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A RESEARCH ON
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION SERIES, No. 16.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
BRANCH.
J. W. TURNER. Superintendent.
DEPARTMENT OF
PURLIC INSTRUCTION.
Technological Museum, New South Wales.
A RESEARCH ©
© *
• * , e.
PINES OF AUSTRALIA
RICHARD T. BAKER, F.L.S.,
Curator and Economic Botanist,
AND
HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S.,
Assistant Curator and Economic Chemist.
JOINT AUTHORS OF
“A RESEARCH ON THE EUCALYPTs,”
&C.
V
Ó
Published by Authority of
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
- Spümep :
WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER,
I 9 I O ,

Department of Public Instruction,
New South Wales.
Minister :
THE HONOURABLE J. A. HOGUE, M.L.A.
Under Secretary :
PETER BOARD, ESQ., M.A.
Chief Inspector of Schools :
JAMES DAWSON, Esq., M.A.
A Research on
The Pines of Australia.
“SO them Deliberation takes place ºn such matters as are under
general laws but still uncertain how in any given case they
will issue, i.e., in which there is some uncertainty and for
great matters we associate coadjutors in counsel, distrusting
our ability to settle them alone.”
—A RISTOTLE
G
li
5
3.
3.
i
Acknowledgments.
IN the prosecution of this research every help and assistance has been rendered by the higher
officers of the Department of Public Instruction, an encouragement which has tended to
lighten the tediousness of the work.
By the willing assistance of the Public School Teachers under this Department, the
geographical distribution of the Pines in New South Wales has been somewhat completely
arranged. The location of these officers throughout the length and breadth of the State has
given them an unique opportunity to assist in the Botanical Survey of this important
group of our indigenous Plants. Their names are listed towards the end of this work,
together with those of other correspondents who assisted.
We are also grateful to the authorities of the various European Herbaria, especially
those of Kew, British Museum, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Paris, Brussels, Berlin, Leyden,
and Boissier for every possible assistance; and also to the Governments of the Australian
States who have assisted by providing material, and in other ways. This action has
helped to give this work a Commonwealth character—a Federal spirit worthy of all
commendation.
This opportunity is also taken to thank the following gentleman who have rendered
botanical and other assistance, viz.:-DR. J. A. BATTANDIER, Algiers; MR. R. H.
CAMBAGE, F.L.S., Sydney : MR. J. E. CARNE, F.G.S., Assistant Government Geologist,
Sydney ; PROFESSOR A. J. EwART, D.Sc., Melbourne ; MR. W. GILL, F.L.S., Conservator
of Forests, South Australia ; M R. N. HolTZE, Port Darwin ; MR. D. E. Hutchi Ns,
Conservator of Forests, British Africa; PROFEssoR E. C. JEFFREY, Harvard University;
the late MR. J. G. LUEHMANN, Melbourne; M R. P. MACMAHON, Director Botanic
Gardens, Brisbane; MR. J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., Director Botanic Gardens, Sydney ; the late
DR. MASTERs, London ; DR. A. MoRRISON, Perth ; MR. L. Rodway, Government
Botanist, Hobart ; DR. L. TRABUT, Algiers; and D.R. J. C. WILLIS, Director, Botanic
Gardens, Ceylon.
To M. R. W. A. GULLICK, the Government Printer, our thanks are due for the interest
he has taken in the work, and for numerous suggestions during its publication.
MR. F. H. TAYLOR, of this Museum, has rendered much assistance, especially in the
preparation of sections for the micro-photographic plates. Some of the other Photographs
were also taken by him.
Mr. J. NANGLE, of the Sydney Technical College, and his assistants, MESSRS J.
FARRELL and A. H. MARTIN, undertook the testing of the timber specimens, a work done
Specially for this research.
Our appreciation is also due, for assistance rendered in various ways, to the following
gentlemen :—MR. J. SHARPE, Ballina; MR. J. D.AwsON, Rylstone; MR. H. KING, Glen
Regis; MR. T. B. Osbor NE, Lismore ; MR. J. B. McDoug ALL, Casino; MR. M. HASKETT,
Cape York; MR. T. W. HEwBTson, Sandilands ; and MR. J. WARDMAN, Botanic
Gardens, Hobart. Also to the following members of the Museum Staff:-MESSRS. C. F.
LASERON (for care in collecting material), G. BEYER, M. F. CONNELLY, J. CRAM, D.
CANNON, W. RUTHERFORD, and A. J. HollowAY.
Preface.
THE economics of the Australian Pines have long been a subject of inquiry by many
Museum correspondents, and it was to ascertain the extent of the Commercial
possibilities of these trees that this research was undertaken.
The collection of so much material upon which the results are founded,
necessarily extended over a number of years, but the time taken for these investi-
gations has been much longer than we could have wished ; for in addition to
carrying on this work, the ordinary routine duties of the Museum have taken up
most of the official hours, so that we had to encroach largely upon our private
time.
To arrive at the economic results now offered for industrial application,
it was, of course, necessary that pure science should be made the foundation upon
which all the superstructure could be built, and, hence, this portion of the work
forms a large part of the whole; for pure and applied Science are largely interdepen-
dent, and it is only by such an association that satisfactory results can be
obtained.
This research, as in our work on the Eucalypts, has been a combined One,
in that, botany, in its various branches of morphology, anatomy, physiology, &c.,
has been linked with chemistry; and naturally so, we think, for it is only thus
that affinities and differences can be ascertained with the greatest degree of
accuracy. -
The coalescing of these two sciences characterises the whole scheme of
these investigations.
The material upon which these results have been obtained is preserved in
this Museum for reference and use of future students and workers.
The skill of the botanical draughtsman has not been laid under tribute on
this Occasion, as most of the plants and their parts, requiring to be illustrated, were
too fine for pencil work, so that with one or two exceptions the aid of photography
was requisitioned for the illustrations, and in this way nature itself has been more
faithfully reproduced. -
In order to more particularly differentiate the respective plant tissues in
some cases, than that obtainable by ordinary black and white photographs, the
modern process of natural colour photography has been employed. As this method
of reproducing micro-sections of plants is comparatively new, some little difficulty
was experienced at first, but soon overcome, and now the results, we think, justify
our venturesomeness in this direction, for by careful manipulation on the part of the
viii
photographer and printer, the cutting Out of anatomical details by the colour
screens has been quite obviated; whilst the Colours aid in differentiating the various
tissues and structures—the cell walls in the most minute cases being well defined.
The genus Callitris has been dealt with somewhat more fully than the
others, for the reason that, next to Eucalyptus, of the Myrtaceous Order, it is
probably the most important in Australia, having a more extensive geographical
distribution than any other genus of Australian Conifers. It has thus been
possible to obtain more Comprehensive material from its several species, and so
have been exploited nearly all the known species of Callitris growing in Australia
and Tasmania, whilst material of some of them has been procured from remote
localities, and has been collected at various times of the year. By working in so
extensive a field it has been possible to determine the correlation of the several
species, to rearrange their scientific sequence, and to far more widely extend
their economic possibilities.
Other important genera, such as Araucaria, Agathis, Dacrydium, Phyllo-
cladus and Podocarpus, have also been extensively treated.
Although it has been possible to show a probable evolution in the species
of Callitris, yet, as regards the sequence of the several genera, it was found not
so easy, in view of the absence of a number from this continent; but we have
little doubt that when the whole of the genera belonging to the Coniferae shall
have been investigated on similar lines, a table of origin for the whole family will
be evolved. -
We have endeavoured, so far as the material and time would allow, to
point out the several stages through which a genus has developed, to locate distinct
botanical and chemical characteristics, and to determine those peculiar to, and
distinctive of, any particular species.
By such a method as here adopted it may eventually be possible, with
extended investigation, to discover the laws governing the formation of species,
to indicate their evolutionary processes, and thus to locate their Correct place in
nature.
We are not insensible of some imperfections in this work, but it is felt that
the time has arrived when the results so far obtained should be published. The
doubtful points awaiting solution are many, and too diverse for us to hope to
solve them during our short lives.
That we might add some new scientific facts to the world's knowledge,
and assist in the development of the natural resources of Australia has been the
incentive throughout this work.
R.T.B.
H.G.S.
Technological Museum, Sydney.
June, IQIO.
Contents.
CON IF ERAE.
PAGE
NATURAL ORDER CONIFERAE tº e e e e e © tº e • & e • Q - º e e * - e. e tº gº I
Order of investigation ... tº e tº
Systematic classification adopted
Summary of the results from this research
:
GENERA–
CALLITRIS ... * * * s = º • * > e º º • * * * * * * * e - * * * - e. - - - tº gº & I3
Historical ... * - - - - - e - - • * * s tº a • * s c - c. e e is - - - tº e ºs I4
Systematic ... * * * - - - e tº tº * * * - - - - 8 e - - - e = e - - - e 6 a. I5
The arrangement of Callitris species in order of sequence ... e s a - - - • * * 17
Comparative anatomy and phylogeny ... * - - * * * w - - * * * * - - * * * 2I
Foliation ... c - - - - - * - - • * > - - - - e. e. • * * e is a - - - * * * 23
Phyllotaxis ... - - - - - - • . . - - - - - - . . . - - - is e e - - - * * * 27
Histology of the lea - - - e - - • * * - - - © tº e - - - * * * - - - • * * 27
Movement of leaves - e. e. e - e. • * * - tº º & º º * * * He º e - - - * * 3I
General remarks on the leaf oils ... e - e. * - - * * * • * * a e s - - - - - 3I
The cone ... - - - - - - e - - - - - - - - - ºn e - - - e s ºr - - - • * * 37
The cone valves ... • * s - - - e e e - - - • a s - - - g is º - - - • g s 39
Origin of the Spur on the valves of the cones ... * * * - - - * & ſº • * * * g. " 47
Probable function of the central columella of the cone - - - a q tº - - - * * * 52
Angiosperms v. Gymnosperms ... - e. e. - - - - e. g. - - - º e º e - e. ~ 55
Timbers - - - tº e - • * * * - - - * * - - - s & e - - - * - e. - - - tº e > 56
Chemistry of the oil of timber—
(a) The Phenol • e s - - - e - is - - - tº º is - - - º º º - - - tº e - 60
(b) The occurrence of Guaiol • tº s - - - tº º g - - - tº tº gº - - - tº a s 63
Barks... ... g = - - - - - - - - tº e - - - tº e e - - - * > * • * * gº º ºs 66
The tanning value of Callitris barks © e & * - - s e e - - - e - © - - - * * * 67
Sandarac resins of the Callitris ... tº e gº & 6 º' e - a - - - tº e. g. - - - * c = 75
Occurrence of a manganese compound in the C allitris and other genera ... e to tº 8O
Individual Species; their history, anatomy, sequence, chemistry, and economics–
I. C. robusta, R.Br. ... gº tº º s & s * * * º e tº e - e. e - © - - - ... 89
. tuberculata, R.Br. © º º e e e . . . . . . . … © p & & © tº © º º 99
. verrucosa, R.Br.... - a - tº e. g. * @ e & Cº a © - 0 ... • * * - a - ... IOI
. propinqua, R.Br. e - - - - - tº a e tº g tº - - - e tº º e - - ... II2
º
5. C. glauca, R.Br. ... e e e tº gº gº © - e. tº º is - - - º ºg & e - tº ... II8
6. C. arenosa, A.Cunn. © tº & tº º ºs © - - tº º ſº - - - tº & - - - ... I57
7. C. intratropica, Benth. et Hook. f. tº ſº º - - - e - tº - e. e. ... I'72
8. C. gracilis, R. T. Baker ... tº te e • . . . . . . tº e - e e e - - - ... I8I
9. C. calcarata, R.Br. a tº e © e º tº e a • a s a - tº e e e e - © ... I02
IO. C. rhomboidea, R.Br. © º º & ſº tº ſº º – tº º ſº - - - tº º º tº tº º ... 220
PAGE
GENERA (continued)—
CALLITRIS (continued)—
Individual Species; their history, anatomy, Sequence, chemistry, and economics
(continued)—
II. C. Tasmanica, Nobis. tº º tº º, e is
I2. C. Drummondii, Benth. et Hook. f.
I3. C. Roei, Endl. e tº º * * *
I4. C. Morrisoni, R. T. Baker
I5. C. Muelleri, Benth. et Hook. f.
16. C. oblonga, Rich. tº tº e * G =
17. C. Macleayana, Benth. et Hook. f.
18. C. sp. nov., Nobis. (not placed)
ACTINOSTROBUS
A. pyramidalis, Miq., history, anatomy, chemistry
A. acuminatus, Parlat. -
DISELMA... tº º ſº. * > *
D. Archeri, Hook. f.
MICROCACHRYS tº sº gº
M. tetragona, Hook. f.
ATHROTAXIS * * * * * * * * * * * * tº º is tº º º g is .
Individual species; their history, anatomy, chemistry and economics–
A. Selaginoides, D. Don.
A. cupressoides, D. Don
A. laxifolia, Hook.
ARAUCARIA g º ſº
A. Cunninghamii, Ait
Systematic
Anatomy of leaves
Chemistry of leaf oil
Timber—
Economics
Anatomy ...
Bark—
Anatomy ...
Tanning value - - - * * * * *
Chemistry of the latex (Theoretical) . . .
(a) Volatile oil
(b) Free acids
(c) Gum
(d) Resin
A. Bidwilli, Hook. ...
Historical and Systematic
Ileaves—
Anatomy
233
253
258
259
262
27I
288
GENERA (continued)–
ARAUCARIA (continued)—
A. Bidwilli, Hook. (continued)—
Timber—
Economics
Anatomy
Bark—
Anatomy
Tanning value - -
Chemistry of the exudation
AGATHIS * * tº e e
I. A. robusta, C. Moore
Systematic
Timber—
Economics
Anatomy
Bark—
Anatomy
Chemistry of the oleo-resin (Theoretical)
(a) Volatile oil
(b) Free acids
(c) Gum
(d) Resin ...
2. A. Palmerstoni, F.V.M.
DACRYDIUM... e ſº e
D. Franklini, Hook. f. tº e
Historical and Systematic
Chemistry of leaf oil
Timber—
Economics
Anatomy - *
Chemistry of oil
PHEROSPHAERA tº g e
I. P. Hookeriana, Arch.
2. P. Fitzgeraldi, F.V.M.
Chemistry of leaf oil
PHYLLOCLADUS... tº e g º ºs e e º e
P. rhomboidalis, Rich. g
Historical and systematic
Cladodia
Anatomy ... * e * tº gº
Chemistry of cladodia oil ...
Timber—
Anatomy
Bark—
Anatomy & & gº
Chemistry of bark ...
PAGE.
362
363
363
368
369
37I
376
376
377
379
379
386
387
387
388
393
394
397
397
397
4OI
4O4
4O4
408
409
4IO
4I2
4I4
4I6
416
4I9
4I9
4IQ
427
427
43O
FAGE.
GENERA (continued)—
PODOCARPUS ©
I. P. elata, R.Br. ſº tº
Historical and systematic
Leaves
Anatomy
Timber—
Economics
Anatomy
Bark—
Anatomy
2. P. pedunculata, Bail.
3. P. alpina, R.Br....
4. P. Drouyniana, F.V.M. ...
5. P. spinulosa, R.Br.
APPENDIX A–
The Systematic value of the chemical products of naturally growing plants as an aid
to their botanical study
APPENDIX B–
Table showing distribution of Pines in New South Wales ..
APPENDIX C –
Correspondents who assisted in collecting data for the Pine survey of New South Wales
INDEX
MAPS–
Map of Australia, showing extreme distances from which material was obtained.
Map showing Pine distribution in New South Wales.
County Map with numbers corresponding to table.
432
435
435
435
435
437
438
438
44I
442
443
443
445
449
452
454
Introduction
BY THE
MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
NOT without some degree of diffidence, hardly of my own free will, do I
come forward as official sponsor for this work on Australian Pines. I feel
rather as one who would prefer, so to speak, to bring the authors before the
footlights, introduce them to the audience, make his bow, and retire. Nor is it
necessary to say much in recommending the work to public notice But having
put my hand to the pen, I wish to express my gratification at the eminently
satisfactory manner in which Messrs. Baker and Smith have carried out their
Self-imposed and arduous task.
Whether from a scientific or a commercial point of view, this work on
our Pines must be regarded as one of very great value. It is the first of its
kind. The authors have entered upon quite a new field of Scientific investigation.
While they have proceeded on lines somewhat similar to their earlier work on
“Eucalypts and their Fssential Oils,” they have dealt more exhaustively with
individual species, treating, indeed, of the whole natural order of Coniferae.
- No such purpose had before this been attempted. As may be seen from
a perusal of the work, the Pines of Australia are a great national asset, whose
value to the Commonwealth has never been generally realised. Their distri-
bution over almost all parts of the continent opens up a vista of commercial
possibilities now for the first time brought into prominence.
It can no longer be overlooked that the future supply of soft-woods
is becoming a source of concern in many parts of the world. Comparatively
little of our soft-woods, it is true, are exported, but the local demand is ever
on the increase, and is rising at an accelerated rate. To Australia any deficiency
in this respect would be a serious drawback to our national progress.
Soft-woods are so absolutely necessary in all works of construction, in the
manufacture of pulp, and for general use, that a dearth would press on enterprise
with Scarcely less Severity than a drought. Such varieties of indigenous timber
as Hoop Pine, Bunya Bunya, Stringybark Pine, Huon Pine, and indeed all
rapid-growing trees, with their wide distribution, under an adequate system of
re-afforestation, might even enable Australia to become independent of outside
sources of supply and meet our own needs for all time. The timber popularly
xiv
known as Cypress Pine has a special value, not easily overrated, by reason of its
immunity from the ravages of the white ant.
But besides their value as timber, our Pines have other claims to
consideration from the commercial point of view. They possess important
chemical properties, yielding essential oils, perfumes, sandaracs, tan barks.
The main object of this publication is to stimulate a more lively and more
permanent interest among the general Community in the scientific and commercial
possibilities of this particular section of our native flora.
No country can afford to neglect the study of its indigenous vegetation.
In that of Australia, whether for the chemist, the Scientist, the statesman, the
journalist, or the builder, the study of our native trees should be a subject of
perennial interest. Here, then, is presented for study a field of inexhaustible
wealth.
Readers of this work will find treated aspects of the subject never before
touched upon with the same directness and completeness.
Some interesting information on our forests has been collated by the
Royal Commission on Forestry, and incidentally the distribution and quantity of
the Cypress Pine and Hoop Pine are tabulated. But in the present volume the
subject is comprehensively dealt with. The work is profusely and finely
illustrated. It cannot fail to be of great assistance to all interested in the study
of Australia’s Pines, their classification, and the great variety of uses to which
the timber and by-products may be put.
J. A. HOGUE.
Sydney, June, I9 IO.
ERRATA,
Facing page 40. Fig. 12. For “haematoxylon" read “haematoxylin,”
Page 42. Fig. 13. For “sections” read “section.”
Page 46.’ Fig. 26. For “early ” read “mature.”
Page 117. Fig. 64. For “transverse” read “longitudinal.”
Facing page 136. Fig. 78, is stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Pages 148-149. Bendolba and Clareval should be under C calcarata.
Page 323, Fig. 23O. For “normal” read “abnormal.”
Bage 324. Fig. 235. For “longitudinal” read “transverse.”
|×
№. ！！ !
AIN OF TIMBER.
GR
POLISHED COLUMNS SHOWING
Podocarpus elata, R.B.R.
**
NATURAL
* Cypress Pine.
Callitris glauca, R.BR.
“White’’ or
“ Brown Pine.”

THE
PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Australian Coniferae.
INTRODUCTION.
THE Gymnosperms find their greatest representation in Australia and Tasmania
in the Natural Order Coniferae, one of the most widely distributed botanical
divisions scattered over the earth—being represented in both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres, although less so in the latter, and of the thirty-two genera
described in Bentham and Hooker’s “Genera Plantarum,” eleven are found in
Australia and Tasmania, viz.:-
*I
2
3
II.
I6.
I7.
I8.
23.
24.
TRIBE I.—Cupressineae.
Callitris.
Actinostrobus.
Fitzroya.
TRIBE II.-Taxodieae.
Athrotaxis.
TRIBE III. Taxea.
Phyllocladus.
Dacrydium.
Pherosphaera.
TRIBE IV.-Podocarpeae
. Microcachrys.
2I.
Podocarpus.
TRIBE V.—Araucarieae.
Agathis. !
Araucaria.
In all, six tribes are listed by those authors, and it will be seen that five
of these are found in the Australian and Tasmanian Flora.
* These numbers are those of Bentham and Hooker, loc. cit., and give the systematic sequence of the
genera in that work.
A
2
It is, however, worthy of remark that although tribe VI—Abielinea.
contains the genus having the greatest geographical range of the whole order, viz.,
Pinus with its seventy species, yet, occurring as it does in Europe, Asia, and
America, strange to say, it has not a single representative in these parts of the
world, and so could not be included in this research.
The genera Callitris, Actinostrobus, Athrotaxis, Pherosphaera, and Micro-
cachrys are quite endemic, whilst Fitzroya occurs in Tasmania and Patagonia, and
Podocarpus is distributed nearly all over the tropical and sub-tropical regions of
the world, as well as in Australia and Tasmania.
Agathis is represented by only the two species which occur in Queensland,
and so this genus may perhaps be more regarded as a native of New Zealand,
Malaya and Fiji. Two species of Araucaria find a home in this island Continent,
although the genus, however, extends to New Caledonia, Chili, Bolivia, and Brazil.
The Australian members of the Order range in size from small prostrate,
straggling shrubs, as Pherosphaera, to gigantic forest trees such as Agathis or
Araucaria, and are found to occur in a variety of situations, such as the arid
interior, the depths of the gullies, and on the very mountain tops. Naturally,
under so extensive and diversified a geographical area there has been evolved
varying plant structures of self-adaptation to environment, although, on the
Other hand, it has to be recorded that some of the species possess functional organs
similar to those that existed in plant life far back in geological times.
It may be stated that, as a general rule except in the case of Microcachrys,
their fruits, leaves, mode of fertilisation, and pollination present a similarity such
as obtains amongst their congeners in other parts of the world.
This investigation, in addition to the new economics brought to light, has
also resulted in revealing some new and important anatomical, physiological, and
organographical features, as well as producing further evidence upon which some
phylogenetic hypotheses can be advanced concerning the age of the Australian
Pines, and in the case of Callitris we perhaps have the oldest living representative
of the Order.
Much systematic work, founded on morphological characters only, has been
undertaken at various times on these Conifers, by such botanists as Robert
Brown, A. Cunningham, Hooker (father and son), Parlatore, Miquel, Endlicher,
Dr. Masters, Bertrand, Van Tieghan, and Baron von Mueller. These scientists
have added much to our knowledge of the Australian Pines. Little research,
however, appears to have been done previously as regards investigating their
histology, physiology, phylogeny, embryology, and chemistry. -
DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL ORDER.
This is so well and fully given in Bentham and Hooker’s “Genera
Plantarum,” Vol. III, p. 420, that it would be superfluous to repeat it here.
FORESTRY.
In this direction the commercial importance of the genera might perhaps be
arranged in the following order:-
I. Callitris, principally for timber, bark, oil, and sandarac (resin).
2. Araucaria, principally for timber, and oleo-gum-resin.
y
Agathis, principally for timber, “oil of turpentine,” and resin.
Athrotaxis, principally for timber and oil.
Dacrydium, principally for timber and oil.
Phyllocladus, principally for timber and bark.
Podocarpus, principally for timber.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS.
The oils, oleo-resins, oleo-gum-resins, gums, and resins, whilst corresponding
in some respects to those of non-Australian Pines, yet present some new and most
interesting differences in chemical characters, which are fully detailed under
the respective species. -
ORDER OF INVESTIGATION.
The following is the order upon which the investigation of each species
has been undertaken, or at least every effort was made to carry it out in these
directions, the omissions being where material was unprocurable. This arrange-
ment holds throughout the work.
I. HISTORICAL BOTANY OF THE SPECIES.
II. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS
III. LEAVES AND FRUITS :
(a) Economics.
(b) Anatomy.
(c) Chemistry of the oils.
IV. TIMBER:
(a) Economics.
(b) Anatomy.
(c) Chemistry of its products.
(d) Forestry.
V. BARK :
(a) Economics.
(b) Anatomy.
(c) Chemistry of its products.
VI. ILLUSTRATIONs, to aid in the study of the letterpress.
RESULTS.
Botanically the results of the research were generically greater than those
Specifically, for the peculiarities of structure were found to be quite characteristic
of, and differing considerably from, those of cognate genera.
Chemically and economically they promise to be of great importance,
and to open up new fields for commercial enterprise.
Wide detailed results tnfra.
SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED.
A classification similar to that laid down by us in our work on “The
Eucalypts and their Essential Oils,” has been followed in this work, and the
taxonomic status of the species here recognised is supported by, -
I. A field knowledge of the trees.
2. Morphology of fruits, leaves, inflorescence, and their functions.
Anatomy of these organs.
Anatomy, nature, and character of the timber and bark.
Chemical properties and physical characters of the oils, gums, oleo-
resins, oleo-gum-resins, resins, tans, &c., and other evidences that
will assist in establishing natural affinities or differences in species.
Species so founded give practically constant results, and preserve specific
characters throughout their geographical distribution, and so we here again
record our faith in taxonomic work based on such principles.
It may be noted that no reference is made in the above to the distribution of the resin
cavities, as Engelman and others have done ; these, however, were found to occur irregularly in
the leaf tissue, so that they Were practically useless for systematic classification,
IO.
II.
I2.
I3.
I4.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FROM THIS RESEARCH.
Callitris.
. A re-classification of the genus Callitris and its separation from Widdring-
tonia and Tetraclinis, which genera we find are restricted to South and
North Africa, respectively. *
A new sequence of the species of Callitris founded upon the broad grounds
of botany, chemistry, and other cognate Sciences–-a system even more
enlarged than that laid down in our previous work, “Eucalypts and their
Essential Oils,” is advanced. .
. The restoration of almost all Robert Brown's and Allan Cunningham's species
of Callitris to specific rank.
. The Callitris pines have been found to retain an intimate connection, both
in botanical and chemical characters, throughout their geographical
distribution.
. A remarkable constancy of morphological characters was found to be
preserved amongst the species of Callitris.
. There is a singular absence of varietal forms amongst the Callitris.
. Phylloclades are not found in Callitris. -
. The cause of the decurrence in the leaves of the Callitris, and the effect of
climatic Conditions in the disposition of the stomata of Callitris species,
are suggested.
. It is shown that a similar arrangement of the stomata obtains in Callitris as
existed in the leaves of Lepidodendron Hickii, of the Carboniferous period.
That similar papillose projections surrounding the stomata in certain species
of Callitris occur also in the genus Sciadopitys, of Japan.
The anatomy of the leaves of the Callitris is fully detailed.
A general Conformity holds in the structure of the leaves of Callitris species,
only minor differences in specific characters, being recorded.
Features distinctive from those of other Coniferae occur in Callitris leaves.
The presence of a manganese compound, probably the “resin" of previous
Workers, in some of the timber cells of the Australian Coniferae, as well
as in the leaves and bark of Callitris, is recorded. This substance is found
to Occur also in the lamella of the Callitris.
7
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
I9.
2O.
2.I.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
The appearance of the manganese compound in these timbers, shows a strong
resemblance to that in fossil woods of past geological times. The
anatomy of the timber of living Callitris agrees in a remarkable degree
with that figured by Baron von Mueller as Spondylostrobus Smithii, Plate xx,
Geological Survey of Victoria, “Observations on new Vegetable Fossils,”
I874. The cells here contain a dark substance corresponding to that in
living Callitris, and which is now thought to be a manganese compound.
That a concurrence appears to exist between the anatomical characters of
the leaves of the several species of Callitris, and the chemical constituents
of their leaf oils. -
The cells of the medullary rays are all parenchymatous in character, both
inner and outer.
Microscopical sections of the timber of Callitris show, in their general structure,
marked resemblances to those figured by Arber from the Nicol collection,
under Dadoxylon australe of the Palaeozoic period.
The rotation of the terpenes of the oil from the leaves of some species of Callitris
is in the opposite direction to that obtained from the fruits, even if collected
from the same tree.
The acetic ester of geraniol is more pronounced in the leaf oils than is that of
borneol, and it continues to increase in the several members of one Section,
until a maximum of over 60 per cent. is reached in the oil of C. Tasmanica.
An ester of terpineol was found in the leaf oil of C. gracilis.
The limonenes and dipentene occur in the leaf oils, the dextro-rotatory form
reaching a maximum in C. aremosa, and the lavo-form in C. intratropica.
In these oils is seen a well-defined illustration of the formation in nature
of the two active forms of limonene in the same plant, as well as the racemic
modification.
The leaf oil of C. Macleayana contains a constituent which has a marked
resemblance to menthene, and is apparently a member of that group of
hydrocarbons.
The leaf oil distilled from some species of Callitris is comparable with the best
“Pine-needle oils '' of commerce.
The oil obtained by steam distillation from the timber of the Callitris generally,
contains the sesquiterpene alcohol Guaiol in some quantity; the sesqui-
terpene is also present.
The characteristic odour of Callitris timber is due to a phenol. This has
distinctive colour reactions and is evidently new. It appears to be the
constituent which renders Callitris timber objectionable to white-ants.
The name Callitrol is proposed for it.
8
27. Callitris resins are shown to vary somewhat in character in the different species,
but several of them agree, and are of equal value with the sandarac resin
of commerce.
28. The barks of some Callitris species are of excellent quality as tanning materials,
and often contain abundance of tannin. Here has been discovered a new
national asset in the vast supply of a valuable material for the leather
industry.
29. That the Callitris should rank as one of the most important of Australian
pines for forest culture, not only for timber, the chief feature of which
is its immunity from the attacks of termites, but also for other economics
Such as oils, barks, Sandarac, &c.
Actinostrobus.
30. Additional evidence is adduced to further strengthen the claims, if any doubt
existed, of these pines to generic rank, and to emphasise their isolation
from their congener Callitris; and it is now proposed to place them in
botanical sequence, in proximity to Araucaria and Agathis, by regarding
the bracts of the cones as sterile sporophylls.
3I. The principal constituent of the leaf oil is pinene, which has a very high
dextro-rotation.
.* 32. There appears to be an entire absence of limonene in the leaf oil, thus
markedly separating it from those of the Callitris.
33. The ester in the leaf oil is almost entirely geranyl-acetate. In this respect
it shows a relationship with the oils of certain Callitris.
Athrotaxis.
34. The chief constituent of the leaf oil of this tree is a highly dextro-rotatory
limonene, the specific rotation being II2.2 degrees. -
35. Dipentene is quite absent in the leaf oil, and in this respect it differs entirely
from those of the Callitris.
Araucaria.
36. A very marked botanical difference exists between the two species recorded
for Australia, viz., A. Cunninghamii and A. Bidwilli, the latter showing,
as far as we have been able to investigate, a much closer connection with
A. imbricata of South America than with the former.
9
37.
39.
4O.
4I.
42.
43.
44.
The characteristic structure of the barks shows anatomical features distinctive
from that of any other Australian Conifer.
. The results here recorded further emphasise the great value of these trees for
forest cultivation. Being endemic to the Continent, they would provide
a splendid supply of soft-wood timber for future use by proper Sylviculture.
The oil obtained from the latex of A. Cumminghamii contained a hydrocarbon
of the CoHoo series, and possibly of the CoH is also.
Some of the chemical compounds of this plant are evidently formed, or at any
rate the process completed, in the root portion of the tree, as the Supply
continued after the upper portions of the trees had been cut down.
The resin from the latex of A. Cunninghamii closely approaches, in appearance,
the sandarac resin from the Callitris. It consists largely of two acids, one
of which is identical with one of the acids in the resin of Agathis robusta.
Manganese was present in the latex of A. Cunninghamii and was precipitated
by alcohol together with the gum. It changed, however, to the higher
Oxide on drying the gum precipitate.
The gum of the latex closely approaches that of gum-arabic, and differs in
some respects from that of A. Bidwilli.
The exudation of A. Bidwilli consists almost entirely of a carbohydrate allied
to ordinary gum. Although soluble in water, it was rendered quite insoluble
by agitation with ordinary ether, a reaction which does not appear to take
place with the gum of A. Cunninghamii.
45. Resins and essential oils were almost absent in the exudation of A. Bidwilli.
Agathis.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
That a close botanical alliance exists between the Australian species A. robusta
and those of the Pacific Islands and of New Zealand.
The microscopical sections of the timber show features which bear some
resemblance to those of Araucaria, but yet have some points of difference.
The exudation of this tree consists of an oleo-resin, Containing some gum, and
the essential Oil is practically identical with Ordinary American oil of
turpentine.
The exudation also contains a manganese compound precipitated with the
gum, and it thus agrees, in this respect, with the latex of Araucaria
Cunninghamii.
The resin consists principally of two new acids.
IO
Dacrydium.
51. A strong botanical resemblance of this Pine was found to those of the same
genus growing in the Pacific Islands.
52. The principal constituent of the leaf oil is a terpene, which appears not to
have been previously recorded.
53. The methyl-ether of eugenol occurs in the leaf oil of this species.
54. The steam-distilled oil from the timber of this tree, and to which the odour of
the wood is due, is composed mostly of the methyl-ether of eugenol.
Pherosphaera.
55. A further extension of the geographical range of this genus in New South
Wales is shown.
56. The principal constituent of the oil of this delicate prostrate Conifer is pinene.
57. The sesquiterpene cadinene is also a pronounced constituent of the oil.
Phyllocladus.
58. The morphological, anatomical, chemical, and foliaceous character of the
Phylloclades are fully detailed, and as the leaves are quite degenerate organs
in the species, their functions are thus performed by proxy as it were.
59. The substance of greatest interest occurring in the leaf (phylloclade) oil of this
tree is a solid, readily crystallisable diterpene; it is dextro-rotatory, and
melts at 95°C. The name Phyllocladene is proposed for it.
60. Pinene occurs in quantity in the leaf (phylloclade) oil and practically in a
pure condition.
6I. The bark contains both tannin and a glucoside having dyeing properties.
Podocarpus.
62. The microscopical character of this timber differs from that of Araucaria, or
of Agathis, but resembles more generally that of Callitris. Macroscopically
it differs from them all.
General.
63. A botanical survey of the Pines of New South Wales is now given for the first
time.
II
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
---
-- -

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
PREPARING PINE TIMBER IN THE INTERIOR For MARKET. (Callitris spp.)


13
THE GENUS CALL/7 RIS.
Vent. Decad. (1808), 70.
THE AUSTRALIAN CYPRESS.
(Syn.:—Fremela, Mirb.; Fresnelia, Steud. ; Leichhardtia, Shep.; Pachylepts,
Brongn. ; Octoclinis, F. Muell.; Parolinia, Endl.)
LIST OF HEADINGS OF ARTICLES:—
I. Historical.
II. Systematic.
III. The arrangement of Callitris species in order of sequence.
IV. Comparative anatomy and phylogeny.
V. Foliation.
VI. Phyllotaxis.
VII. Histology of the leaf.
VIII. Movements of the leaves.
IX. General remarks on the leaf oils.
X. The cone.
XI. The cone valves.
XII. Origin of the “spur º’ on the scales of the cones.
XIII. Probable function of the central column (columella).
XIV. Angiosperms-v.-Gymnosperms.
XV. Timbers—
a. Macroscopical.
b. Microscopical.
c. Economics.
XVI. The phenol and determination of the oil from the timbers.
XVII. The occurrence of guaiol in the timbers of the genus.
XVIII. Bark— -
Microscopical.
XIX. The tanning value of the Callitris barks.
XX. Sandarac resins of the Callitris.
XXI. Occurrence of a manganese compound in the Australian Coniferae.
XXII. Individual species:– &
. C. robusta, R.Br.
. tuberculata, R.Br.
. verrucosa, R.Br.
... propinqua, R.Br.
... glauca, R.Br.
... arenosa, A. Cunn.
I
2
3
4.
5
6
7. C. intratropica, Benth. et Hook. f.
14
8. C. gracilis, R. T. Baker.
9. C. calcarata, R.Br.
IO. C. rhomboidea, R.Br.
II. C. Tasmanica, Nobis.
I2. C. Drummondii, Benth. et Hook. f.
I3. C. Roei, Endl. -
I4. C. Morrisoni, R. T. Baker.
I5. C. Muelleri, Benth. et Hook. f.
I6. C. oblonga, Rich.
I7. C. Macleayana, Benth. et Hook. f.
I8. C. sp. nov., Nobis. Not placed.
I. HISTORICAL.
THIS genus was established by Ventenat in 1808, but there is nothing, or rather
no specimen extant, to show upon which Australian pine the name was bestowed,
as he mentioned no species, and so it is not now known upon which tree he founded
the genus. It is, however, conjectured by several authors to be C. cupressi-
formis which is now recognised as C. rhomboidea of Robert Brown.
Mirbel, of the Paris Herbarium, thinking Ventenat's name of Callitris too
closely resembled in sound that of Labillardiere's genus Calythrix of the Myrtaceous
Group of plants, substituted the name of Frenela, but this has not found acceptance
with recent botanists, nor can it stand by the law of priority, and so it has to give
place to the older nomenclature.
- It was originally intended to include under Callitris the North African pine
Thuja articulata, the C. quadrivalvis of Richard, and Frenela fontanesii of Mirbel,
but after examining complete botanical material of this tree we were convinced that
the differences were so important as to be worthy of generic classification—an
agreement quite in accord with the researches of Masters (“Jour. Linn. Soc.,
Lond.,” Bot., Vol. XXX, No. 205, p. 14), who also regarded it as distinct under the
genital name of Tetraclinis articulata, following the sectional name Tetraclinis of
Bentham and Hooker, “Gen. Pl.” In fact, Dr. Masters, loc. cit., also supports
the separation of the South African species of pines from the North African and
Australian, under Endlicher’s name of Widdringtonia.
To Mr. D. E. Hutchins, Director of Forests of South Africa, we are much
indebted for material of the pines of South Africa, for comparison with the
Australian Callitris; the result of our examination is that we are in accord with Dr.
Masters’ views, as his classification appears to be a rational one, for no plant with
the actual characteristics of the Australian Callitris has so far been recorded from
either North or South Africa, or, in fact, from any part of any other continent
but this.
15
The name Callitris simensis given by A. Tschirch (Die Harze und die Harz-
behālter, p. 536), and occurring in other technological works, probably refers to
Cunninghamia sinensis, as the Kew authorities inform us that they have no record
of such a species as Callitris simensis.”
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The following is our synopsis of the three cognate genera:—
I. Tetraclinis. North Africa.
Cone valves—4, thin, small, free ends of valves more obtuse than in Callitris.
Branchlets—flattened.
Leaves—small, decurrent, in whorls of 4.
II. Widdringtonia. South Africa.
Cone valves—4, very thick, free ends of valves truncate.
Branchlets—terete.
Leaves—-opposite, decussate.
III. Callitris. Australia and Tasmania.
Cone valves—6–8, thick, free ends of valves pointed or acute.
Branchlets—terete.
Leaves—small, decurrent, in whorls of 3.
The Callitris are either trees or shrubs and rarely attain a great size; the
ultimate branchlets being ridged by the decurrence of the leaves.
The bark is mostly hard, compact, furrowed, persistent, and extends to the
branchlets; it is, however, loosely fibrous in C. Macleayana.
The normal leaves are in regular whorls of threes and almost wholly
decurrent, only a small triangular portion at the upper end being free, and which
is either incurved or appressed ; the primordial leaves are triangular in section,
with only a small portion attached to the stem.
The flowers are monoecious. The male amentum Solitary, or in twos or
threes at the end of the branchlets. It is cylindrical, oblong, or ovoid, the sporo-
phylls being imbricate in whorls of three or four, and having an ovate,
orbicular, or slightly peltate scale-like apex, with the anther cells varying in number
from two to four.
*After the above was in print Dr. Stapl informs us that this name has no foundation whatever, and that
he intends to write a note on this subject in the Kew Bulletin.
I6
The female amentum consists of six or eight sporophylls arranged in two
whorls, with several orthotropous ovules arranged in three or more vertical rows
on the upper surface at the base of the sporophyll.
Bracts are quite absent.
The fruiting cone varies in size according to the species, the prevailing
forms being globular, then ovoid or pyramidal; valves are united at the base
in the same plane Into a single whorl, the alternate ones are mostly smaller,
valvate, rarely overlapping, dehiscent, and pointed at the apex, just below which
is a dorsal point, more or less developed in each species.
The seeds are fairly numerous in each cone, numbering from 25 to 40. Their
disposition in the sporophyll has already been given. Both fertile and sterile seeds
have either two or three wings, and it is not easy to differentiate, morphologically,
one from the other. The hard integument so protects the cotyledons that it
requires at least many months before they germinate in the soil.
The genus has a geographical range extending throughout Australia and
Tasmania, the most widely distributed of the genus being the White or Cypress
Pine, C. glauca, R.Br., and the Black or Cypress Pine, C. calcarata, R.Br.
Commercially, therefore, these are the best-known trees, the former taking
pride of place as regards its timber, and the latter for its valuable bark. Other
data of a scientific and economic nature are given under the respective Species.
Bentham in the “Flora Australiensis” reduces the number of species to
nine for the whole of Australia and Tasmania, whilst Baron von Mueller in his
second “Census,” by restoring C. verrucosa and C. columellaris to specific rank
and synonymising the two species of Actinostrobus under this genus, enumerates
twelve species.
As the result of this investigation we find the genus divides itself into
eighteen species, i.e.:-
. robusta, R.Br.
. tuberculata, R.Br.
. verrucosa, R.Br.
. propinqua, R.Br.
... glauca, R.Br.
. arenosa, A. Cunn.
. intratropica, Benth. et Hook. f.
. gracilis, R. T. Baker.
. calcarata, R.Br.
. rhomboidea, R.Br.
I
O.
17
II. C. Tasmanica, Nobis.
I2. C. Drummondii, Benth. et Hook. f.
I3. C. Roei, Endl.
I4. C. Morrisoni, R. T. Baker.
I5. C. Muelleri, Benth. et Hook. f.
I6. C. oblonga, Rich.
I7. C. Macleayana, Benth. et Hook. f.
I8. C. sp. mov., Nobis. Not placed.
It was expected that a number of varieties would have been found
amongst these species, extending as they do over very wide geographical areas,
but such is not the case, and no genus could have less varietal forms, or more
well-defined species than Callitris. But in this connection it must not be
forgotten that this wide geographical area does not present in some instances
great environmental differences, a correlation, so to speak, of circumstances which -
no doubt accounts for uniformity or constancy of species of the genus—a character
also common to our Eucalypts, as shown in the “Research on the Eucalypts and
their Essential Oils.” A Status quo extending over an enormous period of time
probably produces such a constancy.
EXCLUDED SPECIES.
The following species are given in the “Index Kewensis,” Fas. I. 389, as
Australian species, but as no literature or material of them appears to be extant,
or at least in any of the herbaria visited by us, and as Heynhold only gave names,
they may be regarded as nomena nuda, and so have been excluded from
this work.
C. conglobata, Sieber ex Heynh. Nom. i, I48. There is a seedling speci-
men in the Brussels Herbarium, labelled “C. conglobata, Herb.
Martii. I826.” It is too immature for systematic placing,
C. elegans, Sieber ex Heynh. Nom. i, I49.
C. montana, Sieber ex Heynh. Nom. i, I49.
III. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE CALL/TR/S SPECIES IN
ORDER OF SEQUENCE.
In working out the taxonomy of the species of this genus, advantage was
taken to employ the aid, where possible, of the several cognate branches of
science in order to establish a classification founded as near as possible on a
natural basis, and thus not relying alone on one special set of characters or features.
In this particular instance, morphology, chemistry, ecology, physics, and
anatomy were laid under tribute, and the result is given in the table below.
B
I8
It will be noticed that an attempt has been made to associate the morphology
and histology of the leaf with the chemical constituents of the oil occurring in
the respective oil cavities of the different species. Owing to the leaves being so
Small, and the absence of veins on their surfaces, this field of observation was
wanting, and it was further found that no help was given by the disposition of
the leaf bundles, as indicating the characteristic chemical constituents of the oil,
as was shown by us to obtain in the genus Eucalyptus. Botanical instances of
agreement with the oil had therefore to be looked for in another direction, and
by studying the anatomical structure it was found, in the material examined by
us, that the species divided themselves fairly well, both botanically and chemically,
into groups, according as certain recognised bodies that generally go to make up
leaf substance were absent, present, or in abundance in the leaf tissue. Thus,
those species having abundant transfusion tissue, and little or no sclerenchy-
matous or stone cells in the leaf substance, had the predominant limonene in
the leaf oils in the dextro-rotatory form. This group included—-
C. robusta.
C. verrucosa.
C. propinqua.
C. glauca.
C. arenosa.
The next class includes—
C. intratropica.
C. gracilis.
C. calcarata.
C. rhomboidea.
C. Tasmanica,
in which the transfusion tissue is less developed, or the cells not so numerous,
while the Sclerenchymatous or stone cells gradually begin to appear amongst the
parenchymatous tissue, in a small cluster between the phloem of the leaf trace
and the oil cavities of the first group, and then gradually increase in number in
the succeeding species, where they are conspicuous figures in the spongy portion of
the mesophyll, and reach their maximum in C. rhomboidea. In this class the
predominant limonene in the leaf oil is laevo-rotatory.
In the remaining species—
C. Drummondii,
(C. Roei),
(C. Morrisoni),
C. oblonga,
C. Muelleri,
C. Macleayana,
I9
these special cells occur largely in the mesophyll, although gradually diminishing
in number till C. Macleayana is reached, when they appear in both forms of the
mesophyll, and most pronounced amongst the parenchymatous cells in the neigh-
bourhood of the leaf bundle and oil cavity, which mode of occurrence adds another
evidence of the isolation of this species from its congeners. The principal terpene
in the leaf oil of this group is pinene.
From these observations it would appear that there exists some connection
or agreement between these bodies which go to make up the leaf substance, and
the chemical constituents of the oil, and it is scarcely to be expected that those
Callitris species, whose leaves give an oil in which the dextro-rotatory limonene
predominates are identical in all their structural characters with those species in
which the predominant limonene is laevo-rotatory. The maxima of the rotations
of the limonenes in these trees are reached by slow gradations through the
several species, and this evidently indicates constructive peculiarities in the leaf
arrangement, even if not in the structure of the whole tree.
The method by which living plants construct the various asymmetric
chemical substances is at present practically unknown, but there seems no reason
why systematic study in this direction should not eventually be rewarded with
as satisfactory a result as has been the investigation of the asymmetric Compounds
themselves. In whatever direction the forces of nature have exerted their
influence in the construction of these active forms, it can hardly be without
leaving a corresponding impression upon the plant tissue itself, So that a close
connection between the chemical and botanical phenomena of the leaves of the
several species of Callitris must be present, and its identification is here attempted.
To successfully trace the evidence leading to the selective formation of these
asymmetric terpenes in the several species of the Callitris would add considerably
to our knowledge in this direction. Since the time when Pasteur advanced his
views upon this question of optical activity, a considerable amount of work has
been undertaken in the endeavour to add to our knowledge in this direction,
but, so far, with no very certain results.”
There appears to be a considerable break, both botanically and chemically,
in the sequence connecting C. Macleayana with the other Callitris, and this
“Stringybark Pine" is evidently located at the end more nearly approaching
the Araucarias. Whether Araucaria is the older genus or not, there is at present
insufficient evidence to decide, but the distance separating these two genera is
not great. They are both of considerable age on this continent. -
* References to much of this work, together with a bibliography, are given by A. W. Stewart in his work on
Stereo-chemistry, London, 1907. We would also direct attention to the address on this subject by Professor F. R.
Japp, before the British Association in 1898, and the subsequent criticisms thereon, published in “Nature,” Vols. 58
and 59 - - - - -
2O
TABLE showing the probable evolution of Callitris species, as indicated by the
morphological, anatomical, and chemical results obtained during this research.
C. robusta (W.A.)f
|
C. verrucosa
(N.S.W. & C.A.);
C. tuberculata” (W.A.)
C. propinqua (S.A.)
C. intratropica
(N.A.)
C. gracilis (N.S.W.)
|
C. Drummondii (W.A.)
C. Roei" (W.A.)
C. Morrisoni” (W.A.)
C. oblonga (T.)
C. glauca (N.S.W.)
C. arenosa (N.S.W.)
L^
GROUP I.
More or less tuberculate
fruits, and a convex dorsal
leaf surface. Sclerenchy-
matous or stone cells are
mostly absent in the leaf
tissue.
N
The predominant limo-
nene in the leaf oils is dex-
tro-rotatory.
C. calcarata (N.S.W.)
C. rhomboidea (N.S.W.)
C. Tasmanica (N.S.W. & T.)
2–
GROUP II.
Generally smooth fruits
and angular or rounded
dorsal leaf surface. Scle-
renchymatous cells in the
leaf tissue are in excess of
the species in Group I.
The predominant limo-
nene in the leaf oils is
lavo-rotatory.
C. Muelleri (N.S.W.)
C. Macleayana (N.S.W.)
Leading to Araucaria
through Actinostrobus.
2–~
GROUP III.
Generally smooth fruits,
and angled dorsal leaf
surface. Sclerenchymatous
cells occur plentifully in the
leaf tissue, especially in C.
Macleayana.
The principal terpene in
the leaf oils is pinene.
† N.S.W. = New South Wales.
W.A. = West Australia.
N.A. = North Australia.
S.A. =South Australia.
C.A. = Central Australia.
T. =Tasmania.
* Placed tentatively, as it was not possible to obtain material for chemical investigation.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Cross Section through decurrent leaves and branchlet of C. propinqua.
x 70. No sclerenchymatous cells are seen. Very faintly stained with
haematoxylin.
Cross Section through the ventral portions of decurrent leaves and
branchlet of C. arenosa. x 10o. No sclerenchymatous cells are seen.
The dark-brown contents of certain cells is the manganese compound.
The cells with small circles (pits) in them, mark the tracheids of the
transfusion tissue. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Leaf anatomy illustrating the arrangement of species in Table, The probable evolution
of the Callitris.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Group II.
Cross section through decurrent leaves and branchlet of C. calcarata.
x 23, sclerenchymatous cells are seen at the outer edge of the phloem
of the leaf bundle. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Cross section through the ventral axis (branchlet) and attached portions
of decurrent leaves of C. calcarata. x 150. Sclerenchymatous cells of
the complete section above are here more distinctly brought into vision.
The cells with the small circles (pits) in them, mark the transfusion
tissue. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Leaf anatomy illustrating the arrangement of species in Table, The probable evolution
of the Callitris.
:
;
º
i


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Group III.
Cross Section through decurrent leaves and branchlet of C. Drummondii,
x 40. Sclerenchymatous cells are here seen distributed throughout the
whole mesophyll tissue and cut at various angles. The transfusion
tissue is not a strong feature. Stained with haematoxylin.
º º º º
'º. º -
tº - Ul º
* .
º
Cross Section through branchlet and base of decurrent leaves in
C. Macleayana, x 28o. This illustrates the encircling of the central
axis by numerous sclerenchymatous cells. Only a few transfusion
tracheids are seen. Stained with haematoxylin.
Leaf anatomy illustrating the arrangement of Species in Table, The probable evolution
of the Callitris.
i


2I
IV. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PHYLOGENY OF THE
GENUS CA/L/L/TR/S,
A large amount of histological work has been done by European and American
botanists on the various groups and genera of Conifers, but the Australian genera
in general, and this genus in particular, have received least attention of all. This,
is probably due to the remoteness of this continent from the centre of old-world
scientific activity, and also the difficulty presented to them of obtaining material ;
consequently, any descriptions of the anatomy of these groups of Gymnosperms
will, no doubt, prove of interest, Covering as they do quite new ground.
The investigations in this direction were not undertaken so much from a
phylogenetic point of view, as to ascertain whether or not anatomical characters
would prove of assistance in systematic work, i.e., differentiation of species, for
in this work, as stated previously, the Species are founded on even a broader basis
than that laid down in the previous published work, “Eucalypts and their
Essential Oils.”
The results will be found under each species, but they have not rendered
all the assistance anticipated from a taxonomic point of view, nevertheless they
have produced some novel features most interesting in themselves, for instance,
(I) the showing of a similar
disposition in some of the sto-
mata of the species to those %
of Lepidodendron Hickii, as zºº.
figured by Scott (“Studies in É;
Fossil Botany,” Pt. I, p. I60),
(2) the proving of the secre-
tory bodies to be cavities in - • * * * † : * -
Zealaodendron Hickii Transverse section of leaf v.b., vascular bundle
form, and not Canals, as some of the large elements round it constitute the transºsientiºſ tº
obtains in exotic pines, (3) the in which the stomata are placed. × bo. S. Coll. 51. (G. T. G.) Af(* Sea??
identification of a manganese
compound in the various
plant tissues, probably the
“resin' of former workers in
ſº
gº
º Qºr-º-º-º: &-º-º:
*&# % & RX5 O
_º £º º
Jº --T º É º
C
º
C
§º Crº
Conifers , as alr eady stated y **Aidodendron Hickii. Epidermis of leaf, with stomata. × about 300.
- º S. Coll. 51. (G. T. G. *-
and (4) the uniformity of the * * * * * 44, S2,72.
ray cells. em-
The occurrence of this manganese compound or so-called “resin "in the
cells of the medullary rays of Callitris timber finds a parallel in the Cretaceous
Pityoxyla of North America, as illustrated by Jeffrey and Chrysler (“Bot. Gaz.,”
42., I-I5 July, I006).









22
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Furrows or decurrent channels in which the stomata occur in Callitris
glauca, are marked in this cross section by arrows, x 80.
Longitudinal section showing on the lower left-hand leaf stomata in the
furrow or decurrent channel. C. glauca, x 50. See also Fig. 78.
Sections of Callitris leaves showing the disposition of stomata to be identical with that of
Lepidodendron Hickii of the Carboniferous period.


23
Macroscopically the timbers of the respective species present no charac-
teristic features that render identification easy under all circumstances, and
microscopically, also, there appears to be only minor points of differences.
Evidences of the geological age of the genus are not, so far, very many, and
what there are rather point to an origin probably older than the Araucarias,
and we are inclined to think that further palaeontological researches will reveal a
much older age than that now assigned to the genus. Ettingshausen (“Tertiary
Flora of Australia,” p. 90, pl. viii) records it under C. prisca, from Vegetable Creek,
Emmaville, New South Wales, in the Tertiary Period. According to Masters,
Unger records it as Eocene. -
V. FOLIATION.
After the cotyledons burst forth through the testa, the plumule gives place
to a cluster of Small pyramidal-shaped leaves which may be classed as primordial;
these, with the growth of the central stem, are developed at diminishing intervals
in whorls of threes, having a maximum length of 14 inch, and it is this characteristic
leaf that obtains during this period of the life history of practically all the species
of the genus.
When the young plant has grown to the size of 3 or 4 inches, and as the stem
develops, the length of the leaves appears to become less in each whorl, but this
diminution in length is rather apparent than real, for it is not that the leaves are
so much shorter, but that a much larger proportion of the leaf has become
decurrent or concrescent on the central stem. -
The normal leaf has, therefore, a very large proportion of its length running
down, or adnate to the stem, this part being called by some authors the Concres-
cence; in fact, the free portion regarded by some as the true leaf, forms only a very
small fraction of the leaf substance, and is sometimes designated “ leaf Scale.”
The leaf, however, as understood by us, includes the whole of the decurrent or
concrescent portion as well as the free end, the former certainly, as that has a
true leaf Origin and contains as well the essential organs of a true leaf, such as a
vascular bundle, the transpiration and assimilating surfaces, chorophyll cells, oil
glands, &c.; the free-end portion is certainly wanting in some of the most essential
of these Organs that go to make true leaf structure (vide numerous figures given
under the species to illustrate these remarks), and so cannot be classed as a leaf.
Under certain, or most favourable, conditions the three concrescences of
the whorl coalesce into one whole, forming as it were a kind of pyramidal Com-
pound leaf, and almost a perfect triangle in Section, just as in Some instances of
the genus Pinus, i.e., P. cembra, P. Donnel-Smithii, &c., as shown by Masters,
24
(“Linn. Soc. Journ.” Vol. XXXV, No. 248). Such an arrangement produces a
flat, exposed, transpiratory surface, as distinct from the concave, cryptic surfaces
usually obtaining in the concrescent leaves of the whole genus.
Callitris trees, however,
growing under the usual
climatic conditions prevailing
in Australia, have leaves
characterised by a marked
ConCrescence or decurrence
on a central stem, and each
leaf separated by a narrow
passage formed by the ventral
surfaces, the edges of which
appear to have the power of
opening and closing the chan-
nel thus formed, and exposing
the stomata to light and air,
or shielding them according
to the exigencies of favourable
or adverse climatic changes.
Several theories have been
advanced to explain the
reason for this decurrence
in plants, more especially in
Conifers, and according to
Masters (“Journ. Linn. Soc.”
Vol. XXVII, Bot. No. 183–
I84) Mechan “considers that
this adnation is specially
characteristic of vigour, while
the free leaves indicate a
state of weakness and arrested
growth"; and Masters agrees
- with this view and then
* * * **ś.º.º. º.º.º. states, “But if the distinction
Nat. siz. between growth and develop-
ment be kept in mind, it
would seem that the concrescence is an indication of arrested and irregular
development associated with disproportionate rapidity of growth. In the free
leaves the balance between growth and development is preserved, the base of
the leaf is symmetrical and the parts are all in regular proportion.”


25 -
- º º -
Whilst agreeing in a measure with the opinions of these authorities, yet,
to us it appears that the physiological significance of this leaf decurrence, is a
provision of nature to ensure protection against excessive transpiration by the
stomata, and so prevent a loss of water through the activity of these organs.
This furnishes an-
other illustration of
adaptation to physi-
cal conditions or en-
vironment. It is
only on some coast
varieties that the
decurrent channel is
absent.
M
By such an ar-
rangement, a too
energetic transpira-
tion can be obviated
during times of
drought, when the
soil has scarcely
sufficient moisture
for the tree's re-
quirements, for the
leaves, by taking a
de current form,
place the stomata
surfaces on a fixed
under side, and at
the same time are
further protected, if
necessary, by the
edges of the con-
crescence acting as a
door to the channels
%
ſ
º
t
|
N
i
Figure 2. —A more advanced plant than Figure 1, showing a longer
thus formed a. In OVe- period of retention of primordial leaves on the central
y
axis. Nat, size.
ment which would
also, most probably,
be brought into use during wet weather.
The absence of palisade parenchyma and the finer structure of the type
material, of the ventral surface, are aiding factors in this instance of leaf movement.
As we see that nature responds to climatic adversities in xerophilous plants by





26
developing forms of vestiture such as pilosism, wax, &c., or creating an essential
oil in the leaf texture, so in this section of Conifers a concrescence of the leaf gives
the desired security, and consequently these trees can, and do exist in the arid
interior of this Continent, where other trees not so provided by nature, might
perhaps die. (Wide remarks under C. glauca re movement of leaves of Pinus
halapensis under climatic influences, and also remarks to account for the
decurrence of Callitris leaves).
Such a security is not by any means novel, for, as stated above, Lepido-
dendron Hickii of the Carboniferous period shows similar furrows in which stomata
are placed as in our Callitris. Does this feature point to a similar climate in those
bygone ages as that existing with our Callitris
to-day, viz., that of a comparatively arid nature?
The free portion of the leaf would appear to
vary in length in proportion to its exposure to
light, for it is found that the long, pyramidal
leaves occur only in the lower, shaded branches,
or on trees overshadowed by larger ones;
the small, appressed, free portion of the leaf
occurring wherever the branchlets are exposed
to the full light of day.
Venation as understood in phanerogams is
practically wanting in the leaves of the Callitris,
there being an entire absence of surface veins
such as is found in the usual lamina or blade of
an ordinary leaf. The mid-rib is indicated by
Figure tº: º the very small vascular bundle at the base of
- the concrescence portion, and midway between
the two lower concave surfaces. The leaves of
Callitris may, therefore, be regarded as homomorphic, the apparent dimorphism
being due to a long or short attachment to the stem, or perhaps, more correctly
in this case, the stele, and, as stated previously, primordial leaves proportionately,
have just as small a decurrent portion as the normal leaves have a free end.
Morphologically the primordial leaves may be described as pyramidal, and
in section triangular throughout, although in the case of the concrescent leaf it
is really only the free end that retains that form.
As regards adnation applying to the normal form of leaf, C. Macleayana
in some instances forms an exception to the rule, as free, pyramidal leaves
obtain almost throughout the whole life of a tree in some cases, so that it is
perhaps hardly correct to designate these leaves as primordial, in fact, it was




27
this condition of affairs that led to the recording of C. Parlatorei and C. Mac-
leayana as distinct species, the former species having trees placed under it, which
had not the long pyramidal free portion described under the latter Pine; the
environment and other causes in each case, no doubt, favouring the growth of
each particular form of leaf.
This decurrent portion of the leaf may be described as having three sides,
that is excluding the attached one,—the latter portion, adnate to the branchlet
not be ng regarded as a side in this case, and the former part may be said to have
two concave ventral surfaces and a double convex dorsal one, or in section the
whole pentagonal. In the earliest leaves the junction of the dorsal and ventral
sides in each whorl are approximate, and at certain times touch, but as the
branchlets increase in circumference, the decurrent portion increases in length, in
Some cases up to Iº inches, and, at the same time, becomes more and more removed
from its previous contiguous sister leaves, and remains on the stem as longitudinal
green Stripes for an almost indefinite period.
The maximum length probably occurs in the “Weeping Pine,” and the
minimum in C. glauca. The decurrent portion of the leaf is very persistent
and retains its chlorophyll for three or four years, or even longer.
VI. PHYLLOTAXIS.
The arrangement of the leaves of the several species of this genus needs
only a few remarks, for without exception they are homotaxis, in regular successive
alternate whorls either in the spreading, horizontal, free stage, or in the decurrent
Condition. In no instance are they spiral. Each whorl invariably consists of
three leaves. &
VII. HISTOLOGY OF THE LEAF.
Here was found a new field for study, as very little if any research appears
to have been undertaken in the past on the anatomy of the Callitris leaf, for
most of the work on Conifer genera deals with material other than this Australian
genus.
The part of our investigations on this organ at first presented some diffi-
culties, as the free ends were taken for examination, and like previous systematists,
we had regarded these as the true leaves. But one mm. being the maximum
breadth, it was found that in this small area the variety of cell structure is very
limited, there also being an absence of certain leaf essentials. Attention was
next turned to the concrescence in the search for these missing elements, and
there they were found.
28
The histological investigations of the leaf scale, or free portion of the
leaf, were discarded for the true leaf, i.e., -that which included the free as well as
the decurrent portion, the latter being the leaf proper and upon which the results
recorded under each species are founded. -
It was hoped that at least one purpose would be served by investigating
the structure of the leaves, viz., that some assistance would be rendered the
systematist in the differentiation of species by employing the aid of histological
structure, but the results were not quite so fruitful as expected.
The Sections examined showed morphological differences, the contour of
the decurrent portions varying in different species, but these variations were
not sufficiently constant for a systematic reliance to be placed upon them in all
CaS62S.
One of the principal features brought to light was that the outer or dorsal
Surface of the leaf was almost invariably assimilatory, and that correspondingly
the ventral Surfaces were transpiratory, the stomata being arranged along the
under Surface in the passages formed by the overhanging edges of the concrescence,
and Only a few were found on the inner surface of the free end at the base,
their presence in this position evidently accounting for the incurving of this portion
of the leaf as a means of protection. The outer convex surface of the leaves of
the interior species may, therefore, be said to be devoid of stomata. Where no
decurrent channel exists, the stomata are found on the lateral surfaces below the
dorsal ridges, as in the case of the “Weeping Pine.”
One, or rarely more rows of epidermal cells characterise the cuticle, these
being Superimposed upon single or double rows of hypodermal cells. This again
is subtended by the mesophyll consisting of palisade cells containing chloro-plastids,
followed by loose parenchyma through the centre of which in the upper portion
of the leaf is mostly situated an oil cavity or reservoir, fusiform in shape.
At the point of approach of the two surfaces of the leaf in the concrescent
portion, it was found that the cuticle begins to alter in character from that of the
dorsal surface, and this changed feature characterises the ventral surfaces, with
the exception of one or two species. The cuticle here becomes broken or changes
into elongated, conical bodies or papillose projections, whose function is probably
to act as secondary guard cells to the stomata. A similar character is recorded
and figured by E. G. Bertrand (“Ann, des Sc. Nat,” 5e Ser. Bot. Tome, 20., Pl. IO) as
occurring in the Japanese genus of Conifers, Sciadopitys.
The palisade cells are quite absent below the ventral surfaces of the inland
Species, C. glauca.
The cil cavity or reservoir, supported by secretory cells, is nearly always
found in the upper portion of the decurrent section, and between the phloem of
29
the leaf bundle and the palisade layer and in the centre of the spongy mesophyll
tissue, but surrounded by parenchymatous endodermal cells. Longitudinal
sections invariably showed them to be cavities rather than glands, certainly not
canals or ducts as obtains in non-Australian genera of the Order. They appear
to be of lysigenous origin.
Below each gland is a small bundle with a normal orientation, the phloem
having thin-walled cells irregularly arranged, the xylem having thicker-walled
cells, disposed in a more regular, radial series than those of the phloem, the whole
being accompanied more or less by transfusion tissue.
For anatomical descriptive purposes it was found to be much more satis-
factory to take a section through the extremity of a branchlet just below the
internode, and through the three concrescences, rather than through an individual
concrescence, for such a section is found to be most symmetrical, and in outline
forms geometrically an almost perfect trefoil.
This geometrical outline in a measure corresponds in a general way to that
of some forms of Pinus leaves which have two bundles, whilst in this instance the
stele, being the branchlet, contains three or more, and having central radiating
cells dividing it into the wedge-shaped bundles of the branchlet or central column.
Such sections have been taken when describing and figuring the leaf
anatomy of each species, as they give a better idea of the correlation of each
leaf to the stem structure, and also their correlation in performance of functional
work to each other.
Viewed then as a whole, the leaf sections present some interesting features,
as for instance, the variation in the disposition of the parenchymatous transfusion
tracheids, the stone, as well as the endodermal cells, which are well shown
in the illustrations, and when there is no oil cavity these latter occur in a group
in each foil; but as an oil reservoir gradually comes into the vision, it is seen to
separate them, and they then form an encircling ring around it, as well as the
stele, and so with each oil cavity of the corresponding leaf. The parenchymatous
cells containing the manganese compound are more numerous below the junction
of the foils where the epidermal and chlorophyll parenchymatous cells are absent.
This latter arrangement has already been fully discussed.
The anatomical characters of the leaf of Callitris, such as the arrange-
ment of (I) assimilatory and transpiratory surfaces, (2) the palisade cells,
(3) cells of the fundamental tissues, and (4) Sclerenchymatous cells, render
some aid in systematic work; whilst the position of the oil cavities may practi-
cally be said to be common to all the species, for whatever little variation there
is in connection with these, it is of too minor a nature upon which to found
specific differences,
30
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Cross section showing how deeply placed is the oil cavity in each
leaf, x 89,
This longitudinal section also illustrates the hidden nature of an
oil cavity in a leaf, x 55,
Sections to illustrate the remarks on the leaf oils of Callitris species,


3I
Some workers on Pines have brought to their aid in this connection the
position and number of the oil canals (Engelmann), or the number of parts of the
vascular bundle (Coulter and Rose); such, however, cannot be used similarly in
the species of Callitris, but only as aids to systematic work in conjunction with
other features.
VIII. MOVEMENT OF LEAVES.
Some reference has already been made to this subject under Article V,
Foliation, and a theory advanced.
No opportunity occurred of studying the movements of the leaves in nature,
or rather in the field, to verify our opinion, but indications would suggest that the
two ventral surfaces are protected by a closing of the decurrent channel, by
an expansion or contraction or coming together of the longitudinal edges of the
leaves. (Wide physiological significance of this movement of leaves under
Foliation.) .
By a closing of this entrance the stomata are protected from light, hot
winds, rains, &c., so that no twisting is required as in the leaves of some species
of Picea and Pinus.
The free ends evidently have the power of spreading or becoming appressed
according to weather conditions, vide also remarks under Araucaria Cunninghamii.
IX. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE LEAF OILS.
The chemical results for the leaf oils of the several species of Callitris re-
corded in this work are somewhat comprehensive, and the data given are
representative of the individual species. The full results will be found under
each species. - - -
The material was all distilled at the Museum, and in several instances
gathered over a great extent of territory, and during a period of several years.
Particularly was this the case with C. glauca, because this tree is the common
species, and is the most extensively distributed. In a lesser degree accumulated
results have been obtained with C. calcarata, C. verrucosa, C. arenosa, &c.
32
The object of this was to ascertain, from material belonging to well-defined
Species, the influences of locality, Soil, and climate, on the chemical constituents
of the tree. It has been advanced by some writers that these have considerable
action upon plants generally, and that, therefore, constancy of results could
hardly be expected.
Our researches on the oils of the Eucalypts showed a remarkable constancy
in the chemical constituents of individual species of that genus. With the oils of
the Callitris the same practical uniformity of constituents exists, although not so
markedly as with the Eucalypts, as the rotation figures show more variation.
The distillation of the leaves and terminal branchlets was, in most cases,
continued for six hours, as it was found that a fair quantity of oil came over during
the fifth hour. The difficulty of obtaining the oil from the leaves by steam
distillation appeared to be due to the hidden nature and position of the oil glands,
as shown in numerous illustrations. The structure and contour of these may
also be seen from the microphotographs of the leaves under the several species.
The distillations were carried out on material collected similarly to what would
be done in practice, so that the yield of oil obtained with each species may be
taken as the commercial one. C. intratropica is the only exception, as with this
material most of the coarser branchlets had been stripped.
The crude oils were usually but little coloured, due to the fact that the
amount of free acid in the terpene oils was very small indeed. Those oils contain-
ing an increased amount of esters were usually darker in colour, and the free acid
was more pronounced. On keeping these oils, the slow alteration of the geranyl-
acetate caused them to become even more acid. When redistilled under atmos-
pheric pressure, the esters partly decomposed at the temperature required, with
the separation of a portion of the acetic acid, but for comparative purposes this
had little influence on the results. The oils were all colourless when redistilled,
or when purified by steam distillation.
No indications were obtained in any of the oils for either sylvestrene,
phellandrene, or cineol. The leaf oil of one species, Callitris Macleayana, contained
a hydrocarbon, most probably belonging to the CHis series, and when isolated
in as pure a condition as possible, by fractional distillation, it resembled ordinary
menthene, both in odour and appearance. The physical properties of the oil of
this species were distinctly different from those of the oils of the other species of
Callitris, due evidently to the presence of an increased amount of this constituent
in the oil, and which reduced the specific gravity of the crude oil considerably.
We have isolated a hydrocarbon of the CH, series from the latex of Araucaria
Cunninghamii (see under that species in this work), and in which material a member
of the CoHis group probably also occurred. The resins isolated from the latex
at the same time, strongly resembled the sandarac resins from the Callitris ;
33
So that the idea suggests itself that the formation of the characteristic resin known
as Sandarac is primarily due to the alteration in some way, perhaps by Oxidation
or condensation, of these hydrocarbons in association with the terpenes.
Apparently the origin of the sandarac resins is different from that of the
ordinary Pinus resins, and in both Pinus and Callitris the oils of Some Species
consist largely of pinene, and yet the resins are not similar.
From chemical evidence C. Macleayana and Araucaria Cunninghamii are
Somewhat closely related, and this is also supported botanically.
It has been determined that all constituents occurring in the oils of the
Callitris reach a maximum in that of one species, although perhaps present only in
traces in some of the others. It is assumed, therefore, that a hydrocarbon of the
Cº. His series may occur at some time in the oils of the Callitris generally. The
difficulty of detecting this, when only occurring in small amount in association
with pinene and similar terpenes is apparent, and it was thus fortunate that
C. Macleayana supplied evidence in this direction.
The leaf oils of the Callitris all contain, either in large or small amounts,
pinene (both modifications), limonene (both forms), dextro-rotatory borneol and
its acetic acid ester (perhaps with the exception of C. Tasmanica), and geraniol
and its acetic acid ester. The ester of terpineol, the acid of which is probably
butyric, is present in some species, if not occurring in traces in all of them.
Although the constituents in all the oils appear to be the same, they vary in amount
in each well-defined species, thus corresponding to the morphological differences
of the plants themselves, and in this respect are comparatively constant, So much
so, that each species has its own characteristic oil, and the determination of the
amount of its chemical constituents is sufficient to indicate its Origin in most
cases. We have gone to considerable trouble in the endeavour to decide this point,
and the results herewith published show distinctly that the influences which were
instrumental in bringing about distinctive characteristics for each species, also
acted directly upon the character of the oil constituents in a corresponding
degree.
Whether the predominant constituent in the oil of the original ancestor
of the genus, was the terpene pinene, or limonene, it is not now possible to decide,
but it is apparent that changes have been active with the several members of
the genus Callitris. The time necessary for the accomplishment of this altera-
tion, through varieties to distinct species, must have been of an extended nature,
and, consequently, for this and other reasons, we assume that the Callitris of
Australia is an ancient genus.
In two instances evidences have been found indicating a close botanical
and chemical connection between Callitris somewhat closely related, and showing,
as it were, a branching off from a species. These were, firstly C. rhomboidea of
C
34
the eastern coast of New South Wales, with C. Tasmanica the closely related
species of the elevated country of the Rylstone district of New South Wales and
the corresponding Tasmanian trees, and Secondly, the South Australian species,
C. propinqua, with C. glauca.
In whatever direction the results are considered, it is found that the several
constituents in Callitris oils continue to increase with each well-defined species,
in the individual groups, until a maximum is reached in one of them. With
dextro-rotatory pinene the maximum is with C. Drummondii, with dextro-
rotatory limonene it is with C. arenosa, where it occurs together with dipentene,
and not less than 85 per cent. of this oil consists of the limonenes. The lasvo-
rotatory form of limonene is most pronounced with C. intratropica, in the oil of
which limonenes also occur in considerable amount. The geranyl-acetate con-
tinues to increase in the several species, until the maximum is reached with C.
Tasmanica, practically the same result being obtained with both the Rylstone
and the Tasmanian trees, and in which over 60 per cent. of this ester was present.
Borneol increases in the same ratio, but not to the same extent as the geraniol,
and does not appear to be present alone in any one species, nor does the lasvo-
rotatory form occur. Free borneol is found to only a small extent in many of
the species. Terpineol was found in the greatest quantity in the oil of C. gracilis,
but even there it was only present in a comparatively small amount. The deter-
mination of butyric acid in the oil of this species indicated that it was present
with the terpineol, and as butyric acid has also been detected in small amount
in the oils of several species, it is probable that this ester occurs in the oils of most
Callitris, the exception being those in which geraniol is in greatest abundance,
and also in those oils very poor in ester. No butyric acid could be detected in
the ester of C. Tasmanica, as the theoretical result for acetic acid was obtained.
The dextro-rotatory pinene, taken at its maximum in the oil of C. Drum-
mondii, had a very high specific rotation [a]p = + 49.77°, but the laºvo modification
increasing in other species reduced this activity to the right, until with C. Muelleri
it was only slightly dextro-rotatory. The limonenes appear to be always present
in both forms; with some species the predominant one is the dextro-rotatory modifi-
cation, while in others, it is the lavo-rotatory limonene which is in excess. The
melting point of the tetrabromides formed with the limonenes of the Callitris oils
was always high, and in this respect differed entirely from that formed with the
dextro-rotatory limonene occurring in the oil of “ King William Pine,” which
gave a tetrabromide melting at IO4° C.
It will be observed that the optical activity of some of the Callitris oils,
is not of a constant character for all times of the year. This is due to two causes:
(I) With some species the oil obtained from the fruits has a markedly different
rotation from that of the leaves, even if obtained from the same tree, although
the terpenes are the same in character. The amount of ester is less also. This
35
is notably the case with C. robusta and with C. verrucosa (both species with warted
fruits), and also with species closely allied with these. With C. Drummondi,
the oil, both from the leaves and from the fruits was similar, and this was also
the case with C. calcarata. The dry fruits of those species whose leaves give an
Oil Consisting of geranyl-acetate without borneol, do not contain an essential oil,
Or, if so, it is present only in a very small amount. This is the case with C.
Tasmanica, and with C. rhomboidea. This peculiarity of terpenes with different
rotations in the leaves and fruits of the same tree, is of some scientific interest,
particularly as this peculiarity does not occur with all the species. It will be
noticed that in the results obtained with the material of C. glauca from Narrandera,
the oil from one large tree (kept separate) varied by 6-7 degrees from that obtained
from trees growing alongside, and that the ester was also less in amount. The
branchlets from the single tree had numerous fruits, and considerably more than
were present on the general material.
(2) Again, the predominance of a particular limonene, of which the rotation
may be either dextro or laevo, is not constant for all times of the year, so that the
rotation of the oil of these species varies in agreement. This is notably the case
with C. calcarata and with C. arenosa. The pinenes do not appear to vary in this
respect to the same extent as do the limonenes, although it is evident that both
forms are present in the oils of most species. Although the rotation of the limo-
nenes is thus not constant, yet the other physical characters of the oils are not
influenced by the particular activity of the predominant limonene alone; SO that
the composition of the oil of each species, when once determined, is found to be
always characteristic of it.
The ester content of the individual oils appears to be far more Constant
in character, and the indicative value of the cold saponification in following the
increase of geranyl-acetate in the several oils, has been most helpful. By this
means it was also possible to show that the free alcohol in the oil of C. Tasmanica
was almost entirely geraniol. It is possible that a quantitative value might thus
be evolved for some of these esters, if investigations in this direction were under-
taken.
The solubility in alcohol of the crude oils of the Callitris does not appear
to be of a very constant nature, because the oils of the group to which C. glauca
belongs become much less soluble in alcohol on keeping, and many of them
slowly deposit an insoluble resin, which attaches itself to the sides of the bottles
in which the oils are stored. Those oils richest in limonene only deposit this resin
in very small amount, and those in which the ester of geraniol is present in quantity
have not deposited any. The formation of this resinous substance may have
some bearing upon the natural preparation of certain of the resin acids found in
sandarac, and it is thus evident why the sandarac resins from some Callitris species
are more soluble in alcohol than are those from other species,
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
3. C. verrucosa. 4. C. propinqua.
5. C. glauca. G. C. arenoS3. - 7. C. intratropica.
10. C. rhomboidea.
12. C. Drummondii. 14. C. Morrisoni.
-
15. C. Muelleri, 16. C. oblonga. 17, c. Macleayana,
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. Naț. size.
CoNES OF THE SEVERAL SPECIES OF Callitris, ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF SEQUENCE DETERMINED BY
THIS RESEARCH.
[2. C. tuberculata and 13. C. Roei, are not shown.]








37
The sesquiterpenes, or allied bodies, only occur as a rule in small amount in
the leaf oils of the Callitris, those of C. Macleayana, C. robusta and C. verrucosa
containing the greatest quantity.
Phenols do not occur in the Callitris leaf oils to any great extent, as only
in two species was an indication for a phenol obtained, these were C. gracilis and
C. rhomboidea, but the amount present was too small for determinative purposes.
Of course the phenol found in Callitris timber (callitrol) may extend to the wood
of the branchlets, and traces might thus be found with the leaf oils.
The specific gravity of the oils was taken in comparison with that of water
at I5° C. in all cases.
X. THE CONE.
The distinctive characteristics of this organ of the Callitris have already been
given under Article II. The fruits occur generally below the male inflorescence,
which is a natural arrangement, as thus pollination is, in a Certain measure,
assured.
The cone may be said to be almost uniformly spherical in shape, and also to
consist of an equal number of valves, the One exception being C. Macleayana
which has 6–8 valves and is pyramidal in form.
The general contour of the cone may thus be said to differ from that of
any living Conifer, certainly from Tetraclinis and Widdringtonia, of North and
South Africa respectively.
They vary in size from half an inch in the case of C. intratropica to over
an inch in C. robusta, whilst the pyramidal cone of C. Macleayana may be said
to average quite an inch in height.
The nature or character of the external surface can be used in a measure
as a taxonomic aid, for dividing the species into classes; C. robusta, C. verrucosa,
C. tuberculata, C. glauca, C. intratropica, C. arenosa, C. fropinqua, have all more
or less worted Surfaces, whilst C. calcarata, C. Muelleri, C. oblonga, C. Drummondi,
have them either Smooth or even shining.
In their mature condition they are hard and almost ligneous.
3S
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 4.—Longitudinal section through the end of a branchlet, showing - +
terminal leaves at their earliest stage of growth, Figure 6.-Transverse section through base of 2 amentum, but at a
as sporophylls. C. calcarata, x 70. later stage than in Figure 5. Oil cavities are seen to be
numerous. C. rhomboidea, x 32.
Figure 5.-Transverse section, through base of Q amentum, showing Figure 7.-Transverse section through, base of early, cone, showing
circle of oil cavities around the median bundles of the attachment of four of the valves to the central axis
branchlet, similar bodies being continued into the inner (branchlet). C. rhomboidea, x 17.
structure of the sporophylls. C. rhomboidea, x 15.
Sections to illustrate the life history and anatomy of the Cone Valves.


39
XI. THE CONE VALVES.
The structure of the valves composing the cone has not occupied much
attention in the field of research in the past; and, although apparently simple
enough organs in themselves, yet, their true relative position in the plant's life
history has remained in a measure an unsolved problem.
Working in this remote part of the world great difficulty has been experienced
in obtaining access to the cognate literature, but in all the works examined little
or no reference could be found bearing on the origin of the cone scales or valves
of our Australian Callitris.
These organs may be divided into two periods of life history, viz.:-her-
baceous and indurated. During the first of these conditions they have all the
characters of the ordinary leaf of the genus, i.e., the mesophyll with its palisade
parenchyma and spongy tissue, parenchymatous cells, together with a primary
bundle, oil cavities, assimilatory and transpiratory surfaces, structures which make
them practically, to all intents and purposes, leaves of two terminal whorls.
Starting life thus with all the 1.horphological, functional, and anatomical characters
of a leaf, the period of their metamorphosis into sphorophylls is marked structurally
by a numerous subdivision of the bundles of the central axis and the pith cells
or tissue, and these branches at once ramifying at first into the upper portion
of the leaf, but eventually push back and replace the parenchymatous cells and
spongy tissue. These bodies or cells as they emerge from the stele are found to
be well charged with starch grains, and especially so as the sporophyll becomes
almost entirely composed of cells similar to those which are in direct Com-
munication with the ovules, whose whole structure is also formed of them.
Whilst this cell development is taking place, numerous bundles are ramifying
through the sporophyll structure generally, at first, in a row just below the inner
surface, from which are sent branches in the dorsal direction. Oil cavities are
also formed both at the inner and outer surfaces. As these organs mature they
gradually again metamorphose, but into a hardened body, and yet meanwhile,
or for a time, preserve one or two of the main characters of a leaf;-the arrange-
ment of the bundles, &c., reminding one of the midrib and lateral veins of an
Angiosperm leaf, and the chlorophyll performing its function till near the time
of dehiscing.
As soon as the ovules are fertilised, the lower portion of the macrosporophyll
gradually commences to thicken and close over them, thus forming a cryptic
character, as stated under article “The Origin of the Spur on the Cone Scale.”
After the closing period the sporophylls thicken until the full size of the
cone is reached. This process of thickening is marked by the bundle shown in
the various micro-leaf sections, commencing to be augmented and increasing in
40
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 8.-Transverse section (portion of) through base of Q amentum,
showing oil cavities near the assimilatory surface; the
dark patches in the macrosporophyll texture are vascular
bundles, C. rhomboidea, x 32.
Figure 9.—Transverse section through base of young Q amentum,
showing attachment to median bundles by the three larger
valves. C. rhomboidea, x 19.
Sections to illustrate the life history
Figure 10. –Transverse section through middle of young cone. Two
large and two small valves are perfectly sectioned. C.
rhomboidea, x 19.
Figure 11.-Transverse section through the upper portion of a very
young cone, the alternate large and small valves can be
identified, as well as the preponderance of oil cavities in
the former. C. calcarata, x 20.
and anatomy of the Cone Valves.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 12.-Transverse section through the upper portion of a very
young cone, showing the alternately large and small valves,
and mode of lateral attachment. Oil cavities are seen on
both dorsal and ventral surfaces. The darker patches in
the tissue are vascular bundles. The four irregular isolated
bodies in the central cavities are sections of individual
zygotes. Stained with haematoxylon. C. calcarata, x 20.
-
i
i

4f
size, next forms a series of bundles, and then secondary bundles or branches in
the valves, which ramify through the whole substance.
In the case of C. Macleayana, and others, these bundles are more numerous,
and form a continuous line parallel to the inner surface and bounding the median
tissue of the sporophyll on that side, and through which substance, composed of
the irregular thin-walled cells originated from the pith, Occasionally occur, however,
a few detached bundles.
The chlorophyll parenchyma retains its character till the seeds have matured,
when the fundamental tissue having performed its functions, loses its vitality,
indurates into a granular, brownish-coloured ground mass with bundles, and
eventually atrophies. In a measure the whole period of the life history of the
cone corresponds to that of the stages of a Eucalyptus fruit, which in its early
growth is quite green (the calyx), and which eventually hardens into the fruit
capsule.
The following are given to graphically illustrate the varying stages of the
different parts in this life history of a cone :-
Figure 4 is a longitudinal section through the very earliest indications of
the formation of sporophylls, and when the leaves which go to form these organs
are not yet in the same plane as eventuates in a later stage of the cone’s life history.
Figure 5 is a transverse section at the base of the cone in its earliest stages, the
outer portions being cut off; the point desired to be illustrated is the attachment
of the sporophylls to the central axis which is surrounded in this case by a ring
of nine oil cavities, and which number is found later to increase on the inner side
of the cone valves. Portions of the six cone-valves can be traced. This plate is
likewise interesting as it shows the lysigenous origin of the oil cells or cavities on
what is later, the inner surface of the valve. Eventually oil cavities are formed
throughout the fundamental tissue, but more especially located near the outer
edge of each valve, and even in the case of C. robusta and C. verrucosa amongst
the epidermal cells.
The occurrence of oil cavities in the cones is marked by two features—
their numbers, and the chemical characters of the oil contents—and as regards
the latter, it is shown under C. robusta and C. verrucosa that the oil of the cone
valves is optically, at least, distinct from that of the leaves. The cause of this
variance is a problem still to be settled by the physiologist; but perhaps in the
formation of resin in the fruits one active form has been utilised more than the
other. The comparative abundance of oil cavities in the valves may be a provision
of nature to provide protection to the maturing seeds by lessening or warding Off
the power of the Solar heat rays in dry-country species. Figure 6 is a 32-magni-
fication of a similar transverse section to Figure 5, but in this case the central axis
42
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 13.-Transverse º the upper portion of early cone
clear of the central columella, and yet cross-cutting some
of the early seeds of the three larger sporophylls. The
dorsal oil cavities are prominent, whilst the black patches
in the tissue are vascular bundles. C. calcarata, x 20.
º
wº
Figure 15.-Transverse section near the top of seed cavity, showing
alternate larger and smaller valves and the row of oleo-
resin cells on the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the former.
The tops of three early seeds are shown. C. calcarata, x 20.
Figure 14.—Same as Figure 13, but cut lower down and showing somewhat
greater detail of structure and more zygotes. C. calcarata, x 20.
Sections to illustrate the life history and anatomy of the Cone Walves.


43
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 16.-Transverse section through the base of a very young cone. Figure 18.-Longitudinal section through the dome of seed cavity,
In this case the six valves are separated internally at showing the junction of ventral surfaces of two sporophylls
this period, except at the outer edge. All the cavities are to form a roof over the fertilised seeds or zygotes. A
oil cells. C. Macleayana, x 15. spur is well shown on the right. A feature is the row of
oil glands (white) backed by an uneven row of bundles
(dark patches). C. rhomboidea, x 13.
Figure 17.-Transverse section through the junction of two valves of Figure 19.-Longitudinal section through the early stage of cone for-
Figure 16. The papillose projections (now teeth-like) mation, the space containing the fertilised ovules being
of the ventral surfaces of the sporophylls, which close now quite a complete cavity. C. rhomboidea, x 13.
the separating space to the outer world, are clearly seen,
as also are the oil glands. The smaller bodies are
parenchymatous cells. C. Macleayana, x 55.
Sections to illustrate the life history and anatomy of the Cone Walves,


44
is more distinctly seen and consists of three bundles, and the empty spaces are oil
cavities cut at varying angles. Figure 7 shows portion of a transverse section cut
clear of the central axis and just below the columella. The ring of bundles can just
be seen in the centre of the picture, while others may be observed in the sporophyll
tissue and denoted by the dark spots (transverse) and dark radial lines (obliquely
Cut). Figure 8 is a 32-magnification of the upper portion of Figure 7; the bundles
are more distinctly seen, and the row of oil cavities on the dorsal surface form
a conspicuous feature. In Figure 9 is given a cross section a little higher up
than the last figure and through the columella. Two of the three larger valves
are in the field of vision, and also two of the smaller valves, only portions of the
Other two being seen. Cross sections of a few zygotes are shown at the base of
the Scales, the darker spots denoting the bundles, and the spaces in the leaf tissue
are empty Oil cavities on the dorsal and ventral surfaces. Figure Io gives a view
of a Section just clear of the columella. Two large and two small valves are perfect.
In Figures II to I5 these cross sections have been taken at various intervals above
the last and below the dome. The dorsal oil cavities are specially well defined, the
ventral cavities being less conspicuous, the dark spots in the sporophyll tissue are
the bundles, whilst the irregularly-shaped bodies in the middle seed cavity are
the cross sections of the maturing seeds or zygotes. Figure I6 is a cross section
at the base of the early cone of C. Macleayana and shows the attachment of the
valves to the central axis, surrounded in this case by Some proportionately larger
Oil Cavities, and a row of these bodies occurs just below the dorsal surfaces of
the six alternate cone valves, and separated by radial slits or sections of the ventral
Channels. Figure I7 shows a 55-magnification of the surrounding tissue of an
individual ventral decurrent channel between two valves. It is interesting as
illustrating how the papillose projections surrounding the stomata interlock like
the teeth of a cog-wheel as the valves come together to form the cavity for
maturing seeds; oil cavities are seen to be numerous, as well as the sporophyll
tissue consisting also in these parts of starch-filled cells (not seen in plate) and the
filled parenchymatous cells. Figures 18–24 are longitudinal sections of a fruit
Cone in its early stage, soon after the closing over of the thickened portion of
the sporophylls. Figure I8 shows the dome with one spur on a scale, and also
the ventral oil cavities with their subtending bundles (the black markings). In
Figure IQ is given a 13-magnification of a longitudinal section just clear of the
spurs. Figure 20 is taken from a larger stage of growth, and three fertilised Ovules
are well defined standing erect in the central cavity, domed by the enlarged
portion of the sporophyll—the lower surface of which is lined with oil cavities,
and near which are bundles differing in shape owing to the obliquity of the various
angles of section. Figure 21 is a longitudinal section of a fruit cone through the
columella, showing fertilised and sterile ovules, and Figure 22 is a higher magni-
fication through these latter organs, which are seen to be similar in structure to the
sporophyll tissue, so that Figure 22 is the enlarged centre of 21. Figures 23 and 24
45
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
figure 20.-Longitudinal section through the dome of the early fruit, **** 22.-Longitudinal, section through the columella and adjacent
showing the junction of sporophyll enlargements and zygotes at the bottom of the cavity. C. rhomboidea, x 20.
so forming the seed cavity; the white spaces close to the
ceiling of the dome are oil cavities, and these are backed by
a row of bundles, the darker patches. C. rhomboidea, x 16.
Figure 21.-Longitudinal section through the dome of the cavity, but Figure 23.-Longitudinal section through the early cone and clear of
clear at the base of the central axis of the branchlet. The - basal axis, showing fertilised ovules completely enclosed by
columella is well seen separating the two central fertilised the sporophylls. The columella is triangular in shape and
ovules. The material has broken away in the left of the empty, and has a perfect fertilised ovule on the right.
picture. C. rhomboidea, x 8. C. rhomboidea, x 8.
Sections to illustrate the life history and anatomy of the Cone Walves.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 25.-Transverse section through the base of a macrosporophyll
at the junction with the central axis—shown on lower left
corner. The thick-walled bodies are the sclerenchymatous
cells scattered in the tissue of this organ. C. rhomboidea,
x 80,
Figure 26.-Transverse section through an early fruit valve. Below
the ventral (convex) surface is a series of oleo-resin cavities
of various sizes, and these are subtended by a continuous
row of bundles, a feature quite unique amongst Callitris.
C. Macleayana, x 8.
Sections to Illustrate the life history and anatomy of the Cone Valves.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
Figure 24.—Longitudinal section through the seed cavity of an early
cone. One full-sized, fertilised ovule is seen in the centre
of the picture, having on its left the columella, the interior
of which is one large oleo-resin cavity, and on the left of
this again is a wing in section of another of the fertilised
ovules, followed by others on the left wall. Oil cavities
are numerous on the walls of the macrosporophylls forming
the dome. Stained with haematoxylin. C. rhomboidea, x 20.
- -
- -
- -
--
* - - - -
- - -
- - -- -

47
are similar sections in a series with Figures 2I and 22. Figure 25–This plate
is given to show the predominence of sclerenchymatous cells in the valve tissue
on C. rhomboidea, and which is quite a specific difference; they are the larger
bodies in the picture with thickened walls. Figure 26 is a cross section of a
valve of a mature fruit of C. Macleayana, and depicts the row of comparatively
large bundles near to, and parallel with the ventral surface, and below the row of
oil cavities.
XII, ORIGIN OF THE SPUR ON THE WALVES OF THE CONES.
One of the species of the genus received its systematic designation from
the presence of a spur or point on the upper dorsal surface of each cone valve,
but during this investigation it was found that such a character was common
throughout, and as they could not all be one and the same species, as has
been suggested, it was decided to investigate the origin of this feature, for no
explanation of it was found in the literature at hand, although the figure of
Tetraclinis (C. quadrivalvis) in Sach. 2nd edition, p. 517, shows one stage of its
development.
At first it was searched for at the very earliest stage of the life history
of the leaf, and at an apparently corresponding spot where it occurs in the mature
valve, near the top of the dorsal surface of the sporophyll, but without success,
and so it was not until the whole life history of the fruit valve was studied that
its origin was discovered. -
The female amentum, which may here be said to start life from the last two
whorls of leaves, the smaller ones being the lower trio, are found at the extremities
of the branchlets.
After the ovules are fertilised and as the valves develop, these two whorls
gradually merge into one whole at the base, where they then radiate in the same
plane from the axis.
It is near the base on the upper surface of these seminiferous valves or
open carpels, if one may so designate them, that the ovules are borne and
developed ; and as soon as these are fertilised, the leaf, now a sporophyll, gradually
thickens in the centre just above the last or highest row of ovules as in Figure 27,
c and d. -
This thickening proceeds quickly after fertilisation, on the upper surface
till quite a protuberance is formed, which eventually exceeds in height that of
the original apex of the sporophyll, and which latter is now thrown back as it were,
Figure 27, e to h.
48
This embonpoint now rapidly increases in height, and inwards, towards
similar features on the corresponding opposite sporophyll, and finally, they all
valvate, the three larger meeting in what is now the apex of the cone, and
together with the three lower or smaller ones form a cavity over and
enclosing the fertilised ovules, or zygotes.
--
Figure 27.-Diagrammatic series showing the origin of the “ spur" on the valves of the cone, the process being marked by the
arrows from Figure A to Figure K.
The original free end of the sporophyll has in the meantime become less
and less prominent, as it recedes from the newly formed apex, and finally exists
only as a spur or dorsal point towards the top of each valve, as in C. calcarata, or
C. glauca (Figure 27 k), respectively, whilst in C. oblonga its absorption into the
scale has been less, and so is a prominent systematic character in that species.
This phenomenon can be traced in Pines other than Australian.
Figures 28 to 33 reproduce a longitudinal series from original material
intended to illustrate this gradual thickening of the sporophylls at their lower
middle, after fertilisation of the ovules, and which thickening can be traced
gradually, till it eventually forms a dome over the macrosporangia, whilst

49
- - - - - - -
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 28.-Longitudinal section through Q amentum and subtending Figure 29.-Longitudinal section through Q amentum. The thickening
whorls of leaves, illustrating the orthotropous character of on the ventral surfaces of the sporophyll—shown on the
the ovules on the sporophylls prior to thickening, C. right at the top—is just commencing, and one large and two
Muelleri, x 13. small oil cavities in this sporophyll are cut longitudinally.
C. Muelleri, x 21.
Figure 30.-Longitudinal section through 2 amentum showing gymno-
spermous orthotropous ovules and the development of
the inner portion of the sporophylls to form the enclosing
dome after fertilisation. C. Muelleri, x 21.
Sections illustrating the growth of the ventral side of the sporophylls, until a dome is formed over
the zygotes.
D


50
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 32.-Longitudinal section through Q amentum, showing con-
siderable central development of two sporophylls, the
expanded ventral surfaces of which extend almost over
the fertilised ovules or zygotes. C. Muelleri, x 21.
Figure 33.-Longitudinal section through the earliest stage of cone
formation, showing the fertilised ovules quite enclosed by
the thickening of the central ventral portion of the macro-
sporophylls. C. calcarata, x 20.
figure 34.—Longitudinal section through fa later [stage of the cone Figure 35.-Longitudinal section through similar period of cone develop-
formation, and cutting through a spur of each valve at ment. The “spurs” at the top of the picture being more
the top of the picture. C. rhomboidea, x 13. obtuse than in Figure 34. C. rhomboidea, x 13.
Sections illustrating the growth of the ventral side of the sporophylls, until a dome is formed over
the zygotes.



THE PINES OF
AUSTRALIA.
Figure 31.-Longitudinal section through a ... amentum showing two
sporophylls thickening inwards in the process of forming
the dome or roof over the fertilised ovules or zygotes, and
so producing an enclosing cavity. Stained with Erlich
haematoxylin. C. Muelleri, x 19-
:
:
-

5I
THE PINEs OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure:36.-Longitudinal section through a stage of a cone formation, Figure 37.-Longitudinal section showing the junction of the expanded
showing the roofing over of the fertilised and sterile ovules portions of two, sporophylls which form the dome of the
- by the inner growth at lower portion of the sporophylls. seed cavity. Oil cavities backed by a row of bundles are
& C. rhomboidea, x 13. seen near the inner surface. C. rhomboidea, x 13.
Figure 39.-Longitudinal section cut obliquely through a later stage
of growth of cone than in Figure 38. One spur is shown to
the right. C. rhomboidea, x 13.
Sections illustrating the growth of the ventral side of the sporophylls, until a dome is formed Over
the zygotes.


52
during the process, the free end of the Original leaf is thrown back and forms
the spur on the dorsal Surface on each valve of the cone, as shown in these
figures. The gradation of such processes is complete from Figures 29 to 33, in
which latter only one spur has been dissected. In every case a number of sub-
tending leaves are shown.
Figures 34 to 37 give a similar Series, but taken from a more advanced
Cone, and show, besides the above features, the complete closing in of the
fertilised ovules or zygotes in situ.
Figures 37, 38, and 39 are given to show (I) the junction of enlarged portion
Of the sporophylls at the apex or dome of the cavity, and (2) the Spurs nearing
their final stages in the cone’s life history. These are also interesting as they show
the row of oil cavities on the inner and outer surfaces, the former being backed by
a row of bundles—marked by dark Oval patches. Some also are seen behind the
oil cavities below the dorsal surface. -
XIII. PROBABLE FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL COLUMELLA OF
THE CONE OF CALLITRIS.
In all species of this group there is present in the inside at the bottom of the
Cone a central column, sometimes simple in form when it is pyramidal, and at
Other times compound or three-lobed, but varying in length in individual
species. >
As far as our knowledge goes no function has been assigned to this body,
nor could any reference be found accounting for its origin except a remark by
Bentham, who, in the “Flora Australiensis” (VI, p. 234), states that “they are
Sometimes apparently formed of abortive ovules.”
The inference from this statement is that it is not a regular character, but
should only be found when abortion occurs, but this is not borne out by facts, as
it always occurs in the cones, and may, therefore, be regarded as a persistent
character, and is generally of a uniform shape and length in each species, so that if
formed by chance, such as fertilisation or non-fertilisation of Ovules, its occurrence
would be occasional, but such is not the case.
Anatomically, both before and after the dehiscent period of the cone, it is
identical in structure with the inner portion or ovule-bearing area of the Sporophyll,
as well as that of the ovules. In the first of these stages the columella is composed
of nucleated, closely packed, irregular parenchymatous, starch-containing cells,
which have their origin in the centre of the branchlet from whence they emerge,
and form, not only the tissue of the columella, but also the bulk of the substance
or structure of the sporophylls, or what are later the six cone valves.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 38.-Longitudinal section through an early stage of a cone, showing
attachment of zygotes to the elongated base of the macro-
sporophyll, in the centre of the seed cavity. Stained with
haematoxylin. C. rhomboidea, x 13.
:

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
3. C. verrucosa. 4. C. propinqua.
& 4
1. C. robusta.
6. C. arenosa. 7. C. intratropica.
*
&
8. C. gracilis 9. C. calcarata. 10. C. rhomboidea.
9 *
12. C. Drummondii. 14. C. Morrisoni,
* @
15. C. Muelleri. - 16. C. oblonga. 17. C. Macleiyana.
11, C. Tasmanica.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo.
Callitris CoNEs witH ONE VALVE REMOVED To show THE ColumELLA (white.NED) of
THE SEVERAL SPECIES.






54
It therefore, partakes of the structural character of the ovules (Figures 24
to 41) and of the scales, but is more closely allied to the latter as it encloses an
oil cavity from its very earliest stage of growth, and so is, perhaps, either a rudi-
mentary organ with a past function or an intermediary organ between some higher
development not yet evolved, and thus its exact function to-day is not easy to
determine (vide remarks under Angiosperms v. Gymnosperms). After dehiscence
it is generally found to have developed at least one large oil cavity, and sometimes
one or two smaller ones, the contents of which resinises as the fruit ages.
Figure 40.-Longitudinal section through Q amentum Figure 41,-Longitudinal section-further illustrating
and subtending decurrent leaves. The feature of Figure 40. C. Muelleri, x 13
central columella is seen to be more
developed than the ovules at this stage,
and to exceed the height of the thickening
of the left sporophyll. C. Muelleri, x 13.
(See also columella in Figures 2-4)
The position of these columella, it would seem, may be said to correspond
with that of the placenta of some Angiosperms; and for the ovules in the process
of time to extend beyond the base of the sporophyll and become adnate to this
central partition for preference does not require, to our mind, a botanical cataclysm
of nature, but rather an easy process.
It may, therefore, be possible that we have here, either by evolution or
mutation, the forerunner in the origin of some of the organs of reproduction of
the Angiosperms, more especially the placenta, and, by a process of elongation,
perhaps, the pistil.

55
In the case of C. arenosa the columella is so much lengthened as to almost
touch the top of the incurved portion of the valves, and, if lengthened in course
of time so as to protrude beyond the dome SO formed - -
by this incurving, it would occupy a similar position to -- - --- - - - - - - - - -
the pistil of the angiosperms, and further, a develop-
ment of the free end (spur) of the sphorophyll would
produce a feature, calyx-like in character; SO that it is
possible we may be viewing here the prototype of a
capsule, say, identical with those of our Eucalypts, or
some other Myrtaceous genera. The Sections given
under the origin of the cone valves certainly resemble
a section of a capsule of a Eucalyptus species after the "ß.
fertilisation of the ovules, for Figures 32, 40, and
41 illustrate a form of the central column almost
approaching the above conditions, the columella being abnormally developed.
XIV. ANGIOSPERMS v. GYMNOSPERMS.
From the previous account here given of the life history of the cone of
the Callitris, there are certain analogies one notices between corresponding
structures in the two large groups of the vegetable kingdom, i.e., the Angiosperms
and the Gymnosperms.
In the case of the former division, the ovules are, as well known, completely
enclosed previous to fertilisation, and during the whole period of maturation.
afterwards as seeds, whilst in the case of the latter division it is only in the pre-
fertile condition that the ovules are gymnos.
As soon as pollination is completed in Callitris, the thickening of the lower
portion of the sporophylls, as described above, takes place rapidly, and in a very
short space of time a closed cavity is formed—a condition of things identical with
what is from the first in the Angiosperms, the ovary. The newly thickened
portions of the sporophylls now form the dome of this cavity, and the free ends
being thrown back or spreading, resemble, as it were, or perhaps more correctly
speaking, correspond in this position to the sepals in Angiosperms; in fact, one
might almost say that in the early stages of maturation, the thickened portions
of the sporophylls and their free ends are homologous respectively to the dome of
the ovary and the Sepals in the Angiosperms. Here then, perhaps, are the proto-
types of the enclosed ovary, and the floral structure (sepals) of the Angiosperms.
Then again, the period of maturation having been completed, a dehiscence
takes place similar to that of the Angiosperms.

56
XV. TIMBERS.
(a) MACROSCOPICAL.
In regard to colour, the timbers may be divided into two classes, viz., those
having a pale or white heartwood, and those with a coloured duramen.
The latter class is quite limited in its number of species, including as it
does Only two, viz. –
C. intratropica.
C. arenosa.
While the former includes:–
glauca.
calcarata.
Macleayama.
rhomboidea.
gracilis.
Tasmanica.
7)6//740OS (l.
Muelley.
Too much reliance, however, must not, in this connection, be placed on
Colour, as it varies in depth in the same species, and is then largely due to the
presence of an excess of chemical bodies peculiar to these timbers. *
As a systematic classification this feature is of little use, for dark and light
Coloured timbers may be found in trees of the same species, and specimens
illustrating this feature are exhibited in this Museum.
The lighter shade of timber hardly resembles in character that of the Pinus
of commerce, being a closer-grained and harder wood, whilst the darker-coloured
varieties are still heavier and more ornamental ; both characters are dealt with
more fully under the respective species. - -
(b) MICROSCOPICAL.
A microscopical examination of the permanent or secondary tissue of these
Conifers shows it to consist almost entirely of prosenchymatous cells or typical
Sclerenchymatous tissue, but parenchymatous tissue is found scattered throughout
the tracheids in the rays, the right-angled end walls being seen in the sections of
these medullary rays, with their uniform cell structure. Pitted cells in single rows
in the radial walls form a characteristic feature of all the tracheids.
The disposition of the pitted cells present no variation from those of non-
Australian Conifers, or other plants having this characteristic cell-wall structure;
57
the sections cut showing them to be exactly opposite those of the cells contiguous
to each other, the pits being closed by a middle lamella, which no doubt fills the
function as laid down by Gardiner, i.e., permitting the passage of protoplasmic
fibrils connecting the energids of the respective cells. On the other hand they
probably play an important part in the forming of syncytes, although no actual
case was met with in the material examined.
The presence of a dark-coloured substance, a manganese compound, in the
lumina of the tracheids of the different forms, is a feature in the wood of most
Callitris species.
(c) ECONOMICs.
Callitris trees are an inestimable asset to Australia and should be closely
Conserved or reafforested, as they are invaluable in the interior where the termite
(white ant) is found; for their timbers are, owing to the presence of a phenol,
and other chemical bodies, able to resist to a large extent the depredations of
this enemy to mankind, and every effort should be made to propagate our Cypress
Pines under a scientific system of forestry.
As showing the value of pine plantations to a country, the following excerpt
from the Cape Times, and written by D. E. Hutchins, Conservator of Forests,
may not be out of place:—
It is worth a long journey to Genadendal to witness the natural regeneration of the cluster-
pine. Between I825 and I830, i.e., about seventy years ago, a small area at the foot of the mountain
near the picturesque old churchyard was trenched and sown with cluster-pine seed. None of these
seventy-year-old pines now remain, though one or two of their broad stems can still be identified.
From these trees the cluster pine has spread, self-sown, up the rocky face of the mountain and into
the rugged Genadendal Valley, presenting most picturesque and remarkable effects: now subduing the
moorland veld, and anon covering with ample humus the bare rocks. No sight has so impressed
me since my first view of Table Mountain from a Wynberg window at daybreak on a serene winter’s
morning. The Genadendal Valley runs into the heart of the highlands for 4 or 5 miles. To the
east rises the Genadendal Mountain, 5,000 feet high. From this valley issues the stream that waters
the Station, and some distance up, on both sides of the water, extend these natural woods of
cluster-pine, unsurpassed in their sylvan beauty, and in their lesson of potential forest wealth, by
anything else at a distance from Table Mountain. Mr. Wedemann pointed out to me a spot on the
east side of the valley where, when he left Genadendal in 1881, there was only a scattered growth
of pine, which was traversed by a veld fire five years afterwards, in 1886. Nevertheless, the whole
of this area is now covered with a sufficient stock of young self-sown pine, with larger pines Scattered
among them, showing by their blackened stems where the fire had passed. On the west side of the
valley the pine woods are intersected by winding paths. It is necessary from time to time to clear
these paths of the young pines, which would otherwise soon obliterate them. Wherever any opening
lets in a little light young pines make their appearance, exactly as in Scotch-pine forests in Europe.
The country must have pine plantations. Dr. Schlich, in a recent able paper read
before the Imperial Institute, has shown how the pine timber supplies of the world are reaching a
visible termination. The present importation of pine wood to South Africa must considerably
exceed in value a quarter of a million pounds sterling.
58
Speaking of cluster-pine plantations, it was shown in my last annual report that for every
£I spent now the country should reap an annual revenue of £I in thirty-five or forty years. And,
perhaps even better than this, the quarter of a million pounds sterling or more, now paid yearly to
the foreigner, would be kept in the Country. It has been computed that nine-tenths of all the wood
used in the world is pine, or wood of that class.
During 1896 the quantity of pine wood and wood of that class entered at the ports of Cape
Colony amounted to 4,967,945 cubic feet, valued at £215,693. It is certain that cluster-pine, properly
grown in close plantations (and this is a very important and imperative proviso) would supply the
greater part of the present demand for pine wood. At present we have the pick of the pine forests
of the world, at prices so low that they cannot last long. In the future there is a certain market
for colonial pine wood. And, just as the worthy missionaries at Genadendal are now thanking the
foresight of their predecessors in planting the cluster-pine seventy years ago, so in another forty
years will the colonists of the future be indebted to those who plant cluster-pine now.
And to these remarks we would add, the Australian of the future will feel grateful
to those who to-day have the foresight in planting Callitris and other indigenous
pines for the use of posterity; and in regard to pine forestry, the time is evidently
not far distant, when action will have to be taken in regard to the depletion of
pines in New South Wales and Queensland, by the wholesale destruction of these
forests now taking place.
In this connection, perhaps, no stronger argument can be advanced as to
the value of the Australian Pines as a national asset than the following, which
we have extracted from “The Australian Insurance and Banking Record,”
2I December, IQ09, p. IOI6:—
The Queensland Government has lately sold some fair-sized forest areas. On 29th November
the biggest area yet offered in the State was offered. The sale was of the standing timber on Io,000
acres in the parish of Cooyar, on the route of the railway now being built to Connect the Southern
Burnett with Brisbane, the quantity of Pine being estimated at 40,000,000 feet, with ten years for
removal. A condition was imposed providing for the erection of £IO,000 worth of plant on or near
the area within two years, and the upset price was Is. 6d. per IOO super. ft. The minimum quantity
of timber to be removed is 300,000 feet monthly, and the maximum 6,000,000 feet per annum. The
Queensland Pine Company, Limited, successors to Millar's Jarrah Company in Queensland, were the
purchasers at the upset. The Cooyar Scrub is said to be one of the best timber areas in Queens-
land, and the Government estimate is that it contains altogether 250,000,000 feet of Pine.
Mr. MacMahon, the Director of Forests, Queensland, informs us that the
pine timber growing in this area is Araucaria Cunninghamii.
The market price of this timber 12 in. x I in. in Sydney to-day is quoted
at £I 4s. 6d. per IOO feet, and the contract price to the New South Wales Govern-
ment is I2; per cent. discount off that amount; so that the value of the Pine timber
estimated to be growing on the Cooyar Scrub alone—at the price to the consumer–
represents a sum of over £3,000,000.
59
The “White,” “Black,” and other Callitris Pines of Australia yield a
resin quite similar to the Sandarac of commerce. As only few sandarac-yielding
pine species occur beyond Australia, that is to say in Africa, more Sandarac
resin could be collected in this part of the globe than elsewhere. (See article on
the Callitris resins in this work.)
In addition to yielding a valuable building timber, resin, and oil, there
remains the bark, which, with some species of Callitris, contains an abundance
of tannin of excellent quality and colour, and is an important addition to the
raw material required in the tanning industry.
Although pines might yet be disseminated naturally in some localities to
the extent of intrusion in pastures, yet fine uniform trees should not be wantonly
cleared off. In view of the economics enumerated above, it would, perhaps, pay
better on loose soil to raise the “Murray Pine,” as it can resist unhurt the greatest
heat of the interior, than to convert such tracts into pasture lands; and, further,
all must lament when these trees are seen to disappear, root and branch, in
these regions, where their scenic effect is so splendid and unique in the landscape.
A correspondent writing from Pleasant Hills, County Mitchell, states that
“Nothing has been done on the part of the settlers to provide for a future growth
of the timber, while at the same time they admit its value; but it has to make way
for the wheat fields, the duration of which latter, considering the light nature of
the Soil, and the wearing-out system persevered in by our up-country farmer, is
problematical, and it is an open question in view of the large demand for Cypress
Pine whether it would not be to the best interest of the community generally if
Some steps were taken for the propagation of this pine in a district which is its
home and where it will grow to perfection.”
Another correspondent writing from Stockinbingal, County Bland, says:–
“The wholesale destruction of various kinds of pines in this district is lamentable
and is carried on with no apparent forethought.”
In this connection the results to be derived from the recent Forestry
Commission, N.S.W., will be watched with interest by all who have the welfare
of our timber industry at heart.
6O
XVI. THE PHENOL, AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE OIL FROM
CALLITRIS TIMBERS.
The characteristic Odour of Callitris wood is due principally to the presence
of a phenol which is retained in the oily portion of the distillate when the wood
is steam distilled. This phenol occurs in the timber of some species in larger
quantity than in others, and it is, perhaps, due to its presence that Callitris timber
is so objectionable to the white ants or termites. It apparently also acts as a
preservative to the timber when placed in the ground, thus corresponding, in this
respect, to other similar phenolic bodies.
The timber of C. glauca was taken for the purpose of this investigation,
but the wood of most other species, such as C. calcarata, C. intratropica, &c., would
have answered just as well, and have given the same results. The timber of
C. gracilis might, perhaps, be an exception in some respects, as the Odour of the
wood is somewhat different. Even from the unpromising timber of C. Macleayana
both Guaiol and the phenol were isolated, so that it is not likely that marked
differences will be detected in the constituents of the wood of any of the species
of Callitris.
The liquid portion of the distillate was removed from the Guaiol by
Squeezing it through linen. It was a somewhat thick, viscous and heavy oil,
but no signs of crystallisation were detected in it even on Standing for
months. It was dark-coloured, and had the characteristic odour of “Cypress
Pine '’ wood strongly marked. For commercial purposes, where this peculiar and
somewhat agreeable odour is desired, this oil might be a useful article. In
localities where the wood of these trees is in common use, the aroma in the houses
built of it, is considered by many to be quite pleasant, as is also that given by the
wood when it is burned for domestic purposes. The specific gravity of this liquid
portion at 16° C. was o. 9854. The rotation could not be determined as the light
did not pass through the tube. It was soluble in an equal volume of 70 per cent.
alcohol, but became turbid and milky with three or more volumes, but it was
easily soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol, and became but slightly turbid with eight
volumes.
The ester content was high—the saponification number being IO6-6. The
acid number was also high, 68.8, but this was largely influenced by the presence
of the phenol and other allied substances, as well as by any free acid. On distil-
lation, the greater portion came over within a comparatively small range of
temperature. Nothing distilled below 248° C. (cor.) except a little acid water;
60 per cent. distilled between 248—255° C. As the oil distilling at the latter
temperature became blue, the receiver was changed, and 21 per cent. of a bright
blue oil was obtained, distilling between 255–265° C. The third fraction, IO per
6I
cent., distilling between 266–296° C., was a deep indigo-blue oil. The first fraction
was again distilled, when most of it came over between 250–252° C.; this was
but little coloured, was insoluble in 90 per cent. alcohol, had specific gravity
O'9266 at I5°C., and the refractive index, at the same temperature was I-4926.
Although evidently consisting largely of a sesquiterpene, yet, owing to the method of
preparation, it must necessarily have been far from pure.
When determining the acid value in the ordinary way the separated oil
formed a crystalline mass after standing for some hours. The crystals were found
to be Guaiol, and these had evidently been held in solution by the substances acted
upon directly by potash, or, more probably, were in combination with them. The
oil separated from the Saponification determinations after boiling with alcoholic
potash, also crystallised readily on standing. These Crystals were Guaiol also.
To isolate the constituents indicated by the determinations given above, a
larger quantity of the oil was Saponified with alcoholic potash by boiling; water
was afterwards added in quantity, and the separated oil allowed to crystallise.
The crystalline cake was then separated, and the solution slowly evaporated down
to remove the alcohol. It was then filtered and rendered acid by sulphuric acid,
when a dark-coloured oil, which was acid to litmus, separated in some quantity.
This was well washed and treated with an aqueous solution of carbonate of soda,
when a portion of an acid nature went into solution. The solution was then
thoroughly extracted by ether, and the ether evaporated. The oil thus obtained
was but little coloured, was thick and somewhat viscous, and evidently, from
the mode of extraction and marked colour reactions, was a phenol. When placed
on ice it did not crystallise, although it thickened considerably. It had most
markedly the odour so characteristic of Callitris timber. When dissolved in
alcohol, a solution of ferric chloride gave practically no reaction. When the
phenol was dissolved in alcohol and bromine added, no colour was produced, but
after the alcohol had evaporated, the phenol changed to a deep purple colour;
this colour was again destroyed by addition of alcohol. When dissolved in acetic
acid and bromine added, the colour changed to red at once, quickly becoming a
rich purple. On standing some time in the air it became an indigo-blue colour,
and the colour was not changed by boiling. This colour reaction is probably due
to the formation of a trace of hydrobromic acid given off in the formation of the
bromide, because both hydrobromic and hydrochloric acids gave a similar reaction,
although slower. The colour was destroyed on the addition of water, a turbid
solution being formed by the precipitation of the bromide. When the phenol was
dissolved in strong aqueous alkalis and afterwards acidified with hydrochloric
acid, a red colour was also produced. When dissolved in acetic acid and a few
drops of sulphuric acid added, the Solution changed immediately to dark red,
soon becoming deeper in colour; eventually the colour became a rich deep purple,
which was permanent for some days. When a drop of nitric acid was added with the
62
sulphuric acid the changes through red to plum colour were more rapid, but eventu-
ally the same result was obtained. To a portion of the original phenol placed
on a watch-glass, a drop of Sulphuric acid was added, a red colour was produced,
eventually becoming purple on the edges as with the acetic acid solution. When
a little of the phenol was dissolved in acetic acid on a watch glass, and the vapour
of bromine passed Over it, a purplish colour instantly formed, soon becoming
a rich purple. This reaction is very delicate, and by its aid it is possible to deter-
mine the presence of the phenol in Callitris timber, the shavings being treated
with ether-alcohol, and the solution evaporated to dryness before dissolving in
the acetic acid. The difference in odour, in consistency, reactions with ferric
chloride, together with its other marked colour reactions, show this phenol to
be distinct from carvacrol. The marked colour reactions point to the origin of
the indigo-blue oil obtained when redistilling the crude product.
When the original thick crude oil was agitated with a Io per cent. Solution
of aqueous soda, a semi-solid mass was at Once produced. After some time
water was added and the mixture agitated, but the bulk of the oil still remained
as a pasty mass, and this was filtered off and washed. It was readily soluble in
ether, and on evaporating the ether a thick oil remained which soon crystallised,
and from which Guaiol was obtained. When the alkaline filtrate was treated with
a large quantity of water, it was partly decomposed, a small quantity of oil
Separating. .
After standing some time with repeated agitation, the aqueous liquid was
filtered and thoroughly extracted with ether. On evaporating the ether the
phenol was obtained. This gave all the reactions, and had the characteristic
odour of the phenol as obtained previously by saponification. The phenol is
readily soluble in acetic acid, in ether, alcohol, chloroform, and in the usual
organic Solvents. -
If on further investigation this phenol is found to be new, as appears to be
the case, then the name Callitrol is proposed for it.
The oily distillate from the timber of C. Macleayana, from which the Guaiol
had been removed, was of a deep red colour; it was slightly more aromatic than
the oil from C. glauca. It was soluble in an equal volume of 80 per cent. alcohol,
and remained clear with excess. It was soluble in two volumes 70 per cent.
alcohol, but became turbid with five volumes. The saponification number of the
esters was 22:34, while the acid value was 7-4. The phenol was extracted in the
manner previously described, and although somewhat small in amount, yet it
was identical with that obtained from the timber of C. glauca. Guaiol was also
obtained from the product of Saponification as with the latter species.
The characteristic colour reaction for Callitrol could not be obtained from the
timber of Widdringtonia from South Africa; so evidently that phenol is absent.
63
XVII. THE OCCURRENCE OF GUAIOL IN THE TIMBERS OF
CALLITRIS SPECIES.
The odour given by the wood of the Callitris generally, with perhaps the
exception of C. Macleayana, is quite pleasant, somewhat aromatic, and character-
istic. It is distinct from that of any other timber known to us, and the wood
of Tetraclinis quadrivalvis from North Africa, has a different odour. *
To obtain the volatile constituents, the ordinary methods of steam distilla-
tion were employed. The log was cut into planks, and these were then run
through the planing machine, and the shavings thus obtained were utilised for
the purpose. The substances which distilled, separated upon the surface of the
condensed water in a semi-solid mass, and were easily skimmed off. The
material had a marked odour of the Australian “Cypress Pine’’ wood itself. This
odour is given by the liquid portion of the product, as shown in the previous
article, and when the solid substance was obtained pure, it was practically
odourless.
The distillations in most instances were continued for eight or nine hours,
but even then the shavings had a strong odour of the wood, and it is thus evident
that more crude material would have been obtained by longer distillation.
The timber of C. glauca was taken for the main investigation and four
distillations were made, giving a mean yield of O-82 per cent. The crude semi-
solid oily product was squeezed through cloth, by which means the greater
portion of the solid was retained. The cake of stearoptene was then placed
between drying paper and subjected to pressure in a screw press. A solid hard
cake was thus obtained, and this was dissolved in cold 90 per cent. alcohol, filtered,
and allowed to crystallise. The crystals which formed were hexagonal prisms,
terminated by obtuse rhombohedrons, and some were of considerable size, of a
brilliant nature and glistening in appearance. After repeatedly crystallising from
alcohol, the material was again dissolved in alcohol, and water added to slight
turbidity; crystallisation then rapidly took place, most of the material separating
out in small crystals. This appeared to be a very good method whereby to purify
the crystals, as they were thus obtained free from enclosures. They were finally
re-crystallised from alcohol.
The facility of crystallisation of this substance may be illustrated by melting
it either on water or on mercury, and allowing it to Cool slowly; as it COOls, a
minute trace of the solid is added, when crystalline threads shoot out in all
*M. Grimal (Compt. rend., 1904, 927) has investigated the steam-distilled oil from the wood of the North
African species of Tetraclinis. He records the phenol which it contains as carvacrol, and the crystalline body as
thymohydroquinone.
64
directions, making a very fine exhibit. The melting point of the pure crystals
was 91° C. On analysis the following results were obtained:—
O-2273 gram gave O-2385 gram H.O, and O-6756 gram CO,
H = II-66 and C = 81.07 per cent.
C.H.O requires H = II: 71 and C = 81.08 per cent.
A second analysis gave corresponding results. A sesquiterpene alcohol was thus
indicated.
The crystals were readily soluble in alcohol, even when this was somewhat
dilute; they were also soluble in ether, in petroleum ether, in glacial acetic acid,
in chloroform, in acetic ether, and other organic solvents. The Crystals were
laevo-rotatory, and O-5 gram dissolved in IO c.c. alcohol, had a rotation in a I dom.
tube – I 45°, the specific rotatory power from this is [a] p = — 29°.
When boiled with acetic anhydride in the usual way, only a liquid acetate
was obtained.
When the crystals were heated with zinc chloride at I70–180° C., water
added when cold, and the solution steam-distilled, a blue oil was obtained;
this was at first a little green, but it became bright blue on standing some hours.
The blue colour slowly faded if the air had full access.
When the crystals were gently heated with phosphoric anhydride, the colour
changed to bright red and purple. With concentrated sulphuric acid the crystals
were dissolved easily to a yellow colour which soon became orange, and on
standing, to a pink colour on the edges. When the dehydration was somewhat
complete, a thick liquid separated. With strong nitric acid the crystals became
an oily mass, which after a short time were deep crimson, and purple to violet on
the edges, the colour eventually fading away.
The above results show the crystallised portion of the oil of Callitris wood
to be the sesquiterpene alcohol, Guaiol. Guaiol was originally isolated from the
oil of guaiac, or guaiacum, which was first prepared commercially by Schimmel
& Co., and brought into commerce as a perfumery oil. This oil was distilled
from the wood of Bulnesia sarmienti, Lor, a tree belonging to the N.O.
Zygophyllaceae, which is known as “Palo balsamo,” in Argentina, and supplied
under that name*. A portion of this substance was kindly sent to us by
Messrs. Schimmel & Co., and it gave identical reactions with our Guaiol.
The timber of the “Stringybark Pine,” Callitris Macleayana, was treated
similarly to that of C. glauca, and a semi-crystalline product obtained by Steam
distillation. This was of a deep red colour, and in odour was less distinctive
* Schimmel and Co.'s Reports, April, 1898, p. 28, and October, 1898, p. 29. Also Gildemeister & Hoffmann,
“The Volatile Oils,” p. 453.
65
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. Mat. Size,
TRANsverse Section of Callitris TIMBER showING GUAIOL CRYSTALLISED
NATURALLY ON THE SURFACE.

66
than the oil of C. glauca. The yield was O-558 per cent. The crystalline con-
stituent was separated from the oily portion in the manner previously stated,
and when purified was found to be Guaiol. It was similar in crystalline form,
melted at 91° C., and altogether was identical with the substance isolated from
the wood of C. glauca.
The timber of C. Macleayana has little resemblance to the hard compact
wood of the Callitris generally, so that from this result, it may be assumed that
Guaiol will be found occurring in the wood of all the species of Australian
Callitris.
The timber of C. intratropica received from Port Darwin, had the charac-
teristic odour of the Australian Callitris wood most marked. When cut, the
Guaiol was so pronounced a constituent that it crystallised upon the planed
surface of the wood itself, and sufficient material was obtained to chemically
identify it as Guaiol; so that it was not even necessary to steam-distil the wood.
It was thought better, however, to isolate it in the ordinary way, and both Guaiol
and Callitrol were obtained. Guaiol often crystallises out on the freshly-cut
surfaces of the timber of other species of Callitris.
It is, perhaps, worthy of note that this substance is contained in the wood
of trees so far removed as the Callitris (Coniferae) of Australia, and the Zygo-
phyllaceae of South America.
No other crystalline substance than Guaiol has been detected in the steam-
distilled products of Callitris timber.
XVIII. BARK.
MICROSCOPICAL.
The bark of the Callitris in a general sense may be described as consisting
of alternating concentric rings of (I) uniseriate sclerenchymatous, elongated,
thick-walled fibrous cells, the bast fibres, (2) a row of parenchymatous cells
between, (3) two rows of sieve tubes each adjacent to the bast fibres, and (4)
bands of several layers of cork cells or periderm in the Outer cortex.
These various structures characterise both the inner and outer cortex.
Running radially through these are the parenchymatous-celled medullary rays,
dividing the whole into bast rays which correspond to the equivalent rays and
strands of the wood.
Throughout are scattered in an irregular manner numerous oleo-resin
vities. Stone cells were not found.
67
Such uniformity of structure is not unusual amongst Conifers according to
De Bary “Comp. Anat. Phan. and Ferns” (Juniperus communis, p. 494), but
E. S. Bastin and H. Trimble in their work on Coniferae (“Amer. Journ. Pharm.,”
I896-7) show hardly such regularity in the number of plates depicting bark struc-
ture of certain genera of this natural order, such as Pinus, Picea, Abies, Tsuga.
XIX. THE TANNING VALUE OF THE CALLITRIS BARKS.
This investigation of the barks was undertaken in the endeavour to arrive
at the possible economic value in this direction of the several species of Callitris
growing in Australia and Tasmania.
The barks of the following species have been investigated:–
calcarata, from five localities in New South Wales.
aremosa, , , Northern New South Wales.
glauca, ,, three localities in New South Wales.
verrucosa, , , interior of New South Wales.
gracilis, ,, Rylstone, New South Wales.
rhomboidea , Sydney, New South Wales.
Muelleri, , , Sydney, New South Wales.
robusta, ,, Western Australia.
intratropica, Port Darwin, Northern Territory.
propinqua, , , South Australia.
Tasmanica Tasmania.
The above list includes most of the Callitris; the barks of the few remaining
species were not available, but there is no reason to suppose that their tannins
would differ materially from those which have been determined. The bark of
C. Macleayana is composed almost entirely of a mass of fibre, and appeared to
contain such a small amount of tannin, that it was not analysed.
In many parts of the world, barks obtained from the Coniferae are extensively
used in the leather industries. Particularly is this the case with the bark of the
Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), a species which, both in America and in Canada,
is still largely used for tanning purposes, as well as for supplying the raw material
in the manufacture of its tanning extract. Not many years ago it formed the
staple material for the purpose of the tanner in America, and according to Davis,
(p. 118) the greater portion of the sole and heavy leathers was tanned with it.
Professor Trimble (“Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry,” 1898, 558) publishes the
results of an investigation which he had undertaken on the barks of several
Indian trees belonging to the Coniferae, one of which, Pinus longifolia, is used for
tanning in that country, and which is stated to contain about I.3 per cent. of
tannin in the air-dried bark.
68
Professor Trimble summarises his results in the following statement:—
“These Conifer barks from India have been found to contain tannins
identical with those found in the barks derived from the same natural order in
America; therefore, so far as studied geographically, distribution has caused no
variation in the tannins of the Conifers.”
Now that most of the Conifer barks of Australia have been investigated
this conclusion may be broadly supported, so far as the general results refer
to the Callitris barks. Although there are differences shown by the tannins of
the several species themselves, yet, broadly they all agree with the tannin of
hemlock, as well as with that of other Coniferous trees of America and India,
and may, therefore, be considered as somewhat closely related to Oak-bark tannin.
The general results obtained from this investigation are most promising,
and show that some of the Callitris barks, especially those of C. arenosa and C.
calcarata, have a considerable value as tanning materials. Throughout Australia
enormous quantities of Callitris barks are procurable, at present going to waste,
which might with advantage be turned to profitable use in the leather industry.
Besides the local use for the barks themselves, the extensive and increasing
demand for tanning extracts in Europe and America, makes the possibility of
utilising these vast resources of Callitris barks of Australia, in this direction,
almost beyond question, and it may be assumed, that eventually a considerable
industry will be established in Australia, in the manufacture of tanning extracts
from the Callitris barks. There seems no reason, why, from the barks of these
trees, results even more satisfactory than those obtained with hemlock, should
not be secured, particularly as some species are so rich in tannin.
In the “Leather Trades Review º' (1899, 32, 542) it is stated, “That tanners
allege that I lb. of ‘ hemlock extract’ will go as far as I3 lb. of Oakwood or
chestnut extract, that it will do more work, and will produce I to 2 lb. more
leather per hide.” The objectionable features ascribed to hemlock, such as
those of colour, have been largely overcome in American practice, and little
difficulty is now experienced in manufacturing a good leather from it.
From their chemical reactions it is seen that the tannins of the Callitris
barks belong broadly to the catechol group. The reactions which they give with
ferric-alum, ferric chloride, and with copper sulphate and ammonia in excess, are not
similar with all the species, and these reactions separate somewhat sharply the
tannins of two of the most important and, perhaps, abundant species, C. calcarata
and C. glauca. The reactions given with the tannin of C. glauca, as well as with
that of most of the other species of Callitris, agree fairly well with those given
with the tannin of hemlock, but the tannin of C. calcarata differs from these
69
in some respects, while that of C. arenosa gives reactions somewhat intermediate
between these two.
The tannin in the bark of C. calcarata, in some of its reactions, approaches
Somewhat closely that contained in wattle bark, (Acacia spp.) and in this respect
differs from hemlock. With some of the general reactions, however, there is
a similarity with all three, as they all belong to the same broad group. The
aqueous extracts from the barks of C. calcarata and C. arenosa do not possess the
deep red colour usually given by wattle bark containing a similar amount of
tannin, and would apparently make a lighter coloured leather.
Those chemical reactions in which the tannin of C. calcarata resembles
somewhat that of wattle bark are the following; (Acacia pycnantha bark
was taken for comparison):—
(a) When a dilute solution of ferric-alum is added to a very dilute
solution of the aqueous extract, in a test tube, and allowed to fall through the
solution, a Somewhat closely agreeing purplish-grey colour is obtained, and
eventually a purplish precipitate forms. With both hemlock and C. glauca
this reaction gives a greenish colouration, and greenish-black precipitates. With
stronger solutions, C. calcarata gives a greenish-brown colour, and a dark purplish-
grey precipitate. Ferric chloride gives a more marked green colouration with
Callitris tannins than that obtained with ferric-alum.
(b) With sulphate of copper and ammonia in excess, both wattle-bark
tannin and that of C. calcarata give dense precipitates, the filtrates from both
being bright blue. The copper salt with hemlock tannin is soluble in an excess
of ammonia, and that of C. glauca almost entirely so, the filtrate of the latter
being of a purplish-brown colour if the copper salt is not in large excess. With
C. arenosa the copper salt is only partly soluble, the filtrate being greenish.
(c) With a crystal of sodium sulphite on a white tile, the reaction with
wattle-bark tannin and that of C. calcarata are similar; they both give
reddish colours at once, in which one drop of dilute ammonia placed near the
salt, produces at first a yellow colour, and after some time crimson bands are
formed in places. With hemlock tannin, and with those of C. glauca and C.
aremosa, the yellow colour is scarcely produced, nor are the crimson streaks
obtained, the colour being more of an Orange red.
With the other general reactions Callitris tannins agree with that of hem-
lock, and the coniferous barks generally. Nitrous acid does not give a colour
reaction, but only a brown precipitate. The insolubility of the copper salt in
excess of ammonia with C. calcarata, shows the tannin of this tree to differ in
some respects from those of the pines generally, and it is the only species of
Callitris showing this reaction SO distinctly. *
70
COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CALLITRIS BARKS.
The commercial value of the Callitris barks may be suggested from the
following:—The material available is very abundant; the tannin content is good,
Often very good, as in C. aremosa and C. calcarata; the colour of the aqueous
Solutions is not very dark; the action of the tannin on hide is rapid and complete;
while the soluble non-tannins extracted by cold water are at a minimum. The
amount of resin in the bark is but small, and sparsely distributed, and should
hardly cause trouble.
With the bark of C. calcarata there seems to be a difference in the deposi-
tion of tannin under certain conditions, and the thickest bark investigated,
Collected at Woodstock, New South Wales, in May, Igo7, gave 31. I7 per cent.
of tannin in the air-dried bark when finally extracted with hot water, and
27.8 per cent. when extracted entirely with cold water. A somewhat thick
bark of this species, however, collected at Wellington, New South Wales, in
September, IQ03, nearly six years ago, gave only I4'I per cent. Of tannin, whilst
a specimen from a medium-sized tree, collected at Grenfell, New South Wales,
in March, IQo0, gave IQ per cent. tannin; one from a small tree collected in June,
I909, at Warialda, New South Wales, gave 30-93 percent, tannin; and one from
a very young tree, collected at Wyalong, New South Wales, July, IQ09, gave
25. IQ per cent. Of tannin. -
By referring to the information given under the distribution of the several
Species, it will be seen how plentiful C. calcarata is, and as its natural habitat is
on the hills, which are naturally not so valuable for agriculture as are the plains,
it is at Once apparent that with a little care and attention, practically a permanent
national plantation of enormous dimensions, containing an excellent tan bark,
is available at once for use, and one that with ordinary precautions can never
be exhausted. The young material, too, can also be readily stripped, as the
bark peels very easily, so that in the thinning process the material removed could
be utilised with advantage. As the greatest amount of tannin Occurs in the
living portion of the bark, there seems little advantage in allowing it to grow to
a large size, and trees 3 or 4 inches in diameter would give probably the best bark
for tanning. As the tree grows older the outer cortex thickens, forming deep
furrows, and the tannin is not then so good either in quality or in colour.
As only one sample of the bark of C. arenosa was procured, comparative
results with this species were not obtained.
All the results were determined on the air-dried barks.
It is thus possible that the best results would be obtained if the barks were
collected at that time of the year when the tannin content is at a maximum. It
7I
may be assumed, too, that location and environment influence to some extent
the formation of the tannin, as the moss-grown bark is less rich. To obtain the
required data to decide these points, a considerable amount of work would be
necessary, although these, and similar problems, would not be difficult to solve.
With C. glauca there does not appear to be the same variation in the
amount of tannin deposited under varying conditions, as with C. calcarata, because
a specimen from a medium-sized tree, collected at Narrandera, New South Wales,
n March, Igog, gave I4.7 per cent. tannin; a very thick bark collected at the same
place in April, 1907, gave 14.6 per cent, tannin; and a bark from a medium-sized
tree, collected at Narrabri, New South Wales, in June, Igog, gave Io. 5 per cent.
tannin.
Phot tº F. Lasern.
A “PINE RIDGE,” showING How Callitris calcarata GRows ON HILLS,
MICHELAGO, N.S.W.
The thick barks of C. calcarata and C. are mosa were readily powdered,
although shortly fibrous, and the greater portion of the tannin was easily extracted
from them with cold water. When the final extraction had been made with hot
water, the amount of non-tannins increased somewhat, although it was still com-
paratively small, but the tannin had not increased in proportion. The liquor
had darkened by the hot extraction, as a larger proportion of the red constituents
of the bark had been dissolved. When cold water alone had been used, the colour
was very satisfactory. By this method, too, only a very small amount of sub-
stances other than tannin was extracted from the powdered bark.

72
The phloroglucol reaction (with a pine shaving and hydrochloric acid),
was obtained with the extract of all the Callitris barks, although with some of them
it was but slight. -
This reaction with C. glauca was less pronounced than with either
C. calcarata or C. arenosa; and all the barks belonging to the group of which
C. glauca is the type, did not give the reaction at all strongly. It was not given
with the filtrates after treating with hide powder, except when these were con-
siderably concentrated, so that the constituent to which this reaction is due was
largely removed by that substance.
The colour reaction with stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid was
marked with most samples of C. calcarata, although C. arenosa hardly showed
any reddening. The remaining barks all gave a red colour more or less distinctly,
but the test has little distinguishing value.
To arrive at the value or otherwise of the outer cortex of the barks of
C. calcarata and C. arenosa, as well as that of the softer external portion of
C. glauca, it was decided to submit the bark of the same tree, from these three
species, to a double determination. In one case the whole bark was taken, and
then a portion was “rossed,” the outer layer being removed until a smooth
surface was obtained. In this way the barks were reduced to about half their
thickness. With C. calcarata, the bark, taken from a tree 3 to 4 inches in diameter,
gave with the whole bark 30.93 per cent. of tannin, while the “rossed "bark gave
36. I per cent., showing that a lesser amount of tannin was contained in the outer
corky layer. There was not much difference, however, in the colour of the hide
powder obtained from either extract.
With C. arenosa the thick whole bark gave 25. I per cent. tannin, and the
inner “rossed ” bark 34.77 per cent. The same “rossed " bark extracted
entirely by cold water, during eighteen hours, gave 28.5 per cent. Of tannin. It is
thus evident that the outer cortex contains considerably less tannin than the inner
portion. In section, there was but little difference in the appearance of the
inner and outer cortex of C. calcarata and C. aremosa, although the latter seems
to be distinguished in the freshly stripped green bark, by a more marked crimson
band next to the corky layer; this, however, becomes lost On drying, and it does
not seem to have any darkening effect On the extract. -
With C. glauca the whole bark gave IO-5 per cent tannin, and the inner
“rossed” bark 12.8 per cent, so that it would be hardly worth the trouble to
remove the outer bark of this species; besides there would be much loss in the
process. *
The modern chromed hide-powder method was that adopted in these
analyses, the air-dried bark being somewhat finely ground.
73
The following summary of the tannin content in the bark of each species of
Callitris, gives their comparative values for tannin purposes, and shows, at the
same time, what a very valuable asset Australia has in Some of these Callitris barks,
and also indicates their usefulness towards furthering a very important industry.
The extent of the distribution of the Northern New South Wales species,
C. arenosa, is not at present known, but it is possible that extensive areas of it will
be found to exist in Southern Queensland, as well as in Northern New South
Wales.
The description of the several barks, together with the results of their
analyses, will be found under their respective species in this work.
Table, giving percentages of tannin in the air-dried Callitris barks, and thus
indicating their relative values for tanning purposes.
Percentage of tannin
T. i - ... l ; * gº * *
Name. Locality and date of collection. in the air-dried barks.
*—
Varialda, N.S.W., June, IQ09 tº º is tº it tº tº gº e º 30.93 per cent.
|
C. calcarata i
DO inner “rossed '' bark tº e g ſº ºn ... 36-ſo 9 3
Do ... Woodstock, N.S.W., May, IQ07 ... tº gº º & © º ... 31-17 2 3
- DO cold-water extraction gº º º * * g. ... 27.81 9 3
Do tº e e ... Grenfell, N.S.W., March, 1909 e e de ... 18.98 5 5
Do tº ... Wellington, N.S.W., September, Igo3 º I4. II 9 2
Do º: Wyalong, N.S.W., July, IQ09 e is tº º 25'IQ 3 2
C. arenosa | Ballina, N.S.W., June, IQ09 ... ... tº º sº ſº º a ... 25-IO 5 2.
DO inner “rossed '' bark & ſº e & e º ... 34.77 3 2
DO inner bark by cold-water extraction ... 28'50 3 5
C. glauca tº tº º ... Narrandera, N.S.W., March, IQ09 ... * c & tº e & ... I4-68 3 5
Do * @ tº ... Narrandera, N.S.W., April, Igo7 ... ſº º ſº * * * ...] I4-6o ,
DO by cold-water extraction ... tº tº gº ...] IO-25 2 3
Do tº tº e ... Narrabri, N.S.W., June, I909 tº e $ tº ſº º & © tº ...] IO-52 5 3
- DO inner “rossed '' bark tº e ge is º º ...] I2-79 2 3
C. verrucosa ... ... Shuttleton, N.S.W., Igo3 ... ... tº tº º * * * ... 8:40 3 2
C. gracilis ſe tº e ... Rylstone, N.S.W., IQoS tº ſº º tº º º ſº tº . tº º ſº ... I2:29 $ 2
C. rhomboidea ...] Sydney, N.S.W., 1907 tº $ 8 * * * tº gº a e ſº º ... 4 OO 5 5
C. Muelleri ... ...] Sydney, N.S.W., 1907 * * * * @ & * * * e e is ... II-90 3 5
C. robusta e e e ... West Australia, IQ03 ... tº $ tº # * * • . . . • * * ... 8.66 5 5
C. intratropica ... Port Darwin, IQ03 ... tº e s gº ſº * * * * * * * ... IO-72 5 2.
C. propinqua ... ... South Australia, I009... . . . * = * tº º ſº. * * * ... I2.63 5 2.
C. Tasmanica ... ...] Tasmania, I009 & e e tº & & * * * & © º * * * ... 17:36 33
*
The following table gives the general reactions obtained with the aqueous
extracts of the Several species. The strength was that given by 25 grams
air-dried bark per litre. The reactions with the iron salts were determined with
avery much more diluted solution.
N
GENERAL REACTIONS WITH CALLITRIS BARKS.
- Copper sulphate Stannous chloride Pine-wood shaving Sulphuric
Species. Bromine Water. and Ferric-alum. and and Lime water. . Sodium sulphite.
3 II) IQ Orl 12 111 eXCCSS. hydrochloric acid. hydrochloric acid. e
Callitris calcarata | Precipitate Very dense pre- Purplish-grey Bright red col- Violet colour | Purplish-brown | Crimson, Reddens, NHs
cipitate, fil- colour, and our and preci- well marked. precipitate. dilutes gives yellow,
trate bright purplish pre- | pitate. pinkish. and crimson
blue. cipitate. - Streaks even-
| tually.
C. arenOSa e tº º do ... Partly soluble, Green to black- Scarcely any Violet colour Light purplish- do ... Reddens.
- filtrate green. ish-green, and colouration. well marked. brown to grey
grey-purplish precipitate.
precipitate.
C. glauca. ... tº e ſº do ... Slight precipi- || Green colour, Pink colour ... Violet Colour ... Brown precipi- do ... do
tate, filtrate and greenish- tate.
purplish- black precipi-
brown. tate.
C. verrucosa sº e ºs do ... Slight precipi- do º do º Slight reaction | Brown precipi- do º do
tate. tate. -
C. gracilis tº e e do ... do | do ...] do & gº º do Purplish-brown do ... Darkens, and
} precipitate. brown precipi-
tate Soon sepa-
* rates.
C. rhomboidea do º do do * do º Very slight Brown pºrt do º Reddens.
reaction. tate.
C. Mueller, do ... Considerable do ... do ... Slight reaction do º do ... Reddens
precipitate. } | Strongly.
C. robusta... º do ... Slight precipi- do ... Bright pink | Violet colour º do ...I do º Reddens.
tate. colour. ſ
C. intratropica do º do do ... Pink colour ... Slight reaction do do ... do
C. propinqua ... do ... Slight precipi- do tº e & do ... Violet colour do ... do ... do
tate, filtrate well marked.
purplish-
brown.
C. Tasmanica º do ... Slight precipi- do ... Dark pink Violet colour do ...] do ... do
tate. colour.

75
XX. THE SANDARAC RESINS OF THE CALLITRIS.
The oleo-resin of the Callitris is contained in the cells of the inner bark,
and when this becomes injured in any way, the oleo-resin slowly exudes, and forms
“tears ” On the exterior of the trees. This resin is known vernacularly as “Pine
resin '' or “Cypress Pine resin,” and in composition and appearance closely
resembles the original sandarac of commerce. With some species of Callitris,
however, the resin is in larger masses or tears than is common with the African
Sandarac, and this peculiarity is particularly noticeable with the exudation of
C. calcarata (Black Pine) and in a lesser degree with that of C. glauca (White
Pine). The resin from C. arenosa is in smaller tears, and very closely approaches
the North African sandarac (Tetraclinis) in every respect.
So far as we are aware, there has not been devised a method for successfully
injuring Callitris trees, so that the resin might collect in masses, and thus be
easily obtained in quantity. This is probably due to the method of cutting the
bark, which, in the past, has been done horizontally, and so only a small number
of cavities have been opened at one time. In view of our contention that these
trees do not contain resin canals in the bark, but rather cavities or cells, better
success might perhaps be obtained by making a long vertical “blaze" through
the inner Cortex, and so tap at one time a larger number of these cavities, from
which a larger flow of resin should be obtained.
The two most widely distributed species of Callitris occurring in New
South Wales are C. glauca and C. calcarata, (see map) and it is probably from
these species that the greater portion of the sandarac sent from Australia has
been obtained. A considerable amount of this resin has been collected at various
times, and shipped to Europe; but the collecting has always been spasmodic,
and but little systematic effort has, so far, been made to gather it in large quantities,
and continuously. From what little has been accomplished, however, in this
direction, it seems fair to assume that a considerable quantity of Sandarac could
be obtained from the Australian Callitris, if the collectors were dealt with more
fairly as regards price. If some arrangement could be made whereby a fair market
value could be assured, then sandarac could be collected in Australia in any desired
quantity.
A Sydney Collector who undertook to supply two tons of sandarac from
the Australian Callitris, has given us the results of his experience in this under-
taking. His greatest difficulty in collecting this amount of resin was that it
could not be made to flow at all quickly by artificial means, so that it was necessary
to gather the naturally exuded resin. He found that the young trees as a rule
gave the most resin, and that the greatest quantity was obtained from trees which
had been ringbarked for one or two years. The resin was obtained principally from
the “Black Pine” (C. calcarata), as but little had exuded from the “White Pine *
76
(C. glauca). The result was hardly a success, financially, as the price was too
low, and 26s. per cwt. does seem an unreasonable price for such material. It
may be, too, that the right time of the year for the collecting was not chosen.
But, perhaps, the two factors which more than any other go towards making the
collecting of this resin a success, are, (I) to discover the best method of causing
the resin to exude in quantity, and (2) to find a paying market for the resin when
collected, as it is evident that any reasonable demand could be met if the price
was remunerative. The resin might, perhaps, also be graded with advantage
before being sent away from Australia.
Investigations into the composition of sandarac have been carried out from
time to time by numerous chemists, and the results are recorded in the various
scientific journals.
One of the earliest chemical researches on the composition of Sandarac is
that of Johnston (“Phil., Trans.,” 1839, 293), who, from his results, considered
that it consisted of three resin acids. More recent investigations are those of
Tschirch and Balzer (“Archiv. der Pharm.,” 1896, 289), who considered that
sandarac consists of two acid resins, which they named sandaracolic acid and
callitrolic acid. Dr. T. A. Henry, in an extensive research (“Jour. Chem. Soc.,”
I90I, p. II.44), also showed that sandarac was composed of two acid resins, viz.,
pimaric acid, C, H, O, and callitrolic acid, Cº., H.O., together with a small amount
of an essential oil.
Tschirch and Wolff (“Arch. Pharm.,” 1906, 684–7I2; see also, abst. “ Chem.
Soc.”, 1907, I, p. 145) publish a later research in which they maintain that sandarac
is composed of three acid resins, viz., Sandaracic acid, C, H, O, ; Sandaracinolic
acid C, H, O, ; and sandaracopimaric acid C, H, O, ; besides other allied substances,
and a small amount of an essential oil.
From the above it would seem that there is yet some uncertainty as to
the real composition of sandarac resin. This may be attributed perhaps to the
difficulty of separating the acids of sandarac from each other in an absolutely
pure Condition, and to the different methods of research employed. Perhaps, too,
there may be a want of Constancy in the constituents of the sandarac itself, due
to the varying length of time between the exudation of the resin and its chemical
investigation. The changes from the semi-liquid into the solid constituents must
be somewhat rapid at first, and it is a question when absolute finality in this
respect is reached under Ordinary conditions. This supposition is suggested
from the results of our investigation of the resin and oil in the latex of Araucaria
Cumminghamii, and also of the similar substances in the oleo-resin of Agathis
robusta (this work).
It is, however, certain that sandarac does contain a small quantity of an
essential oil, perhaps the residue of the unaltered terpenes, &c., and at least two
77
acid resins, the potassium salt of one being mostly insoluble in an excess of
alcoholic potash, while the other is soluble.
Dr. Henry's paper (loc. cit. p. 1145), contains the following statement:-
“There also appears on the market from time to time a similar resin, which, since
it is exported from Australia, is commonly known as ‘White Pine resin,’ or
Australian sandarac.' This substance is the natural exudation product of
Callitris verrucosa, and differs from the common sandarac chiefly in the larger
size of the tears and its smaller solubility in alcohol.”
This statement may be taken as representing the generally accepted idea
in Europe regarding Australian sandarac, and Tschirch (“Die Harze und die
Harzbehālter,” p. 535), also gives similar information. These authors are, however,
in error as regards the origin of the resin, because Australian sandarac is not
collected from C. verrucosa to any great extent, if at all, for occurring as it does
in the far interior of the States, the difficulty of getting the product to market
naturally acts adversely to the collection of its resin. -
The Sandarac so far exported from Australia has been collected from
various species, and this is also indicated by the “larger size of the tears, and its
less solubility in alcohol ’’ than ordinary sandarac, as mentioned in the above
Statement. The resin of C. calcarata is, perhaps, the least soluble in alcohol, of
all the Callitris resins, but the exudation of some species is far more soluble in
alcohol than is ordinary Sandarac, and, as will be seen from the table below,
C. verrucosa is one of the more soluble of these resins.
While Australian Sandarac continues to be collected from various species of
Callitris, the commercial product will be found to be somewhat variable, particularly
as regards Solubility. Three samples of resin of C. aremosa in our possession
have a striking resemblance to African sandarac, and are even more soluble in
alcohol than the Museum samples of African sandarac tested at the same time
for comparison. These samples were originally received at the Museum as
“Sandarac, Ist quality,” “sandarac, 2nd quality,” and “picked Mogadore san-
darac.” This last specimen is a portion of a “lot'’ which was sold in London
in October, 1894, at 70s. per cwt. It was indeed difficult to detect any
difference between this last sample and that of C. arenosa collected at Ballina,
Northern New South Wales, either in hardness, density, colour, transparency,
reactions with alcoholic potash, or in general appearance; only that the solubility
in alcohol is in favour of the resin from C. arenosa. Supporting the results of
solubility in alcohol as shown by the appended table, I gram each of the resin of
C. arenosa and Mogadore Sandarac in tears, nearly the same size as possible, was
added to 20 c.c. 90 per cent. alcohol, the whole of the tears of C. arenosa were
dissolved before those of the sandarac. The acid numbers, too, of the resins
closely agreed, that of the Mogadore Sandarac being I5I, and that of the Sandarac
*78
Af
of C. arenosa I54. We have not been able to obtain the resin of C. intratropica,
but judging from analogy it may be assumed that this will be found to differ but
slightly from the resin of C. arenosa, because the terpene in the leaf oil of both
species is mostly limonene, although the optical rotations are in opposite directions.
If this surmise is correct, then Australian Sandarac may be supplied of quite
equal value with similar material from North Africa. It is probable, too, that
C. arenosa has a somewhat extensive range, occurring in many parts of New South
Wales and Queensland, as well as on Fraser Island.
The density of the ordinary samples of Callitris resins which have been
determined, ranged from I. O'79 to I. O69 at 16° C. The resin of C. Tasmanica
from Rylstone was, however, a freshly exuded specimen, and this had a specific
gravity as low at I-058. The density of sandarac thus varies somewhat according
to the age of the resin when collected.
It was thought that perhaps some differences could be detected between
the Callitris resins if their optical rotations were taken, as they were all optically
active. Solutions were made with the various resins of the strength of I gram
picked resin in 5 c.c. acetone, as that substance appeared to be the best solvent
for the purpose. Sandarac is easily and entirely dissolved in acetone, and in most
instances the reading in a IOO-mm. tube with this solution could be taken directly,
but where this was not sufficiently distinct, then by adding an equal volume of
90 per cent. alcohol, the reading was rendered quite sharp.
It will be observed that all the samples tested, including those of ordinary
sandarac, were dextro-rotatory, and that the specimens from C. glauca had
generally a higher dextro-rotation than had those from C. calcarata. There is
but little difference in the rotations of the resins of C. calcarata and ordinary
sandarac, but there appears to be little agreement between the activity of the
resins and their solubility in alcohol. It may, therefore, be assumed that the
differences in the amount of the various acid resins and neutral bodies in the
exudations of the various species, govern, to a great extent, their relative solubility
in alcohol. The acid resin, whose potassium Salt is insoluble in an excess of alcoholic
potash, varies somewhat in amount with the resins of the various species.
The method adopted in the endeavour to arrive at some conclusion as to
the relative solubilities in alcohol of these sandarac resins, was to dissolve 2 grams
of the picked resin in IO c.c. Of 90 per cent. alcohol, and then to titrate 5 c.c. of
this solution with 75 per cent. alcohol (by weight) with repeated agitation, until
a permanent and well defined turbidity was reached. All the determinations
were made under identical conditions. This strength of alcohol was found to
be more satisfactory for the purpose, than either 70 or 80 per cent. alcohol. It
will be noticed that the mean solubility of the three samples of ordinary sandarac,
shows that 4-6 c.c. of 75 per Cent. alcohol was required to render 5 c.c. of the
79
90 per cent. alcoholic resin solution permanently turbid; the mean for the six
samples of C. glauca was 3.6 C.C.; that of the six Samples of C. calcarata was 3.4 c.c.,
and that of the three samples of C. are nosa was 6. I c.c. The resins of the other
species tested were all more soluble in alcohol than the above. The following
table gives the rotation and relative solubility results which were obtained with
these resins:— x
CoMPARATIVE Rotation and Solubility Results with the various Callitris
Sandarac Resins.
Roºn in roo mm.
tube, 3 grams & e - tº -
* * * Relative solubility in
Piekº I5 C.C. alcohol. 2 grams picked
Name Locality. ...--- resin dissolved in 10 c.c.
e Specific rotations 90% alcohol. 5 c.c., tit-
vary between rated * ºlcohol
tal D +- 25'5" and I tl I DICl.
+ 47°.
Required.
Callitris calcarata ... Cassilis, N.S.W.... & © e ... + 6-o°N É 5-O C c.)
O
9 3 2 3 Cooma, 3 3 - - - E - G ... + 6-o’| 3 go 2-4 C c. g
--> --> Q)
O : º
2 2 3 Yarralumla * 3 - - - tº º ſº s & + 6.1° ## 3.5 c.c.
g - } SE + * :
3 5 * 5 Dripstone, 3 3 • * * º e ... + 5°9′ a 3-2 c.c. : :
to r- Q)
3. 9 3 Cootamundra, 9 3 - - - tº º ſº ... + 6-I* | 5 S. 4.3 c.c. P.
(i)
* 3 35 Canowindra, 3 3 * * * & © tº ... + 6-o°J 2. 2-O c.c. )
,, glauca ...] Narrabri, , , . . . & e e ... + 87°) a 4’3 C.C.)
C
9 2 3 Scone, 3 5 - - - tº $ tº ... + 6.4° #, 4 "O C.C. 3
. #3 c
• 3 2 Eugowra, 9 3 • * * tº ſº º ... + 7.2° # 3.9 c.c. =
e } SE + } :
9 3 * 3 Lake Cudgellico, ,, ... * * * * ... + 7'4" | # = 3 O C.C 3
g 7" , >
5 * 2 Pleasant Hills, * 3 - - - * @ & ... + 7.2° 5 s, 2-6 c.c.
Q)
2 3 5 * Parkes, 9 3 - - - e tº e ... + 6.9°) a 3.8 c.c. J
,, rhomboidea ... Sydney, 3 * * * * e º ſº ... + 7.6° IO "2 C. C.
,, Tasmanica ... Rylstone, 3 * * * * * * * ... + 6-I* I2 -6 c.c.
,, are?10Sa ...] Ballina, * * + 6.8°) # , 2 5.5 cº §
& | # #% | -
• ? * 5 ...] Ballina, * 5 ° - - s & a ... + 6.8° ##4 5.8 c.c. f
... Wardell y + 6.7°. ## = 7-O c.c. §
3 5 2 3. > S. >
,, verrucosa ... Great Victorian Desert, Elder Exploring + 9.4° I3-O C.C.
Expedition.
• 9 3 * ...] Shuttleton, N.S.W. tº tº e tº º e ... + 6.4° 8.8 c.c.
,, Macleayana Coolongolook, , , * * * * * * ... + 8-I? - I4-O C.C.
,, oblonga ... Tasmania ... + 7.6° I5-2 C.C.
© o
Sandarac, 1st quality | North Africa tº 9 g * - a * & s . . . -H 5.8% ‘ā āś 3-5 C.C. ) ;
(Tetraclinis) o H #3 Ç, | ºp
• 3 2nd ,, . . 2 3 * ... we tº gº º * {e tº ... + 5°r ##". 6.5 c.c. i.
- cº O
q) → r- cº
70s. cwt. .. • ? * tº º * @ tº * - e. ... + 5.7°'; "s. 3-8 c.c.);
8O
XXI. OCCURRENCE OF A MANGANESE COMPOUND IN THE
AUSTRALIAN CONIFERAE.
In the anatomical investigations of the timber, bark, and leaves of the
various species, there was found to be present, in a more or less degree, a naturally
brownish-bronze coloured substance, which invariably stained dark brown or
almost black with haematoxylin.
It is found to occur in the wood, bark, and leaves of Callitris and Actinostrobus.
It is not by any means equally distributed in the wood tissues of the various
species, being most plentiful in C. intratropica, and least abundant in C. Muelleri,
its presence appears to give
the relatively dark and light
colour of the timber of the
respective species, this being
the only method of detect-
ing its presence macrosco-
pically.
Microscopically it forms
a conspicuous feature in all
the timber sections, for it
occurs in the lumina of the
tracheids, the lamella and
septa formed at the junction
of the tracheidal walls and
the parenchymatous cells
of the rays, both inner and
outer cells, and sometimes
Section through a branchlet and decurrent leaves, showing the dark the pith cells.
brown substance or manganese º in the cells º
the median axis. C. robusta, x 80. See also coloured plate,
Figure 44.) The darker colour of the
wood is, therefore, largely
due to the presence of this substance in all these parts in a more or less degree.
Amongst bark cells it is confined mostly to the outer cortex, and is
strongly marked in almost all the sections given, and often in the secretory cells of
the oleo-resin cavities, and is thus a conspicuous object in bark sections.
In the leaves it occurs in the cells of the parenchymatous vessels clustered
below the decurrent channel, often in those enclosing the phloem of the branchlet,
and in some of the cross sections of the branchlet and decurrent leaves it is seen
to fill the pith cells, the radial cells from these, and also those connecting with them.
In Athrotaxis, Araucaria, Agathis, Phyllocladus, and Podocarpus it occurs
in the timber, and in the last in the least amount.

8I.
Jeffrey, in his “Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales,
Part I, the Genus Sequoia” (“Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist,” Vol. 5, No. Io, Igo3),
illustrates some transverse sections of timber of this genus, where is shown a
substance which we think is similar to that occurring in the Australian Coniferae;
its presence being plainly marked by the black spots occurring amongst the
tracheids, so that it at least is indicated in the wood of this genus. It is referred
to in the letterpress as a resin cell in contradistinction to other bodies or organs,
the resin ducts.”
Jeffrey and Chrysler in a paper on Cretaceous Pityoxyla (“Bot. Gaz.,” 42,
I–I5, July, Igoó), refer, under the name of “resin,” to what is apparently the
same substance occurring in the rays of Pityoxylon Statemense, thus indicating
that it formed part of the wood substance of these trees of that geological period.
Its presence is also well marked in Figures 40, 4I, and 42 (in medullary rays)
of Dadoxylon australe of the “Glossopteris Flora,” by E. A. Newell Arber, British
Museum, and which show, in illustration, a marked resemblance to Callitris timber.
As no resin or resin cells whatever could be found in the timber of Callitris,
by blazing or causing injury to the tree, or by chemical or any other tests, an
exhaustive investigation into the composition of this supposed resinous Substance
was undertaken.
That it was not resin was easily placed beyond doubt, for the alcohol used
in mounting and preparing the sections failed to dissolve it.
That the dark portions filling these cells in all species of Callitris, and
similarly also those of Actinostrobus, Araucaria, Agathis, &c., is due to the presence
of a manganese compound, would, from the following results, appear to be reason-
ably proved.
The chemical substances occurring in Callitris timber consist principally
of the sesquiterpene alcohol, Guaiol, which often crystallises out upon the surface
of the freshly cut timber; the phenol, Callitrol (see articles on these substances
in this work), a sesquiterpene, and associated products; but resins, as the term
is usually understood, appear to be quite absent, and the substance to which this
article refers was quite insoluble in all ordinary solvents for resins.
The timber of Callitris species is often somewhat dark-coloured in the
centre portions of the log, although this darkening does not appear to be charac-
teristic of any particular species, and some specimens of the timber of identical
species are often less dark-coloured than are others.
The ash of these darker portions always gave the most marked reactions for
manganese, both when fused with sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and
with Crum’s method.
* Solereder (“Systematic Anat. of Dicotyledons”) often mentions this brown substance when referring to the
researches of the various authors quoted by him.
F
82
We have shown in the articles dealing with the freshly exuded oleo-resins
of both Araucaria Cunninghamii, and Agathis robusta, that a manganese compound
was associated with these exudations, that it was precipitated by alcohol, together
with the gum, and that when thus separated from the other constituents of the
exudations, it became dark coloured on drying; with Agathis it was quite black;
also that this blackening appears to be due to the alteration of the manganese
under the influence of the oxygen in the air. The appearance of this dark-coloured
gum under the microscope
strongly resembled the
dark material in the cells
of the timber, especially in
their lighter portions. The
manganese reactions were
obtained with the ash of all
the species of Callitris tim-
ber tested, although in
some instances the green
colour with the alkali test
was very faint, and this
was always the case with
the ash of the lighter-
coloured timbers. Those
specimens of C. calcarata
which were tested, usually
gave a faint reaction, and
the timber was mostly light
coloured, although a recent
specimen from Wellington, New South Wales, which in the centre of the tree was
a little darker in colour, gave a more definite manganese reaction. The timber of
C. glauca is usually of a darker colour than is that of C. calcarata, and conse-
quently it gave the reactions for manganese far more strongly. The ash of the
bark of C. glauca, too, also gave a marked reaction for manganese, while that of
the bark of C. calcarata was less marked.
Transverse section of timber. The dark lines are the medullary
rays with their manganese compound contents and the rectangular
dark markings a similar substance in the tracheids. C. glauca,
x 8o.
Callitris calcarata is a species which usually grows on the hilly portion of
the country, while C. glauca is mostly found growing on the flats and level country.
The timber of C. intratropica was quite dark coloured, and consequently
the reaction for manganese in the ash was most distinct, the percentage being
somewhat high. The timber of C. verrucosa was light coloured, and the green
colour reaction for manganese difficult to obtain, it being necessary to increase
the amount of ash used to twice the ordinary amount. The timber of Actino-
strobus, although small, was comparatively dark coloured in places, and this portion

- 83
under the microscope showed an abundance of cells filled with this dark-coloured
substance; a strong reaction for manganese was obtained with the ash of the timber
of this tree, and it was even more pronounced than that given with C. glauca.
Although the fusion test was sufficient in most cases to determine the
presence of manganese, yet, it was hardly distinctive enough with the lighter
woods, so that the far more
delicate test of boiling the
ash with nitric acid and
peroxide of lead was
adopted; this method was
also made of quantitative
value. The process was
carried out as follows:–
o: o3 gram of the freshly
ignited ash was boiled in a
test tube with 2 c.c. nitric
acid, or 5 gram lead per-
oxide, and 6 c.c. water,
until the volume had been
reduced about one fourth;
it was then stood on one
side for some time. The
colour of the clear solution
in the test tube was then Transverse, section at junction of inner and outer cortex, showing the
matched by diluting a º "º.º. º.º.º.
solution of potassium per-
manganate, I gram per
litre, until the required tint was obtained ; the two solutions were compared in
test tubes of equal diameter.
With o-og gram of the ash of C. intratropica it was only necessary to dilute
I c.c. of the potassium permanganate solution ten times to obtain the corresponding
tint, the wood of this tree, as before mentioned, being quite dark coloured. With
the ash of C. verrucosa (a very light wood) it was necessary to dilute I c.c. seventy
times before the tints agreed in depth of colour. The timber of C. glauca gave an
ash which, when tested as above, required the standard permanganate solution
to be diluted twenty times, while the same amount of the ash of C. calcarata
required it to be diluted seventy times; and so on throughout the whole range of
timbers of this group, the darker woods showing the presence of more manganese
than the lighter woods.
To test the quantitative value of this method the amount of ash taken
was often doubled for the duplicate test, and the results thus obtained were

84
always fairly satisfactory, and agreed very well with the colour given with
known weights of manganese salts. The following is the percentage amount of
manganese (Mn) contained in the ash of the timber of the several species of Callitris
determined as above. The shavings were taken from over the whole surface of
the piece of timber, and in no instance was a solid portion of the wood ignited.
Callitris gracilis =O. 230 per cent. Mn.
,, intratropica =O-II6 3 y
,, Macleayana =O-O73 y y
,, Tasmanica =O: O64 5 y
,, rhomboidea =o-OS8 5 y
,, glauca =o-o58 5 y
,, aré%OSa =O-OI9 5 y
,, verrucosa =O-OI6 5 y
,, calcarata =O-OI6 3 y
,, Muelleri =O. OI5 5 y
,, robusta E O - OIO 5 y
To arrive at some conclusion as to the darkening power of a small quantity
of Oxidised manganese in organic material of this class, the amount of manganese
in the precipitated dark gum from Araucaria Cunninghamii was determined, and
also that in the still darker precipitated gum from Agathis robusta ; O-3 gram of
the air-dried black gum from Agathis robusta was ignited and the ash boiled with
the same amount of nitric acid and lead peroxide as in the previous determinations;
I C.C. of the standard potassium permanganate then required to be diluted to
25 c.c. to match the colour given by the ash of the gum; the amount of manganese
in the air-dried black gum of Agathis robusta was, therefore, o. oO46 per cent.
With the dark gum of Araucaria Cunninghamii the same process was
followed, O-3 gram of the air-dried gum being taken. The standard perman-
ganate then required to be diluted thirty times to obtain the correct tint, so that
this black gum contained O.OO38 per cent. of manganese. It is thus seen how
Small an amount of manganese is required to render the gum precipitate almost
black and opaque.
The amount of manganese in the ash of the timber of Agathis robusta was
O-I45 per cent., and in only one instance was this amount exceeded with the
Callitris. The ash of the timber of Araucaria Cunninghamii contained O-os4 per
cent, manganese, while that of the timber of Araucaria Bidwilli contained o.o.77 per
Cent. manganese.
With trees belonging to other genera, the ash of the timber of Actinostrobus
pyramidalis contained o.o.77 per cent, manganese, and that of Podocarpus elata
O-OO24 per cent. With regard to the latter tree it is interesting to notice that the
cells Containing the dark material, as shown under the microscope, were considerably
less in quantity in this timber than in that of any of the species previously
mentioned; so that this tree evidently uses manganese in smaller amount than
that generally required by its congeners. .
85
The ash of the timber of “ Huon Pine,” Dacrydium Franklini, contained
O. I29 per cent. manganese, while that of “Celery Top Pine,” Phyllocladus rhom-
boidalis contained o. I45 per cent. The timber of “ King William Pine,” Athro-
taxis Selaginoides, has a strong resemblance to the “Red-wood * of America,
Sequoia sempervirens, and when ignited gave but a small amount of ash, this ash
Contained O. OIQ per cent. manganese.
For comparison the ash of a sample of the “Red-wood,” Sequoia sem-
pervirens, sent to the Museum from America, was found to contain manganese to
the extent of O-OT2 per cent., while a commercial sample of “American Red-
wood'' obtained from a timber merchant in Sydney, contained o.o.77 per cent.
The following is a tabulated list giving the percentage of manganese in
the Australian Coniferae other than Callitris:–
Ash of timber of Agathis robusta =O. I45 per cent. Mn.
3 y ,, Araucaria Cunninghamii =O. O54 } }
3 y ,, Araucaria Bidwilli =o-o/7 3 y
y 5 ,, Actinostrobus pyramidalis =O. O77 3 y
5 y ,, Podocarpus elata =O" OO2 3 y
x 5 ,, Dacrydium Franklini =O. I29 } }
5 y ,, Athrotaxis selaginoides =O: OI9 9 3
3 y ,, Phyllocladus rhomboidalis =O. I45 } }
Air-dried black gum of Agathis robusta =O OO46 ,,
Araucaria Cunninghamii =O: Oo38 , ,
3 y } }
In the barks of both Callitris glauca and C. calcarata the amount of
manganese was determined; in that of the former the ash contained O. O2 per
cent. Mn. and of the latter species o' or 3 per cent. In the ash of the bark of
Actinostrobus there was O'o6 per cent. manganese. The leaves of the Callitris also
contain manganese in Small amount, and the ash of the leaves of C. glauca contained
O: O29 per cent. Mn, while the ash of the leaves of C. robusta gave results
which showed that only O-OOI2 per cent. Mn. was present. The seeds of
C. glauca contained O.O23 per cent. Mn in the ash, while the ash of the seeds of
C. calcarata contained O' O29 per cent. Mn. The amount of ash in the seeds of the
latter species was 4. I4 per cent., so that the Mn in the air-dried seeds was O'OOI2
per cent. The ash of the capsules (without seeds) of C. glauca contained O-OII
per cent. manganese. It is thus apparent that manganese occurs more or less
throughout the whole plant substance of Callitris trees, although variable in amount.
It may be assumed, therefore, that from the consistent occurrence of
manganese in all parts of Callitris species, and in fact in all the Coniferae of Australia
so far tested, that this element is a necessary constituent towards the production
of the most complete growth of these trees. It is also evident that Callitris trees
will find manganese if it is possible to do so. Even those Callitris species growing
upon such unfavourable Soils for manganese as are the Hawkesbury Sandstones
86
about Sydney, contained that element, and this was the case with both C. rhom-
boidea and C. Muelleri collected from this locality. The wood of cultivated trees of
Araucaria Bidwilli, also growing upon the Sandstone formation around Sydney,
contained manganese in fair amount, and it was also present in their gummy
exudations. Although the manganese may not be considered abundant in com-
parison with the other elements present, yet it evidently plays Some important
part in the constructive processes of these plants—a result, the procedure of which
is at present little understood. - -
Pfeffer, when dealing with the food of plants (“Physiology of Plants,” 2nd
edition, p. 434, Ewart’s Trans.), in speaking of the accumulation in plants of
non-essential ash constituents, says:–“ Such accumulation is an example of
selective absorption, and is due to the fact that the substance absorbed is
converted into an insoluble form or into a non-diosmosing compound
Similarly a plant may accumulate large quantities of poisonous bodies if they
are presented in such dilute forms that an injurious concentration is never
reached during the eudosmosis through the plasma. The poisonous metallic
salts are retained by humus with considerable tenacity and presented to the
plant in very dilute form. . . . . Nevertheless non-essential elements
frequently become involved in metabolism, and are utilised to a certain extent
as is shown by their partial substitution for essential elements and by other facts.
Thus the non-essential elements, such as manganese, cobalt, or zinc may in certain
cases favour growth . . . . just as calcium is necessary to most plants, but
not to all, so also may silicon or similar elements be essential to a few plants only.
In a condition of nature, where the competition with other organisms is severe,
the trifling assistance afforded by a non-essential substance may be of decisive
importance.”
It is already becoming to be recognised from recent experiments that
minute traces of manganese do have a marked stimulating effect upon the growth
of certain plants. This has been shown by Uchiyama (“Bull. Cent. Exper. Stat.,”
Japan, IQ07); Grégoire, Hendrick, and Carpiaux (“Bull. Inst. Chim. Bact.,” Gem-
bloux, IgoS); Sutherst (“Transvaal Agric. Journ.,” Igo&) and others. It would now
be interesting to determine the real value of manganese in governing the rate of
growth of plants belonging to the Australian Coniferae, and the results thus obtained
would probably help considerably towards arriving at some conclusion as to the
real function of small quantities of those metallic salts, which in larger quantities
seem to be detrimental to growth; knowledge in this respect is at present very
elementary, although a considerable amount of work has recently been under-
taken in this and corresponding directions. Bertrand (“J. d’Agric. Pratique,” IQO6)
applied manganese sulphate at the rate of 50 kilos per hectare to land on which
wheat was sown, and obtained an increase in the total crop of 22.5 per cent.
Dr. Lankester (“Lectures on Food,” London, 1861, p. 57) says that manganese
87
is taken up by the oat plant in Scotland. Katayama, in Japan, recently showed
that manganese has a stimulating effect on oats, barley, rice, &c., and still more
markedly on the leguminous plants. Using manganese sulphate to the soil in
the proportion of O. OI5 per cent., the increase was 50 per cent. in the yield of
Straw, and 25 per cent. in that of the seeds. Quantities of manganese much
exceeding the above tended to decrease the yield. Salomone (“Chem. Centr,”
I906), also proved the beneficial influence of a small quantity of manganese on
plants, and the toxic action of large amounts.
Kayser and Marchand (“Compt. rend.,” 1907) have found that small
additions of manganese salts resulted in higher proportions of alcohol, glycerol,
and Organic acids being obtained from a given weight of sugar. Yeasts that
have been habituated to comparatively strong solutions of manganese salts by
growing in Solutions of gradually increasing strength, become exceedingly active,
and will induce a more rapid fermentation, and also push it further, especially
if a small quantity of a manganese salt is present in the fermenting liquid.
Several other instances might be mentioned where corresponding results
have been obtained, but the above are sufficient to show that small quantities of
manganese are undoubtedly beneficial with some plants, and perhaps necessary
to obtain the best results with vegetation of various kinds. Whether it is due
to an excess or otherwise of manganese in the soil that helps to govern the location
of certain species of Callitris, and the Australian Coniferae in general, is a matter
for further study and investigation, but that subtle influences are actively at work,
governing the growth and distribution of the several species of these genera, can
hardly be doubted, and the results so far obtained suggest the idea that the food
material of these plants is largely responsible for their distribution. Under natural
conditions the selective capabilities of the individual plants appear to be limited,
are exceedingly sensitive, and easily upset. It may be, too, that some species
are more susceptible to the toxic influences of small quantities of manganese and
similar elements than are others. That manganese in small quantity is a common
constituent in many plants has been shown, especially by Pichard (“Compt. rend.,”
1898, 1882—1885), and perhaps it has not yet been proved that these supposed
elements of somewhat rare occurrence are non-essential under certain conditions.
The common occurrence of an abundance of alumina in Orites excelsa (Smith,
“Journ. Roy. Soc.,” New South Wales, July, 1903) indicates that in this tree,
at all events, the element aluminium is an essential constituent, because wherever
the tree is grown under natural conditions, alumina is always found in quantity
in the ash. Manganese may, therefore, be just as essential to the growth of Callitris
species and the other Coniferae of Australia, and its assistance to plant life may
be considered to date back to past geological time, as indicated by plates illustrating
fossil woods. * :
See also article on the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta in this work.
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Callitris robusta, R.B.R., “ CYPRESS PINE,” WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Nat. size,

89
XXII. INDIVIDUAL SPECIES OF CALLITRIS
1. Callitris robusta, -
R.Br., Herb., Mirb., in Mem. Mus, Par. xiii, 74.
(Syn. :-C. Preissii, Miq. in P1. Preiss., i, 643; C. Suissii, Preiss's herbarium ;
Frenela robusta, A. Cunn.)
HABITAT.
Western Australia; Rottnest Island (A. Cunningham), Bald Island (Oldfield),
and the mainland.
I. HISTORICAL.
The original specimens of Allan Cunningham in the British Museum were
collected at Rottnest Island, Western Australia. It also occurs in the mainland, for
the specimens sent to us by Dr. Morrison are identical with those of Cunningham.
It very probably does not extend to the Eastern half of the continent, as the
species in South Australia usually referred to C. robusta, R.Br., is distinct from it.
Bentham, in the “Flora Australiensis,” Vol. VI, p. 237, gives no less than
eleven synonyms in connection with F. robusta, but after an examination of the
Original specimens in the principal herbaria of Europe and Australia, and in the
light of the evidence—(1) our own field knowledge of these Pines, and (2) of their
morphological, histological, and chemical characters—there remained no alternative
but to restore at least four of these to specific rank.
Robert Brown, in addition to having Allan Cunningham's specimens and
MS. notes upon which to work when describing his species, was most probably
acquainted with the trees in nature, and when we were investigating the genus
it appeared to us unusual that SO great a botanist should give such names as C.
robusta, C. glauca, C. verrucosa, C. tuberculata, and C. propinqua to one and the
Same tree. -
Had Bentham seen the living trees he would probably have separated the
species just as Brown had done.
The name of robusta was probably bestowed in reference to a bush character
of the tree, but the fruits are the largest of the genus, so that it would be equally
applicable in describing them ; these latter are so distinct from C. glauca and
the other species enumerated above, that in our opinion, they justify Brown's
classification.
Wide remarks under “ Chemistry of the Leaf Oil.”
OO
The prominently tuberculated fruits of C. robusta at first led us into an
error, for we thought that C. tuberculata would prove to be that species, but after
seeing Brown's original specimens of the species from Middle Island, York Bay,
we were compelled to alter our opinion and separate the two (vide note under
C. tuberculata, R. Br.)
The trees cultivated in the Hobart Botanic Gardens and labelled C. robusta
agree in every particular with A. Cunningham's specimen. The branchlets and
leaves never have the bluish-green, or “bloom' characteristics of those of
C. glauca, R. Br., and of the fruits of C. propinqua, R. Br. The fruits are
differently shaped and larger than either those of C. tuberculata, R. Br. or
C. verrucosa, R. Br. As the result of these investigations, R. Brown's Species
C. robusta here stands as distinct from those with which it has been synonymised.
*HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
A special visit was made to Europe by one of us, and the heads of the
principal institutions kindly placed at our disposal for examination all the Callitris
in their keeping, and referred to under each species.
Kew, - e
A. Cunningham's specimens from Rottnest Island, 1822. Drummond's
specimen from Swan River, 1839. Oldfield's specimen from Garden
Island.
British Museum,_
A. Cunningham's specimen, ditto, l.c. supra, Paris. Specimen from Western
Australia, labelled by Miquel, C. Preissii. -
Preiss’ Specimen from Cygnet River district, 1843, labelled, C. Suissii.
Cambridge University,
A. Cunningham's specimens ditto, l.c. supra.
Melbourne,—
West Australian specimens named by Dr. Parlatore. Specimens from Bald
Island named C. verrucosa by F.v.M.
Sydney,
The fresh material Collected and forwarded to us for investigation by
Dr. Alex. Morrison, Botanist, Department of Agriculture, Western
Australia, in no way differs from the above original specimens, and so
removes all doubt from A. Cunningham's and Robert Brown's species.
It also establishes the fact that after nearly a hundred years the species
has produced little or no variation.
* It was originally intended to use the word “types " in preference to “herbaria,” but as some botanists
in this connection object to types as things fre luently imaginary —a type being an aggregation of individuals—
the latter word is here preferred. It was only from the examination of a very large quantity of specimens that the
original species has been traced.
91
II, SYSTEMATIC.
A tree of considerable size, often exceeding 90 feet (Fraser) with a hard,
dark-coloured, furrowed bark. Branchlets erect, crowded, light-green coloured,
not glaucous; leaves decurrent. Male amenta numerous, terminal, in clusters of
threes or more, cylindrical, under two lines long, a quarter of a line in diameter.
Female amenta not seen by us.
Fruit cones in clusters, from three to more than twelve, either sessile or on
stout recurved pedicels, spheroidal, over an inch in diameter—almost 2 inches
when expanded, much wrinkled and covered with prominent tubercles filled with
OleO-resin; valves alternately less than quarter-inch shorter, valvate, the dorsal
point only traceable by the hyaline remains of the apex of the sporophyll; the
central columella is a triangular-based pyramid over two lines in height.
Seeds with two brownish wings.
III. LEAVES.
(a) EconoMIC. (Wide Chemistry.)
(b) ANATOMY.
Three plates of sections through the decurrent portions of the leaves are
given in Connection with this species, viz., Figures 42–44.
These were chosen as they convey a good idea of the disposition of the oil
cavities in the spongy mesophyll, and also for the reason that they demonstrate
that these latter bodies are not ducts or channels as obtains in so many non-
Australian genera of Conifers. They also show them to be circular in shape on
a cross Section, and oval longitudinally, the varying diameters being due to the
distance of the part sectioned, from the median area. Figure 42 gives a view
through a branchlet showing the decurrent portions of three leaves, with but one
leaf only having an oil cavity.
The origin of the oil cavities is lysigenous, and they were found to occupy
a central position in the spongy mesophyll near the upper portion of the leaf and
near its free end. The epidermal and hypodermal cells are developed in an
uniseriate row and found to occur only on the outer convex surface of the leaf.
The under surfaces of the three leaves are shortly concave, and, as Such
surfaces of separate leaves, are adjacent as in other species, a groove is formed
with a narrow opening made by the converging edges of the leaves, and which we
call the decurrent channel.
The stomata on these concave surfaces of the leaves, partake of all the
characters of those described under C. glauca. Certain cells containing the black
manganese compound, and which stain the same as some of those of the pith, and
92
continuous with them, are closely packed round the central column at the
lower part of this concavity, probably to counteract the absence of other protec-
tive media such as epidermal
and hypodermal cells and pali-
sade tissue in this part.
The central vascular cylinder
(branchlet) is single, or branched
by medullary pith cells, whilst a
branch bundle is present in the
inner portion of the leaf.
Endodermal cells occur and
surround, when present, the oil
- gland and cells of the con-
**-ºſ.º.º.º. º.º.º. junctive or transfusion tissue
(which latter is here found in
greater proportion than in other
species), as well as the phloem of the central axis.
It is interesting to note how in that part of the leaves where no oil gland is
present, the cells which eventually become endodermal are clustered in the centre
of the spongy mesophyll; and
as the oil gland develops, it
pushes through the centre of
these, which then extend and
surround it, the transfusion
tissue, and the leaf bundle.
Figure 42 is a transverse
| section through a branchlet and
the three decurrent leaves, just
below the location of the oil
cavity, or at least only just
sufficient to cut the base of one
Figure 43.-Transverse section through a branchlet and decurrent aS shown in top of the right Sec-
leaves, showing an oil cavity in two of the leaves, below
which is a bundle. The dark cell content in the pith rays - - -
and at the base of the decurrent channel is probably a tion. Figure 43 is a cross Sec-
manganese compound. C. robusta, x 70.
tion higher up than Figure 42.
In this case the knife passed
through the oil glands, i.e., the circular spaces in the two lower leaves. In the
centre of the top leaf is a cluster of thin-walled parenchymatous cells, which are
gradually displaced or pushed aside as the oil cavity develops, and in the two
lower leaves they can be noted arranged around the oil cavity between which and
the central axis is the leaf bundle. The elongated or conical cuticle cells of the
transpiratory surfaces can be seen, and a guard to which is formed by the incurved


- - - - -
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 44.—Transverse section through a central axis (branchlet) and
portions of the decurrent leaves at the centre of the oil
cavities, one being shown in each leaf. The dark-stained
cells surrounding the median axis contain the manganese
compound. Below each oil cavity is a bundle with its
laterally placed transfusion tissue. The papillose prº-
jections of the ventral surfaces in the decurrent channels
are distinctly seen. Stained lightly with haematoxylin.
C. robusta, x 8o.
:
:
:

93
edges of the assimilatory surfaces, which are backed by comparatively large epidermal
cells, and much larger than the hypodermal. The palisade cells form a good
marginal proportion of that part of the leaf substance. The clusters of dark
patches at the base of the decurrent channels are the parenchymatous cells
containing the manganese compound. In Figure 44 the chief feature of the
section, taken just below the free ends of the leaf, is the amount of leaf space
occupied by the oil cavity in each leaf, the secretory cells forming a distinct
jing. Between the base of the decurrent channel and the central axis, it will
be noticed that parenchymatous cells are closely packed, and having the man-
ganese contents staining black.
The trefoil formed by the three-leaf sections varies in shape as in other
Species.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was forwarded by the Government of Western Australia, and
was received on the I5th July, Igo3. There were numerous fruits upon the
branchlets, but these were removed and distilled separately. This oil is, therefore,
that of the leaves with terminal branchlets only. The distillation was continued
for six hours, and 287 lb. of material gave I2 oz. of oil, equal to O-26 I per cent.
The crude oil was somewhat dark in colour, but it had the odour of the Callitris
oils generally, particularly those containing a fair amount of the ester of borneol.
Up to the present time (IQIO) it has not deposited a resin on the sides of the bottle,
which result distinguishes it at once from all our samples of C. glauca and C. ver-
rucosa. It is also distinguished from the oil of C. glauca by a considerably less
rotation, a higher specific gravity, the presence of a sesquiterpene in small quantity,
and a less yield. It was also, at this later date, soluble in IO volumes of 80 per
cent. alcohol by weight, and although somewhat less soluble in alcohol than when
freshly distilled, yet it did not become insoluble like the crude oils of C. glauca.
This fact probably accounts for the non-deposition of the insoluble resin. The
oil contained a large amount of dextro-rotatory pinene, proved by its chemical
combinations; and judging from the results of the specific gravity and the rotation
of the larger fraction, together with the results of the redistillation, there is less
limonene and dipentene in the oil of this species than in that of C. glauca and
allied species. -
The ester content was fairly high for an oil of this group. It was found to
consist principally of the mixed acetic acid esters of borneol and geraniol. It
will be observed that the oil distilled from the fruits of this species had an
optical rotation in the opposite direction to that from the leaves, and that the
ester content was considerably less also.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at I5° C. = o,8825 ; rotation,
[a] = + Io:3°; refractive index at 19° C. = I-4752. The saponification number
94
was 49-59, equal to I7-35 per cent. ester as bornyl-and geranyl-acetates. In the
cold, with three hours contact, the Saponification number was 22.78, equal to
7.97 per cent. ester. On redistilling, practically nothing came over below 155° C.;
between I55° and 160,’ 35 per cent. distilled; between 160° and 165,” 17 per cent. ;
between 165° and 200°, 20 per cent; between 200° and 250°, 12 per cent. The
Somewhat large percentage of the oil boiling above 250° indicated the presence of
a sesquiterpene or allied body, but it was not isolated.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 15° C. =O 8613; of the second,
o: 8616; of the third, O'865I ; of the fourth, o-go7. The rotation of the first
fraction ap = + I2-2°; of the second, + I2.7°; of the third, + I4. I5°. With
the fourth fraction the light did not pass well, but it was more highly dextro-
rotatory than the third fraction, thus indicating the presence of the dextro-rotatory
bornyl-acetate, common to these oils. The saponification number for the esters
of the fourth fraction was 206:33, equal to 72.2 per cent. of ester. In the separated
alcohols both borneol and geraniol were determined. The high percentage of
ester in this fraction did not leave much room for the sesquiterpene or similar
bodies. -
THE OIL FROM THE FRUITS.
This material consisted of fruits alone, all the leaves having previously
been removed; 43 lb. of fruits gave 2% oz. of oil, equal to O-363 per cent. The
Crude oil was dark coloured and had an odour resembling the Callitris oils generally.
The colour was readily removed with dilute aqueous soda, when it was almost
colourless, being slightly tinged yellow. By determining the ester both before and
after this treatment, it was found that the free acid had a saponification number
of 2.6. -
The specific gravity of the crude oil at # * C. = O'877; rotation,
ap = — I'7-9°; refractive index at I8° C., = I. 4774. The Saponification number
after the removal of the free acid, was 16-8, equal to 5.88 per cent. of ester.
By tabulating the results, the differences between the oil from the leaves
and that from the fruit are more easily seen :–

Ester,
per cent.
Yield,
per cent.
Locality and Rotation a
Refractive Index.
Date. c
D C.
Specific gravity.
°C.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris robusta of Western Australia.
Western Autºn o'8825 + IO-3 I'4752 I7°35 o:261
I5/7/03 (a) I5 (a) IQ
Crude Oil from the Fruits of Callitris robusta.
Do. . . 0 - - o:877 — I7-9 I'4774 5'88 O'363
@ 16
95
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMICs.
This is a light-coloured, fairly hard timber, having a good straight grain,
and very suitable for house-building, railway sleepers, posts, &c., in the white-ant
infested districts of Western Australia, as, like its congeners, the termites do not
relish it.
The late Mr. Ednie Brown, Conservator of Forests, Western Australia, spoke
well of this timber in this connection, and recommended it on this account for
forestry cultivation.
It could be used for panelling and similar purposes to which the Callitris of
Eastern Australia are put.
Test:-Timber not available.
(b) ANATOMY.
The specific features characterising the microscopical sections of this wood
are, (I) the presence of the dark manganese compound in some of the cells of the
secondary xylem or prosenchyma-
tous cells, and its frequent absence -
in the medullary rays.

The tangential sections * - - - -
shown are characterised by, (I) - *
the absence of the dark brown
substance in the lumina, - the
knife having cut clear of this com-
pound—(2) the rows of bordered
pits in section on the radial
walls, (3) the few cells in height
of the medullary rays, and (4) the
almost entire absence of the man-
ganese compound content com-
pared with those of other species. figure 45. Transverse section, through timber. Th; one ray in the
- picture has no cell ...”in º º *...".
- across the picture marks the limit of autumnal growth.
It must not, however, be COIl Tºta. cell contents are the manganese compound. C.
robusta, x 80.
cluded that it never occurs in the
cells of this timber. - -
The transverse sections show, however, cells of the xylem containing the
manganese compound to be promiscuously distributed throughout the prosenchy-
matous cells, and scattered irregularly throughout each season's growth of xylem
as demonstrated in Figures 45 and 46.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 46.-Transverse section through timber, showing how the man- Figure 48.-Tangential section through timber, showing the almost
ganese (black spots) is further removed from the autumnal entire absence in this case of the manganese compound in
growth than in Figure 45. C. robusta, x 80. the ray cells. The tracheid wall in the centre of the picture
connecting the two-celled rays is strongly marked with
pitted cells in section. C. robusta, x 21o.
Figure 47.-Tangential section through timber of C. robusta, x 160. Figure 49.-Radial section through timber. The black linear lines are
the manganese compound content of the cells. C. robusta,
x 8o.
Sections of Timber of C. robusta, R.Br.


97
Bordered pits are very numerous on the radial walls, equalling in diameter
that of the lumen. They also form a conspicuous Object on these walls in a
tangential section, being cut diametrically, the lumella being clearly defined in
Figures 47 and 48. These sections also show the cells of the medullary rays to
be empty of manganese compound, an exception to the rule.
Figures 45 and 46 are given to illustrate the distribution of tracheids con-
taining the so-called “resin '' (indicated by the black spots), in the autumnal
and spring growths of the timber. Figure 47 is a tangential section through
spring growth; the lumina in this case being free of manganese compound
as also are the cells of the rays which are seen to vary in height according to the
number of rows of horizontal cells. Several of the radial walls are strongly marked
with bordered pits sectioned, and show in this species their disposition in the walls
of the tracheidal cells, the prosenchymatous nature of which is shown in
several instances. Figure 48 is a 2IO-magnification of the central portion of
Figure 47, and brings out more clearly the structure detailed above. Figure 49
illustrates a radial section of the timber of this species. The dark vertical lines
are the manganese compound content of the tracheidal cells. The lighter portion
to the right is the spring growth, the central ray extending partly through it and
the autumnal growth. The bordered pits in the radial walls are faintly seen.
Dr. H. Tassi has microscopically examined the timber of C. robusta (“Bull. Lab.
Orto Botanico di Siena,” Vol. III, Fasc., 1–4, p. 12), but to which species in this
work it refers we were unable to ascertain, not having seen the publication.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(See articles on the Phenol and the occurrence of Guaiol, &c.)
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The inner cortex appears to be free from periderm or cork layers, these
Occurring only in the outer bark and then in numerous concentric bands.
The cambium is succeeded by regular uniseriate rings of sieve-tubes, paren-
chymatous cells and bast fibres, and this order of structure is followed in the
Outer bast, except that at almost regular intervals periderm layers occur.
Oleo-resin cavities are perhaps smaller than those of most species.
Figure 50 is a section taken from the junction of the inner and outer
Cortex. The former has a regularity of cell arrangement not so well defined as
in the latter, where in this instance the resin cells are more numerous. The three
light bands running from left to right in the upper half of the picture are the
G -
98
periderm layers. In the inner bark the bast fibres and uniform parenchymatous
cells are the salient features, whilst in the outer, the irregularly shaped parenchy-
matous cells are more conspicuous.
Figure 50,-Transverse section through bark. The three faint bands
running across the picture in the top half are periderm
layers. C. robusta, x 70.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The specimen of bark investigated was received by the Museum from the
Government of Western Australia. It was from timber of small dimensions, being
only 2 to 3 inches in diameter; so that it can hardly be considered representative of
the bark of this species. The thicker bark was not available, but there is no reason to
suppose that it will be found to materially differ from the other barks of this class,
C. glauca, for instance. The bark determined was dark grey externally, fibrous,
and not deeply furrowed, as it was too young, and was only from 4 to 6 mm. in
thickness.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark:-
Moisture II.4 per cent.
Total extract I3-5 J.J.
Non-tannin 4-8 5.x
Tannin 8.7
JJ

99
2, Callitris tuberculata,
R.Br., Mirb. in Mem. Mus., Par. xiii, 74.
HABITAT.
Middle Island, York Island Bay.
I. HISTORICAL.
This little-known Pine, placed by Bentham in the “Flora Australiensis,”
Vol. VI, 237, as a synonym of C. robusta, is a species of Robert Brown, and
probably collected by him on the same trip when he collected the latter Callitris. It
was this collecting by Robert Brown of his own species that led us to doubt
whether this synonymising by Bentham was not open to question.
We have now seen Robert Brown's original specimens of C. tuberculata
at the British Museum, and find that it possesses characters that warrant, we
think, its being placed in specific rank.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The decurrent leaves have a glaucousness similar to C. glauca, as well as
terete branchlets formed by these decurrent leaves, but the cones resemble some-
what those of C. robusta, except in size, being smaller and more depressed than
those of the true C. robusta of the same author.
No material was available for detailed investigations.
HERBARIUM MATERIAL EXAMINED.
British Museum,_
Robert Brown's specimens from Middle Island, York Island Bay, I802,
-
--- - -
º -
- º º,
º
º
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-º-
|
--
º
-
ſ
ſ
Callitris verrucosa, R.B.R., “CyPREss,” or “TURPENTINE PINE.”




IOI
3. Callitris verrucosa,
R.Br., ex Mirb. in Mem. Mus., Par. xiii, 74.
“ CYPRESS ’’ OR “TURPENTINE PINE.”
(Syn. :-F. verrucosa, A. Cunn.)
HABITAT.
The geographical limitations of this tree are well defined in New South
Wales, for it is essentially a dry Country species, and extends for many miles
over the country around Mount Hope and to the westward.
It was also found by the Elder Exploring Expedition in the heart of the
continent, and from there it extends into Western Australia to Boorabbin
(Dr. A. Morrison).
It is doubtful whether it occurs in Queensland.
I. HISTORICAL.
This was one of the earliest species discovered, even Allan Cunningham's
specimens from the Euryalean Scrub being dated 1817. It is easily distinguished
from C. glauca by its darkly shaded green branchlets and its warty cones, thicker
valves, and its low-growing habit. Its vernacular name of “Turpentine Pine '’
is given to it, according to the teacher of Mount Hope Public School, on account
of the large quantity of turpentine contained in the Cone tubercles.
It was thought to be the Eastern form of C. robusta of Western Australia,
or vice versa by Bentham, but as Cunningham and Brown saw, collected, and
named the trees, and evidently were so impressed with their differences as to give
them specific rank, we think that science is better served by following their nomen-
clature than by generalising on the possibility of variation, especially in view of
present facts adduced in this investigation that strongly support constancy of
species in the genus. Then again there is C. tuberculata, R.Br., which has also
warty cones as well as C. robusta, R.Br., a tree which has them even more
pronounced than any other species.
In the light of the knowledge gained by this research, we think that it is
better for pure, and certainly applied science, to separate these species, as did
Brown and Cunningham, rather than follow Bentham's classification, for we
have not found any intermediate forms either in European herbaria or field speci-
mens sufficient to prove a gradation.
IO2
HERBARIA MATERIAL ExAMINED.
Kew,
A. Cunningham's specimens, from the Euryalean Scrub, N.S.W., 1817.
Müeller's specimens, Sieb, tropical Australia, labelled C. glaucescens or C. glauca.
Drummond’s specimens, Swan River, 1843. -
DO do Interior S.W. Australia.
R. Helm's specimen, Elder Exploring Expedition.
Pritzel's specimens, from Coolgardie. -
Victorian Expedition, 1872.
British Museum,_
Oxley's first expedition, named by R. Brown.
A. Cunningham's specimens, from Euryalean Scrub.
DO do first voyage of the “Mermaid.”
Fraser's specimens.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is a stunted tree or shrub attaining a height of 20 to 30 feet with a
thick, compact bark. Branchlets, when compared with other species, are short,
very numerous, erect, compact, terete, and drying a bright green colour; the
internodes are very short, averaging a line long on the penultimate branchlets.
Free ends of leaves acute, incurved, the decurrent portion quite rounded on the
back, the dorsal ridge being only slightly marked. Male amenta terminal, two
to five, but mostly in threes, scarcely exceeding a line in length when mature,
Ovoid to cylindrical in shape. Antheral bracts ovate-orbicular, ciliate, anthers
two to three, about half the length of the bract. Female amentum solitary,
about one line in diameter.
Fruit cones solitary, on short thick branchlets, sometimes occurring in
clusters, nearly globular, about six lines in diameter before dehiscing, and about
I inch in diameter when fully opened; valves valvate, the alternate larger ones
about twice the width of the shorter, covered, when mature, with large
numerous warts; the dorsal point almost entirely absorbed in the indurated
sporophyll. The central columella three-sided, pointed, about two lines long.
Seeds two-winged.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
In general contour, a cross section through the three decurrent leaves may
be said to resemble that of C. glauca, but internally the skeletal structure is
Specifically different, for in this species it is only occasionally that a leaf trace or
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 51.-A cross section through a branchlet, and three decurrent
leaves, midway between the nodes, and showing no oil
cavity or a leaf bundle in the individual leaf tissue. The
endodermal parenchymatous cells occur irregularly around
the central axis, some containing the brown substance.
In this instance all the epidermal cells are filled with a
brown substance, forming a dark border to the trefoil.
The hypodermal cells are small, and in only one row. The
spongy and palisade parenchyma are well brought out.
Very faintly stained with haematoxylin. C. verrucosa, x 95.
:
:
-
-
i

IO3
rather leaf bundle is present in the individual foils of the trefoil, the central
cylinder apparently doing duty for the whole three leaves when the leaf bundle is
wanting.
In the sections reproduced, the stele is mostly divided into three bundles,
but there appears no well-defined pericycle, such as in C. Muelleri, surrounded by
endodermal cells, but instead between the three oil glands and the stele there is
a fair amount of sclerenchyma material such as obtains in C. calcarata.
Where the oil cavities have not come into view, a few endodermal cells
are irregularly scattered at the base of the spongy mesophyll, but when a section
is taken through the oil cavities it will be noted that some are arranged around
these and so form strengthening cells, and others are clustered crescent-shape at
the base of the decurrent channel, as we propose to call this space.
Figure 52.-Transverse section of branchlet, and decur- Figure 53.-Transverse section through branchlet and
rent leaves cut below the oil cavities. C. decurrent leaves, higher up than Figure 52,
verrucosa, x 70. and showing a cross-cut through an oil
cavity in each leaf. C. verrucosa, x 70.
The palisade cells are only developed at the dorsal side of the leaf and
cease at the ventral face, which is the transpiratory surface, for there only do the
stomata occur, and which like those of C. glauca have similarly developed cuticle
projections. The epidermal cells are well developed, and apparently at the expense
of the hypodermal, which are quite insignificant. The dorsal surface is sometimes
slightly ridged. The secretory cells of the oil cavities are distinctly seen in
Figure 53. The spongy mesophyll occupies a rather large proportion of each leaf
a ſeal.
Figure 51 is a transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
below mid-distance between the nodes, and showing no oil cavities, as they rarely
occur in this part of the leaves. Although a low magnification (95), yet the general
structure of the fundamental tissue can be traced. No leaf trace is present in
any of the sections, but the transfusion tissue is scattered irregularly amongst
the parenchymatous endodermal cells, some of which are empty, whilst others

iO4
with the manganese compound are stained a dark brown. In Figure 52 similar
remarks to No. 51 apply in this illustration, but a dorsal ridge is shown on each
leaf, giving a slightly different contour to the trefoil. The central axis is
composed of three bundles as against four in Figure 53. Figure 53 illustrates
a cross section near the upper portion of the leaves and just clear of their free
ends, and where three oil cavities have been sectioned, one in each leaf. It is
in this part of the leaves that oil cavities are invariably found. The cuticular
projections as in Figures 51–53 can be made Out in the ventral surfaces forming
the decurrent channel. The dark-stained parenchymatous cells containing the
manganese compound here arrange themselves in clusters at the base of the
decurrent channels.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
The material for this investigation was obtained at Shuttleton, New South
Wales, 512 miles west of Sydney. Two consignments were received, in September
and December, Igo3, and also fruits for separate distillation. The whole of the
fruits were removed from the branchlets before distilling, so that the oil here
investigated is that from the leaves and terminal branchlets only. The distil-
lations were continued for six hours. The results from the two samples of leaf
oil agree very well in most respects, the only difference being that in December
(midsummer) there is rather more dextro-rotatory limonene present and a little less
pinene. (See also under C. calcarata.)
The results thus illustrate the comparative constancy of the chemical
products of individual species of Callitris. The constituents found were those of
the Callitris oils generally, although varying in the amount of the individual
terpenes and esters from those of the oils of other species. For instance, it varied
from the leaf oil of C. robusta of Western Australia—another species with warted
fruits—in having considerably less ester, a higher dextro-rotation, and a much
greater amount of dextro-rotatory limonene. It contained, however, the sesquiter-
pene or similar body found in the oil of C. robusta, and this was present in sufficient
amount to raise the refractive index beyond I-48, a result very unusual with the
Callitris oils. The esters, although small in amount, consisted principally of
bornyl- and geranyl-acetates, the former of which was dextro-rotatory, thus
resembling the other Callitris oils. A little free borneol was present also, because
when the crude oil was acetylated in the usual way, the Saponification number
had more than doubled the original determination, and a small amount of a crystal-
line substance was obtained, which was shown to be borneol. The free alcohol
usually occurring in the Callitris oils of this group has been found to be dextro-
rotatory borneol largely, thus differing from the oils of the C. rhomboidea group.
The terpenes present were principally dextro-rotatory pinene, also the limonenes,
of which the dextro-rotatory form predominated. The oil from the fruits was
almost inactive, thus differing greatly from that of the leaves, and agreeing in this
ro5
respect with the oil from the fruits of C. robusta; it had also a less refractive index,
but in other respects corresponded to the leaf oil. There was a marked deposit
of resin upon the sides of the bottle with the leaf oil of this species, and consequently
it soon became insoluble in ten volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. In this respect
it corresponded to the oils of C. glauca.
No. 1.-This material was collected September, Igo3; 566 lb. of terminal
branchlets gave 30 oz. oil equal to O-331 per cent. The crude oil was amber
coloured, and had an odour resembling somewhat the “Pine-needle oils” from species
allied to C. glauca. The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = O-8596;
rotation, ap = + 44.2°; refractive index at 20° C., - I-4809. The Saponification
number was 8: 93, equal to 3’ I 5 per cent. of ester as bornyl- and geranyl-acetates.
A portion of the crude oil was acetylated by boiling with acetic anhydride and
sodium acetate in the usual way. After this treatment, the saponification number
had been increased to 21. 27, equal to 7.44 per cent. Of ester, or 3.4 per cent. Of
free borneol.
On redistilling, practically nothing came over below I56°C.; between I56°
and 165°, 55 per cent. distilled; between 165° and I70°, 20 per cent. ; between
170° and 180°, Io per cent. ; between 180° and 220°, 8 per cent. The specific
gravity of the first fraction at 23° C. = O-8522; of the second, O-8573; Of the
third, O-8624; of the fourth, O 9087. The rotation of the first fraction,
ap = + 43.5°; of the second, + 47.5°; of the third, + 5 I-7°; of the fourth,
+ 46.7°. As these results indicated the presence of dextro-rotatory limonene,
the tetrabromide was prepared with the third fraction. This melted at II.6°C.,
showing that both forms of limonene were present, as is usual with the leaf oils
of the Callitris generally. The dextro-rotatory form, however, predominated. A
portion distilling between 155–156°C. was separated from the first fraction, and
this was shown to be dextro-rotatory pinene as with the other species of Callutris.
The nitrosochloride was prepared, and this was formed into the nitrolbenzylamine,
which melted at I22–I23° C. -
No. 2.-This material was collected December, Igo3; 423 lb. of terminal
branchlets, without fruits, gave 18 oz. of oil, equal to O-266 per cent. The crude oil
was identical, both in colour and odour, with that of the previous sample. The
specific gravity of the crude oil at 23°C. = O-8591; rotation, ap= + 47.5°;
refractive index at I9'? C. = I. 4809. The Saponification number was Io. 87, equal
to 3.8 per cent, ester. On redistilling, 45 per cent. came over between I56° and
165° C.; between 165° and I70°, 21 per cent. ; between 170° and 180°, 13 per
cent. ; between 180° and 220°, 12 per cent. The specific gravity of the first fraction
at 24°C. = o-8492; of the second, O-8503; of the third, O-8592; of the fourth
o. 9070. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 46.4°; of the second, + 52.15°;
of the third, + 58.7°; of the fourth, + 5I-2°. The indications were thus for
limonene, as in the previous sample, dipentene of course being also present.
IO6
THE OIL FROM THE FRUITS.
The fruits of this species were received from Shuttleton, December, I903.
No leaves were present. The distillation was continued for seven hours, and 71 lb.
of fruit gave 5 oz. of oil, equal to O-44 per cent. The crude oil had a more tur-
pentine-like odour than the leaf oil, and was dark Coloured, it was thus necessary
to remove the colour with dilute soda to enable the rotation to be taken.
The saponification number for the free acids as thus determined was O:8.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = O.8608; rotation, ap
= + o-3°; refractive index at 19°C. = I. 4738. The Saponification number of the
cleared oil was 5:1, equal to I-78 per cent, ester. The crude oil did not deposit
resin on the bottle, thus differing again in this respect from the leaf oil.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris verrucosa.
N Locality and Specific e Refractive - Ester, Yield,
O. date. Gravity 9 C. Rotation a p. Index 9 C. per cent. per cent.
I Shuttleton, O'8596 (a) 23 + 44'2 I-4809 (a) 20 3°I3 O'33I
23/9/’03
2 Shuttleton, O'8591 (a) 23 + 47.5 I-4809 @ IQ 3.8 O-266
I8/12/’03 !
Crude Oil from the Fruits of Callitris verrucosa.
Locality and Specific Gravity, Rotation Refractive index, Ester, Yield,
Date. o C. (l D ° C. per cent. per cent.
Shuttleton, 4, 12/o3 o'8608 (a) 22 + O-3 I'4738 (a) IQ 1.78 O'44
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The timber is pale Coloured, straight-grained, having a density and texture
similar to the other pale-coloured woods of the genus. It is easy to work and is
used for house building, especially where the white-ant is found, and in this con-
nection it will no doubt be especially useful for railway sleepers in those parts of
the country infested with these destructive insects. It is, therefore, worthy of
conservation in the arid interior. It could be used for doors, panelling, wains-
Coting, &c.
- - -
Ioy
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
-
º
º
º
|-
º
A
:
º
f
-º
º
-Cº. -
Figure 54.—Transverse section through timber, showing manganese
compound in tracheids and parenchymatous cells of rays,
the dark lines running from top to bottom of picture.
C. verrucosa. x 80.
Figure 56.-Radial section of timber. The uniform character of the
whole of the cells of the two rays shown is well brought out,
as well as their single pits. C. verrucosa, x 12'o.
- -
- - Cº-
as ºf º º
- º: º *
º - *. *** **
- - * *
- º - -
4: º -
- - - - -
º º-Nº. * º
- º - - º
. º - º - º- -
- … " -
- º - -
--- º º |-|--
- - - -
- - -
-- -
- - º --- -
-- º º - -
*- º º - º
- º - -
- - -
-
- ſº º -
- - - -
º
----- - -- -
- -
- º - -
- º
º º - º
-- -
º: - - º -
- - -->
- - -
--
Figure 55.-Same section as Figure 54, but showing two autumnal rings Figure 57.-Tangential section of timber of C. verrucosa, x 120.
of tracheids across the field of vision. C. verrucosa, x 12'o.
Sections of timber of Callitris Verrucosa, R.Br.


IO8
(b) ANATOMY.
The tracheids of the xylem have a smaller diameter than those of its con-
geners and also thinner walls, consequently tangential and radial sections look
much more delicate objects under the microscope than in the other species.
The medullary rays resemble the prosenchymatous cells in their structure,
although, of course, not in form ; these parenchymatous cells are very long and
narrow, and are fairly distinctive characters of the species, as also are the numerous
simple cells with their oblique slits or perforations. -
The dark cell substance is only sparsely distributed in the tracheids, but
pronounced in the medullary rays. The bordered pits are both numerous and
of comparatively large diameter in proportion to the narrow lumina.
Figure 54 shows a transverse section through the timber tracheids, the
autumnal growth being indicated by the Smaller lumina near the top of the picture,
the tracheids having the dark-coloured contents are few in number and Scattered
irregularly through the centre of the picture. The medullary rays run from top to
the bottom of the plate, and all have the manganese compound contents. Figure 55
gives a higher magnification of a similar section to Figure 54, the autumnal wood
running across the centre of the picture, but showing less brown contents in the
cells. Figure 56 illustrates a radial section more particularly showing two
medullary rays—the parenchymatous cells more or less containing manganese
compound. No marginal tracheids are present in the rays, and the simple cells
of these bodies are clearly seen. The autumnal growth is to the right. This
plate also conveys an idea of density Over that of its congeners. Figure 57 is a
longitudinal tangential section. - -
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC.
Owing to the limited amount of tannin in its cells it cannot claim to be a
tannin bark of any pretensions.
(b) ANATOMY.
There are one or two points of differentiation in this bark from its
Congeners, for instance, it contains less tannin cells than any other species, and
there are also fewer Strands of Cork or periderm cells. Here the bast cells do not
preserve in cross Section so Constant a shape as in other species, where the usual
form is consistently rectangular with the long axis tangential, whilst in this
Species that character obtains near the cambium, yet a gradual shortening outwards
of this axis occurs until the long axis is parallel to the medullary rays or radial,
and a ring of these can be seen in Figure 58, at the top, although not quite focussed.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
cortex, showing empty oleo-resin cavities, also the changing
in section of the long axis of the bast fibres from tan-
gential in the inner to radial in the outer cortex. C.
verrucosa, x 8o.
Figure 58.-Transverse section through junction of inner and outer
º
º
ºº
º
-
ºº
.-
º
º
Figure 59, Transverse section similar to Figure 58, but at a higher
magnification, and so illustrating the remarks under that
figure. It further shows, however, the lysigenous origin
of the oleo-resin cavities. C. verrucosa, x Ioo.
Sections of bark of Callitris verrucosa, R.Br.


IIO
This bark is also otherwise interesting, for it shows that the oleo-resin
cavities are of lysigenous origin, as the gradual compression of the juxtaposition
cells to permit of the intrusion of the cavity, can be traced in the section, Figure 59.
The structure of this bark otherwise conforms to that of its congeners.
Figures 58 and 59 give transverse sections at the line of intersection of
inner and outer cortex. The large empty resin cavities can be seen to be thickly
scattered throughout the cortex, whilst another feature illustrated is, that the
bast cells have (in section) their long axes radial toward the outer cortex and
tangential in the inner bark.
(e) CHEMISTRY.
This sample was taken from a log collected at Shuttleton, New South
Wales, in Igo3. It was II inches in diameter, which is rather an unusual size for
trees of this species. The bark was grey to brown externally, fibrous and fissured;
its greatest thickness was IO mm. In section the cells containing the dry resin are
larger and more numerous than is generally found in these barks.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark :--
Moisture II.6 per cent.
Total extract I3-6 5 y
Non-tannin 5' 2 5 y
Tannin 8.4 5 y
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE SPECIES C. VERRUCOSA IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
From data Supplied by Public School Teachers and other correspondents.
(Where no information is given under Remarks only herbarium specimens were received. The
information is given without comment.)
Remarks.
Towns. County.
|
Mount Hope | South Wales, extending west and a west-south-west direction
to the Murray and Darling, and across the latter river into
Mallee Country of N.W. Victoria. It covers thousands of acres
in this area
Timber.—In the Scrub, the pines grow from 12 to 15 feet
high; where trees are isolated they grow from 20 to 30 feet
high, and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter.
Resin.--The pines in this locality exude large quantities
of resin, this species being most profuse in its yield.
| (H. A. Bowyer.)
Coolamon ...'Bourke ... (J. Benton.)
---
Great Central— Blaxland º Chiefly confined to the Mallee Districts of this part of New
Lake Cudgellico ... Dowling ... (A. C. Carmichael.)
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
-
Mºtt, Size.
Callitris propinqua, R.Br., “CyPREss PINE.”

II2
4. Callitris propinqua,
R.Br., ex And/. et //erb.
“CYPRESS PINE.”
(Syn. :-Frenela Moorei, Parl. Schweinforth.)
- HABITAT.
Kangaroo Island; Sandy Creek, Gawler (S.A.); and Bibbenluke (N.S.W.).
I. HISTORICAL.
The distinctive specific position of this tree was first noticed when
inspecting the cultivated Pine trees in the Hobart Botanic Gardens when on the
way to Europe.
Upon an examination of Cunningham's original specimens and MS. in the
British Museum, its specific differences were still further marked, and after com-
parison with other described species, there could be little doubt as to its systematic
position from a morphological standpoint, and so Brown's naming is here restored.
The glaucous fruits are quite characteristic, especially before dehiscing,
when the bloom disappears; they also have an elongated shape that differs from
that of other species.
The decurrent leaves on the branchlets are light olive-green in colour, similar
to those of C. robusta, or C. calcarata.
Maiden, in his “ Forest Flora,” places C. gracilis, R.T.B., with this species
but the differences of the two are very marked morphologically, anatomically, and
Chemically, and no intermediate forms have yet been recorded.
As far as Our researches go, it appears to occur in Kangaroo Island and
South Australia (W. Gill), and south-east N.S.W., at Bibbenluke, Quidong
(J. H. Maiden).
HERBARIA MATERIAL ExAMINED.
Kew,
No specimens.
British Museum,_
Brown's original specimens from Kangaroo Island, 1802.
Berlin National Herbarium,_
Schweinforth's specimen labelled “Fremela Moorei, Parl.” Unfortunately
there is no locality given. --
Hobart,
(There is a tree of this species cultivated in the Hobart Botanic Gardens.)
II3
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This tree averages about 60 feet high, with the usual dark, hard, compact
bark occurring on Callitris trees. DeCurrent leaves, Compact, very numerous,
glabrous, of a light olive-green colour, the internodes terete, very short. Free ends
appressed, scarcely acute. Male amenta numerous at the end of the branchlets,
short, with few whorls of stamens. Female amenta not seen.
Fruit cones single or in clusters at the base of the second year's growth
of branchlets, ovoid-pyramidal or egg-shaped, Smooth or slightly rough, Over an
inch long when opened, glaucous, becoming black by age. Cone scales valvate,
the alternate smaller ones only one-fifth shorter than the larger, dorsal point
prominent, the central columella short and slender. Seeds mostly two winged.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
A cross section through the three decurrent leaves and branchlet gives a
good picture of the structure of these organs and their respective subordinate
character in forming, as it were, one whole body in this part of the tree.
The three dorsal surfaces occupy almost the greatest proportion of the
outline of the trefoil figure, the three narrow channels being formed by the trans-
piratory ventral surfaces of the leaves, and the stomata are protected by the
elongated cells of the cuticle as in some other species. -
The epidermal cells are larger proportionally to the leaf mass than realises
in other species, whilst the hypodermal cells are especially small.
These essentials of the assimilatory surface are supported by well-defined
palisade cells of the mesophyll, the spongy tissue of which it is loosely composed.
Parenchymatous cells are packed between the base of each channel and the
phloem of the central cylinder, and around the oleo-resin cavities where they may
be regarded as endodermic.
Each leaf has a bundle at the inner edge of the oleo-resin cavities, and these
are supported by cells of the transfusion tissue.
The secretory cells of the oleo-resin cavities are generally filled with the
manganese compound substance in the Sections, and in that respect resemble
those of C. Drummondii.
H
114
In viewing the sections depicted it will be seen that the three leaves form
parts of one whole, and together with the central cylinder formed by the branchlet
bundles, no doubt act in unison in the performance of these physiological functions
necessary in the life history of the tree or branchlet.
In Figures 60 and 61 several similar features are shown. Figure 60 was
cut through the middle of the oil cavities, which latter occupy a goodly proportion
of the leaf area; whilst Figure
6I was cut a little lower down
the branchlet. The cluster of
parenchymatous cells between
the central axis and the decur-
rent channel are almost devoid
of contents as obtains in some
other species, as for instance,
C. robusta, or C. rhomboidea
especially. The palisade cells are
seen closely packed and narrow,
and the assimilatory surface with
Figure 60.-Transverse section through central axis (branchlet) and its layers of epidermal and hypo-
*::::::::: * * * * * * * * dermal cells is also well defined.
The epidermal cells are much
larger than the hypodermal in
this instance. A bundle occurs in each leaf on the inner side of the oil cavity, and
what is of particular interest in these sections is that they show clearly an extension
of the xylem of these bundles into a mass or collection of short tracheids, a feature
recorded in “Taxus,” by Frank, and called by Mohl, transfusion tissue—a term
used throughout this work to describe this structure. If examined under a 3-in.
or 4-in. lens the details are especially distinct, and will be found to accord with
those given under other species.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
No. 1.-This material was received from South Australia, I8th May, Igoš,
and was sent to us by Mr. Gill, the Conservator of Forests for that State. The
whole of the fruits were removed before distillation, so that the oil is that of the
leaves and terminal branchlets only. The distillations were continued for six
hours; and 278 lb. of material gave 18 oz. of oil, equal to or 41 per cent. The crude
oil was but little coloured, and had an odour similar to the Callitris oils belonging
to the C. glauca group. It became somewhat insoluble in alcohol on keeping, and
did not form a clear solution with ten volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. During
the time which has elapsed since it was distilled, no resin has deposited upon the
sides of the bottle as was the case with all our samples of C. glauca, and in that

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 61.-Transverse section through a branchlet, and three decurrent
leaves having an oil cavity and a small subtending bundle
in each. The endodermal cells are few, being packed below
the bottom of the decurrent channel and in a single ring
around the oil cavities. The manganese compound is
present in some of the secretory cells. The transfusion
tissue is compact on each side of the bundle and on the
lower half of the oil cavity. Very faintly stained with
- haematoxylin. C. propinqua, x 70.
:
i
i

II5
respect the oils of the two species differ. It is remarkable, however, how closely
the oils of C. propinqua and C. glauca agree in all their characters, with the above
exception. As the constituents of the oil of this species are almost identical with
those of C. glauca, the same remarks will apply to the oils of both species (see, for
further details, under C. glauca).
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = 0.8662; rotation an
= + 32.4°; refractive index at 19°C. = I-4752. After boiling with alcoholic
potash, the saponification number of the crude oil was 34.88, equal to I2.2 per
cent. of esters. In the cold with three hours contact, the Saponification number
was 25-27, equal to 8.84 per cent. ester.
On redistillation practically nothing came over below I55° C. Between
I55° and I60°, 29 per cent. distilled; between 160° and 165°, 32 per cent. ;
between 165° and 200°, 23 per cent.; between 200° and 225°, 8 per cent.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = 0.8539; of the Second,
O-8509; of the third, o'858; of the fourth, O. 9405. The rotation of the first
fraction ap = + 3I-9°; of the second, + 32.6°; of the third, + 35.3°; of the fourth,
+ 36.2°. The refractive index at 21°C. of the first fraction was I-4738; of the
Second, I-4738; of the third, I-4744; of the fourth, I. 4733.
No. 2.-Mr. Gill also forwarded to us this material. As there were con-
siderable fruits upon it, it was thought advisable to distil it, and the following
results were obtained. In appearance and odour the oil resembled that distilled
from the leaves alone; it had a little less rotation to the right than had the leaf
oil, thus indicating that the oil from the fruits of this species has a different
rotation to that of the leaves. In this respect it agrees with the results obtained
with allied species. The ester content was also a little less, as was also to be
expected. In every other respect the oils agree. 72 lb. of branchlets with fruits
gave 33 oz. of oil, equal to O-326 per cent. The specific gravity of the crude oil
at # C. = O'8709; rotation, ap = + 20.5°; refractive index at I9° C. = I-4749.
The Saponification number was 32-24, equal to II-29 per cent. of esters.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris propinqua.
- * *- º Ester, per Ester, per -
* ***, *, *, * * *
oiling. cold. .
I, South O'8662 + 32°4 I'4752 I2" 2 8.84 O.4I
without | Australia, @ I9 (a) IQ
fruits. I8/5/'05 |
|
| - i
2, DO. O'8709 + 20:5 I-4749 II-29 mºs- o:326
with March, 'o6 (a) 20 @ I9 -
fruits.
II6
IV. TIMEER.
This part of the tree was not procurable for investigation.
V. BARK.
(a) EconoMICs (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
This bark is fairly even in structure, as will be seen by Figure 62, which
is a transverse section through the entire breadth of a piece of the young cortex.
The cambium is at the bottom of the picture, and from this the bast fibres recede,
at first in regular concentric circles indicated by parallel, broken, dark lines in the
figure; this regularity is, however, lost or broken amongst the outer cortex—
the top part of the section. Between these are three rows of vessels, the paren-
chymatous cells being between the sieve tubes, which latter or their sieve plates
can be seen in Figure 64 by the aid of a lens. A number of oleo-resin cavities
are scattered throughout the bark tissue, and on the outer portion are pale-
coloured bands of periderm, whilst Figure 62 shows two of these in the upper part.
Figure 64 is a longitudinal section, the left being the inner bark, and the right
the outer bark. The long black lines in the left are the bast fibres, between which
can be seen the parenchymatous cells, and sieve tubes.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
This sample of bark was forwarded to the Museum by Mr. Gill, the Con-
servator of Forests for South Australia, and was Collected in June, IOO9. It was
from a tree 2 to 3 inches in diameter, so that the bark was somewhat thin, ranging
in thickness from 3 to 6 mm. It was dark grey externally and somewhat Smooth,
although it was beginning to form furrows, and was somewhat fibrous. Although
the bark was so thin and fibrous, yet, it contained a fair amount of tannin, and the
red constituents of the bark had hardly commenced to form in this sample, Con-
sequently the colour of the tanned hide powder was exceedingly light. The
chemical reactions given with the tannin were those for C. glauca, So that there
is little difference between the barks of these two species.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark:—
Moisture IO-84 per cent.
Total extract 2I. O9. 5 y
Non-tannin 8-46 5 y
Tannin I2-63 3 y
II.7
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 62.-Transverse section through bark. Two light-coloured bands Figure 63.-Transverse section through the bark. The bast cells are
of periderm layers are shown near the top or outer bark. indicated by the black broken, parallel lines, whilst the
The parallel, interrupted dark lines are the bast fibres, and lighter band towards the outer bark marks a periderm
the oval spaces oleo-resin cavities. C. propinqua, x 32. layer. C. propinqua, x 28.
ºf ºf
# º
ſº ſº. "... -
- （, i.
º
º
º
- -
º - -
º -
-- Figure 64.-Fransverse section through the bark. The black lines in
left of picture from top to bottom are bast fibres separated
by parenchymatous cells and sieve tubes. Towards the
right centre the light spaces are oleo-resin cells. The outer
bark is the broken edge on the right. C. propinqua, x 25.
Sections of bark of Callitris propinqua, R.Br.



II.8
5. Callitris glauca,
R.Br., ex Mirb., in Mem. Mus., Par. xiii, 74.
“WHITE,” “CYPRESS,” OR “MURRAY RIVER PINE.”
(Syn. —C. Preissii, Miq. in P1. Preiss, i, 643; C. Huegelii, ined. ; Frenela crassi-
valvis, Miq., Stirp. Nov. Holl. Muell., i ; F. canescens, Parlat., in DC. Prod.
XVI, ii, p. 448; F. Gulielmi, Parlat., l.c. 449.)
HABITAT.
It is perhaps quite safe to say that this species is facile princeps over its
congeners in extent of geographical distribution, for it is found in all the States,
but nearly always away from the Coast.
I. HISTORICAL.
This species' name was founded by Robert Brown in 1825, and his selection
was happily chosen, as the leaves partake of a glaucous character, more pronounced
than in any other species of Callitris. It is a feature that differentiates it also in
herbarium material from all its congeners, and it retains it wherever the trees
grow, either in the eastern, central, or western parts of the continent, irrespective
of environment. The claims of this species to specific rank were apparent to us
long before seeing Brown's original specimens, and had Bentham seen Brown's
species, C. robusta, C. glauca, C. tuberculata, and C. verrucosa, in the field, he
would not, we think, have synonymised them as he has done in the “Flora Aus-
traliensis,” Vol. VI, p. 237, under the name Frenela robusta. Cunningham also
regarded them as distinct, as shown by his specimens and MS. in the British
Museum. Each of these species is readily characterised by the fruits alone, and
even the two species C. verrucosa and C. robusta, with warted cones, cannot well
be confounded.
A paper on this species was read by us before the Royal Society, N.S.W.,
August, I008, Vol. XLII, portions of which are embodied here.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
Robert Brown's specimens from Mount Brown, Iter Australiense, I802-5.
Allan Cunningham's specimen labelled by him, “Subtropical New Hol-
land, Lieut.-Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell's expedition.” Allan Cunningham's
specimens from Rottnest Island, 1835. A second specimen with Same
label but larger fruits. A specimen from Bald Island, labelled C. Preissii.
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
“WHITE * or “CYPRESS PINE.”
Callitris glauca, R.Br.

I2O
British Museum,_-
&
R. Brown's specimen with note “prevailing timber in Western Interior.”
Specimen from Coonabarabran, New South Wales, named by Miquel
C. crassivalvis.
Cambridge University,
Lindley Herb., two specimens collected by Sir T. L. Mitchell, Sub-tropical
New Holl., 1845. A. W. Gray's specimen.
Brussels National Herbarium,_
A specimen from Salt Lake, near Tangulla, labelled C. Preissii.
All the above, except where otherwise noted, are labelled C. glauca.
Paris National Herbarium,_
Dr. Leichhardt’s specimen from Moreton Bay, 1845, probably came from
further inland, for the term “ Moreton Bay ” would probably not be used
at that time in so restricted a sense as understood to-day. It is
labelled by Edward Spach and also by Brongniart as C. Huegelii.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
Callitris glauca is an evergreen tree, varying in height according to environ-
ment. In the far interior it is stunted in growth, whilst towards the main
Dividing Ranges it attains a height of over Ioo feet, with a diameter from 2 to 3
feet. The bark is hard, compact, furrowed, but lighter in colour than that of
C. calcarata, R.Br., which forms with it the principal pines of the interior.
Leaves are at first pyramidal, then decurrent in whorls of three, glaucous,
the internodes being shorter than obtain in most species; free end short, acute,
the decurrent portion rounded.
Male amenta small, two to four lines long, cylindrical, oblong, or ovoid,
very numerous, occurring in general, in threes at the end of the leaf series, the
stamens in whorls of threes, the scale-like apex concave, cordate; anther cells
two to four. Female amenta solitary or not often found in clusters, situated
generally at the lower part of the branchlets.
Fruiting cones globular, rarely pointed at the top, about half an inch, excep-
tionally three-quarters of an inch in diameter; slightly scabrous; valves six,
alternately large and small, the latter about a quarter less in size than the larger
I2I
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
--
i


I22
ones, valvate, channeled at the base; dorsal point scarcely perceptible. Seeds
two to three-winged; the central columella under two lines.
All the specimens collected by us, and received from a very large number
of correspondents, go to show that this is primarily an interior species, although
it may occur on the coast, for Moore's specimens labelled C. glauca, at Kew, are
-- recorded as col-
lected in 1854 at
Moreton Island,
and Cunningham
also collected it at
Rottnest Island.
Its coastal locali-
ties would, there-
fore, appear to be
quite limited, or,
perhaps, further
investigation may
prove the two
latter to be C.
aremosa and C. in-
tratropica respec-
tively. Amongst
other differences
from C. robusta,
C. tuberculata, and
C. verrucosa, this
species may be
noted by its thin
cone valves and
paler - coloured
cones, the three,
first having a
black outer sur-
face. Both C.
aremosa and C.
Callitris glauea. R.B.R. - intratrop ica have
Single tree, illustrating mode of growth and general facies of tree. thin cone valves,
- - - but the pro-
nounced columns and the parallel edges of the smaller valves of the former,
and the fruits as well as the timber of the latter, along with other features,
differentiate C. glauca from both these species.
- R. º
*
Photo, M. F. Connelly.



I23
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMICS.
The presence of the oil is of course the main economic product of these
organs. As a fodder plant they have little to recommend them, for it is only
during the severest drought that sheep will nibble them, and then not for long.
(b) ANATOMY.
For descriptive purposes cross sections were taken near the end of a
branchlet and at various intervals along the decurrent portion of the leaves.
Such sections were found satisfactory for histological work, for they included
One part of each decurrent leaf as well as the portion of the branchlet which
formed the central column to which the leaves were attached, the whole giving
a well-defined trefoil in shape.
The free portion of the leaf was of little value in working out the anatomical
structure of this part of the plant as obtains in the needles of Pinus, where a group
of vascular bundles forms the central column around which regular leaf tissue is
sustained, whilst in Callitris the ultimate portion of the branchlet composes the
Central vascular system supporting adnate leaf sections which collectively appear
to form one whole, or at least that is the view here taken of this part of the
tree for descriptive purposes.
The central xylem of the branchlet is succeeded by a normally orientated
phloem ; the relative position of these elements, therefore, is in accord with their
final disposition in maturity of stem and branches. Subsidiary to these will be
found near the base of each concrescent division and next the oil gland a small
bundle (a primary leaf bundle, so to speak) of the true leaf, with the phloem
normally Orientated; these and the central bundle might perhaps be considered
as Corresponding to the median and secondary bundles of an ordinary bilateral
leaf.
The xylem and phloem cells call for no special remark, as they conform to
the usual characters of such found in the vegetable kingdom.
The phloem of the central system of the branchlet is surrounded by a mass
Composed of (I) parenchymatous endodermal cells; (2) transfusion tissue:—
the tracheids of which in the case of this and other species of Callitris appear to
have no uniformity of arrangement when the section is taken either through,
or clear of, the oil cavities, as against the uniformity of such found in most other
Conifers. When, however, oil cavities are present, the parenchymatous, or what
may perhaps be regarded in this case as the endodermal cells, are found to extend
round and encircle these bodies, and also to form a group or cluster between the
central axis and the epidermis at the base of the cavity formed by the concave
I24
ventral surfaces of the concrescence, in which case they are invariably filled with
a substance now identified as a manganese compound. As endodermal cells
they may, therefore, be said to be not regularly well defined as such in Callitris
leaves, and in this respect there is a resemblance to those of Sciadopitys of Japan.
The cell walls of the leaf tissue generally are irregularly circular in section, or
having a slight tendency to hexagonal form, and they show no involutions or
infoldings, so characteristic of Conifer leaf cells in general.
In the preparation of the sections, the protoplasmic contents of certain cells
have been removed, and so they invariably appear empty, and it is thus that
they are easily differentiated from the tracheids of the transfusion tissue. The
mesophyll needs little comment. It consists of spongy and palisade parenchyma,
and both are clearly defined in Figures 65 to 76. The latter consist of a single
row having the long axis at right angles to the dorsal surface of each leaf, but
cease at the ventral curve. The thick-walled hypodermal cells are, so to speak,
the epidermal cell companions of these, as they also only extend as far as the
epidermal and palisade cells, and gradually diminish in size and finally give out,
as they approach the ventral surface. They are largest and thickest walled at
the apex of the dorsal curve, and generally number about IOO. The epidermal
dorsal cells may be described as rectangular, and like the hypodermal Ones are
largest at the dorsal apex where the outer cell wall or cuticle is much thickened.
They are not so numerous as the hypodermal cells, fifty being about the limit.
The cells of the ventral surface take quite a different form from those of
the dorsal, for as they turn, so to speak, to curve into the ventral surface, the
thick cuticle walls gradually dome until in the centre of the ventral cavity of the
concrescence these walls reach their maximum height, becoming quite conical in
shape—the elongated apices appearing to resemble numerous Cones. They
are clearly illustrated in Figure 76. This unusual structure, as far as we are
aware, has only been recorded in one other instance in Conifers, i.e., Sciadopitys
verticellata, S. and Z. of Japan (C. E. Bertrand, “The Gnetaceae et Coniferae,”
pl. x, Figs. IO, II, I2).
The function of these elongated bodies or papillose projections is probably (I)
to assist the guard cells in the performance of their function or duties, (2) they
also indicate the presence of the stomata, being only found along with them,
(3) a protective character for the stomata by closing over them as Occasion
requires during adverse climatic or other conditions, and (4) eventually seed
protectors, for in the transition of the terminal leaves into cone scales, these
elongated cells interlock with those on the opposite leaf (sporophyll) like teeth
of a cogwheel, and becoming ligneous, hold the cells together in a very firm grasp
during the maturing of the seeds (Figure 17). The guard cells of the stomata
call for little comment, being of the usual shape of such, relatively to the size
of the air cavities, and much sunk below the cuticle.
f25
With the exception of one or two rarely occurring on the lower dorsal
Surface, stomata are only to be found in depressions on the ventral concave sides
of the concrescence, and where they occur in longitudinal irregular rows along
the whole extent of the ventral face of the concrescence, as shown in Figure
78—the Oval bodies on the left of plate. A few do, however, sometimes occur on
the appressed lower part of the free portion of the leaf. Being thus placed in the
channels, they have the full advantage of the whole leaf substance as a protection
against Solar rays, rain, or cold; and perhaps a secondary protective provision is
provided, as the edges of the individual leaves have the power of closing the
entrance to the cavity whenever adverse aerial conditions prevail, for the sections
examined seemed to support this theory, as the apertures are sometimes found
Open as well as closed (vide Figures 65 to 75). This of course can only be
verified by assiduous field observations, but nevertheless we are at present under
the impression that this may be one of the physiological significances of the
decurrence in Conifer leaves, i.e., that the maximum amount of protection for
the transpiratory Surface is obtained by the minimum amount of leaf movement.
The specific name was given by Brown on account of the bloom of the
leaves, as stated above, but Francis Darwin, “Journ. Linn. Soc.,” Bot., vol. xxii,
I886, p. 99, states, “The position of the stomata in Conifers is very generally
indicated by the existence of a glaucous bloom,” but this is not so in the case of
this species of Callitris, for the stomata-bearing surfaces are practically hidden,
and cover too small an area to characterise the tree when they are exposed. In
this contention of ours, i.e., accounting for the concrescence in Callitris and the
functions of the conical epidermal cells and probable movement of the ventral
surface, the following quotation, we think, rather strengthens our views. In the
case of Pinus halepensis “the leaves of this tree in warm sunny weather are fully
Separated, but if the sky become overcast they close partially; the sirocco pro-
duces a similar but more marked effect, but in rain the leaves collapse, giving the
tree a most melancholy aspect” (Moggridge, “Journ. of Bot.,” Feb. 1, 1867).
OIL CAVITIES.
When present these bodies are found to be situated in the upper portion
of the leaf concrescence, and in the middle of the leaf substance of that part.
They are obliquely fusiform in shape (Figure 77), a cross section showing a
circle or an ellipse (Figures 70 to 72), whilst their limited length bars them from
being classified as canals—a term used in describing oil containing bodies in most
other Conifers. To be exact, they occur in the lower portion of the spongy
tissue, and are not regularly distributed ; sometimes one, and even two, thin-
walled reservoirs will be found in each leaf, whilst often only one or two of the
sections may show one. The cavities are all lined with thin-walled Secretory
cells, backed by a circle of thick-walled protective cells; they may be classed
I26
as lysigenous. Under such an irregular disposition of oil cavities no assistance
Was rendered by these for diagnostic purposes, as obtains in other Conifers, and
they cannot be used in a manner employed by Engelmann, who grouped the
species of Pinus according to the position of their resin or oil ducts. He also lays
stress on the circumstance of the resin canals being surrounded by strengthening
cells or devoid of such investment. These conclusions, however, cannot be
applied to Callitris as far as our observations go.
Figure 65 is a transverse section, showing the earliest stage of concrescence
in the leaf, and where the three divisions are beginning to individualise,
whilst Figures 66–67 show the concrescent portions more distinctly, also the fuller
development of the ventral surfaces, and the cuticle protuberances on them. The
division of the vascular bundles of the central axis into three parts by obtruding
medullary pith cells, and the orientation of the phloem (indicated by the
darker cells) are well brought out. In Figure 68 the section is interesting in
that one or two elongated cuticle projections are seen on the lower part of the
assimilating surface. No oil cavities occur in this or previous sections, where also
the parenchymatous endodermal and transfusion cells are not arranged in any
order. The ventral surfaces on the two leaf concrescences have edged together
and SO shut out any communiciation between the air and the stomata. Figures 69
and 70 illustrate the occurrence of an oil cell in the centre of the tissue of each leaf.
The parenchymatous cells are here assuming some kind of order of an endodermal
nature, and in Figure 70, are clustered around the oil cells, and at the base of the
ventral surfaces. The bundle of each leaf is seen below each oil cavity, the dark
patch being the phloem. In Figure 71 the ventral surfaces are shown
exposed to the atmosphere, and three well-formed oil cells form distinct objects in
each concrescence. The transfusion tissue borders laterally the leaf trace, and
extends round towards the oil cavity, and is denoted by the cells with very small
pits, which can be seen under a lens. Figure 72 is given to show the
unusual occurrence of two oil cells in a concrescence. Figure 73 is a
section through the ventral surfaces of two concrescences exposed to the atmos-
phere, and two air cavities, and gives the structure in this locality magnified
160 times. In Figure 74 the method of protecting the ventral surfaces from the
atmosphere by the closing over of the edges of the dorsal surfaces is seen at top
of the picture. Figure 75 well illustrates the leaf structure in the locality
of the oil cell and leaf bundle; the transfusion tracheids are marked by the
bordered pits, and are seen to be irregularly scattered amongst the other cell
tissues. On the right is the phloem of the central axis, the xylem just showing,
and to the left is the leaf bundle, the phloem being indicated by a black patch,
and further removed from this to the left is an oil cavity.
Figure 76 gives a much finer illustration of the remarks under Figure 74.
The papillose projections in the decurrent channel are well marked and form a
127
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 66.-This shows the concrescent portions more distinctly, also
Figure 65.-Transverse section, showing a closed stage of concrescence
in the leaf, and where the three divisions are beginning to the fuller development of the ventral surfaces, and the
individualise. C. glauca, x 80. cuticle protuberances on them. The transfusion tissue
is well indicated by the pitted cells, and is seen to
occupy a large proportion of the leaf tissue. The divi-
sion of the median structure of the branchlet into three
bundles by obtruding medullary pith cells, and the
orientation of the phloem (indicated by the darker cells)
are well brought out. C. glauca, x 80.
Figure 67.-In this section the decurrent channels or ventral surfaces Figure 68.-This transverse section is interesting in that one or two
are seen exposed to the atmosphere. C. glauca, x 8o. elongated cuticle processes are seen on the lower of the
assimilating surface. No oil cavities occur in this or
previous sections, where also the endodermal and trans-
fusion cells are not arranged in any order. The ventral
surfaces on the two left concrescences have edged together,
and so shut out any communication between the air and
the stomata. C. glauca, x 80.
Cross sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves of Callitris glauca, R.Br.


I28
conspicuous figure here. The transfusion tracheids can be seen at the lower left and
right of the picture with their pitted cells, where also come into vision portions of
phloem and xylem of the central axis. The epidermal cells are conspicuous at the
top of the picture on the two portions of the convex dorsal surfaces, below which
on the extreme right are four hypodermal cells just brought into the picture.
In Figure 77 is given a longitudinal section through a node showing an oil cell in
situ in the concrescence and part of the free portion of the leaf. Figure 78 is a
longitudinal section through the junction of two whorls, and showing the position
of stomata on the ventral surface of the lower left leaf, where they appear as Oval
bodies, the aperture being indicated by a white line.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
Under this species are given results derived from the investigation of a
considerable amount of material, gathered in various localities widely apart, and
spreading Over several years.
It will be seen that there is a remarkable uniformity in the oil of this
species, no matter where the trees are grown, and that in some of its characters
it is distinctly different from the oil of any other species of Callitris, excepting
that of C. propinqua Of South Australia.
The comparative constancy of the oil from this species cannot now be
Questioned, and what is true of this species appears also to be true of any other
well-defined species of Callitris.
We have worked somewhat extensively on this species because it is more
largely distributed than any other, and is the common tree in the interior of New
South Wales. -
The distillations were continued for six hours in nearly all cases, as it was
found that a fair quantity of oil came over during the fifth hour.
The main constituents of the oils of all the samples of C. glauca were the
same, and the higher boiling fractions in all cases were highly dextro-rotatory,
due to the presence of dextro-rotatory bornyl-acetate and dextro-rotatory borneol.
The comparative uniformity of results with the several fractions, obtained with
the five samples redistilled, can be seen from the tabulated results (Table II at
end of article). The Crude samples of oil were mostly slightly yellowish in tint,
and only one or two were reddish in colour; this was mostly due to the material
being distilled in iron vessels. When cleared by dilute aqueous solution of soda,
the oil was almost colourless, being slightly yellowish in tint. When rectified by
steam, or by direct distillation, it was quite colourless. In both odour and appear-
ance the leaf oil of this species of Callitris compares favourably with the better
“Pine-needle oils” of commerce, and the yield is also very good.
I29
On keeping the leaf oils of Callitris glauca for some time a resinous substance
eventually formed, and attached itself to the sides of the bottles. This was
probably caused by light and oxidation, because the specific gravity of the oil
had also slightly increased. The solubility of the oil in alcohol also rapidly
diminished on keeping, as when freshly distilled the solubility was often as low
as one volume of 90 per cent. alcohol, varying from that to ten volumes 90 per
cent. alcohol, but when aged it did not form a clear Solution, at ordinary tem-
peratures, even with ten volumes absolute alcohol. The solubility test appears
therefore, to be of little help in judging the value of the crude oil of this species
of Callitris.
Equal volumes of the crude oils of each of the seven samples here investi-
gated were mixed together, and the product analysed. It was lemon yellow in
colour and retained the original odour. Although some of the samples had been
distilled for a few years, yet, the alteration in any direction was not great. There
was a slight increase in the specific gravity, and the increased insolubility in
alcohol was marked. A very small amount of a phenol was extracted by aqueous
alkali, it did not react with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, and was, perhaps,
the phenol common to the timber.
The specific gravity of the mixed oils at 16° C. = O-8813. The rotation
ap = + 27.9. The refractive index at 16° C. = I.4771. The ester content by
boiling was I3-82 per cent. ; in the cold, with three hours contact, it was 6-26
per cent. These results compare favourably with those obtained with the Wel-
lington Sample under the same conditions. A portion was esterised with acetic
anhydride in the usual way. The esterised oil had rotation ap + 28. I’; and it
having slightly increased with the increased ester, indicated that the alcohol was
borneol. The amount of ester was 18.94 per cent., so that the amount of free
alcohol as borneol was 4.63 per cent. This result closely approached that
obtained with the Trangie sample.
No. 1.-This material was collected at Narrandera, New South Wales, 350
miles South-west of Sydney, 25th April, Igo7. The terminal branchlets with their
decurrent leaves and fruits were steam distilled for six hours in the usual way, and
in a manner corresponding to what would be done commercially. The amount
of oil distilling from 784 lb. of material was 70% oz., equal to O-562 per cent.
This is a fair average yield of oil from this species.
Material was collected from one large tree and distilled separately, this
was kept distinct so that the product from a single tree could be determined in
comparison with that from general material. The bulk of the oil was obtained
from the leaves of several trees as usual.
The yield of oil from the single tree was equal to o-559 per cent. It gave
the following results:—Specific gravity at ##" C. = o-8671; rotation an = + 21.2°;
I
I30
refractive index at I8° C. = I-4744. The freshly-distilled oil was soluble in one
volume 90 per cent. alcohol. The Saponification number was 35-7, equal to 12.49
per cents. Of ester as bornyl- and geranyl-acetates.
The Oil obtained from the general material was taken for the full investiga-
tion. It had specific gravity at 18° C. = 0-8729; rotation ap = + 27.9°; refrac-
tive index at I8° C. = I'4747. The freshly distilled oil was scarcely soluble in
ten volumes of 80 per cent. alcohol, but was not rendered turbid by excess; it
was readily soluble in One volume 90 per cent, alcohol, but rapidly became less
Soluble on keeping. The Saponification number was 47-O3, equal to I6'46 per cent.
of ester. In the cold with alcoholic potash, and with three hours contact, the
Saponification number was 24-5, equal to 8.57 per cent. of ester.
On redistilling, practically nothing came over below 156° C.; between
I56° and 16o,” 30 per cent. distilled; between 160° and 175° C., 45 per cent.;
between I75° and 200° C., 8 per cent. ; between 200° and 230° C., 12 per cent.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at #}* C. = o:8562; of the second, o'8571;
of the third, O-8689; of the fourth, o. 9415. The rotation of the first fraction
ap = + 3O. 4; of the second, + 27, 2°; of the third, + 2 I. O’; of the fourth, + 32.4.
The fourth fraction contained 68.2 per cent. of ester. Both borneol and acetic
acid were isolated and determined; so that the high activity is largely due to the
presence of dextro-rotatory bornyl-acetate, and to dextro-rotatory borneol also.
The refractive index at 21°C. of the first fraction = I. 4733; of the second, I: 4736;
Of the third, I-4744; of the fourth, I-4723. -
Terpenes.—The first and second fractions were mixed together and redis-
tilled. Between 156° and 160° C. 42 per cent. distilled, and 29 per cent, between
I60° and 161° C. The specific gravity of both fractions at 20° C. = o'8549; the
rotation of first fraction ap = + 30.8°, or a specific rotation [a]o + 36.02° and
the refractive index at 20° C. = I-4733. The nitrosochloride was easily prepared
from this fraction, and was finally purified from chloroform by precipitating with
methyl alcohol. The nitrosopinene was prepared from this, and when finally
purified from acetic ether it formed good crystals which melted at 132° C. The
low boiling terpene in the leaf oil of this species is, therefore, dextro-rotatory pinene.
The second fraction also consisted largely of this pinene. The third fraction
(175°–200°C.) consisted largely of dextro-rotatory limonene together with dipentene.
The presence of these terpenes in the leaf oil of this species was completely proved
in the oil obtained from the material from Boppy Mountain, No. 2.
Alcohols.-That portion of the oil distilling between 200°–230° C. was taken
for the determination of the alcohols and the acids of the esters. I-OOI gram
of oil reg. o. 2128 gram potash, S.N. = I05-05, equal to 68.26 per cent. ester. The
remainder was saponified by boiling in aqueous potash, and the oily portion
separated. This oil had a marked odour of borneol. Sufficient borneol was
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 71.-Transverse section as in Figure 70. The secretory cells
and strengthening walls are well shown around the oil
cavities, under which are seen in two colours the leaf trace,
with its normally orientated phloem, and accompanying
endodermal cells and transfusion tissue. Stained with
haematoxylin and safranin. C. glauca, x 8o.


I31
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 69.-Transverse section through central axis and decurrent leaves. Figure 70.-Similar section to Figure 69. The decurrent channels are seen
The endodermal cells and transfusion tissue are seen massed to be quite opened in contrast to those of Figure 69. C.
together around the central axis and enclosing the leaf glauca, x 80.
trace, and extending up to the oil cavities. C. glauca, x 8o.
Figure 72.-Shows the unusual occurrence of two oil cavities in one leaf.
In this illustration two of the decurrent channels are
practically closed. C. glauca, x 80.
Cross sections of branchlet and leaves of C. glauca, R.Br.


I32
present to form a semi-solid portion floating in the oil, and this was separated and
purified from petroleum ether and absolute alcohol. It formed well-defined
crystals, with a marked odour of borneol and melted at 202–3 °C. The appearance,
odour, and melting point, together with its association, show this alcohol to be
borneol.
Geraniol, which is a common constituent in the leaf oils of the Callitris,
is also most probably present in combination with acetic acid. This is indicated
by the fact that about half the total amount of esters was saponified in the cold
in three hours.
Geranyl-acetate as well as bornyl-acetate may thus be considered to be
present in the leaf oil of C. glauca, as well as in that of most species of Callitris.
Nineteen hours contact with alcoholic potash in the cold saponified less than two-
thirds of the total ester in the oil of C. glauca, while readily saponifying the total
ester in the oil of Callitris Tasmanica in two hours. -
Volatile Acids.-The aqueous solution separated from the Saponified alcohols
was evaporated down, and distilled with sulphuric acid until all the volatile acids
had come over. This acid distillate was exactly neutralised with barium hydrate
solution, evaporated to dryness, the barium salt prepared in the usual way, and
dried at IIo° C. On ignition with sulphuric acid 90.67 per cent. Of barium
sulphate was obtained. As the theoretical amount for barium acetate should be
91.35 per cent. it is evident that a small amount of a volatile acid of higher
molecular weight was present. During the distillation and preparation of the
acids, a marked odour of butyric acid was detected, so that probably it is that acid
which is present with the acetic acid. The barium salts, therefore, contained
95.87 per cent. barium acetate, and 4. Iş per cent. barium butyrate. The indica-
tions for butyric acid have also been obtained with the leaf oils of several of the
species, particularly with C. gracilis, where it is most probably present in com-
bination with terpineol.
The oil of the general material from Narrandera, 25th April, Igo7, was
rectified by steam distillation in the ordinary way; the greater portion of the oil
readily came over. When it distilled very slowly the receiver was charged, and the
distillation continued for a considerable time. A small quantity of a yellowish
oil was thus obtained. The bulk oil when dried was colourless, had a very
refreshing “Pine-needle-oil” odour, and was bright in appearance. The Saponifi-
cation number was 39. IS equal to I3.7 per cent. Of ester. The rotation ap = +
28.2°; the specific gravity, at ##" C., - o'8682; the refractive index at 24° C.
= I. 4720. It was insoluble in ten volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. It was soluble
in absolute alcohol in all proportions up to two volumes, when it becmea turbid
The smaller portion of oil was somewhat viscous, and gave Saponification
number 127. I2, equal to 44.5 per cent. of ester by heating, and 38.81 per cent.
I33
by cold saponification, three hours contact. The rotation ap = + 19.5°; the
specific gravity at ##" C. = '9524; the refractive index at 24°C. = I. 4828.
It is thus evident that the whole of the ester is not easily redistilled by
steam, although the greater portion comes over in the more readily obtained
distillate.
No. 2.-This material was collected at Boppy Mountain, in the Cobar
district, 440 miles west of Sydney, New South Wales, 25th May, Igo3. The
terminal branchlets with fruit were steam distilled in the usual way. The amount
of oil obtained from 472 lb. of material was 46% oz., equal to O-616 per cent. The
rotation of the crude oil ap = + 31.3° ; specific gravity at ##" C. = o'8665;
refractive index at IQ. C. = I. 4779; Saponification number = 34 IQ, equal to
II: 966 per cent. ester. Saponification in the cold, twenty hours contact, gave
S.N. 22. O7, equal to 7.725 per cent. ester. When freshly distilled, the oil was
insoluble in ten volumes 80 per cent. alcohol, but was soluble in one volume go
per cent. It, however, on keeping, soon became insoluble in ten volumes go
per cent. alcohol.
On redistilling, only a few drops came over below I56° C. Between 156°
and 161° C. 30 per cent. distilled; between 161° and 165° C. 22 per cent. ; between
I65° and 200° C. 37 per cent. ; between 200° and 228°C. 6 per cent. The specific
gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = O-8545; of the second, o.8555; of the
third, O'8649; of the fourth, O. 9434.
The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 32.6°; of the second, + 32-o’;
of the third, + 30.7°; of the fourth, + 33.5°. Another distillation was made with
comparable results. The oil which came over below 161° C. was redistilled, and
66 per cent. came over between I55° and I57° C. The specific gravity of this at
I5° C. was O-8606 ; the rotation ap = + 34.5°; or a specific rotation [a]p = +
40. O9°; the refractive index at 20° C. = I-4731. The nitrosochloride was also
prepared from it, and this when purified melted at Ioy–8° C. These results show
this terpene to be dextro-rotatory pinene, as in the previous sample.
To determine the limonene and dipentene, the second and third fractions
were again distilled, and I6 per cent. which came over between I72° and I75° C.
(uncor.) was obtained. This had specific gravity at I5° C. = O-8535 and rotation
ap = + 28.6°. The tetrabromide was readily prepared from it in some quantity,
and on complete purification from acetic ether it melted at II6° C. It was
recrystallised, but still gave the same result. This indicated that both dextro-
rotatory limonene and dipentene were present. This high melting point of the
tetrabromide was met with in all the samples of Callitris from which it has been
prepared.
That both dextro-rotatory limonene and dipentene were present was shown
also by the activity of the tetrabromide when dissolved in acetic ether; this was
I34
strongly dextro-rotatory. It may be assumed, therefore, that both forms of
limonene occur in the oil of this species, and that the dextro-rotatory form always
predominates.
The fourth fraction was Saponified, and from the separated oil pure borneol
was prepared. The acids of the esters were not "determined, as this had been
done in the previous sample.
No. 3.−This material was collected at Trangie, 320 miles west of Sydney,
New South Wales, 28th November, IQO2. The leaves were very dry at this time,
as the State was suffering from a serious drought. This dryness does not, how-
ever, seem to interfere either with the yield of oil or with its constituents, and 472 lb.
of material gave 46 oz. oil, - O-61 per cent. The rotation of the crude oil ap = +30.8°;
specific gravity at ##" C. = O-8631; refractive index = I-4755 at 20° C. ; saponi-
fication number 36.46, equal to 12.76 per cent. ester. The freshly distilled
oil was soluble in two volumes 90 per cent. alcohol. A portion of the oil was
acetylated by boiling with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in the usual way.
The saponification number was then 52-09, equal to I8-23 per cent. ester. The
free alcohol present was therefore 4.8 per cent. as borneol. On redistilling, 27 per
cent. came over below 160° C.; 37 per cent, between 160 and 165° C.; 16 per
cent. between 160–180° C.; and 12 per cent. between 180–225° C.
The specific gravity at 24°C. first fraction = o'8477; of the second, O.8494;
of the third, O-8561 ; of the fourth, O. 9256. The rotation of the first fraction
ap = + 32-4°; of the second, + 3 I-6°; of the third, + 3O-5°: Of the fourth, + 34.2°.
The constituents were identical with those of the previous Samples.
No. 4.—This material was collected at Wellington, 250 miles west of Sydney,
New South Wales, 17th March, Igo3. 583 lb. of branchlets gave 593 oz. of oil,
equal O-635 per cent. The rotation of the Crude oil ap = + 28.4°; specific
gravity at +3° C. = o'8659; refractive index at I9° C. = I.4774; Saponification
number 34.58 equal to 12. Io9 per cent, ester. When treated with alcoholic potash
in the cold, with three hours contact, the ester value was 5.936 per cent. ; with
nineteen hours contact the ester value was 8. O95 per Cent.
On redistilling, 27 per cent. came over below 161° C.; 27 per cent, between
161°–165° C.; 31 per cent. between 165°–200° C.; 7 per cent, between 200°–
225°C. The specific gravity at 20°C., first fraction = O.8550; of the second,
o.8565; of the third, o'8664; of the fourth, O'9416. The rotation of the first
fraction ap = + 30-5°; of the second, + 29.3°;. of the third, + 27.2°; of the fourth,
+ 32. O. The constituents of this oil were identical with those of the other
Samples.
No. 5. This material was collected at Bylong, 240 miles west of Sydney,
New South Wales, 2nd May, 1903. 511 lb. of branchlets gave 46% oz. of oil
I35
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 73.−Transverse section through the opened edges of a decurrent
channel, showing the relative position of the papillose
projections to the stomata. Two pairs of guard cells
being shown. C. glauca, x 160.
Figure 75.-Transverse section through the leaf in the location of the
base of an oil cavity, with secretory cells and leaf bundle
with phloem marked by the black patch. The transfusion
tissue is clearly indicated by the smaller circles (bordered
pits) in the individual cells. The papillose projections
are shown on the lower left edge of the picture. C. glauca,
x 16o.
Sections of different parts
Figure 74.—Transverse section through closed edges of a decurrent channel,
and showing structure in that part of the leaves. A stoma
with its two guard cells is shown on the left. C. glauca,
x I 60.
Figure 77.-A longitudinal section through a branchlet and decurrent
leaves at the base of the whorl. An oil cavity is shown
in situ in the left leaf. C. glauca, x 55.
of leaves of C. glauca, R.Br.




136
- o:569 per cent. The rotation of the crude oil ap = + 31-25°; specific gravity
at ##" C. = O-8657; refractive index at I9° C. = I.4749; saponification number
37.94, equal to I3, 274 per Cent. ester. Cold Saponification, with three hours con-
tact, gave 6-82 per cent. Of ester, and with nineteen hours contact, 8.799 per cent.
ester. -
On redistilling, 28 per cent. came over below 160° C.; 28 per cent. between
I60° and 165° C.; 32 per cent. between 165° and 200° C. ; 7 per cent. between
200° and 225° C. The specific gravity at I9. C., first fraction = O'8529; of the
second, O-8537; of the third, O'8649; of the fourth, O'9322. The rotation of
the first fraction ap = + 32.2°; of the second + 31.7; of the third + 3O-6°; of the
fourth + 32.5°. The constituents were identical with those in the other samples.
No. 6.-This material was collected near Tamworth, 280 miles north of
Sydney, New South Wales, 3rd March, Igo&. 388 lb. of branchlets, containing
some fruits, gave 35 Oz. Of Oil, equal to O. 563 per cent. The specific gravity of
the crude oil at 24° C. = 0.8665 ; rotation ap = + 25.2°; refractive index at
24° C. = 1.472; the saponification number was 402, equal to 14.07 per cent.
ester. These results are practically identical with those obtained with the other
samples, and it was thus thought unnecessary to carry the investigation further.
No. 7.-This material was collected at Nyngan, 380 miles west of Sydney,
New South Wales, 29th December, I899. 358 lb. branchlets gave 30% oz. of oil,
equal to O-532 per cent. The distillation was continued for eight hours, but very
little oil came over during the extra two hours; it was sufficient, however, to
increase the specific gravity somewhat, although the ester content was but little
improved. The specific gravity at 24° C. = O'8782 ; rotation, ap = + 22.7° ;
refractive index at I9° C. = I.4774; Saponification number 40-61, equal to I4-2T
per cent. ester.
Table I.—Crude Oils from the Leaves of Callitris glauca.
e º Yield
* Specific Rotation Refractive Ester
No. Locality and Date. Gravity 9 C. Cºp Index C. per cent. dº
ë
• |
I Narrandera, 25/4/07... & ſº tº ... o.8729 (a) I8 + 27.9° I-4747 (a) IS I6:46 o'562
! |
I-4779 ,, I9 II-96 O-616
2 | Boppy Mountain, 25/5/03 ... o:8665, 18 + 31.3°
. { |
Trangie, 28/II/O2
3 . O-863I ,, 24 + 30.8° I-4755 ,, 20 | I2.76 O 610
|
4 Wellington, I7/3/03 ... * g e ... O-8659 ,, I7 - 28.4° I 4774 ,, 19 I2-IO O-635
5 Bylong, 2/5/03 tº º is & 4. ... O'8657 ,, I9 + 31.25° I 4749 , IQ I3-27 O'569
|
6 |
7 Nyngan, 20/I2/99 ... tº e de ... o.8782 , 24 + 22.7° | 1.4774, 19 14:21 O'532
Tamworth, 3/3/08 ... º e º ...] O.8665 ,, 24 + 25.2° I 4720 , 24 I4-07 O'563
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 76.-Transverse section through a decurrent channel of two
collateral leaves, which is marked by the papillose elonga-
tions of the cuticle of the transpiratory surface. Part of
the xylem and phloem of the branchlet is seen at the
bottom with endodermal and transfusion cells (pitted) on
each side. Stained with haematoxylin. C. glauca, x 160.
º- º
ºº º
/
Figure 78.-A longitudinal section through the junction of two whorls
of leaves given to show the arrangement of the stomata on
the ventral surfaces; they are seen on the lower left leaf
as pinkish oval bodies. Stained with haematoxylin. --
C. glauca, x 50.
º º
i


I37
Table II—Some redistillation results of five
of the samples of Oils of Callitris
glauca, with specific gravity and rotation results.
Numbers I to 5 as in Table I.
No. I St. 2nd. 3rd, 4th. I St 2nd. 3rd 4th
----------- ---------- -- | | -
I I56–160° I60–175° I75–200° 200–230° -8562 1857I '8689 ‘94I5
30% 45% 8% I2% + 30 4 + 27-2 + 21-0 | + 32.4
2 156–161° 161–165° 165–200° 200–228° | 8545 '8555 '8649 '9434
30% 22% 37% 6% | +32.6 + 32 +307 +33.5
3 Below 160° I60–165° I65–180° 180–225° 18477 '8494 1856I ‘9256
27% 37% 16% I2% + 32 °4 + 3 I-6 + 3O-5 + 34-2
4 Below 161° 161–165° | 165–200° | 200–225° .8550 .8565 18664 '9416
27% 27% 31% 7% +30.5 + 29.3 + 27:2 + 32
5 || Below I60° I60–165° I65–200° 200–225° 18529 '8537 18649 ‘9322
28% 28% 32% 7% + 32-2 + 3 I-7 + 3O-6 | + 32.5
t | - ---------------- ----- |- --- - ----- – -- - - --- -
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMICS.
This is the most widely distributed species of the genus, and its timber,
therefore, is more extensively used than that of any other Callitris. It is pre-
ferable to that of C. calcarata, R.Br., owing to its comparative freedom from
knots and its straighter grain, and so is in general request for certain parts of
house construction in the West and Central Divisions of the State. It is an easy
working timber, and although usually possessing a quiet neat figure, it Occasionally
has some very handsome markings, which make it a valuable timber for some
kinds of cabinet work, such as panelling, &c. When polished it is very attractive,
and the decorative characters are well brought out in turned stands or columns
for busts, statuettes, &c. Some such adorn the landings of the Technological
Museum, and are a constant source of admiration to visitors.
The white-ants or termites are not particularly partial to it, and will attack
it only as a dernier ressort, and this fact, of course, accounts for its utilisation for
fence and foundation posts, in which capacity it is reputed to be very durable.
The supply, unfortunately, of this most useful timber is gradually becoming less
and less, and no steps are being taken for its propagation.
The following are results of transverse tests of timber specimens of C.
glauca of standard size (38 in. by 3 in. by 3 in.).
138
Transverse Tests—Callitris glaucas—
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches B. 3'02, D. 303 || B. 2:968, D, 3:025 | B. 3:005, D. 3-02
Area of cross section, sq. inches 9'I5 8-908 9:06
Modulus of rupture in lb. per sq. in. . 9,448 8,529 6,OIO
Modulus of elasticity in lb. per sq. in. I,0I6,470 I,I33,I6O ; 875,675
Rate of load in lb. per minute tº e tº 485 45I 2IO
Breaking load in lb. per sq. inch º 4,850 4,29O 3,050
|
i
Three smaller pieces, 12 in. by I in. by I in. gave the following results:—
(I) broke at 900 lb., deflection -37 in. ; (2) broke at 850 lb., deflection 28 in. ; (3)
broke at 690 lb., deflection - 20 in.
(b) ANATOMY.
Very little if anything appears to have been done to investigate the
anatomical structure of the timber of Australian Callitris, or at any rate our
researches through the Conifer literature at our disposal revealed little or nothing.
The data now given should, therefore, prove of interest in the future study of
this genus. Phylogenetically the results are of some value, for a connecting link,
so to speak, was found to exist between these living Callitris and the fossil pine
woods of Australia and North America, in that some of the tracheids of the
xylem contain a similar dark substance—its chemical identification being touched
upon in another part of this work.
A transverse section of the timber viewed under a low magnification as in
Figure 79, shows a more or less irregularity in the diameter and thickness of the
tracheidal walls between the several medullary rays. This figure is interesting, in
that there is quite an absence in the picture of any manganese compound in any of
the tracheids; this is an unusual occurrence, and it simply shows that it is possible
to obtain portions without this compound in the cells. The line of smaller or
closely packed cells marks the autumnal growth and the point of transition from
that season's wood structure to that of spring.
Under a higher magnification, as in Figures 80 and 81, a rather
more uniform size of cell obtains, for although the tracheids are of varying
diameters, yet the walls may be said to be of a fairly uniform thickness; in
Figure 80 the black lines running from top to bottom are the parenchymatous cells
of the medullary rays filled with manganese compound—the “end-on-view '' of
which is shown in Figures 84 and 85. In 80 and 81 are more plainly seen the
autumnal tracheids with their restricted growth, and which form a darker line
across the lower portion of the plate, Figure 80; these cells are slightly enlarged
in Figure 81. The gradual diminution in size of the tracheids during this period
is well seen, as also is the sudden change to enlarged tracheids of the spring period.
I39
-
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
-ſº
f Hé -
# -
º Hº- f - º -
º: |-- i º
: # - º |
# |- º
|- |- |- º
Hººt: º
|- |--
H. #
º †† |- º º
|- º |- - T.
º º |- - H
###########
v. | HºHºº |- -
N |- - Hº º |-
#
|-- |- --
*#######
Figure 80,-Transverse section of timber. The dark lines are the
medullary rays with their manganese compound contents
and the rectangular dark markings the similar contents of
the tracheids. C. glauca, x 80.
Figure 79.-Transverse section of timber through spring growth, bounded
on the top and bottom by an autumnal ring of tracheids.
C. glauca, x 50.
Jºººººº-
Cººººººº.
- Cº- C * tº Q
ºº Cºº -
C - Cºº º * Lºº ºl
º Sºº-ºº-ºº:
- * * * * Qº-º-º-º-º:
* - - - º ºs- *º- sº - -
* * * * * * * * * * **** * * * *
Tº - - - - - - - - sº * - * *
E-jºº S.S.S. Fºes tº
* - - - - -
sº º:H- º
ºCº-ºº-º-º-º-º-º-º:
* * * * * * -º-º-º-º: Cº.
* - - - - - - - -º-º-º-º-º-º-º-e
-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º:
- - - - -
º
ºº:
- Figure 82.-Transverse section of timber showing structure of spring
Figure 81.-Transverse section of timber at junction of spring and tracheids in greater detail than in Figure 81. C. glauca,
autumnal tracheids. C. glauca, x 80. x 210.
Cross sections of timber of C, glauca, R.Br.





















140
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
-
--|
|
º
º
º
º
|
|-
|
-
|
-|
|
-
-
-
-
|
º
|
.
º
*
-
Figure 83.-Radial section of timber with autumnal tracheids towards - - - - - -
the right centre. Portions of three rays are also seen. Figure 84.—Tangential section of timber, showing varying heights of
C. glauca, x 8o. rays and their brown manganese compound contents,
C. glauca, x 8o.
|
... .
Tº
Figure 85.-Tangential section, showing enlarged portion of Figure 84. Figure 86.-Radial section of timber showing the brown manganese
The radial walls show the bordered pits in section. C. compound in the tracheids and ray cells. C. glauca, x 80.
glauca, x 16o.
Radial and tangential sections of timber of C. glauca, R.Br.





I4I
In Figure 81 there is a portion of a single circle (straight in the picture)
of smaller tracheids, four or five cells distant from the well-defined autumnal
ones, and which evidently indicates a cold “snap,” or where the growth has been
retarded. The manganese cavities are plainly shown, but no medullary rays are
visible.
Figure 82 is portion of Figure 81 under a 2IO magnification. The cells in
the same rows are of almost equal diameters, and on the lower radial walls of the
fifth row from the top, bordered pits in Section can just be seen, and the torus is
also discernible. It will be noticed in Several instances, portions of the inner cell
walls are detached and protrude into the cell cavity. Whether this is natural or
accidental in the cutting, we could not decide. It hardly appears to be a case of
tylosis. -
Figure 83 is an 80 magnification of a radial section of timber. The general
character of the parenchymatous cells of the medullary rays are rather obliterated
by the dark contents. However, the pictures define clearly that the outer cells
of the rays are of identical structure to the inner ones, and that the whole
group may be classed as parenchymatous. This is a distinct difference of form
or structure of the cells of medullary rays from Some living non-Australian Pines.
In the same figure it will be noticed that the narrow lumina of the autumnal
wood are towards the right of the picture.
The numerous bordered pits are in single rows on the medullary walls of
the tracheids, and are well brought out in both plates. The simple pits of the
medullary rays are distinctly seen at the top right-hand corner, and the bottom
of Figure 83. The diameter of the bordered pits varies according to the diameter
of the lumen, and the presence of manganese compound in the tracheids is marked
by the darkened content. Figure 83 has only one cell filled with manganese
compound, which is low down in the right hand corner, and Figure 86 has three
on the right hand centre of the field of observation, being the vertical views of
the manganese cells of Figs. 80 and 81.
MEDULLARY RAYS.
In addition to what has been stated under Figure 83 it may be further
remarked that these organs present novel features when compared with those of
Angiosperms. In the radial and tangential Sections they are found to consist
entirely of narrow parenchymatous cells circular in form when viewed tangen-
tially in the wood. Each ray is composed of a varying number of cells arranged
in horizontal parallel strata only a single cell in breadth. Most of the outer and
inner cells are filled with manganese compound similar to the other cells, the
radial walls being marked by the presence of simple pits, and cells void of this
substance are the exception. In Figures 87 and 88 they are shown radially
in situ in the wood substance, the varying length is evidently due to the plane of
cutting, the vertical diameter varying in each case according to number of cells.
I42
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 87.-Radial section of timber, showing three rays running from - ... 1"--,-4: - -
- - --> - - f timber. Portions of four rays are shown.
left to right in the picture. Numerous bordered pits are Figure 88.-Radial'section o - -
shown in the ºi ºil. C. glauca, x 80. P none of which has outer tracheidal walls. C. glauca, x 8o
Figure 89.-Radial-section, showing bordered pits in situ in radial wall.
C. glauca, x 160.
Radial sections of timber of C. glauca, R.Br.


I43
In the tangential sections, Figures 84 and 85, a good end-on view is obtained
of the medullary rays. They are the dark, black-coloured fusiform bodies embedded
in the radial, vertical walls of the tracheids, a single cell in breadth, and ranging in
number from two to twelve in height. The black colour is due to the presence
of the manganese compound. -
These two sections are of further interest in that they show distinctly a
run of contiguous bordered pits in some of the radial walls, and the greater magnifi-
cation of Figure 85, details fairly well the torus and closing membrane. The
manganese compound was found to be present in nearly all Sections of timber
cut, as indicated by black patches or spots Scattered throughout the xylem, yet
there was quite an absence of constancy in the dispositions of the cells, so that
they were found to be of little value for systematic classification.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(See articles on the Phenol and the occurrence of Guaiol.)
(d) Forestry.
From the economics deducted in this research, beyond those already known,
this tree is worthy of serious consideration for sylviculture especially for its timber,
as it is naturally adapted to withstand the natural conditions of the interior of this
continent, thus flourishing where many other trees would perish. Its timber is
highly prized for house-building, fencing, &c., in those parts, more especially for
its white-ant resisting qualities.
The pine-timber industry has been largely responsible for the opening up
of some districts in New South Wales. . To give one instance: Years ago what
was then known as the Dubbo Bush was exploited; this forest extends back to
Cobborah on the one side, and a splendid lot of timber has been obtained from this
bush. Cypress Pine predominates, and this timber is one of the best for building
purposes. At Balladoran a mill was established for dealing with Cypress Pine,
and employed a great number of men; and other similar cases could be quoted.
It is strongly recommended as a tree suitable for South African forestry.
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMICS.
Apart from its yielding resin, the presence of tannin in the bark, shown
by the numerous analyses, proves it to be a tan bark of Some value (See analyses
appended).
(b) ANATOMY.
The most characteristic feature of the bark is the very large number and
size of the oleo-resin cells distributed throughout the entire cortex, both inner
and outer. Macroscopically they appear, in a freshly transverse cut of the mass,
I44
as so many concentric white rings, being more pronounced in the darker outer
bark or cortex, and where, after the oil of the cell has been volatilised or removed,
resin or Sandarac, as it is called, remains as a white Solid, filling the cells and
giving the appearance of tangential parallel bands or rather rows. In the living
bast or inner bark the cell content is in a liquid condition, and on a cut being
made into fresh specimens there flows at Once a liquid, which, however, indurates
into beads or tears as soon as the volatile portion has evaporated or altered.
Figures go and 91 (longitudinal sections) show these bodies to be cavities
rather than resin ducts or canals, and this is further proved by the small flow of
liquid from a cut in the bark, which is quite a reverse order of things to that found
occurring in the American Conifer bark and wood which yield the “naval stores ''
Of that Country, and give a continuous flow for a whole season when cut, thus
proving that they are in that case canals that have been tapped. Microscopically
these cells are found to be not quite so regularly arranged as appears macroscopi-
cally, but, nevertheless, their numerical strength is even then well emphasised,
as shown in the transverse Sections in Figures 92 and 93. The anatomical structure
is interesting in that the variety of vessels is limited. The cambium is succeeded
by concentric rings of cells of three distinct characters.
The most noticeable concentric row is that composed of cells of sclerenchy-
matous bast fibres with their much-thickened walls. These uniseriate concentric
rings of bast cells are generally separated from each other by three rows of cells,
a regularity that is rather unusual, as it does not appear to have been observed
before in other Conifers, the general rule being consistently three or four inter-
vening rows. The middle row of these cells, is of a parenchymatous nature, and
these are often filled with manganese Compound, especially in the outer cortex,
and sometimes found longitudinally flattened, whilst at other times they are of a
lysigenous character, for, becoming extended, they push out, or flatten as it were,
the contiguous cells on each side of it and the sclerenchymatous bast cells.
The intervening cells between these parenchymatous and bast ones are sieve tubes.
At irregular intervals are concentric bands of periderm or cork cells, more
especially in the Outer cortex.
Irregularly scattered throughout the mass, it is found some of the cells of
the parenchymatous bands have tannin content determined by the usual tests. Al-
together there is a regularity of successive layers of the different cells similar to
that which appears to characterise some of the Conifers of the northern hemisphere
(vide de Bary, p. 494; also “Some North American Coniferae,” E. S. Bastin and
H. Trimble), but differing from some of the American Coniferae barks figured by
Bastin and Trimble. The medullary rays are not so pronounced as in the xylem,
the particular feature being the numerous perforations of the Communicating
aperture with the lumen of the contiguous tracheids.
I45
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
C. glauca,
The dark patches are
se compound of the cells.
Figure 91.-Longitudinal section of outer bark.
the brown mangane
× 43.
and rays are
× 43.
The thin parallel lines from top to
st fibres;
C. glauca,
bottom of the picture are the ba
seen extending from left to right.
Figure 90.-Longitudinal section of inner bark. The light spaces are
oleo-resin cavities.
The dark patches
ganese compound. C.
with their secretory cells are shown.
denote the presence of the man
-Transverse section of inner bark. Nine oleo-resin cavities
glauca, x 80.
Figure 92.
Sections of bark of C. glauca, R.Br.


I46
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The bark of this species is, macroscopically, quite distinct from those of
C. calcarata and C. are mosa. It is more fibrous, and in section does not show
the inner cortex so distinctly or so well defined as with those species. Externally,
the bark of C. glauca is grey, and often somewhat light in Colour; in section it
has a flesh tint well marked in the thicker barks. When taken from large trees
the bark is deeply furrowed, but has an interlocked fibrous appearance, which
cannot be mistaken for the harder and more compact bark of C. calcarata.
Three samples of the bark of this species were determined:—
(a) Bark from small to medium size trees, collected at Narrandera, New
South Wales, March, Igog. Its total thickness was from I5 to 20 mm.
The following results were obtained:—
Moisture ... ... II-60 per cent.
Total extract ... 20.85 y 5
Non-tannin ... 6. I7 3 y
Tannin ... ... I4.68 3 y
(b) Bark from a large tree, I ft. Io in. in diameter. The bark was very
thick, ranging up to 30 mm. (nearly Ił inches). It was somewhat fibrous and
deeply furrowed. It was collected at Narrandera, New South Wales, April,
I907.
The following results were obtained:—
Moisture ..., ... II-80 per cent.
Total extract ... Ig:72 5 y
Non-tannin ... 5: I.2 5 y
Tannin ... . ... I4:60 5 y
The same bark was extracted entirely with cold water, with eighteen hours
contact, and it then gave the following results:–
Moisture ... ... II-80 per cent.
Total extract ... I2-70 3 y
Non-tannin ... 2:45 3 y
Tannin . . . ... IO-25 y 5
(c) Bark taken from a tree 5 to 6 inches in diameter. In thickness it
ranged up to 12 mm. About half of this thickness consisted of the more com-
pact portion of the bark. It was collected at Narrabri, New South Wales,
June, IQO9.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 93.-Transverse section of a portion of bark. The bast fibres are
the rectangular, yellow bodies extending in almost parallel
lines, across the picture from left to right. The oval spaces
are the oleo-resin cavities and the two bands of irregularly
shaped, thin-walled cells are periderm. Unstained.
C. glauca, x 100.
:
i
-
:
-
i

I47
The following results were obtained :-
Moisture ... ... I2°50 per cent.
Total extract ... I7-49 } }
Non-tannin ... 6-97 } y.
Tannin ... ... IO-52 5 y
To determine the value of the inner “rossed '' bark of this sample, the
Outer portion was removed until a comparatively smooth surface was obtained,
the bark had thus been reduced to about half its original thickness. This
“rossed '' bark gave the following results:—
Moisture ... ... I2.60 per cent.
Total extract ... 21.69 3 y
Non-tannin ... 8-90 3 y
Tannin ... ... I2-79 y 3
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.B.R.
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE SPECIES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. (See also Map).
From data supplied by Public School Teachers and other correspondents.
(Where no information is given under Remarks, only herbarium specimens were received. The
information is given without comment.)
Locality. County. Remarks.
Angledool s tº ºf * * * ...] Finch ... ... Taking a radius of 50 miles around here, it may be
said that pines only grow on the sand ridges, or
the base of other middle ridges. The pine is not
very plentiful about here. I should think it does
not cover more than one two-hundredth part of
the above radius.
Timber.—The average of full-grown trees is from
50 to 70 feet; diameter I2 to 18 inches, some
few measure 2 feet.
Resin.-They do not exude much resin unless
wounded. Both species yield about the same
quantity.
Mr. R. L. Moore, Manager, Angledool Station, in-
forms me that he has used the resin in the
making of candles, and that it answers admir-
ably. The resin is first reduced to a fine powder
and then thoroughly stirred in with hot liquid
fat, and the candles made in moulds. The fat,
however, should not be allowed to boil. (A.
Paddison.)
Attunga tº ſº as º gº ...] Inglis ... ... Occupies I to 20 acres. (Alfred Pritchard.)
Baan Baa º tº º & © & ... Pottinger ...] Covers one-third of the area of the district.
(V. N. Walker.)
Ballarah, Cobbora ... ...] Lincoln ... Grows in flat country in detached clumps, varying
in extent from I to 20 acres. (J. Davis.)
I48
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
Ballol Creek, Narrabri
Bancanya, vid Milparinka
Barmedman
Barringun
Bendolba
Berrigan
Bethungra
Boggabri
Boppy Mountain.
Box Ridge, Sofala
Brawlin © tº
Burrumbuttock
Bylong... tº e
Bynya, Narrandera ...
Canowindra
Carroll
County.
... Jamison
. Evelyn ...
... Bland ...
. Culgoa ...
. Gloucester
. Denison...
...] Clarendon
. Pottinger
Robinson
º Roxburgh.
. Harden
Hume
. Phillip ...
. Cooper ...
. Bathurst
. Buckland
Remarks.
. About 20,000 acres. They are very numerous in
nearly all parts of this district. It is impossible
to give a proper estimate without Survey.
(H. W. Strangways.)
(H. H. Burns.)
See under Cootamundra.
... Sand ridges; 4,000 to 5,000 acres. (B. C. Hughes.)
. Scattered on the ranges. (R. J. Fawcett.)
... The Murray Pine occurs in belts and patches,
and the area of the pine Country is very great,
reaching from 7 to 8 miles in the north to IO to
I2 miles on the south of Berrigan. In an
easterly direction I have travelled over 40 miles
through pine country, and on the west I know
it to reach at least IO miles. The area given
above is all pine country, but landholders have
destroyed most of the timber, and a thick
growth is now met with on reserves only.
Timber.—There are very few large trees, and I
think the average diameter would not exceed
9 inches, and the height 30 feet.
Resin.—Very little resin exudes, and I have
searched many trees without obtaining any
whatever. I put cuts into some three weeks
ago, but very little resin was produced. (H. B. C.
Hughes.)
...] Scattered throughout the district. (R. F. Dale.)
... The whole district round.
Resin.—Exudes resin freely. (Theo. Sheehy.)
(R. H. Cambage).
º (R. Strong.)
... The largest are about 2 feet in diameter at the
base, and from 80 to 90 feet high. (Robert
Black.)
. Murray Pine, from 1,000 to 2,000 acres. This
area is covered with pines, but there are odd
trees scattered over a large area—approximately
from 80,000 to IOO,OOO acres. (A. T. Watson.)
(H. King.)
2OO,OOO acres.
Timber.—70 feet high, 2 feet diameter. (A. B. Car.
roll.) -
. A few trees. (D. Colleton.)
Within a radius of IO miles from here there must
be at least 1,000 acres covered by the above
pines.
Timber.—Splendid grown trees were here a few
years ago, but now the larger ones are all cut
down, and used by our local sawmill; the
majority of them now growing are not above
I8 inches at the butt.
Resin.-A fair amount of resin exudes, especially
from trees that are marked or injured in the
bark. (James Delmege.)
I49
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
County.
Remarks.
Cassilis
Clareval, Stroud
Clear Hills, Daysdale
Cocomingla, Cowra
Condobolin
Coonamble
Cootamundra ...
Cowra ...
Cullenbone
Daysdale
Denman
Digilah...
..] Bligh
. Gloucester
. Urana
. Monteagle
. Cunningham
. Leichhardt
. Harden
. Monteagle
... Wellington
. Hume
..] Brisbane
... Lincoln
. There are patches of considerable extent in different
parts of this district covered for the most part
by pine trees. They keep to the poor and
sandy country. (H. W. Smith.)
. The Cypress grows in a brush with beech and
varieties of the fig, covering an area about
7 miles long by 3 wide.
Resin.-Neither of the two varieties exude a suffi-
cient quantity of resin to be of any commercial
value. (A. McLennan.)
. 7,000 acres; covering about two-thirds of the
country side. (L. E. Fraser.)
. The White or Silver Pine is not so common as the
Red or Cypress Pine (C. calcarata) in the
mountains in this district, but it is the principal
sort found on the level country, both sides of
the Lachlan, for hundreds of miles into the
interior. (Alex. Elliott.)
. 2,500 acres.
Timber.—Height, 40 feet; diameter, I4 to 20 inches.
Resin.--Plentiful. (H. J. Browne.)
. In the district there are seventeen forest reserves,
aggregating 486,700 acres, which embrace nearly
one-tenth of the pine-bearing area. Not found
immediately on the Castlereagh River more than
say I5 miles below Coonamble, as the continuous
black-soil country commences at about that
distance. The supplyis practically inexhaustible.
The Geelmoy Scrub extends from Come-by-
Chance to Coonabarabran, about 60 miles, with
a width of 20 to 40 miles. The Big Monkey
Scrub from Gilgandra to below Bourbah. Smaller
scrubs are Nebra and Urawilkie holdings.
(E. H. Taylor, F. T. Berman.)
. Out towards the flat country the White Pine is met
with. A large area, embracing thousands of
acres, is to be met with extending from Bar-
medman, Temora, and Wyalong.
Resin.-Copious flows from both varieties in hot
months of the year. (T. B. Mulligan, T. W.
Henry.)
. They are to be seen all sizes and heights, from the
size of a whip-handle and 2 feet high, up to
trees with a diameter of 2 ft. 6 in., and height
of 80 or 90 feet.
Resin.-From every knot on the trunk, and score
or crack in the bark, the resin oozes out like
stalactites. When the trees have been ring-
barked, the gap that has been cut round them
becomes, in a short time, entirely filled up with
resin. (A. Elliott.)
... Interspersed with C. calcarata. (E. R. Langbridge.)
. There is very little ground covered by pines now,
as most of the land is cleared. (L. R. Brown.)
... About I,000 acres. (W. Johnson.)
. Common pine very plentiful. (H. A. Patrick.)
I5O
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
County.
Remarks.
Dilga and Ardil
Dubbo tº º ºs tº tº e
Duesbury and Wilgas
Elsmore
Enngonia
Eugowra, vić Orange
º Gordon ...
... Gordon ...
... Oxley
|
H
|
º Gough
& & Gunderbooka
... Ashburnham
... About one-tenth of the ground. (S. E. James.)
... (J. Davis.)
... The average height is about 45 feet; average
diameter, 9 to I5 inches.
Resin.—A large quantity is sometimes found on the
trees. (J. Lockart.)
... The Scrubs are in patches covering several miles
in area. (J. W. Parkins.)
. Scarce, occurring in small numbers on isolated
places on the sand hills. (C. O’Hara.)
. Cover the whole of this district, and are more
numerous than any of the other forest trees.
They extend for an indefinite distance towards
the plains of the Lachlan River in the west;
as far as Cudal on the east; southward and
northward for many miles.
Timber.—Specimens of timber of this species have
Eulah Creek, Narrabri
Euston
Forest Hill
Galathara-road, vid. Narrabri
Galway Creek, viá Eugowra
Garra &
Ganmain
Gerogery
Gilgandra
Nandewar
..] Taila
Cowley ...
Nandewar
Ashburnham
. Ashburnham
... Bourke ...
. Goulburn
. Ewenmar
remained sound after being in the ground for
forty years (O. Blacket); grows to a height of
50 to 60 feet; average diameter, 8 to II inches;
greatest height, IOO to I2O feet ; greatest
diameter, I8 to 24 inches.
Resin.-Exudes freely. (Thos. Miller.)
. Most common. The whole of the Narrabri district
is pine-bearing Country, and, although an
immense quantity has been cut for timber,
fencing, &c., and so much more ringbarked,
large areas are still to be met with, and in many
places the young pines are growing up as thickly
as ever. (T. Abel.)
Equally distributed with C. calcarata. (R. Brown).
(W. J. Peacock.)
. Hundreds of acres in and around Narrabri West,
Jack's Creek (4 miles), Deep Creek, Eulah
Creek, and in the scrub around Killarney.
Places mentioned are within easy access of town.
Pine belt from 4 to 20 miles. (J. Morrissey.)
... (J. L. Sim.)
. On the flats.
Timber.—The trees in this neighbourhood are
generally small, one measuring I foot in diameter
and 20 feet high would be considered a large
tree. (L. C. Young.)
. The greater part of the country from the Murray
to the Lachlan is more or less wooded by the
Murray Pine.
Timber.—Perhaps 40 feet high and from 9 to I2
inches in diameter. The largest run IOO feet
high and nearly 2 feet in diameter, but near
settlement these have all been cut down.
Resin.-They all exude resin, especially in hot
weather. (W. B. Breyley.)
... (J. Marine.) -
Unlimited area; close to here is a belt of pine Scrub,
a mile in width and 20 miles in length. (E. H.
Taylor.)
I5I
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).

Locality.
*=-
Goolagong
Gralgumbone (Coonamble) ...
Green's Gunyah (Lockhart) ...
. Wynyard
Gregador, Wagga Wagga
Grong Grong ...
Gunbar * 9 º'
Gunnedah
Guntawang
Hay ...
Hillston
Keepit, Somerton
Lake Cudgellico
Lewis Ponds ...
Lockwood, Canowindra
County.
. Forbes ...
Leichhardt
Urana
... Bourke ...
. Nicholson
. Pottinger
Wellington
º Waradgery
. Nicholson
. Darling
: Dowling
. Bathurst
. Bathurst
Remarks.
... Black and White Pine in thousands of acres—
mostly back from the river flats, in fact most of
the hills are covered thickly with a small sort
fit only for fishing rods.
Timber.—60 to 70 feet high, and yield the best
timbers.
Resin.-The White yields the most. (F. L. D'Aran.)
... (E. H. Taylor.)
... (Alice M. Ellis.)
... Thickly studded with pines for many miles.
Timber.—20 to 30 feet in height, and I foot or more
in diameter.
Resin.—A fair amount is exuded in the season.
(Susan McNamara.)
. Small patches. (J. Bicherstaff.)
. Extensive area to the north of this town.
Timber.—Average height, 35 feet;
diameter, I8 to 20 inches.
Resin.—White variety appears to exude the most.
(W. C. H. Hatherly.)
average
. On the ranges and in the scrub. Thousands of acres
distributed throughout the whole of the “Box”
Country, except the alluvial flats adjoining the
river. Several sawmills have been cutting pine
timber Continuously for many years past, with
the result that now no logs fit for the mills can
be obtained within 25 or 30 miles of the town.
... On the flats, I acre in every 300. (T. H. West.)
. (J. Guthrie.)
. The extent of ground covered is very large. Pine
forests are found here and there all the way to
Cudgellico, a distance of 65 miles E.N.E., and
also here and there for a distance of 60 miles
south from Hillston. The area covered by the
three varieties of pines must be many square
miles. (H. Hatherly.)
... With C. calcarata covers an area of from 6,000 to
IO,O00 a.CreS.
Timber.—Average height, 30 or 30 feet; average
diameter, 6 or 8 inches.
Resin.—Only after being chopped or ringbarked
do they exude a good deal of resin, though very
little exudes through the bark in a natural
manner. (E. S. Davies.)
. Hundreds of thousands of acres.
Timber.—Full-grown trees are from 40 to 75 feet,
and from 18 inches to 3 feet 4 inches thick.
There are millions of saplings of all heights and
SIZéS.
Resin.—They exude resin in great quantities when
they have been rung. (W. T. Day, W. H.
Perkins.)
. About 4 miles from here there is just a small patch.
About 7 miles from here is a large area measured
by miles. (H. P. Mutton.)
. Throughout the district in scattered clumps.
(Maggie R. Olde.)
I52
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.B.R.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
Looby's. vić Parkes ...
Lowesdale, vi ä Corowa
Major's Plains, Moorwatha
Manilla
Mathoura
Menindee
Meranburn
Milburn Creek, Woodstock .
Minore, Dubbo
Mitta Mitta, Bethungra
Mitten's Creek, Brundah
Monteagle
Moor Creek, Tamworth
Mossgiel
Mount Arrowsmith, vi ä
Milparinka.
Mulwala
County,
..| Ashburnham
. Hume
... Hume
. Darling
. Cadell
. Menindee
Ashburnham
... Bathurst
... Narromine
. Clarendon
. Monteagle
. Monteagle
... Inglis
. Mossgiel
. Evelyn ..
. Denison...
. Only a few trees.
... In patches in all directions.
... On all the ridges.
... (J. Anderson.)
... (J. Sullivan.)
. Red and White Pine extend from, or nearly
. Hundreds of acres.
Remarks.
. The plains extending for miles are covered with the
Murray Pine.
Timber.—50 feet high, I ft. 6 in. in diameter. The
wood is very light, splits very easily; in fact,
will Crack and split if hammered at all; and
burns splendidly. The Murray Pine grows in
some cases 70 feet high and almost 2 feet in
diameter, very straight, and the branches grow
near the top
Resin.—Very freely. (A. A. Hewitt.)
. The reserves, which are not very large, are covered
with pine and box; however, 20 or 30 miles out
there are large tracts covered almost exclusively
with pine scrub. Towards Urana and in the
district of Narrandera are to be found whole
forests of young pines.
Timber.—50 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet; average
height is about 20 feet and the diameter 9 inches.
Resin.-They all exude resin, the white giving
most. (C. W. Peck.)
... After leaving this locality and going W. or N.W.
you will find pines for hundreds of miles, but
none E. or N.E. (Murray Pine). (A. J. Pittock.)
More or less all over the district.
Timber.—Pines have a quick growth, and forests
could be readily grown. (C. M. Brophy.)
(S. Smith.)
(W. J. Ross.)
all the way from, Dubbo to Trangie, 50 miles.
(Gertrude A. Harrison.)
. Once covered hundreds of thousands of acres in
this district. (Miss J. E. Macdowell.)
. Most of them destroyed now, only a few remaining.
(J. W. Bell.)
Many thousands of acres.
(J. B. Daly.)
... The pines grow in belts of from a few acres to, say,
2 or 3 Square miles. They grow very quickly on
the ridges. Within a radius of IO miles from
here, they would cover an area of about 7 square
miles. -
Timber.—About 30 feet. Those cut for timber
reach to from 40 to 70 feet; diameter I ft
6 in. to 2 feet. (B. E. Sampson.)
. In scattered clumps in the eastern part of the
district. (H. W. Smith, B.A.)
... (H. H. Burns.)
... Murray Pine grows for miles back from both
banks of the river, covering, I believe, the larger
part of the country included between the banks
of the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers. (John
Dennis.)
I53
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Mungindi, vid Moree
Muswellbrook
Locality. County. Remarks.
. Courallie . About one-sixteenth of this district. (A. W.
Greville.)
. Durham ...] I,000 acres. (J. W. Hazelwood.)
... Cooper ... . There must be thousands of acres, known as Mur-
Narrandera
Narromine
Nevertire (Wilgas).
Nurramundi
Nullamanna
Nyngan
Oakey Creek, Woodburn.
(Warialda.)
Parkesborough
Piallaway
Pine Ridge, Quirindi
Pleasant Hills, vid Henty
…
. Narromine
tº º ſº e g º º e º g º e
. Arrawatta
. Oxley
Burnett
. Ashburnham
. Buckland
. Buckland
Mitchell...
. Both Black and White Pine.
. Only a small quantity left.
. Not less than IOO,000 acres.
. Murray Pine.
(W. G. Heath.)
The greater part
of this locality in its natural state is almost
covered with these pines, and growing so thickly
that it is impossible to ride through the scrub.
Timber.—Varies much in height, from 30 to 80 feet.
Resin.-Both (White and Black) give resin. The
White gives most. (F. J. Grainger.)
rumbidgee Pine.
. In patches, from I to IO acres. (J. McLennan.)
Nearly all scrub land on sides and tops of ranges.
Sparsely in some parts, but dense in patches.
... Resin.-The trees exude very small quantities of
resin. (P. Head.)
(R. T. Baker.)
. In patches throughout the district into Queensland,
(S. T. Fitzpatrick.)
(A. J. Bourke.)
| On all the low country. See also under C. calcarata.
(W. A. Kennelly.)
(E. W. McMahon.)
From the Murray River to the
Lachlan and still further out, say,+Billabong
Creek on the south, Urana on the west, and
the Great Southern Railway from Wagga to
Culcairn on the east.
Timber.—. A soft wood, somewhat tough when
green, very brittle when dry. Highly inflamm-
able. As a building timber it is easily worked,
well adapted for flooring and lining boards.
Is not so liable to warp as other timber. Is
well adapted for ground plates and joists on
account of its white-ant resisting properties.
Is more durable in the ground than the general
run of hardwoods. The ash from this timber is
frequently used in the bush for white-washing
fire-places.
Resin.—The tree yields resin of an excellent quality.
Simply boiled I have found it equal to the best
French preparation for violin bows, and as
good as any other resin for other purposes.
Leaves as a fodder.—It is said sheep will live on
the foliage in the absence of other fodder, but
I doubt it. I have seen it tried, but great
losses of stock resulted when it was depended
on. Sheep, if very hungry, will nibble the
leaves of a fresh-cut tree, but soon leave it.
I54
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
County.
Remarks.
Pleasant Hills, via Henty
Quandong
Scone ...
Spring Ridge, Quirindi
Staggy Creek, Gum Flat
Stockinbingal
Stonefield, Warialda ...
Suntop & ſº tº & gº º
Swamp Oak, Moonbi
Tambar Springs, viá Gun-
nedah.
. Mitcheil...
. Monteagle
...' Brisbane
." Buckland
.' Murchison
... Bland
..] Burnett
... Gordon ...
. Inglis
Pottinger
*
&
. General Economic Note.—Nothing has been done
on the part of the settlers to provide for a
future growth of the timber, while at the same
time they admit its value; but it has to make
way for the wheat-fields, the duration of which
latter, considering the light nature of the soil,
and the wearing-out system persevered in by
Our up-country farmer, is problematical; and it
is an open question, in view of the large
demand for Cypress Pine, whether it would
not be to the best interests of the community
generally if some steps were taken for the
propagation of this pine in a district which
is its home, and where it will grow to perfection.
(C. Ledwidge.)
. About half of the district.
Timber.—Extensively used for building purposes.
Resin. Exudes very little resin. (Samuel Lewis.)
. Isolated patches on gravelly ridges, not extensive.
A useful timber. (A. Moore.)
. About 60,000 acres. (May Burns.)
. Cover a great area of country—not less than 50 or
60 Square miles—but chiefly in ridges along the
Gwydir River.
Resin.—Trees about I2 inches in diameter seem
to exude the most. If these trees are ring-
barked, or incisions made through the bark
with an axe, the resin flows in greater quan-
tities. (J. S. Cormack.)
General Economic Note.—The pines are easily pro-
pagated from the seeds, and they grow very
quickly in any soil. (E. W. Campbell.)
Percentage of pines now is very small.
General Economic Note.—The wholesale destruction
of various kinds in this district is lamentable,
and is carried on with no apparent forethought.
(A. E. Kendall.)
Grows in small scrubs, has been cut down for
timber during late years. (F. Campbell.)
. About 4square miles with C. calcarata. (R.T. Baker).
Some hundreds of acres. Most of the ridges are
covered with pines. (Christina McClelland.)
This district (Liverpool Plains) is pretty thickly
timbered with pines; they grow in clumps of
50 to IOO or 200 acres.
Timber.—Both the White and Black Pines furnish
splendid timber for house-building purposes, and
for furniture. This timber is in great request
by builders.
Resin.-The most resin is obtained from the White
Pine.
General Economic Note.—At present, Owing to the
manner in which these trees grow, they cannot
attain to any very great size or height, being
too crowded. The pine forests require thinning
out very much for the trees to do any good.
(S. B. Sargeant.)
I55
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Remarks.
... Cover about two-thirds of the land.
. 20,000 acres, chiefly on the top of the Peel Ranges.
Resin.-The exudation of resin is plentiful.
(B. E.
Confined now to the sand
(S. F. Johnstone.)
(Annie I.
Distributed throughout the whole of the forests of
this district, in many places miles in extent.
. The whole of the district, except where cleared off.
. Country from the Macquarie to the Bogan and
beyond consists of alternate stretches of pine
Timber.—Average height, 50 feet; average diameter,
(J. McLennan.)
Almost the whole of the Lachlan Valley contains
clumps of this kind of pine.
Timber.—The timber is certainly very peculiar,
being very heavy, and yet almost brittle. It
is capable of taking a very high polish and for
| lining floors, &c., it is commonly used in this
The school is built of local pine, and
though ten years have elapsed since the erection
of parts of the building the timber (of course
well painted) shows no sign of decay. The
timber is proof against the ravages of white
ants, owing perhaps to the peculiar Scent. I
have noticed that when buried in the earth
the timber quickly decays. (P. F. Newman.)
... A very considerable area is covered by pines, not
less than 50 or 60 Square miles. In Some places
they form dense scrubs, in others they are very
scattered, and again they may be found evenly
distributed amongst the other forest trees.
Timber.—Very large quantities of this timber have
been used by the sawyers round.
Resin.—The pines exude a considerable quantity of
- Before solidifying, the resil, is quite
In Some cases it is of a
dark or reddish colour, but this, I think, is
due to the presence of foreign substances.
(G. E. Cummings.)
... Not less than 15,000 acres. (H. C. Brettell.)
... Same as Quirindi. (William Hagon.)
... 20 square miles. (P. F. Hall.)
º Within a radius of about 3 miles there are probably
Locality. County.
Tamworth ...] Parry
| Sampson.)
Tareena e e is º Tara ... (G. A. Blumer, M.A.)
Tataila, Moama ." Cadell ... Murray Pine.
- ridges.
Terra Bella ... Gordon ...
Slack.)
The Welcome, Parkes . Ashburnham ...
(E. A. Grant.)
Tocumwal . Denison...
(John Richards.)
Trangie . Narromine
Scrub.
- I5 to 18 inches.
Trelow.arren, Parkes ... . Ashburnham
district.
Ulan, vi ä Mudgee ..] Bligh
resin.
clear and colourless.
i (J. S. Harding.)
Upper Colo ... Cook ... ... A few trees.
Uranquinty . Mitchell...
Walhallow, Quirindi ... ..] Buckland
Warge Rock ... Kennedy ... Plentiful (see Looby's).
Warialda ..] Burnett
Watergumben, viá Cowra ... Forbes ...
about 700 acres.
(J. A. Byrne.)
156
CALLITRIS GLAUCA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of Species (continued).
Locality.
County.
Remarks.
Weetalabar, Tambar Springs,
viá Gunnedah.
West Narrabri
Willandra, Dubbo
Yallaroi
Yetman
Young . . .
Pottinger
... White
. Narromine
. Burnett
... Arrawatta
... Monteagle
- A belt of White Pines runs between this town
. In Trunkey Scrub, about 2 or 3 miles from here,
must be more than Io or I2 miles of these
trees quite close together; so thick is the scrub,
it is difficult to ride through it.
Timber.—This timber makes good flooring boards
and sawn slabs. There must be thousands of
pounds worth of good timber, which could be
sold yearly in large quantities if taken to
Sydney or other large towns. It is used here
for firewood. No pine is any good for putting
in the ground, as it decays very quickly about
here. (W. A. Griffith.) -
Wherever there are sand ridges, there the pine-
trees grow to a greater or less extent. It is
impossible to exactly determine the area.
Timber.—There has been a constant supply for
Several saw-mills for years past, and the logs
now brought in appear to be as good as those
brought in a dozen years ago. The large
amount of resin is a sure preventative against
the ravages of the white ant. I have never
seen the local pines interfered with by that
pest. (Morgan Dunne.)
. All the country between the Mountains and the
Western Plains is interspersed with belts of
p1.ne.
Timber.—Steps are now being taken in all cases
to preserve all promising trees, and in a few
years a good supply of timber trees will be
found in all parts of the West. Full-grown
specimens of White Pine in this district cut,
on an average, from 1,200 feet to I,800 feet of
boards, but they are getting scarce near the
towns owing to the great demand for this
timber, and the thoughtless destruction of
young trees. (R. W. Fitzell.)
... Io,000 acres. (E. C. Court.)
(H. Tresher.)
and Grenfell. (C. F. Laseron.)
6. Callitris arenosa,
A. Cunn., Herb et MS.
A ‘‘ CYPRESS PIN.E.”
(Syn.:—Frenela robusta, A. Cunn., var. microcarpa, Bentham, B. Fl. VI, 237,
F. Moorei, Parlat. in DC. Prod. XVI, ii, 449; F. arenosa, A. Cunn.; F.
microcarpa, A. Cunn., Herb. (vide Historical, infra); F. columellaris, F. v. M.,
Frag. V, 198; Parlat, in DC. Prod. XVI, ii, 451.)
HABITAT.
This is the Richmond and Clarence Rivers Pine of New South Wales, and
of the Southern Coast of Queensland.
I. HISTORICAL.
Like most of the species of this genus, this Conifer has been very much
synonymised. It was first collected by A. Cunningham at Moreton Bay, 1825, and
labelled by him C. arenosa—specimens with his autograph being extant to-day
at the British Museum. It was also collected in the same neighbourhood—
Stradbroke Island—by Fraser, in 1829. In the Lindley Herbarium at Cambridge
University there is a specimen labelled “C. arenosa, Moreton Bay, New Holland,
Hooker, 1835°; Parlatore later named it F. Moorei in De Candolle's Prodromus
(l.c.), and Mueller in 1865–6 called it F. columellaris.
Bentham in his “Flora Australiensis,” Vol. VI, p. 237, places A. Cunning.
ham's F. microcarpa with this species, but from our examination of this specimen
(no fruits) we think this particular variety requires further investigation, especially
as it comes from York Sound on the N.W. Coast, and it would be exceptional to
find a species extending half round the coast, in view of the fact that the Port
Darwin Callitris is now shown to be distinct from the Richmond River under the
name of C. intratropica, F.V.M.
HERBARIA MATERIAL ExAMINED —
Kew,
Fraser's material from Stradbroke Island, Moreton Bay, 1829.
British Museum,_
A. Cunningham's specimen from Moreton Bay, I825.
Cambridge University,+
Hooker's specimens from Moreton Bay, I835 (Lind. Herb.).
Melbourne,— -
Mueller's and other specimens from the Richmond River.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
|-
ſae ſ.
|
ſ ≠√/
· ·//ſººſ/
ſae ·
，-
Mat. Size.
Frank H. Taylor. Photo.
Callitris arenosa, A.CUNN, “CYPREss PINE.”
[Cones unopened.]

I59
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is a shapely tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet, with a dark
Compact rough bark. Branchlets in thick clusters; leaves, terete or with obtuse
angles, greenish-blue in colour, internodes exceedingly short, free portion acute,
incurved. Male amenta cylindrical, about a line long, terminal in clusters of two,
three, or four in spikes. Female amenta at the lower portions of the branchlets,
Fruit cones globose, flattened at the base and a little at the top, slightly
rough on the outside, 6 lines in diameter before expanding, Solitary or in clusters;
valves thin, valvate, alternately large and small, the latter, linear lanceolate, the
former broadest in the middle, channelled at the base, dorsal point not prominent.
The central columella from 3 to 4 lines in height. Seeds nearly all two-winged.
The pronounced columella is characteristic, but for systematic purposes the
three smaller valves of the cones differentiate, more especially the species. They
are narrow, with parallel sides, whilst in all other species are convergent to the
apex. The timber and chemistry also differentiate it from C. intratropica.
This species is found in patches along the Southern Queensland coast and
N.E. corner of New South Wales. It is found almost on the sea shore, in the
slight hollows behind the sea beach. It does not attain a large size; some trees
of I foot in diameter and 30 feet high were noticed on private property. As a
rule it occurs as a shrub up to I2 feet high and densely tangled with other vegeta-
tion (Casuarina, &c.). It is very irregular and straggly in growth even when in tree
form, lacking the regular branches of C. glauca, Or the Stately, narrow appearance
of C. rhomboidea. (C. F. Laseron.)
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The general outline of a cross section through the leaves of the genus may
be described as a trefoil; but in this instance the dorsal surface is a little more
flattened than in that of other Callitris, as seen in a section when taken through
the top of the oil cavities as in Figures 96 and 97. The individual leaf section
is not at all unlike an umbrella, for the cells of the Spongy mesophyll corres-
ponding to the ribs, the cells of this tissue being elongated, appear to radiate
from the central cylinder of the branchlet, and this angle of radiation is also
obvious in the long axils of the palisade parenchyma; but when taken lower
down, as in Figures 94 and 95, the resemblance more closely approaches its
congeners.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
----
ſ'，ſae|-
ſº .
\ ，
·
·
·
§
Mat. Size.
--
“CYPRESS PINE.
Callitris are nosa,
A. CUNN.,
|Cones opened.]

I6I
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
.
№
ſº： ） （*****
|×**~~~~）;
!, A.CUNN.
Callitris arenosa
BRUNswick HEAD, N.E. NEw SouTH WALEs.

I62
Uniseriate epidermal and hypodermal cells bound the palisade parenchyma.
The parenchymatous empty cells and those staining a dark brown colour,
the manganese compound, form a band enclosing the bundles of the stele, and
do not always extend around the oil cavities, which have very distinct elongated
guard and secretory cells.
The bundle of the leaf has the usual complement of transfusion tissue, but
no sclerenchymatous cells were seen.
The transpiratory surface is quite ventral, the stomata having the usual
elongated cuticle cells, described under C. glauca and other species.
Figure 96 is a transverse section through mid-distance of the two nodes of
a branchlet showing the axil bundles and dissected decurrent leaves. Although
the section was, perhaps, a little too thick to determine the Outer details distinctly,
yet the darker staining brings out the palisade parenchyma, backed by a single row of
hypodermal cells, which in turn are supported by those of the epidermis, the whole
showing an assimilatory dorsal wall out of all proportion to that of the transpira-
tory one, which in this illustration shows the elongated cuticle cells or projections.
The remaining features are described above. Figure 97 whilst illustrating three
oil cavities—one in each leaf-determines also the position from which the Section
is taken, i.e., near the diverging of the free ends of the leaves. The cell forma-
tion of the mesophyll surrounding the oil reservoirs is well characterised here and
is quite specific. The leaf trace next to each oil cavity is distinctly seen as well
as the character of the surrounding cells. Figure 98.-This enlargement (Igo)
brings out fairly well the detail structure of the central axis of the branchlets
with its three bundles, each with its xylem and phloem and the pith or vessels
with their three medullary branches. The bundle of each individual leaf is well
seen just below an oil reservoir—the circular spaces being not quite wholly shown
in the picture. This plate also shows the normal Orientation of all these vascular
bundles. The three wedged-shaped spaces are the lower parts of the ventral
surfaces of the leaf, and show where the decurrent leaves join, and with the central
axis form one whole living portion of the tree. The coloured and empty paren-
chymatous cells form a distinguishing feature, whilst on each side of the leaf
bundle can be seen the transfusion cells—marked by the small circles (bordered
pits) in them—arranged crescent shape, concentric with the lower curve of the
oil cavities. Figure 99 gives a longitudinal Section through the base and top of
two leaves, showing in the case of the latter their free portions, and also how these
particular parts form only a small fraction of these organs. The leaf on the lower
left side has an oil reservoir, to the right of which is seen the bundle of that leaf-
the light shaded portion, curved at the top to the left. Figure IOO shows
the structure surrounding this oil cavity further magnified to 160 diameters, the
right half of the picture giving a portion of the leaf bundle and central axis. The
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 94.—Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves, Figure 95,-Transverse section through branchlet and three decurrent
showing various diameters of oil cavities at the point of leaves, with an oil cavity in each of the latter sections,
section. C. arenosa, x 8o. just about the middle. C. arenosa, x 80.
Figure 96.-Transverse section through branchlet and leaves, clear of Figure 97.-Transverse section through branchlet and leaves, with oil
oil cavity in the latter. The dark patches in and around cavity in each of the latter. C. are nosa, x 80.
the centre are the brown manganese content in the cells.
C. arenosa, x 8o.
Cross sections of branchlet and leaves of C. arenosa. A. Cunn.


I64
cells with the bordered pits are the tracheids of the transfusion tissue, and a good
view is obtained of the empty and filled parenchymatous endodermal cells. The
oil reservoir is in the left top centre of the picture. Figure IoI illustrates a
longitudinal section through the upper part of two leaves clear of the main axis,
and through two oil cavities. The empty parenchymatous endodermal cells are
well defined in the centre of the picture, the filled ones making the dark-coloured
lines down the centre of the picture, and almost midway between them and the
right oil cavity are the rows of transfusion cells of the leaf bundle and marked
by the small circles (bordered pits) in their lumina. The oil cavities are seen,
one on the right and one on the top left-hand side, so that the cavity form of
Figure 100.-Longitudinal section through part of central axis, oil
- - - - cavity and part of leaf surrounding it; taken from Figure 99
Figure 99. º, ..","...º. The bordered pits of the transfusion tracheids are clearly
! C. arenosa, x 6 - seen. The oil cavity is in the top left centre backed by
- * 5. the mesophyll of the leaf. C. arenosa, x 16o.
these bodies prevails in this species as throughout the Callitris. The amygda-
loidal bodies at the base of the left oil cavity show peculiar depressed markings
on the brown manganese compound cell contents, when in direct contact with
the oil in the cavity. The space at the top is where the succeeding whorls of
leaves have been removed.
º (c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
The leaf oil of this species was distilled from material collected at Ballina,
New South Wales, 340 miles north of Sydney, on 2nd September, 1904, and also
at Corrumbian Creek, in the Murwillumbah District, on the borders of New South
Wales and Queensland, 410 miles north of Sydney, on the 13th January, IgoS.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 98. Transverse section through branchlet and attached portions
of decurrent leaves. The three circular spaces are the oil
cavities, one in each leaf, below which is a bundle with its
red-coloured xylem and purple phloem. The transfusion
tissue shows bordered pits in the cells, whilst the dark
brown colours are manganese compound contents in
some of the endodermal cells. The three wedge-shaped
figures are the lower portions of the decurrent channels.
Stained with haematoxylin and safranin. C. arenosa, x 190.
Figure 101.-Longitudinal section through the upper portion of two
leaves, and portions of two oil cavities, one on each side,
clear of the median axis. The bordered pits mark the
transfusion cells, while the brownish patches are the man-
ganese compound, those at the base of the left cavity
having depressed markings. The parenchymatous character
of the cells is well seen. Stained with haematoxylin and
safranin. C. arenosa, x 190.
:


I65
The distillations, in both cases, were continued for six hours. Although over
three years had elapsed between the two periods, yet, the oils were found to be
practically identical, consisting very largely of dextro-rotatory limonene and
dipentene. In the leaf oil of this species of Callitris, the limonenes appear to have
reached their maximum, largely to the exclusion of the pinene. From the results,
certainly not less than 85 per cent. of the oil from this species belonged to the
limonenes, mostly as dipentene. The predominant limonene was the dextro-
rotatory form, and in the oil of the January sample had the rotation a little less
to the right than had the other. This result indicated that at a certain time of
the year (midsummer) the larger amount of the lasvo-rotatory form is present,
and, Consequently, the oil has a less rotation to the right at this time than at
Other periods of the year. This peculiarity has been noticed with the oils of other
Species of Callitris. The chemical characters peculiar to the oil of this species, show
it to be distinct from that of any other Callitris. The one nearest to it is C. intra-
tropica, but in the oil of that species the predominant limonene was found to be lasvo-
rotatory, and is the species in which the laºvo-rotatory form appears to reach a
maximum. The limonenes were so pronounced in the oil of C. aremosa, that the
tetrabromide could be formed in abundance from the crude oil alone, without
the oil undergoing any preparation whatever. The physical results also indicated
that limonene was mostly present in the oil. The tetrabromide was fractionally
crystallised from acetic ether, with the result that the fractions melted at
different temperatures, and that the one which separated first had the highest
melting point. When dissolved in cold acetic ether, the tetrabromide was found
to be dextro-rotatory. It is thus evident that both dextro-rotatory limonene and
dipentene, or in other words, both forms of limonene, occur in the oil of this species,
as with those of the Callitris generally, and that the dextro-rotatory form here
predominates. The amount of ester was Small, but it appeared to consist of
the acetates of both borneol and geraniol, thus resembling the esters from most
species of Callitris.
No. 1.-This material was collected at Ballina. It consisted of the extreme
terminal branchlets with very few fruits. 592 lb. gave 38% oz. Of Oil, equal to
o: 402 per cent. The crude oil was light lemon-coloured, and had an odour slightly
resembling the ordinary “Pine-needle oils,” but with a marked lemon-like Odour.
It was insoluble in ten volumes of go per cent. alcohol. The Specific gravity of
the crude oil at ##" C. = O-8491 ; rotation ap = + 35.8°; refractive index at 23°C.
= I-4760. The saponification number was I4.77, equal to 5. I7 per cent. ester.
On redistilling, only I per cent. came over below I67° C. Between 167° and I72°,
36 per cent. distilled; between 172° and 177°, 44 per cent. ; between I77° and
180°, Io per cent. As this represents GI per cent. Of the total oil, and as 5 per
cent. of the esters were present, it is evident that the high boiling constituents,
as the sesquiterpenes, &c., could only be present in a very Small amount.
I66
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 23° C. = O-8404; of the second
= O.84I3; of the third = O-8515. The rotation of the first fraction ap = +
35.7°; of the second + 37.2°; of the third + 38.7°. The refractive index
of the first fraction at 23° = I-474I ; of the second = I-4752; of the third =
I-4757. It is remarkable how closely the three fractions agree in the above
results.
It is apparent that pinene could only have been present in small amount,
because the specific gravity and refractive indices differ but little from those of
pure limonene.
The above results show the oil to differ entirely from that of C. glauca,
a species to which C. arenosa has, by some, been thought to belong.
Neither sylvestrene nor phellandrene could be detected.
The tetrabromide was prepared with the second fraction in the usual way,
and this, when crystallised from acetic ether, melted at II.7°–118°.C. When dis-
Solved in Cold acetic ether it was dextro-rotatory. It was fractionally precipitated
from acetic ether, when the first portion which separated on cooling melted at
I22° C. ; the next at II9°, and the third at II.7°. Better results were even
Obtained by fractional precipitation from ether, the first portion melting at
I2I*-I22°C., and the latter portion at II5°–II6° C.
The tetrabromide was readily prepared with the crude oil, and this (after
removing a very small amount insoluble in acetic ether) was identical with that
obtained with the second fraction; it gave similar fractions by crystallisation,
which melted practically at the same temperatures, and were dextro-rotatory
also.
It thus appears that the oil of this species consists largely of dextro-rotatory
and laevo-rotatory limonenes, the former being in excess, and that these when
occurring together in the plant behave similarly to a mixed solution of the two
limonenes.
No. 2.-Material was collected at Corrumbian Creek, and 414 lb. of terminal
branchlets with fruits gave IQ3 oz. of oil, equal to O-294 per cent. The crude
oil was insoluble in ten volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. It was practically
identical with the previous sample, and contained the same constituents in about
the same amount. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 26° C. = O-8452;
rotation ap = + 18.9°; refractive index at 26° C. = I-4764. The saponification
number was IO-2, equal to 3.57 per cent.
The tetrabromide was prepared from the crude oil similarily with the
previous sample, and when purified from acetic ether it melted at II8°–II9° C.
167
As the above results show that this oil was distilled from the same species
as that from Ballina, no further work was done upon it.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris aremosa:-
– . . .
NO, Locality and Date. Sp ecific gravity ' | Rotation, ap. º: º Fº er Yºlº er
I. Ballina, 2/9/04. O'849I @ 23° + 35'8° I-4760. (a) 23 5'I7 O'402
2. Corrumbian Creek, O'8452 @ 26° + 18.9° I.4764 @ 26 3-57 O' 294
I3/I/08
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This is a pale, chocolate-coloured, easy-working, free timber. It has a straight
grain, but, nevertheless, the figure is rather attractive, although wanting in the
more elaborate flower often present with the timber of C. calcarata. -
It could be used for various forms of cabinet-making, as it takes a high
polish ; but as other timbers are plentiful in the locality where it occurs, it is little
used for house-building.
It is highly aromatic, and contains the phenol, callitrol, in some quantity.
(b) ANATOMY.
The most characteristic feature is the small number of cells containing
the manganese compound substance in the xylem, but this material occurs in
most of the cells of the medullary rays.
The bordered pits are very numerous on the radial walls, being well brought
out in Figure Io9—a radial section, and which is an exceptional field for observation,
showing, as it does, (I) two rows of pits in some of the lumina of the tracheidal
cells, an exception to the rule obtaining in other species of the genus, i.e., single
rows, and also (2) the diameter of each pitted cell extending from wall to wall.
The manganese compound occurs in almost all the cells of the rays, but
sparsely in the tracheids, and when it is present in the xylem cells it is found to
be distributed irregularly in the autumnal and spring wood.
In Figure Io.2 is given a tangential section of the timber showing the fusiform
shape of the medullary rays in this plane, the irregular number of horizontal cells
in each, and the presence of the manganese compound in Some of them.
I68
Figure IO3 gives a radial section showing two autumnal periods of growth
at the sides, and One vernal period in the Centre of the section. The single pits
of the rays are conspicuous in the centre, whilst a double row of bordered pits
in some of the tracheidal cells to the right Centre is, as stated above, unusual in
Callitris.
Figure IO4 shows a transverse section through the xylem, Cambium, and
one resin cavity in the inner cortex, and also the regular parallel arrangement
(concentric) of the bast fibres.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(See articles on the Phenol and the occurrence of Guaiol, &c.)
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
Practically this bark is identical in structure to that of the genus in general ;
the walls, however, of the various cells have perhaps a more distinct definition,
especially in the periderm bands (Figure IOS), in fact, more so than in any other
species; whilst the parenchymatous, concentric cells appear under a low magni-
fication to occupy almost the entire space between the uniseriate ring of hard
bast fibres, and so a higher magnification is required to detect the sieve tubes
intervening between them and these sclerenchymatous tissue. -
The bands of cork layers and oleo-resin cells are more numerous in this
species than probably any others.
Figure IOS is a transverse section through a junction of the Outer and inner
Cortex, the boundary between the two being marked by a broad band of periderm
layers. The bast fibres are seen to be in regular rows, and the parenchymatous
cells empty in the inner and filled with the manganese compound in the Outer
bark. Figure Iofl is a perpendicular section through the inner Cortex, and
illustrates particularly well the parenchymatous nature of the cells between the
sieve tubes surrounding the bast fibres, two of which are seen extending in Con-
tinuous lines from the top to the bottom of the plate. The form of Crystals
composing the bast fibres is given in the article on bark under Araucaria Bidwilli.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The bark of this species was received at the Museum from Mr. Sharpe of
North Creek, Ballina, and it was taken from a tree about I foot in diameter. In
appearance it more closely resembled the bark of C. calcarata than that of C. glauca,
and in section the outer corky layer was very pronounced. It thus differed both in
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
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Figure 103.-Radial section through timber of C. arenosa, x 50.
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Figure 102.-Tangential section of timber of C. arenosa, x 5o.
cavities, one near the cambium, are
The parallel rows of bast fibres are distinctly
C. arenosa, x 50.
focussed, and two oil
seen.
Figure 104.—Transverse section through cambium with bark and timber
on each side.
Sections of Timber and Bark of C. arenosa, R.Br.



170
texture and appearance, from the more interlocked and fibrous bark of C. glauca.
In the green state it differed from C. calcarata by showing a more red, almost
crimson layer where the Outer portion is separated from the inner or more compact
bark. The red colour of this layer faded as the bark dried, and did not appear to
be at all objectionable.
Externally, the bark was of a dark dirty-brown colour, somewhat blackish
in places, and seldom grey. It was deeply furrowed. The total thickness was
20 to 30 mm. (almost I} inches). The portion without the corky layer was 7 to
8 mm. The air-dried bark powdered fairly well, giving a light-coloured powder.
The tannin content was very considerable for barks belonging to the Coniferae,
and compares very favourably in this respect with most tan-barks. The greater
portion of the tannin was readily extracted with cold water, and the amount of
non-tannin in the extract was found to be very small indeed. Three analyses
were made with the bark, in all cases air-dried:—
(a) A fair section through the whole bark,
(b) The “rossed '' bark in which the outer cortex was removed, until
practically a smooth surface had been obtained, and
(c) A determination of the tannin in the “rossed '' bark, extracted
entirely by cold water after eighteen hours' contact.
The following results were obtained with the whole bark:—
Moisture ... ... I3.3 per cent.
Total extract ... 29.3 3 y
Non-tannin . . . 4'2 5 y
Tannin ... ... 25' I 5 y
The results with the inner “rossed '' bark were :—
Moisture ... ... I3:50 per cent.
Total extract ... 40. I4 5 5
Non-tannin ... 5' 37 j 5
Tannin ... ... 34’ 77 5 y
The results with the inner “rossed” bark by cold-water extraction alone
were :—
Moisture ... ... I3:50 per Cent.
Total extract ... 3I-74 5 5
Non-tannin ... 3" 24 5 y
Tannin ... ... 28.50 3 y
Although the bark was so rich in tannin, yet, the extract (25 grams per
litre) became but little turbid when cold, and the liquor obtained by the cold
extraction was excellent in this respect. See also article, “The Tanning Value
of Callitris Barks.”
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
Figure 105.-A transverse section at the junction of the inner and outer
cortex,−the latter at the top half of the plate. The bast
fibres are the rectangular figures extending in lines from
left to right, whilst the parenchymatous cells between these,
seen clearly in the lower half, have their radial walls length-
ened. The band of thin-walled, compressed cells running
through the centre of plate from left to right is a layer
of periderm. The dark brown band shows the contents
of the outer cortex parenchymatous cells. Unstained.
C. arenosa, x 100.
:

171
CALLITRIS ARENOSA, A. Cunn.
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE SPECIES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. (See also map.)
From data supplied by Public School Teachers and other correspondents.
(Where no information is given under Remarks only herbarium specimens were received.
The information is given without comment.)
Locality. County. Remarks
Boggumbil, Lismore ... ... Rous . Dispersed throughout the district.
Resin.—Exudes resin in abundance. (Helen C.
Crowley.)
Bonville, Coff's Harbor º Raleigh ... . Grey. (J. J. Farrell.)
Byron Bay ... Rous . Several thousand acres.
Timber.—80 to 120 feet high, 3 feet diameter.
(H. McLennan.)
Coorabell Creek . Rous . Scattered through the scrub at intervals, numerous
other kinds of trees growing in between. Patches
of scrub in some places not yet touched by the
timber-getter, may contain twelve to twenty
pine trees to the acre.
Timber.—Height, IOO to I2O feet; diameter, about
3 feet or 3 ft. 6 in.
Resin.—No great quantity of resin exudes from
the trees until an incision is made. (E. J.
Blanch.)
Mullumbimby . Rous ... . Grows on sandy ridges near the coast.
Timber.—70 feet in height, and 26 inches in dia-
meter. (Henry R. Anstey.)
New Italy ... Richmond ... On the pine ridges. (T. J. Morgan.)
Point Danger ... º Clarence . (M. J. Schaefer.)
Tintenbar . Rous . (L. C. Shaw.)
Tumbulgum º Rous . Occurs here in the scrubs. (J. Cameron.)
Tweed Heads ... ... Rous ..] Scattered over an area of Io square miles. (C. F.
Laseron.)
Wardell ... Rous . Grows on a few sandy ridges near the coast, about
I Square mile. (A. Cousins.)
Wyrallah Rous ... (J. Jacobs.)
Forms vast tracts along the coast of Queensland. (M. Hill.)
17
2
7. Callitris intratropica,
Bent h. et //ook, f Gen. P/. Vo/, ///.
‘‘ CYPRESS PIN.E.”
(Syn. :-Frenela intratropica, F.V.Muell, Herb., F. robusta, A. Cunn., var. micro-
carpa, Benth., B. Fl., VI, 237.)
HABITAT.
As far as can be ascertained this species appears to be confined to the
northern part of the Northern Territory and the north-west coast of Western
Australia. This part of Australia, however, being so little settled, it is difficult to
give anything approaching its true geographical distribution. It occurs plentifully
at Port Darwin, according to Mr. Nicholas Holtze, to whom we are indebted for
Splendid material upon which our botanical and chemical researches were made.
Mueller's specimen from Arnhem's Land is the same as that from Port
Darwin. ;
I. HISTORICAL.
Like Bentham, Mueller, Maiden, and others, we were at first inclined to
regard this species as identical with C. aremosa, A. Cunn. (F. columellaris, F.V.M.),
and it was not till after examining herbaria material in Europe, as well as in
Australia, that the morphological and histological differences were found to be well
marked, and these differences were further supported by chemistry.
The shape of the smaller valves of the cones, the small column, timber,
and chemistry, differentiate the species from C. arenosa, A. Cunn., otherwise the
fruits resemble somewhat those of C. glauca.
Whether A. Cunningham's specimen from York Sound, N.W. Coast, and
labelled by him as C. microcarpa, is identical with this, there is not sufficient data
available to enable us to speak with confidence, but we are inclined to think that
the two will be found to be the same species. Cunningham's specimen is not
in fruit.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
Mueller's specimen from Arnhem's Land.
Melbourne,—
These are duplicate specimens of those at Kew.
I73
II. SYSTEMATIC,
An average, foliaceous Callitris tree, attaining generally 50 to 60 feet in
height. The leaves are glaucous and not dorsally ridged, the free portion more or
less spreading, acute, and proportionately long. Male amenta Ovoid, terminal in
twos or threes. Female amenta below the ultimate branchlets.
Fruit cones spherical, wrinkled, under § inch in diameter, valves alternately
large and small, comparatively thin, dorsal point fairly prominent, the central
columella very short, rarely lengthened. Seeds one-, two-, and three-winged.
The main points of differentiation of this species from C. arenosa are the
timber, bark, and the chemistry of its Several parts.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry, infra).
(b) ANATOMY.
These sections are characterised on the dorsal side by (I) the flattened
or oblong epidermal cells with specially thickened walls, (2) the double row of
hypodermal cells, (3) the packed palisade tissue, and (4) the preponderance of
loose, Spongy mesophyll.
To these might be added the comparatively small number of parenchy-
matous, endodermal cells and tracheids of the transfusion tissue in the vicinity
of the central axis of the branchlet. The stomata are found in the ventral channel
formed by the leaves, on the inner side of the free portion of the leaves, as well as
at the base of the decurrent portion immediately facing it. The usual elongated
projections of the cuticle also occur here.
Figures IO7 and IO8 are cut just below the oil cavities in the upper part of
the leaves, and well illustrate the predominance of spongy mesophyll in the leaf
Substance, and the small proportion of parenchymatous endodermal cells; the
transfusion tissue is well indicated by the pitted cells, and these latter details
are more clearly shown in Figure IOg—a 200-magnification. Figure IIO
illustrates a cross-section cut through the three oil cavities.
The salient feature in the anatomy of the leaves of this species, is the
delicate structure of the spongy tissue, and in cutting, it is very difficult to obtain
sections whole, the central axis and its adnate cells generally tearing away
from the fundamental leaf tissue, which is traceable by delicate lines in the figures
here given.
I74
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA
- -
º-º-, a ----
--~~~~~"
---
Figure 107.--Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves, Figure 108.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
free of oil cavities. The spongy tissue of the mesophyll is free of oil cavities. The pith and medullary rays of the
proportionately large, and the hypodermal cells of the as- central axis and a few cells round the phloem are darkened
similatory surface are doubly packed. C intratropica, x 80. by the presence of the `manganese compound; amongst the
indodermal cells are the transfusion cells denoted by the
minute circles in them. C. intratropica, x 90.
Figure 109.-Transverse section through central axis of Figure 108.
Three-leaf bundles are also included, one at the top and
one at the lower left and right hand sides of the central
bundles. The brown manganese compound is indicated
by the black patches. C. intratropica, x 200.
Figure 110,-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
with an oil cavity in each leaf. C. intratropica, x 90.




I75
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was forwarded to us from Port Darwin by Mr. Nicholas
Holtze, the Curator of the Botanic Gardens at that place. It was received on
the 2nd November, Igo4. The leaves and branchlets had been packed with
very few twigs, and fruits were absent. -
The crude oil was amber coloured, very mobile, and had an odour some-
what resembling the leaf oil of the Callitris species generally, but with a distinct
lemon-like odour. The distillation was continued for six hours, and 169 lb. of
material gave 3 oz. of oil, equal to O. II per cent.
The crude oil was insoluble in ten volumes of go per cent. alcohol. It
was practically a terpene oil, consisting largely of lavo-rotatory limonene, dipen-
tene, and pinene. The ester content was very small in amount, but it consisted of
both borneol and geraniol, probably in combination with acetic acid. The specific
gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = O-848I ; rotation ap = — 21.6°; refractive index
at 22° C. = I-4768. The saponification number was IO-9, equal to 3-8I per cent.
esters. Only 25 c.c. of oil could be spared for redistillation, and this com-
menced to distil at I56°C. Between 156° and 165,” 36 per cent. distilled; between
I65° and I75° 40 per cent. ; above I75° (left in still), 24 per cent.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 20° C. = 0.8457; of the second,
O-8435; of the residue, O.8782. The rotation of the first fraction ap = — 7.5°;
of the second — 25.4°. The rotation of the residue could not be taken, but it
must have been highly lavo-rotatory. The refractive index at 20° C. of the first
fraction was I-4749; of the second, I-4752; of the residue, I-4889. The residue
was saponified and the oil separated, when both borneol and geraniol were detected.
The volatile acids gave marked reactions for acetic acid, so that the esters were
probably those of acetic acid.
From the above results it is seen that this species has no marked agreement
with any other species of Callitris, so far as characteristic properties influence
the determination. It is more nearly in agreement with C. arenosa than with
any other, but differs from that species by the predominant limonene being
laevo-rotatory, while that of C. arenosa is dextro-rotatory. It did not deposit a
resin on the bottle on keeping, thus differing from the leaf oils of C. glauca and
like species.
We had previously received on 29th December, Igo3, a small quantity of
material of this species from Port Darwin, but it only weighed 36 lb., and was
altogether inadequate for our purpose. It was thought desirable, however, to
distil it, and the following results were obtained. It will be seen that for such a
Small amount of oil there is a marked resemblance to that of the other sample.
Only about 3 grams of oil could be collected, the specific gravity of which at
176
# C. = O'8563, and the refractive index at I9° C. = I-4755. The saponification
number was I3:57, equal to 4.75 per cent. of ester. It was evidently a terpene
oil, and was but little soluble in alcohol.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris intratropica.
&
NO. Locality and Date Specific Gravity 9 C Rotation ap. º Ester per cent Yield per cent.
| |
I. Port Darwin, O.848 I @ 22 – 21-6 I-4768 (a) 22 3.81 O’ II
2/II/O4
r
2. Port Darwin, o.8563 (a) 23 ...... I-4755 (a) IQ 4.75 …
29/I2O3 - |
III. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This timber is the darkest coloured of all the Callitris, a character due to
the presence of the manganese compound, as well as a large percentage of oil and
a phenol—a circumstance that, no doubt, makes it one of the best white-ant-
resisting species of the whole genus, but at the same time would materially bar
it from use for furniture and other like purposes to which the timbers of its Con-
geners are put. This one feature alone should make it worth while cultivating in
forest lands, as in time its timber would be invaluable for railway sleepers in ant-
infested districts.
It is in great request in the Port Darwin district, and the authorities of
that Territory despatch from time to time search parties to locate it, with a result
that a large area carrying this valuable pine in sparse quantities, has been dis-
covered in the vicinity of Cape Shields, and it is now thought that ample timber
for many years to come may be had by systematic operations.
(b) ANATOMY.
In the various sections examined, the salient features of distinction from
Other species, were the slender walls of the tracheids, and those of the parenchy-
matous cells of the medullary rays, and also the height of these, which some-
times contain as many as fifty rows. -
The tracheids of the autumnal wood are compressed concentrically, the
Outer Ones especially so, and show no gradation of size into the spring wood, the
larger cells of the latter commencing immediately after the former.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 111.-Transverse section mainly through autumnal growth of
timber, the larger cell sections denoting the spring area.
C. intratropica, x 8o.
Figure 113.-Tangential section through timber, showing in nearly every
instance the cells of the rays filled with the manganese com-
pound. C. intratropica, x 84.
Sections of timber of C.
- -
º - -
Figure 112.-Transverse section through timber, the tracheids of the
autumn "wood being distinguished by their narrow lumina
in two bands across the picture. The presence of the
brown manganese is strongly marked by the black bands
in the rays and black spots in the tracheids. C. intra-
tropica, x 100.
|
|
-
-
|
º
- -
º
|
- - -
| - º
º
- |
Figure 114.-Tangential section through timber, showing unusual height
of the rays, most of which are filled with the manganese
compound, which can also be seen in the walls of the
tracheids. C. intratropica, x 80.
intratropica, F.v.M.



THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
ºf
-
ſ
º
º|
H
ºº|
L
5
º
:
The horizontal parallel
lines are the walls of a ray, and the vertical ones those of
Figure 115.
Tangential section through timber,
showing the dark
manganese compound substance in most of the ray cells,
and the linear shape of the rays. Pitted cells can be detected
on both radial and tangential walls.
Figure 117. –Radial section through timber, showing the bordered pits
of the tracheids, and simple pits of the rays (lower half of
picture).
Sections of timber of C. intratropica, F.V.M.
C. intratropica, x 120.
C. intratropica, x 120.
Figure 116.-Radial section through timber.
the tracheids.
C. intratropica, x 120.


I79
The simple pits vary from two to five in each lumen of the section and have
oblique perforations, which are seen in Figures II6 and II.7, at the bottom of
both plates. The bordered pits are a conspicuous object on the radial walls,
and exceptionally show a likeness in disposition to those of the Araucarias, being
sometimes found in double rows.
In Figure III the autumnal wood running from left to right just above
the middle of the picture, is marked by the cells having restricted lumina. The
two dark lines on the right and left of the plate locate the medullary rays, and
the dark spots the manganese compound Content of a few of the tracheids.
Figure II2 takes in a much larger field in a transverse section, the black lines
marking the medullary rays. Figure II3 is a tangential section showing the
fusiform shape of the rays, cut end-on, which are well Outlined owing to the dark
contents of the cells. Figure II4 is a similar section to Figure II.3, but
produced to show the extraordinary height of some of the rays, and it also shows
the bordered pits in section on the radial walls. Figure II5 is a larger magnifica-
tion of Figure II.4, but is specially interesting, as it shows bordered pits on the
tangential walls, a very rare feature in Callitris; sections of bordered pits on the
radial walls are seen towards the left.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(See articles on the Phenol and the occurrence of Guaiol.)
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The parenchymatous cells are particularly well developed in this bark, and
can be well seen in Figures II8, II9, I2O. In Figure II8 they are the distinctly
marked, empty spaces between the regular rows of bast fibres, in which Figure
are also well defined the medullary rays running from top to bottom of the plate;
whilst the larger empty spaces are the oleo-resin cavities, one of which occurs
in the centre of Figure II9, where also are numerous parenchymatous cells filled
with the manganese compound. Figure I2O is given in order to show what a
great proportion of the bark substance is composed of sieve tubes and paren-
chymatous cells (top half of picture) in comparison to that of the bast fibres,-
which can just be detected as small rectangular bodies, with a line in the centre
indicating the locality of the central channel. In the middle of Figure I2O is
a band of periderm running through the centre of the picture from left to right,
and below this towards the bottom of the plate are three large empty oleo-resin
cavities. Sieve tubes, although very numerous, are exceedingly small in this
bark, *
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
Figure 118.-Transverse section through a junction of the inner and Figure 119.-Transverse section of oleo-resin cavity of inner bark. The
outer bark. The dark blotches mark the presence of the black content of the parenchymatous cells is brown man-
manganese compound. The bast fibres are in regular gamese compound. The rectangular bodies are the bast
chains of rectangular shape. Three medullary rays are fibres. C. intratropica, x 80.
shown as faint markings from top to bottom of picture.
The empty spaces are oleo-resin cavities. C. intratropica,
x 80
Figure 120.- Transverse section of bark at junction of inner and outer
cortex, the latter indicated by three large oleo-resin cavities
The light area of irregular cells running through the centre
of the field from left to right is a periderm band, followed
outwards by exceedingly small sieve tubes, then large
parenchymatous cells, sieve tubes and bast fibres. C.
intratropica, x 100.











I8I
(c) CHEMISTRY.
This sample of bark was taken from a log sent to the Museum from Port
Darwin by Mr. N. Holtze, Curator of the Botanic Gardens there.
The log was 7 inches in diameter, and the bark was somewhat hard and
Compact, dark grey externally, deeply furrowed and fibrous. In thickness it
ranged from 7 to IO mm.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark:—
Moisture ... ... II. I.4 per cent.
Total extract ... I6. I8 5 y
Non-tannin ... 5-46 y y
Tannin ... ... IO-72 5 y
8. Callitris gracilis,
R. T. Baker, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1903, p. 39.
“CYPRESS" OR “MOUNTAIN PINE.”
HABITAT.
Tal Tal Mountain and Gowie Range, Bylong, Rylstone. J. Dawson, L.S.,
and R. T. Baker.
I. HISTORICAL.
This pine was discovered in 1893 by J. Dawson, L.S. In the same district
are also found C. calcarata, R.Br., C. glauca, R.Br., C. Tasmanica, Nobis, C. Muelleri,
Benth. and Hook. In the fineness of the branchlets it approaches C. rhomboidea,
R.Br., and C. aremosa.
It is always found at higher elevations than any of its local congeners,
as it occurs on ridges or rocky mountains in company with (although in the higher
ridges) C. calcarata, R.Br., which species, however, extends on both sides of the
Coast Range and well into the interior, whilst this Pine, so far, has only been
found on the Western slopes. The fruits show a remarkable likeness to those
of C. Muelleri, but the branchlets with the decurrent leaves show no resemblance
to that species. The long, fine, drooping branchlets occasionally, give it a willow-
like appearance, and in addition to other differences the chemical constituents
are distinct from those of this latter species.
I82
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-|-
Callitris gracilis, R.T.B., TAL TAL MoUNTAIN, BYLONG, N.S.W.

I83
This Callitris so far appears to be very local, for after a rather exhaustive
survey of the pines it does not appear to occur elsewhere, and there is no indication,
at present of any forms really transitional between it and any of the above-
mentioned species, whilst it is distinct from any Western Australian Callitris.
Mr. J. H. Maiden (“Forest Flora, N.S.W.,” Vol. II, p. 2, p. 55,) expresses an
Opinion that this species is C. propinqua , the results of this investigation,
however, show it to be distinct from that species.
HERBARIUM MATERIAL ExAMINED.
Kew,
A specimen, labelled Port Phillip, and named by Mueller as C. robusta,
has a resemblance to this species.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is a tree attaining a height of over 50 feet, with a diameter from 1 to
2 feet, and having a hard, compact bark similar to that of other species of
Callitris. The branchlets are numerous and slender, with decurrent leaves,
having a bright green colour; internodes terete, or with very obtuse angles, the
free ends of the leaves being small and acute.
Male amenta terminal, seldom axillary, solitary, or only occasionally two
together, 3 lines long and slightly exceeding the branchlets in diameter, cylindrical,
oblong. Stamens in whorls of three, imbricate in six vertical rows; apex, Scale-
like, ovate or orbicular, concave, with two anthers (two-celled) at the base.
Female amentum about I line in diameter, having six scales, Solitary Or two
or three together, fairly numerous below the terminal drooping branchlets.
Fruit-cones large, Solitary, globular, or compressed globular, from I inch
to I} in. diameter, or even larger; valves six, very thick, smooth or slightly rugose,
furrowed at the junctions, the three larger ones broadest at the middle and then
tapering upwards, and very thick from the base to the middle, the smaller ones
about one-half as wide as the larger and shorter in length; the dorsal point
minute and close to the apex. Seeds dark-coloured, the wings varying in size
and shape.
III. LEAVES.
(a), ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
One of the chief features of these leaves, is the large epidermal cells of
the dorsal Surface; in the ventral channel of the collateral leaves, they take the
same form generally observed in the genus—the cuticle developing into elongated
184
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Callitris gracilis, R.T.B., TAL TAL MoUNTAIN, BYLONG, N.S.W.
[The largest trunk seen.]

185
conical projections, at the base of which are found the stomata, as well as on the
inner surface of the free portion of the leaf, and on the opposite dorsal surface
of the decurrent leaf, but only on that portion of it immediately covered by the
free end. On the dorsal side, the epidermal cells are backed by a single row of
hypodermal cells and again by palisade parenchyma ; the spongy mesophyll
occupying the bulk of the leaf substance.
The endodermal parenchymatous cells are not much in evidence, there
being an unusual number of transfusion tracheids around and between the leaf
bundle and the central bundles of the branchlet; one or two sclerenchymatous
cells were detected just on the outside of the phloem of the leaf bundle.
The oil cavities are fairly numerous and large, and are surrounded by
strengthening and secretory cells.
A cross section through the decurrent leaves shows distinctive characters
that aid in establishing the specific rank of this Callitris, vide Figures I21, 122.
The central cylinder of the branchlet is composed of bundles (generally
three) having very thick-walled cells in the xylem and a phloem also unusually
thick, these being separated medullary by the usual pith tissue of the Central
column, which latter is not surrounded by the usual parenchymatous cells,
whilst the transfusion tissue is well developed, vide Figure I23.
A small bundle occurs as usual along the inner side of each leaf (and
between the base and the oil cavity, if the latter be present) in the section, and
surrounded by the fundamental tissue.
The oil cavities have exceptionally large diameters, and have strengthening
cells, as well as secretory ones, as shown in Figures I2I and I22.
The assimilatory surface is on the superior side, and the transpiratory on
the inferior.
The epidermal cells are in a single row below the former, and this is subtended
by a single row of hypodermal cells which, if anything, are larger individually
than epidermal cells.
The two Figures 123 and 124 illustrate the features above recorded.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
Material of this species was collected at Tal Tal Mountain, near Bylong,
New South Wales, 240 miles from Sydney, on the 22nd March, I905. The terminal
branchlets with fruit were distilled for six hours, and the yield was somewhat
large; 480 lb. of material gave 55% oz. of oil, equal to O-723 per cent., which is
the greatest yield obtained with the leaf oil of any species of Callitris. The
crude oil was but slightly lemon-coloured, and had the usual odour, although
I86
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
* T B de/, a dº nºt.
CALLITRIS GRACILIS,
Callitris gracilis, R.T.B., “CyPREss PINE.”

187
this was less marked than with the oil of C. glauca. It was largely a terpene
oil, and, consequently, was not readily soluble in alcohol. Eventually it was
Soluble in Io volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. A small amount of resin deposited
on the sides of the bottle on keeping, although this deposit was in less amount
than with C. glauca. The oil contained about 12 per cent of esters, of which half
was saponified in the cold with three hours contact. The alcohols present were
dextro-rotatory borneol and terpineol, and most probably geraniol. The alcohols
were present mostly in the form of esters. The acids separated from the esters were
acetic and butyric, the latter being most probably in combination with the terpineol.
Of all the species of Callitris investigated, this is the only one in which terpineol
was present in the oil in sufficient amount to be indicated with reasonable certainty,
and butyric acid was also present in greater quantity than in the oil of any other
species. The presence of a small amount of butyric acid has been detected in the
esters of several other species, and it may, therefore be, that terpinyl-
butyrate occurs in most of the oils of the Callitris in small amount, reaching a
maximum in the oil of this species. The results indicated that the predominant
limonene was the lasvo-rotatory form, but the limonenes do not occur in this oil
in large amount; the higher boiling fraction, being dextro-rotatory, indicated the
presence of the bornyl-acetate, which constituent is common to nearly all Callitris
species. The pinene fraction, was not so highly dextro-rotatory as with some
other species, thus indicating that the pinenes were present in these species in
the isomeric forms. A very small amount of a phenolic body was separated
but its distinctive characters was not determined, as sufficient material could not
be spared for the purpose. It may, perhaps, be allied to the phenol, callitrol,
isolated from Callitris timber, as in Some directions it gave similar reactions.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at #}º C. = o-8683; rotation, ap =
+ 8.7°; refractive index at 20° C. = I-4752. The saponification number was
34-64, equal to I2. I per cent. ester. In the cold, with three hours contact, the
Saponification number was I7.85, equal to 6.25 per cent. ester.
On redistilling, practically nothing came over below I55° C. Between I55°
and I67°, 54 per cent. distilled; between 167° and 174°, 20 per cent. ; between
I74° and 200°, IO per cent. ; between 200° and 230°, 9 per cent. There was slight
decomposition of the esters at the higher temperatures. The specific gravity of
the first fraction at 20° C. = 0.8545; of the second O-8534; of the third, O-8674;
and of the fourth, O'9422. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + I2. I’; of
the second, +4.8°; of the third, – 2.5°; of the fourth, + 12.8°. The refractive
index of the first fraction at 20° C. = I. 474I. It had all the characteristics of
pinene. The nitrosochloride was readily prepared from it, and, when purified from
chloroform and methyl alcohol, melted at Io'7–IO8°C. The nitrosopinene prepared
from this, melted at I.31—I32° C. The saponification of the fourth fraction was
I73-9, equal to 60.9 per cent. ester. The separated oil contained a considerable
I88
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 121.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves, Figure 122.-Transverse section through leaves and median axis, of
showing oil cavity in each leaf. One contains a specimen branchlet, showing oil cavity in each leaf. C. gracilis,
of resin. C. gracilis, x 105. x Ios.
Figure 123.-Transverse section through branchlet showing the number of Figure 124.—Transverse section through decurrent channel formed by
bundles composing the axis. The inner side of three oil the decurrent leaves, given to show the conical prolongations
cavities obtrude in the picture, as well as the bottom of of the cuticle over the stomata. C. gracilis, x 250.
three decurrent channels. C. gracilis, x 250.
Cross sections of branchlets and leaves of C, gracilis, R.T.B.



189
amount of borneol, which was separated and determined as in the case of C. glauca.
The liquid portion gave a marked secondary odour of terpineol, which was most
persistent. Geraniol was not strongly marked. When agitated with hydriodic
acid a heavy oil was formed, from which a small amount of crystallised substance
was eventually obtained. This melted at about 78° C. and was most probably
dipentene dihydriodide C.H.sſ, thus confirming the presence of terpineol.
The free acids were determined by evaporating the alcohol from the
aqueous portion, and distilling with sulphuric acid, until all the free acids had
Come over. The barium salt was prepared in the usual way, and O-5642 gram gave
O-50I2 gram, BaSO, = 88-83 per cent. A second determination gave identical
results. The presence of butyric acid was most marked when distilling, and the
characteristic odour of its ethyl ester was easily obtained. If only butyric and
acetic acids were present, then the salt contained 84-7I per cent. of barium acetate
and I5' 29 per cent. Of barium butyrate. e
It is thus seen that the oil of this species has several distinctive characters
from those of any other species of Callitris.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris gracilis.
* e - g e a v
Locality and Date. Specific g ravity Rotation ap. Refractive Index Ester per cent | Yield per cent.
– – – -
Tal Tal Mountain, o'8683 (a) 20 + 8.7 I-4752 @ 20 I2 “I o:723
22'3'05
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This pine grows to the average height of a Callitris, i.e., 60 feet. The
timber is slightly heavier than that of C. rhomboidea ; it is straight in the grain,
and possesses a rather pleasing figure, produced by small medullary rays.
It could be used for indoor carpentry and panelling, and takes a good
polish.
As its habitat is the rocky sides of ridges it should be a splendid timber
for afforesting these barren places, with some hopes of monetary returns.
(b) ANATOMY.
Figure 125 is taken from a two-years old growth, and is interesting, as it
shows a large number of cells containing the manganese compound in the tracheids,
at this period of the tree's life history.
I90
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 125.-Transverse section through young timber showing dark Figure 126.-Transverse section through vernal growth of timber, the
substance in tracheids at this early stage of growth. C. three dark bands are rays with dark substance in cells.
gracilis, x Io. C. gracilis, x 80.
Figure 127.-Tangential section of timber, showing, how numerous the
manganese compound is in the cells of the rays. C. gracilis,
x 80.
Sections of timber of C. gracilis, R.T.B.


IOI
One of the most important differential characters found in the various
mature sections examined, was the uniformly small number of single vertically
imposed cells of the medullary rays, as seen in a tangential section. The rays
are quite numerous and considerably more lengthened than in other species,
whilst every cell is filled with a brown substance,—the manganese compound.
In Figure 126 these cells appear as thick black lines right through the
picture from top to bottom of the field.
The cells of the tracheids containing the manganese compound, are fairly
distributed throughout the xylem, but favour perhaps the locality of the
autumnal growth. Figure I26 shows a few of these cells.
The pitted cells are all disposed on the radial walls of the tracheids. They
are faintly shown in section in Figure I27, a tangential section of the timber.
The perforations are circular and single in each lumen.
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (see Chemistry).
CHEMISTRY.
The bark of this species is somewhat hard and compact. Externally it
is of a dark grey to brown colour and deeply furrowed. The specimen determined
was from IO to I2 mm. in thickness. The colour of the powdered bark was darker
than that of any of the other species, and the extract was very dark coloured
also. Although this shows a defect for tanning purposes, yet, this may not be
characteristic of this bark always, as the specimen had been in the Museum for a
considerable time.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark :—
Moisture ... ... Q. 94 per Cent.
Total extract ... 20. O8 > y
Non-tannin ... 7'79 } }
Tannin ... ... I2. 20 * 3
EXPLANATION OF PLATE (Page 186).
Fig. I.--Twig with branchlets and male amenta. Fig. 5 –Cones unexpanded (natural size).
*Fig. 2.-Individual branchlets. Fig. 6.-Cones expanded.
*Fig. 3.-Male amentum. Fig. 7.-Seeds (natural size).
*Fig. 4.—Stamen with anthers.
* Enlarged,
I92
9. Callitris calcarata,
R. Br., ex Mirb. in Mem., Mus., Par. xiii (1875), 74.
“BLACK,” “RED,” OR “MOUNTAIN PINE.”
(Syn. :=C. sparoidalis, Slotsky; C. fruticosa, R.Br., MS. ex Rich. Conif.,
49; Fremela calcarata, A. Cunn., MS., F. Endlicheri, Parlat. in DC.
Prod., XVI, ii, 449; F. fruticosa, Endl., syn. Conif., 36 [Parlatore]; F.
pyramidalis, A. Cunn., Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. ii., 473; F. ericoides, Hort. ex
Endl., syn. Conif., 38 [Gord. Pin., p. II7]; F. australis, Endl., syn. Conif., 37
[Gord. Pin., p. II9]; Cupressus australis, Persoon, syn. 2, p. 589 [Gord. Pin.,
p. II.9) ; Juniperus ericoides, Noisette ex Desf. Hort., Paris, edit. 3, p. 355
[Gordon Pin., p. II7].) -
HABITAT.
This is a widely distributed species throughout the Eastern States, occurring
almost invariably on hills and ridges.
It appears to favour rising ground, and is the pine which has given rise to
the term “Pine ridge "-so commonly applied to hills in New South Wales.
I. HISTORICAL.
This species, as the above list of synonymy shows, has had a rather checkered
systematic career, and yet it is one of the best naturally defined species of the
genus and not easily confounded with any other Conifer. Good specimens of it were
collected very early in the beginning of last century, and these are extant to-day in
European herbaria, so that it is difficult to understand why so much confusion has
surrounded its differentiation.
It is essentially a ridge or mountain pine, and hence is known in many
parts as “Mountain Pine,” but it is also found near the coast at Wide Bay,
Queensland, and near Stroud and at Longreach, Shoalhaven, New South Wales.
The name “Black Pine '' alludes to the colour of the bark, and also to the
dark shade of the foliage, whilst it is called “Red” owing to some of the trees
having a red-tinted timber. - .
In general appearance this tree is perhaps more rigid than C. glauca, R.Br.,
and the branchlets less drooping, and from which species it is amongst other
characters.distinguished by its non-glaucous and angular, decurrent leaves. The
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Photo., R. H. -
Callitris calcarata, R.Br. A PINE RIDGE, LACHLAN RIVER, ABove Cowra, N.S.W.
- - -
-
- - - - --
-- " -
-
Callitris calcarata, R.Br. TREES LEFT FOR SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL PURPOSES IN A HOME
PADDOCK, BYLoNG, N.S.W.


IQ4
fruits are characteristic, and differ from those of C. Muelleri only in size, which
are twice as large as those of this species, the Outer surface being black and
Smooth in both cases.
The Specific name is not well chosen, as a spur or dorsal point is a common
character of all the Species, and is perhaps not more prominent in this than in
several other Callitris. The origin of this feature is fully explained in the article
{ { y y
on the origin of the “spur '' in Callitris cones.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
A. Cunningham's specimens from Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, I825,
and from Bathurst.
Bidwell's specimens from Wide Bay.
Fraser's specimens (no locality).
Mueller's specimens from Rocky Ranges near Bathurst.
Fulter's Range and Grampians, labelled F. pyramidalis, Sweet.
British Museum,_ -
A. Cunningham's specimen, Oxley's Mt. and Second Expedition.
A. Cunningham's specimens, First Voyage of the “Mermaid,” 1810 (no locality).
A. Cunningham's specimen from the vicinity of Bathurst, “A tree
clothing every range.”
G. R. Bennett’s specimens, Murrumbidgee, I83I.
Cambridge University Herbarium,_
Bidwell's specimen from Wide Bay.
Slotsky's specimens from Menaro. (C. Sphaeroidalis.)
Paris, -
D'Urville's specimen, labelled “from Port Jackson.”
Berlin, .
D'Urville's specimen from New Holland, 1815, labelled “Actinostrobus
pyramidalis.”
II. SYSTEMATIC.
It is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 60 to 80 feet with a dark,
hard, compact, deeply furrowed bark. The leaves are not glaucous, and occur
in whorls of threes, decurrent, Sharply Convex on the back, free end obtuse or
acute with almost scarious edges; in the very young plants the internodes are
very short and the ridges flattened. Male amentum mostly solitary and
axillary, and when terminal in twos or threes, Iº; lines long, compact, rather
paler in colour than those of other species. Anthers two or three, rarely four.
Female amentum as in other species.
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Mat. Size.
Callitris calcarata, R.BR., “BLAck PINE.”

196
The cones are in clusters or solitary, smooth, sometimes rugose, globose, or
Oval, obtuse, 9 lines long and about 6 lines in diameter, the three larger valves
being slightly dilated upwards; the dorsal point not far removed from the apex
of the valves; valves valvate before opening, but the edges rounded afterwards,
central columella short, with three narrow sides. Seeds black, wings varying in
size up to 6 lines.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The leaves in this species differ from those of its congeners, in having a
high and often sharp dorsal ridge in the decurrent portion, as seen in a cross section
taken anywhere in the internodes. This contour of the leaves is characteristic
and might be classed as almost specific amongst eastern species as evidenced
by a Comparison with other specific sections reproduced in this work.
The general structure conforms to that of C. glauca, which may be taken
as characteristic of the type of the genus.
The mesophyll and the parenchymatous cells, together with conjunctive
tissue, may be said to form the fundamental structure, the two latter being well
packed around the leaf trace and phloem of the central column—composed of
the xylem and phloem of the branchlet to which the leaves are attached. The
transfusion cells are more numerous than those in C. glauca, they are generally
Clustered on each side of the leaf bundle and on the inner side of the oil cavity.
The palisade and Spongy tissue are normally situated, the former being faced by
uniseriate hypodermal and epidermal cells.
The Oil Cavity is situated in the upper part of the leaf and near the free
end, and between it and the stem runs a bundle with the phloem normally
orientated, and exceptions to this have rarely been found.
Immediately between the oil cavity and the phloem of the leaf bundle, and
exterior to the phloem of the central stem of the branchlet, are found a few
Sclerenchymatous cells, a specific difference from C. glauca.
A noteworthy distinctive feature is the scarcity of stomata, and even
these few are not surrounded with such well emphasised papillose projections
as in the leaves of C. glauca. The stomata occur in the cavities of the ventral
leaves as in C. glauca, but also on the concave surfaces of the dorsal cuticle of
the leaf, although few in number.
This being a mountain species, perhaps the habitat may account for the
different disposition of the stomata.
197
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 128.-Transverse section through" branchlet and decurrent leaves,
cut after being dried, with the consequence that the oleo-
resin has indurated, and appears as a dark ligulate body
in the contracted cells. C. calcarala, x 50.
Figure 129,-Transverse section through branchlet and three decurrent
leaves, showing oil cavity in each leaf. C. calcarata, x 50.
Cross sections of branchlet and leaves, C. calcarata, R.Br.


198
Figure 128 is interesting as it shows the effect of cutting a section from
a dried specimen, the shrinking in this case being indicated by the pinched sides
below the dorsal ridge. i
The effect of the lateral shrinkage is to compress the oil cavity, and the
volatile constituent of the oil having departed, the resinous portion remains and
almost fills the Compressed cavity as a dark spathulate body, in fact, not unlike
the ligule figured in some illustrations of Lepidodendron leaves, but, of course, it
is not a similar body. If found in a fossil condition, this is most probably what
a section would represent.
This is also interesting as showing how, in this instance, the transfusion
tissue has massed itself around the inner side of the oil cavity. In Figure I29 is
seen a transverse section through the upper portion of the three leaves below the
free ends, but prepared in a fresh condition in alcohol; three oil reservoirs have
been cut through, which are marked by the oval, blank spaces in each leaf, such
as would have appeared in Figure 128 if the specimen had not been dried. In
Figure I30 the edges of the section are not perfect, but it is given, as the whole
median tissue is so clearly defined, and gives one a good idea of the evident unity of
the physiological functions in the organs of the collaterally placed leaves and median
axis, for they must all here act in unison for the plant's welfare, and might be
regarded in this respect as one whole leaf. The three dark oval bodies towards
the base of the leaves are sclerenchymatous cells, and between these and the
phloem of the axis of the branchlet is the leaf bundle, and surrounding these are
parenchymatous cells (all empty) and transfusion tissue. Figure I31 well illus-
trates how the parenchymatous endodermal cells dispose themselves when oil
reservoirs are present, and they are here well defined surrounding the central
axis and extending nearly to the top of the oil cavities, the secretory cells of which
are also well defined in this section. Figure I32 is a 150-magnification of the
central axis and the surrounding tissue, and is given to show more clearly the
disposition of the organs, which go to make up the latter substance, and which
from the previous remarks given under Figures 129–13 I should not be difficult
to follow. The clusters of sclerenchymatous cells abutting on the phloem of the
leaf bundles are well emphasised, and one or two can also be detected
in the neighbourhood of the phloem of the main axis. The transfusion cells,
marked by single circles (bordered pits) in each, are irregularly scattered amongst
the empty parenchymatous cells. The three V-shaped dark figures just coming
into the picture are the bases of the decurrent channels. From the above remarks
it should not be difficult to follow the structure in Figure 133, which is a 175–
enlargement taken in the neighbourhood of the decurrent channel in the top of
Figure I31. Figure 134 gives a view of a longitudinal section through a node
showing the free end of one leaf on the right and an oil cavity in the leaf on the
left.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 130. Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
well below the oil cavities. The endodermal and trans-
fu ion tissues, connected with the palisade parenchyma by
the spongy tissue, are massed in the lower half of each
leaf and surround a leaf bundle and the median axis.
Stained with haematoxylin and safranin. C. calcarala,
× 73.
Figure 132.-An enlargement of the centre of Figure 130, showing more
particularly the large proportion of transfusion tissue (with
the bordered pits) amongst the endodermal cells in the
neighbourhood of each leaf bundle. The three wedge-
shaped cavities are the bases of the decurrent channels.
Stained with haematoxylin and safranin. C. calcarata,
x 150.
i
:
.
:


I99
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 131.-Transverse section through branchlet with decurrent leaves, Figure 133.-Transverse section through a decurrent channel of two leaves
showing oil cavity in each of the latter, supported by and on to central axis. Two leaf bundles are just seen at
pronounced secretory cells. C. calcarata, x 70. the lower left and right hand of the picture, indicated by
clusters of three or four dark sclerenchymatous cells. From
those with small pits can be traced lighter-coloured cells,
which form the transfusion tissue; the masses of these are
separated by empty parenchymatous cells. C. calcarata,
x 175.
Figure 134.—Longitudinal section through;branchlet at the junction of two
whorls, and free portions of two decurrent leaves. The oil
cavity is marked by a dark pyriform figure in the lower
left-hand leaf. C. calcarata, x 63.
Sections of branchlets and leaves of C. calcarata, R.Br.


200
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
The yield of oil from the leaves of this species, although practically constant,
is considerably less in amount than is always obtained from similar material of
C. glauca. The ester content, however, is nearly three times as great as that
occurring in the oil of the latter species, and the acetic acid ester of geraniol is
present in large amount also. The lavo-rotatory limonene, too, is more pronounced
in the oil of C. calcarata than in that of C. glauca, in which species the predominant
limonene is found to be always dextro-rotatory. From the results given by the
Shuttleton sample, the lavo-rotatory limonene appears to predominate in C. cal-
carata during the summer months. The alteration in rotation is thus mostly with
the members of the limonene group, as the ester content and the pinene appear to
differ but slightly in amount. The melting point of the tetrabromide formed with
the limonene is always high, and this indicates the presence of dipentene also, as
well as the active form of limonene. It may be assumed, therefore, that both the
dextro- and laevo-rotatory limonenes occur together in the leaf oil of this species, as
well as in the leaf oils of most other species of this genus. The specific gravity, boil-
ing point, and other characteristics of this terpene, show it to be limonene. From
the chemical results obtained with C. calcarata and C. glauca, it is readily
seen that they have marked distinctive properties, and could never be confounded
one with the other. The free acids of the esters were found to consist almost
entirely of acetic acid, and only a small amount of an acid of a higher molecular
weight was present; this acid is most probably butyric, as with the esters of
C. glauca. The borneol occurring in the oil of C. calcarata is dextro-rotatory, and
its acetate also rotates to the right. The lower boiling terpene is dextro-rotatory
pinene; and this was proved by the formation of its characteristic compounds.
Sylvestrene could not be detected, nor does it appear to occur in the oils
of any species of Callitris.
No. 1.-This material was collected at Wellington, New South Wales, 250
miles west of Sydney, on the 9th March, Igo3. The terminal branchlets, which
were almost entirely free from fruits, were used, and these were distilled for six
hours. The weight of the material was 519 lb. and this gave I4 oz. of oil, equal to
O. I68 per cent. The crude oil was of a light lemon colour, and had a somewhat
distinctive aromatic odour, due to the large amount of geranyl-acetate present.
The oil was quite distinct from that of C. glauca, and was also less volatile than
the oil of that species, and for a similar reason. The specific gravity of the crude
Oil at ##" C. = O'8949; rotation, ap = + II.7°; and the refractive index at I9°C.
= I. 4747. When freshly distilled it was somewhat readily soluble in alcohol, but
On keeping, it became less soluble. After some considerable time had elapsed the
Crude oil was still soluble in one volume 80 per cent. alcohol, but became turbid
with two volumes; it thus differs in solubility in alcohol from the oil of C. glauca.
There was also no deposition of resin on the sides of the bottle, as was the case
2O Í
with all our samples of oil from C. glauca. The saponification number was 133:1,
equal to 46.8 per cent. of ester, as bornyl- and geranyl-acetates. In the cold, with
two hours' contact, the saponification number was II2.6, equal to 39.4 per Cent.
of ester. This result indicates the presence of a large percentage of geranyl-acetate.
When redistilled, practically nothing came over below I56°C. ; between I56° and
170°, 19 per cent. distilled; between 170° and 180°, 16 per cent. ; between 180°
and 200°, II per cent. ; between 200° and 240°, 47 per cent. The specific gravity
of the first fraction at ##" C. = 0.8514; of the second, O-8566; of the third, O: 8662 :
of the fourth, o. 9249. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 13.8°; of the
second, +8.7°; of the third, + 3.9°; of the fourth, + 13.6°. As both borneol
and acetic acid were isolated and determined, it may be assumed that the higher
rotation of the fourth fraction was mostly due to the presence of the dextro-rotatory
bornyl-acetate, which is so pronounced a constituent in the oil of C. glauca. The
principal ester in the oil of C. calcarata is, however, geranyl-acetate.
The volatile acids of the esters were separated by boiling the oil with aqueous
soda until the saponification was complete, separating the aqueous portion, dis-
tilling over the acids, acidifying with sulphuric acid, forming their barium salts,
and determining these, by ignition with sulphuric acid. The mean of three deter-
minations gave go. 92 per cent. barium sulphate. It is probable that butyric acid
was present in small amount, as this acid was indicated, so that the Salt contained
97.39 per cent. barium acetate, and 2.61 per cent. barium butyrate.
Both borneol and geraniol were separated from the product of Saponification,
and their identity determined. The geraniol was oxidised to citral, and this,
after being isolated, was determined by Doebner's method.
No. 2.-This material was collected at Bylong, New South Wales, 240 miles
west of Sydney, on the 29th April, Igo3. The terminal branchlets with fruits were
steam distilled for six hours in the usual way. The amount of oil obtained from
560 lb. of material was I.4% oz., equal to O. I62 per cent. The crude oil was identical
in colour and odour with that distilled from the Wellington sample. The rotation
of the crude oil was ap = + I4. I*; specific gravity at I9'? C. = O.8861; refractive
index at I9° C. = I-476O ; Saponification number was II8-09, equal to 41.33 per
cent. ester. Saponification in the cold, with two hours' contact, gave S.N.
77.38, equal to 27-08 per cent. ester; with eighteen hours' contact the S.N.
Io9-9, equal to 38-46 per cent. After keeping the oil for some time the solubility
in alcohol had diminished somewhat, but in this respect it was identical with the
Wellington sample, as it was soluble in an equal volume of 80 per cent, alcohol,
but became turbid with two volumes. There was no deposition of resin on the bottle
on keeping, as takes place with the oils of Some other species of Callitris. When
redistilled, nothing came over below I56°C.; between I56° and I70°, 24 per cent.
distilled; between 170° and 180°, 23 per cent. ; between 180° and 200°, 7 per cent.
between 200° and 225°, 37 per cent. The specific gravity of the first fraction at
2O2
#’ C. = o-8508; of the second, = 0.8555; of the third, = 0.8753; of the fourth,
= O. 9293. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 16.9°; of the second,
+ II: 9°; of the third, + 8.6°; of the fourth, + I5.3°. Borneol, geraniol, and
acetic acid were all isolated from this oil, and determined. The higher rotation
of the fourth fraction is evidently due to the dextro-rotatory bornyl-acetate.
There is but little difference between the characters of this oil and those of the
Wellington sample, although a slightly larger amount of bornyl-acetate was indi-
cated, and, consequently, a little less of the geranyl-acetate. This is shown by
the higher rotation of the fourth fraction, and the less amount Saponified in the
cold in two hours. The determination of the volatile acids gave 91. O3 per cent.
barium sulphate, so that the greater portion of the acids of the esters was acetic
acid, and the barium salt only containing I-95 per cent. barium butyrate. A
slightly larger amount of the lower-boiling terpenes were present in this oil, as
shown by the quantity distilling, and by the increased rotation, but the differences
were not great. The results of the fractions were in agreement with those of the
Wellington sample.
No. 3.−This material was collected at Shuttleton, New South Wales,
512 miles west of Sydney, on the 7th December, Igo3. The terminal branchlets,
with fruits, were distilled for six hours, and 13 oz. of oil obtained from 496 lb.
of material, equal to O-I64 per cent. The crude oil was slightly darker in colour
than the other two samples, but was identical in odour.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = O-8803; rotation, ap =
– 4:5°; refractive index at I9° C. = I-4752; saponification number IIO-38, equal
to 38.6 per cent. ester. The solubility in alcohol was similar to that of the other
Samples, and no resin was deposited on the sides of the bottle on keeping. When
redistilled, I6 per cent. came over below 170°; between 170° and 180°, 27 per
cent. ; between I80° and 200°, II per cent. ; between 200° and 228°, 37 per cent.
Slight decomposition of the esters took place at the higher temperatures. The
specific gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = 0.850; of the second, = 0.851;
of the third, = O'8588; of the fourth, – O. 9124. The rotation of the first fraction
ap = + O.8°; of the second, - I2°; of the third, – 27.8°; of the fourth,
+ 2.7°. Borneol, geraniol, and acetic acid were all isolated from this oil as with
the previous samples, so that the dextro-rotation of the fourth fraction is due to
the presence of the bornyl-acetate. The rotations of the several fractions are
more to the left than with the previous samples, although the general characters
of the oils are the same. This difference in rotation is due to the presence of an
increased amount of lavo-rotatory limonene in the oil at this time of the year.
To prove the presence of the limonenes the tetrabromide was prepared, the portion
of oil distilling between 170–180° C. being utilised for the purpose. The tetra-
bromide was readily formed, but it melted at II.8° C., thus indicating that dipen-
tine was present in some quantity.
2O3
THE OIL OF THE FRUITs.
The oil was distilled from the fruits alone of this species, so as to determine
whether it differed in its characters from the leaf oil, as is the case with some other
species of Callitris. The results show, however, that the oil distilled from the fruits
of C. calcarata is practically identical with that obtained from the leaves, and the
only difference noticeable was a slightly larger yield. The fruits were collected
at Shuttleton, New South Wales, on the Ioth December, Igo3, and they were
distilled for six hours; 68 lb. gave 2% oz. of oil, equal to O-229 per cent.
The crude oil was somewhat dark in colour, but had a pleasant aromatic odour.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = o-8797; refractive index at 23°C. =
I-4744; rotation ap + 2. I5°; Saponification number was 95.35, equal to 33 37 per
cent. of esters as bornyl-acetate and geranyl-acetate. In the cold, with two hours'
contact, the saponification number was 89. I, equal to 31. I8 per cent. ester. The
separated oil after saponification, had a marked odour of geraniol, and was readily
oxidised to citral. The amount of borneol present in the oil of the fruits of this
species is very small.
Crude Oils from the Leaves of Callitris calcarata.
N Locality and Specific Rotation Refractive |Ester per cent Ester per Yield
|NO. Date. Gravity 9 C. *D. Index • C. by boiling. cent, in cold. per cent.
- - -
I. Wellington, O'8949 @ I7 + II.7 I-4747 (a) 19 46.58 39'4 O'I68
9'3'03
2. Bylong, o'8861 (a) IQ + I4. I I.4760 (a) IQ 4I’33 27-08 O'I62
29'4/03
–––– | ---
|
3. Shuttleton, o'8803 (a) 23 – 4:5 I.4752 (a) IQ 38-6 . . . . . . O' 164
7'I2'03
Crude Oil from the fruits of C. calcarata.
-- - ------- --- - - - - - - - - - - ---- - - - – – –
Shuttleton, o'8797 (a) 23 + 2. I5 I.4744 @ 23 33'37 31-18 O'229
IO/I2/03 |
|
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This timber has sometimes a duramen almost as dark as that of C.
ºntratropica, but with a far more ornamental figure, and so is in much request for
inside boards, for lining houses, wainscoting, panelling, &c.
204
The timber, however, is seen to best advantage along with other and
Quieter-looking woods, for when used alone the figure is perhaps too pronounced.
For general purposes, such as those in which our eastern Coast pine timbers
are employed, it is not recommended, being too short in the grain and too thickly
studded with knots. But in the interior districts it is invaluable, being used for
building, fencing, post and rails—lasting in the ground, according to some cor-
respondents, twenty-five years or more. Others say it is not so durable.
For turning into columns for halls and statuary it is particularly well
adapted—the numerous knots and wavy “flower '' producing a very effective
natural decoration. It takes a high polish.
Like its congener (C. glauca) it has a reputation for immunity from termites,
and on this account is highly valued for house-building in the interior of the
country.
It often contains a good quantity of guaiol which crystallises Out on the
surface of the freshly-cut timber.
Transverse Tests of Timber—Callitris calcarata.
(The following were made upon selected timber of standard size, 38 in. x 3 in. x 3 in.)
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches ... * c e ... B 2.98; D 3-oo B 3-oo; D 3-oo B 2-95; D 2-9ſ
Area of cross section, Square inches ... * * * 8-94 9:00 8.73
Breaking load & º tº tº e ºs tº º º * = & e s ºf I,200 2,660 2,540
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... 2,416 5,320 5,341.
5 5 elasticity 2 3 2 3 ... 1,028,571 I,309,090 I,458,000
Rate of load in lb. per minute * * * . . . . . . IO9 - 380 423
(b) ANATOMY.
Structure of the axis.--Two parts of the tree were taken for examination,
1.e., early and mature growth. *
A transverse section of a stem of a twelve months old plant is seen in
Figure I35. It was grown from seed in a flower-pot and kept under observation,
and was found to be in general structure almost similar to that of a mature tree.
The dark cell substance,—the manganese compound, is conspicuous and
present in both the wood prosenchyma and medullary parenchyma, but these
cells are, however, in the former more regularly arranged in single-cell concentric
rings than in the mature wood. -
205
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 135. Transverse section through a stem of a very young plant Figure 136.-Transverse section of timber through part of two seasons'
of C. calcarata, x 30. growth. The rays are seen to contain the manganese com-
pound substance in some of the cells. C. calcarata, x 80.
Figure 137. Tangential section of timber. This shows, the varying Figure 138. Tangential section with a much higher magnification than
heights of the rays and also the numerous bordered pits, Figure 137, being 210 diameters. Three rays are shown
cut in section in the tracheidal radial walls. C. calcarata, as well as numerous bordered pits cut in section on the
x 80. radial walls. C. calcarata, x 21o.
Sections of timber of C. calcarata, R.Br.


2O6
The medulla in the specimen is tetrarchous, a circumstance probably
marking the close of the individual stage of each bundle.
In this early period of plant life the secondary tracheids of the xylem have
fully developed bordered pits in their radial walls, the lamellae with their tori
being distinctly seen under a medium power objective.
In the phloem the structure is precisely a forerunner of what is found in
the bark of mature trees, for under a 70- and, more especially a 325-magnification
it is found that the uniseriate concentric rings of hard bast cells alternate with
three rings made up of a uniseriate parenchyma, separating sieve tubes of a
uniseriate ring. The similar staining and general resemblance of the former
appear to indicate a xylemic origin, or at least a close affinity to that structure.
The oleo-resin cells of the bark are just beginning to evolve even at this
early period of that formation, and are easily seen in the phloem substance.
When dealing with the mature wood, a number of transverse sections were
cut, the prominent feature upon examination being the irregular manner in which
the cells, containing the manganese compound, are scattered throughout the
tracheids. Sometimes they occur closely packed on either side of the autumnal
wood, whilst in other instances they are sparsely scattered throughout the vernal
growth, or again, in an area of three Consecutive years of autumnal and Spring
growth, they are not found. These features are well shown in the Figures 136
to I39.
The whole of the secondary wood in these sections consists of prosenchy-
matous cells of strongly thickened walls, almost uniformly hexagonal on the Outer
walls and circular on the inner. Those of the autumnal series are thicker than
the others, all being arranged in radial rows with cells of varying diameters.
A radial section shows that the parenchymatous cells of the medullary
rays are fewer in number than those of C. glauca, averaging Say from five to
twelve cells high, and are narrower than obtains in that species, and also that the
outer cells, as in that species, are of similar structure to the inner, and not
tracheidal in nature.
In a tangential section (Figure I37) it will be noted that the parenchymatous
cells of the medullary rays are apparently rather freer of cell contents than obtains
in most species of Callitris, which fact may be thought to be a slight specific
difference, but this is not reliable enough for systematic classification, for sections
taken in other parts, such as in Figure I38, show quite the reverse of this feature,
for all the ray cells appear to be filled with the brown-coloured substance,—
manganese Compound.
These parenchymatous rays are from one to twelve cells high, and linear or
fusiform in shape in the tangential view. (Figure I37.)
207
In Figure 139, a longitudinal, radial section, the bordered pits are seen to
be on the radial walls of the tracheids, their diameter filling up the whole of the
lumina. Only one row was found to occur in each tracheid. A portion of a
medullary ray is also shown, running across the figure from left to right.
When working over the longitudinal sections an interesting feature in
connection with the dark substance present in some of the prosenchymatous
cells, was noted, namely that in such cells the walls differed in no way from those
of the contiguous or empty ones, having bordered pits just as equally distributed
on their radial walls as those where no substance occurred.
The substance itself was found not to be restricted to any particular portion
of the cells, but at certain inter-
vals, was broken into parts, each
bounded by a septum composed of
this material at right angles to the
walls of the tracheids. Now, if these
cells are followed along in the
opposite directions to the cell sub-
stance they will be found to have
acute, angular terminations at the
other end, showing their prosen-
chymatous nature. Our observa-
tions on these particular cells lead
to the conclusion that there is
probably some functional agree-
ment between the lumina content
of the prosenchyma with that of
the parenchymatous cells of the
medullary rays; the simple slits or
pits of the latter being perhaps
|
º
Figure 139.-Radial section of timber. The uniform character of all
the a Venule of exchange Or supply - tº *"...º. º º Jºº." the
of cell contents between these two
organs.
The mural pits are of two kinds—bordered and simple, the former occurring
as a rule on the radial walls, although they do occasionally occur in the tangential
walls of the prosenchymatous cells, whilst the latter are found on the radial walls
of the parenchymatous cells of the rays.
The aperture of the simple cells is a narrow, ovate, oblique slit between
the walls of the lumina, and these means of communication vary in number from
one to four, but mostly two to four. The bordered pits are well shown in section
on the radial walls in Figure I38.

2O8
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(See articles on the Phenol and the occurrence of Guaiol.)
(d) For ESTRY.
As a suitable tree for stony and barren ridges of the coast ranges and
interior it has few compeers, and as the timber is highly valued on account of its
ornamental character and comparative immunity from the attacks of termites,
it is worthy of every consideration for forest Culture.
The exceeding value of its bark as a tanning material causes this tree to
be of special interest, and from its natural growth and location no great care
would be needed to preserve for all time natural plantations of this valuable tree,
so as to supply the needs of the builder and of the tanner, to say nothing of the
value of its resin.
From data supplied by correspondents it will be seen how extensively
this species is distributed on the hills and ranges, and how readily plantations
of any extent could be propagated with ordinary care and attention.
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The same remarks in this connection apply as those given above under
Forestry. (Vide also Chemistry.)
(b) ANATOMY.
This bark is outwardly darker in colour and more compact than that of
C. glauca, with which species it is so closely associated in the field.
Macroscopically this part of the tree may be divided in a cross section
into two parts, the inner and outer Cortex, being dark and light coloured
respectively.
The reddish appearance of the inner cortex is where the live tannin cells
predominate, whilst the colour of the Outer appears to be due to the blocking up
of the parenchymatous cells with dead matter, principally manganese compound
and tannin.
The structure follows in a measure the general and regular rule of the
genus, consisting of alternate, uniseriate, concentric rings of sieve tubes,
parenchymatous cells, bast fibres, and bands of periderm at varying intervals.
Although a conformity exists between this bark and that of C. glauca in
the presence of similar cells and tissue, yet when microscopically examined a
209
marked distinction is noticed between the two barks, caused by an irregularity in
the disposition and shape of these organs of structure. Thus in this bark the
conspicuous feature is the proportionately large area taken up by the parenchy-
matous and tannin cells, the former being much flattened radially, and so widely
separating the bast fibres, which in this case are quite small bodies (hence its less
fibrous character comparatively with C. glauca), and occur in broken concentric
rings, whilst the companion sieve tubes are also much restricted in size. The
oleo-resin cavities, although more abundant than in C. glauca, yet are smaller in
size, and the bands of periderm are narrower and very much fewer in number
than in C. glauca.
Figure 140 is a cross section through the junction of the inner and outer
bark (one third of the picture from the top) and gives a general idea of the
difference between it and C. glauca.
The light irregular bands stretch-
ing from left to right are the
parenchymatous cells showing
their radially flattened cell walls.
The bast fibres can be traced by
the zig-zag, broken black lines
extending from left to right, but
being so small their individual
outline cannot be well traced.
The oleo-resin cavities are
seen to be smaller than in most
species. The black patches in the
outer cortex are the manganese
compound contents of the paren-
chymatous cells.
Figure 140.-Transverse section through inner and outer bark, the
latter towards the top. The bast cells are not all regularly
- - - concentric, as obtains in some other species of Callitris,
Figure I4I 1S a CIOSS S60 and form irregular narrow broken lines from left to right.
- These are separated by very small sieve tubes and unusually
tion taken 116ar the external edge large parenchymatous cells. A few oleo-resin cavities are
seen in both barks, C. calcarata, x 70.
of the outer cortex, and is given
to illustrate a band of periderm, a
rather inconspicuous feature in this bark.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The bark of this species appears, chemically, to be distinct in some
respects from the other Callitris barks, with the exception, perhaps, of C. arenosa.
It is of a darker colour than that of C. glauca, and in the larger trees is more
compact and “corky” externally; in section it is a light brown colour in the
O

2 IO
Outer portion. It powders fairly well, and is more brittle and less fibrous than
the bark of C. glauca. It is very much richer in tannin than any other Callitris
bark, with the exception of C. arenosa, and although a thicker and darker
coloured bark than C. glauca, yet the extract was not comparatively more deeply
coloured, Considering the increased amount of tannin. (See also article on the
tanning value of Callitris barks in this work.)
Five samples of the bark of this species were determined:—
I. This bark was collected from a tree 3 to 4 inches in diameter, at
Warialda, New South Wales, June, 1909. The bark was beginning to thicken
even at this stage, and was somewhat deeply furrowed. Its greatest thickness
was I2 mm. It was blackish-grey externally, hard and compact, and
commencing to become corky in appearance, while in section the two layers were
well defined, the interior layer being yellowish in colour. Two determinations
were made with this sample, one with the whole bark, the other with the
“rossed '’ bark.
The following results were obtained with the whole bark –
Moisture ... ... I2.70 per cent.
Total extract ... 37. O3 5 y
Non-tannin ... 6. IO »
Tannin ... ... 3O' 93 y 3
The results with the inner “rossed '' bark were:—
Moisture ... ... I2.6 per cent.
Total extract ... 42.9 3 y
Non-tannin ... 6.8 5 y
Tannin ... ... 36. I y J
The information gained from the above determination indicates that the
larger amount of tannin is contained in the living portion of the bark; so that
trees of medium size may be expected generally to contain the greatest amount of
tannin in their barks.
- II. This bark was taken from a tree I2 inches in diameter, collected at
Woodstock, New South Wales, in May, Igo7. The exterior was blackish-grey
in colour, deeply furrowed, hard and compact, and the corky layer well defined.
Its greatest thickness was 30 mm. It was somewhat brittle, and thus
powdered fairly well. Two determinations were made with this sample, in one
of which the extraction was completed with hot water, while in the other it was
carried out with cold water alone, eighteen hours being allowed for extraction.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 141.-Transverse section through outer bark. The periderm is
marked by an oblique band of thin-walled compressed
cells across the picture; two oleo-resin cavities occur just
below it on the left. The bast fibres are in lines across the
picture from left to right, the parenchymatous cells having
their long axes parallel to the medullary rays—two of
which extend from top to bottom of the section. Unstained.
C. calcarata, x 100.
:

2II
The following results were obtained by the first method:–
Moisture ... ... I 3. 50 per Cent.
Total extract ... 37-33 3 y
Non-tannin ... 6. I6 5 y
Tannin ... ... 31 I7 3 y
By the cold water extraction alone the results were:–
Moisture ... ... I3 49 per Cent.
Total extract ... 3I: 47 y 5
Non-tannin ... 3-66 y 5
Tannin ... ... 27.81 3 y
III. This bark was taken from trees growing at Grenfell, New South
Wales, March, 1909. The trees were only of medium size, and the bark ranged
in thickness from IO to 15 mm. In appearance it resembled the barks of this
species collected at other localities and gave the following results:
Moisture ... ... I2.80 per cent.
Total extract ... 26.80 5 y
Non-tannin ... 7.82 5 y
Tannin ... ... IS-98 5 5
IV. This bark was stripped from a log in the Museum, which had been
collected at Wellington, New South Wales, September, Igo3, and having a
diameter of II inches. In appearance the bark resembled that of this species
from other localities, but it was less rich in tannin; perhaps this was partly due
to the length of time that the tree had been felled. The greatest thickness of
the bark was 28 mm. It powdered fairly well, but was somewhat more fibrous
than the thick bark from Woodstock. The following results were obtained with
it:—
Moisture ... ... I3:50 per cent.
Total extract ... I8-39 5 y
Non-tannin ... 4:28 5 y
Tannin ... ... I4’ II 3 5
V. This specimen was collected in July, Igoo, at Wyalong, New South
Wales. It was from a small, very young tree 7 feet high, and I inch in diameter,
the bark being taken from a portion 25 mm. (under I inch) in diameter, and I to 3
feet from the ground. -
The bark stripped very readily. It was mostly smooth, but beginning
to crack extermally, and to show the commencement of the deeply-furrowed outer
2 I2
bark of the older trees. The thickness of the bark was 2 to 3 mm. (about , inch).
Externally it was dark grey and internally light yellowish in colour, and when
quite air-dried it powdered very well. The extract was excellent in its colour,
and was rapid in its action on hide powder, which was but little coloured
by the tannin. The amount of non-tannin was somewhat high for the bark
of this species, but this was to be expected from such young material. The com-
paratively large amount of 25 per cent. of tannin from air-dried bark stripped from
Saplings I inch in diameter, together with the excellence in colour of the extract,
illustrates again the value of the bark of Callitris calcarata for tanning purposes.
It also shows that the material removed when thinning out for plantation purposes
has a considerable tanning value, which should not be neglected.
The reactions given with the extract (25 grams per litre) were identical
with those given by the bark of this tree in all stages. The following results were
Obtained with the air-dried bark:—
Moisture ... ... I3-70 per cent.
Total extract ... 33-47 5 y
Non-tannin ... 8-28 5 y
Tannin ... ... 25' IQ 5 y
The total extract from the air-dried powdered bark, by cold water alone
during twenty hours' contact, was 24.5 per cent., and the non-tannins extracted
were considerably less in amount than when the bark was finally extracted with
hot water.
Trees of this species about 3 to 4 inches in diameter seem to be in about
the best condition for stripping, as the bark then contains a maximum amount
of tannin, a comparatively small amount of non-tannin, and Only a Small quantity
of the external corky layer containing constituents of a dark colour.
When a portion of the dried tannin was heated with glycerol to 210° C.
in the usual way, and extracted with ether, the aqueous solution of the ether
extract gave reactions as follows:–
Ferric chloride, an olive-green colour.
Lime water, red colour.
Pine chip and hydrochloric acid, slight violet colour.
It is thus evident that although somewhat intermediate in character, the tannin
of C. calcarata belongs to the catechol group.
2I3
CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.B.R.—“RED,” “BLACK,” OR
“MOUNTAIN PINE.”
Botanical survey of the species in New South Wales. See also map.
From data supplied by Public School Teachers and other correspondents.
(Where no information is given under Remarks, only herbarium specimens were received.
The information is given without comment.)
Locality. County.
Amaroo . Ashburnham
Baker's Swamp, Dripstone ... Wellington
|
Ballarah, Cobbora ... Lincoln
Baerami, Denman . Brisbane
Berrigal Creek, Narrabri Jamison
|
Berrima º Camden...
Bethungra ... Clarendon
Remarks.
... The area covered is said to be about Io acres
(W. Manson.)
. There are two belts of country, which are studded
with these pines, both commencing from the
Cundumbil Mountains, which are 20 miles from
Molong and about the same distance from
Wellington, or about 5 miles from Baker’s
Swamp, on the main road Wellington to Molong.
These mountains form a continuous chain of
hills all the way to Wellington, and are, with
the exception of a few intervening patches of
box, studded with Black Pine, this belt of pine
country is about a mile in width ; the other
belt follows the course of the Bell River for a
distance of about 5 or 6 miles.
Resin.-Black Pine exudes large quantities of resin,
especially in the spring, when, by making an
incision in the tree, the resin oozes out, forming
what might be called icicles, very often as long
as I8 inches. (Chas. Varcoe.)
. Generally grows upon hillsides and “Ironbark”
country. (J. Davis.)
. Covers the ground to the extent of about I acre
to every Ioo acres. In odd places there are
pine Scrubs, which cover a large extent of
ground. (W. F. Wedlock.)
... From Quirindi to Moree, distance about 200 miles,
there are extensive forests of pines, generally
close to the ranges to the east of the plains.
In many instances these forests advance right
on to the plains. From Boggabri to some
distance below Pilliga along the left bank
of the Namoi River there are very large pine
forests all the way. This forest extends to
Coonabarabran on the Castlereagh River, and,
I believe, continues on to the Macquarie and
Bogan Rivers. In this district, Berrigal Creek,
there are pine scrubs to Narrabri, 50 miles.
(Francis Squire.)
. Only a few trees growing on the banks of the river.
(William Gambell.)
. Mountain Pine grows on the ranges in this
neighbourhood. (B. F. Dale.)
2I4
- CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.BR.—Botanical Survey of the Species (continued).
Locality.
Coun ty.
Bigga, Binda ...
Boggabri
Booroomba, Queanbeyan
Boree Cabonne
Box Ridge, Sofala
Brawlin
Brodie's Plains, Inverell
Brogan's Creek, Rylstone
Bumbaldry
Burrowa
Bylong...
Canowindra
Cassilis
Chaucer, vi ä Walli
. Georgiana
. Pottinger
. Murray ...
...| Ashburnham
... Wellington
. Harden
... Gough ...
. Roxburgh
. Monteagle
. King
.| Phillip ...
. Bathurst
. Bligh
...| Bathurst
Remarks.
. The Bigga district is between the Lachlan and
Abercrombie Rivers. The country along these
rivers is very rough, the hills being in many
cases covered with pine. Approximate area of
ground covered by pine, Io,000 acres.
Timber.—30 feet height; diameter, 9 to I2 inches—
a few trees from I to 2 feet, these are rare.
Resin.—Very little exuded, except the tree has
received some cut or knock. Where the trees
have been ringbarked, the resin is exuded freely.
On the Burrowa River, persons have been
known to gather from I2 to I4 lb. per day.
(C. S. Chudleigh.)
. The whole district round.
Resin.—Exudes resin freely. (Thos. Sheehy.)
. (G. H. Barker,)
. (J. P. Lynch.)
. (R. Strong.)
. They extend in patches from the southern edge
of the district to Junee, and thence to Hay and
out West. (Robert Black.)
. In patches forming dense pine Scrubs.
Timber.—In the scrub, about 30 to 40 feet; diameter,
3 to 4 inches. If isolated, 60 to 80 feet high;
I2 to 18 inches in diameter.
Resin.—In some cases the bark is completely
covered. The resin exudes where the bark is
injured or when a branch is broken. (F. V.
Holtsbaum.)
. Scattered over the ranges. (Joseph Rigg.)
. Very abundant. (C. F. Laseron.)
. Is fairly common between this town and Cowra.
(C. F. Laseron.)
. About 150 acres. Trees from 50 to 80 feet high,
and 15 to 20 inches in diameter. (A. N. Tindale.)
. A few trees. (D. Colleton.)
. There are patches of considerable extent in different
parts of this district, covered for the most part
by pine trees. They keep to the poor and sandy
country. .
Timber.—30 feet to 50 feet high, and 9 to I2 inches
in diameter.
Resin.—In a natural state they do not exude
much resin, but when the bark is wounded
there is a greater exudation. Old trees give
out much more resin than young ones. (H. W.
Smith.)
. Red Pine grows in detached groups. In a
radius of about Io miles there are only about
40 acres. (Alfred Carroll.)
2I5
Locality.
Clareval, vi ä Stroud ...
Cocomingla, Cowra
Coffey Hill, Orange
Connorton, Wagga
Coolac ...
Coolah
Cooma
Cootamundra ...
Crow Mountain (Upper Manilla)
Cullenbone ... is e g g & de
. Gloucester
. Monteagle
... Ashburnham
... Wynyard
| Harden
Napier ...
Beresford
Harden
Darling ...
Wellington
. . .
. The Cypress Pine grows on a large tract of
º&e
**es
&*£º
Remarks.
Although the Black Pine is found throughout the
district, if all the trees were put together they
would not cover IO acres. (A. McLennan.)
Country in this locality and is, on some of the
ranges, the principal tree. In extent, it covers
an area of about 30 to 35 miles. It is chiefly
found on the south side of the Lachlan River,
from the junction of the Burrowa River up
the Lachlan. (Alex. Elliott.)
... As they grow in patches, it is impossible to give
an estimate. They are from the Canoblas
South and west on all the ridges, getting larger
and more plentiful approaching the Lachlan, but,
being abundant in the hills around Eugowra.
Timber.—If full grown the majority are about
75 feet in height, and I foot 6 inches in diameter.
Resin.-They exude considerable quantities, but
much seems to depend on treatment of the tree,
for two trees of the same sort growing in the
same locality differ very much in the quantity
given out. (J. V. Curry.)
About 1,000 acres. (H. C. Brettell).
About 8 or 9 miles due west from Coolac in the
vicinity of a place called Nongongolong there
is a considerable belt of pine scrub.
Timber.—It has been ascertained that a tree under
observation for ten years had grown 30 feet
high. (B. G. N. Freeman.)
The Black Pine forms patches of thick scrub
Covering on an average 50 or 60 acres in extent,
and these patches are 5 or IO miles apart. The
pines are scarce in this district, the nearest
patch is three miles distant from the town.
Resin.-They exude a great quantity of resin, the
smell of the resin is very marked in summer
time, the resin can be seen oozing out in different
parts of the tree and in places patches on the
ground may be seen. (John Aston.)
... About 40 square miles around Cooma. (Henry
Thomas.)
... Grows luxuriantly on the ranges, at any rate within
a radius of I5 miles from the town—thousands
of acres. The Cootamundra district producing
Red Pine only.
Timber.—On some of the ranges the timber is so
close together that the stems are mere whip-
handles. In less dense belts their diameter
ranges up to I foot.
Resin.—See under C. robusta. (T. W. Henry,
T. B. Mulligan.)
200 acres. (Cecilia Kealy.)
Most common. From 3 to 20 acres in many parts,
there are many patches, no extensive belts.
(E. R. Langbridge.)
216
CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.B.R.—Botanical Survey of the Species (continued).
Locality.
County. Remarks.
Denman . Brisbane . About I,000 acres.
Resin.—The pine trees are exuding an abundance
of resin at the present time (October), and
Several parties have been out collecting it in
the district, however it is only for the best
quality that a payable price is obtained.
- (W. Johnson.)*
Digilah, via Merrygoen ... Lincoln ... | Black Pine very plentiful. (G. A. Patrick.)
Dilga and Ardell, vid Cum- Gordon ... . Most common. Covers about one-third of the
nock. surface of the ground. (S. E. James.)
Dubbo . GOrdon ... . (J. H. Smith.)
Elsmore ... Gough ... (J. W. Parkins.)
Emmaville e Լ ... Gough . (S. R. Baker.)
Enngonia & G. & º tº e º Culgoa ... ... Scarce. (C. O'Hara.)
Eugowra, vid Orange … Ashburnham ... (T. Miller.)
Eulah Creek, Narrabri ... Nandewar ... The Red Pine is found only on the ridges, and not
in such large aréas as the Cypress Pine, C. glauca.
(T. Abell.)
Euston º Taila . Equally distributed with C. glauca, I5,000 acres.
Farnham g g tº º Wellington . (E. Langbridge.)
Furill, vid Mudgee ... Wellington . Not less than 500 acres.
| Timber.—The trees in this district are used to a
great extent for building purposes.
Resin.—The Black Pine yields about I lb. at
every exudation, which takes place immediately
after a fall of rain. Several families in this
district make a livelihood by collecting the
resin, which they dispose of at Gulgong or
Mudgee at from 20. to 3}d. per lb. according
to quality—the white kind realises the highest
| price. (W. H. Capon.)*
Galway Creek, vid Eugowra Ashburnham ... The whole of the ranges in this district are covered
with pine. (L. J. Sim.)
Garra º Ashburnham ...! On the ridges.
Timber.—See under C. glauca.
Resin.—The Red Pine yields the most. The resin
was collected here last season in considerable
| quantities and brought 23d. to 3d. per lb. in
Molong. (L. C. Young.)*
Gerogery ... Goulburn ... (A. Maune.)
Giants Creek ... ... Brisbane . Most plentiful, 20,000 acres.
Resin.—Black Pine yields the most. (W. F. Wed-
lock).
Golspie... ... Georgiana ... A few trees. (G. C. O’Brien.)
GOOlagong ...] Forbes ... ... (F. L. D'Aran.)
Grenfell . Monteagle ... Abundant on granite hills near the town. (C. F.
Laseron.)
Gunning's Gap ... Forbes . I4 miles from Forbes. (T. Miller)
Guntawang ... Wellington On the ridges I acre in every 300. (T. H. West.)
Jennings ... Clive ... About 5 square miles western slope of the Mac-
pherson Ranges. (W. A. Dalton.)
* A few years have elapsed since this information was collected. At the present time (1910) but little resin is
being collected.
217
Locality.
Keepit, Somerton
Little Narrawa
Lockwood, Canowindra
Longreach, Shoalhaven River|
Looby's
Manildra
Manilla
Marengo
Marlow, Braidwood ...
Menindie
Meranburn
Michelago
Milburn Creek, Woodstock ... tº tº e
* - . Northumberland
Millfield º e º &
Minore, Dubbo
Mittens Creek, Brundah
Molong...
Monkerai
. King
..] Bathurst
. Ashburnham
º Ashburnham
. Darling ...
. Monteagle
. St. Vincent
...] Menindie
. Ashburnham
. Murray ...
. Narromine
. Monteagle
... Wellington
. Gloucester
. Darling
Camden...
Bathurst
CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.B.R.—Botanical Survey of the Species (continued).
. On the steep rocky ground.
. On all the ridges.
. In the parish of Manildra, 3,000 or 4,000 acres.
. Grows abundantly on the hills.
Remarks.
... Within a radius of IO miles from Keepit this
|
º
Species occurs on all the ranges, covering with
C. glauca an area of from 6 to Io,000 acres.
(E. S. Davies.)
A few scattered clumps. (F. K. Tutland.)
Confined to the ranges, which cover one-fourth of
the district. (Maggie R. Olde.)
... Very scarce; grows at Sea-level on banks of the
river, about I5 miles from the sea. (C. F.
Laseron.) -
. The whole of the ridges extending for miles in this
district are covered with these pines.
Timber.—25 feet high to I foot diameter. This
Species is only found growing on the ridges in this
district, but is very Scarce in comparison to
the Murray Pine, C. glauca.
Resin.-Very freely. Resin gatherers prefer it to
the other species, because the resin is more
abundant, in fact, some hold that a Black Pine
yields twice as much resin as a White Pine of
the same size. (A. A. Hewitt.)
... (C. F. Laseron.)
(H. Rudd.)
... All along the ridges of the Black and Dananbilla
Ranges, north-west Spurs of the Mundoonan.
Timber.—Height varies from I5 to 40 feet, the
diameter rarely exceeding a foot, the timber is
not much used, being Small and not easily
got at. (A. Tonking.)
. They grow in clumps along the Shoalhaven Rive ,
the largest extent is, perhaps, 3 miles long and
nearly $ mile wide.
Resin.-There is not sufficient to be of any com-
mercial value. (S. G. Tate.)
(W. J. Ross.)
In the parish of Dulladerry a similar area.
In the parish of Mandagery a larger area.
Resin.—The Black Pine is best. (James Anderson.)
. Covering ridges in the gorge of the Murrumbidgee
River. (C. F. Laseron.)
The pines cover a large area.
Scarce. (C. F. Laseron.)
(J. Sullivan.)
| Intermixed with C. glauca; (see under that species.)
(Gertrude A. Harrison.)
. Many hundreds of acres on the ranges. (J. W. Bell.)
(R. T. Baker.)
. Many thousands of acres.
Timber.—About 50 feet high; diameter, 15 inches.
Resin.--The black yields a good deal of resin.
(J. B. Daly.)
2I8
CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.B.R.—Botanical Survey of the Species (continued).
Locality. County. Remarks.
|
Morungulan, Dripstone º Wellington º Apparently there are thousands of acres of stony
barren ridges covered with stunted pine inter-
spersed with box. *
Timber.—40 to 50 feet in height, and from 2 to 2%
feet in diameter.
Resin.-Resin is exuded plentifully by the Black
Pine. (A. McInnes.)
Mount Aubery, Parkes ... Gordon ... . Patches interspersed along the Harvey Range for
several miles. (A. J. Bourke.)
Mount McDonald ... Bathurst ... Two and a half per cent., or perhaps less.
Timber.—Timber brittle, not much good.
Resin.-Gives more resin than the White Pine,
C. glauca. (J. Sullivan.)
Murrurundi . Brisbane ... (W. S. Goard.)
Narrandera ... Cooper ... (W. G. Heath.) -
Newbridge ...] Bathurst ... Timber.—The tree is too knotty to be of any
commercial value. - -
Resin.-If cut or bruised, the resin will exude by
the gallon. If it is of any use, there is plenty
of it. (J. Hadley.) -
Nine Mile, Deepwater ... Gough ... ... About 100 acres. (John Surtee.)
Nullamanna & ... Arrawatta ... 2,000 acres. (P. Herd.) .
Oakey Creek, Warialda ...] Burnett ... Scarce; and as a rule does not grow to a large tree.
(J. T. Fitzpatrick.) -
Piallaway ...] Buckland ... On all the ranges two-thirds of the country within
Io miles of this place appear to be covered
by these trees. (W. A. Kennelly.)
Pine Ridge, vi ä Quirindi . Buckland … Interspersed with C. glauca, Ioo,000 acres. (E. W.
- ! McMahon.)
Pokolbin . Northumberland Fairly common on the hills. (C. F. Laseron.)
Quandong, Grenfell . . . Monteagle . About one-third of the district.
- Timber.—Useless as a timber or fuel.
Resin.—Exudes the greatest quantity. (Samuel
Lewis.) -
Quirindi . Buckland . Very common, hundreds of acres. (Sydney C.
Byrnes.) • -
Round Mount, Inverell ... Hardinge . Not extensive; very patchy; growing on the hills.
(A. A. McWhirter.)
Rutherfield, Quirindi... ... Buckland . See under Pine Ridge and Spring Ridge. (H. E.
Baker.)
Rylstone ... Roxburgh . Near the town. (H. King.)
Salisbury Plains, Uralla ... Sandon ... º On all the ranges. (G. McD. Adamson.)
Sapphire, Inverell . Gough ... ... I,2OO a CreS.
- Resin.-Appears to yield most resin after they have
been cut with an axe or ringbarked. (C. H.
Chawner.) *
South Forbes ... Forbes ... ... Within a 5-mile radius there is about 3,000 acres of
pine, C. glauca and C. calcarata. (Alex. Aikman.)
Spicer's Creek Lincoln ... Within a radius of 4 miles there are only five
patches of pines, each being of Small extent.
The largest is not more than about 2 acres.
(Chas. Readford.)
2Ig
CALLITRIS CALCARATA, R.BR-Botanical Survey of the Species (continued).
Remarks.
Locality, County.
Stroud ... Gloucester
Suntop, Wellington ... ... Gordon ...
Tal Tal Mountain, Rylstone. Roxburgh
Tambar Springs, vi ä Gunne- | Pottinger
dah.
The Welcome, Parkes . Ashburnham
Tollbar and Clifford, Cooma Beresford
Tuena ... . Georgiana
Ulan, vid Mudgee ~ Bligh
Upper Colo . Cook
Uralla ... ... Sandon ...
Uranquinty . Mitchell...
Vere | Northumberland
Wagga Wagga ... Clarendon
Walhallow & e > ... Buckland
Wallangra, vi ä Inverell . Arrawatta ..
Wallaya ... Camden ... • * *
Warkworth . Northumberland
Warrangunyah, Ilford . Roxburgh
Weddin, vid Young ... . Monteagle
Weetalabar, Tamban Springs, Pottinger
viá Gunnedah.
Wellington ... Lincoln ..
Wheeo . King
Willandra, Dubbo . Narromine - -
Windeyer, vić Mudgee ... Wellington
Woodstock . Bathurst
Yarralumla, Queanbeyan ... Murray ...
Yarrowyck, vid Armidale ... Hardinge
Yetman . Arrawatta
. About I acre in I, OOO.
... About IOO acres.
. Only a few trees.
. Only a few trees.
. Mountain brushes throughout the whole district;
probably not more than 20 acres. (E. V.
Mitchell.)
. About 4 square miles with C. glauca. (R. T. Baker.)
. (H. King.)
. (S. B. Sargeant.)
. Is confined to stony ridges, and not so abundant as
(E. A. Grant.)
They grow in certain
ridges, and even do not grow thickly but are
considerably scattered. (William Fairley.)
C. glauca.
. About 20 acres. (J. J. Hook.)
. (J. S. Harding.)
...] A few trees.
... (A. Adamson.)
. (H. C. Brettell.)
(G. E. Cumming.)
(W. H. Bates.)
. (J. S. Middenway.) -
. Same as Quirindi.
. More or less dotted with pine scrub, from McIntyre
(Wm. Hagan.)
River to Severn River. (H. Thresher.)
(H. Thresher.)
Top of Wombo Mountains, a continuation of the
Bulga Mountains and extending beyond Jerry's
Plains, a distance of 6 or 7 miles. (Henry
Atkinson.)
. About 5 acres on the tops of the ranges. (Sarah
Hickey.)
(H. V. Wigg.)
. Timber.—The Black Pine is quite useless for any-
thing. (W. A. Griffiths.)
. (R. T. Baker.)
(Geo. Boulton.)
. Confined to very loose, red sand ridges—rather
poor soil.
Timber.—The most copious supply is afforded by
the Black Pine, which is a very resinous tree.
(R. W. Fitzell.)
(T. E. Cambower.)
... Common on ranges Io miles east of township.
(C. F. Laseron.)
. A few on the ridges.
. Not many in this locality. (Joseph Hanify.)
. (H. Thresher.)
22O
1O. Callitris rhomboidea,
R.Br. in Rich. Conif. 47 f. 78 (1826).
‘‘ CYPRESS PINE.”
(Syn. :=C. PCupressiformis, Vent. Nov., Gen. Dec., Io; C. aremosa, Sweet, Hort.
Brit., 473; Fremela rhomboidea, End., syn. Conif., 36; F. Ventenatii, Mirb. in
Mem. Mus. Par., XIII, 74; F. arenosa, A. Cunn., Endl., syn. Conif., 38,
Parlat. in DC. Prod., XVI, ii, 451 ; F. triquetra, Spach. Suit. Baff., XI, 345,
Endl., syn. Conif., 36; F. attenuata, A. Cunn., Hort. ; Cupressus australis,
Desf. Cat. Hort., Par. ed., 3, 355 not of Persoon ; Thuja australis, Poir. Dict.
Suppl., V, 3O2; T. articulata, Tenore.)
HABITAT.
This species, as understood in this research, has not an extensive range
in the Eastern Coast District of the Continent, and occurs only in certain
parts of Queensland, and New South Wales in the neighbourhood of Sydney, as
for instance, Middle Harbour, Mosman, St. Albans, Woniora River (Como).
I. HISTORICAL.
The inordinate list of synonyms associated with this species is probably
due to its being one of, if not the first described Callitris, and its seed being
widely distributed, for plants were early cultivated in European nurseries.
As there is no evidence to show that this was the particular species upon
which Ventenat founded his genus, we thought it better to employ Robert Brown's
designation for this pine, and thus remove all doubt, for his specimens Seen by
us are unmistakably identical with those of the other authors l.c., and as under-
stood by Bentham in his “ Flora Australiensis.” Ventenat, when founding the
genus Callitris upon an Australian pine, mentions no species; SO that there is no
justification for crediting him as the author of C. cupressiformis.
Material purporting to be this species is more widely distributed in the
world's herbaria than that of any other Callitris, and some so named are difficult
of identification or rather determination, as in many instances they are often
incomplete, and there is thus great confusion in its nomenclature. At the Paris
Herbarium all the specimens of M. Verreaux from New Holland, 1846, named
C. australis, are C. rhomboidea with immature fruits.
22 I
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor.
Callitris rhomboidea, R.B.R.—SHowing FASTIGIATE GROWTH OF
MoSMAN, SYDNEY, N.S.W.
BRANCHES.

222
Cunningham's specimen of “F. arenosa,” at Kew, is not in fruit, so that
probably this synonym, and that of Sweet's should not stand, as the specimens
are most probably those of his true F. arenosa from Moreton Bay, the branchlets
of the two being quite similar, and Cunningham would hardly have confounded
C. rhomboidea with C. arenosa. The specimen in the Brussels Herbarium labelled
F. Ventematii is probably C. calcarata, but has no fruits.
Bentham in his “Flora Australiensis,” Vol. VI, p. 238, places Gunn’s specimen,
which is labelled “Oyster Bay Pine’’ in the British Museum, as the variety
Tasmanica of the species, but the differences mentioned are, we think, more than
sufficient to warrant varietal rank for the Tasmanian plant and the specific name
of C. Tasmanica is now proposed for it.
At Kew Herbarium there is a specimen labelled by A. Cunningham, C.
attenuata, and another of the same at the British Museum, but these have no fruits.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Rew,
Robert Brown's specimen, 1802–5, this is labelled “C. Ventematii,” R.Br.
A. Cunningham's specimen from Moreton Bay, labelled “C. calcarata.”
A. Cunningham's specimen from Moreton Bay, Hook, Herb., labelled
“ C. are mosa.” -
A. Cunningham's specimens from Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, “a small drooping
tree,” Port Jackson, both the above two are labelled “C. attenuata,
A. Cunn.’’; the former in pencil and the latter in ink.
Fraser’s specimen from N.W. Coast, 1829.
Hooker's specimen labelled “Sydney.”
W. Macarthur's specimen, “Sydney Woods, Paris Exhibition, 1854.”
Specimen labelled “London Exhibition, 1862.”
A specimen labelled by Bentham as var. mucronata.
Mueller's specimen labelled “C. pyramidalis,” fruits immature.
Specimens from Botanic Gardens, Naples.
Specimen from St. Helena, with name by Sir J. D. Hooker. -
Neither of these last two shows variation from the Australian specimens,
although cultivated so far from its native habitat.
British Museum,_
Robert Brown’s specimen from Port Jackson, I804–5, labelled “C.
|Ventenati i.’’
A. Cunningham’s specimens, 1825, labelled “C. attenuata,” without fruits.
A. Cunningham’s specimen from Stradbroke Island, Moreton Bay.
Flinders' specimens, no loc.
G. Caley's specimens, no loc. .
Backhouse's specimens, no loc.
- -
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
NNW
- - - - - - - -
- | _ _ º F- / - - - -
- - - - * - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- --- - * * º * --- - º
-- * * * * º
- - * -
--- - - º
- tº º -
M - Lºl Mº' Mº. ºf A. 22.
- - - º
- I º'-- * * - -- - º -
º - " - º ºx º' - - -
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224
Berlin National Herbarium,_ -
Specimen labelled “Frenela rhomboidea, Endr. Parl. Nov. Hollandia ex
Museo, Paris, 1819.”
Specimen labelled “Fremela rhomboidea, Port Jackson, Lesson, 1815.”
Brussels National Herbarium,_
Specimen from Paris Herbarium of Decaisne, no loc., fruits immature.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is rather a small tree, attaining sometimes, however, a height of 50 or
60 feet in favourable situations, such as water courses; it has a hard, compact,
furrowed bark. The branches and branchlets slender and angular, owing to the
shape of the decurrent green leaves, the internodes short, the free portion of
leaf perhaps a little more acute than C. gracilis, which has similar angular
internodes. Male amenta, mostly solitary, terminal, and small. Female amenta
in panicles at the base of the branchlets.
Fruit cones not densely clustered on scarcely thickened branches, mostly
solitary, under § inch in diameter, globular; valves six, alternately smaller, the
larger ones dilated upwards into a wedge-shaped apex, the sporophyll producing
a pronounced dorsal spur, at first smooth but becoming rugose with age, the
smaller valves about half the width of the others, and tapering upwards, but
otherwise similar, distinctly channelled at the edges. Seeds two-winged.
The tree is easily determined in the field by its fastigiate growth, and in
herbarium material by its characteristic slender branchlets, and fruits, the larger
valves of which have a broadly rhomboidal apex, a feature that distinguishes
the species from all others, except C. Tasmanica.
III. LEAVES.
(a) EconoMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
A cross section through the three decurrent leaves gives an outline fairly
distinct from a corresponding section of any other species of Callitris, as
shown in the several plates.
The various tissues or organs of the leaves are found to occupy a relatively
similar position to those described more fully under such species as C. glauca,
C. calcarata, and C. robusta, and so are not so fully particularised here, as the
illustrations define their situations . -
THE PINES OF
AUSTRALIA.
Figure 145.-A transverse section through a main branchlet and decurrent
leaves, showing an oil cavity in the two lower, and just the
base of one in the third leaf. Between this and the central
axis are sectioned two bundles of a minor branchlet.
The endodermal cells preserve some order, and in the
mesophyll of the two lower leaves can be seen some stone
cells, the darker shaded bodies. Stained with haema-
toxylin. C. rhomboidea, x 25.
:
:

225
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 142. –Transverse section through branchlet with decurrent leaves Figure 143.−Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves.
and oil cavity in each leaf. C. rhomboidea, x 25. C. rhomboidea, x 25.
º:
º:
º
º
Figure 144.-Transverse.section through branchlet and decurrent leaves; Figure 146.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
showing, a minor, branchlet between the median one and with an oil cavity in each of the latter. The darker patches
the leaf bundle below the top oil cavity. C. rhomboidea, x 25. in the mesophyll in the two lower leaves are sclerenchy-
matous cells. C. rhomboidea, x 25.
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves of C. rhomboidea, R.Br.








226
The most important features of difference in the leaf structure, from those
of its congeners, are (I) the presence of many Sclerenchymatous cells in the spongy
parenchyma of the mesophyll; (2) the absence almost of a well-defined mass of
transfusion tissue, as obtains in C. calcarata and C. robusta, and (3) the absence
of the manganese compound in the parenchymatous endodermal cells.
The dorsal surface may be said to be concavo-convex, and it is in the concave
portion the stomata occur, such as is also found Occasionally in C. calcarata.
The epidermal cells are larger proportionately than those of its congeners.
Figure I42 illustrates a section taken just below the free ends of the leaves,
and shows, as in other species, how the three decurrent leaves form, along with
the central axis of the branchlet, one whole. The palisade cells are poorly developed
in these leaves and even the Spongy tissue of the mesophyll is less than that of
other species, their place being taken by an unusual proportion of parenchymatous
endodermal tissue, the cells of which can be seen to be empty and closely packed
around the central axis and oil cavities, filling the base of the leaves and also
enclosing the leaf bundles. The transfusion tissue is only fairly well developed
as compared with other species of Callitris. One marked characteristic feature
of C. rhomboidea leaves, is the unusual number of sclerenchymatous cells in the
spongy tissue of the leaves, although not so well seen in this Figure as in
Figures I44–6 where they can be traced as dark irregular bodies in the mesophyll.
Figure I43 gives the contour in section of the three leaves when the branch-
let is fully formed, and they are beginning to be thrust apart. It will be observed
in this illustration that the phloem of the branchlet forms a complete circle
enclosing the xylem together with its median pith cells; the decurrent channel
has gradually widened, and the dorsal Surface is convex in the centre and
concave at the sides, where are situated the stomata, a feature which marks this
as a coastal species, and in which respect, therefore, it differs from the Callitris
of the interior. Figure I44 is reproduced as it shows the effects in the contour
of a leaf when a branch trace begins, as in the base of the upper leaf. The
depressions on the dorsal surfaces locate the stomata. Note the sclerenchymatous
cells in the lower leaves. Figures I45–6 are different sections taken in the
neighbourhood of the oil cavities in the upper portion of the leaves.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was collected at the Spit, near Sydney, New South Wales,
On the 25th January, IQ07. -
The terminal branchlets alone were used, and although a few fruits were
present, they contained no oil. The distillation was continued for six hours, but
the yield was very Small—616 lb. Only giving 34 oz. of oil, equal to 0335 per cent.
227
The crude oil was somewhat dark coloured, but the colour was easily removed
when the oil was agitated with a very dilute soda solution; it was then a light
lemon colour. It was soluble in 7 volumes 80 per cent. alcohol. The odour
was more aromatic than with the oils of the Callitris generally, except C. Tasmanica,
and resembled less the ordinary leaf oils of this genus. This was due to the fact
that there was an almost entire absence of borneol and its ester; the somewhat
large amount of ester being almost entirely geranyl-acetate. This was shown by
the ease with which it was saponified in the cold, and the alcohol when separated
from the ester determinations was found to be geraniol; it had the odour of geraniol
and was readily oxidised to citral. The acid of the ester was acetic. The terpenes
were probably pinene, laevo-limonene, and dipentene. The yield of oil being SO
small, the amount at Our disposal did not allow of complete separation of its con-
stituents, but a full investigation was made with the oil of C. Tasmanica, a some-
what closely agreeing Callitris obtained from Glen Regis and from Tasmania.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = 0.8826; rotation ap — Ig. 2;
refractive index at 25° C. = I.4747. The saponification number of the uncleared
oil was 87.8, equal to 30-73 per cent geranyl-acetate; and that of the cleared oil
86-86, equal to 30-43 per cent. In the cold, with four hours' contact, the Saponi-
fication number was 85.08, equal to 29.78 per cent. of ester. The Saponification
number for the free acids was, therefore, O. 94.
The optical activity shows the presence of laevo-rotatory terpenes, the
principal one being, most probably, laevo-rotatory limonene, similar to that in
the oil of C. Tasmanica. The results of the above determination show this species
to be more closely allied with the group to which C. calcarata belongs, than to that
which includes C. glauca. Although the Callitris species from Glen Regis and
Tasmania are closely related, yet those trees are not identical with the Sydney trees.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris rhomboidea.
|
Locality and Specific Rotation Befractive Ester per cent , Ester per cent , Yield
Date. Gravity 9 C. (*D Index 9 C. by boiling in the cold. per cent.
The Spit, near Sydney, O'8826 (a) 22 – 19.2 I-4747 (a) 25 30°43 2978 o:0335
25/I/’07.
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
Occasionally a fair-sized (60 feet) Callitris, but its timber is not much used,
as the tree only occurs sparsely in the bush.
228
The timber is light in weight, as well as in colour, and is suitable for indoor
work, the grain being straight and the figure plain.
(b) ANATOMY.
The most notable feature in the transverse sections of secondary wood is the
unusually large number of manganese compound containing cells, which cells
throughout are probably larger in diameter than those of other species, as illus-
trated in Figure I47. -
The radial sections produced some interesting features, almost specific, i.e.,
the walls of the prosenchymatous cells of the tracheids being covered with bordered
pits always in single rows, vide Figures I49, I50, the former giving the pits in focus,
the centres of which in this case have taken the stain, probably marking the torus
of the Organ. Another character is also represented in Figure I49, i.e., the simple
pits of the medullary rays, which in this case have a circular orifice, and number
mostly four between the walls of each lumen, as distinct from the oblique slit of
C. calcarata.
The medullary rays have comparatively very long cells and present a compact
body, the walls of the upper and lower layers being as well defined as those of the
inner. They stain indigo with haematoxylin, and have, perhaps, the most strongly
defined walls of all the Callitris, are one cell in breadth, and two to six or more
high. -
It was thought that this species was in a measure related to C. calcarata,
but there are certain anatomical characters such as the circular orifice of the
simple pit, &c., that give, at least, one feature of differentiation in secondary wood
characters. - -
Figure 147 is a view of a cross section of the timber multiplied eighty times,
taken with the autumnal growth in the centre running from left to right and
indicated by the narrow lumina of the tracheids, which, in this case, are found to
contain the manganese compound in both that period and also the vernal time,
as evidenced by the black spots in the picture. The black lines running from top
to bottom mark the cells of the medullary rays, also containing this substance.
Figure I48 is a tangential section of the timber but, unfortunately, not a clear
one, but, nevertheless, is reproduced to show that it is possible to obtain a
number of rays in which the manganese compound is not found. In the radial
section, Figure I49, the pits of the bordered cells are focussed, and the rays show
that all the cells are uniform in character and have no marginal tracheidal cells,
whilst in Figure I50 the borders of the pits are focussed, and some good Samples
of medullary rays are also illustrated.
229
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 147.-Transverse section through timber, with autumnal tracheids
running through the centre of section. The continuous
dark lines indicate the rays and the scattered rectangular
markings are the brown manganese contents of the
tracheids. C. rhomboidea, x 80.
Figure 149.-Radial section of timber. In this case the pits of the
bordered and simple cells have been focussed, and are
indicated by the black “pin” points. The dark black
line on the left of the picture is the manganese compound.
C. rhomboidea, x 100.
Sections of timber of
Figure 148.-Tangential section of timber of C. rhomboidea, x 100.
Figure 150.-Radial section through timber, showing varying height of
three of rays. C. rhomboidea, x Ioo.
C. rhomboidea, R.Br.
-






THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
º
º
-
Figure 151.-Transverse section through bark, showing four oleo-resin Figure 152.-Transverse section through bark, showing two oleo-resin
cavities. C. rhomboidea, x 30. cavities. The dark bands through the picture denote the
manganese compound in the cells. C. rhomboidea, x 60.
-
Figure 153.-Transverse section of inner bark, through one oleo-resin Figure 154.—Transverse section through outer bark, in neighbourhood
cavity, showing its lysigenous nature. C. rhomboidea, x Ioo. of an oleo-resin cavity. The parenchymatous cells, both
empty and containing manganese compound, are seen, and
bast fibres are fairly distinct. The dark band is a periderm
layer. C. rhomboidea, x 100.
Sections of bark of C. rhomboidea, R.Br.



23I
V. BARK.
(a) EconoMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
A fairly comprehensive series of sections of this bark is given. The cross-
sections show a structure similar to that of its congeners, the layers of periderm
being restricted to the outer cortex, and in Figure 152 are shown as dark parallel
bands running from top to bottom of the picture, the dark colour probably being
due to the manganese compound and tannin contents, whilst Figure I54 shows
one periderm band passing diagonally through the picture, where the black
manganese contents of the parenchymatous cells are also well defined. Medullary
strands are illustrated in Figures 151–153, and in the latter the lysigenous nature
of oleo-resin cavities is clearly shown.
Two longitudinal sections are given under Figures I55 and I56. The
former is interesting as showing the parenchymatous nature of the medullary
cells, and more especially is this feature seen in the concentric cells between
the sieve tubes. The dark cell contents to the left mark the presence of the
manganese compound. - - * - -
The pale coloured structure composed of thin-walled cells running through
the centre of the picture, Figure I55, from top to bottom, marks the band of
periderm, and in this case forms the median material between the inner, on the
left, and the outer bast. Figure I56 illustrates a longitudinal section of bark,
and shows the sieve plates of the tubes, as well as the latter's position in the
bark structure. A parenchymatous cell runs through the Centre of the picture
from top to bottom ; this is bounded on both sides by sieve tubes, that on the
right showing the plates particularly well. Each of these tubes is in turn in
juxtaposition to a bast fibre. -
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The log from which this bark was taken was obtained near Sydney. Its
diameter was 8 inches. The bark was thin and somewhat fibrous, and its thickness
was from 6 to IO mm. It was externally of a dark-brown colour, and was com-
paratively deeply furrowed. From the results obtained with this specimen it
has little value for tanning purposes. •
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark:—
Moisture ... ... I4.5 per cent.
Total extract ..., 7.8 3 y
Non-tannin ... 3-8 5 y
Tannin ... ... 4'O
5 y
232
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 155.-Longitudinal section through bark. The narrow parallel
bands running from:top to bottom of picture are the bast
fibres separated by wide parenchymatous cells and very
narrow sieve tubes. A few of the sieve plates can just be
seen. The dark patches mark the manganese in the cells.
The light area in the middle is a periderm layer. C.
rhomboidea, x Ioo.
|º-
|
-
ºº
s
º
º
º
º
º
º
º
º
Figure 156.-Longitudinal section of bark, showing the large number of
sieve plates which characterise this bark. C. rhomboidea,
x 270.
Longitudinal sections of bark of C. rhomboidea, R.Br.


233
11. Callitris Tasmanica,
NObjS. * -v-
“CYPRESS PINE,” NEW SOUTH WALES.
“OYSTER BAY PINE,” TASMANIA.
(Syn. :-Frenela rhomboidea, R.Br., var. Tasmanica, Benth., “Flora Australiensis,”
Vol. VI, p. 238.)
HABITAT.
The Grampians (Mueller), Victoria. Glen Regis, Rylstone, (R.T. Baker);
Lochiel, Pambula, (W. J. Davis), New South Wales. Oyster Bay, near
Launceston, Tasmania.
I. HISTORICAL.
This Callitris appears to have been first discovered by Gunn at Oyster
Bay, Tasmania, in 1840, and was placed by Bentham, “Flora Australiensis,”
Vol. VI, p. 238, as Frenela rhomboidea, variety Tasmanica, but our investigations
seem to point to a specific pine, and it is here given such rank, under the name of
C. Tasmanica. -
Mueller's specimens collected at the Grampians, Victoria, and placed by
Bentham as variety mucronata of F. rhomboidea, l.c., were seen at Kew, and in
our opinion are this species.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew, *
R. Gunn’s specimens from Oyster Bay, Tasmania. (This is Bentham’s
C. rhomboidea, var. Tasmanica, loc. cit.)
Archer's specimens from Tasmania.
F. Mueller's specimens from the Grampians, Victoria. (This is Bentham’s
F. rhomboidea, var. mucronata.) •.
British Museum,_ -
R. Gunn’s specimens, dated 3rd April, 1840, from Oyster Bay, Launceston,
Tasmania.
Cambridge University,+
R. Gunn’s specimen, labelled “Oyster Bay, Van Dieman's Land, 1843,
C. australis, R.Br.”
Herb. Lindley, Ph.D., a specimen labelled—“This was Tenores' Thuya
articulata in 1832. It is T. australis in I838.”
234
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
· VINVINSVL ‘ĀVĢI （IZILSKO
JLV ĐNIAAOMIÐ SAGHAIL
"SIRION
‘pºłu puust). I sį4111100

-
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
N.S.W.
“CYPRESS PINE,”
Callitris Tasmanica, NOBIs.
GLEN REGIs, RYLSTONE,

THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Callitris Tasmanica, Nobis. “OYSTER BAY PINE,” TASMANIA, “CYPRESS PINE,” N.S.W.
Mat, size.

237
Paris Herbarium,_
Herb. Lindley's specimen labelled “ Thuya australis,’
Specimen labelled “F. triquetra,” no locality.
Specimen labelled “Cupressus australis, Pers. C. rhomboidea, Rich., Nov.
Holl., 1832.”
Specimen labelled “Ex. Herb. Hook., F. australis, R.Br., Hab. Tas., Coll.
R. C. Gunn.”
Brussels National Herbarium,_
Specimen labelled “from Tasmania,” but the fruits are immature.
y
no locality.
Melbourne,— Y.
A specimen labelled “Oyster Bay Pine, Tasmania,” is named C. rhomboidea
by Mueller and Parlatore; the fruits are too small for correct determi-
nation, but the branchlets and localities leave little doubt of its
systematic position.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is a small, medium-sized tree, occasionally 40 feet high and over, attaining
its largest size in fairly flat situations, and near water, as at Glen Regis, Rylstone.
Branches spreading, horizontal or drooping, rarely if ever fastigiate. Branchlets
with the decurrent leaves stouter than in C. rhomboidea, and almost matching
those of C. calcarata. Male amenta Small, terminal, almost globular, of a lighter
Colour than the leaves. Female amenta in panicles at the base of the branchlets.
Fruit cones densely clustered on short, very stout, much-thickened branches,
in this feature resembling C. robusta, R.Br., over # inch diameter, globular, valves
six, alternately smaller, the larger ones thick and dilated upwards into a wedge-
shaped apex.
REMARKS.
One great distinctive difference between this species and C. rhomboidea
will be found in its field appearance, for while C. rhomboidea is quite fastigiate in
its growth, C. Tasmanica has distinctly spreading, low, horizontal branches,
which occasionally droop, whilst they are never fastigiate, and this feature
characterises the tree both in New South Wales and Tasmania.
The glaucous feature of the leaves and the almost sessile clustered fruits
with their thickened valves also differentiate the species from C. rhomboidea.
The very slender branchlets with the decurrent leaves of C. rhomboidea is also a
distinguishing character from C. Tasmanica.
It is this comparative Constancy of characteristics as well as that of the
chemical Constituents that prompted us more especially to give it specific rank.
Very probably the locality—New England (Stuart)—given by Bentham, loc. cit.,
for C. rhomboidea refers to this species. -
238
It is specially worthy of note that it should occur at places so far removed
as Tasmania, and Rylstone on the mainland, whilst there are only two records of
its occurrence (Grampians, Victoria
– -- – and New South Wales), in the inter-
- º, ------ -ºº º vening distance, and yet preserves
intact the botanical characters as well
as its chemical constituents.
Mr. C. F. Laseron states—“That on
rocky, basaltic hills near the coast it
is rarely more than 20 feet high, while
on sand dunes, which lie behind the
open beaches it lives as a dense shrub,
sometimes only 2 or 3 feet high. The
branches are very low and irregular,
though usually drooping, and so dense
that it is difficult to approach the base
of the tree. The spread of branches
is very wide near the base, giving a
peculiar shape to the tree. It occurs
in patches on the East Coast of Tas-
mania from Otford to Swansea, and
probably still further north, and was
noticed in steep rocky gullies I6 miles
inland from Swansea. Young plants
are greedily eaten by stock.
Callitris Tasmanica, GLEN REGIS,
Rylstone, N.S.W.
The habit of this tree is very differ-
ent from the Sydney C. rhomboidea,
lacking the stately grace and symmetry, and the almost parallel and perpendicular
branches of that tree.”
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC.
It is stated that the young plants are sometimes eaten by stock. (Vide
Chemistry also.)
(b) ANATOMY.
Transverse sections show a configuration quite distinct, not only from its
congener C. rhomboidea, but from all the Callitris and, in fact, unlike that of any
other Australian pines. Some, however, resemble the cross sections figured
by Dr. Masters (“Linn. Soc. Journ.,” Bot., Vol. XXXV) of the leaves of Pinus

23 9 -- º:
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
Figure 157.-Transverse section through the central stem and three
- Figure 158. Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves
*"...ºu...'...º.º.º.º. g ºlºgº ſº wº
- - ree - : letter S. Cº., I ashla/11ca. X 50.
seen corresponding to each leaf. . Tasmanica, x 5o. by the lette 5
Figure 159.-Transverse section through branchlet and adnate leaves.
No leaf bundles are seen, but endodermal cells and spongy Figure 160,-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent adnate
mesophyll are well defined. This is quite an uuusual form leaves, with an oil cavity in each leaf. The transpiratory
for Callitris leaves C. Tasmanica, x 35. surfaces are marked by the letter S. C. Tasmanica, x 5o.
Transverse sections of branchlets and leaves of C. Tasmanica, nobis.


240
cembra, P. filifolia, for in this instance the decurrent leaves are more adnate to
each other and sometimes form as it were one complete triangular section of a
pyramidal leaf substance, similar to those quoted above.
The central cylinder of the branchlet in this case occupies a small area of the
whole, and is surrounded by the irregularly disposed parenchymatous cells of the
mesophyll, and Only traces of bundles are found in the lower portion of each
decurrent section near to the phloem of the midrib. The endodermal cells were
not found to extend around the outer surfaces of the oil cavities. When the
section is taken clear of the oil cavities, the spongy tissue of the mesophyll,
forms the bulk of the leaf substance. There is, also in this case, no ventral surface,
corresponding to that of the leaves of other species, for the transpiratory organs
occupy the three flat sides of the leaf-branchlet, the stomata thus not being
arranged all round as in Pinus. The assimilatory surfaces are situated at the
dorsal ridges or angles of the leaf-branchlets, which is backed by epidermal,
hypodermal, and palisade cells. -
The Spongy tissue forms a good proportion of the leaf substance throughout.
In other instances, the anatomy of the leaves taken from Tasmania, and
Glen Regis, Rylstone, when examined was practically identical. Both, however,
have a tendency to develop the dorsal surface at the expense of the ventral, and
in some instances in Tasmania no decurrent channel exists, as in Figs. I57–160,
where it is seen that there is no demarcation between the decurrent leaves, but which
form one whole, regular body around the central axis. In these four figures the
curved apices of the sectioned triangle correspond to the dorsal ridge of the leaf or
the assimilatory surface, whilst the surface joining these is transpiratory. Figures
I57–I59 show how irregularly arranged around the median bundles are the
parenchymatous cells and amongst which are a few transfusion tracheids. The
palisade parenchyma is poorly developed, whilst the spongy tissue is very much
so. Figure I60 has been cut through three oil cavities. Figures I61–2 are cross-
sections through the normal leaflets, and call for no special explanation except
that all the parenchymatous cells are empty. Figures I63–4 are longitudinal
sections cut through the nodes, and showing that the oil reservoirs are not canals.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
The results of the analyses of the oil of this form of Callitris, found growing
in Tasmania, and also that of similar trees of the Rylstone district of New South
Wales, show them to be practically identical in composition, and it is evident
that the oils must have been distilled from the same species. The botanical
differences which had previously been supposed to exist between C. rhomboidea
of the eastern coast of New South Wales and the Tasmanian form are by this
24I
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 161.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves, Figure 162. —Transverse section through branchlet and oil cavities of
cut below the oil cavities shown in Figure 162. The indivi- each leaf, which in this instance are of unusual size. A
dual bundle for each leaf is seen surrounded by endodermal branchlet trace is seen between the main axis and oil
cells, which also enclose the central axis. C. Tasmanica, cavity of the top leaf. C. Tasmanica, x 7o.
x 70. -
Figure 163.-Longitudinal section through two decurrent leaves, clear of Figure 164.—Longitudinal section through a node of a branchlet, showing
the central axis. The two empty spaces near the top are bases of two leaves and free portion of the two succeeding
oil cavities in the respective leaves. C. Tasmanica, x 54. leaves, the left one of which has its oil cavity sectioned
and the other the secretory cells only. C. Tasmanica, x 54.
Sections of branchlets and leaves of C. Tasmanica, nobis.


242
investigation shown to be substantial. It is remarkable, however, to find this
Tasmanian Pine existing so far north as the Rylstone district, New South Wales,
and the evidence thus appears conclusive that this form, although somewhat
related to the Sydney tree (C. rhomboidea), must have been entirely distinct before
Tasmania became separated from Australia.
The presence of such a large amount of geranyl-acetate in the Oil of this
species of Callitris is particularly interesting, and it is here that the geraniol—
which appears to occur in the oils of most species of Callitris—has reached its
maximum. The free alcohol was found to be almost entirely geraniol, and this
was proved by the results of the cold saponification of the acetylated oil. It
has been determined, particularly with the oil of this tree, that two hours' contact
in the cold is sufficient to entirely saponify the geranyl-acetate, and identical
results were obtained when the oil had been in contact with the alcoholic potash
for either two or four hours. Borneol seems to have been almost entirely eliminated
from the oil of this species, and terpineol is probably absent also, as no butyric
acid was detected in the volatile acids of the esters. The terpenes present were
pinene,—of which the dextro-rotatory form was slightly in excess—and limonene,
of which the predominant form was the lavo-rotatory modification. The tetra-
bromide prepared from the limonenes melted at II8° C., thus agreeing with that
obtained with the corresponding terpenes of C. calcarata.
A small amount of a phenolic body was detected in the oil of this tree,
which was probably identical with a similar substance Occurring in the oil of
C. gracilis. Sufficient material could not, however, be spared to enable it to be
isolated in sufficient quantity to be determined. It may possibly occur also in
other species, although it has not so far been detected. The odour of the oil has
a strong resemblance to that of geranyl-acetate, due to the presence of such a
large amount of that substance. Unfortunately the yield of oil from the leaves
of this species is small, so that the commercial value in this respect is somewhat
restricted. We have previously shown that large quantities of geranyl-acetate
occur in the oils of two Australian trees, viz.:-Eucalyptus Macarthuri (“Research
on the Eucalypts '’), and Darwinia fascicularis (Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Dec., 1899).
Scientifically, however, its occurrence in the oils of the Callitris is of great interest,
and has assisted greatly in the study of the several members of the genus.
No. 1.-This material was collected at Glen Regis, near Rylstone, New
South Wales, 180 miles west of Sydney, 27th March, 1905. The terminal branchlets
with their decurrent leaves were used. Although some fruits were present, these
had no influence, because oil could not be obtained from the fruits of this species
by steam distillation when treated alone. This was proved with the fruits of
the Tasmanian sample, and although the distillation was continued for six hours
not a drop of oil was obtained. The yield of oil was small, and 403 lb. of branchlets
243
Only gave 9 oz. of oil, equal to O. I4 per cent. The crude oil was amber coloured,
had an odour resembling that of geranyl-acetate, and was distinct from the oil
of any other Callitris, with the exception, perhaps, of C. rhomboidea. The crude
oil was insoluble in IO volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol, but was soluble in I volume
of 80 per cent. alcohol, and in all proportions after.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = 0-9036; rotation ap = + 1-o°;
refractive index at 25° C. = I-4738. The saponification number, after boiling for
half an hour, was I7I-3, equal to 59.95 per cent. ester, or 47. II per cent. alcohol
of the formula C, H, O. In the cold, with two hours' contact, the saponification
number was I7I. I8, equal to 59.91 per cent. of ester, or 47. I per cent. alcohol.
The whole of the ester was thus shown to consist of geranyl-acetate. The crude
oil was acetylated by boiling with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in the
usual way. The Saponification number had then increased to Igo.8, representing
61.2 per cent. Of total alcohol in the Oil, so that it contained I4 per cent, free geraniol.
On redistilling IOO c.c. of the crude oil, practically nothing came over
below I55° C. Between I55° and 172°, I4 per cent. distilled; between 172° and
I88°, 13 per cent. ; between 188° and 225°, 57 per cent., of which no less than 52 per
cent. distilled between 2I4° and 228° C.
The first fraction was again distilled and that portion which came over
between I55° and I57° Separated. This was a colourless mobile liquid, and had
the Odour and appearance of pinene. The nitrosochloride was prepared with it,
and this melted at IO7–IO8°C. It was then converted into the nitrolbenzylamine
compound, which melted at I22–123° C. The rotation of the pinene as thus pre-
pared was ap + 9.9°; the specific gravity at ##" C. = O-857; and the refractive
index at 24° = I-4706. It was evidently a mixture of both forms of pinene,
of which the dextro-rotatory one predominated.
The second fraction, which was laevo-rotatory, was again distilled, and the
oil which came over between 174° and 176° C. separated. This oil had all the
characteristics of limonene, and the rotation was ap – 9. I*. The tetrabromide
was prepared with it, and this melted at II8° C., showing that dipentene was
also present, and that the lavo-rotatory limonene was in excess. This is in
agreement with the results from C. calcarata and other allied species.
The third fraction, which was slightly laevo-rotatory, due to the small amount
of lavo-rotatory limonene which still remained, had specific gravity at ##" C.
= O. goſ ; and refractive index I:4685 at 23°C. The saponification number was
23534, equal to 82.369 per cent of unaltered ester. The remainder was then
wholly saponified, the alcohols separated, and the volatile acids determined in
the aqueous portions in the usual way. O. 5546 gram of the barium Salt gave
o:5066 gram BaSO, equal to 91.34 per cent. As the theoretical amount required
244
for acetic acid is 91.35 per cent, this result shows that no other volatile acid
than acetic was present.
The separated oil containing the alcohols was redistilled, when the greater
portion came over between 217° and 229° C. This had the marked rose odour of
geraniol, was inactive to light, and had specific gravity at 18°C. = 0-8818. These
results alone were strong evidence for geraniol, and it was not even necessary to
separate the alcohol in a perfectly pure condition by means of its calcium chloride
compound. When treated in the cold with the usual potassium bichromate
oxidising mixture, the marked odour of citral was obtained. A quantity was
then carefully oxidised with the more dilute oxidising mixture, and the citral
which formed extracted and purified. The oil which remained on the removal of
the ether had the marked odour of citral, and when treated with pyroracemic
acid and 8–naphthylamine, as suggested by Doebner, gave citryl—6–naphtho-
cinchoninic acid, which melted at I97–198° C. The principal constituents in the
oil of this Callitris are thus shown to be geranyl-acetate and free geraniol. In
the oil of no other species of Callitris has such a large amount of geraniol been
found.
No. 2.-This material was collected at Swansea, Tasmania, 3rd June, IgoS.
The leaves and terminal branchlets alone were used, the fruits having been removed
before distillation, and these treated separately. 600 lb. of branchlets gave 20 oz.
of oil, equal to O-2O8 per cent.
Although the fruits were distilled for six hours, yet not sufficient oil was
obtained to separate. The general appearance, too, of the fruits is not at all
promising for oil.
The leaf oil was amber coloured and had an odour strongly indicating that
of geranyl-acetate. It was insoluble in ten volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol, but
was soluble in one volume of 80 per cent. alcohol, and in all proportions after.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. = 0-8976; rotation ap = — 5.8°;
refractive index at I5° = I. 4739. The saponification number after boiling was
I79-3, equal to 62-75 per cent. of ester. In the cold, with two hours' contact, the
saponification number was 177.7, equal to 62.2 per cent, ester, or 48.9 per cent.
of alcohol; an identical result was obtained with four hours' contact. This result
shows that the whole ester was geranyl-acetate. A portion of the oil was acetylated
in the usual way, when it had a rotation ap = — 5:4° C. The Saponification
number after boiling was IQ5'I, representing 62.9 per cent. total alcohol in the
oil. In the cold, with two hours' contact, it was IQ2-9, representing 62 per cent.
total alcohol, so that practically the whole of the alcohol in the oil of this species
is geraniol, and I4 per cent. Of free geraniol was present in this sample.
The results of these analyses show that over 70 per cent. of the Oil of C.
Tasmanica Consists of geranyl-acetate and free geraniol.
245
The lavo-rotation of the crude oil is evidently due to a slightly increased
amount of the laºvo-rotatory limonene over that of the Rylstone sample.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris Tasmanica.
Locals and Specifi e Refracti * PY Ester in cold Yield
NO *. Giº, *c. Rotation ('D. Index * boº, per º º .P er
-- - - - - - | gº -
e |
I Glen Rºssw. O'9036 + I'O” I'4738 59'95 59'91 O'I4
273 O5 | @ 22” | @ 25 *
*-*-*- - -. – :- |
2 | Swansea, Tasmania, o-8976 | - 5.8° I'4739 62-75 62.2 O'2O8
3, 6'08 (a) I5 (a) I5°
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The timber is yellowish-brown, not unlike that of C. gracilis.
Transverse Tests of the Timber of Callitris Tasmanica, of standard size.
(38 in. x 3 in. x 3 in.)
Size of specimen in inches
Area of cross-section, square inches ...
Breaking load, in lb.
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch
2 3 elasticity 2 3 * 3
Rate of load in lb. per minute
(b) ANATOMY.
No. I. No. 2.
i
. B 3 OO ; D 3-OO º ; D 2.95 || B 3.00; D 3:00
9:00 8.67 9:OO
5,690 4,2OO 4,000
II,380 Q,257 8,OOO
I,5I5,789 2,I2O,727 I,440,000
7II 600 Soo
The medullary rays are specially numerous in this timber, and range in
height from two to twenty cells or even more; they are all of a parenchymatous
character and mostly devoid of the brown manganese compound contents—a
substance that is, however, fairly well scattered throughout the prosenchymatous
tracheids of the xylem.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
- --
º
* - - -
** - *i-
- * ~ * * * *
º - * * * *
- - a - * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * º -
sº * * * is tº
tº ** - - -
º * * ºr "
º * * * -
*** º
º º º º º
º º º
º * * * Lº
* * a º:
º: " : ... * * *
º º
º º: º
* :::::::
* **** • * *
ºf a * . . * * *
- ſº º
2 F-4 tº
* º
C
Figure 165.-Transverse section of timber. The autumnal tracheids
run across the picture from left to right. C. Tasmanica,
x I do.
|
|
|
Figure 166.-Tangential section through timber.
Here few of the ray
cells contain manganese compound, C. Tasmanica, x 100.
Figure 167. Radial section through timber through two rays.
black interrupted lines from top to bottom of picture are
manganese compound.
substance has come away from the cell.
Th
The two
e left one is interesting as the
C. Tasmanica,
x IIo.
Sections of timber of C, Tasmanica, nobis,






















247
The simple cells of the rays are comparatively large, as also are the
oblique perforations leading into the lumina of the tracheids. -
The pitted cells are numerous on the radial walls, and occasionally occur
in double rows—a rare occurrence in species of the Callitris genus. -
Vide Figures 165–6–7.
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The structure of this part of the tree conforms to the general rule of Callitris
barks fully described under C. glauca and other species.
The most distinctive feature is, perhaps, the strongly-developed sieve tubes,
the plates being very numerous and clearly seen in a longitudinal section even
under the low magnification of Figure I68, whilst in Figure I69, with a 350-
enlargement, they are very conspicuous objects.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
This specimen of bark was taken from a log 12 inches in diameter, sent
from Tasmania. The bark was somewhat thin for a tree of this size, and it
does not seem to thicken to the extent shown in that of some species. The
total thickness was 7 to IO mm.
The colour externally was a dark grey to brown, somewhat deeply furrowed
and fibrous. It is a fair bark for tanning purposes, more especially for the
preparation of tanning extracts.
The following results were obtained with the air-dried bark:—
Moisture ... ... I3.6 per cent.
Total extract ... 22.8 5 y
Non-tannin e º ºs 5-4 3 y
Tannin • e 9 - - - I7-35 5 y
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
ſ }
Figure 168,-Radial section at junction of inner and outer bark. The
lighter structure in left centre from top to bottom of
picture is a periderm band, The bast fibres are the
narrow dark lines in the left or inner bark. They are
more irregularly scattered through the outer bark, when
the parenchymatous cells can be plainly seen as well as
the sieve tubes, by the aid of a lens. C, Tasmanica, x 54.
Figure 169.-Longitudinal section through bark, showing abundance of
sieve plates in the tubes separated by parenchymatous
cells. C. Tasmanica, x 35o.
Sections of bark of C. Tasmanica, nobis.


249
Callitris sp.
“WEEPING PINE.”
HABITAT.
Little Swanport, East Coast, Tasmania.
REMARKS.
There is a plant in Tasmania passing under this vernacular, but as sufficient
material was not available for full investigation, only attention can here be drawn
to its existence.
It was discovered by Mr. C. F. Laseron of this Museum, who states:–
This small conifer is found in only one spot on the main road, 5 miles from Triabunna
(Spring Bay), and 8 miles from Little Swanport, Tasmania (East Coast). Here there are only
Some half-a-dozen plants. In habit it is a small, erect shrub up to 5 feet high, growing amongst
young plants of Oyster Bay Pine. It is very like young Casuarina in appearance. The branchlets or
needles are long and drooping, and Spring from the main stems in rings about I2 to I8 inches
apart, hence the name. Two distinct types of leaves were obtained. Though careful search was
made, no fruits were found. One or two small plants were noticed cropped very close to the
ground by stock.
These may probably be young plants of C. Tasmanica, but further investi-
gation is necessary. The special feature about the plant that is worthy of note
is the very long leaves in the decurrent form, in fact they are the longest of any
Callitris known to us in this respect. If new, the species might be dedicated to
its discoverer. -
Figures 170–173 are taken through the branchlet and the three decurrent
leaves, which have a form quite distinct from any other Callitris, and what is
still more characteristic, is that each leaf has three oil cavities, and it is to prove
these latter are not canals that the four figures are given. Figures I74–5 are
longitudinal leaf sections of different magnifications.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
".
º
* * *
-
e
º
º
--
Figure 170.-Transverse section through branchlet and three decurrent - - - - - - -
leaves of “Weeping Pine.” The shape of the leaves with showing, the unusual, ºccurrince of thrº.cavities ºn
their three oil cavities is unique amongst the genus. each leaf. “Weeping Pine,’’ Tasmania, Callitris sp., x 40.
Callitris sp., x 40.
Figure
171,-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves
º
Figure 172, -Transverse section, same as Figure 171, but showing that
three of the oil cavities have just cleared the knife, hence
Callitris sp., x 4o.
these organs are not canals. Callitris sp., x 40.
Transverse sections through branchlet and decurrent leaves of Callitris sp.





251
The paren-
On the left is
at the top
“Weep-
another bundle with a thread-like bast fibre
× 50.
:±ſae|-|×№：SŁ，-，（~~~~Hae
ſae.№
|-：）----
----- ROESOE
|-ae---- .----…- | –
±±±，±，±，±，±）,ſaes=№.
|（~~~~
chymatous nature of the endodermal cells is well shown.
Coming in from the top right centre is a bundle, and to the
marking the phloem. The lacunae are oil cavities.
right of which is some transfusion tissue.
ing Pine,” Callitris sp.,
showing the nature of the parenchymatous endodermal
Callitris sp., x 120.
cells in greater detail.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 174.—Longitudinal section through a decurrent leaf.
Figure 175. -Longitudinal section through the centre of Figure 174,
Longitudinal sections of a leaf of Callitris sp.





THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Callitris Drummondii, BENTH. ET HOOK. F.
Mat. size.
“CYPRESS PINE,” WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

253
12. Callitris Drummondii,
Benth. et Hook, fil, Gen. Plant., III, 424.
A “CYPRESS PINE.”
(Syn. :-Fremela Drummondii, Parlat, in DC. Prod. XVI, ii, 448.)
HABITAT.
Western Australia. It occurs on the Coast from Esperance Bay (Maxwell),
to Cape Riche. (Drummond.)
I. HISTORICAL.
This Conifer is in the happy position of having only one synonym, so that
its specific rank remains, so far, unquestioned.
HERBARIUM MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
Oldfield's specimen collected at Esperance Bay.
Drummond's specimens from Swan River.
- --—-------"
We are indebted to the Western Australian Government for the material
of this species, upon which the researches were carried Out.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A shrub or tree attaining a height of 50 feet or more, with a hard, Compact,
furrowed bark. Branchlets with the decurrent leaves, rigid, coarse, the latter
drying a fresh green in the herbarium specimens, and are more robust than in any
other species of Callitris except C. Roei. Free ends of leaves appressed, margins
scarious, obtuse, the decurrent portion of the leaf forming an acute angle, the
three producing an equilateral triangular prism—the angles being more acute
than in C. calcarata, and the internodes sometimes measuring 6 lines in length.
Male amenta terminal, mostly solitary. Female amenta not seen.
Fruit cones somewhat globose, but in the middle stage when half-grown
and on to maturity they are quite top-shaped and glaucous, mostly Solitary, yet
numerous at the base of the older branchlets, drying a light-brown colour,
scabrous when young, smooth or slightly rugose in advanced age, under 8 lines
in diameter; the valves are stout, alternately rather shorter and more acute,
valvate, the dorsal point not very distinct.
254
It is differentiated from Cognate species by—
I. Its fruits which have almost equal valves and which are thicker than
those of other fruits of equal size, and the base of the cone also
tapers into the peduncle.
2. Its comparatively large decurrent leaves, which give herbarium material
a coarser appearance than the others.
3. Its anatomical characters.
4. Its chemical constituents.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
These leaves are characterised by their angularity and a Cross-section
through a branchlet and the three decurrent leaves form a very fair equilateral
triangle, whilst an examination of the leaf tissue reveals a certain specific structure,
as, for instance, the occurrence of hypodermal cells at the ventral surfaces of the
leaves—a feature found not to occur in any other species. The occurrence of a
comparatively large number of branched sclerenchymatous cells in the fundamental
tissue is only paralleled in the leaves of C. rhomboidea, whilst the disposition of
the transpiratory surfaces is identical with those of the Tasmanian species,
which circumstance calls for investigation into the environment of these two
species, C. Drummondii and C. Tasmanica.
In Figure 176 the oil cavities of each individual leaf form a conspicuous
object, whilst at the most acute angle of the triangle the double row of hypodermal
cells can be seen, and at the base or ventral surface can just be made out similar
cells, with their long axis running obliquely to the surface; this is more distinctly
shown in all the other figures given under this species. The branched sclerenchy-
matous cells in the mesophyll are shown cut at different angles, whilst the number
of parenchymatous cells and transfusion tissue is very limited in this species; some
of the former are, however, occasionally found filled with the brown content, the
manganese compound. The assimilatory surfaces of the leaf are at the apex and
free base portion, the transpiratory area lying between these two, so that the
palisade parenchyma does not present so solid a phalanx as generally obtains in
Callitris leaves. Figure 177 shows two of the three leaves with oil cavities,
but generally each possesses an oil reservoir; the sclerenchymatous cells show out
prominently. Figure 179 being cut well below the node has no oil cavities in -
the leaves.
THE
PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 176.-Transverse section through a branchlet and three decurrent
leaves, illustrating the sharp angle formed by the dorsal
ridge in this species in each leaf, and where the hypodermal
cells are seen to be well pronounced. The endodermal cells
are not numerous around the three oil cavities and median
tissue. On the underside of each oil cavity is a bundle.
Sclerenchymatous cells occur throughout the parenchyma.
Stained with haematoxylin. C. Drummondii. x 40.
i
:

255
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 177. --Transverse section taken above 179 and showing an oil Figure 178--Transverse section through branchlet with three decurrent
cavity in two leaves. The sclerenchymatous cells, both leaves, and one oil cavity in section. Sclerenchymatous
in cross and longitudinal section, are seen in the mesophyll. cells are conspicuous in the mesophyll, aud a prominent one
Between the central axis and the lower right oil cavity is seen to the left of the oil cavity. C. Drummondii, x 4o.
are the bundles of a branchlet trace. C. Drummondii, x 40.
Figure 179.-Transverse section of branchlet and decurrent leaves. The
darker cells in the mesophyll are sclerenchymatous cells,
and the black patches among the vessels surrounding the
central axis are composed of manganese compound. C.
Drummondii, x 4c.
Transverse sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves of C. Drummondii, Benth. et Hook, f,


256
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
The material for this investigation was forwarded to us by the Government
of Western Australia, and was received the 26th June, 1903. As there were
numerous fruits upon the branchlets, it was thought desirable to distil them
separately, and none was left upon the branchlets, so that this oil was distilled
entirely from the leaves and terminal branchlets. The distillation was continued
for Seven hours, and 354 lb. of material gave 31 oz. of oil, equal to O-547 per cent.
The Crude oil was of a light amber colour and had a slight “pine-needle oil” odour,
but inclining more to that of turpentine, and was but little soluble in alcohol.
Over 90 per cent. of the oil consisted of dextro-rotatory pinene, and this had a
very high specific rotation. The amount of esters was very small, and this was
found to consist of the esters of borneol and geraniol, most probably in combination
with acetic acid alone, as the indications for that acid were most marked. Limonene
and dipentene do occur, but only in very small amounts, because in one distillation
less than 2 per cent. was obtained distilling between 173° and 200°C. The presence
of dextro-rotatory limonene was indicated by the specific gravity and rotations
of the two larger fractions, and by the slightly less rotation of the pinene fraction.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at +4 ° C. = 0-8591; rotation ap =
+ 42.2°; refractive index at Igº C. = I-4739. The saponification number (mean
of three determinations) was 5. 29, equal to I-85 per cent. of ester as bornyl and
geranyl acetates. In the cold, with two hours' contact, the saponification number
was 3.71, equal to 1.3 per cent of ester, thus indicating the presence of geranyl-
acetate. •
On redistilling, practically nothing came over below I55° C. Between I55°
and 160°, 75 per cent distilled; between 160° and 165°, II per cent. ; between 165°
and 200°, 6 per cent. ; between 200° and 250°, 3 per cent. Although separated
into the above fractions, yet only about I per cent. was obtained between 180°
and 230° C. -
The specific gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = 0.855I; of the second,
O-856; of the third, O.8565; of the fourth, O. 9099. The rotation of the first
fraction ap = + 43.6 ; of the second, + 47.2° ; of the third, + 52.8°. This
indicates that the predominant limonene is the dextro-rotatory form. The ester
in the fourth fraction was determined, the saponification number being 69-78,
equal to 24.4 per cent. Both borneol and geraniol were present as mixed esters,
thus being in agreement in this respect with most species of Callitris.
To prepare the pinene, IOO c.c. of the oil boiling below I60° was again distilled,
and 5 I c.c. obtained between I55–156° C. This had a specific gravity at I5° C.
= O-8579; rotation ap = + 42.7°, or specific rotation [a]p = + 49.77; refractive
index, I. 4714 at 24° C. The nitrosochloride, which melted at IO8° C., and the
nitrosopinene melting at IS2° C. were prepared, thus giving results conforming
257
to the requirements for pinene. The dextro-rotatory pinene occurring in the leaf
oils of the Callitris has reached a maximum in the oil of this species.
THE OIL OF THE FRUITs.
This material consisted of the fruits alone, the leaves having been entirely
removed, and 56 lb. of fruits gave 2% oz. oil, equal to O-3 per cent. The crude oil
was light coloured, very mobile, and in Odour and appearance strongly resembled
the oil from the leaves. The constituents of the fruit oil were also in agreement
with those of the leaf oil. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. = o-8663;
rotation ap = + 45. I*; refractive index at IQ. C. = I.4798; Saponification
number 6.86, equal to 2.4 per cent. ester. From these results it is seen that the
oil obtained from the fruits of this species of Callitris is practically identical with
that obtained from the leaves. The tabulated results will show this more clearly —
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris Drummondii.
| |
Locality and Date. speanºgravity Rotation ap. hº Ester per cent. r: t.
e --- - - ------ - –– –
West Australia, o:8591 (a) 17 + 42°2 I'4739 @ I9 I-85 O'547
26'6'og ! -
Crude Oil from the Fruits of Callitris Drummondii.
DO. o'8663 (a) I5 + 45"I I'4798 (a) IQ 2°4 O'3
| |
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
Very little appears to be known in regard to the uses of this tree.
(b) ANATOMY.
The distinguishing characteristics of this timber are the medullary rays
which are generally only a few cells in height, and which are mostly empty of
the brown manganese content, this substance, however, occurs scattered throughout
the prosenchymatous tracheids of the xylem in the autumnal and spring woods,
and can be well seen in a transverse section. The pitted cells are numerous OIl
the radial walls of the tracheids. -
V. BARK.
Only young bark was at our disposal for examination, and this called
for no special remarks, as its structure corresponded relatively to that of the
mature cortex of its congeners. gº
R
258
13. Callitris Roei,
Endl. Syn., Conif., 36.
(Syn. :-Fremela subcordata, Parlat. in Enum. Sem. Hort. Flor. I862, 24, and in
DC. Prod. XVI, ii, 446.)
HABITAT.
This species appears to have a rather limited range, as the material extant
in herbaria is only from King George's Sound and Swan River, W. Australia.
I. HISTORICAL
Several localities are given for this species in the “Flora Australiensis,”
but we were, unfortunately, not able to obtain material for Oil distillation.
The description here given is founded on Baxter and Drummond's specimens
at Kew and Melbourne. -
The species is, apparently, very distinct, and presents little difficulty in
determination. The coarse, angular, decurrent leaves On the branchlets are more
pronounced than in any other species, whilst the globular fruit cones with the
angles at the valve junctions are quite unique.
HERBARIUM MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew, .
Baxter's specimen from King George's Sound.
Drummond's specimens from Swan River. This specimen is labelled
F. Subcordata by Parlatore.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A tree or shrub with coarse, flexuose, erect branchlets, stouter than in any
other species, internodes angular; free portions of the leaves appressed, obtuse;
the decurrent portion very prominent and producing the pronounced angularity
formed by the dorsal edge of the leaves; internodes from I; to 2 lines long. Male
amenta unknown ; female amenta not seen.
- Fruit cones on short peduncles, or terminating short branchlets, nearly
globular, truncate or intruded at the base # to # inch diameter; valves very thick,
the three larger having parallel sides, the three smaller being triangular in shape,
strictly valvate, the alternately large and Small ones forming at their junctions
prominent obtuse angles before opening, smooth outside; the dorsal point very
prominent.
No material was available for botanical or chemical investigations.
250
14. Callitris Morrisoni,
R. T. Baker, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Nov., 1907.
HABITAT.
Killerberrin (Dr. A. Morrison), South-west Australia (F. S. Roe), Murchison
River (W. A. Oldfield).
I. HISTORICAL.
Dr. A. Morrison, then Government Botanist of Western Australia, was the
first to bring this species under notice, and when forwarding material, stated
that it was collected by Mr. F. H. Vachell at Killerberrin in July, Igo3. On
comparing it with known species of Callitris, it was apparent that it was unrecorded
and so was described by one of us, loc. cit., as a new species.
When inspecting the collections at the Kew Herbarium in IQ04 it was found
that similar material had been collected in South-West Australia by F. S. Roe,
and in looking over the Melbourne Herbarium later it was discovered that Oldfield
had also collected specimens of this Conifer on the Murchison River, Western
Australia.
The Kew Herbarium specimen, labelled “Inter. S. W. Australia, F.S.
Roe, Esq., C. robusta, J.D.H., Hookerian Herb.,” is identical with that at Mel-
bourne collected by Oldfield. In the “Flora Australiensis '' there appears to
be no reference to these particular specimens.
Only herbarium material was procurable, so that it was not possible to
carry out chemical investigation of the leaves, bark, and timber on the lines followed
in the case of nearly all the species of Callitris investigated here, but the morpho-
logical characters are sufficient to warrant a differentiation in systematic botany;
for briefly, the cones are similar in shape to those of C. Drummondii, and the
branchlets with the decurrent leaves identical with those of C. glauca.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
It is a tree 20 to 30 feet high occurring on rocky places (Oldfield). Branchlets
with decurrent leaves glaucous, erect, terete, internodes exceptionally short, in
fact, shorter than those of most other species. Free ends of leaves blunt, appressed,
260
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Nat size.
“CYPRESS PINE,” WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
(Cones closed.)
Callitris Morrisoni, R.T.B.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Nat, size.
Callitris Morrisoni, R.T.B. “CYPREss PINE,” WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
(Cones opened.)


262
the decurrent portion being quite short and flattened. Male amenta terminal,
mostly single, with few whorls of stamens. Female amenta unknown.
Fruit cones globular, axillary, Solitary, or in clusters, about 8 lines in
diameter when opened, smooth or wrinkled when aged, ash-grey in colour, in early
fruit tapering towards the pedicel or branchlets, as in C. Drummondii, Benth. and
Hook.f., but rather intruded at the base in the mature stage. Valves six, thick,
at first valvate, then channelled, the larger one with parallel edges, the smaller
Ones triangular.
Seeds usually two-winged, the central columella three-branched ; about
2 lines long.
15. Callitris Muelleri,
Benth, et Hook, fi/., Gen. Plant., III., 424.
‘‘ ILLAWARRA PINE.”
(Syn. :-Frenela fruticosa, A. Cunn. Herb.; F. Muelleri, Parlat. in DC. Prod.
XVI, ii, 450.)
HABITAT.
This species is apparently confined to a few localities in New South Wales.
It is found on the north shore of Port Jackson, Middle Harbour, especially at
Mosman, and on the sandstone ridges surrounding the Spit. It is also found
in the Illawarra District, and on the Blue Mountains, as well as the Curricudgery
Ranges. It has been announced as also occurring at the following places in this
State —Berrima, Blackheath, National Park, Eden, King's Tableland, Mount
Wilson, Nowra, Rylstone, St. Albans, Wentworth Falls, and Woy Woy.
I. HISTORICAL.
There is a specimen of Fraser's in the Kew Herbarium labelled from
Moreton Bay, Queensland.
The Original specimen of F. fruticosa of Cunningham, mentioned by Bentham,
Flora Aus. vi., p. 237, we could not trace, but both at Kew and the British
Museum there are specimens of this species, named by Cunningham as F. attenuata.
These apparently were overlooked by Bentham when compiling his classical work.
263
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
* º
- º º
º
M. F. Connelly, Photo.
C. Muelleri, BENTH. ET Hook. F. “CYPREss PINE," CLONTARF, SYDNEY, N.S.W.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Callitris Muelleri, BENTH. ET Hook. F. “CYPRESS PINE.” Nº sº.

265
HERBARIA MATERIAL ExAMINED.
Kew,
Parlatore's specimen from Port Jackson.
A. Cunningham's specimens—(1) from the Blue Mountains; (2) no locality,
but marked “C. attenuata.”
Fraser's specimen from Moreton Bay.
British Museum,_
Mr. Heward's specimen from New Holland, named C. pyramidalis.
A specimen in R. Brown's herbarium from New Holland.
Berlin National Herbarium,_
Sieber's specimen No. 137 from New Holland is labelled “Exocarpus stricta,
R.Br.,” an obvious slip of the pen.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A handsome, shapely Conifer under 50 feet high, with a dense head of dark
green foliage. Bark—hard, black, compact. Branchlets appearing angular from
the decurrent leaves, making the angles rather
acute; the internodes lengthening to half an inch
towards the branches. Free ends of the leaves
appressed, and not quite so acute as in other
species, the decurrent portion slender and raised
from the base, giving the branchlets an acute
angular appearance. Leaves in whorls of three,
sometimes reaching five lines in length. Male
amenta terminal, in twos or threes, ovoid, cylin-
drical, under two lines in length, about six whorls
of stamens; anthers, generally three at the base
of the orbicular stamens. Female amentum
solitary, at the lower portion of base of the
branchlets, about two lines in diameter, sporo-
phylls glaucous on the inner side.
Fruit cones solitary, or sometimes numer-
ous, on the second year's branchlets, subglobose,
about nine lines in diameter before dehiscing, and
Figure 180.-Seedling of C. Muelleri, Nat, size.
over an inch when the valves are fully expanded. Valves six, alternately large
and small, smooth on the back, the larger ones are oblong and rather obtusely
pointed, the three smaller ones triangular, valvate.
Columella, very short, three-
branched, flat. Seeds, oblong, two, rarely three-winged, about two lines long.
This is one of the most ornamental of the smaller Callitris, being a very
compact, shapely tree with olive-green branchlets.

266
Systematically it comes nearest to C. calcarata, R.Br., but differs from it
in its larger fruits and longer internodes, although in this latter character it differs
with One exception from all other Callitris, and can be classified from this feature
alone. Like C. Macleayana the acicular leaves are often to be found at the base
of the branchlets.
On a carpological classification it would be placed with C. gracilis, R.T.B.,
these two having the fruit cones of equal dimensions, the latter occasionally being
tuberculate, but again in C. Muelleri the fruits might also be described, perhaps,
as an enlarged form of C. calcarata. -
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide CHEMISTRY).
(b) ANATOMY.
(a) Primordial leaves.—In Figure I8I is shown a cross section of a leaf
that this species appears to be more prone to produce than its congeners,
excepting C. Macleayama, and such can be found almost invariably on every
individual tree.
In cross-section they may be described—first, as roughly triangular in shape;
and, secondly, with channels on two sides which generally form the transpiratory
surfaces. Epidermal cells are larger than the hypodermal—the usual order
of things obtaining in the decurrent leaf; the Spongy mesophyll is unduly out of
proportion to the palisade layer, and carries in the centre an oil cavity and a
single bundle with its attendant transfusion tissue.
(b) Decurrent leaves.—These divide themselves morphologically into two
kinds, i.e., those which sectionally may be described as dumb-bell shaped, and
those which sectionally are roughly triangular in outline. The former occur near
the ends of the branchlets, especially on what was known as C. Parlatorei, and,
therefore, in a measure represent, probably, the transition state between the
acicular and the decurrent forms. In Figure 182 is given a cross-section
through a branchlet showing the attachment of three of the former to the
central axis, and morphologically are unlike any other conifer. The three
knobs of the leaves are the assimilatory surfaces of the epidermal cells backed
by a double row of hypodermal cells. The transpiratory organs are on the
concave surfaces, which are followed by another small area of assimilatory
surface at the foot of the leaf near the adnate portion. The spongy mesophyll
consists of elongated cells joining the palisade parenchyma with oil cells not
shown in the picture, and below which is the leaf bundle with a fair amount of
conjunctive tissue. Parenchymatous endodermal cells appear to be quite absent.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 184.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
showing two oil glands in two of the leaves. The endo-
dermal cells are specially abundant and in the centre of
which in each leaf is a bundle with its red-stained xylem
and purple phloem. Stained with haematoxylin and
safranin. C. Muelleri, x 25.
:
:

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 181.-Transverse section of primordial leaves of C. Muelleri, x 35. Figure 182. Transverse section through central stem and decurrent
leaves of an unusual shape. C. Muelleri, x 70.
Figure 183.−Transverse section through branchlet, showing attachment Figure 185. Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves.
of tissue of decurrent leaves to central axis—these forming The dark patch in the middle of each leaf is a leaf bundle.
practically one whole. C. Muelleri, x 50. C. Muelleri, x 50.
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves of C. Muelleri, Benth. et Hook. f.


268
Figure 183 well illustrates that the transverse sections of the normal leaves
present some interesting samples of structure, for whilst conforming in a
general way to the usual anatomy of this part of the Callitris, yet there are
Specific differences that may be worthy of notice, viz.:-A narrow ring, two
Or three cells wide, of empty parenchymatous vessels enclosing the bundles
of the central cylinder or column of the branchlet, and occasionally connected
by medullary rays with the pith cells. This is the only species in which the
parenchymatous cells partake more of a true endodermal character (Figures I83–5),
for not Only are they arranged in a circle around all the bundles, but also around
the oil cavities, the transfusion tissue in a compact mass on either side of the
leaf bundle, and partly around the base of the oil cavity, and not irregularly
Scattered, as holds in some other species. The manganese compound containing
parenchymatous cells, are not so clearly defined, but, nevertheless, can be traced
in Figure I85, as a narrow band around, but distant from the central axis
or phloem, and also at the base of the decurrent channels. At this early stage
of growth it may be noted (Figure 184) that the bast cells of the phloem are
beginning to form, and if staining is any guide to origin, the evidence is
in favour of a xylemic one, or at least they are closely allied to, or have affinity
with that material. No Sclerenchymatous cells were detected corresponding
to those of C. rhomboidea or C. calcarata. It is to be noticed how relatively small
are the many oil cavities to those of other species, and also that two sometimes
Occur in each leaf (Figures I83–4). The hypodermal cells occur at the dorsal
side and at the edge of the leaf as it turns into the decurrent channel, where are
found the Stomata.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was collected at the Spit, near Sydney, New South Wales,
20th September, Igo7. The leaves and terminal branchlets alone were used.
The whole of the fruits were removed before distillation, and these distilled
separately. The distillation was continued for six hours, and 212 lb. of terminal
branchlets gave 3% oz. of oil, equal to O-IO3 per cent. The crude oil was slightly
lemon coloured, very mobile, and had the “pine-needle oil '’ odour much less
distinctly marked than with most species, resembling that of turpentine more
strongly. It was practically a terpene oil, and, consequently, was indifferently
soluble, being insoluble with ten volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. The principal
constituent was pinene, both forms being present, the dextro-rotatory pinene
only slightly predominating. The limonenes were also present, the one in excess
being the laºvo-rotatory form. The esters were very small in amount, but there
is no reason to suppose that they differ in composition from those of the Callitris
generally, and the amount of oil at our disposal was too small to allow the con-
stituents to be isolated for specific determination.
269
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = O'8582; rotation ap = —
4.7°; refractive index at 20° C. = I-4749. The Saponification number was 7-88,
equal to 2.76 per cent. of ester.
On redistilling, practically nothing came Over below I55° C. Between 155°
and I57°, 50 per cent. distilled ; between I57° and I70°, 33 per cent. ; between
I70° and 180°, IO per cent. -
The specific gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = 0-8512; of the second,
O-8502; of the third, O-8482. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 6.6° ;
of the second, - 4.5°; of the third, – 22.1°. The chemical products were
readily prepared with the first fraction, proving it to consist mostly of pinene.
That limonene was present in the oil is also indicated by the above results. There
was an almost entire absence of the higher boiling constituents, and no indication
of a Sesquiterpene corresponding to cadinene was detected.
The Oil of this species is distinct from that of any other Callitris, thus
Supporting botanical and other characteristics.
The fruits of this species are apparently devoid of oily constituents, and
26 lb. removed from the green branchlets, although distilled for five hours, did
not give a single drop of oil.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris Muelleri –-
Locality and S-ecific º Re"ractive ESt r Yield,
Date. Gra, ity “C. Rotation ap. Index • C. per en". | rer cent
The Spit, Sydney, o'8582 (a) 24 – 4'7 I'4749 (a) 20 2.76 O'IO3
2O 9/07
IV. TIMEER .
(a) ECONOMIC.
This is a pale-coloured timber, but as the tree is so sparsely scattered and
attains only a small diameter it is necessarily not found in commerce, and so is
never likely to be of any commercial value, unless cultivated.
(b) ANATOMY.
The main features of this timber show some specific characteristics, as,
for instance, the medullary rays are almost uniformly fewer-celled in height
than, perhaps, other species, and there appears to be less manganese compound
content, so pronounced in corresponding cells of other species, and thus this
substance is not by any means a prominent feature of the tracheids.
270
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 186.-Transverse section through vernal timber. The three
parallel black bands extending from top to bottom of
picture mark three medullary rays—the black colour being
due to the brown manganese compound. C. Muelleri, x 12'o.
Figure 187.-Radial section through timber. The bordered pits are
very numerous on the radial tracheidal walls, and the simple
pits of the rays are equally well shown. The cells of the
rays are all parenchymatous. C. Muelleri, x 120.
|
|
Figure 188.-Radial section through timber. Numerous pitted cells
are shown on radial walls of tracheids. Portions of three
rays are shown. C. Muelleri, x 150.
Figure 189.-Tangential section through timber of C. Muelleri, x 90.
Sections of timber of C. Muelleri, Benth. et Hook. ſil.
º


271
All the cells of the medullary rays are parenchymatous, both the inner
and outer. In Figure I86 the three black lines mark the medullary rays by the
presence of a manganese compound. Pitted cells are numerous on the radial
walls of the tracheids, whilst the perforations of the ray cells are circular, with
about two apertures between each wall of the tracheids. Figures 187–8.
V. BARK.
CHEMISTRY.
The sample of bark was taken from a tree 3 to 4 inches in diameter growing
near Sydney. The bark was grey to brown externally, furrowed, soft, and fibrous.
The greatest thickness was Io mm. t
The following results were obtained with the air-dried sample:–
Moisture ... ... I2. I per cent.
Total extract ... I6.8 y 3
Non-tannin . . . 4°9 } y.
Tannin ... ... II. Q * 9
16. Callitris oblonga,
Rich., Conif., 49 T, 78 F, 2 (7826).
(Syn.:—C. Gunnii, Hook. f. in Hook. Lond. Journ., IV, 147; Fremela australis,
R.Br. ; Mirb. in Mem. Mus. Par. XIII, 74, not of End. ; Hook. f. Fl. Tasm.
I, 352 t. 97; F. Gummit, Endl. Syn. Conif., 38; Parlat, in DC. Prod. XVI,
ii, 450; also according to Parlatore; F. variabilis, Carr. and F. macrostachya,
Gord.)
HABITAT.
This species is quite endemic to Tasmania, where it was collected by
Robert Brown at Port Dalrymple, and on the gravelly banks of the South Esk
River, near Launceston. .
I, HISTORICAL.
From the above list of synonyms it will be seen that this Callitris has
received no little attention at the hands of systematists. It was first collected by
Robert Brown, as stated above, and afterwards in the same locality by several
distinguished botanists, and Sir Joseph D. Hooker, in his “Flora Tasmanica,”
gives a splendid illustration of the species.
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
º//
, Mºſſ
º!/
| | || º | º/
|, . º A. N. | º
N
º ſ
*~
º
º -
º -
º º
-
- * * * º -
º - -
- … … -
T -
Callitris oblonga, RICH. “CYPRESS PINE,” TASMANIA.



273
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
Sir J. D. Hooker's specimens collected on the bank of the Esk River, with
notes and sketches for plates in his “ Flora Tasmanica.”
R. Gunn's specimens, labelled “C. Gunnii '' by Hook. f.
A specimen from Launceston, no collector's name given.
A specimen grown in the open air since 1893 by Mr. W. J. Ross, Rosstrevor,
Ireland—shows no variation.
British Museum,_
R. Gunn's specimen from South Esk Bank, 25–5–43.
Caley's specimen, labelled F. Gunnii, no loc.
Paris Herbarium,_
Gunn’s specimen ; information, Kew and British Museum.
Cambridge University Herbarium,_
Gunn’s specimen ; information, Kew and British Museum.
Brussels Herbarium,_
Verreaux's specimen from Paris Herbarium, labelled “Frenela australis, R.Br.
I844–46,” not in fruit.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A shapely bush or small tree rarely attaining a height of 25 feet, with a
hard, compact bark, and very numerous branchlets. Free ends of leaf small,
acute, closely appressed at the base of each joint, the three decurrent portions
forming angles on the branchlets resembling those of C. Muelleri ; the internodes
are comparatively rather long, ranging from 2 to 3 lines. Male amentum terminal
or towards the ends of the branchlets, very short, just over a line long, the whorls
of stamens few, anther cells a little larger than in other species. Female amentum
not Seen.
Fruit cones somewhat conical, about an inch long and # inch in diameter
towards the base, solitary, on short peduncles or in clusters, and sessile at the base
of the younger branches. Valves six, obtuse at the apex, rather thick, the alternate
ones about half the size of the others, which are sometimes convex
longitudinally at the lower half and concave at the upper, smooth on the
back, the dorsal point very prominent on the outer edge at the top; the
central columella short, three-partite. Seeds, broad, equally or unequally
winged.
On a carpological classification the species has greatest affinity with C.
rhomboidea, R.Br., as both have a well-developed “spur.”
S
274
This is one of the smallest trees of the genus, and is usually found on the
gravelly banks at the mouth of the Esk River. It is characterised by the very
prominent development of the dorsal point of the valves, which distinguishes the
fruit cones from all the other species.
Known locally as “Native Cypress.” This is a very Small species of Callitris,
usually not more than 5 or 6 feet high, and rarely up to IO feet. It is rarely above
2 or 3 inches in diameter. It is fairly common On the extreme edge of river flats
on the South Esk River, also St. Anne's River, near Avoca, Tasmania. It is never
seen far from the edge of the river. It is erect in habit, usually consisting of
several branches rising from the ground. The foliage is dense, and, as the outline
is very symmetrical, it forms a handsome and prominent little shrub. (C. F.
Laseron.)
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
Like most Tasmanian species the contour of a cross-section of the
decurrent leaves together with the branchlet is almost triangular, the decurrent
channel being hardly perceptible in many instances, while the fundamental tissues
of the three leaves have no regular line of demarcation, and so, together with the
central cylinder of the branchlet, form, as it were, one whole structure, somewhat
similar to certain leaves of Pinus. -
The dorsal angles are the assimilatory surfaces; a row of hypodermal cells
intervenes between the epidermal and the palisade layer of cells, both of which
are uniseriate.
The central column is surrounded by an irregular circle of parenchymatous
endodermal cells, which enclose the small leaf bundle and extend around the oil
cavity when it is present.
Only a limited number of sclerenchyma and transfusion cells were detected.
The spongy tissue of the mesophyll forms a loose structure and occupies
a fair proportion of the leaf. Stomata are not numerous, and when present
were found to occur on the straight, lateral surfaces of the combined three
leaves, as obtains in others assuming this shape; there may possibly be some in
the traces of decurrent channels, where also were found a few Conical-shaped
cuticle cells, and which are fully dealt with under C. glauca.
THE
PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 192.--Transverse section through branchlet, and decurrent,
admate leaves, with an oil gland in each of the latter.
Stained with safranin. C. oblonga, x 55.
:
--

275
-
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 190.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves Figure 191,-Transverse section through branchlet and three decurrent
free from oil cavities. The dark irregular shapes in the leaves, showing an empty oil cavity in each of the latter.
mesophyll are sclerenchymatous bodies. C. oblonga, x 55. C. oblonga, x 55.
Figure 193.-Longitudinal section through junction of a central axis and
branchlet. C. oblonga, x 35.
Sections through branchlets and decurrent leaves of C. oblonga, Rich.


276
The position of the stomata is worthy of notice in this case, as well as the
general absence of decurrent channels—a condition of circumstances probably
due to natural selection or adaptation to environment and, perhaps, produced
by the climatic conditions of the island home of this species, for the West Coast
of Tasmania is notorious for its great rainfall. This disposition of transpiratory
organs is in marked contrast to what realises with the Callitris of the arid interior
of the continent, where all have marked decurrent channels into which the Stomata
communicate, and by which they are well protected from the heat, and other
adverse climatic conditions. Figure Igo illustrates a section cut well down the
internode of a branchlet, and showing no oil reservoirs. Figure IQI is a
cross-cut higher up than Figure Igo, and takes in the lower extremities of the
oil cavity in each leaf, whilst in Figure IQ2 the triangular shape of this
section is complete, and being cut through the middle of the oil cavities shows
the varying diameter of these bodies compared with those given under Figure IQI.
The parenchymatous cells are arranged in a fairly regular manner around the
central axis and oil reservoirs, and may almost be called quite endodermal in this
instance. It will be noticed that they are all empty. The leaf trace can be seen
but not the transfusion tissue, which, in this species, is only developed to a limited
degree. Figure 193 is a longitudinal section cut through the centre of a branchlet
and offshoot.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was collected at Avoca, Tasmania, 25th June, I908. The
leaves and branchlets, containing some fruits, were taken for distillation, and this
was continued for six hours, but the yield of oil was very small, as 526 lb. of
branchlets only gave 4% oz. of oil, equal to O-054 per cent. The crude oil was
somewhat dark coloured, but after agitation with a dilute solution of soda it became
of a light-lemon colour. It was very mobile, and had an odour somewhat resem-
bling Callitris oils generally, but, perhaps, more aromatic than those of the
C. glauca group. The esters were in somewhat small amount, and appeared to
consist mostly of geranyl-acetate, as only a small amount of bornyl-acetate could
be detected. In this respect the oil belongs more to the group to which C. calcarata
is a representative than to that including C. glauca. The principal terpene present
in the oil of this species is pinene, the dextro-rotatory form being the most pro-
nounced, and no less than 80 per cent. of the crude oil distilled below 170° C.
The limonenes were present, but only in a very small amount. There was also
detected a small proportion of a high boiling constituent other than the esters,
and which was most probably a sesquiterpene or similar body. This was
indicated by the distillation results, the refractive index, and the specific
gravity of the crude oil. The oil, consisting mostly of pinene, was naturally
somewhat insoluble, and it did not form a clear solution with Io volumes of
277
90 per cent. alcohol. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 16° C. = O-8735;
rotation ap = + 38. I*; refractive index at I6° C. = I. 4783. The saponification
number, after boiling, was 17-3, equal to 6. O5 per cent. esters. In the cold,
with two hours' contact, the saponification number was I5-9, equal to 5.6 per
cent. It was thus seen that the greater portion of the esters was saponified in the
Cold, and the separated oil had a secondary odour of geraniol. Only 40 c.c. of the oil
could be spared for redistillation. Between 154° and I60°, 67 per cent. distilled;
between 160° and 170°, 13 per cent. ; between 170° and 200°, 7 per cent;
between 200° and 250°, 8 per cent. The specific gravity of the first fraction at
#" C. = O-8583; of the second, O-8583; of the third, O-8656; of the fourth, O. 916.
The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 40.7°, or a specific rotation [a]p = +
47.42°, which is nearly as high as the specific rotation of the pinene of C.
Drummondii. The rotation of the second fraction ap = + 38.5°; of the third,
+ 33. I’; of the fourth, + Ig. 9°. The refractive indices of the first three fractions
at 20° C. also closely agreed—the first = I.4733 ; the second = I. 4736 ; the
third = I-475I.
The above results show that the oil consisted largely of dextro-rotatory
pinene, and that the indications for limonene were not strongly marked. The
first fraction was again distilled, and that portion which came over between
I55–156° C. was separated. The nitrosochloride was prepared from this in
the usual way. The oil of this species shows distinctive characters from those
of any other species of Callitris, and although having resemblances in composition
in some respects to the oil of C. Muelleri, yet, it can be seen that the two oils are
distinct.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris oblonga.
e tº z º. gº Ester b Ester e
Locality and Specific, Rotation a Refractive tº in thºod, Yield,
Date. Gravity C. D. Index • C per cent,
per cent. per cent.
Avoca, Tasmania. O'8735 (a) I6 + 38-I I-4783 (a) I6 6-off 5-6 O'O54
266/08 |
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The economics of the timber are quite limited owing to its small size.
278
17. Callitris Macleayana,
F. v. M. in Rep. Burdek. Exped. 17, 1860.
“STRINGYBARK" or “PORT MACQUARIE PINE.”
(Syn.:-C. Parlatorei, F.V.M., Fragm. V, I86; Fremela Macleayana, Parlat., in
DC. Prod. XVI, ii, p. 446; Octoclinis Macleayana, F.v.M., in Trans. Phil.
Inst., Vict., ii, t. ; Leichhardtia Macleayana, Shep. Cat. Pl. cult. Sydney, I85I,
p. I5.)
HABITAT.
The geographical range of this species is rather limited, being confined to
the Coast district from Coolongolook, north of Newcastle, New South Wales, to
Queensland.
It occurs at Alstonville, Booral, Coolongolook, Coopernook, Dorrigo,
Hastings River, Kempsey, Killabakh, Port Macquarie, Tumbulgum, Woodford
Dale, and Yarrahappini, all in New South Wales.
I. HISTORICAL.
C. Macleayana and C. Parlatorei were for many years regarded as distinct
species, and Bentham in his “ Flora Australiensis” and Mueller in his last
“Census ” give them specific rank.
The reason for this classification is not far to Seek, C. Macleayama was
founded on that form of the tree, or rather material, which has mostly acicular
leaves and eight-valved cones; and C. Parlatored on that with six-valved fruits
and an absence of acicular leaves, as shown by herbaria Specimens extant
to-day at Kew, Paris, and Melbourne. Thozet's specimens (loc. infra) have acicular
leaves and eight-valved cones, as also have Mueller's Specimens at Paris and
Melbourne, whilst Thozet's specimens referred to by Bentham have six-fruited valves
and no acicular leaves; thus showing how imperfect collecting in the field has
misled the able botanists above mentioned. We long Suspected that the two
names referred to one species, and were further convinced in our views after visiting
the Hobart Botanic Gardens, Tasmania, where the features which were supposed
to characterise the two species are to be found occurring on the same tree.
HERBARIA MATERIAL EXAMINED.
Kew,
Thozet's specimen from Hastings River, New South Wales.
Hill’s specimen from Darlington Range, Queensland.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Callitris Macleayana, F.V.M.
“STRINGY
BARK" or “PORT MACQUARIE PINE.”
Nat . Size.

28O
Paris,
Mueller's specimen from Hastings River, labelled “C. Macleayana.”
A. Rudder's specimens from Macquarie Harbour.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This tree is said to attain a height of I50 feet, with a diameter of 2 to 4 feet,
and has a red, Stringy bark.
The branchlets appear angular from the shape of the decurrent leaves,
which are short (I to 2 lines long), similar to those of C. calcarata ; acicular leaves
variable in length, are sometimes 4 to 5 lines long, rigid, and pungent pointed,
and shortly decurrent in whorls of three.
Cones large, pyramidal-ovoid, acuminate, over an inch long, on thick recurved
pedicels, rather less than an inch long; valves six to eight, almost of equal size,
and lanceolate in shape, valvate, channelled on the back, the dorsal point at the
apex being reflexed, occasionally slightly reflexed at the tips. Fertile seeds with
Only one wing developed.
The vernacular name well describes the nature of the bark, which is entirely
different to that of any other species of the genus. It appears to be a parallel
case to Casuarina inophloia, F.V.M. et F.M.B., the only “Stringybark ’’ of that
similarly unique genus.
It is also distinguishable from its congeners by its pyramidal angular fruits
and its pale-coloured timber which has not a dark duramen, although possessing
in a slight degree the same aromatic odour. This lighter colour is probably due
to a smaller amount of the characteristic chemical substances.
The tree is ornamental, and is recommended for cultivation in botanical
gardens, and especially for forestry. Trees growing to the height of I50 feet are
stated to occur at Coolongolook, New South Wales.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
The distinguishing characteristics in the leaf anatomy of this species are
the minimised development of hypodermal cells below those of the epidermal, the
dorsal surface, and the environment of the central axis by sclerenchymatous cells—
a feature not found by us in the other species. Sclerenchymatous cells are also
found in the spongy mesophyll, which latter forms an unusually large proportion
of the leaf substance as shown in the sections, whilst transfusion tracheids and
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 195. Transverse section through branchlet and middle of oil
cavity in each decurrent, adnate leaf. Hypodermal cells
are only below the dorsal ridge (assimilatory surface); the
transpiratory surfaces are on the middle of the sides of the
triangle. Stained with haematoxylin, C. Macleayana,
x 70.
Figure 196.-Transverse section through a branchlet and surrounding
leaf tissue. A band of sclerenchymatous cells (light brown)
surround the phloem of the median bundles. Transfusion
cells are seen more clearly towards the top, and denoted
by the pitted cells. The lower portions of two oil glands
are seen on the left and right towards the top. Stained
with haematoxylin and safranin. C. Macleayana, x 28o.


281
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 194. Transverse section through branchlet and the three adnate
decurrent leaves. Three small oil cavities are sectioned
near the outer parenchymatous endodermal cells, surround-
ing the sclerenchymatous cells enlarged in Figure 196.
C. Macleayana, x 70.
Figure 197.-Longitudinal section through branchlet and two decurrent
leaves, showing an oil cavity in the right-hand one. There
is one row of parenchymatous pith vessels running through
the picture from top to bottom. C. Macleayana, x 70.
Sections of leaves of C. Macleayana, F.V.M.


282
parenchymatous endodermal cells Occur in about even proportions. The transpira-
tory surface occupies the mid-distance between the dorsal apices, there being no
decurrent channel in this species and, Consequently, no ventral surfaces so to
speak. Figure 194 has been cut near the bottom of the three oil cavities, which
can be seen on the outer edge of the whole median structure, and this is reproduced
in Figure IQ6. Other structures can also be traced from the remarks given under
previous species. Figure Ig5 is a section through the middle of the oil cavities
of the leaves. Figure Ig6 is given to illustrate the sclerenchymatous cells enclosing
the bundles of the axis of the branchlet, and are well-defined objects in the plate.
At the top right-hand corner is focussed an isolated transfusion cell, the
other empty cells are of a parenchymatous nature. Figure IQ7 is a longitudinal
Section of a branchlet and leaves, just cutting an oil cavity in the upper half of
the leaf.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material, which consisted of both forms of the leaves with terminal
branchlets, was collected at Coolongolook, New South Wales, I80 miles north of
Sydney, on the IIth October, Igo7. It contained many fruits, but all of them
were removed before distilling, so that the oil is that of the leaves only, together
with their accompanying branchlets. This procedure was, however, found to be
unnecessary, because the fruits only contained traces of oil, and 331 lb. when steam
distilled for six hours did not give sufficient oil to enable it to be collected. The
yield of oil from the leaves was not large, and 290 lb. only gave 8 oz., equal to
O. I72 per Cent.
The crude oil was but little coloured, and had somewhat of a turpentine
odour with but slight resemblance to that of the leaf oils of the Callitris generally;
it was insoluble in IO volumes of GO per Cent. alcohol.
The oil of this species, although in most respects agreeing with those of the
Callitris leaf oils, yet contained a constituent in some quantity which has not been
detected in the oil of any other species of Callitris, although, perhaps, occurring
in traces in some of them. This constituent appears to be dextro-rotatory mentheme
or some member of the menthene group, and when isolated by fractional distil-
lation, in as pure a condition as possible, it had a marked odour of menthene,
and altogether strongly resembled that substance. It was not possible, of course,
to separate it in a pure condition by distillation, nor was the amount of material
at our disposal sufficient for the purpose, but from the results obtained there
appears little doubt but that a member of the Clo His series does occur in the leaf
oil of this species, as indications for an undetected terpene were not given. The
only Conifer from which we have succeeded in isolating hydrocarbons belonging
to the CoHis or CoH, series is Araucaria Cunninghami, and in this tree only
from the latex of the plant.
283
The other constituents of the leaf oil of C. Macleayana were dextro-rotatory
pinene, highly dextro-rotatory limonene with some dipentene, a small amount of
ester, and a sesquiterpene which indicated cadinene strongly, although it was not
laºvo-rotatory.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at #9" C. = 0.8484; rotation an -- 42.5°;
and refractive index at 20° C. = I. 4791. The saponification number, after boiling,
was 9.9, equal to 3.5 per cent. Of esters. In the cold, with three hours' contact,
the Saponification number was 9. 2, equal to 3.2 per cent. of esters, thus indicating
that geranyl-acetate was the principal ester, and although the identity of the alcohol
was not determined with certainty, yet it had the geraniol odour strongly marked.
On redistilling IOO c.c. of the oil, but little was obtained boiling below 160° C.
Between 160° and 170°, 50 per cent. distilled; between 170° and 180°, 26 per cent. ;
between 180° and 240°, 8 per cent. ; between 240° and 270°, II per cent.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 22°C. = O'8372; of the second,
O-8379; of the third, O'862; of the fourth, O'Q167. The rotation of the first
fraction, ap= + 46.2°; of the second, + 56. O’; of the third, + 57.3°; of the
fourth, + I6.6°.
The first fraction was again distilled, when IQ C.C. was obtained boiling
below 160°C., and 18 c.c. between 160° and 168°C. The specific gravity at 22°C.
of the first fraction was O-84I3; of the second, O-837. The rotation of the first
fraction, ap = + 42.3°; of the Second, + 52.6°.
The Pimene.—The portion which came over below 160° was again distilled,
and 7 c.c. collected, boiling between I55° and I57° C. This was largely pinene.
It had a specific gravity at 22°C. = O-8443; rotation, ap = + 37.4°; and refractive
index, = I. 4733. A small amount of the nitrosochloride was obtained with it,
which, when finally purified, melted at IO7–IO8° C.
The Mentheme Fraction.—The oil boiling between 160–168° was added to
the remainder in the flask, and the distillation continued, when the oil which
came over below I62°C. was separated ; IO c.c. was thus obtained, boiling between
I62° and I65°. This had specific gravity at 22°C. = o-837; rotation, an = + 58.7°;
and refractive index at 22° C. = I-4703. It probably contained some limonene,
but had a very marked odour of menthene ; and this, together with the low specific
gravity and the low refractive index, indicated the presence of a member of this
group. Although the results do not correspond closely to those of the known
menthenes, yet, even among the comparatively pure members considerable differ-
ences occur, as, for instance, between menthene and carvo-menthene. It was
not possible, with the amount of material at our disposal, to carry the separation
and purification further, and the complete identity of this hydrocarbon thus
remains in abeyance.
284
The Limomene.—The second fraction of the first distillation was again
distilled, and I2 c.c. obtained boiling between 170° and 177° C. This had specific
gravity at 22° C. = O-838I ; rotation, ap = + 63.6°; and a refractive index at
20° C. = I. 476. It consisted mostly of limonene, as it gave the characteristic
bromide for that substance; but as this melted at II7—II8° C. evidently some
dipentene was present; it thus agrees with the oils of the Callitris generally. The
fourth fraction of the first distillation was again distilled, and 5 c.c. boiling between
270° and 280° C. separated. This had specific gravity at 22° C. = O. 9203, and
refractive index at the same temperature = I-5052. It gave the colour reaction
for Cadinene when dissolved in chloroform and treated with sulphuric acid, and
the physical properties appear to indicate that sesquiterpene, but we were not
successful in preparing the crystallised dihydrochloride with it.
Crude Oil from the Leaves of Callitris M acleayana.
Locality and Specific Rotation a Refractive Ester per cent. Ester per cent. Yield
Date Gravity" C. D index 9 C by boiling. in the cold. per cent.
Coolongolook. O'8484(a)20 | + 42.5° I'479.I 3'5 3'2 o'I72
II/IO, O7
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This tree is found on level ground in rich scrub Soil as well as on steep
sides of ridges. It attains a general height of from 60 to 80 feet, and a diameter
of about 2 feet ; the trunk being for a great length without any branches,
makes the tree appear different from the usual aspect of Callitris. The bark is
very thick and fibrous, and a rich reddish-brown colour, differing in these respects
from those of C. glauca and other Callitris.
The timber may be said to be entirely free from figure, the grain being
quite straight, but, nevertheless, when planed it has a nice pale colour. Unfor-
tunately it is a rare tree, Occurring only in patches in the northern coast district,
and, so far as known, only in a comparatively few localities in New South Wales
(supra). It has a very light brown-coloured duramen and is fissile, easily worked,
and much resembling the “ Brown or Damson Pine,” Podocarpus elata, R.Br., in
texture and colour, and could be used for cabinet work, panelling, &c. It is only
slightly aromatic compared to those of its cognate species of Callitris. Con-
cerning its ant-resistant properties there are no data available, but it probably
possesses some of these qualities, for Mr. A. B. Barlow of Yarrahappini has
forwarded to us a specimen which has lain on the ground for nineteen years and
is still in a good state of preservation—a rather good record of durability.
285
Tests, -
Three pieces I foot by I inch in a transverse stress gave the following results:—
I. Broke at 550 lb., deflection - 29 inch.
2. Broke at 530 lb., deflection - 36 inch.
3. Broke at 500 lb., deflection - 25 inch.
(b) ANATOMY.
Viewed microscopically the various sections of the xylem present differences
from some of its congeners. The medullary rays run along the field of view in
distinct broad bands with well-defined end and lateral walls, as well as distinct
simple pits, which give it the appearance of a number of bolted iron plates (Figure
2O2); these parenchymatous cells are narrower than in the other species. There is
also a distinguishing Scarcity of the brown manganese compound in the cells of
the tracheids, those found being distantly scattered throughout the two seasons'
growths.
The bordered pits occur on the radial walls and in a tangential section are
less prominent (in section) than in other species. The free edges scarcely protruding
into the lumina of the tracheids. In examining these bordered pits under a DD
objective (Zeiss), the limiting lamella (torus) is seen to be more enlarged on both
sides than in any other species examined, whilst in almost every case there appears
to be only one opening into the tracheid instead of two, such as obtains in other
species, the opposing wall of the tracheid being quite entire.
In a transverse Section the walls of the autumnal growth are, perhaps,
thicker than the others, and the cells are flatter, giving the annual ring a rather
pronounced appearance, the transition from the spring growth showing little or
no gradation, as shown in Figure Ig8, which section depicts a narrow band of
autumnal tracheids, such as obtains in this species, across the plate from left to
right just above the middle. There are two medullary rays in the left of this
figure, the longer and darker is towards the middle. Only a very few tracheids
have brown manganese compound contents, and there is none in the rays.
Figure 199 is a portion of Figure 198 more restricted, while Figure 200, a tangential
Section, shows the prosenchymatous nature of the tracheids along with other
characters specified under these plates. Figure 201 is a radial section showing a
single row of pitted cells on the walls of the tracheid, and Figure 202 gives a radial
Section with two rays, and also shows a double row of pitted cells in the tracheids,
a rare occurrence in Callitris. Figure 203 is a higher magnification of a portion
of Figure 202, and the double rows of pitted cells are more plainly visible, whilst
the parenchymatous nature of the whole of the ray cells is well depicted.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
(Vide Chemistry of products of this wood, page 62.)
286
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
--- -
- º -
- º y
º -
- º y
-
Figure 198.-Transverse section of timber. The narrow band of tra- Figure 199.-Transverse section through timber. The narrow band of
C. Macl x 8o. tracheids marks an autumnal growth. The manganese com-
acleayana, o pound is only sparsely distributed in this timber. The
upper half is the autumnal growth. C. Macleayana, x Ioo.
cheids marks an autumnal growth.
Figure 200.-Tangential section through timber of C. Macleayana, x 80, Figure 201,–Radial section through timber, showing a single ray across
the field of vision. C. Macleayana, x 80.
Sections of timber of C. Macleayana, F.v.M.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
Figure 202.-Radial section of timber showing portions of two rays
The left tracheids are autumnal,
of different heights.
and the right vernal, which in some instances show two
No other Callitris has this feature.
rows of pitted cells,
C. Macleavana, x 80.
| º * . | - º - .
º sºlº º
Figure 203.-Radial section of timber showing portion of one ray, with
- The double row of
its conformity of the individual cells.
bordered pits in the central tracheids is quite unusual
amongst Callitris. C. Macleayana, x 11o.
Sections of timber of C. Macleayana, F.V.M.



288
V. BARK,
ANATOMY.
The characteristic feature is the predominance and concentric regularity
of the bast fibres, the parenchymatous and sieve tubes being quite restricted.
The bast fibres in a cross-section alter from a rhomboidal shape near the cambium
to a square as they recede to the Outer cortex as seen in Figure 204, which also
shows some young desmogen cells in process of differentiation into young xylem
tracheids below the cambium ; these are succeeded by alternate rows of bast
cells, sieve tubes, and parenchymatous cells filled with dark-brown manganese
compound.
The outer bark consists almost entirely of a mass of fibre, and the indications
for tannin gave such little promise that an analysis for tannin was not undertaken.
18. Callitris sp.
HABITAT—Mount Lindsay,
REMARKS,
This species is suggested from material at Kew Herbarium, and labelled
“Callitris, sp., Mount Lindsay, New Holland, 1829, 186,” and a note in pencil
“C. robusta, var.”
Its branchlets have the angular character of those of C. calcarata, whilst
the fruit cones in outward appearance might easily be mistaken for those of
C. Muelleri, but the central columella is the largest of any known species.
Such characters as these are, perhaps, hardly sufficient to warrant the
making of a new species, but we make the reference so as to place on record our
opinion on the matter.
Mount Lindsay is rather indefinite as regards locality, especially as no
Collector's name is given, and when full material is acquired its specific identity
will be easily determined. -
The name “intermedia " might be given it.
289
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
|--
--- - -- -
--~~ - - *
º - Cº-ºº: *.
- - - -
- --- º
--- - ---
- - - - I - --- -
- - - -
N. - * --> ---.
--- - __ " - -
--- ---
Tº - - º
-º-º:
- -- --~~~ - -
- - --
-º-º: -
-- - -
- -
- - - -
& - ---
--- -
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- - - ----- - --- -
- --- - - - - - -
----- - º
- - - - - -
- - - -º-º-º-º:
- - ** ****
_** - - -
- -** * * - - | -
cºyº tº: º -
- M-H ºr ) \, \
- º - -
- - --- - -
º
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J –4. -º-, }. | -
Crºº-º-º: --
º 5–35. J. - º -
º º º - D - º
- -], M º
- nº - -
- - --- -
- - .
--
-
-
-
- -
- -
-
Figure 204.—Transverse section at junction of timber and bark, showing
the cambium, in the neighbourhood of which the paren-
chymatous cells contain the manganese compound, and
forming a distinct line between the bast fibres. It also
shows the gradual increase in size of the tracheids as
they recede from the cambium in their early growth.
C. Macleayana, x 100.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
* -
º
& -
º º
tº ºf
º
Actinostrobus pyramidalis, MIQ.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Nat. Size

291
THE GENUS ACTINOSTROBUS.
I. HISTORICAL.
Miquel founded this Genus in Lehmann’s “Plantae Preissianae'' in 1848,
On a densely branched shrub occurring in Western Australia. Since then another
species has been recorded, but both are endemic to that part of the Continent.
Although closely allied to Callitris, yet its imbricate bracts on the cone scale as well
as physical and other features, mark it as distinct from that genus.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The leaves are homomorphic, in alternate ternary whorls of three, very
short, thick, rigid, acute, and like those of Callitris are characterised by a con-
crescent or decurrent portion. Flowers monoecious. Male amenta oblong ; micro-
sporophylls in whorls of three, and in six vertical Columns; microsporangia 2–4.
Female amentum solitary, globular or acuminate; macrosporophylls imbricate in
whorls of three, closely appressed, the innermost, bearing one or two macro-
sporangia at the base.
Fruit cones on the end of short, thick, woody stalks, the innermost thickened
and subtended by closely appressed sterile scales. Seeds, three-winged, central
column mostly present. Vide Lubbock’s “Seedlings,” Vol. II, p. 549 (1892),
where it is stated this genus has three subulate cotyledons.
1. Actinostrobus pyramidalis,
Miq. in P1. Preiss. i. 644.
(Syn. :-Callitris actinostrobus, F.V.M., Rep. Burdek. Exp., 19.)
HABITAT.
Western Australia, King George's Sound, Baxter to Swan River (Preiss),
Murchison River (Oldfield).
I. HISTORICAL.
(Wide supra.)
292
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A shrub with fastigiate branches, having closely packed, glabrous, rigid
branchlets. Leaves varying in size according to the age of the dependent branch,
graduating from the acicular form of primordial leaf to a comparatively long
decurrent one on the smaller uppermost branchlets, the free ends spreading.
Male amentum short, about 4 mm. long ; microsporangia orbicular, obtuse.
Female amentum at first consists of a series of scales (five or six) in whorls of three
each, all imbricate ; as these develop the two uppermost whorls of Scales become
sporophylls and by a process of adnation at the base form the Cone, which is then
composed of six equal, valvate valves, with one or two seeds at the base of each,
and several imbricate scales on the back. The shape of the cone is rather inclined
to elongation from a sphere, or say conical, measuring # inch in diameter; the
whole being permeated with oil cavities.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC.
(None known, except chemical constituents.)
(b) ANATOMY.
A cross-section through the three decurrent leaves gives a distinctive outline
from that obtained from a corresponding section in the Callitris, the dorsal surface
is marked by a pronounced ridge, at the base of which are situated the stomata
in longitudinal lines, the collateral ventral surfaces of the leaves only appearing
in this case to be transpiratory at the very base of the ventral canal, so that there
are no well-defined transpiratory and assimilatory surfaces. The epidermal cells are
uniseriate, with rectangular or conical cavities, the hypodermal cells extending round
each leaf to the base of the ventral canal of the collateral leaves, where the cuticle
is marked by elongated processes as in Callitris. Here also the palisade parenchyma
is much more closely packed than on the dorsal side, the material of the spongy
tissue being particularly loosely distributed or attenuated, and connecting the
former with the sparsely scattered parenchymatous cells, as well as the strengthen.
ing walls of the oil cavities. The central cylinder of bundles of the branchlet is
surrounded by transfusion tissue more marked than in the Callitris; each leaf
has an individual bundle normally orientated, backed on the outer side witn
parenchymatous endodermal cells. (Figures 205–206.)
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material was received from the Government of Western Australia’
and was distilled 6th July, Igo3. It consisted of the leaves with terminal branchlets
293
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 205.-Transverse section through branchlet and decurrent leaves,
The black patches in the lower portions of the spongy
mesophyll are manganese. Actinostrobus pyramidalis, x 5o.
Figure 206.-Transverse section through branchlet with attached de-
current leaves, showing decurrent channels more distinctly
than Figure zos. A. pyramidalis, x 70.
Transverse sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves, Actinostrobus pyramidalis, Miq.


294
only, and 207 lb. of these, when steam-distilled for six hours, gave 84 oz of oil,
equal to O-256 per cent.
The crude oil was of a light-amber colour, and had an odour only slightly
resembling “pine-needle oils '' generally, and a secondary one which was
distinctly aromatic. It was soluble in 4 volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. The
principal constituent in the oil was dextro-rotatory pinene, and there appeared
to be an entire absence of limonene, a fact which shows a distinctive difference
between this genus and Callitris. No less than 87 per cent. of the total oil distilled
below 170° C., and less than 2 per cent. came over between 170° and 200° C.
The ester was not completely identified because the small amount of material
at Our disposal did not permit of this being done, but the odour of the saponified
oil was distinctly that of geraniol, and borneol was not indicated. The result
with Cold saponification also confirmed the presence of geranyl-acetate.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at I5°C. = 0-8726; rotation ap = + 40.9°;
refractive index at I9° C. = I. 4736. The saponification number was 21.6, equal
to 7.6 per cent. Of ester, as geranyl-acetate. In the cold, with two hours' contact,
the Saponification number was IQ-8I, equal to 6: 93 per cent. ester.
On redistilling, only a small amount came over below I54° C. Between
I54° and 160°, 76 per cent. distilled; between 160° and 170°, Io per cent. The
thermometer then quickly rose to 215°, and only 2 per cent. had been obtained
between I70° and 215°; between 215° and 230°, 8 per cent. distilled.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 15° C. = o'8616; of the second,
O'8621 ; of the fourth, O 91.40. The rotation of the first fraction, an = + 44.5°, or
a specific rotation [a], + 51-64°; of the second, + 42.9°. The refractive index of
the first fraction at 20° C. was I-4724. The characteristic pinene reactions were
obtained with the oil of the first fraction, thus showing it to be that terpene.
The saponification number of the fourth fraction was 1274, equal to 44.7
per cent. ester. The Saponified oil of this fraction had a marked geraniol odour,
and when Oxidised the odour of citral was readily obtained. There was no
deposition of resin on the sides of the bottle on keeping, as often occurs with many
of the oils of Callitris.
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The timber being small, is of little economic value.
(b) ANATOMY.
In a tangential Section of the secondary wood (Figure 209) are conspicuously
seen numerous instances of end-on views of the medullary rays, and the radial walls
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
º
--º
-
-
º
C
º
º
º
ºº
:
R
º
-
º
º
§
C
-º
º
UN
Cl
-
º
i
§
º
;
Figure 207.-Transverse section through timber. The tracheids with
smaller lumina towards the top mark the autumn growth.
Two rays are included running from top to bottom of
picture, the centre one containing some manganese com-
pound. A. pyramidalis. x 80.
Figure 209.-Tangential section through timber. A. pyramidalis, x 1zo. Figure 210 —Radial section of timber. The parenchymatous character
Figure 208 —Transverse section through timber. Traumatic resin mass
running obliquely through the centre. The rays are
located by the black lines running from top to bottom.
the colour being due to manganese compound. A small
quantity of this substance is also seen amongst the trachcids.
A. pyramidalis, x Ioo.
- º -
- º . ºl -
- º - º ºl.
a ſºlº º
º - º -
4. º . º: º º
º º P-
- |
|||
-- -
of the outer cells of the rays are distinctly seen in the
lower medullary of the section. A. pyramidalis, x 100.
Sections of timber of Actinostrobus pyramidalis, Miq.
















296
of the tracheids with pitted cells in section. The rays are fairly numerous, and
scattered irregularly throughout the xylem ; the cells which are parenchymatous
-
-
º
.
.
Figure 211 —Radial section through timber.
Rays are only faintiy
indicated. A broad band of traumatic resin mass runs
through the centre of the picture from top to bottom–
a very rare occurrence in Australian Coniferae. The black
interrupted lines are the manganese compound in the
tracheids, the walls of which are quite covered with bordered
pits. A. pyramidalis, x 80.
being, perhaps, fewer in height
than obtains in most species of
the cognate genus Callitris, but
resembling these in being only a
cell in breadth, at the same time
they are relatively wider. About
50 per cent of the ray cells were
found to be filled with the man-
ganese compound. The radial
walls of the tracheids appear to
be covered almost entirely with
bordered pits (Figure 2.Io), a
somewhat characteristic difference
from Callitris species. A radial
section taken also from the dura-
men, indicated in this species by
a darker colour than the sapwood,
also shows the rays to be fairly
numerous, the simple pits of the
rays varying in number from two
to four in each lumen.
Figures 208 and 211 show a
transverse and longitudinal section respectively of a comparatively broad and
what we regard as a traumatic resin reservoir.
in shape than those of the Callitris.
of
the closely allied genus Callitris.
It may be noted that only one pitted cell occupies the diameter of a
tracheid, the walls of which are, as above stated, simply covered with them.
In the secondary xylem the cells containing the brown manganese compound
are in peripheral zones, mostly close to the autumnal wood.
A transverse section shows the tracheid walls to be rather more irregular
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
(Figures 207–208.)
Anatomically the bark presents a somewhat similar structure with that
The sclerenchymatous cells form con-
centric rings regularly alternating with three rows composed of one central


297
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
--
-
-
- ---,
-
-
- -
- - -
-
-
- 7
-
-- -
º º
º
-
---
- º
º
- -
Figure 213 —Transverse section through the outer bark; two oleo-resin
cavities are in the field of vision, the displacement of the
contiguous cells showing the lysigenous channel of these.
The broken parallel lines are the bast fibres, whilst the
light streak across the picture is a periderne layer. A.
pyramidalis, x 60.
gºtº -- º
Cº. º º - - -
gº
Cº. - L - -
- º Cºº
*** ****º sº
tº * * * * * * * Rº: *º-sº º
- - º: Gºzº - ra. - -
*** ** Fººtº sº; -
º Stº * -ºººº-ºº:
º -
§§§º -
º
º
º: º33
º ºš
º º
ºº:: º
Figure 215 –A higher magnification of the inner bark than shown in
Figure 213. The concentric bands of bast fibres run across
the figure from left to right in dark lines. The lacuna on
left of the picture is part of an oleo-resin cavity. A.
pyramidalis, x 160.
Figure 212 —Radial section through bark. Although a low magnification
the sieve tubes with the accompanying sieve plates can
fairly well be seen with the empty parencyhmatous vessels
between each. A. pyramidalis, x 76.
Figure 214 —Transverse section showing greater field of vision than
Figure 213. A. pyramidalis, x 60.
Sections of bark of Actinostrobus pyramidalis, Miq.








































298
parenchymatous ring between two of sieve tubes, and certainly very closely
resembling in structure the bark of Callitris propinqua. (Figures 212–215.)
Sieve tubes with their accompanying plates are illustrated in Figure 2.I2.
Oleo-resin cavities are very numerous throughout the whole bark sub-
stance. (Figures 213–215.)
In the primary cortex these cells are exceedingly numerous, and a freshly-
cut section of the bark in this locality will soon be followed by numerous beads of
resin, exposure to the sun of the newly-cut surface greatly facilitating the flow.
The beads seldom have a greater size than a small pea, nor does the resin
flow in a stream. This is further evidence that they are resin cavities or cells and
not ducts or canals. Upon a fresh cut other beads will exude, and so the
process can be continued, but a continuous flow for a long period cannot be
obtained.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
Only a small amount of the resin of this tree was procured from the
material received from Western Australia; it was collected at the junction of
the wood and the bark, and was freshly exuded in small, orange-red, transparent
beads.
It melted at a low temperature, and on heating gave an Odour resembling
somewhat that of shellac. Neither in appearance, nor in other characters, had
it any resemblance to the sandarac resins of the Callitris. It was very readily
soluble in alcohol to a yellowish-red solution, which became deep red on the
addition of potash, and changing to yellow when treated with nitric acid.
2. Actinostrobus acuminatus,
Parlaf. Enum. Sem. Horf. F/or., 1862, 25 and DC. Prod., XVI, ii, 445.
HABITAT.
Western Australia, between Moore and Murchison River, (Drummond).
SYSTEMATIC.
A rather smaller shrub than A. pyramidalis, but with similar branches
and leaves, the specific difference being in the shape of (I) the stamen which
has a dorsal ridge and acuminating point, (2) the cone which has the “top
contracted into a neck, and each valve terminating in a short spreading point.”
(Bentham.)
299
THE GENUS DISELMA.
I. HISTORICAL.
This genus was founded by Sir J. D. Hooker in his “ Flora Tasmanica,”
I, p. 853, t. 98, in 1859. Bentham and Hooker, however, Gen. Pl. III, 426, 1880,
place it under Fitzroya, a genus established by Sir Joseph D. Hooker in 1852
upon an evergreen tree—a native of Chili and Patagonia. As we have not been
able to procure specimens of the latter for comparison we retain Hooker's original
name for the same reason as Callitris is now the restricted name for Australian
trees in opposition to Widdingtonia and Tetraclinis, of South and North Africa
respectively, and so preferring in this case the original classification of Sir J. D.
Hooker, until such time as the matter has been worked out on lines similar to
those laid down in this research. -
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The only Australian species recorded is endemic in Tasmania. It is an
erect shrub with, as far as known, homomorphic, small, opposite, closely appressed
leaves in alternating ternary whorls. Flowers dioecious. Male amentum terminal,
Ovoid or oblong; microsphorophylls opposite, in three or four pairs, filaments short,
the terminal leaf expansive, triangular and Coriaceous, bearing two sporangia ;
pollen cells globose. Female amentum Solitary, terminal, the leaves passing
abruptly into the Scales of the cones, the two uppermost and opposite pairs forming
the macrosporophylls, with erect sporangia at the base of the inner ones. Fruit
cones small. Seeds, three-winged.
Diselma Archeri,
Hook, f, F). Tasm., /, 353, t. 98.
HABITAT.
Tasmania—Western Coast Ranges, and Lake St. Clair.
I. HISTORICAL.
(Vide supra.)
II. SYSTEMATIC.
An erect, compact tree under 20 feet in height. Leaves exceedingly short,
# line long, closely packed and imbricate, opposite, decussate or verticillate, obtuse,
300
keeled. Male amentum terminal, rarely axillary, erect, narrow, solitary, about the
same diameter as the branchlets with their leaves. Female amentum globular,
solitary, terminal under 2 lines long. Seeds, two or three-winged, under I line
long.
REMARKS.
This small Conifer was not noticed anywhere under 3,000 feet. It is fairly
common in Small gullies almost on the summit of Mount Read, near Williamsford,
Tasmania. It grows to a height of 5 or 6 feet, and is very straggly in habit, being
more or less entangled with other vegetation. (C. F. Laseron).
III. LEAVES.
ANATOMY.
These leaves are attached by a comparatively broad rhomboidal base to
the branchlet, and Overlap each other in their phyllotaxy; consequently it was
found more advantageous to take a cross section through one whole group of
decussate leaves, and such a section is shown in Figure 216.
As in Callitris the adnate portions form one whole with the branchlet,
which is medullated in several bundles, the whole surrounded by parenchymatous
cells which are succeeded by the spongy tissue of the mesophyll which forms
the bulk of the leaf substance in these parts. Here also is generally found an
oil cavity surrounded by strengthening and secretory cells and subtended by a
bundle.
The dorsal surface has one row of epidermal cells superimposed upon
one, often two or three, hypodermal sclerenchymatous cells, but the palisade
parenchyma is not at all pronounced or well defined. -
The stomata are found on the lower dorsal and ventral surfaces, but
always protected by the free portion of the subtending imbricate leaf.
The free portion of the leaf has epidermal and hypodermal cells only on
the dorsal side, and has no oil cell but often a bundle trace, the rest of the leaf
substance being composed of the usual two kinds of mesophyll, the inner surface
carrying the stomata in this case.
The Sections were of interest as they cut through leaves at various stages
of growth, and so brought out the detail in each case.
Only a few transfusion cells were seen, and these were comparatively
large, being reticulate and not unlike sieve-plates; they are coloured pale blue in
the section. (Figure 216.) Most of the cells which make up the leaf-tissue are
nucleated. -
THE PINES OF
AUSTRALIA.
Figure 216. Transverse section through a branchlet and two clusters of
imbricate leaves. In the lower the central axis is seen to
be oval in shape with its bundles composed of xylem (red)
£5 and narrow phloem (blue), the whole surrounded by endoder-
mal cells which also run into the two adnate leaves—with an
oil cavity in each. A bundle cut obliquely is seen on the in-
ner side of the left oil cavity. The nucleated character of the
cells is a feature of the leaves. The top half is a cluster of
younger leaves. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Diselma Archeri, x 30.


3OI
THE GENUS TMICROCACHRYS.
I. HISTORICAL.
A single species genus established by Sir Joseph Hooker in 1845 upon an
endemic pine in Tasmania, and who gives a beautiful plate of it in his “ Flora
Tasmanica.”
II. SYSTEMATIC.
It is a little shrub with small, decussate leaves. Flowers dioecious, the
males in terminal spikes. Male amentum ovoid, microsphorophyll shortly stipitate,
with an incurved scale-like connective. Pollen grains three-cornered or somewhat
globose. Female amentum terminal, macrosphorangia spirally imbricate, with an
incurved ovule to each, ultimately becoming succulent in the small ovoid fruit
cone. Seeds nearly erect, three-sided, and not winged.
It has been confounded with the cognate genera, Diselma, Pherosphaera,
and Dacrydium, owing to its various Organs being identical with those of these
genera; for instance, the leaves morphologically resemble those of Diselma, -
whilst the fruits or cones are not unlike those of the two latter genera.
It differs from Podocarpus mainly in the form of the pollen grains, the
aggregate fruits, and the woody axis of the Spike. -
Microcachrys tetragona,
Hook. f. in Lond. Journ. Bot., Vol. IV, p. 750 and F/. TaS., p. 358, t. 700.
HABITAT.
Summits of Western Mountain Range, Tasmania.
I. HISTORICAL,
(Vide supra.)
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A low rambling bush, with tough straggling fore-angled branches and
branchlets so formed by the leaves. Leaves about # line long, closely imbricate,
ovate, rhomboid, obtuse, convex at the back. Male amentum terminal, Solitary,
3O2
ovoid, of 20 to 30 triangular, Scarious microsphorophylls. Female amentum
also terminal, ovoid or globular, about 4-6 lines long, fleshy, bright red and
translucent.
REMARKS.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker states concerning this plant that:—“This is surely
one of the most remarkable of Conifers, and is in other respects one of the most
interesting, being extremely rare in its native country, and presenting the unique
character in the order of bearing a fleshy brilliant-coloured cone. It is true that
we have in the Yew, and in various species of Podocarpus, &c., fleshy, highly-
coloured fruits, but a Conifer with the scales themselves of the young cones assuming
a pulpy texture, Semi-transparent consistence, and bright colour, is, as far as I
know, unique in the Order; whether these characters persist in the ripe fruit
I am unable to say.”
303
THE GENUS ATHROTAXIS.
I. HISTORICAL.
This genus was established by D. Don in 1839. The orthography of the name
has varied under different botanists, Arthrotaxis being used by some; the original
spelling of Don is, however, retained here, being taken from 36pôos, crowded.
The known species, numbering three, are small trees reaching a maximum height
of IOO feet, and are all indigenous to Tasmania.
According to Masters some closely allied fossil forms have been recorded
from the Upper Oolite, Solenhofen (Renault); also at Stonefield and Scarborough.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
Leaves small, homomorphic, decussate or in close spires, appressed or
Spreading. Male amentum terminal, catkin-like; microSporophylls spirally arranged,
imbricate, shortly attached, scale or leaf-like expansion, oblong, Sagittate and
peltate, bearing two-celled sporangia; the pollen cells are globose or three-sided,
with two or three bands. Female amentum is composed of spirally arranged
imbricate macrosporophylls, bearing from three to six pendulous Ovules.
Fruit cones terminal, sessile, small, globular, composed of woody Scales
wedge-shaped at the base, thickened upwards, dilated at the apex, below which
is a dorsal point. Seeds few under each scale, ovate, Compressed, with a
transverse hilum and two longitudinal wings, the integument being crustaceous.
The cotyledons number two.
The following are given as separate species, being generally SO regarded,
but as the differences are mostly in the size and disposition of the leaves, we are
of opinion that they may be one species, the variability being perhaps due to
environment and climatic conditions. The timbers are practically identical.
1. Athrotaxis selaginoides,
Don in 7 rans. Linn. Soc. XV///, 772, f. 74; also figured in Hook.
/C. P/. f. 574.
“ KING WILLIAM PINE.’’
HABITAT.
This tree is found in the neighbourhood of Williamsford, Tasmania.
304
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
a west coºr wºresaw- ºrc well-arrºwe, swº arresp. enas, rearre-messar.
-
A throtaxis selaginoides, DoN. “KING WILLIAM PINE,” TASMANIA.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Athrotaxis selaginoides, Don. “RING WILLIAM PINE,” TASMANIA.

306
I. HISTORICAL.
(Wide above.)
II, SYSTEMATIC.
It is a larger tree than either of its congeners, and has loosely spreading,
slightly imbricate leaves, measuring about 4 lines long. Cones about $ inch in
diameter.
REMARKS.
This is a medium size tree, up to IOO feet high and 3 feet diameter, and is
Common in the immediate neighbourhood of Williamsford, Tasmania, about 1,000
feet above sea-level. It is a prominent member of the dense scrub which covers
this locality, being associated with “Celery-top Pine,” “Sassafras,” “Myrtle,”
&c. It is not a handsome tree, having a small and irregular, though very dense,
Crown of branches, and generally unbranched for about three quarters of its
height. The bark is slightly furrowed and fibrous, but not very rough.
The leaves of fallen trees keep green for upwards of eighteen months. A
peculiar feature of the branches is the way the tops are bunched, each branch
terminating in a dense crown of foliage.
The vertical range of this species is about 2,000 feet, as it occurs on the
summit of Mount Read and other mountains, usually in a much dwarfed and
stunted form. (C. F. Laseron.)
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
In the transverse sections of the leaves given here (Figures 217 to 223),
and taken from various parts of the tree, a good idea of the general form of the
leaf can be obtained, as they show that the leaf varies in shape in different parts
of its length, being mostly two-sided with convex dorsal and concave ventral
surfaces, and from these illustrations can be traced the structure throughout the
whole leaf material.
The main feature in the substance of the leaf is the large proportion of the
spongy parenchyma of the mesophyll, and the comparatively small amount of
palisade layers in some of the sections; the disposition of each leaf conforming
to the general law in leaf life, i.e.—the Sclerenchymatous cells and palisade
parenchyma being far more strongly developed towards the assimilating surface
than on the transpiratory side, and this feature whilst traceable in lower
magnifications (Figures 217 and 218) is more distinctly seen in the higher Ones,
such as Figures 223–225.
307
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 217 –Transverse section of leaf through attached portion to - -
- branchlet. One comparatively large and one small oil Figure 218–Transverse section through free portion of leaf. Assimila-
cavity are sectioned. Below the larger cavity is the tory or inner surface denoted by letter S. A. selaginoides,
leaf bundle, with its lateral transfusion tissue and x 30.
endodermal cells. A throław is selaginoides, x 30.
Figure 220.-Transverse section through leaf showing three oil cavities
between the dorsal or assimilatory surface and the bundle
with its accompanying laterally-extending transfusion tissue.
Figure 219–Similar to Figure 218. Among the dorsal spongy mesophyll A. selaginoides, x 30.
are some sclerenchymatous celis cut longitudinally. A
selaginoides, x 30.
Sections of leaves of Athrotaxis Selaginoides, Don,
-



308
The walls of the mesophyll are not plicate. All systematists of the genus
have described the leaves as incurved, and the reason is now advanced for this
incurving to the presence of the stomata on the inner (upper) surface, which
occupy the two slightly concave longitudinal portions of that part, and the
protection of such from adverse climatic conditions—the two transpiratory areas
being separated by the umbo of the dorsal surface over the central vascular
bundle. The guard cells are exceedingly small, and Only detected by a high-power
objective.
Both epidermal and hypodermal cells, mostly in single rows except at the
edges, characterise the sub-cuticle substance where stomata do not occur, whilst
at the angle formed by the dorsal and ventral surfaces the hypodermal cells are
found to be more numerously packed (Figures 223 and 224), although a few
secondary isolated ones are occasionally found on the inner sides of the hypodermal
chain of cells (Figures 223 and 224), and much resembling these cells in structure
are found stone cells scattered throughout the mesophyll as shown in Figures 223,
224, and 225. Bertrand classifies similar bodies occurring in Araucaria Cumminghamii
as “fibres hypodermic.”
The meristele is elliptical, with an unbranched fibro-vascular bundle which
is surrounded with a fairly regular single or double row of parenchymatous
endodermal cells which, occasionally, encloses an oil cavity as in Figure 225;
they include not only the bundle but also some transfusion tissue composed of
reticulate cells.
The unbranched vascular bundle has a normally orientated phloem which
generally has an oil cavity between it and the assimilating surface, probably to
serve as an auxiliary protection to the protoxylem.
The Oil vessels are not ducts or canals but cavities, as the various sections
show no continuity of channel, and these bodies occur, except in the above instance,
irregularly in the leaf substance, vide Figures 217-225, and are surrounded by
well defined yet thinner-walled stereome cells than those of the endodermis.
Reticulated cells extending laterally from the central bundle compose the
transfusion tissue (Figures 218, 219, 225), which latter also has in its neighbourhood
a few sclerenchymatous cells in the lower left portions of the section, and these
features can also be traced in nearly all the other plates given of this species.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material, collected at Williamsford, Tasmania, was distilled on the
28th July, IgoS. The leaves with terminal branchlets were used, and the distil-
lations were continued for six hours, but the yield of oil was very small, and
538 lb. of terminal branchlets gave only 6% oz. of oil, equal to o-076 per cent.
}
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 224.—A cross section taken through a little more than half a leaf,
the top being the dorsal surface, where it can be seen the
hypodermal cells are a distinct feature, and which are
packed at the edge of the leaf. In the transpiratory surface
(lower portion) they are quite wanting, but a few large ones
can be detected scattered in the lower spongy parenchyma.
The palisade layers, whilst a feature of the assimilatory
surface, do not occur on the ventral side. The median
bundle is normally orientated, the phloem staining a darker
colour than the xylem. The endodermal cells surround an
oil cavity as well as the bundle. Stained with haematoxylin
and safranin. A throtaxis selaginoides, x 62.
Figure 225.-A cross section through the median area of a leaf, showing
in this part of the foliar structure the characters and organs
as detailed above in Fig. 224. The endodermal cells, as
well as the phloem and xylem of the central bundle, are
very clearly defined. Stained with haematoxylin and
safranin Athrotaxis selaginoides, x 60.


309
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 221.--Transverse section through a leaf. The concave areas mark Figure 222.-Similar to Figure 221, but cut nearer the apex. Transpira-
the transpiratory or the inner surface of the leaves, A. tory area marked by letter S. In the ventral mesophyll are
selaginoides, x 30. seen some stone cells cut transversely. The endodermal
cells are clearly seen surrounding the bundle and oil cavity.
A. selaginoides, x 40.
Figure 223.-Transverse section through the edge of a leaf. A portion
of the transpiratory surface extends half across the bottom
edge. The transpiratory surface extends around the edge
and onwards, and is backed by a regular row of hypodermal
cells. Cross sections of sclerenchymatous cells are seen
amongst the spongy mesophyll. A. selaginoides, x 75.
Sections of leaves of Athrotaxis selaginoides, Don.


3IO
The crude oil was of a light amber colour, was somewhat mobile, and had
a secondary lemon-like Odour not well defined. The oil was a terpene one, and
consisted very largely of dextro-rotatory limonene, which had the very high
specific rotation [a]b = + II2.2°. The oil was somewhat insoluble in alcohol,
but it formed a clear solution with absolute alcohol in all proportions. Pinene
was probably present, but in traces only. A small amount of an ester was found,
but sufficient material was not available to enable either the alcohol or the acid
to be identified.
The Oil Contained a fair amount of a constituent boiling above 270° C.—
evidently a sesquiterpene or similar body. The reactions for cadinene were not
Satisfactorily obtained, although some of the results would seem to indicate the
presence of that sesquiterpene.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = 0-8765; rotation ap = +
74-8°; the refractive index at 16° C. = I-4905. The saponification number for
the esters was 8-6, equal to 3 per cent. of ester as bornyl-acetate.
Only a small quantity of the oil could be spared for analysis, but this on
redistillation gave a very small amount boiling below 174° C. Between 174° and
I77° C., 47 per cent. Clistilled; between 177° and 200°, 23 per cent. distilled; the
temperature then quickly rose to 275°, and between that and 295° C. 12 per cent.
distilled. -
The specific gravity of the first fraction at ##" C. = O-8446; of the second,
= O.8494; of the third, O'Q373. The rotation of the first fraction, an = + go.2°;
of the second, + 91.8°; of the third, + 29-6°.
On again distilling the first two fractions, 28 per cent. of the total oil came
Over between 174–175° C., and 18 per cent. between 175—176° C. (cor.). The
Specific gravity of the first fraction at I9° C. = 0.8427; and of the second, O.8425.
The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 91.4°, or specific rotation [a]p = +
IO8.5°; Of the Second, -i- 94.5°, or specific rotation [a]p = + II2.2°. The refrac-
tive index of the first fraction at 20° C. = I. 4783; of the second, I-4785.
The tetrabromide was readily prepared with both fractions, and this melted
at IO4° C.
From the above it is evident that the larger portion of the lower boiling
Constituents of the oil of this tree is dextro-rotatory limonene. Dipentene does
not occur. From the slightly less rotation and boiling point of the first fraction,
it is probable that a small amount of pinene was present, but it can Only occur
in traces. A trace of the sesquiterpene evidently still remained with the oil, as
indicated by the refractive index, although the results, taken as a whole, are very
close to those required for pure limonene. The specific rotations of the limonenes
are usually stated to be Ios" to IO6°, yet, besides the limonene in this oil, others
3II
with higher specific rotations have been isolated, and Kraemer (Amer. Chem.
Journ., I7, 692) records a freshly distilled limonene which had a specific rotation
I2 I-3°. -- .
A small amount of a phenolic body was isolated from the higher boiling
portion of the oil, and this gave strong indications for carvacrol, but it could
not be separated in sufficient quantity to determine it with accuracy.
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The wood when freshly cut is pale reddish in colour, but becomes lighter
On exposure. It is open and straight in the grain, light in weight, easy to work,
and is not unlike the American “Redwood'' (Sequoia sempervirens), both in
general characters and texture.
It is in good repute for durability in Tasmania and is suitable for cabinet
work, Coachbuilding, and many other purposes, and possesses far more toughness
and strength than its lightness would lead one to suppose. It is, according to
A. O. Green, used for making sculls and oars.
Transverse Tests of Timber, Athrotaxis selaginoides.
(Standard size, 38 in. x 3 in. x 3 in.)
No. I No. 2. No. 3
Size of specimen in inches ... & º is ... B 2.96; D 2.96 || B 3-oo; D 3-00 || B 2-95; D 2.98
Area of Cross Section, Square inches ... ... 8.76 9:OO 8.79
Breaking load, lb. per square inch ... 2,620 2,580 3,000
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch º 5,458 5, I60 6,230
33 elasticity 2 3 2 3 ... 8IO,OOO 822,857 845,217
Rate of load in lb. per minute tº tº g . 238 2I5 375
| |
(b) ANATOMY.
The characteristic feature in this direction for this Conifer is the almost entire
absence of the manganese compound in any of the tracheids that go to make up
the wood substance, and in a radial section the medullary cells are seen to be
quite devoid of such product, and it is only now and again that a trace is found
in a lumen of the xylem, as in Figure 227.
The pitted cells are almost rudimentary and not easily detected, while
the simple pits of the medullary rays are both numerous and well defined, there
being generally two or three between the rays and the tracheids. The autumn
tracheids have very narrow lumina, and only a few cells wide in the circle (Figures
226–228).
312
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
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U
º
Figure 226.-Transverse section showing positions of annular rings, Figure 227.-Tangential section through timber. Bordered pits can
the autumnal tracheids being more closely packed. A. just faintly be seen on the tangential walls of the tracheids.
selaginoides, x Ioo. The three broad dark bands are manganese compound in
the tracheids. A. selaginoides, x 90.
-
Figure 228, -Radial section of timber. The bordered pits on the radial
walls of the tracheids and the simple pits of the rays are
traceable. Two complete annular rings are sectioned,
A. selaginoides, x Ioo.
Sections of timber of Athrotaxis selaginoides, Don.



















3I3
2, Athrotaxis cupressoides.
Don in TranS. Linn. Soc. XV///, 773 f. 13, f. 2.; also figured in Hooker’s
Ic. P., f. 559.
“PINE.”
HABITAT.
Western Ranges and Lake St. Clair, Tasmania,
SYSTEMATIC.
A small tree with an erect habit and having fastigiate branches, and a height
about 50 feet. Leaves closely appressed to the stem and obtuse, and measuring
I to 2 lines in length, thick and keeled. Fruit cones ; inch diameter, spherical,
scales with the usual point produced from the original free end of the sporophyll.
TIMBER.
Similar in character and texture to that of A. Selaginoides, which is fully
described under that species.
3. Athrotaxis laxifolia.
Hook., ſc. P/., f. 573.
HABITAT.
Western Mountain Summits, Tasmania.
SYSTEMATIC.
A rather smaller tree than A. cupressoides, but with the general facies of
that species, the main difference being the looser, acute, less appressed leaves,
and a slightly larger cone.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
GRowING ON THE RANGES AT SANDILANDS, NORTH COAST, N.S.W.
Araucaria Cunninghamii, AIT.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo.

3I5
THE GENUS ARAUCARIA.
A. L. de Jussieu, Gen. P/ant. 4/3 (1789).
I. HISTORICAL.
This genus was established by Jussieu in 1789, and its original name has
found general acceptance with systematists from that time.
It has a fairly extensive geographical range, extending as it does over
extra-tropical and subtropical South America, the South Sea Islands, New Zealand,
and North-eastern Australia, from which latter locality only two species have
been recorded.
Fossil Araucaria, A. Johnston II, F.V.M.
[REP. MIN. SURV. AND REG. Victoria, 1879.]
Close connection with existing trees has been established by fossil forms
occurring in Australia in the Pliocene period, as recorded by Baron von Mueller
in Rep. Mining Surv. and Registrars, September, 1879, under the name of A.

316
Johnstonii ; and according to Masters in the Carboniferous, Oolitic, and Miocene
times; also in the Tertiary of the Arctic regions, in the English Eocene, and
American Cretaceous (Nicholson and Lydekker, Man. Pal. II, 1533.)
The alternate rows of pitted cells on the walls of the tracheids of the fossil
and living timber indicate a phylogenetic relationship between the species past
and present of this genus, and perhaps Agathis ; for these two genera—Araucaria
and Agathis—appear to be closely allied by Certain affinities, such as anatomical
structures of the timber, chemical constituents of their various parts, deciduous
Cone scales, and integumented seeds, whilst both are probably of comparatively
recent geological age.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The two Australian species are large characteristic trees of the Northern
Coast brushes, and have distinct forms of leaves. Flowers dioecious, terminal.
Male amenta, catkin-like, solitary or in bundles. Microsporophylls numerous,
spirally imbricate, contracted at the base, having a lanceolate connective from
which are suspended the microsporangia in two rows.
The macrosporophylls are spirally placed in a continuous series with the
leaves, containing a single pendulous macrosporangium. -
The fruit cones vary in size, are ovoid in shape in the Australian species,
with numerous closely-packed scales, having (I) a thickened and hardened apex,
with winged margins at the base, and (2) the dorsal spur well developed (vide
article under origin of this feature in the Callitris).
The seed is similar in shape to the almond nut, and has a free apex. The
germination of the seeds of A. Bidwilli has been described by Heckel in Compt.
Rend., Dec. 7, 1891.
Under the two Australian species are respectively described (infra) the
foliation, phyllotaxy, histology, and movements of leaves.
IV. TIMBERS (FORESTRY).
As timber trees, too much cannot be said concerning their value, for One
desideratum of our local builders is softwoods, and as these trees are endemic and
flourish abundantly, every effort should be made to at once carry out extensive
replanting of the denuded areas where these pines once flourished.
In Queensland, A. Bidwilli is still standing in some quantity awaiting the
saw-miller, but in New South Wales, A. Cunninghamii is almost a tree of the past.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
'ſuwiſºu ſuum）)wławom waſ„“INICIdooH , , Ho Lºxovºg CITASIVO
'o， '.to/fin, I. ‘II yw，
ºxã NGIXS ºssaq （Ivº) o INv Logq
"L'In O
'\\upyº umuun O punonpuſy
º10!!…I º ‘ºſin, I. （H ſuae, H.

318
Mr. Jasper Morgan of New Italy, writing on the “Moreton Bay Pine,”
Araucaria Cumminghamii, states:—“I am informed that forty years ago the
ridges on the Lower Richmond were covered with what appeared to be an
inexhaustible supply of this variety. A saw-mill to cut up the pine was started
at Lismore about 1856; followed by several others at different parts of the river,
with the result that untold millions of feet were used or shipped away since that
time; while in addition great quantities were destroyed in clearing the ground.
Specimens were often cut, which girthed 22 or 23 feet. As a natural consequence,
at the present time, this pine is rapidly becoming a tree of the past on the Lower
Richmond. This timber is now procured from the Big Scrub, being brought into
Lismore by rail and rafting it down the river. This shows the scarcity of the
timber in this part. But on the ranges at the head of the Richmond, miles above
Casino, there is a vast supply, which one would think inexhaustible. Looking,
however, at the way it has disappeared on the Lower Richmond, it appears to be
only a matter of time for these forests of pine to disappear also.”
Dr. Schlich, in a recent able paper read before the Imperial Institute, has
shown how the pine-timber supplies of the world are reaching a visible termination.
A warning note such as this should be sufficient to induce, not merely this
State, but the whole of Australia, to now take up the question of pine conservation,
for it seems certain that Hoop Pine, Brown Pine, Bunya Bunya, Port Macquarie
Pine, White Pine, and Queensland Kauri, properly grown in close plantation (and
this is a very important and imperative proviso), would soon supply the greater
part of any future demand for pine wood. At present we have the pick of the
pine forests of the world at prices so low that they cannot last long. Locally
there is a certain market for our Colonial pine woods, as our light timbers are
excellent substitutes for American and Baltic timbers, whilst the white-ant-
resisting qualities of our interior species of Callitris will always enhance the value
of that timber above others for house-building, &c., in certain parts of Australia.
It has been computed that nine-tenths of all the wood used in the world
is pine, or wood of that class.
1. Araucaria Cunninghamii,
Aff, in Sweet, //orf. Brit. 475.
“ HOOP,” “ COLONIAL.” OR “ MORETON BAY PINE.”
HABITAT.
North Coast District, New South Wales, and Southern Coast District,
Queensland.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. -
Araucaria Cunninghamii, AIT. “Hoop PINE,” SANDILANDs RANGE, N.S.W.
Centre tree, height 150 ft., girth 12 ft. 6 in.


32O
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is one of the largest of Australian pines, attaining sometimes a height
of 200 feet. The bark is characteristic, having the appearance of horizontal
bands (hence the name Hoop Pine), and is hard, compact, and permeated with
oleo-resin cells. Leaves are dimorphic, being Crowded, spirally arranged, imbricate,
incurved, 3 to 4 lines long, ribbed, pungent pointed, in one case, and on the lower
branches spreading, straight, vertical, decurrent, and sometimes Over an inch
long. Male amentum sessile, cylindrical, compact, 2 to 3 inches long, about 4 lines
in diameter; the Scale-like apices of the stamens are ovate-rhomboidal and acute.
Fruit Cones Ovoid, about 4 inches long and 3 inches in diameter, the scales
broadly cuneate, the original sporophyll apex developing into a recurved, rigid,
acute point.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (none appears to be known).
(b) ANATOMY.
These are of a dimorphic character, both forms of leaves being inserted on
the branchlets in a spiral arrangement.
The vertically flattened form of leaf is generally found on branchlets growing
from the main stem, and in the shade of the whole tree foliage. It is spread-
ing, slightly oblique, pungent pointed, and gradually widening all the way to
the base, which is attached vertically to the branchlet, slightly decurrent, and
measures under an inch long. Most probably the disposition of this leaf accounts
for its morphological difference from the normal one.
A cross Section (Figure 229), which is rhomboidal in shape with the two
shorter sides On the upper surface, shows perhaps a greater uniformity of leaf
structure than holds in the Callitris, for a single row of epidermal cells extends
around the whole, and these are subtended by a single row of hypodermal cells,
which in turn are Superimposed upon a single layer of palisade parenchyma, which
cells perhaps are more numerous towards the upper Surface. The fundamental
tissue—the spongy mesophyll, forms a very large proportion of the leaf substance,
and is Composed of exceedingly thin-walled, elongated, irregularly-shaped cells,
much differentiated from the palisade parenchyma and very little resembling the
spongy tissue of Ordinary mesophyll.
There is Only one bundle, which is normally orientated, and situated in the
centre of the leaf substance, with a protective sheath of endodermal parenchy-
matous cells. A few Sclerenchymatous fibres are found on the outer edge of the
phloem (Figure 230).
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. - - -- Mat. size.
Araucaria Cunninghamii, AIT. PRIMORDIAL OR ABNORMAL LEAVES.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-
%
º
3.
º:
2.
-
%
º
- - - - Naf. Sºre.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. Araucaria Cunninghamii, AIT. Nºrf. Sºre
I. MALE AMENTA TO THE LEFT. 2. FEMALE AMENTUM TO THE RIGHT. 3. Lower HALF RIPE Cox.E. 4. SCALE witH SEED.



323
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
- º
K} . º y
* * * * * * *
ºf
Figure 229.-Transverse section through abnormal leaf. The concave Figure 230.-Transverse section through bundle of normal leaf, showing
surfaces are transpiratory, and the convex dorsal, assimi- the crescent shape of the xylem portion and individual
latory. Four oil cavities are shown. A. Cunninghamit, masses of phloem separated by medullary cells. Endodermal
× 50. cells are well defined, but no transfusion tissue is seen.
A. Cunninghamii, x 190.
Figure 231 - Transverse section of normal leaf showing the packed Figure 232.-Similar section to but higher up than Figure 231, and
*. cells marking the assimilatory outer surface showing the contour of the cross section at this part. A.
and (at top) several oil glands with the usual secretory Cunninghamii, x 40.
cells, the three central ones being subtended by a bundle.
A. Cunninghamii, x 47.
Sections of leaves of Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait.








324
Figure 233.-Transverse section through median portion of a normal leaf,
showing an oil cavity and the normally orientated bundle
below it, together with the leaf structure in this part.
A. Cunninghamii, x 190.
(T Figure 235. Longitudinal section of leaf, showing packing of hypodermal
cells below the assimilatory surface. A. Cunninghamii,
x 180.
An oil cavity occurs in the fundamental tissue at each angle of the leaf
and is surrounded by a protective circle of secretory cells.
Stomata occur on
both the upper and lower sur-
faces, the guard cells being
situated at the bottom of a
depression in the cuticle.
The normal leaves, like the
abnormal ones, spirally
arranged and occur on the
thickest branchlets right down
to the attachment with the
branches.
half an inch long, are imbricate
and incurved, the physiological
significance of the latter feature
is no doubt a protection to
the transpiration surface, and if
studied in the field would pro-
bably be found to be spreading
during favourable climatic con-
ditions.
a Te
They measure under
A cross-section, taken above
the middle, shows a rhomboidal
figure, but below this the geo-
metrical shape is not so clearly
defined, the inner surface being
more embonpoint (Figure 232).
The epidermal cells extend
around both surfaces, the inner
containing the stomata (Figure
236), the outer or dorsal is,
therefore, the assimilatory one.
The hypodermal cells are very
thick-walled and closely packed
in several rows below the dorsal
epidermis (Figures 231 and 235),
but are fewer on the ventral
side where also the palisade
parenchyma is less developed.
The fundamental tissue partakes


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 234.-Transverse section through a median portion of a leaf
with one oil gland towards the top, and the middle bundle
a little distance below surrounded by endodermal cells.
A small cluster of sclerenchymatous cells occurs on the outer
edge of the phloem (dark brown). Two comparatively
large transfusion cells (stained purple) are sectioned on
each side of the oil cavity. Stained with haematoxylin
and safranin. Araucaria Cunninghamii, x 1 Io.
Figure 236.-A transverse section through an edge of a leat, showing
the cell structure at that particular part. The epidermal
cells are in a single row on both surfaces, whilst the hypo-
dermal cells (yellow) are larger and more numerous on
the dorsal surface. Two stomata are sectioned in the
ventral surface, the air cavities here separating the palisade
cells (red), which are well packed below the hypodermal
cells of the dorsal side. The transfusion cells (purple) can
be detected by the cross bars. Stained with haematoxylin
and saframin. Araucaria Cunninghamii, x 378.
-
i
i


325
of the typical Spongy nature towards both surfaces, and corresponds in
character to that of the abnormal leaf.
The central bundle is normally orientated and is supported by subordinate
Ones about equidistant from it on both sides and in the same plane, and situated
medianly in the fundamental tissue. They are each surrounded by endodermal
cells enclosing, in the case of the primary bundle at least, tracheids of the xylem,
the phloem, and sclerenchymatous cells on the outer edge of the latter material
(Figures 231-2). Midway between these and the assimilatory surface are found in
the fundamental tissue three or more oil glands or cavities, which are surrounded
by a protective sheath of cells. .
The bulk of the leaf substance is composed of irregularly-shaped cells of
the spongy tissue of the mesophyll with small intercellular spaces, so well seen.
in Figures 235-6, whilst transfusion tissue is very limited in the normal leaves,
only a few cells being found, and these removed several cells from the protoxylem,
In the case of the abnormal leaves scarcely any such tissue was seen.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material consisted of the terminal branchlets alone and was quite
fresh and green. It was collected in the month of November at Woolgoolga,
northern New South Wales, and was steam distilled in the usual manner.
The amount of essential oil in the leaves of this tree is very small, and
200 lb. of material gave only 5 grams of oil, which is equal to O-OO5 per cent.
In odour and appearance the oil resembled somewhat the inferior crude
oils obtained from the leaves of the Callitris. It apparently consisted largely
of the higher boiling terpenes.
The specific gravity at 21° C. == 0:8974; refractive index at same tempera-
ture, I-4977; Saponification number = 4:4 or I'54 per cent. ester, considered as
bornyl-acetate. It was insoluble in IO volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol. The
oil from the leaves of this tree is thus of little importance.
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This giant of our coast forests attains sometimes a height of over 200 feet,
and consequently it is possible to cut some very fine flitches from it. It is a
whitish-coloured, easy-working, straight-grained timber, and for preference is
used generally for all kinds of indoor work, as it is not lasting on exposure.
It is largely used for furniture, as safes, dressers, kitchen tables, &c.,
Occasionally it is found to possess a beautifully-grained figure. It is also good
for carving.
326
Transverse Tests of Timber, Araucaria Cunninghamii, New South Wales.
(Standard sizes, 38 in. x 3 in, x 3 in.)
No. 1. - No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches ... ... ... B 2.92; D 2-93 B 2.92; D 2.90 B 2.90; D 2.91
Area of Cross Section, square inches ... tº gº tº 8.55 8:46 8-43
Breaking load in lb. per square inch * - - 6,735 6,600 5,2OO
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... 10,168 I2,963 II,470
2 3 elasticity 2 3 2 2 * - - 2,659,977 2,777, I42 2,742,857
Rate of load in lb. per minute • e * - - 36I 4I4 5 472
Transverse Tests of Timber, Araucaria Cunninghamii, Queensland.
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches ... * - e. ... B 3.00; D 3-00 | B 3.00; D 3-00 || B 2.96; D 295
Area of Cross section, square inches ... e - - O'OO 9:OO 8-73
Breaking load in 1b. per square inch * - - 5,000 5,350 5,000
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... IO,OOO IO,700 II,250
2 3 elasticity 2 3 , , * - - I,986,206 2,I33,333 I,944,OOO
Rate of load in lb. per minute - e ºs * - - 455 - 446 - 500 . .
(b) ANATOMY.
Several botanical workers in Europe have recorded distinctive differences
in the xylem of the Araucarias and Abietinea, but, so far, we have not been able
to find any references concerning the comparative structure between this genus
and Callitris, or other Australian genera. -
Macroscopically there is little resemblance between the timbers of the
Callitris and Araucarias, although the latter more approaches that of Agathis
than any other Australian genus.
Microscopically the differences between Hoop Pine and Callitris is marked,
especially so in the tangential and radial sections, although the disposition of the
bordered pits, and parenchymatous cells of the medullary rays indicate an affinity
with Agathis.
C. E. Bertrand has carried out some anatomical work on the Araucarias
in general, but more particularly on non-Australian, although this species received
THE PINES of AUSTRALIA.
-
* -
º -
º -
º º
º º
º - -
----- -
--- - º
º º, |
- º - º
-
ºr
º
ºf -
º -
- -
-
º |
º º
-- º --- º -
º º
**
Figure 237.-Transverse section of timber. A well-defined line of Figure 238.-Transverse section of timber. The cells of the medullary rays
tracheids near the top mark the limit of the autumnal are mostly empty, but towards the top ends some content
growth. A. Cunninghamti, x 8o. is present, and in one case a portion has come out of the
cell, and forms an obtuse angle with the enclosed part.
A. Cunninghamii, x 8o.
Figure 239.-Transverse section through timber containing a traumatic Figure 240.-Tangential section through timber. The ray cells are
resin cavity below the centre of the picture extending mostly empty, whilst the lumina of the tracheids give
downwards to the larger spring tracheids. The small evidence—the black patches—of some amount of the -
rectangular black patches towards the top of the picture presence of manganese compound. A. Cunninghamii, x 50.
are deposits of manganese compound. A. Cunninghamii,
x So.
Sections of timbers of Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait.



THE PINEs OF AUSTRALIA.
|
Figure 241.-Radial section through timber of A. Cunninghamii, x 50. figure 242.--Radial section of timber through portion of ray, showing
numerous simple pits in each lumen. A. Cunninghamii,
x 145.
Figure 243.-Radial section of timber, showing the alternate rows of Figure 244.—Similar section to, but showing more clearly than Figure
bordered pits of the tracheids and the numerous simple 243 the numerous simple pits and the large amount of the
pits of the rays. The dark patch on the left of the picture manganese compound in the rays. A. Cunninghamii, x Ioo,
is a deposit of manganese compound in one of the ray
cells, and that an outer one. A. Cunninghamii, x 12'o.
Sections of timber of Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait.





329
some attention at his hands. His investigations were rather with earlier growth
than the mature material with which, however, we are more directly concerned,
as it serves more the technological side, and so it is on the latter that the following
remarks are based, the secondary wood being more particularly dealt with here.
A cross-section through a portion of two Seasons' growth (Figure 237) shows
the lumina of the tracheids of the xylem to be of varying diameters, whilst the
cell walls are fairly thickened, those of the autumnal period being more SO.
The outer walls of the tracheids are seen in this picture to be irregularly
hexagonal in shape, but mostly circular or oval internally. It will be noted that not
many of the tracheids contain a dark-brown substance,—the manganese compound,
and these are all well defined in Figure 237. The medullary rays are two in
number here, situated three and four rows from the left and right side respectively,
and extend the whole length of the specimen from top to bottom ; the particular
point of interest is that they are entirely empty, and this fact should be noted,
as throughout the whole series of plates it is an important generic, specific, and
phylogenetic character—this almost entire absence of cell content in the parenchy-
matous cells of the rays in the Araucaria. Figure 238 shows, however, at the top
of the figure the manganese compound substance in three of the rays, and in the
case of the left one, a portion has come out of the cell and bent over in the form
of an obtuse angle.
Attention might also be drawn to this dark-brown cell content of the
tracheids in the spring growth, for in this respect it is similar, with the exception
of Podocarpus, to all Australian living Conifers, and other living representatives
of the Conifer family. In this connection one might mention the researches of
Professors Jeffrey and Chrysler in Palaeo-Botany, who have found similar features
in fossil and living pines of North America. Figure 239 shows the intrusion of a
traumatic resin cavity between the two seasons' growth ; a similar feature has
already been recorded under Actinostrobus pyramidalis (Figures 208–211), the
dark-cell contents of the tracheids are here much in evidence in the upper portion
of the picture in the spring wood, whilst the other parts are almost quite free
from this manganese compound. There are two medullary rays, one in the centre
and one midway between it and the left edge, and it should be noted that both
contain none of this substance.
The tangential section in Figure 240 shows the emptiness of the medullary
cells more clearly depicted, for practically no dark-brown coloured cell contents
can be seen in them. In this view the linear outline of the rays is clearly defined
as they intrude between the tracheid walls, and in no instance are they more than
one cell in width, whilst the number of horizontal cells in each ray varies from
two to over twenty. The dark patches in the lumina of the tracheids correspond
to the dark-cell contents referred to in previous Figures (237–9). Several of the
330
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 245.-Radial section of timber cut clear of a ray. The alternate
rows of pitted cells are well marked on the tracheid walls,
which latter show a thickened lamella containing manganese
in its composition. A. Cunninghamii, x 210.
_
Figure 246.-Section through a single ray of wood, showing numerous
single pits connecting with the tracheids. A. Cunninghamii,
x 210. -
Longitudinal sections of timber of Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait.


33I
radial walls show series of pitted cells in section. A radial section is given in
Figure 241 with two medullary rays on the left of the plate, and their short
axes walls show them to be parenchymatous in character, and further they are
all empty, or at least have no dark substance in their cells in this instance, and
what is of further phylogenetic importance the outer cells are identical in character
with the inner ones—features that seem to point to a recent (geological) evolution
of the genus. -
In these plates (Figures 242–5) will be seen on almost every tracheid wall,
double or triple contiguous rows of pitted cells, exactly as obtains in Agathis (Dam-
mara), a fact that establishes a connection with these congeners of the forest of
past geological times, and is in contradistinction to the uniform single row of
Callitris. These pitted cells are shown under a 210-magnification (Figure 245);
only rarely are pitted cells found on the tangential walls, a generic difference
from Agathis robusta. -
The simple pits, which communicate with the lumina of the tracheids by
circular perforations are comparatively numerous, ranging in number from six to
ten, as against two to four in Callitris (Figure 246).
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry, infra—Chemistry of the Latex).
(b) ANATOMY.
One reason for working upon the mature bark of this and the cognate
species, A. Bidwilli, was to try and trace the origin of the respective exudations,
at this stage of the tree's age, which are fully dealt with under their chemistry.
The barks resemble each other in some characters, although their exudations
differ in their several constituents, that of A. Cumminghamii containing most
oleo-resin, whilst A. Bidwilli yields gum principally.
This latter substance also occurs in this species, for what is probably
one of its conveyors (bast fibre) is distinctly seen in Figure 247, on the right-
hand side of the picture, just below the periderm—the white band in the middle
of the picture; and just below this can be seen a stone cell, showing that these are
apparently two distinct substances or structures. -
The composition of the bark is even less regular than in A. Bidwilli, for
with the exception of the concentric periderm layers nothing else is regularly
arranged, and these occur in parallel bands on the outside of the Cortex. Stone
cells are found scattered throughout both inner and Outer cortex, as also are the
oleo-resin cells, Figure 248, in fact, the above together with parenchymatous cells,
and sieve tubes, compose the whole bark Substance.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 247.-Transverse section through portion of inner and outer Figure 248.-Transverse section through bark, showing unconformity of
bark. The concentric bands across the top of the section composing vessels, compared to that of its Australian
are periderm layers. A few bast fibres can be seen on congeners. The one whole cell shown is almost filled with
the inner cortex. A. Cunninghamti, x 70. gum-resin. A. Cunninghamii, x roo.
Figure 249.-Radial section of bark. The rays are clearly defined and Figure 250.-Radial section through bark. The sieve plates are quite
the sieve tubes can also be seen to the left of the field. The distinct in the tubes running through the centre of the
arge cavities are oleo-resin cells. A. Cunninghamii, x 55. field from top to bottom. A. Cunninghamii, x 175.
Sections of the bark of Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. Araucaria Cunninghamii, AIT.
FASCIATION AT TOP OF A TREE UNDER CULTIVATION, AT BEECROFT, N.S.W.
(A rare instance of teratology.)
- _
º
- -
- º -º-º-º-º-

334
(c) CHEMISTRY.
This sample of bark was collected at Murwillumbah, New South Wales,
in November, I007. It was an average sample of the bark of this tree, and a fair
Section through the Outer and inner bark was taken for analysis. The outer layer
of bark encircling the tree, which, separating in hoop-like forms, gives the
name “Hoop Pine '' to this tree, was 2 to 3 mm. thick, hard and compact, and
red in Colour; it was greyish externally and somewhat rough ; the furrows, which
are not deep, have the peculiarity of running around the tree instead of vertically.
The inner layer is about IO mm. in thickness, is somewhat soft, porous, and fibrous,
the fibres running longitudinally. The bark powdered fairly well, but the extract
was dark Coloured, poor in tannin, and would make a dark-coloured leather. It
acts only fairly well on hide powder, staining it brownish in colour. The results
show it to be of little value as a tan bark. The non-tannin extract contained
Some gum.
The following results were obtained on analysis:–
Moisture ... ... I2-60 per cent.
Total extract ... I2-24 ,
Non-tannin ... 7° 24 5 y
Tannin ... ... 5’ OO 5 y
The aqueous extract gave a green colour with ferric salts, and the other general
reactions were also those for a catechol tannin.
CHEMISTRY OF THE LATEX.
THEORETICAL.
The fresh latex was obtained from the trees of this species so that its con-
stituents might be compared with the gum-resins exuded by other species of this
genus.
The exudations of the Araucarias were shown by Heckel and Schlagden-
hauffen in I887 (Compt. rend., IO5, 359) to contain both gum and resin, and the
exudation of A. Cunninghamii has long been known to contain a gum as well as a
resin (see paper by Maiden, “Proc. Roy. Soc.,” Queensland, Vol. VII, I890, also
paper by Dr. Lauterer, “Botany Bulletin,” No. XIII, Queensland). As no other
data were available in reference to the exudation of A. Cunninghamii, it was thought
desirable to undertake as complete an investigation as possible of the latex of the
plant, in preference to that of the solidified gum-resin, which is found at times
occurring in some quantity on the exterior of the tree. Attempts were made
to draw the latex from the living trees, and those growing in Northern New South
Wales were utilised for the purpose; poor results were obtained in this way,
although a little gum-resin had accumulated at the injured places after a week,
yet, the amount was very small during that time. Better results were, however,
335
obtained by collecting the material which had accumulated upon the stumps of
trees felled some time previously. Masses of gum-resin were found upon these
Stumps, mostly at the junction of the inner and outer bark. The material was quite
fluid beneath the crust which had early formed upon the surface, and it was evident
that the liquid material beneath this crust had been forced up from below by root
pressure, the film of partly hardened resin protecting the material forced up later,
and so retarded, if not prevented, the evaporation of its volatile constituents.
That this is so appears evident from the large masses which had accumulated
upon the stumps of the trees, and by the presence of the volatile constituents found
in this exudation. Corresponding results were also obtained under our own
observation with the exudation of a large tree of A. Bidwilli growing near Sydney
(see under that species).
This fact is also interesting as suggesting the possible formation, or com-
pletion, of some of the constituents of the plant in the root portion of the tree, and
not in the leaves, because the upper portion of the tree having been removed,
the “laboratory" must have been below the ground, as the only place from which
the material could have been derived. Had it not accumulated in this way it is
certain that the very volatile hydrocarbon found in the latex would not have
been discovered. The occurrence in this tree of natural hydrocarbons belonging
to the CºH, Series, and probably also to the CPI, series, is particularly
interesting, and may, perhaps, assist somewhat towards the elucidation of some
of the problems concerning the natural formation of the terpenes and of the resins.
Heusler (“Chemistry of the Terpenes,” p. 18) suggests that hexahydrocymene
does not occur in nature; and Gildemeister and Hoffman (“Ethereal Oils,” p. I82)
that the hydrocarbons of the formulae CoH is and Cº. H., are not known with
certainty in ethereal oils. If the formation of the saturated hydrocarbon is com-
pleted in the root portion of the tree, as from the results of this investigation
appears to be the case, then it is hardly to be expected that the saturated hydro-
carbons will be found in ethereal oils as usually obtained from the leaf portion of
the plant, because alteration rapidly takes place under the active influences of the
growing tree, with the ultimate formation of unsaturated hydrocarbons, terpenes,
and resins.
The trend of the reactions which take place in the plant during the formation
of these complex substances is not known with any degree of certainty, although
evidently produced from simpler compounds. Baeyer (Ber. d. Chem. Gesell. 3, 66,
1870) offered an explanation for the formation of Butlerow’s methylenitane, by
the simple combination of six molecules of formaldehyde. By similar reasoning
a suggestion might be advanced for the formation of members of the C, H,
group of hydrocarbons, from which the terpenes and resins would ultimately
be derived. The menthane molecule can be arranged from ten molecules of formal-
dehyde, all the oxygen atoms being eliminated.
336
Again if one molecule of isobutyric acid could be combined with three
molecules of acetic acid, the whole of the Oxygen atoms being eliminated, the
molecule of hexahydrocymene could be arranged, the migration of one hydrogen
atom in the methyl group of two acetic acid molecules being necessary for valency
purposes. The carbon and hydrogen atoms thus derived from the three acetic
acid molecules represent 60 per cent. of the whole in the above arrangement,
those of butyric acid 40 per cent. The free acids occurring in the latex of A.
Cunninghami were found to be butyric and acetic, and the percentage of barium-
acetate in the barium salt obtained from these acids was 60°38 per cent. ; that
of the barium butyrate being 39.62 per cent. The somewhat close agreement
between the theoretical requirements for these acids in the arrangement suggested
above for a C, H, hydrocarbon of this series, and the amount of each acid actually
present in the latex, appears to be a remarkable coincidence.
The formation of these acids goes on continuously, and if these are not used
up in the constructive metabolism of the plant, would ultimately become in excess,
if not otherwise removed or fixed. Liebig was of the opinion that some, at any
rate, of the organic acids were formed from carbon dioxide and water in the cells
of the plant (see letter on Chemistry, XVIII). The constituents required for
the completion of the compounds found in this latex appear to have been derived
more largely from below, as the upper portion of the tree had been removed previous
to the accumulation of the exudation, and as this was continuously forced up there
must have been sufficient material obtainable to assist in the metabolic process
of the plant.
That some of the fatty acids do enter into the process of constructive meta-
bolism, being thus subjected to complete alteration, is generally accepted, and the
increase of carbohydrates, corresponding to the diminution in acidity in Some
portions of the plant, is a case in point. -
That the changes which go on are continuous, is indicated by the fact of
the alteration of the unsaturated hydrocarbons into resinous products, even after
they had been obtained by steam distillation from the latex and kept in closed
bottles. It was this alteration that enabled the purer Saturated hydrocarbon,
C, H, to be obtained, as this had undergone no alteration during the time
necessary for the resinification of the unsaturated bodies; so that when distilled
directly the menthane was obtained practically pure at the first distillation.
It thus appears that the fully Saturated hydrocarbons are the first formed
bodies of this group, and that the alteration by oxidation commences at Once,
the more stable and less volatile Substances, as the terpenes and the resins, being
eventually formed.
It might be suggested that the formation of some of the constituents of the
latex might be due to the injury to which the trees had been subjected, and that,
337
therefore, the conditions were abnormal. We think, however, that there has been
no alteration in the formation of the chemical constituents to what maintained
in the uninjured trees. When the bark of A. Bidwilli was cut through there was
an exudation at once from the cut cells or canals, both from above and below.
The downward flow soon ceased, but the upward flow continued for months, the
exuded material being collected each week. The material forced up months after
the injury was identical in composition with that which exuded when the trees
were first injured.
Although many members of the terpene series have been converted into
hydrocarbons of the formula CoII, yet, it is probable that none have been isolated
from essential oils, for the reasons above stated.
The natural hydrocarbon C, H, as obtained from this latex, is a very
limpid, colourless, volatile liquid, with an odour somewhat reminding of menthene,
but more pleasant and delicate, and not so strong. It had specific gravity at
}* C. = 0.7927; refractive index at the same temperature mL = I. 4437; it
boiled at I55° C. (Cor.), and was inactive to light. Bromine acted slowly upon it
by substitution; nitric acid and sulphuric acid did not act upon it in the cold,
but warm nitric acid oxidised it. A dilute solution of potassium permanganate
acted very slowly upon it, but the products formed could not be determined for
want of material.
2ſ)}
Wallach and Berkenheim (Ann. Chem. 268, 225) prepared a hydrocarbon,
tetra-hydropinene C, H, by the hydration of pinene hydrochloride. It boiled
at 162°C., had specific gravity O-795, and a refractive index nD = I. 437OI at 20°C.
Wallach (Ann. Chem. 284, 326) prepared tetra-hydrofenchene CoH,
which in chemical behaviour resembed tetrahydropinene; it boiled at I60–165° C. ;
had specific gravity O-7945; and index of refraction nD = I.4370 at 22°C.
Wagner (Ber. 27, 1638) prepared a hydrocarbon, C, H, by the action of
sulphuric acid on menthol. It boiled at 168–169", and had specific gravity o-8088
at O’ C.
Knoevenagel and Wiedermann (Ann. Chem. 297, I69) prepared I : 3 methyl-
isopropylcyclohexane by reducing the iodide of symmetrical menthol. It boiled
at 167–168°; had specific gravity O.8033 at I4° C.; and a refractive index n D =
I'442O4.
Similar products have been prepared synthetically by W. H. Perkin and
coadjutors, the results of which are published in the Journ. Chem. Soc. for the
year 1905. The orthomenthane boiled at 171° C.; the para form at 169° C.
From the above it is seen that the natural hydrocarbon, Clohim, from this
latex, boils at a lower temperature than the artificially prepared compounds from
Y
338
members of the terpene group, although the other physical constants are similar.
The synthetically prepared menthanes boiled at a still higher temperature.
From the results recorded under the experimental portion, it is probable
that the hydrocarbon, C, His, was present in the latex also ; but it was not isolated,
SO that its physical characteristics were not determined.
The occurrence of nitrogenous substances in the latex is also of some im-
portance in this Connection, as indicating the presence of enzymes. Yoshida
(Trans. Chem. SOC. I883, 83, 472) discovered an oxidising enzyme which is supposed
to play an important part in the production of the lacquer varnish from the sap
of the lacquer tree. It was shown by Bertrand (Compt. rend. I897, 124, Io92)
that the ash contained up to 2 per cent. of manganese, and that the activity of
the enzyme was influenced by the amount of manganese present, so much so that
its action was in Some cases considerably increased by the addition of manganese
Salts. This enzyme “laccase '' is, however, an oxidising one.
In the latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii, manganese is also present, apparently
in weak Combination. The manganese compound is, however, easily altered, even
On drying in the air, the formation of a higher oxide of manganese being most
pronounced. The influence of manganese here, if entering into the reaction, may
be due to the facility with which it forms compounds varying in the amount
of Oxygen present, and may thus act an important part in the organic arrangement
of the atoms in the Compounds which are found eventually in the latex. The
action of reducing enzymes (reductases) is not so well understood as is that of the
oxidising enzymes, although considerable advance has recently been made in this
direction.
The gum found in the latex was apparently identical with the gum of
gum arabic; it differed in some respects from the gum freshly obtained from
A. Bidwilli, as it did not form an insoluble jelly when it was agitated with ether
for a very long time. -
The resin of the latex of Araucaria Cumminghamii consisted of two resin
acids, together with neutral resins, a bitter principle, &c. The investigation of
this resin was carried out in a similar manner to that of the resin of Agathis robusta,
(see under that species). The acid of high melting point was dextro-rotatory,
crystalline, and was identical with the corresponding acid obtained from Agathis
robusta ; it was, therefore, Dundathic acid. The acid of low melting point could
not be obtained in a crystalline condition, but was separated from an aqueous
solution as a Soda salt; it was not, however, so completely separated in this way
as was the corresponding acid in the resin of Agathis robusta. It gave
results indicating the formula C, H, O,. It was laevo-rotatory, thus differing
from the low melting acid of Agathis robusta, which was dextro-rotatory.
339
This acid appears to be an isomeric form of abietic acid, if the formula
C.H.O. be accepted for that substance, although it melted at a considerably
lower temperature than ordinary abietic acid. (For much data concerning abietic
or Sylvic acid, see article in “Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis,” Vol. II,
Part 3, 1907, page I58; also Dr. Henry's Paper on the “Sandarac Resins,”
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1901, page II44.)
The bitter principle was most pronounced in the neutral ether extract after
separation from the acid portion. It was extracted from this residue by water,
and afterwards obtained as microscopic needles on evaporation. It appears to be
a distinct body, and not directly in combination with the acids themselves. The
neutral portion of the resin was laevo-rotatory, thus agreeing in rotation with the
acid of low melting point.
The general composition of the resin of Araucaria Cumminghamii, as first
prepared from the latex, may be stated as follows:–
Dundathic acid (C, H.O.) tº tº º e e sº ... = I4.5 per cent.
An isomeric form of abietic acid (C, H, O, ... = 62-o } > (about).
Neutral resins, bitter principle, &c. ... ... = 23: 5 J 5
Considered from an economic point of view, the exudation of A. Cunning-
hamii should have some commercial value for the resin and gum it contains, if
Collected in quantity. It does not, however, appear naturally to yield an exudation
in abundance, so that it would be necessary to systematically wound the trees,
Cutting quite through the bark, and at the same time forming a box-like receptacle
for the material. It might then be collected as it accumulated.
EXPERIMENTAL.
The material was collected at Murwillumbah, New South Wales, 28th
November, IGO7, and was investigated immediately on receipt at the Museum.
It was a semi-opaque, Cream-coloured liquid, of a pasty consistency, with lumps
of a more solid, resinous-like substance throughout. It had a sour, butter-like
Odour, and was strongly acid to litmus. On adding water, a thin emulsion was
at once formed, and it was evident that the semi-opaqueness of the latex was
largely due to the water present and to the suspended resin. It was practically
Soluble in an excess of hot aqueous solution of carbonate of Soda, but mostly
Separated out again on cooling. The resins were readily and almost entirely
extracted from the aqueous latex by ether, and were somewhat soft and slightly
aromatic. After removal of the resins the remainder was poured into a large
amount of alcohol, when a quantity of a colourless gum precipitated. On drying,
however, this gum became smoky and dirty in appearance from the formation of
a higher oxide of manganese.
34O
A thin emulsion was formed by adding 500 c.c. water to 42O grams of
latex, and this mixture was distilled for six hours by direct heat, adding more
water as required. It was found preferable to boil the solution directly, because
when steam was passed into it, an objectionable projection of the material took
place. A water-white oil came over with the steam and separated easily into a
well-defined layer upon the surface of the water, which was markedly acid, due
to the presence of the volatile acids. On continued boiling the gum went into
solution, the resin separating in a more or less powdery condition. After the
distillation was completed the resins were allowed to solidify and cool in the flask,
the aqueous portion being thus more readily removed than when filtration was
attempted. The aqueous portion thus obtained from the resins was filtered
clear, evaporated down, and the gum precipitated by the addition of a large
amount of alcohol.
THE VOLATILE OIL.
The oil floating on the surface of the distillate was separated ; it measured
20 c.c. = 3.8 per cent. Of the latex. It was colourless, and had a characteristic odour,
somewhat aromatic, but recalling slightly that of the hydrocarbon menthene.
It had a specific gravity at ##" C. = 0-80577; refractive index at 22° C. = I. 457;
rotation ap = + 3: 2°. These results indicated that bodies other than terpenes
were present.
On redistilling the oil (765 mm. pressure) it commenced to distil at I50° C.
(uncor.), and between that temperature and I55° C., 55 per cent. distilled. This
had specific gravity at ##" C. = O'7907; refractive index at 22° C. = I. 4482;
rotation ap = + 4.8°.
In a chloroform Solution it readily discoloured a weak solution of bromine ;
the fraction was thus partly unsaturated, and active to light. Unfortunately, at
this stage the bottle was broken and the contents lost. It is evident, however,
that the results indicated the presence of compounds other than the members of
the terpene group.
The remainder of the latex received (260 grams) was then distilled as
previously stated, and I2 c.c. Of the oil obtained. The bottle containing this oil
was placed aside, having at the time no intention of proceeding further with it,
but ten months afterwards a layer of a resin-like substance had formed at
the bottom of the bottle. It was then thought desirable to distil it again, and so
endeavour to locate the mode of alteration. After separating the first few drops,
there were obtained 4 c.c. boiling between I5I-I53° C., equal to 33.3 per cent. Of
the oil. This separated quite sharply, and the remainder had a much higher
boiling point. That the 4 C.C. thus obtained was an almost pure product is shown
by the results of the analysis. It boiled somewhat constantly at the corrected
34I
temperature of I54–155° C. ; was inactive to light; had a specific gravity at
I9° C. = O-7927; and a refractive index at I9° C. = I. 4437. This gives by the
Lorenz-Lorentz formula a molecular refraction very closely approaching that
required for the Cº. H. molecule. When dissolved in chloroform and a very
dilute Solution of bromine in chloroform added, this was not discoloured at once,
but the bromine slowly acted upon it by substitution, hydrobromic acid being
evolved. An analysis gave the following results:—
O. I25I gram gave O-I593 gram H.O and O-3934 gram CO,.
C. = 85-77 per cent. and H. = I4. I5 per cent.
C.H., requires C. = 85.71; H. = 14:29 per cent.
This hydrocarbon is thus shown to belong to the CºH, or menthane series.
Its inactivity to light, its saturated nature, its stable character, the results of its
physical properties and analysis, all go to show that this is so. The known men-
thenes too, all have a higher specific gravity. The activity and unsaturated
nature of the product of the first distillation, however, indicate that menthene
or menthenes were present originally in the latex, but that it, or they, had under-
gone alteration during the time which had elapsed since the oil was first separated,
and their original character had been greatly changed. From the results of the
distillation there was originally in the oil about 20 per cent. of unsaturated hydro-
carbons belonging, probably, to the menthene group, but which had evidently
undergone considerable alteration.
FREE ACIDS.
The aqueous distillate from the 42O grams of the latex was filtered through
wet paper; it measured 750 c.c.; IOO c.c. required I2.5 c.c. , NaOH to neutralise,
so that the 750 c.c. contained O-562 gram volatile acid considered as acetic, or
o: IS 4 per cent. The remainder was neutralised with barium hydrate, evaporated
to dryness and heated at IOO–IO5° C. to constant weight. O-3228 gram of the
barium salt gave O. 2738 gram barium sulphate = 84.82 per cent.
Both butyric and acetic acids were shown to be present in the distillate,
so that if these acids were alone present, they were in the following proportions:—
Barium acetate = 60-38 per cent., Barium butyrate = 39.62 per cent.
THE GUM.
The air-dried gum boiled out from the 680 grams of the latex, and precipi-
tated by alcohol, weighed 50 grams = 7.35 per cent. A small amount was
extracted later from the residue after the resin had been removed, thus bringing
the total gum in the latex to 8 per cent.
342
As the air-dried gum had become quite Smoky and dirty in appearance,
although it was quite Colourless when first precipitated, an effort was made to
determine the cause. It was again dissolved in water, but the solution was then
quite turbid and evidently contained some insoluble substance, and this was
readily removed by agitating the aqueous solution with alumina cream. The
filtrate was perfectly clear, bright, colourless, and on testing a solution of con-
siderable strength it was found to be inactive to light. When again precipitated
by alcohol and dried (spread on glass as before), it did not become dark coloured,
but remained perfectly clear and transparent, thus showing that no fresh alteration
of the manganese salt had taken place.
The purified gum had all the properties of gum arabic, and gave all the
reactions with reagents necessary for that substance. It was odourless and
tasteless, had marked adhesive properties, and would make an excellent commercial
gum. It contained a minute trace of a reducing sugar.
The alumina cream when filtered off was dark coloured, and when fused
with sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate in the usual way gave a marked
reaction for manganese. A manganese bead was also readily obtained with borax.
The ash of the first precipitated gum also gave a reaction for manganese, while
that of the purified gum did not. The presence of a soluble form of manganese
in the latex of this tree was thus demonstrated, and also that it formed the higher
oxide on drying in the air. Further information will be found in the article
dealing with the presence of manganese in the Australian Coniferae.
The amount of moisture in the purified air-dried gum was 15.5 per cent.,
and the amount of ash was 2.9 per cent. This consisted principally of the car-
bonates of lime and magnesia.
In the preparation of mucic acid, 2 grams of the gum were heated with
nitric acid on the water bath until the formation of the acid was complete. Half
the amount of water was then added and stood on one side for twenty-four hours,
when the Oxalic acid was removed by alcohol. The mucic acid formed was 23 per
cent., calculated on the air-dried gum. -
The Sugar formed by hydrolysis was prepared by boiling the gum in a
dilute solution of sulphuric acid for several hours, and removing the excess of acid
by barium carbonate. The filtrate was quite clear and almost Colourless, was
dextro-rotatory, and it strongly reduced Fehling's solution. When evaporated
down it did not crystallise, but gave reactions which indicated the presence of
arabinose. When boiled with phloroglucinol in hydrochloric acid the reaction
was similar to that given by arabinose supplied by Kahlbaum. The Osazone was
formed, but not readily, and although it was somewhat dark coloured, yet it
melted at about I55–160° C.
343
THE RESIN.
The solidified resin in the flask, after removing the gum solution, was
dried as much as possible, and treated with ether, until practically the whole of
the resin had been dissolved. The ether solution of the resin was filtered, evaporated
to dryness, and heated in thin layers on the water bath until all the ether had
been removed. When cold the resin was light coloured, and soon became powdery
On the Surface; it broke with a bright fracture, was somewhat soft, but quite
brittle, and in appearance strongly resembled sandarac resin. The amount of
resin thus obtained from the 680 grams of latex was 320 grams, – 47 per cent.
The resin was entirely soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol, and was not precipitated
on the addition of a considerable amount of the same alcohol. It was entirely
Soluble in acetone, but only partly soluble in chloroform or in ether.
A Solution of I gram resin in IO c.c. acetone was laevo-rotatory – 2.9° in
IOO mm. tube. (This rotation is in the opposite direction to that of the similarly
obtained resin from Agathis robusta.)
The Specific gravity of the resin was I O61 at I6° C., and the acid number
IO7. It was mostly soluble in a hot aqueous solution of carbonate of soda, but
formed a considerable precipitate on cooling.
For analysis, 25 grams of resin were again treated with ether, but the whole
was not soluble; the insoluble portion weighed I-52 grams, equal to 6:08 per cent.
When this insoluble portion was dissolved in alcohol and solid potash added, it
was almost entirely precipitated as an insoluble potash salt. This salt was dissolved
in water, the solution acidified with hydrochloric acid and boiled, and the separated
acid dried and heated at IOO–IO5°C. It melted at 233°C., and appeared to be similar
to the corresponding acid from Agathis robusta. The ether solution containing
the soluble resin was neutralised with alcoholic potash and water added. The
solution was then placed in a separator, and the neutral bodies, &c., entirely
removed with ether. The aqueous portion was then boiled to remove the ether
and alcohol, water added, the solution acidified with hydrochloric acid and boiled.
The separated resin melted in the boiling water, but when cold formed a hard,
brittle lump of a yellowish resin. It was then dried, powdered, dissolved in alcohol,
and solid potash added, when a portion became at once insoluble and eventually
formed a thick pasty mass. This insoluble salt was dissolved in water, acidified,
and the acid separated and dried. It weighed 2-II5 grams, equal to 8:46 per
cent. . It melted at 232° C., and was identical with the acid insoluble in ether
at first, so that both portions were added together for purification. The amount of
this acid (Dundathic acid) in the resin of Araucaria Cunninghamii was I4. 54 per
cent. It was purified by reprecipitating from an alcoholic Solution by alcoholic
potash, and finally dissolving in absolute alcohol, adding a little water, and crystal-
lising out. This crystallisation from alcohol was repeated three times, and the
344
acid was finally heated to IOO–IO5° C. It was then a colourless powder, and
melted at 234–235° C. to a yellow resin. It was dextro-rotatory, and O-4 gram
dissolved in IO C.C. absolute alcohol, rotated 2: 2° to the right in a IOO-mm. tube ;
the specific rotation was, therefore, [a] + 55°, agreeing very closely with the
specific rotation of the same acid isolated from the resin of Agathis robusta.
The acid was practically insoluble in chloroform and in ether. It did not
dissolve in the cold when acetic anhydride was added to the chloroform, but it
went into solution on boiling. When cold, one drop of Sulphuric acid changed
the solution to a very slight pink colour, which altered to a brownish tint on
Standing. On titration the following results were obtained —
O. I717 gram dissolved in absolute alcohol required 5 I c.c. decinormal
NaOH to neutralise it, therefore 40 grams NaOH would neutralise 336 grams acid.
O. I4I gram required 4-2 c.c. - NaOH, or 40 grams NaOH would neutralise
335 grams acid.
Analysis gave the following results:—
O. I554 gram gave O-4278 gram CO, and O. Ig83 gram H.O.
C. = 75. I; H. = 9.88 per cent.
Cºl Hg20s requires 75-84 per cent. C. ; and 9.7 per Cent. H.
The silver salt was prepared in the usual way, and this gave the following
results:—
O. I65I gram silver salt gave O' O399 gram silver = 24.2 per cent. Ag.
O. I518 ,, 5 y ,, O' O372 , , , , = 24°5 5 y Ag.
Cº. Hai A.O., contains 24.6 per cent. Silver.
The molecular determinations, and the titration results, together with the
results of analysis, indicate the formula Col Hs,Os for the acid of high melting
point in the resin of Araucaria Cumminghamii. The melting point and rotation
also agree with Dundathic acid isolated from the resin of Agathis robusta.
The acid of low melting point, which was present to the extent of over
60 per cent. in the resin of Araucaria Cunninghamii, was soluble in an excess of
alcoholic potash. It was removed from the insoluble pasty salt, water added,
and boiled to expel the alcohol. When cold, water was added, and the solution
acidified with hydrochloric acid and boiled. The separated acid melted in the
hot water, but when cold it was a yellow lump of resin. The above process was
repeated, but only a very small quantity of the first acid was again obtained.
The acid of low melting point was purified as follows:–It was powdered,
dissolved in the smallest quantity of alcohol, neutralised with an alcoholic
Solution of soda, water added and boiled to expel the alcohol. When Cold a
345
sufficient amount of a IO per cent. aqueous solution of soda was added to
form a dense precipitate, and it was then heated to dissolve the precipitated
Salt. On cooling, a considerable amount of the soda salt separated, but the
Separation was not quite complete because, on the addition of solid caustic
Soda a further precipitate was obtained, but this being dark coloured
it was discarded. The soda salt was dissolved in water, acidified, and the solution
boiled, the separated substance melting in the hot water to a yellow brittle lump
of resin. The above process was repeated three times, and the resin was then
heated on the water bath till quite dry. Although melting at a low temperature,
it was quite brittle, and when powdered was of a light yellowish colour.
This freshly prepared acid melted at 84°–85° C., and the melting point
was the same after one month, but after six months the melting point had
increased to 90°-91° C. Although acting similarly in some respects, yet, it is a
different acid from the corresponding one in Agathis robusta. It was soluble in
the cold in 70 per cent. alcohol, but not very readily, and on slow evaporation of
the alcoholic solution, no crystalline product was obtained. The acid was dis-
solved in chloroform, and acetic anhydride added, when one drop of Sulphuric
acid changed this solution at once to a deep violet colour, which soon altered to
an olive-green tint.
The acid was laevo-rotatory, but not very markedly so, and O-8 gram in
IO c.c. alcohol in IOO mm. tube rotated the ray o-gº to the left; the specific rotation
was, therefore, [a]p — II: 25°.
o: 2408 gram acid dissolved in alcohol, required 8 c.c. decinormal NaOH
to neutralise it; 40 grams NaOH would, therefore, neutralise 3OI grams acid.
o: 1664 gram in alcohol required 5.5 c.c. , NaOH, so that 40 grams NaOH
would neutralise 302 grams acid.
o: 1559 gram required 5.1 c.c. , NaOH, or 40 grams NaOH would neutralise
305 grams acid. .
Analysis gave the following:—
O. I476 gram gave O. 4285 gram CO, and O. I292 gram H.O.
C. = 79. 2; H. = 9.73 per cent.
CoEIs O., requires 79.4 per cent. C, and IO per cent. H.
The silver salt gave the following result:-
o: 2184 gram silver salt gave O' OS74 gram silver = 26-28 per cent. Ag.
C20H29AgO, contains 26.4 per cent. Silver.
From the molecular determinations, and the result of analysis, the formula
C.H.O., is indicated for the acid of low-melting point in the resin of Araucaria
Cunninghamii.
346
ETHER EXTRACT FROM THE RESIN ACIDs.
The ether from the 25 grams of resin, after the acids had been removed,
was evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated on the water bath till constant.
It weighed 5'86 grams, equal to 24, 44 per cent. It was a soft, yellowish resin.
and had a very bitter taste. It was laevo-rotatory, and O-7293 gram dissolved
in Io C.C. alcohol in IOO mm. tube had a rotation of 4.4° to the left. The specific
rotation was, therefore, [a]p – 60.3°. It thus agrees in the direction of rotation
with the acid of low melting point.
NITROGENOUS SUBSTANCES.
The residue, after the removal of the resins, was treated with alcohol for
two days to remove possible traces of resinous bodies. When filtered off it was
a swollen mass, light drab in colour, and when air-dried had shrunk considerably
in bulk. It was powdered, and treated with water to remove any remaining
gum and similar substances. When again dried it was powdered and finely sieved
to remove a few particles of wood, &c. The powder thus obtained weighed 3.5
grams, or O-51 per cent. Of the latex. It was quite insoluble in water, alcohol, and
similar solvents, and also in dilute acids, but it was mostly soluble in alkalis, even
in the cold, and became yellow when heated with potash. When heated with
SOda-lime, ammonia was readily evolved. The amount of nitrogen present was
determined by Kjeldahl's method, and the ammonia from I gram neutralised
2 I C.C. H.S.O. = 2.94 per cent. nitrogen in the powder. It is thus apparent
that the latex contained albuminous substances or other nitrogenous bodies, and
it would be interesting to determine their identity. The severe treatment to which
the latex had been subjected by continued boiling had evidently altered these
bodies considerably, and destroyed the enzymes. Only the merest trace of man-
ganese could be detected in the ash, so that that substance had been precipitated
with the gum from the aqueous portion of the latex.
From the foregoing results the general composition of the latex of Araucarma .
Cumminghamii may be stated as follows:—
Volatile oil ... § - tº tº gº º ... = 3.8OO per cent.
Free acids (calculated as acetic) ... = O' ISA y 5
Gum tº ſº e tº e & tº $ tº ... = 8. OOO j }
Resin tº gº º tº e º dº º o ... = 47 OOO ,
Nitrogenous substances, &c. ... = O'5IO } }
Woody residue tº ſº tº tº º º ... = O'6OO * }
Water and undetermined consti-
tuents by difference ... ... = 39.956 y y
IOO" OOO
*-mºsº
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.

348
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.

#
º
MoDE of water CARRIAGE of RAFTs To MILL, LISMORE, RICHMOND RIVER, N.S.W.
- -
Araucaria Cunninghami, AIT.

-
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. -
“Hoop PINE,” A. Cunninghamii, SANDILANDs RANGE SAw-MILL, N.S.W.
There are 250,000 ft. of Sawn Pine in the background, The logs average 6 ft. 6 in. girth.


35I
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
"AA’S’N
،
TTIIN AAVS AÐ NVNI SCINVTIGINYS Lv spoT \ſuvųºuſuun o wuwon waſ oniho L11）
'0/01, 1 º.rº/iſ.w.ſ. 'H' yw mae

352
ARAUCARIA CUNNINGHAM II, AIT.
“. COLONIAL,” “RICHMOND RIVER,” OR “HOOP PINE.”
Botanical Survey of the Species in New South Wales from data supplied by Public School
Teachers and other correspondents, (See Map.)
Locality.
Acacia Creek ...
Bonville, Coff's Harbour
Boverie, Lismore
Burringbar
Byron Bay
Casino ...
Dalmorton
Dorrigo
. Buller
... Raleigh ...
. Rous
... Rous
. Rous
..] Richmond
. Gresham
... Fitzroy ...
County.
. On the ranges
Remarks.
The Hoop Pine clothes the sides of the ranges for
many miles, and it is impossible to give an idea
of the area covered. Wherever the scrubs occur
the Hoop Pine is very much in evidence. Every
upland or scrubby flat or steep range has more
or less pine growth. All the ranges dividing
the waters of the various creeks in this northern
coast district throughout their course are Covered
with scrub, and immense areas of pine are
growing thereon. -
Timber.—The average height of this splendid tree
cannot be less than I40 feet; diameter, 3% feet
to 4% feet. I have seen logs taken to mills,
girth I5 feet.
Resin.—Hoop Pine gives a quantity, but none of
these give the resin unless incisions are made,
and that completely destroys the tree for
timber if left. (W. E. Carpenter.)
| Roughly, about 20,000 acres, inland 20 miles from
Coff's Harbour. (J. J. Farrell.)
. Occurs in belts or patches mixed with other timber.
Resin.—The Hoop Pine exudes a deal of it, that is
when the tree is cut or injured in any way, but
not unless. (J. Jones.)
. Grows on flat or hilly country amongst other
timbers; area about 40 Square miles.
Timber.—Average height, IIO feet; average diame-
ter, 2 feet 6 inches. (F. T. Clarke.)
... Plentiful.
Timber.—I50 to 200 feet high, 2 feet to 5 feet in
diameter. (H. McLennan.)
at the head of the Richmond
River, miles above Casino, there is a vast
supply, which one would think inexhaustible.
(J. C. Law.)
. In patches on the mountains; thousands of acres.
Timber.—Height, 80 to IOO feet; diameter, 2 feet
6 inches. (J. Cook.)
. (C. F. Laseron.)
353
ARAUCARIA CUNNINGHAM II, AIT.—Botanical Survey of the Species—continued.
Locality. County Remarks.
Guy Fawkes . Clarke . Grows plentifully.
Maryland, Tenterfield ..] Buller . A few trees. (J. S. Moss.)
Mullumbimby ..] Rous . Thousands of acres.
Timber.—I50 feet in height, and 3 feet in diameter.
Resin.-Exudes a whitish substance; extremely
sticky; highly inflammable. (Henry R. Anstey.)
Murwillumbah ... Rous . (C. F. Laseron.)
Nambucca Heads . Raleigh ... . About 6,000 acres. (J. G. Myers.)
New Italy . Richmond . Scarce now, cut out some years back. (T. T.
Morgan.)
Pimlico North ..] Richmond . Only a few trees left. (Edward Tysoe.)
Sandilands Range ... Drake . Some miles from Casino on the Tenterfield Road
this species is abundant. (F. H. Taylor.)
Tintenbar . Rous . (L. C. Shaw.)
Tirrania Creek, Lismore ... Rous . Found everywhere in the brushes and scrubs.
(W. L. Lucas.)
Tuckombil, Alstonville Rous . Occurs here. (W. M. Miller.)
Tumbulgum . Rous . In all the brushes. (John Cameron.)
Wardell ..] Richmond | Grows on the sides of nearly all the ridges in the
Richmond and Tweed River Valleys. (A.
Cousins.)
Woolgoolga . Fitzroy ... . (C. F. Laseron.)
Wyrallah Rous . The local supply is almost exhausted, but near the
upper waters of the Richmond, on the slopes of
the McPherson Range, and on the Richmond
Range hundreds of acres are covered with
dense pine forests. (James Jacobs.)
A. Cunninghamii, var. glauca.
The tree which occurs on the rocky portions and islands of Northern
Queensland, is considered by some authorities not to be identical with A. Cun-
ninghamii, and has been placed under the varietal name glauca, but material was
not procurable for this research.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
| N. E. Sº Rºº
BLNYA NOLINTAINS. c.73.
A For EST of Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook, QUEENSLAND.


355
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
P. H. Taylor, Photo.
Araucaria Bidwilli, “BUNYA BUNYA."
CULTIVATED AT ASHFIELD, N.S.W.


THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Nat. size.
“BUNYA BUNYA.”
MALE AMENTA of Araucaria Bidwilli, HOOK.
F. H. Taylor. Photo.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
*
º ºsº
- & “sº º - º
Bºğº.
-* -
* *. - nº. Sº, ºº, ºf
.."; º' - º: ºº º ººººº… . º, ººlºº ---
º a tº ºYºs º, ºr .
... ºººººººº..."; º' ºº ºf
--~~ ". Nº º * - - - - - - - - -
- * º: º Xº- -- º º: º tº a º * . . .
-º-º-º-º- - Tº º ºf º.º.
º- S2 *** ** -- -
| º sº tº º ... * -
- ** - Tº... . . *
* * * º º º: - º º
º
Much reduced;
MALE AMENTA TowARDS THE TOP OF A TREE, OF Araucaria Bidwilli.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. FEMALE AMENTUM IN EARLY STAGE OF GROWTH, Half mat size.
Araucaria Bidwilli, HOOK.



























358
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo.
CoNE OF Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook.
“BUNYA BUNYA.”
Half mat, size.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo. - - ----- Nat. size.
Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook. “BUNYA BUNYA.”
I. LOWER PORTION OF CONE WITH TOP SCALES REMOVED. 2. INDIVIDUAL SCALE.
3. SEED. 4. Two HALVES OF NUT SHELL.
2 A

360
2, Araucaria Bidwilli,
Hook, Lond. Jour. Bot. II, 498, t. 18.
‘‘ BUNYA BUNYA” OR “ BON-YI.’”
HABITAT.
Coast district of Queensland.
I. HISTORICAL.
“Bon-yi,” the native name for the pine Araucaria Bidwilli, has been
wrongly accepted and pronounced “bunya.” To the blacks it was “bon-yi,”
the “i ’’ being sounded as an “e ’’ in English—“bon-ye.” The bon-yi tree
bears huge cones, full of nuts, which the natives are very fond of. Each year
the trees will bear a few cones, but it was only in every third year that the great
gatherings of the natives took place, for then it was that the trees bore a heavy
Crop, and the blacks never failed to know the season. (From “Tom Petrie's
Reminiscences of Early Queensland ’’ by his daughter. Brisbane, I004, p. II.)
This valuable forest tree appears to have been first made known to white
men by Mr. Andrew Petrie, Superintendent of the Government Works at Moreton
Bay in 1838, who gave specimens to Mr. J. S. Bidwill. The latter gentleman took
material with him to England, and the tree was described by Sir William Hooker,
l.c. Supra.
This species is interesting as it is closely allied to its congener A. imbricata,
Pav., of South America, and to which species it is certainly very much more closely
Connected than to A. Cumminghamii. In fact, we are strongly inclined to suggest
that the genus be subdivided, taking the two Australian species as types of the
two groups, between which there are marked differences.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
This is a beautiful forest tree attaining over I50 feet in height, and now
much cultivated for its symmetrical shape and the remarkable appearance of its
whorled branches, with their spirally arranged leaves, which give it a facies more
nearly approaching the South American A. imbricata than its Queensland con-
gener, A. Cunninghamii. It is, however, a very much quicker grower than the
South American pine.
The leaves are numerous, homomorphic, imbricate, spirally arranged,
lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, Sessile, under 2 inches long, Shining, and broad at
361
the base, midrib not more developed than the numerous lateral veins, very
sharply pointed. Male amentum is sessile, arranged in closely and spirally packed
catkins* towards the end of the branches, sometimes over 6 inches long, and inch
in diameter, the imbricate scale-like apices of the stamens four-sided.
Fruit cones on the higher branches, ovoid, globose up to I2 inches
high, and 9 inches in diameter; the scales imbricate, 4 inches long and 3 inches
broad, tapering towards their winged base, the point of the sporophyll recurved and
spinescent. A cone Io lb weight was obtained from a tree, having also male
catkins.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC (none known to us).
(b) ANATOMY.
A cross-section of the outer portion of a leaf is given in Figure 251, which
gives a fair idea of the position of the various cells in that portion of the leaf,
and similar to the other structure,
which goes to make up the whole
leaf substance.
The assimilatory surface is
the outer one, and the cuticle of
this is backed by a single row of
very numerous, small, epidermal
cells, followed by one of thick-
walled hypodermal cells, and these
in turn are succeeded by a row
of palisade parenchymatous cells,
having their long axes at right
angles to the cuticle, and forming
- Figure 251.-Transverse section through one edge of a leaf, showing
about d third of the whole leaf how the hypodermal cells are packed below the single
ti lth h b f h row of epidermial cells at the extreme º º: oil *:
1 surrounded by secretory cells is seen to the left, and to
SSue, al Oug al Sent TOII] t e the right is a bundle surrounded by º cells. The
- two rectangular black patches on the palisade parenchyma
transpiratory surface. are manganese compound from their original cells. A.
Bidwilli, x 26o.
The epidermal and hypo-
dermal cells extend right round
the leaf but the latter are packed at the edges of the leaves, and more pronounced
on the outer surface.
*To determine the amount of pollen, two of the green but mature catkins were taken. They each measured
13 centimetres long, by a mean diameter of 16 millimetres. They were placed in glass dishes on 229/og, and by the
14th of the following month the whole of the pollen had been shed, the catkins then being quite dry. The pollen
was sulphur yellow. The amount shed by one catkin weighed 12946 grams, and that from the other 1626 grams,
or together 29206 grams.

362
The fundamental tissue is composed of Spongy mesophyll consisting of thin-
walled, irregularly shaped cells, with intercellular spaces, and running through the
length of which, at regular intervals, are oil cavities and bundles.
The bundles have their xylem abnormally orientated, and are surrounded
by a protective sheath of endodermal or parenchymatous cells enclosing, along
with the bundle, a small number of sclerenchymatous cells on the outer edge of
the phloem.
Scattered through the spongy mesophyll are nucleated or pitted cells,
the transfusion tissue.
The oil glands are small and surrounded with regular secretory as well as
protective cells, and occur in the same plane as the bundles. -
The stomata occur on the inner face of the leaf, the physiological signifi-
cance of which is identical with that of A. Cumminghamii and the Callitris.
By comparing this structure with that of A. Cunninghamii distinct differ-
ences are found. Here the oil cavities and bundles are in the same plane, the
hypodermal cells are less numerous, and the transfusion cells belong to a different
class, features that support the differentiation of the species, if not a sub-class.
IV. TIMHER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This is a fine forest tree attaining sometimes a height of over 150 feet, and
possessing a pale-coloured, fissile timber, utilised for similar commercial purposes
as “Hoop Pine,” A. Cunninghamii.
It is widely distributed on the Coast District of Queensland, and flourishes
well as an introduced tree in the other States, and is here strongly recommended
for forest culture as one of our future supplies of softwood.
Transverse Tests of Timber, Araucaria Bidwilli.
(Standard size, 38 in, x 3 in, x 3 in.)
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen, inches e e º $º e e ...' B 2.98; D 2.96 B 2.90; D 297 B 2.08; D 2.98
Area of Cross section, Square inches ... • * * , 8-82 8.88 8.88
Breaking load in lb. per Square inch ... 3,165 2,290 I,742
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... 6,553 4721 3,555
2 3 elasticity 2 3 3 * . . . . I,822,500 I,6OO,OOO 959,210
Rate of load in lb. per minnte & sº tº tº e ∈ 452 381 387
363
(b) ANATOMY.
Unlike its congener, no work appears to have been done concerning the
anatomical structure of the wood.
The various sections examined show good specific differences, for instance,
it is seen that in the tangential section the medullary rays, whilst otherwise
resembling those of A. Cunninghamii, yet have their cells filled with the brown or
dark substance, the manganese compound, as shown in Figures 252–4, and the
perforations between the cells of the medullary rays and the lumina of the
tracheids, differ from those of A. Cumminghamii, being fewer in number and
having circular orifices. The disposition, however, of the pitted cells corre-
sponds with those of A. Cumminghamii, and the simple cells communicating with
each lumen of the tracheids generally number about four.
In a radial section the cells of the medullary rays are often found filled
with this substance, but their walls appear to be very delicate, as they break
easily, and stain a darker colour than those of A. Cunninghamii. They are
well seen in Figure 254, where it will be noticed that all the cells, both Outer and
inner of the rays, have practically right-angled end walls, which shows, as
regards the character of the outer cells, a distinction from some non-Australian
genera of the Coniferae.
The walls as stated above are very thin, and in sectioning are almost in-
variably folded over between the end walls, vide Figure 254.
The principal features of difference in a transverse section compared with
A. Cunninghamii are, (I) the dark-brown content of the medullary rays running
through the picture like black bands, Figure 252, (2) the general absence of this
dark substance in the tracheids of the xylem so plainly seen in A. Cumminghamii.
In Figure 254 are also shown the double rows of bordered pits in the walls of
the tracheidal cells.
(d) Forestry (vide introduction to this genus.)
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC.
(Vide Chemistry, infra-Composition of the Exudation, &c.)
(b) ANATOMY.
The structure of the mature bark differs entirely from that of any Conifer
examined during this research, or any other figured and described, so far as we
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
:
|
:
g
:
:
º
:
ſ
:
º
i
:
º
º
º
:
:
:
f
:
:
:
º
Figure 252.-Transverse section of timber. The dark lines mark the Figure 253.−Tangential section of timber of A. Bidwilli, x 120.
rays, A. Bidwilli, x 12o.
Figure 254–Radial section of timber in the neighbourhood of two rays,
showing alternate and single rows of bordered pits on the
radial walls of the tracheids. A. Bidwilli, x 120.
Sections of timber of Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook.










THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 256. Transverse section through a portion of inner bark, showing
the predominance and irregular distribution of bast fibres
in this part of the cortex. They are the yellowish-coloured
rectangular bodies with a thick outer wall substance, and
a laminated wall structure towards the mid-channel. The
medullary rays extend from top to bottom of the plate
in sinuous bands. The circles indicate the starch granules.
The dark patch on the left marks an oleo-resin cavity.
Stained with haematoxylin. Araucaria Bidwilli, x 120.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 255.-Transverse section of bark, showing the unconformity or
irregularity of structure. A. Bidwilli, x 60.
Figure 257.-Transverse section of bark. The lighter patches are Figure 258. Transverse section through bark. The lighter coloured
amorphous masses of stone cells irregularly distributed patch running through the section is a mass of amorphous
throughout the bark. A. Bidwilli, x 40. sclerenchymatous cell substance. A. Bidwilli, x 60.
Sections of bark of Araucaria Bidwilli. Hook.


366
have been able to ascertain, for apart from other distinctive features there
appears to be no regular concentric layers of cells such as one finds in the
Callitris, and figured in this work. From the cambium outwards the whole
collection of cells and fibres is a complete medley, and even the medullary rays,
which almost invariably preserve some disposition in conformity to their name,
fail in this respect in this species of Araucaria.
The medullary rays run through the bark in a sinuous course and are
thickly studded with starch granules, distinctly seen in Figure 256. The rays
are not many cells high, and only one in width, and can be traced running
obliquely across the picture in Figure 255, which is not so great a magnification
as the Coloured Figure 256; they became less in definition as the outer cortex is
reached. -
The rest of the material between the cambium and periderm bands which
forms the extreme outer layers of the cortex, is composed, apparently, of two
forms of cells, viz., the Sclerenchymatous fibres, and short parenchymatous cells
either empty or starch containing. In shape and perhaps character, the former are
quite in accord with Australian Conifers as far as our knowledge goes, and possess
features which occur in barks other than in this genus. They are true canals in
Character, having no septa, but preserve an unobstructed direct communication
with the roots, from which each extends as a continuous body or substance;
when viewed in Cross-section (Figure 256) they are rectangular in shape, with
thickened borders, the substance extending to the central canal being of a lami-
nated structure, apparently formed by deposition from fluid content similar
perhaps to deposits of carbonate of lime found in tubes or pipes, formed from
water carrying this mineral in solution. The median channel is well shown in
Figures 256 and 260. The continuity and solidity of this substance is seen in
Figure 260, where, after all the Surrounding tissue has been removed, they remain
intact, whilst still a part of the surrounding cell is embedded or contained in solid
bark material. The median line seen is the central channel. A cluster of .
parenchymatous cells are shown at the bottom between the two left bast fibres.
Under a quarter-inch objective it was found that the sides and ends of this
substance were thickly studded with crystals of a rhombus form similar to those
figured in De Bary, p. 132, after Sach, and who describes them as crystals of
calcium oxalate ; but ours are not that substance as proved by chemical tests;
but what they are we are not prepared to say at present as they require further
investigation, and the same remarks apply to the body substance itself. These
long rod-like bodies have been classed as sclerenchyma fibres, or bast cells. They
certainly do not differ much from the bast cells of Callitris in structure, and
form, as it were, part and parcel of the whole matrix. These substances appear
to be formed by the slow deposition of the altered liquid moving in the cells
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 259.-Longitudinal section through bark. A. Bidwilli, x 80.
Portion of a bast fibre showing crystals on the outer surface. A. Bidwill.i.
× 350.
Figure 260.-Longitudinal section through bark, showing the rigidity of
bast fibres, for in this instance four fibres remain standing
after the intervening tissue has been removed. The median
channel is seen in the two centre fibres. A. Bidwilli, x iro.
Bast fibre on left of picture showing similar crystals. Callitris rousta,
× 500.
Sections of bark of Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook.



368
themselves; each, apparently, has no connection with the neighbouring cell
walls, from which they are quite free; in fact they may be likened to so many
hollow glass rods in a number of tubes. It is quite possible they may be an inter-
mediate stage in the formation of cellulose. They are identical in character
with the bast fibres of Callitris, which also have similar crystals on the outside.
Their chemical composition was not ascertained on this occasion, as such
an investigation would have further delayed publication.
At irregular intervals, or rather scattered throughout the bark substance,
are clusters of stone cells, Figure 258 (the mass in the centre of figure from
top to bottom). Two or three parallel periderm layers occur close to the Outer
edge of the cortex, the intervening inner and outer cortex being composed of
masses of stone cells, parenchymatous cells, and rod-like bast cells above
described. No sieve tubes were found.
(c) CHEMISTRY.
The bark of this tree was somewhat of a spongy nature and was astringent,
So that a determination for tannins was made. The bark when dry was
readily powdered, and when extracted with boiling water gave an extract of good
colour, which acted readily on hide powder. The determination was made with
chromed hide powder, according to modern methods, and the following results
were obtained:—
Total extract ... ... Ig. 67 per cent.
Tannins ... tº e tº ... IO-40 y 5
Non-tannins gº º ºs ... 9. 27 5 y
Moisture ... e tº dº ... IO-66
y 5
The tannins gave a green coloration with ferric chloride, and the indications
were altogether those for a commercial tanning material, although, unfortunately,
the percentage of available tannin in the bark of this species is not great. The
non-tannins consisted largely of gum precipitated by alcohol. The bark was
found to contain a marked amount of starch, but no calcium oxalate was detected.
There was also present some material soluble in alkalis and precipitated again by
acids, and this reaction was particularly marked with dilute ammonia, the substance
dissolving to a purplish colour, and it had some of the other reactions characteristic
of Stahlschmidt's polyporic acid. It was, however, stained a deep blue with
iodine, and was quite insoluble in boiling water, even after some time. The
presence of starch in the bark, and the peculiar nature of the gum, which in the
jelly form particularly is coloured bright yellow by iodine, indicate that these
bodies are somewhat nearly related to some modification of the members of the
cellulose group, and may, perhaps, be connected with the peculiar Celiuiar arrange-
ment of portions of the bark of this tree.
369
CHEMISTRY OF THE EXUDATION.
This exudation, which consisted almost entirely of gum, was obtained
from a large cultivated tree, 2 feet in diameter, growing at Marrickville, near
Sydney, and was collected during the last three months of the year 1908. Sex
appears to have no influence upon the composition of the exudation ; because,
when the large green fruits were cut through, they were found to be charged
with Sap identical in appearance and composition with that obtained from the
trunk of the tree. When dried, this gum from the fruits had the same slightly
aromatic odour, was quite as brittle, dissolved just as readily in water to a turbid
Solution, due to the presence of the same Small amount of oleo-resin, and formed
the same insoluble jelly when agitated with ether.
Dr. Lauterer (loc. cit.) says that the percentage amount of gum and resin
in the exudation of this tree varies much at different times of the year, but
our results do not confirm that statement. The material obtained from Our
specimen was identical in composition, whether obtained in September or in
December, and a specimen of the gum of A. Bidwilli in our possession, which
was collected in Brisbane in July, the colder time of the year, was found to
be identical in composition with that of our own collecting. It had the same
slightly aromatic odour, and an analysis showed it to contain less than 2 per cent.
of oleo-resin. The gum was also readily soluble in cold water, just as adhesive,
and on agitating with ether it eventually changed largely into the jelly-like
insoluble form, only this change took place less readily than with the freshly
procured material. The tree growing near Sydney was wounded, September, Igo&,
by cutting quite through the bark in places, and also by cutting off the old scars
left by the decayed branches. A very fluid liquid quickly exuded from the
wounds, and formed tears which Soon dried, becoming quite hard and brittle.
In the places where the bark had been cut through, the upward flow continued
for months; this has been referred to previously under A. Cunninghamii. The
exudation when dried resembled in appearance some kinds of wattle gum. It
was amber-coloured, mostly semi-transparent, very brittle, bright in the fracture,
and was slightly aromatic. This gum-like substance dissolved somewhat
readily in water to a turbid, slightly acid solution, which gave a dense pre-
cipitate on the addition of excess of alcohol. The precipitate, when spread on
glass, became quite a transparent gum which again dissolved readily in water. It
did not become dark coloured on drying like the gum of A. Cumminghamii, although
manganese was detected in it. There were present in the exudation very small
amounts of volatile oil and resin, thus differing from that of A. Cunninghamii, and
also from the exudations of the Coniferae generally. Four grams of picked gum,
dissolved in water, and agitated with 25 c.c. of ether, soon separated the gum
as an insoluble jelly, and from which the ether had removed most of the resin,
2A
370
and IO C.C. of the ether gave O' O26 gram of a Soft aromatic resin = 1.62 per cent.
A determination with alcohol gave the following result: – Two grams of the
air-dried gum, dissolved in water, were precipitated by excess of alcohol; the
clear filtrate was evaporated to dryness, treated with ether to remove a small
amount of gum, and the ether evaporated. The amount of soft resin thus
obtained was O'O44 gram, equal to 2.2 per-cent of oleo-resin. One might thus
Suppose that the manganese in the exudation of A. Cumminghamii was utilised
more largely in the formation of the resins. When the air-dried exudation was
ignited it gave 2: O2 per cent of a perfectly white ash, which consisted almost
entirely of the carbonates of lime and magnesia –CaCO, = 49.7 per cent.,
MgCO, = 49.9 per cent., Mn... = O'OIQ per cent.
The moisture in the air-dried material was 15. I2 per cent, and this was
almost entirely taken up again on standing in the air.
The mucic acid was determined in the usual way, and 2 grams of air-dried
material gave O-35I gram mucic acid = 17:55 per cent. This is a little less than
was obtained with the gum of A. Cumminghamii.
The gum after treatment with ether was quite insoluble even in boiling
water, and gave a bright yellow colour with iodine.
There was an absence of reducing sugars in this exudation, and Fehling's
solution was not reduced.
For the determination of the sugar formed by hydrolysis, the gum was
boiled for Some hours with a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. The acid was
removed by barium carbonate, the filtrate evaporated down, and the unaltered
gum removed by alcohol. On evaporation, a syrup was obtained which eventually
became somewhat crystalline. The sugar formed was dextrorotatory, and it
strongly reduced Fehling's solution. The indications, however, for either arabinose
or xylose were not convincing, and its identity remains in abeyance.
It is, perhaps, remarkable that a soluble gum giving mucic acid on
Oxidation, should be rendered insoluble and changed into a jelly by the simple
agitation with ether. The reaction is of interest and worthy of further study.
On keeping the gum of A. Bidwilli for many years, it did not entirely lose this
property, although it became modified somewhat, and less distinctive. No jelly
of an insoluble nature could be obtained with the gum of A. Cunninghamii by
this reaction, thus indicating a different molecular arrangement of the carbo
hydrates in the two trees.
THE GENUS AGA THIS.
Sa/Sb. in 7 rans. Linn. Soc., V/ii., 377, f. 75, non Gaertn.
I. HISTORICAL.
This name is adopted in this work, following the example of Bentham and
Hooker in “Genera Plantarum,” but for want of literature it is difficult to express
an opinion as to whether Rumphius's name of Dammara should claim priority.
Baron von Mueller, 2nd Cens. 1889, uses Rumphius's name Dammara, 1741, as
against Salisbury's Agathis, I807. *
Only two species occur in Australia and these are found in the dense forests
of the Queensland coast. They are lofty trees, having spirally arranged, flat
leaves, similar to their congeners in New Zealand, Fiji, New Caledonia, Malay
Archipelago, Brazil, and Chili.
Ettingshausen (l.c. pp. 98 et 99, pl. viii) records two species of Dammara
from the Tertiary period occurring at Tingha, N.S.Wales.
II, SYSTEMATIC.
The flowers are dioecious, the amenta being sessile or nearly so Male
amentum catkin-like, axillary or lateral, surrounded by a few imbricate scales at
the base; the microsporophylls occur in a close spiral series, each being dilated
at the top and slightly incurved. Microsporangia numerous, cylindrical, pendulous.
Female amentum globose, terminal or lateral, macrosporophylls spirally arranged,
continuous with imbricate Scales at the base. Macrosporangia Solitary, pendulous.
Fruit cone medium size, ovoid-globular, macrosporophylls closely imbricate,
deciduous, flattened, broadly cuneate, more or less winged, almost woody. Seeds
oblong-cuneate, flattened, truncate or emarginate at the end, one margin pro-
duced into a horizontal, erect, or decurved wing.
372
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Agathis robusta. “QUEENSLAND KAURI.”

373
-
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
busta,
is ro
URI.” Agath
*
AA
ND I
-
A FINE TREE OF THE “QUEENSLA

374
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Agathis robusta. CULTIVATED IN PERADENIYA GARDENs, CEYLoN.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
LEAVES OF
Agathis robusta, C. MOORE.
“QUEENslaxD KAURI, "
Mat. size.

376
Agathis robusta,
C. Moore, F.V.M., in Trans. Pharm. Soc. Vict, ſ/, 774.
“QUEENSLAND KAURI " OR “DUNDATHU PINE."
(Syn. :-Dammara robusta, C. Moore, B. Fl. VI, 375.)
I. HISTORICAL.
(Wide supra.)
II, SYSTEMATIC.
This is a fine, tall, upstanding tree,
- - attaining a height of I50 feet and over,
- - * generally with a long straight barrel free
from branches. Leaves more often ovate
than lanceolate, thick, from 4 to 6 inches
long, and up to I inch wide, mostly
obtuse, shortly petiolate, midrib not
prominent, finely striated longitudinally
from secondary bundles. Male amentum
catkin-like, axillary or lateral, surrounded
by a few imbricate scales at the base,
under 2 inches long. Fruit cones ovoid-
globular, under 5 inches long, and rather
less than 4 inches in diameter; macro-
phylls as broad as long, closely imbricate,
deciduous, flattened, broadly cuneate, more
- or less winged. Seeds oblong-cuneate,
flattened or emarginate, at the end one
Agathis robusa. Fruit cose. margin produced into a horizontal, erect,
or decurrent wing.
-
III. LEAVES.
(Not investigated.)
IV. TIMEER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This is a rather attractive, pale-brownish coloured timber when dressed ;
it planes easily, and takes a good surface as well as a good polish. It is short

377
in the grain and, therefore, should not be subjected to too much weight in the
case of beams, &c., but is an excellent timber for joinery and finishing work
generally. Mr. P. MacMahon states, “That it has always been regarded as the
most valuable of Queensland Pines, but it is unfortunately becoming scarce; and
although it seems to be readily cultivable, or can be readily produced with
reasonable protection, supplies are not obtainable in anything like the quantity
that they were some time ago.” .
Transverse Tests of Timber, Agathis robusta.
(Standard size, 38 in. x. 3 in. x 3 in.)
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches * @ e © tº e ... B 3.03; D 3-O3 B 3.03; D 3:03 || B 3.04; D 3.02
Area of Cross section, square inches ... tº € 9. O'I2 9. I2 - 9-18
Breaking load in lb. ... * * * tº s º & © tº 3,600 3,500 3,800
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... 6,990 6,796 7,366
5 5 elasticity 2 3 5 2 e e a 970,786 | 900,000 QII,250
Rate of load in lb. per minute & & e & © tº 3OO 437 345
(b) ANATOMY.
Both radial and tangential sections present microscopical features charac-
teristic of the species and genus, and form good lines of demarcation between it and
the Cognate genera.
The pitted cells are found on the radial walls in alternating rows,
generally in threes, but Occasionally in fours, as against a single row in the cor-
responding space of the Callitris and Podocarpus, and having the appearance of a
tessellated pavement or mosaic, a character, however, in which it much resembles
the Araucarias. (Figures 265-6.)
These elongated colonies of pits form conspicuous figures in the radial
sections, and show an affinity between the xylems of Araucaria and Agathis, the
latter, however, having more frequently four rows. Hollick and Jeffrey, (“Amer.
Nat.” Vol. XL, No. 47I, pl. 5, Figure I), show two rows of pits occurring in
Brachyphyllum macrocarpum, Newb., a fossil timber from Staten Island, N.Y.
The medullary rays are composed of narrow parenchymatous cells more
often not containing any manganese compound Substance, whilst cells of the
xylem tracheids are also devoid of this substance, a feature still further emphasised
in transverse sections, Figures 261-2, and one that differentiates the timber from
Araucaria. The rays are not many cells high, and only one broad.
. The large number (up to twelve) of simple cells between the walls of the
lumina is also a good diagnostic character of the genus.
378
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Figure 262.-Transverse
packed cells running from left to right belong to the
bottom of the picture mark the rays. A. robusta, x roo.
autumnal growth. The
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 261.-Transverse section of timber of A. robusta, x 100.
Figure 264—Tangential section of timber. The bordered pits on the
Figure 263.--Tangential section of timber. The alternate rows of
tangential walls are more plainly seen. A. robusta, x 120.
bordered pits are distinctly shown in the tracheids. A.
robusta, x 84.
Section of timber of Agathis robusta, C. Moore,














370
The tangential section is microscopically no less a beautiful object than
the radial, and Figures 263-4 show clearly the main features of distinction between
it and cognate genera, the most important being the occurrence in well-defined
elongated groups of pitted cells on the tangential walls, a rare Occurrence in
Australian Conifers.
The “string of bead-like ’’ structures, Figures 263–4, so clearly shown on
the tracheid walls, are the pitted cells cut vertically, or seen in profile.
The transverse sections in Figures 261-2 show the less regular polygonal
shape of the tracheids of the xylem of this genus, and also the scarcely
distinguishable autumnal growth in the former, probably due to the equable
seasons of its habitat.
V. BARK.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
This bark in some respects resembles that of the Araucarias. It has-not
the well defined lines of structure to be found in Callitris, for the sclerenchymatous
fibres resemble those of the Araucarias rather than the Callitris, and in cross-
section, given in Figure 267, they can be seen Scattered amongst parenchy-
matous cells and sinuous medullary rays. The large empty cell in the centre
of the picture is an oleo-resin cavity. Throughout the bark substance are masses
of sclerenchymatous fibres.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE OLEO-RESIN.
THEORETICAL.
This sample of freshly collected oleo-resin was sent to us by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Queensland, and was obtained from trees growing in their
natural habitat. When received it was of a thin, pasty consistency, contained
a large amount of essential oil, and had a Somewhat aromatic Odour and a
bitter taste. The material was freshly exuded, so that its constituents could
hardly have undergone much change; the action of the air, and other con-
tributing influences towards alteration, had been retarded, as the resin was sent
in closed vessels. The oleo-resin was thus largely in its natural condition.
The general method of investigation was similar to that carried out with
the latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii, and it was found to contain many similar
substances to those isolated from that material; SO that, broadly speaking, the
general constituents are common to both trees. The oleo-resin of Agathis robusta
contained a gum similar in composition with that isolated from the latex of
Araucaria Cunninghamii, although it is present in less amount than in the exudation
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 265.-Tangential section of timber showing as many as three or Figure 266.-Radial section through a ray of A. robusla, x 120.
four rows of alternate bordered pits on the radial walls.
The black markings extending across the picture from the
centre to the right are not septa of the tracheids, but remains
of manganese washed from the lumina. A. robusta, x 80.
Figure 267-Transverse section of bark, showing irregular distribution
of bast fibres and other structures of the bark. A. robusta,
× 90.
Sections of timber and bark of Agathis robusta, C. Moore.


381
from the latter tree. The gum precipitate also contained a similar manganese-
bearing compound, and the changes in colour which took place with the gum,
when this was precipitated by alcohol, were even more pronounced than with
that obtained from Araucaria Cunninghamii, as, on drying, it became almost of
a jet-black colour.
So far as we are aware, gum has not previously been found in the class
of resins exuded by the Dammara group, and to its presence may, perhaps, be
traced the reason why a portion of the constituents of some resins are found to be
insoluble in alcohol. The peculiarity of the freshly precipitated gum in changing
on drying the first time to a jet-black colour is, perhaps, analogous to the formation
of the black lacquer of the Japanese and Chinese, obtained from species of Rhus.
º:
- - - - -
- -: --~ - º -
º - - -
-º-, -ºº-ººr. - - - tº
Agathis robusta, showING Flow of OLEO-RESIN. QUEENSLAND.
This peculiarity of blackening with the gum precipitates of both Agathis robusta and
Araucaria Cunninghamii, was distinctly traceable to the changing of the inorganic
constituents, of which manganese and iron were present in some quantity. Man-
ganese has been shown to be a constituent of the latex of Rhus, and the darkening

382
in all cases may, therefore, be traceable to the same cause. This blackening
process appears to render certain of the inorganic substances less soluble, because,
on again dissolving the dried black gum in water, the dark-coloured constituents
could be removed, and the gum prepared in this way, when precipitated again by
alcohol, was practically in a pure condition. The ash of the finally purified gum
did not contain either manganese or iron, but consisted principally of lime and
magnesia, although both manganese and iron were readily detected in the dark-
coloured ash of the first precipitated gum. This blackening can hardly be due to
the action of an enzyme, similar to laccase, because the solution had been boiled
for seven hours in order to separate the gum, the volatile acids, and the essential
oil. The formation of the various constituents in these oleo-resins may, perhaps,
eventually be shown to be largely due to enzyme action, and also that the man-
ganese and iron are simply contributing factors towards the final result. It may,
perhaps, be shown also, that their action in some plants is more towards the
formation of resins, because, in the exudation from Araucaria Bidwilli, manganese
was in small amount, and only a trace of resin was present in that material.
That the manganese plays an important part in the metabolic processes
of Agathis robusta, as well as in those of Araucaria Cunninghamii, can hardly be
doubted, and this supposition is also supported by the results of recent investi-
gations in other directions. Octave Dony-Hénault in his “Systematic Investi-
gations of the Oxydases,” (“Bull. Acad. Roy.” Belg., Igo7, 537; IgoS, IO5; and
I909, 342), shows that the typical properties of laccase can be reproduced by the
Catalytic association of manganous and ferric molecules with free alkali, and
suggests that laccase does not exist in the latex of the lac tree, but that it is formed
during the alcoholic precipitation. He also advances the idea that none of the
oxydases are truly enzymic, and assumes that the oxidising action of Bertrand's
lacCase is fully accounted for by the presence of an organic salt of manganese
and the accidental presence of alkali; it is also asserted that the activity of this
substance is practically paralysed in the presence of acids.
The changes which take place with the alcoholic precipitate from the latex
of Araucaria Cunninghamii, also with that from the exudation of Agathis robusta,
are almost identical with those given with similar material from the latex of Rhus
(See G. Bertrand, “Bull. Soc. Chim,” 1896, and “Compt. rend.” I896); also
“Oxydases et les Reductases” by M. Emm. Pozzi-Escot, Paris, Igo2, p. 130, &c.).
The reason why these exudations from Agathis and Araucaria remain colourless
under ordinary conditions is probably the preventative action of the acids present,
and it was not until the volatile acids and the resin acids had been entirely
separated, that the blackening of the precipitate took place, which was
apparently due to the Oxidising influences of the air. It thus appears that the
blackening of the gum precipitate from these trees is primarily due to the
particular form of manganese compound present. -
383
From these results it may be assumed that manganese is an essential con-
stituent of these trees, and that their natural habitat is in those soils in which
an available form of manganese is present; so that they should grow better and
become more robust in localities where this food material is available. It is
interesting to notice in this connection that most satisfactory results have recently
been obtained with manganese as a fertiliser, from which it appears that other
plants besides Rhus, Agathis, and Araucaria have need of sufficient manganese
to enable them to carry on their constructive functions in the most satis-
factory manner. (See article on the manganese compound in this work.)
. Reducing sugars were found in the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta, and their
amount determined. Reducing sugars were also detected in the latex of Araucaria
Cunninghamii. - -
Similar nitrogenous constituents were also shown to be common to both
trees. The volatile acids were also similar in both trees and were present in about
the same amount.
The essential oil, removed from the Oleo-resin of Agathis robusta by steam
distillation, consisted almost entirely of pinene, and this steam-distilled product
may be considered to be an excellent commercial “oil of turpentine.” It is also
present in Some quantity (about I4 per cent.). Agathis robusta is thus a possible
turpentine-producing plant, and its commercial exploitation in this direction is
worthy of serious attention. From our present knowledge this is the only species
of pine growing naturally in Australia from which a product, agreeing in composition
with ordinary “oil of turpentine,” can be distilled in commercial quantities; and this
fact, together with the excellence of its timber, to say nothing of the value of its
resin, suggests the advisability of largely utilising this tree in forest cultivation,
because of its economic possibilities. The present policy of indiscriminate destruc-
tion of Australian vegetation, now going on all round us, is to be deplored, and we
raise our voices in protest; while, on the other hand, we would indeed welcome
a vigorous policy in the Opposite direction. Nature has been good to us in
Australia in providing such a natural vegetation suitable to the climatic and
other conditions of the country, of which we should not be slow to take advan-
tage for our own welfare and profit. -
The more saturated hydrocarbons, similar to those isolated from the latex
of Araucaria Cumminghamii, appear to be absent in the OleO-resin of Agathis
robusta, or, if any were present, it could only be so in very small amount.
The principal constituent in the OleO-resin of Agathis robusta was resin,
and this was found to consist very largely of two resin acids, with about Io per
cent. of neutral bodies, together with the remainder of the oil, &c. One of the
resin acids was readily obtained in a crystalline condition, and it melted at a high
temperature. The other, and more abundant acid, melted at a low temperature,
384
and could not be obtained in a crystalline condition, but was, however, prepared
in a pure form by repeated precipitation of the Soda salt in cold aqueous solution.
The method of Separation of these resin acids with dilute alkaline solvents
was not found to be satisfactory with either the resin of Agathis robusta or with that
of Araucaria Cunninghamii, and the method was abandoned, because on purifying
and analysing the portion of resin insoluble the second time in ether, this was
found to consist almost entirely of an acid, the potassium salt of which was insoluble
in excess of alcoholic potash, and that it melted at about 2.33° C. We did not
Succeed in isolating an acid with alkaline solvents, having a higher melting point
than 200° C., so that this was evidently not quite free from admixture with the
acid of lower melting point. It was also found that the remainder of the acid
whose potassium salt was insoluble in excess of alcoholic potash, could be isolated
from the resin soluble in ether the second time, after the neutral bodies and oily
constituents had been removed by ether. On analysing this acid, results were
obtained which agreed with those given by the acid at first insoluble in ether
and it was undoubtedly the same resin acid. The small amount of oil present,
together with the neutral bodies, had evidently assisted largely towards the solution
in ether of the second portion of this acid.
Both these resin acids were dextro-rotatory, the one of higher melting
point having the higher rotation. The neutral portion was also dextro-rotatory.
The acid of higher melting point was not very readily soluble in alcohol, if at all
dilute, and was practically insoluble in chloroform and in ether. The acid of low
melting point was completely and readily soluble in 70 per cent. alcohol in the
cold, and in organic solvents generally. The acid of higher melting point appears
to be the next higher homologue but one, from the acid of lower melting point.
- The Queensland kauri, Agathis robusta, is botanically allied to the
New Zealand kauri, Agathis (Dammara) australis, and the other species of
Agathis of the South Sea Islands; the constituents of their resins might, therefore,
be expected to show some similarity of composition. Tschirch and Niederstadt
(“Arch. d. Ph.” 239, Igo2, p. I45) have investigated the resin acids OCCurring in a
specimen of recent fossil kauri resin from New Zealand. (See also Tschirch, “Die
Harze und die Harzbehālter,” p. 725.) They isolated from this resin an acid (kauric
acid) melting at 192° C., which was dextro-rotatory, the formula being CoPI, O.
The resin, however, consisted principally of acids of low-melting point, and to
which they give the formulae C.H.O. The principal resin acid isolated by us
from the resinous portion of the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta had also a low-melting
point, similar to that of the main acids isolated by Tschirch and Niederstadt
from the New Zealand kauri resin, but all our results with this acid of low-
melting point, obtained from Agathis robusta, indicated the formula to be Ciołłº C,
and that its molecular weight was 304. The acid of high-melting point from
Agathis robusta melted at 234–235° C., was dextro-rotatory, and had a molecular
385
weight of 332, the formula being C, H,Os. If these acids are eventually shown
to be similar in origin, then the differences in molecular weight may, perhaps, be
traceable to the prolonged influences exerted during the process of fossilisation.
It would be interesting if, on further investigation, it becomes possible to show
whether these changes do take place with the acids of these Coniferous resins, and,
if so, in what direction.
The name Dundathic acid is proposed for the acid of high-melting point,
as it was first obtained from Agathis robusta, the “Dundathu Pine.” We
have isolated this acid from the resins of both Agathis robusta and Araucaria
Cunninghamii, and although the acid of low-melting point in the resin of Agathis
robusta was dextro-rotatory, that of the corresponding acid in the resin of Araucaria
Cunninghamii was laevo-rotatory, yet, the Dundathic acid from the resin of the
latter tree was dextro-rotatory like that from Agathis. The neutral constituents
of the resins of both plants agree in rotation with that of the acid of low-melting
point. This seems to indicate a somewhat close connection between those resinous
bodies not acids, and those that contain a carboxyl group, and an exhaustive
investigation of these neutral bodies might throw some light upon the formation
of the resins themselves, both acid and neutral. The bitter principle was also
largely concentrated in this portion, and the aqueous solution, after the slow
deposition of the neutral bodies from an alcoholic solution, was intensely bitter.
Dundathic acid is evidently formed from material common to both Agathis and
Araucaria, and in a similar manner, because the physical and chemical characters
of the acid from both trees were in agreement.
The acid of low-melting point, of which the resin of Agathis robusta
principally consisted, did not Crystallise by any method, but always appeared to
Separate in an amorphous condition. It was, however, precipitated from an
aqueous solution as a Soda salt, and was separated almost completely in this
way, after the Dundathic acid had been removed. A peculiarity which takes
place with this acid, and which is worthy of notice, is the slow increase in melting
point after separation from the other constituents of the resin, until the final
melting point, IoI–Io2° C. is reached. When first prepared, this acid melted at
77°C.; after the lapse of about two weeks the melting point had increased to 88°C.,
and after one month to 99° C. After this increase in the melting point had been
detected, a fresh sample of the resin was prepared, and this also melted at first at
77° C., after one week at 83° C., after two weeks at 89° C., after three weeks at
96° C., after four weeks at 98° C., after five weeks at 99–IOO’C., and after four
months IoI—IO2°C. (The method of taking the melting points of these resins was
to place a small portion of the powder on a micro-slide cover-glass, and float this
on a vessel of mercury of sufficient depth to entirely cover the bulb of the
thermometer.) We propose the name Dundatholic acid for this constituent of
low-melting point isolated from the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta.
2 B
386
The general composition of the resin as first prepared from the oleo-resin
may be stated as follows:–
Dundathic acid (C, H, O,) tº $ tº * g . ... = I6-O per cent.
Dundatholic acid (Cu,FIssO.) ... * * * ... = 73.2 ,, (about).
Neutral resins, bitter principle, &c. ... ... = IO-8 y 3
ExPERIMENTAL.
The thick, cream-coloured, pasty mass readily formed a white emulsion
when stirred with warm water, but if sufficient water were added, it formed a milky
liquid, with small lumps of somewhat hardened resin suspended through it. It
was strongly acid, and had a slightly aromatic although sour Odour, and was mostly
dissolved in excess of hot solution of carbonate of soda, but partly separated out
again on Cooling; although if sufficient water was added, the precipitated salt again
dissolved. 4OO grams of the oleo-resin, as received, were made into a thin emulsion
by adding an equal amount of water; this solution was then distilled by heating
directly, as by this method the material boiled more steadily, and was not projected
in such an objectionable manner as when steam was passed directly into it. Fresh
water was added from time to time, and the distillation continued until the distillate
became practically neutral, and no more oil came over—a result which took about
seven hours to accomplish. A considerable layer of a colourless oil floated on the
surface of the acid water. As the oil came over, and the gum went into solution,
the resin Separated in lumps and globular masses, floating in the aqueous liquid.
The resin was then allowed to cool and solidify in the flask, the aqueous portion
removed, and filtered as clear as possible. *
THE ESSENTIAL OIL.
The oil floating on the acid distillate, when separated, measured 54 c.c.,
equal to II-64 per cent. Of the oleo-resin by weight, or about 14 per cent. by volume.
It soon obtained the characteristic odour of ordinary “oil of turpentine,” although
at first it was slightly aromatic. It was water-white, and gave the following
results:— -
Specific gravity at ##" C. ... * * * O-8629
Rotation ap in IOO-mm. tube ... ... =: + 20:2°
Refractive index at I6° C. I-4766
—
T-
30 c.c. of the oil were distilled under atmospheric pressure, when nothing came
over below I55° C. ; between I55° and I56°C., 53.3 per cent. distilled; and between
I56° and I59°C., 33.3 per cent. more came over. The residue in the flask, I3-3 per
cent., was also determined.
The first fraction had—
Specific gravity at +3° C. * † “ ... = O-8625
Rotation ap tº e # is tº º tº ſº tº ... = + I4.4°
Refractive index at 17° C. ſº tº 8 ... = I-4755
387
The second fraction had—
Specific gravity at ##" C. tº º tº ... = O-8603
Rotation ap © tº º tº º º e º ºr ... = + 20-4°
Refractive index at 17° C. e º º ... = I-4763
The portion remaining in the flask had—
Specific gravity at ##" C. ... tº gº º ... = O-86IO
Rotation ap... © e e tº e ºs © & & ... = + 38.6°
Refractive index at 17° C. gº & tº ... = I-479 I
These results indicated that the oil consisted principally of one constituent,
and that that was pinene.
The nitrosochloride was readily prepared with it, and this, when finally
precipitated from a chloroform solution by methyl alcohol, melted with decom-
position at IO8° C. The nitrolbenzylamine compound was prepared with the
nitroSOchloride in alcoholic solution in the usual way, and after finally crystallising
from alcohol, it melted at I23–124°C. It is thus shown that the essential oil in
the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta consisted almost entirely of pinene. That a
Small amount of another body was present was indicated by the slight differences
in the physical properties of the several fractions, but it is evident that this
constituent, whatever it may be, could only be present in a very small amount.
The sylvestrene reaction was not obtained.
FREE ACIDS.
The distilled water from which the floating oil had been separated was
filtered through wet paper. It measured 950 c.c., and was strongly acid to litmus.
IOO C.C. required 7.4 c.c. decinormal NaOH to neutralise, or the 950 c.c. would
require 70.3 c.c. The water, therefore, contained O. 422 gram volatile acids
Considered as acetic, or O-IO55 per cent.
The remainder was neutralised with barium hydrate solution, evaporated
to dryness, and heated to IOO–IO5° C. ; O. I58 gram of the barium salt gave O-I582
gram barium Sulphate, equal to 87.47 per cent. Acetic acid was proved to be
present and butyric acid strongly indicated, so that if the volatile acids con-
sisted of acetic and butyric alone, they were present in the proportion of 76.3 per
cent. barium acetate, and 23.7 per cent. barium butyrate.
THE GUM.
The aqueous portion when removed from the solidified resin in the flask,
was filtered as clear as possible, evaporated down, the gum precipitated with
alcohol, and the precipitate spread on glass to dry. Although colourless at first,
it soon became dark coloured on drying, until at last the fully air-dried gum was
quite black, and had a very glossy surface. The filtrate from the gum precipitate was
388
evaporated down and again precipitated, but only a very small quantity of gum
was again obtained. The amount of air-dried gum from the 400 grams of oleo-
resin was 9 grams; a further O-5 gram was afterwards obtained from the residue
after the resin had been removed, making the total amount 9-5 grams, or 2-37
per cent. The gum is thus shown to be present in a considerably less amount
than in the latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii.
The air-dried gum was again dissolved in water, and the dark-coloured
turbid solution agitated with alumina cream ; the filtrate was evaporated down
and again precipitated by alcohol and spread on the glass as before. This gum
precipitate on drying was still slightly coloured, indicating that owing to the
Comparatively large amount present, the Complete alteration of the inorganic
Constituents had not taken place during the first drying. On again repeating the
process the gum was obtained colourless, as with the gum of Araucaria Cunning-
hamii. This purified gum was similar to the substance obtained from
Araucaria Cunninghamii, and had all the properties of gum arabic, was odourless
and tasteless, and had marked adhesive properties. The air-dried gum contained
I4.9 per cent. Of moisture, and gave 2.6 per cent. of ash, which consisted principally
of the carbonates of lime and magnesia. When heated with nitric acid in the
usual way, mucic acid was formed to the extent of IQ per cent., calculated on the
air-dried gum. A well marked manganese reaction was obtained with the ash of
the black gum, and also with the ignited alumina-cream precipitate, but was not
obtained with the ash of the purified gum. Sufficient of the gum could not be
spared to determine the sugars formed by hydrolysis, but there is no reason to
suppose that this result would have been different from that obtained with the
gum of the latex of Araucaria Cumminghamii.
THE REDUCING SUGAR.
After the gum had been finally precipitated, the filtrate was evaporated
down to expel the alcohol, water added, and the solution clarified; it was then
made up to 200 c.c. and filtered. This solution was titrated with Fehling's solution,
and 4 c.c. equalled . OS gram glucose. The 400 grams of OleO-resin, therefore,
contained o.62 per cent of reducing sugars.
THE RESIN.
The solidified resin in the flask was dried as much as possible, and treated
with ether until practically the whole of the resin had been dissolved. The resin
at this stage was very soluble in ether, and went readily into solution. The ether
solution of the resin was filtered, evaporated to dryness, and the resin heated on
the water bath in thin layers until all the ether had been removed. As thus obtained
the dried resin was somewhat soft, was light amber coloured, and distinctly
darker in colour than the resin from the latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii obtained
389
in the same way; it was also less hard and brittle. The weight of the thus dried
resin was 248 grams, equal to 62 per cent. Of the 400 grams of oleo-resin taken,
It was entirely soluble in 80 per cent. alcohol, was very soluble in acetone, but
Only partly so in ether.
A Solution of I gram resin in IO c.c. acetone in IOO-mm. tube was dextro-
rotatory ap + 3.4°. (This rotation is in the opposite direction to that of the similarly
obtained resin of Araucaria Cumminghamii.)
The specific gravity of the resin was I. Os3 at I7°C. The acid number was
I48, and as the formula of the most abundant resin acid was determined as
CiołIssOs, this result would indicate that about 80 per cent. of this resin acid
was present.
For the analysis, 25 grams of the resin were treated with ether, but the
whole of the resin was not soluble. This insoluble portion was treated with fresh
ether until all the soluble resin had been removed; and when dried it weighed
2-6 grams, equal to IO-4 per cent. of the whole. It was then dissolved in alcohol,
filtered, and excess of solid potash added. The pasty, insoluble resin salt which thus
formed, was washed with alcohol, dissolved in water, the acid precipitated with
excess of hydrochloric acid, and well boiled. The resin was filtered off, washed,
dried on porous plate, and heated to IOO–IO5° C. It then weighed 2.5 grams,
showing that this resin was almost entirely precipitated by excess of alcoholic
potash. This resin acid melted at 234° C., and O. I547 gram required 4.6 c.c.
decinormal NaOH solution to neutralise it, so that 40 grams would neutralise 336
grams of acid. The silver salt was readily prepared from the Soda salt on adding
silver nitrate solution, and if the precipitate was well washed the dried salt was but
slightly coloured. It was heated to IOO–IO5° C., when O. I616 gram of the
silver salt gave O' O394 gram silver, equal to 24, 38 per cent.
The ether, containing the resins in solution, was neutralised with alcoholic
potash, using phenolphthalein as indicator; when neutral, water was added, the
liquid then becoming quite clear. It was placed in a separator, when the ether
readily formed a distinct layer, and the aqueous Solution was repeatedly agitated
with fresh ether until all the unfixed bodies were removed. The aqueous portion was
then boiled to remove all the ether and alcohol, water added, and the whole acidified
with hydrochloric acid and boiled. The separated resin melted in the boiling
water, forming, when cold, a yellowish lump of resin. It was then powdered,
dissolved in alcohol, and solid potash added, a portion was rendered insoluble
at once, and this eventually formed a pasty mass, more quickly on gently warming.
from which the alcoholic solution was readily removed. This insoluble salt
was washed with alcohol, dissolved in water, acidified with hydrochloric acid,
and boiled. When dry it weighed 1.5 grams, equal to 6 per cent of the whole
resin taken. It melted at 233° C., and the results of titration, together with the
300
determination of the silver salt, showed it to be identical with the previous acid.
Both portions were then mixed and purified together. The amount of this acid
(Dundathic acid) in the resin of Agathis robusta is thus I6 per cent. It was purified
by twice repeating the precipitation from alcohol with Solid potash, then finally
dissolved in absolute alcohol, adding a few drops of water and crystallising out.
The first portion precipitating was removed, as it contained a small amount of ash,
and the crystallisation from alcohol was repeated four times. It was finally dried
On a porous plate and heated at IOO–IO5°C. The acid was a colourless powder, and
melted at 234–235° C. to a yellow resin. It was dextro-rotatory, and O. 4 gram
dissolved in IO c.c. absolute alcohol had a rotation in IOO-mm. tube + 2.25°, thus
the specific rotation was [a] p + 56: 25°.
It was practically insoluble in chloroform and ether, but soluble in alcohol,
acetone, and ethyl acetate. A portion in chloroform did not dissolve on the addi-
tion of acetic anhydride in the cold, but did so on boiling. When cold, one drop
of Sulphuric acid to this solution gave a very slight pink colouration, which on
standing eventually changed to a brownish tint.
O. I516 gram dissolved in alcohol required 4.5 c.c. decinormal NaOH to
neutralise it, so that 40 grams NaOH would neutralise 336 grams acid.
O. I547 gram required 4-65 c.c. decinormal soda, or 40 grams NaOH would
neutralise 333 grams acid.
Analysis gave the following results:—
O. I5I6 gram gave O-419 gram CO, and O-ISA2 gram H.O.
C. = 75°38; H. = 9.83 per cent.
O. I258 gram gave O-3478 gram CO2, and O-III9 gram H.O.
C. = 75-41 ; H. = 9.88 per cent.
C2, FIs Os requires 75-84 per cent. C, and 9.7 per cent. H.
The silver salt was prepared in the usual way from two distinct portions
of acid, and the following results were obtained:— -
O'I642 gram silver Salt gave O'O4OI gram silver = 24'42 per Cent. Ag.
O'I6IO gram silver salt gave O’O394 gram silver = 24.47 per cent. Ag.
Cs, Hsi AgOs contains 24.6 per cent. Silver.
From the molecular determinations and the titrations, supported by the
results of the analyses, the formula C, Hs,Os appears to be the correct one for
this acid, especially as corresponding results were obtained with the same acid
isolated from the resin of Araucaria Cunninghamii
The acid of low-melting point, of which the bulk of the resin consisted,
was soluble in an excess of alcoholic potash. The alcoholic solution was removed
from the pasty acid salt, water added and boiled to expel all the alcohol.
When cold, water was added until the solution was quite clear, acidified with
391
hydrochloric acid, and boiled. The acid melted in the hot water, forming a
semi-fluid mass, and when cold it was a solid lump of a sulphur-yellow coloured
resin. The process was repeated, but only a trace of the pasty salt was obtained
the second time.
The acid was purified as follows:–It was powdered, dissolved in the Smallest
quantity of alcohol, neutralised with an alcoholic solution of soda, water added,
and the alcohol removed by boiling. When cold, sufficient IO per cent. aqueous
soda was added to form an abundant precipitate ; it was then heated until the
precipitate had dissolved, and allowed to cool. When cold, the greater portion
of the acid had precipitated, and no further precipitate was obtained on the addition
of solid caustic soda. The sodium salt, which was minutely crystalline, was then
dissolved in water, acidified with hydrochloric acid, and boiled. The resin readily
melted in the hot water, but when cold was very brittle and powdered readily.
This process was repeated three times, the resin being finally obtained of a
sulphur-yellow colour when in the lump, but when powdered was almost colourless,
being only slightly tinged yellow. It was finally dried on a porous slab and heated
in a melted condition on the water bath for some time until thoroughly dry. This
freshly prepared resin melted at 77° C. ; another sample prepared specially from
a fresh portion of the resin also melted at 77°C., but the melting point slowly
increased until after one month or five weeks it had reached the melting point
99–IOO’C., and after some months IOI–IO2°C., which appears to be the stable
melting point. It was readily soluble in 70 per cent. alcohol in the cold, and in
organic solvents generally. On addition of water till turbid, and slowly evaporating
in the air, no crystalline product was formed, the separated resin being quite
amorphous, and by no process could a crystalline substance be obtained with
this acid.
The purified acid was dissolved in chloroform, acetic anhydride added,
and afterwards one drop of sulphuric acid; the solution instantly became of a
deep purple colour, which soon changed to a purplish brown. This colour reaction
differed from that of the corresponding acid of Araucaria Cunninghamii in being
less violet, and in changing to purple-brown after a short time, instead of to an
olive-green colour.
The acid was dextro-rotatory in solution; and I gram dissolved in IO c.c.
alcohol rotated the ray 2. I5° to the right, the specific rotation was thus [a]p +
2I-5°. Another determination from freshly prepared material gave identical
results.
O-231I gram acid dissolved in alcohol required 7.55 c.c. decinormal NaOH
to neutralise it ; therefore 40 grams would neutralise 306 grams acid.
O-2777 gram dissolved in absolute alcohol, required 9-15 c.c. * NaOH to
neutralise it; therefore 40 grams would neutralise 303 grams acid.
392
0.8 gram acid was dissolved in Io c.c. semi-normal alcoholic potash, water
added and titrated. The excess of alkali requires 4-7 c.c. semi-normal sulphuric
acid to neutralise it ; therefore 56 grams KOH would neutralise 303 grams acid.
Analyses gave the following results:–
O' I475 gram gave O-40O8 gram CO, and O-1279 gram H.O.
C. = 74.2 ; H. = 9-63 per cent.
O'IA92 gram gave O-4O97 gram CO, and O-1281 gram H.O.
C. = 74.88; H. = 9.54 per cent.
Ciołłº C, requires 74.94 per cent. C, and 9:28 per cent. H.
The silver salt was prepared in the usual way, and this gave the following
results:—
0.2236 gram silver salt gave O. off02 gram silver = 26.47 per cent. Ag.
O'I69I gram silver salt gave O-O454 gram silver = 26.84 per cent. Ag.
CiołIgAgO, contains 26-28 per cent. silver.
From the molecular determinations, titration results, and the analyses,
the formula Ciołł, O, is indicated for the acid of low-melting point occurring in
the resin of Agathis robusta.
That the above two acids were alone present in the resin was indicated
by the results obtained with the acid of low-melting point, when this was first
separated from the other acid, and before the final purification with aqueous soda.
The titration result indicated one acid with a molecular weight 302, and the silver
Salt gave 26.4 per cent. silver.
ETHER ExTRACT FROM THE RESIN ACIDS.
The ether solution from the 25 grams of resin, after the acids had been
removed, was evaporated to dryness, and heated on the water bath till constant.
The residue weighed 2-7 grams, equal to Io-8 per cent. It was a soft, slightly
yellow resinous mass, had a somewhat aromatic odour and a very bitter taste.
It was dissolved in alcohol, and made up to 30 c.c.; the solution was dextro-rotatory
to the extent of + 3.2° in IOO-mm. tube ; the specific rotation was thus [a]n
+ 35.6°. It thus agrees in rotation with the acid of low-melting point.
To the solution a small amount of water was added and evaporated in the
air, and although the neutral resinous bodies appeared to be quite amorphous,
yet a few, somewhat long needle crystals could be detected in the thinner
portions. Under the microscope these were seen to be terminated prisms, and
they were soluble in water, and the aqueous solution had an intensely bitter
taste; on evaporating, microscopic crystals were again formed. This Crystalline
substance is apparently the bitter principle occurring in these resins, and may,
perhaps, be isolated in this manner.
393
NITROGENOUS RESIDUE.
The residue, after the removal of the resins by ether, was dried and powdered,
and was then treated with alcohol to remove any remaining resin; and again dried
and treated with water to remove the gum. The residue, when dried, was a cream-
coloured powder, and when heated with soda-lime gave abundance of ammonia.
It thus agreed with the similar substance obtained from Araucaria Cunninghamii.
When dry it weighed O.8 gram, equal to O-2 per cent.
The general composition of the oleo-resin of Agathis robusta may be stated
as follows:—
Essential oil (by weight) ... © tº tº ... = II-64 per cent.
Volatile acids (as acetic) ... & Cº º ... = o' Loš5 ,
Gum * * * e tº tº * * * tº º º ... = 2° 37 * }
Reducing Sugars ... gº is tº & Sº e ... = O-62 y )
Resin © tº º & © & tº $ tº tº º tº ... = 62. OO
Nitrogenous residue e tº s e tº e . . . E O - 2 O 5 y
Water, and undetermined by difference... = 23: O645 ,,
IOO - OOOO
2. Agathis Palmerstoni,
F.V.M. “Victorian Natura/İst,” June, 7897.
This recently described Pine occurs on the Coast Ranges of North
Queensland, but it was found impossible to procure material for investigation It
is said to be a tall tree, and Mueller states that it differs from A. robusta in that
its leaves are never lanceolate, are much smaller, narrower, and always obtuse.
The cones are much smaller, narrower, and the Scales more numerous than any
other species, its nearest ally being A. Moorei of New Caledonia.
394
THE GENUS 1)ACRYDIUM.
Soland, in Forst. Pl. Escuſ. 80.
I. HISTORICAL
Solander in G. Forster, “Plant. Esculent.,” established this name in I786.
The genus does not occur on the mainland, being restricted to Tasmania So far as
Australia is concerned. -
It has, however, a wide geographical range, being found in New Zealand,
New Caledonia, the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula, Borneo, and Chili. Ettings-
hausen (l.c., p. IOI, pl. VIII) describes and figures one fossil species of Dacrydium
from Emmaville, New South Wales. - -
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The Dacrydiums are average forest trees, having linear, flat, and
spreading dimorphic leaves in the young stage, and in the mature state Small
and closely imbricated ones.
The flowers are dioecious. Male amentum terminal, ovoid or cylindrical.
The microsporophylls spirally arranged, imbricate, sessile, shortly contracted at
the base, with an introrse spur-like connective ; microsporangia 6 to 20, in two
rows opening laterally. Microspore Oval or oblong. -
The development of the pollen in the gymnospermous genus Dacrydium
is interesting, because, according to the account contributed by Miss M. S. Young
to the Botanical Gazette, September, Igo7, a number of cells are formed in what is
technically known as the microgametophyte. The spore passes out of the single-
cell stage when a small prothallial cell is cut off; by another division of the vegeta-
tive nucleus a second prothallial cell is formed, and in a similar way a third, the
generative cell, is produced. The generative cell gives rise to a sterile and a so-called
body cell, the progenitor of the sperm cells. As the second prothallial cell not
infrequently divides, the mature pollen grain may show as many as seven nuclei.
Female amentum terminal, solitary, consisting of a few small, thick macro-
sporophylls in a short Spike, or one individual sporophyll, with a macrosporangium
at first anatropous and finally Orthotropous.
Fruit cones small, erect, surrounded at the base by a cup or disk, ovoid,
oblong, the Outer integument membranous, the inner thickened and hard.
305
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
ºº
º-
--
º--
º
|
Dacrydium Franklini, Hook, F.
“HUON PINE,” TASMANIA.

THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
-- * -
º * *
- * - - *
sº Sº \
- *- tº º ºs --> -
------> --- --- º * ^ .
- tº rºº - -
sº --~~~~
ºs-Sºº.
Žº:
- - ºf . - -º-º: º *
º -
º
2-ºxº -
Nat. size.
Dacrydium Franklini, Hook. F. “HUON PIN.E.” TASMANIA.




397
Dacrydium Franklini.
Hook. f. in Hook. Lond. Journa/, /V, 752, f. 6, and F/. Tasm. I, 357, f. 100.
“HUON PINE.”
HABITAT : Tasmania.
I. HISTORICAL (vide supra).
II, SYSTEMATIC.
This tree is one of the best known in the Island, and yields one of Tasmania's
finest pine timbers. It attains a height sometimes of over IOO feet.
Leaves small, acute, and Spreading On the young plant, in the mature plant
closely appressed, thick, keeled, spirally arranged.
Male amentum small, terminal, cylindrical, with twelve to fifteen stamens.
Fruit cones very small, terminal, about same size as the leaves, scales about four
to eight in number.
Seeds globular, about I line in diameter.
III. LEAVES.
CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
THEORETICAL.
The results from the investigation of the oil from the leaves of this tree,
and also of those from the oil of the timber are interesting. The principal con-
stituent occurring in the leaf oil is apparently a previously undetected terpene
of the formula C10H16, and for which, if this supposition is correct, the name
Dacrydene is proposed. This terpene readily forms a nitrosochloride, melting
sharply, and with decomposition at I2O-I2I* C. (corr), which is far away from
the melting point of any nitrosochloride formed with a previously known
terpene. The boiling point of Dacrydene appears to be 165–166° C. (corr.); the
specific gravity at 22°C. = O-8524; the refractive index at 22°C. = I.4749; and
the rotation ap = + I2.3°, or a specific rotation [a]p + I4.48°. It is a colourless
mobile oil, with a turpentine-like odour, but slightly more aromatic and less
pungent than pinene. It is very volatile, and quickly and entirely evaporated
from a watch glass without leaving any residue whatever.
398
As it occurs in this oil, together with a small quantity of laevo-rotatory
pinene and dextro-rotatory limonene, it was, of course, impossible to obtain it
pure by fractional distillation; but by continued redistillations IO per cent. of the
oil was obtained, boiling between I65–166° C., which gave the results recorded
above. - -
The presence of the small amount of Dacrydene still remaining with the
pinene fraction, raised the melting point of the nitrosochloride prepared with
that substance Several degrees, and no melting point less than IIo° C. was
obtained. -
Dacrydene forms a liquid bromide, and no crystalline product was formed
when the oil was saturated with dry hydrochloric acid. Scarcely any colour was
produced when concentrated sulphuric acid was added to a solution of the terpene
in acetic anhydride, but when treated with nitric acid a yellow nitro-compound
was obtained. When dissolved in light petroleum and treated with sodium
nitrate and acetic acid, no crystalline product separated, but after some hours,
a thick, dark-coloured mass formed at the junction of the liquids. After two
days this was washed in ether and then dissolved in ether-alcohol, from which
solution on evaporation a yellow-coloured substance separated, and after drying
on a porous plate an ochre-yellow powder was left. This darkened much at about
130° C. and melted with decomposition at about 150° C. It readily dissolved
in nitrobenzine, but did not become blue on heating. On further investigation it
may become possible, perhaps, to prepare a nitrosonitrate more definite in
character with this terpene.
The higher boiling portion of the leaf oil contained the methyl ether of
eugenol, and veratric acid was prepared from it by oxidation. This methyl ether
is the main constituent of the oil from the timber of this tree.
EXPERIMENTAL.
This material was obtained from the Gordon River, on the West Coast of
Tasmania, and distilled on the I8th September, IgoS, the leaves with terminal
branchlets only being used. The oil was difficult to obtain, and it was necessary to
steam distil the leaves for eleven hours before the whole of the oil came over. The
amount obtained was equal to O. 5 per cent.
The crude oil was of a very light amber colour, and the odour somewhat
resembled that given by the oil from the wood, thus indicating the presence of the
methyl ether of eugenol, as the constituents of the wood oil had previously been
determined. The leaf oil was very mobile, and had a low specific gravity. As
it was mostly a terpene oil, it was but little soluble in alcohol, and it required
one volume of absolute alcohol to form a clear solution, but it was soluble in all
proportions afterwards.
390
An ester determination showed that there was an entire absence of both
esters and free acids, as no alteration in the titration value of the alcoholic potash
was detected.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at +3° C. was o.8667; the rotation
ap = + 20:5°; and the refractive index at 25° C. = 1.4815.
On redistilling IOO C.C., only a small amount was obtained boiling below
I60° C. Between 160–170°, 68 per cent. came over; between 170–175°, Io per
cent. ; between 175-183°, 9 per cent. ; the thermometer then rose rapidly to
245°, and between that temperature and 250°, 6 per cent. distilled.

Boiling Point.
Per cent. - iſ #9 C. "D 1 dcm. tube Refractive Index
at 25°C.
I60–170° C. 68 O'8477 | + 15.6° I'4747
I70–175° C. IO O'848I + 39.9° I-4763
I75–183° C. 9 O-8549 + 5I-6° I'4796
245–250° C. 6 O'9433 + 22:7° I'5034
The first fraction was again distilled when II c.c. were obtained boiling
between I56–159° C., and 27 c.c. between 159–162°. The second and third pre-
viously obtained fractions were then added to the remainder in the flask. Between
162–166°, 19 c.c. came over; between 166–169°, Io c.c.; and between 160–178°,
8 C.C.
2 4 O
d 1 5 C.
Boiling Point. “D 1 dom. tube. Reº Jºdes
I56–159° C. o'8517 – I-8° I'474I
I59–162° C. o'8487 + 5.4° I'4747
I62–I66° C. o:8487 + 26.8° I-4760
I66–169° C. O'847I + 4I'5° I'477I
I69–178° C. O'8477 + 57'o' I'4776
The above results indicated that the lowest boiling portion was probably
laevo-rotatory pinene, the highest probably dextro-rotatory limonene, and the
main portion was a dextro-rotatory terpene boiling about 160–165° C.
The fractions were again systematically distilled, when the following results
were obtained:—
Refractive Index
Boiling Point. C.C. Of Oil. “D I dem. tube. at 25° C.
I56–159° C. I2 – 15'5" I'4735
I61–165° C. I7 + I2’6” I'474I
I65–171° C. I6 + 39'3” I-4757
I73–177° C. 7 + 59'4” I'477I
This had again further separated the three main constituents.
4OO
THE LIMONENE.
The fraction I73–177° C. was treated with bromine, in a well cooled acetic
acid solution, for the preparation of the tetrabromide. Crystals did not readily
form, but eventually they were obtained in some quantity; when filtered at the
pump, and purified from acetic ether, the crystals melted at IO4°C. This result
shows that the higher boiling strongly dextro-rotatory terpene is limonene, and
that dipentene is absent. The amount of limonene in the oil can hardly exceed
IO per cent. - -
THE PINENE.
The fraction I56–I59° C. was treated with amyl-nitrite in a well-cooled
acetic acid Solution, when crystals of the nitrosochloride soon formed. These were
filtered off, dried on a porous plate, and purified by dissolving in chloroform and
precipitating with methyl alcohol. The melting point was IIo–III° C. As all
the indications were in favour of pinene, this high-melting point of the nitroso-
chloride was evidently due to the presence of a small amount of the principal
terpene still remaining with the pinene. The lower boiling portion of the oil is
evidently laevo-rotatory pinene, of which constituent the oil contains about IO-15
per cent.
THE PRINCIPAL TERPENE.
The nitrosochloride prepared from a portion of the oil boiling at 161–165° C.
melted at II9–120° C. (cor.). It thus appeared that a previously undetected
terpene was present in this oil and in some quantity. It could not be camphene,
because the nitrosochloride was formed with it so easily, even surpassing pinene
in this respect.
The nitrosochloride prepared from the finally rectified oil boiling at
I65–166° C. melted at 120–121° C. (cor.); so that it was only possible to increase
the melting point by I degree above that of the nitrosochloride prepared from
the fraction I61–165° C.
Nitrosochlorides of the menthenes, which had a high melting point,
have been prepared by Kremers and coadjutors, and also by Baeyer, but the
physical results, and the analysis of Dacrydene, show that it cannot belong to the
Ciołłis series of hydrocarbons. The odour, too, had no resemblance to menthene.
(See also under Callitris Macleayana, in this work.)
An analysis was made with results which showed Dacrydene to have the
CoFIIs formula.
*
O. IIO8 gram gave O-II62 gram H.O, and O-3581 gram CO. H. = II-65
per cent., and C. = 88. I4 per cent.
Ciołł is requires C. = 88 24 and H. = II.76 per cent.
401
THE BROMIDE.
Dacrydene is an unsaturated terpene, and on addition of the bromine it
also gave hydrobromic acid at the same time. When treated in a chloroform
solution until no more bromine was absorbed and the chloroform allowed to
evaporate entirely, the bromide left was quite liquid and colourless, and did not
decompose on standing in the air for some days. So far, no crystallised bromide
has been obtained in any direction. On analysis of the liquid bromide O-4518 gram
gave O-689 gram AgBr, - O-2932 Br, - 64.89 per cent. This result shows that
slightly more bromine than that required for a tribromide was present, and indicated
that the HBr formed had also become largely absorbed. Ordinary bromination
thus appears to act similarly as with pinene, and is not more satisfactory than
with that terpene.
THE METHYL ETHER OF EUGENOL.
The fourth fraction of the first series of distillations was oxidised with a
neutral solution of potassium permanganate, and finally with an acid Solution,
considerable heat being evolved. When cold, the product was extracted by ether,
the ether distilled off, and a thick oil obtained which crystallised on standing.
The mass was then placed on a porous plate until the liquid portion had been
absorbed, and the crystals which remained were purified from alcohol. They
melted at 178–179° C., which result showed the crystals to be veratric acid, and
they were identical with the veratric acid obtained in larger quantities from the
wood oil of the same tree. The presence of the methyl ether of eugenol in the
leaf oil of “ Huon Pine’’ is thus confirmed. Eugenol itself was not detected
in the leaf oil.
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The timber has a fairly strong aroma, due to the presence of an essential
oil, which has been investigated (infra). There can be little doubt that the
durability of the timber is owing to the presence of this oil.
The timber is light in colour, toning down to a dull yellow on exposure;
it is easy to work, Straight grained, but Only occasionally possesses a figure, and
is suitable for cabinet work, panelling, fancy boxes, and interior decoration, carving,
&c. It also takes a good polish. Some specimens are of rare beauty, equalling
bird's-eye maple. - -
It is a fairly heavy wood, but is short in the grain.
2 C
402
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Dacrydium Franklini, Hook. F. “HUON PINE,” TASMANIA.


403
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.

–4O4
Tranverse Tests of Timber, Dacrydium Franklini.
(Standard size, 38 in. x 3 in. x 3 in.)
No. I. No. 2 | No. 3
Size of specimen in inches tº gº is s & g ...] B 2.97; D 3-oo B 3.00; D 2.08 B 3-oo; D 3:00
Area of cross section, square inches ... . . . 8-91 8-94 9:00
Breaking load in lb. g e ‘g e & tº º tº tº º 4,5 I5 4,350 3,OOO
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square in. tº ſº tº (), I2I 8,835 6,000
3 2 elasticity 3 2 2 3 tº e ge 2,445,283 I,620,000 I,270,588
Rate of load in lb. per minute tº s e • . . . 4IO 200 - 500
|
(b) ANATOMY.
The most distinguishing characters of the wood are the fineness of the
wall structure of the various cells, a delicateness that differentiates it from any
other Australian Conifer.
Another distinguishing feature is the almost entire absence of any cell
contents corresponding to those found in Callitris and in the Araucarias.
The medullary rays have very long cells and all are parenchymatous, the
Outer being of the same character as the inner, and the walls are exceedingly
slender. They are a few cells in height and one in width, there being an unusual
number of single-cell rays; all are empty of the dark brown substance. The
large circular perforations are single to each lumen, and are exceptionally large.
A few pitted cells were detected on the tangential walls, but those on the
radial walls are not too well defined, thus giving the idea of delicate bodies.
The diameters of the autumnal lumina are very small, although the walls
of the tracheids in this part are the thicker of the two seasons' growth, and
show outwardly a gradation of size and wall thickness from the extremities of
the combined seasons' ring. --
Figures 268–270 illustrate the above remarks.
(c) CHEMISTRY OF THE OIL FROM THE TIMBER.
The timber of this tree, which usually has a mild and somewhat pleasant
aromatic Odour, was received from Tasmania. It was reduced to shavings by the
aid of a planing machine, and 67 lb., when distilled for nine hours, gave
6 oz. oil, equal to O-56 per cent. The particular sample of wood used was very
dry, and had comparatively little odour, so that under the most favourable
conditions in this respect, more than I per cent. of oil should be obtained
405
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º
l
º
º
:
ſ
ſ
º
:
- i
P
p
º
:
- -
obliquely across the field. D. Franklin, x roo. D. Franklini, x roo.
Figure 268–Transverse section of timber. Two annular rings occur Figure 269–Tangential section of timber. All the ray cells are empty.
Figure 270 –Radial section of timber. The rays are of a uniform
character and quite empty of manganese, which, however,
is marked in the walls of the tracheids running from top
to bottom of the picture. The simple cells of the rays
are large and single, D. Franklini, x 100.
Sections of timber of Dacrydium Franklini, Hook. f.



406
from the timber of this tree. As the oil was heavier than water it was
Somewhat difficult to collect, and it was necessary for the condensed water to
Stand two days before the whole of the oil had deposited. The crude oil was of a
yellowish tint, inclining to primrose, and had an odour strongly resembling that
of methyl eugenol. It was soluble in an equal volume of 70 per cent. alcohol
(by weight), and in all proportions after. -
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" was I-O35; rotation ap = + I-4°;
and refractive index at 23° C. = 1,5373.
The amount of ester was very small, and the saponification number for
both the ester and free acid was only 3-1.
On redistilling IOO c.c. of the oil, only a few drops came over below 242°C.,
and Only 2 c.c. below 245° C. Between 245° and 250° C., 80 per cent. distilled;
and between 250° and 255° C., IO per cent. No less than 86 per cent of the total
Oil came Over between 245° and 25.2° C.
The Specific gravity of the large fraction at ##" C. was I. O335; the rotation
was less than half a degree to the right; and the refractive index at 20° C. =
I-5378. These results closely approach those required for pure methyl eugenol,
and it thus appears that the oil from the timber of this tree consists principally
Of that constituent. -
An analysis of a portion of the large fraction gave the following —
O. I646 gram gave O-I2O9 gram H2O, and O. 4492 gram CO2.
H = 8. I6 per cent. and C = 74.4 per cent.
Culil,C), requires 7-86 per cent. H, and 74. I6 per cent. C.
As the material could hardly be pure, this result is very satisfactory.
PREPARATION OF THE BROMIDE.
The bromide was obtained by treating a solution of the oil in Carbon tetra-
chloride with bromine until the reaction was complete. The solvent was then
evaporated off, when a thick mass was left, which readily crystallised. When
purified and finally re-crystallised from alcohol, it melted at 77-78° C. Corres-
ponding crystals were obtained when the oil was brominated in light petroleum,
and these also melted at the same temperature.
O-526 gram gave O-703 gram AgBr, = O. 2991 gram Br, - 56.86 per cent.
bromine. -
CuHisBr;O, contains 57-55 per cent. bromine, so that the crystals were the
tribromide of methyl eugenol.
4O7
PREPARATION OF VERATRIC ACID.
Six grams of the large fraction were first treated with neutral permanganate
of potassium, and the oxidation finally completed in an acid solution. The product
was then cooled and extracted with ether. The ether was distilled off, and the
Crystalline mass which remained, repeatedly re-crystallised from hot alcohol. The
melting point of the crystals was 178–179° C. The yield was excellent. The
Crystals were but slightly soluble in water, readily in ether, and less so in Cold
alcohol. An analysis gave the following:—
O. I5I2 gram gave O-3284 gram CO2, and O. O756 gram H2O,
C = 59. 23 per cent. and H = 5:55 per cent.
CoPłº,0, requires 59.34 C. and 5' 49 per cent. H.
O. I5O4 gram acid dissolved in excess of decinormal NaOH and titrated
back had required 8.3 c.c. of the soda solution to neutralise. This
represents a molecular weight of 181-2. CoH10O. = 182.
Veratric acid is, therefore, the acid formed on oxidising the oil.
When the oil was boiled with hydriodic acid, with precautions as with
Zeisel's method, an abundance of silver iodide was obtained, indicating the
presence of methoxy groups.
From the results of the physical properties, the analysis, the formation of
the bromide, and the preparation of the veratric acid, it is evident that the greater
portion of the oil obtained from the timber of the “ Huon Pine '' is the methyl
ether of eugenol (allyl veratrol), C.H., C.H.(I) OCH (3) OCH (4), and that the
Odour of the wood is largely due to that substance. The phenol, eugenol, was
not detected in the oil.
The higher boiling portion of the oil gave the colour reactions for Cadinene,
but, with the small amount of a possible sesquiterpene present in the oil, no Satis-
factory reaction was obtained, and the crystalline hydrochloride for Cadinene
was not formed. The identity of a possible sesquiterpene thus remains in
abeyance.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Nat, size.
BLUE MOUNTAINs, N.S.W.
Pherosphaera Fitzgeraldi, F.V.M.

400
THE GENUS PHEROSPH/ERA.
Arch. in Hook. Kew Journ , f', 52, pro parte.
I. HISTORICAL .
This genus, established by Archer in Hooker's Journal of Botany in 1850,
is limited to two species which occur, one on the mainland and one in Tasmania, -
where it was originally found by Gunn on the mountains near Lake St. C air,
whilst in the former it grows on the Blue Mountains west of Sydney. It is closely
allied to Dacrydium.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
They are small, low-growing shrubs, occurring generally under shelving rocks
at the base of waterfalls.
The leaves are small, decussate, spirally imbricate, and the flowers dioecious.
Male amentum ovoid, globular, terminal, microsporophylls few, spirally arranged,
Subsessile, the incurved apex narrower than the anther ; the microsporangia
parallel, opening Outwards in two cells. The female amentum ovate, the macro-
Sporophylls being spirally arranged, imbricate, and bearing at the base of each an
individual erect macrosporangium.
The fruit cones are ovoid, with concave scales thickened at the base.
Seed ovoid-oblong, contracted into a neck and crenulate at the orifice, and
Occasionally longitudinally winged.
1. Pherosphaera Hookeriana,
Archer in Hook. Kew Journ., ii, p. 52; Hook. f. Tas. I, 355, f. 99.
HABITAT.
This densely branched shrub is restricted in its distribution to the alpine
regions of Tasmania, where it has been recorded from the mountains near Lake
St. Clair (Gunn); and the high alpine flats of Mount Field East (F. Mueller).
4IO
I. HISTORICAL.
2. When first described in 1850, it was regarded as having great affinity
with the “Huon Pine,” Dacrydium Franklini, and is still included by some
botanists under that Genus, but the investigations of this research show these
Genera to be quite distinct. -
II, SYSTEMATIC.
It is a densely branched, erect shrub, with leaves closely imbricate,
decussate, thick, very obtuse, keeled, about half a line long and broad, of 4 or 5
rows. Male amentum erect, terminal, very small ; microsporophylls subsessile,
spirally arranged. Female amentum decurved, very small, with about 4 to 8
imbricate scales, thickened at the base into an obtuse external protuberance,
acuminate at the apex, but obtuse, with One solitary anatropous Ovule, but
ultimately Orthotropous. Seed small.
III. LEAVES.
Not investigated.
IV. TIMEER.
Too small for any economic purpose.
Pherosphaera Fitzgeraldi,
F.V.M. in Hook. Icon. pl. xiv, 64, t. 1383 (1882).
HABITAT.
In New South Wales this species is found at the base of most of the chief
falls on the Blue Mountains. The material upon which this investigation is based
was obtained at Lower Falls at Leura, where it is a small dense shrub, and only
grows where it can catch the drips from the falls.
4II
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Pherosphºra Fitzgeraldi, F.v.M. BLUE MOUNTAINs, N.S.W.

4I2
I. HISTORICAL.
It was not until thirty-two years after the Tasmanian species became known
that this species was described, and it is certainly remarkable that these two
Species should occur So far apart geographically.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A densely branched, scrambling shrub. Leaves a dark-olive green colour,
imbricate, keeled, obtuse, about three mm. long. Male amentum terminal, erect,
about seven mm. long, and composed of about ten to fifteen microsporophylls.
Female amentum, solitary towards the ends of the branchlets, with few micro-
Sporophylls, spirally arranged, each having a single Orthotropous Ovule. Cones
Small, with four to eight scales, thickened at the base into an obtuse external
protuberance, acuminate at the apex. -
CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF OIL.
This material, which was somewhat difficult to obtain, consisted of the
terminal branchlets of this little prostrate Conifer, and fruits were quite absent. It
was collected at Leura, New South Wales, 66 miles west of Sydney, 20th
February, Igo7. The yield of oil was small, and I45 lb. of material gave only
2% oz. of oil, equal to O. IO8 per cent. The crude oil was of a light lemon Colour,
and had a turpentine-like odour, not at all distinctive. It was largely a terpene
oil, consequently was but little soluble in alcohol, and it did not form a clear
solution with IO volumes of GO per cent. alcohol. Only a very small amount
of ester was detected, and as the oil at our disposal was small in quantity, its
identity could not be determined.
The oil consisted principally of dextro-rotatory pinene, probably a little
limonene or dipentene, and Cadinene—the latter in some quantity.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at ##" C. = 0-8705; rotation ap = + 15. I’;
refractive index at 23° C. = I. 484I. The saponification number was only 2-4,
equal to O-84 per cent. Of ester as bornyl or geranyl acetate.
Only a small amount of oil could be spared for redistillation, but nothing
came over below I55° C. Between 155° and I59°, 44 per cent. distilled; and
between I59° and I78°, 27 per cent. ; only a comparatively small amount came
over between 178° and 265°; but 15 per cent. distilled between 265° and 280° C.
The specific gravity of the first fraction at 21° C. = 0.8483; of the second,
o:8433; of the third, O-92.16. The rotation of the first fraction ap = + 27.6°; and
4 IS
of the second, + 27. I*. The rotation of the third fraction could not be taken
with certainty, but when dissolved in ether it was laevo-rotatory. The refractive
index at 21° C. of the first fraction was I-4736; of the second, I-4733; and of the
third, 1.5093.
The somewhat close agreement between the first and second fractions would
seem to indicate that pinene is the principal terpene in this oil, but the lower specific
gravity of the second fraction suggests that limonene was also present. The small
amount of oil did not, however, allow of its separation. The nitrosochloride was
prepared with the first fraction, and this melted at IO8° C. This result, taken
with the others, confirms the presence of pinene in the oil of this species.
The higher boiling fraction, when dissolved in chloroform and agitated with
a few drops of Sulphuric acid, became at first greenish in colour and eventually
passed through purple to blue. On heating the blue solution it became red, and
the same results were obtained when the oil was dissolved in glacial acetic acid.
The oil was sparingly soluble in alcohol and in acetic acid, but readily in ether.
The ethereal solution was saturated with hydrochloric acid gas and stood
on one side for Some days; it was of a blue colour. The ether was then evaporated
off, and the residue allowed to stand. After about two weeks a crystalline mass
had formed; this was placed on a porous plate to absorb the liquid portion, and
the crystals were then purified from hot ethyl-acetate. The crystals melted at II6°
C. which is very close to that required for cadinene dihydrochloride.
The above results show that the sesquiterpene cadinene occurs in the oil
of this plant. -
When agitated with a concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite, a small
amount of a crystalline substance formed, thus indicating the presence of an
aldehydic body; but the quantity was too small for it to be determined.
IV. TIMEER.
It is too small for Commercial purposes.
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
CLADoDIA OF Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, RICH.
(The leaves are seen like
* CELERY TOP PIN.E.” TASMANIA.
minute bracts.)
Vat. size.

4I5
THE GENUS PHYLLOC LADUS.
L C. Rich. Conjf. 729, f. 3.
I. HISTORICAL.
This genus was established in 1826 by L. C. Richard (Con. I 30, t.),
and Comprises one Australian species which is endemic, one in New Zealand,
and One in Borneo. In using this name the “ Index Kewensis” is followed,
although as a matter of priority Sprengel’s Thalamia, I817, perhaps should take
precedence.
Species have been traced to the Cretaceous times (Renault) in Nebraska
and Spitzbergen, whilst Ettingshausen, l.c. p. 103, Pl. VIII, records and figures
a species under the name of P. asplenoides as Tertiary from Tingha, New South
Wales.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The distinguishing characteristic of these Conifers is their flattened, entire,
or lobed phylloclades or branchlets, the true leaves being reduced to small appressed
Scales.
The flowers are monoecious or dioecious. Male amentum cylindrical, stalked,
solitary, or two or three together in the axils of leafy bracts ; microsporophylls
imbricate, on a short stipes, with a small connective having an apiculation or
crest ; the microsporangia are adnate, and two in number. The female amentum
very small, terminal, occurring along the edges of the phylloclade, consisting of
a few macrosporophylls in a short spike, or a single one, and individually bearing
a Solitary, erect macrosporangium, the upper macrosporophyll Occasionally being
sterile.
Fruiting scales thick and fleshy, enclosing the base of the seed, which is
ovoid, in a cup-shaped disk, the Outer integument membranous and not winged;
the inner one crustaceous.
4I6
Phyllocladus rhomboidalis,
Rich., Conif. 130, t. 3.
‘‘ CELERY TOP PINE.”
HABITAT.
Tasmania, Derwent River, R.Br., and dense forests in the mountains and
southern parts of the island (J. D. Hooker).
I. HISTORICAL.
(Vide supra.)
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A small tree, reaching its maximum height (60 feet) on the lower levels,
and becoming dwarfed on the higher altitudes of the mountain ranges, the branches
showing a tendency to a verticillate form of growth; the cladodia Cuneate, or
rhomboidal, obtuse, bluntly toothed or lobed, I to 2 inches long, the leaf Scales
very small, and subulate. Male and female amenta, fruit and seed as described
above.
REMARKS.
This tree occurs associated with Athrotaxis selaginoides in the dense Scrubs
surrounding Williamsford, Tasmania. Like Athrotaxis, it occurs on the
Summits of the neighbouring mountains, in a much stunted form. Normally,
Phyllocladus is a medium-sized tree, with a height up to 60 feet, and a diameter
from 2 to 3 feet. It is very unlike a pine in appearance. The unbranched stem
varies from 20 to 40 feet, and the only pine-like character is the tapering shape
of the foliage on the branches. The branches are irregular and thick in
proportion to their length.-(C. F. Laseron.)
III. LEAVES.
These are too small for any economics, and, in view of the rudimentary
part played by them in the life history of the plant, being practically super-
seded by cladodia, their investigation has been passed over for these latter, and,
in this case, more important organs which are, in spite of their origin and the
position assigned to them, to all intents and purposes leaves, for it is a question
whether function or origin should decide a designation. -
THE PINES
OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 273.-Transverse section through the median portion of a phyllo-
clade, showing the number of bundles composing the
midrib surrounded by five oil cavities of varying sizes. The
rest of the tissue partakes of the character of an ordinary
leaf. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin. Phyllo-
cladus rhomboidalis, x 80.
Figure 275. -Transverse section through the median area of a phylloclade,
showing cluster of bundles in central axis and one on left
side with a lateral orientation. An oil cavity with secretory
cells occurs near each phloem of the leaf bundle. The two
kinds of parenchyma are well defined, the palisade being
more pronounced on the assimilatory or upper surface of
the phyllode. Several stomata backed by air cavities can
also be seen. Stained with haematoxylin. Phyllocladus
rhomboidalis, x 70.
;


4I 7
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 271 —Transverse section through lower portion of a phyllode.
The detail described in letterpress can be more particularly
identified by aid of a 3-inch lens. Phyllocladus rhomboidalis,
x 20.
Figure 272 —Transverse section through a higher portion of a phyllode
of Figure 271, and nearer the centre. Four groups of
bundles are shown with their attendant oil cavities. P.
rhomboidalis, x 30.
Figure 274–Transverse section through an edge of a phyllode, cutting
one gland with the usual protective cells around it. P.
rhomboidalis, x 62.
- -
ºs-
gº
º, Nº. Nº.
- sº - - º-
". º - º º
º
-- -
- -- -
- - º º º -
- - --- º'--
- - º
Figure 276 –Transverse section through median portion of phyllode,
showing a more extensive field than in Figure 273.
rhomboidalis, x 65.
Transverse sections through a cladode or phyllode of Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich,
2D





THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
__
2- .
- - - º º
--- - º
tº - º º º
º
º - º sº ºf 4 º'
º
sº
ºt º-º.
Figure 277 —Transverse section through three parallel bundles in a
phyllode, each of which is surrounded by endodermal cells,
the middle bundle having an oil gland above and below it.
and surrounded by secretory cells. The other areas are
air spaces or cavities. P. rhomboidalis, x 85.
Figure 278 –Longitudinal section through an oil cavity in a phyllode
of P. rhomboidalis, x 65.
- -º
º-
º
Nº. º
Figure 279 –Longitudinal section through two oil cavities having a bundle
between them in a phyllode of P. rhomboidalis, x 65.
_ sº
--~~~~~ * —
Fºº ºº:: **** * * * * *
º
º,
º º,";
". º - º - º º a -
ºf ºººººº. º - * * *
"... ." º * , º -
ºf .
º - Yº.
-
- -
º º * * * º - * * ***** - e. º
- -
Figure 280–Longitudinal section through phyllode with a bundle in
the right field of vision. P. rhomboidalis, x 120.
Longitudinal sections through portions of a phylloclade. Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich.


























4I9
* CLADODIA.
(a) ECONOMIC (vide Chemistry).
(b) ANATOMY.
Figures 27I and 272, taken through the median bundle and low down,
give some idea of the general structure in that portion of these organs.
In Figures 273–274, the central vascular cylinder is seen to be divided
into several bundles, surrounded and separated individually by parenchymatous
cells, which also enclose between them and the phloem a comparative large number
of sclerenchyma cells, which, in some cases, quite surround the lateral bundles.
The fundamental tissue consists of spongy and palisade mesophyll, and
large parenchymatous cells; the former, as obtains in normal leaves, predominating
in amount; through this and equi-distant from each surface at fairly regular intervals
are bundles, and often accompanying these are oil cavities surrounded by streng-
thening and Secretionary cells or cavities, as in the case of that of the median
bundle. The epidermis is characterised by a very thick cuticle or Outer wall,
whilst hypodermal cells are not often found. The palisade layer extends around
the whole phyllode, supported inwardly by the spongy mesophyll, intermixed
with large intercellular water or air cavities. Stomata occur irregularly scattered
on both surfaces. The sections illustrated were taken at various distances in
the cladodia. (Figures 27I–28O.)
Masters in “Linn. Soc. Trans.,” Vol. XXI, No. 205, p. 7, states—“The
leaves have small resin canals close to the exoderm on the lower surface of the
leaf (P. alpinus), and a single bundle.” Speaking of the phylloclade of P. alpinus
he states that—“beneath the upper epidermis is a layer of perfect parenchyma,
traversed by a central and by numerous lateral fibro-vascular bundles.” From
the illustrations here given it is seen that similar characters occur in the
Tasmanian Phyllocladus.
CHEMISTRY OF THE LEAF (CLADODIA) OIL.
THEORETICAL.
The oil from this portion of the tree is of particular interest, because it
contains the only solid crystallisable diterpene so far known. The principal con-
stituent of the ol is pinene, which is laevo-rotatory, although the rotation is not
very high, and it appears to be the only CoFile substance present. Practically
pure pinene can be obtained in quantity from the cladodia oil of this species by
fractional distillation alone. The only other constitutent of importance in
the oil, besides the diterpene, is probably a sesquiterpene, but owing to the
presence of the solid body it was difficult to separate by distillation, so that
it was only possible to obtain a small quantity of it, and its chemistry
could not be completed; some results, however, are recorded below.
42O
The diterpene was readily prepared in a perfectly pure condition, so that
it was possible to determine satisfactorily its composition and physical properties.
This well crystallised body is thus one of the very few members of this class of plant
Substances, which can be prepared from natural sources in a perfectly pure con-
dition. Our sample of the oil was obtained by steam distillation, and contained
about 3 per cent. of the solid diterpene. The oil was almost free from compounds
containing Oxygen, and esters, alcohols, aldehydes, and similar bodies were practi-
cally absent, only a very small amount (about I per cent.) of an alcohol being
determined by acetylating the oil. The higher boiling liquid portion showed no
tendency to resinify, so that when the semi-solid crystalline mass, which con-
tained the diterpene, was spread upon porous plates for a few days, the whole of
the liquid portions were absorbed, the diterpene remaining in a perfectly white,
and even at this stage, almost pure condition. It was little soluble in cold alcohol,
but more readily in hot alcohol, and dissolved easily in chloroform, ether,
petroleum ether, and benzene. The best method for purification, after the first
separation from alcohol, was to dissolve it in chloroform and precipitate by the
addition of alcohol. If the chloroform was in excess, so that on the addition of
alcohol no precipitate was formed, then on slow evaporation, crystals readily
separated. These crystals were microscopic needles, but were not well defined.
When only a small amount of chloroform was used as solvent, then on addition
of the alcohol the solid substance at once crystallised out. When this was dried
On the slab it had more of a platy structure, was pure white, of a nacreous lustre,
and was practically without Odour. It was dextro-rotatory, and the determina-
tion of the specific rotation was made with both benzene and chloroform, the
specific rotation, [a]b = + 16:06°, being identical with both solvents. Its ready
solubility in benzene enabled the molecular weight to be determined by the
cryoscopic method, and this, together with the results of the analyses, showed it
to have the formula, Cao Hºg. Its melting point was 95°C. (Cor.), and it did not
matter what the solvent had been. The fused substance also melted again at the
same temperature. It is perhaps a concidence that the melting point of this
solid diterpene is practically double that of the melting point of camphene, the
solid Ciołł is terpene, and which has of course half its molecular weight.
Although the diterpene crystallised so readily, yet it did not sublime,
and it was not readily attacked by either dilute nitric or sulphuric acids, but was
acted upon by the Concentrated acids. The ordinary potassium dichromate
oxidising mixture scarcely attacked it, but it was readily oxidised by chromic
acid when dissolved in acetic acid. Strong nitric acid slowly dissolved the
Crystals in the Cold to a yellow solution, and with continued evolution of a
Small amount of brown fumes. If the action was not allowed to continue too
long, a yellow nitro-compound was separated on the addition of water. This
gave a marked reaction for nitrogen, and melted to a thick dark-coloured liquid
at about II5–I2O. C., but the melting point was not sharp, and it softened
42I
Several degrees lower. On allowing the diterpene to remain in contact with the
nitric acid in the cold for some days a comparatively large amount of solid
acids was formed, but when it was warmed with strong nitric acid, energetic
action took place with evolution of abundant brown fumes. The principal
products of alteration were of an acid nature, were solid, and almost colourless;
they were easily dissolved by alkalis, and precipitated again on acidifying, but
were not identified with any known acid.
When warmed with concentrated sulphuric acid the diterpene was readily
dissolved, and on continued heating soon became of a very dark Coffee Colour,
with an indication of a greenish fluorescence. A sulphonic acid was apparently
formed, as on the addition of a little water a dark precipitate was obtained, but
this was almost entirely soluble in water. Aqueous alkalis had no action upon the
diterpene, nor was there any alteration when it was boiled with acetic anhydride
for a long time. When the diterpene was dissolved in acetic acid a solution of
bromine was not discoloured, nor was the colour removed at Once when very
dilute bromine was added to a chloroform solution, or to a carbon-tetrachloride
solution. On the addition of more bromine, and allowing the Solution to remain
some time, there was a slow evolution of hydrobromic acid, so that a substitution
product should eventually be obtained. It is evident, however, that the diter-
pene is a saturated compound. A dilute neutral Solution of potassium perman-
ganate had no action upon it, and no change of Colour took place even on heating,
nor was there any alteration when the solution was acidified.
When more material shall have been obtained, further investigations will
be undertaken in order to determine the products of nitration, bromination,
oxidation, &c.
The diterpene is a saturated substance, and in this respect differs from
both the accompanying pinene, and the sesquiterpene. As the formula of this
hydrocarbon is C, Has and the molecule saturated, it may, perhaps, be composed
of two molecules of a bicyclic terpene, the severing of a double bond in the
terpene molecule providing the connection. The bicyclic terpene in the oil, and
which answers to this requirement, is pinene, and it might be suggested,
therefore, that the diterpene may be composed of two molecules of pinene. The
generally accepted structure for pinene is
H3
N
^
3
C-C
.
HC ch, ch
|

CH3–C-
422
so that the arrangement of the molecule for the diterpene may be stated as
follows –
CH2
The other possible arrangement with two molecules of pinene would be
expected to yield an inactive compound. In this arrangement one of the pinene
molecules has been rotated in the plane of the paper. The reactions of this diter-
pene are in many respects similar to those of diphenyl, which substance it some-
what resembles in appearance, and this similarity might perhaps suggest a
corresponding linkage, but the results did not indicate a molecule with
34 hydrogen atoms, and from three analyses the following percentages of
hydrogen were obtained: II-75, II:74, and II'74, and over 88 per cent. of carbon
with each. -
A. Etard and G. Meker, (“Compt. rend.” I898, I26, 526–529) prepared
a crystalline dicamphene hydride by treating pinene hydrochloride with sodium.
This substance melted at 75°, boiled at 326–327°, and had specific rotatory power
[a]p = + I5° 27'.
E. A. Letts, (“Ber.” I3, 793–796) by treating pinene hydrochloride with
sodium, had previously obtained, in addition to other bodies, a Crystalline sub-
stance which melted at 94°, and to which the formula C2, Hs, was given.
The close agreement between the specific rotation of Etard and Maher's
Substance, and that of Phyllocladene, might suggest a similarity, but there is a
difference of 20° in their melting points. The melting point of Letts' substance
is, however, in closer agreement.
The results of the analyses of Phyllocladene show the molecule to have
32 hydrogen atoms, so that the molecule cannot be constructed with only a
Single linkage. -

423
If it be considered that the terpene taking part in the construction is
camphene, then by a similar arrangement to the above the structure of the mole-
cule may be stated as
CH3
|
CH C
CH HC
H2C – ... —— — CH2
Hº-º-ch.
H2C CH HC _CH,
`
C CH

But camphene does not occur in the oil of this plant. There is, however, a very
close relationship between the molecule of pinene and that of camphene, and the
former may be without much difficulty transformed into the latter. From the
above considerations it appears that pinene is the bicyclic terpene agreeing with
the constitution of this diterpene, particularly as pinene occurs in the oil in such
an exceptionally pure condition. Whether the pinene is derived from the break-
ing down of the diterpene, or the diterpene from the combination of the pinene
must remain at present an open question.
The name Phyllocladene is proposed for this diterpene, as indicating the
genus from which it has been derived. From its reactions, melting point and
analysis, it cannot belong to the paraffin series, and it thus differs from those
solid hydrocarbons previously recorded from the essential oils of a few plants.
The nitrosochloride was readily obtained with the pinene and in abundance,
and when purified from chloroform by precipitating with methyl alcohol, it melted
at Io'7–8°C., as did also the similar compound obtained with the pinene from
Callitris Drummondi and from those other species of Callitris in which the pinene
was a pronounced constituent, but in each case the nitrosopinene prepared from
it melted at I32° C.
EXPERIMENTAL.
This material was collected at Williamsford, Tasmania, and distilled 30th
July, 1908. The yield of oil was only fair, and 524 lb. of leaves with terminal
branchlets, gave I8 oz. of oil, equal to O-215 per cent. The crude oil was of a
light lemon-yellow colour, was mobile, and with a very slight aromatic odour,
distinctive from that of the “pine-needle oils” generally, but apparently charac-
teristic. The oil was very insoluble in alcohol, and it required one volume
absolute alcohoi to form a clear Solution. The specific gravity at I6°C., was
424
O-8892 ; the rotation an = —- I2.3° ; and the refractive index at 16° C.,
I-4903. When a small quantity of the Oil was placed in a shallow dish, as soon as
the more volatile Constituents had evaporated, a semi-crystalline mass formed.
Only a very small amount of ester was present in the crude oil, as shown
by the following:—I-8804 gram of oil, after boiling half an hour, required o. oO28
gram KOH, or a saponification number, I-5. A second determination gave S.N.,
I 4.
A portion of the oil was acetylated in the usual way by boiling with acetic
anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate, and the perfectly neutral oil saponified;
2°50I grams required O. OII2 gram KOH, or a saponification number 4-5. As
I-5 was obtained with the unacetylated oil, the saponification number of the
esters formed from the small amount of alcohol present was only 3, this result
representing less than I per cent. of a free alcohol. It is perhaps partly to the
presence of this small amount of an alcohol that the slight aromatic odour of the
crude oil is due. --
When redistilled, (170 c.c. of oil taken) nothing came over below I55° C.;
between I55–160° C., 36 per cent., distilled; between 160–165°, 21 per cent., and
between 165–210°, 16 per cent. The thermometer then rapidly rose to 280°,
between that temperature and 300°, 4 per cent. distilled, thus 23 per cent.
remained in the still. The residue was poured into a vessel and set aside to
Crystallise. After two days it had become a semi-solid crystalline mass, and was
then spread on porous plates to absorb the liquid portions. The comparatively
large amount of high boiling constituents considerably retarded, towards the end,
the distillation of the lower boiling terpene, although the results generally of the
first three fractions agreed somewhat closely. These results were as follows:–
Boiling Point. Per cent. d #9 C. “D I dom. tube. Refº: Index
I55–160° C. 36 o:8527 – 20'I’ I-4738
I60–165° C. 2I o:8526 - I9'3° I'474I
I65–21 o' C. I6 o:8548 – I5'I* I'477I
280–300° C. 4 O'9336 + 3-6° I'5IO3
THE PINENE.
The two first fractions were again distilled, when no less than 50 c.c. came
over within I degree of temperature (155–156° C.), the third fraction was then
added to the residue in flask and the distillation continued, when 32 C.C. were
again obtained boiling between I55–156°, and 18 c.c. between I56–I59°; thus
over 48 per cent. Of the total oil was obtained boiling at the temperature for pure
425
O
pinene, and 60 per cent. between 155–159°. These fractions gave the following
results:—
Eoiling Point. C.C. d # 9 C. “D 1 dom. tube. Reº Index
I55–156 C. - 50 O.8546 – 20.5° I'4727
I55–I56° C. 32 O.8545 – 19.6° I’4733
I56–159° C. I8 O'8546 – I8-2' I'4735
The fractions had the appearance and odour of pinene, the first particularly
SO. The nitrosochloride was prepared with the first two fractions, and when this
was finally purified by dissolving in chloroform and precipitating with methyl
alcohol, it melted at IO8° C. The nitrosopinene was prepared from this in the
usual way, and when finally purified from acetic ether it melted at 132° C.
The principal constituent in this oil is thus pinene, the results pointing
to the absence of the other members of the terpene group.
THE (?) SESQUITERPENE.
The fourth fraction of the first distillation was again distilled, and 5 c.c.
obtained boiling between 285–295°C. This oil was lemon-yellow in colour, and is
evidently the Constituent which gives the colour to the crude oil. Its specific
gravity at 24°C. = O. 9209; rotation ap = + 3: 4°; and refractive index at 23° C.
= I. 5065.
When dissolved in chloroform and shaken with a few drops of sulphuric
acid, the colour soon became of a deep red, darkening quickly to red-brown and
Crimson ; it still had a crimson tint after twenty-four hours, but after two days
the colour inclined to violet, which colour remained constant for some days.
When dissolved in chloroform and one drop of bromine added, the solution
was instantly discoloured; on adding more bromine the colour quickly changed
to green, Soon becoming deeper in colour and then blue-green; in half an hour
the Colour was indigo blue, this blue colour remaining constant for days. This
Substance is thus active to light, is unsaturated, boils at a high temperature, and
has the refractive index and specific gravity corresponding closely to the require-
ments for a sesquiterpene. When obtained in larger quantity it will be again
investigated.
THE DITERPENE,
The residue left in the flask on the first distillation was poured into a basin
and allowed to crystallise; after two days a semi-crystalline mass had formed,
and this was spread on porous plates and allowed to remain for five days, by which
426
time all of the liquid portion had been absorbed. The solid which remained was
quite white, and practically without odour. It was dissolved in boiling alcohol,
filtered, and allowed to cool, when much of the solid separated. The crystals
were not well defined, were inclined to be tabular, and when dried on the slab had
a nacreous lustre. It was finally purified, as previously stated, by dissolving in
chloroform and precipitating by alcohol. The melting point was 95° C. It was
optically active, and three determinations gave results as follows:–
(1) or 3398 gram dissolved in Io c.c. chloroform rotated the ray + O-55°
in a I-dom. tube, thus the specific rotation [a]p = + I6. I8°.
(2) o-6268 gram dissolved in IO c.c. chloroform rotated + I. O’ in I-dcm.
tube, therefore [a] p = + I5-95°. -
(3) o'5925 gram dissolved in IO c.c. benzine rotated O. 95° in I-dcm. tube,
therefore [a] p = + 16. O4°.
Mean [a] p = + 16-O6°.
Analyses gave the following, the substance being fused in the boat before
weighing :-
(I) O. I566 gram gave O-5067 gram CO, and O-I656 gram H.O.
= 88. 244, and H = II: 75 per cent.
(2) O. ISO4 gram gave O'42I6 gram CO, and O.I.376 gram H.O.
C = 88. II, and H = II-74 per cent.
(3) O. I455 gram gave O-47 gram CO, and O. I546 gram H.O.
C = 88. I4, and H = II-74 per cent.
C, H, requires C = 88.24 and H = 11.76 per cent.
The molecular weight determinations were made with benzene as solvent.
(I) O-5988 gram in 2I-5 grams benzene reduced the freezing point by
o:515°; MW = 264.
(2) O-5104 gram in I5.5 grams benzene reduced the freezing point by
O-605°; MW = 267.
Cohag (C = II. 91, H = I. O) = 270.
These results show the solid substance in the oil of this tree to be a
hydrocarbon, and to have the formula C, Has.
When the crystals were dissolved in chloroform and shaken with a few
drops of sulphuric acid there was no colouration, even after twenty-four hours.
The reactions with acids, &c., have been referred to in the earlier portion
of this article.
427
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
The timber is pale-coloured, and much harder than the “King William
Pine.” It planes well and has an attractive figure, is close, yet short grained,
and should make good panels. Apparently it is suitable for violin sounding boards.
Though a somewhat harder wood, it has not a reputation for durability
equal to that of the “King William Pine.” It has also a greater number
of knots and flaws. The local estimation of the weight of the timber is 370 super.
feet to the ton, that is about 73 lb. to the cubic foot.
Tranverse Tests of Timber, Phyllocladus rhomboidalis.
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
Size of specimen in inches & E & º $ tº ... B 3-Oo; D 3'OO B 2.98; D 3-oo B 3-oo; D 2.98
Area of cross Section, square inches ... tº t tº 9:00 8-94 8-94
Breaking load, lb. ... ...... & © tº tº º & 5,000 5,470 5,050
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch ... I0,000 II, OI3 IO,236
5 3 elasticity 2 3 5 3 & º º I,600,000 I,728,000 I,690,434
Rate of load in lb. per minute e - © e e e 455 547 56I
(b) ANATOMY.
For all practical purposes this timber has similar anatomical characters
with those of Dacrydium Franklini (Huon Pine), except that pitted cells occur
in the tangential walls, otherwise a description of one is practically a description
of the other. (Figures 281--283.)
V. BARK.
The bark is hard, thin, and scaly, the surface of the scales being smooth.
(a) ANATOMY.
This bark has a peculiarity of structure quite unique compared to that
of any of its congeners examined. The chief points of distinction are—first the
occurrence of an inordinate number of sieve tubes with their accompanying
sieve plates; and, secondly, the want of any regular stratification of the various
cells, tubes, and fibres as obtains in many other Conifer barks. Sieve tubes occur
throughout almost the whole bark substance, both inner and outer, the only place
where they really do not occur is in the periderm layer in the 'outer cortex.
There appear to be two kinds of tubes, those with elongated narrow cells
with only one sieve-plate in the diameter, and those with more than one sieve-
plate in a transverse wall, and are much broader and shorter cells than the
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
ſº
ſ
º
ſſº
ſº
º
º
ſ
*
º
º
[...] º
º Pºº º -
º º
ſº tº 2 º' º
sº * * * * - * * * * *. º | *
lºº-ºº:
ºº:: * : *.
ºº: ºº º Aº ‘º
º * * * * * * * * * * *
º, º sº - † : * ~ *
ºº: ºº 2:22; º;
ſº º Aº Aº
gº ºf ººººººº. - * *
ºº::
tº ºr *:: *** A.
ºº::
º ºf º
tº ºº
Figure 282 –Tangential section of timber, showing the unusual occur-
Figure 281 –-Transverse section of timber, the narrow lumina marking rence of bordered pits on tangential walls in a Conifer.
the limit of autumnal growth. P. rhomboidalis, x Ioo. Nearly all the cells of the rays are empty. P. rhomboidalis,
x IO.O.
|
Figure 283 –Radial section of timber through autumnal and vernal
growth. Bordered pits can just be detected on the radial
walls. P. rhomboidalis, x Ioo.
Sections of timber of Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich.



















429
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º -
-º-º- - --
º º
º
- - --Tº -
º
º
- - -
sº
- - T ---
-- -- º |--
-- P-
º IP
º º
sº
Figure 284–Radial section through junction of inner (lower) and outer Figure 285 —Transverse section at junction of inner and outer bark.
bark. P. rhomboidalis, x 68. Several sclerenchymatous cells can be seen in the centre
of the picture. P. rhomboidalis, x 135.
Figure 286.-Radial section through bark and intended to show the
numerous sieve plates in the tube marked by the arrows.
P. rhomboidalis, x 300.
Sections of bark of Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich.







430
former, as shown in Figure 286. Bast fibres, parenchyma vessels, and
sclerenchymatous cells are all intermixed with scarcely any order or regularity
whatever.
The medullary rays are distinct objects in the transverse sections, winding
in a sinuous manner amongst the parenchymatous vessels and sieve tubes. The
bast fibres are of comparatively small area in the cross-section and form a fair
proportion of bark substance, but are seen to better advantage in a longitudinal
section.
The periderm cells present the only regular feature of the Cortex, and this
portion of the bark is comparatively broad and forms a distinct feature in the
exterior material. Figure 284 is a 68-magnification of the Outer bark, the
lighter portion is a periderm layer. Figure 285, an increased magnification on
Figure 284, shows in the centre of the picture sclerenchymatous cells.
Figure 286.-In this it was hoped to show, in a 300-magnification, a broad
sieve tube with double plates, but is not so clear as was expected.
(b) CHEMISTRY.
This sample of Phyllocladus bark was obtained from Tasmania, and was
collected from a fair-sized tree. It had a fibrous nature, was not very thick,
and had an Outer Coating of a thin, papery consistency, which was of a darker
colour than that of the general mass. The total thickness of the bark ranged
from five to seven millimetres, and was of an orange-brown to a light burnt-
sienna colour. The powdered bark was of a sienna-brown color and was some-
what fibrous. When extracted with boiling water and filtered through cloth,
the filtrate on cooling separated a considerable amount of an Orange-brown
substance, which being very finely divided took a considerable time to deposit.
The clear filtrate from the first precipitated material, after clarifying
with kaolin, contained a considerable amount of a substance which was
evidently of a glucosidal nature. It had tanning properties, as well as acting
as a dye material, and was almost entirely removed from Solution by hide-
powder. That this was so was clearly indicated, as no deposit of an insoluble
substance formed after boiling the filtrate from the hide-powder with sulphuric
acid.
The clear solution, before treatment with hide-powder, gave a dull
salmon colour to cloth mordanted with alumina, and the whole range of tints
with various mordants were more delicate and less red than were those formed
with the sienna-brown powder, although the same range of colors were given
by both the powder and the solution. •
That the clear solution, before treatment with hide-powder, contained a
glucoside was shown as follows: A little sulphuric acid was added and the
43I
Solution boiled for a long time ; when cold a considerable amount of an orange-
brown substance precipitated, and when this was removed it was found to be
identical in every respect with the first precipitated powder from the hot
extraction of the bark. From the clear filtrate the sulphuric acid was removed
by barium carbonate, the organic substances by lead acetate, and the lead
by Sulphuretted hydrogen. The filtrate, when evaporated down, reduced
Fehling's solution copiously, and contained a considerable amount of reducing
Sugars.
It thus appears that the original substance in the bark of this tree is
largely a glucoside, and that it has tanning properties, as it combines with
hide substance. It appears to be slowly hydrolised naturally, and the insoluble
substance of the glucoside is deposited in the bark cells in a powdery con-
dition, which gives the characteristic colour to the bark. The dry powder from
the hydrolised glucoside is but little soluble in cold water, although the gluco-
side itself is largely soluble.
The total amount extracted from the air-dried bark with boiling water
was 33.8%.
The clear tannin solution, after removal of the substances insoluble in
cold water, contained 24.1%. After treatment with hide-powder in the usual
way the corrected non-tannins equalled I2.2%, so that the substances absorbed
by hide-powder represented II.9%.
The amount of moisture in the bark was II.8%.
In Kirk’s “Forest Flora of New Zealand,” p. Io, it is stated that a red
dye was formerly extracted by the Maoris from the bark of the New Zealand
tree, Phyllocladus trichomanoides, also that the bark of that tree possesses a
special value in the preparations of basils for kid gloves, and has realised from
£30 to £50 per ton in London for that purpose, but that the demand is inter-
mittent, - -
The Museum sample of the bark of this species of Phyllocladus from New
Zealand has a strong resemblance to that of the Tasmanian species, but it is
thicker, and less brightly coloured.
THE PINES OF
AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photo.
“BRowN,
Podocarpus elata, R.BR.
x -
“YELLOW,” OR “PLUM PINE,”
:

433
THE GENUS PODOCARPU.S.
I. HISTORICAL.
This genus was established by L'Heritier in 1788, although Baron von
Mueller claims priority for Gaertner's Nageia of the same year, a name, however,
which the “Index Kewensis” only acknowledges as partim. It is placed by
Bentham and Hooker (“Gen. Pl.,” Vol. III, 435) as a division of the Conifers.
It is one of the most widely distributed Pines of the Order, being dispersed
over the tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, from South Africa
and New Zealand to Japan, and over the whole of South America. The Australian
species are all indigenous.
It is claimed that evidences exist showing its occurrence in the Miocene
beds of Central Europe. (Masters.)
The representatives of the genus are either tall trees or shrubs.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
The leaves vary in attachment, are usually alternate, rarely opposite,
flat, with a prominent midrib. The flowers are dioecious or monoecious. Male
amentum narrow, cylindrical or catkin-like, solitary, terminal on the ends of short
axillary shoots, stipitate, stipes surrounded by short scales. Microsporophylls
imbricate, numerous, slightly contracted at the base, Connective apiculate ;
microsporangia two, dehiscing longitudinally. Female amentum axillary,
pedunculate, consisting of two to four succulent macrosporophylls (or what
may be regarded as such), which unite with the peduncle in an oblong, fleshy
receptacle. Macrosporangia one or two, exserted, anatropous, and adnate to an
erect stipes from within the larger macrosporophyll of the receptacle. Cotyledons
two, with an inferior radicle.
Seed drupaceous, the nucleus enclosed in a double integument, the outer
one succulent, the inner one long.
2 E
THE PINES
OF AUSTRALIA.
Frank H. Taylor, Photº,
Podocarpus elata, R.BR. [MALE AMENTA.] “ BrowN,” “YELLow,” or “ PLUM PINE.”
Nat. size
Nat, size,
Podocarpus elata, R.B.R., IN FRUIT.


435
1. Podocarpus elata,
R.Br., Mirb. in Mem. Mus. Par. xiii, 75.
“BROWN’” OR ‘‘ YELLOW PINE.”
(Syn.-P. ensifolia, R.Br., Mirb., l.c., P. falcata, A. Cunn. Herb.)
HABITAT.
One of the largest trees of the brushes of the North Coast district of
New South Wales and Southern Coast district of Queensland, where it attains
a height of over Ioo feet. Also vide appended list.
I. HISTORICAL.
This species was described by Robert Brown in 1826, and afterwards
placed by Mueller under Nageia in his “First Census of Australian Plants,” 1882.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
Leaves variable in length, measuring from 2 to 6 inches and Occasionally
9 inches long and about 4 to $ inch broad, oblong, lanceolate, obtuse, midrib alone
prominent, shortly petiolate. Male amenta, two or three together, Sessile up to
2 inches long, subtended by short bracts. Female amentum very short, 4 cm.
long, solitary in the lower axils of the leaves. Fruiting receptacle I; cm. long,
with one ovoid or globular seed I4 cm. in diameter.
III. LEAVES.
(a) ECONOMIC.
None known, but it may possibly be a stand-by for stock in times of drought.
(b) ANATOMY.
This bifacial leaf has the upper surface assimilatory and the lower transpi-
ratory. The epidermal and hypodermal cells occur in a single row on both sides,
Figures 287–8, the latter being also massed at the edges of the leaf; the palisade
cells are only present behind the assimilatory or upper surface, the rest of the
leaf substance being composed of Spongy tissue—a structure in this case that does
not conform to the usual shape of the vessels of this portion of a mesophyll, or at
least in a transverse section of a leaf, when it will be noticed in Figure 289 that the
cells are arranged with the long axes parallel to the upper and lower surfaces of
the leaf and closely packed; whilst a longitudinal section of the leaf shows these
in an interesting cross section for Spongy tissue, forming quite a bead-like series,
THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
º º º
º º
-
º
º º
Figure 288 —Transverse section through a median portion of the assimila-
tory surface of a leaf. P. elala, x 190.
__ - - - -
- - A
- - - - - -ºº ºr -
ſº º
- - º - -
:*
Fº - - - -
- **. -
º:
----- ---
Figure 289.-Transverse section through portion of a leaf cut clear Figure 290 –Longitudinal section through the midrib of a leaf. P. elala,
of the central bundle. P. elala, x 150. x go.
º º - -
- - __ - -
ºš
- º'º' gº º º
ºº:
-- - - º: º f º º: -
º, º ºr
º:
Fº
Figure 292 –Longitudinal section through portion of a leaf showing
the structure clear of the bundles. P. elata, x 90,
Sections of leaves of Podocarpus elata, R.Br.











THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 287. ~Transverse section through a median portion of a leaf
shºwing the conical arrangement (in section) of the phloem
cells of the normally orientated vascular bundle. The re-
ticulated cells of the transfusion tissue can just be made
out on the right and left of the phloem, and which divide
the endodermal cells into two masses, one protecting the
protoxylem and the other with its three oil glands protecting
the phloem. Stained with haematoxylin and safranin.
Podocarpus elata, x 95.
Figure 291.-Longitudinal section through a portion of a leaf midway
between the midrib and the edge, showing how the spongy
parenchyma cells are arranged transversely across the
blade, as they are here seen to be in cross sections. The
palisade parenchyma is at the top of the leaf. Stained
with haematoxylin and safranin. Podocarpus elata, x 150.
:
:


437
Figures 291–2. This disposition of cells is not shown by C. E. Bertrand, l.c.
Only one bundle abnormally orientated was found, and that a median one corres-
ponding to a midrib, the phloem vessels being separated, as seen in section, by
triangular masses of medullary rays (apex inwards) into triangular masses with
the apex outwards, Figure 287, these two forming the outer edge of the fan-shaped
bundle which is here backed by a number of collenchyma cells, three or four rows
wide, and both these and the protoxylem cells are bounded above and below by
parenchymatous cells, in which also occur very small oil cavities surrounded by a
single row of cells. One or two sclerenchymatous cells were found in this tissue.
On each side of the median bundle and scattered in the spongy tissue are Small
reticulated or spiral cells, the transfusion tissue as described by C. E. Bertrand,
l.c., under P. elongata of South Africa, and shown in Figure 287.
The twisting of the petiole of the leaf is evidently due then to the presence
of the stomata on the underside ; the torsion being also due to the leaf protecting
its transpiratory surface from the Sun's rays or other atmospheric adverse con-
ditions, or per contra in a position favourable to its physiological requirements.
IV. TIMBER.
(a) ECONOMIC.
This is one of the largest trees of the coast district gullies. It has a
straight grain, and is inclined to turn slightly brown on exposure. It is one of
the finest of our all-too-few soft timbers, and is very useful for all such economics
as pertain to these, such as joinery, carpentry, &c., and is also useful for carving.
It has a reputation for white-ant-and teredo-resisting properties; piles of
this timber with the bark on are said to be lasting.
Mr. Jasper Morgan of New Italy, writing on the “Brown Pine,” states:–
“This species is, unfortunately, almost extinct, the only specimens being saplings
of very little value. It grew in profusion about the Williams River long ago,
and was used for ship decking, &c.”
Transverse Tests of Timber–Podocarpus elata.
(Standard size, 38 in. x 3 in. x 3 in.)
No. I. No. 2. No. 3.
B 3.00; D 297 B 2.98; D 292
Size of specimen in inches ... B 3 OO ; D 3:00
Area of cross section, square inches º 9:00 8-91 8-70
Breaking load, lb. per square inch 4,254 3,390 4,450
3 > elasticity 2 3 3 5 ° I,053,658 I,403,508 I,366,875
Rate of load in lb. per minute
Modulus of rupture in lb. per square inch 8,508 6,917 9,475
425 565 635
438
(b) ANATOMY.
Microscopically the timber of this and other Podocarpus species cannot lay
any great claim to affinity with that of either Agathis or Araucaria, being more
closely related in structure, perhaps, to that of Callitris.
The walls of the tracheids and medullary rays are more slender than in almost
any other Australian genus of the Order, whilst the lumina are the narrowest
of all; altogether the sections convey the idea of slenderness, compared with those
of cognate genera. No traces of marginal tracheids in the rays were found. The
bordered pits are on the radial and occasionally tangential walls, and are both
single and distant in the lumina.
In the xylem there are no linear stretches of the manganese compound, as in
Callitris, and although a transverse section shows it fairly distributed, yet the
other two sections prove that there are only small particles present. In the ray
cells it is exceptional to find it. In fact, there is less of this substance in the
wood material than obtains in the other genera. (See article on the manganese
compound.)
The tangential section is of Some value in diagnostic work, for one does
not find the regular fusiform character of the Callitris rays or the linear features
of the Araucaria, but here and there the spindle-shaped rays are composed of
varying numbers of cells in height, intermixed with numerous rays one or two
or three cells high, giving the walls a chain-like appearance. This feature does
not realise in any other Conifer examined. .
The simple cells are not very pronounced in the rays, and mostly only
one occupies the space between the lumina; the perforation is sometimes circular
and sometimes an oblique slit, as in Figures 293–6.
(d) Forest RY.
(Vide remarks under Timber.)
V. BARR.
ANATOMY.
This is a characteristic bark, although showing some affinities to that of
the Callitris species, the main point of differentiation being the almost entire
absence of periderm bands, and the more fully developed sieve tubes, for they
Occupy a much larger space between the Sclerenchymatous fibres and the
parenchymatous vessels, and are well shown in Figure 297.
The cambium is a very narrow band, and is succeeded in regular concen-
tric uniseriate rings of Sclerenchymatous fibres, sieve tubes, and parenchymatous
tissue. Figures 297–8.
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
- - - - Figure 294 –Similar section to Figure 293. The only manganese com-
Figure 293 º º: º * the * of the pound is seen in the lower part of the ray, all on the right
autumnal and spring growth. eata, x 85. centre of the picture. P. elata, x 8o.
ºilº |II
ſ | n
ill || || || |
ill; º #
| | ####||
| | | | | º
|| | | Hi l
"I | |
|
|
|
|
-
|
H
-
|
|
Figure 295 –Tangential section of timber. P. elata, x 50. Figure 296–Radial section of timber. The ray cells are of a uniform
parenchymatous character, stained dark by the presence
of the manganese compound, which effect is also seen in
the thickened lamella of the tracheid walls—the dark lines
running from top to bottom of picture. Bordered pits
are seen to be fairly numerous. P. elata, x 5o.
Sections of timbers of Podocarpus elata, R.Br.








THE PINES OF AUSTRALIA.
Figure 297 —Transverse section of bark. The bast fibres form a
conspicuous feature in the structure, with their rectangular
shape and central canal. P. elata, x 76.
º "Ti
t
|- " " -
º
º
Figure 298.-Longitudinal section of bark showing the numerous sieve
plates in the tubes. P. elata, x 350.
Sections of bark of Podocarpus elata, R.Br.







44f
PODOCARPUS ELATA, R.BR.
Botanical Survey of the Species in New South Wales.
(From data supplied by Public School Teachers and other Correspondents.)
Locality. County. Remarks
Ashlea, vi ä Wingham ... Macquarie
It is sparsely scattered over about 30 Square miles.
(A. J. Yarrington.)
Boggumbil a ſº ... Rous e ... Occurs in the scrub. (E. J. Blanch.)
Boverie, Lismore g g ſº ... Rous ... ... Occurs in belts or patches mixed with other timber.
f (James Jones.)
Burringbar ... * * * ... Rous ... ... Grows on flat or hilly Country amongst other
: timber (40 square miles). -
Timber.—Average height 50 feet; I foot 6 inches
- diameter.
Resin.—Exudes little or none. (F. T. Clarke.)
Byron Bay ... & g is ... Rous . Timber.—80 to 200 feet high ; 3 feet in diameter.
- - (H. McLennan.)
Carrabolla, vi ä Lostock ...' Durham ... Knotty Pine. Only a few in the district.
Timber.—Ioo feet high; 2 feet 6 inches diameter.
Resin.—None. (B. A. Sheath.) :
There are a number of trees growing about here
along the river bank and in the brushes.
- Resin.—These pines do not exude any resin.
Mosquito Island, Newcastle Northumberland. A few trees. (W. Coombes.)
Colstoun, Gresford ... ...] Durham
Mt. Rivers, Lostock, Upper Durham ... A few trees. (Amy Leer.)
Paterson.
Mullumbimby tº e de ... Rous ... ...] Thousands of acres.
Timber.—80 feet high; 20 inches diameter.
Resin.—Brown Pine is not resinous. (Henry
* R. Anstey.) -
New Italy e tº º © tº dº ...] Richmond ...! Only a few saplings. Cut out during last fifty
years. (J. Morgan.)
Rous Hill tº º ſº. ... Cumberland A few trees. (A. J. West, thro. Thos. Burling.)
Tirrania Creek, Lismore ... Rous About 2,000 acres. (W. L. Lucas.)
Tuckombil, Alstonville ...] Rous Occur here. (W. M. Miller.)
&&t
&*&
º*g
2. Podocarpus pedunculata,
Bail. Q/. Ag. J/., 7899.
‘‘ RLACK PIN.E.”
HABITAT.
Herberton District, Queensland.
I. HISTORICAL.
This is the most recently described species of the Podocarpus.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
Material of this species could not be obtained for investigation, but Bailey,
l.c., states it is a small tree with a very dark black bark. Leaves oblong-linear Or
442
linear-lanceolate, resembling those of P. elata, R.Br., only that those of the young
plants are usually much longer. Male amenta usually three, sessile at the end
of a peduncle, shorter, and the basal scales or bracts absent or not prominent
as in P. elata, R. Br. Fruit Crimson, about the size of a pigeon's egg, solitary or in
pairs, on the top of an angular, rather slender peduncle. Peduncle about 14 in.
long, near the end of the branchlets, pedicels narrow, angular, only a few lines
long. -
IV. TIMEER.
This is a tree of smaller proportions to P. elata, R.Br., yet its timber may
prove to be of equal value, if experimented with by the various Forestry
Departments of the Commonwealth, for the number of native softwoods is limited.
3. Podocarpus alpina,
R.Br., Mirb. in Mem Par. xiii, 75, Hook. f. in Hook. Lond. Journ. IV, 157.
(Syn. :-P. Lawrencii, Hook. f. in Hook. Lond. Journ. IV, 151.)
HABITAT.
Victoria, Mount Butler, Hardinge's Range, Cobberar Mountain at an
elevation of 3,000 to 6,000 feet (F. v. Mueller).
Tasmania, Mount Wellington (R. Brown); Mountain localities at an eleva-
tion of 3,000 to 6,000 feet (J. D. Hooker).
I. HISTORICAL.
This species was described by Robert Brown in 1825, along with P. elata.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
No material of this species was procurable for investigation. Bentham in
“Flora Australiensis,” Vol. VI., p. 248, describes it as a straggling densely-
branched shrub, usually low, but sometimes attaining a height of I2 feet. Leaves
crowded, linear, straight or falcate, rigid, varying from + in. long, and obtuse
to $ in. and acute, especially on luxuriant barren branches. Male amentum two to
three lines long, usually solitary and sessile or nearly so in the axils. Fruits much
Smaller than in any other species, the fleshy receptacle about I* lines long,
Sessile in the axil, the ovoid seed not much longer.
443
4. Podocarpus Drouyniana,
F. V. Mue/l., Fragm. /V, 86 t., 37.
* This in our opinion may be the Western or robust form of P. spinulosa, the
principal differences being entirely those of size in all the organs, and economically
it comes in the same category, in both timber and want of oil, for no oil was
obtained from leaves which were sent to us all the way from Western Australia
by the Department of Agriculture of that State.
5. Podocarpus spinulosa,
R.Br., Mirb. in Mem. Mus. Par. xiii, 75.
Syn. :-Taxus spinulosa, Sm. in Rees Cycle, XXXV; P. pungens, Caley, Don, in
Lamb. Pin. ed., I23. (Parlatore).
“NATIVE PLUM,” or “DAMSON.”
HABITAT.
Sandstone country, near the coast, County of Cumberland, N.S.W.
I. HISTOLOGY.
Both Bertrand and Masters have worked out the leaf structure of some
non-Australian species.
II. SYSTEMATIC.
A small shrubby plant with straight rigid, pungent, pointed leaves measuring
up to 2 inches in length. Lateral veins not well marked. Male amenta numerous
in sessile axillary clusters. Female amentum 6 mm. long in the axils of the
lower leaves or bracts on the lower part of the young branches, having two small
opposite bracteoles under the cylindrical two-lobed receptacle.
Seeds larger than in P. elata, R.Br.
IV. TIMBER AND ECONOMICS.
Being a small shrub its timber is of no avail, and although its common
name might carry Some impression of usefulness, yet the plant is of very little
value even in this direction. Nor can it be classed as an oil yielder, for none
was obtained from the leaves.
444
THE PINEs of AUSTRALIA.
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445
Appendiz A.
SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF THE CHEMICAL PRODUCTS OF NATURALLY
GROWING PLANTS AS AN AID TO THEIR BOTANICAL STUDY.
It is now generally accepted that, under varying influences of soil and climate,
certain cultivated plants may change considerably the character of their chemical
constituents, and so develop alterations of a more or less well-defined nature.
Much of the evidence so far produced in support of this statement, has,
however, been derived from cultivated material, and very largely from annuals.
A considerable amount of work has already been undertaken in the attempt to
arrive at some conclusions in this direction, and MM. Charabot and C. L. Gatin
in “Le Parfum chez la Plante,” Paris, IgoS, have brought together a considerable
amount of data bearing on this question, so far as it relates to the alterations in
the constituents of the essential oils obtained from certain genera. From the
results already formulated they arrive at the following conclusion —“Toute cause
venant influencer la nutrition et par conséquent le chimisme d'une plante produit
forcément une modification dans la composition de l’huile essentielle qu’elle
sécréte, . . . mais il est juste d’ajouter que les caractères anatomiques et
morphologiques des végétaux varient également sous les influences qui modifient
les conditions de la nutrition, ce qui ne les empêche pas de posséder une valeur
systématique.” By selection and suitable treatment it has, of course, been
possible to increase certain chemical constituents necessary for the successful
commercial exploitation of Some plants, particularly in the increase of Sugar in
beet-root. There seems to be no just reason why, corresponding suitable
treatment of certain plants should not also increase their oil constituents in
the direction of furthering their commercial possibilities. Exhaustive study in
this direction would be of considerable value, and possibly rewarded with results
of a satisfactory nature. It seems possible that in some such way Nature has
already differentiated into distinct species, the members of such large genera as
the Callitris and Eucalyptus of Australia, because it is to be expected that
similar alterations to those which have brought about changes in the chemical
constituents of the plant, would also act directly in other directions, and thus
cause marked alterations in their morphological characters, such as would be
in agreement with these chemical changes. That this is so is demonstrated by
the characteristic venations of the leaves of the Eucalypts, which characters we
have shown to be contemporaneous with the alterations in the main constituents
of their essential oils.”
Corresponding to these well-marked differences, other changes have also
taken place, which have become discernible in the varying barks and woods
of the Eucalypts, as for instance, representing the several groups, there are
the “Stringybarks,” the “Ironbarks,” the “Smoothbarks,” or “Gums,” the
“Boxes,” the “Ashes,” &c. The exudations or Kinos have also varying chemical
characters, which are as constant as those of the oils.
With the Callitris certain changes in morphological characters are also
discernible, so much so, that vernacularly the species are distinguished by the
people themselves by such terms as “White Cypress Pine,” “Black Cypress
Pine,” “Stringybark Pine,” &c., and these distinctive features, we now find,
are always accompanied by corresponding alterations in the characters of their
* “Research on the Eucalypts,” Sydney, 1902.
446
essential oils. That selective influences have been active in bringing about these
changes is indicated by the fact of territorial selection by the species themselves,
and the chemical peculiarities of certain situations and soils have undoubtedly
had marked influences upon the location chosen by the young trees, where it
would be possible for them to establish themselves and flourish—a study which
is now receiving much attention under the name of Ecological botany. In
New South Wales there are districts where the Callitris do not naturally occur,
and this is apparently due to the peculiarities of these localities being unsuited
for their natural establishment. Portions of this State known as the “Black
Soil Pains '' may particularly be mentioned in this connection, and although
some of the species approach these districts on all sides, yet they do not
invade them, and to the Callitris they evidently are forbidden fields.
The reason for this peculiarity is at present little understood, because
researches have not extended very far towards solving the problem of the
selective peculiarities of plants generally. In the satisfactory unravelling of this
question lies the scientific afforestation of this country, because it must certainly be
more judicious and scientifically correct to plant those trees which are most suited
by habit and constitution to the situation and soil required to be utilised, than
to deal with the matter in a haphazard way, and any system of artificially supply-
ing the necessary constituents to overcome any natural defect would be quite
out of the question. The results obtained from the study of the Eucalypts, growing
wnder natura' conditions in Australia, showed a remarkable constancy in the Oil
constituents of the several species, and it was found during that investigation,
that any well-defined species of Eucalyptus would always give practically the
same products, not only in oil constituents, but in other chemical peculiarities
also. Subsequent investigations have added considerably to our knowledge in this
direction, and no marked differences in the general character or constituents of
the oil distilled from any one species has yet been found, no matter in what part
of the country the trees were grown. It might, of course, be feasible to bring
about alteration in the chemical constituents of the plant by artificial methods,
extending over a sufficiently long period, but under natural conditions such altera-
tions as have taken place must have been slow, although eventually succeeding
in establishing such marked differences, both in botanical and chemical characters,
as has warranted for classification purposes their separation into distinct species.
It was felt that the importance of this question required extended investiga-
tions with other large Australian genera besides the Eucalypts, and for this purpose
material of some of the species of Callitris has been obtained from various localities
very far apart, and during several years. It will be seen from the results recorded
under the several species, particularly C. glauca, that the chemical constituents
of the essential oils of the Callitris are remarkably constant when grown under
natural conditions, notably their ester content.* The tannins in the barks are
also in agreement, so that it is possible by chemical reactions to distinguish the
tannin of C. glauca and allied species, from that of C. calcarata and all the
specimens we have so far determined, answered to these distinguishing tests.
Spreading over such a large extent of territory as do the Callitris, and being all
the time subjected to such diverse climatic and other direct influences as main-
tains over such a large continent, it is perhaps surprising that there are
so few well-defined species of Callitris in Australia. -
The constancy of chemical characters found to occur in the several species
has thus been of considerable help in deciding the differentiation governing their
* The differences in the amount of the predominant limonene at certain times of the year have been
ignored in this connection, as we know little about this peculiarity at present, and it is still the same terpene.
447
classification. Not only has it been possible by this method of investigation to
indicate the possible economics belonging to the several well-defined species, but
at the same time to correlate the differences of alteration in the species them-
selves, and so allot specific values to those botanical characters which evidently
have been established under exactly similar conditions and influences as those
which fixed their chemical differences. The determination of the possible changes
which may be brought about by specific treatment of the several species must be
left to other investigators. In this work, only those plants established under
natural conditions have been dealt with, and the results which have thus far been
obtained with these, do not warrant the supposition that alterations are now
taking place with sufficient rapidity to enable one to discern them. Evidently
time is one of the main factors in these alterations, and human life is too short
for their discernment. Results having been obtained from nearly the whole of
the genus Callitris, gathered throughout the whole range of its distribution, it
has been possible to formulate conclusions, which could not have been advanced
if the study had been restricted to any one species.
In both Callitris and Eucalyptus the leaves are persistent during the whole
year, and the flowering period seems to play a comparatively small part in the
chemical changes of the essential oils in both genera, so that the results which have
been obtained in Europe, by the study of those chemical changes which take
place in the oils of such plants as Mentha piperita, Pelargonium odoratissimum, &c.,
during their several periods of growth and flowering, appear Scarcely to assist
when applied to such genera as Callitris and Eucalyptus. The changes which
occur in the oils of these plants seem to be specific, and no periodic alterations
of a very marked character have been found in any one well-defined species, so
that only slight differences in the constitution of the essential oils are perceptible
during any part of the year. Supposed differences in this direction have often
been found to be due more to differences of opinion as regards nomenclature, than
to the alterations in the constituents of the specific species themselves. It is thus
seen that the chemical products manufactured by individual species, both in
Callitris and Eucalyptus, have a considerable systematic value, and their study,
therefore, becomes of some importance when seeking for specific differences in
plant classification.
The conditions—largely of a chemical nature—which succeeded in establish-
ing such definite alterations, also brought about marked differentiations in the
character of the species themselves. This conclusion may be supported by such
well-defined species as Callitris glauca, and C. calcarata, the former growing almost
exclusively on the plains, the latter species on the hills. In districts where both
occur it is possible to roughly follow the margin of the location of either species
on the map, and at the same time indicate fairly well the contour of the hilly
country. Wherever C. glauca occurs, its chemical peculiarities are found to be
specific in all directions, and markedly so in contradistinction with those of
C. calcarata, or vice versa. It seems necessary, therefore, that the conditions which
were originally responsible for the establishment of these characteristic chemical
peculiarities should persist, if the results are to be of a permanent nature. It is
thus reasonable to consider that the well-defined chemical constituents of the
plant are, for all practical purposes, as systematically valuable as the morphological
characters, and that, when all this evidence is correlated, the species so founded
will be established with a considerable degree of stability. C. Tasmanica, growing
in Tasmania, gave an oil which agreed entirely with that from the same species
growing on the highlands of New South Wales, hundreds of miles away. Evidently
here the natural conditions under which the species had become established were
448
uniform. The morphologically closely agreeing species C. rhomboidea of the coast
of New South Wales, was found to differ in its chemical characters from those of
C. Tasmanica. -
If we consider the time necessary for the genus Callitris to have spread itself
over the whole of Australia, it is not difficult to understand why it is that several
Species have been able to adapt themselves to their environment, and thus to
slowly overcome adverse conditions which might have prevented their distribu-
tion except in very restricted areas.
It has been suggested that the various chemical substances found in
the vegetable kingdom, such as essential oils, resins, &c., are largely waste products.
This Supposition, however, does not take into consideration their distribution,
alteration, and use in the constructive metabolism of the plant, and the evidence
obtained by numerous workers does not seem to support the view that they are
waste products. It is more reasonable to suppose that they play an important
part in the life of the plant, and assist in the ultimate formation of its several
parts. The Oleo-gum-resin which forms the greater portion of the latex of Arau-
caria Cunninghamii, certainly does not appear to be a waste product, because of
its abundance at any time, and to its continuous formation. In uninjured trees
the oleo-gum-resin is rarely found on the exterior, so that if it is not material
in a State of transition, one wonders what becomes of it. We have recently found,
On Severing the branches of a young tree of Tristania conferta, that a small amount
of an aromatic oleo-resin exuded from the centre or pith of the severed portion
of the trunk. This is interesting for plants of this group, and we are not aware
that OleO-resin or resinous products have previously been found in this tree; so
that in this instance the utilisation of this oleo-resin in the construction of the tree
is evident, and also that it is quickly used up after it is formed.
It is shown under Araucaria Cunninghamii that in the formation of the
Oleo-gum-resin in the latex of that tree, other agents than those supplied by the
leaf portion of the plant have evidently been employed, and it would be interest-
ing to find out whether this is not largely due to enzyme action. In the formation
of the leaf oils in the Callitris the reactions which have taken place appear to be
due to reduction rather than to oxidation, because although the alcohol geraniol
is present in abundance in Some species—C. Tasmanica particularly—yet, no
indication of citral, or other oxidised similar product of the alcohols, has been
detected in the leaf oil of any Callitris species. In the Eucalypts, oxidised
products often occur, and in the oil of some species in large quantities, as citral
in E. Staigeriana ; citronellal in E. citriodora; and aromadendral in numerous
species allied to the “Boxes.” M. Emm. Pozzi-Escot (Oxydases et Reductases,
Paris, IQ02, p. 51) suggests that the reductases play a considerable part in plant
formation, and says: —“On peut dire avec de Rey–Pailhade, que le philothion ou
plus exactement les réductases, dans la cellule vivante, Sont la porte, on 1’une des
portes, par lesquelles l'oxygène libre pénêtre dans l'édifice cellulaire vivant.”
Whether this is so or not further researches will disclose, but it seems to
us conclusive that the chemical productions of the plant are of such importance
in its construction, that for each species peculiarities will eventually arise. The
determination of these, wherever possible, should give somewhat exact results,
being chemical, and so help towards a deeper knowledge of the peculiarities of the
several members of most plant genera. The utilisation of the knowledge thus
obtained with both Callitris and Eucalyptus has been of the greatest help in our
studies of these peculiarly Australian genera. It seems feasible, therefore, to
expect that results of corresponding value would reward similar efforts with other
genera peculiar to other parts of the world.
449
Appendir Z3.
TABLE SHOWING DISTIBUTION OF PINES IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
Illustrated by accompanying maps.
33
34
35
Waljeers
Waradgery ...
Townsend
Hay North & Hillston North
Hay ... tº gº & tº gº º
Deniliquin
g & tº ſº e
tº e a e º e º sº | * * g 1 g º &
e tº $ tº tº e º # tº ſº
| 3 | .
| £ *5
Callitris. #| || 5
3| 3 | &
5|| || S
- Q ºf . […
Territorial - - | 3| 3 3 | . . ; §
Divisions – § 3. | 3 || 3 || 3 | . ;| < |#| #
No. Counties. Western, Land Districts. § g s § ºf º g 3|E * : |#| #
E. ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă
| #####|######
. | | | |
I | Poole ...] W Willyama * © ºf a ...+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 | Evelyn tº º tº W do tº gº tº tº e tº tº º ... ...º. e ſº tº ; ſº ſº tº '...'... …'…'.......
3 Farnell ..., | W do ... ... ... ......+...... '...'...'...'...'...'...'.
4 Yangowinna ...] W do … ...+...... & & 8 | dº º º || 6 & 8 || g º e '.........
5 Menindee e tº W do tº 9 e tº tº 4 . . . . . . ...*......]+. …}. tº e s ] gº tº
6 || Windeyer ... W do and Wentworth "… Yºy ...............
7 | Tara e tº e ... W do * g is tº e a … ...!?............ ...I.
8 || Tongowoko ... ... W Wilcannia and Willyama ... ...º...!...'...'...'...'...'............
9 Yantara W do do … ... $'...'...'...'...'...l...!. ... ...'...
Io Mootwingee W do do ... ... ... $'......'......... ...'...'... ...'...
II | Tandora W do Clo ..lº. …'…'...l......'...'...
I 2 | Delalah W do and Bourke ...'......|... '...l... '…... ...'...'...'...l.
I 3 | Ularara W do do ... ... ...l... '...l. |. ... ...'...'.........
14 | Fitzgerald W do do ...'... ...l... '...l. … “…....
I 5 | Yungnulgra W do and Willyama ... ... ... *... …'…'...l.........'...l.
16 || Young W do do ...'......R.'...l............. |...}.
17 | Livingstone W do .........|*... ...'...'...l...... • . . . . . ...
- do -
18 Perry W \ Wentworth tº gº & *... º e i t e º & tº e • * * * * * * * * * : * * is a e e º
|| Balranald tº e & e is a | | | ſ |
19 Wentworth .. W Wentworth ... tº º º ... ...|<>... “… * … tº t e i e º s ...'...
2O | Taila... W do and Balranald ..|4}... ...+... “…l. ...l...
2 I | Thoulcanna W Bourke ... tº e & * e s tº s is sº º ºs e º a e º e '...l... • * * * * * | * * * : * ~ * i e s • e < * * *
22 || Killara W Wilcannia and Bourke ... ... ...]... tº e º & e = ... . º …
23 Werunda W Wilcannia tº s tº e e e ...'...'...l... '...l... …'...'...'...l......
24 || Manara W do and Balranald ... <> ............ '.…...'...l...!.
25 || Kilfera W | Balranald ... ... ... *...l............ º * * I e g º e g is
26 | Caira W & C do ... . . . . . . . . ...l... '...l…...'...'... º
27 Wakool C Balranald South & Deniliquin'... ... +............... º:
28 Irrara tº g tº W Bourke... ... ... • . . . . . . . . . *...]...'...'...l..................
2O | Barrona e .. W do • • . . . . . . . . . . |......... …]...].
30 || Landsborough ...] W do e is is ſº e & . . . . . . . . . . . . '...l....... '...'...
3 I | Rankin ... W do Wilcannia, and Cobar.......................'... ...] tº e º i e º 'º ...
2 || Woore ... W Wilcannia and Cobar... ... ...l...' ..
W
C
C
C
36
37
38
39
4O4
4 I
42
43
F44
{ 45
,46
47
Cadell
- Gunderbooka e
s
do
Bourke
do
Cobar ... tº gº º
Hillston North
* | * c e g º e I tº º ſº
Yanda
Booroondarra
Mossgiel
Franklin
Nicholson
Sturt
Boyd
Denison
Robinson
Mouramba ...
*e*e&eg&ee{ }
egº*&e**ei-etº
* .eg*º&º**ſe:-
2 F
and Cobar
dO and Hay North
Hay and Hillston ..
Hay, tº e ∈ e tº & * * *
do and Narrandera ...
COrowa... …
Cobar ... tº $ tº tº & ge . . . .
do ... e tº s tº e º …
-
tº gº tº º º
º
* * * * * *
tº gº &
* * * * * * * * * s ] e s a e º s
* * * * * * * * *
450
w-r------—--~ : —---— -—- - - - - ------------------------------ - ---------- --------
Table showing Distribution of Pines in New
South Wales.—continued.
# s
º , sº ºt
itris. .5 !-
ă ă ă
5|##
... . . | a 4- . c.;
TT1LOT13 e tº • cr; tº k-
Bººl - F - ; : , g|#|3|_| #| || #
No. Counties. Western, Land Districts. 3 g & 3 £ : 3 § 5 g ; § ă.
#. ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă
; : ; ; #3, #|###|A|& #
| i -
48 Blaxland .. W Hillston North... e - e. *:::::: - º e I e º 'º- º e i s e º , e. e. e i e º e i s tº º
49 | Dowling & G tº C Hillston... * ...+...+. . . . . . . ...
5O | Cooper C Narranderra - ... e - e i & ſº tº ..º. • … tº e s i e º e i t e e
5 I | Urana C Urana ... tº º º & © tº * * | * * * ..º. ...'...l...l...l...... . . . . . . . . . . .
52 || Hume e C & E | Corowa and Albury ... ...]<!-...]..."<0. .l...'...l...'...
53 | Culgoa 4 × W Brewarrina and Bourke ...]+[...]...' ...'...
54 Cowper º W Bourke... © - © ...]*...]...'. & ...
55 Canbelego e e W & C | Cobar and Nyngan ...]-)-... e
56 Flinders sº C Nyngan... e e a * g tº ...l...l... • *
57 | Cunningham e C Parkes and Condobolin ...]...]<0~... e
E8 Gipps C { Condobolin e e e l «»
** pp Forbes and Wyalong ... j […] "Ivº"
59 | Bourke C Barmedman & Wagga Waggalºl...]<0~...|.........
6O Mitchell ... - C Wagga Wagga & Narranderal...|...}}|...]...+|...
ôI | Goulburn & H. Albury ... * tº e e & to ...]...]...]<0~...l...!-ºl...i...!. º
62 | Narran - - W Brewarrina. - - e. e e e ... [...]...k0l...l...l...]...]...]. º
Ö3 Clyde ..|W & C do and Nyngan ...]...]<>|... {e tº tº
64 || Gregory C Nyngan and Warren ... ..|...}<>|... º tº a
65 | Oxley C do do ...[...]...]<>|... º © tº
66 Kennedy º C IParkes ... - © tº is 0 & ...]...|...}<>|... © e &
Grenfell, Barmedman East
67 | Bland ... C & E { Cootamundra ... tº e e } ...]...]<}|...
Cootamundra |
68 || Clarendon - - c & E { Gundagai º ...]... }...]...lº-...].
{ | Wagga Wagga, Gundagai,
69 || Wynyard | C & E || "...º.ºh. ...º.º.º...].
7o Finch e - tº W Walgett North... • * * ...]...l...]<}|...l...l...l...l...].. ^ - I e º a
7 I | Leichhardt ... C Walgett and Coonamble ...l...]<}|...]...[...]...[...].. & © 1 & 0 &
72 Ewenmar - C Warren and Dubbo ...]<!-l...]...[...]...]...].. º º e º e
73 | Narromine ... º C Dubbo * * * s gº tº ...[...]...]<>|...]...|<}|...]...].. • * I e º º
74 | Ashburnham ..] C & E Forbes, Molong, and Parkes.........|<>|...|...|<>|...|...|.. * - i. e. e. e.
75 Forbes . C & E Grenfell and Cowra * - ...]<>|...|...}|...]...].. & e º e g
76 || Monteagle E Young and Burrowa ... ...]<>|...]... }|...]...].. - e.
77 | Harden E. Gundagai and Burrowa ..]...]+[...]..."<>|...}...].. tº º º
78 || Buccleugh E Yass and Tumut • * * : * * * | * * * | * * * • * * | * * * | * * * | * * * r * tº e
79 | Selwyn E. Tumberumba ... s & 4 * * * r e º e I e º e I e º e i e s e i e º e I e e s e a • * > g. e. g.
8O | Denham C Walgett and Narrabri ..]...[...]<>|...]...[...]...l...!.. ...'.
81 | Baradine C Narrabri and Coonabarabran |...]...]{-|...]............'............ '...
82 GOwen C Coonabarabran and Coonamble......|{-|...]............'.. ...'...
83 Lincoln C Dubbo ... - * * ...]<0~!...]...<>|...]...'............ '...
84 Gordon E Molong and Dubbo ...l......lº-...l...+...]...'............ '...
85 Bathurst E Orange, Bathurst, and Carcoar......|4}|...]...<>|...}... '...l...l...... '...
86 || King E. Gunning, Burrowa, and Yass...|...]...[...]...|...<>|...... '...l...l...... '...
87 | Cowley E Queanbeyan ...l...l...!...+...l...!...]...l...... '...
88 || Wallace E Cooma ... ...l...]...l...lº-l...]...l... ...l......'...
89 | Benarba C Moree ...lºl...l............... ...l......'...
90 || Jamison C Narrabri • a tº e tº e ... [...]...ºl...l...]+[...]...[...]...[...]...'...
91 | White C do and Coonabarabran......|...}}|...]...]...[...]...]...]...]...]... ...
92 | Napier C Coonabarabran... ...kºl...l...]+[...]...]...l.........'...
93 Bligh e tº tº ... E | Mudgee... ... ... ........Rºl...]...º..................
94 | Wellington ... ... E Wellington, Mudgee, & Orangel...!...@...]...]^...]...............'...
95 || Roxburgh ... E Rylstone and Bathurst ...|...}... $l...]...]<!-l...]...'...l......'...'...
96 || Georgiana ... E Carcoar and Lithgow ...]...!!!...l.º...l..................
97 || Murray .. E. Queanbeyan and Braidwood... ...'...l..... 4×...]... '...'...l...... '...
98 || Beresford .' E Cooma ... * * * - ..!.....l...l.º...l..............'.
99 || Wellesley .' E Bombala & © g & ſº e ...!!!...l...l.º...l.................
1oo | Stapylton C Moree, and Warialda ... ...!!!º © tº º e º e ºl...l. '...l............
IOI Courralie C Moree... © e e 0 & - ...'...kºl...l...'...l... ...'...'...'...l...l...
IO 2 | Nandewar C Narrabri and Gunnedah ..!...ºl...l...º...l...'...'...'...l...]...
103 || Pottinger e . C Gunnedah tº e G **. ** **** e e Q

45I
Table showing Distribution of Pines in New South Wales.—continued.
-
# -
3 E
Callitris. #| | §
c cº 8C
5|3: ;
O || 'C ſº
* . c: , ăl #. ;
' Divisions— § 3 tº 3|: 3|_|5| 3 #| ||
No. Counties. | Western, Land Districts. § 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
ºf É Ā. § #|#| # 3 ##|#| # 3 ;
3S LCITI). i—. O QD 3| 3 | 3 || 3 | #| ||
š, ; ; ; ; #|###|#|##|É
. . . . . . . . . .
IoA Phillip E Mudgee and Rylstone ...'... ... • ... •+...+...'...'.....
Io 5 | Westmoreland E Bathurst, Lithgow, and Picton.............. ...l...l......'...'...
IO6 || Argyle E Goulburn © tº º * * * ...'...'...'...'...'...'...l...l.........'...'...
Io? | Dampier E Moruya and Bega. ...'...'...'…'...'...." ...+----|--|--
IO8 Auckland E Eden and Bega. ... ...'...'...l...!...+......'...'...l...
Io9 | Burnett * C Warialda. tº º º © & # tº $ & | tº º º ... +...'...+|...]...]......'...'...}.
I IO Murchison . C & E | Bingara and Inverell ... ...'... +...'...'...]... ...'...'...l...
I I I Darling E Tamworth & e sº tº ...!...... +...'...+... ...'...'...l...
I I 2 Buckland E Murrurundi and Tamworth ......'... +...'...ºl............'...'...]...
113 Brisbane E. Muswellbrook and Scone ......'... *...'...*...... ...'...'...'...l.
I 14 Hunter E. Muswellbrook and Windsor ... ...'...........& tº gº tº tº € $ *........ tº § &
I I 5 Cook E Lithgow, Windsor, and Penrith...'...'...'...'...}^|......|{-...]...]...]<0.
I I6 | Camden E Moss Vale, Nowra, and Picton............'...}^|......]-... ...ºl.
i 17 | St. Vincent ... E. Braidwood, Milton, & Moruya!...'...'...... ...&l...............'...'.
I I 8 Arrawatta E. Inverell and Warialda ...'...+|...'...}<>|......]... '...l. '...l...
I Ig Hardinge E do and Armidale... ...]... ............Kºi... ...l...!.
I 20 Inglis E Tamworth and Armidale ...'...+...'...}^l......... '...l... gº tº s tº e is
12 I Parry E Tamworth ... tº gº tº ...l...!...+......'...l.........'...l......]...
I 22 Durham E Singleton, Dungog, & Maitland..............................'...}^l.
\ Gosford... tº º & ge & tº ) | |
I 23 Northumberland E \ | Newcastle ſº tº g tº £ tº . . . . . . . . . ..'...}<>|-.. [...]...'... ...}}|...
( Maitland and Singleton y
| | Windsor tº gº tº º & . \
|| Picton ... # º º * e º |
124 Cumberland E 4 || Penrith ... * @ Kº tº $ tº * ...'...'...l... ...]... <>|...}<>!...'...}}|...
|| Parramatta ... tº ſº º I |
| | Metropolitan ... & E & |
I 25 | Gough E Glen Innes, Inverell, Tenterfield...'...'...l...'... *|............
I 26 | Sandon E Armidale ... ...'...l... |...}<!-l......... '...'...l...l.
I 27 | Vernon E. Walcha © & tº º tº * * * | * * g g g gº '...l. ...l...l... ...'.... "...l...
I 28 Hawes E do Scone, Stroud, & Tareel......'...'...'... ..l.........'...'...'...'...
I 29 || Clive E. Tenterfield and Glen Innes e …]. '...]<>|...]... ...'...'...'... ...
I 3O || Gresham E. Glen Innes and Grafton ...'...'...'...l............'... *...]...
I 3 I | Clarke E Armidale ... ........'...'...'...'...l...'...l. ...º.º.
I 32 Gloucester ... E Stroud, Taree, and Dungog ...|... ...!...+ ...[...]..."<>'..."<>.
I 33 || Buller E Tenterfield and Casino ...]......'...'...'...'...l.........'...'...}.
I34 Drake E. Casino, Glen Innes, & Grafton!......'...'...' ...'...'...}.
I 35 | Fitzroy E Grafton and Bellingen …'...'... ... <>4)-...}..
I 36 || Raleigh E Kempsey and Bellingen ...'...]+ ... ... **...'...
I 37 | Dudley E do © tº º tº e is ...'...'.…. ... <>'...'...'...
138 Macquarie E Taree and Port Macquarie .........'......'...]. ......'...]+!...
Casino ... tº ſº tº tº e tº ) | | . . .
I 39 Rous... E Lismore... & º 'º tº e º f | g g g g º º ...]^... ... <>4)-4}...
Murwillumbah ... \"", T.I.
I4O | Richmond E Casino and Lismore ...]... ...'...}<>...]...'...l...]... ... ** tº gº º
I4 I | Clarence E Grafton ...}. tº e ] g º º |… ſº **.
t } |
SUMMARISED.
Callitris glauca occurs in 87 counties. Callitris Tasmanica occurs in 3 counties.
* Q%2%OSQ. , , 4 J is ,, Muelleri y y 4 x 2
propinqua , , 2 y y ,, Macleayana 3 5 3 y
gracilis 3 y I y y Araucaria Cunninghamii y y 9 x p
calcarata ,, 5 I * 3 Podocarpus elata ,, 9 3 x
(U62%COS (V, x 3 8 3 y Pherosphºra Fitzgeraldi 2 x I x 3
rhomboidea ,, I jº p

452
Appendiz C.
CORRESPONDENTS, MOSTLY PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, WHO
ASSISTED IN COLLECTING DATA FOR THE PINE SURVEY
Abell, T., Eulah Creek, Narrabrå.
Adamson, G. McD., Salisbury Plains, Uralla.
Adamson, T. W., Rocky River, vid. Uralla.
Aikins, Thomas, Murrumburrah. - -
Aikman, Alexander, South Forbes.
Anderson, James, Meranburn.
Anstey, H. R., Mullumbimby.
Aston, John, Coolah.
Armstrong, James, Bungonia.
Atkinson Henry, Warkworth. -
Baker, H. E., Rutherfield, Quirindi.
Baker, S. R., Emmaville.
Balmain, H. David, Peel. - -
Barber A. B., Yarrahappini, Stuart's Point.
Barker, G. H., Booroomba. - -
Barratt, J. F., Round Swamp.
Bates, W. H., Vere, vid Whittingham.
ell, J. W., Brundah -
Benson, G. G., Barham.
Benton, J., Coolamon.
Berman, F. T., Coonamble.
Bickerstaff, J., Grong Grong."
Black, Robert, Brawlin.
Blanch, E. J., Coorabell Creek.
Blumer, G. A. (M.A.), Tareena.
Boulton, George, Wheeo.
Bourke, A. J., Parkesborough.
Bourke, I. D., Stuart Town.
Bowyer, H. A., Great Central, Mount Hope.
Brettell, H. C., Uranquinty.
Breyley, W. B., Ganmain.
Britten, C. H., Gentleman's Halt.
Brophy, C. M., Upper Manilla.
Brown, L. R., Daysdale.
Brown, R., Euston. * -
Browne, H. J., Condobolin.
Buchanan, R. T., Yarrahappini, Stuart's Point.
Bundock, A. J., Chain of Ponds, Gunning.
Burns, H. H., Milparinka.
Burns, May, Spring Ridge, Quirindi.
Byrne, J. A., Watergumben, vid. Cowra.
Byrnes, Sydney C., Quirindi.
Calov, J. R., Yarramolong
Cambowen, T. E., Windeyer, vid Mudgee.
Cameron, John, Tumbulgum.
Campbell, F., Stonefield.
Campbell, E. V., Staggy Creek
Capon, W. H., Furill, vid. Mudgee.
Carmichael, A. C., The Grange, Lake Cudgellico.
Carpenter, W. E., Acacia Creek.
Carroll, A. B., Bynya, vi ä Narrandera.
Carroll, Alfred, Chaucer and Wattle Grove.
Chalmers, C. O., Blair Tree, via Glencoe.
Champion, S., Dunbible, Tweed River.
Chaul, E. C., Whinstone Valley, vid Cooma.
Chawner, C. H., Sapphire, Inverell.
Chudleigh, C. S., Bigga, Binda.
Clarke, F. T., Burringbar.
Clowes, John, Boonoo Boonoo.
Colleton, D., Canowindra.
Connerton, J., Suntop, Wellington.
Coombes, W., Mosquito Island, Newcastle.
OF N.S.W.
Cormack, John, Swanvale, vid Glen Innes.
Cormack, J. S., Staggy Creek.
Coulter, Jane, Gosford.
Court, E. C., Yallaroi.
Cousins, A., Wardell.
Crowley, Helen C., Boggumbil.
Cummings, G. E., Upper Colo. -
Cunedy, A. K. West Cambewarra.
Curry, J. V., Coffey Hill, Orange.
Cutchley, H., Harden. -
Dale, B. F., Bethungra. ! .
Dalton, W. A., Jennings, Wallangarra.
Daly, J. B., Monteagle. -
D'Aran, F., Goolagong.
Davies, E. S., Keepit, Somerton.
Davies, W. J., Lochiel, Pambula.
Davis, J., Cobbora.
Dawson, James, Umaralla, Spring, near COOma.
Dawson, J., Henbury, Rylstone.
Day, W. T., Lake Cudgellico.
Delmege, James, Carroll.
Dennis, John, Mulwala.
Deverell, E. J., Bellingen.
Dransfield, A. J., St. Albans.
Dunne, Morgan, West Narrabri.
Dyce, C. G., Murrumbateman.
Edwards, A. J., Maluorindi, Woolbrook.
Eggins, Herbert, Gladstone.
Elliott, Alex., Cocomingla, Cowra.
Ellis, Alice M., Lockhart. -
Evans, J., Albion Park.
Evans, W. G., Queanbeyan.
Fairley, William, Tollbar and Clifford, Cooma.
Farrell, J. J., Coff’s Harbour. -
Fawcett, R. J., Bendolba. - -
Fitzell, R. W., Wallandra, Dubbo. -
Fitzpatrick, S. T., Oakey Creek and Woodlawn, Warialda.
Fraser, L. E., Clear Hills, Daysdale. -
Freeman, B. G. N., Coolac. .
Gambell, W., Berrima.
Garden, A. G., Berry.
Goard, W. S., Murrurundi.
Gould, E. T., Curia Creek, Tilba Tilba.
Grainger, F. J., Narromine. -
Grant, E. A., “ The Welcome,” Parkes.
Greville, A. W., Mungindi, via Moreé. -
Griffith, W. A., Weetalabar, Tambar Springs, via Gun-
nedah.
Guthrie, J., Hay.
Hadley, J., Newbridge.
Hagan, William, Walhallow, Quirindi.
Hall, P. F., Warialda. - .
Hanify, Joseph, Yarrowyck, vid Armidale.
Harding, J. S., Ulan, vid Mudgee. -
Harris, G. A., Winton, Tamworth.
Harrison, G. A., Dubbo.
Hatherly, W. C. H., Gunbar.
Hatherly, H., Hillston.
Hazelwood, J. W., Muswellbrook. .
Heath, W. G., Narrandera.
Henry, T. W., Cootamundra.
Herd, P., Nullamanna.
THE PINEs of Australia.
- -
lºo |25 |4-0 145 150 155
| - e yoakſ. Tº -
__ -CAPE York. T-1-110
-
|
15 | - | |
\ | L. Y. . |
\ \ – 2. --- “” - - 20
- -
20 | |
*
w E S T
T-125
- T-130
|--
- 3.
--- 19 oc ml e
> *"T"
Map showing extreme distances
from which material was obtained -
for this research.
_` Mote: An outſine of *- Europe is given * comparative distances.
105 110 115 |20 125 190 125 Iº-0 150
º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-ºw. A. Gul-C-Governº-En----------------sºw.














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"453
CORRESPONDENTS WHO ASSISTED IN COLLECTING DATA—(continued).
Hewitt, A. A., Looby's, Parkes.
Hickey, Sarah, Warrangunyah, Ilford.
Holtsbaum, F. V., Brodie's Plains, near Inverell.
Hook, J. J., Tuena.
Hughes, B. C., Berrigan.
Jackson, H., Craigie.
Jacobs, James, Wyrallah.
James, S. E., Dilga, Cumnock.
Johnson, W., Denman.
Johnstone, S. F., Tataila, Moama.
Jones, James, Booerie, Lismore.
Kealy, Cecilia, Upper Manilla.
Kendall, A. E., Stockinbingal.
Kennelly, W. A., Piallaway.
Laird, C. A. C., Duncan's Creek, Woolomin.
Langbridge, E. R., Cullenbone, Mudgee.
Ledwidge, C., Pleasant Hills.
Leer, Amy, Mt. Rivers, Lostock, Gresford.
Lewis, Samuel, Quandong, Grenfell.
Lockhart, J., Duesbury and Wilgas, Nevertire.
Lucas, W. L., Tirrania Creek, Lismore.
Lynch, J. P., Boree Cabonne, Cheeseman's Creek.
Manson, W., Amaroo.
Maune, A., Gerogery.
Mavine, J., Gerogery. •
McClelland, Christina, Swamp Oak, Moonbi Railway
Station.
McDonnell, John, Tuena.
McDowell, Miss J. E., Bethungra.
McInnes, A., Morungulan, Dripstone.
McLennan, A., Clareval, vi ä Stroud.
McLennan, J., Nevertire.
McLennan, H., Byron Bay.
McMahon, E. W., Pine Ridge, via Quirindi.
McMann, Thomas, Delegate.
McNamara, Annie, Lacmalac, Tumut.
McNamara, Susan, Gregador, Wagga Wagga.
McWhirter, A. A., Round Mount, Inverell.
Middenway, Mr. Wagga.
Miller, Thomas, Eugowra, vi ä Orange.
Miller, W. M., Tuckombil, Alstonville.
Mitchell, E. V. Stroud.
Moore, A., Scone.
Morgan, T. J., New Italy.
Morrison, John, Bermagui.
Morrissey, J., Narrabri.
Moss, G. B., Woomargama.
Mulligan, T. B., Cootamundra.
Munday, A. F., Colstoun, Gresford.
Murray, Alexander, Coolongolook.
Musgrove, F. A., Pooncarie.
Mutton, H. P., Lewis Ponds.
Myers, J. G., Nambucca Heads.
Newman, P. F., Trelow.arren, Parkes.
Nickson, J., Pinch Flat, Armidale.
Nicussengh, A.; Narrabeen.
Nixon, L., Collendina.
Nixon, R., Yetman.
O’Brien, G. C., Golspie.
O'Hara, C., Enngonia.
O'Sullivan, J., Tintenbar.
Olde, Maggie R., Lockwood, Canowindra.
Paddison, A., New Angledool.
Parkins, J. W., Elsmore.
Patrick, G. A., Digilah, vi ä Merrygoen.
Peacock, W. J., Forest Hill.
Peck, C. W., Lowesdale, vi ä. Corowa.
Perkins, W. H., Lake Cudgellico.
Perry, G. A., Lower Lewis Ponds.
T’ittock, A. J., Moorwatha. -
Postlethwaite, J. G., Grenfell.
Pritchard, Alfred, Attunga.
Readford, Charles, Spicer's Creek.
Richards, John, Tocumwal.
Rigg, Joseph, Brogan's Creek, Rylstone.
Rohan, E., Eureka.
Rose, S. C., Unanderra, Illawarra.
Ross. W. J., Menindie.
Rudd H., Manilla.
Sampson, B. E., Moor Creek, Tamworth.
Sampson, Bertha E., Summer Vale, Walcha
Schaefer, M. J., Point Danger, Tweed Heads
Shaw, L. C., Tintenbar.
Sheath, B. A., Carrabolla, vid Lostock
Sheehy, Theo., Boggabri.
Silcock, George, Armidale.
Sim, J. L., Eugowra.
Sims, R. (Junior), Dubbo.
Slack, A. I., Terra Bella.
Smith, H. W. (B.A.), Mossgeil.
Smith, H. W., Cassilis.
Smith, J. H., Dubbo.
Smith, S., Mathoura.
Squire, Francis, Berrigal Creek, Narrabri
Strangways, H. W., Bollol Creek, Narrabri.
Strong, R., Box Ridge, vid Sofala.
Sullivan, J., Woodstock.
Surtee, John, Nine Mile, Deepwater.
Tate, S. G., Marlow, Braidwood.
Taylor, E. H., Coonamble.
Taylor, F. D., Gouldsville.
Teitkins, W. H., Walgett.
Thomas, Henry, Cooma.
Thresher, Henry, Wallangra, vi ä Inverell
Tindale, A. N., Torrie Lodge, Bylong.
Tonking, A., Marengo.
Tutland, T. K., Little Narrawa
Tysoe, Edward, Pimlico North.
Varcoe, Charles, Baker’s Swamp, Dripston’’.
Vindin, H. E., Burrowa.
Vivean, J. I., Adelong.
Walker, V. N., Baan Baa.
Watson, A. E., Nethercote, Pambula.
VVatson, A. T. T3: …"unnbuttock
Wedlock, W. F., Baerami, Dennian.
West, A. J., Rous Hill.
West, T. H. Guntawang.
Wharton, J. E. (..., Pyramul.
Wheaton, A. J., Woodford Dale.
Wigg, H. V., Weddin, vid Young.
Wilcox & Co., George, Circular Quay Sylney
Williams, E. G., Nimitybelle.
Williams, J. J., Wilcannia.
Wilshire, Osborne, Deniliquin.
Wilson, C. L. E., Walli.
Woalley, P., Lagoon.
Yarrington, A. I., Ashlea. vići Wingham
Young, L. C., Garra.
454
Indez.
[The numbers printed in clarendon type refer to the full description of species, articles, and
principal references.]
PAGE
4bies ............................................................ 67
4b** ...................................................... 326
Acacia pycnantha (bark).................................... 69
Acid, resin, high melting point, Araucaria Cunning-
ha” ................................................... 344
Acid, resin, low melting point, Araucaria Cunning- -
ha” ................................................... 344
Acids of the esters, Callitris calcarata .................. 2O I
Acids of volatile oil, Callitris glauca..................... I32
4cºnostrobus ................................................ 8
4. acuminata, Parlat. .................................... 298
4. pyramidalis, Miq. ........................ 84, 85, 290, 291
Bark ...................................................... 296
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 292
Leaves ................................................... 292
Resin....................................................... 298
Sections of bark (Figs. 212 to 215) ............... 297
Sections of timber (Figs. 207 to 21 I) ......... 295, 296
Timber (Anatomy).................................... 294
Transverse sections, branchlets and decurrent
leaves (Figs. 205, 206) ........................ 293
486th’s ...................................................... 3, 9, 326
Agathºs (Genus) ............................................. 37I
4. Moore? ................................................... 393
4. Palmerstoni, F.V.M. .................................... 393
21. robusta, C. Moore .................. 84, 85, 331, 372 to 376
Anatomy of bark • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Anatomy of timber ................................. 377
Bark ...................................................... 379
Chemistry of the oleo-resin 379
Composition of the Oleo-resin ..................... 393
Fruit cones ............................................. 376
Gum of exudation ................................. 38 I, 387
Oleo-resin ....................................... 82, 383, 385
Reducing Sugar ....................................... 88
Resin........................ 338, 343, 384, 385, 388, 390
Resin acids ............................................. 384
Sections of timber (Figs. 261 to 264) ............ 378
Sections of timber and bark (Figs. 265–7) ...... 38O
Timber ................................................... 376
Transverse Tests of timber ........... • - - - - - - - - - - - - 377
Air-dried black gum of Agathis robusta ............... 85
Air-dried black gum of Araucaria Cunninghamii ... 85
Alcohols, Oil of Callitris glauca ..................... tº e º t e e I 3O
Allyl Veratrol ................................................ 4O7
Alumina in Orites excelsa ................................. 87
Analysis of bark of Callitris robusta .............. e s a s 98
Anatomy and life history of cone valves of
Callºtrºs .............................. 38, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46
Angiosperms............................................ .# tº º g º 'º º 55
4 *tearºa ...................................................... 3, 8
Araucarias and Abietineae ................................. 326
4 raucaria (Genus) .......................................... 3I 5
A. Bºdwill?, Hook............. 8, 84, 85, 316, 354 to 357, 360
Anatomy of the bark .............................. 363
Anatomy of leaves .................................... 36 I
Anatomy of timber ................................. 363
Park ................................................... 337, 363
Chemistry of the bark .............................. 368
Chemistry of the exudation ........................ 369
Cone ................................................... 358, 359
Exudations ............................................. 382
Gum ............................................. 338, 369, 370
Peaves ................................................... 36 I
Sections of bark (Figs. 255 to 260) ............ 365, 367
Sections of bast fibre .............................. 367
PAG F.
A. Bºdwilli, Hook. (continued)—
Section of leaf (Fig. 251) ........................... 36I
Sections of timber (Figs. 252 to 256) ............ 364
Timber ......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 362
A. Cunninghamii, Ait. ...... 8, 8.4, 85, 314, 317, 318, 319,
32I, 322, 347 to 351, 352, 360, 379
Acid of high melting point in resin............... 344
Acid of low melting point in resin............... 344
Park ...................................................... 33I
Botanical survey .................................... 352
Chemistry of bark .................................... 334
Chemistry of the latex .............................. 334
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 325
Composition of the latex ........................... 346
Dundathic acid in resin .............................. 343
Ether extract from the resin acids ............... 346
Exudation ............................................. 37O
Fasciation at top of a tree under cultivation 333
Free acids of latex.................................... 34 I
Gum ............................................. 369, 370, 381
Latex............................................. 382, 383, 388
Leaves ................................................... 32O
Longitudinal sections of timber (Figs. 245, 246) 330
Manganese in .......................................... 382
Mucic acid from gum .............................. 342
Nitrogenous substances in latex .................. 346
Oleo-resin ................................................ 82
Resin........................ 338, 345, 384, 385, 389, 390
Resin in latex ....................................... 343
Sections of bark (Figs. 247 to 250) ............... 332
Sections of leaves (Figs. 229 to 236) 323, 324
Sections of timber (Figs. 237 to 244) ......... 327, 328
Sugar from gum .................................... 342
Timber ................................................ 3I6, 325
Volatile oil of latex ................................. 340
4. Cunninghamiz, var. glauca ........................... 353
4. inbrècata .................................. s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 8,360
A. Johnstonii, F.V.M. (fossil) ........................... 3I 5
Ash of Actinostrobus pyramidalis (timber) ............ 84, 85
Agathis robusta (timber) ........................... 84, 85
A raucaria Bidwilli (timber) ........................ 84, 85
A raucaria Cunninghamii (timber) ............... 84, 85
A throtaxis Selagºnoides .............................. 85
Callitri's calcarata .................................... 83
C. calcarata (seeds).................................... 85
C. glauca (capsules).................................... 85
C. glauca (seeds) ....................................... 85
C. glauca (leaves)....................................... 85
C. intratropica .......................................... 83
C. robusta (leaves) .................................... 85
C. verrucosa ............................................. 83
Dacrydium Franklini (timber) ..................... 85
Phyllocladus rhomboidalis ........................... 85
Podocarpus elata (timber) ........................... 84, 85
Sequota Sempervirens ................................. 85
4throtaxis............................................. 3, 8, 303, 304
Athrotaxis (Genus) .......................................... 305
A. Selaginoides, Don ................................. 85, 305, 416
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. 3O8
Leaves ................................................... 306
Sections of leaves (Figs. 217 to 225) ......... 307, 309
Sections of timber (Figs. 226 to 228) . . . . . .312
Timber ................................................... 2 II
4. cupressoides ............................................. 3I 3
A. laxifolia, Hook. f. ....................................... 3I3
Australian Coniferae ....................................... I
PAGE.
“Australian Cypress” .................................... I3
Australian sandarac ....................................... 77
Bitter principle of neutral resins .................. 339, 386
“Black Pine "................................. I92, IQ5, 2I 3, 44 I
Black lacquer of the Japanese and Chinese ......... 381
Blackening with the gum precipitates ............... 381
“Bon-ye ’’ “Bon-yi " .................................... 36O
Borneo ...................................................... 33, 20 I
Botanical survey of the Pines of New South Wales .
IO, I IO, I47, I 7I, 2 I 3, 352, 44 I
Brachyphyllum macrocarpum, Newb. .................. 377
“Brown Pine "............................................. 284, 432
Bulnesia sarmienti .......................................... 64
& 4 Bunya Bunya, " ..................... 355, 356, 358, 359, 36O
Cadinene ...................................................... IO
C*s ...................................................... 3, 6, I5
Callitris barks, commercial value ..................... 7o
Callitris barks, general reactions ........................ 74
Callitris barks, percentages of tannin .................. 73
Callitris barks, tanning value ........................... 67
C*is cones ................................................ 36, 52
Całłłłris columella .......................................... 52, 53
Callitris cones, origin of the spur on the valves of... 47, 48
Callitris, early branchlets (Fig. 3) ..................... 26
Callitris, excluded species ................................. 17
Callitris leaf oils ............................................. 3 I
Callitris, manganese in ash of timber .................. 84
Callitris, odour given by the wood ..................... 61, 63
Callitris Oils, solubility in alcohol ..................... 35
Callitris, one year old plants (Figs. I and 2) ......... 24, 25
Callitris, Origin of the spur (Fig. 27) .................. 48
Callitris, phylogeny of .................................... 2 I
Callitris resin, optical rotations ........................ 78
Callitris resins, density of ................................. 78
Callitris, Sandarac resins of the........................... 75
Callitris, Sandarac resins, rotation and solubility
results ............................................. 79
Callitris, showing forms of leaves (Figs. I and 2) ... 24, 25
Callitris species, order of sequence ..................... I 7
Callitris species, sections to illustrate leaf oils ...... 30
Callitris species, transverse sections through branch-
lets and decurrent leaves (Figs. I70 to 173) 250
Callitris, table of evolution .............................. 2O
Callitris timber, occurrence of Guaiol in ............ 63
Callitris timber, oil .......................................... 6O
Callitris timber, phenol in ................................. 62
Całłłris timbers ............................................. 56
Callitris (Genus) ............................................. I 3
C. actinostrobus, F. v.M. .................................... 291
C. are mosa, A. Cunn. ......... 7, 83, 157, 158, 160, 161, 222
Anatomy ............................................. I 59 167
Bark ................................................... 7o. 168
Botanical Survey of species ........................ 17I
Chemistry of bark .................................... I68
Leaves ................................................... I59
Oil from the leaves ................................. 167
Sections of bark (Figs. IO 5, IOG) ............... I69, 170
Sections of branchlets and leaves (Figs. 94–IoI) I63–4
Sections of timber (Figs. Ioz, Io9, IoA) ......... I69
Timber ................................................ 167
C. arenosa, Sweet............................................. 22O
C. attenuata ................................................ 222, 265
C. australis ................................................... 233
C. calcarata, R.Br. ...... 38, 40, 42, 50, 71, 83, 85,
192, 193, IQ5, 222
Acids of the esters .................................... 2O I
Anatomy of the bark ................................. 208
Anatomy of the leaves ........................... I96
Anatomy of the timber .............................. 2O4
Bark...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 208, 2IO
Botanical survey .................................... 2I3
Chemistry of the bark .............................. 2O9
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 2OO
Chemistry of the timber.............................. 208
Crude oil from the leaves ........................... 2O3
: Economics of the leaves ........................... I96
Economics of the bark ........................... 208
Callitris calcarata, R.Br. (con inued)—
Economics of the timber ........................... 2O3
Leaves ................................................... I96
Natural habitat .................................... 7o
Oil of the fruits ....................................... 2O3
Section illustrating growth of the ventral side of
the Sporophylls (Fig. 33) ..................... 5O
Sections of bark (Figs. I32 to I4I) ...... 2OO, 209, 2 IO
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves
(Figs. I 28, 129, 13 I, I 33, I 34) ............ I97, IQ9
Sections of timber (Figs. I 30, 135 to I39) 200, 205,2O7
Sections to illustrate life history and anatomy
of the cone-valves (Figs. 4, II to I 5)... 38, 40, 42
Table of results of Crude oil ........................ 2O3
Tannin in bark ....................................... 2O9
Timber ................................................... 2O3
Transverse tests of timber ........................ 2O4
C. conglobata................................................... 17
C. cupressiformis, Vent. ................................. 22O
C. Drummondii, Benth. ........................ 252, 253, 423
Bark ...................................................... 257
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 256
Leaves ................................................... 254
Oil of the fruits ....................................... 257
Timber ................................................... 257
Transverse sections of branchlets and decurrent
leaves (Figs. I 76 to I 79) .................. 2.54, 255
C. elegans ...................................................... 17
C. fruticosa. R. Fr. . . . . . . .................... ............ IQ2
C. glauca, R.Er. ......... II, 22, 82, 85, 118, I IQ, I 2 I, 122
Anatomy of bark....................................... I43
Anatomy of timber ................................. 138
Bark ................................................... I43
Botanical survey .................................... I47
Chſ mistry of bark .................................... I46
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. I 28
Ché mistry of timber ................................. I43
Cross sections of branchlets and decurrent
leaves (Figs. 65 to 68) ........................ 127
Cross sections of branchlets and leaves (Figs. 69
; to 72). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 3O, I 3 I
Cross sections of timber (Figs. 79 to 82)......... I39
Crude oil from the leaves ........................... 136
Disposition of stomata .............................. 22
Leaves ................................................... I23
Leaves, oil cavities ................................. I 25
Radial and tangential sections of timber (Figs.
83 to 86) .......................................... I4O
Radial sections of timber (Figs. 87, 88, 89) ... I42
Re-distillation results of oil (table) ............ I37
Sections of bark (Figs. 9o to 93) ............... I45, I 46
Sections of different parts of leaves (Figs. 73–8) 1 35–6
Tannin in bark ....................................... I46
Timber ................................................... I 37
Transverse section of timber .................... . 82
Transverse timber tests .............................. 138
C. gracilis, R. T. Baker ...... 7, 12.1–4, 181, 182, 184, 186
Anatomy of the leaves ........................... 183
Anatomy of the timber .............................. 189
Bark ...................................................... I9 I
Chemistry of bark .................................... I9 I
Chemistry of leaf oil .............................. 185
Crude oil from the leaves ........................... 189
Economics of bark .................................... I9I
Economics of the leaves ........................... 183
Economics of the timber ........................... 189
Leaves ................................................... 183
Sections of leaves (Figs. I2 I to 124) ............ I88
Sections of timber (Figs. I25 to I27) ............ I90
Timber ................................................... I 89
C. Gummit, Hook. f. .................................... 27I, 273
C. Huegelii, ined.............................................. II.8
C. intermedia ................................................ 288
C. intratropica. Benth. ................................. 7, 83, 172
Anatomy of bark....................................... I79
Anatomy of leaves ................................. I 73
Anatomy of timber ................................. I 76
PAGE
PAGE.
Callitris intratropica, Benth. (continued)–
Park ...................................................... I 79
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. I 75
# Chemistry of the bark .............................. I 79
FConomics of the bark .............................. I 79
Economics of the leaves ........................... I 73
Economics of the timber ........................... 176
Leaves .................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s s e e s e e s e s e s e a I 73
Sections of bark (Figs. I 18 to 120) ............... I8O
Sections of timber (Figs. III to 117) ......... 177, 178
Table, crude oil from the leaves .................. 176
Timber ................................................
66, 176
Transverse sections through branchlets and
decurrent leaves (Figs. Io 7 to IIo) ...... I 74
C. Macleayana, F. v.M. ........................... 7, 43, 46, 278
Park ................................................... 67, 288
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. 282
Leaves ................................................... 28O
Oil distillate from timber ........................... 62
Sections of leaves (Figs. 185, 186, 194 to 197) 281–3
Sections of timbers (Figs. I98 to 203)............ 286–7
Sections to illustrate life history and anatomy
of the cone valves (Figs. 16, 17, 26)......... 43, 46
Timber .......................................... 64, 66, 284
Transverse section, junction timber and bark
(Fig. 204) .......................................... 289
C. montana ................................................... 17
C. Morrison?, R. T. Baker ..................... 259, 26o, 261
C. Muelleri, Benth. ............... 49, 50, 54, 262, 263, 264
Park ...................................................... 271
Chemistry of bark .................................... 271
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. 268
Leaves ................................................... 266
Longitudinal section through P amentum and
subtending decurrent leaves (Figs. 40, 41) 54
Sections illustrating growth of the ventral side
of the Sporophylls (Figs. 28 to 32)............ 49, 50
Sections of timber (Figs. 186 to 189)............ 27o
Transverse sections, branchlets and decurrent
leaves (Figs. I 81 to 185) ..................... 267
Seedling (Fig. 180) .................................... 265
Timber ................................................... 269
C. oblonga, Rich. .......................................... 271, 272
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. 276
Leaves ................................................... 274
Sections through branchlets and decurrent
leaves (Figs. I go to 193) ..................... 275
Timber ................................................... 277
C. Parlatoret, F.V.M. ....................................... 278
C. Preisit, Miq. .......................................... 89, I 18
C. Pºsca ...................................................... 23
C. propºnqua, R.Br. .................................... I I I, 112
Park ...................................................... II6
Chemistry of the bark .............................. I IG
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... II 4
Leaves .................... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II 3
Section of bark (Figs. 62, 63, 64) ............... 1.17
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves
(Figs. 60, 61) .................................... I I4
Timber ................................................... I I 6
C. Pyramidańs ............................................. 222, 265
C. quadrivalvis ..... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47
C. rhomboidea, R.Br. ... 38, 40, 43, 45, 46, 50, 51, 220, 221,
222, 22
... Anatomy of the leaves .............................. 224
Bark ......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23 I
Chemistry of the bark .............................. 23 I
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 226
Economics of the leaves ........................... 224
Geranyl-acetate in leaf oil ........................ 227
Leaves ................................................... 224
Longitudinal Sections of bark (Figs. I 55, 156)... 232
Sections illustrating growth of the ventral side
of the sporophylls (Figs. 34 to 39) ......... 50–2
Sections illustrating life history and anatomy of
- the cone valves (Figs. 4 to 26) 38, 40, 43, 45, 46
Sections of bark (Figs. 151 to 154)
23O
tº gº tº gº - ºr º e º żº & © - -> *
Callitris rhomboidea, R.Br. (continued)—
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves t
(Figs. I42 to 146) .............................. 225
Sections of timber (Figs. I47 to I50) ............ 229
Timber ......................- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 227
C. robusta, R.Br. .................................... 8o. 85, 88, 89
Bark ............................ .......................... 97
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 93
Oil from the fruits .................................... 94
Section of bark (Fig. 50) ........................... 98
Section of bast fibre ................................. 367
Sections of timber (Figs. 45 to 49) ............... 95–6
Timber ................................................... 95
Transverse sections through branchlets and -
leaves (Figs. 42 to 44) .................. • * * * * * Q2
C. Roet, Endl. ........................................... • * * * * 258
C. sinensts...................................................... I5
Callitris Species (C. intermedia) ..................... 249, 288
Longitudinal sections of leaf (Figs. I74, 175)... 25I
C. spheroidalis, Slotsky ..................... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * IQ2
C. Suissii, Preiss. ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
C. Tasmanica (Nobis) . 7, 227, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238, 249
Bark ...................................................... 247
Chemistry of bark .................................... 247
Chemistry of leaf oil .............................. 240, 245
Geranyl-acetate in leaf oil ........................... 242
Leaves ................................................... 238
Sections of bark (Figs. I 68, 169) .................. 248
Sections of branchlets and leaves (Figs. I6 I-4) 24 I
Sections of timber (Figs. I65 to I67) ............ 246
Timber ................................................... 245
Transverse sections of branchlets and leaves
- (Figs. I57 to 16O) .............................. 239
C. tuberculata, R.Br. ....................................... 99
C. verrucosa, R.Br. ................................. 83, Ioo, 101
Bark ...................................................... Io8
Botanical Survey of Species ........................ I IO
Chemistry of the bark .............................. I IO
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... IO4
Leaves ................................................... I O2
Oil from the fruit .................................... IO6
Sections of bark (Figs. 58, 59) ..................... IO8
Sections of branchlets and decurrent leaves
(Figs. 51 to 53) .......... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * IO2, I O3
Sections of timber (Figs. 54 to 57) ............... Io 7
Timber ................................................... IO6
Callitrol, colour reactions of ........................... 62
Casuarina inophloia ....................................... 280
“Celery Top Pine " ................................. 85, 4 I4, 416
Chemical products, Systematic value of ............... 445
Citral ......................................................... 2O I
Cladodia of P. lvl'o cladus r .0 ºn boida is.................. 4 IQ
Classification adopted, systematic ..................... 5
“Colonial Pine " ....................................... 318, 352
Colour reaction for Callitrol .............................. 62
Columella ...................................................... 52, 53
Commercial value of Callitris barks .................. 7O
Composition of Sandarac ................................. 76
Composition of latex, Araucaria Cunninghamii 346
Cone ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 37
Cone valves
... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
to w
- 39
Cone valves, life history and anatomy (Figs. 4 to 26) 38 to 46
Cones of Callitris ............... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36
Cones—Callitris, functions of the central columella 52
Cones, origin of the spur on the valves ............... 47, 48
Conifer barks from India ................................. 68
Conifer barks of Australia .............................. 68
Correspondents who collected data ..................... 452
Cretaceous Pityoxyla ....................................... 8 I
Crystallisable diterpene .................................... IO
Cunninghamia simensis .................................... I5
Cupressus australis, Pers. .............................. I92, 237
C. australis, Desf. .......................................... 22O
C. rhomboidea, Desf. ....................................... 237
“Cypress Pine " ... 88, Ioo, IoI, III, II2, I 18, I 19, 157,
I58, 16o, I 72, I8 I, 220, 223, 233, 235.
236, 252, 260, 26 I, 263, 264, 272.
12AGE.
“Cypress Pine Resin .................................... 75
Dacrydene ................................................... 397
Dacrydium ................................................... 3, IO
Dacrydium (Genus).......................................... 394
D. Franklini, Hook. f....... 85, 395, 396, 397, 402, 403, 427
Anatomy of timber ................................. 4O4
Bromide of dacrydene .............................. 4OI
Chemistry of the leaf oil ........................... 397
Chemistry of the oil from timber .................. 404
Leaves ................................................... 397
Limonene of the oil ................................. 4OO
Methyl ether of eugenol in oil .................. 4O I, 4O7
Preparation of the bromide from oil ............ 4O6
Preparation of veratric acid from oil ............ 4O7
Principal terpene of the oil ........................ 4OO
Sections of timbers (Figs. 268, 269, 270) ...... 4O5
Timber .................................. ... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4OI
Transverse timber tests .............................. 4O4
Dadoxylon australe .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 81
Dammara from the Tertiary period .................. 37 I
D. robusta, C. Moore ....................................... 376
“ Damson Pine " .......................................... 284
Density of Callitris resins ................................. 78
Dextro-rotatory borneol ................................. 33
Dextro-rotatory pinene .................................... 34
Dicamphene hydride ....................................... 422
Diphenyl ...................................................... 422
Diselina (Genus) ............................................. 299
D. Archert, Hook.f. ....................................... 299
Leaves ................................................... 3OO
Transverse section branchlet and leaves (Fig.
216) ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O I
Disposition of Stomata .................................... 22
Distribution of Pines in New South Wales, Table of 450
Diterpene ........ .................................. 42O, 422, 425
Diterpene, crystallisable.................................... IO
Division of Genus Callitris................................. I6
Dundathic Acid ..................... 339, 343, 385, 386, 390
“Dundathu Pine " .................................... 376, 385
Essential oil in oleo-resin, Agathis robusta ............ 386
Ether extract from the resin acids ............... 346, 392
Eucalyptus capsule, longitudinal Section ............ 55
Eugenol............................................. 398, 40 I, 406
Evolution of Callitris Species.............................. 2O
Excluded species of Callitris.............................. 17
Experimental, latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii ... 339
Fasciation at top of tree under cultivation, Araucaria
Cunninghamit .................................... 333
Foliation ...................................................... 23
Forestry ...................................................... 3
Fossil, Araucaria Johnstonii .............................. 3 I5
Fossil Kauri resin from New Zealand ............... 384
Free acids, essential oil of oleo-resin Agathis robusta 387
Free acids, latex Araucaria Cunninghamii ............ 34 I
Frenela, Mirb. ................................................ I3
F. arenosa, A.Cunn................................. I57, 22O, 222
F. attenuata, A.Cunn. .................................... 22O
F. australis, R.Br. ........................ I92, 237, 27 I, 273
F. calcarata, A.Cunn. ....................................... IQ2
F. canescens, Parlat. .......................... ............. II.8
F. columellaris, F.V.M. .................................... I57
F. crassivalvis, Miq. ....................................... II 8
F. Drummondii, Parlat. ................................. 253
F. Endlicheri, Parlat. .................................... IQ2
F. ericoides, Hort. ex Endl. .............................. I92
F. fruticosa, A.Cunn. .................................... 262
F. fruticosa, Endl. .......................................... I92
F. Gulielmi, Parlat........................................... II 8
F. Gummit, Endl. .......................................... 27 I
F. intratropica, F.V.M. .................................... 172
F. Macleayana, Parlat. .................................... 278
F. macrostachya, Gord. .................................... 27I
F. microcarpa, A.Cunn. .................................... I57
F. Moorei, Parlat. ....................................... II 2, I 57
F. Muelleri, Parlat........................................... 262
F. pyramidalis, A.Cunn..................................... I Q2
F. rhomboidea, Endl. .................................... 22O, 2.24
Fre mela rhomboidea, var. mucronata ..................... 233
F. rhomboidea, R.Br., var. Tasmanica, Benth. ...... 233
F. robusta, A.Cunn. ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... 89
F. robusta, var. microcarpa ........................... I 57, I 72
F. Subcordata, Parlat. ..... .................................. 258
F. triquetra, Spach. .................................... 22O, 237
F. variabilis, Carr. .............. ............................ 27 I
F. Ventenatiz, Mirb. .................................... 22O, 222
Fresnelta, Steud. ............................................. I 3
Functions of the central columella Callitris cones... 52
General reactions with Callitris barks .................. 74
Geranyl-acetate—
Ca/litri’s rhomboidea .................................... 227
Callitris Tasmanica .................................... 242
Darwinia fascicularis ................................. 242
Eucalyptus Macarthuri .............................. 242
Guaiol ............ ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 65, 66
Gymnosperms .............................. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 55
Hemlock ...................................................... 67
Hemlock extract ..... $ e s e s - e º e s • e e s e a e e s = < e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 68
Hexahydrocymene .......................................... 3.35
Histology of the leaf ....................................... 27
“Hoop Pine '' ........................ 3 I 7, 318, 3.I.9, 350, 352
“ Huon Pine '' ...... 85, 395, 396, 397, 401, 402, 403, 427
Hydrocarbons of the formula CIO H2O.................. 337
Investigations into the composition of sandarac ...... 76
Juniperus communis ....................................... 67
J. ericoides, Noisette ....................................... IQ2
Kauric Acid ................................................ 384
“King William Pine " ............ 34, 85, 3O3, 3O4, 305, 427
Latex of Araucaria Cunninghamii ............ 382, 383,388
Latex of the lac tree .................................... 382
Leaf, (Callitris) histology of the ........................ 27
Leaf oils—Callitris (general remarks on) ............ 3 I
Leaves, movements of Callitris ........................ 3 I
Leichhardtia ................................................... I 3
L. Macleayana, Shep. .................................... 278
| Lepidodendron Hickii .............................. 6, 2 I, 22, 26
Life history and anatomy of cone valves ......... 38, 40, 42,
- 43, 45, 46
Limonene in Callitris leaf oils ........................... 33
Limonene of the oil of Dacrydium Franklin i ......... 4OO
Manganese in Araucaria Cumminghamii ............... 382
Manganese compound in Australian Coniferae...... 80, 84,
85, 342, 38.1, 383
Methoxy groups in oil of Dacrydium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Methyl-ether of eugenol in oil of Dacrydium ...... IO, 398
Methyl-isopropylcyclohexane ........................... 337
Microcachrys (Genus) ....................................... 3OI
M. tetragona, Hook. f........................................ 3OI
Mogadore Sandarac .......................................... 77
“Moreton Bay Pine '’................... ... ................. 3.18
“Mountain Pine " ........................ 181, 192, IQ5, 2 I3
Movement of leaves ....................................... 3I
Mucic acid from gum, Araucaria Cunninghamt i ...... 342
“Murray River Pine " ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 8
" Native Cypress " .......................................... 277
“Native Damson " ....................................... 443
“Native Plum ”............................................. 443
Neutral resins, bitter principle of 339, 392
New Zealand “Kauri ''.................................... 384
Nitrogenous Substances of latex ..................... 346, 393
North African Sandarac ................................. 75
Oakwood ...................................................... 68
Octoclinis, F.V.M. ............................................. I 3
Octoclin is Macleayana, F.V.M. ........................... 278
Odour of Callitris timber ................................. 6 I, 63
Oil, chemistry of the leaf-
Actinostrobits pyramidalis ........................... 292
A raucaria Cunninghamit ........................... 32.5
A throtaxis Selaginoides................................. 308
Callièrts arenosa ....................................... I64
C. ca/carata ............................................. 2OO
C. Prummondit.......................................... 256
C. glauca ................................................ I 28
C. graciºs ................................................ I85
C. ºntratropica .......................................... I75
- PAGE
PAGE
Oi!. chemistry of the leaf- (contanucd),
Callitris Macleayana ................................. 282
C. Mueller? ..... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e º e s sº e º 'º e º 'º e 268
C. oblonga........ • * * * > * * e º e º e s e e s ∈ e s - c e e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 276
C. ProPºqua .......................................... II 4.
C. rhomboidea ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
C. robºsta ................................................ 93
C. Tasmanica .......................................... 24O
C. Verºucosa ............................................. IO4
Dacrydium Franklini ................................. 397
Pherosphaera Fitzgeraldi.............................. 4 I2
Phyllocladus rhomboidalis (cladodia) ............ 4I 9
Oil Of the fruits of
Callitris calcarata ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O3
C. Drummond?? ....................................... 257
C. robusta ................................................ 94.
C. ^*ucosa ............................................. I O6
Oil of turpentine ............................................. 383
Oleo-resin of Agathis robusta ..................... 82, 385, 393
Order of sequence, Callitris .............................. 17
Origin of spur on valves of Callitris cones ............ 47, 48
Orites excelsa, alumina in .................................
“Oyster Bay Pine '' .................................... 233, 236
Pachylepts, Brongn. ....................................... I3
Parolºnia, Endl. ............................................. I 3
Phenol in Callitris timber ................................. 6O, 62
Pherosphaera ................................................ IO
Phérosphaera (Genus) ....................................... 409
P. Fitzgeraldi, F.V.M. ........................... 408, 410, 4 II
Chemistry of leaf oil ................................. 4 I2
P. Hookeriana, Archer .................................... 4.09
Phyllocladene ....................................... IO, 422, 423
Phyllocładus ................................................... 3, IO
Phyllocladus from New Zealand ........................ 43 I
Phyllocladus (Genus) ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 I 5
* *P*...................................................... 4 IQ
P. asplenoides, Ettingshaisen ........................... 4I 5
P. rhomboidalts ....................................... 85, 4I4, 416
Anatomy of bark....................................... 427
Anatomy of cladodia. .............................. 4 IQ
Anatomy of timber ................................. 427
Park ............................................ ..a e s s e e º e º e 427
Chemistry of bark .................................... 430
Chemistry of leaf (cladodia) oil..................... 4I 9
Leaves ................................................... 4I6
Pinene (leaf oil) ....................................... 424
Sections of bark (Figs. 284, 285, 286)............ 429
Sections of timber (Figs. 281, 282, 283) ...... 428
Timber ...... ............................................. 427
Transverse sections through a phyllode (Figs.
27 I-280) .......................................... 416–8
Transverse timber tests .............................. 427
P. Thalamia ................ . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 I5.
P. trichomanoides............................................. 43 I
Phyllotaxis ................................................... 27
Phylogeny of Callitris....................................... 2I
Picea ............................................................ 67
P*............................................................ 2, 67
P. cembra ...................................................... 233
P. Donnel-Smith? .......................................... 23
P. hałepensis ................................................ I 25
P. longifolia ................................................... 67
Pºlyoxyla ................................... ... ............... 2 I
"Plum Pine " .......................................- * * * * * * * * * 4.32
Podocarpus ................................................... 3, IO
Podocarpus (Genus).......................................... 433
P. alpina, R.Br. ............................................. 4.42
P. Drottynºama ............................................. 443
P. elata, R.Br. ................................. 85, 432, 435, 44 I
Anatomy of bark....................................... 438
Anatomy of timber ............ ’s tº e s • * * * * * * * * * • . . . . . . 438
Botanical survey .................................... 44 I
* NOW 1 7 1917
Podocarpus elata, R.Br. (continued)—
Sections of bark (Figs. 297, 298) .................. 44O
Sections of leaves (Figs. 287 to 292) ............ 436
Sections of timber (Figs. 293 to 296) ............ 439
Timber ................................................... 437
Transverse tests of timber ........................ 437
P. Lawrenciº, Hook. f. .................................... 442
P. pedunculata, Bail. ........................................ 441
Timber ................................................... 442
P. pungens, Caley ..... ‘.................................... 443
P. spinulosa, R.Br. ....................................... 443
Timber ................................................... 444
“Port Macquarie Pine " ............................., 278, 279
Preparing Pine timber for Market ..................... I2
“Queensland Kauri '' ............ 372, 373, 375, 376, 384
" Red Pine " ............................................. 192, 213
"Redwood " ................................................ - 85
“ Richmond River Pine " ................................. 352
Rotation and solubility results. Call trus sandarac
resins ............................................. 79
Sandarac resins of the Callitris 75
Sandarac resins, relative solubilities s º e º e º 'º & © & 78
Scładoptty's ............................................ '• • * * * * * 6, 28
S. verticellata ................................................ I24
Sequota ......................................................... 8 I
S. Sempervirens ............................................. 85
Sesquiterpene in Phyllocladus ........................ 419, 425
Solubilities of sandarac resins ........................... 78
Spondylostrobus Smith it .................................... 7
Spur on the valves of the Callitris cones, origin of... 47, 48
Stomata, disposition of .................................... 22
“Stringybark Pine '' ........................... 64, 278, 279
Sugar formed from gum, Araucaria Cunninghamii... 342
Summary of results.......................................... 6
Systematic classification adopted ..................... 5
Systematic value of the chemical products of grow-
ing plants ....................................... 445
Table, crude oil from the leaves of Callitris intra-
tropica ................................................... I76
Table, distribution of Pines in New South Wales... 449
Table, evolution of Callitris species ..................... 2O
Tannin in bark of Callity is calcarata .................. 2O9
Tannin in bark of Callitri's glauca........................ I46
Tannin, percentages, Callitris barks..................... 73
Tannins of Callitris barks ................... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
Tanning extracts .......................................... 68
Tanning value of Callitris barks ........................ 67
Tavus spinulosa, Sm. ....................................... 443
Terpene (principal) of the oil of Dacrydium Franklini 4oo
Terpenes, Oil of Callitris glauca ........................ I 3O
Tetrack” is............................................. 6, I5, 37, 75
Tetraclin is (Callitris quadrºvalvis) ..................... 47
T. quadriwalvis ............................................. 63
Tetrahydrofenchene ....................................... 337
Tetrahydropinene .......................................... 337
Thuja articulata, Tenore................................. 22O, 233
T. austral’s , ............................................... 233, 237
T. australis, Poir. ...................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 22O
Tribromide of methyl eugenol ........................... 406
Tsuga ......................................................... 67
T. Canadensis ................................................ 67
“Turpentine Pine " ........................... IOO, IO I
Veratric acid from Dacrydium ........................ 4O I, 4O7
Volatile acids, oil of Callitris glauca..................... I32
Volatile oil, latex Araucaria Cunninghamii ......... 34O
“Wattle Bark " ............................................. 69
“Weeping Pine " .......................................... 249
“White Pine " ....................................... ... I I8, I IQ
“White Pine '’ Resin .................................... 77
Widdringtonia ....................................... 6, I5, 37, 62
“Yellow Pine " .......................................... 432
Zygophyllaceae ................................................ 66
“ LET NO MAN WHO WRITES A BOOK PRESUME TO SAY
WHEN HE WILL HAVE FINISHED. WHEN HE J MAGINES
THAT HE IS DRAWING NEAR HIS JOURNEY'S END, ALPS
RISE ON ALPS, AND HE CONTINUALLY FINDS SOMETHING
TO ADD AND SOMETHING TO CORRECT.’’
—GIBBON.
SYDNEY :
WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER
IQIO
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