from the sum substract the logarithm
of its diurnal rotation, expressed in seconds.
Earth's diameter, 7924 log. = 3.8989.445
Add log. of 3600"—Hog. of 3.14159 - . .40534594
-' 7,9523969
Substract log. diurnal rotation, 23 h. 56'4”.09 - q,9353263
Ans. 1040.09 miles - * 3.0170706
* XVII.

*
To FIND THE RELATIVE MAGNITUDE of THE PLANETs.
RULE.—Divide the cube of the diameter of the larger
planet, by the cube of the diameter of the less.
By Logarithms.--From three times the logarithm of the
larger, substract three times the logarithm of the less. .
wº-how much does the size of the Earth exceed that of the
Ot)Il
Earth's diameter, 7912 log, 3.898.2863X3 - 11,694.8589
Moon's diameter, 2160 log. 3,3343376X3 = 10.0030.128
The Earth exceeds the Moon, 49.1865 times. Ans. 1.6918461
In this example, 7912 miles is assumed as the mean between the Earth's
ºrial and polar diameter: the former being 7924, and the latter 7898
08
PROBLEM XVIII.
TO FIND THE PROPORTION OF SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT AT EACH
OF THE PLANETS.
RULE-Divide the square of the planet's greater distance
from the Sun, by the square of the less.-Or, substract twice
the logarithm of the greater distance, from twice the loga-
rithm of the less.
* * * *
PROBLEMS. 305
ExAMPLE.-How much greater is the Sun's lignt and
eat at Mercury, than at the Earth 7
Log. of Earth’s distance 7.9789738x2 = .5.9599476
— of Mercury’s 7.5667959%2 – 15 1335918
Ans. 6.6736 times greater = 0.8243558
PROBLEM XIX.
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETS.
RULE.—Multiply the diameter of the planet by 3.14159
or, add the logarithm of the planet's diameter to 0.4971 194
PROBLEM XX. - **
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS,
RULE.-Multiply the planet's mean distance from the
Sun, by 6.2831853: or, to the logarithm of the planet's
mean distance, add 0.7981799, and the sum will be the lo-
garithm of the all SWer.
PROBLEM XXL
TO FIND IN WHAT TIME ANY OF THE PLANETS WOULD FALL T6
THE SUN IF LEFT TO THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION ALONE,
RULE.—Multiply the time of the planet's sidereal revolu.
tion, by 0.176776; the result will be the answer.
By Logarithms.--From the logarithm of the planet's sl.
dereal revolution, substract 0.7525750, and the remainder
will be the logarithm of the answer, in the same denomina-
tion as the sidereal revolution.
Required the times, respectively, in which the several planets would fall
to the Sun by the force of gravity.

Planets would fall to Days. H. M. S. Logarithms.
the Sun.
Mercury, 15 13 13 16 6,1282686
Venus, s 39 17 19 22 6.53554.24
Earth, 64 13 38 55 6,7465357
Mars, 121 10 36 3 7,0208317
Jupiter, 765 21 33 35 7.820.6849
Saturn, 1901 23 24 4 8.2157186
Herschel, 5424 16 52 1 8,6708897
Moon to the Earth, 4 19 54 57 5,6204459
$4.
26*
A- *
Tabular Elements of the Solar Syste--,
sidereal Revolu-
- ! - t º —I
Nººſhe "g.* Logarithms. *::::::::::::"...º.º. distanees. | Legarithms. ;
Mercury, 87.969.25801.944330,930294 36,880,422.349075877.566795,885867 0.387099031323.1.587822,083445
Venus, 224.7007869|2.351604479472 68,914,654.84245489 7.838311,585319 0.723332.1755631.859837,782897
Earth, 365.25637442,562597,805126, 95,273,868.86774855 7.978973,802422, 1.000000000000|0.090000.000000
Mars, 686.97964582.836943,867587] 145,168,094.89281471 8.161871,177396 1.5236926621960.182897.374974
Vesta, 1325,74310008.12.2459,408208 225,016,762.14714600 8.352214,871143. 23617888600640.373241,06872,
Juno, 1592.6608000|3.202123,345262. 254,287,002.55155636 8.405324,162513 2.6690.10984581,0426350,36009,
Ceres, 1681.39310003225669,267668. 263,646,156.30912176 7.421021,444117 2.767245199994.0.442047,641695;
Pallas, 1686.5388000|3226996 342519, 264, 183,786.59075400 8.421906,160684 2.7728881983140442932,358262,
Jupiter, 4332.5848.2123.636747,074052. 495 533,836.87042950 8.695073,315039| 5.2011516143870.716099,51261:
Saturn, 10759.21981744.031780,779676 908,717,975.065268168,958429,118755 9.5379560614530979455,316333
Herschel, 30686.82082964,486951,895561|1827,580,558254995.259.261876,529379|19.1823905124691.282902,726957
Diameters at the Relative Diame-l True Diame- 7 ion, *
: Names of the Planets, &c. #. **** tºº. ComparativeVolumes. Hoºſion Iº.
Sun, tº e e 32 1.8000 112.02434 887,681 1405844, 16195
Mercury, & © 2 6.4600 .37656 2,984 .05339 109,757 6.67363
Venus, . . . . 16.5000 .96.181 7,621 .88.974 80,293 1.91128
Earth, . . . . 17.1552 1.00000 7,924 1.00000 68,288 1.00000
Mars, . . . . 8.1400 .53278 4,222 ..15123 55,322 –2.32164
Vesta, . . . . .5824 .03395 ,269 00004 44,435 —5.57805
Juno, . . . . . 1.0158 .17580 1,393 .00543 41,799 —7,12362
Ceres, . . . . 3.4250 .19664 1,582 .00796 41,051 –7 65764
Pallas, . . . . 4.8740 .25429 2,025 .01669 41,009 —7.86800
Jupiter, . . . . 3 6 7400 10,88530 86.255 1289.81000 $ 29,943 –27,05197
Saturn, . . . . 2 57.4400 10,34320 81,954 1100.54000 22,111 –90,97260
Herschel, * - e. 1 14.4000 4.33688 34,263 81.57020 15,592 –36197400;


-*
TABLE I.
Containing the names of the Constellations, the number and magnitudo
of the Stars in each, and the days on which they come to the merid-
ian at 9 o'clock in the evening.
t
© e Magnitud
º wº agnitudes,
g|Month Constellations. R. A. P. §:
z $ 1|2|3|4|5|| 6
l!Jan 4Eridanus, 62o 100 S. 84 || 1 || 1 || 1 ||27|20; 57
2 6: Reticulus, 62 j62 S. 10 || 0 || 0 || 2: 3|2| 5
3 9:Taurus, 65 |16 N. 141 1 || 1 || 4 || 823| 60
4 ll. Hrandenburgh Sceptre, 67 |15 S. 3
5 12|Praxiteles, 68 |40 S. 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 18
6 12 Camelopard, 68 70 N. 58 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 ||25 || 42
7 18;Auriga, 75 45 N. 66 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 9 |20 25
8. 18}sword Fish, 75 |62 S. 6 || 0 || 0 || || 1 || 4 || 24
9 19|Mons Mensae, 76 |72 S. 30 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 30
10 23|Eepus, the Hare, 80 18 S. 19 || 0 || 0 || 3| 7 || 3 || 13
| ? 23 Orion, *. 80 || 0 78 || 2 || 4 || 3|15||18 || 36
12 26;Painter’s Horse, 84 55 S. 8 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 39
13 |Noah's Dove, 85 35 S.L. 10 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 4 || 53
14|Feb. 15.3anis Major, 105 (20 S. 31 || 1 || 4 || 2 | 7 || 7 || 36
15 22 Mönoceros, 110 || 0 31 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 7 || 7 || 12
16 23:Gemini, 111 |32 N. 85 1 || 2 || 4 || 7|13| 27
17 23:The Lynx, 111 |50 N. 44 || 0 || 0 || 0 3|15|| 25
27 Argo Navis, 115 50 S. 64 || 2 || 4 || 9|12|37 |289
19|March. 4Canis Minor, 120 5 N. 14 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 3 || 9
12: Flying Fish, 127 (68 S. 8 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 8
21 13 Cancer, 128 (20 N. 83 || 0 || 0 || 0 3| 8 || 11
22 15:Mariner's Compass, X30 30 S. 4 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 | 13
23 25 Hydra, 139 || 8 S. 60 || 0 || 1 || 0 |13||16| 45
24 April. 1:Sextans, 145 || 0 41 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 36
25 6Leo Minor, 150 |35 N. 53 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 5 ||10| 39
26 6:Leo Major, 150 15 N. 95 || 2 || 2 || 6′15||12| 47
27 |Air Pump, 150 (32 S. 3 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |2| 18
28 9|Ursa Major, 153 |60 N. 87 || 1 || 3 || 7|13|31 || 37
29 16|Robur Carroli, 159 |50 S. 12
33 26Grater, the Cup, 168 15 S. 31 || 0 || 0 || 0 ||10| 9 || 14
34|May. |3|Chaméleon, 175 78 S. 10 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 35
35 11. The Cross, 183 |60 S. 5 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 12
36 13:Corna Berenices, 185 (26 N. 43 || 0 || 0 || 0 |1313| 17
37 3 Corvus, the Crow, 185 15 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 2 || 2 | 2
38] 13}southern Fly, 185 |68 S. 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 0 || 17
39 19;Cor Caroli, 191 #39 N. 3
40 23:Virgo, 195 || 5 N. 110 || 1 || 0 || 6|10|16; 71
41 28% Asterion et Chara, 200 |40 N. 25 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 7 || 15
{) Centaurus, 200 50 S. 35 || 2 || 1 || 6|10|14:100
42|June; Bootes, 212 20 N. 54 || 1 || 0 || 7|10|18 || 30
43 19 Compasses, 222 |64 S. 4 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 8
44 ons Maenalus, 225 || 5 N. 11
45 bra, 226 || 8 S. 51 || 0 || 1 || 312|| 4 || 27
46 26 Lupus, the Wolf, 230 |45 S. 24 || 0 || 0 || 3| 3|18, 29
$7|July. || ||Corona Borealis, 235 30 N. 21 || 0 || 1 || || 5||9|| 6
48 |Ursa Minor, 235 ºf NI 2, 15|il 3, ilâl i
º:












TABLE I.—Continued.
* |
35 e
sº i- Magnitudes.
5|Month.|s Constellations, R. A. *k: *mºsºmsºmºmºmºsºm-º.
2. § 1|2|3|4|5|g
49|July. liſhe Šerpent, 2350|100 N. 64 || 0 || 1 || 9 || 5 3/46
50 4S. Triangle, 238 (65 S. 5 || 0 || 1 || 2 | 0 || 1:16
51 ticlii’s Square, 242 {45 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3:26
52 10|Scorpio, 244 i26 S. 44 || 1 || 1 |11|10| 4|29
53 18|Bird of Paradise, 252 75 S. 11 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0: 216
54 21 Ara, the Altar, 255 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 3| 3 ||30
55 21. Hercules, 255 22 N. 113 || 0 || 1 || 8||19|36|46
56 26 Serpentarius, 260 |13 N. 74 || 0 || 1 || 5|10| 942
57|August. Taco, 270 (66 N. 80 || 0 || 4 || 7|12|2532
58 erberus, 27] 22 N.
59 10|Scutum Sobieski, 275 (10 S. -
60 10 Taurus Poniatowski, 275 7 N. 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 ||12
61 13|Corona Australis, 278 40 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 510
62 13|Telescopium, 278 |40 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3| 639
63 19|Lyra, the Harp, 283 38 N. 21 || 1 || 0 || 2 2 6|12
64 21 Sagittarius, 285 |35 S. 69 || 0 || 0 || 510|12|59
65 29Antinous, 292 || 0
66|Sept. agitta, 295 |18 N. 18 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 0.15
67 qui 295 || 8 N, 71 |1|Q|9-7|
68 ox and Goos § 2; N 35 ºf 13;
69 The Peacock, 302 |68 S. 14 0 || 1 || 2 3 480
70 15||Delphinus, 365 is N. . is 0 || 0 || 5 || 211
71 18|Cygnus, 308 |42 : N. 81 || 0 || 1 || 6||11||1649
72 18:Capricorn 310 §- S. 51 || 0 || 0 || 3 3| 7 4
73 išjāāley's quadraw 310480 S. 43 || 0 || 0 || 1 0. 664
23 Microscopium, ,315 35 S. I0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1:12
23 The Indian, 315 B5 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || || 1 254
quul 316 || 5 N. 10 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 6
Oct 10.The Crane, 330 (45. S. 13 || 0 || 1 || 2 2,641.
15 Aquarius, § lift' s 103 loſ j} | 735g
15|Southern Fish, 335 30 S. 24 || 1 || 0 || 2 5 9||19
16|The Lizard, 336 |43 N. 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 3| 7 || 7
18|Cepheus, 338 |65 N.
Pegasus, 340 14 N. 89 || 0 || 3 || 3 91451
Nov. g|American Goos 359 |66 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 1 2 5|58
13 Officina Sculptoria. 3 ||38 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 0} 529
15|Pisces, 5 (10 N. 113 || 0 || 0 |13 52863
20 Phoeni 10 (50 S. 13 || 0 || 1 || || 3: 763
22 Cassiopeia, 12 |60 N. 55 || 0 || 0 || 5 6' 8:38
D 23 Androme 14 34 N. 66 || 0 || 3 || 2:12|15|34
* || 4 Cetus, 25 12 S. 97 || 0 || 2 || 7 ||1311||66
6 Tri um, 27 |32 N. 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 7
6 28 (68 S. 10 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 3: 238
es, 30 22 N. 66 || 0 || 1 || 1 |& 622
10 Hºriangulum Min. 32 (28 N. 5
17 Horologium, 40 |60 S. 12 0 || 0 || 0 § 2|39
17|Musca, 40 % N. 4 || 0 || 0 || 1 l
199hemical Furnace, 42 S. 14 || 0 || 0 || 0 0] 243
21Caput Medusae, % 40 N. • ,
23|Perseus, 3 49 N. 59 1012 410/14131






TABLE II.
Exhibiting the Right, Ascension and Declination of the principal
#. Stars, and the time of their coming to the Meridian.
Those to which S is annexed are in South declination; the others are in North
declination.

o 80 Right :...tion ||On the K.
2. Names of the Stars. : Ascension. Declination. Merid. Å
H. M. s. 9 * *
1|s Persei, 3| 3 47 8 |39 31 37 Jan. | 1
2|), Eridani, 3 || 3 50 15 |13 59 4S. 2
36 Eridani, #| 4 3 31 || 7 16 32S. 5
4|s Tauri, 3| 4 13 53 |13 5 is 8
5|& Tauri, Aldebaran, | 1 || 4 26 21 |16 10 4 10
6/3 Eridani, 3 || 4 39 35 | 5 18 0S. 13
Tº Aurigº, Capella, || 5 4 22 45 49 10 19
8/3 Orionis, Rigel, 1 || 5 6 31 || 8 23 55s. 20
99 Tauri, El Nath, 2 || 3 15 # 25 37 33 22
10|n Orionis, . | 3 || 5 15 36 || 2 33 17S. 22
11|2: Orionis, Bellatrix, 2 || 5 16 11 || 6 11 32 22
123. Leporis, Nibal, | 3 || 5 21 22 |20 53 46S. 23
13? Orionis; Mintaka, 2 5 23 29 || 0 25 39S. 24
14|a. Leporis, Arneb, | 3 || 5 33 33 |17 56 50s. 24
15|a Orionis, Anilam, 2 5 27 44 || 1 18 49S. 25
16; Tauri, . . . , 3 || 5 ºf 5; 21 25
17& Orionis, Alnitak, 3 || 5 33 30 || 3 3 6s. 26
18|a Columbae, Phaet, 2 || 5 33 "j |34 10 2S, 26
192: Orionis, Saiph, 3 || 5 39 29 || 9 44 2S. 27
20/3 Columbae, 3 || 5 45 6 |35 50 12S, 29
212. Orionis, Betelguese 1 || 5 46 8 || 7 22 6 29
22/33Aurigae, Menkalina 2 || 5 47 ſº |44 55 24 29
23: Geminorum, Tejat;|34 6-4 54 |22 23.1 Feb. 3
24|4 veininorum,. 3 || 6 12 54 |22 35 48 4
25% Canis Majoris, 3 || 6 14 4 |29 59 36S. 5
26/3 Ca. Maj., Mirzam, 2 || 6 15 23 |17 52 41S. 5
27|2 Navis, Canopus, 1 || 6 20 15 |52 36 23S. 6
§§ly Gemino, Alhena, 3| 6 28 4 |16 32 18 8
292 Canis Maj., Sirius, 1 || 6 37 47 |16 27S. 11
30|e Canis Maj., Adhara, 3 6 53 14 28 ; 55S. 15
31|& Geminorum. 3 || $ 53 53 |20 48 36 15
322 C. Maj, Muliphen, 3| & 56 26 |15, 23 20s. 1b
333 C. Majoris, Wesen, 2 || 7 1 17 |26 : 7 53s. 17
343 Gemino, Wasat, 3| 7 10 78 gº 17 6 19
35iºr Argo Navis, #| 7 || || 3: 43 is: 19
36|| C. Maj, Audra, {2| 7 17 16 |28 55 50s. 21
37|2 Gemino., Castor, 2 || 7 23 56 32 14 52 23
38|& C. Minor, Procyon, 1 || 7 30 33 || 5 , 38 55 24
392. Ar. Navis, Markab, 3 || 7 32 17 |26 26 22S. |25
40'3 Gemino., Pollux, l 2 || 7 35 5 |28 25 28 26
t
TABLE II.-Continued.

6 º Right a 4 + *
#|Names of the Stars. # Ascension. |-- º:# *
H. M. s. o ' ''
41% Argo Navis, 3| 7 42 20 24 26 35s. Feb. 28
& ArgoNavis, Naos. 2 7 57 44 39 32 33. Mar. 4
435, Argo Navis, 2| 8 4 23 46 50 438. 5
44° Argo Navis, 2.3| 8 19 5 58 58 33S. 9
45|d Argo Navis, 2.3| 8 40 § 5 43S. 15
464 Ursae Majoris, 3| 8 47 47 '48 41 50 17
47|2 Cancri, Acubens, 3.4 8 49 45 . 30 9 18
48|\ Argo Navis, 23| 9 || 51 42 45 40S. 21
49.3 A. N., Maia Placid. 1| 9 12 57 69 1 54S. 24
50% Argo Navis, 2.3| 9 16 59 54 17 53S. 25
51%. Hydrºe, Alphard, "...] § 13 3 || || 56 ſis. 26
526 Ursae Majoris, 3| 9 21 47 53 26 45 27
538 Leonis, 3| 9 36 22 24 32 26 31
544, Leonis, Rasal Asad. 3| 9 42 56 (26 47 32 April. 1
55|n Leonis, 3.4|| 9 58 13 |17 34 -34” 6
56|a. Leonis Regulus, I 9 59 28 12 46 52 6
57|A Ursae Majoris, 3| 10 6 58 |43 44 49 8
583 Leonis, Aldhafara, 3| 10 1 23 24 14 53 . 8
593, Leonis, Al Gieba, 12.3| 10 10 45 20 41 16 9
60, U. M., El Phekrah, 8|10 11 55 42 20 15 9
612 Leonis Minoris, 3| 10 28 47 |32 50 39 14
628 Argo Navis, 2.3| 10 37 12 |63 31 14S. 16
63, Argo Navis 2| 10 38 36 58 48 34S. 17
§4. Criteris, Aikes, 34 iſ 51 #5 iſ ºf 36s. 20
654 Ursae Maj., Merak, 2 10 51 42 57 16 35 20
66|& Ursae Maj., Dubhe, 2 10 53 21 62 39 3 21
67|3 Leonis, Zozma, 3 5 13 |21 27 32 24
68|9 Leonis, © 3 5 39 |16 20 39 24
$9|A Draconis, Giansar, 3 20 17 |70 15 3 28
704 Leonis, Denebola, 2 40 32 15 30 22 ‘....T3
713 Virginis, Zavijava, 3 42 0 || 2 42 43 3
72× U. Maj., Phach'd, 2 45 1 |54 37 25 4
733 Centauri, 2.3 59 44 |49 30 15S. 8
74|J Crucis 3 6 21 |57 32 4S. 10
# (ſis, M, Megrez, ; is ; ; ; ; 16 10
767 Corvi, 3 7 38 16 36 42.S. 10
Tilº Crucis, 1 17 23 62 10 26S. 13
784 Corvi, Algorab, 3 21 38 |15 34 49S. 14
792. Crucis, - 2 21 56 (56 10 22.S. !"4
80% Corvi, 3 25 39 ||22 28 9S. \;
*-*.
TABLE II.-Continued.


º p Right & a ſº On the E.
Q
2. Names of the Stars. # Ascension. Declination. Merid. Å
H. M. s o * *
81|x Draconis, 3|12 26 23 70 42 38 May. 15
82, Centauri, 2,312 32 23 48 2 23S. 16
835, Virginis, 3|12 33 37 || 0 31 55S. 17
843 Crucis, 2|12 38 3 |58 46 27S. 18
85, Ur. Majoris, Alioth, 212 46 27 |57 52 5 20
86|J Virginis, 3|12 47 12 || 4 18 31 20
87. Cor-Caroli, 3|12 47 57 |39 13 21 20
88, Vir, Vindemiatrix, 312 56 36 |11 51 32 22
89.3 Hydrae, 3||13 9 42 |22 17 9S. 26
90 Centauri, 3||13 10 48 |35 49 49S. 26
91%. Virginis, Spica, 1||13 16 24 10 17 10.S. 27
923. Ursae Maj. Mizar, 2|13 17 11 |55 17 59 28
93|& Virginis, 3||13 25 36 || 0 15 43 30
94's Centauri, 2.3||13 29 20 |52 32 20S. 31
95|h U. M., Benetnasch, 213 40 57 |50 8 58 June. 2
96|& Centauri, 3||13 45 11 |46 27 37S. 3
97% Bootis, - 3||13 46 32 |19 14 39 4
984 Centauri, * 1.213 52 8 |59 33 36S. 5
992 Draconis, Thuban, 3||13 59 52 |65 10 31 7
100|& Bootis, Arcturus, 1|14 8 3 |20 3 21 8
101* Centauri, 2.3|14 24 54 |41 25 0S. 13
102.7 Bootis, Seginus, 3|14 25 17|39 2 32 13
103* Centauri, 1.214 28 58 |60 9 28S. 14
104* Lupi, 3|14 30 46 |46. 39 47S. 14
105* Bootis, Mirac, 3|14 37 41 |27 47 2 16
106|º Librae, Zubenesch, 2.314 41 27 |15 20 29S. 17
107|3 U. Mino., Kochah, 3|14 51 16 |74 50 17 19
1088 Bootis, Nekkar, 3|14 55 12 |41. 3 18 20
109|8. Librae, Zubenelg, 2.315 8 2 || 8 45 41S. 23
110|d Serpentis, 3||15 26 32 |11 6 14 28
111|x C. Bor., Ajº, 215 27 37 (27 16 55 28
112|1 Serpentis, Unuk, 215 36 3 || 6 57 24 30
1133 Serpentis, 3|15 38 29 |16 57 7 || July. | 1
114|s Serpentis, 3|15 42 36 || 6 59 7 2
II5ly Serpentis, 3i, is 33 lić is 56 3
1167, Scorpii, 315 48 4 125 37 11S. 3
1174 Scorpii, 315 50 2.8 22 8 18S. 4.
118/3 Scorpii, 215 55 44 19 20 28S. 5
1190 Draconis, 3||15 58 37 59 0 32 6
i
TABLE II.-Continued

6 | Right * A * l tº,
: | Names of the Stars. # Asc ºn. Declination. º:# §
|
H. M. §, O J a /
1204 Ophiu, Yed, or Jed. 316 5 36 || 3 15 18S. July. 7
121's Ophiuchi, 316 9 39 4 16 37S. 8
122), #. 3|16 14 23 19 33 1 9
123;& Scorpii, Antares, 1|16 19 10 26 3 7S 11
124|h Draconis, 3|16 21 12 |61 53 38 11
1253 Hercules, Rutilicus, 316 23 22 21 57 36 12
1266 Ophiuchi, 3|16 27 45 |10 13 15S 13
1273. Triang. Australis, 2.316 31 3 |68 42 23S 14
128& Herculis, 3|16 34 59 |31 54 39 15
129); Scorpii, 3|16 39 4 |33 58 40S 16
1304 l Scorpii, 3|16 40 8 ||37 45 14S 16
1313 Scorpii, 3|16 42 52 |41. 3 33S 17
132; Herculis, 3|16 54 14 |31 10 19
133, Ophiuchi, 2.3|17 0 50 |15 30 35S 21
134a. Her., Ras Algethi, 2.317 7 2 ||14 35 17 23
iš, Hºrčulis, 3|17 8 20 25 2 l 23
136|& Draconis, 3|17 8 23 65 55 ± 12 * |23
137. Arae, 3.17 15 57 49 43’54S. 24
138|y Scorpii, Lesath, 2.317 22 58. 58 24S. 27
1396 Scorpii, 3.17 25 20 |42 52 55S. 27
1402. Ophiu, Ras Albag. 217, 28 11 |12 41 20 |2 28
1413 Ophiuchi, Cheleb, 317° 35 36 || 4 38 40 30
142 y Ophiuchi, 3|17 39 56 || 2 46 42 31
143). Draconis, Rastaben, 2.317 52 44 |51 30 42 Aug. 3
144), 2 Sagittarii, 3|17 55 5 |30 24 40S 4
1453 Sagittarii, 3|18 10 1 29 53 28S 8
146;s Sagittarii, 2.318 12 48 |34 27 14S 8
147|& Lyrae, Vega, 1|18 26 11 38 38 0 12
1484 Ursae Minoris, 3|18 28 6 86 35 47 |. 12
1493 Lyrae, 2.3|18 43 55 33 10 33 17
150 a Sagittarii, º 2|18 44 58 (26 29 42S 17
1519 Serpentis, Alga, 318 47 36 || 3 59 20 18
1524 Lyrae, 3|18 49 6 |36 41 28 18
i53? Sagittarii, 3|18 52 1 |30 6 40S. 19
1543. Lyrae, Jugum., 3|18 52 11 |32 27 47 19
1551s Aquilae, 3|18 52 26 ||14 50 4 19
1568 A., Deneb e Okab, 3|18 57 44 |13 37 20 20
1577 Sagittarii, 3|18 59 54 |21 16 56S 21
,1583 Sagittarii, 3,419 12 19 |40 55 9S 24
- 1594 Draconis, 3|19 12 29 |67 21 59 2%



#
TABLE II.-Continued.

-wº-
On the
te p| Right e = & Fº
; Names of the Stars. # Ascension. |Panº Merid. §
H. M. s \ 0 * *
1603 Aquilae, 3|19 17 5 || 2 46 57 Aug. 26
1616 Vulpeculae, 3.4|19 21 20 24 20 5 27
162/3 Cygni, Albireo, 3|19 24 17 27 36 51 28
1633, Aquilae, Tarazed, 319 38 19 10 12 48 31
1643 Cygni, 3|19 40 0 |44 43 25 | Sept. 1
1652 Aquilae, Altair, 1,219 42 38 || 8 26 2 1
1663 Aquilae, Alshain, 319 47 7 || 5 59 47 3
1670 Aquilae, 3|20 2 38 1 18 39S. 7
1682. 1 Capri, Dshabeh, ; 320 8 23 |13 1 59S. 9
169|a 2 Capricorni, 3|20 8 47 |13 3 16S. 9
1702 Capricorni, Dabih, 320 11 48 |15 18 15S. 10
171|x Pavonis, 1.220 12 23 |57 15 42S. 10
1722 Cygni, Sa'dr, 320 16 11 39 43 32 11
173|s Delphini, 3|20 25 32 10 44 29 13
1743 Delphini, Rotanen, 320 29 29 |13 59 53 15
175ſ. Delphini, Scalovin, 320 31 53 |15 59 32 15
176|J Delphini, , 3|20 35 29 |14 28 53 16
1772 Cygni, Deheb, 1.220 35 45 |44. 41 15 16
1782, Delphini, 3|20 38 29 |15 31 47 17
179|s Cygni, Gienah, 320 39 16 33 20 16 17
1803 Cygni, 3|21, 5 22 (29 32 45 25
1812. Cephei, Alderamin, 321 14 35 |61 52 45 27
182/3 Aquarii, 321 22 46 kg 18 9.S. 29
* --> *:::- tºmºs
183|3 Cephei, Alphirk, 3|21 26 28 |69 49 43 || Oct. 2
184|y Capricorni, 3|21 30 45 |17 24 48S. 3
1851, Pegasi, Eniſ, 2.3|21 35 32 || 9 6 47 4
1863 Capricorni, 3|21 37 49 |16 52 33S. 9
187|2 Aquarii, 3|21 57 12 || 1 7 33S. 9
1882 Gruis, 2|21 57 40 |47 45 38S. 11
1893 Cephéi, 3|22 5 5 |57 22 59 13
1902. Aquarii, 3|22 12 38 || 2 13 40S. 16
1918 Piscis Australis, 322 21 50 |33 11 44S. 18
1924. Piscis Australis, 3|22 31 49 |27 54 48S. 19
1933 Pegasi, 3:22 33 36 || 9 57 49 22
1944 Aquarii, Scheat, 3|22 45 43 |26 42 31S. 23
195|& Pisc. Aust., Fomalh. 1122 48 24 30 30 18S. 24
1969 Pegasi, scheat, 2|22 55 32 (27 10 27 25
1972 Pegasi, Markab, T 212 56 27 ||14 18 37 | Nov. 3
27
TABLE II.--Continued.
3. Names of the Stars. # | Aºi.Il. Declination. º:j #
| &
H. M. s. o ' "
1987 Cephei, Er Rai, 3.23 32 16 76 41 52 | Nov. 10
1991. Andromedae, Alph., #; 59 46 28 10 9 10
2008 Cassiopeiae, Chaph, 324 0 36 58 13 47 11
2013, Pegasi, Algenib, 3 14
2028 Hydrus, 3 14
203% Phoenicis, 2.3 17
204* Andromedae, 3 17
205 & Cassiop., Schedir, 3 18
2064 Ceti, Deneb Kaitos, 2 21
207 y Cassiopeia, 3 24
208 a U. M. Alruccabah, 2.3 24
209A Andro., Mirach, 2 28
210's Cassio, Ruchbah, 3 2
2.11a. Eradani, Achernar, 1 4
212t Cassiopeiae, 3 # 4
213%. Ceti, Baton Kaitos, 3 5
2143 Arietis, 3 7
215|a Piscium, El Rischa, 3 7
216? Andro., Almaach, 2 8
2172. Arietis, or El Nath, 2 Il
2180 Ceti, Mira, A. 15
2193 Ceti, ...:* 15
220's Ceti, ...’ 3 16
221), Ceti, ... . " 3 20
222},Persei, 3 20
223. Ceti, Menkar, 2 21
224|g Persei, Algol, War. |23
225. Fornax Chemica, : 23
2261& Eridani, 3 25
227& Persei, Algeneb, 2 27
228. Eridani, 3 29
2293 Persei, 3 30
230|& Eridani, 3 30
231|| Pleiades, Alcyone, 3 4
232k Persei, 3| 3 44 0 |31 23 26 || Jan. | 1

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TABLE VIII. TABLE IX,
To change degrees, minutes, and To change hours, minutes, and
seconds of the equator, or of seconds, of sidereal time, into
right ascension, into hours, mix degrees, minutes, and seconds,
nutes, and seconds, of sidereal of the equator, or right ascen-
time. $100.
Deg. H. M. w H. M.] § | 3 # I gl § | Min. D. M. Min. D. M.
Mí | M.S. Ali. M.; | # 5 #| | | Sec.- M. S. Sec. M. s.
scc.|s. Th. Sec. S. Th.| 3 | # 3 ||3| 3 || Th. s. Th. Th. s. Th.
1 || 0 4 || 31 2 4 7 ##| || || 1 || 0 15 31 || 7 45
2 || 0 8 || 32 |2 8 80 5 201 2 30 || 2 || 0 30 32 || 8 0
3 || 0 12 || 33 2 12 90| 6 (). 3| 45 || 3 || 0 45 33 8 15
4 || 0 16 || 34 |2 16 100 6 40 4| 60 || 4 || 2 0 || 34 || 8 30
5 || 0 20 | 35 |2 20 110|| 7 20 5| 75 || 5 || 1 15 35 | 8 45
6 || 0 24 || 36 |2 24 120 8 0 6 90 || 6 || 1 30 || 36 9 0
7 || 0 28 37 |2 28, 130|| 8 40 7| 105 || 7 || 1 45 37 9 15
8 : 0 32 || 38 |2 32|140|| 9 20 8, 120 | 8 || 2 0 || 38 || 9 30
9 || 0 36 || 39 2 36||150|10 () 9 135 | 9 || 2 15 || 39 9 45
10 || 0 40 | 40 |2 40 160 10 4010 150 10 || 2 30 | 40 || 10 0
11 || 0 44 41 |2 44; 170 l l 2011 165 11 || 2 45 41 || 10 15
12 || 0 48 42 |2 48; ISO 12 (12 180 12 3 0 || 42 10 30
13 || 0 52 || 43 2 52; 190|12 4013, 195 || 13 || 3 15 43 || 10 45
14 || 0 56 44 (2 567200}}3 2014 210 || 14 || 3 30 44 || 1 || 0
15 || || 0 || 45 |3 0:210|14 0.15} 225 | 15 3 45 || 45 || 11 15
16 || 1 4 || 46 |3 422014 4016, 240 | 16 || 4 0 || 46 || 11 30
17 || 8 || 7 || 33301; 2047. 253 || 17 || 4 13 || 47 || || 43
18 || 1 12 || 48 3 12:240; 16 018, 270 18 4 30 || 48 || 12 0
19 || 1 || 49.3 16250|16 4019. 285 | 19 || 4 45 || 49 | 12 13
20 || 1 20 50 "3 20:260;17 20:20 300 20 5 0 || 50 | 12 30
21 || 1 24 || 51 3 24|27018 0:21] 315 21 || 5 15 51 | 12 45
22 || 1 28 52 |3 28|280; 18 40:22; 330 22 || 5 30 52 13 0
23 || 1 32 53 3 32.290, 19 20:23| 345 23 5 45 53 || 13 15
24 || 36||34 |3 36||300:20 0:24, 350 24 || 6 0 || 54 || 13 30
23 || 1 40 || 55 3 4031020 4023 375 ||25 || 6 13 || 65||1343
|
25 | 1.44 56 |3 44|32021 2026. 300 ||25 || 6 30 || 56 || 14 0
27 | 1 46 57 3 48|330 22 (927 405 27 | 6 45 57 14 15
28 52 58 |3 52|340 2240.28 420 28 || 7 0 || 58 14 30
99 || 1 56 59 |3 56'350 23 2020 435 | 29 || 7 15 59 || 14 45
30, : T 0 || 60 4 0 360.24 030. 450 || 30 | 730 l 60 l 15 0
TABLE X.
Showing how many miles make a degree of lon-
gitude, in every degree of latitude.
TABLE XI.

Of the Cimates be-
tween the Equator
and the Polar Cir-


Beg. Geo. Eng.:Deg. Geo. Eng. Deg. Geo. Eng.: cles.
fºlmis. Mºsſºmitis. Mºsliº Miles|Niñés
| |##3 jºgg| 3 ||3}{3|{}}}|| |}}}|##| s ], glas;|ge
2 || 53.96 || 69.03 ||33 || 59.8 |58.5l tº 3317|32.40 #2 ºf &#3 #3;
3 59.92 | 68.97 ||33 || 50.32 |57.87 || 63 |27.24|31.33, #7, #3, #3 ###
4 || 59.85 6S.90 34 || 49.74 || 57.20 || 64 26.30 30.24 ... * 5|*#####
t, 59.77 | 68.81 - 35 || 49.15 56.51 65 25.35 | 29, 15 &O
6 || 59.67 | 68.62 || 36 || 48.54 55.81 66 24.40 28.06 . m. h. m. d. m.
7 || 59.55 68.48 || 37 47.92 || 55.10 67 || 23.45| 26.96 1 834; 12 30 834
8 || 59.42 | 68.31 || 38 || 47.28 54.37 68 22.48 25.85 2 |1644 1300|| 8 10
9 || 59.26 68, 15 39 || 46.63 || 53.62 69 21.50 24.73 3 24 12 13 30 | 728
10 || 59.09 || 67.95 40 || 45.96 || 52.85 || 70 |20.52| 23.60 × 4 |3048; 14 00 6.36
11 58.89 67.73 || 41 || 45.28 |52.07 || 71 || 19.53 22.47 5 |3631|| 14 30|| 5 43
12 58.69 || 67 48 || 42 44.59 || 51.27 72 | 18.54 21.32: 6 4124|15 00|| 4 53
13 58.46; 67.21 || 43 || 43.88 |50.46 73 || 17.54 20.17, 7 |4532 1530|| 4 8
14 58.22 | 66.95 H44 43.16|49.63 || 74 15.54|| 19.02, 8 49_2, 16 00|| 3:30
15 57.95 | 66.65 45 || 42.43 || 48.78 75 | 15,53 || 17.86 9 |5159; 1630 || 257
16 57.67 || 66.31 || 46 || 41.68 47.93 || 76 || 14.52 | 16.70, 10 |5430, 17 00 231
17 | 57.33 || 65|33 || 47 || 46.33 |47.66 77 ||3:56; i3.53 iſ 563; 17 §j| 3 3
18 57.06 || 65.62 || 48 40.15 |46. 16 || 78 || 12.48 14.35 12 Éliš. I 49
19 56.73 || 65.24 49 || 39.36 || 45.26 79 || 1.45| 13, 17 § 13 |5959' 1S 30 || 1 32
20 56.38 64.84 || 50 38.57 44.35 80 || 10.42|| 11.98 || 14 |6] 18 19 00|| 1 19
21 56.01 || 64.42 || 51 || 37.76 |43.42 1.81 9.38|| 19.79: 15 6226, 1930|| 1 8
22 || 55.63 63.97 52 || 36.94 || 42.48 82 8.35 9.59 16 (6322 2000; 56
23 55.23 63.51 53 || 36.11 || 41.53 83 || 7.31 || 8.41 17 64 10 20 30 || 4S
24 54.81 63.03 - 54 35.27 | 40.56 84 || 6.27 7.21 - 18 64 50 21 (0 : 43
25 || 54.38 62.53 55 || 34.41 |39.58 85 5.22 || 6.00. 19 6522, 21 30| 32
§ {:}}|{}{2|| || |#3 |##| # 4}| #| || || 48.3% º
27 53.46 61.48 57 || 32.63 37.58 87 || 3.14 3.61 21 |66 5, 22 30 17
33 (£º ºil is |3i ſã |35; & º| 34; 23 ºziº j| ié
: ; 32.43 5935 3 ||3}{2|3:54 || 3 | 1.93||12|| 23 |6629 §§ 3
2ſ 51.96 l 59.75 " 60 || 30.00 || 34.50 - 90 | 000 || 0.00 24 |6632 24 00 3
TABLE XII.
Of the Climates between the Polar Circles and the Poles.
C!!. Ends in". the Brºadths cli. Ends in Where the Brºadths
gest of the longest Of the
ſºnates. t. day is Climºs. mates. Lat- day is. Climates.
m. I d. m. I d. m. d. m. I d. m. I d. m.
25 | 67 J8 30 or 1. 46 28 77 40 | 120 or 4 4 35
25 || 69 30 60 2. 2 15 29 || 82 50 150 6 || 5 19
27 | 73 5 || 90 3. 3 32 30 90 00 180 7 &


28*
#
TABLE XIII, .
Showing the Latitude and Longitude of some of the principal places in
the United States, &c., with their Distance from the city of Wash-
Inglon.
The Longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich.
The Capitals (seats of Government) of the States and Territories are
& designated by Italic letters.

*—
Albany (Capitol), . . .
A lexandria, e o * 0.
Annapolis, © º º tº
. Auburn, to e º º
Augusta, . e tº º º
Augusta (State IIouse), .
Baltimore (Battle Monument),
Bangor (Court IIouse), . *
Barnstable (Old Court House),
Batavia, tº e e *
#.'s & º tº º
Boston (State IIouse), . .
Bristol (Hotel), . tº ©
Brooklyn (Navy Yard), º
Brunswick (College), . .
fuffalo, . . . g º tº
Cambridge (IIarvard Hall), .
Cauillen, º ſº
Canandaigua, . . . . . .
Cape Cod (light-IIouse), .
Charleston (College) o
Charlestown (Navy §ard), *
Cincinnati, tº º & B
Columbia, . . . . e
Colwºmbus, * * * *
Concord (State House), e
Dedhaun (Court House), . º
Detroit º, & * *
- 35mailsonville, & L tº
- Dorchester (Ast. Observatory),
Jover, e tº º º
Dover
£aston (Court House) .
, Hºastport, . • º º e
Edenton, tº º e C
Exeter, . º º e º
Frankfort,. . . . .
Fredericksburg, . . .
Frederickton, e º º
Frederickstown, . . .
Georgetown, . . . . *
Gloucester, . . . .
Greenfield, . . s tº
Magers, win, .
iNºtax, tº ſº tº &
Latitude], Longitude, West, [Dist, from
North. in degrees.) in time. Washin.
O / // | O / /* |h.m. s. miles,
N. Y. 42 39 3| 73 44 49 |4 54 59.3 376
D. C. 38 49 7 4 5 8 16 6
Md. 39 0 76 43 5 6 52 37
N. Y. 42 55 76 28 5 5 52 339
Ga. 33 28 81 54 5.27 36 580
Me. [44 is 43 59 56 |439 20 595
Md. |39 17 13| 76 37 50 |5 6 31.3 38
Mo. 44 47 50; 68 47 4 35 8 661
Mass. 41 42 9| 70 16 4 41 4 466
. Y. 42 59 78 13 5 12 52 370
S. C. 32 25 80 41 5 22 44 629
Mass.j42 21 15 71 4 9 |4 44 16.6 432
R. I. 41 39 58| 7; 19 4 45 36 409
N. Y. 40 41 50| 73 59 30 |4 55 58 227
Me. 43 53 - 0. 69 55 1 |4 39 40.1 568
N. Y.j42.53 78 55 5 15 40 376
Mass. 42 22 15 71 7 25 4 44 29.7 43i
S. C. |34 17 80 30 5 22 12 467
N Y. 42 54 77 17 5 9 8 336
Mass. 42 2 16: 70 4 4 40 16 507
S. C. 32 47 0 80 () 52 |5 20 3.5 544
Mass. 42 22 71 3 33 4 44 14.2 433
Ohio. 39 6 84 22 5 37 28 497
S. C. 33 57 S1 7 5 24 28 500
Ohio. 39 47 83 3 5 32 12 306
N. H. 43 12 29| 71 29 4 45 56 474
Mass. 42 16 7| | 1 4 44 44 422
Mich. 42 24 82 58 5 31 52 526
La. 3 91 2 6 4 8 1278
Mass. [42 19 15| 71 4 15 |4 44 17 432
Del. |30 10 75 30 5 2 T0 114
N. H. 43 13 70 54 4 43 36 400
Mol, 38 46 10| 76 8 5 4 32 80
Me. 144 54 66 56 4 27 44 778
N. C. 36 0 77 7 3 |5 28 28 284
N. II. 42 58 70 55 4 43 40 474
Ky. |38 14 84 40 5 38 40 551
Va. 38 34 77 3S 5 10 32 56
N. B. 46 3 66 45 4 27 0 t
Md. |39 24 77 18 5 9 12 43
S. C. 33 21 79 17 5 17 8 . 482
Mass. [42 36 70 40 4 42 40 462
Mass. 42 37 72 36 4 50 24 306
Md. 33 37 77 35 5 10 2ſ) 68
N. S. 44 39 20 63 36 40 4 14 27 936

TABLE XIII.--Continued.
- Tafitinda
North.
Longitude, West,
in degrees.
O / //
Hallowell, . . . .
Harrisburgh, ſº
Hartford, . . . .
Hudson, e Q & * * * *
Huntsville, . . . . Ala. 134 36
*::::::::pºliº, * , © ſº §§ § 55
QC e o & tº g 'pi. 32.23
º, . . . . M'ri. 38 36
#ºnk, e & © tº §º : 25
ingston, . tº tº te . C. 44 8
Knoxville, . . . . Tenn, 35 59
Lancaster, . . . . Pa.
Lexington, tº º . . Ky. 38 6
Little Rock, e ſº e Ark. 34 40
Lockport, . . . . . . N. Y. 43 11
Louisville,
iſowei's. Ann's Church), . Mass.; 33.45|
Lynchburgh, . . . . Va. 37 36
lynn, * & g & . Mass. 42 28
Marblehead, . . . Mass. 42 30
Middletown, . . . . Conn, 41 34
Mobile, . , - . . Ala. 130 40
Montpelier, . tº e e Vt. 44 17
Monomoy Point Light, . . Mass. 41 32 58
Montreal, . e e & L. C. §45 31
Nantucket (Town Hall), . . Mass. 41 16 32
Nashville, . g sº * Tenn. 36 9 30
Natchez (Castle), . e . M’pi. 31 34
Newark, s . . . N. J.
New Bedford (Mariners' Ch.), Mass. 41 38 7
Newbern, i. • . . N. C. 35 20
Newburgh, . . . . . . . . fe
Newburyport (2d Pres. Ch.), : Mass. 42 4S 29
Newcastle, * à . . . Del. 39 40
New Haven (College), . º
New London, . g g . Conn, 41 22
New Orleans (City), . ſº La. 29 57 45
Newport, . º g . . R. I.
New York (City Hall), . . . N. Y. 40 42 40
Norfolk (Farmer's Bank), ; Va. 36 50 50
Northaumpton (Mansion House), Mass. 42 1855
Norwich, . . . . . Conn. 11 33
Pensacola, , , , . Fa.
Petersburgh, . . . . . . . Va.
Philadelphia(Independence H.), Pa.
Pittsburgh, . . . . . . . Pa.
Pittsfield, (1st Cong. Church), §º:
40 32
2 26 59
Plattsburgh,. . . . . . . Y. 44 42
Plymouth (Court House), . , Mass. 41 57 12
Portland (Town House), * * Me 3 39 26
Portsmouth (Court House), N. H.143 4 54
Poughkeepsie, . . . . N. Y.kłl 41
Princeton, . . . . N. J.
O z zº
!
l
*
3
6
i
I
i
9
:s&-
amº
Dist. Ironſt
Wash'n.


TABLE XIII-centinued.

Providence (Old Col), .
Quebec (Castle), ſº
Fºalei e tº e o
Rich?nomid (Capitol), .
Rochester (R'r IIouse), .
Sable §: tº º
Sackett's Harbour, . .
Saco, g e © ©
St. Augustine, & G ©
§t. ſº s & tº
Salem (E. I. M. Hall), .
Savannah, . . º
Schenectady, . . .
Springfield Čourt IIouse),
allahassee, . g g
Taunton (Court House),
Toronto (York), . . .
Trenton, . . . .
Troy, tº e º 'o
Tuscaloosa, . . . .
University of Virginia, . g
Utica (Dutch Church),
Vandalia, ſº tº º
Vevay, . . . . .
Vincennes, gº tº tº
WAsningtoN, (Capitol),
Washington, . . . . .
Wheeling, º tº e
Wilmington, . . .
Willnington, . . . . .
Worcester (Ant. Hall), .
York, e tº s tº
York, © º * *
**
ratitude], Longitude, West, Dist. Irom
North. in degrees.) in time. Wash'n.
o “ ” o f * li.m. s. miles.
R. H. 41 49 25 71 25 56 |4 45 43.7 394
l, C. 46 47 17| 70 56 31 |4 43 46.1 781
N. C.|35 47 78 48 5 15 12 286
Va. 37 32 17| 77 26 2S 5 9 49.9 122
N. Y.43 8 17| 77 51 5 i l 24 361
Fa. |24 50 81 15 5 25 0
N. Y.143 55 75 57 5 3 48 407
Me. 143 31 70 26 4 41 44 528
Fa. , 29 48 30, 81 35 5 25 20 841
M’ri. 38 36 89 36 5 58 24 856
Mass.]42 31 19| 70 54 | 43 36 446
Ga....]32 2 81 3 5 24 12 662
N. Y.142 48 73 55 4 55 40 391
Mass. 42 5 58 72 36 4 50 24 357
Fa. 30 28 84 36 5 3S 24 896
Mass 41 54 9| 71 50 4 44 20 415
lſ. C. |43 33 79 20 5 17 20 500
N. J. 10 14 74 39 4 5S 36 166
N. Y.42 44 73 40 4 54 40 3S3
Ala, 33 12 87 42 5 50 48 858
Va., 33 2.3 ZS 31 29 |5 14 5. 124
N. Y.43 6 49| 75 13 5 0 52 383
Il. 38 50 89 2 5 56 8 781
Ind. 38 46 8.4 59 5 39 56 556
Ind. 38 43 87 25 5 49 40 1693
D. Q. 38 52 54. 77 1 48 |5 8 7.2
M’pi. 31 36 91 20 6 5 20 146
Va. 40 7 80 42 5 22 48 264
Del. 39 41 75 28 5 | 52 }08
N. C.|34 || 1 78 10 5 12 40 416
Mass. 42 16 9| 71 49 0 |4 47 16 394
Me. 143 10 70 40 4 42 40 500
Pa. '39 58 76 40 5 6 40 87
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