NATIo; Republic of Georgia
G4
H427
1926 HEARINGS
BEFORE THE
00MMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SIXTY-NINTH CONGRESS
FIRST SESSION
ON
H. J. Res. 195
PROVIDING FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF A DIPLOMATIC
REPRESENTATIVE TO THE NATIONAL
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
APRIL 1 AND 2, 1926
STATEMENTS OF
Mr. JOHN A. STEWART, New York City
Mr. VASILI D. DUMBADZE, New York City
Maj. HENRY G. OPDYCKE, New York City
§
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
90,163 1926
NATIONAL Republic of GeoRGIA
HEARINGS
BEFORE THE
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SIXTY-NINTH CONGRESS
FIRST SESSION
ON
H. J. Res. 195
PROVIDING FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF A DIPLOMATIC
REPRESENTATIVE TO THE NATIONAL
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
APRIL 1 AND 2, 1926
STATEMENTS OF
Mr. JOHN A. STEWART, New York City
Mr. VASILI D. DUMBADZE, New York City
Maj. HENRY G. OPDYCKE, New York City
§
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
‘96153 1926
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COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Hous E OF REPRESENTATIVES
SIXTY-NINTH CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION
STEPHEN G. PORTER, Pennsylvania, Chairman
HENRY W. TEMPLE, Pennsylvania. J. CHARLES LINTEIICUM, Maryland.
JAMES T. BEGG, Ohio. CHARLES M. STEDMAN, North Carolina
THEODORE E. BURTON, Ohio. TOM CONNALLY, Texas.
BENJAMIN L, FAIRCEIILD, New York. R. WALTON MOORE, Virginia.
HAMILTON FISH, JR., New York. MARTIN L. DAVEY, Ohio,
CYRENUS COLE, Iowa. DAVID J. O'CONNELL, New York.
WILLIAM N. VAILE, Colorado. S. D. McREYNOLDS, Tennessee.
EDGAR. C. ELLIS, Missouri. CHARLES G. EDWARDS, Georgia.
MORTON D. HULL, Illinois.
JOSEPH. W. MARTIN, JR., Massachusetts.
CEHARLES A. EATON, New Jersey.
HENRY A. .COOPER, Wisconsin.
e EDMUND F. ERK, Clerk
II
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
House OF REPRESENTATIVES,
CoMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRs,
Thursday, April 1, 1926.
The committee this day met, Hon. Stephen G. Porter (chairman)
presiding. †
The CHAIRMAN. The committee will be in order. This meeting
has been called for the consideration of the joint resolution (H. J.
Res. 195) introduced by the gentleman from Virginia, Mr. Moore.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. The resolution is very simple. It only
assumes the possibility that the President may wish to appoint a
representative to the Government of the Republic of Georgia. Mr.
Stewart, of New York City, is here to make the first statement.
(The resolution referred to is as follows:)
JOINT RESOLUTION Providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative to:
the National Republic of Georgia.
Whereas the Kingdom of Georgia for many centuries maintained its inde-
pendent existence, its racial identity, and the integrity of its language, institu-
tions, and laws against the almOSt Constant aggression and frequent invasion
to which it was subjected, and its territory has been since the fourth cen-
tury, and is, occupied by people of the Christian faith ; and
Whereas the kingdom was succeeded by the National Republic of Georgia,
which was regularly and freely established, with a written constitution, on
May 26, 1918; and
Whereas the existence of the Republic has been generally recognized by
the nations of the World, except the United States; and
Whereas notwithstanding such express recognition by the Russian Govern-
ment in 1920 that Government has since invaded and now exercises control
of the territory of the Republic, which has been compelled to transfer its
governmental activities from Tiflis, and then from Batum, to France, where
its Officials now function ; and *
Whereas it is the sense of Congress that the Government Of the United
States should express its (lisapproval Of the unwarranted action of the Russian
Government and its sympathy with the people of the Republic : Therefore be it
Resolved by the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United
States of America, im, Gomgress assembled, That provision should be made by
law for defraying the expenses incident to the appointment of a diplomatic
representative to the National Republic Of Georgia whenever the President-
shall deem it expedient to make such appointment.
STATEMENT OF JOHN A. STEWART, NEW YORK CITY
Mr. FISH. What is your business?
Mr. STEwART. I am a director of the Ammone Co. and president
of the Stewart-Larmon Co.
Mr. FISH. What is the business of the two companies?
Mr. STEwART. The president of the first company is Mr. Barron.
G. Collier.
1
2 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. FISH. Is that an advertising business?
Mr. STEwART. No ; it makes dry ammonia and ammonia products
in a factory at Buffalo and other places. I am also president of a
farm and development company, which operates land and agricul-
tural enterprises, etc. I am also president of the Stewart-Larmon
Co., which is a land company.
Mr. FISH. Operating where?
Mr. STEwART. In New York and the South. I, with my brother
James, am the eastern agent of the Ajax Iron Co., of which my
brother Sidney is the secretary, treasurer, and managing director.
Mr. CoopFR. That company makes what?
Mr. STEwART. It makes gas engines and oil-machinery products,
which are shipped all over the world. It has been firmly established
in the business as a reputable company for 50 years. My brother
James and I were agents of the Pennsylvania Turn-Buckle Co., of
which my brother was the head and is still actively interested as a
director, which has a capital of a half million dollars.
Mr. COOPER. I asked you what your business is, not the director’s,
Mr. STEwART. I am also chairman of the board of governors of
Washington Sulgrave Institution.
Mr. FISH. You are not a lawyer?
Mr. STEwART. I am not a practicing lawyer, although I prepared
eight years for a course in international law in Heidelburg Uni-
versity before entering the office of Evarts, Southmayd & Choate
as a student clerk. My profession has been in journalism, in which
I have been partner in two daily papers and one magazine; and
owner of one magazine. I am chairman of the executive committee
of Washington-Lafayette Institution, and chairman of the board of
the Institute of Pictorial Education. I am chairman of the board
of the American Society; president of the International League of
Highway Improvements; member of the executive committee of the
International Institute of Efficiency; on the executive committee
and chairman or active member of 52 different organizations. I
hope that qualifies me.
Mr. CoopFR. It was not personal qualification; it was the name of
the business. You said something about an iron and an oil company.
Mr. STEwART. The Ajax Iron Works.
Mr. COOPER. What is that?
Mr. STEwART. It makes drilling machines, engines, and things of
that kind.
Mr. FISH. I wanted to find out whether you were a lawyer and
whether you represented this organization?
Mr. STEwART. Yes; I do represent an organization, as chairman
of a special committee of the Caucasian Society, which is interested
in Georgia.
Mr. FISH. Are you a Georgian?
Mr. STEwART. I am not; Georgia is in southeastern Europe.
Mr. CoopFR. Where is the Caucasian Society located and what
is it?
Mr. STEwART. It is located in the city of New York. It was or-
ganized about.a year and a half ago by Henry Lane Wilson, ambas-
sador to Mexico at one time.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 3
Mr. CoopFR. Is he the one who had trouble during the Carranza
administration?
Mr. STEwART. Yes. I think Mr. Wilson was the proponent of the
United States side of that question. He has been in the diplomatic
service for many years. Mr. Barron G. Collier is vice president and
also the consul general under appointment by the Georgian Govern-
ment, which functions in Paris, and has for the last year under
asylum of the very generous French Government. The membership
of the society is representative, and I think many of the names
which are enrolled in that society are well known to the gentlemen
about this table.
Mr. HULL. How large a group?
Mr. STEwART. It is a group now of several hundred.
Mr. O’ConnELL. Mr. Collier is in it?
Mr. STEwART. He is vice president.
Mr. BEGG. What is the form of government in Georgia?
Mr. STEwART. It is a democratic republic.
Mr. BEGG. What do you mean by that?
Mr. STEwART. It is governed precisely as America is. It has a presi-
dent and cabinet. It has a constituent assembly elected by the people
and a cabinet appointed by the president, the president being elected
by the people. The form of government is almost precisely like that
of the United States.
Mr. BEGG. It is an independent republic?
Mr. STEwART. Established as an independent republic.
Mr. FISH. Is it a fact that this Republic of Georgia is a part of
the Soviet union?
Mr. STEwART. It is not.
The CHAIRMAN. It would be a much more orderly procedure if
the witness were allowed to present his side of the case and then
answer questions when he has completed his statement. Proceed
and state your case in your own way.
Mr. STEwART. Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, out-
side of eastern Europe, and particularly among the nations of this
hemisphere, Georgia is but little knowſ. To most of us it is not
even a name, and yet the people of Georgia stand practically alone
in an accomplishment which finds only one parallel among the na-
tions of the world. The history of Georgia antedates the invasion of
the Trans-Caucasus by Alexander, 400 years before Christ; and suc-
cessively after Alexander's time this little nation was inundated by
the Romans, by the Arabs, by the Mongols, by the Tartars, by the
Persians, by the Turks, and, finally, by the Russians. In the course
of 2,500 years this people has fought over 125 wars. It is a wealthy
land. Its hills and valleys contain practically every mineral that is
found in the United States. The Trans-Caucasian Isthmus stands
first in its quantity of oil that lies around Baku and in north
Caucasia awaiting exploitation. It has enormous deposits of coal
and limestone. *
Mr. CoopFR. Exploitation or development?
Mr. STEwART. Exploitation in the better sense of the word. It
has, under the authority of Professor Fessenden, who was a member
of the Ontario Water Power Commission, a horsepower in its moun-
tains approximating 120,000,000, and hence because in its moun-
4 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
tains are manganese, gold, silver, steel, copper, iron, etc., the nations
of the world have regarded it as a fair prey for exploitation under
force of arms. J.
Mr. O’Conn ELL. It is used there in the worst sense.
Mr. STEwART. Yes. But despite the fact that, year after year,
this people has been decimated by the onslaughts of predatory
forces, and despite the fact that in the long war between Persia
and the Turks, on the one side, and Georgia on the other, during
which two out of every three fighting men and women were killed,
the Georgians have maintained their racial identity and their insti-
tutions; they have preserved their language and their hold upon
the soil which God gave them. There is no other nation on earth
that has so glorious a history as the Georgians.
Mr. HULL. How numerous is the population?
Mr. STEwART. Their population to-day is in the neighborhood of
3,000,000, which is almost entirely a native population. Just think
of it ! A reputable statistician, a man who understands insurance
computation, has computed that in the course of 2,000 years the
Georgians have lost in battle, fighting to maintain their land, some-
thing like 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 of their people; yet there they
are to-day, where the Creator planted them. Some 1,700 years ago
they adopted Christianity, and for 1,700 years they have fought to
maintain that Christianity. In the fourth century, under the direc-
tion of Constantine the Great, the Bible was translated into the
vernacular, having its origin in the Zendish, which is a member of
the Sanscrit family of languages. To-day, standing over against
Russia, with its 96 per cent of illiteracy, stands little Georgia, with
96 per cent of literacy. It has a long-established literature; it
has an ancient art. It has within its population some of the great-
est scholars of the world. There is no land that, facing such con-
ditions as Georgia has faced, has maintained itself so well against
vastly superior forces. It is significant, Mr. Chairman, that even
the Czars of Russia have had to treat with these people as friends
and equals. sº
Under Catherine the Great a convention of amity and friendship
was entered into between Russia and the Georgian kingdom, a treaty
afterwards incontinently violated by that same Russia, in natural
due course when occupied by Russian troops. Afterwards a vice
royalty was granted. It is significant that, owing to the inherent
honesty of these people, their unswerving integrity, their probity,
their courage, and their great intelligence, the Czars, suspicious of
their own people, always surrounded themselves by Georgians. Let
me illustrate something of the natural integrity of the Georgian
people. I have in New York a friend who in the due course of
business visited Georgia and remained there for many months. He
told me that one morning he purchased a large basket of raspber-
ries from a peasant girl standing on the platform of a railroad
station; went into the car to empty the basket, and while there heard
some rather loud talking outside. He heard in English his name
mentioned and went out and found the peasant girl arguing with a
soldier who was on guard. He called the soldier, who had been in
America, and said, “What is the matter? Did I underpay the
girl?” The soldier replied, “Quite the contrary; she said that you
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 5
overpaid her five times and she wants to give you back your change;
and insists on it.” This gentleman said, that even coming from
America, which is supposed to be reasonably honest, he was deeply
impressed with such treatment at the hands of a girl of her class;
and being an American he gave her not only that which he had
paid her originally but considerably more besides.
Through the ages the Georgians have been noted for their hon-
esty, also for their courtesy, and I have been told by people who
have visited there that there is no more charmingly hospitable
people on earth than the Georgians. It is a part of the Georgian
social creed that when one has a guest he must defend the integrity
of that guest and safeguard him even with his own life.
Now, what made Georgia the target of surrounding nations, the
Persians and the Turks, is because Georgia was a Christian nation;
hence she has had to defend her Christianity through the deaths of
hundreds of thousands of her people. She stands in this regard on
a parity with the Armenians, for her Christianity dates back almost
to the time when the Armenians accepted Christianity.
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, if America has
any reputation at all in the world, if it have any reason for pluming
itself upon its reputation, it is because always America has been
sympathetic with little peoples struggling to maintain their racial
integrity and their independence. Georgia stands precisely where
America stood in 1776. Perhaps it was meant by God that little
nations should have no standing in the world; perhaps it was meant
that little peoples ever should be exploited by greater peoples who
have the force to carry out such ruthless exploitation as the Russians
have been doing in Georgia for the last four years. Georgia gained
her independence. She established a democratic republican form
of government. She was included arbitrarily by the soviet govern-
ment as one of the Soviet States, but that was entirely without her
violation—she had no voice in the matter—there was no method
by which that act could have been estopped. Obviously, a nation
like Russia, has a right to write into her constitution anything she
pleases, even though it arbitrarily includes an implied authority
over neighboring States. But also in the Russian constitution there
is included the recognition of the independence of Georgia; and
the declaration is therein made—and we have the text with us—
that Georgia has the right to withdraw from the soviet union, a
union into which she never entered. It is also stated therein that
she has the absolute right of independence. And yet after this con-
vention, or, rather, after this constitution was written, after these
statements were made, the Bolshevist government of Soviet Russia,
true to form, hurled a red army into Georgia and took temporary
possession of her; but shortly after, when the Georgians had rallied
their forces, the first red invaders were driven out. It is the splendid
history of this little country that the Russians under the Czars, a
more powerful entity than that of the bolsheviki, were never able
wholly to conquer the Georgians, who defended themselves in their
mountain fastnesses. The Russians have acknowledged that the
only way they could have taken possession of Georgia was by wait-
ing until the Persians and the Turks had so weakened the fighting
6 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
foces of Georgia that the Georgians did not have the strength to
resist; and they accepted the situation as best they could. *
Georgia has no claim to make upon the sympathies of the Ameri-
can people except that claim of sympathy which America has, al-
ways accorded to a Christian people struggling for independence.
She recognizes the fact that it is only owing to the kindly generosity
of the French people that she is permitted through her Government
to function in the city of Paris as Belgium functioned on French
soil when the Germans were in possession of Belgium. It is by no
means unprecedented in the history of nations that a rightful gov-
ernment representing a people who are the rightful owners of a soil
has been obliged to find refuge in a neighboring State.
Mr. BEGG. My first question will answer whether I can ask another
one. Are you giving a prepared statement or talking offhand?
Mr. STEwART. I am talking extemporaneously.
Mr. BEGG. The thing that I would like to hear discussed is why the
legislative should undertake to instruct the Executive. As I under-
stand procedure in this country, it is wholly within the Executive
to recognize it or withhold. I do not care anything about the his-
§: Georgia until I am convinced that the Executive is not doing
is duty. i i
The CHAIRMAN. That is the crux of the entire matter, but I would
rather have him make his statement than to interject it in the middle
of his statement.
Mr. VAILE. I hope the gentleman will not be debarred from con-
tinuing the history of Georgia.
Mr. BEGG. That is the point that is of value to me.
The CHAIRMAN. Let us defer that until he has completed his
statement. *
Mr. O'ConnELL. I think the witness is building up his case suc-
cessfully.
Mr. VAILE. This is one of the most interesting statements I have
heard in a long time.
Mr. O’Connel.L. It is.
Mr. FISH. I agree that he should finish without interruption. I
do not agree at all with the statements he has made to the com-
mittee, and I will show later on from authorities that, quite to the
contrary, this State of Georgia has been incorporated into the
Russian Empire since 1801 and has been under the Russian Empire
120 years and has been a part of the Socialist Union for four or
five years and is to-day a part. I am willing for him to continue.
Mr. STEwART. I do not agree that is the fact.
Mr. LINTHICUM. What is the exact location of Georgia and the
number of square miles of its area?
Mr. STEwART. Georgia lies between the Black Sea and the Cas-
pian Sea. It is hemmed in by a mountain range north and south.
Mr. CoopFR. The southeastern part of Europe.
Mr. STEwART. It is and was the main highway for many centuries
between Asia and Europe. t
Mr. LINTHICUM. What is the area 3
Mr. STEwART. The area is about 48,000 square miles, but associ-
ated with Georgia are two other republics, Azerbaidjan and North
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 7
Caucasia—the combined area is about 150,000 square miles. Total
population, 14,000,000.
Mr. CoopBR. That is not Georgia alone. That includes also Azer-
baidjan and Armenia. A g p.
Mr. STEwART. Yes. I say that on the isthmus are these three
countries.
Mr. CoopFR. Are you asking that the United States recognize
Armenia and Azerbaidjan?
Mr. STEwART. Not under this resolution. ©
Mr. CoopFR. Then there are not 14,000,000 people concerned here.
Mr. STEwART. There are 3,000,000 in Georgia.
Mr. EATON. How many governments have already recognized the
government of Georgia?
Mr. STEwART. Nearly every nation on earth except the United
States of America.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. The Russians?
Mr. O'Connel.LL. Have they ministers there as well?
Mr. STEwART. They have.
Mr. FISH. The government he is talking about is not in the
country he is talking about; it is in Paris.
Mr. STEwART. I explained that.
Mr. FISH. It did not convey the impression to the listener that
those countries had ministers in Paris. Anyone would have thought
from the statement that they had ministers in Georgia.
Mr. STEwART. No.
Mr. CoopFR. He did not say that until Mr. Fish brought that out.
Mr. STEwART. I have not had opportunity.
The CHAIRMAN. Proceed with your statement.
Mr. STEwART. America naturally is not well informed as regards
the history of places in eastern Europe, nor have we come very
closely into contact with them. Answering the statement or remarks
of the gentleman from New York, I will say this, that be their situa-
tion what it may be, whether they be a party to the Soviet federation
or whether they not be, yet England and France, Germany, Italy,
Belgium, Japan, Argentine, Chile, Brazil, and Mexico, I believe, have
recognized the independence of the Georgian republic.
Mr. FISH. When' They recognized them when they were an inde-
pendent republic before they were incorporated into the socialist
union four or five years ago.
Mr. STEwART, 1919, 1920, 1921. ^
Mr. FISH. After the war when they were an independent republic.
Mr. STEwART. But they never have withdrawn that recognition as
is discoverable in the French Diplomatic Yearbook, a copy of which
we have with us. There is a section given over to Georgia, the
Georgian government and diplomatic establishments.
Mr. FISH. What year?
Mr. STEwART. This last issue; this last year.
The CHAIRMAN. Proceed.
Mr. STEwART. Let us take one or two precedents in relation to
Georgia.
The CHAIRMAN. Pursue the Paris situation further by stating to
the committee definitely and somewhat in detail exactly where the
government of the Republic of Georgia is functioning.
96153—26—2
8 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. STEwART. The Government of the Republic of Georgia is
functioning in the city of Paris. When the second Bolshevik army
invaded Georgia and killed 38,000 persons, a majority of those killed
being women and children, and noncombatants, the Georgian Gov-
ernment was driven from Tifles to Batoum and from Batoum into
France, which had offered an asylum to this Government. The Gov-
ernment functions there as well as any government ever functioned
in a similar condition.
Mr.” FAIRCHILD. Do I understand that up to the time they were
driven out of Georgia those countries which recognized them had
accredited ministers in Georgia?
Mr. STEwART. Yes. What I intended to say when interrupted
was that Georgia’s status in Paris is that of every country which
had been recognized as independent and hence was a country to
which in ordinary course ministers are sent. *
Mr. FAIRCHILD. When they were driven out of Georgia those for-
eign ministers accredited to Georgia went with them to Paris.
Mr. STEwART. Let Doctor Dumbadze answer. This is Doctor
Dumbadze, who is a Georgian and represents his Government and
has since the time of the revolution.
Mr. FISH. It is quite interesting that there were foreign repre-
sentatives of governments accredited to the Georgian Government
in Paris. Is that a fact?
Mr. STEwART. I made no such statement. I am perfectly willing
to stand by what I said.
Mr. FISH. I understood that to be your meaning. What do you
mean by having representatives of foreign governments at Paris?
Mr. STEwART. I made no such statement.
The CHAIRMAN. I would like the date when they were driven out
of Georgia.
STATEMENT OF MR. VASILI D. DUMBADZE, GENERAL DIPL0-
MATIC AND ECONOMIC REPRESENTATIVE OF THE REPUBLIC
OF GEORGIA
Doctor DUMBADZE. The Georgian Government was driven from
Georgia, beginning March, 1921, when the bolshevik government to
the north and east, and other States—Turkey—to the south, invaded
Georgia in violation of Georgia’s treaty rights, and our government
was compelled to flee from Georgia.
The CHAIRMAN. How do they finance this government since they
were driven out?
Mr. STEwART. I am glad to answer the gentleman's question, be-
cause it gives me opportunity.
Mr. O’ConnELL. The witness should be permitted to make his
very forceful and instructive statement.
Mr. STEwART. Mr. Chairman, I am waiting for an opportunity to
make that statement, and if it does not move the sympathies of the
members of this committee, then I must say the American heart is
made of stone. These people carried with them into their exile all
the great national treasures of Georgia, which have possibly a value
of half a billion dollars. They are now deposited deep in the vaults
of the French mint. The members of the government, and those
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 9
who accompanied them, left behind them all personal property.
They took what"they hastily could seize and made their exit. For
several years, and I give it to you as a fact, those men have supported
themselves by the sweat of their brows in honest labor which has
been given to them by the sympathetic French people. Despite
the fact that at hand in their vaults they have treasures of a half a
billion dollars, and more, their integrity, their patriotism, their love
of their country, their reverence for those works of the past, all have
inhibited them from using one iota of those treasures for funds with
which to support themselves; and they maintain their government
and themselves by day labor, by any work that comes to hand, by
translations; two of the most learned scholars in the world are en-
gaged in translating documents and making reports on archaeological
subjects for wages. They are living without borrowing from their
neighbors. *
The Georgians are a homogeneous people. They stand almost
alone among the nations of the world in the fact that although
driven to dire distress by the invasions of their country, they never
yet have appealed for help to the world. They never have come on
their knees to America asking for American money to put clothing
on their backs and food into their stomachs, although they needed
both. That is a record which stands practically unique. Will you
not agree with me, in the circumstances of our relationship with
little peoples and big peoples during the last 10 distressful years,
that it is a very remarkable thing that this people, who need money
and supplies of every kind, have neither tried to borrow or have
begged from us? On the contrary, they have stood on their own
feet, independent, honest, and unashamed in their poverty. Is not
that a record which should appeal to American sympathy’ Why,
in God’s name, should America, with a reputation throughout the
world as being the big brother of nations in distress, turn her back
on Georgia when she has a precedent in Webster’s attitude and action in
regard to Greece, when Greece was not in possession of her own soil
and when she had a government functioning from place to place out-
side and inside her own territory? Mr. Webster’s resolution was intro-
duced, and it was passed, and we recognized in a measure the inde-
pendence of the Greeks. We had done that before... I think, although
I may not be right, that the Congress of the United States, one or
other body of the Congress, passed resolutions favorable to Ireland,
and yet Ireland had no government that was functioning; yet we
gave Ireland our sympathy.
The CHAIRMAN. It is true resolutions of sympathy were passed
for the Irish people, and a resolution along this line, although it
did not pass Congress, as I recall; it passed the House but not the
Senate.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. This resolution and the House resolution
introduced by Mr. Webster with reference to Greece are almost in
the same words. His resolution passed the House. It was the
occasion of Webster’s first great speech.
You said that practically all the nations of the world have recog-
nized the independence of the Republic of Georgia. Russia has not,
of course, except in its constitution, a statement which it has re-
10 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
pudiated. The Government of the United state has declined to
recognize Soviet Russia, has it not?
Mr. STEwART. Yes. ' But Russia also has definitely recognized the
independence of Georgia, May 7, 1920, in common with other
nations.
Mr. LINTHICUM. I wanted to go into that question about the
Soviet government giving liberty to the Georgians to become inde-
pendent.
Mr. STEwART. May I read that? This is an extract from the treaty
concluded at Moscow May 7, 1920, between the Democratic Republic
of Georgia and the Russian Socialistic Soviet Federated Republic,
article 1; basing it on the rights of all peoples—proclamation of the
Russian Socialistic Federated Republic—to freely dispose of them-
selves even up to and including total separation from the state of
which they form a part—“Russia recognizes without reservation the
independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State, and volun-
tarily renounces al sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with
respect to the Georgian people and territory.”
Mr. O’Conn ELL. What’ is the date of that?
Mr. STEwART. May 7, 1920. Article 2, basing itself on the princi-
ples proclaimed in the first article, Russia pledges herself to renounce
all rights to intervene in the affairs of Georgia.
Mr. McREYNoLDs. When did she take charge of Georgia?
Mr. STEwART. In March, 1921, 10 months after that.
Mr. VAILE. A scrap of paper?
Mr. STEwART. Yes.
Mr. LINTHICUM. Russia recognized that independence and it
seemed to be a sop to other nations to recognize Russia, and as soon
as some nations did recognize Georgia, she went back and took
possession of Georgia, is that right?
Mr. STEwART. There were emotions and passions which were very
decidedly mixed in the Bolshevik mind which impelled such action
by the Soviet Government.
Mr. CONNALLY. In connection with this matter generally, it might
be interesting to know that Mr. Tuittle, of Kansas, now dead, who
Served as consul for the State Department in this area for some
years, made a very interesting speech in the House four years ago
about Georgia and the Georgian people.
Mr. VAILE. I heard that speech. You might put a copy of that
in the hearing. It was a very interesting statement. He was very
much in sympathy with th9 aspirations of the Georgian people for
independence.
(See Appendix, No.
The CHAIRMAN. Before you leave the question of recognition,
you are familiar with the provisions of the Soviet constitution to
permit any State to secede at any time it desires?
Mr. STEwART. Yes.
The CHAIRMAN. How has the Soviet Government treated Georgia
in that respect?
Mr. STEwART. Occupation by the Red Army is an answer to your
question, Mr. Chairman.
Mr. LINTHICUM. Did not Georgia make application for relief
under that section that was denied her?
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 11
Mr. STEwART. I think I am stating the case correctly that Georgia
never recognized any right of any Russian Government to interfere
with her independence. e
Mr. CoNNALLY. Russia gives them a constitutional right to secede,
but if they do they will shoot them.
Mr. STEwART. Yes; that is it. Mr. Dumbadze says that under
this act, Georgia served pro forma notice on the Soviet Government.
Mr. OPDYork. In answer to that question, regarding that privilege
granted by the Soviet Government, for Georgia to be released from
under the Soviet Government, G, orgia did make application under
that.
Mr. CONNALLY. When 3 -
Mr. OPDYokE. Within a year and a half, in 1923 and 1924, they
made such application, and in both instances it was denied them.
Mr. STEwART. Mr. Vasili D. Dumbadze is the representative of
the Georgian Government. I rather despair that you would credit
the story which I could tell you of Doctor Dumbadze's sacrifices in
the cause of liberty of his native Georgia. Four times he was cap-
tured by the Bolshevik. Four times he was condemned to death.
His father, 76 years of age, and the head of the religious establish-
ment of the Georgian Republic, was placed against a stone wall and
19 bullets were put into him. His uncle was captured; he went
against a stone wall and was killed. Even in free America, far
removed from the centers of disturbance in eastern Europe, one
effort which nearly succeeded was made upon that Georgian repre-
sentative’s life. He carries in his body to-day 3 inches of a knife
blade which the surgeons have not dared to cut out and have told him
to let it lie there because his life was more safe with the blade in him
than out. He has been betrayed in America four times by men who
have sought his confidence when he had responded in his generous
nature to their appeals. They have tried once to kill him and twice
to ruin him; three times efforts have been made to deport him from
the United States of America, Christian America, sympathetic,
kindly America, simply because he stood as a barrier between his
country and her exploitation by wicked men. If suffering, if hon-
esty, if patriotism, if untold sacrifices in life, in treasure, are not
an appeal to the sympathetic heart of America; if there is on earth
a Christian nation such as the Georgian nation is that can not suc-,
cesſully make an appeal to the sympathetic American people, ex-
pressed through their representatives in Congress in the city of
Washington, let us seek to revise the opinion which the world at
large in the person of its peasantry and plain people have of the
people of the United States. I know through my own personal
knowledge that when Theodore Roosevelt was President of the
United States and had established a reputation as champion of the
plain people of the world, in almost every peasant hut of Europe
there was his picture, a cut from some newspaper or a photograph
sent over by some relative living in America.
I do know that when Woodrow Wilson was in Paris everywhere
the plain people of Europe responded to the hope—such a hope as
had been held long centuries within the European heart—that here
was a man who finally would give liberty to the world. America
never has been wont to turn her back upon an appeal of Georgia's
12 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
kind. Millions and tens of millions and hundreds of millions of
dollars have been poured out from the pockets of our people and
from the Treasury of the United States in the relief of distress, and
we never have asked any questions about race, religion, or previous
condition of servitude. There is no appeal which can be made, and
I frankly grant it, based absolutely on the precedents of interna-
tional law, and, perhaps, the specific practices of the United States
Government in regard to its relation to people like the Georgian
people. But is there not here a case which seems to have in it a
peculiar and a particular reason why we should place Georgia in a
category by herself and why we should not consider her strictly from
a legalistic point of view º Georgia appeals to me as a Christian
people who fought for Christianity and suffered for Christianity
and allowed themselves to be killed by thousands upon the field of
battle in order to preserve the religion of Christ which they had
adopted.
There is one further statement which I can make. Mr. Husband,
who was Commissioner General of Immigration, now Second Assist-
ant Secretary of Labor, said, and I see no particular reason why amy-
body should refrain from quoting him, that he had visited Georgia
and that he had stayed there relatively a long time amongst the people;
he had traveled from town to town through the country, met the
people in conversation and or, social occasions, had been treated with
hospitality which found no parallel outside of his own native land;
and Mr. Husband said jokingly to me one day, “If I were exiled
from my native country, I should seek an asylum in Georgia.” . He
added, “Nowhere on earth is there a finer body of men and women.”
This fine, upstanding body of Christian men and women make an
appeal to the people of the United States through their Congress in
the city of Washington for some expression of sympathy that will
denote to the people of the world that America still stands as the
champion of little people struggling for that liberty which we our-
selves gained only in the travail of eight years of war.
Mr. O'Conn ELL. There is an identical resolution in the Senate
introduced by Senator Copeland, of New York.
Mr. STEwART. Yes.
The CHAIRMAN. Before you close, I will ask you two or three
questions. * gº tº
Mr. STEwART. If you desire specific and exact information as re-
gards the political and commercial situation of Georgia; Doctor
Dumbadze is here to speak with authority and with all the docu.
ments which go with authority.
Mr. BEgg. Have you presented this plea to the State Department
and been denied ? tº tº
Mr. STEwART. If I may be permitted, Mr. Moore visited the State
Department. There has been no denial of the State Department in
regard to the introduction of this measure.
Mr. BEgg. What is that statement?
Mr. STEwART. There is no denial from the State Department of
the policy of the introduction of this resolution.
Mr. Bºgg. That is not my question. Has anybody presented a
plea for recognition to the proper authorities of the State Depart-
ment?
RNATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 13
Mr. STEwART. No; for the reason that we thought that under
precedents it was quite proper we should seek the passage of this
resolution, at least, its introduction in the Congress of the United
States. It is not unprecedented.
Mr. BEgg. I always supposed that countries wanting recognition
went to the executive first. I may be in error. That is my supposi-
tion, that any country that wants recognition proceeds through the
regular executive channels to receive that recognition. If that has
not been done, why not—that is my question?
Mr. STEwART. Is it absolutely without precedent that a joint reso-
lution or a resolution has been introduced in either House of Con-
gress in regard to a matter of this kind?
Mr. BEgg. There may have been resolutions of this kind, but
so far as I know, and I have not investigated it, there has never been
a resolution of that kind until after the State Department had, to
say the least, postponed a recognition.
The CHAIRMAN. There is the case of Greece and the case of Ar-
gentina.
Mr. O’CoxNELL. Did anybody representing the Georgian Republic
isº, the matter in that connection with the State Department,
Or not
Mr. STEwART. Mr. W. D. Dumbadze.
M; BEGG. What attitude did the State Department take on
that':
Mr. STEwART. Obviously, very friendly; otherwise, we should not
have introduced it here. It is rather embarrassing to discuss in
open session these matters, and for me to discuss them in any way
because of conversation I had with them at the State Deaprèment.
Mr. BEGG. I do not wish to embarrass, but I do not see any other
door open to me. Perhaps the State Department has considered
favorably this particular proposition.
Mr. StºwART. I am not authorized to speak for the State Depart-
ment. The latter has been put before the State Department. No
word has been said in the State Department that militated against
the introduction of this resolution.
The CHAIRMAN. To clarify this situation, the usual method of
recognition is for the Nation to apply to the Executive, and if he
is favorable to recognition he appoints a diplomatic representative,
and if that diplomatic representative is confirmed by the Senate
that amounts to a ratification by the Senate, and then the House
appropriates sufficient money to pay his expenses and salary. It
requires the action of the President, the Senate, and the House, to
recognize a country. There are two or three cases, notably the case
of Greece, where the House made the appropriation in advance of
action by the Executive; of course, the ordinary way is for the
Executive to recognize.
Mr. BEGG. Is it not a fact that the House can not force nor prevent
the Executive from recognizing? We can refuse to pay, but that
does not control the recognition, and we can not force it. Is that
the truth?
The CHAIRMAN. That is exactly what I said. The House can not
force the President; you must have joint action of the Senate, House,
and Executive.
14 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
2'
Mr. Edwards. Has this resolution been referred to the State De-
partment for report?
The CHAIRMAN. No.
Mr. Edwards. We have nothing from the State Department be-
fore the committee?
The CHAIRMAN. No.
Mr. LINTHICUM. Is it not true that only a few years ago we ap-
propriated in an appropriation bill for the expenses of an embassador
to Cuba before the ambassador had been appointed, before the
Executive had taken action?
Mr. BEGG. There is nothing to prevent our doing that, but there
is nothing to compel the Executive to spend that appropriation if
he does not want to.
The CHAIRMAN. I have always held the view on these foreign
matters that Congress has a right to pass a resolution requesting the
President to do certain things. That has been done many times.
Mr. CoopFR. As I understand the law, not the law but the .
established practice, a civilized nation before officially recognizing
another government, requires that the other government must, at
least, be in active control of some portion of the territory over which
it claims jurisdiction. Here we have a government that is in Paris,
some thousands of miles away from the country which it claims to
govern, and it exercises jurisdiction over not one inch of that
territory. Now, when we come to the question of recognizing a
government that does not govern anything, we come to the very
crux of this matter. They could ask us to recognize Armenia,
Azerbaidjan, any bit of territory in the world, if revolutionists could
go to some foreign country and claim there that they are a govern-
ment controlling territory thousands of miles away. It would
continually get us into trouble if that principle is to obtain in
recognition of revolutionary governments.
Mr. EATON. Do you consider those people in Paris revolutionaries?
Mr. CoopFR. I do. They are not in control of that Government.
Mr. LINTHICUM. I do not take it that this resolution goes that far.
This resolution says:
That provision shall be made by law for defraying the expenses incident to
the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of
Georgia whºmever the President shall deem it expedient to make such ap-
pointment.
Mr. STEwART. The resolution simply is a gesture of sympathy.
Mr. COOPER. It is a matter of exceeding importance to this coun-
try, and to every other country in the world, if the Congress of the
United States is in advance to say that it will appropriate money,
if the Executive shall recognize an alleged government thousands of
miles distant from the territory which it claims to govern and not
One foot of which it can exercise authority over. -
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Mr. Webster argued that question in the
Greek case, and the Turks were in possession of Greece.
Mr. CoopF.R. But Greece was all of the time fighting on her own
soil, controlling some portion of her soil, and she had troops in
Greece. But there is no war or revolution here.
Mr. EDWARDS. They are subdued—driven out.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA. 15
Mr. STEwART. In the first place, Mr. Cooper, recognition has been
accorded to the Government of Georgia; the independence of her
people has been recognized by every nation on earth except the
Americans.
Mr. CoopFR. The menshevist government, so called, which was
fighting the Bolshevists, had control of Georgia for about two
years; then the Armenians and the Turks got into war and the
Soviet Government went down and took control over that territory.
Mr. STEwART. I think there is a slight misapprehension as to the
real facts of the situation, but what I want to say is that every
nation except America has recognized the Georgian Government.
The Georgian Government still continues, and her diplomatic status
is recognized by England, Germany, and France.
Mr. CoopFR. In what way? How do they recognize it?
Mr. STEwART. In many ways. I might explain that Georgia is
a very wealthy country—trans-Caucasia, the isthmus, within the con-
fines of 150,000 square miles, is the richest country in the world. I
know a little something of the wild scramble on the part of men
of wealth and high standing, and men of no wealth and low stand-
ing, for concessions from Georgia, and they are willing to pay sub-
stantial sums for concessions for oil, for iron, coal, etc., to pay hard
cash. Despite the fact that the second red army holds the Georgian
people in subjection by their presence on their soil, so far as such
control as Georgia can exercise over its own people, is exercised.
There are several hundred thousand Georgians in exile and in the
mountains of Georgia. The mountaineers are the very backbone of
Georgia and they have been of every contest for centuries in fight-
ing.for liberty. These still are outside of contact with and control
by the Bolshevik Government; and they are operating independ-
ently and under the leadership of the government in Paris. Ordi-
narily when you set up against a people of 2,600,000 a force of 150,-
000,000, there is only one result that is possible—the superior force
subjugates the minor force. And yet to an extent that is hardly
credible, that Georgian Government in Paris functions as the
government of the people of Georgia, although that governing is
not expressed in terms of open activities. We must not forget that
Georgia represents a force that has been fighting for centuries and
centuries, a people of unexampled hardihood.
Mr. Cooper. I am after the facts.
Mr. STEwART. I am here to answer.
Mr. CoopFR. I have taken some pains to look into this matter and
have here the official report of the British trades union delegation
to Russia in November and December, 1924. The delegates consisted
of 10 members of whom 7 were “general council delegates’’ and 3
were “advisory delegates.” Among the advisory delegates were:
Harold Grenfell : Retired in 1920 from British Navy with rank of captain.
Admiralty intelligence department, 1904–5; governor of Hong Kong Naval
Prison, 1907–08; admiralty war staff, 1910–11; naval attaché British Embassy,
St. Petersburg, April, 1912, to November, 1917; head of naval mission to Fin-
land, December, 1918, to June, 1919, etc.
A. R. McDonnell, educated St. Paul’s School, London. C. B. E. (civil) ;
resident in Russia, 1902–1919; British Vice cousul, Baku, South Russia, 1907–
1916. British military forces in Caucasus and north Persia, 1916–1919 (tem-
porary major). Foreign office temporary first division clerk 1919–1923.
16 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
George Young, educated at Eton and foreign universities. M. W. O., diplo-
matice service (passing in Russian 1896–1915). Admiralty intelligence 1915–
1918. Volunteered in ranks, February, 1918, and commissioned R. M. A., August.
Daily News correspondent through German revolution, December, 1918 to
August, 1919. Professor of Portuguese, 1919–1922, and examiner in Ottoman
law, London University, etc.
The concluding paragraph of this report says:
With respect to the national minorities in Georgia there can be no doubt that
all that the present system by which they secure home rule gives the best
practical possibility of satisfactorily securing their lives and liberties. Finally,
that it is in the interests of the workers and peasants of Caucasia and of the
world that the inclusion of the Trans-Caucasian Federation in the Union of
Socialist Russia should continue, and that the Caucasus should not again be-
come the scene of rival military Occupations and race wars.
This is a long and interesting report, and contains many reproduc-
tions of photographs and other pictures. I am not in sympathy
with the Soviet Government—
Mr. STEwART (interposing). I am familiar with that report.
Mr. CoopFR. But as a legislator I have important duties to per-
form in this matter, as has every other member of this committee.
In this report the British delegation tell how Georgia came to be
included in the Soviet republic, and then they say:
The reception given to the delegates and the numbers that marched in the
public processions convinced them that a large proportion of the industrial
population of the capital were enthusiastic supporters of the present gov-
ernment—
That was in the capital of Georgia,
The situation in Georgia, in fact, seems to be essentially the same as in
Azerbaidjan and Armenia—that is, a majority of the industrial workers with
a nucleus of Russians are prepared to lay down their lives for the present
government. {
Mr. O’ConnELL. As administered by Russia.
Mr. CoopFR. Yes.
The small minority that remains in opposition are not now prepared to
lay down their lives to overthrow it.
And further:
On March 17, the Georgian Menshevist Government was driven out of
Tiflis and obliged to sue for peace, which was arranged by Moscow. The
Menshevist Government left for Paris, taking the contents of the treasury
with them, and a Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Georgia. In return,
Moscow persuaded Angora to return Patoum to Georgia, which accordingly
Suffered little loss of territory.
From the foregoing it is clear that the overthrow of the Menshevist Gov-
ernment of Georgia, and the eventual inclusion of that Sovereign state in the
TJnion of Soviet Republics was not an unprovoked political aggression by
Moscow. The “protection ” of Georgia had become a prize for which world
powers were competing SO as to secure control of the oil and manganese
resources. It had become for Georgia, a choice between Turkish Or Russian
Occupation, and the IRussians gave them back their full territories and a very
full autonomy, which they would not have got from the Turks.
Mr. O’Conn ELL. Is that a report of the Soviet 2
Mr. VAILE. It speaks for itself.
Mr. CoopFR. I wish to answer the question of my friend from
New York City as to whether this is a report of the soviet.
Mr. O’ConnDLL. I say, is it?
Mr. CoopFR. It is the official report of the British trade union
delegation to Russia in 1924. The question for us in considering
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 17
it is, does it tell the truth. As Matt Carpenter in a famous case
said when a lawyer on the other side sneeringly alluded to one of
his witnesses:
It is the duty of a court to believe the truth even though it come from the
lips of a drunken cobbler.
It is the truth we want.
Mr. O'Conn ELL. I will say to my friend from Wisconsin that I
did not say it was; I said, is it?
Mr. STEwART. From highest English sources have come utter
repudiation of this report. It was not accepted by the British
Government; it was not accepted by the people of Great Britain as
statements of unbiased truth. It has not been accepted by labor
as a safe criterion for their action in regard to Soviet Russia. I
think generally it is recognized by those absolutely and personally
familiar with the situation that there is no such situation existing
in Georgia to-day as is represented to be fact in this report. There
is a purely negligible division of the Georgian people against their
own interests and against independence and in favor of the Soviet
Government. These are communists. It is true that in Tiflis there
have been expressions favorable to the continuance of Soviet rule,
but that report is not an unbiased statement of facts; the real facts
fall not at all into that category.
Mr. Cooper. Have you been over it?
Mr. STEwART. I have not, but I have made inquiries from the
very best authorities. That report is not a safe basis upon which
one could inform himself of the facts of this situation, as will
probably be developed by Doctor Dumbadze in a formal statement.
The CHAIRMAN. Those recognitions by Great Britain, France,
and Italy were made at the time the present officials who are now in
Paris were in Georgia; is that correct? -
Mr. STEwART. That is true.
The CHAIRMAN. In other words, they were in possession of the
country at the time of the recognition, and your resolution asks us
to suggest recognition when they are not in possession, where they
are functioning in a foreign capital?
Mr. STEwART. That is true.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. As I understand the point you made, in view of
the fact that the Georgian Republic was recognized while they
were still in possession of their soil by all countries except the
United States and that no recognition has been withdrawn, that
creates a situation, when they were forced out of their country,
like that of Belgium, which has become a precedent in a similar
situation?
Mr. FISH. Although I am opposing this resolution, Mr. Stewart,
and have been from the beginning, I was very much interested by
your remarks. I agree with what you say about the liberty-loving
Georgians, and I am familiar with their history and have the utmost
sympathy for any people fighting for their liberty and the inde-
pendence of their country. But you have a different situation from
that which Mr. Little raised in the House a number of years ago.
At that time I was one of the strongest advocates of his resolution;
I talked the matter over with Mr. Little, who then desired recogni-
tion of the republic; I should have voted for it at that time, when it
18 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
was an independent Republic, when the Menshevists were in control
and the Georgian people had their own government. Four years
ago by brute force it was incorporated into the Soviet Union, and it
is now a ward of the Soviet Union. The Mensheviki government was
forced out to Paris. It was entirely a different situation from what
you are presenting to us to-day and asking us to do. It is the same as
if Great Britain should consider before their Parliament the recog-
nition of the Philippines, which want independence and are under
the United States 8. The point raised here by you and
by the chairman that it is identical with the Webster incident to
recognize Greece is not at all identical. The Greeks had a govern-
ment and an army fighting Turkish control; the Greeks were suc-
cessful in certain parts and controlled certain ports. Byron fought
and died in a Greek city; and, of course, it was entirely right that
we recognize them, because they had a government in Greece.
Mr. VAILE. You said that Georgia had diplomatic representatives
now in several countries, and mentioned England and Germany. Do
you mean accredited ministers to those countries who are in those
countries now Ż
Mr. STEwART. Yes.
Mr. FISH. Have those countries accredited representatives to that
government at Paris?
Mr. STEwART. Other governments transact business through rep-
resentatives of the Georgian Government in every case.
Mr. FISH. What business can your government transact with any
foreign government when you are not in control of a single inch of
your territory and when for the first time in many years, almost
centuries, there is no active fighting going on in Georgia to-day?
Mr. O'Conn FLL. How could there be under the circumstances
with a military force there; how could they put up a fight?
Mr. CoopFR. This report of the British delegation says it is the
local militia; the army is almost withdrawn.
As to the Tcheka, it was pointed out that it was not only a question of the
internal position in Georgia, but of the international situation also. The
Caucasus under Tsarism was garrisoned by a very large force. It was now
practically held by local militia, but was still an object of foreign intrigue,.
and might possibly become an objective of foreign intervention. The frus-
tration of such intrigues in the interests of peace required special precautions.
In fact, the delegation was left with the impression that adoption of the
two measures recommended depended solely on the international Situation.
The CHAIRMAN. Representatives of the Georgian Republic are
recognized by the German Government which transacts its business.
with that representative?
Mr. STEwART. Absolutely. (All governments are represented in.
Paris, where the Georgian Government can have and does have
access to them and transacts business through them.)
Mr. FISH. Of course, they have not withdrawn their recognition,
but when Germany or any other country wants to do business in
Georgia, they have got to do it through the government in existence.
there, the de facto government; therefore, they do it with the Soviet
Government—every country in the world except the United States,
deals with the Soviet Government at Petrograd. Georgia is part
of the Soviet union to-day. Is it a fact that all these governments.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 19
recognize the Soviet Government, France, England and Germany,
that you have mentioned?
Mr. STEwART. They do, but they do not recognize the Soviet Gov-
ernment in relation to things pertaining to Georgia. The French
and British Governments in their treaties with the Soviet Govern-
ment partcularly and specifically excepted Georgia from the terms
of the treaty with the Soviet Government.
Mr. FISH. How would those people—the Harriman interests, our
people, and other people, Germans, English, the Anglo-Persian Oil
Co., deal—from what government do they get those concessions in
Georgia?
Mr. STEwART. May I be permitted to ask Major Opdycke to answer
that question?
STATEMENT OF HENRY G. OPDYCKE, CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW
YORK CITY
Mr. OPDYokE. I am a member of the American Society of Civil
Engineers.
Mr. HULL. An American citizen? r
Mr. OPDYokE. Yes; a Knickerbocker New Yorker, and I have been
identified and interested in the subject of Russia and Georgia for 18
years. I became interested in some work in Russia which involved
organization and functioning of egineering interests.
Mr. O'Connel.L. Were you over there?
Mr. OPDYCKE.. I was there several times, and in the Crimea, and
familiar with Georgia all the time.
Mr. FISH. Have you ever been in Georgia?
Mr. OPDYokE. No ; but I have been in close touch with the
Georgian government in Paris and in intimate contact with the
gentleman you have heard mentioned here to-day, with the activities
of Doctor Dumbadze in Russia and in this country, and I may say,
without any reward whatever financially, and since the war began in
1914, in the interest of the subject of Georgian independence itself.
The subject of the Caucasus is so little known here. In fact, the dis-
cussion here to-day indicates that Georgia is not very well known.
There has recently been publishd a little brochure to cover this ques-
tion. This committee will be provided with copies of it. Great
pains were taken with it and I have read it and I know to be
true largely the facts contained therein except possibly personal
acquaintance with its ancient history. (See Appendix tº)./ *
Mr. VAILE. By whom prepared? ~2
Mr. OPDYokE. Under the auspices of Mr. W. D. Dumbadze, and with
the assistance of the Caucasian Society, which consists of a few gen-
tlemen of prominence who are interested in the subject of Georgian
independence for the subject itself.
Mr. FISH. What do citizens of other countries do, business men
who want to go into Georgia and get oil concessions, manganese
concessions, etc.—with whom do they deal, the government at Paris
or the Soviet government?
Mr. OPDYCKE. The history of the gentlemen who have gone to
Russia for oil and manganese concessions, Sinclair, Harriman, the
Standard Oil Co., etc., is that they have gone to the Soviet Govern-
20 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ment and made arrangements for concessions even in Georgia. U
to date in each case the Georgia Government has excepted to this
Fº i. e., the Georgian Government in Paris has excepted
romally.
P Mr. VAILE. It was taken up with the Georgian Government at
aris?
Mr. OPDYCKE. No. American interests, Sinclair, and Harriman,
did not take it up with the Paris Government but with the Soviet,
but none of them have been consummated yet, and they have with-
drawn after they get into them. The Harrimans are withdrawing
IlOW.
Mr. CoopFR. Is this with a view to recognition of the Georgian
Republic? Have they withdrawn with a view to recognition of
this republic?
Mr. OPDYokE. They have withdrawn, due to the absolute inability
or impossibility of the Soviet Government doing business with them.
Mr. VAILE. Why is it impossible?
Mr. OPDYokE. Because the soviets have never carried out any of
their agreements.
Mr. ELLIs. Impossible for them to do business with the Soviet
Government?
Mr. OPDYokE. Yes; we are not doing business to-day.
Mr. O’ConnELL. They do not recognize contracts.
Mr. FISH. Do you happen to know they are doing $80,000,000 a
year—two or three times more than 1913—with the Russian Gov-
ernment? *
Mr. OPDYCKE.. I know that the Soviet Government and their rep-
resentatives come over here and plank down cash on the table and
want to buy, and then they find men that will do something for
them; that I do not consider trade.
Mr. VAILE. To clarify this situation, you say these deals which the
Harrimans and others have made with the Soviet Government have
not been carried through because it is impossible to deal with the
Soviet Government. Suppose this situation arises, an ordinary situ-
ation: An American group of capitalists asks for a concession, per-
mission to operate certain properties in this territory of Georgia.
It agrees to pay the government which grants the concession so much
money. There is nothing further for the government to do except
receive the money. Why can not such a deal as that be carried
through, as it involves no particular action on the part of the gov-
ernment granting the concession?
d M. OPDYCKE. It could be if they kept their contracts, but they
O Il Ot.
Mr. VAILE. Do they not put the concessionaire in possession?
The CHAIRMAN. They need protection.
Mr. VAILE. In what respect do they not keep their contracts?
Mr. OPDYCKE. In the Sinclair matters; I have not all the facts
at hand just now, but after the concessions were granted the soviets
demanded a loan of fifty to a hundred million dollars.
Mr. VAILE. As a further condition?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Without being in the contract, and because it was
not granted the whole thing was off and they did not deal.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 21
Mr. Cooper. Was that the Sinclair that had the Teapot Dome?
Mr. OPDycKE. The Sinclair in Russia.
Mr. Cooper. Don't you know it is the same man?
Mr. OPDYOKE.. I do not know. 2.
Mr. Cooper. You believe it is. Is it the Sinclair that had conces-
sions in Mexico, the one that got the Teapot Dome?
Mr. OPDYoke. The Sinclair Oil Co. I am not familiar with the
Teapot Dome. It is the New York Sinclair Oil Co.
Mr. VAILE. Has it been possible, and has it been done for the
Soviet Government to put a concessionaire in physical possession of
properties in Georgia so that they could have operated ?
Mr. Opdyck E. I do not know any reason why it should not. I
think they have, as a matter of fact, actually put the Harriman
people in possession of certain properties there. But it is by other
conditions arising since that time, making it practically impossible
for them to go to work, and they are not working to any extent.
Mr. VAILE. Conditions later added to the original concession?
Mr. OPDYOKE.. I can not tell you what, but the facts are, and it is
plainly evident by the facts, that they are not doing work they
expected to do. The Soviet Government has absolute physical con-
trol of the lower part of that country. They are not in possession
of the mountains; Russia never had them. But they can, with their
army in possession there, put anybody in control of anything they
want to. They have the physical power, but the fact is that new
labor conditions, etc., have raised the price of materials so much that
the project can not be operated. f
º FAIRCHILD. The Georgians themselves will not work for
€Iſl 9
. Mr. OPDYokE. It is not a question of the Georgians; it is a ques-
tion of the governing of the soviets in that territory, the way they
handle the local situation.
The CHAIRMAN. Have you a list of men who compose this Cau-
casian Society?
Mr. OPDYoFE. No; I am not a member of that society.
Mr. O’ConnDLL. Read that list.
Mr. OPDYokE.. I have in my hand a heading of the Caucasian
Society, copy of circular embodying this House Joint Resolution
195, which has the following names on it: Henry Lane Wilson,
president; Barron G. Collier, vice president; Edwin Wildman, ex-
ecutive director; Perley Morse, treasurer; Franklin A. Wagner, gen-
eral counsel; and the following general committee: Bartlett Arkell,
Robert Appleton, George Gordon Battle, Helen Varick Boswell,
Robert Fulton Cutting, Barron G. Collier, Mrs. Royal S. Copeland,
Mrs. James Creelman, Rev. Dr. S. H. Chester, Brig. Gen. Clarence
R. Edwards, John Hays Hammond, Archibald Hopkins, John A.
Hopper, Perley Morse, John A. Stewart, William R. Wilcox, Henry
Lane Wilson, Lucius Wilmerding, and Edwin Wildman. *
Mr. CoopFR. Are those all the names?
Mr. O’Conn FLL. Officers and executive committee.
Mr. STEwART. I have a complete list which will be sent you from
New York.
22 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The CHAIRMAN. I would like to have a list and their affiliations.
Mr. STEwART. Yes; we will get it.
(The list referred to is given in the appendix.)
Mr. CoOPER. It is 12 o'clock. The resolution calling for the im-
peachment of a United States judge is before the House. Nothing
else demanding our attention is of such importance as that resolu-
tion.
The CHAIRMAN. I am entirely at the command of the committee.
(Thereupon, at 12 o'clock noon, the committee adjourned to meet
again at 10.15 o'clock a. m., Friday, April 2, 1926).
House, OF REPRESENTATIVEs,
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRs,
# Friday, April 2, 1926.
The committee this day met, Hon. Stephen G. Porter (chairman)
presiding. -
The CHAIRMAN. The committee will be in order. We will resume
consideration of House Joint Resolution 195, providing fer appoint-
ment of a diplimatic representative to the National Republic of
Georgia.
STATEMENT OF JOHN A. STEWART, OF NEW YORK CITY-Resumed
Mr. STEwART. Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, I
want to ask the privilege of making a formal statement to this com-
mittee for the record, which in one phase of this hearing will, per-
haps, clarify the atmosphere. I am not so inexperienced in appearing
before committees of the Congress nor so ignorant of the psychology
of committees generally sitting in hearings in respect of foreign
nations not to understand that there is due to any such committee a
frank statement as to the identity of every motivating influence
and a frank disclosure of what may be suspected to lie unseen be-
hind any such appearance as this of ourselves before such a com-
mittee as yours. Hence I feel it to be my duty to lay before this
committee the following facts in order that they may be made a part
of the record of these hearings.
First, the Caucasian Society was organized as a humble means of
presenting to the people of the United States, and in particular to
the Members of Congress, the case of the Georgians. There is
nothing in regard to the activities of this committee or of any indi-
vidual, a member or otherwise of it, that does not plainly appear on
the surface. No oil company, no iron company, no company or cor-
poration is identified with the society or the purposes of the society.
Neither the society itself nor any individual connected with this
society represents any corporate interest or any individual interest
that has moved or is moving to obtain from the Georgians or from
the government of the Georgians any concession, proprietary rights,
or to reach any other end the attainment of which relates to business
exploitation. Nobody connected with the committee, directly or
indirectly, is paid any retainer or receives any emolument for what
he or she may be doing in behalf of Georgian freedom.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 23
Second, what small expense there is in the furtherance here of the
project to secure from the people of the United States an authorita-
tive expression of sympathy with the Georgian Government and their
people has always been met and is being met by Mr. Vasili D.
Dumbādze out of his private, personal means; and I may say here
and now, upon the authority of Mr. Dumbadze, that he has not
received nor is receiving from any corporate or private source what-
soever any fund or funds that relate to any concession or to any
project that has reference to the profitable exploitation of Georgia
and the Georgians.
Third, it is true that efforts have been made by Americans and
other nationals to secure concessions or private rights that relate to
Georgia's private or public domain, but it equally true that his Gov-
ernment and Mr. Dumbadze are consistently refusing to give any
consideration to any such offer for concessions, returning always
this reply to any such discussion: That no consideration will be given
to any matter relating to the upbuilding of Georgia's industrial es-
tablishment having reference to the proper exploitation of her nat-
ural resources until after the Georgians have secured their independ-
ence and their government occupies their rightful position in the
capital city of Tiflis (with proper reservations to be made in the
event of any vitally exigent situation the development of which is
not now to be foreseen). **
Fourth, it is true that when the Georgian Government shall rest
in complete and secure control of their rightful territory, the soil
upon which the Georgian people have lived continuously for 3,000
years, then the rightfully constituted authorities will consider such
development of its natural resources in the interests of all its people;
with due regard to a proper profit arising from such development,
upon a basis which the government has repeatedly referred to as an
“American * kind of development, but which development, how-
ever, will proceed after a plan of friendly regard for all friendly
nations. But the Georgian Government has not recognized nor will
it recognize the title of anyone to whom there has been granted by
the Bolsheviki Government any concession, relating to any property
in Georgia.
Fifth, it is true that, specifically, the Georgian Government has
been urged to enter into contracts with those desiring concessions,
which consummated relationship would have been very immediately
profitable to the Georgian Government and would have permitted
it to have freed itself from the poverty which besets it, but the
members of the Government have courteously refused to consider
any such development or exploitation until after they should have
been permitted by a more kindly fate to rest secure in their capital,
in Tiflis. It is true, and is frankly admitted, that as soon as the
Georgian Government shall have secured control of its own coun-
try it will develop, with the help of American and others, its natu-
ral resources, and try to make such development profitable to all
concerned; it is true that discussions have been had in regard to
the methods by which such natural resources might be developed
and Georgia placed on a sound business basis. It is true that there
has been discussion with members of the American Government
24 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
upon this subject; it is true that certain people in authority in-
formally have suggested that there might be placed at the service of
the Georgian Government and people such scientific data, such pro-
fessional help as might aid the Georgians in the fair development
of their wonderful resources. It is true that there is now going on
and that there will continue to go on the formation of plans upon a
highly scientific and economic basis that would, if permitted to be
carried out, not only be of vast benefit to the Georgians but to all
peoples.
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, not only am I
making this affirmation deliberately, but I am willing to put my
signature to a sworn affidavit that so far as I know to the contrary
; is not one fact to impugn the facts which I have hérein set
orth.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. One of the gentlemen asked yesterday
if you could furnish the names of the members of the Caucasian
Society?
Mr. STEwART. Yes.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Will you do that?
Mr. STEwART. I will do that.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Dr. Albert Shaw is a member, is he not?
Mr. STEwART. Doctor Shaw is representing the Near East Relief.
Finally, gentlemen, I have here a statement of Mr. Collier which is
somewhat a repetition of the statement I have just made. It is a
fact highly honorable to Barron G. Collier, whom I fancy most of
this committee know, that when Mr. Dumbadze, in the name of his
Government, asked Mr. Collier to accept the position of consul gen-
eral for this continent, Mr. Collier replied, and that reply is filed
with Mr. Dumbadze, that he would be glad to accept so honorable
a distinction provided it were distinctly understood that Mr. Col-
lier in accepting the position would accept with it no salary, no
emolument in money of any other kind, and would not use his posi-
tion for any money-making purposes.
I have the honor to present to you, Mr. Chairman, the following
statement from Mr. Collier, who was here yesterday in person, as
were Dr. Albert Shaw, Mr. Perley Morse, Mr. Edwin Wildman,
Mr. Hugh James Fleming, and others, to hear and be heard upon
the matter of Georgia independence. It is addressed to Mr. Porter,
dated March 31, 1926, and reads as follows:
The Republic of Georgia is situated between Asia in the south and western
Europe in the north. It is bordered by Turkey and Armenia in the south, and
the Crimean portion of Russia in the north. It is a gateway between Asia
and Western Europe. With its sister republics it numbers fourteen and one-
half millions in population. It is the cradle of the Caucasian or white race.
Its people are the blood brothers of we Americans and of Christian civiliza-
tion throughout the world. Because these people for 1,700 years, or 17 cen-
turies, have unswervingly fought the battles of Christianity, they have right-
fully been adjudged the standard bearers of Christianity.
They have been recognized by every important country including Russia,
and they only seek the same consideration from the United States. Their
desire for this recognition is by no means a part of a program which will
. to Warfare but a part of an intelligent attempt to “get their house in
Order.”
The people of Georgia are an educated and cultured people with a per.
centage of literacy of over 96 per cent. There are more than 4,000 public
A
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 25
schools, in addition to which there are grammer schools, agricultural and
theological colleges, with many technical and industrial schools as well. They
naturally desire no interference with these educational advantages which it
has taken them centuries to develop. The business and industrial progreSS
of their people should not be interrupted, and to restore their equilibrium and
to support their people in the enjoyment of “life, liberty, and the pursuit Of
happiness” they ask the moral force of American public opinion.
Now, let me call particularly your attention to this paragraph:
They have never appealed to the world for aid or charity, but they do ask
your committee to grant them American recognition with its moral Support
now as being of inestimable value in their present struggle to restore to their
people the ordinary privileges of liberty and the opportunity to administer their
laws and pursue their lives and their religion in their own way.
And the statement of Mr. Collier closes with this paragraph:
The present cycle of time and events has constituted America the moral
header of the world and it is opportune and right that the cause of the Trans-
Caucasian Republic should be submitted to this tribunal of justice.
Respectfully submitted.
BARRON G. COLLIER,
ARR Consul General.
Mr. ELLIs. Is there any proper sense in which it can be said that
the Russian Government as now constituted may claim anything as
against the Georgian people by virtue of conquest? Have they ever
been at-war with one another?
Mr. STEwART. Many times armed resistance to tyrannical au-
thority.
Mr. ELLIS. Is the present status due to war? Were they so in-
volved in the World War or in any way that they can claim the
right of conquest, or any rights from conquest?
Mr. STEwART. Not at all. Georgia was alternately inundated and
self-freed for hundreds and hundreds of years. In the time of
Catherine, Russia entered into a convention.
Mr. ELLIS. I am asking you to come back to more recent events.
They have gone in and taken absolute control of this country under
Some sort of pretence.
Mr. STEwART. It was the same as the Belgian situation. The
treaty (1783) was one of amity and friendship as between equals; it
was so regarded, and the activities under that treaty were upon such
basis. Georgia accepted this treaty which was advocated and for-
warded by official activities from St. Petersburg, for the reason that
to the south and to the east of them lay an enormous Mohammedan
population, with which they had been constantly at war. When the
Persians and the Turks warred with Georgia the nation was reduced
by 500,000; so that as a matter of mutual policy the Georgians had
been constantly at war with the Turks, and this treaty with Russia
was accepted, and it operated all right until after the war with the
Persians and the Turks, in which Russia secretly connived at the
undoing of Georgia. The Georgians were then so exhausted as the
result of that war they could offer no real defense against the un-
warranted occupation of their territory by the Russians.
Mr. ELLIS. When was that?
Mr. STEwART. 1783 and 1801; Russia after that war forcibly an-
nexed Georgia. The annexation was never recognized by the
26 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Georgians and they have repeatedly rebelled. The Russians never
were able to conquer the Georgian mountaineers; the torch of liberty
has burned there for centuries, and to-day the Soviets have given
up the thought of conquering these people in their mountain fast-
nesses. It is only in the industrial centers, such as Tiflis, Baku, etc.,
that the Bolsheviks are in control. But only because superior armed
force accomplished the evil act which the Bolsheviki Government
that succeeded the Kerensky Government could not accomplish by
persuasion.
Mr. ELLIs. But that domination was never recognized by the old
Russian régime. t e
Mr. STEwART. Before the time of the treaty it was constantly
recognized.
STATEMENT OF WASILI D. DUMBADZE, REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
REPUBLICS OF GEORGIA, AZERBAIDJAN, AND NORTH CAU-
CASIA *
Mr. DUMBADZE. In 1917 when the bolsheviki took the rule of Rus-
sia, chaos reigned in Georgia when the old Russian Government
officials abandoned their posts and fled over the border to the white
armies. This abandonment released Georgia from autocratic Rus-
sian rule as well as from obligations to the new red rule. This situa-
tion compelled the Georgians to unite into an assembly or Seim in
February, 1918, after which under their restored sovereignty they
declared their independence under an act which was ratified by
their constituent assembly March 12, 1919.
Afterward, in 1920, Georgia was recognized de facto by the great
powers. Then Soviet Russia recognized Georgia by a treaty of
May 7, 1920. A few months later, in compact with the Angora-
Turkish Government, without declaration of war, the bolsheviki
invaded Georgia. The great powers recognized Georgia de jure—
just beforgº the bolsheviki invasion of Georgia.
&nd England protested against this invasion (see Appen-
dix No. ºp) and France proposed to take the Georgian Government
tº 5arliament and cabinet into Paris where the Georgian min-
ister plenipotentiary had full diplomatic status, which he still ex-
ercises as this diplomatic directory indicates on page 15. (See ap-
pendix to Mr. Dumbadze's brief.)
England and France recognized Soviet Russia in 1924–25, but
made emphatic reservations for Georgian liberty, that is they ex-
cluded Georgia from Soviet interference. The words of the British
treaty are practically the same as in the French treaty and are
“Recognizes the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as being the de
jure Government of those territories of the ancient Russian Empire
which recognizes its authority.”
The CHAIRMAN. I have asked the gentleman to put into the record
copies of the recognitions by these various governments and other
documents. Now, I will ask you this question, Did the Georgian
government make an application to our Government at any time for
recognition ?


NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 27
Mr. DUMBADzE. The Georgian government in Paris did not make
this application, but General Harbord was sent by President Wilson
to make an investigation of the Near East, including Georgia and
General Harbord made a very thorough report of his findings in
Georgia.
The CHAIRMAN. Did he discuss the Georgian situation?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. I will ask Mr. Stewart to read this.
Mr. STEwART. From the report of Major General Harbord of 1919,
upon conditions in the Near East:
'Let us glance at the picture and consider the historic, political, and economic
past and present of these peoples and their claim to the attention of the civi-
lized world, for they are among those races that “present the greatest humani-
tarian opportunity of the age,” and upon whose destiny depends the “World’s
peace at the world's crossways, the focus of war infection since the beginning
of history.” -
The CHAIRMAN. Is that all he said on the subject?
Mr. OPDYokE. There is considerably more. (Full report attached.)
Mr. STEwART. That excerpt is from page 3 of this blue book by
Dumbadze. (Appendix No. 12) 3
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. You said ºf while ago that the moun-
taineers of Georgia have never acquiscéd in or submitted to the
Soviet rule.
Mr. DUMBADZE. That is true.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. What proportion of the population is
made up of mountaineers?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The proportion is small, maybe one-tenth of the
whole Georgian population, but they were so strong, owing to their
strategic position, that in 1924, when Soviet. Russia turned all our
churches into dancing schools and killed and exiled 30,000 women
and children, these mountaineers came down from the mountains
and freed all Georgia from the Bolsheviks, and it was not until
Soviet Russia later sent 100,000 red soldiers that they were obliged
to go back, and they are still in the mountains.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Does the Soviet Government undertake to
send any armed forces into the mountains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. They undertake it in summer, but are unsuccess-
ful; in the winter it is not possible to penetrate these mountains.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Fighting goes on whenever they attempt
to go into the mountains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. It is very similar to the case of the
natives in North Africa.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Back in the Russian Tsarist régimé they
tried for 55 years to conquer the Caucasus. Owing to their strategic
position, only when old Russia granted a vice royalty to Georgia
did they desist, and the Georgian mountaineers held this strategic
position in the Caucasus in that remarkable manner for 55 years.
George Kennan described these people in his book with great care.
The CHAIRMAN. Was the recognition by Great Britain and France
and other European countries of the Georgian Republic made at
the request of the Georgian Republic?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The de facto recognition by Great Britain and
France and Italy and others was made upon our application. In the
28 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA sº-
Interallied Conference, of which Briand was president, de jure
recognition was accorded us upon our demand January 27, 1921.
The letter is as follows:
INTERALLIED CONFERENCE,
Paris, January 27, 1921.
To his excellency M. GUEGUETCHKORI,
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia, Paris.
Mr. MINISTER : After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the
Supreme Council, under date of January 26, has resolved to recognize de jure
the independence of Georgia as soon as this country should formally express
the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27, to adress to me the official
request of the government and the people of Georgia, to become recognized
de jure by the allied powers.
I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was
unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government.
The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy
with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward in-
dependence and the admiration inspired in them by the Work it has already
accomplished.
He pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. You have stated that when Great Britain
and France recognized the Soviet Government they made reserva-
tion in favor of the Georgian Republic, a distinct reservation?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; a distinct reservation.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. That has been disregarded by Soviet
Russia.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Also in article 2 paragraph 4 of the Russian
Soviet constitution, the Georgian people have a right to withdraw,
but when the Georgian people asked through our Government to
authorize a referendum for that purpose, Soviet Russia refused
every time, stamping their request as a revolt. (See Appendix
No.
M : Edwards. Has this matter ever been taken up with The
Hagie Court?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not The Hague Court, but the League of Nations.
Mr. Edwards. You had it before the League of Nations?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; it was brought before the League of Nations,
and they passed sympathetic resolutions three different times.
Mr. OPDYCKE.. I will read a quotation from a verbatim record, as
follows:
The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by
the third assembly, with reference to Georgia :
Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of
the world so that it may be able to seize any Opportunity which may occur to
help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful
means in accordance With the rules Of international law.
Mr. DUMBADZE. This resolution was passed.
Mr. OPDYCKE. This resolution was passed and repassed. The third
time it was passed upon the report of this committee from papers
which are set forth on the subject by Mr. E. M. McDonald, which I
will put in the record later. &
The CHAIRMAN. What is the date of that?
Mr. OPDYCKE. 1924.
Mr. EDwARDS. Then they did nothing more than pass a resolution
by the assembly?
Mr. OPDYokE. That is it, September 25, 1924.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 29
(The resolution and report referred to are as follows:)
The assembly has referred to the sixth committee for consideration a pro-
posal submitted by the delegations of Belgium, the British Empire, and France
in the following terms:
“The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922,
by the third assembly, with reference to Georgia : &
“Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part
of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportuniy which may occur
to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful
means in accordance with the rules of international law.”
This proposal is a textual reproduction of the resolution adopted in 1922.
The third assembly, prompted by feelings which we are sure Our Colleagues
all share at the present time, entrusted to the council the duty of watching
the situation and seizing any favorable opportunity to improve it by peaceful
means in accordance with international law.
The main features of the situation remain unaltered, and the tragic events
which are at this moment taking place in Georgia must bring back to us
the anxieties of the third assembly. As the resolution of the year 1922 is
already on record, we may venture, in addition, to express the hope that the
Governments of the States members of the league may perhaps be able to
assist the council, either with information or by exercise of their influence for
peace so far as circumstances may permit.
The committee requests the assembly to give instructions for the present
report to be communicated to the council, in order that the latter may be
able, at a time and in the manner it may consider the most Opportune, to
take into consideration the indications it contains.
VERBATIM RECORD OF THE FIFTH ASSEMBLY OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS TWEN-
TIETH PLENARY MEETING, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 25, 1924, AT 4 P. M.
74. TEEE SITUATION IN GEORGIA—REPORT OF TEIE SLXTEL COMIMITTEE-RESOLUTION
The l’RESIDENT (translation). We now pass to the fifth item on our agenda,
the situation in Georgia. (Annex 15, DOCument A. 95, 1924, VII.)
I invite M. Enckell, chairman of the sixtb committee, and Mr. E. M. Mac-
Donald, rapporteur, to take their places On the platform.
(M. Enckell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. E. M. MacDonald,
rapporteur, took their places On the platform.)
The PRESIDENT (translation). The rapporteur will address the assembly.
Mr. E. M. MACDONALD (Canada), rapporteur. The question of the situation
in Georgia, which has been dealt with by the sixth committee, was put forward
by the delegations of the British Empire, France, and Belgium. The report
of the sixth committee is before you.
Perhaps you will permit me, in a very few words, to outline the present
Situation in that unhappy Country. A proud people, which for centuries had
maintained its independence, became merged in the Russian nation a little
Over a hundred years ago. After the Great War, in common. With a great
many other countries in a similar position, the Georgian people asserted their
independence on February 26, 1918, and adopted a constitution on the lines of
a democratic republic. That nation so reconstructed was, On December 11,
1920, recognized by the Supreme Council, which was then Composed Of Great
Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and Belgium. In view of later events, it is
significant to note that on May 7 of the same year Russia herself recognized
de jure the independence of Georgia, using the following Words in the treaty
in that regard : “Russia recognizes without reserve the independence and
sovereignty of the Georgian State, and Willingly renounces the sovereign
rights which belong to Russia as regards the Georgian people and terrain.”
On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the State of Georgia
de jure at the same time as Esthonia and Latvia, which are now meltibers
of the league. Similar recognition was extended by a large number of Other
countries: Poland, Rumania, Germany. Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina,
Panama, Haiti, Mexico, Liberia, Luxemburg, and Siam.
On February 25, 1921, the minister plenipotentiary of the new State pre-
sented his credentials to the President of the French Republic, and since that
date the Georgian legation has been functioning at Paris. What then hap-
pened—and it is an almost unprecedented action in the history of the world—
30 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF. GEORGIA
was that Russia, in spite of her recognition of Georgia, proceeded to disregard
the step which she had taken and to attack Georgia. Since then the position
of that country has appealed to the sympathy of all the nations of the world.
That the status of Georgia, as constituted, has been further recognized and
approved is seen by the fact that no less distinguished a person than the
present Prime Minister of France, M. Herriot, in 1922 brought the situation
of Georgia, as it then was, before the French Chamber of Deputies, where his
statement with regard to the position of affairs was approved by the then
Premier, M. Poincaré.
The present Chancellor of the Exchequer in Great Britain, Mr. Snowden,
brought the situation before the British House of Commons in July of last
year. While it may be said, in considering this matter, that Great Britain
has recognized the Soviet GOvernment in Russia, it must at the same time be
borne in mind that that recognition was limited, and was coupled with a
reservation, because Great Britain only recognized the Union of Soviet Re-
publics as being the de jure Government of such territories of the former
Russian Empire as recognized its authority. As far as Georgia is concerned,
it seems to me, therefore, that she has a full right to claim the Sympathy
Of all the other nations of the world.
The representations which were made to our committee on behalf of that
unhappy State disclosed the following facts: -
“The sufferings of the Georgian people are beyond all endurance: the
terror, which is Russia, is relaxed at times, not only does not know any
period of relaxation in Georgia, but is becoming more and more violent ;
deportations, imprisonment, tortures in the dungeons of the Cheka, execution
Without trial of representatives of all classes are more and more numerous ;
the arrested political people are treated as bandits, and intellectuals and Work-
men are deprived of all means of work; Georgians being hostile to the power,
their admission to commercial and industrial enterprises as well as into the
public services is hindered by every means ; the clergy is persecuted for the
exercise of their religious duties, and for having put into the true light the
actual state of affairs. The chief of the Georgian Church, Patriarch Catholicos
Ambrosius, was condemned to many years imprisonment and is now in close
confinement.”
This is the situation, and I am sure it is one which will appeal to every
member of this assembly. It is therefore with full confidence that I submit
to you the conclusions Of the Second Committee. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. (translation). Professor Gilbert Murray, delegate of the
British Empire, will address the assembly.
Professor GILBERT MURRAY (British Empire). I rise on behalf of the British
delegation merely to emphasize the purely humanitarian character of this reso-
lution. There is no question of interference in the domestic affairs of the
Russian Empire. There is no question whatever of using any form of mili-
tary pressure to bring about a settlement of the fighting in Georgia in one way
or the other. But every war or threat of war is the concern of the League Of
Nations, and if the wholesale slaughter and devastation now taking place in
Georgia is not technically a war it is at least a terrible example of human
suffering ; and the league is concerned, according to article 23 Of the Covenant,
in endeavoring to alleviate the sufferings of mankind. We ask the Council
to watch for any opportunity that may offer to restore normal conditions in
that afflicted region, by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of
international law. The league wishes to offer its good offices to both sides in
reestablishing normal conditions. I am afraid that we can do no more than
that, but I feel convinced that we can do no less.
It has been suggested, as Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, that the policy
of Great Britain has been inconsistent on this matter. On January 27, 1921,
Great Britain recognized Georgia de jure as an independent State, and this
year the British Government has recognized the Soviet Government; but, as
Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, the words of that recognition Were very
carefully, and I think correctly, chosen.
I venture to suggest that it would not have been proper for His Majesty's
Government to interfere in the burning question then at issue between the
Soviet Government and that of Georgia. At any rate, the recognition was
expressed in very careful and correct language. His Majesty's Government
recognized the Union of Socialistic Soviet Republics as being the de jure
government of those territories of the former Russian Empire which recognized
its authority. It went no further,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 31
One word more: It is only too often the fate of this assembly to be faced
by problems it can not solve and by masses of human suffering which it can
not with its present resources cure or even alleviate. The question arises in
such cases as to what the league ought to do. It is perfectly clear that We
must not make promises which we can not fulfil; it is clear that it would be
cruel to encourage hopes which will not be realized. But Surely it is equally
clear that we can not simply turn away our eyes from these masses of Suffer-
ing and pretend, for diplomatic reasons, a callous indifference which we do
not feel. I think we can only do, in this and similar cases, what is recom-
mended in the resolution before us. We must beg the sufferers to be patient
to the very limit of human patience; we must acknowledge the duty which
for the time being we can not fulfil and ask the council to watch for every
opportunity that may present itself of offering effective mediation and bring-
ing peace to the regions where there is now war. (Applause.)
The PRESIDENT (translation). Count Bonin-LOngare, delegate of Italy, will
address the assembly.
Count BONIN-LONGARE (Italy) (translation). Mr. President, ladies and gentle-
men, the fifth assembly has had a proposal laid before it in which the council is
asked to follow attentively the course of events in Georgia with a view to
restoring the country to normal conditions and putting a stop to bloodshed.
It is clear that, at the time when the assembly of the league is in Session
and is engaged in constructing its noble edifice Of universal peace, it can not
turn a deaf ear to rumors of war and Strife.
The league would be failing in its duty if, while drafting and codifying the
doctrines which are to establish the peace of the world On unshakable founda-
tions, it affected to ignore the tragedy of a war at the very gates of Europe.
There can thus be no two Opinions in regard to the proposal put forward
by the Belgian, French, and British delegations and the Italian delegation
wishes to support it, more especially as the rapporteur has given us a very
timely reminder that we should not be adopting a new resolution but simply
reviving One which was unanimously adopted by the third assembly two
years ago.
It is, however, one of the immutable laws of international politics that
countries can not allow sentiment alone to guide them, and though we are
anxious to do all in Our power to save every single life we can, we must
remember that We are on difficult ground and that a false step might land us
in a very awkward predicament.
The situation of the two countries in conflict is such that the mediating
action which We propose to exercise might, notwithstanding our disinterested
motives, encounter most serious difficulties. We must, therefore, act with the
Tutmost Caution.
Accordingly, I am glad to see from the report before us that the council is
allowed Wide discretion as to choice of time and methods.
The Council, which is preeminently a political body, will be able to consider
the Situation from the twofold standpoint of sentiment and reason. It can
Steer a Course through the shoals Of this difficult problem and so attain with-
out difficulty the humane and peaceful aim which we are pursuing. [Ap-
plause.]
The PRESIDENT:
(Translation). M. de Brouckére, delegate of Belgium, will address the
assembly.
M. de Brouckère (Belgium) (translation). Mr. President, ladies and gentle-
Imen, I should like briefly to express my approval of the prudent counsel which
the honorable delegate of Italy has just given us and to say how sincerely I
share the hopes expressed by the British delegate.
In this matter, as in every other, caution is essential. Not only in the Cau-
casus, but everywhere else, the league may find itself on treacherous ground.
We must, first and foremost, ask the council to exercise in the future, as it
has done With Such conspicuous success in the past, that political wisdom and
foresight to which reference has just been made and which, as experience has
shown, is very rarely synonymous with inaction. If the league tacitly allows
a Whole nation to fight and perish without taking the slightest heed, its inac-
tion would, believe me, prove so serious that, far from merely avoiding inci-
dents, it would provoke the most serious difficulties.
96153—26—3
32 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
I venture to say that the league's policy would be singularly inconsistent
and indeed derisive if at a time when the foremost intellects of the day are
devoting themselves heart and Soul to the study of problems of peace, it
should stand aloof, if it sheltered behind a cloud of abstractions, and shut
its eyes to the fact that War is raging at Our gates.
It has been rightly said—and those who are most anxious to intervene and
prevent War are Obliged to recognize the fact—that, at the present juncture, we
Can do Very little.
But should we on this account remain silent Surely not. There is a cer-
tain virtue in Words themselves. Things which we can not do now we will
be able to do when the conscience of the world has given us greater power,
and it is this conscience which we must awaken and to which we must appeal.
We must, by unanimously adopting the resolution before us, Speak a word
of hope to the oppressed. We must tell them that we know that war, unjust
War, is raging, and that sooner or later, as soon as the time comes, we will
See that justice is done. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT (translation). M. Georges Monnet, delegate of France, will
address the ASSembly.
M. GEORGES BONNET (France) (translation). Mr. President, ladies and gen-
tlemen, I should like to say a few words in support of the eloquent speeches
Which have just been made.
The draft resolution in question has been submitted jointly by the Belgian,
British, and French delegations, and you will remember that it was eloquently
defended in this Assembly by M. Paul Boncour.
As M. de Brouckère has just emphasized, the League of Nations can not
remain silent in the presence of suffering such as are now being endured by
the Georgian people. The league must make its Voice heard, and this is the
aim of the draft resolution which you are asked to adopt.
It is true that we must exercise the utmost caution. Legal considerations
must be taken in conjunction with sentimental Ones. We claim that the text
before you takes both into consideration, and accordingly the French delega-
tion associates itself with what has been said by the previous speakers and
asks you to adopt the resolution. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT (translation). Does anyone else wish to Speak?
The discussion is ClOSed.
The sixth committee asks that its report should be submitted by the assem-
bly to the council in order that the latter may be able to take it into consid-
eration at the time and in the manner which it may consider the most
Opportune.
On this understanding I put the following resolution to the Vote :
The assembly decides to authorize the transmission to the Council of the
report of the sixth committee regarding the situation in Georgia (Document
A. 95, 1924, VII), in order that the council may be able, at a time and in
the manner it may consider the most opportune, to take into consideration
the indications it contains.
(The resolution was unanimously adopted.)
The CHAIRMAN. Proceed.
STATEMENT OF HENRY G. OPDYCKE, CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW
YORK CITY
Mr. OPDYork. I have prepared a very simple memorandum to go
into the record, recapitulating the matter. By reason of my
acquaintance and my travel in Russia I feel that I can speak with
a fair degree of accuracy of the facts and with a fair estimation of
the qualifications of these people for serving their Government.
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the Committee on Foreign Af-
fairs, the propriety and desirability of Congress acting favorably
on the bill before you, H. J. Res. 195, authorizing the President to
appoint a diplomatic representative to the Republic of Georgia, may
be considered from three principal jº.
First, the right to the restoration of possession of its territory
under its legal position as a matter of simple justice.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 33
Second, its moral right to possess its territory by its historical
allegiance to Christianity and honesty of purpose.
Third, the desirability of its independent possession of its territory
by reason of its economical importance to the United States.
While it is not generally appreciated in this country, Georgia’s
history shows beyond contradiction that it never was in fact a Rus-
sian people and always fought to remain a distinctly separate state,
and only sought alliance with Russia in order to protect itself from
invasion by stronger neighbors who constantly sought its downfall.
The treaty with Russia in 1783 was for this sole purpose, and when
in 1801 Russia violated this treaty and annexed Georgia to its own
sovereignty, it left a people continuously determined to be free, even
to the date of its final declaration of independence on May 26, 1918.
These people never were conquered even by Russia’s large armies.
often at their gates, and Russia came to realize its inability to govern.
Georgia autocratically, and did actually grant them a vice-royalty
overnment, which provided a better feeling, but not complete satis-
action until the revolution of the Bolsheviki destroyed the Romanoff
Government and presented the opportunity for independence, which
was effected by their declaration of May 26, 1918.
With such a history in mind the Bolsheviki did actually by a
solemn treaty of May 7, 1920, renounce the rights of Russia in
Georgia and willingly granted them “without reservation” their
independence and sovereignty, and further agreed to abstain from
intereference in the internal affairs of Georgia.
There certainly was no doubt about the legality or completeness
of that act on the part of the bolshevists.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Who was heading the Soviet Government
at that time?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Lenin.
Previous to this state of affairs Georgia sought the recognition of
the world powers, and was recognized by the acts of the Argentine
Republic in 1919, France, Great Britain, Japan, and Italy in the
early part of 1920, and by Belgium and Germany later in the same
year, de facto, all of whom later in 1921 recognized the government
de jure, and since that time, when Great Britain and France recog-
nized the Soviet Government, they both in no uncertain terms re-
served from their recognition the independence of Georgia.
Within a few weeks after the recognition of Georgia by the world.
powers, and even before Georgia had reasonable time to secure recog-
nition of America, the Bolsheviki deliberately violated their treaty
of recognition and with the help of Turkey from the south crushed
the population of Georgia and forcibly drove the Government out of
the country and set up a Soviet government over a beaten but un-
conquered country.
Mr. COOPER. Did you say with the aid of people from the south 2
Mr. OPDYCKE. Turkey. People from the south, Turkey being to
the south of Georgia.
Mr. COOPER. It is your claim there that the Turks were in alliance
with Russia?
Mr. OPDYCKE, Yes; I believe that is true, that Soviet Russia had
an understanding with them at least.
\
34 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Such an act was unprecedented and certainly did not legally de-
prive Georgia of its de jure status. Therefore Georgia should be
aided with our sympathy in securing possession of her country.
The details of the wonderful history of this Christian land have
been more fully covered by the other speakers. But I can not leave
this reason for recognition without calling your attention again to
this land of the Garden of Eden, the golden fleece, the cradle of
Christianity, and even the beginning of the spoken language, with
its wealth of ancient literature and art, and ask how we can afford
to lose this opportunity to preserve them for posterity.
Much consideration should be shown to the desires of the officials
of independent Georgia, who when driven out of their country by the
reds, gathered up what money and stores they could carry, took
along with them the ancient art treasures of Georgia, and carried
them away to France where they were safely stored in the vaults
of the French Government awaiting a time for their restoration to
an independent State of Georgia.
It may be noted here that, unlike the other ravished countries, they
never asked charity from the world, and these fleeing officials instead
of lining their pockets with the values of Georgian art in their
possession, used the money taken away for the benefit of its many
refugees, stored the art treasures away, and went to work for a
living while ceaselessly toiling for their liberty. To-day they are
living in Paris in extremely humble fashion, although functioning
properly in the maintenance of the Georgian Legation.
Surely such conduct should be rewarded by the Christian world,
and especially by America, whose love of a square deal, its valuation
of the Christian faith, and its preservation has so very often caused
it to unselfishly support downtrodden communities.
It is my personal knowledge that these gentlemen of the legation
had a building of several floors where this legation was maintained.
They were functioning there in the various ways that they had of
doing things that they could do without physical possession of their
country. The acting president, when I was there, lived in an apart-
ment on the fourth floor, a very modest apartment, and they got to-
gether in the evenings after work to transact their business, and at a
tremendous sacrifice. The pay of one of these gentlemen, who is of
an exceedingly high type, was approximately $80 a month in our
IſlOIlêV.
º VAILE. From what source was that received 2
Mr. OPDYork. He was doing translating work and library work,
archaeological work, with the French Government.
Mr. VAILE. It was not money paid by the people of Georgia?
Mr. OPDYor: E. No ; they were working for outside people—French
activity—had a job in Paris. At these metings, where we gathered
together a number of times, the meals were very frugal and the
whole conduct that of frugal people.
Georgia and its federated neighbors have within their boundaries
immense stores of oil, manganese, copper, timber, and silk cocoons,
cotton, tea, and many other natural resources well known to this
committee and required by the United States in its manufactures.
The Soviet Government have well established the fact that no real
commercial relations of any degree of reliability can be carried on by
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 35
them, and, on the other hand, the high character of the independent
government of Georgia guarantees reliable business relations with
them, and it may be further said that they are even anxious to have
the help of American ingenuity and energy. They have expressed
many times their desire for development by American capital under
the most liberal terms. ë iº
To sum up the problem before us I might simply say that this coun-
try, small in size but great in history, character, and opportunity, de;
serves our help and we in turn should recognize our power to aid
humanity by helping them with every means possible to regain their
territory, thereby performing again our duty to posterity and as
well opening this tremendous field of economic value to our country.
An intimate acquaintance with many Georgians covering a period
of the past 15 years has convinced me of their absolute loyalty and
integrity. I therefore beg your favorable report on the resolution
before you.
One work in connection with communication between the Georgian
mountaineers and the Georgian Government in Paris. I happened
to have been present at a meeting of this conference where actual
communication was kept up with these people in the mountains. I
have seen communications arrive and communications depart.
I have been present with Mr. Dumbadze while these things
were going on. I simply call his attention to the fact that in that
respect it would give you gentlemen the full facts—that there are
groups of men in control in the mountains there and in other parts
of Georgia.
Mr. CoopFR. It was my understanding at the time of this recogni-
tion when the Menshivists were in control there that many of them
wanted that alliance with Russia because they had been allied with
them before, to save them from the Turks, and the Turks were then
battling through there.
Mr. OPDYore. They were coming up there under what we believe
was an agreement with the Bolsheviks. Doctor Dumbadze can give
you more direct information because he was there on the job at the
time.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Let us get more as to the present condi-
tions. Are the Turks as well as the Russians occupying Georgian
territory at this time?
Mr. OPDYCKE. No. The attitude of the Turks is different now
than at that time.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Wherein different?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Because just at this particular time when they came
up into Georgia from the south as the Bolshevists came down from
the north, there was an understanding or alliance of some kind
between them, the details of which Mr. Dumbadze can give you.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. They did not fight each other?
Mr. OPDYCKE. No ; they were acting together to accomplish the
same results.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Georgia was invaded by Soviet Russia and the
Turks. Turkey got from Soviet Russia 10,000 square kilometers of
our land, 250,000 in population, and copper mines of 6,604,000 tons
estimated deposits, etc.
36 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
p
Mr. MooRE. The Turks along with the Russians invaded Georgia?
Mr. EATON. The Turks took one section and Soviet Russia took
the other, and they drove you and your government out?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; they were in agreement at that time.
Mr. EATON. Was anything said about that matter, any reference
made to the Georgian Republic in treaties negotiated at Lausanne,
the Turkish treaty?
hº DUMBADZE. No; nothing, because we had no represntative
there.
Mr. CoopFR. That is the time that the Turks went through
Armenia just below Georgia and butchered the people indiscrimi-
3. slaughtered thousands of them, and then were coming up into
eorgia
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. The Turks did not go through the Republic
of Armenia at that time. The Turk came his own way from the
south along the coast of the Black Sea.
Mr. CoopFR. I understand they did not get into Georgia neces-
sarily through Armenia, but it was the same time they were going
up through Armenia and butchering them by the thousands, the
same time that they went into Russia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. They were not in the Republic of Armenia
at this time. When my government withdrew to Batoum, the
farthest western part of Georgia, the Turks and Soviet Russia occu-
pied the industrial part of Georgian country along the railroad.
The Soviets and Turkey negotiated a treaty about trade and diplo-
macy at this time.
Mr. EDWARDS. Where were these Armenians slaughtered?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The Armenian slaughter was not at this time.
Everything was quiet in the Republic of Armenia. The Armenians,
then Bolshevistic, did not fight with the Turks after 1920.
Mr. EDWARDS. Are the Turks still harassing the Armenians?
Mr. DUMBADZE. They did not harass the Armenians in this section
which is the Bolshevistic Republic of Armenia. I hear the Turkish
Government is getting more progressive and liberal in their govern-
ment, and wherever they have political influence they will use all
well-known means to modernize their Government and quiet the
population. *
Mr. FAIRCHILD. Regarding the physical condition here. I notice
by this map that the Caucasus Mountains run from the Black Sea
to the Caspian Sea. Along that land approach from Russia is there
easy access by land?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. Not directly to Georgia.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. In other words, if Turkey and Russia were co-
operating together in warfare with other nations, would the pos-
session of Georgia by Russia give them an easy access by land, or
would they be dependent upon the Black Sea approach to Georgia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. While the physical access through Georgia itself
between these countries is difficult by land—and more or less easy
by the Black, Sea—the obviously ultimate fall of the tyrannical
government of the Soviet will leave the aspirations of the Turk to
possess Georgia a matter to be dealt with later, as Georgia adjoins
and is open to Turkey on the south, and may afford an opportunity,
if Georgia is not protected, to add this Christian nation to the
Mohammedan forces.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 37
Mr. STEwART. How does Russia get access to Georgia—over the
mountains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Directly through the mountains; it is very diffi-
cult to get through the mountain passes; the army can not get to
Georgia that way. So they send soldiers by way of the Black Sea.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. You have explained that the wealth of Georgia is
the motive why Russia wants to keep possession?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; together with its immense value imperial-
istically as a base for military operations and propaganda against
the whole of Asia Minor and Persia, etc.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. I was wondering whether Russia's relations with
the rest of the world would be helped in their alliance with Turkey,
by being next-door neighbors—was that one of the motives?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; and besides this economical value Georgia
possesses, according to statistics of the United States Department of
the Interior, high-grade manganese mines, estimated at 110,000,000
metric tons, of which America uses 850,000 tons annually. Georgia’s
supply is sufficient to last the American steel industry 120 years.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. Are there any easy passes over the Caucasus
Mountains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. There are only two passes, and they are ex-
tremely difficult.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. There is no easy access by land from Russia to
Georgia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No, not at all; on the contrary.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. The only access is by the Black Sea?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. The Black Sea, except the passes mentioned.
The CHAIRMAN. When the bolsheviki entered Georgia, was it by
way of the Black Sea or the mountains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Azerbaidjan and Armenia. They established Bol-
shevism in Azerbaidjan on the eastern side, in 1920.
The CHAIRMAN. They came in by way of Baku?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. MARTIN. How much of an army do they have there now?
Mr. DUMBADZE. In Georgia from Azerbaidjan, about 40,000 in
1921. They then sent 60,000 additional soldiers in 1924–1925.
Mr. COOPER. Where do you get those figures from?
Mr. DUMBADZE. From statistics in Europe and America and quoted
on page 9 of Karl Kautsky's book on Georgia.
Mr. CoopBR. Was it 30,000 or 60,000?
. Mr. DUMBADZE. I mentioned two years, 1924 and 1925; some sta-
tistics show 35,000 in 1922; some 60,000 additional 1924, and statis-
tics of last year, 1925, showed from 35,000 to 45,000 additional in
1925, totaling over 100,000 Soviet troops in Georgia.
Mr. COOPER. That is, in the three countries?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No; I mean Georgia.
Mr. COOPER. Was it in Georgia alone?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Distinctly I mentioned Georgia. They transfer
troops from their other Soviet countries in Trans-Caucasus, as
needed; where they are keeping their troops at this identical time
it is impossible to say.
Mr. EPLIs. Is that army sustained by taxes assessed against the
people of Georgia?
f

38 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; that army is supported by the Soviet Mos-
cow Government, who impose outrageous taxes on our people.
Mr. VAILE. In a statement read yesterday from those British labor
representatives’ report, it was said at the time of the statement the
only military force in Georgia consisted of militia. It did not, as
I remember, describe what the militia was.
Mr. CoopFR. It did not say “only,” either; it said principally by
the local militia.
Mr. VAILE. Is there any local military force comprised of the
people of Georgia which is concerned with its government for Soviet
Russia 2.
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. The regular troops of the independent Re-
public of Georgia, after being driven westward by the Soviet army
to Batoum, dispersed when the government left Georgia for Paris.
Some of these troops were captured and some fled to the mountains.
north of Kutais, where they remained out of reach of the red army.
There was no other army or independent troops of Georgia other
than these and the mountain soldiers spoken of.
When the Soviets invaded Georgia the first to arrive from Russia
were the “Tcheka "-composed of men of every race under the
Sun—with a number of former Georgians recruited in Moscow. Then
followed the regular red army, among which there were also some
ex-Georgians. These two organizations—the Tcheka and the red
army—were the only invaders and are to-day exercising their arbi-
. Russian inquisition—punishing without trial, etc., as you well
OW.
I desire you to fully understand that at no time did any body of
Georgian soldiers, regular or local, desert their people and fight for
red Russia. -
irº Powamps. How many communists do you have in Georgia,
II any &
Mr. DUMBADZE. According to statistics of Bolshevik Russia, dated
February, 1925, there are about 369,000 communists in Russia, and
these statistics show that Caucasus has 6 per cent of them. As the
Caucasus has about 22,000, as Georgia has about one-fifth of the
population of the Caucasus, a proper estimate would be about 4,500
more or less.
Mr. Edwards. What about Georgia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. We have not apportioned it. There is no means
to calculate; very few.
Mr. VAILE. How large is this local military force of militia which
is referred to in that British report?
Mr. DUMBADZE. This British report was made in 1924, and at that
time the forces of Soviet Russia, were large, because the Georgian
people were fighting against Soviet Russia. The Georgian soldiers
which were captured as soldiers may have been forced into the
Russian Army. The Communist army in Russia may be 500,000 to
700,000 soldiers, a few of them are Communists; some are hired
soldiers, and some along with captured Georgians were forced to
serve in the Bolshevik army.
Mr. VAILE. Those soldiers you are now referring to were in the
Soviet army?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 39
Mr. VAILE. They were part of the national force of Russia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. *
Mr. VAILE. The British report seemed to refer to a different force
corresponding to our local militia, to a local military force?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The British report can not be taken as a reliable
report as it was discredited universally by even the Socialists of the
world, and besides it flatly contradicts the Soviet's own official state-
ments. I will file with you a very able comment on that report—
by the Social Democrat Labor Party of Georgia.
Mr. VAILE. I think you are probably correct.
Mr. DUMBADZE. It was not accepted by the English Government
and people, and we are deeply convinced that it is Soviet propaganda,
an insidious example.
Mr. WALLE. Very good; and I think you are correct in saying we
can not rely on it; at least, not wholly, but we want to find out to
what extent. -
Mr. DUMBADZE. There is a Georgian military force under the
Soviet régime, composed of Russian Soviets.
Mr. VAILE. The Georgian militia served the Soviet régime, but
not in 1924?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not at all, except these communists from Moscow,
who were exported from there. All countries have communists now.
Mr. VAILE. Did the Georgian people have any local police force
which operated to maintain order?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes, but they dispersed when Soviet Russia en-
tered Georgia. You refer to the Georgian régime; it was Bolshevik
Soviet Russia régime which was referred to in the English report.
Mr. VAILE. Then all the ordinary police work was done by the
Soviets?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes—after the soviets entered Georgia the
Tcheka; not like we have in America, the police force, but the Soviet
Tcheka who condemn without trial, without court.
Mr. MARTIN. You do not think the sentiment of your country is
in favor of Russia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not at all.
Mr. MARTIN. That statement was made yesterday.
Mr. DUMBADZE. I repeat there is not that sentiment. If our coun-
try would be allowed to have a plebiscite, I do not believe the Geor-
gian Republic would give 1 or 2 per cent in favor of the Soviet
régime or any Russian régime at all.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. You say if there was a vote in Georgia about 2
per cent of the Georgians would vote for Russia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. I do not believe even that many would vote for
Russia.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. During the centuries has there been much
intermarriage of Russians and Georgians?
Mr. DUMBADZE. A few of them; it is difficult to tell about that.
'The integrity of the Georgian people stays always the same; the
Georgian influence prevails, if a Georgian marries a Russian the
children are Georgians.
Mr. CoopFR. Have they refused to let you have a plebiscite?
Mr. DUMBADZE. They refused it distinctly.
96153—26—4
40 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. CoopFR. Do you know that General Wood in the Philippines
has refused to allow the Philippines to have a plebiscite?
Mr. DUMBADZE. I am not entitled to critize General Wood’s acts.
I am only considering the Georgian question.
Mr. EATON. You have the Tcheka yet, do you?
Mr. VAILE. Just as we have a local police force.
Mr. DUMBADZE. It is not like a United States police force, unfor-
tunately, but as I explained previously a Russian inquisition. May
I be permitted to file a brief afterwards?
The CHAIRMAN. Yes.
Mr. DUMBADZE. With statistics and document that the Congress-
men want. I will file it.
(The statement referred to is as follows):
&
STATEMENT BY MIR. VASILI D. DUMBADzE, GENERAL DIPLOMATIC AND EconoMIC
REPRESENTATIVE of THE REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the Committee on Foreign Relations, among
the nations emancipated by the events of the Great War and by the revolu-
tions which followed, Georgia is one of the most ancient. She is also the
nation which has kept longer than any other the last vestige of her inde-
Dendence ; indeed she was not annexed to Russia until forcibly annexed in the
beginning of the nineteenth century, so that this foreign domination lasted but
a little over a hundred years.
From a geographical point of view, Georgia is very distinctly separated from
Russia ; that is to say, from that vast plain stretching from the Black Sea and
the Caspian Sea to the Baltic, and the Arctic Ocean, by that natural barrier
formed by the chain of the great Caucasian Mountains on the north.
From the ethnographical point of view the Georgian people, being in no wise
Slav, are altogether unlike the Russians. They are of a different type, as
entirely different as are their language, their traditions, their customs, and
their manners.
Although the majority are like the Russians, professedly of the Greek Ortho-
dox Church, the Georgian nation, even in this particular domain, has never
mingled with the Russians.
Her ecclesiastical traditions were maintained even under Russian rule, in
Spite of the temporary suppression of the ancient rights of the Georgian
Church, Georgia restored this autocephaly of the Georgian Church on the mor-
roW Of the pan-Russian revolution in 1917.
These primordial facts taken into consideration, it is easy to understand that
With the Crumbling of the former Russian Empire in 1917–18, a people such as
the Georgians, homogeneous, with pronounced ethnical characteristics, with
feelings of nationality aroused, having a still vivid remembrance of a freedom
Of age-long duration, possessed of a precisely defined territory, alert and
already initiated into political life, would of necessity have to constitute them-
Selves an independent State, or otherwise descend into inevitable chaos.
This movement for independence in Georgia was altogether spontaneous and
without precedent unanimous.
Already during the last decades of Russian rule an exceedingly strong
democratic current had made itself felt in Georgia : it was at its height dur-
ing the revolution which convulsed Russia in 1905–1906. TOWards 1917 it
reached complete maturity and is the chief reason of the stability of the
institutions created by independent Georgia.
National sentiment, fertilized and renewed by the ideal of democracy, facili-
tated the application of this ideal, acting as a sure basis, a settled framework,
a medium, coherent and united in spite of the differences in class and Con-
ditions.
This rapid outline is sufficient to show how not only inevitable in view of
political circumstances, but also essentially necessary was the solemn act
of 26th May, 1918, by which the national council proclaimed the independence
of Georgia and the installation of her government.
Georgia, of which Tiflis, with its half-million population, is the capital, is
situated in Transcaucasia, between the Black and the Caspian Seas (40–49°
JNATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 41
northern latitude, and 39—47° east of Greenwich). She is separated from
Old Russia by the celebrated Caucasian Mountain chain, which stretches for
distance of a thousand miles from the Black Sea to the Caspian, and has an
average height of 10,000 feet and in some places, and as in the peaks of the
Elbruz and the Kasbek, even 18,000 feet.
The frontiers of Georgia are—in the north, the Caucasian Mountain
chain; in the east, Azerbaidjan ; in the south, Armenia ; and in the Southwest,
Turkey.
To quote from an interesting booklet of impressions and observations on
Georgia, by Mr. Karl Kautsky, member of German Parliament investigating
conditions in Georgia : *
“At a first glance Georgia is bewitching, and this impression deepens as
the endless variety of its pictures disclose themselves to our view. From a
Seacoast, with subtropical vegetation, the Caucasus rises to a height of more
than 15,000 feet. The German explorer, Merzbacher, related in his book
“The Caucasian Highlands,’ that from the summit. of Elbrus (18,000 feet),
he enjoyed a view which made such a powerful impression that compared with
it the peaks of the Central Alps only left a feeble remembrance.
“He also declares that the Via Mala, the Tamina, the Liechtenstein Gorge,
and other renowned places were left far behind by the wild, rocky scenery of
the Tchegen or of the Alasan and Korsuf Rivers. Neither the Bernese Ober-
land nor Engadine, neither Judikarien nor Cortina came near to equaling
the Swanetnian landscape in the grandeur of its proportions Or in the splendor
Of its COlorS. &
“I have quoted the testimony of the classic explorer of the mountains and
people of the Caucasus, as I was prevented from enjoying its beauties on
the Spot.
“Merzbacher was as well acquainted with the Alps as with the Caucasus,
and others who knew both mountain ranges consider the beauty and dimen-
Sions of the Caucasus to be superior to those of the Alps. If the reader will
imagine the Bay of Naples to be a part of Switzerland, he will get an idea
of the variety and perfection of nature to be found in Georgia.
“Georgia not only combines subtropical coasts and glaciers but also con-
tains a great fullness of vegetation, produced by the tropical heat and great
humidity, and close to this are arid desert regions. There is also a surprising
number of medicinal springs of various kinds, which burst out of the volcanic
Soil.
“Georgia has much to offer to invalids, as well as to nature lovers and
artists. Before the war tourists and invalids, both from Russia and from
western Europe, had begun to visit the wonderful country whose attractions
were heightened by the fact that, unlike Switzerland and Italy, they were,
in many respects, as yet untried. In the Caucasus there are virgin forests
and remote valleys which no stranger has hitherto trodden. An evidence of
the primitive character of the country is furnished by the circumstance that
large beasts of prey are constantly met with there, as well as other kinds
of wild animals. Bear's flesh Gomes into the market at Tiflis for sale like
beef with us and at no higher price. On one occasion when, out of curiosity,
I bought some bear’s flesh I asked where the bear had been shot and was
informed 50 miles from Tiflis—quite near the capital and not in some remote
Caucasian valley.
“But Georgia is not only a veritable paradise for tourists, sportsmen, and
invalids. Nature also felt obliged to please the economists. Natural beauty
and richness of soil, which are so seldom found together, are combined in
Georgia to an extraordinary degree. The soil is extremely fruitful and capable
of bearing rich harvests of southern and northern products, according to the
position of the land. Oranges, figs, olives, and tea flourish on the coast of the
Black Sea and cotton is cultivated toward Azerbaidjan. Maize, wheat, or
barley are sown almost everywhere. Georgia is particularly rich in excellent
wine and seems to be the home of the grape, which grows wild in the woods.
Tobacco also thrives very well and in quality seems to be better than that of
Trebizond. Nowhere have I seen such abundance of fruit as in Georgia, and
in this respect it can only be compared with California. The Georgian moun-
tains, especially the Caucasus, are infinitely rich in valuable woods. In
minerals, too, Georgia conceals great treasures, of which the most important
is the manganese of Tchiaturi, which ranks as the richest in the World.
“Thus Georgia lacks nothing to make her not only one of the most beautiful
but also one of the richest countries in the world.” (P. 11 ff.)
42 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
In enlarging upon the natural resources which Georgia possesses, her im-
Imense manganese deposits are of first consideration. In order to sum up
briefly the importance of Georgian manganese to the American steel industry
and to show the comparative reserve supply in these two countries, let me
quote from United States Document No. 1:9, “Manganese and Manganiferous
Ores in 1919,” by H. A. C. Jenison :
“About 850,000 gross tons of high-grade ore was required in the production
of 44,000,000 tons of steel in 1918, and at that rate the high-grade (domestic)
reserves Could Supply the requirements of the steel industry for less than two
years. (P. 96.) $
“The reserves of high-grade ore (in the Tchiatour district of Georgia) are
estimated variously at 45,000,000 to 110,000,000 metric tons—enough to supply
the requirements of the American steel industry at the rate of production in
1918 for 50 to 120 years.”
Aside from the manganese mines, Georgia possesses several large deposits of
iron ore. Immense quantities of copper ore exist in the Georgian soil. Copper
is found almost everywhere throughout the State and is regarded as one of its
great assets. Georgia has been called, potentially, a second Montana, On
account of the practically limitless copper deposits. Aside from copper, Which
is found not only in Georgia but throughout all of Caucasia, silver, lead, and
Zinc are plentiful; mercury, nickel, and cobalt are also mined.
In northwestern Georgia oil is so plentiful in the soil that the peasants for
years have secured their fuel and light from taps in their “back yards,” much
as an American farmer would go to the spring for water, or a Scranton, Pa.,
Suburbanite replenishes his coal bin from his residential plot. The Oil-bearing
fields of Georgia have been scientifically Surveyed by M. Koniushewski, a well-
known Russian mining engineer, and by W. Babet, geologist and chief of the
Georgian Government laboratory at Tiflis, 1918–1921. In their elaborate
reports both of these experts present a wide range of Oil-bearing lands,
“Which,” says Mr. Babet, “ are distributed almost anywhere in Georgia.”
The Georgian field, offering untold wealth, has been but Superficially worked.
Georgia possesses very rich coal beds, which, however, have never been the
object of extensive exploitation. The reserve supply in the mines of Twibouli
is estimated at 94,500,000 tons. Much more rich than the coal deposit of
Twibouli is that of Tkvarcheli, situated 60.4 miles from the port of Otchemtchiri
in the basin of Galizga. The deposit of coal, without counting the thin layers,
is estimated at approximately 140,000,000 tons; and in adding the thin layers
it would amount to approximately 200,000,000 tons. The quality of this Qoal is
equal to that of Great Britain. (D. Abkhazi, “Les Richesses Naturelles de la
Georgie.” )
Rich deposits of gold have been discovered in the Caucasian Mountains and
in the sands of the river beds, although gold mining has not been recently de-
veloped to any considerable extent. Antiquity, however, is full of glorious
legends of the pilgrimages of the Argonauts to collect gold in the -streams of
the Caucasus. The ancient historians, Manou, Herodotus, Diodore, say that
Colchide (Western Georgia), was a gold-producing country. Strabon, the his-
torian, relates that the torrents which fell from the Caucasian Mountains,
rolled, in their fall, balls Of gold Sand. He adds that there was extracted also
from its soil, silver and iron, and he perceives the reasons for the expedition
Of the Argonauts, in the riches of that country, Where “one found in great
Quantity gold, silver, and iron.” Pliny mentions the great wealth of these
regions in precious metals. Plutarch reports that Savtak, King of Iberia
(eastern Georgia), sent to Pompeii a bed, a table, and a throne of pure gold.
(Plutarque: Pompée ; XL.)
The reason for the nonexploitation Of this tremendous Ore Wealth is that the
Georgian mountaineers, in protest against the Violation of Georgia’s treaty
with Russia in 1801–1810, have never permitted the Russians, either under the
Czar's régime or the Soviet régime, to penetrate into the interior of their
mountain fastnesses. With reference to this subject there is an interesting
statement in a book called “Turkey, Russia, the Black Sea, and Circassia,”
published in 1851 by R. Clay, London (pp. 342–343), as follows:
“Reineggs, the Russian mineralogist, one of the earliest travelers in the
Caucasus, who was sent out many years before the War (Russia’s war with
Circassia, which lasted for 55 years) commenced with presents to the chieftians
Of the Caucasus, but really with the intention of ascertaining the truth of the
reports respecting the existence of gold in the mountains, in his report to the
government, says that he discovered, on the south side of the territory of the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 43
jºr
Suoni, the galleries and shafts whence the ancients, in all probability, were
accustomed to get their wonderful supply of gold and silver. From that time
all traces of them have been lost; hence it is concluded that the mountaineers,
dreading the inroads of foreign invaders, destroyed every vestige of them.
That gold exists in that part of the Caucasus, there can be no doubt, as this
metal is found in the Ingour and all its tributary streams that have their Source
in the alpine region of Elbruz. It is also worthy of remark, that shortly after
the report of Reineggs, the Russians commenced their aggressive War in the
Caucasus, no doubt partly stimulated by the hope of obtaining possession of
their valuable mines. Indeed, there is not an intelligent Russian, Whatever
may be his political opinions, who does not believe that these mines will one
day prove the source of inexhaustible wealth to any power who may obtain
possession of the country. Since Reineggs's time, several attempts have been
made by adventurers to obtain an entrance into the mysterious home of the
Suoni in their search for gold, but they never returned.”
The development of hydroelectric power in Georgia is still in its infancy.
The great number of rivers and streams of the Caucasian Range, offers vast
opportunities as an inexhaustible source of water-power energy. Professor
Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, in his book “ The Deluged Civilization of the
Caucasus Isthmus” (p. 84), published in 1923, has this to say On the Subject
of hydroelectric power from the Caucasus (in which Georgia shares with more
than 75 per cent) :
“The Caucasus is better provided with power than any other place in the
world. The principal sources are:
1. Hydraulic, from the melting of the glaciers and rainfall, 120,000.000
horsepower.
2. Hydraulic, from flow equal to evaporation, from Black Sea to Caspian
Basin, 5,000,000 horsepower.
“The figures for the hydraulic power may be taken as correct; the Writer
was engineering commissioner for the Ontario Niagara Falls Power Commission,
and that plant was erected by his assistants. They are the horsepower obtain-
able from the sources 365 days per year, 10 hours per day. With a free hand
and a golf course one could in five years (the financial problems have not been
overlooked ; the writer was brought up in the banking business) transform
the Caucasus isthmus into a creative Hyperborea which would supply all Of
Russia with more than it could possibly use of everything except cereals, and
give opportunity for the development of a civilization as it should be, i. e. One
in which the necessary physical labor becomes a form of healthful, universal,
and useful physical exercise and all else is a matter of individual initiative.”
For more detailed information on the subject of the mineral resources of
Georgia, see Appendix No. 1, “Mineral Resources of Georgia and Caucasia,”
by D. Chambashidze, F.R.G.S.
“As early as the eighth century B. C.” says Mr. Karl Kautsky in his book
on Georgia (p. 14), “colonies were planted by Greek towns along the Black
Sea. The Georgians became acquainted with Greek civilization at a time
when the Germans, or their predecessors, living in primeval woods, stood On
no higher plane of civilization than the savage Indians of North America
When they were discovered by Europeans.”
Christianity penetrated Georgia in the first century through the holy apostle,
St. Andrew. At the beginning of the fourth century King Mirian and the
whole of the 'Georgia people embraced the new religion. Since that time
Georgia has remained the advance guard, on the Oriental front, of the Chris-
tian World trust into the World of Islam. Surrounded by Mussulman countries,
it is Cast like a little island in the Ocean Of Islam. Which has menaced and
Submerged it for long centuries. Armenia having been rendered “hors de
combat '' at an early date, it was Georgia alone without any assistance from
the Christian World, which sustained the repeated assaults of Mussulman
and Mongol. Although many times Victorious she was often conquered and
pitilessly reduced by slaughter and fire. But in spite Of all Georgia was able
to maintain her faith and national character, remaining a free and inde–
pendent State up to the nineteenth century. This was costly, however, for
nearly a third of her territory was torn from her by Turkey and “mussul-
manized " during three centuries of domination—and this third was the most
important part as regards culture and Christian monuments. In place of
7,000,000 inhabitants which Georgia numbered during the period of her great-
est glory, the twelfth century, there remained only half a million at the time
44 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
of her incorporation into the Russian Empire. In place of 115,830 square
miles of territory there remained Only 29,166. In 1920 the area of Georgia
comprised 43,000 square miles and the population approximately 4,000,000.
Christian civilization flourished on Georgian soil. The activities of the
Georgian church overflowed the boundaries of the Country. Georgian monks
founded ten or a dozen monasteries at Jerusalem, Mount Sinai, Mount Athos,
and in many other places where they devoted themselves to the Service of
God and to the most intense intellectual Work, especially in the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh centuries. The work of certain monks of this period bears a
high mark of mental culture and philosophical thought, for example, Ephrain
MtSire and George Mtatymindeli, et al. The Georgian ecclesiastical library
contains among its numerous manuscripts those dating from the sixth and
Seventh centuries and recently a palyipsest of the fifth Century eontaining
Various parts of the Holy Scriptures.
Professor Zurab Avaloff writes of these Palimpsests: *
The study of 2,000 pages of these palimpsests has only just begun. Among
the fragments already deciphered there are portions of the apocryphal lives
Of the Apostles, Ancient versions of the utmost importance to our canonical
texts may very probably emerge from the “ensemble" of these Georgian
palimpsests.
In Speaking of the history of the Georgian Church it would be an over-
Sight not to mention her archiaeological treasures.
“ HOW large was the production of enamel articles in Christian Georgia,”
Says Prof. N. Kondakov in his book “Description of Monuments and Antique
Objects of Art in Various Churches and Convents in Georgia,” COmposed by
order of His Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, edited in Petrograd, in 1890,
“can be judged by looking at the church stores of Gelat, which up to now
possesses SO many precious productions of Byzantia, and which are counted
as being Very rare in the first museums of Europe and in the oldest church
repositories. Georgian churches possess more than half of all the Byzantine
enamels in the world. The only rival of Georgia is the depository of the
Church of St. Mark, in Venice, whose treasures were bought and brought from
the Orient, and are better guarded from being looted. The antiquities of
Georgia Were sometimes stolen or taken away on the pretense of renovating
them.”
In the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where they somehow
found their way from the church of the monastery of Jumati in Georgia,
there are nine enamel medallions. In the Handbook of the Pierpont Morgan
Wing of this museaum, page 55, there is the following reference made to these
medallions. (See Appendix No. 23 :)
“The highest quality of Byzantine enameling is exemplified in the nine
medallions in Case J (fig. 28) with half-length figures of Christ, the Virgin,
and saints, which Once decorated a large icon of St. Gabriel, now destroyed,
formerly in the church of the monastery of Jumati, in Georgia (Caucasia).
The medallions, which date from the end Of the eleventh century, are super-
latively fine in execution, design, and color. The minute surfaces of the cloi-
Sons give the sheen of gold to the rich hues Of the enamel—to the blue and
green, Scarlet, yellow, and flesh Color, which are set like gems in the plain
gold of the background.” e
Along with ecclesiastical culture there developed a lay culture which reached
its culmination in the twelfth century, epoch of the great Queen Tamara.
This was also the period of the greatest political and economic power of
Georgia, whose domination extended Over the Whole of Transcaucasia and a
large part of the North Caucasus. The Kingdom of Georgia was then bounded
On the West by the Black Sea and On the east by the Caspian. Derbent in the
North Caucasus, Trebizond in Asia Minor and KazV-in in Persia were all in-
cluded within her boundaries. The best known work of this period is the
poem of Shot'ha Rust’haveli, “The Knight in the Panther's Skin.” (An Eng-
lish translation of this poem was made by Marjory Scott Wardrop and pub-
lished by the Royal Asiatic Society, London, in 1912.) This poem is com-
pared with the masterpieces of the Renaissance, but with this characteristic
difference that it is austere and free from sensuality and scepticism. The
lyric notes, the great power of which rivals their extreme delicacy, predomi-
nate throughout this epic. The reader is carried away by the magnificent
description of Nature therein. The translation of and commentaries upon
Greek philosophical works were very widespread. Petrisoneli was the most
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 45
distinguished exponent of the Neo-Platonic School to which he contributed
greatly.
After the twelfth century there began for Georgia a period of great mis-
fortunes. The invasions of Ghengis Khan and Tamerlane brought about in
general the political, economic, and cultural decadence of the country, al-
though there were times of recovery and renaissance. Thus in the notes of
the Arabs reference is made to 700 Georgian villages completely destroyed,
numberless churches, fortresses, and castles in Tuins, and of the flight of the
population into the mountains where they sought refuge in secret caves only
to fall victims of the warriors of Tamerlane.
The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 cut off Georgia from
all connection with the Christian Occident. From this time on Georgia found
herself surrounded by Mohammedan peoples who made relentleSS War upon
her as a Christian kingdom. Under these conditions Georgia was obliged to
seek a Christian ally, and she turned to her neighbor, Russia, Who had the
same religion as herself, for protection and alliance. Negotiations were under-
taken early in the eighteenth century toward the end of which Russia had
fixed upon an oriental policy and sought to establish herself in the Caucasus.
Thus the interests of Russia and of Georgia coincided and a treaty was signed
in 1783 between the King of Georgia, Irakly II, and Catherine of Russia.
(See Appendix No. 2.) Under this treaty Georgia retained her dynasty and
complete independence in home affairs, while Surrendering to Russia her sov-
ereignty as regards foreign affairs. Russia agreed to support Georgia by
force of arms in case of a defensive war against the Mussulman. This treaty
with Russia irritated Turkey and Persia, who, in order to wreak vengeance
upon the Georgian King, invaded his territory several times. The Russians
not holding to their obligations, failed to send an army to the assistance of
the Georgian King, with disastrous results. The Russian Government went
Still further after the death of Catherine. In 1801 Czar Alexander I violated
the treaty and proclaimed the annexation of Georgia to his Empire. The
Georgian dynasty, intellectuals, Statesmen, and the most influential nobles, to
the number of about 7,000, were deported to Russia and scattered here and
there over its vast expanse. The Georgian nation replied with a dozen revolts
during the nineteenth century as a policy of russification was put into opera-
tion in the country. Tens of thousands of Russian colonists were brought to
Georgia and granted lands. The Georgian language was driven from all state
institutions. Georgian intellectuals could not find positions in their own
country. The Georgian Church was deprived of its ancient independence
granted by Antioch in the eighth century, and was forced to depend upon the
Russian Synod administration. (See Appendix No. 16, Chronology of Im-
portant Events in the History of Georgia.)
I may refer those interested in Georgian Church history to the booklet (See
Appendix No. 3), called “The Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia,”
by Llamaz Dadeshkeliani. On page 3 of this booklet we read that—
“The merits of the Georgian Church before the Universal Church are great.
We have the testimony to this effect of many Christian historians; e. g.,
Kerakos, an Armenian historian of the thirteenth century, says that Queen
Tamara, of Georgia, made a treaty of peace with the Sultan of Damascus, and
since that time the Sultans have treated Christians more humanely.
“Dositheus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, says the pious Iverian (Georgian)
kings have always been administrators and protectors of the Holy Sepulchre
and other Holy Places.
“The Arab historian, Ibn Shaddana, also says that Queen Tamara offered
Salladin 200,000 dinars for the Holy Cross, and in 1187 asked that the
Imonasteries taken from the Christians should be restored. Even at the present
day there are at the Holy Places, Mount Athos, Bulgaria, Syria. Cyprus,
Antioch, over 30 monasteries and churches built by the Georgians.”
In the thirteenth Century, when the Georgian Ringdom still flourished,
“Georgian rendered great service and protection to Christian nations which
were under Mohammedan oppression, and centuries later, as stated by Pro-
fessor Djavaloff in his book, “Georgian Boundaries '':
“During the last centures the Armenians had often fallen back upon the
-Georgians, as in 1795, when thousands of refugees came to Georgia to escape
the persecutions of the Persian Shah, Agha-Mahomet-Kahn. Between 1827
and 1829 Georgian hospitality was extended to more than a hundred thousand
Armenian refugees from Turkey and 30,000 from Persia " (p. 32).
46 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The Georgian Church, from the time of its inception, has been the “principal
factor of the power and glory of the national Georgian State.” A very com-
plete history of the Georgian Church has been written by Michel Tamarati,
called “The Georgian Church From Its Origin to Our Days,” Rome, 1910, in
which he says:
“If the Georgians, who had to endure through many centuries terrible and
bloody political storms and continuous wars, were able to conserve to the
last moment the independence of their country and the practice of the Chris-
tian faith complete and intact in its primitive purity; if to-day they speak
their own tongue; if they are valued in the large family of humanity as a
nation still strong, they owe this indubitably to their church. Christianism.
took root in Georgia, the cross of Christ became the symbol and the emblem
of their nationality and of their historic life. Thus through centuries Geor-
gian life is a continued martyrology, a drama in history '' (pp. 387–389).
Dr. E. J. Dillon, in his book “The Eclipse of Russia,” reveals the cynical
methods of the Russian Government in treating Georgia when he quotes a
Russian diplomat, as follows: “We have only two ways of dealing with
weaker nations, and they are exemplified in our treatment of Georgia and
Bulgaria. The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance.
We made it. Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days.
Peing attacked by Persia, they claimed our active help as equals and allies.
But we answered we were too busy elsewhere and left them to their fate.
Thereupon the Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three,
so that the nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came
to us a second time, now no longer as equals and allies but as humble Sup-
pliants.”
There we have the Russian “method '' in its naked State ; and, as DOCtOr
Dillon rightly says, “the system carried out in Georgia was the same as was
being used in Turkey and elsewhere.” (See p. 225.) {
During the first half of the nineteenth century Russia gradually abolished
all privileges guaranteed to Georgia, like the law courts, administration, the
monetary system, and introduced harsh administration. Georgia offered stub-
born resistance to all these measures, but all was in vain, as she was Sur-
rounded by hostile Persia and Turkey, and the ever-increasing penetration of
Russia did not give her a chance to restore her independence.
The national institutions of Georgia were abolished at that time, the lan-
guage suppressed in the schools, and every chance of individual development
crushed. Forcible Russification was introduced, and the young generation Was
refused education in its own native tongue. The national Georgian Army was
disbanded in 1874.
In this way the small Christian nation which expected protection received
heavy blows. One after another, and this during the nineteenth century, When
Russia posed as a liberator of the small Slav people in the Balkans and the
protector of Christianity in the East.
Georgia was not conquered by Russia. Only by open violation of the treaty
of alliance of 1783, which Georgia had concluded in good faith, was the
Russian Tsar enabled to bring the Georgian Kingdom under bis scepter. That
the Russians became masters of Georgia by Victorious Warfare is not the his–
torical fact. By a breach of international law, vigorously protested at the time
by Great Britain and France, Russia established her overlordship of this part
of the Caucasus. Russia’s Subjugation of Georgia Was COmpleted by the annex-
ation of Mingrelia (in 1803) and Imeretia (in 1810), formerly independent
principalities and parts of the ancient Georgian Kingdom.
But in spite of the advantage taken of her momentary weakness, Georgia.
remained loyal to Russia, which insured her the preservation of her Christian
religion. Following this annexation of Georgia, many Caucasians attained
prominence in the Russian Government. In imperialist armies and as gov-
ernors of provinces, Caucasian men occupied high posts and influenced the
destiny of Russia. The distinguished Russian prime minister, Witte, well
known in America for his activities in connection with the Portsmouth peace
treaty during the Russian-Japanese War, gives in his memoirs (Vol. III, pp.
37 and 44) high praise for the loyalty, honesty, and courage of the Caucasians,
“ thousands and thousands of Whom,” he says, “ have shed their blood for the
honor of the Russian sword. * * * Caucasian generals have left behind
the most brilliant pages in Russia’s military history.”
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 47
The officials of the Caucasian vice royalty, however, were chiefly Russians
because the Czarist Government followed a policy of disrupting the national
sentiments of non-Russian minorities by imposing local administration by
Russians. Thus in Czarist days Georgians and the other Caucasians Seldom
found an opportunity of devoting their abilities to the direct benefit of their
country, with the only exception of the small number who yielded to the
Russification policy and abandoned their native tongue and traditions. To
liberate her provinces lost to Turkey, Georgia gave full Support to Russia in
the three wars against Turkey in the nineteenth century, and lastly in 1914,
when Georgia mobilized, apart from those special Georgian Volunteer Corps
fighting on the Caucasus front, about 200,000 of her best manhood in the
cause of the Allies. As an example of the high regard of the Russians for the
Georgian soldiers, in “La Résurrection Georgienne,” (p. 199), Mr. Paul
Gentizon says, “As Grand-Duke Nicholas, commander in chief of the Occidental
front, said: ‘If, during the battle, I have five or six Georgians to each com-
pany, I may feel at ease.’”
After the Russian revolution of February and March, 1917, and the Over-
throw of Imperial Russia, the viceroy who had governed Caucasia in the name
Of the Czar ceased to function.
In October, 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and Moscow,
chaos followed in Transcaucasia through the withdrawal Of the entire admin-
istrative, judicial, and military establishments who fled across the frontiers
and joined the White Armies being organized to restore old Russia. This
abandonment on the part of Russia released Georgia from all obligations
toward the new Bolshevik Government and threw her upon her own resources.
The national integrity of the Georgian people that had been held forcibly
under Russian rule was thus automatically restored. The situation, demand-
ing organization and defense, forced the leaders and peoples of Georgia and
the Other nations Of the Caucasus, to take their fate into their Own hands,
particularly in view of the imminence of the Turks on their frontiers, and
especially to assure the continued development of their national life. The
TranScaucasians united November 15, 1917, into a committee of government
for the Transcaucasian States, forming a combined assembly, Siem, in
February, 1918. It soon became apparent, however, that this would not work
Out Satisfactorily. Georgia realized that she must act independently or be-
come the victim of Turkish ambition which sought to create a Turkish Empire
that would include all the Islamitic tribes of Caucasia and Persia, and extend
its influence from the Black to the Caspian Seas, and On May 26, 1918, in
Tiflis, Georgia declared her independence. (See Appendix No. 4.)
The Hon. Zurab Avaloff, justice of the Supreme court and member of the
Russian Senate in Kerensky’s Provisional Government, in his book, “The
Independence of Georgia in International Politics,” describes very poignantly
the emotions which actuated the Georgian people in those days just preceding
their declaration of independence :
“The actuality of those days obliged us to set the question precisely in
that Way ; much deeper reasons, too, forced us to choose this path. How could
we not hear in this unique moment the thunder of historical elements; how
could we keep silent to the voices of those who lived no more ; how could
we not think Of those who were yet to come? How many generations had it
taken to create the Georgian nation? And for how many generations had she
vainly sought conditions for her free development and a place in the Sun?
“Now that independence knocked at the gates—how not to rush toward her
If we missed the moment, what were we to say to those who would GODºe after
us? Maybe this people was born but for slavery and will finally become “eth-
nical material,’ Out of which, Owing to conditions, Persians or Turks or Rus-
sians will be molded ? No! They remember 1 They wish to rise and be
themselves again : * * * A page of history is being turned over !” (p. 55).
The Georgian people, under their restored sovereignty, carefully organized
their new government and established international relations. Their act of
independence was approved, confirmed, and ratified March 12, 1919 (see Appen-
dix No. 4), by their Constituent Assembly, which was elected according to the
electoral system of direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportional voting of
citizens of both sexes. Under the System of proportional suffrage the whole
country was taken as one electoral district and the 130 seats of the assembly
distributed among all parties in proportion to the number of Votes cast for
48 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA.
their candidates. In the election to the Constituent Assembly, February, 1919,
514,000 electors voted—Social Democrats, 408,000 votes, 109 seats: National
Democrats, 30,000, 8 seats; Federal Socialists, 33,000, 8 seats. The constitu-
tion and political organization was that of a democratic republic. The execu-
tive power was intrusted to the cabinet, whose President was elected by the
Constituent Assembly. President appointed, as does the American President,
the members of his cabinet. The administrative bodies were controlled by the
assembly, to which the cabinet and its President were personally responsible
and whose confidence they must possess. Administration was decentralized
by enlarging the power of the local councils, democratically elected. Towns,
rural districts, and villages exercised complete self-government in all Cuestions
relating to local, economic, and educational questions. All citizens ºvere equal
in the eyes of the law. The Georgian nobility, inspired by their democratic
feelings, formerly enjoying wide privileges, renounced them Voluntarily. The
interests of workmen were fully protected. The church was completely sepa-
rated from the state and was enabled to function in accordance With Georgian
customs for the first time since Russia had suppressed it in 1811.
The Georgian Government sought to bring their country up to the most
perfect organization of life by means of systematic development of all the
material and educational resources of the people and by the consolidation of the
democratic institutions.
Mr. Wladimir Woytinsky, in his book “The Georgian Democracy,” under a
chapter called “The renaissance of Georgian culture and public instruction ”
(p. 265), describes very well the radical reorganization of Georgian social life
effected in that little Republic during the brief period of her independence
and self-government.
“The first task of the Georgian democracy was the radical reorganization of
education.
“The schools of Tsaristic Russia pursued two aims—social oppression and
national oppression.
“The new school, founded by the democratic State (Georgia) was to permit
the affirmation of social liberty and help the development of national culture.
“The organization of primary schools is not yet completed. However,
at the beginning of the school year 1920–21 the number of primary schools,
comprising three grades, exceeded 2,000 (nearly double the number of schools
existing before the revolution) ; the number of pupils reached approximately
120,000.
“The School system of Georgia is arranged so that every pupil, having passed
the three classes of the primary school, can enter into an elementary high
school. The schools of this type in the beginning of the school year 1920–21
numbered 156. The teaching comprises four years of study. On leaving these
schools one may enter into the secondary Schools, which correspond to the upper
classes of European colleges and lyceums.
“Education is free in all grades, including the colleges. The Schools of all
classes are distributed throughout the land in Such a manner that the country
towns are not less favored than the cities from the point of view of education.
“There exist, in Tiflis, a polytechnic school and two universities, one of
which belongs to the State. This State university has four faculties; litera-
ture, law, Science, and medicine. The number of students, men and women,
is approximately 2,000. It is endeavored to make of the State university not
only a School of higher education, but a center of culture and the seat of
Georgian science. Two years, of course, can not suffice to judge in what
measure the Georgian University will respond to this aim. But the University
of Tiflis is working with energy to the reconstruction of the history of the
Country.
“Some hundred students, among the most capable, have been sent abroad
(to [Americal France, to England, to Germany, to Italy) at the expense of
the State, in Order to Specialize in the Spheres most useful to the COuntry.
“On January 1, 1920, there were in Georgia 2,112 libraries and reading
rooms. This figure is relatively high for a country of three millions of in-
habitants.”
All parties and all classes of the population cooperated willingly with the
Government regardless of personal sacrifices. The State embarked on far-
seeing undertakings, such as construction of railways, highways, roads, bridges,
viaducts, drainage of marshlands, the irrigation of arid plains, etc. That these
plans were only partially carried out and that the efforts to maintain a firm
f
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA. 49
democratic commonwealth finally failed was due to the Sudden and treacherous
invasion of the Bolsheviks in 1921.
In January, 1920, Soviet Russia's proposal to Georgia to enter into a military
alliancé against Denikin, who was at that time commander in chief of the
White Army, which was the exponent of the régime of Old Russia, was re-
jected ; and in his book “The Independence of Georgia in International Poli-
tics,” Professor Zurab Avaloff tells us that, “On February 11, 1920, Denikin
himself recognized the independence of the Republic of Georgia.”
In April, 1920, the reds succeeded in occupying Baku and assuming power
in Azerbaidjan, and later on in Armenia, taking advantage of the helpless state
of these two countries that were paralyzed by economic chaos and internal
dissentions. All attempts to counteract this Bolshevik menace effectively in
Azerbaidjan and Armenia therefore failed entirely.
The war of Poland against Soviet Russia gave Georgia her first opportunity
to pursue a vigorous defense against the Bolsheviks in 1920, and Soviet Russia,
now anxious to placate Georgia, engaged in a treaty (See Appendix No. 5)
May 7, 1920, recognizing the independence of Georgia and her territorial in-
tegrity. An extract of this treaty, Articles I and II, reads as follows:
“ARTICLE I
“Basing itself on the right of all peoples, proclaimed by the Russian Socialist
Soviet Federative Republic, to freely dispose of themselves, even up to and
including the total separation from the State of which they form a part,
Russia recognizes without reservations the independence and sovereignty of
the Georgian State and renounces fully and Willingly to all the sovereign
rights which belonged to Russia in regard to the people and the territories of
*Georgia.
“ARTICLE II
“Basing itself on the principles proclaimed in the first article preceding of
the present treaty, Russia pledges herself to renounce to all intervention in
the interior affairs of Georgia.”
This recognition of Georgia’s independence by the Soviets themselves was
Georgia’s final triumph and conclusive release from the Soviet claim.
From Moscow’s point of view, however, this treaty was a cloak to enable
her within one month after its ratification to foment a communistic revolu-
tion within the borders of the republic and to accomplish by secret propaganda
and treachery what she had failed to achieve by force. Nearly a thousand
agents of the Cheka were imported into Tiflis, under various pretexts resorted
to by her diplomatic mission there, and, by the expenditure of large sums of
money and by extravagant promises of loot, the communists proceeded to
disaffect the Georgians and attempted to subvert the national army and to
create irritating causes as an excuse for forceful interference.
In the meantime, the independence of Georgia was confirmed through her
recognition de facto by the European powers. To quote from a memorandum
of the secretary-general of the League of Nations, on November 20, 1920:
(See Appendix No. 6, “Documents relative to the question of Georgia before
the League of Nations,” p. 8.)
She (Georgia) has been recognized de facto by the governments of the
following countries:
France Jan. 11, 1920
Great Britain Jan. 11, 1920
Italy Jan. 11, 1920
Japan Feb. 7, 1920
Belgium Aug. 26, 1920
On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the State of Georgia de
jure, and Mr. A. Briand, president of the Interallied Conference, consisting of
Great Britain, France, Italy. Japan, Belgium, and others, wrote to His Excel-
lency Mr. E. Gueguetchkori, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
“Georgia, as follows: (See Appendix No. 6, p. 62.)
Mr. MINISTER: After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the
Supreme council, under date of January 26th, has resolved to recognize de jure
the independence of Georgia, as soon as this country should formally express
the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27th, to address to me the
50 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
official request of the Government and the people of Georgia, to become recog-
nized de jure by the allied powers.
I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was
unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government.
The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy
with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian peoples toward inde-
pendence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already
accomplished.
Kindly accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
Similar recognition was extended by a large number of other countries—
Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina, Panama, Haiti, Mexico,
Liberia, Luxemburg, and Siam.
As a result of the establishment of Bolshevik rule in Azerbaidjan in April,
1920, and Armenia December, 1920, Georgia found herself threatened by the
Bolsheviks on the north and east and by the Turks on the south. While
the Turks again attempted to occupy Batum, the Bolsheviks grasped the
opportunity to march On Tiflis. Moscow moved its Red Army against the
Georgias from three directions, from the west across the Black Sea coast,
from Azerbaidjan, along the River Kura, and from Armenia in the South.
Upon the arrival of these overwhelming forces in front of Tiflis the Officials
of the Georgian Government were forced to remove to Batum and eventually
to embark on an Italian warship and to take refuge in Europe. This was in
February and March, 1921.
As an instance of the duplicity of Soviet Russia I attach hereto (see Ap-
perdix No. 7) an official memorandum of the Georgian Government, presented
to the great powers of Europe, on the invasion of Georgia by the armies Of
Soviet Russia. together with an authentic report of the commander of the
Eleventh Russian Soviet Army, Hecker, to the president of the military revo-
lutionary council of the Eleventh Army, showing conclusively that even at
the time of Soviet Russia’s solemn recognition of the independence of the
Republic of Georgia she was planning the invasion of Georgia to accomplish
its downfall. (See Appendix No. 8.) *
The murderous invasion of the Bolsheviks in Georgia Was Communistic
Moscow’s defiance to Europe’s recognition of the sovereignty of that Republic
and a typical example of the Soviet Government’s treacherous use of its
treaties and disregard of ifs obligations under them. A more brutal violation
Of the laws and customs of nations than that committed in Georgia could not
be imagined. Moscow delivered no ultimatum, made no declaration of War,
gave no valid excuse for her intrigue and surreptitious invasion, but without
warning or pretext swooped down upon Georgia, as she had on the other Cau-
casian Republics, for purposes of conquest and the seizure of the wealth of
the nation, and the despoliation of her Christian churches and schools. Priests
of high and low degree were stripped of their robes, forced into dirty Soviet
uniforms, maltreated and many killed or banished. The Patriarch (Katholi-
kos) Ambrosius was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment for the simple crime
of having sent a protest against this horror to the League of Nations. The
churches were looted and turned into dance halls, the Women Outraged and
children massacred. Thousands were murdered and thousands sent into exile.
Others were forced to take refuge in the mountain districts and in foreign
Countries. Stores and houses were plundered and the railroads and factories
robbed Of their best equipment. A prosperous and happy country was brought
to a state of ruin and forced, against the will Of the people, under the merciless
and devastating rule of Soviet Communists, sent from Moscow.
Soviet hypocrisy was revealed when the Bolshevik official press of Moscow
declared that the Overthrow of the Georgian Government had not been accom-
plished by the red army, but by a revolutionary movement from within the
Georgian State. In an attempt to justify her course, an entirely false account
of what transpired in the Caucasus was broadcast to the world. Soviet Russia
sought to conceal her imperialistic ends by setting up a government in Tiflis
composed of red partisans of Georgian nationality, imported from Moscow
and long associated with the Communistic State.
The Soviet Government, which was forced upon the Georgian people and
derived its powers from the strength Of the Russian army of occupation, is
not accepted by the Georgian people as their rightful government. Moscow
persists in its attempt to “soveitize" these non-Russian democratic peoples.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 51
IDXcept where the red army's garrisons are maintained, and where the Cheka,
the Russian inquisition, rules, this violent procedure is not successful. The
Cheka—prosecutor, judge, and executioner in one—imposes the death sentence
without trial. Thus it is enabled to exert the greatest terror without any re-
Striction, and it has not desisted from using its powers rigorously.
The methods of the Cheka are hardly paralleled in ancient or modern times.
The policy employed is one of false accusations, barbaric torture, and ter-
rorism, to wholly break the spirit and morale of the people and reduce them
to abject obedience and nonresistance. To quote from an article which ap-
peared in Scribner's Magazine, in February, 1925, by Mr. Ellsworth Huntington,
called “The Suicide of Russia '':
“Here are some interesting statistics from the London Times of September 1,
1922. A dispatch from Riga states that, according to official Bolshevist fig-
ures, the tribunal known as the Cheka executed 1,766,118 persons before being
renamed the supreme political administration. in February, 1922. All those
people were done to death in a period of less than five years. Many more
have been executed since. The total, as printed in the Times, includes 6,675
professors and teachers, 8,800 doctors, 355,250 other intellectuals. Besides this,
there were 1,243 priests, 54,650 officers, and 12,950 landowners. This makes
something like 440,000 persons, all of whom belonged to the upper classes. A
large part of these, by right of birth or ability, had made themselves influential
leaders. The rest of those executed comprised 59,000 policemen, 192,350 work-
men, 260,000 soldiers, and 815,000 peasants.”
Since the occupation of Georgia in 1921, the Cheka has continued its ter-
rorism there, maintaining its headquarters in Tiflis and having its agents
throughout Caucasia.
The Georgians abhor Bolshevism, but as the Communists’ press dominates
and their own press and language is permitted for propaganda. Only, they
are unable to express their real feelings Openly. They will, it is certain,
never accept the communistic ideals of Moscow nor Submit to the rule of the
Soviets. The general discontent and opposition of the population against
Moscow’s method of governing by terror and the Cheka became so strong
that the government in Moscow has tried to mislead the outide world and
appease its criticism by granting formal autonomy to the Caucasian States
by permitting them to establish a Transcaucasian Socialist Federal Soviet
Republic by an agreement signed March 12, 1922. This federation includes the
“Soviet Republics' of Azerbaidjan, Armenia, and Georgia, and is a mem-
ber of the Union of Soviet Republics. According to the constitution of this
Union of Socialist Soviet Republics of July 6, 1923 (see Appendix 9), each
united republic retains the right of free withdrawal from the union (chap. II,
4). This was the pretense of freedom that was inserted to deceive the people
and fool the world.
Its true meaning was illustrated when, in September and October, 1924,
Georgia attempted to exercise this right and regain her independence. Her
movement Was Stamped as a revolt. This uprising revealed for a short time
to the Outside world the real situation in Transcaucasia. The attempt on
the part of the Georgians was the spontaneous outburst of a suppressed and
suffering nation. Though it failed, it gave notice to the world that the Geor-
gian people did not accept the Soviet rule. The Georgian people have demon-
strated that they will never peacefully submit to the red “government by
aSSassination.”
The uprising of 1924 was suppressed with all the savageries and inhumani-
ties characteristic of Cheka rule. Among others, the metropolitan of the
Georgian Church, Nazarii, was murdered at Kutais. Women and children
Of the Soldiers fighting in the mountains were used as shields by the Bolshe-
Viks during their attacks. Even Lloyd-George raised his voice against the Bol-
Sheviks. He emphatically denounced the Russian atrocities in Georgia. In a
Special cable to the New York American on December 13, 1924, he said “To-
day,” alluding to the bloodshed in Georgia, “it is a red province in more
SenSeS than One.”
It is almost impossible to state accurately the number of Georgians killed
by the invading red army and murdered by the Cheka army of Occupation. In
the New York Evening Sun of January 1, 1925, we read that—
“In the last six months the Georgians have been deprived of personal and
national liberty, their industries have been destroyed, and aCCOrding to recent
official reports nearly 4,000 of their people have been executed by Moscow’s
52 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Orders. * * * The Georgians revolted against the Soviet exactions, but
instead of winning a hearing in Moscow, as they demanded, they were arrested
wholesale On the charge of disloyalty and tried, not by their own courts and
judges but by Moscow tribunals on evidence furnished by the Soviet's own:
Secret police and political spies. It is the results of these trials that have
just been made known to the world and that have furnished such a complete
revelation of Moscow's understanding of the meaning of a Soviet autonomous
republic. * * * *
And in the New York Times of March 31, 1925, there appeared the following.
wireless communication from Constantinople :
“CoMSTANTINOPLE, March 30.—An American observer who has just arrived
from Georgia says the Soviet régime has become much stiffer there since the
revolution last autumn. The population lives in terror of the Cheka and
mutual suspicion characterizes the whole national atmosphere.
“According to local estimates the number of counterrevolutionaries executed
after the autumn revolt was between 3,000 and 4,000. The Cheka carries out
now continual arrests for any or no reason.
“The people as well as the administration are now living on their capital.
There is no production. Private trade is still prohibited so as to prevent the
noncommunist classes getting economic power which would again threaten
the political power of the Communists,
“Food, clothing, and other necessities are enormously dear. A pair of shoes
costs $225. A Georgian traveler who left Batum on the same boat as the
American was able to sell an ordinary second-hand suit for $180. The im-
pression left by the general economic and political conditions of the country was
that this system of minority rule was making straight for a crash.”
The most authentic information we have on this subject is from Mr. David
Mdivani, who is a cousin of Mr. Polycarpe (Boudou) Māiwani, an imported.
Georgian Communist from MGSCOW, Who Was sent, among others, to head the
Russian Cheka Army of Occupation in Georgia in 1921, who is now attached
to the embassy of Soviet Russia in Paris (see Appendix No. 8, list of mem-
bers of Diplomatic Corps). and with whom Mr. David Mdivani and his family
are in friendly relationship and constant communication.” In an interview
given in Houston, Tex., on November 13, 1924, Mr. David Mdivani made the
following statement:
“Determined to force the little State, of such strategic and economic value,
into submission to its rule, the red government is resorting to methods of
cold-blooded butchery. At least 20,000 Georgians have been slaughtered with-
out trials. A shipload of natives was taken out on the Caspian Sea and the
vessel sunk, with none rescued. Others are called to their doors and shot
down. Rigorous censorship is in effect.”
Mr. Karl Kºutsky, in his book on Georgia already mentioned above (p. 9,
Appendix No ºlº), says, “The Small Country was hedged in by a Russian red
army, which ºf hbered 120,000 men, and plundered to the utmost extent; as a
subjugated territory, Georgia suffered more severely from the domination of
bolshevism thin unhappy Russia itself.” And Prof. Gilbert Murray, the
British delegate, in his speech before the fifth assembly of the League of
Nations on September 25, 1924, very accurately summed up the characteristic
of Cheka rule in Georgia by two words, “wholesale slaughter.”
In spite of Georgia’s constant invasion by Soviet Russia, however, and the
almost complete suppression of her self-determination, the authority of the
Government of Soviet Russia as regards Georgia was never recognized by the
great powers of Europe. In the pamphlet, “Georgia, Russia, and the League
Of Nations '' (see Appendix NO under a subheading called “The recogni-
tion of the Soviets and the reseºſations made in favor of Georgia” (p. 12),
Prof. Edgard Milhaud, of the University of Geneva, says:
“Here is the very text of t recognition of Great Britain, in February,
1924. Mr. Ramsey MacDonald, Prime Minister of Great Britain, in his note
transmitted to the government Of MOSCOw. Says, among other things, that the
Government of His Brittanic Majesty—these are the very words of this docu-
ment— Recognizes the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, as being the de
jure government of those territories of the ancient Russian Empire which
recognize its authority.’
1 To which Maj. EIenry G. Opdycke can testify having investigated this matter in
Paris. *

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 53
“It is clear that in February, 1924, Georgia did not recognize the authority
of Soviet Russia, since, a short time later, took place the uprising to which
I have just referred.
“As to France, it was at the end of the year 1924 that she accorded her
recognition. To state precisely, it would not be amiss to call attention to the
fact that Mr. Herriot, who was to sign the act of recognition had, three years
before, questioned the head of the Government at that time as to the attitude
of France relative to the recognition of Georgia. Addressing himself to Mr.
Poincaré, he had said:
“‘The precise question which I set is the following: The sovereignty of
Georgia has, been formally recognized by the Russian Government itself by
virtue of a very precise treaty. I ask Mr. President of the council to be good
enough to declare that his Government remains attached to the cause of this
independence. Speaking in the name of France, who has asked for the inde-
pendence of Poland and the Czechs, he will permit us to send forth a hope to an
Oppressed, unhappy people.’
“And Mr. Poincaré replied:
“‘The Hon. Mr. Herriot has but expressed the thought of the government
itself, such as it has already many times been expressed to the State of
Georgia. This government possesses besides a representative in Paris, and this.
representative has access to the ministry of foreign affairs.”
“It is essential to remember that to-day, in its relations with the repre-
sentative of the Government of Georgia, the French Government acts in
exactly the same manner as with the representative of any other of the powers
whose political situation is the most completely stable. To-day the representa-
tive of Georgia enters the Elysée or the Quai d'Orsay on a footing of equality
with the juridically recognized representative of the Republic of the Soviets.
Therefore, was it not natural that Mr. Herriot, in recognizing the Russian.
Government, should make a reservation of which the terms are as follows:
“‘* * * the Government of the Republic * * * recognizes de jure,
from this day, the Government of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as
the government of those territories of the ancient Russian Empire, where its
authority is accepted by the inhabitants * * *.’
“We read also in this document these words: “In notifying you. Of this
recognition, which would not affect any of the engagements undertaken or
treaties signed by France * * *.’ It is evident that the words “engage-
ments undertaken refer to the recognition of Georgia by the French
Government.
“As to Belgium, she has not yet recognized Soviet Russia, and she has not
recognized her for a reason which is about to be indicated, because her policy
consists in making of the recognition not the point of departure of negotia-
tions with this country but the point of arrival. Negotiations first; recogni-
tion afterwards. Here are the words that Vanderwelde, minister of foreign
affairs of the Belgians, pronounced on this question July 17, 1925, at the
House of Representatives:
“‘I wish to make a reply immediately to what Mr. Brunfait has just said,
when he thinks to find a contradiction between my previous attitude and the
speech which, as Minister of Foreign Affairs, I made in a preceding debate. I
have for a long time advocated the recognition of the Republic of the Soviets,
because I consider that it is impossible for Belgium to remain indefinitely
apart from the governments which have recognized this republic. I have
added and I maintain that, to express the thought Of the government,
this recognition should not be the preface, but should be the termination of
an accord from the economic and political point of view. I have indicated,
further, that this termination is possible only in consideration of certain con-
ditions “sine qua non.” ”
“Which were these conditions? One, of economic Order, concerned the
restitution of the property belonging to Belgians in Russia ; the other, men-
tioned in the first place, was thus formulated :
“‘Firstly, the reservation of the rights of governments, like Armenia and
Georgia, which have been recognized de jure by Belgium. This is what
France did when she recognized the Republic of the Soviets.” *
“Thus it can be seen that we find ourselves in the presence of a coneur-
rence of evidence and international juridical documents of an exceptional
value, establishing the intangible right of Georgia.”
The situation of the Georgian Republic is analogous to that of Belgium
during the great War. Georgia is overrun by a foreign military force which
54 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
it is not yet strong enough to eject. Its government is compelled to take refuge
in France, as was the Belgian Government, and as other governments in
times of duress have been obliged to seek temporary hospitality in foreign
friendly countries. But this exigency did not impair its constitutional rights
or its international status. The Georgian Government, sitting in Paris,
continues to fulfill the authority which it holds from the constituent assembly
and the pledge which it took toward its people, in defending the interests
of this people before the great powers of the world. The Government of inde-
pendent Georgia in Paris maintains absolute authority over that part of
Georgia in the Caucasus Mountains which has never yet been invaded by the
Soviets and is not and never was under their physical control, and receives
frequent and regular communications from those Georgians. The Georgian
Government constantly and consistently protests internationally every detri-
mental political act of the Soviet Government against Georgia—and pronounces
to the World her determination to refuse to recognize the acts of the Soviet
Government in granting Concessions to foreign persons for the exploitation of
its natural resources, including oil, manganese, etc. In this connection your
attention is respectfully invited to the protest against the Soviet concessions for
Georgian manganese, granted to Harriman & Co., which was sent to United
States Ambassador Herrick December 5, 1925, with the request that it be
-*..." to the United States Government, and in which protest they in no
X ncertain terms declare these concessions null and Void. (See Appendix
2 . No. dº ; see also Appendix No.º. protest to State Department at Washington.)
*. The Georgian Government lººkewise is in constant communication with its
people throughout the entire area of Georgia, encouraging them to await
patiently their hour of deliverance, and strengthening the hope of their people
that a time will come when their freedom will be restored by peaceful means,
as promised them by great powers of Europe, irº a resolution passed and
repassed by the League of Nations on September 2, 1922, and September 25,
1924, respectively, as follows (see Appendix No. “Verbatim report of the
fifth assembly of the League of Nations, Septemberºff, 1924) :
“The assembly invites the council to follow attentively the course of events
in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which
Imay occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by
any peaceful means in accordance with the rules Of international law.”
To-day the torch of liberty flickers in Georgia, but the soul of nationality and
the reverence for religion survive. The people of Georgia are implacable foes
Of Bolshevism, and its twin fury, Communism, but the arm of the murderous
Cheka holds them in bondage. As long as the bayonet of Soviet Russia is
pressed against their hearts they must bow to the dictatorship of Moscow, and
submit to the impositions of a military terrorism, or become the victims of the
torture chamber or death. But all constitutional parties of the Georgian people
are represented in a “committee of independence ’’ in Paris, to demonstrate
their rejection of the Soviet rule in their country and to signalize their support
Of the exiled government.
Earl Kautsky, in his book already mentioned above, Very aptly expresses the
firm belief of the Georgian National Government and the hope with which it
Constantly heartens its people, when he says:
“The dictatorship of the Moscow tyrants can not become permanent in
Georgia any more than in Russia itself. The Georgian people have survived
many barbarous invasions; they will survive the devastation of the Red Army
and the horrors of the extraordinary commissions. In Russia, and Conse-
quently in Georgia, too, democracy must eventually triumph again” (p. 9).
In pleading with the people of the United States of America, through their
Government at Washington, to sympathize with the right of the people of
the Republic of Georgia to be free an independent and to enjoy themselves in
“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” the people of Georgia are not
striving to do a new thing; for no people fighting for freedom from tyranny
for the last 140 years has failed to lay their Case before the people the the
United States and to seek from them Sympathy and Support. Precedents in this
respect are so numerous in the history of the American Congress as to need
Only a casual reference to the attitude of the people of the United States of
America, expressed through their government, towards, for instance, Greece,
Mexico, and the South and Central American Republics.
Hence in the face of these illustrious precedents, it is but natural that the
people of Georgia should lay their case before the American people and their
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 55
representatives in the Congress and plead with both for a formal, authoritive
expression of sympathy and good Will.
As to the mention made by the Hon. Mr. Connally of the Speech of the Hon.
Edward C. Little, of Kansas, in the House of Representatives, December 17,
1921 (Appendix No. 16), on the situation of Armenia, the status of the trans-
caucasian isthmus is so inextricably intertwined among the Countries of
Georgia, Azerbaidjan, North Caucasus, and Armenia. that it may be pertinent
in considering this speech, to quote from that masterly address in elucidation
of this general situation :
“America should now definitely inform Russia that before Our republic OpenS
up negotiations of friendly relations, Russia should show her respect for the
rights of other nations by withdrawing her invading troops from Armenia,
Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and Daghestan (North Caucasia). Then, those peoples
will reestablish their local governments and law and Order will be maintained
there.”
In order to explain the connection which exists between the republics of
the Caucasus, it would, perhaps, be well to say a few words about these
Republics, Azerbaidjan, and North Caucasia, which, with Georgia, are com-
bined in a confederation, functioning in Paris.
While the people of the Caucasus are ethnologically of different races, they
are bound by economic and political interests and geographical isolation. The
Christian population of Georgia and Armenia had long ceased to be antag-
onistic to the Mohammedan peoples of Azerbaidjan and North Caucasia.
The Republic of Azerbaidjan has an area of approximately the same size
as that of Georgia and a population of Some four and a half millions, Of Which
one million are Christians. Azerbaidjan was the first country in the World of
Mohammedan faith to have established a democratic form of government.
Azerbaidjan, during the Middle Ages, was the battle field Of Turks, Arabs,
Persians, and nomadic tribes from the east. The new nation that has devel-
oped from the intermingling of all these different elements, with a preponder-
ance of Mongols and Turks, is known as the Tatars.
“They have,” says the Italian historian, Villari, in his Fire and Sword
in the Caucasus, “a dignity of bearing and a charm of manner which endear
them to all who come in contact with them.” After a period of some hundred
years of Turkish, and later, Persian, domination, the Tatars, having definitely
settled at the Southwestern shores of the Caspain Sea and along the Caucasian
River Kura, came under the rule of Russia, which by the treaty of 1813
acquired the territory from Persia. More than a hundred years of Russian
Overlordship, however, did not suffice to extinguish the strong tendency for
Imational self-determination that was revealed after the outbreak of the revo-
lution of 1917, and led to the union with the other Transcaucasian States.
On May 28, 1918, Azerbaidjan declared her independence and on January 12,
1920, her independence was recognized de facto by the Supreme Council of
the great powers. Azerbaidjan, of course, is best known to Americans for its
immense oil fields at Baku, Second only to the United States in world oil
production. *
AS to that which concerns the Republic of North Caucasia, its area is
approximately 150,000 square kilometers, and it has a population of some
4,000,000 inhabitants, of which about 1,000,000 are Christians. Their system.
of government is the Helvetian. This people had for nearly 55 years fought
fiercely for their independence when at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury Russia tried to include the Caucasus in its domains. Toward the middle
Of the century these mountaineers of North Caucasus were conquered by the
Russians. The conquest was made possible only by the fact that Russia had
previously established a strategic basis in Georgia through its annexation.
Their form of government, according to the accounts of British and other
travelers, who in the middle of the last century visited the Caucasus, was a
“species of aristocratic republic, composed of chiefs, nobles, and clansmen,
in whom rank is Only recognized in their public and patriarchal capacity, as
chieftains, law-givers, and elders,” while otherwise a perfect equality existed
in all the relations of social and domestic life. The mountaineers were never
assimilated by the Russian conquerers, but preserved their nationality in the
face of all attempts of Russification. In May, 1917, they availed themselves
of the opportunity which the revolution offered to regain their sovereignty.
They set up the independent “Union of the Peoples of the Northern Caucasus ”
at Vladikavkaz, which was supplanted in December of that year by the “Union
56 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
of Mountaineers.” Their sympathies for the Transcaucasians did not lead to
a formal union. Internal difficulties with Bolshevik elements and General
Denikin’s attack, which finally in March, 1919, destroyed the Union of the
Mountaineers, prevented it from effective cooperation with the 'Transcau-
Casian Republics. -
Later, however, in Paris, in a joint declaration of June 10, 1921, the ex-
isting high officials and delegates of the four Caucasian Republics, including
the heads of the delegations from Armenia, Azerbaidjan, northern Caucasus,
and the minister to France for Georgia in Paris, entered into a defensive
and economic union. The declaration was sent to all the great powers and
the League of Nations, which body protested against Soviet Russia’s oppression
§ jº. nations. The full text of this declaration is given in Appendix
O. &
Foº fūſller details of the situation of these Republics with relation to each
other see “The Caucasian Republics” (Appendix No. 13).
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. You have stated about these being highly
ºted people. Have they had a university in operation a long
time?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. At Tiflis?
Mr. OPDYoFE. Yes; and several colleges and a great number of
grammer schools and public schools throughout the country.
* MooRE of Virginia. The student body at Tiflis was about
What %
Mr. DUMBADzE. 1920 to 1921 more than 2,000 in Tiflis. There
were several high schools of university type, and a Georgia State
University of more than 2,000 students.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. I am talking about this university.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Two thousand.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. A high-class university.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Among other things they were conducting
explorations into prehistoric Georgia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. A professor of our university, Professor
Djayakhoff, just discovered a so-called palympsest, of 2,000 pages,
of the fifth century, containing parts of the Holy Scriptures which
were formerly attributed to the ninth century.
Mr. STEwART. That relates to Biblical texts which date back to the
fifth and sixth centuries, and that is being translated slowly. There
is a very eminent and wealthy man in New York who is considering
the matter of furnishing the funds for a complete translation,
Enough of the text has been translated, however, to show there is
some differentiation from the accepted text in our own Bible. The
scholars of Georgia, who stand very high in the estimation of Ger-
man, French, and England scholarship, believe that the translation
of these documents will mean the reaching of an understanding of
the Scriptures that we do not have to-day.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Have those leading professors been re.
tained by the Soviet Government at the university, or are they in
exile?
Mr. STEwART. That is one phase of Georgian life the Soviet Gov-
ernment has not interfered with. They have permitted the uni-
versity to continue its work.
Mr. CoopFR. What was the name of that professor you mentioned?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Professor Djavakoff.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 57
Mr. CoopFR. When did he discover that?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Last two years; 1923.
Mr. CoopFR. Under the present government?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. CoopFR. The present government has not interfered at all
with his work?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The present government does not interfere, nei-
ther do they help or provide funds for this important work.
Mr. CoopFR. When was this university created or organized?
Mr. DUMBADZE. During our independence from 1918.
Mr. CoopFR. It was begun in 1918?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. During the czaristic Russian régime, we
were not permitted to have our university or high schools in Tiflis.
Mr. CoopBR. When was the University of Tiflis founded?
Mr. DUMBADZE. 1918. The policy of the old Russian régime was
to not allow in Tiflis a university, and the Georgian students were
distributed among the Russian universities at Moscow, Kiev, etc.
Mr. FISH. Under the Soviet régime they permitted the university.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not with the kind permission of the soviet but
by the parliament of the Georgian people.
Mr. FISH. It is going on now.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. The Soviet needs engineers and technicians,
highly educated and professional people who can help them.
Mr. FISH. Soviet Russia lets a university operate in Georgia to-
day and in the last four years they have been in power, whereas a
number of years prior to the war the old imperial government would
not let them operate any kind of a university.
Mr. DUMBADZE. I will explain the policy of Russia, old Russia
and new Russia. The Czar did not permit any university in Tiflis,
fearing concentration of educated patriotic youth, but our inde-
pendent government now sitting in Paris, in parliament created this
university.
I will tell you two or three professors who are in exile, namely,
Profs. M. Saretelli and Avalloff. Many may be killed to-night or
to-morrow; because there is no court or justice, and how can I give
statistics about people there? They abolished the churches and
turned them into dance halls, and the university is staying there;
but how long? I don’t know.
Mr. FISH. It is there?
Mr. DUMBADZE. It is still there.
The CHAIRMAN. After Georgia became a Republic and was recog-
nized as such by Russia, the Georgian Republic built this uni-
versity?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
The CHAIRMAN. When the Bolsheviks came in four years ago
they allowed the university to continue, with certain restrictions,
which you have mentioned; is that correct?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; with restrictions. I can not tell you how
many of them were killed. . The Soviet Russian policy is to have
people who can not read and write; no support is given to the uni-
versity by the Soviet régime, so a professor wrote me. He also wrote
they have not enough money to translate the 2,000 page palympsest.
58 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The CHAIRMAN. Mr. Stewart, I notice the name of John Hays,
Hammond on the board of directors of this Caucasian Society. Is
that the John Hays Hammond who was active in the Transvaal
prior to the Boer War?
Mr. STEwART. Yes; he lives here in Washington. $
The CHAIRMAN. You have in Georgia oil, copper, and manganese?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; and tremendous water power.
The CHAIRMAN. Oil has been developed at Baku?
Mr. DUMBADZE. A big source of oil has been developed in Baku, in
Azerbaidjan, and is well known on the market, but this oil does not
belong to Georgia; one pipe line from Baku runs through Georgia
to the shipping point on the Black Sea—Batoum.
The CHAIRMAN. Where are the oil deposits in Georgia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. In the district of Tiflis and also near the Black
Sea coast of Georgia.
The CHAIRMAN. Is that near where the Garden of Eden was sup-
posed to be?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; that is the place, but the oil has not been,
developed as yet.
The CHAIRMAN. Old Adam was lucky oil was not discovered in
the Garden of Eden, or he would have been evicted by exploiters.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. You stated that there were Georgians in the
mountains who had never been conquered and who are still main-
taining their independence on Georgia’s soil. Has anyone connected
with the Government of Georgia at Paris ever succeeded in getting
any communication through to those men?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; we get communications continually.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. So there is this situation, that there are Georgians.
who have never been conquered who are in possession of part of the
Soil of Georgia and who are in communication with the Government
of Georgia in Paris?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. MARTIN. They are not organized in any way?
Mr. DUMBADZE. They are natural soldiers; in these mountains.
they are always organized.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. Their government is in Paris?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. FISH. They have not been conquered for over 125 years. They
are the same people who have been opposing Russia for 125 years up
in the mountains. They live on the tops of these mountains, these
Georgians who have not been conquered?
Mr. , DUMBADZE. Georgia never was conquered by Russia. The
Georgian Government left Georgia when betrayed and invaded by
the Soviets and Turks.
Mr. FISH. You and I differ about the wording.
Mr. DUMBADZE. That is the legal side of this matter. Georgia
never had war with old Russia. We signed a treaty with Russia in
1783, which was violated later in 1801.
Mr. FISH. For 125 years the Russian Imperial Government had
control through their representatives, but these mountaineers have
always been in rebellion all the time?
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 59
TMr. DUMBADzE. Yes. Many protests were made during that time.
Mr. FISH. Your biggest industry is oil? &
Mr. DUMBADzE. No. Oil is not a big industry in Georgia. Man-
ganese, tobacco, silk cocoons, copper, etc. ... . º
Mr. FAIRCHILD. These unconquered soldiers in the mountains have
a military organization? Do they have their own officers'. . º
Mr. DUMBADzE. They are natural soldiers, organized, taking action
against Soviet Russia. When really out of patience, in 1924, they
were patient, but when the soviet Tcheka killed hundreds and thou-
sands of our people, the best people of Georgia, women and children,
many of them, they had to take action. -
Mr. FAIRCHILD. Do they have officers who give them orders?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Officers of regiments? -
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. They have leaders?
Mr. DUMBADZE. #. chief men.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. When the Government of Georgia in Paris wants
to send a communication to them, there are leaders they pick out
to send communications to?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. CoopFR. The witness ought to testify what he knows himself,
because he does know it.
Mr. VAILE. It is difficult for the witness to understand.
Mr. CoopFR. I do not think it is proper while he is testifying for
others to make side remarks; if he does not understand, let him say
so. He ought to be allowed to express his own ideas in his own way.
While he was answering a question he thinks he understands, this
other witness was prompting him.
Mr. VAILE. We are talking with the gentleman and want him to
give his honest opinions.
Mr. FAIRCHILD. I asked a question for information; and if he does
not know or understand my question, if that information occurs to
any of the other witnesses, I will be very glad to have it. He rep-
resents the Georgians here. º
Mr. CoopFR. What Mr. Fairchild said puts me in an unfair atti-
tude. I want the facts—the truth. Mr. Fairchild asked a question,
and he says he wants the truth. The witness proceeds to answer.
He knows this witness knows more about matters than anyone else
in the room, and while he is answering and talking the man at his
side is all of the time whispering and prompting him. That is not
fair, and Mr. Fairchild, endeavoring to elicit truth, would not get
it first-hand from this witness; he would get it from the promptings
of another man; and while they may do this innocently, I do not
think it the best way for a witness to testify.
Mr. FISH. Is there any army in the field to-day in Georgia against
the Soviet Government?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The whole population of Georgia is against Soviet
Russia. That is my answer.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. I will follow up Mr. Fairchild's question
with one question to make a point clear. I understood you or some-
body to say that these mountaineers, while they are not organized in
60 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the sense that armies are organized in other countries, do have their
leaders or chieftains. Is that correct?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Correct.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. And your Government does have means of
getting in communication with these leaders or chieftains?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Correct.
Mr. ELLIS. Do they maintain schools up there in the mountains,
these unconquered 10 per cent?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; they maintain schools.
Mr. ELLIS. They maintain public schools of their own appoint-
ment and support them?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. ELLIS. Have they an organization for that purpose?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. MARTIN. Who pays for the support of the schools?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The peasants, the population.
Mr. MARTIN. Do they pay it direct or into the Soviet Government
and they later disburse it?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. How much anybody pays to the soviet?
º Soviet Government is taking from our people everything they
8,Vē.
The CHAIRMAN. The inquiry is about schools in the mountain fast-
nesses where they still preserve their liberty. Who supports the
schools in the mountains occupied by that 10 per cent who still resist
the Soviet Government?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The population in the mountains.
Mr. FISH. Might not this develop into a serious thing for the
Georgians? There is no fighting to-day against the soviet régimé in
Georgia, between the mountaineers and Soviet troops, if there are
Soviet troops there now. The House Committee on Foreign Affairs,
undertaking to hold hearings on this question, and you come before
it and have made the statement that there are leaders there of armed
forces, would it be possible that the Soviet Government would go out
and destroy those forces?
Mr. DUMBADZE. They are trying to destroy them, anyhow.
Mr. FISH. There is no war going on to-day.
Mr. DUMBADZE. It is not war but the action of the Soviet Govern-
ment.
The CHAIRMAN. Russia has been trying to conquer these moun-
taineers for two or three centuries, a war on during all that entire
time.
Mr. EATON. It will not start because we are having these committee
meetings.
The CHAIRMAN. No. These people are up in the mountains.
Mr. FISH. There is a sort of armistice now; no actual warfare.
Mr. DUMBADZE. There is no real declared war, but systematic
resistance of people; whoever can resist is resisting.
Mr. CoopFR. I see in this pamphlet, “Georgia at the end of the
eighteenth century allied herself with Russia with the stipulation
that the latter should protect her against enemies from without.”
Those enemies from without were the Turks?
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 61
Mr. DUMBADZE. Turks and Persians; and as Georgia felt helpless
against these enemies at that time she allied herself with Russia for
a term of 100 years for protection, and that protection was not ac-
corded her during the Czar's régime, up to the revolution in 1917.
Mr. VAILE. Not helpless, but needing help.
Mr. CoopFR. Did not Russia protect her from enemies from with-
out? If so, there was no attempt by Russia during 100 years to con-
quer Georgia, because they were in alliance under the condition that
Russia should protect her from the Turks. That being so, were
these men in the mountains fighting anybody during that time?
Mr. DUMBADzE. No; the Turks and Persians invaded Georgia peri-
odically when at war with each other, and Georgia fought always
with Russia against the Turks.
Mr. CoopFR. But not the Russians.
Mr. DUMBADzE. Since the Greeks fell in the hands of the Turks in
1483, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world, therefore it was
necessary for them to ally themselves with Russia, a nation of the
same religion as Georgia. They were Russians. When Russia
signed the agreement of mutual friendship with Georgian Govern-
ment, they assumed certain obligations and pledged themselves to
keep such and such regiments in Georgia, but what happened? How
Russia violated this treaty is wonderfully shown in Dr. E. J. Dillon’s
book, “The Eclipse of Russia,” if Mr. Stewart will quote this.
Mr. STEwART. It is on page 225 of this book:
Bulgaria was not methodically “protected ” in the special sense of the term.
Frank Russian diplomats were wont to explain that chapter of Russian his-
tory thus: “We have only two ways of dealing with weaker nations, and they
are exemplified in our treatment of Georgia and Bulgaria.”
And further:
The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance. We made it.
Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days. Being attacked by
Persia, they claimed our active help as equals and allies. But we answered
that we were too busy elsewhere and left them to their fate. Thereupon the
Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three, so that the
nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came to us a
Second time, now no longer as equals and allies, but as humble Suppliants.
“Help us,” they said, “Not as friends aid friends, but as masters rescue their
slaves.” And this time we helped them effectually and absorbed their country
Over and above.
Mr. FISH. A while ago you implied, at least, that Georgia was a
republic under the Czar, or was a sovereign government under the
Czar. *
Mr. STEwART. Not sovereign government. Georgia was violated.
Mr. FISH. Over 100 years ago.
Mr. DUMBADZE. 1801.
Mr. FISH. It has been under Russia for 125 years.
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; but always under protest. Even England
and France have protested many times, but in vain.
Mr. CoopFR. Do you think England and France—their capital-
ists—were after the manganese and other natural resources in
Georgia? *
Mr. DUMBADZE. No; a pure humanitarian proposition, objecting
against violation of a treaty.
62 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. FISH. I have a wrong impression from what the witness said.
I understood the witness to say under the Czar's government that
Georgia was practically independent?
Mr. DUMBADZE. No. -
Mr. FISH. It now turns out that for 125 years they were under the
government of the old Imperial Russian Government; they were a
subject nation.
Mr. OPDYCKE. Except, Mr. Fish, the Government was operating
under a vice-royalty, but always objecting to physical control.
Mr. FISH. It was brought out they could not even operate a
university in their own city.
Mr. OPDYCKE. No, sir; that is not a fact. The fact is the Russian
Government would not permit the university to be there in that
place and it was not until the Georgians got their independence
and the moment they did, they established this university which
is working now, because it is a well known fact that the Soviet try
by every means possible to get technicians into Russia.
Mr. FISH. I have been in Russia several times, and I know it
was the policy of the Russian Government under the Czar not to
permit education, whether in Georgia or Russia. As I see it the
Georgian people have had this alliance with Russia for a long time,
and when the war occurred, like Poland, Czechoslovakia and others,
they secured their independence, or that is what they attempted to
do. The militia of the Bolshevist Government came in later and
took possession.
Mr. CoopFR. I will ask you this question: The government which
was, after the Russian revolution, established in Georgia was what
was called the menshevist government?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. CoopFR. That was socialistic, too?
Mr. DUMBADZE, Social democratic, with all politial parties except
communists cooperating.
Mr. CoopFR. And they were opposed by the Bolshevists. During
the years that the Menshevists or 'Social Democratic Party was in
control there were six revolutions—fighting among themselves?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Six revolutions where?
Mr. CoopFR. Six outbreaks, and killing among themselves.
Mr. DUMBADZE. No, sir; that is not a fact. I object to that; it
was not SO.
Mr. CoopFR. I mean in Georgia.
Mr. DUMBADZE. No; not at all. In Georgia there was an invasion
by Bolshevists and Turks, and then in 1924 Georgia again rebelled
against Soviet Russia; that is two.
Mr. CoopF.R. Do you say that there were no revolutions and no
violence, no factional quarrels, between the various people and
against the Government?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not in Georgia. The Bolshevist invasion and the
1924 rebellion were the only ones. What we are doing is to escape
from the Bolshevist terror.
Mr. CoopFR. About the men up in the hills, Judge Moore said
they have leaders, but they are not organized as we know organiza-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 63
tion when applied to armies, not organized into regiments and bri-
gades; it is a lot of men fighting, to use the American expression,
on their own hook. I do not want to say anything unkind, because
I have deep sympathy for the Georgian people; but while consider-
ing their situation I owe a duty also to my own Government. I want
to do what I think is right after all the facts are before us. In this
country if a lot of men in the mountains were fighting in that way,
they would be called “guerillas” and their warfare a “guerilla
warfare.” They are unorganized. Is that not so?
Mr. DUMBADZE. It is not quite so, because those mountaineers
are natural fighters, and are organized under chiefs.
Mr. CoopFR. They are natural soldiers. I do not doubt their
bravery.
Mr. DUMBADZE. They are natural fighters.
Mr. FISFI. They have been fighting for 125 years.
Mr. DUMBADZE. One thousand seven hundred years or more.
Mr. EATON. They have not been fighting against their own gov-
ernment.
Mr. FISH. Naturally, I think everybody sympathizes with the
Georgians, but there are other countries involved. Mr. Stewart,
would you have any objection if I should offer an amendment, if
this resolution ever comes to a vote, to include recognition of Monte-
negro, which has maintained its independence for 500 years? I am
asking a very proper question. It maintained its independence 500
years and fought with the Allies.
Mr. VAILE. What has this witness to say about that? It is for the
committee. -
Mr. FISH. I want to bring out that point.
Mr. STEwART. I am here as a friend of the Georgians. For 18
or 19 years my spare time has been engaged in such work as this,
which has been given to the public, and I receive no emoluments or
pay from it. Nobody has ever paid me for any work of this kind.
I have no object other than that of service. I am interested as
everybody must be in the fight for existence of little countries. H
think they have their rights and great countries should support them
in the possession of their rights. So far as any amendment to this
resolution offered by Mr. Moore is concerned, I will say only that I
sympathize with all little countries fighting to gain or maintain their
liberties.
Mr. CoopFR. You are an engineer?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes.
Mr. CoopFR. How long were you in Russia?
Mr. OPDYCKE.. I was in Russia several times; probably several
months altogether.
Mr. CoopFR. When were you last in Russia?
Mr. OPDYCKE. 1914.
Mr. COOPER. For what purpose? Were you in the Caucasus?
Mr. OPDYORE. No ; in the Crimea.
Mr. COOPER. You have never been in Georgia?
Mr. OPDYCKE. No.
96153—26—5
64 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. CoopFR. What were you doing in Russia?
Mr. OPDYORE. I was in Russia furthering the organization of an
American-Russian Bank, behind which was a company of engineers,
for the development of the region's natural resources.
Mr. CoopFR. You say that you saw dispatches received—where?
Mr. OPDYCRE. In Paris. That is where the conversation referred
to took place regarding the communication between the Government
in Paris and these people in Georgia.
Mr. CoopFR. Did you receive any of the communications?
Mr. OPDYCKE.. I was not representing the Georgians.
Mr. COOPER. When was this?
Mr. OPDYork. In 1924 the last time referred to particularly.
(Thereupon, at 12.05 o'clock p. m., the committee adjourned to
meet again at the call of the chairman.)
NO.
1.
2.
APPENDIXES
Mineral Resources of Georgia and Caucasia, by D. Ghambashidze, F. R. G. S.
Treaty concluded 1783 between Catherine II, Empress of Russia, and Irakly
II, King of Georgia. (Collection of Russian Laws, Vol. XXI, No.
15835.) With preface by Mr. Paul Moriaud, professor of the faculty
of ‘law of the University of Geneva, and comments by Mr. A. Okou-
meli—Geneva, 1919. (Translation from the French.)
3. The Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia, by Prince Ilamaz
4
5
6
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17.
Dadeshkeliani. Article published in The Christian East. (July, 1922,
Vol. III N. 2, and October, 1922, Vol. III N. 3; London.) 1922.
Constitution of Georgia, adopted by the Constituent Assembly February 22,
1921. (Translation from the French.)
Treaty May 7, 1920, between the Democratic Republic of Georgia and the
Russian SOcialist Soviet Federative Republic.
Excerpts from “Documents Relative to the Question of Georgia. Before
the League of Nations.” Edition of the Georgian Legation in France.
Paris, 1925. (Translation from the French.)
Also “ Note from the Delegate of the National Government of Georgia
to the Council of the League of Nations"—relevant to the above.
The Constitution of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. Published by
the Russian Information Bureau, Washington, D. C. 1924.
List of Members of the Diplomatic Corps In the Order of Delivery of
Credentials. December 25, 1925. (Translation from the French.)
Georgia, Russia, and the League of Nations, by Prof. Edgard Milhaud.
Published under the auspices of the International Committee for
Georgia, Geneva, 1926. (Translation from the French.)
Copy of letter dated December 5, 1925, from Hon. A. Tehenkeli, extraor-
dinary envoy and plenipotentiary minister of Georgia in France, to
Hon. Myron T. Herrick, extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador
of the United States of America.
Georgia—Impressions and Observations, by Karl Kautsky. Published in
LOndon, 1921.
Alliance Between the Republics Of Armenia, Azerbaidjan, North Caucasia,
and Georgia, June 10, 1921.
The Caucasian Republics, by Vasili D. Dumbadze, general diplomatic and
economic representative of the Republics of Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and
NOrth Caucasia.
(These Republics entered into a defensive and economic union with
the North Caucasian Republic and Armenia in 1921.)
Chronology of Important Events of Georgia.
Copy of telegram from Hon. Vasili D. Dumbadze, general diplomatic and
economic representative of the Republics of Georgia. Azerbaidjan, and
North Caucasia, to Hon. Frank M. Kellogg, Secretary of State, Wash-
ington, D. C. dated June 13, 1925.
Excerpts from the Speech by Hon. Edward C. Little, of Kansas, in the
House of Representatives, Wedensday, December 17, 1921, on The Sit-
llation of Armenia.
(Congressional Record, Vol. LXII. Pt. 13.)
Sketch map of the Caucasian Republics, showing part of Georgia ceded
to Turkey by Bolsheviks.
17a. Also Map of Georgia and Surrounding Territory.
18.
19.
20.
The Case of Georgia and International Law, and Chronological Summary
of the Situation in Greece, 1821–1829 in Light of the Webster Resolu-
tion of December 8, 1923.
(Reference: Historians' History of the World, Vol. 24.)
Reproduction newspaper articles, New York Times, September 26, 1924.
General Harbord's report : American Military Mission to Armenia. (On
board U. S. S. Martha Washington, October 16, 1919.)
65
66
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
No.
21.
The British Trade-Union Delegation and Georgia.
(Published by the Foreign Bureau of the Social-Democratic Labor
Party of Georgia.)
. Certification of DOCuments. *
3, Ikon of the Archangel Gabriel. An Example Of Ancient Georgian Byzan-
tine Enameling of the Eleventh Century.
. Holy Gospels encased in covers of gold.
. Tamara, Queen of Georgia A. D. 1184–1212, The Golden Age of Georgia.
. Sho t”ha Rust’haveli, twelfth century Georgian poet.
. Irakly II, King of Georgia, A. D. 1762–1798.
. Ketevan, Queen of Georgia in 1624.
. Nino, the Patron Saint of Georgia.
. City of Tiflis, Capital of Georgia.
. First University of Georgia founded by the New Independent Georgian
Republic; a theater, a street in Tiflis, city hall of Tiflis, and the Peoples
House.
. Svanetia.
. Mzkhet.
. The Dariel Pass.
. Cathedral at Ananur.
. Borjom, the Hot Springs of Georgia.
. A Tea Plantation in Georgia.
. Kutais.
. The River Rion.
, Certified copy certificate of incorporation of the Caucasian Society of
America (Inc.). (Davis, Wagner, Heater & Holton, Equitable Building,
New York.
. Membership list Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), and supplementary
statements of endorsement. Respectfully submitted by the Caucasian
Society of America (Inc.).
APPENDIX NO. 1
MINERAL RESOURCES OF GEORGIA AND CAUCASIA—MANGANESE INDUSTRY OF
GEORGIA
(By D. Ghambashidze, F. R. G. S., delegate of the Georgian Government)
INTRODUCTION
The Georgians are an ancient civilized race with 3,000 years of existence,
but in Spite of that very little known, as Georgia since 1801 ceased to be an
independent kingdom, was forcibly annexed by the Russian Empire in viola-
tion of the treaty of 1783, and was never allowed to make herself known to
the Outside World.
Geography.—Georgia is situated in Transcaucasia, between the Black and
the Caspian Seas (40°–49° northern latitude, and 39°–47° each of Greenwich).
She is separated from the North Caucasus by the celebrated Caucasion moun-
tain chain, which stretches for a distance of a thousand miles from the Black
Sea to the Caspian, and has an average height of 10,000 feet and in some
places, as in the peaks of the Elbruz and the Kasbek, even 18,000 feet.
Georgia comprises the following provinces and districts: Tiflis, Zakathal,
Kutais, Sukhum, the narthern part of the Black Sea Province toward Tuapse,
Ardahan and Olti districts, provinces of Batum and Lazistan up to Trebizond.
The total area of this territory is 43,000 square miles.
The frontiers of Georgia are : In the north, the Caucasian Imountain chain ;
in the east, Aderbeijan ; in the south, Armenia ; and in the southwest, Turkey.
Among the rivers the most prominent are: Kura, 310 miles long ; Ingur, 95
miles; Rion, 140 miles; Chorokh, 160 miles; Terek, 210 miles.
The climate of Georgia is very similar to that of Italy and Spain. Under
the protection of the Caucasian Mountains and with plenty of moisture, there
is a rich vegetation, and at a height of 4,000 feet there grow vast forests of
Oak, beech, chestnut, pines, boxwood, etc.
All along the Black Sea shore orange and lemon trees are plentiful; Wonder-
ful rhododendrons luxuriate up to a height of $9,400 feet and alpine grasses
are met with even at 11,500 feet. On the high mountains there are still to
be found bisons, wild goats, hogs, reindeer, antelopes, etc. There are also
400 Varieties Of birds.
The climate and beautiful scenery make Georgia very attractive, the Riviera
On the Black Sea.
Population.—The total population of Georgia is about 4,000,000, of whom
3,650,000 are of the Christian Greek Orthodox faith and 350,000 Mohammedans.
The capital of Georgia is Tiflis, which was founded by the Georgian King,
Vakhtang, in the fifth century. The town has 450,000 inhabitants.
Railways and ports.-The total length of railway lines in Georgia is 970
miles. The trunk line, leading from Batum through Tiflis to Baku. On the
Caspian Sea, is 556 miles long.
The coast line of Georgia along the Black Sea measures 345 miles. The
principal ports are: Batum. Poti, Anaklia, Sukhum, Goudaut, and Rizeh.
The port of Batum is the terminus of the Transcaucasian railway line
and also of the petroleum pipe-line from Baku to Batum. Batum is the
transit port for the whole of Georgia, Transcaucasia, Turkestan, and Persia.
Agriculture.—The agricultural resources of Georgia are considerable. The
following products are grown : Wheat, barley, maize, cotton, rice, tobacco,
tea, etc.
Wine is grown very extensively, and its quality is equal to the Superior
French and Italian Varieties.
There is also fruit growing on a large scale; specially of oranges, lemons,
Olives, peaches, plums, pears, apples, and all kinds of vegetables.
Among other branches of agriculture silk production and beekeeping are
ancient occupationS.
67
68 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The country contains about 12,000,000 heads of domestic animals, and has
vast possibilities for cattle breeding.
Trade and industry.—The principal ports for the foreign trade of Georgia
are Batum and Poti.
From 1884 to 1914 the following products were exported to the countries of
Western Europe from the port of Batum : §
Petroleum, 22,661,532 tons; manganese ore, 1,676,824 tons (the bulk of this
Ore was exported from the port of Poti); wool, 99,832 tons; liquorice root,
369,563 tons; grains, 406,265 tons; silk cocoons, 23,451 tons; oil cake, 76,100
tons; tobacco, 2,769 tons; albumen, 7,520 tons; hides, 5,363 tons; lucerne
Seed, 9,460 tons; salt, 3,650 tons; almonds, 5,692 tons; cotton seed, 40,661
tons: Walnut logs and boxwood, 65,053 tons; carpets, 23,800 tons; other
articles, 331,998 tons.
During the same period the following articles were imported from western
Europe into the port of Batum :
Tin plate, 526,605 tons; timber, 650,118 tons; bricks and tiles, 113,539 tons;
Sulphur, 52,857 tons; metals, 106,537 tons; machinery, 45.315 tons; chemicals,
30,392 tons; silkworm eggs, 55 tons; hardware, 58,518 tons; cement, 19,215
tons; tea, 14,986 tons; other articles, 195,066 tons.
From 1884 to 1900, 75 per cent of both the export and import trades of this
port were controlled by Great Britain, but she was overtaken by Germany,
who for the last 10 years before the war controlled 65 per cent, Great Britain
Only participating with 7 per cent, the other countries being Austro-Hungary,
France, Italy, and Turkey.
The returns of Shipping Of all nationalities which entered and cleared in the
foreign trade of the port of Batum from 1893 to 1914 are:
Vessels | Tonnage
British---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4, 287 7, 362,320
Russian--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7,375 4,487,480
French---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2,002 3,324,480
Austro-Hungary------------------------------------------------------------------ 1,914 2,271, 220
German--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,074 1,760,250
Greek----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2, 272 1, 225,345
Belgian--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 647 1, 145,390
Italian----------------------------------------*------------------------------------ 531 604, 720
Norwegian--------------------------------------------------------------`---------- 110 158,800
Dutch---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68 146,600
Panish---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125 143, 540
The traffic Of the port of Batum is therefore considerable. It must also be
noted that for the 10 pre-war years the bulk of the German trade with this
port was carried in British bottoms.
The returns Of the shipping Of all nationalities which entered and cleared
in the foreign trade of the port of Poti (during the same period) are:
Vessels | Tonnage
British---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,383 2,400,800
Austro-Hungarian----------------------------------------------------------------- 215 420,000
German--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 132 240,820
French---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 150 230,470
Greek----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 135 190,830
Dutch sm m. ºm sº me. * *m. º. º. - mº, º mº m sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - 40 96,300
Italian---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60 94,400
Norwegian------------------------------------------------------------------------ 55 93,820
Belgian--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 50, 120
Spanish--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 20,300
This shipping Was exclusively devoted to the export of manganese ore.
The industry of Georgia is very small at present, with the exception of
that of manganese, petroleum, and copper Smelters—one of which belongs to
the Caucasus Copper Co. (Ltd.) (British property); but there are vast oppor-
tunities for building up a huge industry, as raw materials are available in
abundance.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 69
Education.—The seat of the Georgian University is Tiflis : it has 35 profes-
sors and 1,000 students.” There are also two colleges of the nobility, One in
Tiflis and another in Kutais; two theological colleges, 25 grammar Schools,
3,000 so-called people's schools, 15 agricultural schools, 18 technical Schools,
and 28.1adies' needlework and carpet-weaving schools. A considerable number
of students receive education annually at the universities and colleges in
France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany and Austria.
Literature and the press.--Georgia possesses a very rich ancient and modern
literature, and there are translations of the modern classics of all countries.
Nearly all of Shakespeare's dramas are translated into Georgian. There are
about 24 daily papers and weeklies, and about 350 books are published every
year in half-million copies. Ninety per cent of the total population of Georgia
can read and write, and the many schools and libraries satisfy the eagerness of
the people for education.
Church.--The Georgian Church is one of the ancient Eastern Christian
churches of the World. It is second to the Greek Orthodox Church in antiquity.
The head of the church is the Catholikos-Patriarch, who is elected by the
entire nation. The present Catholikos-Patriarch is His Holiness Leonide. The
hierarchy includes three metropolitans—the first of Tiflis, the second of
Kutais, the third of Chkondidi—and twelve bishops. The Georgian church
is independent from the State and its funds and properties are administered
by the laymen’s committee, and the clergy is elected by the parishes.
Societies.—The capital of Georgia—Tiflis—is the educational, Miterary, com-
mercial, and social center of the country. Many Georgian societies have their
head offices in that city, the most important Ones amongst them being : the
Georgian Literary Society, with 35 branches and 20,000 members, this society
being chiefly engaged in distributing popular literature amongst the peasants
and in establishing schools; the Georgian Charitable Society, with 24 branches,
was started in 1914 in connection with the war, and has done great work in
helping the families of the soldiers and the poor in general, the Georgian Agri-
cultural Society; Georgian Historical and Ethnographical Society ; Georgian
Geographical Society; Georgian Journalists’ Society; Georgian Teachers'
Society; Georgian Artists’ Society; Georgian Technical Society; Georgian
Mining Engineers’ Society; Georgian Pharmaceutical Society; Georgian Medi-
Cal and Naturalist Society, etc.
There are also various cooperative unions; the cooperative movement is
Very Strong in the country. There are about four hundred sooperative socie-
ties—85 per cent of the Georgian peasantry are organized cooperators.
Constitution of Georgia.--Georgia has been an independent Republic since
November 22, 1917. At the head of it is an elected President, and cabinet
ministers are elected from among the members of Parliament. The seat
Of Parliament is Tiflis.
Army.-The Georgian Voluntary Army has a force of 40,000 men, comprising
all arms, and a fine corps of officers and experienced generals, amongst them
120 Staff Officers; one staff college, and two Military Schools for officers.
Political life.—The different political parties are: the National Democratic,
Radical, National Socialistic, and Social Democratic. All parties are strongly
democratic in their attitude and the population takes a lively interest in their
º: The election System is based on the broadest franchise for both men
all Cl W’OIllen.
GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
The Caucasian mountain chain extends from the Sea of Azoff in a straight
and uninterrupted line to the Apeheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea in the
ºtion West-northwest to east-southeast and has a length of about 1,000
IIllies.
Its Western part mostly forms a single chain, while the eastern half expands
in places into three or four parallel ridges and forms the mountainous region
of the Daghestan.
Geologically the land between the two seas belongs to the tertiary and upper
Secondary orders, and was at an epoch after the deposit of the former pushed
upwards by Some gigantic subterraneous pressure and broken through by the
igneous matter which now forms the axis and crest of the main chain, in the
Shape of Crystalline rocks, granite, gneiss, porphyry, diorite, trachytes, etc.
* During the year 1920–21 this number was increased to practically double this amount,
and one other university and several high schools were established.
70 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
This intrusion left the originally horizontal strata in a nearly vertical posi-
tion, with outcrops on both sides of, and parallel with, the main ridge, their
tops slightly inclined towards the south. This inclination explains why the
mountains forming the main chain are generally steep On the south side, while
their northern slopes cover a large area. - -
At a later epoch a second similar disturbance lifted the land south of the
main chain, where the Lesser Caucasus was formed, also with the intrusion of
the granite, porphyry, basalt, etc., which we now find in the Pontic Ridge
and towards Erivan. The upright position and the direction of the strata are
approximately the same as in the main chain.
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Considering that all these strata were Originally more or less horizontal
and formed part of the bottom of a sea which then covered most of Europe,
and from which the Caspian was cut off by these upheavals, it will readily be
understood how fossils and minerals of undoubted marine Origin are to-day
found on many mountain tops.
At the same time the age of the Original Strata, as shown by their fossils,
proves that the two great earth movements must have taken place in the
tertiary period, that is to say, at a comparatively late date of the earth’s
history, SO that these mountains may be called young and have not yet been
destroyed or considerably altered by the inevitable erosion.
As to the formations which to-day constitute the Surface Of the Caucasus,
it must be mentioned in the first instance that the main ridge formed at the





NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 71
w
Jurassic epoch a barrier between two sea basins of quite different nature. The
tertiary deposits from these waters therefore also vary considerably, accord-
ing to their position north or south of the main chain.
The lower Lias, which represents the oldest bedded formations in the Cau-
casus and is not found anywhere else in southeastern Europe, exists here on
both slopes and in contact with the central intrusive rocks.
In the northern Caucasus it is found in the shape of Schists and limestones
containing vegetable imprints and the characteristic marine fossils. The latter
are missing on the South side of the ridge, but the vegetable traces remain,
and lead in several places to underlying coal measures.
The oolitic system is represented on both sides of the main chain by evolu-
sively marine formations, which, however, are not yet sufficiently explored in
the Central and Western parts. But in the Daghestan the formation appears
as a powerful series of black schists containing the characteristic fossils, and
as ferruginous limestones and marls very rich in remains of a great number
Of animal forms, specially ammonites.
North of the Central massif of the main chain the OOlitic formation CropS
up as Sandstone covered by dolomitic limestone and tertiary sediments, While
south of it in Georgia, near Kutais, limestone and marls with corals appear.
The Cretaceous formation shows important outcrops on both slopes in the
shape of Senonian grey and white limestones, which are largely represented in
the Daghestan to a thickness of about 1,000 meters.
Eocene nummulitic limestone and calcareous sandstone are widely known
on the south slopes and contain numerous nummulites and other fossils;
especially in Georgia along the Rion River this formation is well developed.
But on the north side of the main chain the nummulites are entirely missing
in the corresponding strata.
During the glacial period which followed the described formations the Cau-
casus was also covered with ice, and while the gigantic ice sheets which had
crept down from Scandinavia and covered the whole of northern Europe to
the Urals did not quite reach the Caucasian chain, the great height of the
latter favored the formation of glaciers, which radiated in all directions,
covering mountains and lowlands alike, and joined in the south those descend-
ing from Mount Ararat. This period of extreme cold left its indications in
numerous moraines found all over the country, and in many places on rocks
marked and polished by the grinding action of the ice. *
Besides the two principal earth movements which produced the main chain
and the Lesser Caucasus, which run practically from east to West, later dis-
turbances must have effected a transversal pressure and undulatory move-
ments, resulting in depressions and elevations. A depression occurred in the
basin of the Sea of Azoff, severing the Caucasus from the Carpathians, of
which it was originally the continuation, while an elevation produced the
Suram Ridge, running north to south, which forms a connection between the
main and the Lesser Caucasus and divides eastern and Western Georgia.
This ridge constitutes to-day the watershed between the Black and the
Caspian Seas, cutting the territory south of the main chain into two principal
valleys, one of the Kura River, which falls into the Caspian, and the Othel
of the Rion River, which is much shorter and forms a basin open toward
the Black Sea. *
Similar conditions prevail in the northern Caucasus, where one of the two
principal rivers, the Kuban, flows into the Sea of Azoff, and the other, the
Terek, into the Caspian, both taking their sources in the central mountain
stocks.
The present orographic aspect of the country is due to yet tWO further
factors which acted upon it in recent geological times, the first one being con-
stituted by the intrusion of eruptive rocks, Which occurred independently IIl
many places on a smaller scale. Granite and porphyry in the Erivan district
have already been mentioned, while in the Daghestan mountains diabase and
elaphyres are more COImmon. & •
mº igneous intrusions often include or are accompanied by metalliferous
deposits or veins, and are therefore of the highest importance; their fre-
quency is, in fact, the principal cause of the richness of the country in certain
ineralS. e •
mº. remarkable intrusions in the shape of two dykes of rhyolite exist
in the northern Caucasus. The principal one forms the Beshtau Mountain,
which reaches up to 4,200 feet above sea level, and, the Kuma Mountain,
which stands almost vertically like a needle to a height Of 350 feet above
96153—26—6
72 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the plain, proof that at least this thickness of tertiary deposits has been washed,
away. These dykes are not accompanied by any metallic deposits, but their
presence is undoubtedly connected with the many mineral sources which
Spring up around them.
The second factor which to a certain degree influenced the present aspect
of the Country are the numerous volcanoes which were yet actice after the
great movements had taken place and whose craters are still unmistakable,
principally in the eastern main chain and the Erivan district.
To-day they are extinct, and the only manifestation of seismic action are:
the So-called mud Volcanoes, which are specially numerous in the Caucasus.
They are small hills from which a dark, somewhat saline mud flows in
a more or less continuous manner, driven out by Subterranean gases which es-
Cape in bubbles bursting On the surface. *
These flows exist mostly near both ends of the main Caucasian chain,
On the Taman and Kerteh Peninsulas and near Baku. The latter have in the
course of time formed quite considerable hills, one of them being over 1,250
feet high. The mud is in places saturated with combustible gas and also
naptha. This flow is situated at Some distance from Baku and near the Sea,
which itself is also often agitated by subterranean gases which eject mud.
and stones. In view of the volcanic nature of the Apcheron Peninsula this
is not surprising. e
In the Taman region the flows of mud vary considerably and have occasion-
ally volcanic force.
Similar muds, half liquid and more or less saturated with gases and Of
various temperatures, are also found in many other places, forming ponds with-
Out movement Or apparent inlet or Outlet.
Volcanic action of another kind is yet visible at the extinct volcano of
Demavend, Daghestan, which appears to-day as a solfatara. It is 14,000
feet high and snow-topped, while all round it small cones have been formed
from which sulphurous fumes escape.
As further secondary manifestations of volcanic activity occurring to-day
in the Caucasus there are to be mentioned the numerous hot mineral Sources.
and gaseous emanations, described in Part III, and also the frequent earth-
quakes.
The following descriptions of mines and mineral deposits do not claim.
to be a complete enumeration of all the occurrences of Ores and Other useful
minerals existing in Georgia and the Caucasus, principally because a Systematic
geological survey of the country has not yet been made, in consequence of
the absolute neglect by the Russian Government. The Only serious investi-
gations have been carried out by English, German, French, and Georgian geolo-
gists and engineers, who, however, mostly examined Only certain mines or
separate districts. Much has to be done yet to produce a complete and detailed
geological survey of this country abounding in mineral riches.
PART I. METALS
IRON
The Caucasus contains several deposits of excellent iron Ores, but it has SO
far been impossible to smelt them in the country On account of the absence or
inadequacy of the necessary fuel, and their export has been hindered by the
difficulties and the cost of transport. The application of naphtha residues,
which are the only carbonaceous material really available in quantities in the
country, has apparently never been tried yet for the reduction of ores, but
might be of use in connection with the electric furnace.
As they are not of immediate use, most of these deposits have not been
closely examined, and in many instances Only the Outcrops are known. The
total quantity of ore contained in them is estimated at about 13,000,000 tons,
as far as ascertained until now. This Ore would contain about 7,000,000 tons
of metallic iron.
The only deposit where a regular, though very small, exploitation is kept
going occurs at Khamuli, in the Province of Kutais (Georgia). Ore has also
been extracted at Ubissi and Shrosha in the same district.
Hematite ore is found at Tchatakh, Southwest Of Tiflis (Georgia), in a mass
of porphyry of 72 feet thickness. The ore is disseminated in it in irregular
proportions, the central part containing from 23 to 65 per cent metallic iron.
INATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 73
A considerable outcrop having a length of 600 to 700 yards is visible along
the River Bzibi, north of Sukhum (Georgia). It consists of brown hematite of
good quality, produced probably by the oxidation of iron pyrites, a bed of which
continues into the Apshri Mountain.
In the southwestern part of the country there are several good Outcrops, as
for instance near Artvin (Georgia), where rich red hematite is found in
Senonian limestone, the samples from it containing from 50 to 63 per cent of
metallic iron.
Similar hematite exists also at Nadarbazar, and two deposits of it crop out
near Batchinsk, at the contact of limestone and melaphyres; this ore body is
of eruptive origin.
In the northern Caucasus, in the Maikop district, there are several deposits
of red hematite and magnetite, but they have never been properly investigated,
although samples taken from the outcrops proved to be of remarkably high
tenour, the hematite running up to 65.6 per cent of metallic iron and the mag-
netite even to 70.91 per cent. This ore seems therefore to be purer than that
produced in the Donetz Basin and will undoubtedly in time be exploited.
Another rather famous deposit of iron Ore Occurs in the Terek Province, near
the Old fortress of Vedenoff. It was used by the celebrated Shamil for the
manufacture of cannons, although the quality is not very good, analyses of
samples having given the following results:
Per cent
Iron Oxide 41. 73
Silica 27. 10
Alumina 15. 26
Copper * * * * 1.04
Manganous Oxide 0.87
Moisture 3. 27
LOSS on calcination * * * 9. 14
Total -- - 98.41
Near Lenkoran, on the Caspian Sea, there are also large deposits of sands
mixed with Chome iron and magnetite, but not rich enough for treatment.
Similar magnetic-iron sands cover also part of the shore near Poti, on the
Black Sea (Georgia).
In the Province of Elizabetpol, near Dashkesan, another large deposit occurs.
The Ore body consists Of magnetite at the contact of diorite and limestone and
has a thickness varying between a few feet and 20 yards. It is estimated to
contain 2,000,000 tons, averaging 60 per cent of metal, and running in parts up
to 65 per cent, but no work has been done On it.
The quantities of ore extracted in the whole Caucasus during recent years
Were :
Tons
1910 572
1911 _ 655
1912 _ 924
1913 357
1914 532
This ore was used locally, mostly for making paints, but there is no doubt
that means will be found to exploit on a commercial scale specially the Georgian
deposits, which contain the bulk of the Ore and are easier of access and near
the Sea.
NIAN GAIN ESE
Manganese Ore is one of the three most important mineral products existing
in Georgia, the other two being oil and copper. The largest and world-known
deposits of this Ore occur in the walleys of the Kvirila River and its affluents
in the Province of Kutais, Georgia, and cover an area of 400 square miles. The
available Ore is estimated at 200,000,000 tons.
This deposit and the industry Springing from it have been separately and
exhaustively dealt with in my paper on “The Georgian Manganese Industry
and its World Importance.” forming Part V of the present book, and the
following description therefore only refers to the other occurrences of man-
ganese ore in Georgia, which are, however, not exploited.
The most important of these deposits exists near Akstafa (Georgia). whence
samples of exceedingly rich pyrolusite have been forthcoming, containing up to
74 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
**,
95 per cent Of manganese peroxide (60 per cent manganese metal) and only
from 0.027 to 0.035 per cent of phosphorus. The geological formation is simi-
lar to that of Tehiaturi, the ore existing in horizontal beds interstratified with
Sand, which continue at the Same level through three adjacent hills, the gullies
between them having been caused by erosion. This deposit has not been further
explored, but is worthy of attention in view of the quality of its ore and its
favorable position Only a few miles from the main line of the Transcaucasian
Railway.
In the Tohorokh Valley (Georgia), manganese Ore Occurs in another inter-
esting deposit near Kartla, on the left bank of the river and not far from it
and the high road, at about 35 miles from Batum. The ore is pyrolusite of good
texture and not very friable. It exists in three layers, having a total thickness
of about 3 yards. The beds are horizontal and their natural outcrops make
extraction easy, no expensive or complicated operations being required. Assays
of samples gave 53.60 and 54.40 per cent of manganese metal, from 0.07 to 0.09
per cent of phosphorus, and from 6.10 to 8,52 per cent of silica, without other
objectionable elements, so that the ore seems of superior quality. An Anglo-
French Syndicate took an interest in this deposit some years ago, but Only
exploration work has so far been done in it, and the exploitation of this and
other mineral occurrences in the Tchorokh Valley depends probably on the
building of the projected railway through it.
Manganese ore also crops out in the valley of the Itchkhala River (Georgia),
a tributary of the Tchorokh from the western side, about 20 miles from
Batum. The ore is also pyrolusite, in places mixed with iron ore and con-
taining up to 27 per cent of iron. Only superficial exploration work has been
done.
Other highly interesting deposits also occur in Georgian Lazistan, near the
sea coast Southwest of Batum. This district forms the continuation of the
mineralized zone of the Tchorokh Valley across the Hemshin mountain range,
and most Of the valleys running from the latter northwards to the Sea between
Rizeh and Surmeneh contain minerals, as manganese, iron, copper, or zinc.
In the Karadereh Valley, near Surmeneh, large occurrences of manganese
Ore have been traced Over a distance of 6 miles along the mountain side. The
Outcrops, where exposed, have a width of from 4 to 10 feet and consist of
high-grade pyrolusite. The nearest point of the deposit is Only about 2 miles
from the Sea.
Similar formations exist in the Treeboli Valley. The outcrop stands out
prominently and has a thickness Of about 12 feet ; the lode strikes east-west
with a dip to the northwest, and is composed of limestone showing nodules
and heavy impregnations of manganese Ore. The Center Of the lode carries a
Vein of good Ore, samples of which contain 49.66 per cent of manganese metal.
This Outcrop is about 6 miles from the Sea and easily accessible.
Other deposits of the same nature occur at Gooshak, where the quantity
of available ore is estimated at 1,000,000 tons; at Dharluk, 2 miles from the
Coast, Where at least five beds of rich Ore are exposed ; at Sharadek, Khrak-
labek-toha, Badaheltree and GOVanyak, all lying in the same district and within
a few miles from the sea, where loading stages can easily be built. Water
is available in every valley for washing and concentrating the ore, if necessary,
and the transport to the loading places would only require short tram lines.
The cost of the ore delivered on board ship would therefore be very low.
The following analyses show the excellent quality of the Ore found in this
region :

I II III IV V
Per cent | Per cent | Per cent Per cent | Per cent
61. 0
Manganese metal------------------------------------ 47.06 55. 68 55. 69 44.32 *
Iron metal------------------------------------------- . 64 , 2.44 .49 23. 22 . 70
Sulphur--------------------------------------------- 1.21 . 054 . 007 . 103 . 17
Phosphorus------------------------------------------ . 069 . 103 . 079 . 065 . 064
Silica------------------------------------------------ 4. 18 1. 54 3. 16 1. 74 2. 70 .
Moisture------------------ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1, 33 3. 30 1. 88 2. 08 Dried.
The presence of manganese Ore in the large mineralized zone near Batum
(Georgia) will be mentioned with the copper deposits of that region.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 75
COPPER,
Copper is, after petroleum and manganese, the most important mineral
products of Georgia and Caucasia. Its ores occur in a great number of
places which were well known to the ancients and worked specially by the
Georgians. The traces of their old workings and their slag heaps were in most
instances the guides for the present exploitations, and as they could work
only near the surface, the ore bodies are pratically untouched in depth.
The copper ores are generally found in fissure veins, and consist principally
of chalcopyrite, mixed sometimes with malachite and other modifications,
besides different noncupreous Ores. Of the latter the most common are iron
pyrites, which in many places predominate, while composite zinc ores con-
taining blende and galena form the bulk of other veins, the copper forming
Only an accessory part.
Generally speaking, copper Ores occur almost everywhere in Georgia and
form the richest inheritance of the country. If their actual exploitations are
comparatively few in number and their output so far not very considerable,
the reason lies principally in the absence of easy means of access to the mines,
mostly situated in the mountains, and the difficulties of transporting the
necessary fuel to them, while the latter itself may have to be imported by sea.
These difficulties make it imperative for new concerns to provide means for
large preliminary outlays for roads and means of transport, so that small
Companies have less scope of increasing their production of metal, however
plentiful their ore reserves may be.
The drawback of the fuel question might be avoided by exporting the Ore
to foreign smelters, but this policy has not been encouraged, because Russia
herself Was a great consumer Of Copper and did not produce enough for her
needs.
From the point of view of their position the copper ore deposits of Georgia
may be divided into three zones, situated (1) south of Tiflis, east and west
of the Tiflis-Kars RailWay ; (2) in the Tchorokh district, in the southwest
corner of Georgia; (3) in the Zangesur district, in the southeastern part.
The best known mine of the first zone is that of Kedabek, which formerly
and for many years ranked first in the country. It is situated southeast of
Tiflis, in Georgia, about 25 miles from the station Dalliar of the Tiflis–Kars
Railway, and belongs to Siemens Bros.
The ore deposit lies at Mis-Dag (Copper Hill), near the works, and consists
of a succession of lenticular ore bodies of considerable dimensions, being up
to 160 feet thick and 820 feet long in One instance, while the intervening spaces
sometimes narrow down to a thickness of 6 feet. These lenses, of which 17
were discovered and worked out, were filled with quartzose rock and porphyry,
containing chalcopyrite and oxidized black copper, mixed with iron pyrites,
also zinc blende and galena, partly with barytic gangue.
The country rock consists of quartziferous andesites which are almost com-
pletely covered by a flow of lava.
When Worked by the old miners before Siemens acquired it, the mine was
celebrated for its great tenour in silver, but the ores produced in recent times
were almost sterile of precious metals and the principal product was copper,
with some lead and zinc.
The work in the mines was taken up again in 1864, when Siemens acquired
it, but for a long time its operations were not very successful, principally on
account of difficulties with the fuel, until they laid a pipe line enabling them
to get fuel oil from Baku for use in the smelting and refining of the copper.
Other improvements were introduced at the same time, and its modern methods
and labor-saving appliances made of Kedabek the most renowned metallurgical
establishment of the time in the country, representing a capital outlay of about
half a million pounds sterling. In 1890 their output exceeded 1,000 tons of
copper per year, which increased to about 1,750 tons p. a. between 1900 and
1912. But after that period the ore at Mis-Dag began to get exhausted, and
in 1914 only 14,400 tons were mined, producing 794 tons of metal. Since
then only low-grade ores are being leached, and the production of metal amounts
now to only 100 tons p. a. The days of this establishment seem therefore
numbered, and its owners have already attacked another mine in the Tchorokh
Valley, as will be described later.
The second copper producer of this zone is situated at Alaverdi (Georgia).
near the Station Akhtala of the, Tiflis-Kars Railway. The mines were worked
76 NATIONAL REIPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
160 years ago by the Georgian kingdom, and are exploited since 1897 by a
French company—Société Industrielle et Métallurgique du Caucase—on a lease
expiring in 1944. As at Mis-Dag, the vein here also forms a succession of
lenses, which vary considerably in thickness and frequently branch out side-
Ways. Their average thickness is about 42 feet, but the largest one-encountered
So far was 36 feet thick, 120 feet wide, and 600 feet long. The ore is chal-
Copyrite and some purple ore, mixed with iron pyrites, and its tenor varies
between 3.6 and about 10 per cent; it also contains about 4 shillings' worth
of gold and silver per ton. The capacity of the smelter is 160 tons of 5 per
cent ore per day. The mine produced in 1908, 1,871 tons, and in 1913, 3,735
tons Of copper, the average cost being about 5% pence per pound.
Besides Alaverdi the French company exploits yet several other mines, two
Of which are situated in the same district. Tchamluk, which they hold on
lease, lies about 9 miles northeast of their smelter and is of analogous geologi-
cal formation to the Alaverdi deposit, consisting of a series of pockets or
Widenings of the vein in gypsum and barytine. The ore produced here is
treated at Alaverdi.
A similar mode of exploitation is carried on at Shagali, situated east of
Alaverdi in the upper valley of the Bortchalo River, in Georgia. A quartz
Vein containing chalcopyrite is being worked here, and the ore extracted is
also carried to Alaverdi for treatment, although a small smelter existed on
the Spot in Connection with this mine.
The establishments of Kedabek and Alaverdi possess the only large Smelters
in this district, but there are several veins in the neighborhood either being
explored only or Worked in a small way, their production going to the said
Smelters.
One of them occurs in the Kasakh district (Georgia) and is worthy of notice,
as the work done in it seems to promise well. It was known to the ancient
miners, as there are many indications of Old Workings On the property and
Jarge slag heaps, proof that at that time the ore was Smelted on the spot.
Refore the war small quantities of Ore were extracted, but the principal
work consisted in preparing the mine for more intensive extraction, and
resulted in the opening up of six galleries and two shafts Of an aggregate
length of about 500 feet and a depth of 60 feet respectively. The ore found
during these operations is mostly chalcopyrite and also copper glance (covel-
line), or a mixture of both. Copper glance occurs in a vein about 14 inches
wide and assaying 30 per cent of copper, which has been followed over a
length of 50 feet. About a dozen other veins were met with during the
investigations, consisting mostly of Chalcopyrite. There are also Outcrops in
the higher part of the property; one of them, about 2 feet wide and carrying
copper glance and chalcopyrite, can be traced over a distance of about 150
feet, but none of these outcrops have been fully examined yet. The situation
Of this deposit is advantageous, and Only sufficient capital seems required
to make it into an important producer.
The western part of this copper belt is not less rich in metalliferous ores.
but being more remote and mountainous, has apparently attracted less
attention.
Two contiguous old mining fields have here to be mentioned in the first
instance, situated at Djaraior and Tchan-Bakhtcha, in Georgia, southwest
of Tiflis at about 40 miles from the railway. Up to about 50 years ago they
were worked by Georgian miners, and the many old workings and slag-heaps
show that in more ancient times this must have been a most important center
of mining activity. This may partly have been caused by the alleged rich-
ness of the ore in silver and gold, which is said to have been considerable,
but no recent confirmation of this fact is available.
The country rock is of volcanic origin, and the mountains in the Western
part of the field consist largely of basalt and lava, in which not only the old
mines were excavated, but also human habitations. In the eastern portion
diorite and porphyry predominate, and the metalliferous veins are usually
located at the contact of these rocks in the fissures caused by volcanic erup-
tions. They are of uniform direction and inclination, approximately from west
to east, and can be traced over considerable distances: in fact, there are veins
and outcrops, partly revealed by old workings, all the way between the two
villages named above.
The ore is largely copper glance and Cuprite, also malachite, while chal-
copyrite, which predominates in most of the other copper zones, is compara-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 77
tively rare. This fact accounts for the average higher percentage of copper
contained in the ores extracted here, and probably also for the great propor-
tion of metal still contained in the slags which the old miners could afford
to lose.
As some work is always going on in different parts of this large field by
the inhabitants, who are the descendants of the old miners, it is possible
to examine it also to a certain depth, and there is no doubt of the continuity
Of the veins in that direction. Thirteen of them are known and have been
Worked Or Opened up, and the old and more recent underground Workings
are very considerable.
The principal vein has been followed in depth by a shaft of 210 feet and
worked by galleries extending about 300 feet, while its total length is
ascertained over 3,850 feet. Its thickness at the outcrops is only from 6 to
9 inches, but it widens out quickly to 40 inches and attains 43 inches at the
“deepest point, 24 inches of which consist of compact copper ore in quartz
gangue. The analysis gave 22.40 per cent copper. In depth the center of the
vein consists of pure chalcopyrite, while the edges toward both walls are
converted into iron Ore, the copper which was originally combined with the
latter being found again as a secondary formation in the fine joints, fissures,
and cavities of the vein in the form of beautiful needles and small crystals of
malachite, blue and green. Iron pyrites are missing in these veins, while
the upper levels, besides chalcopyrite, also contain copper-glance and purple
ROI’e.
All the other veins are of Similar nature ; the average thickness of those
which have been worked or well explored is 32, 18, 28, 4, 8, 23, and 15 inches,
respectively. Detailed calculations of the ore available above the water level
.amount to about 1,750,000 tons, the average contents in copper varying from
18 to 22 per cent, and this richness will, without any doubt, sooner or later
Joring this mining field to life again.
To the southeast of Djraior, in the direction of Erivan, several other deposits
Of copper Ores are known, but no proper exploitation exists in this district.
The following Occurrences may be mentioned :
Af Delijan there are considerable outcrops Of a vein widening out into lenses
or pockets in altered porphyry. Their ore is said to contain from 6 to 7 per
scent COpper.
At Karavan-Sarai in the Same region a very promising vein about 24 inches
thick is known in porphyritic rock,
Further south, near Novo Bayazid, on the western shore of the GOkcha
Take, copper veins occur in many places, but are not explored.
Near Alexandropol the Sisimadan mines are Worked in a Small way and
bave a smelter attached to them. which is, however, not of great importance.
The vein is Said to be about 4 feet thick, lying at the contact of diabase with
limestone and gypsum, and to contain from 12 to 15 per cent of copper.
Other mines are being explored at Shakar-Dara and Tamir-Magara, and
‘Small quantities of Ore are extracted from them.
Other interesting OCCurrences Of Copper Ores exist east of the Tiflis-Kars
railway in the Kazakh district of Georgia at Wartikegh and Avessi-Tchal.
"They lie opposite One another on two hills, separated by the River Indja-Su,
an affluent of the Kura, but are of identical formation with parallel veins.
The country rock is diorite, much decomposed, specially at the former place.
There are four outcrops of copper ores at Wartikegh and three at Avessi-Tchal,
in the shape of important veins, two of which are over 3 feet wide. They
iconsist of quartz with chalcopyrite, also decomposed in places and containing
there copper glance and green malachite. Only superficial exploration work
has been done in this field by Small galleries and Open trenches along the
veins, but their result leaves no doubt that we are in presence of a highly im-
portant deposit, which deserves fuller investigation.
Its environs represent a zone of remarkable mineralization. Immediately
north of the copper there are Outcrops of magnetic iron Ore With a great num-
ber of old workings, and west of them we find important deposits of hematite,
consisting of more than 40 veins, some of which are over 3 feet thick at the
outcrops. In the northeast manganese ores crop out, and other deposits of
(copper again are being worked east and south of this field.
Further east, about 30 miles from Kedabek and 20 miles from the railway,
another important deposit of copper and sulphur Ores occurs at Djiraki-dsor,
near the village Tchaikent. The ore bodies crop out in quartzite, partly covered
by elay schists, at the bottom of a ravine.
&
78 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
They were in the first instance worked for iron pyrites, as an outcrop of
this mineral, about 190 feet long, was lying open at sight along the side of the
hill. It forms an enormous and compact stock, whose depth into the hillside
has not yet been ascertained and must be considerable. At present it is being
worked in open cast and also by galleries and sent to Baku to the sulphuric-
acid factories, where it replaces the brimstone formerly imported from Sicily.
It is of remarkable purity, showing a tenour of sulphur of between 50.51 and
51.73 per cent in cargoes without objectionable elements, which is considerably
Superior to the Spanish Ore.
In the course of this exploration chalcopyrite was found and roughly sorted
out from the iron pyrites; from time to time a few wagonloads of it were sent
to the Alaverdi smelter, the bulk containing from 20 to 25 per cent of copper.
In places the iron pyrites also contain metallic Copper in the shape of
small specks disseminated through them, and also lentils of pure copper
glance have met, weighing as much as 5 to 6 fons and containing from 61.45
to 65 per cent of copper.
This metal, therefore, became interesting, and following some indications,
a cross gallery was driven from the pyrites works, which at 40 feet cut
an important vein of chalcopyrite, of a thickness between 3 and 7 feet and
containing from 12 to 20 per cent of Copper. An Outcrop at the contact
of granite about 400 yards from the mine was also examined and found
to contain chalcopyrite and copper glance and to continue in depth.
These minerals also contain gold, analyses having proved up to 3.9 dead-
Weight tons per ton.
The work and further intended explorations in these mines were stopped
by the war, but will in due time be taken up again.
The Tchorokh Valley in Georgia, containing the second group of copper
mines now to be considered, begins a few miles south of Batum and extends
Southward for about 60 miles to Lazistan (Georgia). The river receives many
tributaries from both sides and is of fair size, sufficient for navigation at all
seasons, if it could be tanned. But its fall is considerable, making its flow
rapid and dangerous in places, on account of sudden windings and other
Obstacles. Transport is carried on at present in long, flat-bottomed boats,
but only downstream, and the empty boats have then to be dragged up again
by the boatmen. Also they can not go right down to the Sea, but must dis-
charge at a spot about 8 miles from Batum, where their cargoes have to be
carried by road. The river can, therefore, not be relied upon as a regular
means of communication, but for power purposes it affords every opportunity.
A fine macadamized road runs along it, Suitable for motor traffic, but the
valley will really Only be opened up when the long-projected railway is built.
The Tchorokh district is eminently mineralized, chiefly with copper ores,
and there is scarcely a side valley in it in which copper or other ore outcrops
do not exist. The valley of the Mourgul River alone, one of the tributaries,
and its immediate environs contain, according to the estimation of the best
geologists, between 50,000,000 and 100,000,000 tons of ore containing about 3
per cent of copper. These occurrences were known and worked in antiquity
by the Georgians and Romans, and also in the Middle Ages by the Genoese.
The veins are generally in porphyry and Cretaceous sandstone, and the Ores
appear in the state of sulphides.
The most important exploitation of this district, and of all Georgia, is that
of Dzansul, belonging to the Caucasus Copper Co. (Ltd.), a British-American
concern with the highest financial backing in both countries (Morgan group).
Their mine is situated at the top of the valley of the Mourgul River, which
flows into the Tchorokh from the western side. It is reached from Batum by
the highroad leading to Bortchka (30 miles), crossing the Tchorokh River by a
wire-rope ferry, which will be replaced by an iron bridge to be built by the
government, and skirting the river southward for 2 miles to the entrance of the
Mourgul Valley. From this point the company had to build its own road to
Dzansul, a distance of about 10 miles, where there was formerly only a precari-
ous horse track. This road now leads to the Smelting works on the banks of
the river, but the mines themselves are situated about 3,000 feet above them
(and at 4,500 feet above sea level), so that a further zigzag road about 6 miles
long and adapted for wheel traffic had to be constructed. The transport of
the ore from the mine down to the WorkS is, however, effected by an aerial
ropeway of about 2% miles in length.
The mine is said to have been worked in prehistoric times, at all events under
the Roman-Byzantine domination, and before the beginning of the present ex-
*
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 79
+
ploitation the old slag heaps had been surrounded and partly hidden again
by secular forests, while one of the outcrops formed an easily visible Wide
yellow band across a vertical cliff.
Serious exploration work was started in the year 1900, when the present com-
pany was formed, and it resulted in the opening up of probably the largest con-
nected ore body known in eastern Europe, measuring some 160 feet by 330, and
1,000 feet in length. This is covered by an overburden of clay and alluvium of
between 50 and 100 feet in thickness, which is removed by mechanical and
hydraulic means, so that the ore can be worked in open cast at very Small
expense. The ore consists of chalcopyrite and some bornite, mixed with iron
pyrites in quartzite gangue and assays approximately 3 per cent of copper in the
average; but its quantity is very considerable indeed; in 1914 there were some
4,000,000 tons of it actually in sight.
The mine and the works are provided with the most modern appliances, ample
power being available in the Mourgul River, which supplies the electric current
for the mines and the concentration and Smelting Works. The latter are sit-
uated near the river and are able to produce about 1,000 tons of concentrates
per day, which are then smelted and refined. The workmen and the staff con-
nected with the works are housed near the river, while a great number of build-
ings have also been erected near the mines for offices, stores, shops, dwell-
ings, etc.
All these installations, and the making of roads, the fleet of motor transports
for connection with Batum, etc., cost an enormous amount of money, but it was
forthcoming, because, without any doubt, the mine possesses all the elements of
Success. Unfortunately, the treatment of the ore proved a Serious problem
and the methods adopted at the beginning of the exploitation were found to be
unprofitable. The initial plant was therefore scrapped in 1905 and the wet
concentration method introduced, which gave satisfactory results and was
afterwards increased to a daily capacity of 1,000 tons. For saving the former
losses in the slimes and tailings a minerals separation plant was also added in
1913, dealing with about 400 tons per day, so that all the difficulties seemed
Solved when the war broke out. The first consequence was that the Laze Work-
men returned across their frontier, which is only a few miles distant from
Dzansul. Nevertheless, the exploitation continued until November, 1914, When
a Turkish force invaded the valley, and the works had to be shut down. The
Turks were driven out again in March, 1915, without having done much damage,
but the mine has been idle ever since. Nevertheless it has all the elements for
becoming in the course of time one of the largest copper producers in eastern
Europe.
Its production during the last few years was:
Tons
1911–12 2,030
1912–13 2,992
1913–14 3,936
About 6 miles above Dzansul, on the Murwan River, an affluent of the
Mourgul River, another copper deposit has been located and to a certain extent
explored. Its nature is the same as that of Dzansul, and the explorations,
carried Out by means of galleries and drill holes, disclosed so far in three
different places stocks of sulphide Ores existing at the contact between sedi-
mentary rocks and quartzites. The drilling, without reaching bottom, has
proved the existence of at least 100,000 tons of ore, and this only in a small part
of the deposits, which are certainly highly interesting.
The following is a typical analysis of the ores coming from this region :
Per cent
Copper 19. S0
IrOn 25. 70
Sulphur 2S. 40
Alumina 3. 50
Magnesia 1. 10
Lime * 1, 00
Silica 20, 50
Gold and Silver Traces.
Total 100, 00
80 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The second mine now in exploitation and likely to acquire importance in the
Tchorokh district is situated at Kvartzkhana, about 37 miles from Batum, and
Only 10 miles from Dzamsul, as the Crow flies. It has the advantage of being
situated on the right bank of the Tchorokh and only a short distance from
the highroad, so that no extensive road-making was necessary. The original
outcrops occur on a high, and in places very steep hill situated between the
gorges of the Betauli and Kvartzkhana River, which unite below the hill and
flow into the Tchorokh.
The mountains in this part of the Tchorokh Valley form a part of the Pontic
Ridge, which extends Westward toward Lazistan and eastward to the sources of
the Kura River. The central portion is formed of granite, which crops out
near the town of Artvin, and which lower down along the river is replaced by
porphyry, and then by clay slate and schists, traversed by quartz-like Sand-
Stone.
The gorges of Betauli and Kvartzkhana which open out on the Tchorokh
River, and the lower slopes of the latter itself, consist of clearly defined for-
mations of these clay schists and sandstones, while in the upper parts of the
gorges chiefly porphyry formations crop up. Among the latter a large mass of
quartz is noticeable, which is probably connected with a large similar Outcrop
Occurring Opposite Artvin. This mass is in many places more or less metal-
lized, and contains chalcopyrite, copper-glance, green and blue malachite, and
also galena and zinc blends. The original exploration work was executed in
the clay Schists containing the beds of quartzose sandstone in which the metal-'
liferous veins are found. These strata of sandstone occur in succession at
varying distances within a lode from 200 to 250 feet wide, and although the
outcrops were not of great width, it was evident from their formation that
they Were Connected With larger Ore bodies.
These deposits attracted the attention of Messrs. Siemens Bros., of Kedabek,
who began some preliminary exploration work in them, and as it proved
satisfactory, they secured the mines in 1906 and prepared them for exploita-
tion on a large scale. They had soon proved a considerable ore body contain-
ing about 500,000 tons of ore with a tenour of about 4% per cent of copper,
in the shape of chalcopyrite mixed with iron pyrites, and also about 8 shillings
Worth of gold per ton.
An aerial ropeway was therefore built from the mine down to the high-
road and to the river near Bortchka, where the smelter and refining Works
were erected, the smelter being able to deal with about 200 tons of ore per
day. A considerable part of the staff from the dwindling Kedabek mines was
brought over here, as mentioned elsewhere, and the whole installation had
only been fully equipped and a considerable quantity of ore Was ready for
the Smelter, when the war broke out and the works had to be closed.
On the next hill north of the above deposits, near the Village Irsa, more
large outcrops are known, in similar geological formations, and a great deal
of exploration work done on them has proved their value, but they are not yet
being exploited.
The western bank of the Tchorokh River south of the Mourgul Valley is
equally rich in copper ores, judging by the numerous outcrops known every-
where. For many of them preliminary permits were obtained by local parties
at one time or other, but no work was done, so that the claims lapsed again.
Anyhow, according to the geology of the country, these deposits, when opened
up, may turn out fully as valuable as the above large exploitations.
Mention may be made here of the valley of the Katila River, which falls
into the Tchorokh below Artvin. Within 5 miles from the Tchorokh there
are at least nine very promising outcrops of chalcopyrite of the usual forma-
tion in this zone. They are at Nadjvia, Tzild Deressi, where a vein of about
12 inches crops out in yellow sandstone, at Satovo Deressi, about 1 mile from
the river, at Kepketa-Kepri, Elel Ogli, Sholab Ogli, Degir Bandi, etc., all also
near the Katila and Tchorokh Rivers, so that they could very easily be made
accessible. Higher up in the valley similar conditions prevail at Porosseti,
Nirvana, and Nakeray, which latter village is surrounded by mountains over
9,000 and 10,000 feet high.
Copper must have been actually produced by the ancients on the Kuapta
mountain, about 2 miles southwest of the town of Artvin (Georgia), where
the usual remains of old workings, slag heaps, etc., abound.
In the highest and most remote part of the Tchorokh Valley, near the
Turkish frontier and about 90 miles from Batum, We have the mines of
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 81
Khod-Eli, narrowly inclosed by steep mountains of volcanic origin and partly
Consisting of columnar basalt. They must be of very ancient origin, judging
from the slag heaps and antiquities found there. The vein is about 30 inches
wide, consists of quartz with chalcopyrite through porphyry, and contains
about 5 per cent of copper. The mine had of recent years a smelter attached
to it, the ore being first roasted in heaps in the open. The matte produced
was then carried on horseback to the Tchorokh River, and on it by boats,
When the conditions allowed it, to a small refinery at Erghi, near the mouth
of the river and about 8 miles from Batum, where the matte Was finally
treated. Principally on account of the difficulties of transport the mine had
to be shut down, but it has lately been taken up again by new capital and a
new plant has been erected, which produced between 450 and 700 tons of copper
per annum before the war.
The lower parts of the Tchorokh Valley below Dzansul are not less favored
with metalliferous riches than those described above, although no large ex-
ploitations exist yet in this district.
One of the most interesting deposits occurs about 6 miles below Bortchka.
and only 24 miles from Batum, easily accessible. The outcrops cover an area
of about 1 square mile. Some of them were worked in a small way about 20
years ago, and the ore was sent to the smelter at Erghi, mentioned above.
But the owners of the concession could not provide an exploitation On a Suffi-
cient scale, and therefore continued with exploration work only in order to
test the outcrops. For this reason this deposit is now well known and merits
attention. During the investigations 17 different outcrops were followed by
galleries of various lengths, the most important One being of about 150 feet.
They disclosed at least 13 separate veins, their thickness varying between 6
inches and up to 7 feet in places, but averaging mostly about 20 inches. The
ore is generally chalcopyrite in quartz, in places also malachite, and the
average tenor of the ore extracted from the different galleries was 8.70 per
cent of copper. All the veins in the center of the field run in the direction
of a mountain forming its northwest corner and rising to about 1,000 feet
above the level of the Valley. Outcrops Of the same nature are found also
near the top of this mountain, and all the experts who have visited the place
therefore assume that the veins converge and form an important Ore body in
the center of the mountain. So far no Work has been done to test this theory,
but some enterprise in this direction seems indicated, as its success is almost
certain, and in this case the mine has the further advantage of being more
accessible and nearer the port of Batum than almost any other in the Tchorokh
Wałley.
About three-quarters of a mile northeast of this field there is another large
outcrop of copper Ores, and its direction and general geological condition make
it very probable that it is connected With the central mountain described above.
The width Of this lode between salbands is 10 yards, and it consists of a
Vein of 1 yard of quartz containing Chalcopyrite, marcasite, and zinc blende
at the roof. The floor is formed by a vein more than 3 yards thick of quartz
impregnated with chalocpyrite. In the center between these two veins there
is a third one about 40 inches thick, also of quartz with chalcopyrite. This
large lode, which is visible at the bottom of a Creek and again at a considerable
height above it, has been explored Only at the surface, but should be more
closely investigated, as it seems to contain large Ore bodies.
In the same valley another vein is known in which zinc predominates, at
least near the surface. It is about 28 inches wide and consists of zinc blende
with incrustations of chalcopyrite, and the gangue, consisting of quartz, is
also impregnated with the same minerals. Analyses of samples showed 42
per cent Zinc and 1 per cent copper. No exploration work has been done on
this vein either, but it has been superficially traced at the bottom of a creek,
and again 500 feet further on and 175 feet above the first outcrop, and is
therefore undoubtedly interesting.
The Valleys containing these deposits as well as that of the Tchalt River
ending at Bortchka are all commanded by the Kara-Shalvar Mountain, 5,000
feet high, whose western slopes extend into Lazistan down to the Black Sea,
near Khopa, Arkhavi, and Veronet. As might be expected, the geological
formation in the valleys of Lazistan is the same as in the Tchorokh Basin, and
the mineral veins continue across the mountain chain, cropping out again in
the same profusion. Prospecting was therefore also going on before the war
near Khopa and Arkhavi, and copper and zinc outcrops are known to exist in
82 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Lazistan as far as Rize and Surmene, besides the manganese Ore already
mention, but no exploitations exist yet in this district. -
Returning to the eastern bank of the lower Tchorokh Basin and Specially
to the upper valleys of its tributaries, we find there another important Copper
belt between the Imerkhevi and Akria Rivers in Georgia. This must formerly
also have been a busy mining center, as most of the outcrops have been laid
bare by old workings and slag heaps abount in most places near them.
The principal ore found everywhere is chalcopyrite, sometimes also malchite,
and the outcrops are in the Jurassic formation. In several places great
numbers of veins run in parallel direction and may be followed Over hundreds
of yards, their widths varying between a few inches and 6 feet. Samples taken
from them gave everywhere rich assays, also Some gold.
As only superficial investigations have been made of recent years, full
details of all the occurences are not available, but enough is known to show
the desirability of closer investigation.
The Valley of the Adjara River, which falls into the Tchorokh about 10
miles from Batum, contains the deposits nearest to the sea. Two mines Were
worked there, near Agara and Merissi, and the Ore was brought down to the
smelter at Erghi.
The next Valleys to the south are those of the Chaklis River, with its tribu-
tary the Akria River, and contain copper outcrops and old mines at the vil-
lages, Sindiethi, Aghmarthi, Tskhemalana, Tchikunethi, Akria, and Ephrat, all
in Georgia, the nearest being 13 miles and the farthest about 30 miles from
Batum.
Southeast of this district and in the territory drained by the Imerkhevi
River and its tributaries most of the villages within a radius of 10 miles can
show old mines or Outcrops more recently discovered. Mention may be made
here only of Inkhreul, Dioban, Kokiethi, Ivethi, Zekiethi, Badsghirethi, Daba,
Surevan, Ube, and Andriatsminda in the north, and TChikhor, Dzios, Simkot,
DOwlethi, Dzetlethi, and Dzkaltzimor in the South.
Some of these mines contain also zinc and lead, and, for instance, Badsghi-
rethi is known to have been worked for silver by the Turkish Government
When the district was under their rule, and there are still many villagers liv-
ing who worked there. A more recent analysis of samples drawn from there
gave :
Per cent
Copper vºy - - 19. 02
Zinc 13.02
Lead - - - - 10.35
At Ardala, On the Imerkhevi River, near its fall into the TChorokh, there also
exists a quartz vein with feldspatic rocks traversing porphyry, and containing
about 6 per cent Of copper.
In the same neighborhood, almost opposite Artvin (Georgia), a powerful
quartz vein Crops Out at the contact of metamorphic sandstone and porphyry ;
iti S about 2 meters thick and contains iron pyrites mixed with a good propor-
tion of chalcopyrite, but no analysis is available.
Although these numerous deposits situated. On both slopes Of the Kartchkhal
Mountain, which rises to 11,248 feet above sea level, formed Once a most impor-
tant copper Smelting Center they are not worked now and not even well known,
because they are not situated on the usual highroads. Nevertheless they could
easily be made accessible for modern traffic and connected with the highroad
in the Tchorokh Valley, and, being situated near the sea and in a well-populated
district, they will undoubtedly sooner or later be brought to life again.
The Zangesour District, which forms the third copper mining area of Cau-
casia, is less important than the two former ones. It is situated in the south-
eastern part of the country, toward the Persian frontier, and its position is
rather unfavorable for transport as the nearest railway station, Evlakh, on the
Tiflis-Baku line, is about 130 miles distant. This is the pincipal reason why
the exploitation of this zone is less intensive, but it will undoubtedly expand
as well when better means of transport are available.
Several mines are being worked at present in a comparatively small radius;
they were also known to the ancients, who left the usual workings and slag
heaps, and even their tools have been found. The ore of this zone is also
principally chalcopyrite, also copper glance, with admixture in places, of zinc
blende and galena.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 83
The name of the district, “ZangeSour,” proves its old notoriety, as it means
“sounding brass.” The old exploitation was taken up again in 1845 when a
Small Smelter was erected ; two more followed in 1851 and a further one in
1857. But the working remained in a very primitive state until 1904, when the
first modern installation arose at Bairabatum.
The Synik mine is situated at a distance of 2 miles only from the latter
place, and belongs now to the Société Industrielle et Métallurgique du Caucase
which also works Alaverdi. The mine contains some 20 different veins, from
7 inches to 4 feet wide, containing chalcopyrite and some purple ore in quartz
gangue, also a Small proportion of precious metals. A great deal of money
has been spent on this mine and the smelting works which, as mentioned, are
installed on modern lines, but their production has still to be developed ; it
was 721 tons of metal in 1909 and 939 tons in 1913.
The neighboring Barabatum mine, although under different ownership, is
worked in connection with the Synik Smelter and also receives the required
electric current from it. It contains several veins of the same character, of a
thickness varying between 6 inches and 2 feet and widening out in places even
to 7 feet. The Ore is hand-picked and then contains an average of 16–18 per
cent of copper. The small ore is washed in the river and concentrated by
primitive means, and the roasting also only takes place in heaps in the open,
whereupon the product goes to the Synik Smelter. The production of Ore is
not considerable, some 2,000 or 3,000 tons per year, as the Owners are mostly
doing exploration work. The mine also contains an old dump heap of some
40,000 tons of slag containing between 2 and 3 per cent of Copper and alto-
gether deserves to be more energetically exploited.
The Ugurtchai mine is worked by Tiflis owners on a fairly wide lode, but also
in a primitive fashion. They also have a small smelter which in recent years
produced from 500 to 800 tons of copper p. a.
Other copper mines in this district occur at the villages Agarak, Katara, and
Bashkent, the first one possessing a vein about 2 feet wide between diorite and
syenite, and containing about 10 per cent of copper and some molybdenite.
The Galisur mines, which formerly were well known, have not been Worked
Of later years.
On the other hand, new exploration work has been started near Byelokan,
where an ore body of apparently considerable size has been discovered.
The district contains several other small producing properties whose Only
drawback lies in the transport difficulty. Although the railway from Tiflis to
Persia runs at a distance from 30 to 50 miles West of the mines, there is, at
present at least, no connection possible in this direction, on account of the
intervening mountain chain rising to more than 10,000 feet, and the only hope
of improvement lies in the building of the projected branch railway from the
Baku line to the town of Shusha, from which the mines are easily accessible.
The three mining areas described above do not cover all the Caucasian cop-
per-bearing fields, and separate deposits occur also in many other places, spe-
Cially in Georgia along the main mountain chain.
The eastern part of it between Telaw and Zakatali is fairly rich in quartzose
Veins containing chalcopyrite and iron pyrites, notably at Pshaveli, Zakatali,
and Other places. They vary in width between a few inches and several feet,
but in general seem too poor or too difficult of access for successful working
and have not been touched.
The Kasbek group of mountains in Georgia contains at least two consider-
able deposits of copper ores. The first one lies on its northern slope on the left
bank of the River Terek, and, although situated at a high altitude, it presents
no special difficulty to the extraction of the ore. The country rock is formed
of nearly Vertical strata of grey granites and porphyries and almost black
Schistose diorites, and the metalliferous veins run along the latter. Their
gangue consists of quartz or calcite impregnated with chalcopyrite. Consider-
able exploration Work has been done on the deposit, and seven veins have been
fully traced at different levels. Their width varies between S inches and 7
feet, Widening in One place even to 14 feet. The extension of at least two of
them has been exactly determined over a length of 940 and 700 yards, respec-
tively, and at levels differing by 700 feet. The ore existing in them is estimated
at 1,000,000 tons, containing an average of 9 per cent of copper. The quantities
Contained in the other veins have so far not been ascertained, but all of them
extend much further in depth and crop out again about 4,000 feet lower down
On the mountain side.
84 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The extraction of the ore Will be easy by means of adits at different levels,
and there is no difficulty in building an aerial ropeway for its transport to
a smelter to be erected at the foot of the mountain. Fuel can easily be brought
from Vladicaucase, a distance of 27 miles, and in this regard this mine is
much better placed than those in the south Of the country and is altogether
fully prepared for an undoubtedly profitable exploitation.
The second deposit on the Kasbek (Georgia) occurs at a few miles distance
from the above in a side valley on the eastern bank of the River Terek and
at about the same altitude. The geological conditions are also similar ; the
metalliferous veins consist of quartz embedded in clay Schists, and contain
Chalcopyrite with much malachite. Seven or eight of them are known and
crop out at different heights, but there is not enough exploitation work done
to estimate their contents. HOWever, they extend over such a wide area that
there can be no doubt of their richness in ore. This property is partly cow-
ered with forests which might be used for the purposes of a mine, and con-
siderable water power could be supplied by a stream flowing through it.
In the vicinity of Vladicaucase there are four more deposits of copper ores
known, although not explored.
Copper ores exist also at lower altitudes in the Province of Kutais, Georgia,
near the River Rion, and two groups Of OutCrops may be Specially mentioned.
The country rock is generally dioritic, crossed by thick veins of basalt, quartz,
and baryta. The quartz and baryta are mostly mineralized with chalcopyrite
and malachite, also copper glance, and in many places the deposits resemble
those of the Alaverdi mines. They extend over a wide area. On both banks of
the river, and old slag heaps prove that they were formerly Worked, but in
recent times they have been lying entirely idle.
Further west a most interesting mineral district lies near the Black Sea, in
Georgia, only about 25 miles from Batum. It covers an area of about 40
Square miles and contains, besides Copper, also Zinc and lead, as well as man-
ganese and iron, and it seems surprising that in spite of their favorable posi-
tion these deposits were never worked and are even scarcely known.
The surface formation eonsists mostly of grey or White clays, the products
of the decomposition of porphyrytic rocks which on washing give galena,
blende, and chalcopyrite. Quartz which in other parts forms the usual gangue
of the veins, is here almost entirely absent and iron pyrites form only a very
Small proportion. One of the Outcrops consists of two parallel veins, the upper
One about 9 inches wide, the lower one from 3 to 28 inches; they are divided
by a bed of Kaolin and can be worked together. The mineral extracted from
them is solid, and an analysis gave 8 per cent copper, 40 per cent zinc, and 20
per cent lead. Other samples contained from 7 to 16 per cent copper; in some
there Was more lead than zinc, even up to 60 per cent of the former in the
metallic State.
The veins from which these minerals derive, as it is clearly shown in other
outcrops, can be reached by a gallery of about 140 feet driven through the
kaolin ; its cost would easily be paid by the ores recovered.
A further vein crops out directly about a mile from the above; it is a pure
vein in porphyry of more than 15 inches in width and contains 7 per cent
copper, 48 per cent zinc, and 8.5 per cent iron pyrites, practically without any
silica. The conditions for working it are also very favorable. Several other
Outcrops Of similar nature are known, but have not been explored.
Manganese ores are also found in this district, either in the shape of rocky
outcrops, or weathered in grains mixed with the surface earth over large
areas. The pyrolusite taken from the Outcrops was found to contain also
some iron, but its tenour in depth is not known and would be interesting,
specially in view of the fact that at a distance of about half a mile from the
manganese there are very considerable outcrops of magnetic iron ore of great
purity and remarkable magnetic properties.
These two deposits might together form the center of a metallurgical indus-
try for the production of ferro-manganese, zinc, and lead. In view of their
proximity to the sea, only 20 and 25 miles from two ports, the fuel question
would here not make any difference whatever, and there is no doubt about
the presence of large quantities of ore, while several rivers could supply power.
Many other outcrops of copper veins are known between the Black Sea and
the western part of the Caucasian main chain, but they are not explored.
A very considerable one is said to exist above the monastery of Novo Aphon
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 85
near Sukhum, Georgia, and samples received from there proved very rich,
consisting of copper glance which contained 50.25 per cent Of copper.
The following statistics give a general aspect of the copper industry in
Georgia and Caucasia in recent years:

1911 1912 1913 1914
Number of copper mines–
Having their own smelters- 15 15 16 14
Without smelters.-------- - 17 14 21 14
Copper ores ea tracted by the totality of the mines
Tons
1910 r— 237, 415
1911 324, 098
1912 *— 319,469
1913 359, 674
1914 238,954
Total production of refined copper in Caucasia w
Tºons TOns
1901 3,989 1908 4, 820
1902 3, 440 1909 6, 311
1903 4, 240 1910 7, 695
1904 * 4, 785 1911 8, 34
1905 3,707 || 1912 9, 657
1906 3, 829 || 1913 10, 136
1907 5, 003 | 1914 8, 259
Largest producers
1911 1912 1913 | 1914
Tons Toºns Toºms Tons
Société Industrielle et Métallurgique du Caucase--------------- 3,990 4, 315 3, 721 4,071
CaucauS Copper Co. (Ltd.)------------------------------------ 2, 208 3,000 3,322 2,892
Siemens Bros.-------------------------------------------------- 1, 551 I, 435 272 794

SILVER—LEAD AND ZINC
These Ores are plentiful in Georgia and Caucasia, but in most instances the
zinc blende, which predominates, is mixed with galena, chalcopyrite, iron
pyrites, and Other elements which make the treatment difficult and expensive.
Lead ores, as such, have so far not been found, but the compounds usually
contain some silver.
Probably for this reason there is at present only one mine producing zinc
and lead in Caucasia ; it is owned by the Société Minière et Chimique Alagir,
a Russo-Belgian company managed by Belgians. Their mine is situated at
Sadon in the northern Caucasus about 50 miles West of Vladicaucase, while
the Smelter is near the latter town. The veins are of quartz in granite rock
and contain zinc blende, argentiferous galena, and iron pyrites. Before the
war about 100 tons of this ore were extracted per day, containing about 16
per cent zinc, 6 per cent lead, 12 per cent iron, and 5 ounces silver per ton.
This ore is hand-sorted and treated, and produces a concentrate containing
about 63 per cent lead and 45 per cent zinc, but in the refining only about 60
per cent of these contents are recovered.
In 1916 the Ore reserves were estimated at 100,000 tons in the vein which
is now being worked, but at short distances from it there are about 15 others
of varying thickness, running up to 6 feet, but in general not very rich.
Alagir is the only establishment producing also silver in Caucasia, about
half a ton per year, while its yearly production of zinc amounted to about
3,000 tons before the war, and that of lead to 1,000 tons.
Deposits of similar Ores are known in many other places on the northern
slopes of the Caucasian main chain, mostly in the district of Batalpash, near
86
NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA
Takhtaul-Tchalgan, where a company formed in recent years has extracted
Small but increasing quantities of ore. At Khostinsk, in the same zone,
exploration work in a small way has been going on for several years in a
deposit of the same nature, g *
On the southern side of the mountain chain near the Black Sea in Georgia
tWO Other Small exploitations exist, one on the Akhista-Akara mountain near
Sukhum, and the other on the Dzishra-Abakhu mountain in the district of
Gudaut. The former shows a very good outcrop over a considerable length,
and contains principally rich galena, with zinc, but no silver. Both places
deserve to be closely examined, because, if they come up to expectations, their
position near two seaports will greatly facilitate their exploitation.
The Tzkhinval Valley, near Gori, in Georgia, also contains outcrops of rather
rich lead and zinc ore, as surface samples assayed up to 62 per cent of lead
and 25 per cent of zinc, but no work has been done on them.
South of Tiflis a zinc mine was formerly worked at Akhtala, on the Bort-
chala River, in Georgia, but it was not very successful as the ore is very
complex, as the following analyses show :
Per cent Per cent
Copper 3. S0— 5. 800 Zinc 33.70—41. 680
Tread 15. 30–11. 000 || Iron 8. 40– 5. 380
Silver 0.04— 0.015 Sulphur 29, 56–31. 000
Gold Trace. Silica 7. 50–4. 400
NO Work has been done here of late years.
In the same neighborhood, about 40 miles southwest of Tiflis, a rather
interesting occurrence is known near Tchatakh (Georgia). A quartz vein 4%
feet wide traversing dioritic porphyry is richly impregnated with different
Ores which have been ascertained to be composed Of 23 per cent of galena, 34
per cent of zinc blende, 33 per cent of chalcopyrite, and 0.026 per cent of silver.
This place was formerly worked and is said to have produced also much gold.
The deposit which, although not worked and not much known, seems to be
most suitable for a future profitable exploitation, is situated in the Province
of Elizabetpol, about 30 miles from the Tiflis-Baku Railway and easily acces-
sible. It COvers about 2 square miles in the upper part of a valley partly
covered with great forests. It must at one time have been an important
Center of activity, judging from the old workings and slag heaps, of which
Over 100 are visible.
A great number of veins are also disclosed by outcrops, all running west to
east, but Only four veins have been really tested by the present owners of the
property, who have driven galleries along them, one Of 90 yards and three of
about 225 yards each. The veins are well defined in quartz and from 7 to 22
inches thick, widening out in places to 40 inches. The ore is an unusually
pure blende, partly brownish caramel blende, containing according to an
analysis made in Belgium :
Per cent Per cent
Zino 59. 68 || Fluorine 0.05
Lead traces. IrOn Oxide and alumina------- * 3
Copper, antimony------------- nil. Lime and magnesia ––– 2
Cadium . 15 Silica 3. 40
Arsenic . 02 || Silver (grams per ton) ________ 13
Sulphur 30. 76
These samples, taken from the galleries near the bottom Of the valley, are
therefore of a remarkable purity and the mines undoubtedly deserve closer
attention, Specially also because they might form the basis of spelter works
in this region. There are no such Works in southeastern Europe and an
installation in this district would have an enormous field of activity extend-
ing eastward to Siberia, Transcaspia and Persia.
Another outcrop of zinc-lead ores exists in the same province of Elizabetpol
near Djegam. It is not explored, but samples taken from it have been an-
alyzed and are said to have given the following results:
Per cent Per cent
Zinc 48 to 53 || Manganese (). 42
Lead 13. 40 Sulphur T4, 40
IrOn 2. 50 || Silver . O67
1 Estimated.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 87
As this outcrop is only 5 miles from the railway, it should also be followed
Ulp.
The southwestern region of Georgia also contains zinc and lead ores in
many places, but mostly mixed with copper, and several occurrences have
already been mentioned under the latter heading.
In those now to be described the zinc predominates, but only one of them
has been actually worked in our time. It is situated at Khod Eli, at the
farthest point of the Tchorokh Valley near the Turkish frontier. Originally
it contained two contact veins about 14 and 18 inches average thickness, com-
posed of blende and iron and copper pyrites. Their composition near the Sur-
face was as follows:
Per cent Per cent
Zinc 56.38–57. 26 Sulphur 32. 85–31. 95
Copper 6.82— 6.45 Silica 0.85— 1.36
Iron 2.95— 2.84
But in depth the zinc was found to diminish to such an extent that the
extraction of this metal became unprofitable and had to be given up. Cop-
per alone is now produced in this mine, as mentioned in the precedent chapter.
In the neighborhood of Artvin two more similar deposits occur which are,
however, not worked. One of them borders on the river Imerkhevi (Georgia),
and crops out as a quartz vein containing blende, accompanied, as usual here,
by chalcopyrite, and assaying 48.56 per cent of zinc, with 2.86 per cent of
copper. The outcrop which can be followed for some distance, is 14 inches
thick.
The other outcrop occurs at quite a short distance above the town of Art-
win on the Kuapta Mountain. Only surface work has been done On it, reveal-
ing the presence of a well-formed lode, about 4 feet thick, which was followed
over a length of 24 feet and continues, dipping northeast. The Ore from the
surface workings is rather complex and contains, besides the blende, also
galena and copper and iron pyrites. An average sample gave the following
results:
Per cent Per cent
Zinc 31.47 || Copper 3. 90
Lead 12, 16 || Cadmium 4.04
IrOn 10. 76 Sulphur 23. 78
Copper may predominate at lower depths, as it has happened in other mines
of this district. This seems all the more possible as the lower levels of the
Kuapta Mountain have indeed been worked for copper in ancient times, as the
old slag-heaps and traces of galleries show.
The tributary valleys on the east side of the Tchorokh also contain ores
of zinc and silver-lead, which, although not worked now, were at one time
famous. The best-known exploitation was at Badsghirethi, where silver was
extracted by the former Turkish rulers of the district, as already mentioned.
Farther east at Gumush-Khané, in the Zangesur district, at about 20 miles
from the railway running from Tiflis to Persia, there is a deposit of very rich
galena containing silver in which an English company had done a certain
* of preparatory work which promised well, but was stopped before
€ W&ll’.
The total output of argentiferous lead and zinc ores in Caucasia during
recent years was :
Tons Tons
1910 * 28, 865 1913 25, 517
1911 26,060 | 1914 13, 773
1912 28, 495
About 98 per cent of these ores were mined by the Alagir Co. To this com-
pany is also due the extraction of the following metals, which form the total
Of the Caucasion production :

1911 1912 1913 1914
g Tons Toms Toms Tons
Zinc--- 2, 249 2,907 2,902 2, 370
T.ead 1,099 1, 539 1,446 1,024
88 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Silver : Oz. Troy
1911 67, 240
1912 135,276
1913 127, 454
1914 — 71, 735
While producing these metals the Alagir Co. obtained at the same time as
by-products:
Tons
Sulphuric acid 6, 207
Nitric acid 70
EHydrochloric acid 280
Sulphate of iron 54
Sulphate of lead 356
The exploitation of some of the other zinc and lead mines in Caucasia would
be most desirable, as, besides the local and eastern markets, Russia, alone is
a large buyer of these metals, and imported, for instance, in 1913, 58,000 tons
Of lead and 26,000 tons of zinc. $
GOLD
The Caucasian Mountains, with their great tertiary movements and numer-
Ous intrusions of granitic, dioritic, and diabasic rocks might be expected to
contain also gold.
According to the old legends one would look for the precious metal in the
first instance in Georgia, as being the ancient Colchis where the Argonauts
came from far to collect the gold in the rivers by means of sheepskins placed
into them.
If we are to believe these tales, what must have happened there is Only what
has been repeated in many places since then ; there must have been a Slow
enrichment of placers from poor veins, and the placers, When discovered, were
quickly worked out. Nothing then remained, except the veins which are too
poor for us to work.
Traces of gold in the iron and copper pyrites of the zone have been mentioned
before, but their extraction would not pay and there is therefore no produc-
tion of the precious metal in the country at present.
Occurrences of free gold in veins are rare. One of them is known near
Tchkhandror, in Svanetia, Georgia, consisting of veins or pockets of corroded
quartz containing incrustations of small grains of gold. The sands from the
rivers in this neighborhood usually contain Some gold in flakes and Seem to
indicate the presence of other similar veins.
On the Akstafa River another quartz vein crops Out, about 14 inches thick
and running through porphyry. The quartz is spongy and contains native gold,
mixed with iron oxide and copper, and the river sands below it, as well as
those of the Djagirtchai and other affluents of the Akstafa River, Contain placer
gold in many places, but only from 1 to 8 grammes per ton—too little to be
Worked.
A similar slightly auriferous zone exists also in the northeastern Caucasus
on the river Malka, near Mosdolº. All along the banks Of this river there are
small outcrops of gold-bearing quartz to be found, but they assay Only about
0.3 grammes of gold per ton. The placers formed by them are generally cov-
ered by only a foot or two of alluvial, and are themselves up to about 2 yards
thick. They consist of greyish-yellow sand overlying a bed of blue Clay, below
which follows a second layer of gold-bearing sands, and finally porphyry. Un-
fortunately these placers are not sufficiently rich to pay for their Working, nor
are the quartz veins at their outcrops, but they have never been touched in
depth and might there give better results.
IMERCURY
Cinnabar exists only in two districts of the northern Caucasus, both situated
at high altitudes.
The first one contains the mines of Ganai-Vadz and Khpeker-Wadz, near Ku-
rush in southern Daghestan. These deposits have been known from ancient
times and were formerly worked, but their veins are poor and a regular ex-
ploitation has not been maintained in late years.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 89
The other occurrence of this mineral exists in the Kuban Province at Fikhot,
near Maikop, at an altitude of more than 9,000 feet. It is not worked, although
the owner of another similar mine is said to have acquired it with a view to
exploitation.
MOLYBDENTUM
Molybdenite is known to exist in three places in southern Caucasia.
In the Province of Erivan near the village of Bash-Abaran several quartzite
veins crop out on the bank of an affluent of the Bambak River. The country
rock is syenite, and the veins are partly decomposed and contain molybdenite,
besides iron and copper pyrites.
A somewhat similar occurrence exists near Novo-Bayazid, near Lake Gokteha.
On the Agarak-tehai in the Zangesur district a copper vein was formerly
worked lying at the contact between diorite and syenite ; it contains the usual
iron and copper pyrites, besides a fair percentage of molybdenite, which latter
was, however, thrown away as useless.
None of these deposits is worked now, although the more recent demand for
molybdenum in connection with the steel industry should now give them the
necessary Start.
COBALT AND NICKET,
There are several deposits of these metals, chiefly cobalt, in the Province of
Elizabetpol in the neighborhood of the Kedabek copper mines. The most im-
portant one lies at Dashkesan, and belongs, like the adjoining iron mines, to
Siemens BrOS.
The cobalt Ore forms irregular nests with epidote, garnet and hornblende in a
porphyritic rock, which incloses at the same time magnetic iron ore and occa-
sionally galena and zinc blende. The walls of these nests are themselves col-
ored by the cobaltime.
Analyses of the mineral gave the following results:
I II I II
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Cobalt------------------------ 17. 90 17. 55 || Iron-------------------------- 1. 44 9.85
Nickel------------------------ 0. 22 0.26 || Arsenic---- - - 35.97 31. 63
Copper----------------------- 0.21 ----------- Rock------------------------- 44. 26 40. 71
The Siemens works formerly extracted the cobalt from these Ores, and pro-
duced in 1887, 1 ton 7 hundredweight of ore; in 1888, 18 hundredweight; in
1889, 12 tons; in the last year they also produced about 2 tons 18 hundred-
weight of cobaltiferous copper matte.
In recent years the extraction has been almost stationary, amounting to
about 12 Or 15 tons per year.
ANTIMONY
Antimony Ores are not of frequent occurrence in Caucasia and the deposits
known—are not Worked ; all of them are found in the higher parts of the main
mountain chain in Georgia.
One occurs near the Gorbalo Mountains, northeast Of Tiflis, and shows two
veins of stibnite in clay schists, samples containing over 60 per cent of metallic
antimony. *
The same kind of ore exists also near the Kasbek Mountain, where it was
accidentally uncovered by a landslip Which happened some years ago. Samples
taken from it contained 68.66 per cent of metallic antimony, no arsenic, nor
lead, nor any gold. Small quantities of ore were then extracted by the peasant
owners of the land, but no proper working ever took place, and an examination
of the place by experts is certainly indicated.
The third deposit is known in Swanetia, near Outzeri, northwest of Kutais,
Georgia. The veins here also lie in clay schists, and were formerly worked
in a small way, but have now been idle for many years, probably on account
of the general low prices obtained for antimony Ores before the war.
Stibnite occurs also in the northern Caucasus, in the village Kholondoi,
near Grozny. Samples from there contained 61.6 per cent of metal, but fur-
ther details about the deposit are not available.
90 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
As the value of antimony ores has enormously risen and is likely to remain
at a high level in future, the exploitation of these mines could now be taken
up or restarted on a very profitable basis.
IRON PYRITES
Iron pyrites accompany almost all the other metalliferous deposits of Cau-
casia and are specially found in connection with the Sulphides of COpper and
zinc, where they are not desired.
The large copper works, like Alaverdi, Kedabeg, and the Tchorokh estab-
lishments, have installations for separating them from the copper Ores during
the concentration process. Between 3,000 and 4,000 tons of Sulphur Ores were
thus saved per year by the two former concerns and sent to the Sulphuric acid
factories in Baku. But in most other cases the sulphur contents of the sulphide
Ores are lost, as they are roasted in heaps in the Open.
The occurrence of iron pyrites in connection with chalcopyrite at Djiraki-
DSOr has already been mentioned with the copper mines.
A somewhat similar and probably the largest deposit of pure iron pyrites
suitable for the regular manufacture of Sulphuric acid exists at Tanzout, about
6 miles from the station Karaklis of the Tiflis-Kars Railway.
The ore body crops out on the side of a hill on a length of about 500 yards
and a height Of 80 yards above the Water level of the Creek. This enormous
outcrop is formed of distinctly separated horizontal beds varying in thickness
between 5 and 20 yards, but without the intercalation of any other mineral or
foreign element. The only impurity to be found here and there between the
surface beds are slight streaks of kaolin, produced by the alteration of the
porphyry in contact with the pyrites.
The depth to which this enormous stock may advance into the hill has not
been ascertained ; a trial gallery of 20 yards driven across it did not reach the
back wall. Taking this distance as its average thickness, the deposit represents
a quantity of two and a half million tons of ore, but in view of the enormous
Other dimensions the total thickness is probably many times more than the
length Of this Small gallery.
The Ore consists of Very Small grains or crystals of iron pyrites, cemented
together by serpentinous material, and does not present the brilliant appear-
ance of the Spanish Ore consisting of larger crystals. Without selection it
contains from 39 to 40 per cent of sulphur, but it is easy to bring the average
Of cargoes up to 45 per cent and more by throwing out the streaks of kaolin
Or Of less mineralized serpentine which occur at certain distances.
Samples analyzed at Tiflis give the following results:
Per Cent Per cent
Sulphur 46. 334 Magnesia , 012
IrOn 40. 530 Silica 11. 441
Copper . 028 || Arsenic . 0186
Cobalt . 017 | Gold Trace.
Nickel . 014 || Moisture 1. 405
Zinc . 007 *mºsºmº
Lead . 015 99. 9166
Lime . 095 || |
As the Ore is practically everywhere uncovered, except in a few places where
there is an Overburden of 13 feet 6 inches, it can be quarried and loaded
directly into carts. When fresh from the mine it forms compact lumps, but
after being exposed to the atmosphere for some time it becomes very friable
and falls into sand-like grains. This is an advantage as pyrites have usually
to be pulverized for burning ; also this ore does not explode when fired.
This deposit has been worked for several years, the whole of its production
going to Baku, Where there are several factories producing together about
25,000 tons of sulphuric acid, mostly used in the refining of petroleum.
In spite of its position near the railway and cheap extraction the ore has
not yet been able to compete with Spanish and Scandinavian pyrites on the
western markets on account of high freights, but it can keep its own in south-
eastern Europe.
While the stock of iron pyrites is practically free from other metals, the
porphyrite in contact with it is impregnated with chalcopyrite and zinc blende
which are visible at the outcrops, covered with iron oxide, partly in the form
of red Ochre. Compact lodes of Copper Ore have also been discovered in the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 91
porphyrite; one of them between 20 and 24 inches wide has been followed by a
Small gallery and leads toward the center of the hill, which undoubtedly con-
tains copper. This is the more certain as the opposite side of the hill was
formerly worked as a copper mine and is still called “Miskhana,” meaning
“copper works" in Tartar language. Anatolian Greeks worked there until
driven away by the invasion of Agha Mahomed Khan, Shah of Persia, in 1795.
A number of old Asiatic smelting furnaces have been found there, besides
extensive old workings and many veins of chalcopyrite which in time may
again become interesting.
In the south of the same Province of Erivan iron pyrites have also sporadi-
cally been extracted in the Nakhitchewan district, but no regular exploitation
can be recorded.
Iron pyrites occur also in many places in Georgia, especially in the Rion
Valley leading toward the main chain. About 3 miles above Kutais large
beds of bituminous shale begin and are visible Over considerable distances
along the river and in places up to 150 feet thick. In numberless spots they
show streaks and thick Outcrops of pyrites in large crystals forming compact
masses. They are especially numerous and powerful at Ossunella, about 10
miles from Kutais, where the ore could be mined in large blocks, as there are
loeds of it cropping out with a thickness of 7 feet and more, and composed of
practically pure crystals.
A similar occurrence exists again higher up in the valley about 14 miles
from Kutais and quite near the road leading toward Svanitia (Georgia).
Samples from these places contained 50 to 51 per cent of Sulphur and 41 per
Cent of iron.
In fact, this mineral, partly mixed with chalcopyrite, may be found in all
the mountain spurs descending from the central Caucasus. In the lower part
Of the Kasbek Mountain large deposits are known of exceptionally fine
Crystallization, and the boys sell large specimen crystals to the travelers On
the Georgian military road.
All this richness is so far unexploited, even scarcely known. However,
the deposits in this district might probably be made available for the western
consumption, as they are within easy reach of the Transcaucasian Railway
and the Black Sea ports.
The total production of iron pyrites in Caucasia was in—
Tons
1910 4, 909
1911 6, 428
1912 14, 988
1913 7,654
1914 8,066
Besides the iron pyrites there is also a deposit of realgar and arsenical
pyrites known and being worked. It is situated at Serni, in the Kagisman
district near Kars, and during 1913 and 1914 the extraction amounted to
respectively 80 and 50 tons.
PART II. NON METALS
COAL
Coal, which forms the lifeblood of most industries, is unfortunately almost
absent in Caucasia." It may be said that in its stead the country possesses its
enormous riches in naphtha, which may be used as fuel, and an abundance of
water power or “white coal,” to be utilized for power purposes, but still,
Specially for metallurgical purposes, coal or coke are required and must be
imported. ” º
The imports, which in former years came mostly from Great Britain, con-
sist now exclusively in coal from the Donetz Basin, which is of good quality,
and, besides, protected by an import duty of 7s. 6d. per ton.
The former foreign imports dwindled away, as the following figures show :
Tons
1891------ 2, 381
1893 1, 208
1894–----- 1, 185
1. After this book was published, several large coal beds were discovered in Georgia.
92 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Tons
1895 - 480
1890------------------------------------ 556
1897––––––––––––– * * * 659
3898----------------------------- - 802
1899 * * 880
1900---------------- - * *- * * *m sm. 55
1903 - - - - - - 50
The only deposit of coal worked in Caucasia occurs at Tkvibul (Georgia),
about 25 miles from Kutais, with which town the collieries are connected by
a railway built by the Government. The thickness of the coal seams varies
between 1 and 5 feet, and their total thickness amounts in places to as much as
, 30 feet; they are worked by a dits driven into the mountainside. #
The quality of the coal is inferior, it crumbles on exposure to the air, so
that it can not be transported without being briquetted. In this shape it is
used locally for domestic purposes, but is useless for steam raising. On
account of these difficulties the exploitation has never been prosperous and has
even been shut down at times, until the Government advanced the enterprise
about £30,000 in order to improve the working plant and to erect the patent
fuel factory. Nevertheless, these collieries are quite insufficient for supplying
the needs of Georgia alone, and several times there has been great scarcity of
coal, with exorbitant prices, when the supply from the Don district was inter-
rupted by ice in the Sea of Azoff.
The output of Tkvibul during recent years was the following:
Tons
1911 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 63, 932
1912 - ___ 66, 647
1913 --------------------------------------------------------------- 67, 627
1914 62, 827
1915 - - - 56, 252
Another deposit Of coal which has attracted SOme attention occurs at
TKvartcheli (Georgia), about 30 miles from the open bay of Otchemtchiri
on the Black Sea. It is said to extend over a rather large area, something
like 20 square miles, and to contain an enormous quantity of coal, as the prin-
cipal seam which has been opened up is 14 feet thick. The quality is very
good, according to an English expert equal to MOnlmouthshire black band,
giving from 68 to 70 per cent of coke, and containing only 0.90 per cent of
sulphur. The deposits are situated in a mountainous district and not very
accessible, but the railway which was built from Novo Senaki, on the Poti-
Tiflis line, to Sukhum, on the Black Sea, was expected to help in Overcoming
this difficulty. An exploitation company was then formed some years ago, but
So far no resultS are to be recorded.
Two more deposits may be mentioned in the Black Sea district of Georgia,
One at Khartala, in the neighborhood of Poti, and the Other near Sukhum.
The product of both has more the character of lignite, and at the latter place
it lies in very thin seams separated by clay, and contains about 30 per cent of
ashes ; about 100 tons of it have lately been extracted per year and used on
the Spot.
At Motzamethi (Georgia), near the Tkvibul collieries, there is another occur-
rence of similar low-grade coal. Four Seams crop out in jurassic sandstone, but
their total thickness is not more than 4 feet. The coal is very friable and Con-
tains 25 per cent of ashes and 1 per cent of sulphur, and is only sporadically
WOrked.
In the southwestern part of Georgia coal has so far been discovered in One
place Only, namely, at Olti, near the Turkish frontier. It is said to be of very
rich quality, somewhat like Welsh coal, but there are no efficient means of com-
munications in those mountains, although the distance to Batum is only about
100 miles. Investigations were made during 1913 and 1914, and the small
quantities of coal extracted seem to justify the high hopes entertained about
this occurrence.
In the northern CaucasuS in the Kuban district Coal is also found at
Georgievsk and at Khumarinsk, and between 1,000 and 2,000 tons are extracted
in these two places per year for local use ; Small quantities also occur near
Vladicaucase and at Naltchik, samples from the latter place giving 56 per cent
of coke, with 1.08 per cent of sulphur.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 93
PETROLEUM
(By far the most important oil fields are those of Baku, which have been
fully described in my paper, “The Caucasian petroleum industry and its im-
portance for eastern Europe and Asia.”)
Besides Baku, Caucasia contains yet several other oil fields which, While
having smaller outputs, are still of great importance. All of them lie in the
belt formed by the slopes of the main Caucasian chain to the north as well as to
the south, while no Sources of oil are known in the farther districts and in the
Lesser Caucasus. *
The principal field after Baku occurs at Grozny, in northern Caucasia, about
40 miles from the Crest of the main chain and 50 miles from the Caspian Sea.
It is connected by railway with Vladicaucase in the west, and in the east with
Derbent on the Caspian Sea, to which port also a pipe line has been laid.
Outflows of naphtha were known in this district from antiquity, but the oil
was only used for greasing cart wheels. The first exploitation was started in
1855 by a Greek, Tchikaloff, who paid a yearly rent of about £1,250 and pro-
duced about 800 tons Of Oil per annum, which production gradually increased
and reached 7,500 tons in 1891. In that year a Tartar barrister formed a com-
pany with Belgian capital under the name J. Akhverdoff & Co., and rented
plots from the Cossak military administration, paying a rental of about £7 per
acre and a royalty of 1s. 4d. per ton up to 30,000 tons and 8d. per ton of excess.
In 1896 there was a public auction of oil lands and other firms also entered the
field. Leases were granted for 24 years at a rental of about £6 per acre, but
the royalty rose to 7s. 4d. per ton, and in 1899 even to 8s. 10d. per ton.
Nevertheless, the industry increased rapidly, and while Akhverdoff’s company
still produces between 40 and 50 per cent of the total output of the field, other
companies have also come into prominence lately, notably those connected
with Colonel Tchermoeff, the President of the Daghestan–Terek Mahomedan
Republic. His estate, situated at 5 miles distance from Grozny, has been
found to be a very successful field of production.
In the beginning of 1914 there were 15 firms engaged in the exploitation,
working 107 plots of a total area of 2,860 acres. They had 278 boreholes, the
deepest of which reached the enormous depth of 4,290 feet.
This is, in fact, the drawback of this field that boring has to be carried to
great depths, but on the other hand the chemical composition of the oil
Obtained from it is more advantageous than in Baku, as it contains more Of
the valuable benzene and is easy to distil. About 20 per cent of the production
is used for fuel On the spot, the Vladicaucase Railway Co. being the largest
Consumer, using the mazout in its engines. This Company also possesses the
largest refinery in the field, able to treat 2,000 tons of naphtha per day.
Nobel Bros. have erected another large establishment of a capacity of about
80,000 tons per annum. The lighting oil produced is mostly used in Russia,
while the benzene is exported via Novorossisk.
The oil belt of which Grozny forms the center extends for a rather consid-
erable distance, principally westward, and borings have also been started at
Tchir-Urt, Belik Tehermoeff, and Sundja, about 25 miles west, and Novi Aldi,
and Vossnessensk, about 50 miles northwest of Grozny, mostly with Satisfactory
results, while some of the Operators had not reached oil yet ; but soon after
the outbreak of the war the work had to be stopped everywhere. The condi-
tions Of the leases in these new places are more liberal than at Grozny.
The Second oil zone north of the Caucasian chain occurs near its Western
end, drawing eastward from the Taman Peninsula Over a distance of about
120 miles in the Kuban Province.
Small flows of naphtha were known in many places, specially along the
rivers, and borings were therefore tried in 1886 near the river Gudako, where
a fountain was struck at a depth of 183 feet only, producing about 10,000 to
13,000 gallons of naphtha per day. But it soon subsided again, and nothing
further was done until about 10 years ago, when fresh borings were started
at Maikop, near the Byelaya River. They resulted in 1909 in the sudden out-
burst of a fountain throwing out about 50,000 tons of oil during the first
fortnight, so that the whole district was flooded with it and great damage
done. Only after two months’ work was it possible to close the fountain down.
This unexpected event caused great excitement; speculators rushed to the
spot from all parts, and between 1910 and 1912 about 30,000 claims were taken
up from Cossak administration, and in London alone over 30 companies were
formed to work Maikop oil.
94 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Unfortunately the results of the later boring did not confirm these great ex-
pectations, and the present output is a poor remuneration for the great amount
of money spent on the field and also on two pipe lines hurriedly laid to the
port of Tuapse on the Black Sea.
The area under boring is 60 square miles and the number of bore holes was:
Yards
In 1910, 38 bore holes, with a total depth of 2, 042
In 1911, 80 bore holes, with a total depth of 10, 246
In 1912, 195 bore holes, with a total depth of 38, 539
In 1913, 331 bore holes, with a total depth of 65, 355
Anyhow, boring to greater depths, as it is proposed, may yet bring prosperity
to this field.
Several other oil fields have been opened up in the Kuban Province, appar-
ently with better success.
One of them lies at Souvorov-Tcherkess, Temriuk District, about 10 miles
from the Black Sea port of Anapa. Three wells had been bored there, two to
producing depths, when the war stopped further operations.
Another occurs near Krimskaya Station, about 30 miles from Novorossisk,
where two British companies are operating and have proved three distinct Oil-
bearing horizons. There were four wells producing and others in boring at
the Outbreak of the War.
Similar borings with good prospects had also been started near Kapustina
Balka in the same ZOne.
Naplitha also occurs in Daghestan, near the Caspian Sea, where Small quan-
tities had been extracted for local purposes in various places. Before the War
some of the powerful Baku firms started boring at the village of Berekei, only
4 miles from the seashore. The results were excellent, as several fountains
began to flow from comparatively shallow depths, producing oil of the highest
quality, which contains more kerosene than the Baku product. This field will
probably justify the high expectations placed upon it.
On the south side of the main Caucasus chain there are also indications of
naphtha in many places, in several of which borings have been begun, but the
producing stage has nowhere been reached yet.
Such outflows, which indicate a possible oil field, exist near the Station
Gheran, on the Tiflis-Baku line, in the Province of Elizabetpol. Besides the
small wells dug by the inhabitants for obtaining oil for their own uses, no Work
has been done On them.
In Kakhetia (Georgia), east of Tiflis, a low chain of mountains rises between
the Alazan and Iora Rivers, parallel with the main ridge, and consisting of
slate and schists, with sandstone in depth. In these hills naphtha OOZes Out
in a great number of places, and was also formerly obtained by the inhabitants
from hand-dug wells. The attention of foreign operators was attracted to this
field only when the Kakhetian Railway, which runs along three sides of this
mountain spur, was built.
To Wells were then begun there near Chatma by a British company, but
during the Tartar-Armenian riots they were destroyed, and work remained in
abeyance until 1916, when boring was taken up again and pushed to 660 feet,
where the Oil Was met. *
Another British company has taken up oil lands in Ildokani, in the same
neighborhood. Two wells were sunk, and oil was struck shortly before the out-
break of the war, when, however, further operations had to be stopped.
In both these places boring is easy, as there are no floating sands nor
any influx of water, and the naphtha is very pure and light; specific gravity,
0.850. The borings are at about 4,380 feet above the sea, and boring and
pumping are done on the American system, which is cheaper than that which
must be used in Baku. This field seems, therefore, to have all the elements of
success when normal circumstances are restored in the country.
Further west in Georgia we meet another interesting occurrence of naphtha
on the Khanis-Tzkali River, south of Kutais. The outflows have always been
known, as they partly occur in the middle of the river, but they were clearly
confirmed over a considerable distance in the course of some public works
executed a few years ago.
The shores of the river Consist Of thick beds of sand and Eocene Sandstones
which in the place where the naphtha breaks out most abundantly, are bent
into the shape of an arch. This anticlinal formation of the beds in the Eocene
proves, as in other fields, the presence of naphtha deposits, and the outflows
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOBGIA 95
-**
are caused by the pressure of water filtering through from the surface and
displacing the oil upwards. The sandstone which, as it is Visible in the lower
parts of the valley, consists of several beds of varying composition divided
by beds of sand, is quite impregnated with naphtha, as Well as the Sands.
The naphtha in its natural state has a brown color with olive-green reflec-
tion and is very fluid. By distillation it gives a high percentage of light oils,
benezene, petrol, and kerosene; it does not contain any paraffin nor any acids,
and would, therefore, be a highly valuable material.
For all these reasons it seems highly desirable that this place should be
thoroughly tested; it is easily accessible and not far from the railway.
Another interesting oil field, which has not yet reached the producing stage,
occurs near Ozurgethi, in Gouria (Georgia), about 25 miles from Batum, and
only 5 miles from the Black Sea. g
Naphtha is here found superficially in gray Sands and marls of the Sarmatian
formation which occupies the central and western parts of the field and is
partly covered by the Miocene in the south. The eastern part is formed by
the upper Eosene, while the northeast alone shows crystalline rocks.
The district is hilly and extends from west to east between the Soupsa and
Sepa Rivers; the heights reached in the west toward the Sea are not consider-
able, but in the east the mountains increase Sensibly and are covered With
forests and bushes. The abundant rains in this zone have cut many ravines
between the hills, and the naphtha appears in many places on the banks of
these streams, oozing out from gray clay and marl Schists or from dark-gray
soft Sandstones.
Although the outflows of oil had been known for a long time, boring Was
begun only in 1911 by a Baku firm, and at a depth of 63 feet oil was struck.
This event gave a great impetus to the field, and several British and other
companies were formed to take up plots in the most promising places. Drilling
was started on three spots during 1913, but the war interrupted the Work
before any results were obtained. The exceptionally favorable position of
these fields in the neighborhood of the Black Sea makes them Specially inter-
esting, and the work in them will undoubtedly be continued as SOOn as circum-
Stances permit.
The following table gives the comparative outputs of crude naphtha in the
principal Caucasian fields:

1911 1912 1913 1914
Toms Toms Toms Toms
Baku--------------------------------------------------- 7,471,017 | 7,770, 844 7,482,318 6,921, 878
Grozny* * * * * * - 1, 214,011 1,041,485 1, 186, 775 1, 587,824
Maikop------------------------------------------------ 126,407 149, 207 85,238 71, 154
Daghestan--------------------------------------------- 593 560 614 1, 225
Elizabetpol--------------------------------------------- i 206 279 173 75
Tiflis--------------------------------------------------- * * * * * * * * * * * * 700 724 581
l
ASPEHALT
Asphalt, or bitumen, occurs in many places in Georgia, as it usually accom-
panies the outflows of naphtha, with the formation of which it is closely con-
nected, forming nests or impregnating the tertiary formations which were men-
tioned in connection with petroleum.
There is an important zone of asphaltic outflows in the district of Notanebi,
in the neighborhood of the Gouria oil borings, where these hydrocarbons exist
in different modifications in the fluid, Semifluid, and solid state.
In Several places enormous beds or alluvial sands are permeated and agglom-
erated by a somewhat fluid asphalt, the composition being from 13 to 18 per
cent of asphalt, COmbined with about 80 per cent of sand. It seems at first
sight to be a natural road material, but, unfortunately, can not be hardened
sufficiently for that purpose by heat without destroying its binding qualities.
However, the asphalt contained in it could easily be extracted by boiling the
material in water, when the sand falls to the bottom while the asphalt floats,
and is then, according to the experiments of a specialist, equal to the best
Syrian bitumen.
The same neighborhood contains two other bituminous materials, one being
the mineral called gilsonite, resembling anthracite, or jet, but very light, being
96153—26—7
96 NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA
in fact natural hardened petroleum, and containing 84.66 per cent of carbon.
It is found in numerous veins up to more than 1 foot thick, and in nests, but
it has only sporadically been exploited, although it is a valuable product for
making black warnish. *
The other material is visibly of the same family as the gilsonite, but in a
Semifluid condition, and of such tenacious nature that it can be drawn out in
threads many yards in length. In this condition the material would also be
useful for varnishes, but the difficulty of handling it makes it commercially
impossible.
The mountains along the Goakwara River, which falls into the Black Sea
near Gagri, Ga., are formed of enormous beds of limestone, the lower ones of
which are also impregnated with bitumen.
The bitumenous outcrops are visible along the Valley over a distance of about
2 miles, and, although not continuous, reach everywhere to the same height, and
therefore seem to derive their impregnation from a common source or reservoir
inside of the mountains. Samples contained from 15 to 20 per cent of bitumen,
but were found too hard for grinding and using as paving material. They had,
however, been taken from pieces lying in the Open, and probably do not repre-
sent the rock to be found in the interior of the mountain ; and in View of the
excellent position of the deposition near the Seashore it should certainly be
fully examined. -
Bitumen in the state of a heavy liquid Oozes Out in Several places from these
outcrops and has been found to contain ichthyol, a most valuable oil used medi-
cally against rheumatism, etc. An analysis of the liquid bitumen, made in
Petrograd, gave the following result:
Per cent
Hydrogenous matter containing ichthyol 20.34
Hydrogenous matter not containing ichthyol 52. 80
Water 21. 50
Sulphur * 2. 50
Lime--------------- 1. 87
Alumina * * 0.96
99.97
This oil could probably also be extracted from the impregnated limestone, as it
is distilled out of some shale in the only other place where it is known to occur,
in Seefeld, in the Austrian Tyrol. In view of its great value and scarcity (the
Austrian company sells it as a monopoly), it should be an additional incentive
to test this whole deposit, in which, according to the experts, the presence of
naphtha is also probable. t
The only district where asphalt is really being extracted for paving purposes,
although in small quantities, is that of Signakh, in Georgia, where now also
borings for oil are being made. The exploitations exist at Murzani, Kodurnia,
Eldar, and near Chatma, and the products are used locally and in the neigh-
boring Tiflis, while otherwise all the asphalt employed for public works is
brought from other districts.
NATURAL GAS
This product, which, like asphalt, is usually also connected with petroliferous
districts, is of much rarer occurrence in Caucasia than in the American and
Canadian oil fields.
While there are more or less important escapes of gas from every borehole,
specially in their initial stages of production, natural gas without petroleum
has so far been struck Only in some places in northern Caucasia, Specially at
Stavropol. In 1909, during boring operations for water in the center of the
town, gas was discovered at a depth of 196 yards; it was found to be a natural
hydrocarbon, fit for all heating and lighting purposes, as it breaks out in many
places in the United States and Canada. Other boreholes were therefore made,
and the flows of gas connected with the existing canalization, with such good
Success that all firing and lighting in the whole town has since then been done
with the aid of this gas, dispensing entirely with Coal and other fuels.
As the natural gas is mostly an indication of the presence of anaphtha in
depth, a company was formed in 1912 for trying to reach the latter.
It was estimated that this might be possible at a depth of about 700 yards, and
in 1913 638 yards had been bored and the familiar signs of the presence of
naphtha were observed when the war stopped the completion of the trials.
\ºº! 9† 8'9|| uo|| e^9|E.
YA EESWYA -JO E 9 WT7||A

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 97.
In the district of Labinsky in the same neighborhood another Company
was formed before the war for boring for gas and oil and acquired full rights
from the Cossack village for five years for the sum of about £32,000, but no
results have been arrived at yet.
At Grozny natural gas from the oil wells is now also used to a certain extent-
SULPHUR
The most important deposit of native sulphur known in Caucasia occurs in
the Province of Erivan, about 30 miles from the railway line running to Persia.
It is comparatively easy of access, the greater part of the road from the rail-
way passing through a well-cultivated plain, whence the mountains rise
gradually. ſº
The deposit has been opened up only superficially, and beds of Sulphur have
been disclosed in two adjacent creeks through Which Small rivers have cut
rather deep winding courses. The sulphur occurs either in the shape of crystals
in beds of gypsum or as amorphous masses in metamorphic limestone. Many
of the crystals are well developed, almost transparent, and up to 1 inch long,
while the amorphous minerals permeate the cavities and pores Of the lime-
Stone. The deposits are confined to the more recent Sedimentary Strata and
are specially associated with the gypsum and marls of the Saliferous deposits
and with similar rocks of the Tertiary period.
In the first valley there is an outcrop only about 100 yards from the main
road and showing on both sides of the creek; it dips vertically and forms
a bed of 8 feet in thickness, carrying 40 per cent of Sulphur." At a short
distance up the valley another outcrop is seen, 2 feet width of practically
pure sulphur. Further up in the valley three more outcrops occur, of Widths
ranging between 2 feet and 5 feet; they contain about 40 per cent Sulphur,
except the last One, which seems very rich indeed, as clean Sulphur Was
exposed on opening up the outcrops. Altogether in this valley there are five
distinct outcrops, all of good workable width, with the same strike and dip,
and carrying values from 40 per cent upwards.
In the second valley we have at the bottom a very fine outcrop which strikes
into the mountain with a width of over 10 feet, and carries over its whole
width a value of at least 65 per cent of sulphur. Higher up in the valley
there are two more outcrops, 2 feet and 5 feet wide, respectively, and contain-
ing from 35 to 40 per cent of sulphur. East of them, in a deep cutting, there
occurs what is probably the richest deposit of all. It has a width of 8 feet and
contains pure sulphur over its whole width; on being uncovered it even im-
proved. It strikes into the mountain, and from its appearance should give
a very large output. Within 100 feet from it there are two more outcrops of
good Workable widths and carrying high values.
As all these outcrops have been examined only superficially, it is impossible
to calculate their total contents with any degree of certitude, but from what
has been ascertained so far about 800,000 tons of Sulphur are assured at the
surface. The total is undoubtedly very much higher, and other beds will
probably also be found yet.
These deposits are undoubtedly much richer than those of Sicily, where
Ore With as little as 25 per cent of Sulphur is being extracted under great
difficulties. A sulphur refinery established in connection with them could
therefore easily compete with Sicily and produce all the different qualities of
refined Sulphur which are now being imported in southeastern Europe and
TransCaspia. The quantities received in the ports of Batum and Tuapse alone
amount to about 5,000 tons of raw brimstone per year, and to about double
that quantity of refined sulphur, mostly in the shape of flowers of Sulphur
used in the vineyards of Georgia. The raw brimstone is required for the
manufacture of pure sulphuric acid, as the product obtained from iron pyrites,
although cheaper, is unsuitable for many purposes of the chemical industry
on account of its usual tenour of arsenic.
The use of refined mine sulphur will, therefore, increase with the expansion
of the chemical industry, and specially the manufacture of wood pulp by
the Sulphite process, which was projected in the country before the war.
Sulphur also exists in Daghestan, in the Samur district, but it is difficult
of access; and the same may also be said of the deposits known in the Askhabad
district of the Transcaspian territory, which are situated far from any means
of transport.
98 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
SALT
Salt is produced, mostly under government administration, as rock salt, and
also as Sea Salt on the Azoff and Caspian Seas.
The production was as follows in 1909:
ROCk Salt : * Tons:
Kulpa mines, Province of Erivan 12, 350
Nakhitchewan mines, Province of Erivan 3, 322
Kagisman mines, Province of Kars 4, 425.
Olti mines, Province of Kars 436
Sea Salt :
Baku Province 11, 123
Stavropol Province e 1, 024
Daghestan and Terek Provinces 304
TOtal___ 32, 984
The total production from these sources in recent years amount to—
Tons
I911 - * * * 37, 830
1912 34, 980
I913 23, 484
1914 - * *- 27, 497
Glaubersalt, Sulphate of Soda, is extracted from the lakes in the Batalpa-
Shinsk district in northern Caucasia. In 1911 about 800 tons were produced,
and used by the glass Works near the Station Mineralnaia VOda.
This mineral also occurs near Mukhravani, in Georgia, but is not worked.
PORTLAND CEMENT
The Caucasian cement factories are mostly situated on the Black Sea Shore
near Novorossisk, where inexhaustible quantities of Suitable limestones are
available in the mountains bordering immedaitely on the sea, while the latter
affords every facility for transport.
The first factory was built in 1890, and in 1896 a Franco-Russian company
erected another at Guelendjik, soon to be followed by a third, the three having
a total producing capacity of about 300,000 tons per year. These three com-
panies held the field until 1912 when the Black Sea Kuban Cement Co.
“Beton ’’ erected a factory near the Station Donelny, on the north side Of the
mountain chain, where soon afterwards yet several others were being laid
down. At the outbreak of the war there were therefore nine factories working,
or in working order, 4 on the Black Sea shore, and 5 inland in the Kuban
district.
The latter factories also have at their disposal huge deposits of cement
stone of Superior quality: its formation and composition is quite regular with
scarcely any undesirable ingredients, which makes the extraction and calcina-
tion easy.
The analysis of this raw material shows it to be similar to that used for the
manufacture of the celebrated hydraulic cement of Le Theil, near Marseille,
which was used for the construction of the Suez Canal and for a great number
of hydraulic works in the Mediterranean, as it resists the action of sea water.
All these advantages, Combined with cheap transport, make it therefore prob-
able that this part of the Caucasus will become the most important center of
the cement industry for the whole Of the Black Sea and TranScaspian districts.
In the northeastern part of Caucasian, near Naltchi, the manufacture of
cement would also be possible, as the raw materials are also available in the
shpe of marl and of clay of the requisite compositions.
REFRACTORY AND BUILDING MATECIALS
Fireclay is found in many places in Georgia, and is worked into refractory
bricks, specially near Shrosha, in the Province of Kutais, where a company of
the same name has been established for some time. It produced, in 1914,
954 tons of fire bricks, and two other Small concerns working at Tseva in the
same zone manufactured in the Same year 291 tons.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 99.
As one of the largest consumers of fire bricks in its smelters the Société
Industrielle et Métallurgique also has a plant for making them near Alaverdi,
and produced :

|
Če 1911 1912 1913 1914
|
* Toms Tons Toms Tons
Fire bricks----------------------------------------------------- 1,817 1,938 2,305 1,655,
Silica bricks---------------------------------------------------- 4,781 8,064 805 2, 382:
Siemens Bros. also made their own fire-bricks at Kedabeck in considerable
Quantities.
Nevertheless, there is still a certain amount of fire clay and of finished
fireproof articles imported every year for special purposes.
ONYX MARBLE
Caucasia, which contains So many metalliferous minerals, can also Supply
this rare marble which is of purely ornamental use.
It is a pure carbonate of lime which was slowly deposited from hot or acid
springs containing lime in solution. Such springs, saturated with carbonic
acid from the depths of the earth, are most frequent in the southern parts
of the country, and, the deposits of Onyx marble occur in the same Zone.
The most important one of them lies near the village of Djardji, about
10 miles north Of the Station Bash-Kadiklar On the Tiflis-Kars Railway.
It forms the bottom of a dry Creek and can be worked as an Open quarry,
containing apparently about 80,000 cubic meters of material. The stone itself
is transparent, with wavy lines or bands of all shades of gray, green, blue,
pink, and brown, producing very pretty effects. Blocks can be extracted up
to 5 feet in length and 3 feet wide; large slabs are used for mural decoration,
Smaller ones are cut up for clock cases, paper weights, etc., but there is no
work done in the quarry at present.
Another deposit of onyx marble is found in the same district south of
Erivan, in the village Agbash, on a spur descending from Mount Ararat.
Here the stone is not banded, but of a more uniform bluish or whitish
color, and large blocks are rare.
A similar stone exists in the Potzkhoff district near Akhaltezik, in Georgia.
The quarry is now covered by a landslip, but it was formerly worked by the
Turks, and the former mosque of Akhaltzik is paved with slabs extracted
from it.
The Smaller stones and chips have also been used in Georgia by the manu-
facturers of carbonic acid and mineral waters, for the production of carbonic
acid gas, as the material is absolutely pure, and for this purpose the stone is
usually ground.
INFU SORIAL EARTH
Infusorial, or diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, is being worked in two
places in Georgia, namely, on the Suram Mountain, near the town of the same
name, and at Kissatib, about 6 miles south of Akhaltzik.
The Kissatib deposit crops out on three sides of a mountain spur descending
from a high peak, in one part as a long white band on the steep side of a sand-
stone cliff. The beds are horizontal, and the principal one has a length of
about 1,100 yards and an ascertained width of 770 yards, which probably
extends farther into the mountain. The depth is not known yet, as in the cen-
tral workings, which are all in Open cast, the bottom has not been reached at
90 feet.
A curious feature of this deposit is that while it was formed at the bottom
of a lake it is now situated about 440 yards above the valley, overlaid and
protected by a huge bed of green sandstone. The whole region has been dis-
turbed by volcanic eruptions, and the bottom of the lake was formed by a flow
of porous lava which, where accessible, is about 30 feet thick and reposes itself
on gray basalt. The infusorial earth is then covered by a bed of Standstone of
a thickness of from 50 to 100 yards, on top of which there are again several
smaller layers of infusorial earth, the whole being covered by tertiary alluvium.
100 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The infusorial earth found in these upper beds forms a quite unique material,
being intersected by bands of gray and brownish colors formed by clay and
ferruginous impurities and giving it a very pretty appearance. * ,
But the principal bed below the sandstone is of a pure white color and con-
sists of almost pure silica, with not more than from 2 to 4 per cent of impuri-
ties, mostly alumina and lime, iron oxide being less than 1 per cent. This
purity is undoubtedly due to the protection of the overlying sandstone, which
at the same time has also had the effect of compressing the naturally soft and
light deposit. The specific gravity of the material is therefore about 0.65,
while that of the earth from the Scotch and Norwegian deposits, which lie on
the Surface or in water, is usually about 0.3 to 0.4.
The general lightness of this earth is connected with its production, as it
consists of the siliceous shells of minute diatoms living in the water, which
under the microscope reveal the most wonderful shapes and ornamentations; .
remains of fossilized fishes are also sometimes found between them. j
On account of its unusual compactness the Kissatib earth can be quarried
in large blocks and sawed up into brick-shaped pieces, but the greater part
of it is delivered in lumps and powder. At present it is principally used for
insulating purposes in steam and heating installations, either powdered and
applied like mortar or in the shape of the above-mentioned bricks, most of it
going to Baku for such purposes. The export to other parts and to western
Europe, where the purity of the material would make it useful also in the
chemical and other industries, can only be undertaken when the railway to
Akhaltzik has been built.
The exploitation, in which a Dutch company was at one time interested, is
now Carried On in a small way by the original owners, but will without doubt
expand when better means of transport are available.
The whole production of the two mines is used in Caucasia, and amounted to :
Tons
1911___ * 590
1912---------------- 839
1918---------------------------------------------------------- 411
1914----------------------------------- 387
BARYTA
The natural barium sulphate or heavy spar occurs in many places in Georgia,
Specially in the Province of Kutais, where the veins or beds of the mineral
accompany basalts traversing the diorites. Such deposits are known at Lek-
verethi, near Kutais, at Puti, in the Sharopan district, and at Ontcheishi,
Ossuneli, Dertohi, Bani, Mekhveni, Gabiethi, and Tchashlethi, in the Letch-
khum district. Small exploitations exist in all these places, whose combined
Outputs during recent years were as follows: tº
Tons
1910_ 1, 763
1911_. 1, 255
1912__ 1, 229
1913___ 1, 824
1914. 890
Only one grinding mill exists in the neighborhood for reducing the mineral
to powder suitable for paint manufacturers; it is situated at Shanethi and
had the following productions:
TOns
1910 . 742
1911_. * 863
1912 779
1913. 782
1914 571
All this material was used locally, but as the mineral is everyWhere quite
white and pure and available in huge quantities, these exploitations could
advantageously be very much extended. Up-to-date grinding machinery is the
only requirement for producing the powder also for the western markets at
mpetitive price. - g
8. §. jº. Baryta are also known at Buskhana, Dashalti, and Tchoydar
in the Province of Elizabetpol, but no work whatever has been done on them.
&
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 101
ASBESTOS
Asbestos occurs in several places in Transcaucasia, principally at Wshinevi
in the Sharopan district of Georgia, where small quantities are being extracted.
The mineral is there found in veins which cross the talcose schists forming
the steep banks of the Bshineula River and crops out in various places at about
400 to 500 yards above the water. The veins are from 1 to 3 inches wide,
and as the asbestos fibers are disposed transversly across them, their length
usually varies between the same limits. Their color is green or greenish
White and they can easily be separated, but are unfortunately often brittle.
Other deposits of asbestos also exist in the Letchkum district of Georgia,
in the super parts of the Tskhenis-Tskali valley; the veins also lie in schists
of Devonian formation and are similar to the above, but no extraction has SO
far been tried.
Samples of asbestos have also been brought from the village Mysogorosk,
near Shusha, in the Province of Elizabetpol.
The product of all these places, although sometimes of long fiber, is mostly
rather stiff, like bristles, and can not be twisted or woven. For this reason
there is not much use for it, except as a binding material in connection with
infusorial earth for manufacturing insulating plaster for steam pipes, etc.
But, as So far only surface work has been done, it is quite possible that the
nature of the fiber may change in depth and become softer, like the product
of the Urals and Siberia, and further exploration is therefore desirable.
LITHOGRAPEIIC STONES
Limestones fine and uniform enough for lithographic purposes are known
to exist only in a very few places, in southern France, Poland, Asia Minor, etc.,
but they have nowhere been able to replace those coming from Solenhofen, in
Bavaria, which have been almost exclusively employed by the lithographers
of the whole world. The discovery of a stone which really equals the Bavarian
and can perfectly replace it is, therefore, of the highest importance.
A very extensive deposit of such stone exists at Amlivi, about 24 miles
from Tiflis and 8 miles from the railway. The beds are clearly visible on the
mountain side from its foot to a height of about 700 feet, and represent an
enormous stock of Superposed layers of limestone. Most of it would be
suitable for lithographic purposes, as it is of the finest texture without in-
clusions of crystals or other admixtures, and of equal density all through
without waviness. The colors vary between light yellow, gray, grayish blue,
and green, and large slabs can be extracted of any of these colors, although
the light Ones are the most desirable, as the contrast between their color
and the transfer ink makes the work of the lithographer easier. Perfect
stones of large size, 4 by 6 feet, and corresponding thickness, have been ex-
tracted, while the smaller sizes, of 2 by 3 feet and 5 or 6 inches thick, are
inexhaustible.
These stones have been practically tested by the cartographic establishment
of the former Russian general staff at Tiflis, which declared them equal to
the best products of the Solenhofen quarries, which hitherto had no rivals in
the World. Similar trials were also made in Paris by an expert professional
1ithographer Who also declared that these stones can advantageously replace
those from Bavaria and are even superior to them with regard to density. The
fact that large-sized Stones, suitable for heavy printing machines can be ob-
tained is also highly important, as such sizes do not exist any more at Solen-
hofen. This quarry has therefore a great future, and will undoubtedly become
the center of a new export industry for Georgia.
PUMICE STONE
In View of the great volcanic activity which characterizes the Caucasian
region, it may seem surprising that pumice stone is almost missing in the great
Variety of mineral products thrown up by the volcanoes. So far it has been dis-
covered only in One place, namely at Malaya-Kutma, near Kars. This deposit
is only partially opened up, and consists of several superposed beds of pumice
divided by denser volcanic products and covered by a thin layer of earth, SO
that the extraction is easy. The pumice is of grayish-white color and of the
usual Spongy Vesicular consistence which, however, varies and in parts becomes
102 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
almost as dense as a sandstone. The porous layers form an excellent abrasive
for all the usual purposes, as it “bites '' well and is resisting. Small quantities:
of it have been sent to this country, but the cost of transport made a regular
business difficult. Before the war a small exploitation took place for Causasia.
and Russia, the product being sold in lumps and also in powder for abrasives,
polishing materials, soaps, etc. & 3
SOAPSTONE
Soapstone or talc accompanies in several places in Georgia the intrusions
of serpentine, and being soft when freshly extracted is sometimes carved into
kitchen utensils, etc.
A curious mineral of similar description is found near Akhaltzik, in Southern.
Georgia. It is of grayish-white color, and soft and unctuous to the touch.
With water it forms an emulsion somewhat resembling soap water, and it can
also be made into a kind of paste which the local shoemakers use in their
work instead of glue.
MICA
Mica exists in several places of the central Caucasian chain, but only sam-
ples have so far been extracted from them.
GRAPHITE
Deposits of graphite are known to exist in several places in Georgia, specially
On the Suram Mountain, near the station Kharagouli, and at the village
Tchumathelethi, near Gori. Neither of these deposits is worked.
The one on the Suram is very extensive, but the graphite is of a very fine
consistency and a dull aspect, like soot. It does not form flakes, and can there-
fore not be used for Crucibles or similar purposes. Its analysis produced :
Per cent
Graphite 50, 59
Ashes 47. 57
Moisture * * * —— 1.84
The earthy impurities are therefore considerable, but more useful material
might possibly be found by exploring the deposits in depth.
A similar mineral is found near Djimara, in the northern Caucasus, where a
bed crops Out over a length of about a mile, and contains apparently very
large quantities. The quality seems about the same as on the Suram, the
carbon contents being from 50 to 60 per cent. It is used locally in foundries
and also for paints.
DISTRIBUTION
As Russia herself forms an enormous market, most of the mineral and
metallurgical products of Caucasia were, before the war, sold in that country,
the exports being principally confined to manganese ore and parts of the
petroleum production.
Copper, to begin with, was in great demand in Russia, and the production
of the country could not cope with it; before the war about one-third of the
consumption had to be imported, mostly in electrolytic copper for electrical
purposes. During the war these imports rose as follows:
Tons
1914 4, 576
1915 10, 778
1916_ 23, 548
the latter chiefly from the United States and Japan.
In order to keep the copper industry in the country the former Government
imposed a duty of about £33 per ton on imported copper, and in consequence
of this protection the Russian price of the metal was, before the war, always
from £25 to £30 above the London quotations. On the other hand the export
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 103
of copper ores was charged with a duty of 6s. per ton, and in view of these
inducements the copper smelting and refining was entirely kept in the country.
Most of the Caucasian producers belonged to the Foreign Copper Syndicate,
which was formed in 1907, and controlled about 94° per cent of the total
Russian production, *
For similar reasons lead and zinc were also protected by heavy duties, the
former being charged with about £8 and the latter with £11 per ton, and the
export of their ores was prevented by the same export duty of 6 s. per ton.
These metals were also easily absorbed by the Russian market, which, besides,
had to import large quantities, as the following figures show :

1914 1915 1916
Tang Tong Toms
Imports of lead----------------------------------------------------------- 36, 691 25,059 23, 118
Imports of zinc------------------------------ ---| 14, 328 14, 137 11,840
The various other nonmetallic minerals, including coal are all consumed in
the country, or almost in the area of their production, although with proper
transport facilities several of them, like baryta, infusorial earth, pumice stone,
iron pyrite, etc., might advantageously be brought On the Western markets.
As to the minerals which are being exported, manganese Ore Stands first in
importance, by far the greatest part being shipped to foreign countries, not
only in Europe, but also largely to the United States.
The portion used in Russia is quite inconsiderable, and Only goes to the
Donetz Basin in the Ukraine, the SteelWorks in the Urals using local Ores.
The following figures show the proportion of Georgian manganese ores used in
the Ukraine :

1905 1910 1911 1912 1913
|
* Tom 8 Toºms Tons Tons Tom 3
Total production- 346,233 639,285 605,013 911,699 1,079,688
Sent to Ukraine-- – 44, 620 29,938 23,683 16,899 9,959
|
Most of the foreign trade in the ore was before the war done by export
firms established in Poti and Batum, which in some cases owned and exploited
their Own mines, but mostly bought the ore from the Small producers and made
COntracts With the Smelters.
The decrease Of the consumption of Georgian manganese ore in the Ukraine
during recent years was caused by the special favors enjoyed by the Nikopo
manganese mines, in which the Russian grand dukes were largely interested.
In the petroleum industry the proportions between export and home con-
Sumption are to-day entirely different. In the beginning the export trade was
also largely preponderating, and was being fostered by the Russian Govern-
ment, but since the beginning of this century it has dwindled down consider-
ably, partly On account of the increasing foreign competition and new sources
Of Supply, partly in consequence of the enormously increased consumption in
Russia.
In fact, Of the enormous quantities of petroleum products which are every
year extracted in Baku, Only a small percentage is now exported, the great
bulk being used for home consumption. Thus, during the year 1912, Baku
exported abroad only about 500,000 tons, or 5.5 per cent, of its production of
kerosene ; 210,000 tons, or 2.3 per cent of its production of lubricating oil; and
160,000 tons, or 1.9 per cent, of its production of benzine, while the remaining
90 per cent were used partly on the spot and in Caucasia, but mostly in the
interior of Russia, with which Baku has excellent connections by means of the
Wolga River. &
The products of the Maikop and Grozny petroleum fields are also mostly used
in their own districts and in Russia, except the benzene and kerosene extracted
from the Grozny naptha, of which about 200,000 tons per annum were exported
before the war through the port of Novorossisk.
96153—26—8
104 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
LABOR
The miners and laborers employed in the different mine fields are of dif-
ferent nationalities. While the Georgians predominate in Georgia, and Spe-
cially in the manganese mines, we find in the Southwestern districts and the
Tchorokh Valley mostly Mohamedan Georgians or Lazes, and in the Southeast
many Tartars, Persians, etc.
Generally speaking, their economic conditions are satisfactory, and, if we
except Baku, strikes have been rare. In the small mines which work only
spasmodically, a primitive state of things exists yet, the men dividing their
labor between the mines and the fields, but the large mining companies have
in late years made enormous improvements of every description for the Welfare
Of their men.
The Association of Manganese Producers of Tchiaturi was one of the pioneers
in this direction, and provided not only a hospital with 40 beds for the use
Of its workers, with a School, public library, etc., but also organized the public
services Of the district, supplying water, light, etc. The money thus’ Spent
came from the tax levied on the manganese export under Government Con-
trol, but On the other hand the sums spent by the private mining companies
Came Out of their own pockets. In order to accommodate large numbers of
miners the companies had in most cases to build houses for them ; for instance,
in Dzansul there are several large buildings, each with lodgings for 60 work-
men, besides houses for the staff. In the neighboring Kwartzkhana a similar
building was being erected before the war. The necessities of life were pro-
vided every week from Batum and sold in the companies’ shops at prices fixed
by a committee of workmen.
The Société Industrielle et Métallurgique has also made great improvements
in its various establishments, almost regardless of expense. In Alaverdi the
houses of the workmen have been vastly improved, and a public bath was
installed. At the Smelter at Maness dwellings were erected for over 40 fami-
lies; a school for 100 children was also maintained, as well as a savings bank,
and when the war broke out a hospital with 28 beds for wounded soldiers was
installed and maintained by contributions of the company and the workmen,
amounting to about 1,500 rubles per month.
Hospitals are attached to almost every mine, with competent men for
rendering first aid, and doctors within call, if not permanently engaged. Such
hospitals, besides those already mentioned, exist also at Kedabeg, Zangesur,
Beshaul, Tkvibuli, and Alagir. The latter establishment is also much Con-
Cerned with the economic welfare of its Workment, who have aſso estab-
lished a savings bank, which in the beginning of 1915 had 110 members and
deposits amounting to 70,203 rubles.

1911 1912 1913 1914
Total number of workmen in Georgia and Caucasia------------- 12, 508 19, 125 26, 345 12, 911
Employed in the principal mines:
Copper---------------------------------------------------- 7,089 8, 159 8, 414 6, 688
Silver, lead, and zinc--------------------------------------- 667 810 875 684
Manganese------------------------------------------------ 2, 135 3, 287 3, 269 3,097
Coal------------------------------------------------------- 622 658 710 690
Sulphur ores----------------------------------------------- 70 99 112 60
Baryta (mines and grinding)------------------------------- 88 54 143 65
Infusorial earth-------------------------------------------- 114 15 18 12
Quarries--------------------------------------------------- 1, 574 5, 103 11, 258 56]
Cement Stone----------------------------------------------|---------- 792 1,072 1, 244
Number of mining accidents.----------------------------------- 535 490 795 652
Of which there were fatal.-------------------------------------- 27 32 40 24
Compensations paid------------------------------------------- £7,045 £3,845 £4, 510 #3, 270
The petroleum industry, which in Caucasia overshadows all the other mining
enterprises, being mostly concentratéd in Baku, where racial difficulties are
very pronounced, has been much more disturbed by labor questions than the
mineral Ore mines, and has been Seriously affected by the strikes and excesses
of 1905 and 1913, as it was mentioned in the special monograph on this industry.
The figures in table on page 80 give an approximate idea of the numbers of
men employed in the different mines during recent years. They do not include
the oil industry, nor the men engaged in transport work.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA. 105
Concerning the petroleum industry we give here only the following statistics:
1911 1912 1913 1914
Number of workmen engaged:
In Baku district----------------------------------- --------|------------------------------ 40,385
In Terek Province----------------------------------* ------ 4,720 4,960 7, 105 |. 8, 1
In Daghestan Province------------------------------------- 35 33 64 32.
In Kuban Province---------------------------------------- 1, 199 1, 252 1,079 982.
In Tiflis Province------------------------------------------|---------- . 32 57 111
Elizabetpol------------------------------------------------ 101 108 17 6
Number of accidents.------------------------------------------- 582 886 977 312
Number of deaths.------- ** = -s. ... = - ºr - as - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * ~ * * * * * * * * * * * * * 24 14 6 18
Compensations paid---------------------------------- roubles-- 41, 758 38,284 43,314 120,062.
PARTICIPATION OF FOREIGN CAPITAL
All the large mining enterprises of Caucasia, in which boring for oil must,
of course, be included, have almost exclusively been started and maintained
by foreign capital. The total sum invested in these enterprises can not be
given, but may be approximately guessed at by the fact that over £22,000,000
have been actually spent by British companies in the petroleum industry alone.
French, Belgian, and German firms were more interested in metal mining, and
some of the best-known exploitations of this kind are in their hands.
The reason for this investment of foreign capital lies in the fact that min-
ing in general requires great capitals and strong financial support in emer-
gencies, and this was not sufficiently available in Caucasia, nor in Russia, so
that foreign help was welcome.
Nevertheless, outside of the petroleum and manganese industries, large min-
ing enterprises are comparatively few in number, although, as we have shown,
there is almost no limit to untouched, or barely Scratched Ore deposits in the
country. Specially for copper mining there are enormous possibilities, and
Georgia might well become a second Montana in this regard. The Lesser
Caucasus was the principal source of the copper supply for the Mediterranean
countries in the antiquity and the middle ages, and to judge from the traces
left by the Old exploitations in Scores of places, their production may at times
have equalled the present-day one.
The cause of the slow progress of the mining industry in modern times
was in the first instance the lack of native capital for large enterprises. The
Only mining Operations which could be executed practically without capital,
namely, the digging for manganese Ore, were in fact all commenced by the
Georgian landowners, which proves that they are not lacking in enterprise.
Eut for large undertakings on a modern scale foreign capital had to be
called in. Outcrops were examined by the experts of the capitalists, more or
less at hazard, as they had been Offered, but mostly did not satisfy them, either
because they were not sufficiently opened up, or too far from the means of
communication, or the pretensions of the owners were found too high. etc.
Only those companies or Syndicates succeed which went beyond these apparent
obstacles and made their own fuller examinations. Thus both the Dzansul
and the Kvartzkhana mines, whose enormous richness is to-day clearly proved,
had been offered in London for years and “turned down " by several experts
before the present Owners started their own prospecting works and made suc-
ceSSes of them.
Similar Opportunities abound in the country and will, no doubt, be taken
advantage of after the return of normal conditions. It was remarked that just
before the war, and already in 1913, a much greater number of prospecting
and exploitation licenses had been claimed from the Caucasian mining admin-
istration, which indicated an awakening of the mining activities in the country.
The possibilities offered by the exploitation of the mineral springs and the
hydraulic energy Of the country have been mentioned elsewhere, and alto-
gether Caucasia, and Specially Georgia, present to-day to foreign enterprise an
almost virgin and most inviting field of activity.
PART III. MINERAL SPRINGS
The Origin of by far the greatest part of the springs issuing from the earth
is rainwater, or melting Snow, which percolates the soil and rocks through
Cracks or pores, and descends until it is arrested by a nonporous stratum. The
106 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Overlying porous beds will then act as a reservoir to be filled until the water
finds another natural vent and issues forth as a spring.
The atmosphere slightly impregnates rainwater with ammonia, nitric, and
especially carbonic acids, and thus charged the water has a considerable solvent
action upon the rocks and soils which it encounters, and when finally coming
again to the surface it will hold in solution a certain quantity of the mineral
constituents of the formations through which it has passed.
Thus, lime or magnesium Salts Will have been taken up from limestone and
other sedimentary formations, while the primary rocks, like granite and gneiss,
will have given up sodium and potassium carbonates, or the Water circulating
near marine beds of salt will form a saline spring.
According to the nature of the minerals encountered complex chemical reac-
tions take place, so that many springs may finally contain twenty and more dif-
ferent compounds, whose quantity in a given volume of water may also con-
siderably vary, according to the distance and time of the underground circula-
tion of the Waters.
Every natural drinking water, therefore, contains some mineral constituents,
but what is specifically called a “mineral water ’’ is a natural water proposed
for consumption or use On account of its Special therapeutic Or hygienic prop-
erties.
As to the hot or thermal springs, of which Caucasia has a great number, their
temperature may in some instances be due to their flow through or near rocks
heated by the enormous strains set up by the movements and fracturing of the
earth’s strata. That such movements are still at work is proved by the frequent
earthquakes, which sometimes Shake the whole continent between the Black
Caspian Seas.
But there is no doubt that many of the Caucasian hot springs draw their
water from the hot magma or molten lava existing in the deeper parts of the
earth’s crust. It is well known that such magmas contain gases and Water
which would rise as steam through the fissures of the earth, condense, and
take up in solution whatever elements they may meet in their further lipward
COUl'I’Se,
This Origin must probably be attributed to most of the hot mineral waters
springing from the eastern part of the Caucasian main chain, where hot
magmas are actually flowing yet in their vicinity, forming the mud volcanoes
and hot mud lakes previously described.
Besides containing a great variety of mineral compounds the Caucasian
springs are also very often impregnated with gases, especially carbonic acid
and Sulphuretted hydrogen.
Emanations of the former are very frequent in all parts of the COuntry,
and often bubble up in streams, impregnating the water, which thus be-
comes capable of dissolving a certain quantity of chalk. When the gas evap-
orates, the chalk is deposited again, often in crystalline form, and this is in
fact the origin of the onyx marble found in the Erivan district, and of other
stalagmites.
Radioactivity has also been observed in several sources, but so far Only
a few of them in Georgia have been examined in this regard.
According to their chief constituents the mineral waters are usually classified
as follows :
1. Alkaline, in which sodium carbonate or bicarbonate predominate, also
bicarbonate of lime.
2. Alkaline-Saline, containing the precedent compounds, together with chloride
of sodium and magnesium.
3. Saline, where the chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium form the
principal constituents.
4. Acid, containing sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, mostly found in volcanic
neighborhoods.
According to their secondary contents the sources may further be sub-
divided into—
Carbonated, containing carbonic acid.
Sulphurous, containing sulphuretted hydrogen.
Ferruginous or chalybeate, containing bicarbonate of iron, etc.
Although the number of known mineral springs in Caucasia exceeds 400, as
the appended table will show, only a small proportion of them is used for
curative purposes, and most of the others have not been analyzed or tested
as to their value. *
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 107
The following details concern the principal sources of which any use is
made at present:
In the northern Caucasus mineral sources are most frequent in the Terek
district, where there are nearly one hundred of them known within an area
of less than 40 miles in diameter, principally in or round the four centres
of Piatigorsk, Shelesnovodsk, Essentuki, and Kislovodsk. These places are
situated in a very picturesque valley, through which a branch line of the
North Caucasian Railway has been built, so that they are easily accessible.
They are Surrounded by mountain spurs descending from the high peak of the
Elbrus, and the waters springing from them must, according to the great
variety of their composition, concentration, and temperature, have passed
through many different strata. The principal elements contained in them are
iron and carbonic acid, with alkaline and sulphur Compounds, and some iOdine
and bromine. *
Their medicinal properties have been known from ancient times, and the
Russian Government had them examined already in 1773, and the first bathing
season was opened in Kislovodsk in 1798. Numerous further investigations
were then made, mostly by German doctors and scientists, who unanimously
confirmed the high therapeutical value of the various sources. But the Gov-
ernment departments of the domains, and afterwards of the interior, in whose
hands their administration lay, did practically nothing to exploit them, and
only in 1822 about £55,000 were advanced for building bathing establishments.
In 1846 a special board for watering places was appointed, and more expert
reports had to be obtained, one being made in 1874–75 by the French specialist
Jules François, who brought the baths into great prominence. In the latter
year the branch line ending at Kislovodsk, and connecting the four places with
the Rostov Railway, was completed, thus making it possible for visitors to
reach the baths easily.
In 1882 another French engineer, Léon Dru, was engaged to work out a proj-
ect for a larger exploitation, and in the execution of it £40,000 were spent
between 1887 and 1890, and further £65,000 between 1891 and 1895. Since 1905
the management has been in the hands of a special water board, under the
auspices of the ministry Of commerce and industry, but it has not succeeded in
establishing and advertising these Springs in a manner to compete with the
German and French resortS.
Piatigorsk is situated in the lower part of the valley. Its original name was
Beshtau, which means “Five Mountains,” from the five peaks surrounding it,
the principal one being 4,593 feet high. The environs of the town are very
pretty, and the climate is dry. It contains a number of sulphurous hot springs,
of temperatures varying between 28° and 48° C., partly used for drinking,
partly for bathing. The principal ones of them have the following deliveries
per 24 hours:
Gallons at 46° C - 175,000
Gallons at 48° C 7, 000
Gallons at 46.7° C 140,000
Gallons at 35.5° C 30, 000
Essentuki lies 10 miles west of Piatigorsk, and possesses only cold springs,
mostly of alkaline, also alkaline-saline nature, some being slightly sulphuretted.
Sodium iodide and bromide have also been detected in some of the springs,
whose total number is about 30. Some of them are used for bathing, for which
purpose there exists good accommodation, others for drinking, and much of the
alkaline-saline water is bottled and shipped as table water, as it is very useful
against dyspepsia, gout, and rheumatism. The mineral contents of one of the
sources are also made up in tablets and sold as Essentuki Salts.
Shelesnovodsk is situated at 2,100 feet above the sea, and its springs are, as
the name implies, mostly of ferruginous nature, also alkaline. Their tempera-
ture varies between 18° and 50° C., and they are used for drinking as well as
for bathing. There are eight establishments for the accommodation of visitors,
of which there were about 6,000 in 1911.
Kislovodsk is the terminus of the branch railway, and lies 2,500 feet above
sea level, entirely surrounded by mountains, and with a bracing climate. It
is specially celebrated through its source “Narzan,” which was first capted in
1894, and produces about 350,000 gallons in 24 hours. This water is not only
used externally, but also as a medicinal and table water. On account of its
cool temperature it contains much carbonic acid, and is therefore highly
esteemed as a sparkling digestive of pleasant taste, which does not lose these
108 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
desirable qualities even after being bottled for a long time. Besides carbonic-
acid, this water also contains sulphates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium,
carbonates of sodium and calcium, also chlorides, with traces of iodide and
bromide of sodium, etc. It is specially useful for diseases of the nervous.
System and the heart. Other sources of this resort are used for baths.
In Georgia the best-known and most frequented mineral Springs are those
of the upper Kura Valley round Borjom. This town is situated 90 miles
SouthWest of Tiflis, in about the same latitude as Rome, and at 2,600 feet
above the Sea. It is connected with the Transcaucasian Railway by a branch
line running through the highly picturesque Kura Valley between the Imere-
thian and Trialethian Mountain ridges, which are covered with big forests
Of pines, beeches, and numerous other trees. The climate of the valley is
Warm and very mild in Winter.
Borjom, With its Surröundings covering nearly 300 square miles, was formerly
a State property of the Kingdom of Georgia, and was illegally confiscated by
the Russian Government and given to the Grand Duke Nicholas Michaelovich
in entail. To-day it is again a State property of Georgia.
Borjom is celebrated not only as a watering place which attracts every season
tens Of thousands of visitors, but also through the export of large quantities
Of the Water from one of its sources which rivals with Vichy, and is sent to
Russia, France, the Mediterranean, and even as far as the United States.
In 1913, 9,000,000 bottles were exported, the bottles themselves being made on
the Spot in a glass factory, which uses a very suitable sand and basalt also
found in the vicinity.
The sources of the district are characterized by the fact that they are mostly
radioactive. They may be divided into the five following groups:
1. At Borjom itself the springs flow from the bottom of a small side valley,
which seems to be only a cleft in the limestone rocks towering vertically on
both sides of it. The two most important ones have a delivery of about 19,000
and 8,000 gallons per 24 hours respectively, much of which is bottled, the sur-
plus being used in the bathing establishments. The water is very rich in
carbonic acid, therefore its popularity as a table Water. It has also been
examined as to its radioactivity, which was found to be 0.80° Mache, and it
Was then also discovered that the radium and thorium salts contained in it
continued to give off emanation, so that water bottled for nearly a year still
showed the same radioactivity, while it usually disappears in a few weeks or
days. This unusual behaviour merits further investigation.
The medicinal effects of these waters are very remarkable against inflam-
mations Of the mucous membrane and Catarrhs, against which inhalations
are used ; also against rheumatism, gravel, etc.
2. The Second group Of Sources Springs up at Tsagvery, about 8 miles above
Borjom, near the mountain railway leading to Bakuriani. There are nine
Cold springs, but only two of them have so far been capped. They are very
ferruginous, and much charged with carbonic acid, and generally of the nature
of those of Schwalbach and Pyrmont in Germany, but contain even more
bicarbonate of iron. Their radioactivity is 0.60° Mache, and this fact may
partly account for their efficacy against anaemia and neurasthenia. They are
used for baths and for drinking, and before the War they were also bottled
and shipped abroad with such good success that the bottling establishment had
to be enlarged.
3. Near the village Libani, about 6 miles from Borjom, at approximate alti-
tude 4,000 feet, another group Of 12 cold mineral Springs Comes up, character-
ized by the large quantity of chalk dissolved in them, Which is deposited as
tufa in the same manner as at Carlsbad. The waters also contain sodium
chloride and iron bicarbonate, and have a radioactivity of 1.2° Mache. The
daily outflow is about 22,000 gallons, but until to-day no arrangements have
been made for utilizing them.
4. A group of warm sulphurous springs giving a considerable delivery of
over 100,000 gallons per day exists at Tsikhis-Djvary, a village situated about
5,000 feet above the sea and near the Bakuriani railway. Its radioactivity is
high, 1.22° Mache, and this, combined with the sulphur, makes the water
highly curative in cases of rheumatism and skin affections. The populations
of the neighborhood use it against these kind of troubles, and a small bathing
establishment exists, which has been enlarged in 1913.
5. At Kwajari, near the village Thimotis-Ubani, more mineral springs are
known, but of a different nature, as they contain sulphur salts of magnesia,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 109
calcium, and sodium, and therefore have a purgative effect. They are Very
tasty to drink, and effective against constipation, and could easily rival With
the world-known purgative waters. -
From Borjom a small mountain railway ascends to the village Bakuriani,
through most enchanting scenery. Near the Station Tsemi is situated the
Sanatorium of Dr. W. Ghambashidze, established in 1903, chiefly for children
and young people.
As these details show, the district of Borjom produces an abundance of
mineral waters of great variety and curative properties, which only require
modern installations and management in Order to make this valley a center
of attraction for the sick and also the tourists of Hussia and the east Mediter-
ranean Countries.
Besides the amenities of nature this neighborhood also contains a great
number of highly interesting antiquities, and the remains of about 100 old
monasteries and of 14 fortresses, and archaeological discoveries from the bronze
and even the Stone age are frequent, a proof that the healing springs were
known and used from the oldest times.
Of quite modern date are a botanical garden and an Alpine garden on the
Tskra-Tskaro Mountain, at an altitude of 8,000 feet, which is much visited by
tourists. There are also meteorological and seismographic stations, besides
exploitations of forestry and dairy and poultry farming on the most modern
lines. But with all this, the resources of this fortunate and delightful spot
are scarcely touched, and present enormous Opportunities for further enter-
prise.
A different kind Of mineral springs appears at Abastuman, about 30 miles
west of Borjom, in Georgia, on the Imerethian Mountains, at an altitude of
4,170 feet. They are more celebrated for their physical properties than for
their mineral Contents, as they spring at a high temperature, the principal
Ones at 48.2°, 43°, and 40° C., respectively, and are also radioactive.
The daily capacity of the hottest spring is about 220,000 gallons. Two large
basins have been installed for general bathing, besides a number of cabins in
which baths at temperatures between 31° and 47 ° C. can be taken, if necessary,
With the addition of Sea salt or pine extract, which latter is manufactured
On the spot from the products of the surrounding pine forests. On account of
their thermal properties these Waters are specially used for hydrotherapeutical
and hydroelectrical treatments, for which up-to-date installations exist, and
Which are highly effective against nervous diseases, rheumatism, and general
debility. The climate and surroundings of Abastuman are beautiful; cures
can also be continued during Winter, when the place is much visited by con-
Sumptive patientS.
Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, also contains warm sulphurous springs, which
Were known from the beginning of the Christian era ; the name of the town, in
Georgian “Thbilissi,” means, in fact, “warm.” There are eight different sources,
containing principally Sodium chloride, carbonate, sulphides, and iodides; cal-
cium Sulphate and carbonate, and magnesium sulphate and chloride, also traces
of bromides. Their temperatures vary between 29° and 47° C., and their radio-
activity averages 1.41° Mache, maxiumu 2.77°. The quantity of water is con-
siderable, and all the municipal baths are supplied from it, partly for medic-
inal purposes, against rheumatism, Skin diseases, etc. Some of the springs have
the Same Composition as those of Cauterets and Bareges in Frances, Baden
near Vienna, and there are great possibilities of making Tiflis into a similarly
attractive balneatory center.
A further interesting Georgian health resort is Tskhaltubo, situated about
8 miles northwest of Kutais, at an altitude of 810 feet above the sea. It
possesses nine Warm Springs of alkaline and sulphurous nature, issuing at tem-
peratures between 28° and 35° C. Their delivery is very considerable, over
950,000 gallons per day, which are estimated to come from a depth of about .
2,500 feet. . The most remarkable quality of these waters is their high radio-
activity, which varies between 3.28° and 6.79° Mache on the daily averages;
but it differs according to the hours of the day, being highest between noon
and 2 p. m., When one source showed a maximum of 8.06°. The water of the
Tskhaltubo River is also radioactive, the examination proving from 1.35° to
...”. º: even the air in the building erected over one group of sources shows
up to 0.12°.
This radioactivity closély follows that of the different Springs of Teplitz-
Schoenau in Bohemia, which vary between 3.13 and 6.56°, and exceptionally
110 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
}
mount up to 8.76° Mache; while it exceeds the activity of Wildbad in Würtem-
berg, with which the Tskhaltubo waters are identical, but whose radioactivity
extends only between 1.6 and 3.3° Mache.
These springs, therefore, have a great future before them, and may replace
the above-mentioned baths which used to attract great numbers of gouty and
rheumatic patients from all parts. At present Tskhaltubo is already favor-
ably known in Georgia, and is visited by some 45,000 to 50,000 guests during
the Summer SeaSOn. *
Besides the described better-known bathing establishments there is a number
of smaller places which are only visited by the inhabitants of their neighbor-
hood, and have usually not sufficient accommodation to attract visitors from a
distance.
Georgia, and especially the Province of Kutais, possess many such baths,
Some of which may be mentioned here.
Zekari, near Kutais, Georgia; a warm sulphurous spring of 35° C., used
against rheumatism.
Chokiani, also a thermal spring of 31° C. Was known in antiquity, as a
bath hewn in the rock has been discovered, dating from the time of the Argo-
nautS.
Kursebi, 8 miles from Kutais, Georgia, on the railway to Tkvibuli, pos-
sesses a cold alkaline sulpurous source, used locally against rheumatism
and skin diseases.
Khressili, in the neighborhood of Kursebi, and with a similar spring, used
in the Same manner.
Utsera, 24 miles from Kutais, on the left bank of the River Rion, and
3,420 feet above sea level; contains 11 alkaline sources, also ferruginous,
Within a small diameter. There is also a bathing establishment and some
a CCommodation for Visitors.
Sharopan has four sources near the River Kvirila.
In the Black Sea Province of Georgia mineral springs are not less abundant.
Five are known around Ozurgethi, one at Zugdidi, another of sulphurous nature
at Kvartcheli, and many more near Sukhum, one of them also supplying sul-
phurous and strongly radioactive water.
In the Kuban Province and the Taman Peninsula many mineral sources
spring up which were known from old times. Some of them are of Sulphurous
nature, and contain also salts of bromine and iodine. They are used for
rheumatic and neuralgic diseases, especially one flowing near Ekaterinodar.
Similar conditions prevail also in the Province of Elizabetpol, and in
Daghestan. The latter district contains especially also a number of very hot.
springs, rising at nearly boiling point, but they are not used, and, in fact,
Scarcely known.
In the appended list 415 places are mentioned, which contain between 800
and 900 Separate springs of different nature, but in the absence of detailed
analyses it is not possible to give more than an approximate classification of
them.
About half of the total number are of Sulphurous nature, containing Sul-
phuretted hydrogen, which gas is also observed in about 45 alkaline springs,
and a few containing in addition carbonic acid and carbonate of iron.
The carbonated waters are, as explained, also very frequent, and carbonic
acid is mentioned as the most noticeable gas permeating some 85 springs, while
it also occurs in about 70 more ferruginous and 25 alkaline sources. It is
often present in unusually large quantities, and none of the Sparkling waters.
which are being bottled require to be strengthened by the addition of artificial
carbonic acid, as it is usually the case elsewhere.
Ferruginous or chalybeate waters containing bicarbonate of iron Spring from
about 40 sources, and the iron compound forms also a valuable addition in a
great number of the other Springs.
As to the alkaline and alkaline-Saline sources, they number about 150, while
saline and bitter waters are produced by about 20 sources.
Concerning their temperature it may be added that about one-fourth of all
these springs produce thermal Waters, that is to say, they issue from the
ground at a temperature above 13° C. About 80 of them have a temperature
between 15 and 30° C., and 125 are even hotter, between 30 and 90° C.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 111
According to the great variety of composition of the Caucasian springs their
medical uses also extend in many directions, and are of the highest value for
combating numerous ills.
The waters containing Sulphuretted hydrogen are mostly used externally as
baths against chronic rheumatism, gout, and skin diseases and for healing
Wounds.
The ferruginous or chalybeate Waters find their principal application inter-
nally in all forms of debility associated with anaemia, as they provide the blood
with iron in its most agreeable and assimilable form.
Alkaline and alkaline-Saline springs are the most extensively used as medi-
cinal table waters, being a World-wide remedy against digestive derangements,
and also catarrhal affections of the mucous membrane, etc.
Saline waters act as aperients, and have a general stimulating effect on the
digestion; many of them also act as purgatives.
In view of the great number and usefulness of the Caucasian mineral springs
it is surprising that they have not been developed to a greater degree. Their
number is three or four times as great as that of all the mineral sources
existing in central and western Europe combined, and yet more than nine-
tenths of them are allowed to run to waste, while in Germany, France, or Italy
they would be of considerable value.
The reason lies partly in the Comparative remoteness of the country, but
principally in the apathy of the former Government, which entirely neglected
this part of the natural wealth of the Caucasus.
The altered European conditions make it opportune to draw attention to the
possibilities of development of this industry. That this development is even a
necessity is proved by the fact that at the outbreak of the war several hundred
thousand Russians who formerly had been in the habit of taking the waters
at some German or French spa, found themselves reduced to the resources of
the Caucasus, which proved utterly unprepared.
Mineral springs may be developed in two directions, either by bottling and
shipping the waters suitable for table use, or by erecting bathing establish-
ments and sanatoria and attracting visitors to them.
At Borjom and Kislovodsk some springs are already being bottled, but their
names are Scarcely known outside of Russia, while those of the French and
German waters, like Vichy, St. Galmier, Apollinaris, Selters, etc., are world-
famed. There can not be any doubt that out of the great number of Caucasian
Waters SOme will be found to be of similar nature, if they are carefully ex-
amined and analysed.
That there is an enormous demand for such table and aperient waters all
over the world is proved by the sales of the principal kinds; for instance, the
Apollinaris Co. in Germany sold 37,000,000 bottles in 1912, while Vichy exceeds
this number; the latter establishment is under the control of the French
Government.
As to bathing establishments in Caucasia, very few of the existing ones are
known outside of their immediate neighborhood, Or installed in Such a
manner as to attract visitors from a distance, or even from foreign countries.
This in spite of the fact that many useful waters spring up in most delightful
places as far as natural surroundings and climate are concerned, and if well-
equipped hotels, baths, and sanatoria, and the usual artificial attractions were
provided, and the fact well advertised, visitors would not be wanting.
Just before the outbreak of the war a movement had been started to utilize
some other springs in Georgia in this direction, and it is to be hoped that the
project will be executed as soon as normal circumstances prevail again. The
central European resorts will undoubtedly lose a great part of their former
regular visitors from the allied countries, who will have to go further afield.
And there is no country in Europe which can offer such a variety of health-
giving springs, combined with grand natural beauties and an interesting
population as the Caucasus. The climate, Specially in western Georgia, is
also very mild in winter, and suitable for pulmonary patients; the Old Romans,
who had the whole Mediterranean at their disposal, placed their Winter Colonies
on the shores of the Black Sea, near Gagri and Sukhum, etc.
All the natural conditions, therefore, exist for making the country a center
of attraction for the tourist as well as for the seeker after health, and it re-
mains for the human effort to realize this desirable and useful end.
112 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
LIST OF THE MINERAL SPRINGS, MEDICINAL MUDS, SPAS, SEA-BATHIS, AND CLIMATIC
STATIONS OF GEORGIA AND CAUCASIA
1. Abadsekhy, in Kuban Government, Maikop district, near the station of the
Same name; not investigated.
2. Abano, Province of Kutais, Georgia, 30 miles from Kutais on the right bank
Of the River Rion ; Sulphurous waters.
3. Abanoskhevi, Province of Batum, Artvin district, Georgia, 5,053 feet above
sea level; warm, sulphurous sources, temperature 31° C., and near them at the
village. Mikhelethi, another warm source containing carbonic acid and iron,
temperature 28° C. }
4. Abanos-Chala, 2 miles from Zekari, Province of Kutais, Georgia ; warm
sulphurous source, temperature 32—35° C.
5. Abarani, near Tkvartcheli, Sukhum district, Georgia ; warm sulphurous
source, temperature 36° C.
6. Abastuman, Province of Tiflis, Akhaltzik district, Georgia, 66 miles from
station Khashuri on the Transcaucasian Railway ; hot Springs and climatic
Station. *
7. Agara, Province of Batum, Georgia ; warm sulphurous Spring, temperature
25° C.
8. Agbuda, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Kasakhi ; cold ferruginous
Spring.
9. Agura, Black Sea Province, district of Sotchi, Georgia, and 8 miles from
that town; warm sulphurous spring, temperature 28° C.
10. Agidun, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia ; warm sulphur-
ous spring, temperature 20° C.
11. Azoff, Kuban Province, Taman district; Saline source rich in carbonic
acid.
12. Aishkho, Black Sea Province, Sotchi district, Georgia, 4,150 feet above sea,
level; cold ferruginous and gaseous source; temperature 11° C.
13. Aigridjkar, Province of Erivan, 26 miles from Bayazid ; ferruginous
source with Carbonic acid.
14. Irichak, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur, 1 mile from village
of Dastgir; carbonated Source.
15. Alagbesi, Province of Erivan, on Alaghes Mountain, 3,600 feet above sea
level; hot Sulphurous Spring.
16. Alagir, Province of Terek, 10 miles from town of same name on Ardon
River; sulphurous and carbonated spring, temperature 16.2° C.
17. Aladjin, Province of Erivan, district of Nakhidjevan ; carbonated source.
18. Alashin, Province of Baku, 20 miles from Lenkoran ; cold sulphurous
Spring.
19. Alphanis-Abano, Province of Kutais, District of Letchkumi, Georgia, 33
miles from Kutais on the right bank of the Rion River; cold Sulphurous source.
20. Amaglebi, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgeti, near Station Sajche-
bakho, Georgia ; 6 sources of sulphurous waters, temperature 24° C.
21. Anapa, Province of Kuban, district of Teemriuk; Sea and medicinal mud
baths, special hospital for electrical and therapeutical treatment; source con-
taining chloride of sodium and iodides.
22. Apnia, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia ; on the right
bank of the Kura River, Opposite the ancient monastery of Vardsia, a sulphur-
OUIS SOUITCé.
23. Apsheron, near Baku ; Sulphurous and calcareous springs, temperature
24° C.
24. Apsho, Province of Tiflis, district of Thioneti, Georgia; cold spring
strongly carbonized. g
25. Arvethi, Province of Batum, district of Artvin, Georgia ; 4 miles from
the village Ardanutch, a sulphur spring.
26. Arsni, Province of Erivan, 8 miles northeast from the town ; cold saline
Spring.
27. Arkevan, Province of Baku, district of eLenkoran, 6 miles from Arkewan.
hot sulphurous Spring. & f
28. Arsen, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha and 40 miles southeast
from the latter town ; a warm spring containing Galubersalt, temperature,
19° C. {
29. Arthkhmosy, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, hear station
Kasbek, about 6,430 feet above sea level; cold carbonated spring, temperature
6° C.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 113
30. Artvin, Province. Of Batum, Georgia; ferruginous spring.
# Askana, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgeti, Georgia ; sulphurous
SpringS.
32. Aspindza, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, and 10 miles from the latter
º gº the left bank Of the Kura River; hot sulphurous springs, temperature
33. Astara, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran, 5 miles from the Caspian
Sea shore near the Persian frontier; a hot sulphurous spring, temperature
46° C.
34. Atabety, Province of Tiflis, district of Tioneti, Georgia ; cold carbonated
Spring.
35. Atheni, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, and about 4 miles
, Southeast of Gori; a Cold sulphurous spring.
36. Athly-Boyun, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir-Khan-Shur, 8
miles southwest of Petrovsk; a hot sulphurous source, temperature 35° C.
37. Akhaltzik, Province of Tiflis, Georgia, on the left bank of Potzkhov
River; a carbonated source, temperature 20° C. ; and 2 miles south of Akhaltzik,
in the village. Uraveli, Georgia ; a warm sulphurous spring, temperature 21° C.
38. Akhlatin, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur ; a carbonated
; Spring.
39. Akhtala, Province of Tiflis, district of Signakh, Georgia ; medicinal
muds Of temperature of 18° C. ; and also on the right bank of the Alazan
River near the village Gurdjani, a carbonated source.
40. Akhtim, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur ; 5 hot sulphurous
- SOUII*CeS.
41. Akhgel, Province of Daghestan, near Petrovsk; medicinal mud from the
-dried-up lake of the same name.
42. Atsgara, Province of Sukhum, Georgia, on the right bank of the river
- Of the same name; a cold sulphurous spring.
43. Atskhury, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia on the left
bank of the Kura River; a hot sulphur spring.
44. Achipse, Black Sea Province, district of Sotchi, Georgia, 2,370 feet above
sea level; cold carbonated source, temperature 11.25° C.
45. Achuluk, Ter. Province, 17 miles from Vladicaucase ; sulphurous spring.
46. Ayar, Province of Erivan ; sulphur springs.
47. Aphon, Black Sea Province, near Novorossisk ; sea bath.
48. Bughiani, Province of Baku, 4 miles from Salyani; saline springs.
49. Baba-Zanan, Province of Baku, also near Salyani; a warm saline mud
source, temperature 33° C.
50. Bagdadi, Province of and near Town of Kutais, Georgia, in Sekar Valley;
- Sulphurous source, temperature 19° C.
51. Badamlu, Province of Erivan, district of Nakhichewan; carbonated
Spring.
‘52. Bakšan, Province of Ter. ; cold ferruginous and carbonated source.
53. Batalin, Province of Ter., 4 miles from Piatigorsk ; source of bitter water,
- temperature 11° C.
54. Batalpashin Kuban Province ; mineral mud and bitter salt lake water.
55. Batmak, Province of Daghestan, on Caspian Sea ; medicinal mud from
- the dried-up lake Batmak.
56. Batum, Georgia, in neighborhood of sea baths and hydropathic institu-
tions, climatic station, May to October.
57. Bashin, Province of Terek; cold sulphurous spring.
58. Baindur, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; cold carbonated
Spring.
59. Besobdal, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; cold carbonated
Spring.
60. Beslebi, Province of Erivan, district of Nakhichevan ; ferruginous source.
61. Bergusheti, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Zangesur; carbonated
. and Sulphurous Springs.
62. Berssoff, Province of Terek, 5 miles from Kislovodsk ; cold carbonated
• SOUITC0.
63. Besla, Province of Sukhum, Georgia, 3 miles east of Sukhum ; sul-
phurous source, 16.2° C.
64. Beshkilis, Province of Kars, district of Kagisman, 30 miles from Kars;
a cold carbonated ferruginous source, and also a warm Sulphurous spring of
26° C. º
114 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
65. Bisso, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; cold carbonated
SORII'Ce. t
66. Bishenessi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; cold sulphurous
Spring.
67. Bolshoi-Tambukan Lake, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk; me-
dicinal mud.
68. Borjom, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; 2,636 feet
above Sea, cold and warm carbonated sources, the “Ekaterin’” source, 29.9°
C. and the “Eugenie” source, 23.6° C. containing also iodide and bromide of
Sodium. In the Vicinity, Warm sulphurous sources at Tskhisdjvari and fer-
ruginous ones at Tsagveri.
69. Barisakho, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; carbonated
SOurce containing much chalk.
70. Bragun, Province of Terek, district of Grozny; two groups of sources:
(a) two hot Sulphurous sources, temperature 40 to 60 and 90° C. used for bath-
ing with Some primitive arrangements; (b) on the right bank of the river
Sunja also hot Sulphurous sources.
71. Bristati, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, on the upper reaches
of the River Didiliakhvi, 5,900 feet above sea ; cold carbonated source spring-
ing from andesite beds, 8° C.
72. Bugas, Kuban Province, Tamriuk district ; medicinal muds on the Bugas.
Salt lake.
73. Bugeuli, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, on the left
bank of the Rion River; a Sulphurous spring.
74. Budugh, Province of Baku, in the Tengin valley, difficult of access; two
Sulphurous sources, temperature 48.1 and 46.25° C.
75. Bum, Province of Baku, district of Nukha, two groups of sources: (a)
3 miles from the village there are two warm sulphurous sources, temperature
39.2 and 23.75° C.; (b) 12 miles from the latter, on the Kara-tehai River,
another cold sulphurous source.
76. Burdus, Province of Kars, district of Olti, one-half mile from the frontier;
a hot source of unknown composition.
77. Buik Hill source, Province of Terek, 10 miles from Shelesnovodsk; alka-
line Sulphurous source.
78. Beloretchensk, Province of Kuban, district of Maikop ; Summer resort.
79. Barbare, near Sukhum, Georgia, on the Eris-tskali River; a cold car-
bonated source, temperature 16° C., and 3 miles from it the “Claudi " source,
slightly carbonated, temperature 12° C.
80. Vartsikhe, near Kutais, Georgia, on the left bank of the Kvirila River;
a hot source of unknown composition.
81. Wedza-Amalo, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia, 2 miles.
from the village Amalo on the right bank of the River Alazan ; a cold carbon-
ated SOUIrce.
82. Wedza-Makartho, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushethi, Georgia, 5 miles
from the Station Pasanauri on the Georgian Military Road and on the left bank
of the River Aragui.; a cold alkaline and carbonated source, temperature 11° C.
83. Vedi, near Erivan ; a warm source used by the natives, composition un-
known.
84. Gagri, Province of Black Sea, district of Sotchi, Georgia; sea baths and
climatic Station open all the year round, mild climate, sun baths, light and
electric baths. Alkaline source 6 miles from Gagri.
85. Hadji Samlak Muradin, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur, 16
miles from Shusha, difficult of access, 7,443 feet above the sea ; the “Tur”
source, cold, ferruginous and Carbonated.
86. Gamsatcheman, Province of Erivan, district Of Alexandropol, 4,590 feet
above the sea ; a cold source with ferrous and alkaline salts.
87. Garula, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, near the village.
Gari; a mineral source of unknown composition.
88. Gnebi, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, two groups of
Sources: (a) in the Tcheshura and Khvartchuli valleys several carbonated
Sources of unknown analysis; (b) at the confluence of the Gnebi and Rion
Rivers several sources containing alkaline and ferrous Sulphides and sulphates.
89. Guelendjik, on the Black Sea shore, Georgia, 25 miles from Novorossisk; '
sea baths, public baths of sea water and medicinal muds, hotels and boarding:
houses.
90. Guel source, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan, near village Kheva,
Georgia; warm mineral source of unknown composition.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 115
91. Guenal-Don, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, two sources :
(a) 5 miles from village Trmeni-kau at altitude 7,140 feet, a cold slightly saline
Source; (b) 1 miles from same village at altitude 5,432 feet, a hot mineral
source, temperature 31° C.
92. Guerguethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, on the upper
Terek River, 5,595 feet above the sea; a cold spring of carbonated ferruginous
water, temperature 9° C.
93. Guerussi, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur; a carbonated
source tasting like Selters water, but not analysed.
94. Gueyuk, Province of Erivan; a carbonated source.
95. Guedjikai, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid, at altitude 6,350
feet; a cold ferruginous and alkaline source.
96. Guilar, Province of Daghestan, district of Kurin, on the Samur River;
a slightly Saline warm spring of temperature 35° C., and near it a cold sul-
phurous one.
97. Glasnoi, Black Sea Province, Sotchi district, Georgia; a cold alkaline
:SOurce On the SeaShore.
98. Glasnoi, Province of Terek, near Kislovodsk, altitude 2,700 feet; a cold
-sulphurous spring of 9° C.
99. Glola, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia ; several ferru-
ginous and carbonated springs at altitudes 4,572 and 3,886 feet, temperature
11° C.; and at the confluence of the Glola and Rion Rivers another source of
‘Similar nature, temperature 12° C.
100. Gokteha, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid ; two springs on
the Sanga River, one ferrous and carbonated, and the other at the mouth of
the river, Sulphurous.
101. Galubit, Province of Kuban, Taman Peninsula ; baths in lake of medi-
cinal mud; sea baths might also be Organized.
102. Goma, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, near Village
Shurdo; a warm mineral source of 22.5° C.
103. Gomura, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia ; carbonated
source Springing under great pressure.
104. Gorassu, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a carbonated source
issuing on the shore of a pond of ferruginous mineral Water.
105. Gorassu-tohiran, same district, near the Elbrus, at altitude 9,700 feet
below the glacier of the same name ; a cold sulphurous source.
106. Gori, near Tiflis, Georgia, at altitude 1,790 feet; a cold sulphurous
*SOULI'Ce.
107. Gag-djur, Province of Erivan, district of Echmiadzin, on the left bank
Of the Abaran River, at 6,000 feet above the Sea ; a cold alkaline Source,
10° C. *
108. Gareloi-Sopki source, Province of Kuban, district of Temryuk, on the
Taman Peninsula ; cold sulphurous.
109. Goriatehe Wodski, Province of Terek, 650 feet above sea ; two groups
of hot sulphurous sources; the eastern group consisting of 18 sources produc.
ing 95,000 gallons per day, at temperature 73–75° C. ; the western of 3 sources
at 80–88° C. Two bathing establishments, used by the neighboring populations,
110. Gubden, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir-Khan Shura ; cold
sulphurous spring with odor of sulphuretted hydrogen, 19° C.
111. Gudau, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; cold car
bonated spring.
112. Gudarakh, same district; a cold carbonated alkaline spring.
113. Gudauthi, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia ; sea baths
and climatic station, best bathing of the whole shore.
114. Gudjarethi, Province of Tiflis, near Borjom, Georgia ; a warm sul-
phurous source.
115. Gudamakari, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia; three
alkaline carbonated sources at 2 miles distance, temperature 12° C. Primitive
accommodations for Cures.
116. Gulachala, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkum, Georgia ; a cold
carbonated and ferruginous source.
117. Giumur, Province of Erivan, district of Nakhichevan ; cold carbonated
Spring.
118. Davalo, Province and district Of Erivan ; a Warm carbonated Source,
temperature 24° C., forming a pond used as a bath against skin diseases.
116 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
119. Darachi-tchas, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid ; 3 cold.
sources on the right bank of the Zanga River, carbonated, one rich in lime,'
called the “milk source,” another tasting like Selter’s water, the third fer-
Tuglnous.
120. Dargaws, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, right bank of
Guisal River; a hot sulphurous spring.
121. Dash-kent, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur; several small
carbonated sources.
122. Dvalishvilebi, near Kutais, Georgia, on the River Isrethi; 3 groups of
hot sulphurous springs, temperature 35 and 22° C., respectively. Visited by
Georgians living in malarial districts.
123. Dviri, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; two hot slightly
alkaline Springs, temperature 35° C.
124. Derbent Stanitza, Province of Kuban ; bitter and saline sources.
125. Derbent Sources, on shore of the Caspian Sea, 30 miles from Derbent,
in hot district; hot sulphurous sources of which three have been capted, tem-
perature 49°, 48°, and 37° C. respectively, used in a bathing establishment.
Five miles north of them there are splendid sea baths on shallow Sandy
shores and two lakes of mineral mud, One of 38° C. containing 50 per cent of
water, some naphtha, sulphurous and traces of phosphoric acid; the other of
27° C. has the same physical properties, but its chemical composition is differ--
ent. There are no facilities for using the muds.
126. Derbent, Daghestan ; sea baths, water Very saline on this shore.
127. Djabani, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha : cold sulphurous.
Spring.
128. Djavi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; alkaline source.
129. Djadjira, Province of Elizabetpol, near Slavyanska ; cold carbonated.
SOUITCé.
130. Djelans, Province of and district of Kars, altitude 5,200 feet ; 3.
Sources, one sulphurous and ferruginous for bathing, two Sulphurous for drink--
ing ; frequently visited by the natives.
131. Djamuri, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushethi, Georgia, near the vil--
large Bathini; 2 alkaline carbonated sources, temperature 6.25° C.
132. Djarishtio, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; cold, carbonated:
SOUITCe.
133. Djakveli, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan ; cold, abundant sul-
phurous and alkaline source, temperature 12° C.
134. Djelan-kol, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; alkaline car-
bonated source.
135. Djelae, Province and district of Kars, 5,600 feet above the sea ; several
Sulphurous and alkaline sources, temperature 8.5 to 13 and 25° C.
136. Djodjora, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, near Oni ;
6 cold carbonated and ferruginous sources, flowing from sandstone beds, tem--
perature 11–13° C. The water is clear, agreeable to drink, with a slightly
acid and ferrous taste.
137. Djuma, Province of Kutais, district of Zugdidi, Georgia, near monastery.
of Tsaishi, a warm sulphurous source giving off sulphurated hydrogen abun-
dantly, temperature 27° C.
138. Djumukhi, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorst; three bitter saline
sources, temperature 17.5° C.
139. Djurauli, Province of Erivan, district of Surmalin, at altitude of 5,710.
feet ; a cold alkaline carbonated source, temperature 15° C.
140. Dzicheksh, Province of Kuban, district of Maikop, at altitude of 8,195.
feet ; a cold ferruginous source.
141. Dzishra-Azego, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia ; a.
sulphurous spring.
142. Doli, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkum, Georgia ; cold sulphurous
Spring.
143. Dugun, Province and district of Erivan ; a warm alkaline and saline
Source of 18° C.
144. Ebgeniev, in Daghestan Province and district of Temir-khan Shuna ;
sulphurous source.
145. Edis, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; a carbonated and fer-
ruginous source.
146. Eisk, Province of Kuban, port on Sea of Azoff ; cold sulphurous
source giving 100,000 gallons per day. Sea baths, also medicinal muds near
the salt lake of Khan. §
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 117
147. Ekaterinenfeld, Province of Tiflis, district of Bortchalo, Georgia ; a
carbonated source depositing chalk on the River Mashaveri.
148. Elissu, Province of Zakatali, district of Kakhi, Georgia, at altitude
of 6,800 feet; several sulphurous sources giving off slight Smell of Sulphurated
hydrogen, temperature from 24 to 42° C.
149. Elissu-Nukha, Province of Elizabethpol, district of Nukha ; alkaline
and saline source, of temperature 37.5° C.
150. Essentuki, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk, altitude 2,000
feet ; a number of Saline, alkaline, and sulphurous Springs. For internal use
are employed : Alkaline No. 17 and 18, 11.25° C. Alkaline, Saline, and fer-
ruginous No. 6, at 20.38° C., containing sodium iodide and bromide, No. 4
at 10.9° C., and No. 19 at 10.6° C. For baths there are used No. 20, alkaline-
saline at 10.6° C., and No. 26, sulphurous alkaline at 11.8° C. The Essentuki
Salts are extracted from source No. 17.
151. Shelesnovodsk, 10 miles from Essentuki (150), altitude 2,300 feet;
numerous hot and cold ferro-alkaline sources used for drinking, temperature:
18.75 to 44.4° C., and for bathing from 17 to 50° C. Well-known watering place.
152. Zaparosh, Province of Kuban, district of Taman, near the Vladicaucase-
railway; a number of sources springing up from a small area, but of different
composition, some alkaline-saline, others carbonated and ferruginous, while
another Smells of sulphuretted hydrogen.
153. Zargeran, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha ; a cold sulphurous
SOUIPCe.
154. Zatsira, Province of Kutais, Georgia, 8 miles from the town ; a sulphur-
ous source much used by the natives, although the accommodation is primitive ;
the place is very healthy and protected from the east winds.
155. Zware, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia, 2 miles from
Station Molithi; a warm sulphurous source, temperature 31.25° C.
156. Zekari, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia ; warm sulphurous.
Sources of 35–36° C., much used against rheumatism, with three bathing places,
and 6 miles from them another cold, slightly sulphurous source, temperature
16° C.
157. Zemo-Khvedurethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; cold
Sulphurous spring. -
158. Zmeevski Source, Province of Terek, 2 miles from Shelesnovodsk; a
ferro-surlphurous source, temperature 12° C.
159. Zor, Province of Erivan, district of Surmalin; a ferro-alkaline source,
temperature 16° C.
160. Zromag, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase; a slightly saline-
SOUII'Ce.
161. Ilsk, Province of Kuban, district of Taman ; a sulphurous source.
162. Imirlu, Province of Erivan, district of Echmiadzin, at altitude of 5,800.
feet; a cold alkaline and carbonated source of 11.2° C., used by the natives.
Who consider it as the surest cure against consumption. There is some accom-
modation for the summer season.
163. Ingushli, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik, near the Elbrus Moun-
tain, at altitude 7,000 to 8,000 feet; a cold alkaline carbonated spring.
164. Indjir-Su, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran, near the Persian
frontier ; a carbonated source.
165. Indish, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash, at altitude of 3,800.
feet; several Warm Saline-alkaline and carbonated springs, one of 30° C. has
been capped; its water is effervescent like Narzan.
166. Inja-tohai, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Kazakh ; a carbonated
Spring.
167. Iris-tehala, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia; cold
carbonated spring.
168. Istisu, Province of Terek, district of Grozny; two groups of sulphurous.
sources, hot, one giving 270,000 gallons per day, used for baths, the other
emitting Sulphuretted hydrogen abundantly and having a temperature of 75° C.
169. Istisu-Nakhidjevan, Province of Erivan, district of Sharurs-Daralagez;
Several cold and hot sulphurous sources with temperatures up to 41° C.
170. Ishkarti, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir-khan Shura; many
Small Sulphurous sources, temperature 12° C.; healthy climate.
171. Kasbek, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, at altitude.
12,000 feet; a warm sulphurous source, 29° C.
172. Kasikopari, Province of Erivan, district of Surmali, at altitude 5,720.
feet; a cold alkaline and carbonated source of temperature 15° C.
118 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
173. Kainatma, Province of Zakatali, Georgia, near village Alibeglu; a cold
Sulphurous and alkaline source. *
174. Kalatchi, Province of Erivan, district of Suramli; cold ferro-alkaline
source of 13° C.
175. Kalmikaev, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk; sulphurous alka-
line source.
176. Kalvadjar, Province of Erivan; hot sulphurous water, used by the
natives. f w
177. Kantshavethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia; sulphurous
SOUITCé. *
178. Karabulak, Province and district of Tiflis, Georgia; carbonated spring.
179. Karadjoran, Province and district of Surmali; carbonated spring.
180. Karmen, Province of Tiflis, District of Thiomethi, Georgia; cold ferrugin-
OUIS SOUITC6.
181. Kastala, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt; cold carbonated
ferruginous Source.
182. Katsal-Khevi, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold
Carbonated and ferruginous Source. i
183. Kayakent, Province of Daghestan, district of Kaitago-Tabassaran, on
the Caspian Sea ; hot Sulphurous source of 32° C., and near it sulphurous mud.
Hot and dry climate, Sea baths and accommodation for the sick.
184. Kvalithi, Province of and district of Kutais, Georgia, on the left bank
of the Kvirila River; a cold sulphurous spring of 8° C.
185. Kvani, district of Sukhum on the Black Sea, Georgia; cold carbonated
SOUII’Ce.
186. Kvareli, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia; cold sulphurous
SOUII'Ce.
187. Kvishethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia; a cold carbon-
ated and ferruginous source with primitive accommodation for bathers.
188. Kert-mali, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; carbonated spring.
189. Kivilachvilebi, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia, cold
Sulphurous source, of 15° C.
190. Kisel-tohakh, Province and district of Kars; cold ferruginous source.
191. Kirikili, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk ; saline-alkaline
SOUII'Ce.
192. Kislovodsk, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk, contains the
celebrated “Narzan * source which gives about 570,000 gallons per day of
carbonated mineral water at temperature 13.75° C., a large part of which is
used for drinking and bottling purposes, and exported to Russia and other
countries. There are also other sources used for baths.
193. Kitch-Malka, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; carbonated Spring.
194. Klavdi Source, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia, On the
Tskhiri Mountain ; carbonated source, temperature 10° C.
195. Klitch Valley, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia ; a cold
ferruginous source.
196. Kmosti, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold carbon-
ated SOUrce.
197. Kobi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, at altitude 6,500
feet, a cold ferro-alkaline source of temperature 9° C., used for baths, and
6 other ferruginous and ferro-alkaline sources of temperature 6 to 8° C.,
One of which is capted in a stone basin.
198. Kobulethi, near Batum, Georgia ; sea baths and Sanatorium for nervous
and heart diseases.
199. Kodiani, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a cold sulphurous
source, temperature 19° C.
200. Kodlassan, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a cold Sulphur-
ous source, temperature 9° C.
201. Kodora, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia; a sulphurous
SOUII'Ce.
202. Konstantine, Province of Terek, a sulphurous Source, containing also
some naphtha and sulpheretted hydrogen, temperature 27.5°. C.
203. Konkhidetl, Province of Daghestan, district of Andi, 3,900 feet above
the sea, in a wild and malarious country; a great number (said to be about
200) sulphurous sources, temperature 17.5° C.
204, Koronis-Tskali, 3 miles from Batum, Georgia; a health station, famed
for its beautiful climate.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 119
205. Koteli, Province of Tiflis, district of Bortshalo, Georgia ; a cold slightly
Saline source, temperature 7.5° C.
206. Kotur, Province of Tiflis, district of Bortshalo, Georgia; a carbonated
SOUII'Ce.
207. Kotur-Gumush, Province of, Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid ; cold
ferruginous source.
208. Kotr-Istisu, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur; a warm
mineral spring, composition unknown.
209. Krasna Poliana, on the River Mzimta, near Sotchi, Black Sea Province,
Georgia ; mountain resort, with some hotels and accommodation for special
cures. Alkaline-Saline and ferruginous carbonated springs, some of them
tasting like Vichy water.
210. Kuapta, near Artvin, Georgia ; a ferruginous carbonated spring of bitter
taste.
211. Kudara, Province of Kutais, district of Radja, Georgia; several warm
Sources of carbonated Water.
212. Kulash, Province of Kutais, district of Samtredi, Georgia ; a cold
ferruginous source.
213. Kulki-Bossi, Province of Terek, district of Sundjen ; a cold sulphurous
Spring.
* 214, Kulpi, Province of Erivan, district of Surmali; a carbonated source.
215. Kumogor, Province of Stavropod, district of Alexandrovsk; 1,300 feet
above the sea ; 6 warm alkaline Sulphurous sources.
216. Kurmukh, Province of Zakatali, Georgia ; a cold carbonated spring.
217. Kunakhkent, Province of Baku, at altitude 2,300 feet; hot sulphurous
springs; temperature 47–39° C., used for bathing. Dry and healthy climate.
218. Kurdjani, Province of Tiflis, district of Signakh, near Akhtala, Georgia;
alkaline source.
219. Kursebi, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia, on the Tkvibuli rail-
way; a cold alkaline sulphurous source producing about 15,000 gallons per
day. Baths and other accommodations for visitors have been installed.
220. Kushtohevska, Province of Kuban ; a ferruginous sulphurous source, of
a dilivery of about 8,000 gallons per day.
221. Kushtchi, Province of Erivan, district of Sharko-Daralagel; four hot
carbonated springs, temperature 40° C.
222. Kiuliutl, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur ; an abundant car-
bonated source.
223. Lakhamuli, Próvince of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia, on the
River Inguri ; a cold carbonated source.
224. Latchta, Province of Kutais, district of Radja, Georgia ; carbonated
Spring.
225. Lashe, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgheti, Georgia ; a saline
Spring.
226. Lashe-Mkrala, same district; a warm sulphurous spring.
227. Lashketi, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia ; a cold
ferruginous and carbonated spring, temperature 13.25° C.
228. Lashkhevi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia ; a cold
Carbonated Source.
229. Legwani, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia ; two sources, one
alkaline, the other sulphurous; they have been capped and are used locally.
230. Lenkoran, on the Southwest shore of the Caspian Sea ; sea baths, and
8 miles from them eight hot and one cold sulphurous springs, some of which
are being used by the natives.
231. Iihan, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, at altitude 3,900
feet, 2 miles from the Sadger Lake; 12 cold springs, ferruginous and strongly
Carbonated
232. Likoki, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold carbon-
ated Source.
233. Lonjin, Province of Terek, district of Sunja ; a cold ferruginous spring,
234. Lopota, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia ; a cold mineral
spring of unkown composition.
235. Iuspek, Province of Kars, district of Kagisman ; a ferruginous spring.
236. Lissogorsk, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk; a bitter saline
source which has been capped and is being used in the establishments of
Piatigorsk,
120 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
237. Lissogorsk, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Shusha; altitude 5,100
feet; several cold ferruginous sources, one sparkling and resembling Selters
Water. This place is a health resort, and enjoys an excellent climate in which
the patients can live in tents.
238. Matchara, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; three cold fer-
ruginous and carbonated sources, temperature 16° C.
239. Malka, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a cold carbonated spring,
temperature 8° C., and near it another alkaline-carbonated source. Higher
up On the River Malki, at altitude 7,350 feet and 6 miles from the Elbrus
Mountain, a warm carbonated ferruginous spring, temperature 20.75° C. and
called “Warm Narzan.” Near the latter yet another nonferruginous source.
240. Makaev sources, Province of Terek, 2 miles from Grozny; several hot
Springs slightly sulphuretted, temperature from 32° to 46° C. and primitive
installations for bathing.
241. Makai-Yurt, Province of Terek, 12 miles northwest of Grozny; hot
tºurous Springs, temperature 72° to 79° C., and other warm springs near
€Iſl.
242. Marinska, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; an alkaline car-
bonated Source.
248. Makhindjuri, Province of Batum, Georgia; several alkaline, ferruginous,
and Sulphurous Sources. \
244. Matzesda, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia; warm source
of strongly sulphuretted water, considerable outflow, temperature 22.2° C.; also
sulphurous muds near the source.
245. Msimta, Black Sea Province, 25 miles from Sotchi, Georgia; in the
valley of the River Msimta, at altitude 2,950 feet there are 17 sources, and
others at 3,670 and 4,200 feet, all cold carbonated and ferruginous. On the
affluents Of the Msimta : at 2,220 feet on the Pslukh River a cold alkaline and
carbonated source, temperature 10.5° C., and On the Osmitchu River, at
5,480 feet, an alkaline ferruginous spring, temperature 7.2° C.
246. Mikhailov, Black Sea Province, district of Novorossisk, near Guelendjik ;
a strongly saline spring, temperature 21.8° C.
247. Mikhailov-Sleptsov, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; between these
two places, about 850 feet above the sea, there are several groups of warm and
hot sources: (1) Three warm sulphurous sources, temperature 35° to 36° C.,
uced for bathing ; (2) several alkaline-Saline sources, sulphuretted, tempera-
ture 31° to 69° C. used for bathing and one for drinking; (3) several alkaline-
saline springs of lower temperature, down to 20° C. used for drinking. The
hotter the waters the more they are impregnated with Sulphuretted hydrogen.
One source, temperature 17° C., also contains Glauber salt.
248. Miatli, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt, in a wild valley on
the Sulak River, in hot climate; 5 hot sulphurous sources, temperature 44°
to 70° C. Also alkaline ferruginous sources, temperature 37° to 40° C., and hot
sulphurous muds.
249. Mokhbulag, Province of Zakatali, Georgia ; several alkaline and sur-
bhuretted sources, temp. 16 to 20° C.
250. Muganlo, Province and District of Tiflis, Georgia, on the right bank
of the River Iori ; a cold alkaline saline Spring, temp. 8° C.
251. Murdukh, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; an alkaline car-
Joonated SOUrce. *
252. Murakvali, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, On the
right bank of the River Kura ; a hot mineral spring.
253. Mukhravani, Province and district of Tiflis, Georgia ; a sulphurous
source, containing also some naphtha.
254. Nagrakhan, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid, on Arkhashin
River; a cold alkaline carbinated source, tasting like Selters water.
255. Nadjikho, Province of Zakatali, Georgia ; a cold sulphurous source.
256. Nakala.kevi, Province of Kutais, district of Senak; a bathing resort
with several warm sources, temperature 32 to 33° C. Between it and Akhal-
kalaki a warm alkaline sulphurous Spring.
257. Nakurdevi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a cold
Sulphurous Spring.
258. Nalchik, Province of Terek; altitude 1,700 feet; a climatic station.
259. Holy Island, near Baku ; contains cold sulphurous sources, tempera-
ture 11° to 12° C.
260. Nar, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude 5,860 feet;
a cold mineral Spring, temperature 10.3° C.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 121
261. Natzaruli, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a ferru-
ginous carbonated spring.
262. Neut-Kutan, Province of Daghestan, district of Kaitago-Tabassaran ;
a cold sulphurous spring.
263. Noa-Kai, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase; a cold ferru-
ginous spring.
264. Novorossisk, on Black Sea ; Sea baths from June to October, also medi-
cinal mud baths. .
265. Norkao, Province of Terek; a cold ferruginous spring.
266. Nophti, Province and district of Baku ; cold sulphurous sources.
267. Odokhara, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Georgia : cold sul-
19hurous sources.
268. Oissungur, Province of Terek, near Grozny ; a hot sulphurous source.
269. Okiz, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a mineral
SOurce of unknown composition.
270. Okribi, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia, near the village
Dzunguri, at altitude 1,470 feet; a cold sulphurous and two alkaline sources,
Which have been capped and are used in a bathing establishment.
271. Oloda, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia ; a slightly
saline source.
272. Onissi, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, at altitude
3,220 feet, in good climate and picturesque surroundings; 2 groups of cold
Sources, alkaline-Saline and alkaline-ferruginous.
273. Otingo, Province of Batum, district of Artvin. Georgia, at altitude
6,250 feet; a chemically neutral spring, temperature 33° C.
274. Oshora. Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a carbonated
Spring.
275. Panakethi, Same district. On the left bank of the Kura River ; a mineral
Source of unknown Composition.
276. Panjurethi, Province Of Kars, district of Olti; a carbonated source.
277. Parsma, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia : a cold car-
bonated source.
278. Peklo, Province of Kuban, on the shore of the Sea of Azoff; a cold sul.
phurous Source.
279. Peniak, Province of Kars, district of Olti; a sulphurous source.
280. Petrovsk, Province of Daghestan ; sea baths, sulphurous sources and
Imud.
281. Plate, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, at altitude of
5,720 feet, in good climate; many cold ferruginous and carbonated sources, some
tasting bitter, Others depositing oxide of iron.
282. Podkumok, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk ; Saline and bitter
SOUII’CeS.
283. Polkovnitchie, Black Sea Province, near Tuapse; a cold sulphurous
spring in a beautiful valley, and 4 miles from it the Morosoff sources, cold
saline-alkaline, rich in iodine; the latter have been capped and are being used.
284. Prishibinski, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran ; 4 groups of sources
spring up in an old forest in a healthy district. They are rich in alkaline Salts
and sulphuretted hydrogen and have high temperatures, between 55° and 90° C.,
and are used for bathing.
285. Promis-Abano, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; a warm Sul-
phurous source, temperature 25° C.
286. Osekupsa, Province of Kuban, district of Ekaterinodar ; several groups
of sources, sulphurous, saline, and ferruginous, cold, and near the station
Rentohevoi there are 10 hot sulphurous, temperature between 41° and 52.5° C.,
which are being used for baths.
287. Pslukh, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia, at altitude 2,340 feet;
an alkaline carbonated Source containing much bicarbonate of iron ; used for
drinking.
288. Pshaveli, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia ; a hot sulphurous
and carbonated source, temperature 37.5° C., depositing chalk.
289. Piatigorsk, Province of Terek; contains a number of warm and hot sul-
phurous springs which are used for bathing, and partly also for drinking. Their
temperatures vary between 28.5° and 46.8° C. A well-known health resort.
290. Rashtchupin, Province of Terek, district of Sunja ; a bitter saline spring.
291. Roki, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, at altitude 4,430 feet;
two cold ferruginous and carbonated Sources.
122 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
292. Rua, Province of Kutais, Georgia; several cold sulphurous sources.
293. Rustavi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik; two mineral springs
of unknown composition.
294. Rutil-Goddos, Province of Daghestan, district of Gunib ; a warm neutral
Source, temperature 35° C. ; very popular with the natives.
295. Rikal-Kam, Province of Daghestan, district of Kurin, at altitude 1,750.
feet ; two groups of alkaline-saline springs, temperature 32° to 36.5° C., and a
third group of hot sulphurous springs. Some of the former are used by the
natives for baths, Others for drinking, and are also bottled and exported to:
Tiflis, etc.
296. Sabeka, Province of Kutais, Georgia; a warm sulphurous spring.
297. Sadgheri, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, 1,180 feet above
sea level; a slightly sulphuretted source, temperature 21° C.
298. Sadjavakho, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgheti, Georgia ; a ferru-
ginous carbonated source,
299. Salian Muds, at Baba-Zaman, Province of Baku, district of Djevat; con-
sist of greenish-gray salt water mixed with slimes and semiliquid muds of a.
temperature of 44° C., through which combustible gases bubble up ; their froth:
also contains naphtha. The muds are used by the natives for baths against
rheumatism, etc. About 10 miles from them a stream of cold alkaline-Saline
water springs from a hill.
300. Sanib, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude 7,290.
feet; several saline Springs of temperature 35° to 55° C.
301. Sarikamish, Province and district of Kars; a carbonated ferruginous:
Spring.
302. Saro, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia ; a warm Spring:
Of 21° C.
303. Sasashe, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia ; an alka-
line ferruginous spring containing Glauber salt and strongly carbonated, tem--
perature 13.8° C.
304. Sasitl, Province of Daghestan, district of Andi ; two ferruginous and
Carbonated Springs.
305. Sinak, Province of Erivan, district of Suramli; a cold ferruginous
spring and several hot sulphurous ones, temperature 37.5° C.
306. Simonethi, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia ; a cold ferruginous,
SOUII°Ce.
307. Siaku, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran ; a cold bitter saline
SOUll'Ce.
308. Sion, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, near Mount Kasbek;
a cold ferruginous and Carbonated Source.
309. Sleptsov, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; a bitter saline spring.
310. Smada, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia ; a bitter saline
Sprling.
311. Soleno-Yar, Province of Kuban ; a saline spring containing iodides and
bromides.
312. Sotchi, Black Sea Province, Georgia ; sea and mud baths, climatic health.
TeSOrt.
313. Senaki, Province of Kutais, Georgia ; several sulphurous springs prob-
ably running through the neighboring beds of Sulphide ores.
314. Stir-Khokh, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude
8,440 feet; a cold sulphurous source, temperature 2° C. 10
315. Sadjuk Lake, Black Sea Province, Georgia ; a lake about half a mile
long and not more than 7 feet deep, the bottom being formed of black mud
with a strong smell of petroleum and ammonia. No accommodation.
316. Sunja, Province of Terek; a warm sulphurous sources, temperature
25° C.
317. Supsa, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgheti, Georgia; a ferruginous,
Spring.
318. Surab, Proviace of Erivan, district of Nakhidjevan; carbonated springs.
319. Suram, *A. Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a summer mountain
resort ; in the vicinity ºmineral sources.
320. Surmushi, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkum, Georgia; a sul-
phurous source, very healthy neighborhood.
321. Sukhum, Black Sea Province, Georgia ; sea baths and very mild climate
which makes it One Of the best health resorts on the Black Sea ; 6 miles from.
the town a sanatorium for tuberculous patients; season October to May.
322. Sip. Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; a carbonated spring-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 123
323. Senna Stanitza, Province of Kuban, district of Temriuk; a cold Sul-
phurous spring.
324. Tabassaran, Province of Terek, near Derbent; a ferruginous carbonated
SOI’IIlg. *
º Talghi, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir, at altitude 810 feet;
several warm sulphurous sources, temperature 20 to 35° C. with abundant
sulphuretted hydrogen, and a flow of 270,000 gallons per day.
326. Tambukan Lake, Province of Terek, district of Piatigorsk, at 1,830 feet
above sea level, nearly 1% miles long, but only between 2 and 3 feet deep ; the
mud at the bottom is extracted for medicinal purposes. On the South shore
of the lake a ferruginous source springs up.
327. Tarikhoni, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia; several
sulphurous sources.
328. Tars-tchai, Province of Elizabetpol. district of Kasakh ; a cold carbon-
ated Spring.
329. Teberda, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; a mountain resort
at 4,280 feet above sea level, with very mild and uniform climate; season
May to September. Near it the Djemaget sources of ferruginous and car-
bonated Waters.
330. Tedelethi., Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia ; a cold
carbonated source, of temperature 8° C. Near it Outflows Of naphtha.
331. Tezeri, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; a carbonated spring.
332. Teikhtengen, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a carbonated
source tasting like the “Narzan * water.
333. Teklati, Province of Tiflis, district of Senaki, Georgia ; a cold sulphur-
ous source, temperature 12° C.
334. Temi-Goev, Province of Daghestan ; hot sulphurous sources, tem-
perature 45° C.
335. Temriuk, Province of Kuban, on Taman Peninsula ; 5 groups of mud
volcanoes, from 20 to 30 in each group; much frequented sea baths, but the
1muds are not used.
336. Terter, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Yevanshir, at altitude 12,450
feet; hot, slightly sulphurous sources, temperature 49° C.
337. Tiflis, at altitude 1,450 feet; several warm and hot sources of abund-
ant sulphurous waters used in the municipal bath ; temperature from 30°
to 47° C.
338. Trusso, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, near Kasbek
Mountain; several cold springs, one carbonated, temperature 10° C. ; at 7,000
feet a similar one, temperature 5° C., and a Suphurous one, temperature 12°
C.; also others carbonated with ferruginous taste, temperature 10° C.
339. Tuapse, Black Sea Province, good sea baths and winter climatic station.
340, Tuslian, Province of Kuban, district Of Temriuk; 5 mud lakes, one
..of which is used for medicinal purposes; it contains iodine and ammonia.
341. Turtchiliaz, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Zangesour, at altitude
16,000 feet; several cold ferruginous sources, temperature 11° to 17° C.
342. Ubin, Province of Kuban, district Of Ekaterinodar ; a Saline-alkaline
-Spring, similar to Essentuki and Borjom waters; also several cold sul-
-phurous sources, temperature 9° C.
343. Umakhan-Yurt, Province of Terek, district of Eislar ; Several hot Sul-
-phurous sources, temperature 40° to 60° C.
344. Umpir, Province of Kuban, district of Maikop; a bitter saline spring.
345. Uraveli, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, at 4,870 feet
above the Sea ; Several ferruginous and carbonate springs which have been
-capted for bathing purposes.
346. Uravi, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a carbonated
-Spring.
347. Utsera, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, at altitude
:3,250 feet; three groups of cold alkaline and ferruginous springs, which are
being used for bathing and drinking. Good accommodation for visitors; Sea-
son July to October.
348. Trafa-tehai, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin; several cold
sulphurous sources, temperature 12° C.
349. Delijan, Provinces of Elizabetpol, district of Kasakh; 6 miles from
the town there are several ferruginous and carbonated springs, of 16° C.,
- producing about 18,000 gallons per day.
350. Khalkal, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Nukha ; a hot sulphurous
: Sprling.
124 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
351. Kharves, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude 8,500
feet; a ferruginous Spring.
352. Khassauti, Province of Terek, district of Naltchik, altitude 5,900 feet;
a carbonated ferruginous spring, resembling Narzan.
353. Khas-Tchiftlik, Province of Kars; a mineral spring.
354. Khakbabo, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold
ferruginous and carbonated Spring.
355. Khakhamati, same district; a hot Sulphurous spring.
356. Kheledula, Kutais Province, district of Letchkhum, Georgia; a cold car-
bonated Spring.
357. Khertwissi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia; two
sulphurous sources, temperature 25° C.
358. Khibeshlu, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin; a sold fer-
ruginous source, temperature 6° C. *
359. Khidirzinde, Province of Baku ; a cold sulphurous source.
360. Khinalug, Province of Baku, district of Kuba, altitude 7,100 feet; a
mineral SOurce.
361. Khipedj, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin, at altitude 5,200.
feet ; a ferruginous Spring, temperature 6° C.
362. Khisso, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a hot alka-
line and sulphuretted Spring.
363. Khikhata, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia; cold fer-
ruginous carbonated and sulphuretted springs.
364. Khnou, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur, altitude 3,000 feet;
an alkaline carbonated Spring, temperature 45° C. f
365. Khoble, Province of Tiflis, district of GOri, Georgia ; a warm sulphurous.
SOUII°Ce.
366. Khozapin, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia; a cold
sulphurous spring.
367. Khomur, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a cold fer-
ruginous and carbonated spring, temperature 16° C.
368. Khonok, Province of Daghestan, district of Andi; a carbonated
Spring.
369. Khosta, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia ; Sea baths.
370. Khudes-Su, Province of Kuban, district of Gatalpash; an alkaline
carbonated spring, temperature 18° C.
371. Tsagveri, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; several cold fer-
ruginous and carbonated sources, temperature 9.6° to 11° C. Health resort,
in a very picturesque position.
372. Tsaishi, Province of Kutais, district of Zugdidi, Georgia; warm alka-
line and sulphurous sources, containing abundant Sulphuretted hydrogen,
temperature 26° C.
373. Tzismta, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia, 4.000 feet above the
sea ; 2 cold carbonated sources, temperature 7° C.
374. Tsemi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; a bathing estab-
lishment for tuberculosis patients.
375. Tsessi, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a sulphurous
Spring.
376. Tsina-Ubani, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia ; several
hot neutral sources, temperature 27° to 35° C., in Very healthy climate.
377. Tsikkis-Djvari, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; several
warm sulphurous sources, temperature 34° C., in a healthy picturesque spot,
7,200 feet above the sea.
378. Tsorkh, Province of Terek, district of Sunjen ; cold sulphurous sources.
379. Tsotskheba, Province of Batum, Georgia ; an alkaline carbonated
Spring.
380. Tsria, Province of Batum, district of Artvin, Georgia; several fer-
ruginous Sources.
381. Tskhalthbila, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia;
warm mineral sources, temperature 22.5° C.
382. Tskhaltubo, Province and district of Kutais, Georgia, at altitude 830.
feet; warm alkaline and sulphurous sources, temperature 28° to 35° C.; total
daily outflow nearly 1,000,000 gallons; used for bathing and drinking; great
affluence of visitors during the Summer and autumn season.
383. Tskhmori, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a sulphurous.
SOLII°Ce.
TNATIONAL REPUBT,IC OF GEORGIA 125
384. Tchagan-Mamet, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha ; a hot sul-
phurous spring.
385. Tchals, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan; a sulphurous spring.
386. Lessevi, Province of Kutais, Georgia, altitude 3,200 feet; several alka-
line ferruginous sources, in a healthy wooded spot.
387. Tchamarda, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan; a mineral spring
of unknown composition. * g
388. Tchassavali, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a min-
eral SOurce.
389. Tchvishipse, Black Sea Province, district of Sotchi, Georgia; a cold
alkaline and carbonated source.
390. Tchemgakhuar, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Georgia ; a sul-
phurous source.
391. Tcherek, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a cold carbonated
SOUIPCe.
392. Tchermuk, Province of Kars, district of Olti; a hot sulphurous spring,
temperature 35° C.
393. Tchermialiur, Province of Kuban, Temriuk district; a warm sulphurous
SOUIFGe.
394. Tchirakh, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin; a ferruginous
Spring.
395. Tchir-Yurt, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt : several hot
springs, alkaline sulphurous, temperature 44° to 69° C., and alkaline ferru-
ginous, temperature 37° to 40° C.
396. Tchikha, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia; a sulphur-
Ous spring.
397. Tchokiani, Province and district of Kutais; several sulphurous sources
of temperature 31° C., which are used for bathing; also sulphurous saline
muds.
398. Tchotchort, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan, Georgia, on the left
bank of the River Kura ; a sulphurous source.
399. Tchthili-Tskhali, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia;
two warm sulphurous sources near the villages Beshathubani and Zwari.
400. Tchumathelethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, near the
town Suram ; a cold sulphurous source used by the inhabitants.
401. Tchakhriani, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia; two sul-
phurous springs.
402. Sharmiani, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushethi, Georgia, on River
Aragvi, near the Station Mlethi of the Georgian Military Road; a sulphurous
Spring.
403. Shatili, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia ; a cold car-
bonated Source.
404. Shirvan, district of Maikop, in Kuban Province ; cold ferruginous car-
bonated and sulphurous sources. --
405. Shir-Shri, near Salyani, on the Caspian Sea ; a saline spring.
406. Shistapi, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol, at altitude 4,590
feet; a Carbonāted Spring.
407. Shikhliar, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Zangesour; a carbonated
Spring.
408. Showy, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, near the village
Gloli ; cold ferruginous and carbonated Sources; a Sanatorium has been opened
here surrounded by pine forests and in beautiful climate.
409. Dzegoba, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Georgia ; a saline spring
On the left bank of the River Bzip.
410. Stawler, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia, on the right
bank of the River Inguri ; a cold carbonated spring.
411. Shurdini, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a fer-
ruginous carbonated source.
412. Edissi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, at altitude 6,360
feet on the right bank of the River Liakhvi ; a cold carbonated spring, tempera-
ture 8° C.
413. Elssu, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran ; a carbonated spring.
414. Erimani, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia ; a ferruginous
carbonated SOurce. *
415. Yatag-Tchai, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur; a carbonated
spring.
126 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Out of 415 Springs enumerated above and registered in the whole of Cau-
casia more than half are on the Georgian territory, and if further scientific
fººtions are carried out, the number of springs will undoubtedly yet
Il Crea.Se. * {
All the mineral Springs on the Georgian territory are State property, and
therefore their development and organization will undoubtedly be a consider-
able source of revenue for Georgia and profitable for foreign capital which
may be employed in that direction.
PART IV. WATER POWER
As Caucasia is divided by one of the highest mountain chains of the globe,
at several points covered by eternal snows, its great number of rivers and streams,
shown by the map, might only be expected, and if nature has dealt parsimo-
niously with the country with regard to coal, it has lavishly made up this defi-
ciency by substituting water power as an inexhaustible source of energy.
Through the position of the country between the two seas the length of its
rivers is somewhat limited, the longest one, the Kura, attaining 825 miles, while
the Kuban and Terek run for about 300 and 400 miles, respectively. But their
fall is considerable, amounting in many places to rapids, and waterfalls of the
smaller streams are also very numerous.
Occasions for the erection of hydraulic power stations are therefore to be
found in almost every part of the country. The River Kura, between Tiflis
and Piras, in Georgia, has a fall of about 300 meters and could give 300,000
horsepower by using only 100 cubic meters of its water per second. In the
northern Caucasus the River Kuban could produce 175,000 horsepower on 350
meters fall between Batalpash and Kavkas Station, and a further 45,000 horse-
power between the latter station and Ekaterinodar. These figures result from
superficial and incomplete investigations only and do not consider the many
other smaller rivers and affluents which in their higher reaches have considerable
falls and abudance of water all the year round.
Unfortunately this natural store of energy has scarcely been tapped, prin-
cipally through the lethargy of the former Russian Government, which did
not initiate a single hydraulic enterprise either for private or public purposes.
The power and light installations now existing in the country are all due to
#. capital, which is insufficient for the proper development of this kind of
Industry.
Hydraulic establishments generating electric current for light and power exist
now at the following, places:
In the northern Caucasus near the station “Mineral Waters,” a power station
of 1,000 horsepower.
In Georgia: f
Tiflis, the capital, possesses 18 electric stations and substations, the largest
ones belonging to the Belgian Tramway Co. and to the Georgian nobility.
Gori electric station belongs to Prince I. G. Amilakvari.
Rutais has two stations on the Rion River, for power and light.
Adjamethi, near Kutais, Borjom, Akhaltzik, and Akhalkalaki have local sta-
tions for lighting.
Batum is provided with current from a station built about 10 miles distant in
the Tchorokh valley.
Of the Georgian coast towns, Sukhum possesses a station of 600 horsepower
about 4 miles inland; New Athos and the climatic station Gagri are also provided
with current, the latter from the River Jokvara.
Considering the strenuous efforts made in other countries possessing water
power to utilize it for modern industrial purposes, the above enumeration makes
a poor comparison, which must be laid at the door of the former Russian Gov-
ernment.
1 These figures were compiled in 1919. The best information available is from Reginald Aubrey Fes-
senden’s The Deluged Civilization of the Caucasus Isthmus, published in 1923, the writer of which was
the engineering commissioner for the Ontario Niagara Falls Power Commission. On page 84 is the fol-
lowing statement: & tº
“The Caucasus is better provided with power than any other place in the world. The principal sources
8T6: º
“1. Hydraulic, from the melting of the glaciers and rainfall, 120,000,000 horsepower. p.
“2. Hydraulic, from flow equal to evaporation, from Black Sea to Caspian Basin, 5,000,000 horsepower.”
\ }
º «
DARIEL PASS AND TEREK RIVER, GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 127
A more ambitious project was worked out a few years ago by an English
engineer who proposed to supply the greater part of Caucasia with electrical
current from two generating stations of large dimensions, one of them situated
near the Kasbek Mountain and the other in the south, near Lake Gokcha, for
which purpose concessions were granted to him in 1912.
The Kasbek power plant was to utilize the upper Terek River near the Georgian
Military Road, where abundant water and a considerable fall were to produce
40,000 kilowatts, while the water from the lake was to be conducted to the second
plant by means of a pipe of 4 miles in length and producing a fall of 2,400 feet.
By means of these two installations and a network of conductors covering the
whole country high-tension current for light and power was to be supplied to
the railways, tramways, ports, factories, mines, municipalities, etc. Unfor-
tunately the execution of this great plan could not be started within the stipulated
time, and the concession lapsed; but in view of the general search for cheap power
and current, specially also for the electrochemical industry, it is quite certain
that some similar project will soon be taken up again.
Many chemical and metallurgical industries have in recent years made enor-
mous strides with the aid of electricity, and the countries where current can be
produced cheaply, like Scandinavia, Switzerland, French Alps, etc., have greatly
profited by the modern exploitations erected on their rapid rivers.
There is no doubt that the unmeasured possibilities of Caucasia will be utilized
in a similar manner, specially for the manufacture of ferro-manganese, calcium
carbide, and nitrogen compounds for fertilizers, etc., for which the raw materials
are ready in the country.
It has also been found elsewhere that, where cheap electric current is available,
all sorts of small local industries spring up, and this will undoubtedly also be the
case in Georgia, which hitherto has been more an agricultural than an industrial
country.
Cheap power will also be of particular importance for the southeastern low-
lying parts of Caucasia, where large tracts of otherwise suitable lands can not be
cultivated for lack of water, and where irrigation will bring forth fertile crops of
cereals, rice, cotton, etc.
Situated in a region quite mountainous, where the summits are covered with
snow and glaciers, Georgia possesses torrents and waterfalls which at their
lowest flow in winter can produce nearly 2,500,000 horsepower and in summer
over 4,000,000 horsepower.
A special State hydraulic department exists in Tiflis (capital of Georgia), which
supervises the whole utilization of water power on Georgian territory.
PART V. THE GEORGIAN MANGANESE INDUSTRY
ITS DEVELOPMENT AND WORLD IMPORTANCE
Manganese is a metal closely related to iron and resembling it in aspect,
texture, and specific weight. In nature it does not exist in the metallic state,
but mostly as oxidized ores, hydrated or containing also other elements.
The principal ones are the following:
1. Polianite is the pure peroxide of manganese, containing 63.2 per cent of the
metal.
2. Pyrolusite, a crystalline peroxide of manganese containing more or less
water, and from 60. to 63.2 per cent of metallic manganese in its pure state.
3. Psilomelane, also a hydrated peroxide of manganese, amorphous, partly
combined with potassium or barium, and containing from 45 to 60 per cent of
metallic manganese.
4. Manganite is a hydrated sesquioxide of manganese, containing in its pure
state 62.4 per cent of metallic manganese.
5. Braunite is a combination of the monoxide and sesquioxide of manganese
with some silica, and contains up to 69 per cent of metallic manganese.
All these ores are black or dark brown, or grayish and often crystalline. They
are found in many places, but only in a few of them do they exist in quantities
large enough for commercial exploitation. Manganiferous iron ores are of great
importance in the United States, but the world’s consumption of manganese
ores, which before the war had risen to between one and one-half and two million
tons per year, is almost exclusively covered by three countries—Georgia, India,
and Brazil, the first one of which interests us specially here.
96153—26—9
128 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
THE ORE DEPOSITs
The Georgian manganese deposits are situated in the Caucasus, near Tchiaturi,
in the valley of the River Kvirila, an affiuent of the Rion, about 40 miles east of
Kutais, in the Province of the same name.
The Kvirila River divides the deposits into two principal parts, which are again
crossed by the numerous tributaries of the river, forming seven plateaux, viz,
Rgani, Sedargani, Mgvemevi, and Darkveti on the right bank, and Perevisi,
Shucruti, and Itkhrvision the left bank.
The total area of ore-bearing lands is about 400 square miles, of which one-half
contains good ore; and the quantity of ore available for exploitation is estimated
at about 200,000,000 tons, so that at the present rate of extraction there is enough
material in the deposits for more than a century.
The outcrops of the ore are situated at about 1,000 feet above the Kvirila River,
and are visible on the steep, almost vertical sides of the hills, as well as in the nar-
row and tortuous side valleys.
The deposits are of a sedimentary formation. The ore is stratified in successive
layers of a thickness varying between 6 inches and about 30 inches, making a
total thickness of from 2 to 3 yards. These strata of ore are separated by beds
of eocene sands. The whole formation is horizontal, with a slight inclination
toward northeast. It reposes on limestone, while the roof is formed by sand-
stone. The lowest layers of ore lying directly on the limestone and having
usually a thickness of from 8 to 12 inches, consists of the purest peroxide of man-
gamese, while the highest strata are often of a reddish-brown color near contact
with the overlying sandstone, and give the lowest assays; but in general about
one-third of the ore, as it comes from the mines, is directly suitable for the market.
Geologically, the formation of the ore beds must have taken place by pre-
cipitation from running waters, the thinner strata being deposited by quickly
moving water, while the thicker ones would have been formed more quietly, while
the sands were brought along during the intervening periods. At all events, the
incrustations found in the beds prove that the deposition of the minerals must
have taken place in a sea or lake of somewhat brackish water, probably on the
shore of a shallow bay, where the currents often changed.
The ore is pyrolusite, partly of crystalline fibrous structure of somewhat
grayish-black metallic luster, partly amorphous of dull black or brownish-black
aspect. It forms compact and rather hard masses in the continuous beds, and
also occurs in granular (oolitic) form mixed with the sandstone, or in more friable
masses mixed with the strata of sand and clay.
The following analyses show the great purity of the ore and the almost total
absence of obnoxious elements.
TABLE I.—Complete analyses of tchiaturi ore samples

|Per cent | Per cent Per cent
Moisture------------------------------- 2, 40 1. 61 1. 20
ilica---------------------------------- 4. 49. 6.67 2.88
Alumina-------------- * * * - 1.68 2, 14 } 2. 34
Iron oxide----------------------------------------------------------------- 0. 53 0.03
Manganese peroxide 85. 67 85. 77 84.90
Manganese protoxide----------------------------------------------------- 1.98 0.80 2. 50
Lime---- - 0.76 0.87 0.33
Magnesia----------------------------------------------------------------- 0.20 0.24 0, 32
Baryta-------------------------------------------------------------------- (), 88 0.68 3. Il
Sulphuric acid- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 19
Phosphoric acid----- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.42 0.40 0.35
99.01 99. 21 99. 12
Or
Managnese metal * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = m, sº * * * *m. * *m, as sº me -m ºr sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 55. 70 54.83 56.60
Phosphorus--------------------------------------------------------------- 0.18 0, 17 0, i5
EXTRACTION
As might be expected from the description of the deposits, the extraction of
the ore contained in them does not present any difficulties, as it is only a ques-
tion of driving horizontal galleries along the ore beds in the comparatively soft
country rock. This work can be done with picks and shovels only, no com-
plicated mining installations being required for hoisiting the ore, which is mostly
carried to the pit’s mouth in wheelbarrows or small trucks on rails. The mines
are also quite dry and free from noxious gases, so that no better conditions could
be desired in a mine. The galleries are usually from 60 to 120 yards long, some
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 129
of them reach even 250 yards. . The roof is mostly kept up by pillars of ore of
some 2 yards in diameter, and little timbering is done as pit props are very
expensive on account of high railway freight. -> º º
As mentioned, the richest ore beds are found near the Kvirila River, in the
plateaux of Mgvemevi, Zeda-Rgani, and Shucruti, while in the further fields
the veins get gradually thinner. This fact accounts for the great differences in
the output of the various fields according to the following statistics, showing
the individual outputs during the years mentioned:
TABLE II.-Production in tons of the different fields

1885–1899 || 1904–1913 1913
1. Mgvemevi------------------------------------------------------ 664, 835 | 1,910,073 372,790
2. Zeda-Rgani----------------------------------------------------- 638,042 933,092 157, 080
3. Shucruti-------------------------------------------------------- - 451, 560 799, 137 97, 758
4. Perevisi--- 267,058 546,351 101,984
5. Rgani------- 157,680 518,425 65, 161
6. Itkhrvisi-------------------------------------------------------- 39, 665 70,623 9, 113
7. Darkveti---------------------------- 38,660 388, 758 97,614
8. Halipauri---------------------------------------------- * * 9, 823 17,473 |------------
9. Tabagredi------------------------------------------------------- 5,068 50, 177 13, 145
10. Navarzeti * 3,077 2,742 ------------
11. Sarkvelat-Ubani- 503 126,855 40,000
Total--------------------------------------------------------- 2,275,971 5,363, 706 954,645
About three-fourths of the whole production, therefore, comes from the vil-
lages situated on the right bank of the river, which contain the most important
exploitations.
The number of mines worked in 1895 was 181, containing 379 galleries, and
the average production per mine was 545 tons.
In 1899 the number of mines had increased to 429, containing 820 galleries and
belonging to 290 producers. The record quantity of 550,000 tons mined during
that year, therefore, represented an average yearly production of only 1,900 tons
per producer, and about two-thirds of the actual number of mines produced even
less than this average.
In 1906 the number of mines in exploitation was 443, of which there were 106
in Mgvemevi, 92 in Zeda-Rgani, 68 in Shucruti, 68 in Perevisi, 50 in Rgani, and
the rest in the other villages mentioned above.
The following tables show the number of mines existing at various times in
the district, and the number of galleries in them (generally only one or two),
and further details of the light mining railways working in 1913 for the transport
of the ore in the galleries and from the mines to the railhead:
TABLE III.-Number of mines and galleries

1899 || 1900 1901 || 1902 1903 1904 || 1905] 1906; 1907. 1908, 1909; 1910, 1911 || 1912, 1913, 1914
395 114 268 191 150 206 || 303 192
551 160 332 230 174 281 437 226
Mines------------ | 439 348 225 || 277 || 251 211 202 443
Galleries--------- | 820 715 || 512 || 470 || 415 || 302 || 343 | 688
TABLE IV.-Light railways in the Tchiaturi mining fields in 1913
Column A. Number of mines containing railways.
Column B. Length of railways inside the galleries, in yards.
Column C. Length of railways in the open, in yards.
Column D. Length of railways laid during 1913, in yards.
Column E. Number of wagons.
Column F. Capacity of the wagons in hundredweight.
A B C D E F
Tabagrebi 5 2,637 3, 150 2, 288 88 11–23
Zeda-Rgani--- 22 8, 668 2, 653 4, 538 74 12–16
Sarkvelat - - - 4. 3, 220 1, 773 817 32 16–23
Mgvimevi---- 49 19,938 4, 576 3, 547 397 10–28
Darkveti 8 3,493 1,820 1, 377 59 16
Perevisa---- 14 8,073 2, 126 3, 372 367 13–18
Shucruti-- 27 5,917 1,811 962 52 7–28
Itkhvisi + l 70 58 I - 13
130 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
DRESSING AND WASHING OF THE ORE
, The natural position of the ore beds between layers of sand and clay make it
in most places impossible to extract the ore alone without admixtures of the
latter. The lump ore is picked out by hand, mostly in the open, but the smaller
granules must be separated by water concentration in washing plants.
Primitive appliances for the purpose had been used for many years, as the
Washed 9re easily commanded a higher price in view of its containing much less
silica. . In the year 1910 about one-fourth of the whole exportation consisted of
washed ore, and this quality was mostly exported via Batum. By washing, the
pmixed granular ore can be concentrated up to about 90 per cent of pure pyro-
lusite, containing nearly 60 per cent of metallic manganese, but these percentages
are above the average of actual cargo deliveries, which will usually assay about
53 per cent in the dry state.
As with the increasing demand for ore the more remote mines had also to
be drawn upon, the washing of ore on a larger scale became equally necessary,
and plants for the purpose were enlarged and erected in various places along
the River Kvirila and its tributaries. This increase of the washing soon became
the cause of bitter complaints by the inhabitants of the Kvirila Valley, who
also used the river for domestic purposes, for which the water now became
impossible, as it was polluted by the slimes of the washeries.
Petitions were addressed to the viceroy of the Caucasus, who first made an
Order to locate the washeries in the higher reaches of the river, and later for-
bidding to allow the slimes to run into the river on more than one day per week.
But this regulation could not well be followed, and another idea was brought
forward to place all the washeries near the river below Tchiaturi, and to form
there a large basin for receiving all the slimes. At the same time the overflow
of the basin would be used for generating electrical power for a ferromanganese
factory on the spot, etc.
This project, unfortunately, was not realized, but the question of finding
Some other solution became so urgent that the Association of Manganese Pro-
ducers offered prizes for better proposals. Severl projects were submitted, but
not accepted, principally because their application would have exceeded the
maximum cost of the treatment, which had been stipulated at one-fourth kopek
per pood (about 4d. per ton).
In 1913 the viceroy appointed a special commission to study the matter
again, and the result was an order that manganese slimes must only be discharged
into the river once a week during the winter months and once every three weeks
during the summer months, and that after September 1, 1914, no slimes whatever
would be allowed to run into the river. These measures seemed too drastic to be
enforced at such comparatively short notice, and it was expected that further
time would be granted. The outbreak of the war and the cessation of work left,
of course, the question in status quo, and it will have to be taken up again later on.
In the meantime several further large washing plants had been finished between
1912—1914, and about two-thirds of all the ore extracted was then washed. At
the same time a number of additional washeries were in course of erection, the
aggregate capacity of all installations being sufficient, when terminated, for
washing nearly the whole output. -
The washing itself, even by the best apparatus, causes a not inconsiderable
loss of ore. The slimes from the washing amount to about 50 or 60 per cent of
the ore treated, and consist of about 30 per cent of fine manganese ore and 70 per
cent of sand and clay, so that the actual loss of manganese ore amounts to about
15 or 18 per cent of the original weight of the ore treated.
TRANSPORT
The question of transport has, perhaps with the exception of the last few years,
always been the greatest difficulty with which the Georgian manganese industry
had to contend. -
The extraction and dressing of the ore are comparatively easy and cheap, but
the transport from the mines to the seaports, which was under the control of the
state, was by the latter made into a source of great and excessive profit, while a
less rapacious policy was the obvious duty of the former Russian Government,
in order to foster this most important industry of the Caucasus, second only to
that of petroleum. tº *
The exploitation of the Tchiaturi mines began in 1878, but remained on a very
limited scale until after the Russo-Turkish war, when the Transcaucasian Rail-
way line between Batum and Tiflis was opened in June, 1883. The station
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 131
*
ICvirili of this line is situated at the lower end of the manganese mining field,
near the junction of the Kvirila and Rion Rivers. It formed at the time the
first real improvement making a large export trade possible, but it was far from
sufficient, as the ore had still to be transported for some 25 miles from the mines
to the railway, for which purpose no proper roads existed then on the steep sides
of the ravines and in the narrow side valleys. The ore had to be carried down on
horseback or two-wheeled ox carts; a horse would carry about 360 pounds in
two baskets, while a cart spanned with oxen or buffaloes would take between 1
and 1% tons. The cost of this cumbersome system was very high, and, besides,
it could never be calculated beforehand, as it varied considerably according to the
weather and seasons, and sometimes had to be suspended altogether.
The construction of a branch railway line along the Kvirila River and in the
immediate vicinity of the principal mines could therefore only be a question of
time, and in 1890 a project to this effect was ratified by the Government. It was
to be a narrow-gauge line running from Sharopan Station to Tchiaturi, a distance
of 26 miles. The line was to be constructed and worked by the Government, and
was begun in 1891. The official opening took place in May, 1893, running on a
single track, with wagons carrying from 2 to 2% tons of ore each. The cost of the
line was about £150,000.
In view of later developments of the trade the narrow gauge was a mistake
under which the industry still labors to-day, as it necessitates the transshipment
of the ore at Sharopan from the narrow-gauge trucks of the branch line to the
broad-gauge ones of the Transcaucasian Railway, which operation causes part
of the lump ore to break up into undesirable dust.
While constructing the railway the Government also took measures for the
improvement of the existing horse tracks and for constructing macadamized
roads. These improvements were expected to cause a saving of about 25s. per
ton on the cost of transport from the mines to Kvirili; but such expectations
were doomed to disappointment, and for various reasons the economy only
amounted to about 13s. per ton, the tariff on the branch line being fixed at 15
kopek per pood, or about 19s. per ton, for a distance of 26 miles. This rate is
about 15 times as high as the charges on the other Transcaucasian railways for
the same distance.
Besides, the new line did its work in a very unsatisfactory manner; it was
badly constructed, and certain portions of it were continually being washed
away by floods. The rolling stock was insufficient, so that a considerable part
of the ore had still to be brought down on horseback, and Sharopan Station was
used in preference to those situated higher up in the valley.
In consequence of these difficulties and of the general crisis in the trade, partly
caused by the competition of Chile, and also of India and Japan, partly by the
high tariff charged by the railway, the exporters applied to the Government for
a diminution of the excessive rate, as many had made forward contracts and
were in face of heavy losses; but their demand was not acceded to. The general
dissatisfaction with the service of the railway continued during several years,
Specially as it was found that the Government made a net profit of at least 10s.
per ton of ore carried, which was much more than the producers or exporters
could usually expect. In fact, the whole cost of the railway was actually repaid
by the profits made during the first two years of its existence. Only in 1897 a
diminution of 1s. 4d. per ton was granted by the Government, and later the rate
was fixed at 13s. 3d. per ton, but frequent stoppage and insufficient rolling stock
still hampered the trade.
With the extension of the export another difficulty made itself more and
more felt, viz, the insufficient accommodation in the port of Poti. There were
only three berths for steamers loading from the quay, and almost always a num-
ber of others had to wait for their turn, lying out in the open roadstead, which
in stormy weather is unsafe, so that damage by stranding, etc., often occurred.
The delays frequently amounted to as much as three weeks and more, causing
very heavy expense for demurrage and also stiffer freights, as the shipowners did
not like the port. -
The loading of the steamers was effected by workmen carrying the ore in small
baskets containing about 140 pounds. In this manner from 400 to 800 tons
could be loaded per day, at a cost of 8d, per ton if carried directly from the
ºy cars to the ship, or 1s. per ton if the ore had first been discharged in the
OCKS.
In order to overcome this difficulty some shippers erected accommodation in
the port of Batum for shipping the ore from that port, and several steamers were
dispatched during 1899 in good time. But there is not much room in this port
for ore shipping on a large scale, and Poti still obtained the bulk of the business.
132 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ge
On the repeated petitions of the shippers the rate of transport from Tchiaturi
to Sharopan was lowered to 9s. 3d. per ton in the beginning of 1899, but on the
other hand the sea freights rose against considerably on account of the shortage
of tonnage. This acted unfavorably on the export trade, so that the Meeting
of Manganese Producers decided in 1901 to petition the Government again for a
further diminution of the railway tariff, but this demand was refused.
The accommodation in the port of Poti had in the meantime been improved,
and the number of berths for steamers loading alongside quay was increased
from thee to five, and as the railway also gave a better service most of the steam-
ers could now be loaded directly from the wagons coming from Sharopan, no
stocks or deposits being required in Poti,
Nevertheless, profits of the producers were low, and in 1903 they again tried to
obtain a diminution of the railway tariff from the Government, but with no
better success than before. On the other hand, further improvements were
introduced on the railway, and three new sidings were added on the Tchiaturi
branch which made it possible to bring down 3,000 tons of ore per day to Sharo-
pan, to be transferred to the broad-gauge trucks. Larger ore cars were also
brought into use, carrying about 12 tons, and being more economical. Unfor-
tunately, the strikes of 1905 greatly impeded the transport for some months,
but after their cessation the demand from abroad increased in such proportions
that the railway facilities could again not cope with them.
In 1907 this flowing tide suddently turned, and the traffic on the railway
diminished to such an extent that the shippers could obtain as many wagons as
they wished, while formerly, in the busy years, they had to wait their turn and
obtained wagons only in proportion to the stocks held by them at the railway
platforms, viz, one wagon holding 12 tons for every 320 tons of stock. This
System could now be abandoned, at least for the time being.
In view of the poor condition of the trade the Government at last in 1909
reduced the railway tariff on the branch line to 7s. 4d. per ton, but in order to
compete with the Indian manganese the shippers could only petition the Govern-
ment again for a further diminution. This was done in 1909 and again in 1910,
but the demands fell on deaf ears, as so often before. Many exporters had made
Contracts for 1911, based on an expected greater reduction, and were now hard
hit, and the general cry was that the export trade could only be kept up by a
diminution of the transport charges. The question was considered by the
Tariff Commission in 1912, but as in the meantime the trade had again revived,
and was apparently prosperous, the demand was refused, although the exporters
tried to prove that the high ocean freights swallowed up all the profits.
However, in order to give some satisfaction to the shippers the question of
rebuilding the Tchiaturi branch line on a broad gauge was again ventilated; its
necessity is recognized by everybody, but the execution of the project still remains
in abeyance. The railway authorities also decided definitely to build branch
lines to the mines in the side valleys.
A fall in the sea freights to Europe caused a fresh spurt in the export business
in 1913, and the available rolling stock on the branch line became suddenly in-
Sufficient, so that the old method of distributing wagons to the exporters in turn
and according to their stocks on the platforms had again to be resorted to. This
forced many exporters who had only small stocks to buy ore on trucks at heavy
Sacrifices from more fortunate holders.
In order to avoid sudden rushes, as had now happened several times on quick
improvements of the markets, the railway authorities now offered to unload the
Ore on platforms at Poti and to reload it on wagons for transport to the steamers
when the latter were ready at the quay. By this means it was expected that
more ore would be kept in stock at Poti, thus giving the railway a more regular
traffic.
The year 1914 opened well with low rates of ocean freights, and the trade of
the first six months beat all records, but the declaration of war interrupted this
favorable outlook; the goods traffic was stopped on the railway, and the beasts
of burden used in the mines were mostly requisitioned, so that the work had to
be stopped. Some firms continued it spasmodically, and the railway also an-
nounced an increase of 1s. 4d. per ton on its tariff, but the impossibility of export-
ing any ore rendered all further activities in the mines useless.
Through all the fluctuations of the manganese trade during the last 30 years runs
the continuous claim of the producers and exporters for cheaper railway freight.
The Government could have easily granted it, as it was making enormous profits
on the small branch line of 26 miles; but it preferred its own immediate gain to
the welfare of the community interested in this industry. Another reason of this

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
133
unfair treatment was the fact that several grand dukes were shareholders in the
manganese enterprises working in Nikopol, which district was highly patronized
by the Government to the detriment of the vast deposits of Georgia.
Thus the
transport of ore from Tchiaturi to Poti, and thence by sea to Rotterdam, cost
30
er cent more than that of Nikopol ore by railway to Germany.
ne improvement may yet be mentioned, although it is not due to the Govern-
ment.
In 1912 the municipality of Poti erected a very elaborate elevator for
loading the ore, and after some breakdowns it came into proper working order
and was used up to be beginning of the war.
elevator and in other improvements in the port of Poti belongs to the distin-
guished may
The initiative in the erection of the
European education and very greatly esteemed.
The following tables show the stocks of ore lying at the railway platforms at
Tchiaturi at various times (V), the quantities handled by the railway (VI), the
charges paid on them (VII), the income resulting from the latter (VIII).
Figures after 1914 are not always given, as in October of that year Turkey
entered the war and the mainstay of the Georgian manganese industry, the
exports through the Straits of the Dardanelles, was stopped until December, 1918.
or of the town, Mr. N. Nikoladze, a Georgian gentleman with high
TABLE W.--Stocks of manganese ore lying in Tchiaturi on January 1 of each year
Tons Tons.
1899-------------------- 129,032 1909-------------------- 1, 135, 161
1900-------------------- 300, 355 | 1910–1------------------ 1,046, 161
1901-------------------- 560, 347 | 1911-------------------- 1, 030, 774
1902-------------------- 668, 177 | 1912-------------------- 1, 031, 919
1903-------------------- 454, 129 | 1913-------------------- 715, 564
1904-------------------- 412,081 | 1914-------------------- 507, 403
1905-------------------- 315, 774 | 1915-------------------- 590, 709
1906-------------------- 608,081 | 1916-------------------- 746, 693
1907-------------------- 1, 167, 371 | 1917-------------------- 735, 611
1908-------------------- 1, 525, 661
TABLE VI.-Transport of manganese ore (in tons)
F To sº; F Tº sº;
TOIn aropan rOLI1 aropan
Tchiaturi ; to Poti TChiaturi . to Poti
to Sharopan jºb y to Sharopan ...? ° by
by rail rail W main-line by rail ail * main-line
railway r railway
1899------------ 402,032 21, 548 423, 580 || 1908-------------- 358, 548 28, 246 386,794
1900------------ 492, 362 24, 202 516, 564 || 1909-------------- 600, 339 16,967 617, 306
1901------------ 345, 941 2,849 348, 790 || 1910-------------- 638, 8.19 1,611 640, 430
1902------------ 485,873 4, 402 490, 275 || 1911-------------- 633, 728 2,618 636,346
1903------------ 495, 709 1, 909 497,618 || 1912-------------- 957, 556 1,096 958,652
1904------------ 544, 597 2, 161 546, 758 || 1913-------------- 1, 114, 135 1,912 J, 116,047
1905------------ 381,499 2, 484 383,983 || 1914-------------- 706, 907 ---------- 706,907
1906------------ 526,923 13, 742 540, 665
1907------------ 553,488 21, 871 575, 359 Total.------ 8, 531, 549 147,618 8,679, 167
TABLE VII.-Railway charges in 1913
* Rate
Miles per ton
e te * S. d.
Freight Tchiaturi to Sharopan------------------------------------------------------ 28 7 4
Freight Sharopan to Poti tº º a º * * 120 2 2
Freight Sharopan to Batum------------------- * * * * 128 2 10
Total Tchiaturi to Poti------------------------------------------------------------- 148 9 6
Total Tchiaturi to Batum I56 10 2
Station charges * * * 6%
Unloading at Sharopan 8
Weighing-- 1%
Tax for the Association of Producers--- I 8

134
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
TABLE VIII-Income of the railway line from Tchiaturi to Sharopan—28 miles

Number of Tariff, |Number of Tariff
tonsºried income peº tons jºijl Income perton
Roubles S. d. Roubles S. d.
1895------------ 149, 516 973, 350 13 3 || 1905------------ 381,499 1,852,006 9 3.
1896------------ 149,952 976, 185 13 3 || 1906------------ 526,923 || 2,686,960 9 3
1897------------ 172,000 1, 119, 720 13 3 || 1907------------ 553,488 2, 533, 100 9 3
1898------------ 250, 693 1,632,015 13 3 || 1908------------ 358, 548 1, 740, 609 9 3
1899------------ 402,032 1,869, 450 9 3 || 1909------------ 00, 339 2, 421, 525 7 4
1900------------ 492, 362 2, 390, 187 9 3 || 1910------------ 638, 8.19 2, 574, 435 7 4
1901------------ 345,941 1,688, 192 9 3 || 1911------------ 633, 728 2, 553, 923 7 4
1902------------ 485,873 2, 353, 201 9 3 || 1912------------ 957, 556 3, 858, 949 7 4
1903------------ 495, 709 2,476, 470 9 3 || 1913------------ 1, 114, 135 4, 489, 963 7 4
1904------------ 544, 597 2,643, 799 9 3 || 1914------------ 706, 907 5,446 7 4
LABOR.
In the beginning of the manganese industry there were no miners in this part
of the country, and Italians were imported to start the work and teach the in-
habitants. However, the primitive methods employed were easily learned,
and now everybody works in the mines, so that the Council of the Association of
Producers itself has called it a kind of cottage industry.
The work is usually done by small associations of three or four men, who are
paid by piecework at a fixed rate per cubic sashen (12.7 cubic yards) of ore ex-
tracted and piled up on the floor of the mine. f
The number of actual miners varies between 3,000 to 4,000, but besides these
a great number of persons are engaged in carrying the ore from the mines to the
railway platforms. Many of them carry their own ore, while others are con-
tractors owning numbers of horses, mules, and donkeys, and undertaking to.
carry the ore at fixed rates.
As all this work is mostly done by the small landowners and the native popu-
lation themselves, labor troubles seldom crop up in the industry. Besides, the ,
workmen enjoy the facilities provided by the Association of Producers in the
way by housing, schools, hospitals, etc.
Nevertheless, the district was also affected by the general strikes and troubles
in the Caucasus during 1905 and 1913, and especially in the latter year the
industry was paralyzed by a strike of the workmen during seven weeks in the
busiest summer time. The result of it was an increase of 1s. per ton in the cost
of production at the mines, and incidentally the trouble also helped the Indian
producers to increase their shipments in that year by some 40 per cent.
The following tables show the number of men engaged in the mining and dress-
ing of the ore at different times (IX), their distribution in the various mining
fields during 1913 (X), the wages paid to them in different years (XI), the com—
paratively low number of accidents happening in these mines (XII):
TABLE IX.-Number of men employed in the eactraction and dressing of the ore
(eaccluding transport)
Men Men
1899------------------------ 3, 252 | 1908------------------------ 671
1900------------------------ 3, 702 | 1909–----------------------- 3, 123
1901------------------------ 1, 975 | 1910------------------------ 3, 212
1902------------------------ 2, 212 | 1911------------------------ 2,072
1903------------------------ 2,004 || 1912------------------------ 2, 380
1904------------------------ 2,995 | 1913------------------------ 3,477
1905------------------------ 3, 172 | 1914------------------------ 3, 095
1906------------------------ 5,085 | 1915------------------------ 1, 222
1907------------------------ 4,004 | 1916------------------------ 1,059
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
135
TABLE X-Labor employed in the different mining fields and their production
£m 1913
º Laborers employed in mining and º
Villages # transport Total Production
x- Tom &
&nl= ------------------------------------ 140 23 247 65, 163
Zeda-Rgani-------------------------------- 220 319 225 764 157,081
Tabagrebi------,-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 20 15 56 13, 145
Sarkyelate:Ubani--------------------------- 101 37 9 147 y
Mgyimeyſ--------------------------------- 711 874 613 2, 198 372,790
ParkVeti---------------------------------- 180 £96 80 356 , 613
Perovisa----------------------------------- 120 179 40 339 101,984
Shucruti----------------------------------- 176 170 129 475 97,756
Itkhvisi----------------------------------- 11 18 19 48 9, 113
Total-------------------------------- 1,680 1,797 1, 153 4,630 954,645
TABLE XI.--Wages paid to laborers in the mines
1908 1910 1913
;
Miners---------------------------- per #y- 3S. 10d.------------ 2s. 6d - - - 3s. 7d.
Shovelers---------------------------- do----------------------------- * * ----| 3s. 2d.
Barrow men------------------------- do----| 3s. 2d-------------- ls. 8d. to 2s. 1d-------------- 3S.
Sorters------------------------------- do----| 2s. 6d------------- ls. 1d. to 1s. 8d-------------- 2s. 6d.
Taskwork------------------------- perton---------------------- 2S. to 2s. 8d------------------ 2s. 8d.
TABLE XII.-Accidents in the mines
Number of Number of
Number of Percentage miners in- Number of Percentage miners in-
Year miners in- of miners jured per Year miners in- of miners jured per
jured injured 16,000 tons jured injured 16,000 tons
production production
1905---------- 39 1.23 1.9 1908---------- 12 1. 79 1.7
1906---------- 55 1.08 1.1 1909---------- 105 3. 36 2.8
1907---------- 53 1. 07 1.3 1910---------- 164 5. 10 4.9
EXPORT TRADE



The consumption of Georgian manganese in Russia itself forms only a small
percentage of the trade. It started with about 10,000 tons in 1894, which rose
to about 30,000 tons in 1898, and has since that time fluctuated between this
figure and double its quantity, as shown in Table XVII hereafter.
All this ore is used in the Donetz Basin, which, besides, consumes about 80
per cent of the ore extracted at Nikopol, Province of Ekaterinoslav.
The Georgian exporters do not seem to pay much attention to this trade,
and, for instance, in 1906, when the demand from abroad was very pressing,
several Russian steelworks could not get any supplies at all from Tchiaturi, and
had to send special people there to buy from stocks, which were then forwarded
with great difficulty.
The steelworks in the Urals use local manganiferous, iron ores.
From the beginning of the manganese industry the export trade was its main-
stay, and, in spite of the serious competition which arose in the course of time,
and sometimes overwhelmed it, Georgia had before the war regained her position
as the largest producer of manganese ore of the world.
Internal difficulties had much to do with the temporary setbacks of the trade.
The question of transport and exorbitant railway charges by the Government,
as set out in a previous chapter, gave rise to continuous complaints, and on the
other hand fierce competition between the producers themselves and the entire
absence, until more recent years, of any coordination in the export trade, made
the business often enough a profitless undertaking for the miners. Much blame
96153—26—10
136 NATIONAL REPUBLIC, OF GEORGIA
for this unsatisfactory state of things had at one time to be attached to some
Greek exporters, who, being foreign to the interests of the country, tried to
prevent the producers from combining and kept the prices in a most unsettled
condition.
The United Kingdom was the first importer of Georgian manganese on a large
scale, taking about 40 per cent of the whole quantity exported between 1885 and
1898, when in the latter year Germany took the lead in the purchases.
Prices during that period were generally not very satisfactory for the producers,
and more than once did not cover their cost, although there was then only com-
petition from Chile. Af
In 1898 a more successful period began, the demand for the European and
American markets being brisk and at remunerative prices, which continued until
1900, when the export figures reached a record. But in the following year they
took an unfavorable turn in consequence of the depression of the foreign markets,
which continued for several years. In 1903 the Government was, therefore,
again approached for help in view of the critical position of the trade. Fortu-
nately at the end of 1904 a brisk demand set in again; prices soared up to 31s.
and even 36s. per ton of 50 per cent ore f. o. b. Poti, while, for instance, in 1897
only 24s. had been paid.
The strikes of 1905 scarcely interrupted this prosperity, and in 1906 prices.
stood even at from 44s. to 46. 6d. per ton f. o. b. Poto—the highest figures ob-
tained since the railway existed.
But this unprecedented activity suddenly collapsed in the middle of 1907.
The foreign demand fell off, and at the end of the year shipments had practically
ceased. This stagnation continued until 1910, when the consumption rose again,
even to record figures. But the Indian and Brazilian competition covered most
of it, and the Georgian miners only obtained very low prices, which scarcely
allowed them to make any profit at all. This was largely due to the unusually
high sea freights, and lasted until the end of 1911, when the demands of the ferro-
manganese works suddenly arrived again and caused prices to rise.
This favorable position was expected to continue, although the high rates of
wages imposed by the strikes of the miners made things very difficult for the less
favorably placed mines, but the war and the closing of the Dardanelles made an
end to the prospects as well as to the difficulties.
The ups and down of the export trade are reflected in the stocks of ore lying
at Tchiaturi. While at the end of 1902 they amounted to 240,000 tons, they
rose to 323,000 tons in 1903 and 1904; to 1,130,000 tons in 1906, being over
1,000,000 in 1907. The heavy shipments of 1912 reduced them to 645,000 tons,
and in the following year even to about 400,000 tons. In 1914 the output of
the mines fully covered the quantities shipped, and at the end of the year were
rather higher than a year before.
The average cost of this ore deposited at the railway platforms at Tchiaturi
is approximately as follows:
S. d.
Extraction and dressing----------------------------------- per ton-- 4 0.
Administration--------------------------------------------- do----
Transport to station----------------------------------------- do---- 3 4.
Total------------------------------------------------ do— — — — 7 8.
The item of transport varies, of course, considerably according to the distance
of the mines from the railhead and their facilities and means of transport.
To the above cost must be added 1s. 4d. per ton for rent to the owner, if the
ore-bearing land is held on lease.
The values of the ore per ton at Tchiaturi platforms fluctuated between the
the following limits during recent years:
1908: 6s. to 9s. 4d. 1912: 6s. to 8s. 8d.
1909: 6s. 8d. to 9s. 4d. 1913: 8s. to 10s. 8d.
1910: 6s. to 8s. 1916: January to March, 10s. 8d. to
1911: 6s. to 7s. 4d. 12s. 8d.; December, 26s. 8d. to 29s.
4d.
The selling price of manganese ore for metallurgical purposes is fixed accord-
ing to its tenor in metallic manganese, in silica and phosphorus; the latter two
elements being detrimental must not exceed a certain:maximum. For instance,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 137
de
the American steel works made their contracts for Georgian ore before the war
at a fixed and progressive price per unit of metallic manganese, and on condition
that the ore should not contain more than 8 per cent of silica, nor more than 0.25
per cent of phosphorus. In case of an excess the following penalties were
stipulated:
For each 1 per cent in excess of 8 per cent of silica 15 cents (7%d.) per ton
were deducted, and for each 0.02 per cent, or fraction thereof, in excess of 0.25
per cent of phosphorus a deduction of 2 cents (1d.) per unit of manganese and
per ton was made. Ore containing less than 40 per cent of metallic manganese,
or more than 12 per cent silica, or 0.27 per cent of phosphorus could be refused
by the buyers.
Analyses to be made on samples dried at 212° F., and all moisture found in
the samples as taken to be deducted from the weight.
For ore bought f. o. b. Poti the following, or approximate, conditions are usually
adopted in British sale contracts:
1. The sellers will sell and undertake to deliver to the buyers who accept ------
tons or 10 per cent more or less of merchantable Caucasian manganese ore of
48 per cent average tenor, to be delivered ------ at the rate of about — — — — — — per
month.
2. The price of this ore shall be -- kopek per pood of ore dry weight delivered
f. o. b. steamer in Poti in bulk.
3. The ore shall contain 48 per cent. of metallic manganese when dried at
212° F., and any shipment containing less than 46 per cent can be refused by
purchasers, other tenors to be paid for proportionately. The normal tenor of
silica shall be 10 per cent. with a scale of 3d. per unit and per ton above and below
this tenor, the maximum allowed being 11 per cent. The maximum tenor of
phosphorus shall be 0.18 per cent. All moisture shall be deducted from weight.
4. The buyers have to provide the steamers for transport of the ore and have
to inform the sellers of the probable arrival of the same at least 15 days in advance.
The sellers do not guarantee the turn of loading in the port. The sellers under-
take to load at the rate of 400 tons per working-day, counting from the day of
arrival of the steamer at the quay.
5. Sampling and weighing of the ore have to be effected at the port of discharge
by the agents of the buyers and the sellers jointly, according to the usual rules
and the samples have to be analyzed by the respective analysts of the parties
and at their cost. The average results of the two analyses shall be taken as
basis for the invoice, except if there is a difference of more than 1 per cent in the
tenors of manganese, in which case a third analysis shall be made by - - - - - - which
shall be used for the invoice and paid for by the party whose first result differed
most from the umpire's.
6. The buyers shall pay in cash 80 per cent of the provisional invoice against
the bill of lading in Poti, and shall to this effect open a confirmed bank credit
with a bank in Poti of a sufficient amount and before the arrival of the steamers
at that port. The provisional invoice shall be based upon the weight mentioned
in the bill of lading, a supposed tenor of 48 per cent of metallic manganese and
10 per cent moisture. The balance of the shipment according to the final
invoice has to be settled in cash not later than 14 days from the reception of the
shipment and by check sent to the ------ Bank for account of the sellers. Each
shipment is to be deemed and treated as a separate contract.
7. In case of strikes, blockades, breakdown of railway, interdict of shipping
port, prohibition of export, quarantines, war, act of God, or any other unforeseen
event whatever beyond the control of the sellers making it impossible to ship
the ore, the deliveries and shipments shall be suspended until the cessation or
removal of these obstacles, or for a period to be fixed, and the sellers shall not
be responsible for any damage or otherwise resulting from such causes.
8. The execution of the present contract is guaranteed on behalf of the sellers
by the ------ Bank in London, the sellers being responsible for any actual
damage or loss sustained by the buyers through nondelivery of the ore unless
it is caused by an event or events mentioned in clause 7.
9. Any dispute concerning the execution or interpretation of the present
contract shall be submitted to two arbitrators to be chosen by the parties, and
i. *...* their disagreement they will choose an umpire whose decision shall
€ Illna, I.
138
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
TABLE XIII.--Typical analyses of cargoes

Mºal. Moi Mºl: Moi
IC- OlS- * * * * IC OlS- tº Wº tº
Year manga-i ture Silica Analysts Year manga-i ture Silica Analysts
IlêS& EleSČ
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cemt| Per cent
1910 || 51.009 || 9. 165 || 9, 265 | Pattinson. 1911 || 50, 28 8, 54 -------- Watson & Gray.
1910 50. 67 9.82 |-------- Watson & Gray. 1911 || 51, 24 6, 80 8. 92 Fresenius.
1910 || 49.85 | 10. 08 |_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Fresenius. 1911 || 49, 55 9. 00 9. 30 | Pattinson.
1910 48.83 10. 13 |_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ DO. 1912 || 49.94 9.99 |-------- Watson & Gray
1910 50, 26 10, 50 -------- DO. 1912 || 50. 64 10. 54 -------- DO.
1910 || 50, 45 8.25 9. 46 DO. 1912 || 49, 98 10.36 |-------- DO.
1910 || 50. 25 10. 55 10, 225 | Pearson. 1912 50.06 7. 69 |-------- Do.
1911 || 49.94 8.85 |-------- Watson & Gray. 1912 50, 37 9. 54 i-------- Do.
1911 || 51.50 8. 87 8, 29 Pattinson. 1912 50. 83 8.96 |-------- DO.
1911 50, 01 7. 40 9. 32 O. 1913 || 49.94 9.99 |-------- DO.
1911 || 50, 39 7.34 |-------- Watson & Gray. || 1918 50.30 10.36 -------- Do.
1911 49.31 6.95 10. 425 | Pearson, 1913 50.34 8. 36 |-------- DO.
The selling price of the manganese ore depends, as mentioned, on its tenor
in metallic manganese, and the quotations are noted per unit or percentage of
such metal. For instance, an ore containing 50 per cent of manganese metal at
10d. per unit is worth 41s. 8d. per ton, less the eventual deductions stipulated in
the contract, as outlined above.
The following figures give the highest and lowest prices per unit quoted in
London in recent years for 50 per cent Indian ore, in pence:
1899: 10 to 12% d. 1910: 9% to 8%d.
1900: 12 to 13Cl. 1911: 8% to 10d.
1901: 9 to 11%d. 1912:9 to 13%d.
1902: 8% to 9d. 1913: 13 to 9%d.
1903: 8 to 8%d. 1914: 9% to 11%d.
1904; 7% to 8d. 1915: 16 to 18q.
1905: 9 to 10%d. 1916: 30 to 32d.
1906: 13 to 17d. 1917: April, 36d.; July, 38 to 39q; Oc-
1907: 17 to 10d. tober, 40d.; December 41%d.
1908; 9% to 8%d. 1918: January, 42d.
1909: 9 to 9%d.
Georgian ore, with its somewhat Jower tenor of from 47 to 50 per cent, is paid
from 1d.—2d. less per unit, while the Brazilian ore is still less esteemed. For in-
istance, in the Summer of 1913, Indian ore was quoted 11d. to 11%d., Georgian
9d. to 9%d., and Brazilian 6%d. to 7 d. The war, of course, upset all these
values, and while, for instance, Brazilian ore cost 9d. per unit c.i.f. U.S.A. in the
#ning of 1914, it had to be paid 2s. 4d. per unit in 1915, and up to 4s. in May,
1917.
A detailed picture of the Georgian export trade in manganese ore is given by
the following Tables Nos. XIV to XVIII.
TABLE XIV.-Ea:ports of manganese ore from Poti and Batum according to British
consular reports

From Poti From Batum Total
Year
Tons Value Tons Value Tons Value
Powmds Pounds Pounds
1884---------------------------|------------|------------ 10,000 27,000 10,000 27,000
1885--------------------------- 22, 695 ------------ 18, 702 52,000 41, 397 ------------
1886--------------------------- 35,673 110, 133 18,077 50, 000 53,750 160, 133
1887--------------------------- 49, 519 106,700 11, 600 29,000 61, 119 135, 700
1888--------------------------- 35,830 80, 600 7, 118 19, 789 42, 984 100, 389
1889--------------------------- 49, 106 90, 846 11,492 28,730 60,598 119, 576
1890--------------------------- 120,000 0,000 11, 299 33, 897 131,299 273, 897
1891--------------------------- 80, 016 195,000 5, 222 14, 570 85, 238 209, 570
1892--------------------------- 128, 500 311, 250 7, 730 14, 795 136, 230 26,045
1898--------------------------- 122,692 245, 358 7, 958 18, 167 130, 650 263, 525
1894--------------------------- 144, 310 288, 620 6,991 15, 939 151, 301 304, 559
1895--------------------------- 159, 636 319, 272 4, 324 6, 702 163,960 325,974
1896--------------------------- 133, 365 266, 730 4, 272 7,049 137,637 273,779
1897--------------------------- 166,400 210, 002 5, 157 8,504 171,957 218, 506
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
139
TABLE XIV.-Elaports of manganese ore from Poti and Batum according to
British consular reports—Continued

From Poti From Batum Total
Year
Tons Value Tons Value Tons Value
Pounds Pounds Pounds
1898--------------------------- 262,225 340,892 11,786 19,328 274,011 360, 220
1899-------------------- •y ºr * - - - - 352,245 440, 305 10,040 15,600 362,285 455,905
1900-------------------- sºrº º' -- * * * 373,262 492,387 52,917 79, 366 426, 179 571, 753
1901--------------------------- 263,963 329,953 16, 18,900 279,963 349, 753
1902--------------------------- 387, 100 483,875 91, 321 113,238 478,421 597,113
1903--------------------------- 380, 9 430, 557 59,927 5,031 440,857 505, 588
1904--------------------------- 425,714 527, 141 27,395 31,813 453, 109 560,054
1905--------------------------- 297,025 371,281 16,070 19,927 313,095 391, 208
1906----- * as sº 478,000 956,000 16, 506 ------------ 494, 506 ------------
1907--------------------------- 475, 600 951, 200 25, 150 |------------ 500, 759 |------------
1908--------------------------- 366,600 458, 250 8, 160 ------------ 374,760 ----------- *
1909---------------------------| 544,000 ------------ , 238 ------------ 572,238 ------------
1910--------------------------- 364, 500 ------------ 43, 119 ------------ 407,619 |------------
191] * 442,460 129,233 571,693 ------------
1912 634, 200 ------------ 277,499 |------------ 911,699 |------------
1913--------------------------- 649, 780 ------------ , 900 ------------ 1,079, 680 ------------
1914 : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 415,016 ||------------ 372, 198 ||------------ º #. * * * * * * = = * * * *
1915?--------------------------------------|------------------------------------| 8,700 ------------
1916 3 - sº sº sm - - - - - - * * * * - - - - - - - * * * *-- - - - - - * * * * - - - - - * * 9, 769 ------------
1917 8--- - as as sº tº sº, sº * * - - - * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * - * * * * * * * * * * * r * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * i - - - * * * * * * * * *-
1918 3------ as ºne. - - - - - ºr m ms- sº - - - - - - sº * * * - - - - - - as º ºs ºne º Aº, - a- - - - * * * * * * - - ºr wº, sº m” º - - - - - * * * * * : - - - - ºr sº sº º my ºr - -
16 months.
2 Poti and Batum together.
* No exports because of closing of the Dardanelles.
TABLE XV.-Ports of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons
1899 1900 1901 1902 1903
1. Middlesboro--------------------------- , 241 53, 124 28,932 41,478 39,730
2. Garston-------------------------------- 15,978 18,051 7,950 11, 540 14,960
3. Fleetwood----------------------------- 46,407 33, 897 17,639 49,210 33,806
4. Newport------------------------------- 12, 257 11, 562 17,921 20, 173 7,000
5. Liverpool------------------------------ 4, 759 197 ------------ 1, 500 1, 200
6. Plymouth-----------------------------|------------|------------------------|------------------------
7. Mostyn------- - - - - 77,788 ------------ 3,050 9, 210 16,425
8. Glasgow 500 ------------|------------
9. Hull----------------------------------------------------------------------- * - - -
10. Birkenhead---------------------------- * * * * * * * * * * * * r * * * * * * * * * * ~ *- : * * * * * * * * * * * * g = * * * * * * * * * * * º - - - * * * * * * - -
11. Barrow--------------------------------------------|------------------------|------------------------
12. Gibraltar--------------------------------------
13. Manchester----------------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------
14. Maryport------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|------------
15. London--------------------------------------- -----|------------------------------------|------------
16. Rotterdam----------------------------- 124,975 146, 656 119,350 149,876 134,561
17. Amsterdam---------------------------------------- ,050 ------------ 100 ------------
18. Antwerp------------------------------- 7,900 47,422 37, 739 71,499 85, 604
19. Hamburg - - * * * * 6,611 10,777 12,390 15,497 11, 788
20. Stettin--------------------------------- 7,714 |------------ , 300 1, 14, 500
21. *mden--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22. Marseille - as ºn as - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7,086 18, 610 4, 114 94 12,865
23. Punkirk-------------------------------|------------------------ 6, 281 28,834 9 24, 739
24. Boulogne------------------------------ - - - - - - - - - - - * * * * - - - - - - * * * * - - - - - * * * * * - - - - * * * * * - -
25. Havre---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26. Calais----------------------------- - w - - - - - - - * = ** - - - - - - - 5, 765 6, 660
27. St. Nazaire----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------
28. Bayonne------------------------------------------- , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2,080
29. Pauillac-------------------------------------------------------------------- 2,730 ------------
30. Trieste - * * * * - - - - - - -- * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, * * * * * 2, 200 9,460 097 2,700
31. Fiume--------------------------------------------- 1,800 ------------------------|------------
32. Servoli---------------------------------|------------ 2,600 ------------ 6, 500 17, 545
33. Pola-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34. Livorno--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35. Genoa---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
36. Piombino------------------------------------------|------------------------|------------------------
37. Bologna--------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------------------
38. Naples---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39. Syra----------------------------------------------------------------------- 4, 270 2, 750
40. Constantinople------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------
41. *---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
42. Sydney-------------------------------------------------------------------- 3, 100 ------------
43. Philadelphia--------------------------- 24,881 21, 500 ------------------------|------------
44. Baltimore------------------------------ 47, 112 54, 324 33, 582 3, 141 3,950
45, New York------------------- -4- - - - - - - - - 7, 797 ------------|------------ 556 1, 585
366, 506 424, 770 304, 198 443, 370 434, 448
140
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
"TABLE XV.-Ports of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons—Continued

1904 1905 1906 1907 1908
1. Middlesboro- 16,600 11,301 22,002 42,352 16,804
2. Garston 15,850 12,600 27,403 10,203 38, 540
3. Fleetwood- 32,004 13,451 2,500 9,600 12,900
4. Newport------------------------------- 22,997 15,903 5,750 13, 100 ------------
5. Liverpool 4,400 2,476 10,098 33, 545 9,918
6. Plymouth-----------------------------|------------------------|- 4 *.
7. Mostyn 7,480 10,000 11,600 14, 500 15,450
8. Glasgow - * ºr
9. Hull ------- 5,000 ------------
10. Birkenhead----------------- 5, 500 3,500 sº
11. Barrow-------------------------------------------------------------------- 9,000 ------------
12. Gibraltar -- m º º º 3,500 3, 200 4,500
13. Manchester 9,902
14. Maryport * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 29, 167 31,000 13,603
15. London------ ºr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 = ** - - - - - - - - - - * * *
16. Rotterdam----------------------------- 164,762 122, 279 212,307 206, 196 157,951
17. Amsterdam--
18. Antwerp 83, 621 35,358 33,515 6,787 54,930
19. Hamburg------- 12, 572 14,614 14,016 15, 407 11,097
20. Stettin------- 21,950 6,600 ------------ 12, 450 4, 500
21. Emden.-- 3,010 * = ** = | * * * * * * * * * * * *
22. Marseille------------------------------ 13, 164 547 9,393 7,096 6,459
23. Dunkirk---- 21,715 2,709 5,000 2,900 ------------
24. Boulogne-- * * sº. 2,600 14,600 23, 232
25. Havre - - - 460
26. Calais---------- 9,806 10,673 ------------ *
27. St. Nazaire.-- sº sº sº sº.
28. Pauillac - -
29. Bayonne-------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------------------
30. Trieste * * * 2,500 7,050 7, 180 37,021 18, 176
31. Fiume--------------------------------- * * * * = * * * : * sº sº mº
32. Servoli 10, 110 2,600 7,500 3,800 ------------
33. Pola-----------------------------------|----- * * * * : * * *
34. Livorno-------------------------------- 4 10 |-----
35. Genoa ------ * * * * * * * * * * * * *m am, º. º. * * * * 10 ------------
36. Piombino---- * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * me m = ma º ºn as sºme
37. Bologna ---------- - - as º f = -s am. * me mº sº man ºme ºn sº sº.
38. Naples---------------------------------|------------
39. Syra---------- * * * *
40. Constantinople ---- 3,323 * 402
41. Galatz *
42. Sydney--------------------------------------------|------------|-------
43. Philadelphia 8, 200 15,750 5,300 * *
44. Baltimore 5,900 ,869 8,430
45. New York 3,749
460,394 301, 613 431, 123 377,771 388,462
1909 1910 1911 1912 1913
1. Middlesboro--------------------------- 37,069 22, 120 19, 206 55,627 76,757
2. Garston--- * - - 24,005 30, 225 64,703 35, 496 65, 410
3. Fleetwood_ _ 12, 720 20, 920 9,819 13,392 3, 580
4. Newfºort----------------------------- 4, 870 9, 450 ||-----
5. Liverpool 7,458 , 000 4, 594 7, 530 5, 850
6. Plymouth-----------------------------------------------------------------|------------ 3, 134
7. Mostyn-------- - 26,054 20, 850 8,952 41, 457 29, 732
8. Glasgow - - * * , 600 *
9. Hull--------------- * : *g * * as as ºs ºs.
10, Birkenhead----------------------------|------------
11. Barrow__ * * * * * * * * *
12. Gibraltar------------ - mº. 8, 109 |------------
13. Manchester--------------------------------------------------------------- 18, 002 33,934
14. Maryport 26, 563 24, 695 16, 747 19, 301 25,007
15. London------------ 583 *
16. Rotterdam- - - - 250, 744 256, 655 248, 578 273, 655 354,634
17. Amsterdam----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l8. Antwerp- - - - - 65,943 88, 654 65, 198 190, 703 180,050
19. Hamburg----- 19,892 28, 795 42, 213 44, 330 51, 389
20. Stettin---- •º sº. tº tº º ºs
21. Emden.-- *
22. Marseille------ * * * 2, 457 7,613 10,495 13, 234 13,978
23. Dunkirk------------------------------------------------------------- =-
24. Boulogne------------------------------ 17,060 30,410 27,678 25, 155 30,492.
25. Havre------------ !
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
141
TABLE XV.-Ports of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons—Continued

* 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913
26. Calais-----. sº nº * * * * s :
27, St. Nazaire_- * * * * * 3,261 9,852
28. Bayonne------------------------------|------------|------------|------------ gº º ºsº • g
29. Pauillac -------------------------------|------------|------------ 3,221 |------------------------
30. Trieste- - - 9, 878 15,765 29,040 24, 726 20,750
31. Fiume--- 47 ------------ 3,566 289 f{}}
32. Servoli--- 18,703 18, 100 11,405 14,477 4,202
* Pola----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
34. Livorno--- 10 ------------------------------------------------
35. Genoa-- ** 12 757 814 * * *
36. Tiombino---- 2,400 3, 101
37. Bologna-- * sº º ºs & 2,770
38. Maples-------------------------------|----- -- * * * 4, 502
39, Syra- - - - -
40. Constantinople- sº º -,
41. Galatz.-- 29 -- as º - i
42. Sydney- * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * *s
43. Philadelphia---- 4, 250 5, 236 ------------ y
44. Baltimore 12, 100 18,076 10, 584 88,911 108,484
45. New York ---- mº &m, º. 6, ,266
539, 185 609,347 581, 150 883, 655 1,051,772
TABLE XVI.-Countries of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons
Belgium #. Holland ; Germany | France
1899 - - - 7,900 132,430 124,975 14, 325 7,086
1900 - - - 47,422 116,831 148,706 10,777 18, 610
1901 - - - 37, 729 77,992 119,350 15,690 10,395
1902 -- 71,499 133, 111 153,976 26,697 37,423
1903– 85, 604 113, 121 134,561 26, 288 46, 344.
1904- - - 83,622 99, 331 164, 762 37, 532 , 685
1905. -- 35,358 71,232 122,279 21, 214 13,944
1906--- 33, 515 25,423 212,307 14,016 17,451
1907- - - , 7 171,597 206, 102 27,857 24, 596
1908-- - 54,933 111,714 157,951 15, 597 29, 690
1909-...- 65,943 142,339 250,744 19,892 19, 517
1910--- 88,654 137,844 256,655 28,795 , 024
1911 - - - 65, 198 124,023 248, 578 42,213 41,394
1912- - - 190, 701 198,914 y 44, 329 41,651
1913-...-- 180,050 243,405 354, 634 51,389 , 324
1,054,916 1,999, 307 || 2,929, 235 396,611 445, 134
TJnited Other Total South Grand
States countries abroad Russia total
1899-...- 79, 790 ------------ 366, 506 42, 579 409,085
1900 - - - 75,824 6,600 424, 770 38, 110 462,880
1901-- 33, 582 9,460 304, 198 44, 974 349, 172
1902- - - 6,797 13,867 443,370 59, 500 502,870
1903--- 5,535 22,995 434, 448 48, 659 483, 107
1904--- 17,849 12,613 460,394 75, 333 535, 727
1905- - - 24,603 ,983 301,613 44, 620 346, 233
1906--- 13,730 14,681 431, 123 67, 198 498, 321
1907- - - 40,831 477,771 63,046 540, 817
1908-- - 18, 577 388,462 , 653 398, 115
1909.--- 12, 100 , 650 539, 185 26,762 565,947
1910--- 22,325 37,050 609,347 29,938 639,285
1911--- 15,837 43,907 581, 150 23,863 605,013
1912--- 94,913 39, 492 883, 655 16, 899 900, 554
1913-...-- * * * * 135, 635 32,335 | 1,051,772 9,959 1,061,731
538, 520 334,041 7,697, 764 601,093 8, 298,857

It must be pointed out that all the manganese ore shipped to Holland is destined
for Germany.
142
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
3. TABLE XVII.--World imports of manganese ore, in tons
1898 I899 1900 1901 1902
Great Britain * & * * * 153,927 257,680 265,757 192,654 231,864
Germany---------------------------------- 128,6 196, 825 204,420 222, 04, 647
United States 114,885 188, 349 256, 252 165,720 235,576
France- 100, 243 106,630 120,790 94, 365 85,629
Belgium 124, 401 150,000 180, 200 123,000 ,000
Austria * 5,395 5,855 7,796 6,367 000
Russia (Urals) y 42, 578 38, 110 44,974 59, 498
658, 118 947, 845 1,073, 325 849,089 984, 683
1903 1904 1905 1906 1907
Great Britain-, 231,864 205, 175 238, 700 338, 423 505, 635
Germany 223, 708 255, 760 262,311 331, 133 393, 327
United States 146,056 108,459 257,033 221,060 268,321
France-- * * * * 75,000 75,000 139,764 127, 615 192,448
Belgium --- 150, 000 150,000 150,000 147,000 120,000
Austria------------------------------------ y 15,000 15,000 14,681 69,774
Russia (Urals)----------------------------- 48, 659 75, 332 44, 620 67, 198 63,045
881, 287 884, 726 1, 107,428 2, 247, 210 | 1,612, 550
1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
Great Britain * 344, 170 330, 690 482,209 538,915 387, 733
Germany * 334, 133 384,445 487,870 420, 709 523, 125
TJnited States-------- 181,054 261, 169 246,226 200,000 300, 661
France- 168, 509 177,814 188,292 295, 396 224, 555
Belgium * º 176,616 94,033 249,258 395, 630
Austria 29,020 44, 970 59,951 78, 790 62,082
Russia (Urals)---- - - 9, 653 26, 762 29, 937 23,862 16,899
Italy-------------------------------------------------- 12 3,915 7, 366 ------------
1, 166, 539 1,302, 478 1,592,433 1, 574, 295 | 1,909, 685
TABLE XVIII.--World consumption of manganese ore, in tons
1898 1899 1900 . 1901 1902
Great Britain------------------------------ 154, 348 258,992 267, 105 194,300 234,611
Germany---------------------------------- 173,856 258, 154 262,436 277,874 261,338
United States------------------------------ 166, 180 232, 701 321,620 296,847 390,568
Belgium----------------------------------- 140, 841 162, 120 191,020 131, 510 174,440
France------------------------------------- 132, 178 146, 527 149,782 116,669 98, 165
Austria------------------------------------ y 21, 504 30, 283 24, 406 22,405
Italy--------------------------------------- 3,002 4,356 6,014 2, 181 2,477
Sweden.---------------------------- 2, 358 2,622 2,650 2, 276 2,850
Russia------------------------------------- 90,994 139, 591 126,946 115,031 119, 245
888, 640 | 1,226,567 1,357,856 1, 161,094 1,306,099
1903 1904 1905 1906 1907
Great Britain------------------------------ 232,682 213,931 253,174 361,549 521, 733
Germany---------------------------------- 260, 564 302,309 309, 658 381, 108 464, 520
United States------------------------------ 253,335 208, 459 357,033 391,881 457, 588
Belgium----------------------------------- 160,000 156, 100 165,000 162,000 120,120
France------------------------------------- 8.1, 5 80,000 146,018 135,060 305,482
Austria------------------------------------ 23,027 30,000 35, 500 35, 734 88,258
Italy--------------------------------------- 1,930 436 y 3,060 3,654
Sweden.------------------------------------ 2, 244 2,297 2,500 2,680 362
Russia------------------------------------- 69,633 188, 128 190,102 148,455 246,050
: 1,084, 998 || 1, 111,660 1,464,369 1,631, 537 2, 108,676


NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 143
*
TABLE XVIII.--World consumption of manganese ore, in tom8—Continued

1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
Great Britain------------------------------ 350,478 333, 502 487,676 363, 902 391,903
Germany---------------------------------- 399,042 456,699 563,919 498,391 608,482
United States------------------------------ 337,296 361,169 396,226 370,000 498,661
Belgium----------------------------------- 107,130 y ; vº. 153,258 y
France------------------------------------- 183,369 186,040 197, 570 242,496 231, 285
Austria------------------------------------ 52, 576 67,920 79, 360 97, 756 78,615
*Y--------------------------------------- 2,750 4,712 8, 115 10,725 241
Sweden.------------------------------------ 4,616 5, 212 2,771 4,448 1, 120
Russia------------------------------------- 143,578 29,690 133,660 208,729 178,357
1,580, 835 | 1,527,830 1,968,330 2,049, 705 2,387,294
FOREIGN COMPETITION WITH GEORGIAN MANGANESE
Of the various countries producing manganese ore only India and Brazil have
to be considered as serious competitors with Georgia for the world’s supply of this
ore. Chile, which in the beginning of the Georgian trade ran it rather closely,
fell out of it altogether in the first years of this century, principally on account of
the very onerous sea freights; and, besides, the exports from that country never
reached 50,000 tons in their best years.
Brazil is a more serious competitor. Its principal manganese mining fields are
situated in the Province of Minas Geraes, in the districts of Miguel Burnier and
Queluz, about 300 miles northwest of Rio de Janeiro, which is the shipping port
for all the ore from this region. The ore is usually pyrolusite, also manganite, of
good quality, containing an average of from 48 to 52 per cent of manganese metal,
3 per cent iron, 1 per cent silica, and very little phosphorus—in many cases only
from 0.03 to 0.09 per cent; but its drawback is its great hardness, which makes it
difficult to fuse and accounts for its usually lower value than the Georgian and
Indian products.
The district of Queluz contains the Morro de Mina deposit, which is estimated
to contain an ore reserve of 10,000,000 tons and produced 200,000 tons in 1915.
It is worked by Brazilian owners, while other mines belong to Belgian and other
companies. The arrangements for the export of the ore are fairly satisfactory, and
the trade is generally prosperous. In 1914 the mining costs amounted to 2s. 6d. per
ton, railway freight to Rio and export duty to 6s., sea freight from Rio to United
States of America to 20s., making total cost of about 28s. 6d. per ton c. i. f.
United States of America.
The American steel works are now the largest buyers of this ore; in 1914, 40
per cent of their imports came from this source, and in 1915 even 90 per cent,
despite the difficulties of freight. During the first 11 months of 1916 the total
imports of the United States amounted to 526,525 tons, about 95 per cent of
which came from Brazil.
The country contains yet other deposits of manganese ore in the Provinces of
Bahia and Matto Grosso. One of them is in exploitation in the former district,
and cost of mining, transport, export duty, and loading on steamers in the port
of Bahia amount there to 11s. 3d. per ton. But probably the largest deposit in
the world known at present occurs in Matto Grosso, near Corumba. It has the
shape of a steep mountain, consisting of iron ore interstratified by several enor-
mous horizontal manganese veins of pure quality and sufficient for the world’s
requirements for several centuries. But the place is difficult of access, and so far
from the sea or a railway that this occurrence will not have any influence on the
world’s trade as long as other deposits can give any supply.
The most serious competition against which the Georgian ore has to contend
comes from India. The good quality of its ores, combined with cheap labor and
railway freights, have often brought the markets price down to a level which
proved ruinous to the Georgian producers, and during the years 1910 and 1911 the
Indian production even exceeded that of the Georgian mines, which formerly had
always kept the first place.
The mining of Indian manganese began in 1892 near Vizagapatam, in the
Madras Presidency; but in 1900 the central Provinces also started exploitations
and now supply the bulk of the exports. The greater part of the ore found is not
144 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA.
§
pyrolusite as in Georgia, but psilomelane and braunite—it is hard and compact,
easily broken, but without forming dust, which is an advantage in the handling
and transport.
The ore is mostly extracted by open-out methods with coolie labor, but later,
no boubt, deep mining will have to be resorted to. The deposits are scattered
over wide areas and their depths have not yet been ascertained, so that no estimate
can be formed of the available ore; but the reserves are not inexhaustible. At
present large quantities of ore are lost and thrown upon the dumps because proper
concentration plants do not exist and it does not pay to ship the low-grade ore.
The cost of mining varies between 2s. 9d, and 5s. 6d. per ton; the railway
charges to Vizagapatam (55 miles) are about 2s. per ton; to Bombay (500 miles)
9s. 6d. per ton, and to Calcutta (700 miles) 13s. per ton. The sea freight from
India to Europe and the United States of America varies in normal times between
16s. and 18s. per ton, or about 5s, more than from the Black Sea; but as the rail-
way charges are low, although the distances are four or six times longer than in the
Caucasus, the cost price compares favorably with the Georgian and Brazilian
ores. Besides, as the assays usually give higher averages of metal, the basis prices
for Indian ore have in recent years always been about 1d. or 2d. higher per unit
than those for ore from other sources. Nevertheless, the shipments generally
tend to show an increasing percentage of phosphorus, which now averages 0.15 and
even more per cent, as the high-grade ores, which were exclusively worked in the
...; are becoming scarce, and the preferential price may therefore in time.
1Sappear.
A typical complete analysis of a sample of Indian ore gave the following results
(by Pattinson & Stead): }
Dried at 212° F.: Per Cent,
Peroxide of manganese---------------------------------------- 66. 357
Protoxide of manganese--------------------------------------- 11. 786
Peroxide of iron---------------------------------------------- 2. 928
Alumina---------------------------------------------------- 2. 847
Lime------------------------------------------------------- 975
Magnesia---------------------------------------------------- . 036
Silica------------------------------------------------------- 8. 100
Potash------------------------------------------------------ . 770
Soda-------------------------------------------------------- . 610
Baryta.------------------------------------------------------ 1. 564
Sulphuric acid----------------------------------------------- . 021
Phosphoric acid---------------------------------------------- . 375
Oxide of zinc------------------------------------------------ Trace.
Oxide of copper----------------------------------------------- Trace.
Oxide of nickel and cobalt------------------------------------- Trace.
Oxide of lead------------------------------------- ----------- Nil
Arsenic----------------------------------------------------- 010
Carbonic acid------------------------------------------------ 900
Combined Water--------------------------------------------- 2. 675
99.954
Corresponding with:
Manganese metal--------------------------------------------- 51. 08
Iron metal--------------------------------------------------- 2. 05
Phosphorus-------------------------------------------------- . 164
Moisture---------------------------------------------------- . 35
In order to show the relative position of the three principal producing coun-
tries and of the other smaller producers we add Tables XIX to XXIV, which
explain themselves. &
They show, at the same time, that the Georgian manganese industry has kept
its own in spite of the rapacious treatment it had to suffer from the former Russian
Government. But if it had been under an orderly administration as the Indian
industry enjoys, its development would undoubtedly have been much more rapid
and rational. Unfortunately, in this as in many other industries the old Russian
régime was a great hindrance.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
145
TABLE XIX—Comparative table of production of the three principal producing
countries (in tons)

Year Georgia India Brazil Year Georgia || India Brazil
1899---------------- 549,234 86,964 |---------- 909---------------- 588,817 642,675 240,774
1900---------------- 651,024 127,814 108,244 li 1910---------------- 545, 800,907 254, 177
1901---------------- 369,428 162,057 105,710 || 1911---------------- 461,855 672, 762 173,941
1902---------------- 418, 147 144,037 163,000 || 1912---------------- 569,758 || 423,464 ,886
1903---------------- 370, 558 171,804 163,319 || 1913---------------- y 674,315 122,300
1904---------------- 26, 7 150,297 208,308 || 1914---------------- 652,354 815, 047 188, 330
1905---------------- 336,717 || 237,767 233,950 || 1915 --------------- 258, 220 | 682,898 288,671
1906---------------- 809, 193 496,697 y 1916'-------------- 247,000 ---------- 503, 130
1907---------------- 658,597 | 898,332 236,778 || 1917 --------------- 201,380
1908---------------- 112,875 674,315 182, 509 || 1918 1-------------- 150,000
1 Sharp decrease in production is due to closing of Dardanelles and stoppage of exports.
TABLE XX.-Comparative table of exports of the three principal producing countries
(in tons)
H
Year Georgia India Brazil Year Georgia India Brazil
1899---------------- 404,410 92,000 74,238 || 1908---------------- 398, 115 509,246 182,508
1900---------------- 462,877 | 130,654 93, 127 || 1909---------------- 565,947 || 467,274 240, 774
1901---------------- 349, 170 133, 170 105,710 || 1910 639, 285 587, 327 252, 564
1902---------------- 502,869 144,037 157,295 || 1911 605,013 || 553,623 173,941
1903---------------- 483,107 || 171,804 161,926 || 1912---------------- 900, 554 621,826 154, 870
1904---------------- 535,727 154,880 208,260 || 1913---------------- 1,061,731 772,366 122,000
1905---------------- y 282,334 224, 337 il 1914---------------- 87.214 ---------- 183, 630
1906---------------- 498, 321 310,446 201,500 || 1915 , 750 418, 733 288, 671
1907---------------- 540,817 | 641, 692 271, 375 || 1916 9,769 580,328 || 1 350,000

1 Estimated.
TABLE XXI.-Participation of Georgia and Ukraine in the world’s production of
manganese ore (in percentages)

G UK sº Nº. G UK lº Nº.
eOr- - || SUIIIlling erº; €OT- - SUIIIling ea. .
Year gia raine | coun- | *. Year gia raine | count.”
tries tries tries tries
1898------------- 30, 13 6, 93 || 21.91 41.03 il 1906------------- 38.21 7, 52 || 14. 13 40. 14
1899------------- 42. 23 7. 46 | 15.56 34, 75 || 1907------------- 26. 06 || 10. 76 || 12. 72 50.46
1900------------- 44, 33 6.05 || 13. 60 36.02 || 1908------------- 7. 62 12.49 18, 72 61.17
1901------------- 30.25 5. 74 20.02 43.99 || 1909.------------- 31, 56 3. 69 12, 93 51.82
1902------------- 31, 53 4. 52 | 21.40 42.55 || 1910------------- 26.42 8. 39 || 13. 45 51. 74
Si303------------- 33. 39 3. 33 18. 37 44.91 || 1911------------- 24, 29 12, 27 | 15, 92 47. 52
1904------------- 29, 34 5. 65 | 18. 15 46.86 || 1912------------- 31. 79 || 13. 28 18, 54 36. 39
1905------------- 25. 14 11.46 | 16.85 46. 54
146
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
TABLE XXII.--World production of manganese ore (in tons)

|
1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
Great Britain------------------------------ 421 1,384 1,348 1, 6 1,278
United States------------------------------ 51, 295 44, 352 65,368 131, 127 154,992.
Germany---------------------------------- 50,062 68,661 0,737 61, 448 . 49,812.
France------------------------------------ 44, 164 52, 186 37,384 22,304 12, 536
Belgium----------------------------------- 16,440 12, 120 10,820 , 510 , 440.
Austria------------------------------------ 21; 455 16,776 22, 949 18,436 21,405
Italy-------------------------------------- 3,002 4,356 8, 2, 181 2,477
Sweden.------------------------------------ 5,3 2,622 2,650 2,271 2,850
Spain-------------------------------------- 145,055 138,419 131,250 112,879 46,069.
Portugal----------------------------------- 90 2,049 2, 200 1,000 1,235
Greece------------------------------------- 15,214 17,600 16,050 14, 166 14,960.
Turkey------------------------------------ 50,050 48,689 38,050 38, 100 2,890.
India-------------------------------------- 64,352 87, 126 127,814 162,057 144,037
Japan------------------------------------- 9,905 I1,447 15,228 6, 298 15,000.
Brazil------------------------------------- 27,441 74, 238 108,244 155,710 163,000.
Chile-------------------------------------- 29,837 40,930 25, 715 31,477 20,
Cuba--------------------------------------|------------ 15,000 20, 582 25, 183 39, 522
Colombia---------------------------------- 11, 176 10, 160 8, 610 700 1,000-
Other countries---------------------------- 8, 2 6,303 22, 169 26, 345 25,000.
554, 354 654, 418 728,652 781, 838 782, 413
Georgia------------------------------------ 262,245 549,233 651,024 369, 428 418, 147
Ukraine----------------------------------- 60,330 97,013 88,836 70,057 59, 747
Total-------------------------------- 876,929 1,300, 664 1,468, 512 1, 221, 323 1, 260, 307
1903 1904 1905 1906 1907
Great Britain------------------------------ 818 8, 756 14,474 23, 126 16,098
United States------------------------------ 107,279 100,000 100,000 170,621 189,267
Germany---------------------------------- ,994 52,085 51, 463 52,485 74,683
France------------------------------------ 11,580 y 11,254 11, 180 18,
Belgium----------------------------------- 10,000 6, 100 15,000 15,000 2, 100
Austria------------------------------------ 23, 205 ,000 25, 500 21,053 23,756
taly-------------------------------------- 1,930 2,836 5,384 3,060 , 654
Sweden.------------------------------------ 2,244 2,297 2,500 2,680 4,334
Spain-------------------------------------- 26, 299 18, 732 26,020 62,822 41, 504
Portugal----------------------------------- 1,000 1,851 ------------ ,000 26, 492
Greece------------------------------------- 9,340 10,000 6,800 10,040 11, 140
Turkey------------------------------------ 49, 100 50,000 28,600 30,000 14,000
India-------------------------------------- 171,804 150,297 253,896 495, 729 898,335
Japan------------------------------------- 15,300 15, 15,000 11,000 10,410–
Brazil------------------------------------- 163,319 208,260 233,950 201, 500 236,778
Chile-------------------------------------- 0, 00 5,000 5,000
Cuba-------------------------------------- 21,070 32,628 24,000 13,997 35, 123
Colombia----------------------------------|------------ 10,000 10,000 ------------|------------
Other countries---------------------------- 20,000 20,000 20,000 15,000 1, 116
702, 282 723, 842 848,841 1, 163,293 1,606, 990
Georgia------------------------------------ 440,857 326,714 336, 717 809, 193 , 596
Ukraine----------------------------------- 37,400 62, 792 153, 524 159,327 271,863
Total-------------------------------- 1, 180, 539 1, 113,348 || 1,339,082 2, 131,813 2, 537, 449
1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
Great Britain------------------------------ 6,308 2,812 5,467 4,987 4, 170 -
United States------------------------------ 156, 242 100,000 150,000 170,000 198,000
Germany---------------------------------- 67, 241 76, 741 80, 325 87,297 92,474
France------------------------------------ 15,800 9,375 7, 925 8,000 10,000
Belgium----------------------------------- 7, 130 6, 270 5,000 4,000 3,000
Austria------------------------------------ 23, 556 23,737 19,694 19, 554 17,067
Italy-------------------------------------- 2, 750 4,700 4, 200 3, 515 2, 641
Sweden.------------------------------------ 4, 616 5, 212 5, 752 5, 377 5, 100
Spain----- sº mº m ºr m = * ame m. m. º. ººm * * * * * * * 16, 945 14, 500 8, 607 33, 266 29, 761
Portugal----------------------------------- 90° ------------|------------|------------ 10,000
Greece------------------------------------- 10,750 5,374 ------------|------------ 4, 750
Turkey------------------------------------ 14, 349 7,700 12, 200 3, 207 850
India-------------------------------------- 674, 315 642,675 800,907 673,762 423, 464
Japan------------------------------------- 4, 6,660 5,496 5,000 8, 632
Brazil------------------------------------- 182, 509 240, 774 254, 177 173,941 154, 870
Cuba-------------------------------------- 1, 49 %976 ------------------------------------
Other countries---------------------------- 1,400 6 1,000 15,000 20,000
1, 198,253 | 1, 150, 016 | 1,360,750 | 1, 205,906 984, 779
Georgia------------------------------------ 112, 177 558,806 545, 241 461,854 569, 758
Ukraine----------------------------------- 184, 117 65, 341 173, 195 233,057 237,978
Total.-------------------------------- 1,494,547 | 1,774,263 2,079,186 1,900, 817 1, 792, 515 .
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
147
"TABLE XXII.-Comparative table of production of manganese ore by various coun-
tries (in percentages)

*Xºrage of . During the *Yerage of During the
10 years, g 10 years, g
ſº | year 1912 jošº year 1912
“Great Britain--------- 0. 53 0.24 || Turkey--------------- H. 22 0.05
United States-------- 8.35 11.04 H India----------------- 30, 01 23. 62
"Germany------------- 3.95 5. 16 || Japan---------------- . 57 . 48
Tance--------------- . 65 . 55 || Brazil---------------- 11.98 8. 64
Belgium * * . 42 . 17 || Chile----------------- 18 --------------
Austria--------------- 1.25 .95 || Cuba----------------- -77 --------------
aly----------------- . 20 - 15 || Colombia------------- • 12 --------------
Sweden.-------------- . 23 .28 || Qther countries------- . 62 1, 12
Spain----------------- 1. 61 1.66 || Georgia.--------------- 27:49, 36.63 3. § 45. 07
Portugal.------------- .42 . 56 H Ukraine-------------- 9. 14 & 13. 28
Greece---------------- . 39 . 26
TABLE XXIV.-World eacports of manganese ore (in tons)
From- 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
France------------- 12, 229 12, 289 8,392 5,647 1,948
"Germany---------------------------------- 4, 809 7,332 2,721 5, 583 4, 528
Sweden.------------------------------------ 3,000 ------------------------------------|------------
ustria * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1,967 1, 127 462 4, 548 6,037
Italy----------- * * * - 2,470 2, 181 ------------
Spain and Portugal.------------------------ 139, 664 140,816 130,716 91,672 68, 500
Greece and Turkey-- 64,420 , 129 58, 52, 266 67,720
Tndia - 62,875 95,225 130,670 133, 170 144,037
Japan------------------------------------- 9,905 9,320 12,699 , 81 2, 625
Chile- 29, 851 40,930 25, 715 31,477 25,000
**------------------------------------- 27,441 74,238 93, 127 105,710 157, 295
Cuba - * 15,000 20, 582 25, 1 39, 522
Colombia--------------------------------- 11, 176 10, 160 700 700 12, 038
“Other countries---------------------------- , 220 6,303 22, 169 26,785 20,000
Total.-------------------------------- 375, 457 477,869 508, 923 493, 733 549, 250
Georgia------------------------------------ 233,359 361,830 424,766 304, 196 443,370
Ukraine----------------------------------- 5,468 20, 107 17,300 10, 129 y
Grand total.------------------------- 614, 284 959,806 950,989 808,058 1,001, 438
From- 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907
France------------------------------------ 5,000 5.000 5,000 3, 635 5, 166
"Germany---------------------------------- 11, 138 5,536 4, 116 2, 510 3,490
Sweden.------ * * *-* - º 'º - º º sº ºn tº º ºr * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2,400 ------------------------ 1,440
Austria------------------------------------ 6, 178 5,000 5,000 ------------ 5, 272
Italy-------------------------------------------------- 2,400 ------------------------------------
Spain and Portugal----------------------- 54, 540 18, 732 38,417 86,676 67,998
Greece and Turkey------------------------ 58,440 59,000 35,400 40,040 15, 193
India-------------------------------------- 171,804 54,880 282,334 310,446 641, 692
-Jäpºn------------------------------------- 3, 258 3, 109 3,500 8,411 , 500
Chile-------------------------------------- 10,000 4,045 2,000 ------------------------
Brazil------------------------------------- 161,926 208,260 224, 337 201, 500 271, 375
Cuba-------------------------------------- 21,070 21,074 24, 0 13,907 35, 123
'Colombia---------------------------------------------- 10,000 10,000 ------------------------
*Other countries---------------------------- 20,000 5,000 5,000 15,000 15,882
Total * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = * = * * * = <= 2* -- - - - sº - as 523,354 504,436 639, 104 682,215 1,068, 131
Georgia------------------------------------ 434,448 460,394 301, 613 431, 123 77,769
Ukraine----------------------------------- 12, 760 17, 170 8,042 68,070 87,949
Grand total.------------------------- 970, 562 982,000 948,759 1, 181,408 1,633,849

148 NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA
&
TABLE XXIV.—World easports of manganese ore (in tons)—Continued

From- * 1908 I909 1910 1911, 1912
France-- es ºf as ºn mº sº, sº sº º sº m sº tº s ºn sº as ºr s sº * * 940 1, 149 722 900 2,270.
Germany * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *m. * * * * * * 2,332 4,487 4, 276 9, 615 7, 117
Sweden------------------------------------|------------|------------ 229 929 3,980.
Austria 787 285 588 534
ſºy--------------------------------------|------------ | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 155 2,400.
Spain and Portugal------------------------ 25,447 14,737 6,321 33,266 38, 534
Greece and Turkey------------------------ 7,600 7,700 12, 200 3, 207 5,600.
India- * * * 507, 633 467,274 587, 327 553,628 621,826
Japan--- y y g 3. , 6
9*--------------------------------------|------------ * * * - gº ºm
|Brazil.-- - 182, 508 240, 774 254, 177 173,941 154, 870.
Cuba------------ - * * *
Colombia * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * r * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * me sº sºme sº wes
Other countries---------------------------- 10,000 ------------ 1,000 15,000 25,000.
Total-------------------------------- 740, 808 743, 568 872,033 796,229 870,763
Georgia.----- `------------------------ 388,463 539, 184 609,348 581, 149 883, 655
Ukraine----------------------------------- 50, 192 62,413 69,472 48, 190 76, 520
Grand total------------------------- 1, 179,463 1,345, 165 1, 550, 853 1,425, 568 1,830,938.
ASSOCIATION OF GEORGIAN MANGANESE PRODUCERS
Eighty per cent of the mines in the Tchiaturi district are owned by a large
number of Georgians who, in the beginning of the industry, began to exploit
them without having sufficient knowledge of rational mining and without regard
to any loss of the apparently inexhaustible ore. As each owner worked for him-
self difficulties soon arose, specially with regard to the transport of the ore in the
narrow and steep valleys, and some kind of organization became necessary.
The Association of Manganese Producers and Dealers was therefore formed,
under the guidance of the Government, and comprising all the producers extract-
ing at least 1,600 tons of ore, and all dealers exporting a minimum of 5,000 tons
per year. It elected a council which convoked meetings of the members from
time to time, as required, at Kutais. The task of the conncil is to organize and
supervise the following matter:
1. The transport facilities by road or mechanical means.
2. The hospital and ambulance provided for the workmen.
3. The insurance of the workmen against accidents.
4. The installation of electric light in the mines and neighboring villages.
B º The installation of the telephone between Tchiaturi and Kutais, Poti, and
at UIIY).
l Several schools and the water supply in some villages were later added to this.
ist.
To defray the expenses of these services the council had neen authorized by the
Government to levy a tax of 1s. per ton on all ore sent from Tchiaturi by rail.
This tax was in 1913 increased to a maximum allowed of 2s. 8d. per ton, but the
association decided to collect only 1s. 8d. per ton from January 1, 1914.
The voting conditions at the annual meetings, at which the managing council
had to be elected, were formerly such as to give the small producers and dealers
an overwhelming majority, and they used it to elect councils in sympathy with their
views and willing to spend the proceeds of the tax for the purpose of assisting
them to compete with the large producers. As some of the latter had installed
mechanical means for transporting their ore from the mines to the railway, the
smaller men wanted to have similar facilities proyided for themselves at the ex-
pense of the whole association. A demand was thus voted in 1910 that the coun-
cil should spend 1,000,000 roubles for this purpose, and also for housing work-
men, etc. The necessary authorization was obtained from the government to
construct, in the first instance, an aerial railway to Metchkevi, one of the more
remote mines, but its execution met with such difficulties concerning rights of
way, etc., and became finally so expensive, that the transport of ore by its means
cost more than by the old bullock carts. As this experiment had given such
unsatisfactory results, it was then thought advisable that the government should,
in future, give these additional facilities. g
In 1913 the association was also granted the right to contract loans, and new
rules were established concerning the voting power of the different categories of
members. Although the small producers were doomed to disappear in the course
of time, as larger capital is wanted for deep mining and the preparation of the
INATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 149
inferior ores, they are still numerous, and to counterbalance their number additional
votes were given according to the output and export of the members for the posses-
sion of a washing plant, etc., so that a large producer can now have a maximum
of seven votes, and smaller ones proportionately less. In this manner the prin-
cipal firms expect to be in a better position to get their own proposals voted at the
meetings, and to avoid useless expenditures.
The association did not hold its annual meeting in 1914, but it levied the tax
of 1s. 8d. per ton agreed upon the previous year. Of this amount 4d. per ton was
returned to those exporters who had concluded forward contracts for 1914 before
the increased tax came into force, but this was only done during the first four
months of the year.
The number of the members of the association is 450, of whom 420 are Geor-
gians and 30 foreigners. The president of the council is Mr. G. Jouruli, the vice
president S. Tseretheli, the secretary J. Bakradze. The association has also a
representative in London, Mr. W. Tcherkesichvili.
The activities of the council extend in many directions. It has constructed 23
macadamized roads of a total length of 35 miles, and also five bridges; it installed
water works supplying 11,000,000 gallons of water, and a large public bath for the
workmen, an electric station with 36,500 kilowatt-hours, a hospital attending to
6,137 out-patients during the year. It also keeps three schools for an average of
500 pupils, and spends 22,000 roubles per year for scholarships. A theater for
workmen entertains some 10,000 visitors per annum.
The outbreak of the war and consequent absence of income stopped the further
activities of the council, and expenditure was cut down to the unavoidable public
services. But, as the above enumeration shows, the association has done very
useful work for the manganese industry. -
PARTICIPATION OF FOREIGN CAPITAL
The Georgian manganese industry was principally financed by the foreign
importers of ore, in the beginning specially British, German, and French. The
mine owners, being mostly small peasants, did not possess the necessary capital
for paying the labor, railway and shipping expenses, and advances had, therefore,
to be made to them. This was done by transferring money to Caucasian banks,
or to agents at Batum, Poti, or Tiflis, who had to pay for the ore as it was produced
and also the charges. Some 80 or 90 per cent of the estimated value of the ship-
ments was thus paid before their real weight and tenor could be ascertained.
This system gave rise to many disappointments and losses, chiefly because in
many cases Greek intermediaries stood between the producer and the foreign
exporter, and did not fulfill their contracts when prices went against them. In
order to exert a closer control many importers, therefore, opened their own
branch offices in the Caucasus. From this position there was only one step to the
actual purchase of mines and manganese-bearing lands, and in fact extensive areas
of unworked manganese lands were bought, specially in 1910 and 1911, by various
foreign firms, mostly Germans. An American syndicate also took options on
many such properties, but after examination by its engineers gave them up again
because they found them insufficient for the large scheme they had in view, and
because the best lands were not for sale.
The chief companies operating in Tchiaturi before the war were the Schalker
Gruben & Huettenverein of Gelsenkirchen, which consumes its own ore, Forwood
Bros. (English), Panassie (French), and the Société Industrielle et Commerciale
of Antwerp. The last-named firm has a plant producing 100,000 tons of high-
grade washed ore per year.
The small and independent producers sell their ore, as before, to brokers, who
stock it at the railway platforms and sell it to the smaller consumers.
When the war broke out the Russian Government sequestrated the proper-
ties belonging to the two German companies and tried to sell them by auction.
Many banking interests were anxious to secure them, and were supported by the
notorious Rasputin; but the attempt was frustrated by the interference of the
Georgian nobility and the Association of Producers, who demanded that the
properties should be sold to them as being on their national territory. The mat-
ter dragged on until the revolution, when the properties were finally secured by
wealthy Georgian petroleum magnates.
The following table gives some details on the number of export firms and their
relative importance,
150 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
TABLE XXV.-Number of eacport firms
[Column A, established in Tchiatur; column B, established in Poti and Batum; column C, number of
large firms of Poti and Batum exporting more than 16,000 tons per year; column D, percentage of the
Shipments of the large firms compared with the total exports]

|
A. B C D A B C I)
Per cent Per cent
1900------------- 25 21 11 1907------------- 29 25 9 81
1901------------- 21 17 8 88 1908------------- 28 18 4 83
1902------------- 21 25 9 79 1909.------------- 39 21 7 85
1903------------- 20 25 k. 9 79 1910------------- 35 20 9 90
1904------------- 21 27 9 79 1911------------- 33 17 11 83
1905------------- 20 23 7 77 1912------------- 22 17 11 97
1906------------- 28 28 13 90
OTUTLOOK FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FERROMANGANESE IN GEORGIA
More than 90 per cent of all the manganese ores produced in the world are used
in the metallurgy of iron and steel, where manganese is looked upon as the
trusted remedy for improving the products of inferior iron ores.
About half of the manganese ore consumed in this industry is fed directly
into the furnace, while the other half is used in the metallic state as an alloy,
principally with iron and some other elements.
Such iron alloys containing up to 25 per cent of manganese are called Spiege-
leisen, and those with more than 25 per cent are called ferromanganese. The
latter is now generally marketed with a tenor of about 80 per cent of manganese
and is made by various processes, mostly in the blast furnace. It is added to
the steel at the conclusion of the process just before casting. Its effects are:
1. The reduction of the small quantity of iron oxide remaining in the molten
metal.
2. The addition of the manganese needed in the finished steel, usually about
0.5 per cent.
3. It minimizes the formation of blowholes, neutralizes the sulphur contents,
and produces a fluid slag.
Somewhat similar effects are produced by the addition of silico-manganese,
which contains from 25–30 per cent of manganese and 75–70 per cent of silicium
and also acts as a disoxydizer. Silico-spiegel contains iron in addition.
The usual quantity of ferromanganese added to ordinary steel is from 17 to 20
pounds per ton of steel produced, or a correspondingly higher percentage of
Spiegeleisen, according to its tenor in manganese.
For manganese-steel castings 312 pounds of ferromanganese of 80 per cent
tenor are wanted to each ton of steel. The product then contains 12% per cent
of manganese and has extraordinary properties of hardness and tensile strength.
These alloys are being manufactured specially in the United Kingdom and in
Germany in the blast furnace, while France makes them in the electric furnace,
using the water power of the Alps. In America the United States Steel Corpora-
tion was the only regular producer until 1915, when in consequence of the diminu-
tion of the imports five or six other companies started the manufacture, two of
them by electric furnaces, the others in the older manner.
Before the war the United States imported more than half of their consumption.
Their imports for the last few years and the highest and lowest prices of ferro-
manganese delivered at the eastern ports were as follows:

Ferro- * * &
manganese Spiegeleisen | Prices per ton
Toms Tom 3 Dollars
1912---------------------------------------------------- 125,373 119, 506 41–65
1914----------------------------------------------------- 119,495 126,081 65–45
1914----------------------------------------------------- 106,083 100,365 36–100
1918---------------------------------------------------- 146, 542 93,282 68-110
1916---------------------------------------------------- 208,389 197, 518 ----------------
In February, 1917, the price of ferromanganese in the United States of America
was from $164 to $175, and that of spiegel from $60 to $65. In April and May,
1917, the ferromanganese rose to $325 and even $450, while in February, 1918,
it stood again at $250.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 151
In the United Kingdom the official price was fixed at £25 per ton in 1916–17
for home consumption and at £35 to £45 for export.
The high prices and increasing demand for ferromanganese have for many
years attracted the attention of the Georgian manganese producers and others
interested in the business and impressed upon them the desirability of manu-
facturing these products near the mines. The advantages of such a course were
; as it would save half the freight and give higher profits than the mining
UlSIIl 6*SS.
A French group of financiers studied the matter first, but as they intended to
work by the blast furnace they found themselves arrested by the difficulty of
finding the necessary furnace coke in the neighborhood of the mines. The coal
of the Kvibuli collieries, situated at a distance of about 40 miles, gives a very
friable coke which easily falls into powder and is therefore quite unsuitable for
blast furnace practice. For this reason the matter was dropped.
In 1902 another project was brought forward by Mr. Gustave Gin, engineer,
of Paris. He proposed to use the electric furnace instead of the blast furnace,
and by this means eliminated the principal obstacle for which the former project
had failed. The fact is that in the electric furnace most of the heat is supplied
by the current, so that the coke is only necessary for the reduction of the ores.
This reduces the requirements in coke to less than a quarter of the quantity
necessary in the blast furnace, which latter amounts to about three tons of
coke per ton of ferromanganese. Also, in the absence of any blast in the electric
furnace the pulverulent nature of the Kvibuli coke is without consequence.
The advantages of this plan were, therefore, according to Mr. Gin, to place
his factory in the immediate neighborhood of the mines and to use the force
of the Kvirila River for the generation of the necessary current. Exact calcula-
tions of the available power were not made at the time, but the necessary 15,000
horsepower can at all seasons be obtained from the river and its tributaries as
they drain a large mountainous area, having a high rainfall and considerable
Snow in winter.
Mr. Gin proposed to use his own patented method for the reduction of the
ore, which consists in smelting it with sea salt and iron pyrites, and the necessary
coke and coal. The salt and the sulphur of the pyrites form together sodium
sulphide, which dissolves the manganese ore at a comparatively low temperature, -
and the metal in the solution is then reduced in the presence of the carbon.
The gaseous products of the reaction are sulphurous acid, which is oxidized
to sulphuric acid in the usual manner and as such used again for converting
the caustic soda produced into sodium sulphide ready for the next operation.
As there is, however, a small loss of sulphur, some iron pyrites are added to
ºnce it. Hydrochloric acid is also produced by the decomposition of the sea.
salt. *
Therefore the production of 1 ton of ferromanganese of 80–83 per cent tenor
in manganese requires 2,000 kilos manganese ore, 50 per cent; 450 kilos sea salt,
60 kilos iron pyrites, 700 kilos coke, maximum; 500 kilos coal for heating.
The products will then be 1,000 kilos ferromanganese; 100 kilos silicospiegel;
225 kilos caustic soda; 500 kilos hydrochloric acid 22° B.
The electric current required for obtaining these products would be 5,440
kilowatt-hours.
Mr. Gin’s project, of which the above is a bare outline, then went fully into
all the details of an installation producing 10,000 tons of ferromanganese per
year, including the hydraulic power plant, electric installation, buildings, land,
etc., which is estimated at a total cost of £155,300. The ton of ferromanganese
was calculated to cost £5 8s., while the usual cost of production in the blast
furnace is between £7 and £8. Including the value of the by-products, the yearly
profit on a production of 10,000 tons was thus calculated at £80,000, while
the enterprise would require a total capital of £280,000.
Although this project was not executed, it is clear that sooner or later the
manufacture of the metal will be undertaken in the vicinity of the ore deposits,
as the necessary power exists on the spot, and the question of fuel can, no doubt,
also be satisfactorily organized. In fact, the Government itself is reported to
have also considered the question in 1910, but it is to be hoped that private
initiative will take the matter in hand.
Whether the process of Mr. Gin be adopted, as outlined above, or the electric
furnaces of Heroult, Girod, or others, as used in the Alps, the profits are always
considerable and the works prosperous. The establishments using the blast
furnace are also in a favorable position. For producing 1 ton of ferromanganese
they use about 1.9 tons of ore, 2.5 tons of coke, and 1 ton of limestone, and the
smelting charges do not usually exceed £2.
152 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
It is also to be considered that much of the inferior ore which it does not
pay to export can be used by a smelter in the vicinity, thus avoiding great loss
and the difficulties caused by the washing plants established on the Kvirila.
Finally, ferromanganese made in Russia is at present protected by an import
duty of £5 10s. per ton. *
PROSPECTS OF THE MANGANESE INDUSTRY
In the foregoing pages we have tried to present as concise a picture as possible
of the Georgian manganese industry, vastly supported with statistical material
for reference purpose. We have demonstrated not only the utter inability of
the old Russian Government to foster this vital industry, but also the methodical
suppression on her part of every effort made by the Georgians to improve the
condition of the trade.
But in spite of all these difficulties the Georgian owners have succeeded in
many ways. Sixty per cent of all the exploited mines were in their hands at the
outbreak of the war, while powerful German and other foreign concerns owned
40 per cent. The Georgian National Bank of Tiflis had opened a branch in
Tchiaturi for facilitating transactions on the spot; also, at the end of 1917, the
Georgian miners had accumulated at Tchiaturi and at the ports of Poti and
Batum stocks of ore amounting to more than the average quantity exported in
normal years, viz, about 1,100,000 tons at the mines and 80,000 tons at the ports.
Concerning the future of this important industry we can to-day only give
vague indications. Thére are many factors upon which its future depends.
First and foremost among them is the future political position of Georgia, which
at present is an independent State, as are her neighbors Armenia and Aberbeijan,
and whose independence will shortly be recognized by the peace conference.
The manganese industry will be a very important source of revenue to the
State of Georgia, and it is quite obvious that without the powerful assistance of
foreign capital these vast deposits can not be brought to the state of efficiency
which will secure for them a predominant place compared with their Indian and
Brazilian competitors. It may be that the State of Georgia will endeavor to
obtain substantial loans for the future development of this business. In con-
ºnection with the important untouched deposits of iron ore in the Caucasus a large
ferromanganese trade could be built up, and it is therefore necessary that the
Allies should maintain a keen interest in this key industry, which would provide
ample material for the shipbuilding and steel industries all along the shores of
the Black Sea.
In the beginning of 1915 the German papers mentioned the discovery of a
substitute for manganese which would enable them to forego the importation of
that ore. No details were given, and it is impossible at present to ascertain the
exact value of such a substitute for the industry and its relative cost; but even
if it should prove of real utility, it would only interfore with the export of the
Georgian manganese ore and could not prevent the development of the steel.
industry on the spot.
All the mineral deposits on the Georgian territory are the property of the State,
and a special mining board with seat at Tiflis is directing the affairs connected
with the mines. The State ownership is much more convenient for working the
mines, by giving concessions to private companies and individuals, than would
be the case if the mineral-bearing land were freehold, as in that case questions
of titles would lead to numerous litigations in the courts and many other dif-
ficulties.
The development of the huge mining resources of Georgia, as of the mining
everywhere, would require the participation of foreign capital, which will have a
very profitable field for its employment.
Since 1801, when Russia forcibly annexed the Kingdom of Georgia, in violation
of the treaty of 1783, right up to 1917, when Georgia regained again her inde-
pendence, Russia has done nothing at all to develop the mineral wealth of the
country; what is more, she prevented the foreign capital from entering this field,
and the Caucasian Mining Board, which under the old Russian Government was
supposed to look after the mining developments in this vast area, had an annual
budget of not more than £2,000. In addition to hundreds of other reasons as
to why Russia has forfeited all her “claims” to Georgia, this gross neglect of the
development of the mineral resources of Georgia stands against her as most
damning evidence.
APPENDIX NO. 2
TREATY CONCLUDED 1783 BETWEEN CATHERINE II, EMPRESS OF RUSSIA, AND
IRAKLY II, KING OF GEORGIA
(Collection of Russian Laws (Vol. XXI, No. 15835), with preface by Mr. Paul
Moriaud, professeur à la faculté de droit de l’Université de Genève, and com-
ments by Mr. A. Okoumeli).
PREFACE
The annals of Georgia antedate those of Greece and of Rome. Since the
fourth century of our era she has embraced Christianism. In the middle ages,
with King David and Queen Thamar, she knew glory. Then came long Cen-
turies of murderous struggles against the Musselman, and We understand
how, incessantly invaded and extorted by Turkey and Persia, she should make
appeal to her big sister beyond Caucasia, professing the same religion. The
Muscovite bear, alas, under pretext of protecting her, extends its paw. On
Georgia and crushes its liberties. We can find in the Russian domination
in Transcaucasia, a “historical" foundation, “political ‘’ reasons, but We can
not give it a “lawful” base. This is plainly shown in the treaty published
here. The Georgia original has disappeared, torn by ruse and Violence from
the hands of the Patriot Solomon Léonidzé. The text, fortunately, remains,
in Russian in the Svod of Nicholas II, in German and in French in the papers
Of the time.
In 1783 Irakly II, King of Karthlie and of Kakhétie—Karthlie is the center
and core of Georgia and is also its real name, as Schwyz is the name of Switzer-
land—concluded with Katherine II, a treaty of friendship (preſſimble), Of
alliance (Articles IV and VI), and of establishment (Articles X and XI), and
of protectorship at the same time. Karthlie renounces only to its international
sovereignty (Articles I and IV) ; its King to take an oath of fidelity to the
Emperor, recognizing in him the supreme power (Article III), and he is to
entertain no relation with neighboring sovereigns without the consent of Rus-
sia (Article IV) ; in return it is assured the protection of the Russian Empire
and the guaranty of its territories (Articles II and III). Karthlie otherwise
retains her entire independence, and Her Imperial Majesty pledges not to
interfere, in any way, with the interior affairs of the country (Article VI) ;
Earthlie even maintains an ambassador at the court of Russia, Who shall be
received “with the same honors as all other ambassadors of the same rank
from other sovereign princes '' (Article V). And this independence is assured
for the future by the formal clause of Article XII, that no change in the
treaty “can be made except by virtue of mutual consent.”
This treaty is the Only one that was ever made between Karthlie and Russia.
But Russia never respected it. During the 17 years until the death of King
George XIII, SOn Of Irakly, she does not protect her dependent ; she leaves her
to fight the Turks and Persians, irritated by this alliance, and allows the taking
and destruction of Tiflis, capital of the Kingdom. Then the King, George,
having died January 22, 1800, she took advantage of the favorable moment,
and, profiting by the hesitations of David, son of George, in mounting the
throne without having received the decree of investiture provided by the
treaty of 1783, Paul I, in a declaration dated January 28, 1801, decided to
annex Georgia, and after some resistance, his successor, Alexander I, Sep-
tember 12 of the same year, proclaimed the reunion of the two countries.
The manifesto of Alexander, that we still see imprinted upon the walls of
the military museum at Tiflis, purely and simply decrees the annexation.
Paul I, in his project,” attempted besides to justify it. He professes “the
solicitude with which he has always been animated for the well-being of the
* See the text in the “Recueil de Martens,” 2d ed., Wol. VII, pp. 313 and 314.
153
154 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
people of Grusinie ’’ (it is the Rusian name for Georgia), and he pretends to
act according to its demands; “the Czar George Iraklievitsch,” he says,
“ seeing the end of his days approaching, had recourse to Our protection, by
the consent of the first persons of his Empire and of the people themselves,
and seeing no other means of salvation, to save themselves from an inevitable
fall and to escape from the oppression of their enemies, they sent negotiators
to beg us to adopt as immediate subjects of the Imperial Throne of Russia,
‘ Grusinie' and the provinces under its jurisdiction.”
Admitting that this step was other than an appeal to the protection promised
and due, admitting even that it was of the character attributed to it by the
Russian Sovereign, it was nothing more than a proposition made to Russia,
and after the death of its author, the king, George, the negotiations should.
have been reopened with his successor David, to arrive at a treaty in good
and due form, which alone could have taken the place of the regular treaty
concluded “for always,” by Katherine and by Irakly, and to which no change.
could be made “except by virtue of a mutual consent.”
The manifesto of 1801 is a purely one-sided act. It is not a treaty but an-
act Of force.
No more so than the consent of the king, whom Alexander I hastened to
deport to Russia with all his family, had the annexation the consent of the
Georgian people. They raised their immediate protestation. In 1802, in 1804,
in 1810, in 1812, in 1813, insurrections burst forth. They recur at different
times during the nineteenth century. And never have the Georgians Ceased,
since the fatal day, to hope for their independence. In solemnly proclaiming
it on May 26, 1918, the National Council of Georgia only repaired the injustice.
Committeed 100 years ago.
No nation is more deserving of its freedom. Nothing unites it to the Russian.
people. Geographically even, Russia ends at the Caucasian Range, formidable-
barrier, higher than the Alps, which separates European Russia from Georgia,
an Asiatic land. The Georgians speak an Original language, with no resem-
blance to the Slavish languages. They have their own culture, their songs and
epopees, their art, their history, and their traditions. They do not desire to
Oppress their neighbors, as they do not claim the territories which they occu-
pied in Olden days, in the days of grandeur and power, they demand only
the simple respect of their ethnographical frontiers, and while guaranteeing"
within their territory the same civil and political rights to all citizens, without
distinction of race or of beliefs, the democratic Republic of Georgia has
declared itself neutral in international conflicts.
The thought could not for one instant be entertained of imposing upon it
any union, any federation even, with its great northern neighbor. No One will
dare try to-day to revive the old treaty of alliance and of protectorship, which,
in an hour of distress, Ikakly II, son of Thémourase, signed, and the
repeated violation of which, by Catherine II and by her successors, has rend--
ered it forever Valueless,
PAUL MORIAUD,
Professeur à la Faculté de droit de l’Université.
GENEVA, October 10, 1919.
TREATY
Since Olden times. the Russian Empire, having the same religion as the
people of Georgia, has served as the defense, support, and protection to the said
people and their sovereigns against the oppression of their neighbors. The pro-
tection of the Russian Emperors accorded the Georgian Tsars, as well as to
their family and subjects, has brought about that dependence which exists
between these latter and the Emperors of Russia, and which is even a right
included in the very title of the Russian Emperors. Her Majesty the Empress
of Russia, who reigns for the happiness of all. has given proof in a satisfactory
manner of her good will toward the Georgian people and of her magnanimous
solicitude for their good by the great effort made by her for their liberty from
the ban of slavery, as well as for the suppression of the ignominious contribu-
tion demanded from some of these peoples consisting in the delivering of youths
and maidens, and she remains well disposed toward their sovereigns. Showing:
proof of this favorable disposition by giving her acquiescence to the demands
made upon her majesty by the Tsar Sérénissime of Karthlie and of Kakhétie,
Irakly, son of Theimourase, who solicits her acceptance together with all his.
heirs and descendants, his kingdoms and domains under the sovereign protec-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 155
tion of her majesty, as well as of his eminent heirs and descendants in recog-
nition of the supreme power of the Emperors of all Russia over the Tsars of
Karthlie and of Kakhétie. Her majesty has graciously consented to prepare
and conclude with the Tsar Sérénissime above-mentioned “a treaty of friend-
ship,” by reason of which, on the one hand of his highness, the said Tsar, in
his personal name and in the name of his descendants, recognizing the Supreme
power and protection of Her Majesty the Empress of Russia, and of her
*minent heirs, over the sovereigns and peoples of the Kingdoms of Karthlie and
Kakhétie, and all the other domains belonging to them, would determine in
most complete and solemn fashion his obligations toward the Russian Empire,
and, on the other hand, Her Majesty the Russian Empress would solemnly
declare which are the advancages and privileges accorded by the generous and
powerful hand of her majesty to the peoples above-mentioned and to their
serene sovereigns.
In order to conclude this treaty, her majesty has given full power to the
serene prince of the Russian Empire, Gregoire Alexandrovitch Potemkine,
authorizing him in his absence to remit his power to a nominee of his
choice; he by reason of this power has chosen for this object his excellence
Sieur Paul Potemkine.
And his Serene Highness the Tsar of Karthlie and of Kakhétie, Irakly,
son of Theimourase, on his side has chosen and nominated as representatives,
their excellencies his leftenant, the Prince Ivan Constantinovitch Bagration,
and the adjutant general of his serene highness, Prince Garsévan Tehav-
tohavadzé.
The plenipotentiaries hereunder named, beginning with the help of God
the preliminaries, have reciprocally valued their full powers, and have con-
cluded and signed the following articles:
ARTICLE I
His Highness the Tsar Of Karthlie and of Kakhétie, in his name as well
as in the names Of his heirs and descendents, forever Solemnly renounces
becoming vassal of anyone or to be dependent for anything from Persia or
any Other power, and by these presents he declares before all the World
that he and his descendents recognize no other sovereignity than the supreme
power and protection Of her imperial majesty and of her eminent heirs
and descendents, and Swears fealty to the representatives of that Crown
and gives his formal promise to give his aid to the Russian State whenever
required of him.
ARTICLE II
Her imperial majesty, taking into consideration this sincere and solemn
promise of his highness, equally gives a guaranty, confirmed by her imperial
WOrd, that she and her descendents obligate themselves never to retract the
good will and protection accorded to the Tsars of Karthlie and of Kakhétie.
As proof of this, her majesty gives her imperial guaranty for the complete
preservation of the actual territories of His Highness Tsar Irakly, son of
TheimOurase, with the further understanding to spread this guaranty also
to cover the territories which may be acquired in the future according to
circumstances, and which will be firmly conferred to him.
ARTICLE III
As proof of the sincerity with which His Highness the Tsar of Karthlie
and Of Kakhétie recognizes the supreme power and protection of the Russian
Emperors, it is stated that the tsars mentioned in mounting their throne.
by right of the law of succession, should immediately advise the imperial
court of Russia of this, asking, by the intermediary of their ambassadors,
Confirmation W.th the investiture, consisting of an imperial decree, a banner
With the arms of the Russian Empire, in the center of which will be the
arms Of the kingdoms mentioned, a sword, a scepter, and an ermine mantle;
these signs to be given, either by the ambassadors, or through the medium
of the frontier authorities, to the tsar, who, on receipt of them in the presence
of the Russian minister, shall solemnly swear fidelity and zeal toward the
Russian Empire, as well as recognition of the supreme power and protection
Of the Emperor Of all Russia, conforming to the treaty here with. This
ceremony to be carried out now also by His Highness the Tsar Irakly, son
of Theim Ourase.
156 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
*
ARTICLE IV
As a proof that the intentions of his highness, in view of a restraining alli-
ance with the Russian Empire, are sincere and that he recognizes the Supreme
power and protection of the serene sovereigns of that empire, his highness
“promises never to have any relations with neighboring sovereigns without
first consulting the first chief of the frontier or the minister of her imperial
highness accredited to him; and when these neighboring Sovereigns send him
messages or letters, he must, on receipt of them, consult the first chief of
the frontier or the minister of her imperial majesty for the return of these
messengers as well as for the answer to be sent to their Sovereigns.
ARTICLE V
In order to facilitate relations and agreements with the Russian imperial
court, His Highness the Tsar wishes to have a minister or representatitve at
that court, and her imperial majesty, in acceding to this desire, promises
that he will be received at her court with the same honors as all other am-
bassadors of the same rank, of other SOvereign princes, and besides, her maj-
esty has consented to having her own Russian minister or representative
remain with His Highness the Tsar of Georgia.
ARTICLE VI
Her imperial majesty, in accepting the Supreme power and protection over
the Kingdom of Karthlie and of Kakhetie, promises in her name and in the
name of her heirs: (1) To look upon the peoples of these kingdoms as forming
a close alliance and perfect accord with the empire of her majesty and, in
consequence, to treat the enemies of these peoples as her own enemies; there-
fore, a peace concluded with Turkey or Persia, or any other power or province
would take effect also in connection with these peoples, protected by her maj-
esty; (2) promises to keep always On the throne of Karthlie and of Kakhétie
the Tsar Irakly, son of Theimourase, and his heirs and descendants; (3) prom-
ises not to interfere with the interior affairs of the country, to take no part
in the executive power concerning the interior government, or in the justice
or imposition of taxes, which remain the complete property of that Tsar, and
to forbid her chiefs, both military and civil, to prevent the execution of given
OrderS.
ARTICLE VII
His Highness the Tsar, in accepting with respect this. demonstration of good
will on the part of her imperial majesty, pledegs his name and in the name
of his descendants: (1) To be at all times ready with his troops to enter the
service of her majesty; (2) to remain in constant connection with the Russian
authorities in satisfying their demands and in protecting Russian citizens
against all offense or oppression ; (3) to appoint them in office and to elevate
them in rank, showing regard for their merits in the same respect as the
Russian Empire, upon whose protection depends the peace and proseprity of
the Kingdoms of Karthlie and Kakhétie.
ARTICLE VIII
As proof of her imperial and particular good will toward His Highness the
Tsar and all his peoples, her imperial majesty Orders, in an aim toward a
close union of these peoples Coreligious with Russia, that the Catholics or the
patriarch of Georgia shall have the eighth rank among archbishops of Russia;
that is, after the archbishop Of Tobolsk, by conferring upon him forever the
title of membre du Saint-Synode. As to the administration of the Georgian
Church and its relation with the saint-synode, this will be taken up in a
Separate treaty.
ARTICLE IX
Also in proof of her great good will toward the subjects of His Highness
the Tsar of Georgia toward the princes and nobles of that kingdom, her im-
perial majesty decrees that these shall have the same privileges and advan-
tages as the nobles of Russia ; and so that Her Majesty the Empress of
Russia may know to whom these titles belong, the Tsar of Georgia shall send
to the court of her majesty lists concerning these personages.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 157
ARTICLE X
It is decreed that, in general, all the natives of Karthlie and of Kakhétie
who wish to establish themselves with their families in Russia, or to go there
and return, may do so freely; as to the freed prisoners of the Turks or Per-
sians or other peoples, by arms or by negotiation, they shall be free to return to
their country, reimbursing only the expense of their liberation ; His Highness
the Tsar promising to do the same for Russian subjects finding themselves
prisoners in neighboring Countries.
ARTICLE XI
The merchants of Karthlie and of Kakhétie have the same rights and privi-
leges of commerce in Russia as all other Russian citizens; and, in return, the
tsar pledges himself to the decree, in collaboration with the high chief Of
the frontier or the minister of her majesty, to grant all possible facilities to
Russian merchants going to Georgia or elsewhere, in passing through his
country, taking into consideration their commercial interests, for Without Such
a decree there would be no consideration of the privileges mentioned for his
merchants. Af
ARTICLE XII
The present treaty is to remain forever in effect. However, it is thoroughly
understood that in the case of a necessity for any change Whatsoever, this
change can not be made except by virtue of a mutual Consent.
ARTICLE XIII
Confirmation of this treaty must be made within six months from the date
of its signature, or sooner if possible.
In witness of the authenticity of this treaty, the undersigned plenipoten-
tiaries, conformable to their writs, have signed these articles and affixed their
seals, in the fortress of Georgievsk, the 24th day of July, 1783.
PAUL POTEMRINE.
Prince IVAN BAGRATION.
Prince GARSEWAN TCEIAVTCHAVADZE.
SEPARATE AGREEMENT *
ARTICLE II
In order to protect the domain of Karthlie and of Kakhétie from all attack
on the part of its neighbors and to give the necessary reinforcement to the
armies of his highness the tsar, her imperial majesty pledges the maintenance
in the domains of his highness of “two complete battalions of Infantry with
four cannons,” which battalions shall be nourished conformably in accord
between his highness and the high chief of the frontier according to a fixed
tariff.
1 The original of the separate agreement contains, aside from the above articles, the
first and third, of which the following is a summary :
In Article I Tsar, Irakly was counseled to retain the friendship and to remain in
understanding with the Tsar, of Iméréthie, Solomon II, so, that their peoples, of like
religion and common origin, shall keep their friendship and their perfect accord to repel
with their united forces all attempts against their liberty, their peace, and their pros-
perity; her imperial majesty promises not only, to congur to this profitable deed, but
to give her guaranty. to this, peace and this entente. . The Tsar Irākly declares, from
then on, in his relations, with the Tsar Solomon, II, to take her imperial majesty as
supreme arbiter and pledges himself to submit, the litigations and, misunderstandings
§ might come up between the two monarchs against their will, to her sovereign
€ClS1OI!. &
Article III says that in case of war the general chief of the frontier has always full
power from her imperial majesty to come to an understanding with the Tsar of Karthlie
and of Kakhétie and to take the necessary measure to assure the defense of the above-
mentioned territories, and to determine the course of action to take against the enemy,
Which shall be considered their common enemy. At the same time it is decided that
if a part of the army of Karthlie and, Kakhétie is placed at the service of her imperial
majesty outside of the territories of Georgia, it shall be treated and maintained on the
same footing as the other armies of her imperial majesty.
158 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ARTICLE IV
In case of war, her imperial majesty promises to do everything possible by
arms, and in times of peace—by persuasion—to obtain the return of all terri-
tories which previously belonged to the Kingdom Of Karthlie and Kakhétie
and which shall remain in possession of the said kingdom based on this treaty.
These separate articles have the same value as the principal treaty and
must be ratified at the same time as the principal treaty.
In witness of the authenticity of this agreement, the undersigned plenipo-
tentiaries, conformable to their writs, have signed these articles and affixed
their seals, in the fortress of Géorgievsk, the 24the day of July, 1783.
PAUL POTEMEINE.
Prince IVAN BAGRATION.
Prince GARSKVAN TSCHAvTCHAVADZE.
On August 20 of the same year, 1783, the present treaty Was solemnly made
public at Tiflis, and in the month of November of the same year, confirmations
were mutually made.
COMMENTS
The preceeding treaty, concluded in 1783 between the Empress of Russia,
Catherine II, and the King of Karthlie and of Kakhetie (oriental Georgia),
Jrakly II, is the Oldest, and in consequence, the most important of the anal-
ogous treaties, concluded later between the Emperors of Russia and the King
of Iméréthie (1804) and the sovereign princes of Mingrélie (1803), of Gourie
(1810) of Abkhasie (1810), and of Svanethie (1833)—that is, occidental
Georgia.
All these kingdoms and principalities, intimately joined together by unity
of race, language, of Christian civilization, and national conscience, formed
since ancient times a single Georgia, or Iberia. We find this fact confirmed,
among others, by the very title Of the Emperors of Russia who called them-
selves “Tsars of Georgia.”
The preamble to the reeaty of 1783 contains the reasons for its conclusion :
After about 2,000 years of in lependent existence, filled with the most terrible
trials and heroic actions, Georgia was finally obliged to yield to historic
necessity and to look for protection from Russia who professed the same re-
ligion. Since the fall of Constantinople (1453), completely separated from
occidental Europe, with which she endeavored always to preserve direct rela-
tions, little Georgia found itself like a Small island in the middle Of a Sea
of mussulmen, whose tide threatened to Swallow it up at any moment.
This is the period which alludes to the secular struggle of Georgia, a
fight of life or death, against her largest and most cruel neighbors; Turkey
and Persia, whose hordes again and again put the entire city afire and, in
bloodshed, transformed the towns and Villages into piles Of ruins, and taken
away each time with them. Some tens Of thousands Of Women and men.
It is during this period also that occurred among other things, the par-
celling of Georgia, until then united, into various kingdoms and principalities,
as Well as the separation and violent islamisation of the entire SOuth Occi-
dental region : Meskhethie and Tchanethie, that is the Provinces of Akhaltzikh,
Akhalkalaki, Batoum, Ardaghan, Olthy, Of Lazistan—the ancient Cradle of
intelloctual growth and Of the formation of the State.
Among the fatal results Of these terrible trials we can cite the enormous
decrease in the population which, from 7,000,000 inhabitants in the fifteenth
century, fell near the end of the eighteenth century to less than 500,000,
while the territory of Georgia was lessened by a third.
Submitting from all sides to the pressure of her neighbors, drained to the
limit, terribly mutilated—such was Georgia at the time when she voluntarily
renounced a part of her political sovereignty in favor of Russia, from whom
she awaited the healing of her Wounds.
I,et us go on to a brief analysis of the treaty of 1783.
It is very useful to distinguish its form and its contents.
As to its form, the treaty satisfies all the exigencies of international Jaw.
In leaving out the clashing of phrases and the pompous style which char-
acterize that period, we find before us a habitual bilateral act, passed be-
tween the legal representatives of the two contracting parties, Russia and
oriental Georgia, who possess equal right, and ratified later by the sovereigns
of both nations. The two parties establish certain reciprocal rights and
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA. 159
accept certain obligations one to the other without restriction as to duration,
while Article XII declares formally that modification of the treaty “can not
be made except by virtue of a mutual consent.”
As to that which concerns the contents. the treaty places in a general
way Georgia under the protection of Russia. This dependence is mitigated
by the formula given by Catherine II which defines it as a “close alliance ’’
(Art. VI.) and names the act “a treaty of friendship ’” (see the preamble).
In virtue of this state of protection, Georgia renounces to the independent
management of her exterior policy. Conforming to Article IV of the treaty,
the King Irakly II “promises never to have any relations with neighboring
sovereigns without first consulting the first chief of the frontier or the min-
ister of her imperial highness accredited to him.”
In exchange, in the possession of interior administration, the treaty dimin-
ishes in no way the sovereignty of Georgia. By virtue of Article VI, Cath-
erine II “promises not to interfere with the interior affairs of the country,
to take no part in the executive power concerning the interior government,
or in the justice, or imposition of taxes, which remain the complete property
of that Tsar, and to forbid her chiefs, both military and civil, to prevent the
execution of given orders.”
As a proof of the fact that the two states establish their relative rights on
a basis of international law, Catherine II and Irakly II reciprocally appoint
in their residences, at Peterbourg and at Tiflis, respective diplomatic repre-
sentatives (Art. V). The same character of international relations stands out
in much greater relief in Articles X and XI, in which Catherine II and
Irakly II promise mutually within the limits of their territories to exercise
protection with regard to prisoners of war, merchants, and in a general way
all those within the jurisdiction of the two states.
Dut the aim of Georgia was to obtain from her patroness, Russia, a solid
guaranty as to the defense of her frontiers against Outside enemies. And,
in fact, Catherine II in promising “ to treat the enemies Of these peoples
(Georgians) as her own enemies '' (Art. VI), “gives her imperial guaranty
for the complete conservation of the actual territories of His Highness Tsar
Irakly, son of Theimourase, with the further understanding to spread this
guarantee also to cover the territories which may be acquired in the future
according to circumstances, and which will be firmly conferred to him ''
(Art. II).
Particularly interesting is the last part of the guaranty, in which Catherine
II promises to annex new territories to Georgia. Which territories could
these be? Without doubt, those of south Occidental Georgia (Akhaltzikh,
Akhalkalaki, Batoum, Ardaghan, Olthy, Lazistan) of which we have spoken
above. This is evidenced plainly in Article IV of the separate treaty, con-
cluded at the same time as the general treaty. “In case of war ”—says this
article—“her imperial majesty promises to do everything possible by arms,
and in times Of peace—by persuasion—to obtain the return of all territories
which previously belonged to the kingdom of Karthlie and Kakhetie and
which shall remain in possession of the said kingdom based on this treaty.”
Thus it is evident that by territories “which may be acquired in future”
With the help of Russia, is meant the provinces which once belonged to
Georgia and which were taken from her by Turkey at different periods.
The question of knowing why these provinces were not mentioned expressly,
answers itself, if one takes into consideration that to name them in a treaty
destined to promulgation, would have been equivalent to a declaration of war
on Turkey, which neither Russia nor Georgia at that time desired.
Later Russia did effect a reattachment to Georgia of most of these prov-
inces: In the first instance, those of Akhaltzikh and Akhalkalaki, by virtue
of the treaty of Andrinople (1829), then those of Batoum, Ardaghan, and
Olthy at the same time as Kars, in conformation with the treaty of Berlin
(1878). As to Lazistan, it remained up to the late World War in the pos-
gession of Turkey, being a part of the Trebizonde Empire.
It is not possible to go into details here about these provinces. It is suffi-
cient to remark that from an ethnical, historical, and economical point of
View, they form an organic and inseparable part of the Georgian Republic,
and that they should be recognized as such by the peace conference at Paris.
In Speaking of the separate agreement, it is impossible to pass Article II
Without comment, by virtue of which Catharine II “pledges the mainte-
nance in the domains of his highness of two complete battalions of Infantry
96153—26—11
160 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
with four cannons.” This measure of precaution was very opportune, and Was
taken on the initiative of Irakly II himself, who could not lose sight of the
fact that the alliance with Russia would result in a new invasion by his
extremely irritated neighbors.
This invasion, in fact, took place soon after the conclusion of the treaty,
and the old King, Irakly II, abandoned by Russia, fought his last and cele-
brated battle against Persia on the fields of Krtzanissy. This battle, While
giving temporary victory to the arms of Georgia, resulted in the plunder and
complete destruction by fire, of the capitol, Tiflis. (1795.)
There remains but to say a few words about the fate of the treaty of 1783
and of its present lawful value.
It must first be stated that the above-mentioned treaty was destroyed With
the most complete dishonesty by the manifesto of September 12, 1801, Which
was published by the Emperor, Alexander I, and which simply declared Georgia.
annexed to Russia. This act, as well as the analogous unilateral acts Which
followed it and which abolished all the rights and all the franchises of the
Georgian people, were altogether contrary to the treaty, and particularly to
its Article XII which established the consentment of both parties as a neces-
sary condition for any modification.
The annexation of Georgia, by Russia, did not pass unnoticed by the Out-
side world; on the contrary, England and France raised formal protest against
this act. Moreover, this act of violation was never approved by any inter-
national congress of nations, and in consequence it remained illegal until the
dismemberment of Russia even, following the last World War. It is besides
not devoid of interest to call attention to the fact that the treaty of 1783
was never formally abolished by the Government of the Romanoffs and that it
figures in every collection of Russian laws without exception.
But, the events of these later days automatically annulled this treaty, which,
at the present time, is nothing more than a purely historic document.
We know that, since the Bolshevist stroke in November, 1917, Russian
power ceased to exist in Georgia. It disappeared, not only because Georgia
did not recognize the domination of the Bolsheviks, but more particularly
because the entire Russian equipage, military, administrative, and judiciary,
ceased to function on the Georgian territory ; as to the functionaries them-
selves, they have, for the most part crossed the frontiers of Georgia to try
to enter the service of the General Denikin and other “restorers ” of Czarist
Russia.
However, the disappearance of Russian bureaucracy by no means signified
the disappearance of all power in Georgia. Already under the LVOf-Kerensky
Government, all of Transcaucasia, and particularly Georgia, was being admin-
istered in an altogether autonomous manner, having at its head, in place of
the ex-wice king, the special Transcaucasian committee, whose members were
recruited particularly from among the deputies of the Transcaucasian peoples,
at the fourth Douma. In the beginning, this committee was wested not only
with the administrative powers of a vice king, but also with legislative powers.
Using these vast powers, the peoples of Transcaucasia had already succeeded
in Organizing themselves into many distinct units and passed many reforms
which laid the foundation of the complete nationalization of all the govern-
mental and local institutions.
And it is just at the height of this creative activity that, within the boundary
of the federative Russia which was to be formed, exploded the Bolshevik
bomb, following which the autonomous peoples Of Transcaucasia declared their
independence of Russia.
Georgia, in particular, immediately after the stroke in question, in the month
of November, 1917, had its national congress, during which was elected the
national Council, which in fact concentrated within its hand the entire adminis-
tration of the country. This first step was followed on May 26, 1918, by the .
formal declaration by the national council of the independence of the democratic
Republic of Georgia, which fact was duly made known to the governments of
all foreign states. The National Council of Georgia, which took the name of
provisional parliament, gave way, March 12, 1919, to the constituent assembly,
elected according to the proportional system based on universal, equal, direct,
and secret voting of all citizens of both sexes having attained 20 years of age.
The constituent assembly confirmed unanimously the act of independence of
Georgia and began the elaboration of the constitution of the Republic. Now,
Georgia has her representatives at the peace conference in Paris, from which
she expects her formal recognition.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 161
Therefore, at the same time as the disappearance of Russian power in
Georgia, there took its place a national power, absolutely supreme in exterior
affairs as well as in interior affairs. This national power finds its expression
as the government responsible before the constitutent assembly for the army,
justice, administration, the state budget, etc.
On order to complete what has already been said, we must particularly note
a fact which is of the greatest importance.
The treaty of 1783, as we have seen, imposed on Hussia the obligation of
defending by all means possible the frontiers of Georgia against exterior
enemies. Moreover, the separate treaty directly announced the obligation Of
Russia, to maintain toward this end. On the Georgian territory a certain number
of duly equipped troops.
Eut, in which way did Russia fulfill this obligation? The answer to this
question is clear to all those who have followed the tragic events which took
place in Caucasia in the beginning of 1918. Following on the conquest of the
power in Russia by the Bolsheviks, the Caucasian front was completely
destroyed and the Russian troops retreated precipitately to the north, abandon-
ing to Turkey almost all its armament and all its munitions. A short time
later the Bolshevist Government concluded the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by
virtue of which Batoum, Adraghan, and Kars, being the three fortresses of
Georgia and of Transcaucasia, passed into the hands of the Turks. Thus
Georgia was treacherously delivered to the mercy of that same Turkey against
which Russia pledged itself to defend her.
Georgia, therefore, found itself in the same situation as before the conclusion
of the treaty of 1783, with a slight difference that this time she had to defend
her independence by arms not only against the Turkish invaders, amply pro-
vided with the materials of Russian warfare, but also against the Bolshevik
detachments which, at three different times, attacked her from the north.
The conclusion of all this can Only be the following: Russia, in the person of
the Bolshevik Government, of its own free will withdrew its armed forces from
the Georgian territory, and, in giving up Georgia to her fate, renounced defi-
nitely to the rights—if they still have any value whatsoever—derived from the
treaty of 1783. As to the attempts made by the Bolshevik Government to
conquer Georgia, they were completely checked.
It is important to call attention to the fact that Georgia was never conquered
by Russia, that she voluntarily entered with her into certain stipulated rela-
tions of international character, and that it was also voluntarily that she was
abandoned by Russia after the war and the revolution.
Therefore, the international situation of Georgia, as a fact as well as by
right, is altogether clear to those who are without prejudice. If there is a
people having the right of independent political existence, certainly it is the
Georgian people, which has not only manifested before the entire world its
firm resolution to become free and independent, but also has given indisputable
proof of its intention to defend its precious rights.
At the historical moment when, after unheard of suffering, humanity has
at last approached the realization of its fondest thought, especially of the
creation of the League of Nations—the surest pledge of the inviolability of
nationalities small as well as large—the young democratic Republic of Georgia
has no need to look for further protection than that of the League of Nations,
in which she will enter, we firmly hope, in complete equality of rights.
A. OKOUMELI.
GENOA, September, 1919.
i
APPENDIX NO. 3
[Article published in The Christian East]
THE AUTOCEPHALY OF THE ORTHodox CHURCH or GEORGIA
(By Prince Ilamaz Dadeshkeliani)
On March 12, 1917, the Georgian episcopate, clergy, and laity issued a declara-
tion, according to which the Orthodox Church of Georgia (or Iveria), after a
hundred years' lapse, reentered into the exercise of her most ancient auto-
Sephaly (or hierarchical independence of all other ecclesiastical authority).
TWO Weeks later (March 27, 1917) the Russian Provisional GOvernment
passed the law “Concerning the regulation of the juridical consequences rela-
º, to the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the ancient Orthodox Church
of Georgia.” *
By this act the Russian State power—
1. Noted, acknowledged, and sanctioned, as far as the Russian State was
Concerned, the declaration of March 12 regarding the reestablishment of the
autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia;
2. Regulated the juridical consequences which resulted, for the State, from
this reestablishment, thus
8. Restoring to the Orthodox Church of Georgia the practical possibility of
exercising the rights of autocephaly which have belonged to her from remote
antiquity, and
4. Putting an end to that anticanonical order of things by which the
Georgian Orthodox Church was, in the Russian State—from the time of the
annexation of the Kingdom of Georgia to Russia (1801)—practically deprived
of her ancient rights of autocephaly. We say practically because by right,
Canonically (i. e., juridically in the ecclesiastical sense), this autocephaly had
never been abolished. ^
The provisional government, born of the first idealistic period of the Rus-
sian revolution, considered itself called to fuſill the cherished aspirations of
Russian Society. Endeavoring to rectify as soon as possible the faults and
injustices of the old power, it proclaimed, a few days after its formation, the
independence of Poland; and, with the same idea, reestablished, during the
first month Of its existence the autocephaly of the Georgian Church; for this
autocephaly counted Supporters even among the conservative Russian poli-
ticians of the old régime (as, for instance, Durnovo), who considered it
abnormal that One of the most ancient churches of the orthodox world, the
Georgian (or Iverian) Church, was in an orthodox State like Russia deprived
of her autocephaly in an anticanonical way—in other words, against the exist-
ing canonical principles of the orthodox church ; that is to say, not by decision
of competent canonical authorities, but Simply in execution of an order Of
the laic power (decrees of Emperors Paul I and Alexander I), being forcibly
converted into a simple diocese, and subjugated to the rule of another much
younger orthodox church—the Russian Church.
We wish here to point out the comparative antiquity of the churches, because
the Orthodox church classes the local churches of which she is composed by
Order of Seniority. We shall also bear in mind, in what follows, the funda-
mental principle of Orthodox canonical law, according to which a local
church acquires autocephaly, either by virtue of decision of the Oecumenical
(universal) authority of the orthodox church, or by resolution Of that auto-
cephalous church from which she branches. Further, according to the same
principles of canonical law, a local already autocephalus church IOSes her
autocephaly—by virtue of decision of the oecumenical authority, or by its
own formal resolution carried out by her duly qualified canonical insti-
tutions.
162
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 163
We shall also point out in this connection that the deprivation of the
Georgian Church of its most ancient autocephaly had not only never been
contemplated by any ecclesiastical authority whatever, but that this ques-
tion had never even been raised.
This deprivation took place only by command of the Emperor Paul I (1801),
who ordered that the Georgian Church be subjugated to the rule of the
synod of the Russian Church.
The action of this decree of the laic power was annulled by another decree
of this same laic power—i. e., by the law of the provisional government of
March 27, 1917.
The law of March 27, 1917, reestablished the autocephaly, of the Georgian
Church, setting forth that the rules which would regulate, in the future,
the existence of the Georgian Church in the Russian State would be
drawn up together with the superior authority of this church (pending
the election of the catholicos patriarch, the temporary government of the
Georgian Church had at that time as head, Leonidas, bishop of Guria and
Mingrelia.)
These rules were drawn up and issued on July 25, 1917, under the title
of “Temporary rules on the situation of the Georgian Church in the Russian
State.”
The two legislative acts of the provisional government concerning the
Georgian Church (the law of March 27, 1917, and the “temporary rules'
of July 25) created a régime of coexistence in the Russian State of two
Orthodox churches—the Russian and the Georgian. The provisional gov-
ernment conserved, pending the convocation of the constituent assembly,
the order which existed under the Empire dealing with the financing by the
State of the confessional Organizations, and their subordination to govern-
ment control in certain matters (nomination of the clery, etc.)
We shall see later on, that these two laws, while reestablishing in principle
the rights of the Georgian Church, were far from being perfect, presenting
internal contradictions and giving to the principle proclaimed an incomplete
and irregular embodiment; but let us now consider Georgian Church his-
tory, noting several dates which mark certain stages in the process of the
development of the canonical independent, Or autocephaly, of the Georgian
Church.
The merits of the Georgian Church before the universal church are great “;
but for the Georgian nation its church has been, as was set forth in the letter
addressed to the Conference at Genoa by Ambrose, Catholicos-patriarch of Geor-
gia, the “ principal factor of the power and glory of the national Georgian
State.”
We may refer those interested in Georgian Church history to the considerable
literature on this question, in Georgian, Russian, French, and English (in the
first place to : “L’Eglise géorgienne des origines jusqu'à nos jours,” by Michel
Tamarati-Rome, 1910, and “Sketches of Georgian Church history.” by Arch-
deacon Dowling, D. D., London, 1912) and to the more special publications of
philological, canonical, patrological character, etc.”
The history of the orthodox church of Georgia reveals a typical process of
the birth and development of a local Orthodox Church ; baptized by missionaries
of a neighboring church, the newly converted flock passes the first period of its
church life in a close canonical dependence on the mother church, as the local
ecclesiastical life develops and the national hierarchy strengthens, the new
diocese receives a larger autonomy; the ties which attach it to the distant
mother church weaken, becoming more and more nominal; in the last stage
* We have the testimony to this effect of many Christian historians; e. g., Kerakos,
an Armenian historian of the , thirteenth century, says that Queen Tamara, of Georgia,
made a treaty of peace with the Sultan of Damascus, and since that time the Sultans
have treated Christians more humanely,
Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem, says the pious Iverian kings have always been admin-
trators and protectors of the Holy sepulchre and other holy places.
The Arab historian, Ibn Shaddana, also says that Queen Tamara offered Salladin
200,000 dinars for the holy, cross, and in , 1187 asked, that the monasteries taken from
the Christians should be restored. Even at the present day there are at the holy places,
Mount Athos, Bulgaria, Syria, Cyprus, Antioch, over 30 monasteries and churches built
by the Georgians.
* Published by the Georgian Society of History and Ethnography; the Georgian Church
Museum ; , the Russian Academy of Science (Texts and Researches in Armeno-Georgian
Philology). ; the faculty of oriental languages of the University of Petrograd (Collections
in Japhetical Philology).; the University of Tiflis (“Sidzveleni Sakartvelossi") and
various separate works of Professors Marr, Takaſchvili, Tsagareli, Kekelidze, etc.
164 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the dependence on the mother church expresses itself in forms of subordination
more symbolical than practical (for instance by the ratification by the mother
church of the local primate before his elevation to this dignity ; by the send-
ing to the metropolis of a certain amount of the church receipts; by the men-
tion of the name Of the head of the mother church at service; by the obligatory
reception of the holy oil from the mother church, etc.). Lastly comes the for-
mal granting of complete independence from the mother church. As said above,
this takes place either by decision, of an Oecumenical council or according to
the resolution of the mother church. Autocephaly was so received by the ortho-
dox Churches of Cyprus (and later) Greece, Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro,
Bukovino-Dalmatia, etc., and so also by the ancient Georgian Church.
Born at the point where two Orthodox Church currents meet—the influence
of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and that of the Patriarchate of Antioch—
the Georgian Church attributes to Nino, a Holy virgin who came from Byzan-
tium, the conversion to Christianity of the Georgian nation (326) and to the
activity of the thirteen Syrian Fathers, who came from Antioch (St. John
of Zedazeni and his 12 disciples), both its further propagation in, and the foun-
dation of, the hierarchy in Georgia.
In 384 the Georgian Bishop Pantophilos assisted at the second Oecumenical
Council, which transferred the Georgian Church from the jurisdiction of the
Patriarch of Constantinople to that of the patriarch of Antioch.
In 458, in the reign of the Georgian King Vakhtang Gargaslan and of Anas-
tasius I, Emperor of Byzantium, the archbishop of Mtkheta, the Georgian cap-
ital, Was elevated to the rank of catholicos (a title belonging in the Christian
East to the heads of local churches).
The Antiochian patriarch Palladius, from whom the Georgian (Iverian)
Church then depended, sent to Mtskheta the first Catholicos, Peter (a Greek),
and from that time the Iverian Church enjoyed a certain autonomy in its
interior affairs, but its head remained a Greek, receiving consecration from the
patriarch of Antioch.”
In 553, in the reign of Georgian King Pharsinan, the Catholicos of Miskheta
and all Georgia, was elected by and from among the Georgian clergy, con-
tinuing to receive Consecration from Antioch. In the eighth century, after
the death of the Catholicos Bartholomew, his successor, Catholicos John, went
to Antioch, where the council of the Antiochian Church, presided over by the
patriarch. Theophilactus, granted autocephaly to the Georgian Church. In the
tenth century the Catholicos of the Georgian Church was elevated to the dignity
Of patriarch and Catholicos of all united Georgia.
The decision concerning the granting of autocephaly to the Georgian Church
was later confirmed : (1) In the eleventh century by the patriarch Of Antioch,
Theodosius (in Connection with the question of the preparation of the holy
oil) ; (2) by the council of the Antiochian Church (also in the eleventh cen-
tury) presided over by the patriarch Peter; (3) and in the same century by
his successor, Theodosius.
The great canonist of the orthodox church, Theodore Balsamon, patriarch
of Antioch, in his analysis of chapter 2 of the resolutions of the Oecumenical
Councils, mentions the Georgian Church among the autocephalous churches of
the East, and writes that the archbishop of Iveria was recognized as independ-
ent by the Antiochian council. The Byzantine canonist—Mathias Vlastav,
author of the Elementary Syntagma—also states that the Georgian Church is
not dependent on any of the eastern patriarchs.
Being autocephalous, the Georgian Church took part in the common life of
all the Churches.
She was invited to take part in :
1. The Council Of Basle.
2. The Council of Florence, from which her representatives, the metropoli-
tans John-Gregory and Dositheos, withdrew, considering as unacceptable the
plans of the Emperor John VI. $
3. The Council of Moscow (1666), which was convoked for the trial of the
Patriarch Nikon of Russia, at which the Georgian Church was represented by
the metropolitan Epiphanius and the Archimandrite Pachomius.
But the process of the canonical development of the Georgian Church did
not stop with acquisition of complete canonical independence. The expansion
of the Kingdom of Georgia, its gradual decentralization, and the development
8 By tradition Iveria is still mentioned in the full title of the Patriarch of Antioch.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 165
y
.*
of the political autonomy of the western Georgian Providences, involved the
necessity of granting to the senior among the bishops of these Provinces a
canonical autonomy.
This perfectly canonical process ended in 1390 by the granting of autocephaly
to the Archbishop of Bitjvinta (or Abkhasia), with the title of Catholicos
of Abkhasia and Bitjvinta, and from 1444, of Catholicos of Abkhasia, Imeretia,
and western Georgia. His spiritual jurisdiction extended over all the auton-
omous principalities of western Georgia (Imeretia, Guria, Mingrelia, Svanetia,
and Abkhasia). r
In 1657 the seat of the Catholicos of western Georgia was transferred to
Gelati, near Kutais.
Such a canonical division of Georgia into two Catholicosates was fully
acknowledged by the Orthodox Patriarchs of the East. We have testimony
to this effect from the Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, and the Patriarchs
Dositheos and Chrysanteus of Jerusalem, who addressed themselves, according
to a special formula, to each of these two Catholicoi.
The existence of the autocephalous Catholicosate of western Georgia con-
tinued from 1390 to the end of the eighteenth century.
Exhausted by a thousand years' strife for the defense of Christianity against
Islam in the person of its diverse representatives (Arabs in the seventh,
eighth, and ninth centuries; Turks-Seldjuks in the eleventh century; Mongolo-
Tartars, under the leadership of Tchingis-Khan, in the thirteenth century;
Tartars, lead by Tamerlan, in the fourteenth century; Persians and Turks in
the Sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries), Georgia turned for
help to her northern neighbor and coreligionist, Russia. By a treaty, signed
in 1783 by Catherine II, Empress of Russia, and the Georgian King Heraclius
II, Georgia put herself under the protectorate of Russia, who, on her side,
assumed the obligation of the defense of Georgia from foreign aggression, con-
serving to her a complete autonomy in internal affairs, and guaranteeing the
succession of the Georgian Royal dynasty of the Bagratids.
Although canonical law, as we have said above, can not be the object of
constitutional or international legislation, we will here note that, according
to the treaty of 1783, the Orthodox Georgian Church was left unchanged.
Twelve years after the conclusion of this treaty, when the armies of the
Persian Shah Aga-Mahomet-Khan, who was irritated by the fact that Georgia
had put herself under Russian protection, approached the Georgian frontiers,
Russia, failing completely in her obligation, gave no help whatsoever to
Georgia, who fell a victim to an invasion the like of which had not been
suffered by her since the days of Tamerlan.
The rest of the story is known : King Heraclius II died without having
seen the liberation of his country, which was reduced to desolation and
burning ruins. His son, King George XIII. reigned three years and a half.
After the invasion of Georgia, which took place under the eyes of an in-
different Russia, in answer to the request of the Georgian Government to
Consider the question of a more effective defense of Georgia in the future,
the Russian Emperors Paul I and Alexander I, after the death of King
George XIII, simply annexed the kingdom of Georgia to Russia, proclaiming
her a department of their empire, thus canceling the treaty of 1783, con-
cerning the protectorate of Russia over Georgia, and the guarantee of the
SOvereignty and autonomy of the latter.
At the same time the very ancient Georgian Church was deprived simply
by decree of a laic power of the possibility of exercising her autocephaly.
“I wish,” wrote Emperor Paul I in 1801, “that Georgia be a department,
and therefore place her immediately in relations with the senate, and in all
that concerns her ecclesiastical affairs, with the Synod.”
In 1811, by receipt of Emperor Alexander I, the Catholicos-Patriarch
Antonius II was “convoked ” to Russia, where he died.” After his death the
Georgian Church was not allowed to proceed to the election of a Catholicos-
Patriarch, but a Government General of the Russian Synod was sent out from
St. Petersburg With the title of Exarch of Georgia, to rule the most ancient
autocephalous Church of Georgia.
It is not our purpose to criticize the motives of Emperor Paul I, and, be-
yond saying that he evidently thought that he was doing his best for his
* This rescript (June 10, 1911) actually stated that the dignity of the Catholicos was
not compatible with the authority of the Russian, Holy Synod.
166 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
empire, we shall only remark that his order concerning the Georgian Church,
being the decree of a laic power, was devoid of all canonical (ecclesiastical)
importance.
Therefore the ancient autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia (as we have
already said) was not deprived of her autocephaly, but only of the physical possi-
bility of exercising it, and remained, as she always had been, autocephalous.
In fact, the Russian bishops who, in execution of an irregular and anti-
Canonical decree of the laic power, interfered in the government Of the auto-
cephalous Orthodox Georgian Church committed a grave offense against the
laws Of the church.
The exarchate of the Synod of the Russian Church in Georgia was, during
the whole time of its existence (over a hundred years), the instrument of the
Russion Government for the carrying out of a definitive State policy in the Cau-
casus, but we will refrain from any' judgment of the work of the exarchate
in this connection, firstly, because it was precisely for the carrying out of this
policy that it was created by the Russian Government, and secondly, because
the very existence of a synodal exarchate over the Georgian church being
illegal and anticanonical, there is no occasion to approach its deeds from the
point Of view of legality or of justice.
A few examples, however, will give some idea of the exarchal régime to
which the Georgian Church was obliged to submit : Some time after the
enforcement of the exarchal tutelage over the Church of Georgia, her property,
valued at Over a hundred million golden rubles, was confiscated, the Georgian
language Was Systematically suppressed and replaced by Slavonic, although
the congregation understood not a word of it; the beautiful ancient Georgian
Church music—being considered to resemble the bleating of a goat’"–was
replaced by Slavonic chants, incomprehensible to the congregation; the Georgian
bishops were exiled, etc.
The rule of the Russian synod over the Georgian Church was also exceedingly
unprofitable for the latter—for instance, with the permission of the Exarch
Eusebius, a very rare eleventh-century text of the Gospel was taken from the
monastery of Gelati, Stripped of its precious Stones, and returned with false
Ones; from the Cathedral of Sion very great quantities of precious stones were
taken away; the same was done with the jewels belonging to the Patriarchal
Cathedral Of Mtskheta, and the monasteries of Alaverdi and BOdbi. The old his-
torical sacred books and manuscripts, with artistic miniatures and illuminations,
Were carried off; the famous image of the Virgin (valued at 50,000 golden rubles)
was taken away from the Castle Church of Metekhi in Tiflis. By order of the
Exarch Palladus, Mr. Sabingus took the best of the Georgian holy images, under
pretext of restoring them, and despoiled them of their jewels. There was also
Systematic repression of the Georgian bishops and high clergy for a peaceful
and purely academic defense of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. The
exile of Bishops Kyrion and Leonidas and of the Archimandrite Ambrose are
but typical incidents of this lamentable period in the history of the Georgian
Church.
But, to the great credit of the Georgian clergy, it must be said that, how-
ever high they held the banner of the autocephaly of their church, they never
protested in such form as could damage the interests and prestige of Ortho-
doxy in the Caucasus, where so many different religions and confessional
interests Clash. On the contrary, while denying the right of the Russian synod
to usurp the prerogatives of the autocephalous Georgian church, the Georgian
clergy—in all that could serve the cause of the extension and strengthening
of Orthodoxy in the Caucasus—gave their energy to common action with the
Russian clergy : AS examples of this, the missionary propaganda among the
OSset Highlanders (begun under King David the Reconstructor, in the twelfth
century, and continued in the eighteenth century by Bishop John of Manglissi
and others) was carried on by the Georgian clergy under and in cooperation
With the Synodal exarchate.
The most decisive form of protest against the illegal régime to which the
Georgian Church was subjected was the appeal addressed by the Georgian
episcopate, clergy, and laity to the ecumenical patriarch in 1912, when the
Oppression of the Georgian bishops and higher clergy took the character of
real persecution. In this appeal the Georgian Church begged the ecumenical
patriarch to defend her violated rights.
.* See the letter of. March 25, 1804, addressed by the commander in chief of the Rus-
Sian armies, in Georgia to the Catholicos-Patriarch Antonius II. (“Acts of the Caucasian
Archeographical Commission,” Vol. II, p. 268.) *
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 167
In 1906, in connection with the political and moral crisis which Russia Was
then experiencing, the question of the convocation of a council of the Russian
Church came up. A special.preliminary commission, under the direction of
the synod, was created to prepare material for this council. However Strong
was the desire of the synod and of the government to eliminate the question
of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church, they were obliged, nevertheless,
to include this question in the program of the preliminary commission, creat-
ing a special subcommission ad hoc.
The Georgian bishops, animated by the spirit of Christian peace and love,
and hoping in this way perhaps to obtain the restoration of the rights of
their church, decided to take part in the meetings of the preliminary commis-
sion, and to defend therein the interests of the Georgian Church ; they Were
assisted by Professors Marr and Tsagareli, the greatest authorities on Geor-
gian history.
But everything was done to obstruct the discussion of the question of the
autocephaly of the Georgian Church in the preliminary commission, and the
Georgian delegation withdrew from it.
At the end of February, 1917, the change in the Russian Government took
place.
By a declaration issued March 12, 1917, by the Georgian episcopate, clergy,
and laity the Orthodox Church of Georgia returned to her autocephalous ex-
istence. On March 27 the Russian provisional government published the law
“Concerning the regulation of the juridicial consequences relative to the re-
establishment of the autocephaly of the Ancient Orthodox Church of Georgia,”
by which law the Russian state power restored to the Orthodox Church of
Georgia the power of exercising her ancient autocephaly. On July 25, 1917,
were published the “Temporary rules concerning the situation of the Georgian
Church in the Russian state.”
As stated at the beginning of this article, these two laws of the provisional
government created a régime of coexistence in the Russian state of two
Orthodox churches—the Russian and the Georgian—Conserving, pending the
convocation of the Russian Constituent Assembly, the control of the govern-
ment Over the confessional organizations existing under the Empire.
But the law of March 27, as well as the “Temporary rules" of July 25,
were the result of a compromise between a sincere desire to reestablish the
rights of the Georgian Church and the fear of changing too radically the
Order of things which had, de facto, resulted from its hundred years' enforced
subjection to the Russian Synod.
Being the result of a Compromise, these two laws presented considerable
drawbacks and internal contradictions; While proclaiming the reestablishment
of the autocephaly of the Orthodox Georgian Church, and intending to restore
her status quo ante, they gave the principles Which the proclaimed and in-
Complete and irregular embodiment.
Evidently desiring to avoid dissension regarding settlement of territorial
limits between the Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches in Transcaucasia,
and not wanting to give any territorial basis whatever to the national aspira-
tions of the Georgians, the provisional government, rather unexpectedly,
granted to the Georgian Church (which they were in principle reestablishing
in its rights) a species of autocephaly quite new to this church, and utterly
unknown to orthodox canonical law—a national, nonterritorial autocephaly."
The inconsistency of this system, from the logical as well as from the
Canonical point of view, is evident. From the logical, because the reestab-
lishment of her status quo ante, such as existed before the intervention of
the Russian laic power, being intended, the Georgian Church, being territorial,
possessed a territory within which she ought to have been reestablished. And
from the canonical, because this expedient created a situation directly con-
trary to the fundamental principles of Orthodox canon law, inasmuch as it
permitted the extension Over the same territory of two autocephalous Ortho-
dox authorities the Russian and the Georgian Churches.
The intervention of one bishop in the diocese (territorial domain) of a
fellow-bishop, or the interference of any ecclesiastical authority (Metropolitan,
Patriarch," or Synod) in the territorial domain of an equal and corresponding
6 Altering the ancient title of the head of the Georgian Church, “Catholicos-Patriarch
Of gº." to “Catholicos-Patriarch of all the Georgians '' (art. 5 of the “Tempo-
rary Rules ").
* Several dioceses, form a composed, diocese, the Metropoly of Patriarchate, over which
extends the jurisdiction of the Senior bishop, the Metropolitan, or, higher, in the limits of
a local church, the Patriarch or Synod.
96153—26—12
168 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ecclesiastical authority, is most strictly prohibited by the holy canons (“there
shall not be two bishops in One town ''). At the same time, from a lay
point of view, if the basis of the organization of the Orthodox Churches is
a territorial unity—the diocese—the extension over the same territory of the
jurisdiction Of two equal and mutually independent ecclesiastical authorities
Of the same religion is incomprehensible, and suggests a difference in con-
fession Or a Schism.
The Orthodox Church admits exceptions to this fundamental rule only in
regard to the legations of one patriarch or head of a church. On the territory
Of another autocephalous church, and also sometimes for single parishes or
monasteries, for local or historical reasons. The existence of a whole non-
territorial, local church is utterly unknown to canon law. The holy canons,
as We have said, condemn all infraction of the territorial principle, (principle
Of the territorial sovereignity of the bishop) which is the basis of orthodox
Church Organization.
The general danger of these infractions lies in the national feeling carried
Out too far in church matters there, where different national interest and
aspirations clash, and the Orthodox Church, has, in 1872, clearly defined
her point of view on this subject (in regard to the Bulgarian Schism): the
national principle of church administration—leading the confusion of the
jurisdiction of several orthodox bishops who would, according to this prin-
Ciple, rule people of different nationalities on the some territory (as the
Bulgarians would have it)—has been severaly condemned as a false doctrine
(Philetism).
The laws of the provisional government, however, being the acts of a laic
p0Wer, Were absolutely devoid of any canonical importance, and had meaning
Only So far as by them the Russian State power withdrew the forcible and
anticanonical pressure by which it had a hundred years before deprived the
Orthodox Georgian Church of the power to exercise her autocephalous rights,
and in as far as they reestablished her status quo ante.
The Georgian Church, animated by the desire to regulate her situation in
the Spirit of Christian peace and love, accepted—even in the defective way in
which it was given to her—the possibility of exercising her rights, taking
into consideration the temporary character of the laws of the provisional
government.
In September, 1917, the council of the Orthodox Church of Georgia assembled.
This council confirmed the declaration of March 12 and the acts of the tem-
porary government of the Georgian Church, established the foundation of .
her Organization, elaborated and adopted her canonical constitution, and elected
as catholicos patriarch the Bishop Kyrion, who after the confirmation of his
election by the Russian State power (according to article 6 of the “temporary
rules ") ascended on October 1 of the same year to the apostolic catholicosal
and patriarchal throne of Mtskheta and all Georgia under the name of
Kyrion II. Y
The canonical head of the Russian Church—the holy Synod—preserved a
complete silence on the question of Georgian autocephaly, not protesting in
any way whatever against its just reestablishment or against the laws of
the provisional government concerning this question.
Meanwhile the political horizon of Russia was becoming heavily clouded.
In October the council of the Russian Church assembled in Moscow, and
had scarcely been opened when the Bolshevik coup d’etat took place, and it had
to continue its work in a city already occupied by them.
In spite of that it completed the great work of reorganizing the ecclesi-
astical government of the Russian Orthodox Church, and having reestablished
the patriarchical form of church government elected as patriarch the Metro-
politan Tikhon, who was enthroned on February 21, 1918.
It should be noted that the council of the Russian Church preserved a
silence as complete as did the holy synod in regard to the reestablishment
of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church.
About a month, however, after ascending the Russian patriarchal throne
the Patriarch Tikhon saw fit to address to the the Georgian Catholicos patriarch
an epistle against the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Georgian
Church.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOBGLA 169
In this epistle the Patriarch Tikhon quoted extracts from the rules of
the church in condemnation of insubordination. On the part of bishops toward
their hierarchical superiors and applied them to the reestablishment Of the
autocephaly of the Georgian Church (?). The Patriarch Tikhon thus accused
the Georgian bishops of insubordination to the Russian exarch.
The publication of this epistle was all the more unexpected in that both
the holy Synod and the council of the Russian Church had been passive on
this question.
At the same time the Russian clergy in the Caucasus began to Spread rumors
to the effect that the orthodox patriarchs of the east, notably the ecumenical
patriarch, “did not recognize” the autocephaly of the Georgian Church.
Although there was no question of recognizing a new autocephaly, as this
was only a case of the reestablishment of an ancient and already universally
recognized autocephaly, and of the abolition of the anticanonical exarchal
rule, the catholicos patriarch of Georgia charged Mr. Gogolachvili to interview
the Metropolitan Dorotheos, then locum-temens of the ecumenical-patriarchal
throne. During the audience granted to Mr. Gogolachvili the locum tenens,
as was only to be expected, catagorically denied the above-mentioned rumor.
The Georgian Church did not consider it possible to enter into discussion
with the Russian patriarch on the clear and simple question of the reestablish-
ment of her canonical rights, and therefore left the epistle of Patriarch Tikhon
unanswered.
The present organization of the Orthodox Church of Georgia as established
by her last council may be summarized as follows:
The plenitude of the ecclesiastical power in the Georgian Church belongs to
her council, which meets periodically, and which rules the church by the
medium of the catholicos patriarch, elected for life by the Council.
The catholicos patriarch exercises his power in conjunction with the Catholi-
cosal council, which concentrates within itself the representation of the episco-
pate, clergy, and laity. The ecclesiastical-judicial power is exercised by the
catholicos patriarch through the intermediary of the catholicosal tribunal.
The Catholicos patriarch renders account of his government to the Council of
the Orthodox Church of Georgia.
The election of the catholicos patriarch, as well as the nomination of the
members of the catholicosal council and tribunal, together With the function-
ing of these bodies, are regulated by the fundamental laws established by the
Council of the Orthodox Church of Georgia.
The Georgian Church is divided into—
1. The Metropoly of Tiflis (with the auxiliary bishops of Gori and Alaverdi).
2. The Metropoly of Kutais.
3. The Metropoly of Tjkondidi.
4. The Archbishopric of Bitjvinta and Abkhasia.
Pending the decision of the question of the administration the Russian par-
ishes founded under the exarchate, these parishes, by COmmon Consent Of the
Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches, remain under the administration
of the Russian bishop residing in Bakou (eastern Caucasus).
The Catholicos Patriarch Kyrion II died in the Summer of 1918. In his
place the council of the Georgian Church elected as catholicos patriarch
Leonidas, Metropolitan of Tiflis.
Meantime the political life Of the Georgian nation was rapidly developing.
In 1918 (May 26) the independence of the Georgian state was reestablished.
In March, 1919, met the Constituent Assembly of Georgia. One of the most
important of the legislative acts passed by this assembly was the law of the
separation of the church from the State. In 1921 (January 27) the powers
recognized de jure the independence of Georgia, whose international status
was thus definitely regulated. This independence had already before been
recognized by Soviet Russia, which had concluded a treaty with Georgia (May
7, 1920).
In contempt of this treaty the Russian Soviet troops in February, 1921, with-
Out any pretext and Without a declaration of War, crossed the Georgian fron-
tiers in Overwhelming numbers, and, notwithstanding the desperate resistance
of the Georgian Army and nation, occupied the territory of the Georgian
Republic.
170 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The National Government of Georgia, appointed by the Constituent Assembly
and recognized by the powers, were obliged to withdraw from Georgia and to
Continue abroad their efforts for the liberation of their country from foreign
military occupation. … *
The Catholicos-Patriarch Leonidas I, as the good Shepherd who leaves not
his flock, remained in occupied Tiflis, where he died in the summer of 1921,
the victim of an epidemic of cholera imported by the Russian Bolshevik troops.
The Catholicos-Patriarch Ambrose I, elected in his stead by the council of
the Georgian Church, seeing that the only salvation of his people lay in their
liberation from foreign military occupation, fearlessly addressed (February 7,
1922), from Occupied Tiflis, a letter to the conference of Genoa, in which he
exposed the tragedy of the Georgian nation, demanding the withdrawal of the
Bolshevik troops.
The SOrely tried Georgian nation has not yet drained the chalice of her
bitter sufferings. In these civilized times She has fallen victim to an invasion
unsurpassed in barbarity by those of the Mongols and Tartars; but God has
allowed her to face the trial of this invasion with her national church firmly
reestablished in her ancient rights and with a great Georgian patriot at her
lmead.
May God grant that to-day, as in ages past, the Georgian Church may still
be the strength and stay of her nation, and show herself to be the self-Same
church which for long centures has given to the people of ancient Colchis the
force to carry through countless trials the Golden Fleece of their spiritual and
Imational culture.
APPENDIX NO. 4
CONSTITUTION OF GEORGIA
(Adopted by the constituent assembly February 22, 1921)
Below are published two documents, constituting the fundamental laws of
the Republic of Georgia; the act of independence of the Republic of Georgia
and its constitution.
The act of independence was proclaimed by the Georgian National Council
at Tiflis on May 26, 1918, and was confirmed by the constituent assembly elected
by equal, universal, Secret, and proportional suffrage of the citizens of both
sexes at its first session of March 12, 1919.
At the same Session the constituent assembly intrusted a commission with
the work of working out the plan of the constitution of the Republic, giving
a judicial form to the political organization, which existed already, de facto,
in the institutions and constitutional practice followed in Georgia. This
achieved its object and finished its work toward the end of 1920.
The definite text of the constitution was voted on by the constituent assembly
On February 22, 1921, so that the Republic had already been attacked by the
army of Soviet Russia.
PARIs, February, 1922.
The constituent assembly of Georgia, elected by citizens of both sexes,
according to the direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportional electoral
system, at its first sitting of March 12, 1919, proclaims before the world and
history, that it fully confirms and approves the act of the independence of
Georgia, declared at Tiflis by the Georgian National Council, May 26, 1918.
ACT OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
For several centuries Georgia existed as a free and independent state.
At the end of the eighteenth century Georgia voluntarily allied herself with
Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should protect her against enemies
from With Out. g
In the course of the great Russian revolution conditions arose which resulted
in the disorganization of the entire military front and the abandonment of
Transcaucasia by the Russian armies.
Thus, left to their own devices, Georgia, and With her all Transcaucasia, took
into their hands the direction of their affairs, creating the necessary organs
for this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links which
united Transcaucasian nationalities were broken and the political unity of
Transcaucasia was thus dissolved.
The present position of the Georgian nation makes it imperatively necessary
that Georgia should create a political Organization of her own in order that
she may escape from the yoke of her enemies and lay a solid foundation for
her free development. *
Accordingly the Georgian National Council, elected by the National Assembl
of Georgia on November 22 (December 5). 1917, declares:
1. *In future the Georgian people will hold Sovereign power, and Georgia will
be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and independent State.
2. Independent Georgia’s form of political Organization will be a democratic
Republic.
3. In case of international conflicts, Georgia will always remain neutral.
4. The Georgian democratic Republic will apply itself to establishing friendly
relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationalities and
States.
5. The democratic Georgian Republic guarantees to all citizens within its
territory all civil and political rights without distinction of nationality,
religion, social position, or sex. 7
171
172 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
6. The democratic Georgian Republic offers to all inhabitants of its territory
a wide field for free development.
7. Until the convocation of the constituent assembly, the National Council,
with the addition of representatives of the minorities and the provisional
government responsible to the National Council, is at the head of all Georgian
administration.
FIRST CHAPTER—GENERAL BASIS
First article. Georgia is a state; free, independent, and indivisible. The
permanent and unchangeable form of its political constitution is the democratic
Republic. *
2. The capital of Georgia is Tiflis.
3. The Official language of Georgia is the Georgian language.
4. The flag of the Georgian Republic is of carmoisine color (dyed dogberry)
with one black and one white stripe. The seal of the Georgian Republic is the
effigy of Georges-La-Blanc mounted on a horse, surmounted by seven actres.
5. The laws and decrees only enter into force after they have been published
in the regular manner.
6. The territory of the state may neither be ceded, divided, nor sold. The
enlargement of the territory or the rectifications of the frontiers which may be
contested is only possible by virtue of a law.
7. The administrative division and the appointing or the alteration of the
autonomous boundaries (limits) can only be done by the legislative law.
8. The constitution is the supreme law of the state. Any law, any decree,
any ordinance, or decision which is in contradiction with the principles or the
spirit of the constitution can not be promulgated. All the powers of the state
are held to fulfill the constitution and to apply its principles, as well in the
legislative domain as in the administration.
9. The laws and decrees previous to the constitution remain in force, if
they are not in contradiction to the constitution and its principles.
10. The present constitution remains in force permanently and uninter-
rupted, except in cases provided for in the constitution itself.
11. After the adoption of the constitution the constituent assembly shall
publish it with the signatures of its members.
SECOND CHAPTER—OF THE RIGHT OF THE INDIGENES
12. The Georgian nationality is acquired by birth, by marriage, or by natural-
ization.
13. A Georgian citizen can not be at the same time a citizen of any other
State.
14. A Georgian citizen can not renounce his nationality except after having
fulfilled all his obligations to the state.
15. The detailed conditions of the acquisition and the loss of the rights of
the indigenes are determined by law.
THIRD CHAPTER—RIGHTS OF CITIZENS
16. All citizens are equal before the law.
17. There is no distinction of class.
18. No titles, except degrees of the universities, shall be conferred. Decora-
tions are abolished ; distinctive marks may be conferred by reason of War.
19. Capital punishment is abolished.
20. Nobody can be condemned except by way of the judiciary, With the excep-
tion of disciplinary punishments provided for by law.
21. All citizens are judged by the same form of procedure.
22. Every person enjoys individual inviolability. Nobody can be arrested or
deprived of his liberty in any other manner, nor submitted to Search except by
warrant of a court of justice or by the medium of inquiry.
23. The administration can only proceed with the arrest On its own initia-
tive on the following cases :
(a) When the guilty person is surprised in the very act.
(b) When the guilty person is indicted on the place of the crime by the
victim or by a witness.
(c) When any object establishing the guilt of the prisoner is found upon his
person, or when incontestable signs or traces of the crime are found upon his
person or his domicile.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 173
24. The arrest of culprits by private individuals is lawful when they sur-
prise him in the very act of crime and when there is cause of fear of escape
before the arrival of the agents of the public forces.
25. Any person arrested by order of the judiciary or administrative forces
must be brought before the nearest court within 24 hours; in cases where the
court is too far away in order to bring a culprit before it within that period,
it may be prolonged, without, however, exceeding 48 hours.
26. The court must proceed immediately, in no case later than 24 hours, to
interrogate the prisoner. After this it may ordain, by written order, either the
further detention of the culprit or his immediate release.
27. The judicial authorities are obliged, in cases where it happens that a
person has been arrested in Violation of the above-mentioned rules, to look
immediately into the case and to give immediate orders either for his release
or to keep him in Custody.
28. The domicile of a citizen is inviolable, and searches are only authorized
in cases provided for by law.
29. Private correspondence is inviolable and can only be seized and examined
in pursuance of a judgment of the court.
30. Every citizen has the right of moving and selecting his own residence;
there is no restriction of this right except by Order of the court of justice.
31. Every citizen enjoys full liberty Of conscience. He can not be prosecuted
nor have restrictions brought upon his political or civil rights for reason of
his religion or convictions. Everybody has the right to profess his own religion,
to change same, or not to have any religious Creed. No person has the right
to evade his political or civil obligations by calling upon his religion or convic-
tions except in case provided by law. The actions of a religious character
modify in no way the civil rights or position of anybody.
32. Every citizen has the right to express his opinions, to propagate them
verbally, by the public press, or by any other means without previous authority
of the government. In this case he is only responsible to the court of justice
for any crime committed.
33. The citizens of Georgia have the right of public assembly without arms,
either indoors or in the Open air.
34. The administration has the right to close any meeting if it becomes
unlawful.
35. The citizens of the Georgian Republic have the right to form professional
or other societies without previous authority of the government, provided that
their object is not forbidden by law. The dissolution of such societies is only
possible by order of a court of law.
36. The free development of the intellectual professions, commercial, indus-
trial, and agricultural pursuits is guaranteed by the Republic.
37. The right of individual or collective petition is assured.
38. Workmen have the right to strike.
39. The citizens of both series enjoy equal political, civil economic, and family
rights.
40. Marriage is based on equal rights and upon mutual consent of husband
and wife. The form and rules of marriage are determined by law. Children
born in or Out of wedlock bave the Same rights and duties. The mother has
the right to seek and prove the paternity of a natural child by way of the
courts, and this child has the same right to seek and prove the paternity.
41. No fugitive for political reasons and Who takes refuge in this Republic
can be extradited.
42. All official and private persons guilty of infractions of the above laws
aimed at the rights of the citizens will be prosecuted according to the penal
Code.
43. In case of sedition within the country or in case of war, parliament has
the right to suspend temporarily the constitutional guaranties contained in
articles 19, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, and 38; in case of war the guaranties
contained in article 21 may also be suspended, provided the accused be not
amenable to justice of a council of war in the military zone.
44. When parliament is not in session the government has the right on its
own responsibility to suspend the constitutional guaranties above mentioned.
But in this case it is obliged to convoke parliament immediately and to submit
its decision.
45. In case of serious epidemics the government has the right to suspend
temporarily the constitutional guaranties in articles 22, 25, 26, and 30, in so far
as this act is necessary to fight the epidemic.
174 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
46. The rights and guaranties enumerated in the constitution do not exclude
Other rights and guaranties, although not yet formulated, but nevertheless run
along the principles established by the constitution.
FOURTH CHAPTER—PARLIAMENT
46. The representative body of the Georgian Republic is the parliament of
Georgia, composed of deputies elected by universal, equal, direct, secret, and
proportional voting. Every citizen, without distinction of sex, enjoying all his
rights and being over 20 years old has the right to take part in the elections.
The parliament is elected for three years.
47. The rules of a legislative election ase laid down by a special law.
48. Members of parliament are not held responsible for opinions expressed
by them during the term of their office. The person of a member of parliament
is inviolable. He can neither be arrested nor indicted without consent of
parliament. An exception is made in the case of “flagrante delicto,” which
must be brought immediately to the knowledge of parliament. A member
arrested Or indicted must be released immediately if parliament so desires.
49. Members of parliament may refuse to bear witness about facts which
may have been intrusted to them in their quality of deputies. This right may
be invoked even after the expiration of their term of office.
50. Members of parliament receive an indemnity fixed by law.
51. The cases of incompatability between the office of deputy and the exer-
cise of a public office or whatsoever profession shall be determined by law.
52. The Sovereignty belongs to the entire nation. Parliament exercises this
SOvereignty within the limits fixed by the constitution.
53. Parliament votes on the laws, decrees, and decisions; the manner of their
publication shall be fixed by a special law.
54. The powers of parliament are the following:
(a) Legislation.
(b) Supreme direction of the army of the Republic and in general of all the
armed forces.
(c) Declaration of war.
(d) Ratification of treaties of peace, commerce, or other treaties with foreign
powers.
(e) The right of amnesty.
(f) Making of the budget.
(g) The right to make interior or foreign loans.
(h) Appointment of officials as provided by the constitution.
(i) General control of the executive power.
55. The sessions of parliament are public ; but parliament has the right by
special decision to hold entire or partial sessions behind closed doors.
56. Parliament decides itself the validity of the election of its members and
resolves On all questions relative thereto.
57. All decisions of parliament are made by a simple majority of votes, unless
another modus has been adopted by law or by regulation.
58. The openings of parliamentary sessions necessitates the presence of at
least half of the total number of deputies.
59. Parliament has the right to interpellate the Government and to question
it. Interpellations and questions are subject to rules determined by law or by
regulation. Parliament has the right to nominate commissions of inquiry.
60. The parliament fixes itself by regulation the procedure of its discussions.
61. The annual sessions of the parliament begin on the first Sunday of
November. The elections for the renewal of the parliament take place in the
autumn, simultaneously in the entire Republic, and in time to permit the newly
elected members to be present at the opening of parliament.
62. The Operations of the parliament can only be suspended by parliament
itself.
During the interruptions in the work of the parliament the right to assemble
this latter in extraordinary cases belongs to the Government or to the bureau
of the parliament.
The assembly of the parliament is obligatory if one quarter of the number of
deputies desires it.
63. The right of initiative belongs to :
(a) Any member of parliament.
(b) Any group of 5,000 electors.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 175
64. Parliament is obliged to submit any new law to a popular referendum if
30,000 electors require it in writing. The rules of a referendum are determined
by law.
65. Parliament elects its bureau yearly.
FIFTH CHAPTER—EXECUTIVE POWER
66. The executive power belongs to the Government of the Republic.
67. The President of the Government is elected by parliament for the period
of One year. The same President can Only be reelected once.
68. The other ministers, members of the Government, are appointed by the
President from among the citizens who have the right to take part in parlia-
mentary elections.
69. Members of the government may not fill any other office or profession.
They may only be members of parliament or of the councils of self-government.
70. The president of the government is the Supreme representative of the
Republic. He appoints the representatives of Georgia to other powers, and
it is to him that the representatives of foreign powers are accredited. In the
absence of a government decision which may find itself obstructed, the presi-
dent may by exceptional right have recourse to the armed forces of the Re-
public, but he must inform parliament immediately. The Ordinances of laws
and by-laws relative thereto emanate from the president Of the government,
who, however, does not have the right to arrest the action of the laws Or to
hinder its execution. The president of the government has the right to Order
the extraordinary Control of public or local administrations, or the revision of
particular Cases, according to the rules determined by law. The president has
no Other rights except those conferred. On him by the constitution.
71. The president of the government has a lieutenant. In the absence of
the president his attributes devolve upon his lieutenant.
72. The general rights and duties of government are:
(a) To assure the supreme direction of the affairs of the Republic according
to its laws.
I (b) To Watch over the application of the Republic and the execution of its
3.W.S.
(c) To put before parliament its plans for laws, as well as its conclusions
about plans Of laws emanating from the parliament or from the people.
(d) To defend the external interests of the Republic.
(e) TO Safeguard the Republic from external dangers and to defend its
independence.
(f) To insure Security and order in the interior of the country. If unfore-
Seen circumstances require it, to mobilize the armed forces of the country.
but not for any period longer than 21 days. This period can only be prolonged
by Consent of parliament.
(g) To manage the finances, to issue money according to law, and to submit
annually to parliament a budget of revenue and expenses of the State.
(h) To give an account to parliament of its work and to submit at least
Once a year, a report about the internal and external situation of Georgia.
To present also to parliament any special reports if desired.
(i). To acquit itself of all obligations imposed by parliament or by law.
78. The members of the government share in the directions of the affairs
of the Republic, which do not depend directly on the president. Each member
of the government directs independently, and under sole, personal responsi-
bility to parliament, the department confided to him. He must resign as
Soon as he loses the confidence of parliament. A minister has only the right
to Vote in parliament if he is a member. The president of the government is
responsible to parliament for the general politics. He is obliged to submit to
the decisions of parliament and to execute the same, if necessary to Change the
ministers or even to re-form the entire cabinet.
74. Every member of government has the right to be present at the sessions
of parliament and at the meetings of special commissions. Parliament, as well
as the commissions, are obliged to listen to the minister if he requires it. On
his part the minister is also obliged to present himself, if required, before
parliament or commissions, and to furnish explanations.
75. The president and the government are responsible, under penalties, for
any violation of the constitution; but only the president may indict them before
a Court of law. Members of the government are judged as provided for by
the common law.
176 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
SIXTH CHAPTER—JUSTICE
76. The Supreme Court Of Georgia is the Senate elected by parliament and
has the following functions:
(a) To Watch Over the strict enforcement of the law.
(b) To find Out justice in the capacity of a court of cassation.
77. Civil and criminal matters and administrative debatable matters belong
to the department of permanent tribunals. The organization, jurisdiction, and
competence of these tribunals are determined by law.
78. The judiciary power is independent and only obeys the law. Justice is
rendered in the name of the democratic Republic of Georgia.
79. The verdicts pronounced by the tribunals can not be annulled, modified,
Or suspended by any legislative, administrative, or executive body.
80. The hearings Of the courts are public ; in certain cases, where the morale
Or public Security requires it, courts can be held behind closed doors.
81. All serious matters belong to the penal jurisdiction, as well as political
matters, and offenses of the press are submitted to a jury.
82. Judges are elected for a fixed period. The rules of such elections as
Well as the conditions to which the judges have to Submit are determined by
law.
83. Except by determination of the court, judges can not be the object of any
change contrary to their wishes. They can only be temporarily dismissed, if
they are arraigned by justice Or if their case is under consideration. Their
definite dismissal can only take place by judgment of the court.
SEVENTH CHAPTER—FINANCES OF THE STATE
84. No tax can be instituted or levied if not previously sanctioned by
parliament.
(NOTE.-The right of bodies of self-government to levy taxes is determined by
special laws.)
85. Nobody can be exempted from the taxes of the state if not sanctioned by
law.
86. No Sum for retiring pensions, compensations, or whatsoever expense may
be deducted from the treasury of the state except conforming to the law.
87. No loans of State nor any other financial obligation may be contracted
Without the authorization of parliament.
88. All revenues and all expenses Of the state must appear in the budget.
The budget must be presented every year to parliament for its approval.
89. If parliament does not get to voting the budget for the commencement of
the budget year, the government can be authorized by parliament until the
approval of the budget to cover the expenses of the states on the basis of the
budget of the previous year.
90. No transfer of expenses of One chapter of the budget to another may be
made without authority Of parliament.
CHAPTER EIGHT-CONTROL OF THE STATE
91. The control of the state is performed as follows:
(a) Rigorous execution of the budget of state.
(b) All revenues and expenses of the state.
(c) The accounts and balance sheets of the different ministerial depar
(d) The finances of the bodies of the local self-government. }
92. The controller of the state is elected by parliament. He is not in the
cabinet, but has all the rights of a minister of State and is only responsible
to parliament. He gives an account of his office every year.
93. The Organization of the control and the rules of its application are deter-
mined by law.
tmentS.
NINTH CHAPTER—NATIONAL DEFENSE
94. Every citizen is compelled to do military service according to the law.
95. The Object of the military Organization is to defend the republic and its
territory.
96. The duration of military service and the Organization of the forces is
determined by law. 8
97. The effective force of the recruiting contingent is fixed every year by
parliament.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 177
TENTH CHAPTER—SELF-Gove:BNMENT
98. The institutions of self-government being at the same time local adminis-
trative bodies are charged with the direction of economic and educational
affairs within the limits of their territory.
99. The organizations of self-government, its rights and duties as well as the
manner of their administration are fixed by law.
100. The institutions of self-government have the right to make by-laws for
public administration conforming to the law.
101. The self-government is elected by Secret, proportional, equal, and uni-
Versal Suffrage.
102. The by-laws and orders of the self-government can only be changed by
legal manner.
103. The central bodies of the government have the right to suspend the by-
laws and orders of self-government when they are contrary to law, but such
matters must immediately be brought before a legal power. The manner and
conditions of such suspensions are determined by law.
104. The self-government depends on the central bodies of government for
the direction of its general administration. *
105. The cases where the resolutions of self-government must be approved by
Government are determined by law.
106. The institutions of self-government have their own budget according to
a special law. *.
ELEVENTH CHAPTER—AUTONOMOUS ADMINISTRATION
107. Abkhasie (district of Soukhoum), Georgia Musuimane (district of Ba-
toum), and Zakhathala (district of Zakhatala), which are integral parts of the
Georgian Republic, enjoy an autonomy in the administration of their affairs.
108. The statute concerning the autonomy of the districtS mentioned in the
previous article will be the object of special legislation.
TWELFTH CHAPTER—PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND SCHOOLS
109. The arts and sciences and their instruction are free, and it is the duty of
the State to protect them and to help in their development.
110. Elementary instruction is gratuitous, general, and obligatory. The
scholastic system is an organic whole where primary education serves as basis
for secondary and for superior teaching. The teaching is in all its aspects
laical.
111. The state must see to it that indigent children have free Schooling food,
clothing, and school materials. The government and the bodies of self-govern-
ment must set aside yearly from their resources a certain Sum for the defrayal
Of these expenses.
112. Private schols are subject to the general school laws.
THIRTEENTH CHAPTER—SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RIGHTS
113. The Republic sees to it that all its citizens have dignified existence,
114. Forced expropriation or restriction of private enterprise can only take
place in virtue of a special law, which determines their manner, and only for
the needs of the state and for public utility. The owners of property who
have been expropriated will be indemnified, provided there are no dispositions
to the contrary made by law.
115. The Republic has its own commercial and industrial Organization. Its
principal object is to develop this organization and to create a single and com-
plete system of social economy. The Republic will aid the bodies of self-
government in the development and strengthening of similar economic organi-
zations. The government has the right to Socialize by legislature the commer-
cial, industrial, and agricultural enterprises which may be suitable for this
purpose.
116. The State watches particularly against the private exploitation of the
work of small producers, of the agricultural, the workmen, and the home-
worker. The Republic will also give its special attention to the prosperity of
agriculture. The proprietor of land has a duty toward society to cultivate
the same to get the best possible results.
178 | NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
t
117. The existence of the State is based on work, and it is therefore a par-
ticular duty Of Same to protect Same.
118. The laws of the Republic intrust the bodies of self-government with the
work of establishing labor exchanges, employment agencies, and similar institu-
tions which shall keep statistics of unemployed persons and assist them to
obtain work. The representatives of workers’ unions to the extent of half, at
least, shall take part in the central direction of these institutions.
119. Citizens who are out of work shall have the assistance of insurance and
help to procure work for them.
120. Any citizen who is incapacitated from work by age, sickness, or other
causes and having neither by law or custom a claim of support from his heir,
curator, or any private or public institution, and being without means of
existence, has the right to have assistance from the State by way of insurance
or other methods. This assistance is also given by the State in cases where
the heir or curator are not in a position to care for the invalid.
121. Any citizen incapacitated from work by age, mutilation, or other causes,
will receive in the way of insurance an assistance proportionate to his Salary.
The insurance capital will be raised by means of a tax levied on the employer.
122. Besides the tax mentioned in the preceeding article, a certain part of
the receipts of the republic shall be annually set aside for the same object.
123. The normal duration of working time of hired help shall not be more
than 48 hours per week. The worker must at the same time have a weekly
respite from work of at least 42 uninterrupted hours per week. The exception.
to the weekly hours of work are determined by law. The fixing of the normal
time of work for agricultural laborers and season workers necessitating Special
Working conditions are fixed by law.
124. The employment of minors under 16 years in establishments is for-
bidden ; the working hours for minors between the ages of 16 and 18 is fixed
at 6 hours per day; minors under 18 and Women may not be employed in
night work.
125. The Republic fixes the minimum rate of wages and establishes normal
working conditions. It creates a special inspection of work and Sanitary
control independent of the employers. w
126. The protection of female labor will be the object of a special law. The
employment of women at work detrimental to maternity is forbidden. During
the time Of confinement the female Worker is excused from her work for at least
two months Without Suspension of salary. It is the duty of an employer to
permit his female workers to give the necessary time to their nurslings.
127. Any infraction of the laws giving protection to labor comes within the
penal COde. -
128. It is incumbent on the Republic and the bodies of Self-government to
insure the protection of mothers and children.
FOURTEENTH CHAPTER—RIGHTS OF ETHNICAL MINORITIES
129. It is forbidden to bring any obstacle to the free social development,
economic and Cultural, Of the ethnical minorities of Georgia, especially to the
teaching in their mother language and the interior management of their affairs
concerning their own culture. Everybody has the right to his mother tongue
in writing, printing, and Speaking. r
130. All local ethnical minorities formed into united administration enjoy
the right to group themselves and form national unions for organizing and
directing their cultural matters Within the limits of the constitution and the
law. The local ethnical minorities which do not belong to united administra-
tions may constitute themselves independently into an ethnical union, enjoying
the competencies mentioned in this article. One is under the jurisdiction of
an ethnical union for reason of the language one speaks. The cultural needs
of the ethnical minorities are met by sums levied on the budget of self-govern-
ment in proportion to the number interested.
131. Nobody shall be restricted in his rights, civil or political for the reason
of belonging to an ethnical minority.
132. Any ethnical union may bring before a court of justice any matter
in violation of the rights Conferred to the minorities by the constitution or
by law.
133. Any citizen of the Georgian Republic has equal rights concerning the
admission to the civil or military Service of the state as well as to the service
of towns and communities.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 179
134. In localities of a mixed population the bodies of self-government, are
obliged, with the funds at their disposal, to create a sifficient number of
schools and establishments of instruction and general education in pro-
portion to the ethnical composition of its population.
135. Instruction in all schools belonging to an ethnical minority shall be
given in the language in which its pupils Speak. -
136. In a circumscription submitted to a body of self-government where the .
proportion of the ethnical minority exceeds 20 per cent of the whole of the
citizens and where the administration of Communal and state affairs run
Concurrently, the Official language, if the minority desires it, shall be the
language of the said minority.
137. Any deputy of non-Georgian Origin, not knowing the official language
sufficiently for expressing his Opinions in parliament, may use his mother
tongue, on condition that he has previously submitted to the bureau of parlia-
ment an exact translation of his speech. The application of this article shall
be regulated by law.
FIFTEENTH CHAPTER—OFFICIALS OF THE STATE
138. Any Georgian citizen has access to all the offices if he satisfies the
, requirements of the law.
139. An officer may be relieved of his office or incur disciplinary punish-
ment by order of the institution or the chief. The rules as to his definite
suspension are fixed by law.
140. Every officer has the right of a pension. The terms under which
an officer or his family have the benefit of a pension are fixed by law.
141. Every officer is responsible to justice according to the principles of
the common law. Any citizen has the privilege to arrain any officer who
may be guilty. Any citizen has the right to be reimbursed by the state for any
loss or damage caused by an Officer in the exercise of the functions of his office.
The proceedings and conditions of indemnification are fixed by law.
SIXTEENTH CHAPTER—RELATIONS OF STATE AND CHURCH
142. The state and the church are separate and independent one from the
Other.
143. No confession or creed enjoys special privileges.
144. It is forbidden to make any levies on the resources of the state or the
bodies of Self-government for the needs of any religious order.
EIGHTEENTH CHAPTER—REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION
145. The complete or partial revision of the constitution may be demanded–
(a) By at least one-half of the members of parliament.
(b) By a group of 50,000 electors.
146. A proposal for the revisal of the constitution can only be heard in
parliament six months after the deposition of such proposal.
147. A proposal or plan for the partial or entire revisal of the consti-
tution can only be adopted by a majority of two-thirds of the members of
parliament. This proposal only comes into force after it has received the
approval of the people.
148. The alteration of the form of government of the democratic Republic
Of Georgia can not be made the object of the proposal of a revisal of the
Constitution.
it 1. Until the meeting of parliament the constituent assembly will act in
ITS piaCe.
APPENDIX NO. 5
TREATY, MAY 7, 1920, BETWEEN THE DEMocratic REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA AND
THE RUSSIAN SOCIALIST SOVIET FEDERATIVE REPUBLIC
The democratic Republic of Georgia and the Russian Socialist Federated
Soviet Republic animated by a common desire to establish stable and peaceful
relations between the two countries, in order to assure the well-being of the
populations of the respective countries, have, for that purpose, decided to
conclude a special treaty, and have appointed as plenipotentiaries:
The Government of the democratic Republic of Georgia, Mr. Gregoire
Ouratadze, and in the Government of the Russian Socialist Soviet Republic,
Mr. Leon Mikhailovitch Karakhan, Assistant Commissar of Foreign Affairs;
who after communicating to each other their full powers, found to be in due
and proper form, have agreed upon the following articles:
ARTICLE I
Based on the right proclaimed by the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet
Republic of all peoples to fully dispose of themselves to the extent of and
including total withdrawal from the state of which they form a part, Russia
recognizes without reservations the independence and the Sovereignty of the
Georgian State, and voluntarily renounces all sovereign rights which belonged
to Russia with respect to the Georgian people and territory.
ARTICLE II
Based on the principles proclaimed in the foregoing Article I, Russia
agrees to renounce all intervention in the internal affairs of Georgia.
ARTICLE III
1. The State boundary between Georgia and Russia runs from the Black
Sea, along the Pacou River to Mount Akhahktoha, Crosses Mount Akhakhtcha
and Mount Agapet, follows the Southern boundary of the former Black Sea
governments, Koutais and Tiflis, to the Zakataly district and the eastern
boundary of said district to the Armenian frontier.
2. All the hills Situated on the above-mentioned boundary line are declared
neutral until January 1, 1922. They can neither be occupied by the troops
Of either of the contracting parties, nor fortified by either of the said parties.
3. As regards Darial Hill, the neutralization provided for in paragraph 2
of the present article Will apply to that part of the hill comprised between
Balta and Kobi ; to Mamisson Hill; from Zaramag to Oni; and, to all the
other hills, for a distance of five verstes on each side of the boundary line.
4. The exact direction of the state boundary between the two contracting
parties will be determined by a special joint boundary commission, composed
Of an equal number of representatives of each party. The results of the work
of this commission will be embodied in a special treaty to be concluded between
the two contracting parties.
ARTICLE IV
1. In addition to those parts of the Black Sea Government awarded to Georgia
by the provisions of paragraph 1 of Article III of the present treaty, Russia
agrees, without reservations, to recognize as being comprised in the Georgian
State the following governments and regions of the former Russian Empire:
Tiflis, Koutais, and Baboum, with all the districts forming the said govern.
ments and regions, and also the Zakataly and Soukhoum districts.
2. As fast as relations are established hereafter between Georgia and states
Other than Russia—states already existing or that may be formed subse-
180
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 181
quently—and bordering Georgia by other frontiers than those defined in
Article III of the present treaty, Russia declares herself ready to recognize
as belonging to Georgia such or much other part of the former vice royalty of
Caucausus as may accrue to her in virtue of treaties concluded with these
States.
ARTICLE V
Acceding to Russia's demand to the effect that there shall not be tolerated
henceforth any military operation, quartering of troops, nor any other acts
likely to create a situation on Georgian territory which might threaten her
independence or be capable of transforming Georgia’s territory into a base of
operations directed against the public order there established, Georgia agrees:
1. To immediately disarm and intern in concentration camps all military or
naval units, debarkments, and groups having pretentions to the rôle of Gov-
ernment of Russia, or any part thereof, or of states allied to Russia—as well
as representatives and functionaries, Organizations, and groups seeking to
Overthrow the Government of Russia or Of her allies—who may be on Georgian
territory at the time of the signature of the present treaty or who may subse-
quently enter her territory.
2. To immediately disarm and intern the naval vessels belonging to the
Organizations and groups mentioned in paragraph 1 Of the present article,
which may be in the ports of Georgia, and also any vessels, which for any
reason whatsoever may be in these parts at the disposal Of Said Organizations
and groups. The provisions of paragraph 1 of the present article apply in
their entirety to the Crews of said vessels.
3. To hand Over to Russia without charge, and without demanding any Com-
pensation, all military and naval supplies without exception, all Securities and
funds which may be in the possession, enjoyment, Or at the disposal of the
organizations and groups mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present article, and
which, in accordance with paragraphs 1 and 2 of the same article, are to be
placed at Georgia’s disposal.
By the terms of the present paragraph the following shall be considered as
military and naval war materials: Vessels and Other floating material ; all
artillery, Commissary (including stocks of provisions and equipment), engineer-
ing, and aviation material in general.
4. To deliver to Russia, after disarmament, the units, organizations, and
groups, as well as the crews, mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present article.
NOTE.-Russia agrees to spare the lives of all those who may be delivered to
her in accordance with the present article.
5. To take measures to send away from the Georgian territory comprised
Within the boundaries fixed by Article IV of the present treaty all troops and
military detachments not forming part of the national troops of Georgia.
8. To take steps to forbid the sojourning hereafter on Georgian territory of
the troops and military detachments mentioned in paragraph 5 of the present
article.
7. To forbid any persons belonging to the units, Organizations, and groups
enumerated in paragraphs 1 and 5 of the present article, in so far as said
persons are not of Georgian nationality, to enter, in any capacity whatsoever,
among others, as Volunteers, the troops of the Government of Georgia.
8. Not to permit henceforth the formation and Sojourn on her territory within
the boundaries fixed in Article IV of the present treaty, of any troops and
Organizations pretending to the rôle of Government of Russia or any part
thereof, or of the rôle of government of states allied with Russia nor any
representatives and functionaries, organizations, and groups seeking to over-
, throw the Government of Russia or that of her allies; Georgia also agrees
not to permit the transportation by the above-mentioned organizations, groups.
representations, and functionaries across Georgian territory, of anything that
could be utilized to attack Russia or her allies, and also to prohibit the sojourn
in her ports and waters of vessels and other floating material belonging to
Said Organizations, except in the case of vessels in distress and other cases
provided for by international law.
9. In case the Organizations, groups, representatives, or functionaries men-
tioned in the foregoing paragraph 8 of the present article should attempt to
Violate the interdiction stipulated in said paragraph 8, proceedings will be
taken with respect to the persons and property that the Georgian Government
182 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
undertakes to arrest in accordance with the obligations assumed by it in ac-
cordance with the terms of paragraph 8 of the present article, as stipulated
in paragraphs 3 and 4 of the said article.
ARTICLE VI
Russia agrees not to permit on her territory the sojourn and the activity
of any group or organization pretending the rôle of Government of Georgia, or
any part thereof, nor of any group and organization seeking to overthrow the
Government of Georgia.
Russia agrees to use all her influences with her allies to the end that the
groups and organizations mentioned in the present article shall not be admitted
to this territory.
ARTICLE VII
In order to avoid any misunderstanding, the two contracting parties agree
that at the time of the execution of paragraphs 5 and 6 of Article V of the
present treaty in the parts of the territory accruing to Georgia by the terms of
paragraph 2 of Article IV of said treaty, after the delimitation of the frontiers
of Georgia and neighboring countries other than Russia, the necessary measures
of Security in these cases shall be taken by Georgia within the shortest possible
time, once she shall have assumed formal exercise of her sovereignty in such Or
such of Said territories.
ARTICLE VIII
A joint commission, composed of an equal number of representatives of each
party hereto, shall be appointed to see to the strict enforcement of Articles
V and VI or the present treaty and to the delivery and reception of the persons
and property stipulated in paragraphs 3 and 4 of the said Article W.
The commission shall itself determine its method of procedure. The delivery
and the reception of the persons and property Specified in paragraphs 3 and 4
of Article V of the present treaty shall be effected within a period of two
months from the date of the signature of said treaty.
ARTICLE IX
1. Persons of Georgian Origin, residing on Russian territory, and having
reached the age of 18 years, shall have the right to choose Georgian nationality.
Likewise, persons not of Georgian origin, residing on Georgian territory,
and having attained the age above mentioned, shall be entitled to opt for
Russian nationality.
2. The details relative to the enforcement of the present article shall be
embodied in a special agreement to be concluded between the two contracting
parties.
3. The nationals of the two contracting parties who desire to take advan-
tage of the rights conferred on them by the provisions of the present article,
Shall be required to comply with the formalities to which they are subjected,
Within One year from the date of the coming into force of the convention
mentioned in the foregoing paragraph 2.
ARTICLE X
Georgia agrees to release from penalties imposed and from administrative
Or legal prosecution, all persons subject to such proceedings in Georgian
territory, because of acts committed in the interest of the Russian Socialist
Federated Soviet Republic, or in the interest of the Communist Party.
NOTE.-Georgia agrees to release immediately all persons imprisoned for
the above-mentioned acts.
ARTA CLE XI
Each of the contracting parties agrees to recognize and to respect the flag
and the arms of the other party hereto, as being the emblem of a friendly
State. The designs of the flags and the arms, so well as any changes that
may. Subsequently be made therein, shall be communicated to the respective
parties through diplomatic channels.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 183
ARTICLE XII
Pending the conclusion between the two contracting parties, of a treaty Of
commerce, the necessary measures for which will be taken as soon as possible
the economic relations between Georgia and Russia shall be regulated pro-
visionally in accordance with the following general arrangement:
1. The two contracting parties lay down, as the basis of their commercial
relations, the principle of the most favored nation.
2. Goods whose origin or destination is one of the contracting parties shall
not be subjected by the other party to any duty Or transit tax.
ARTICLE XIII
The provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 of the foregoing Article XII shall
serve as the basis of the treaty of commerce which is to be concluded between
the contracting parties, in accordance with the terms of Said Article XII.
ARTICLE XIV
Diplomatic and consular relations between Georgia and Russia Shall be
established as soon as possible.
Pending the conclusion by the two contracting parties of a special convention
regulating the law relative to consuls of the respective contracting parties, the
necessary measures for the drafting of which will be taken, the rights and
obligations of said officials shall be determined by the rules in force in that
connection with each of the contracting parties.
ARTICLE XV
The settlement of questions arising in the domain of public or private rights
between the citizens of the two contracting parties, and the settlement Of cer-
tain special questions between the two States, shall be intrusted to Special
Russo-Georgian joint commissions, which shall be appointed as soon as possible
after the signature of the present treaty. The composition, rights, and duties
of said commissions shall be determined by special instructions drawn up for
each commission as may be agreed upon by the two contracting parties.
The jurisdiction of said commissions shall extend, among other matters, to
the following:
1. Formulation of a treaty of commerce and Other economic agreements.
2. Settlement of questions concerning the distribution of the archives and
the disposition of current matters, administration and legal records, and social
State documents in the former central institutions.
3. Settlement of the question of the method of utilization, possession, and
disposition of the Batum-Bakou pipe line in the respect to that part Of it
which, in virtue of Article IV of the present treaty, is situated on Georgian
territory. This question shall be settled ultimately by means of a special
agreement between the two contracting parties.
ARTICLE XVI
The present treaty becomes effective from the very fact of its signature on
the date Of Such signature, without any special ratification being necessary.
In witness whereof the plenipotentiaries of the two parties have with their
Own hands signed the present treaty and affixed thereunto their seals.
Done in duplicate at Moscow on the 7th of May, 1920.
Signatures:
G. OURATADZE.
L. KARAKHAN.
APPENDIX NO. 6
[Excerpts, from the booklet République de Géorgie—Documents Relatifs à la Question
de la Géorgie Devant la Société des Nations.” Published by the Georgian Legation
in France, Paris, 1925. (Translated, from French.) . Also note from the delegate of
tºº, government of Georgia, to the Council of the League of Nations, relevant
O, the 3DOWe
LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE GEORGIAN DELEGATION TO THE PEACE CON-
FERENCE TO THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND TO THE ASSEMBLY OF THE LEAGUE
OF NATIONS
(Assembly Document 29 (28/254/254))
D£LÉGATION DE LA REPUBLIQUE GEORGIENNE,
37 RUE DE LA PáROUSE,
Paris, 21st May, 1919.
The delegation of the Georgian Republic, acting in the name of the people
and the Government of Georgia, have the honor to request that Georgia be
admitted to the League of Nations in accordance with the provisions of the
Covenant of the 28th April, 1919.
(Signed) N. To HEIDZE,
President of the Georgian, Delegation.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Memorandum by the Secretary general.
NOVEMBER 20, 1920.
I. On May 21, 1919, the delegation of the Georgian Republic, then in Paris,
asked the Secretary general of the League of Nations to submit to the council
and the assembly of the league a note in Which it requested, in the name of
the people and the Government of Georgia, the admission of this country to
the League of Nations.
The secretary general in his reply dated June 6, 1919, suggested that in view
Of the terms of Article I of the Covenant the better course would be for the
Georgian authorities to address, when the covenant would have come into
force, a formal request through the secretary general to the assembly for
admission to the league.
An extract of the Georgian note of May 21, 1919, was submitted to the
Council by the Secretary general on April 15, 1920, Council Document No. 7, and
to the members of the League On June 29, 1920.
II. On September 1, 1920, Georgia made a formal request to be admitted as
a member of the league. The text of the request is annexed to this memo-
randum. (Annexe 1.) *
An explanatory memorandum stating further the reasons which prompted
Georgia to seek admission to the league was presented by the Georgian dele-
gation in London on September 18, 1920, and is annexed to this memorandum.
(Annexe 2.)
III. On May 26, 1918, the independence of Georgia, which before was under
Russian administration, was proclaimed by the national council, a provisional
representative body.
The text of the act by which Georgia’s independence was thus proclaimed is
annexed to this memorandum. (Annexe 3.)
The attention of the assembly is especially drawn to article 3 of this act,
saying in its authentic version : “In the event of international conflict Georgia
will always remain neutral.” ;
The aforementioned act was confirmed by the Georgian Constituent Assem-
bly On March 12, 1919. The text of this confirmation is annexed to the pres-
ent memorandum. (Annex 4.)
IV. Georgia has been recognized “ de jure " by the Government of the Ar-
gentine Republic (September 13, 1919), by the Soviet Government of Russia
(May 7, 1920), and by the German Government (September 24, 1920).
184
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 185
Georgia has been recognized “de facto " by the Governments of France, Great
Britain, Italy, January 11, 1920; Japan, February 7, 1920; Belgium, August 26,
1920.
Copies of the acts of recognition, authenticated on behalf of the Georgian
Government, are available in the secretariat.
W. Article I of the covenant of the League of Nations provides:
“Any fully self-governing State, Dominion, Or Colony not named in the An-
nex may become a member of the league if its admission is agreed to by two-
thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective guaranties of its
sincere intention to observe its international obligations and shall accept Such
regulations as may be prescribed by the league in regard to its military, naval,
and air forces and armaments.”
In this connection it may be recalled that Georgia applied for membership
of the league “with all the rights and duties thereto attached, the which are
based on the covenant of the said league.” (Annex 1.)
It may also be stated that on May 19, 1920, the permanent advisory com-
mission for military, naval, and air questions has been instructed “to con-
sider and draft regulations in accordance with article 1 of the covenant, in
regard to the military, naval, and air forces and armaments of the Republic
of Georgia, and to forward the report to the council on the subject.”
In their report to the council the commission stated that it had received
from Georgia the following information :
The military forces of this country consist to-day of 55,000 men and of a
national guard of 60,000 volunteers.
At a later date and when the independence of the Republic is no longer
threatened from Outside this country hopes to create a militia based more or
less on the example of the Swiss militia.
The commission recommends the maintenance of the existing forces, in view
Of the present situation.
Georgia asks to be allowed to keep the naval forces she now possesses for
patrol purposes: Seven light craft of less than 500 tons.
The COmmission recommends the maintenance of this force.
The commission has received no information nor request with regard to the
air forces of Georgia.
It should be added that the commission also recommended that the proposed
armaments should only be considered as having a provisional character and
that, among other countries seeking admission, Georgia should agree to
Submit herself to a revision of the armaments which in the opinion of the
commission can now be granted to her if this would be found necessary at a
later date. The commission suggested that a request for revision might be
made by Georgia herself; it would have to be accompanied by a statement
of the new conditions on which the request would be based.
The report of the Commission has formed the subject of a resolution of
the Council, placed before the assembly.
VI. In a letter dated September 8, 1920, the secretary-general suggested to
the Georgian Government that the assembly might wish to hear explanations
regarding questions in connection with Georgia’s application for admission
to the League of Nations, and that in view thereof it might be desirable for
the Georgian Government to send a representative specially to Geneva,
When the assembly would be meeting, or to give its agent in some capital the
necessary instructions.
On October 16, 1920, the Georgian delegation in London informed the secre-
tary-general that Georgia would be represented for the said purposes in
Geneva, by M. E. Gueguetchkori, vice president of the Georgian Government
and minister for foreign affairs, and by M. Avaloff, delegate.
MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE GEORGIAN REPUBLIC SUB-
MITTED BY THE GEORGIAN GOVERNMENT TO THE ASSEMBLY OF THE LEAGUE OF
NATIONS TO BE HELD AT GENEVA on SEPTEMBER, 1922
Availing itself of the fact that the League of Nations is holding its assembly
at Geneva in order to discuss the questions within its competence, the Georgian
Government considers that it must once more draw the attention of the
assembly to the Situation of Georgia, and to inform it of the events which have
taken place in the country since the assembly of September, 1921.
186 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Since Georgia was occupied by the Russian Bolshevik troops in defiance of
the pledges signed by the Moscow Government, the people of Georgia have
continually protested by every means in their power against the rule imposed
on them by foreign troops. On various occasions they have given expression
to their hostile feelings against the invaders by means of public demonstrations
and strikes, and have given proof of the unanimity of all the classes and of
all the political parties of the nation in protesting against Soviet rule. In
certain districts there have been armed risings. In Svanetia, for example, the
struggle assumed such a character that the red army was compelled to abandon
its scheme of conquest, and part of the mountainous region remained free.
The guiding motive Of these demonstrations and risings is to Secure the evacu-
ation of Georgia by the Russian troops and the reestablishment of demo-
cratic rule.
The Officials of Moscow established in Tiflis can Only exercise their domina-
tion by means of terror. Every kind of liberty has been suppressed. Daw and
justice are trampled under foot. The law is only recognized when it is profit-
able to the interest of the invader and of his agents. The so-called elections
to the Soviets have been merely nominations imposed by the forces in occupa-
tion. All acts of protest are barbarously repressed. The Tcheka, whose mem-
bers are all foreigners Or former convicts, have established in the Country a
reign of terror without precedent in the history of Georgia ; the workmen on
the railways, tramways, and nationalized industrial establishments, and the
employees and Officials of the various public services are dismissed on the least
Suspicion or are transferred to Russia under pretext of the exigencies of the
service and are replaced by foreigners. The prisons are overflowing with
persons who have been arrested ; there are more than 12,000 of them. Re-
ceiving hardly any food and living in appalling sanitary conditions, they suffer
from hunger and disease and die in large numbers. These are the best citizens
Of the Country, the members Of the Constituent assembly, the most prominent
intellectuals, and the Officers of the national army, most of whom were arrested
at the Outset of the Occupation and have not yet been tried, and who have not,
even up to the present been told of the Crime of which they are accused.
On May 25 and 26 of this year, on the occasion of the anniversary of the
proclamation of the independence of Georgia, the population wished to com-
memorate this historic date by peaceable demonstrations. The authorities in
Occupation, after outraging national sentiment by declaring that the real date
of the independence of Georgia was February 25, the day on which the red
Russian army entered Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, proceeded to commit
appalling acts of Violence under the pretext of maintaining order. The Smallest
gatherings were dispersed by armed forces, which fired on the population and
hurled bombs and grenades among them ; numerous persons were killed and
wounded. The persons who were arrested were beaten, dragged by mounted
Tchekists, and thrown into the cellars of the Tcheka, where their torture was
Continued.
Concurrently with these acts of barbarism against individuals, all that the
country possesses is being pillaged, plundered, and destroyed. The authorities
in occupation, without any regard for the national wealth or for the future of
the country, send to Russia everything which can be moved, and whatever
pleases their leaders is squandered, in defiance of all private and public
rights.
Georgia is thus doomed to extermination by the Russian power and has
become unretognizable. Famine is raging in certain Provinces. A report
drawn up by the Bolshevik authorities themselves states that the number of
Starving persons reaches 250,000. Epidemics are spreading; and in view of the
absence of sanitary measures to combat them and the lack of medicine, they
are claiming more and more numerous victims.
M. Braunthal, delegate of the international syndicalist conference of
Amsterdam, to whom was intrusted the task of supplying Georgia with
medicine, on his return, drew a melancholy picture of present-day Georgia.
“The main impression produced on a person arriving in Georgia,” says he,
“is one of universal and irremediable devastation. The streets, houses, Gov-
ernment buildings, apartments, furniture, chairs, tables, cupboards, clothes,
linen, footwear, everything is torn, worn out, demolished, plundered, and
destroyed.”
Mr. Serwey, a Belgian, who was sent by the international cooperative so-
cieties On a mission to the COOperative societies of Georgia, describes in his
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 187
report the profound distress which is prevalent throughout the country, and
compares the present position of Georgia with Belgium's position during
the German occupation. ſº & e.
The occupation of Georgia is the triumph of the MOSCOW régime; it is the
triumph of forces which destroy all national life and all material progress.
At first the Bolsheviks attempted to hide their misdeeds by inventing the
lie about an internal revolution in the country. Moscow caused this view to
be desseminated through the international communist press. But the truth
could not remain hidden. M. Trotsky, in a book directed against Georgia,
and M. Radek, at the meeting of the three internationals, Were forced to
admit that Georgia had, in fact, been invaded by the red army. In a report
sent to the central committee of the Russian Communist Party, P. Makharadze,
agent of the government of Moscow, who was nominated president of the
“frevkom,” or revolutionary committee of Georgia, at the very beginning of
the occupation declared that—
“When the offensive of the red army began, no communist nucleus, no
member of the party knew anything as to why this offensive was being carried
out; it was, indeed, quite unexpected. The entry of the red army into Georgia
and the proclamation of the Soviet authority assumed the nature Of a COn-
quest, for at that time there was no thought of any agitation in favor of a
rising within the country itself. When the authority of the Soviets Was pro-
claimed, no group of the communist party, no single member of the party—
let us leave it at that—could be found capable of establishing this authority,
and, more often than not, only suspicious characters or absolute Criminals
came forward to offer their support.”
In order to prove to Europe how hostile the Georgian people is to the
Bolshevik rule, the national government. in agreement with all the political
parties of Georgia, has more than once requested that an international Com-
mittee of inquiry should be sent to make investigations on the Spot. MOSCOW,
through its representatives at the conference of the three internationals in
Berlin, finally consented to submit this question to the “committee of nine "
but, in conformity with its usual procedure, it did not keep its Word.
At the conferences of Cannes, Genoa, and The Hague, at which the Russian
problem was to be considered, the Georgian question was bound to be raised,
although Georgia, in conformity with the Cannes decision, according to
which Georgia was held to be an Asiatic State, was not represented. Georgia,
however, submitted her grievances, and a protest through the memoranda
of its lawful Government, through statements made by the various political
parties of Georgia, and through a protest lodged by the head of the Church
of Georgia. She followed the course of these discussions with anxiety. She
hoped that the civilized nations would not remain indifferent to the crime
of the Bolsheviks, and that they would demand, as a condition for the estab-
lishment of relations with the government of the Soviets, the evacuation of
Georgia by the Russian troops.
The government of Moscow attempted to have the Russian delegation at
Genoa recognized as representing Georgia also. This attempt failed, and the
conference adhered to the Cannes resolution. Indeed, the Russian Subcom-
mittee, in connection with the insurrections in Svanetia and the measures of
repression taken by the authorities of Occupation, and at the request Of the
National Government of Georgia, brought the matter up before the Russian
delegation with a view to putting an end to the continual bloodshed in Georgia.
But M. Tehitcherin denied the facts, in spite of the convincing proof which
Was Submitted to the Conference, and evaded this question by raising a more
general one—that of all the “oppressed nations.” He also accused the powers
who were present Of themselves holding various peoples in subjection.
The Russian delegation therefore continued to use the wealth Of the Cau-
casus (its oil, its manganese, etc.) as a means for driving a bargain with the
object of obtaining credits and of consolidating the Bolshevik power.
To-day it is perfectly apparent to all that the invasion of the Caucasus and
Georgia was carried out with the intention of obtaining a hold over this
country’s wealth. M. Radek admitted as much in Berlin, saying that the
Soviets had occupied Georgia in Order to obtain “access to its oil.”
Georgia has been recognized “de jure " by the majority of the civilized pow-
ers, and even by Russia herself, who solemnly declared in the treaty dated
May 9, 1920 (article 1) “that she recognized unreservedly the independence
and sovereignty of the Georgian state.” The Georgian people should be free to
work out their own destiny.
188 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
International considerations, both of a political and economic nature, require
that the evacuation of the country by the Russian troops should be insisted
upon. Georgia will never submit to the yoke of Moscow, and as long as the
Caucasus, and especially Georgia, remain under Russian domination no lasting
peace can ever be established in the Caucasus nor in Asia Minor. Just as
Tsarist Russia—with its imperialistic aims—used the Caucasus as a military
base for extending its influence throughout Asia Minor and the middle east,
to-day the Bolshevik government is trying through these same regions to extend
its influence. *
From the economic point of view, thanks to its geographical situation,
Georgia, by means of her roads, railway, pipe line and harbor, commands the
highways for the traffic in oil and other products of the Caucasus and the
neighboring regions and forms a natural link between the markets of Europe
and these rich countries. In order to put an end to the upheavals and Wars
which continue to hinder the development of all productive labor, it is above
all essential that Georgia and the Caucasus should, by their liberation and a
neutrality which would make them accessible to all the powers as well as to
Russia, be reestablished as a natural link between Europe and Asia.
It is true that, in its struggle against Rusisan Occupation, the Georgian
people received frequent expressions of sympathy from the civilized world;
the governments of the various powers on several occasions evinced their
moral support; speeches in Parliament, addresses, motions passed in its favor .
by municipalities, political parties, syndicates, cooperatives, and other socie-
ties, have been a source of great encouragement. But how loudly would the
voice of the League of Nations ring—that great court of international justice
The Georgian GOvernment in a memorandum addressed to the assembly of
the League of Nations held at Geneva in September, 1921, after describing
the situation of Georgia, entreated the assembly to protest “against the Bol-
shevik invasion and the Occupancy of Georgia by the Red troops of the Soviet.”
|Unhappily this request proved fruitless, although the congress Of the union of
associations for the League Of Nations, held at Geneva itself shortly before-
hand, passed a vote urgently entreating the council and the assembly of the
League of Nations to adopt measures such that the right Of peoples to dispose
of themselves might be applied to Georgia.
The national Government Of Georgia hopes that this statement of facts Will
persuade the League of Nations, the guardian of the rights of peoples, to
protest against the unspeakable atrocities Committed by the Bolsheviks, and
to find means to alleviate the sufferings of the Georgian people, who, at the
mercy of a horrible, despotic power, are struggling against famine and disease.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
RECORDS OF THE THIRD ASSEMBLY-MINUTES OF THE SIXTH COMMITTEE (POLITICAL
QUESTIONS)
Meeting held on September 20, 1922, at 3.30 p. m.
GEORGIA : PROPOSAL BY M. DE BROUCIEERE
M. de Brouckere (Belgium) having recalled the text of his proposal (Annex
12), stated that he had given much thought to it before submitting it to the
assembly and he wished to point out the main reasons underlying it. As a
matter of fact, the question had been placed before the assembly at the very
beginning of the session, as the memorandum addressed to the secretariat by
the Georgian Government had been brought to the notice of the assembly,
drawing its attention to the situation of Georgia and appealing for the help.
of the League of Nations. The Georgian Government, by whom this appeal
was issued, was a legitimate Government in the sense in which the word was
used in that assembly; that is to say, it was based upon the national will and
was recognized as a Government by the other nations. He recalled Georgia’s
long period of past independence, her Voluntary union with Russia in the
eighteenth century, the act of violence committed in 1803, and lastly—after
the war—her declaration of independence in 1918, which was confirmed in
1919 by a properly elected constituent assembly, which had never failed in its
loyal support of the Government from whom the appeal had emanated. The
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 189
legitimate character of this Government was demonstrated no less clearly
abroad than at home; it was recognized de jure by the allied powers on
January 26, 1921, and afterwards by other countries, foremost among whom
was Belgium and later the Argentine, Poland, Austria, Rumania, and many
others. This act of recognition was the result of ripe reflection on the part of
the powers and had, indeed, been consecrated by reason of the fact that it
was accorded on the very eve Of the invasion of the country.
This legitimate government had been driven from its territory by the Rus-
sian invader. If it were claimed that it had thereby lost its legitimate
character, the example of Belgium formed an unanswerable reply.
The first State to recognize Georgia had been the Russian Federative
Soviet Republic by the treaty concluded with Georgia on May 7, 1920, in
the first article of which the independence of the country and the legitimacy
of its government were recognized. In article 2 Russia abjured any inter-
vention in the affairs of Georgia. On February 15 in the following year
Georgia was invaded without any declaration of war, and without having
given any provocation, by the soviet armies in cooperation with the Turkish
armies, and it was at this time, when the Government had to make a stand
On two different fronts, that the power was seized by foreign element.
The speaker brought forward documentary evidence in proof of his
statement, namely, the report of the Eleventh Russian Army (December 18,
1920) giving the complete plan for the invasion of Georgia, and also admis-
sions made by Trotsky in his book entitled “Between Imperialism and the
Bevolution,” and by Radek, who had said in Berlin : “We invaded Georgia ;
we had to do SO—we needed Oil.” Further, he adduced the confessions of
the very man who had been appointed by the Soviet Republic to govern
Georgia, Nagaradzé, chief of the so-called Georgian Communist Party, in
a document dated December 6, 1921. Two passages from this document
showed that the Communist chief had no illusions as to the attitude of the
Georgian nation toward the Communist régime.
Yet another authority might be quoted. At Genoa, on April 22, M. Motta
and M. Branting brought before the political commission a note from the
Georgian Government asking for intervention on the part of the powers in
Order to put an end to the Occupation of Georgia by Russian troops. M.
Schanzer proposed that the Russian delegation should be approached with
a view to obtaining the withdrawal of the Soviet troops and the restoration
of the country’s independence. Men such as Mr. Lloyd George, on behalf
of the British Government, and M. Barthou, on behalf of the French Govern-
ment, joined in this action.
And now to-day, this same Georgian Government, possessing, as it did,
all the elements of ligitimacy, turned to the league and pointed to its country,
ravaged by war, recovering by wonderful efforts, then ravaged anew by
the armies of occupation, and offering a spectacle of desolation, misery,
famine, and plague. Could the league remain blind to all this?
It would be said that Georgia was not a member of the league. When
she applied in 1920 she had not been recognized by any power, and immediately
after recognition was granted the invasion took place. If Georgia had been
a member, it would have been necessary to apply the provisions of article
10 Of the COvenant. Would it have been possible at that time for even
the most ardent friend of Georgia to consider her admission possible, in
view of all the consequences involved by the united action prescribed in the
covenant? But because Georgia was not a member, did it follow that the
league had no duty toward her?
In the recent past the league had not drawn any distinction between Greek
and Armenian refugees. Moreover, Georgia was attached to the technical
organizations of the league and her government corresponded regularly with
the league. The fact that she was not a member Only made one difference,
namely, that she could not plead article 4; the assembly, however, was entitled
to do so. The assembly would not wish it to be said that there were oppressed
peoples so Small as to be beneath its interest. Georgia was a distant country.
The question of Georgia, however, was bound up with the most serious of the
league's present problems. Georgia was near Constantinople, and already
troops were concentrating at Batum ; perhaps she would soon be the military
center of an imperialism which steadily looked toward the Bosporus. Georgia
was near Smyrna. She was near Armenia, and the Georgian and Armenian
peoples would be bound by the closest of bonds when they realized the need for
190 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
*
mutual aid. Again, Georgia was near both Baku and the Caspian Sea, and
was on the road to central Asia. It was true that she was not near Bagdad,
but she was not far from Adana.
The Georgian question was not one of those theoretical problems which could
be lightly laid aside. The Genoa conference had tried to ignore it, but the
problem remained and would always remain. ^,
The Speaker further pointed out that his proposal was less bold than the
action taken at Genoa. Its sole object was to ascertain obvious facts, and it
gave promise for the future to an oppressed people. The future alone would
decide the means by which the Georgian people would be able to return to
their normal life and regain self-determination, but the league should make it
clear at once that its mission was to restore this vital part of the world to
normal conditions. This would not be a mere platonic wish, but a valuable
encouragement to this oppressed people, and other peoples as well, and they
might be calmed by the knowledge that the league had not forgotten them.
The league would say to them, “Patience, perseverance; the day of justice will
come.”
The chairman stated that he was voicing the opinion of the committee in
thanking the Belgian delegate for his interesting, detailed, and vigorous State-
ment.
Mr. Fisher (British Empire) Said that he had listened with much emotion to
the eloquent and clear speech of M. de Brouckère. Great Britain had always
Sympathized with this small but brave and interesting people, which to-day
was under the yoke of a foreign army. The oppression of the Small Caucasian
Republics by the Russian Soviet was an historical disaster. Unfortunately,
there was no immediate prospect of saving Georgia. Everyone agreed that the
league could not remain indifferent to any cause in which humanity was at
stake, but it was undesirable to ask the council to undertake political action
which might involve the use of force.
On behalf of his government, the Speaker declared that at present he could
See no means of employing force for that purpose. He proposed to introduce
a slight amendment into the proposal in such a way as to demonstrate clearly
that the league was still concerned with the fate of the population of Georgia,
and that it was anxious to follow the course of events in that country, but
also in such a way as to avoid binding the council in any manner to any fixed
policy.
Lord Robert Cecil (South Africa) said that he warmly seconded the remarks
of the British delegate. All who had read the document sent by the Georgian
Minister at Paris, and who had heard M. de Brouckère's speech, realized the
sufferings which Georgia endured as a result of unjustifiable military opera-
tions; but it was equally clear that the League of Nations should restrict
itself to taking practical steps and should avoid a visionary idealism ; it must
not attempt to redress wrongs wherever they might exist. It was clear that
no power could at the present moment take practical measures on behalf of
Georgia, and no member would plunge into a War unless forced to do SO—a
possibility which it was to be hoped would not arise. The Belgian delegate's
proposal, in the form in which it then existed, did not appear likely to pro-
duce any practical result.
Indeed, it contained elements of danger. It might be regarded as an act
of defiance to the Soviet Government, for which the league could not take
responsibility. Demonstrations of defiance should not be made unless they
could be supported. A still greater danger lay in the fact that the proposal
might give rise to false hopes among a population which they were unable to
assist. Such hopes might result in still more terrible sufferings.
The South African delegate, however, strongly sympathized with these suf-
ferings and did not wish to risk adding to them. All political or military
suggestions which would have no practical Outcome must be avoided. He
proposed to his Belgian colleague that the resolution should be amended as
follows:
“The Assembly Of the League of Nations, moved by the present unhappy
position of Georgia, invites the council to give attentive consideration to
the events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any
opportunity which may arise for giving assistance to the Georgian people
in their distreSS.”
M. Erich (Finland) said that the Finnish delegation associated itself with
the spirit and initiative of M. de Brouckére the more warmly as Finland was
deeply conscious of the community of interests existing between all the states
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 191
which had severed their allegiance to the old Russian Empire and had been
founded upon its ruins. The large majority of these nations, formerly Op-
pressed by the Russian Government, had, happily, succeeded in surviving
their vicissitudes, and, at the expense of considerable effort, had gained their
independence. Other less fortunate nations had failed and had been obliged
to accept the arbitrary rule of the government of the Soviets. Convinced that
the League of Nations would do its best to assist those states which had
preserved their independence in their important task of resisting the Spread
of Bolshevism and the attacks of the Russian invader, the Finnish delegation
hoped that the league would also make an effort to Save nations Such as
Georgia, or the unhappy province of Eastern Carelia, whose inhabitants were
united by race to the Finnish people, and whose cause had been Submitted
for a consideration of the secretariat. The Finnish delegation hoped that
the league would be able to save these nations, which at the present moment
were placed under the intolerable rules of the Bolshevists.
M. de Brouckère (Belgium), in reply to Mr. Fisher, wished to remove a mis-
understanding. The British delegate had very properly remarked that the
league should not undertake to assist the cause of freedom by force of arms.
The Belgian delegate made detailed comments on the various parts of the pro-
posal and said that no such suggestion had been intended. The proposal laid
stress upon the need for patience, for abstaining from force, and, above all, for
refusing at the moment to embark upon a war. The author of the proposal
had been so cautious that he had not even included the word “independence,”
because he thought that a free life might in practice take Several different
forms. One factor alone made liberty impossible—military dictatorship. It
might be said without temerity that, under favorable circumstances, the league
would help the Georgian people to attain a position in which they would no
longer be subjected to military force. If this idea, however, had not been suffi-
Ciently clearly expressed, the Belgian delegate Would Support his British Col-
league's Suggestions.
He would find it more difficult to accept Lord Robert Cecil’s amendment.
The suppression of the words “invaded and occupied contrary to the wishes
of the inhabitants’’ would constitute a refusal to recognize a fact which was
not in dispute. The league had already heard charges put forward by small
nations against powerful nations. These cases had been brought in the name Of
right. He asked whether, in cases affecting the Soviet Republic, the league no
longer dared to take right in consideration. The South African delegate's
WOrding was no answer to this question, for the Georgians were not asking for
mere charity. They knew that a League of Nations had been created for the
purpose of some day establishing right in the place of might. Was the league
to say to them, “We can not grant you right, but we can give you alms?”.
Lord Robert Cecil, with his passion for realities, had implored the com-
mittee to proceed with caution and had put it on its guard against idealism.
The Belgian delegate valued caution, but he was also a supporter of boldness.
They must dare to look the facts in the face and to measure the difficulties if
they were to Surmount them. They would not be giving rise to false hopes
among the Georgians, and he was convinced that the league would one day be
able to establish right. As Jaurés had said, mankind could not live with the
Corpses of assassinated nations in the cellar.
Further, the Georgian question was entangled with all present-day questions
of practical politics. Any attempt to solve the Armenian problem would at
the Same time affect Georgia. The league would shortly be requested to inter-
Vene On behalf of peace in Asia Minor. Hs asked if it could do so while the
Caucasus question was still unsolved. He did not ask that the Georgian prob-
lem Should be solved immediately. The league need merely say that it had not
overlooked the Georgian question, and that its eager desire was to do justice
at the proper time.
M. Motta (Switzerland) had listened with deep interest to the statement of
M. de Brouckère and to the remarks of the British representative and of Lord
Robert Cecil. There could not be any very serious differences of opinion when
once it had been established that the Belgian proposal did not seek to inter-
Vene for the Solution of the Georgian question by other than peaceful means.
That was the essential point. He also thought that there was some danger
in the league's Confining itself to merely pious resolutions. They must not be
96153—26—13
192 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
too free with resolutions, for superficial minds might be inclined to think of
the league as a gathering of States meeting Once a year for the expression of
their wishes without any risk. On the other hand, SO long as the league Was
not a superstate—and that was a very distant eventuality—it would not have
any material means at its disposal, no army, no funds. It thus Ought neces-
sarily to confine itself to the expression of opinions supported by the universal
conscience of mankind on questions affecting World peace.
The Swiss delegate did not think that the Belgian formula constituted a
challenge; if it had been otherwise he, the representative of the most neutral
country in the world, could not have been a party to it. The proposal stated
an obvious fact, the formation of which would hardly be sufficient to cause
a state of tension between the league and the Soviet republic. However, if
the committee thought otherwise, the speaker would agree to the Omission
of the words “invaded, etc.” On the other hand, the final formula proposed
by Lord Robert Cecil was excessively vague. The Swiss delegate proposed
to keep to M. de Brouckére's wording, introducing the words “by peaceful
means.”
M. de Brouckére (Belgium) accepted this amendment.
M. Askenazy (Poland) appreciated the lofty intentions of the Belgian
delegate, which found an echo in all hearts. But the wise remarks Of Lord
Robert Cecil seemed to him worthy of the true dignity of the league, of the
great importance of its resolutions, of the feeling of responsibility incurred,
and of the hopes it might arouse. He would like to have been able to accept
M. Motta’s suggestion, but if the words had a political meaning, he did not
quite understand, if they kept to facts, what was added by the words “by
peaceful means.” He therefore requested the committee to accept the Bel-
gian proposal with the necessary alterations suggested by Lord Robert Cecil.
M. Branting (Sweden) entirely agreed with the remarks of M. Motta. It
did not seem to him to be going too far if they made use of words which only
expressed a truth recognized by all. If the league did not dare to proclaim.
that the Georgian people should, one day or other, have their independence
like other peoples—who themselves might also one day be subjected to the
yoke of the invader—it would be far from fulfilling its purpose, and he was
astonished that on this occasion Lord Robert Cecil showed so little of that
courage which he had displayed on so many occasions when it had been a
pleasure to follow him if it was at all possible to do so. There was no ques-
tion here of converting this resolution into a simple expression of pity for
unhappy Georgia, but of proclaiming to the World that the Georgian nation
had a right to liberty, and that this was how the league regarded the situa-
tion in that part of the world. They should state clearly that no challenge
was intended to any power; to say to the Georgian people “invaded and
Occupied against its will,” that it ought to be helped by peaceful means and
that the conscience of mankind was on its side was by no means an insignifi-
cant declaration. An Opinion supported by the conscience of mankind would
have greater weight at no very distant date. They should have the courage
to pronounce these Words, which would give the Georgian people faith in its
independence and would show it that it aroused sincere sympathy throughout
the whole civilized world.
LOrd Robert Cecil (South Africa) regretted that he had not been con-
Vinced by the Swedish delegate. They must be very careful not to pass reso-
lutions for which they might have to pay dearly. He liked boldness, pro-
vided that it involved no risks except to him who showed it. -
If this resolution were addressed to any great powers and they took no
notice of it, the only result would be nothing worse than a wound to the
league's amour propre. But were they not, under the pretext of expressing
some fine feelings, about to expose Georgia to further sufferings? Were they
quite Sure, moreover, that the resolution really represented the wishes of the
Georgians? The appeal to the league came from the minister in Paris, not
from Georgia herself. To adopt the resolution, even in the form proposed by
M. Motta, might amount to saying to the Georgian people, “You have right on
your side; what are you waiting for to recover your liberty?” "Would not that
be inciting them to revolt, and a revolt would be followed by an attack of the
Russian troops, with all imaginable consequences?
Nobody shared noble ideas more than the South African delegate, but he
preferred to renuonce them if they led to carnage. Two years before the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 193
assembly had adopted a resolution in favor of Armenia—a much more moderate
resolution than this one, and one for which he was partly responsible. After
the vote several members asked him if he had really the right to risk increas-
ing the sufferings of the Armenian people in this way. That risk would be
greater for the Georgian people, in view of the strong wording of the pro-
posal, and he could not be a party to it. He concluded by saying that he had
no intention of restricting the action of the league in any way; still less was he
deaf to the sufferings of the Georgian people. t
Mr. Fisher (British Empire) regretted that M. de Brouckère was unable
to accept the amendment of Lord Robert Cecil, whose apprehensions he shared.
Moreover, as a member of the British cabinet, it would be difficult for him to
bind his colleagues to give effect to the resolution. The addition proposed
by M. Motta explained the peaceful intention of the proposal, but it did not
exclude the possibility of a rising in Georgia. Further, was it not one of the
reproaches leveled against the Soviet Government that they fomented sedition
in other countries.
Again, the words “invaded and occupied contrary to the wishes of its in-
habitants” might be justified, but the contrary might also be the case. There
was undoubtedly a strong Georgian Communist Party. In any case the league
could not accept responsibility for these words, which might be regarded as
provocative to the Soviet Government; all the diplomats present would agree
that this was so. Would the Belgian delegate agree to add to the words “by
peaceful means” the words “and in conformity with the provisions of inter-
national law "? The British delegate suggested this solution, while personally
preferring Lord Robert Cecil’s amendment.
M. de Brouckere (Belgium) thought that, in spite of differences of opinion,
the committee was unanimous in wishing to come to the help of the Georgian
people, not only in order to alleviate its sufferings but also to see that it had
justice. The delegate accepted Mr. Fisher's proposal as regards the Second part
of the resolution. As regards the first part, he knew the Georgian people Suffi-
ciently well to be Sure that an assumance Of the watchful solicitude of the
league would undoubtedly dissuade this people from a desperate act and enable
it to be patient. Nevertheless he would agree to the omission of the words in
question on condition that the words “moved by the present unhappy situation,
etc.,” were not insisted upon.
After a further textual amendment proposed by M. Motta (Switzerland), the
proposal was unanimously adopted in the following form :
“The Assembly of the League of Nations, having considered the situation in
Georgia, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this
part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may
occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any
peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law.”
SITUATION IN GEORGIA—REPORT OF THE SIXTH COMMITTEE
RESOLUTION
The PRESIDENT. The next item on the agenda is the examination of the report
of the sixth committee on the situation in Georgia. (Annex 16, Vol. II.)
I call upon Jonkheer Loudon, chairman of the sixth committee, and M. La-
pointe, rapporteur, to take their places on the platform.
(Jonkheer Loudon and M. Lapointe took their places on the platform.)
The PRESIDENT. M. Lapointe, rapporteur, will address the assembly.
M. LAPOINTE (Canada), rapporteur. Ladies and gentlemen, the text of the
resolution Which Was Submitted to the sixth committee was as follows:
“The Assembly of the League of Nations, moved by the present unhappy
position of Georgia as a country invaded and occupied contrary to the wishes
Of its inhabitants, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events
in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which
Imay occur to help in the restoration of this country to its normal conditions.”
This resolution was proposed by M. de Brouckère, the delegate of Belgium,
in a remarkable Speech, in which he described the painful situation in which
194 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the people of Georgia are placed, and related the political history of the coun-
try, its long independent past, and the various events which terminated, in
February, 1921, in the invasion of this unhappy country by Russia.
He gave a striking description of present conditions in Georgia, ravaged as
she is by the armies of Occupation, a prey to desolation, misery, famine, and
epidemics.
He stated that it was of Vital importance for the peace of Europe that
normal conditions should be restored in Georgia.
All the members of the committee declared themselves in Sympathy with
the recommendation submitted by M. de Brouckere, but some members were
of the Opinion that the text should be modified, as it might be dangerous to
suggest political or military action which it would be impossible for the League
of Nations to undertake.
This point of view was specially emphasized by Lord Robert Cecil and
Mr. Fisher. The latter thought that the resolution as it then stood might be
considered to be provocative in relation to the Russian Government, and that
its effect might be to make the situation of Georgia more serious still.
Several amendments were suggested by Lord Robert Cecil, Mr. Fisher, and
Mr. Motta, and, finally, the author of the resolution accepted a modified
resolution which Was unanimously adopted by the sixth committee and which
We ask the assembly to approve.
The PRESIDENT. M. de Brouckère, the representative of Belgium, will address
the assembly.
M. de BROUCKRRE (Belgium). Ladies and gentlemen, I will confine myself
to a few observations.
In the course of the debates of the sixth committee I explained at length,
perhaps at too great length, the reasons for my proposal. This proposal gave
rise to a detailed discussion. We finally arrived at an agreement which,
though containing Various shades Of Opinion, was unanimous. The discussion
seems to have exhausted itself, and there remains very little for me to say.
I Will therefore limit myself to a few short remarks, and I will also make
a Statement which I think Will help to cement the agreement which we have
InOW reached.
In this Transcaucasia through which so many peoples have passed—for it
is a great thoroughfare (and you will perhaps allow me to point out that we
Ought always to fix Our attention On regions of this nature if we do not wish
to be taken by Surprise when great changes in the international situation
occur)—in this Transcaucasia where so many people live, jostle one another,
and often come to blows, there is much injustice and much misery at the present
time. Many peoples are suffering in those regions, many are oppressed, and
if We remain indifferent to their fate, we shall be failing not only in humani-
tarian principles but, what is perhaps more essential, in the principles of
elementary political Wisdom.
Our atention will shortly be called to the disastrous situation in Armenia by
a resolution Submitted by Lord Robert Cecil, which, I am sure, we shall all
Support.
Georgia, too, has appealed to us, set forth its grievances, and declared itself
a victim of Violent Oppression. Without entering upon a detailed discussion
Of my proposal, I Should like to say that the assembly’s resolution will send
a message of hope to these people who are resolutely claiming their rights,
and who have confidence in their rights, and will assure them that such claims
will never leave it indifferent or passive.
Such a message of hope may have immediate results, for the words spoken
here often awaken far-distant echoes. I do not think it will be many years
before the substance of our debates is known in the high valleys of the
Caucasus. It will bring great consolation there, and it will also, I firmly
believe, exercise a calming influence.
It was especially to insist briefly in this last point that I wished to speak
here for a few moments to-day. As what has happened here will be made
known in Georgia, let me address a word to my many Georgian friends, and
assure them that the resolution which is before the assembly contains, not only
a promise, but also a word of advice. It says to them :
“The League of Nations is there, the methods which it employs are still
imperfect and inadequate, but they are improving and becoming more and more
effective in Solving international conflicts without the necessity of bloodshed.
The resolution gives you hope. That hope, and the knowledge that the justice
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 195,
which you claim will be yours, must banish all the promptings of despair
from your hearts. Abstain from premature and violent action, which can only
bring you to greater misery. Only keep the flame of liberty burning in your
hearts and be content to wait in confidence.”
And if these words are heard, the immediate effect of our resolution apart
from its future results, will be to induce a certain measure of calm, tranquility,
and peace.
We shall have accomplished great things, if, only on this one point among
so many others, we have been able to prevent bloodshed. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. There are no further speakers on the list. If no one wishes
to speak, I shall declare the discussion closed,
The discussion is closed.
The text of the resolution is as follows:
SITUATION IN GEORGIA
“The assembly, having considered the situation in Georgia, invites the
council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the World, SO
that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the
restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in
accordance with the rules of international law.”
If no member requires a vote, I shall consider the resolution as adopted
unanimously. [Assent.]
The resolution was unanimously adopted.
GEORGIAN INDEPENDENCE SOUGHT
The following note is communicated to the delegates at the assembly for
their information :
GENEVA, September 10, 1923.
SIR : Since the occupation of Georgia by the troops of the Government of
Moscow, carried Out in defiance of the stipulations of the treaty signed by that
Government, my Own Government, which has been obliged to remain in exile
abroad in consequence of this occupation, has sent several memoranda to the
League of Nations, with a view to laying before it the position of Georgia. The
Georgian question was introduced before the third assembly on the initiative of
the Belgian delegation, and after careful consideration the assembly passed.
unanimously in favor of the Georgian Republic a resolution, the text of which
I venture to quote here :
“The Assembly of the League of Nations, having considered the situation in
Georgia, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this
part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may
occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any
peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law.”
This resolution gave the people of Georgia added confidence in international
justice and led them to hope for a peaceful solution of the problem.
This year my Government considers it necessary to voice the feelings of the
Georgian people directly to the League Of Nations in the form of an appeal
addressed to the league by the committee for Georgian independence.
The committee for Georgian independence, founded by all the political par-
ties of the constituent assembly, was formed in April, 1922. This committee,
supported by all classes of the nation, including among its members representa-
tives of all political and Social groups, and possessing organizations in all the
Provinces of the country, is the expression of the fixed determination of the
Georgian people to free itself from a foreign yoke. It is this body which is at
present leading the national movement.
In forwarding to you the annexed appeal from the committee for Georgian
independence, I beg you, on behalf of my Government, to be so good as to Sub-
mit it to the Council and Assembly of the League of Nations.
I have the honor to be, etc., -
te K.H. CHAVICH WILY,
Delegate of the National Government of Georgia.
To the Hon. SIR ERIC DRUMMOND,
Sécretary General of the League of Nations, Geneva.
196 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
APPEAL OF THE COMMITTEE FOR GEORGIAN INDEPENDENCE TO THE LEAGUE OF
NATIONS
In the name of the Georgian people, the committee for Georgian independ-
ence, in which all classes of the population are represented and to which all the
political parties of the constituent assembly have rallied without exception,
approaches the League of Nations, the mouthpiece of the civilized World, in
order to draw its attention to the present situation in Georgia.
We can not convey any adequate impression of the situation, since words
are too feeble to portray the suffering endured by our nation.
The lawful Government of Georgia has on many occasions acquainted the
League of Nations with the past and present history of the Country. For
centuries Georgia existed as an independent and self-governing State; her
people always bravely defended their native soil. Toward the end of the
eighteenth century Georgia concluded a treaty of friendship with Russia, but
Russia a few years later began, in spite of this treaty, to carry out her policy
of destroying Georgian nationality. But national feeling in Georgia proved SO
strong that great Russian nationalism was unable to stifle it.
On May 26, 1918, Georgia reconquered her independence and Sovereignty.
The constituent assembly, elected by universal suffrage, endowed the Country
with a national government, an administration, and an army. After receiving
“ de facto ” recognition by the powers, Georgia was soon recognized “de jure,”
Russia herself concluding a treaty with her in 1920.
In February, 1921, however, Georgia was suddenly surrounded and invaded
by the Russian armies without any declaration of war. In this unequal
struggle Georgia was forced to give way before superior numbers. After a
desperate resistance, which lasted for five weeks, Russia again Occupied her
territory.
Russia, regarding the treaty as a scrap of paper, in defiance of the will of
the people, forced Georgia to enter into the union known as the “Socialist
Soviet Republics.” In face of violence the committee of independence asso-
ciated itself with the protest of the Georgian Government, which has already
been forwarded to the states members of the League of Nations.
The present Government of Russia, disregarding the rights of the Georgian
people, has driven out her parliament, abolished her army, and suppressed her
currency. The country is governed by the Russian Communist Party and the
occupation authorities. The “Soviet Government ’’ of Tiflis, composed of
Georgian communists, is in reality appointed by Moscow and is Moscow’s docile
agent.
The country has been turned into one vast shambles. Without trial, without
even any preliminary inquiry, leading Georgians of all classes, political and
military men, workers and peasants have been executed. Weakened by famine,
dazed by blows with clubs, bound hand and foot, the victims are taken in
lorries Outside the towns, shot, and cast into Common graves which are barely
covered over afterwards, and over which dogs fight for the corpses. The fam-
ilies Of these unfortunate persons can not even Secure their burial as they are
generally unaware of the time, place, and circumstances of their relatives’ death.
Thus hundreds of fervent patriots have been lost to the country. The number
of persons executed since the Occupation of the country may be estimated at
4,000. All these horrors, as we have said, have been Committed without trial
or sentence. With no one to defend them, political prisoners are not even per-
mitted to see their relatives. The dark, damp, icy cellars in which they lie
until their execution are nothing but tombs. Many become insane.
On the night of February 13, 1923, alone, 92 persons were taken from the
prison at Tiflis and shot because in the far-off district of Gouria the leader of
the Bolshevist expeditionary corps had been killed. On May 20, this year, there
were executed, again without trial, 15 well-known Georgian military men, gen-
erals and staff officers, of whom one was the leader of a political party, all
accused of organizing a rising against the Occupation authorities. Accounts
of both these mass executions were published in the Official press, but silence
is observed regarding all the Others.
The Tcheka and the expeditionary detachments have, during the last two
years, extended their activities to the Provinces of Swathenia, Khewsourethia,
Gouria, and Kakhetia. Whole countrysides have been laid waste, houses'
burned, and numerous families completely exterminated. Pursued by th’
Tehekists, the people seek shelter in the mountains.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 197
Every manifestation of national activity is ruthlessly repressed. Art, litera-
ture, and the Georgian language are in peril. Not only is freedom of Speech
nonexistent, not only is all sentiment stifled, but the faithful are prevented
from practicing their religion, as most places of worship have been closed.
The ministers of religion, including the highest dignitaries of the church,
have been thrown into prison.
The prisons are filled with workers, peasants, schoolmasters, and students.
This is not all. Hundreds of them have been sent into exile to the frozen
regions of northern Russia. Many have been seized as hostages and are in
danger of being shot as a reprisal for any act of hostility against the Occupation
authorities.
In addition to imprisonment and deportation, a system of torture has been
applied similar to that resorted to in the Middle Ages; but tortures of a more
modern kind, such as a pretense of shooting, are also employed. These tortures
are inflicted in order to force the victims to renounce the liberty and inde-
pendence of their country.
In the workshops and in the factories the Georgian workpeople who refuse to
join the Communist Party are immediately dismissed. For this reason unem-
ployment is very great in all the Georgian towns.
In the country peasants who will not submit to communism are dispossessed
of their land and stock, which are distributed among other persons, mainly non-
Georgians.
With support of the occupation authorities the property of the people is
seized by foreign elements. Georgian manufacturers, traders, and peasants
have no guaranty against Spoliation of all that they possess. For them law
and justice have ceased to exist.
The import duties levied by Moscow paralyze the trade of the country, and
there is no longer any activity in the ports. Foreign traders and manufac-
turers are also subjected to such persecution that they gradually prefer to
leave the country, and this fact hinders the economic development of Georgia.
The Georgian people will never consent to the occupation of the country by
the Russian Army. They know that they are fighting for their national liberty
and independence.
Representatives of the civilized world !
Listen to the cry of a people of ancient civilization which desires to remain
independent. This nation is threatened with physical extermination ; its mate-
rial and moral wealth is fast disappearing, and its national home is in danger
of destruction.
The committee for Georgian independence confidently hopes that the League
of Nations, that supreme organ of justice, will raise an authoritative voice
against the acts of violence committed by the masters of present-day Russia
against the Georgian people.
THE COMMITTEE FOR GEORGIAN INDEPENDENCE.
TIFLIs, May 25, 1923.
LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OF GEORGIA TO THE
PRESIDENT OF THE FIFTH ASSEMBLY OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
PARIs, September 9, 1924.
Mr. PRESIDENT: I have just received the following dispatch from Georgia :
“The struggle continues. All of Georgia, with the exception of Tiflis and
Batum, is in the hands of the insurgents. Russian troops are arriving from
the side of Batum.”
On the other hand, according to information from authoritative sources,
Moscow has decided to reconquer Georgia and to this end is making military
preparations.
Confirming my telegram of the 6th of the current month, I have the honor to
beg that you be so good as to have the case of Georgia entered on the agenda
of the general assembly of the League of Nations in order that the conflict may
be settled by peaceful means and to stop the effusion of the blood of a people
which battles ceaselessly to shake Off the yoke of the invader.
Pray accept, Mr. President, assurances of my highest consideration.
NOff JoBDANIA,
President of the National Government of Georgia.
198 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Thursday, September 11, 1924—11 a. m. &
SITUATION IN GEORGIA—MOTION BY THE FRENCH, BRITISH, AND BELGIAN DELEGATIONS:
The PRESIDENT. The French, British, and Belgian delegations have brought
forward a motion which they wish to place on the agenda of the present
session of the assembly. It must first, of course, be passed to the agenda
committee. The motion reads as follows:
“The assembly, wishing to renew the resolution adopted on September 22,
1922, by the third assembly regarding Georgia, invites the council to follow
attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be
able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of
this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with
the rules of international law.”
M. Paul Boncour (France) wishes to say a few words in explanation of this
motion. I call upon M. Paul Boncour to address the assembly.
(M. Paul Boncour mounted the platform amidst the applause of the as-
sembly.)
M. PAUL BONCOUR (France). Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen, at this
late hour the assembly may rest assured that I will only keep it a few moments.
Indeed, in the matter of the draft resolution, which I have the honor to
submit in the name Of the British, Belgian, and French delegations, the painful
and tragic events which are now taking place form in themselves sufficient
COmment.
The news we read in the papers can not, of course, be used as an official
text for discussion ; nevertheless, we can not pretend that we are ignorant of
all that the press tells us of events in Georgia, and we must all surely feel
what a blend of pathos and paradox it is that we should be quietly deliberat-
ing here upon the interests of peace and the best means of securing peace,
while at this moment somewhere in the world a state of war exists, blood is
being shed, massacres are taking place, and cries of agony are once again
rising to the heavens.
In the face Of all that is happening, the league can not stand idly by and
shirk its duty.
The position, I admit, is difficult, because a state of war exists between two
states which are not members of the league; but those who, with humane
breadth of vision, founded and organized the League of Nations and drew up
Our common bond, the covenant, foresaw that the league, if its field is to be
really world-wide, must not take account of its members only, but must carry
out its mission of reconciliation elsewhere and bring within its fold those
States which are not yet members.
The proposal I have submitted on behalf of the British, Belgian, and French
delegations is, I may inform the assembly, the outcome of an agreement be-
tween Mr. McDonald, Prime Minister of Great Britain, and M. Herriot, Prime
Minister of France, at the moment of their departure. The Government of
Georgia had addressed a moving appeal to Mr. Herriot and through him to
the league.
In their Common desire for the Welfare of humanity, Mr. MacDonald and M.
Herriot, readily agreed, even in the rush of their departure, that the league
ought to take up this question.
When they left, they instructed me to arrange with Lord Parmoor, delegate
of the British Empire, to submit this proposal in their name. The thing is
done. There is nothing in the proposal which could offend the susceptibilities
of either Of the two states Concerned ; if there had been, I would never have
taken upon myself the responsibility of making it. I am one of the many who
think that the league will not perform its full task until it includes every
nation in the WOrld.
This proposal is in keeping with the ultimate aim of the league, and no
state can take offense at the league's efforts to abolish war and establish
justice throughout the world. That is its duty, and it will of course rest
with the competent committees to consider ways and means of giving practical
effect to this proposal. I will not enter upon that question now. The states,
concerned may consider themselves honored that the league should give them
credit for thinking that no state can ignore its appeal or its determination to
bring about the reign of justice in the world. [Loud applause.]
The PRESIDENT. If there is no opposition, the draft resolution will be referred
to the agenda committee. --
(Assent.)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 199
Saturday, September 20, 1924, 3.30 p. m.
SITUATION IN GEORGIA
The chairman, Mr. Enckell (Finland), read a letter in which the president
of the assembly referred to the sixth committee for consideration a proposal
submitted by the Belgian, British, and French delegations regarding the situa-
tion in Georgia. The proposal was as follows:
“The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by
the third assembly, invites the Council to follow attentively the course of
events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any Opportunity
which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions
by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law.”
The chairman laid stress On the fact that this proposal was in accordance
with a resolution unanimously adopted by the third assembly on September
22, 1922. In the light of recent events, and in conformity with article 11 of
the covenant, this question was one that concerned the League of Nations.
He proposed that a drafting committee should prepare a report which the
Committee might subsequently submit for the approval of the assembly. It
would be stated in this report that the governments of those states members
Of the league in a position to further by their good offices the task Of the
council were requested to forward to it such useful information as might
enable it to form a correct opinion on the situation in that part of the World.
The league could thus act in a spirit of conciliation and at the same time adhere
strictly to the principle of international law.
The proposal submitted by the chairman was supported by the Belgian,
French, British, and Italian delegates.
M. de Brouckère (Belgium) explained that, although Belgium, France, and
the British Emprie had asked that the resolution of two years ago should
be repeated, they had not wished thereby to remind the council of its duty.
Recent events, however, in Georgia had created a new situation.
It was of importance that the attention not So much of the council as of
public opinion should be attracted at a time when the League of Nations was
asSembled for the purpose Of Seeking a means Of Consolidating peace.
M. Freire d’Andrade (Portugal) expressed his agreement with the Belgian
delegate, but he doubted whether, since the adoption of the resolution, the
council had been able to intervene “by any peaceful means in accordance
with the rules of international law '' in the affairs of Georgia, with a view
to assisting in the reestablishment of a normal situation in that country.
M. Hofmeyr (South Africa) asked the same question and expressed the
desire that before the subcommittee began its labors those members of the
league which had submitted this proposal should furnish some information
On the existing situation in Georgia and should make practical suggestions.
Be believed that a platonic resolution would demonstrate the inability of
the League of Nations to deal with this matter.
Prof. Gilbert Murray (British Empire) said that two criticisms had been
made with regard to the proposal: One to the effect that it was incorrect,
and the Other that it was ineffective.
With regard to the first, he pointed out that the British Government had
carefully avoided giving rise to suspicions of this nature. The formula of
acknowledgment of the Union of the Soviet Republics was couched in very
Careful language. The Words were :
“The British Government recognizes the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics
as the de jure rulers of those territories of the old Russian Empire which
acknowledge their authority.”
There was therefore nothing contradictory between the de jure reognition
given by the British Government and the proposal now submitted. The
resolution did not prejudice the question of determining whether Georgia
did or did not form part of the Union of Soviet Republics.
The fact remained that a state of war existed in one part of the world,
and in fulfillment of its duty the league could not remain indifferent to it.
Did the resolution decide the question as to whether it was a civil war
Or an Ordinary war? It had been drawn up designedly, in terms to which
neither Georgia nor the Union of the Soviet Republics could take exception.
It Was merely a question of intervening in a manner in accordance with the
Tules of international law.
96153—26—14
200 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
With regard to the question of ineffectiveness, it was evident that the
League of Nations could not follow up this resolution by material action.
Georgia could not be allowed to hope for action of this nature. It Was,
nevertheless, the duty of the league to endeavor to restore peace.
Sir Joseph Cook (Australia) asked if any appeal had recently been made
by Georgia to the council of the League Of Nations.
The chairman read a note dated September 9, 1924, communicated by the
secretariat, from which it was evident that two documents relating to the
situation in Georgia had reached the assembly.
M. de Brouckere (Belgium) stated that he was in possession of two other
documents from the national Government of Georgia dated September 9 and
10, 1924, respectively. He drew the attention of the committee to the fact
that these letters had been dispatched by the President of the national GOV-
ernment of Georgia, the Government which had been recognized de jure by
the majority Of States.
M. Aubert (France) agreed with the statements made by the British dele-
gate and by the chairman. He recommended the sixth committee to adopt the
chairman’s proposal.
Mr. Hofmeyr (South Africa) proposed the following draft:
“That the sixth committee resolves that the attention of the council be
drawn ot the resolution adopted by the third assembly on September 22, 1922.”
(The text of this resolution to be inserted here, as follows :)
“The assembly, having considered the situation in Georgia, invites the
council to follow attentively the course of events in that part of the world,
so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in
the restoration of that country to normal conditions by any peaceful means
in accordance with the rules of international law.”
(Then would be added :)
“And that the council be urged to take such steps as it may deem prace
ticable to give effect thereto.”
M. Freire D’Andrade (Portugal seconded the proposal Of the South African
delegate, but suggested the deletion from the end of the resolution of the
words “by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international
law.”
Count Bonin-Longare (Italy) stated that the Italian delegation would al-
ways be glad to support any initiatives intended to prevent bloodshed in any
country. He therefore accepted the proposal, but emphasized the extreme
delicacy of the problem and the difficulties which were likely to be encountered.
He thought, moreover, that the council should be allowed the greatest freedom
in the choice Of the moment and the means in Order that it might be guided
by that prudence which the situation demanded.
Mr. MacDonald (Canada) stated that they had before them three proposals
emanating, respectively, from the chairman, the South African delegate, and
the Portuguese delegate.
He seconded the proposal submitted by the chairman.
Sir James Allen (New Zealand) wished to know the exact position of
Georgia with regard to the League of Nations. Had not Georgia applied to
be a member of the league? If he recollected aright there was some ques-
tion Concerning the stability of the frontiers of Georgia, and on this account
the application for admission to the league had not been favorably received.
The speaker agreed with the Canadian representative. The question must
not be treated precipitately.
M. de Brouckere (Belgium) explained the reason why Georgia had not been
admitted to the League of Nations.
Her request had been submitted in 1920, and de jure recognition took place
subsequently to that date. The subcommittee of the fifth committee had
unanimously requested her admission, but in the plenary session the opinion
had prevailed that it would be advisable to postpone the admission of Georgia
for One year. Care had even been taken that the country should be admitted
immediately to the technical Organizations of the League of Nations. No One
had thought of contesting the fact that Georgia was a nation, and had,
indeed, been one since the time of Queen Thamar. There was no question,
therefore, of the war being a civil One.
Mr. MacDonald (Canada) again supported the proposal for the appointment
Of a subcommittee.
NATIONAL BEPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 201
The committee chose the following: M. de Brouckére (Belgium), Prof. Gil-
bert Murray (British Empire), Mr. MacDonald (Canada), M. Aubert (France),
Count Bonin-Longare (Italy).
On the proposal of Prof. Gilbert Murray, the chairman agreed to form
part of this subcommittee, which has decided to convene immediately. #
Monday, September 22, 1924–10 a. m.
SITUATION IN GEORGIA—ADOPTION OF THE REPORT OF TEIE SUBCOMMITTEE
The chairman announced that the subcommittee appointed at the previous
meeting had drawn up its report on the proposal dealing with the position in
Georgia. If the committee raised no objection, he proposed that this report
should be submitted to the assembly.
An exchange of views took place between Doctor Nansen (Norway), M.
de Brouckere (Belgium), Sir James Allen (New Zealand), and Count Bonin-
Longare (Italy). The last named proposed that the wording of one Sentence
in the report should be changed.
The committee adopted the report with this amendment and, on the chair-
man's proposal, appointed Mr. Macdonald (Canada) rapporteur to the as-
sembly.
REPORT OF TEIE SIXTH COMMITTEE TO THE ASSEMBLY
The assembly has referred to the sixth committee for consideration a pro-
posal submitted by the delegations of Belgium, the British Empire, and France,
in the following terms:
“The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922,
by the third assembly, with reference to Georgia, invites the council to follow
attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be
able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of
this Country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with
the rules of international law.”
This proposal is a textual reproduction of the resolution adopted in 1922.
The third assembly, prompted by feelings which we are sure Our Colleagues
all share at the present time, intrusted to the council the duty of watching
the situation and seizing any favorable opportunity to improve it by peaceful
means in accordance With international law.
The main features of the situation remain unaltered, and the tragic events
Which are in this moment taking place in Georgia must bring back to us the
anxieties of the third assembly. As the resolution of 1922 is already on record,
We may Venture, in addition, to express the hope that the governments of the
states members of the league may perhaps be able to assist the council, either
With information or by exercise of their influence for peace so far as circum-
stances may permit.
RESOLUTION
“The assembly decides to authorize the transmission to the council of the
report of the Sixth Committee regarding the situation in Georgia (Document
A. 95, 1924, VII), in Order that the council may be able, at a time and in the
manner it may consider the most opportune, to take into consideration the
indications it contains.”
Thursday, September 25, 1924–4 p. m.
TEIE SITUATION IN GEORGIA—REPORT OF THE SIXTH COMMITTEE –RESOLUTION
The PRESIDENT. We now pass to the fifth item on our agenda, the situation
in Georgia (Annex 15, Document A. 95, 1924, VII).
I invite M. Enckell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. E. M. Mac-
Donald, rapporteur, to take their places on the platform.
(M. Enckell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. E. M. MacDonald,
rapporteur, took their places on the platform.)
The PRESIDENT. The rapporteur will address the assembly.
202 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. E. M. MACDONALD (Canada, rapporteur). The question of the situation
in Georgia, which has been dealt with by the sixth committee, was put forward
by the delegations of the British Empire, France, and Belgium. The report
of the sixth committee is before you.
Perhaps you will permit me, in a very few words, to outline the present situa-
tion in that unhappy Country. A proud people, which for ceturines had main-
tained its independence, became merged in the Russian nation a little over
a hundred years ago. After the Great War, in common with a great many
Other Countries in a similar position, the Georgian people asserted their inde-
pendence On May 26, 1918, and adopted a constitution on the lines of a demo-
crat republic. That nation so reconstituted was, on January 11, 1920, recog-
nized by the Supreme council, which was then composed of Great Britain,
France, Italy, Japan, and Belgium. In view of later events, it is significant to
note that On May 7 of the same year Russia herself recognized de jure the
independence of Georgia, using the following words in the treaty in that re-
gard : “Russia recognizes without reserve the independence and Sovereignty
of the Georgian state, and Willingly renounces the Sovereign rights which be-
long to Russia as regards the Georgian people and terrain.”
On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the state of Georgia
de jure at the same time as Esthonia and Latvia, which are now members of
the league. Similar recognition was extended by a large number of other
COuntries—Poland, Rumania, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina,
Panama, Haiti, Mexico, Liberia, Luxembourg, and Siam.
On February 25, 1921, the minister plenipotentiary of the new state pre-
sented his credentials to the President of the French Republic, and since that
date the Georgian legation has been functioning in Paris. What then hap-
pened—and it is an almost unprecedented action in the history of the World—
was that Russia, in spite of her recognition of Georgia, proceded to disregard
the Step which she had taken and to attack Georgia. Since then the position
Of that country, has appealed to the Sympathy of all the nations of the world.
That the status Of Georgia, as Consituted, has been further recognized and
approved is seen by the fact that no less distinguished a person that the present
Prime Minister of France, M. Herriot, in 1922, brought the situation of Georgia,
as it then was, before the French Chamber of Deputies, where his statement
with regard to the position of affairs was approved by the then Premier,
M. Poincaré.
The Premier Chancellor Of the Exchequer in Great Britain, Mr. Snowden,
trought the situation before the British House of Commons in July of last
year. While it may be said, in considering this matter, that Great Britain has
recognized the Soviet Government in Russia, it must at the same time be borne
in mind that that recognition was limited, and was coupled with a reservation,
because Great Britain only recognized the Union of Soviet Republics as being
the de jure government of such territories of the former Russian Empire as
recognized its authority. As far as Georgia is concerned, it seems to me, there-
fore, that she has a full right to claim the Sympathy of all the other nations
Of the WOrld.
The representations which were made to Our committee on behalf of that
unhappy State disclosed the following facts :
“The sufferings of the Georgian people are beyond all endurance ; the terror,
which in Russia is relaxed at times, not Only does not know any period. Of
relaxation in Georgia, but is becoming more and more violent ; deportations,
imprisonment, tortures in the dungeons of the Cheka, execution without trial
of representatives of all classes are more and more numerous; the arrested
political people are treated as bandits, and intellectuals and Workmen are de-
prived of all means of work; Georgians being hostile to the power, their admis-
sion to commercial and industrial enterprises as well as into the public Services
is hindered by every means ; the clergy are persecuted for the exercise of their
religious duties, and for having put into the true light the actual state of
affairs. The chief of the Georgian Church, Patriarch Catholicos Ambrosius,
was condemned to many years' imprisonment and is now in close confinement.”
This is the situation, and I am Sure it is One which will appeal to every
Imember of this assembly. It is therefore With full confidence that I Submit
to you the conclusions of the Second committee. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. Prof. Gilbert Murray, delegate of the British Empire, will
address the assembly.
Prof. GILBERT MURRAY (British Empire). I rise on behalf of the British dele-
gation merely to emphasize the purely humanitarian character of this resolu-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 203
º
\
tion. There is no question of interference in the domestic affairs of the Russian
Empire. There is no question whatever of using any form of military pressure
to bring about a settlement of the fighting in Georgia in one way or the other.
But every war Or threat of War is the concern Of the League of Nations, and
if the wholesale slaughter and devastation now taking place in Georgia is not
technically a War, it is at least a terrible example of human suffering ; and
the league is concerned, according to article 23 of the covenant, in endeavoring
to alleviate the sufferings of mankind. We ask the council to watch for any
opportunity that may offer to restore normal conditions in that afflicted region
by any peaceful means, in accordance with the rules of international law. The
1eague wishes to offer its good Services to both Sides in reestablishing normal
conditions. I am afraid that We can do no more than that, but I feel convinced
that We Can do no leSS.
It has been suggested, as Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, that the policy
of Great Britain has been inconsistent on this matter. On January 27, 1921,
Great Britain recognized Georgian de jure as an independent State, and this
year the British Government has recognized the Soviet Government; but, as
Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, the words of that recognition were very
carefully, and I think correctly, chosen.
I venture to suggest that it would not have been proper for His Majesty's
Government to interfere in the burning question then at issue between the
Soviet Government and that of Georgia. At any rate, the recognition was
expressed in very careful and correct language. His Majesty’s Government
recognized the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as being the de jure gov-
ernment of those territories of the former Russian Empire which recognized
its authority. It went no further.
One word more. It is Only too often the fate of this assembly to be faced
by problems it can not solve and by human suffering which it can not, with
its present resources, cure or even alleviate. The question arises in such
cases as to what the league Ought to do. It is perfectly clear that we must
not make promises which we can not fulfill; it is clear that it would be cruel
to encourage hopes which will not be realized. But Surely it is equally clear
that we can not simply turn away Our eyes from this suffering and pretend,
for diplomatic reasons, a callous indifference which we do not feel. I think
we can only do, in this and similar cases, what is recommended in the resolu-
tion before us. We must beg the sufferers to be patient to the very limits Of
human patience; we must acknowledge the duty which for the time being we
can not fulfill, and we must ask the council to Watch for every Opportunity
that may present itself of offering effective mediation and bringing peace to the
regions where there is now War. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. Count Bonin-Longare, delegate of Italy, will address the
assembly. *
Count Bon IN-LONGARE (Italy). Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen, the fifth
assembly has had a proposal laid before it in which the council is asked to
follow attentively the course of events in Georgia With a view to restoring
the country to normal conditions and putting a stop to bloodshed.
It is clear that, at a time when the assembly of the league is in Session
and is engaged in constructing its noble edifice of universal peace, it can not
turn a deaf ear to rumors of War and Strife.
The league would be failing in its duty if, while drafting and codifying the
doctrines which are to establish the peace of the World on unshakable founda–
tions, it affected to ignore the tragedy of a war at the very gates of Europe.
There can thus be no two opinions in regard to the proposal put forward
by the Belgian, French, and British delegations, and the Italian delegation
wishes to support it, more especially as the rapporteur has given us a Very
timely reminder that we should not be adopting a new resolution, but Simply
reviving one which was unanimously adopted by the third assembly two
al’S 39 O.
se: * however, one of the immutable laws of international politics that
countries can not allow sentiment alone to guide them, and though We are
anxious to do all in our power to save every single life We can, We must
remember that we are on difficult ground and that a false step might land us
in a very awkward predicament. º
The situation of the two countries in conflict is such that the mediating
action which we propose to exercise might, notwithstanding our disinterested
motives, encounter most serious difficulties. We must therefore act with the
utmost caution.
204 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
t
Accordingly I am glad to see from the report before us that the council is.
allowed wide discretion as to choice of time and methods.
The Council, which is preeminently a political body, will be able to consider
the situation from the twofold standpoint of sentiment and reason. It can
Steer a course through the shoals Of this difficult problem and so attain without
difficulty the humane and peaceful aim which we are pursuing. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. M. de Brouckère, delegate of Belgium, will address the
assembly.
M. DE BROUCKRRE (Belgium). Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen, I should
like briefly to express my approval of the prudent counsel which the honorable
delegate of Italy has just given us and to say how sincerely I share the hopes
expressed by the British delegate.
In this matter, as in every other, caution is essential. Not only in the
Caucasus, but everywhere else, the league may find itself On treacherous
ground. We must first and foremost ask the council to exercise in the future,
as it has done with such conspicuous success in the past, that political wisdom
and foresight to which reference bas just been made and which, as experience
has shown, is very rarely Synonymous with inaction. If the league tacitly
allows a whole nation to fight and perish without taking the slightest heed, its
inaction would, believe me, prove so serious that, far from merely avoiding
incidents, it would provoke the most serious difficulties.
I venture to say that the league's policy would be singularly inconsistent
and indeed derisive if, at a time when the foremost intellects Of the day are
devoting themselves heart and soul to the study of the problem Of peace, it
should stand aloof, if it sheltered behind a cloud of abstractions and shut its
eyes to the fact that war is raging at Our gates.
It has been rightly said—and those who are most anxious to intervene and
prevent war are obliged to recognize the fact—that at the present juncture we
can do very little.
But should we on this account remain silent? Surely not. There is a
certain virtue in words themselves. Things which we can not do now we
Will be able to do when the conscience of the World has given us greater power,
and it is this conscience which we must awaken and to which we must appeal.
We must, by unanimously adopting the resolution before us, speak a word of
hope to the oppressed. We must tell them that we know that war, unjust
war, is raging, and that sooner or later, as soon as the time comes, we will act,
we will do our utmost, we will see that justice is done. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. M. Georges Bonnet, delegate of France, will address the
assembly.
M. GEORGES BONNET (France). Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen, I
should like to say a few words in support of the eloquent Speeches which have
just been made. o
The draft resolution in question has been submitted jointly by the Belgian,
Pritish, and French delegations, and you will remember that it was eloquently
defended in the assembly by M. Paul Boncour.
As M. de Brouckére has just emphasized, the League Of Nations can not
remain silent in the presence of sufferings such as are now being endured by
the Georgian people. The league must make its voice heard, and this is the
aim of the draft resolution which you are asked to adopt.
It is true that we must exercise the utmost caution. Legal considerations
must be taken in conjunction with Sentimental OneS. We claim that the text
before you takes both into COnsideration, and accordingly the French delegation
associates itself with what has been said by the previous speakers, and asks.
you to adopt the resolution. [Applause.]
The PRESIDENT. Does anyone else wish to speak?
The discussion is closed.. -
The sixth committee asks that its report should be transmitted by the assem-
bly to the Council in Order that the latter may be able to take it into considera-
tion at the time and in the manner which it may consider the most opportune.
On this understanding, I put the following resolution to the vote :
“The assembly decides to authorize the transmisison to the council of the
report of the sixth committee regarding the situation in Georgia, in order that
the Council may be able, at a time and in the manner it may consider the most
opportune, to take into consideration the indications it contains.”
(The resolution was unanimously adopted.)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 205
ANNEx 1
DELEGATION OF THE GEORGIAN REPUBLIC,
32 Queen's Gate, London, S. W. 7, September 1, 1920.
In the name of the Government of the Republic of Georgia, I have the honor
-to Submit to the League of Nations the unanimous desire of Georgia for ad-
-mission to, and membership of, the league, with all the duties and rights thereto
attached, the which are based on the covenant of the said league.
The reasons which lead the Georgian Republic to take this step, as well as
the political ends at which she aims, are set forth in an explanatory memo-
randum which will shortly be submitted, with its annexes, to the secretary of
the league.
The council of the League of Nations is urgently begged not to refuse its
cooperation in laying the above-mentioned matters before the assembly at its
, meeting in Geneva.
TCHEIDZE,
President of the Constituent Assembly of Georgia.
and of the Georgian Delegation at the Peace Conference.
. To the COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
ANNEx 2
EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM PRESENTED TO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
LONDON, September 18, 1920.
Amongst the nations emancipated by the events of the Great War and by
the revolutions which followed Georgia, together with Armenia, is the most
ancient. She is also the nation which has kept longer than any the last ves-
tige of her independence; indeed, she was not annexed to Russia until the
beginning of the nineteenth century, so that this foreign domination lasted
but a little over a hundred years. -
From a geographical point of view Georgia is very distinctly separated from
Russia, that is to say from that vast plain stretching from the Black Sea
and the Caspian Sea to the Baltic and the Arctic Ocean by that natural barrier
formed by the chain of the great Caucasian Mountains.
From the ethnographical point of view the Georgian people, being in no
wise Slav, are altogether unlike the Russians. They are a different type, as
entirely different as are their language, their traditions, their customs, and
their mannerS.
Although the majority are, like the Russians, professedly of the Greek
, Orthodox Church, the Georgian nation, even in this particular domain, has
never mingled with the Russians.
Her ecclesiastical traditions were maintained even under Russian rule; in
spite of the temporary suppression of the ancient rights of the Georgian
Church Georgia restored this autocephalous of the Georgian Church on the
morrow of the pan-Russian revolution in 1917.
These primordial facts taken into consideration, it is easy to understand
that with the crumbling of the former Russian Empire in 1917–18 a people
such as the Georgians, homogeneous, with pronounced ethnical characteristics,
with feelings of nationality aroused, having a still vivid remembrance of a
freedom of age-long duration, possessed of a precisely defined territory, alert,
and already initiated into political life, would of necessity have to constitute
themselves an independent state or otherwise descend into inevitable chaos.
This movement in Georgia was altogether spontaneous and without precedent
unanimous.
Already during the last decades of Russian rule an exceedingly strong
democratic current had made itself felt in Georgia ; it was at its height during
the revolution which convulsed Russia in 1905–6. Toward 1917 it reached
complete maturity, and is the chief reason of the stability of the institutions
created by independent Georgia.
National sentiment, fertilized and renewed by the ideal of democracy, facili-
tated the application of this ideal, acting as a sure basis, a settled framework,
a medium coherent and united in spite of the differences in class and conditions.
This rapid outline is sufficient to show how not only inevitable, in view of
political circumstances, but also essentially necessary was the solemn act of
May 26, 1918, by which the National Council proclaimed the independence of
. Georgia and the installation of her Government.
206 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Since this date, and up to the present time, political activity in Georgia
has been entirely devoted to the work of her internal organization, and the
defense of the Republic against aggression from Without.
Menaced and often attacked, Georgia has had to face numerous foes, at
the same time suffering from the inevitable repercussion of the World War,
and the agitated and violent civil strife in Russia.
But neither the multifarious dangers nor the forces which menaced Georgia
from without have turned her aside from the Work of Organizing the
Republic.
This task, resolutely approached from the beginning, has been continued
without truce and has resulted in the creation of a governmental body, an
administrative, military, and financial organization, in the necessary reforms
in justice and public education, in the better working of the public Services.
Georgia has succeeded in securing order within the limits of her territory,
and is guaranteeing political liberty to all her citizens, thus letting them expe-
rience the priceless boons of independence after the servitude of a century.
This constituent assembly of Georgia (elected by universal suffrage) which
assembled on the 12th of March, 1919, and which replaced the provisional
parliament, was together with the government the principal agent in this
Work of transformation and equipment.
The constituent assembly opened on the 26th of May, 1918, with the Solemn
and unanimous confirmation of the act proclaiming the independence of
Georgia.
The basis of the political constitution of Georgia is already elaborated in so
much as the principle of republicanism has been adopted, public authority is
regularly constituted, and representative government by the people organized.
The urgent necessity of reforms in administration, in agrarian and other
matters, and the vicissitudes of the moment Were the cause Of inevitable delay
in the establishment of a constitutional charter, of which the plan already
drawn up by a special commission of the constituent assembly will shortly be
submitted for the consideration of this assembly.
This continuous struggle for existence, and the persistent labor devoted to
the consolidation of the Republic impressed on the minds of even those whose
preconceived ideas and interests were Opposed to it the fact of the creation of
a Georgian Republic, Strongly Organized, ardently Supported, with a govern-
ment exercising full power.
It was not till after the definite setback experienced in the efforts to
restore the Russian Empire on its former foundations that the independence
of Georgia was recognized—de facto—by the four great allied powers (France,
Great Britain, Italy, Japan). The decision of the supreme council, relating
to this (January 11, 1920), Was received With the greatest enthusiasm in
Georgia.
Later, by a clause of the peace treaty signed at Moscow, Soviet Russia
accorded to Georgia without reserve formal and definite recognition.
The evacuation by the Allies in July, 1920, of the Province of Batum and
the installation in their stead of Georgian administration was a further proof
of the confidence inspired by this Government.
Rallying round the banner Of Western democracy, the Georgian nation must
naturally look with Special Sympathy on the formation of that political system
born of the war and destined to paralyze war which the League of Nations
is to incarnate, which constitutes the most remarkable and the most fertile
effort known to humanity on its way toward future unity.
In asking admission into the League of Nations Georgia is in no way actu-
ated by hopes of material gain in any form, political or otherwise; she only
aspires to the consecration, by the community of civilized nations, of her efforts
toward liberty and democratic order. To be associated from the outset in this
task, in Common with all those nations desirous of peace and solidarity, such
is Georgia’s most sincere wish.
The Georgian people desire to take upon themselves as large a share of this
work as their strength and conditions allow, and the Georgian Government is
persuaded that the political and geographical situation of Georgia is of such a
nature as to give a certain importance to the participation of this nation in
the policy of international peace, of which policy the directing organ will be
the League Of Nations.
The League of Nations will indeed only be strong through the sincere and
efficacious adherence of all political factors capable of influencing and guiding
public opinion in different countries.
INATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 207.
Above all, it is important that the authority of the League of Nations should
be established in those countries which, through their geographical situation
or special political conditions, might easily become centers of complications
which would eventually affect the political life of the vast European “ensem-
ble.” It is not exaggerated to affirm that such is also the position of the
Caucasian Isthmus.
Independence and political stability are necessary to the countries of which
the isthmus is composed (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaidjan) if it is desired that
the new Turkey and Persia should develop freely without being perpetually
menaced from the north ; if it is desired that the middle east, the status of
which is in process of being Settled, should not again become the prey of rival
controversy.
The obvious function of transcaucasia in international politics will be to
separate those areas of power and influence which have a natural tendency
to enter into conflict, and the consolidation of the Transcaucasian States is
in this respect of an importance reaching far beyond the frontiers of these
States.
Georgia being one of the chief elements in. this consolidation, her admission
into the League of Nations will facilitate the task which at present encumbers
her in Transcaucasian politics, while the authority of the league itself will
be thereby strengthened in those areas where, as has been said, this authority
is SO necessary.
There is yet another aspect of the problem which gives an international
bearing to Transcaucasia, and to the question of the admission of Georgia
into the League of Nations, this is the communication, through Georgia,
with Persia, Armenia, and central Asia.
There are very few commercial routes whose importance as an inter-
national artery is so pronounced as that route which, via the Transcaucasian
States, unites the west with the middle east and central Asia.
The best guaranty for the future safeguarding of the international
nature of this route to the profit of all concerned lies in the help and
guidance which the League of Nations is able to give for this purpose to
Transcaucasia, and the reception of Georgia into the league will most
Obviously facilitate for the latter the above-indicated task.
It is, however, to be foreseen that the Organization and perfecting Of the
great lines of communication between nations will be one of the chief pre-
Occupations Of the league.
The Transcaucasian States, freed from foreign domination, united in that
which constitutes their common interest, bound to the community of peoples
by obligations set forth in the covenant of the League of Nations, will act
as One of her chief mainstays in the east.
This final solution of the Caucasian problem, a solution so in keeping with
the principles which animate the League of Nations, which will be power-
fully strengthened by the admission into the said league of Georgia, whose
position and precedents assure her a special rôle in Transcaucasian politics.
The Georgian Government deems that, apart from the above-mentioned
considerations, the very principles which should regulate international life,
directed from henceforth toward unity and coordination, militate sufficiently
in themselves for the admission into the family of free peoples of an ancient
nation, Once the Outpost Of Christianity in the east, now One of the out-
posts of democracy, a nation which aspires merely to labor, diligent and
free, in her Own domain, her lawful and incontestable heritage.
ANNEX 3
ACT OF INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
The Georgian National Council, during its plenary sitting of May 26,
1918, declared as follows:
For several centuries Georgia existed as a free and independent State.
At the end of the eighteenth century Georgia Voluntarily allied herself
with Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should protect her from
enemies without.
In the course of the great Russian revolution conditions arose which resulted
in the disorganization of the entire military front and the abandonment of
Transcaucasia by the Russian Army.
. .208 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Thus, left to her own devices, Georgia, and with her all Transcaucasia, took
into their hands the direction of their affairs creating the necessary organs for
, this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links which united
' Transcaucasian nationalities were broken and the political unity of Trans-
• Caucasia was thus dissolved.
The present position of the Georgian people makes it imperatively necessary
that Georgia should create a political organization of her own, in order that
she may escape from the yoke of her enemies and lay a solid foundation for
her free development.
Accordingly the Georgian National Council, elected by the national assembly
•of Georgia on November 22 (December 5), 1917, declares:
(1) In future the Georgian people will hold sovereign power and Georgia
will be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and independent State.
(2) Independent Georgia’s form of political organization will be a democratic
. Tepublic.
(3) In the event of international conflict Georgia will always remain neutral.
(4) The Georgian democratic Republic will apply itself to establishing
friendly relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationali-
ties and States.
(5) The democratic Georgian Republic offers to all inhabitants of her terri-
tory a wide field for free development.
(6) The democratic Georgian Republic guarantees to all citizens within her
territory civil and political rights, without distinction of nationality, religion,
social position, or sex.
(7) Until the convocation of the constituent assembly the National Council,
with the addition of representatives of the minorities and the provisional gov-
ernment responsible to the National Council, is at the head of all Georgian
. administration.
ANNEx 4
On the 12th of March, 1919, the constituent assembly of Georgia confirmed
the preceding act in the following terms:
“At its first sitting of the 12th of March, 1919, the constituent assembly of
• Georgia, elected by citizens of both sexes, according to the direct, equal, uni-
versal, secret, and proportional electoral System, proclaims before the world
and history that it fully confirms and approves the act of the independence of
Georgia, declared at'Tiflis, by the Georgian National Council, May 26, 1918.”
ANNEx 5
PARIS, January 27, 1921.
To His Excellency M. GUEGUETCHKORI,
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia, Paris.
Mr. MINISTER : . After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the
supreme Council, under date of January 26, has resolved to recognize de jure
the independence of Georgia as soon as this country should formally express
the desire, you undertook, by letter Of January 27, to address to me the Official
request of the Government and the people of Georgia to become recognized de
jure by the allied powers.
I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was
unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government.
The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy with
which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward independ-
j and the admiration inspired in them by the Work it has already accom-
plished.
Be pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
ANNEx 7
MEMORANDUM OF THE GEORGIAN GOVERNMENT ON THE INVASION OF GEORGIA BY THE,
‘ARMIES OF THE RUSSIA OF THE SOVIETS
On the 19th of March, 1921, the Government of the Georgian Republic, which
was holding its power, by the will of the people, freely expressed at the universal
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 209
-sufffrage, was constrained to leave its country. It was brought to do this
through the occupation of Georgia by the armies of the Russia of the Soviets,
which, in violating the liberty and independence of the people, deprived its
government of the possibility of exercising its functions on its national soil.
Hereunder, a brief outline of the events which preceded the occupation of
Georgia by the enemy.
From the first day of its existence, the Georgian Republic employed all its
•efforts to maintain peace with its neighbors.
The people had confided the organization of its state to the group which, since
ra' quarter of a century, had constantly been at the head of the political move-
ment of Georgia and had represented the country in the four Doumas of the
Empire. The confidence of the people possessed by the government, which com-
manded a majority of more than 80 per cent at the constitutent assembly,
placed the Georgian Republic under shelter from the interior crises which might
Jhave resulted from the quarrel Of the parties. This security of the country
was besides assured by the great reforms effected conformably to the quasi-
unanimous will of the people. In these Conditions, the existence of the Repub-
Tic could be menaced only by exterior forces, which imposed upon the Georgian
“Government extreme prudence in its foreign policy.
The rapprochement of the Republic of Transcaucasia and the consolidation
•of relations with the neighboring Countries as well as with the powers of
Europe; these were the principal aims of this policy.
But, faithful to its duty of defending the independence of the country, the
“Government of the Georgian Republic could not permit any of its neighbors to
impose its will or its laws on the Republic, or to dictate to it such or such
•other politics toward the countries of Europe.
This circumstance did not fail to incite against Georgia the hate of the Gov-
•ernment of Moscow, who wanted to extend its domination. On all of Transcau-
•casia in order to be able to use it as a political weapon.
IBefore the formal refusal of the Georgian Government to become an agent of
Moscow and to engage itself in the politics of imperialistic adventures of Soviet
JRussia, the Bolsheviks declared that this government was an agent of the
~entente.
The “Sovietization ” of Georgia became an essential element of Bolshevik
politics in Asia Minor.
After the defeat of the numerous tentatives to arrive at this aim through the
medium of insurrections and of plots organized by the emissaries of Moscow
and paid with its gold, the government of the Soviets, despite the treaty of
peace which it had signed with Georgia on May 7, 1920, decided to conquer this
'country by the force of arms.
In December, 1920, the commander of the Eleventh Russian Army, Hecker,
was charged to present a report On the military forces necessary for the con-
•quest of Georgia.
In his report, in great detail, he demonstrated that his army could not succeed
in effecting this conquest except on condition that the Government of Angora
showed itself favorable to this enterprise. The Bolsheviks therefore had to
adjourn the invasion of Georgia. However, from this time on their troops
began to mass themselves at its frontierS. All the protestations of the Minister
of Foreign Affairs of Georgia remained ineffectual.
In order to evade the war which threatened to break out the Georgian Gow-
•ernment attempted to elucidate the aims pursued by Moscow in Transcaucasia ;
it solicited its admission to the Russo-Turkish conference which was to be held
at Moscow Iast February. This proposition was left without answer by the
government of the Soviets.
The steps undertaken by the Georgian Government to guard against possible
“complications on the side of Armenia, at that time already Sovietized, were suc-
cessful; the Government of Erivan consented to regulate amiably the litigeous
questions existing between the two Republics, and the convocation of an
Armeno-Georgian conference at Tiflis was fixed for the 15th of February.
However, on February 11, the Russian troops forming a part of the Eleventh
Army, invaded Georgia from the Armenian side.
Mr. Scheinman, representative of the soviet government at Tiflis, declared
to the Georgian Government that Russia knew nothing of this attack and that
it was undertaken by the Armenian Government.
At the same time the Georgian Government received from Mr. Chaverdoff, the
representative of Soviet Armenia, a not less formal declaration, according to
which Armenia was entirely unconnected with this offensive.
210 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The facts prove that, of these two assertions, that of Mr. Chaverdoff was the
true One ; in the Course Of the battles engaged in below Tiflis the Georgian
troops made many prisoners. The examinations they underwent demonstrated "
that they were all natives of the central provinces of Russia and belonged to
regular units Of the armies of Moscow.
It is therefore not Armenia but RuSSia. Of the Soviets which sent forces
against Georgia the 11th of February from the side Of the Armenian frontier.
On February 15 new detachments of the Eleventh Army, reinforced by units
of cavalry, crossed the frontier of Georgia from the side of Azerbaidjan.
Deploying all its energy to repulse the invader, the Georgian Government
attempted to stop the war through diplomatic channels.
On the 16th of February the President of the Georgian Government attempted
to enter into communication with Moscow by direct telegraph wire, but Mr.
Carakhan, assistant to the Commissary of Foreign Affairs, even though he was
in the wire at Moscow, refused to speak with the President.
The next day the radiotelegraph station of Tiflis received a message through
which Mr. Chicherin, pretending to be ignorant of the fact that Georgia had
been attacked by the Russian Army, proposed to the Georgian Government his
mediation between Georgia and the other Republics of the Transcaucasia
While entertaining no illusions on the sincerity of this message, the Georgian
Government replied that it accepted the proposition of Mr. Chicherin on Con-
dition that the Russian Government recall its armies from the Georgian
territory.
Nevertheless, the Operations were developing. The charge directed from two
sides against Tiflis had encountered an heroic resistance on the part of the
Georgian people. The army and the popular guard had driven back all the
attacks Of the enemy, although this latter greatly exceeded them in number as
Well as in armament and munitions.
On February 21 the President Of the Georgian Government sent to Mr.
Chicherin a cablegram demanding the reasons of the war undertaken by Russia
against Georgia. Without having received an answer to this telegram, on
February 22, the President addressed himself to Mr. Lenin and Mr. Trotski,
asking them to terminate the war, whose imperialistic and Offensive character
was beyond doubt.
For Only reply the SOviet government relased an Offensive against Georgia
from three new directions—by the Georgian military road on the side of Vladi-
kavkaz, through the neck of MamissOn near Koutain, and by the littoral of the
Black Sea from the Side of Sotchi.
Georgia saw herself attacked from all Sides by the Eleventh Russian Army
and by units of three other armies—Eighth and Thirteenth, without counting
Some detachments of Cavalry from Boudenny and Jloba.
The enthusiasm of the people, the afflux of volunteers, would have permitted
the Georgian Government to increase the forces of resistance, but there were
not enough guns to arm all those who were ready to die for the liberty and
independence of the country ; for two years the representatives of the Republic
in Europe had been urging the powers in vain to give the Georgian people the
indispensable technical means to assume the defense of the country; only one
Tower consented finally to furnish Georgia with a certain quantity of arms, but
this decision was made too late.
On the contrary, the Bolsheviks, by using the inexhaustible stocks of Chimea,
were in a position to case against the Georgian Army troops always fresh, pro-
vided in abundance with modern arms.
On February 22 the Bolsheviks received a new reinforcement; the Govern-
ment of Angora delivered to the Georgian Government an ultimatum demanding
the evacution of the cities of Ardahan and Artvin. Being impossible to oppose
sufficient forces to the Turkish offensive on this new front, the Georgian Gov-
ernment saw itself constrained to recall its troops from these cities, declaring,
however, that the question was not settled by this fact and that this settlement
could not be effected except by entente Or arbitration.
Meanwhile, the military situation of Georgia was becomng more and more
difficult : Attacked from five sides, Obliged to disperse its forces across an
immense front, the Georgian Republic had to carry on the battle under con-
ditions by far too unequal. Her army was infallibly menaced with being
encompassed and annihilated. The Supreme Georgian commander decided
then to evacuate Tiflis and effect the drawing back of the army in order to
Concentrate it entirely On the Strong positions where it would be sheltered
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 211
from the Russian troops. The order was given to all the troops on all the
fronts to retire fighting to the left bank of the Rion, maintaining Batum as
military base.
On February 2, Tiflis was evacuated by the Georgian troops, and the re-
treat in the direction designated by the commander began. The battle Con-
tinued three more weeks on the new lines of defense.
In the course of these tragic days, the Georgian people showed itself more
than ever united and resolved to defend its liberty and its independence. All
the efforts of Bolshevik agents to provoke interior mutinies and to drive the
soldiers into rebellion remained fruitless. But lacking materials of war,
without allies, alone, isolated, awaiting help from nowhere, the little republic
could not long resist great Russia.
The policy of the Government of Angora accelerated the end of this
resistance. *
After having taken possession of Ardahan and Artvin, the Khemalist Gov-
•ernment declared to Georgia that it no longer had any litigious questions with
her and proposed to help to prevent the Bolshevik troops from penetrating in
the Province of Batum. It begged the Georgian Government not to oppose
itself to the entrance in the province of the Turkish troops, which were-so
it said—to take part in the defense of the region against the Bolshevist army.
However, on March 16, once inside Batum, the Turks declared that the
Great National Assembly of Angora had decided the annexation of the city
of Batum and of its Provinces to Turkey and attempted to Occupy by main
force the public institutions of the city and its forts. At the same time
they addressed to the Georgian Government an ultimatum demanding the dis-
armament of its troops.
A battle took place in the streets of Batum between the Georgians and the
Turks. The Turks were driven from the city. But from then on Georgia
had a new front—and that on the side, precisely, where she had counted
her military base as aSSured. The Georgian troops closed in on two sides
by the armies of two great military powers, Soviet Russia and Turkey, were
Condemned to perish without the least hope of Success.
On March 17, the Georgian Government decided to discontinue the fight on
the left bank of the Rion and to dissolve the army.
The dissolution of the army, opening to the Bolshevik troops the road to
Batum and making them masters of the entire territory of the Republic,
Had as an inevitable consequence the departure of the Government from the
territory Occupied by the enemy : it was, in fact, the only means for the Geor-
igian Government to evade all political contact witih the invaders.
The Bolshevists having organized on that part of the country occupied by
the red army, a military power under the name of “revolutionary committee,”
the government of the republic, in an appeal to the people, specified its atti-
tude toward this power. t
It declared that this usurping committee, not holding its power by the will
of the Georgian people, but by Russian bayonets, a committee composed of
people who entered Georgia. On the heels of the army of the enemy had no
right to be considered as “a government.” In protesting against the vio-
lence committed toward the Georgian people, the government of the republic
reiterated the assurance that in all circumstances anywhere it would remain
faithful to its duty of defending the vital interests, the liberty, and independ-
•ence of its people. •
The facts stated above demonstrate—
1. That it is not an interior movement, even by a minority of the people,
but the brutal exterior force, which destroyed the constitution, democratic
republican, freely chosen by the Georgian people, to replace it with institu-
tions imitating those of Soviet Russia.
2. That the Georgian people opposed a heroic resistance to the enemy, and
that, ranking itself around its government, it did not cede its territory until
after having exhausted all means of resistance.
3. That the present situation of Georgia is a military occupation of the
country by a foreign army.
4. Constrained by the fact of the Bolshevik occupation to leave its national
Soil, the Georgian Government continues to fulfill the authority which it holds
from the constituent assembly and the pledge which it took toward its people,
in defending the interests of this people before the powers which have recog-
nized the independence of the Georgian Republic.
PARIs, April, 1921.
212 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ANNEx 8
A NOTE: BY CHICHERIN To LoRD OURzoN
[The Daily Herald, March 12, 1920]
The note protests against the assumption that Batum and Georgian inde--
pendence are in danger from Russia. This is untrue, the only danger threat-
ened being the danger from the Entente.
Russia has recognized Georgia independence; the Entente has not. The
whole policy of Russia is in favor of self-determination of Small nations, and
no demand has been made on Georgia save that Batum Shall not be occupied
by hostile forces. *
Soviet Russia has not taken and will not take any hostile action against
Gorgia, by occupation of Batum or otherwise. -- tº
ANNEX IX
[From the report of the commander of the Eleventh Russian Soviet Army, Hecker, to.
the president of the military revolutionary Council of the Eleventh Army. The report
is dated December 18, 1920]
As I have already stated at the meeting of the revolutionary military council
of the Eleventh Army, the 3rd Of December last, the Operations against Georgia.
are not possible except on the express condition of amicable neutrality of the
troops of Kiazim-Krabekir because, even in the case of a designation for these
operations, in excess of the Eleventh Army, of all of the Eleventh Army and of
the Second Army of Cavalry, our command will not have at its disposition.
Sufficient forces to form a sure barrier against the Turks.
Following the information of our intelligence service, the forces of Kiazim-
Karabekir, situated on the Sarikamich-Alexandropol line, reach 22,000 to 24,000,
men of regular troops and from 14,000 to 16,000 Kurd and Tartar horsemen.
Considering the incapacity of the Armenian Army which is undergoing a period.
Of complete dislocation and which requires a fundamental reorganization,
we should place as barrier against the Turks forces not less than two divisions,
Of infantry and one brigade of cavalry.
But, even in this case, our operation in the direction of Kazakh-Pont-Rouge,
and farther, on Tiflis, would be very much impeded. In the case of a serious.
resistance from Georgian units, our troops might find themselves in a catas-
trophie situation. Therefore, I do not see the possibility of furnishing such a
barrier the more so that at the beginning of the military operations, I could
not Venture to bring back the troops Occupied at Lenkoran, at Daghestan,
Djavouchir and Karabakh.
In these conditions my profound conviction, which I deem it my duty to,
Submit to you in writing, is that before the regulation of our mutual affairs.
with the Turks, it would be dangerous to begin the military operations against
Georgia. p
If the military revolutionary council of the Eleventh Army received reak
guaranties of the amicable attitude of the troops of Kiazim-Karabekir, the
problem of the occupation of Georgia and of Tiflis, in the first place, would.
become more possible.
For an Operation altogether sure against Georgia, I estimate the concentra-
tion of the following forces necessary, in three principal directions: Kazakh-
Pont-Rouge, two divisions of infantry, two divisions of cavalry; Poili, one-
division of infantry, two divisions of cavalry; Akstafa-Elizabethpol line, two,
divisions of infantry; in all six divisions of infantry and five divisons of
Cavalry, to the effective total force of 25,000 bayonettes and 4,000 Swords. The
direction of Poili should still be taken care of by three trains as blinds which
can be previously taken in a short delay on the Eleventh Army; to keep back:
the Georgian troops in the direction of Sotchi, it would be necessary to leave.
One division of infantry, and, to cover Vladicavcaz, the detachment of march of
Comrade X.
The considerations above are not given to demonstrate the impossibility of
an attack against Georgia, but only because I consider that this attack should
be made only after a careful preparation in order to put an end as soon as
possible to the people of Tiflis.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 213.
If, however, the political events make it necessary to attack We must expect
that the war against Georgia will take on a º: Of duration. t
I am profoundly persuaded that we can occupy without difficulty all the
Georgian territory up to the ridge of Souram, but my troops would then be.
stopped. In Consequence, I am taking the liberty of proposing to defer the
attack against Georgia until the realization of the following conditions:
1. Concentration in the region of Bakou-Blakh-NOukha-Elizabethpol-Kazakh-
of Seven divisions of infantry and of the second army of cavalry. -
2. The arrival of concentration on the Bakou-Elizabethpol line of all the .
trains of wheat constituting the revictualing provided for the months of De-
cember and January.
3. An agreement With the Turkish command.
With these conditions and in the case of the Stabilizing of concord, I am
profoundly persuaded that the campaign against Georgia could be terminated
Within about six weeks.
ANNEx X
[Telegram]
PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL OF THE Commiss ARIES of THE PEOPLE
* Kremlin, Moscow:
* In 1921 your troops, in contempt of the treaty concluded between US, Occu- -
pied, after five Weeks of battling, Georgia, already recognized as independent
by you. Since then the Georgian people are Supporting persecutions unprece-
dented and unheard of in its history. Now reduced to despair, it is battling -
against your power. Georgia battles, not for the reestablishment of such or
Such interior régime, but for her right to her national determination and for-
the reestablishment of her independence. You know yourselves that Georgia
Will never Submit to foreign domination. In the name of Georgian people, I
propose you stop military actions and solve Russo-Georgian conflict pacifically,
basing yourselves on treaties concluded between us May 7, 1920. I declare
at the Same time that we are ready to conclude a Complementary treaty guar-
anteeing your economic and commercial interests in Georgia,
- -- NOE JORDANIA,
* President of the National Government of Georgia.
PARIs, September 6, 1924.
NOTE FROM THE DELEGATE OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OF GEORGIA TO THE
COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
GENEVA, March 14, 1924.
Mr. PRESIDENT: I have the honor to again have recourse to the high authority
of the Council of the League of Nations for the affairs of Georgia.
Referring to the telegram of my Government, addressed through the medium
of Mr. Tehenkeli, minister of Georgia in France, to the Council of the League-
of Nations, I take the liberty of respectfully calling the attention of the council
to the situation in my country. Georgia is passing through a tragic crisis,
which is not only of weighty importance for herself but also for the whole of
humanity. It runs the risk, through its injustice, of shaking the very founda-
tions of international Order.
Georgia, in constituting herself an independent State, declined in the spring:
of 1920 the offer of Soviet Russia to form an alliance with her and preferred
to become a part of the community of States of Europe. She entered into
relation with these countries and was recognized de jure by them. Animated
by peaceful intentions with regard to all its neighbors, the Republic endeav-
ored to come to terms with the Government of Moscow and concluded with it,
May 7, 1920, a treaty having all the characteristics of an international act,
In the first paragraph of this treaty the Government of Moscow declares
solemnly that “Russia recognizes without reservation the independence and
sovereignty of the Georgian State and willingly renounces to all the sovereign
rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the people and the territory of
Georgia.”
214 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
It seemed likely that Georgia could count on a sound future. Quite on the
contrary. Hardly 10 months had passed before the troops of this same Russian
Government were attacking Georgia unexpectedly, without pretext, and without
declaration of war. An unequal battle ensued. At the end of a few weeks
Georgia was vanquished by the numerical superiority of the red troops and
their better provision with munitions. And now it is three years that the
Country has been under a régime of military occupation and of terror unique in
violence and cruelty. All classes of society are persecuted ; workmen, peasants,
and intellectuals are arrested, deported, or shot. In order to “prepare " the
trial against the dignitaries of the Georgian Church and the patriarch of
Georgia, the Soviet authorities redoubled repressions as the date of opening of
the trial approached.
Georgia, victim of her loyalty and fidelity toward civilization, very naturally
Sought the sympathy of the civilized peoples and the moral support of the
League of Nations. This latter in its third general assembly of 1922 responded
by the unanimous adoption of a resolution inviting the council to follow the
events in order to seize opportunities which might present themselves to help
Georgia to return to a normal situation. This resolution has not up to now
had much effect, for without doubt, as long as Russia should remain outside
of international relations, it would have been difficult to imagine an interven-
tion by the League of Nations to make the Soviet Government respect the law
of nations. But now the situation is changed; diplomatic relations are begin-
ning to be established between Soviet Russia on One hand, and the States,
members of the League of Nations, on the other hand ; the Opportunity SO
long awaited now presents itself to the council to attract the attention of its
members to the situation in Georgia and on the measures to be taken to Safe-
guard its international status.
I have the honor, otherefore, in the name of my Government, to beg the
Council of the League of Nations to kindly—
1. Consider if the states, members of the League of Nations, Which have
reestablished legal relations with Soviet Russia would not with entire pro-
priety, in insisting on the execution of international engagements during the
course of negotiations with the Government of Moscow, have Georgia evacuated
by the Russian troops. ë tº
2. Consider if the council could not with entire propriety Send a Commission
of investigation to Georgia. ſº
As to this second point, I take the liberty of calling the attention Of the
council to the terms of article 17 of the pact; the second paragraph of this
article permits the council to open an investigation from the time of sending
of its invitation to the states not members of the League of Nations. In case
of refusal of its invitation, the council is even authorized, by paragraph 4, to
take all measures necessary for the solution of the conflict. wº
The Georgian people places its entire confidence in the hands Of the Council
of the League of Nations. It does not doubt that it will take its request under
serious consideration. The Georgian cause is also that of peace and right.
Pray accept, Mr. President, the assurance of my highest consideration.
S. K.H. CHAVICH WILY,
Delegate of the National Government of Georgia.
To His Excellency Mr. GUANI, º *
President of the Council of the League of Nations, Geneva.
APPENDIX NO. 7
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUBLICS
PREFACE
The revolution which brought the Soviet Government into being Occurred!
on the 7th day of November, 1917. The Soviets (workmen’s councils) as
units came into existence already in the revolution of 1905, The First All-
Russian Congress of Soviets met in Petrograd in June, 1917. In the month.
of November, 1917, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a
“Declaration of the rights of the peoples of Russia.” In January, 1918, the
Third All-Russian Congress of the Soviets adopted “A declaration of the rights
of the exploited and laboring masses,” which constituted the fundamental
declarations of the principles of the new confederation of the Soviets acting
as a government. This congress also proclaimed the existence of the Russian
Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. The Fifth All-Russian Congress of the
Soviets met on the 10th day of July, 1918, and affirmed the declaration as
the guiding principle and on the basis of it created and ratified the first
constitution of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. This docu-
ment, consisting of about 90 articles, embodied the revolutionary principles
and created those organs of government which have administered Russia
Since then. It was passed only after the government had been in existence
and functioning for more than a year. The highest governing authority
passed from time to time certain amendments to the constitution aimed to
better expedite the vast business of the largest republic in the World.
The first of these went into effect on the 12th day of December, 1919, more
than a year after the passage of the constitution of the Russian Socialist
Federated Soviet Republic, and an additional amendatory decree followed
on December 17, 1919. On the 15th of February and the 18th of March of
1920, explanatory amendments containing laws and regulations regarding the
village and rural Soviets were adopted by the all-Russian central executive
committee and became a part of the fundamental law.
The Eighth All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a decree “concerning
the Soviet constitution,” and the ninth congress which met in December of
1921 adopted six regulatory and explanatory amendments to the constitution
Of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic.
The Tenth All-Russian Congress met in Moscow in December of 1922. The
congress, like its predecessor, consisted of delegates from several autonomous
republics: The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, which constituted
European Russia proper and Siberia, besides eight autonomous republics;
the Transcaucasian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, which consisted of
three independent and two autonomous republics; the White Russian Socialist
Soviet Republic, and the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. In addition
to that there were delegates from the Chorasmian (Khiva) People's Soviet
Republic, and the Bokhara People’s Soviet Republic.
On the 28th of December the congress adopted a resolution calling for a
closer and a more centralized federation Of these autonomous States, and this
call was printed that day in the Izvestia, the Official Organ of the government.
The call did not embody within its scope the Khiva and the Bokhara Repub-
lics because they were not socialist republics. Several months later Khiva
became a socialist republic and entered the federation, while Bokhara remains
allied to the federation.
On the 30th day of December the Congress adopted a resolution which later
was incorporated into the preamble of the new Constitution, and in addition
to that it passed another which reads as follows:
“We, members of the central executive committees of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, in session assembled, in pursuance of the powers conferred
upon us and in accordance with the resolutions adopted by the first congress
of the Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, held in the city of
215
216 NATIO.NAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
MOSCOW, on the 30th day of December, 1922, and in accordance with the modifi-
cations and amendments of such resolutions, proposed and made by the indi-
vidual central executive committees of the constituent republics herein repre-
Sented, do hereby declare to the whole world the steadfastness of the Soviet
power, and
“Resolve to enter into the covenant for the formation of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, and to adopt, as the fundamental law thereof, the covenant
and constitution creating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.”
The project of the new constitution was formulated the following day, and
the constitution was adopted on the 31st day of December, 1922.
The first Session of the newly created central executive committee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics took place in Moscow on the 6th of July
of 1923 when the new constitution, amended and enlarged, was ratified and
the new federal system of Russia created.
CHARLES RECHT,
Member of the Institute of Soviet
Laws of the University of Moscow.
SECTION I
DECLARATION OF UNION
Since the formation of the Soviet Republics the world has become divided
into two groups—that of capitalism and that of socialism.
Within the capitalist camp, national hatred and inequality, colonial bondage
and chauvinism, national Oppression and massacres, imperialist brutalities and
wars prevail, while here, within the camp of socialism, mutual trust and peace,
national freedom and equality, peaceful coexistence and fraternal collaboration
of peoples is to be found. y
The efforts of the capitalist regimé, in the course of the decades, to solve
the question of nationalities by the joint methods of the free development of
peoples and the exploitation of man by man have proven vain. On the Con-
trary, the Web Of national antagonism is becoming even more entangled until
it threatens the very existence of capitalism itself. The bourgeoisie has proven
impotent of bringing about COOperation among peoples.
Only within the camps of the Soviets, only under the prevalence of the
proletarian dictatorship around which the majority of the population has
rallied, has it become possible to destroy national Oppression root and branch
to create an atmosphere of mutual trust and to lay the foundations for the
brotherly cooperation of peoples.
Owing to that—and to that only—it was possible for the Soviet Republics
to repel the external as well as the internal attacks of world imperialism.
Solely because of these conditions were they able successfully to end the civil
war, become secure in their existence, and to pass to the tasks of peaceful
economic reconstruction.
But the years of war have left their scars. The devastated fields and idle
factories, the breakdown of productive forces and the depletion of economic
resources, this legacy of the War makes the isolated efforts of individual re-
publics toward economic reconstruction inadequate. The rebirth of economic
Welfare Was found impossible as long as the Separate republics maintained a
divided existence. At the same time the unsettled State Of international
affairs and the danger of new attacks point to the necessity of creating a
common front of the Soviet Republics against the Surrounding capitalist World.
Finally, the very structure of the Soviet power, which is international in its
-class character, Calls the toiling masses of the Soviet Republics toward a unity
of One socialist family.
All these circumstances imperatively demand the unification of the Soviet
Tepublics into one federal state, powerful enough of warding off foreign at-
tacks and the security of internal economic Welfare, as Well as the unhampered
-existence of the various nations.
The will of the peoples of the Soviet Republics unanimously proclaimed at
their recent Soviet Congresses in their decision for the formation of the
“ Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics,” stands as the unimpeachable guar-
antee that this union shall be the Voluntary association of these Sovereign
nations on a basis of equality, each republic reserving to itself the right of
free wtihdrawal from the union, that admission to this union shall be open
to all Soviet Socialist Republics, such as are now existing and such as shall
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 217
arise in the future, that the new united state is a fitting consummation of the
heginnings which had their inception in November, 1917, toward the tranquil
and cooperative existence and mutual bond of the peoples, that it shall stand
as the firm bulwark against world capitalism, and form a decisive step toward
the union of the toilers of all countries into one world Soviet socialist republic.
SECTION II
COVENANT
The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic (R. S. F. S. R.), the
'Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (U. S. S. R.), the White Russian Socialist
Soviet Republic (D. R. S. S. R.), and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federated
Soviet Republic (T. C. S. F. R. R.), consisting of the Socialist Soviet Republic
of Azerbaijan, the Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia, and the Soviet Social-
ist Republic of Armenia, by this covenant enter into a single federal state to
be known as “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.”
ARTICLE I *
scope of AUTHORITY of THE UNION
1. The sovereignty of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as exercised
through the supreme governing departments, shall include:
(a) The representation of the union in international affairs, the conduct of
all diplomatic intercourse and the conclusion of political and other treaties
with foreign states;
(b) The modification of the frontiers of the union and the regulation of
questions dealing with the alteration of boundaries between the constituent
republics;
(c) The conclusion of treaties for the admission of new republics into the
Fun 10n ;
(d) The declaration of war and conclusion of peace;
(c) The contracting of foreign and domestic loans by the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics and the sanctioning of foreign and domestic loans by the
:Several constituent republics;
(f) The ratification of international treaties;
(g) Control of foreign trade, and establishment of a system of internal
trade;
(h), Establishment of the basic principles and of a general plan for the
whole national economic System of the union ; determination of the branches
40f industry and of separate industrial undertakings which are of importance to
the whole union ; and the conclusion of Concession agreements, both those re-
Tating to the union as a whole as well as those relating only to the constituent
grepublics;
(i) The regulation and control of transport, posts, and telegraphs;
(j) The organization and control of the armed forces of the union;
(Ic) Adoption of a single state budget for the union, comprising the budgets
of the constituent republics; determination of the general union taxes and
revenues, as also of deductions therefrom and additions thereto for the budgets
of the constituent republics; authorization of additional taxes and dues for
the budgets of the constituent republics;
(l) Establishment of a single currency and credit System.
(m) Establishment of general principles governing the distribution and use
of land, and the exploitation of mineral wealth, forests, and waterways through-
“out the whole territory of the union.
(m) General union legislation on migration from one republic to another,
and establishment of a Colonization fund.
(o) Establishment of basic principles for the composition and procedure of
£he courts and the civil and criminal legislation of the union.
(p) The enactment of fundamental laws dealing with the rights of labor.
(q) Establishment of the general principles of national education.
(r) Adoption of measures for the protection of public health.
(s) Establishment of a common system of weights and measures.
(t) The organization of census for the entire union.
(w) Fundamental legislation as to the rights of foreigners to citizenship of
the union.
218 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
(v) The right of general amnesty within the territory of the entire union.
(w) The right to veto all decrees made by the different Soviet congresses,
and by Central executive committees of the several constituent republics which,
Shall be in violation of the within constitution.
(a) Settlement of controversies arising between the several constituent re--
publics.
2. The ratification and amendment of the constitution shall be exclusively
delegated to the Soviet congress of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
ARTICLE II
THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEVERAL CONSTITUENT REPUBLICS AND FEDERAI,
CITIZENSEIIP
3. The Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall guarantee the sovereignty.
Of each and every constituent republic of the union. Except as delegated in:
the herein constitution, the sovereign rights of the several republics Constitut-
ing this union shall not be restricted or impaired.
4. Each of the constituent republics shall have the right to freely withdraw,
from the federal union. *
5. Each Of the several constituent republics shall pass such amendments to its.
respective constitutions as will bring it in conformity with the federal con-
Stitution.
6. The territory of each of the constituent republics shall not be altered.
Without its consent and no amendment, modification, limitation, or repeal of
Section IV of the federal constitution shall be made without the consent of all
the constituent republics of the union.
7. Federal citizenship of the union Shall replace the citizenships of the sev,
eral constituent republics.
ARTICLE III
SOVIET CONGRESS OF THE UNION OF THE SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
8. The Supreme authority of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics;
Shall be wested in the Soviet congress and, during the intervals of sessions
Of the said congress in the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, which shall consist of the council of the union and the
Council of nationalities.
9. The SOviet Congress of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall be
Composed of the representatives Of city and township Soviets On the basis of
1 deputy for each 25,000 electors, and of representatives of provincial Soviet con-
greSSes On the basis of 1 deputy for each 125,000 inhabitants.
10. The representatives to the Soviet congress of the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republics shall be elected at the provincial Soviet Congresses. In.
those republics which have no provincial units the delegates Shall be elected
directly at the Soviet congresses Of the respective republics.
11. The regular session of the Soviet congresses of the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republics shall be convened by the central executive committee of the-
Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics Once a year, extraordinary Sessions
Shall be COnvened by the Central executive Committee Of the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republics either on its own initiative, or on the demand of the coun--
cil of the union, or council of nationalities, or of any two of the constituent
republics.
12. Under extraordinary circumstances preventing the convening of the
Soviet Congress at the appointed time, the central executive Committee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall have the right to postpone the con-
vening of the Soviet Congress.
ARTICLE IV
THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS.
13. The Central executive committee of the union shall consist of the council.
Of the union and the council of nationalities.
14. The Soviet congress of the union shall elect the council of the union, which
Shall consist of 371 members from among the representatives of the several Con-
stituent republics counted in proportion to the population of each republic.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 219
15. The council of nationalities shall be formed of the representatives of the
- constituent and autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics on the basis of five
representatives from each ; and of representatives of the autonomous terri-
tories of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic on the basis of one
representative thereof. The composition of the council of nationalities as a
whole shall be subject to confirmation by the Soviet congress of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics. e
NOTE: The autonomous Republics of Adjaria and Abkhazia and the auton-
omous territory of southern Ossetia shall send one representative each to the
council of nationalities.
16. The union council and council of nationalities shall examine all decrees,
codes, and regulations submitted to them by the presidium of the central execu-
tive committee and the council of people's commissars of the union, by separate
people's commissars of the union, or by the central executive committees of the
constituent republics, also when the question of such decrees, codes, and regu-
lations is raised on the initiative of the union Council or the Council of
nationalities.
17. The union Central executive committee issues codes, decrees, regulations,
..and orders, and forms a Single legislative and executive body for the union ; it
further defines the work of the presidium Of the central executive committee
and the council of people's commissars of the union.
18. All decrees and Ordinances concerning political and economic life of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and also those which introduce fundamen-
tal changes in the existing practice Of the state departments of the union must
be submitted for the examination and ratification of the central executive com-
mittee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
19. All decrees, regulations, and Orders issued by the central executive com-
mittee shall be compulsory throughout the territory of the union.
20. The central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-
lics shall have the right to veto or suspend all decrees, regulations, and Ordi-
nances of the presidium of the central executive committee of the Union of
, Socialist Soviet Republics, of the Soviet congresses, and of the central executive
committees of all the constituent republics, and of all other government organs
within the territory of the union.
21. The regular sessions of the central executive committee of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics shall be convened by the presidium of the central
executive committee three times a year. The extraordinary sessions shall be
convened upon the demand of the presidium of the council of the union, or the
presidium of the council of nationalities, and also upon the demand of the
central executive committee of any one of the constituent republics.
22. Legislative bills submitted for the consideration by the central executive
committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall become laws only
after having been passed by both the council of the union and the council
of nationalities; they are published in the name of the central executive com-
mittee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
23. In case of disagreement between the council of the union and the council
of nationalities, the question at issue shall be referred to a conciliation com-
mission appointed by these two organs.
24. If no agreement be reached in the conciliation commission, the question
shall be referred to a joint session the council of the union and of the council
of nationalities, wherein, in the event that no majority vote of the union
council or of the council of nationalities can be obtained, the question may be
referred, On the demand of either of these bodies, for decision to either the
regular or extraordinary congress of the Union of the Soviet Socialist
Republics.
25. The union council and council of nationalities each elects a presidium
#.ºyen of its members to arrange its sessions and conduct the work of the
atter.
26. In the intervals between sessions of the union central executive com-
mittee Supreme authority is vested in its presidium, formed by the union
Central executive committee of twenty-one members, amongst whom are
included the whole of the union council presidium and the presidium of the
council of nationalities.
27. The central executive committee elects, in accordance with the number of
contracting republics, four chairmen of the union central executive committee
from members of its presidium.
220 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
28. The central executive committee of the union shall be responsible to the
congress of Soviets of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. 3.
ARTICLE V
THE PRESIDIUM OF THE UNION CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
29. The presidium of the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics shall during the intervals between the Session of the central
executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics be the highest
legislative, executive and administrative Organ in the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics.
30. The presidium of the union central executive committee shall have the
power to enforce the application of the Union constitution and the carrying
out by all departmental authorities of all decisions of the union congress of
Soviets and of the union central executive Committee.
31. The presidium Of the Central executive committee of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics shall have the power to suspend or to veto the
decisions of the Council of the people's Commissars and of the individual
people's commissariats of the union ; and of the central executive committees
and the councils of people's commissars of the constituent Republics.
32. The presidium of the Central executive Committee of the union shall
have the power to Suspend the decisions of the Soviet congresses Of the
constituent Republics, but it shall subsequently thereto submit such decision
for examination and ratification to the central executive committee of the
Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics.
33. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shali
pass decrees, regulations and Ordinances, shall examine and ratify draft decrees
and resolutions Submitted to it by the council of the people's commissars,
by the separate departments of the Union Soviet Socialist Republics or by
the Central executive committees of the constituent Republics, their presidia,
and by Other governmental departments. *
34. The decrees and decisions of the central executive committee of the
union, of its presidium, and of the council of people's commissars of the union.
shall be printed in all languages in popular use within the constituent Re-
publics (Russian, Ukrainian, White Russian, Georgian, Armenian, Turko-
Tartar),
35, The presidium Of the central executive committee of the union shalk
have the power to decide all questions pertaining to the interrelations between
the council of the people's commissars of the union and the people's com-
missariats of the union on the one hand, and the central executive committees
of the constituent Republics, and their presidia, On the other hand.
36. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shall be
responsible to the central executive committee of the union.
ARTICLE VI
THE COUNCIL OF THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARS OF THE UNION OF THE SOVIET SOCIALIST
REPUBLICS
37. The coucil of the people's commissars of the union shall be the executive
and administrative organ of the central executive committee of the union and
it shall be constituted by it in the following order:
Chairman of the council of the people's commissars of the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republics.
Vice chairman of the council of the people's commissars of the Union of the
Soviet Socialist Republics.
People's commissar for foreign affairs.
People’s commissar for army and navy.
People's commissar for foreign trade.
People's commissar for transport.
People's commissar for posts and telegraphs.
People's commissar for workers and peasants' inspection.
People's commissar for labor.
People's commissar for food. & º
People's commissar for finance, and the chairman of the Supreme council
of national economy.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 221
38. The council of people's commissars of the union shall issue decrees and
regulations, which, within the limits of the powers conferred upon it by the
Central executive committee of the union, and by virtue of the statute estab-
lishing it, shall be compulsory throughout the territory of the union.
39. The council of the people's commissars of the union shall examine
decrees and regulations submitted to it by the individual people's commis-
Sariats of the union or by the central executive committees of the constituent
republics and by their presidia.
40. The council of the people's commissariats of the union shall be, in all
of its work, responsible to the central executive committee of the union and
to its presidium.
41. All decrees and orders made by the Council of the people's commissars
of the union may be suspended or vetoed only by the central executive com-
mittee of the union or its presidium.
42. The central executive committees of the constituent Republics and their
presidia may appeal against the decrees and decisions of the council of the
people's commissars of the union to the presidium of the central executive
committee of the union, but in the meantime such decrees and decisions shall
not be suspended.
ARTICLE VII
THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNION
43. In order to firmly maintain revolutionary law throughout the territory
of the union there shall be created a supreme court of the union which shall
be attached to the union central executive committee. The said court shall
have the power and jurisdiction:
(a) To promulgate authoritative opinions on questions concerning general
federal legislation to the constituent Republics.
(b) On the motion of the attorney general of the union the supreme court
shall review the regulations, decisions, and sentences of the supreme courts
of the constituent Republics and appeal against them to the central executive
committee of the union whenever such decisions violate the general legislation
of the union, or whenever they are prejudicial to the interests of other Re-
publics of the union.
(c) To render decisions at the request of the central executive committee of
the union on the constitutionality of any regulations made by the constituent
republics.
(d) To adjudicate all judiciable controversies between the constituent
republics.
(e) To try the charges against high officials of the union for offenses com-
mitted in the discharge of their duties.
44. The Supreme court of the union shall function through—
(a) Plenary sessions.
(b) Civil and criminal departments.
(c) Military and military transport divisions.
45. In its plenary sessions the supreme court shall consist of 11 members,
including One chairman, One vice chairman, the four chairmen of the plenary
sessions of the Supreme courts of the constituent republics, and a representative
of the political department of the union. (See sec. 61.) The Chairman, vice
chairman, as well as the other five members, shall be appointed by the Pre-
sidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union,
46. The attorney general of the union and his deputy shall be appointed by
the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union. The duties
of the attorney general of the Supreme court of the union shall include the
rendering of opinions on all questions submitted to the supreme court of the
Union and the arguing for the validity of such opinion rendered at the session
of the court. Whenever the Supreme court of the Union at its plenary sessions
Shall render a decision in disagreement with his opinion the Attorney General
Shall have the right of appealing from such decision of the court to the
Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union.
.47. The right to submit questions specified in section 43 to the plenary ses.
SłOnS of the Supreme court of the union may be exercised Only by the central
executive Committee of the union, its presidium, the attorney general of the
union, Supreme Court, the attorneys general of the constituent republics, and
the political department of the union.
222 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
48. The supreme court of the union, at the plenary session thereof, shall have
jurisdiction, sitting as a trial court, in-
(a) Criminal and civil cases of exceptional importance affecting the safety
of two or more of the constituent republics.
(b) Cases of impeachment and liability of the members of the central execu-
tive committee of the union and the council of the people's commissars of the
IIIllOIl.
No such cases, however, shall be tried ºby the Supreme court of the union
except upon a motion in each case made by the central executive committee of
the union or the presidium thereof.
ARTICLE VIII
THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIATS OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
49. There shall be formed, in accordance with section 37 of the within con-
stitution, 10 people's commissariats, which Shall conduct the branches of the
State administration reserved to them herein. The regulations regarding the
functions of the said people's commissariats shall be made by the central execu-
...tive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
50. The people's commissariats of the union shall be divided into (a) People's
-commissariats (federal) for the entire union of Soviet socialist republics, and
(b) Joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics.
51. The people's commissariats (federal) for the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics shall be the following: Foreign affairs, army and navy, foreign trade,
transports, posts, and telegraphs.
52. The joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics shall be the following: Supreme council of national economy, food,
labor, finances, workers’ and peasants’ inspection.
53. The people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(federal) shall have their representatives in the constituent Republics, who
shall be directly subordinated to them.
54. The joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics shall exercise their functions through the department of the corre-
sponding commissariats of the several constituent Republics on the territory of
the aforesaid republics.
55. Each member of the council of people's Commissars shall constitute the
head of his respective department within the commissariats of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics.
56. Within each people's commissariat a board (collegium) shall be created,
which shall be presided over by the people's commissar. The said board shall
be appointed by the council of people’s commissars of the Union.
57. The people's Commissar shall have the right independently to decide all
questions within the scope of his authority, provided, however, that he informs
the board (collegium) of his decision.
In the event that the board or any member thereof disagrees with the deci-
sion of the people's commissar a protest may be filed by him or them with the
council of people's commissars. Such protest, however, shall in no Way affect
or suspend the execution of the decision in dispute.
58. Any decree issued by an individual commissariat of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics may be annulled by the central executive committee of the
sunion or by the council of people's commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics.
59. The decisions of the people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics may be suspended by the central executive committees or
the presidia of the central executive committees of the different republics
whenever such decisions are in manifest conflict with the constitution of the
union, with federal legislation, or with the legislation of the respective repub-
lics. Upon such suspension a notification thereof shall immediately be made
by the central executive committee to the council of people's commissars of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and to the union commissariat concerned.
60. The people’s commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall
be responsible to the council of people's commissars, to the central executive
committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the presidium
1 thereof.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 323.
ARTICLE IX
THE STATE POLITICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE UNION
61. In order to unite the efforts of the constituent republics in their struggle
against the political and economic counter-revolution and against espionage and
brigandage there shall be created a joint state political department attached
to the council of people's commissars of the union, the chairman of this depart-
ment entering the council of people's commissars of the union with the right of
advisory vote.
62. The state political department of the union shall direct the activities of
the local branches of the state political department through its representatives
in the councils of the people's commissariats of the constituent republics, acting
in accordance with special rules and regulations duly ratified.
63. The control of the legality of the acts of the state political department
of the union shall be exercised by the attorney general of the union in accord-
ance with a special decree made by the central executive committee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
ARTICLE X
THE CONSTITUENT REPUBLICS
64. Within the territory of each constituent republic the supreme organ of
governmental authority shall be the Soviet congress of the republic, and during
the intervals between Congresses, its central executive committee.
65. The interrelations between the supreme Organs of governmental au-
thority of the several constituent republics and the supreme organs of the
federal government are defined in the Within constitution.
66. The central executive committees of the several constituent republics
shall elect from among their number their presidia, which during the intervals
between the central executive committee sessions shall constitute the Supreme
Organs of governmental authority.
67. The central executive committees of the constituent republics shall es-
tablish their own respective executive organs which shall be the councils of
people's commissars, consisting of the following :
Chairman of the council of people's commissars.
Vice chairman.
Chairman of the Supreme Council of national economy.
People's commissar for agriculture.
People's commissar for finance.
People's commissar for food.
People’s commissar for labor.
People's commissar for internal affairs.
People's commissar for justice.
People's commissar for workers’ and peasants’ inspection.
People’s commissar for education.
People's commissar for health.
People’s commissar for Social welfare.
And also, with an advisory or deciding vote, according to the decisions of
the respective central executive committees of the several republics, the repre-
sentatives Of the people's commissariats of
Foreign affairs.
Army and navy
Foreign trade.
Transport and of posts and telegraphs.
68. The Supreme Council of national economy and the people's commissariats
for food, finance, labor, Workers’ and peasants’ inspection of each constituent
republic, while Subordinate to its respective central executive committee and
council of people's commissiariats of the constituent republics shall, at the
same time carry out decrees of the corresponding people’s commissiariats
(federal).
69. The right of amnesty, as well as the right of pardon and restoration of
citizenship of citizens condemned by the judicial or administrative organs of
the constituent republics shall be the prerogative of the central executive com-
mittees of these republics.
96153—26—15
224 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ARTICLE XI
THE ARMS, THE FLAG, AND THE CAPITAL OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST
REPUBLICS
70. The insignia of the union of the soviet socialist republics shall consist
of a sickle and hammer mounted upon a terrestrial globe surrounded by sheaves
of grain, bearing the inscription, in the six languages mentioned in section 34,
“Proletarians of all; countries, unite!” The upper ſportion of the insignia
shall be surmounted by a five-pointed "star.
71. The fiag of State of the union of Soviet socialist republics shall be made
of red or scarlet cloth and shall bear the insignia of the union thereon.
72. The capital city of the union of soviet socialist republics shall be the
city of Moscow.
APPENDIX NO. 8
List of the members of the diplomatic corps, in Paris, France, in the order of the
- delivery of crèdentials, December 25, 1925
commercial attaché.
Date of
Countries and residences Telephone | Names and qualifications delivery of Ladies
credentials
EXTRAORDINARY ENVOYS
AND PLENIPOTENTIARY
MINISTERS
GEORGIA
Rond-Point de Longchamp, Passy 46.50ſ Mr. Tchenkeli, extraordi- Feb. 25, 1921 Mrs. Tchenkeli.
4, impasse des Pretres nary envoy and plenipo-
(16°). tentiary minister.
30, rue Perronet, & Neuilly- - - -do------ Mr. Sossipatre Assatiany, --------------- Mrs. ASSatiany.
sur-Seine. first Secretary. -
Rond-Point de Longchamp, ---do------ Mr. H.; , Llamaz Michel ---------------
4, imp. des Pretres (16°). Dadechkeliani, Second
Secretary.
AMBASSADORS
UNION OF socialist soviet
Ríº PUBLICS
79, rue de Grenelle (7°)----- - S e_g u r His Excellency. Mr. Chris- Dec. 10, 1925 Mrs. Rakovsky.
01.69–64,06 tian Rakovsky, extraor-
dinary ambassador and
plenipotentiary.
Po---------------------- ---do------ Mr. Jacques Davtian, --------------- Mrs. Davtian.
counsel of embassy.
Po---------------------- ---do------| Mr. Nicolas Tikhmeneff, --------------- Mrs. Tikhme-
first secretary, Ineff.
Po---------------------- ---do------| Mr. Gregoire Elansky, Sec- --------------- Mrs. Elansky.
ond Secretary.
s Po---------------------- ---do------ Mr. Alexandre Arosseff, Sec- --------------- Mrs. Arosseff.
ond Secretary.
Do - -do------ Mr. Simonique Piroumoff, --------------- Mrs. Piroumoff.
Second Secretary.
Po---------------------- ---do------ Mr. Michel Ossowsky, at- ---------------
taché.
Po---------------------- ---do------| Mr. Polygarpe Mdivani, ---------------
commercial representa-
tive.
DO- —do------| Mr. Mathiew Lomovsky, ---------------
deputy to commercial rep-
resentative.
Do -do------| Mr. Michel Broussneff, --------------- Mrs. Broussneff.
commercial attaché.
Do -do------ Mr. Wladimir Rozovsky, j---------------
225
APPENDIX NO. 9
GEORGIA, RUSSIA, AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
(By Edgard Milhaud, professor of political economy, University of Geneva.
Translated and published under the auspices of the Georgia Committee of
London, 11 Downshire Mill. N. W. 3)
The International Committee for Georgia, which was constituted in February,
1924, is composed as follows (S. after the name indicates Swiss nationality) :
President, Jean Martin (S.) ; vice presidents, Edgard Milhaud (France) and
Albert Malche (S.) ; secretaries, Paul Carry (S.) and Armand Carmagnolia
(Italy) ; treasurer, Charles Boveyron (S.) ; members of the bureau, Mlle.
Emilie Gourd (S.), Mme. Hélène Romniciano (Rumania), Mr. David Mac-
Cready (Great Britain), Mr. Everett Smith (United States), and Mr. Louis
Warlez (Belgium).
Members of the Committee: Mme. de Perrot (France), Mme. Henry George
(S.), Messrs. Paul Balmer (S.), Robert Boisnier (France), Charles Borgeaud,
Bernard Bouvier, Pierre Bovet, Louis Cartier, Emile Chaix, Edouard Chapuisat,
Edouard Claparède, Edouard Combe, and Henry Correvon (S.) ; M.M. Dumoulin
(France), Eugène Fabre (S.), Henri Fuss (Belgium), Nicolas Gay (France),
Jules Gottret (S.), Herr Helmbold (Germany), Joseph Linhart (Czecho-
slovakia), André de Maday, Albert Naine, Albert Picot, Paul Pictet, Eugène
Pittard, William Rappard, and Jean-Pierre Reymond (S.) ; J. J. de Roode
(Holland), Emile Ryser (S.), Mr. Skovoski (Poland), Mr. Templeton-Strong
(U. S. A.), M. Albert Thomas, Director of B. I. T. (France), Frank Thomas,
and Georges Werner (S.).
Address of committee: M. Jean Martin, président, 5, rue Général-Dufour,
Geneva.
INTRODUCTION
The International Committee for Georgia, seeing the importance to the
future of the Georgian nation of the eventual admission of Russia to the
League Of Nations, begged One of its vice presidents, Mr. Edgard Milhaud, the
eminent professor of the Geneva University, to study this problem. After
hearing Mr. Milhaud’s eloquent statement its publication was decided upon,
and at the conclusion of its deliberations the following resolution was adopted
and has been communicated to the members of the Council of the League of
Nations and to the governments Of all the States represented in the league.
RESOLUTION
The International Committee for Georgia, remembering that the Russian
Government signed, in 1920, a treaty with Georgia, by which it recognized that
country’s absolute independence, and remembering that the powers have also
recognized de jure Georgia’s independence, having ascertained that the League
of Nations, according to its statutes, must subordinate the admission of every
new member to effective guaranties, furnished by the said member, of its sin-
cere intention to observe its international pledges, declares that it is the im-
perative duty of those states, members Of the league ,to remind Russia, at the
moment she demands her admission, to honor her Own signature, SO that she
can only be admitted Side by said with Georgia, sovereign and independent.
SYMPATHIY FOR GEORGIA
During the presence in Geneva of Mr. Jordania, President of the Georgian
Republic, we passed some unforgettable days. Two or three of us already
knew him ; I had the honor to be among the number. But during these four
days we were constantly with him, and by this contact with the head of the
226
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 227
Georgian Republic our former feelings of affection, admiration, and devotion
for his people were increased and strengthened to a degree which I am unable
to express here. I felt myself more than ever a soldier in a great cause, and
I declare with you that there will be no drawing back until this cause has
triumphed.
We have informed President Jordania of our sentiments, and he wished me
to tell you when leaving us that he had the most absolute trust in all the
members of our committee, and this trust has created duties for us.
During those days of intimacy, when we lived side by side in complete intel-
lectual and moral accord, we discussed plans, and we agreed that it was impos-
sible for such a great movement as that which had his personality for center
not to have results. This led us to seek out together the practical Outcome
Which might be evolved from the unanimous testimonies of sympathy he had
met With here.
I must say, addressing himself to the president of the circle of the press,
i. e., to Mr. Jean Martin, that he has most admirably succeeded in this even-
ing’s gathering of the press circle, and that certainly, by this happy initiative
in the midst of not only close friends but also of influential friends, he has
rendered to the Georgian cause, as President Jordania himself truly said, a
Signal service.
RUSSIA AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
But what is now to be done? This is the problem that presents itself to us.
What can we do to hasten the moment when Georgia will regain her liberty.
It seems to us, on the morrow of the ILOcarno agreements, which will be signed
to-day, that a new situation is going to be created for Russia also. Germany's
approach to the western powers signifies the evident end of any possible action
on the part of Russia in connection with Germany alone; that is to say, it
necessitates Russia’s turning toward western Europe. And with Germany’s
entrance into the League Of Nations, the problem must be faced SOOmer Or
later—we do not view the future either feverishly or chimerically, SO we say
Sooner or later—Of Russia’s entry in turn. NOW for us that is the moment
when decisive action must be taken, on the condition that we have prepared
the ground ; that is, prepared the minds of all concerned.
Have we a solid basis for taking action? We are all agreed that a positive
and legal basis for action in this sense exists. After the departure of President
Jordania while examining the present legal position of Georgia, we came to
the conclusion that there is perhaps in the world no other case better situated
than that Of Georgia for permitting a complete reparation of an injustice Within
the time, short Or long, before the question of Russia’s admission to the League
of Nations will be practically considered.
Some Way has been made during the three or four weeks since the departure
of President Jordania. In Le Temps of November 29, 1925, written on No-
vember 28, an article entitled “I a vinsite de M. Tehitcherine à Paris,” mentions
the Sooner or later admission of Russia to the league as a necessity.
As We are discussing with jurists, permit me to employ this expression to
emphasize what is our main preoccupation here, and that we are striving to
bring together Solid and indisputable arguments, not the arguments of a thesis
but those of a cause of which the strength is its justice. I ask your permission,
therefore, to quote the documents upon which we base our conclusions. It
seems to me of interest to give you an account of the terms in which Le Temps
expresses itself upon the problem. Here are two or three extracts from this
article : *
“A Conversation between Briand and Chicherin was foreseen the moment the
Commissar of the people for foreign affairs stopped at Warsaw first and at
Berlin afterwards. It was a logical conclusion that, from that instant, Soviet
Russia is bound, as a sequence to the Locarno agreements, to modify the
Orientation of her foreign policy to one more adapted to present circumstances;
Moscow marked this desire by an approach to Paris and by trying to obtain
a Settlement of questions long left in suspense, a settlement without which the
resumption of relations between the two countries could not produce all the
effects which one has a right to expect from it.”
After Various considerations, which I omit, stating an objection and with-
drawing it, Le Temps goes on to say: -
“There is no English plot against the Soviets in the Locarno agreements.
which constitute the point of departure of a great policy of European solidarity.
g
228 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
“Russia is not systematically excluded from this policy, and in the interest
of the consolidation of European order, all the capitals will be forced to smooth
the way of her return to normal relations. The simplest way for her to reenter
the circle of powers would be to follow the example of Germany and ask for
admission to the League of Nations, which is open to her, as it is to any other
state, on the condition, be it understood, that she bows to the common rule and
subscribes without reservation to all the stipulations of the covenant. The
recent declarations made by Mr. Litvinoff tend to prove that the Government
of Moscow has not yet resolved to get itself represented in the assembly at
Geneva. The idea is not yet ripe, but it will ripen perhaps when the Soviets
have weighed the advantages comprised for themselves in the understanding
they are trying to bring about with the neighboring states, notably with Poland
and Rumania. It is with Moscow chiefly that rests all that has to be done to
bring about a same policy of peace.”
So wrote Le Temps; and in an agency's résumé of the substance of the
ministerial declaration, published by the newspapers, we read these words :
“In the domain of foreign policy, the Government will pursue the policy
of international pacification in accordance with the agreements of Locarno.”
But how is this policy of European pacification set forth in the agreements
Of I/Ocarno to be continued, if not by looking beyond Germany; that is to say,
toward Russia? And how is Russia to be appeased if not within the frame-
work of the great organism for peace, the League of Nations itself? All of
this is, no doubt, enveloped in the formulae, necessarily abstract and general,
of diplomacy; but the objective visibly pursued, using the article in Le Temps
to elucidate the ministerial declaration, and as being, certainly within the
line of M. Aristide Briand's policy, is, by bringing together the western powers
and Russia, the creation of a state of equilibrium and peace within the
whole of Europe. Let us remember M. Briand's saying on his departure from
Locarno : “The United States of Europe are beginning !”
ENGLAND AND RUSSIA
Again, this morning, we read in the newspapers, under the heading “After
Locarno, the conference of London,” the following information :
“London, November 29.—A rumor runs through London, but not confirmed,
that a meeting Would take place between MM. Chamberlain and Chicherin, a
meeting which could only be fixed after the conference of Geneva. This
meeting would be welcomed by the Russian side. Perhaps it may be sup-
posed that On the English side it will not be unwelcome and a talk with the
Russian foreign minister will not be refused. But if it really exists, it is
not likely that we shall have confirmation of it, at least for the present, nor
See its realization before some weeks.”
Now, no one is ignorant of the fact that in matters of European policy the
present views of the British Foreign Minister coincide with those of the
French Minister for Foreign Affairs, and that it is just this coincidence of
views concerning the appeasement Of Europe which was the condition for
Success at LOCarlı O.
Without wishing, therefore, to link up in too logical arguments some indica-
tions still vague, we have every reason for thinking that a day will come
when the problem of Russia's admission to the League of Nations will be
considered.
This is the sole basis of Our Statement and of the special effort which we
now wish to make, in the conditions newly created by circumstances, of what
our President has styled the policy we should follow, using the word “policy'”
in a very wide sense; and, it should be understood, separating it from anything
resembling party policy, be that party what it may. Upon this basis the
eventual entry of Russia into the League of Nations, a program of action can
be built. We possess, in fact, certain juridical, positive elements which, being
brought in contact with One another, will give us great strength in the action
to be undertaken.
THE LEGAL POSITION OF GEORGIA—THE RUSSo-GEORGIAN TREATY OF MAY 7, 1920
Here are the legal elements. The first of all, I should add, is one that with-
Out which all Our efforts Would have no more than a humane and moral Char-
acter and would lose all claim to be a positive legal demand, it is a declaration
by Russia herself in a treaty between Russia and the Republic of Georgia.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 229
The two States signed, on May 7, 1920, a treaty, by virtue of which the juridical
independence de jure of Georgia was proclaimed. Article I of this treaty is
thus conceived : -
“Basing herself upon the right of all peoples, as proclaimed by the Federated
Socialist Republic of Soviet Russia, to dispose of themselves freely, even to
comprising the complete separation from the State of which they had formed
part, Russia recognizes without reserve the independence and sovereignty of
the Georgian State and renounces voluntarily—“voluntarily,” there is no ques-
tion there of a treaty imposed by force on the day after a crushing Victory—
renounces voluntarily all sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with re-
spect to the Georgian people and territory.”
About these rights one might dispute. At the time when Georgia was free
ihese did not exist; but there had been a century of domination. From the
international point of view, Georgia would be a member of a Russian Empire
or of a federated union of a Sovietic Russia, or some other, if the bonds which
existed between Georgia and Russia had not been broken undoubtedly at the
outset by the rising of the Georgian people and the proclamation of their inde-
pendence on May 26, 1918, but afterwards—two years after the declaration of
independence—by the treaty signed May 7, 1920, by the recognition very clear,
in the name of a principle solemnly and voluntarily invoked, Of the independ-
ence de jure of Georgia by the Government of the socialist-sovietic republic.
This document forms to-day the basis, not only of all action which we shall
hope to see taken in different directions; it has already formed the starting
point of quite a considerable amount of action still developing up to the
present day.
RECOGNITION DE JURE OF GEORGIA BY THE GREAT POWERS
The powers—not only the allied powers, but also a number of others—have
in turn recognized Georgia not alone in fact but in law, de jure, following this
proclamation of the Russian Government. It appeared to me extremely inter-
esting to parallel the two recognitions by the Allies—the One on January 11,
1920, is the recognition de facto : England, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium
recognized de facto Armenia, Azerbeidjan, and Georgia—four months later,
On May 7, by the treaty, of which I have just quoted article 1, Russia recog-
nized the independence of Georgia de jure. It was after this recognition by
Russia that the allied powers changed their position and went on from the
recognition in fact to the recognition in law, marking clearly by this transi-
tion, the fundamental importance in their eyes of the judicial proclamation
of Georgia’s independence by Russia herself.
Here is the text of this later recognition such as we find it in a letter ad-
dressed by the then president of the supreme council, M. Briand, to M. Gue-
guetchkori, Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Republic of Georgia :
PARIS, January 27, 1921.
SIR (MONSIEUR LE MINISTRE). After becoming aware of the decision by which
the Supreme Council, on January 26, has resolved to recognize de jure the
independence of Georgia, that country having formally expressed a desire for
this, you having expressed in a letter to me dated January 27 the official de-
mand Of the government and the Georgian people to be recognized de jure by
the allied powers.
I Communicated your letter at Once to the conference, which decided unani-
mously to recognize de jure the Georgian Government.
The allied powers are happy to be able to testify thus once more the sympa-
thy With Which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward
independence and the admiration with which the work it has already accom-
plished inspires them.
Please accept, Monsieur le Ministre, the assurances of my profound respect.
BRIAND.
Here Was a new recognition following that of the Russian Government, and
that of the allied governments—a recognition de jure.
THE RUSSIAN OCCUPATION AND THE RISING OF 1924
Since then certain events have happened which have caused the allied govern-
ments to mark their position, but above all one event of an awful kind. Fifteen
days after this solemn recognition by the allied powers, without provocation,
230 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the armies of the Sovietic Russian Republic invaded Georgia, and after six
Weeks of desperate fighting on the part of a nation of 3,000,000, who found
themselves attacked by the armies of a people of more than a hundred millions.
Georgia was crushed and subjected to the tyranny of a military occupation,
With the connivance later on of some traitorous elements in the country, of
Which the invaders made use. I think it can not be disputed that from this
time Georgia was exactly in the position of Belgium during the Great War
until She was liberated by international action, in which she herself took part,
but which was beyond her powers alone. It is a question of a country occu-
pied by an enemy. This fact stands out clearly in the light of a certain pro-
posal made through intermediaries to the Russian Government that a con-
ditional guaranteed conference, not a conference under the eyes of the police
and Voting by uplifted hands, as is the method now in occupied Georgia, but
under free conditions—that is to say, under the control of two international
Socialists, One from Moscow, the other from London—it being understood that
Only the workers and peasants should vote, as to whether the rule of the
Soviets should be accepted. The Georgian National Government added, to
mark how far they were assured of the fidelity of its people to the national
ideal of the country, that if one-third of the votes were in favor of the Russian
régime they would accept it.
This proposal was rejected.
The Georgian people have never changed their attitude. The rising so
cruelly crushed last year is a proof of this. That rising against the foreign
Occupation is the effective confirmation of the national character of the
Georgian movement and not to be confounded with the rising of a party or a
class Or even of a nation against its own government.
THE CONFERENCE OF GENOA AND THE TREATY OF TAUSAN NE
By the side of these manifestations of the will of the Georgian people there
is something that has for us juridically a supreme importance, and that is the
position taken since consistently by the powers. Let me recall the few fol-
lowing facts:
At the conference of Genoa, when Soviet Russia presumed to intervene
there as the representative of Georgia, the inviting powers opposed this and
admitted the Russian representative only as the representative of Russia
properly so called. A year later there was the conference of Lausanne. Here
we have a very precise text in article 12 of the convention of the straits which
reserves very clearly Georgia’s rights. This country is not expressly men-
tioned, but it is indisputable that it was included by the very terms which
were adopted, as is shown by the following :
“The commission will be composed, under the presidency of a representative
of Turkey, of representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Bul-
garia, Greece, Rumania, Russia, and the Serbo-Croat-Slovene State.
“Adhesion to the present convention will comprise for the United States the
right of having equally a representative on the commission.
“The same right will be reserved in the same conditions to the independent
states bordering the Black Sea not mentioned in the first paragraph of the
present article.”
Go round the Black Sea—eliminate Turkey, Bulgaria, Russia, Rumania,
and the Ukraine, and there will only remain Georgia. Consequently if there
is a plural attaching to the other “independent states bordering the Black
Sea " it can only be justified by the Ukraine and Georgia.
It is expedient, further, to remind ourselves that the protocol of the con-
ference of Lausanne mentions especially the Ukraine and Georgia as independ-
ent states. This fact has been underlined elsewhere in very unequivocal terms
and to the authors themselves of the convention by the delegate of the Na-
tional Government of Georgia. Our friend, Chavichvili, who the same day that
the treaty was signed, addressed officially to the members of the conference the
following letter:
“Although not represented within the conference of Lausanne the Georgian
people can not remain indifferent to the Solemn moment when this conference,
to-day, is consecrating the treaty of peace by the signature of its members.
“It was not, indeed, without a feeling of gratitude that the Georgian people
learned last January the news, which informed them that the conference of
peace had dismissed the unqualifiable pretension of Soviet Russia to close the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 231
º
straits and transform the Black Sea into a Russian lake, a project which was
intended to strangle definitely the Georgian people.
“It was with equal satisfaction that our people noted the fact that the Con-
ference of Lausanne having wished to inscribe the name of Georgia in the
protocol even as a bordering state, has refused to the delegates of the Sovietic
government the right of representing the Georgian people, subjected as they
are to oppression and pillage by the Russian army of occupation.
“In expressing my sincere thanks to the conference and trusting to inter-
national justice, I express also in the name of my government the profound
conviction that the great powers who in the spirit of equity have taken Care
to reserve to independent Georgia the right of adhesion to the convention of
the straits and to have a representative on the commission instituted by the
said convention, will continue to oppose the efforts of Soviet Russia to destroy
the right of Georgia as recognized by the whole World.”
It is clear that Georgia was indeed—incontestably—one of those bordering
states which would be called upon to take part freely one of these days in the
doings of the convention.
RECOGNITION OF THE SOVIETS AND RESERVATIONS IN FAVOR OF GEORGIA
Now we come to a series of later great manifestations, whereby the rights
of Georgia have been, with all the forms of courtesy imposed by diplomacy
maintained and safeguarded, with more or less clearness by the powers.
Here is the text of Great Britain’s recognition of Russia.
Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, as prime minister of Great Britain, in the note
transmitted to the Government of Moscow, said, among other things, that the
Government of His Brittanic Majesty—these are the very Words of this
document—“recognized the Union of the Socialist Soviet Republics as the
de jure rulers of those territories of the old Russian Empire which acknowl-
edge their authority.” (February 1, 1924.)
It is quite evident that in February, 1924, Georgia did not recognize the
authority of Soviet Russia, since shortly after the rising, to Which I have
already alluded, took place.
As to France, it was at the end of 1924 that she recognized Soviet Russia.
To be precise, it may be useful to recall that M. Herriot, who had to sign the
act of recognition, had three years before put to the then head of government,
a question respecting the attitude of France as regarded the recognition of
Georgia. Addressing M. Poincaré he said:
“The precise question I am putting is as follows: The sovereignty of Georgia
has been formally recognized by the Russian Government itself, by virtue
of a very precise treaty, I ask the president of the council if he is willing to
declare that his government remains attached to the cause of this independ-
ence. His saying it in the name of France, who has taken action for the
independence of Poland and of the Czechs, will permit us to send forth a ray
of hope to an unfortunate people under oppression.”
To this M. Poincaré replied:
“The honorable M. Herriot has only given expression to the thought of the
Government itself, such as has been already Several times expressed to the
State of Georgia. This Government possesses besides a representative here in
Paris, and this representative has access to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.”
It is essential to remember that up to now in its relations with the Govern-
ment of Georgia the French, Government comports itself exactly as it does
with the representative of no matter which of the powers whose political situa-
tion is most completely assured. To-day the representative of Georgia enters
the Elysee or the Quai d'Orsay upon an equal footing with the legally recog-
nized representative of the Soviet Republic. So it was natural that M. Herriot
i. recognizing the Russian Government made a reservation in the following
leI’mS :
“The Government of the Republic * * * recognizes de jure, dating from
to-day, the Government of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, as the Gov-
ernment of the old Russian Empire where its authority is accepted by the
inhabitantS. * * * *
We read furthermore in the document these words: “In notifying you of
this recognition, which has no bearing upon any of the previous engagements
and treaties signed by France * * *.” It is evident that these words “Pre-
vious engagements’’ applies to the recognition of Georgia by France.
96153—26—16
232 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
As to Belgium, she has not yet recognized Russia of the Soviets for a reason
I shall indicate. Her policy is to make the recognitoin no a point of depar-
ture for negotiations with that country but the point of arrival. Negotiations
first, recognition afterwards. Here are the words pronounced upon this ques-
tion by M. Vanderwelde, Belgian Foreign Minister, in the Chamber of Repre-
Sentatives, July 17, 1925.
“I want to reply immediately to what M. Brunfaut has just said, when he
thought he saw a contradiction between my former attitude and the language
which as Minister for Foreign Affairs I used in a preceding debate. I declared
long ago for the recognition of the Soviet Republics, because I consider it
impossible for Belgium to remain outside the Governments that have already
recognized this Republic. I added, and I maintain, that this Government thinks
the recognition Ought not to be the preface but the conclusion of an agreement
both economic and political. I have further indicated that this conclusion is
Only possible under certain conditions sine qua non.”
What are these conditions? One—of the economic Order—Concerns the
restitution of properties belonging to Belgians in Russia ; the other, mentioned
in the first place, was thus formulated :
“First of all the reservation of the rights of the governments, such as Arme-
nia and Georgia, who have been recognized de jure by Belgium. This is what
France did when she recognized the Republic of Soviets.” -
We see that we are in the presence of a cloud of witnesses and legal inter-
national documents of exceptional value establishing the intangible rights of
Georgia. *
THE RESOLUTIONS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS FOR GEORGIA
But there is more : The League of Nations itself is interested in the Georgian
question. It has voted resolutions in favor of Georgia, certainly with that
prudence which animates it whenever faced by certain very delicate problems
of international policy, but without this prudence preventing it from marking
in 1922 and again in 1924 that there was a problem there which must be
Solved. Here is the text Of 1922.
“The assembly of the League of Nations having considered the situation of
Georgia, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in that
part of the world, So that it can seize on occasions which may present them-
Selves, to help by pacific means and in conformity with the rules of interna-
tional law, to restore this country to a normal condition.”
No One will uphold that the breaking of treaties is a mode of action in con-
frmity with the rules of international law.
And, again in 1924, at the time of the national rising in Georgia, the same
text was taken up in the League of Nations; it was revitalized and brought up
to date in a new document which I shall not read, but will give the conclusion
Of the report of the commission which has a special interest for us. Here it is :
“The commission asks the assembly if it will kindly order the transmission
Of the present report to the council, so that it may be able to take into con-
Sideration, at the moment and in the way it believes to be most opportune, the
information contained therein.”
FIRST ARTICLE OF THE COVENANT • OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
This demand Of the commission was unanimously agreed to by the assembly
September 25, 1924.
And now, the League of Nations having testified thus on two occasions to its
interest in the Georgian cause and in the solution of this disquieting problem,
what will be its attitude when Russia asks to be admitted ? z-
Here is the last text I will quote; it is the second paragraph of Article I of
the League of Nations: it is the One that fixes the conditions on which new
members are admitted to the league: -
“Any state, dominion, or colony which is freely governed and not designated
in the appendix may become a member of the league if its admission is pro-
nounced by two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective
guaranties Of its sincere intention to observe its international engagements,
and that it shall accept the regulations established by the league concerning
its force and its military, naval, and aerian armaments.”
“Provided it gives effective guaranties of its sincere intention ”—the wording
shows the strictness of this clause—to observe its international engage-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 233
tº,
ments. * * * * Can a people who signed voluntarily a treaty with another
and then violated that treaty be considered, so long as it has not made honor-
able amends, as giving effective guaranties of its sincere intention to
observe its international engagements? We have here an article which fur-
nishes a powerful weapon for stopping Russia at her moment of entry by say-
ing: Yes; On condition that you furnish guaranties; that is, that you observe
your Own treaty and that you enter side by side with Georgia recognized by
you and by us.
This is how, in my opinion and in the opinion of my colleagues of the
bureau, the question of Georgia appears at this moment. We must convince
public opinion that the Georgian problem is not only a sentimental or moral
problem, but also a problem of actual law in the international class, and when
we have proved this it will be impossible to admit Russia without Georgia, just
as it was impossible to recognize Russia without safeguarding the rights of
Georgia. It is merely a matter Of the second and last act.
THE MORAL AND LEGAL STRENGTH OF GEORGIA’s CAUSE
I conclude by affirming my belief, as I have already had the pleasure of
affirming it before President Jordania himself.
I believe that this cause is so strong that the European and world-wide
combination which has become the League of Nations is, as such, incapable of
being unmindful of rights so elementary and so evident as those of Georgia;
I believe that the Europe of 1925, so different from the Europe of 1914, with
its resuscitated Poland, its Czechoslovakia, its Serbo-Slovene-Croatia, its Fin-
land, its Latvia, its Esthonia, its Lithuania, this constellation of powers, either
new or restored, countries which are the incarnation of the peoples’ right to
self-determination, this Europe, so composed, is incapable of enduring a per-
sistent violation of her own principles. I believe that the continuation of
Georgia’s servitude is an impossibility. And looking ahead, not as a dreamer
but as a realist who has kept his faith in the ideal, I can see the day when
we shall greet Our friends Jordania, Tchiedze, Tsereteli, Tchenkeli as they
arrive at Cornavin from Paris or Tiflis, on their way to the palace of nations
as the representatives of Georgia, free at last. And with them that fighter in
the cause who is with us this evening, M. Chaviohvili, we shall with joy see
him, too, taking his place in the great assembly of the nations in the name of
Georgia liberated.
APPENDIX NO. 10
[Translation]
GEORGIAN LEGATION,
Paris, December 5, 1925.
MR. AMBASSADOR : Referring to my note addressed to your excellency on
April 4 of this year concerning the concession of manganese mines in Tchia-
touri, I have the honor to send you herewith, and beg you to transmit it to
yOur government, a memorandum On the same subject.
By this document you can Verify that my fear, expressed in the note men-
tioned above, has been realized : The Government of Moscow has ceded to the
American firm, Harriman & Co., the exploitation of all the manganese mines of
Tchiatouri, as Well as the exclusive monopoly for the exportation of the mineral.
But I could not then imagine to what point this arrangement would be disas-
trous to the Georgian people. The memorandum indicates this sufficiently.
In renewing most energetic protestations against this iniquitous agreement
entered into between the Government of Moscow and the firm of Harriman &
Co. I desire to declare Once again that it will be considered by the Georgian
people and its legal government as null and void.
I permit myself at the same time to hope that the Government of the great
Republic of the United States will not refuse its kind consideration of the fate
of the subjugated Georgian people, which does not cease to claim its rights
and does not shrink before any sacrifice for its political and economic sov-
ereignty.
Kindly accept, Mr. Ambassador, the assurances of my highest regard.
A. TCHENKELI,
Eartraordinary Envoy and Plenipotentiary Minister of Georgia in France.
His Excellency Mr. MYRON T. HERRICK,
Eaxtraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador
Of the United States of America. !
MEMORANDUM ON THE TCHIATOTURI MANGANESE CONCESSION
On the 12th of June last the people's commissaries, Messrs. TChicherin and
Dzerjinsky, in the name of the Moscow Government, signed an agreement with
the American firm, Harriman & Co., granting to the latter a concession over a
period of 20 years for the exploitation of the manganese mines of Tchiatouri,
With all installations, works, technical material, etc., as well as a monopoly
of the exportation of ore.
This event was reported by nearly the whole European and American press;
since not until then a single concession of such richness and importance from
every point of View has been granted on the whole territory of the said Union
of Socialist Soviet Republics.
Owing to the richness of the ore and its quality, as well as its situation and
easy exploitation, the manganese deposit of Tchiatouri enjoys a world-wide
reputation.
The quantity of ore over a single area of 130 square kilometers exceeds
100,000,000 tons.
The analysis of this ore gives:
º Per cent
Metallic manganese--- 48. 49–51. 50
Moisture 5. 95–11. 41
Silicum 8. 92–10. 95
The superiority of Tchiatouri manganese “is due to pyrolusite (MnO6), con-
taining 85 to 95 per cent pure peroxide. It is the only one of such high grade.
234
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 235
Because of its quality, the demand for Tchiatouri manganese has surpassed
that of all other countries. The world's exportation of manganese during the
last decade before the war (1904–1913), amounting to a total of 14,550,000 tons,
was distributed as follows:
| TonS Per cent
Georgia.--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5,915,000 41
India----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5,060,000 35.
Brazil----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2, 100,000 14
Other countries------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,480,000 10

On account of the demand for Tchiatouri manganese, Georgia, through her
ports Batum and Poti, enjoyed before the war commerial relations with the
industrial countries of Europe and America.” Thus, in the economic life of
Georgia the manganese industry plays a most important rôle.
It is true that foreign firms worked in Tchiatouri (German, English, Belgian,
and Greek”), but more than 60 per cent of the business of Tchiatouri Was in the
hands of local firms. Thus the manganese industry has for Georgia a national
character. The employment of a large number of workmen, the activity of the
railway and ports of exportation yielded to the exchequer considerable revenue,
and commercial and financial movements resulted therefrom, all of which
prompted Georgia to guard jealously this important branch of her national
industry.
However, the Russia tzarist government (until 1918 Georgia was incorporated
in the Russian Empire) placed numerous obstacles in the Way Of the man-
ganese industry as well as other branches of the economic life of Georgia ;
an onerous tariff, a painful bureaucratic tutelage, unsolved labor questions, all
this has hampered considerably private initiative and the development of the
manganese industry.
From the time of the declaration of Georgian independence the national
government paid particular attention to the improvement of the manganese
industry. In order to intensify the production, tens of small enterprises have
been grouped into one limited company ; in order to struggle against the evils
of speculation and harmful intermediaries, all the enterprises, local as well as
foreign, were united into one exportation company “Temo,” to which the
exclusive rights of exportation of ore were granted; in order to safeguard the
legitimate interests of the workmen, modern social laws have been introduced.
After nearly five years of stoppage in consequence of the Great War, the
industry of Tchiatouri resumed its activity, and during the first 10 months
which followed the opening of the Dardanelles about 200,000 tons of manganese
was exported.
At the beginning of 1921 Georgia was occupied by the Russian Bolshevist
troops, and the Soviet régime was installed there. Extraction of manganese
ceased in Tchiatouri. The expoftation of the existing stock continued, how-
ever, thanks to “Temo,” the closing of which was not to the interest of the
invaders because of the high revenue which the sale of the Ore yielded to the
State.
But soon, in its efforts to obtain credits in civilized countries, the Govern-
ment of Moscow inaugurated the so-called new economic policy (NEP) and
began to make offers of various concessions to foreigners. Owing to the ab-
sence of persons disposed to put money into the ruined industries of Soviet
Russia, Moscow put on the market concessions of the great industries of the
Caucasus (oil, manganese), which had not suffered either from civil War
or from the Soviet régime.
It is thus that the concession of the manganese of Tchiatouri has been given
to the firm of Harriman & Co.. and the GOvernment of Moscow treated with
the latter by signing clauses admissible only for deposits not yet exploited
or in the remote Colonies.
* Georgia, lying at that time within the Russian Empire, the ore, of Tchiatouri was
known on foreign markets under the name of “Russian manganese.”
2 There was not a single Russian firm in Tchiatouri.
236 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The agreement itself has not been published; but soviet newspapers have
given a Sufficient analysis of it, so that one may judge how ruinous the condi-
‘tions are:
The Concessionary undertakes to make certain technical improvements on
the local railway line and on the port of Poti for a sum of $4,000,000, and to
pay three-fourths dollar to the exchequer for each ton of exported manganese.
In exchange he receives :
(1) The exclusive right of exploitation during a period of 20 years of all
mines (of a yearly producton of more than 1,000,000 tons) with all works and
plants, ways of access, and other installation (of a value of about $40,000,000);
the revenue permits the concessionary to recover in a year the capital which
he has to spend during the whole duration of the concession ($4,000,000).
(2) The concessionary has during 20 years the monopoly of the exportation
Of manganese Ore.
(3) The concessionary is exonerated from all state and local duties and
taxes which, under normal valuation, would bring to the exchequer during the
term of the concession from already existing firms $16,000,000.
(4) The concessionary enjoys special tariffs for transport On the railway
lines; and by making an approximate valuation, even according to pre-war
tariff, the reduction granted to him causes the exchequer to lose during the
time of the concession more than $25,000,000.
From this short sketch it is clear that the Government of MOSCOW have not
only sold to foreigners goods which do not belong to them and allow the pro-
ceeds of that deal to enter their exchequer, but they have also treated this
business in conditions clearly disadvantageous even to themselves.
By this act the Government of Moscow wishes to effect a double aim ; on
the one hand by reestablishing economic relations with the United States of
America, they hope to obtain their recognition by the Government of the latter;
and on the other, in their criminal designs, they wish to give a blow to the
national industry of Georgia, which is one of the bases of the independence
of the people itself. Is this not in reality crime committed in broad daylight
against the subjugated Georgian nation to have expropriated, in the name of
socialism, Georgian industrials in order to sell afterwards their goods to
foreigners?
But for the Government of Moscow there are no rules of law or moral.
They reject the mask by which they tried hypocritically to pretend to the
world that Georgia enjoyed, within the boundaries of the so-called U. S. S. R.,
the full rights of an independent state and that she was free to dispose of her
political destiny as well as of her economic wealth. The Russian people's
commissaries, Messrs. Chicherin and Dzerjinski, with one stroke of the pen,
have ceded to foreigners the principal branch of her national industry.
Representatives of the Georgian people have on many Occasions declared
publicly that neither the Georgian people nor their legal Government will
accept the agreements concluded in the name of Georgia by the Government
of Moscow or its agentS. -
There are persons who, receiving unheard-of profits from Soviet power,
remain deaf to these declarations. Consciously or unconsciously they con-
tribute to the consolidation of Moscow’s yoke upon Georgia. While protesting
against such acts, the Georgian people continues its struggle against the power
of occupation and for the reestablishment of its liberty and national
independence.
APPENDIX NO. 11
GEORGIA—A SocIAL-DEMocratic PEASANT REPUBLIC–IMPRESSIONS AND OBSERVA-
TIONS BY KARL FCAUTSKY
(Translated by H. J. Stenning)
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
The present book is the result of a visit which I made to Georgia in August,
1920. Invited by the Social-Democratic Party of Georgia, I journeyed thence
at the same time as the delegation of the second international, which had been
asked to visit the country by the Georgian Government. Falling ill in Rome,
I was only able to reach the country 14 days after the delegation arrived, in
fact, just as the time when the latter was returning. I remained a much
longer time in the country, from the end of September until the beginning of
January. In view of the state of my health and the unfavorable weather, I
was prevented from visiting every part of the country, like the delegation. To
this must be added my ignorance of the Georgian language. Nevertheless, I
was able to enter into direct contact with the people and to acquaint myself
with their ideas. Likewise, the native literature relating to the Country, both
official and private, was inaccessible to me because of the language difficulties,
so far as I was not aided by translators.
Thus I can not pose as one who has investigated the country. Nevertheless,
I have learned far more of it than an ordinary tourist : everybody most readily
gave me information upon all things that I asked about ; both the heads of
the Government and officials as well as the representatives of the opposition,
proletarians as well as business people and intellectuals.
The communists kept far away from me. What they had to say could be
seen each day in the daily papers which they published in Tiflis, although
in Russia, no SOcial-Democratic paper is allowed to appear. Naturally, this
did not prevent the communists from complaining about the lack of freedom
in Georgia at every opportunity.
The freedom of the press in democratic countries renders it easy for abuses
to be brought to light, provided equal freedom is accorded to all sections.
Access to all institutions and undertakings was readily granted to me. As
I made it a principle not to announce my visit beforehand, I could be certain
that I should not be shown Potemkinian Villages.
Thus, in spite of all difficulties, I have collected a large amount of informa-
tion, and believe I have obtained a correct picture of the characteristics of
the country, at least in broad Outline.
It is not my intention to write a book of travel—my personal experiences
were too slight for this purpose—nor do I propose to give a detailed account
of the country and the people. I must leave this to Observers who are able to
remain a longer period in the country and to see more of it than I did, and
who are familiar with the language Of the country,
What oocupied my attention in Georgia, and what I shall deal with in this
book, is not a geographical nor an ethnological, but a social problem, the
question whether a real. Socialist government is possible in a country which
is economically more backward than its Russian neighbor; how such a govern-
ment was able to maintain itself there, without dictatorship or terrorism,
using the means and methods of democracy, and what it was able, under
these circumstances, to achieve. -
Thus I went to Georgia to study an interesting and important social ex-
periment, and to draw from it conclusions which would be generally valid for
Socialist practice. What I studied was the antithesis to Bolshevism. How-
ever insignificant it appears, it deserves Our attention not less than the Bol-
shevist experiment, with its many sensational reverberations.
Unfortunately, it has become impossible to follow the practical develop-
ment of the two experiments side by side to its culminating point. The process
237
238 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
of consolidation of the Georgian community was brutally interrupted by the
Russian neighbor and competitor.
When, in January of this year, I set out upon my return journey to Europe,
I heard that the representative of Soviet Russia spoke to the Georgian Gov-
ernment in tones of warmest sympathy. To-day the representatives of Georgia
are in possession of proofs that already in December, 1920, the Russian Gov-
ernment were making their military preparation for the invasion of Georgia,
which followed in February. Then the country again became a Province
of Russia, in the form of an independent Soviet Republic. The small, country
was hedged in by a Russian red army, which numbered 120,000 men, and
plundered to the utmost extent. As a subjugated territory, Georgia suffered
more severely from the domination of Bolshevism than unhappy Russia itself.
The course of its complete ruination, up to the point of absolute starvation,
which was completed within Russian Empire in four years, only Occupied a
few months.
I described, in the German edition of this book, conditions which I had just
seen, but which have been completely superseded by other conditions at the
time this English edition appears. Nevertheless, the subject still retains vital
interest. For we are still confronted with Russian Bolshevism, the antithesis
of the Social-Democratic Republic of Georgia, a knowledge of which is so
helpful in enabling us to judge rightly the methods of Soviet Russia.
The dictatorship of the Moscow tyrants can not become permanent in
Georgia, any more than in Russia itself. The Georgian people have survived
many barbarous invasions; they will also survive the devastation of the red
army and the horrors of the extraordinary commissions. In Russia, and
consequently in Georgia, too, democracy must eventually triumph again.
Then the problems and experiences which I came up against in Georgia,
and which are set forth in the present book, will find added significance beyond
the confines of Georgia, for the whole of Russia and its border States.
The immediate future will, no doubt, be terrible for the country both north
and south of the Caucasus. And even When every dictatorship, white as well
as red, is replaced by democracy, the economic organisms of those districts
will, for a long time, bleed from a thousand wounds, and exist in a state of
painful convalescence.
Our tasks in western Europe at the present time consist in strengthening and
unifying the Socialist parties and their international Organization. The more
we succeeded in this, the Sooner shall We be in a position not only to raise our
own working class and our own nations, but also to lend powerful aid to a
Speedy recovery in the East.
Only for astronomers, but not for Socialists, is the saying Valid that light
comes from the East. When we Socialists of the West are called upon to bring
redeeming light to the world, this does not signify a compliment to us, but a
task Which imposes on us the most devoted activity for our great ideal of the
emancipation of the oppressed.
K. KAUTSKY.
BERLIN-CHARLOTTENBURG, September 8, 1921.
GEORGIA
CHAPTER I—NATURAL CONDITIONS
What We learn to know when Vitising a country are in forms and colors and
the character of its landscape.
At a first glance Georgia is bewitching, and this impression deepens as the
endless Variety Of its pictures disclose themselves to our view. From a sea-
Coast, with Subtropical vegetation, the Caucasus rises to a height of more than
15,000 feet. The German explorer, Merzbacher, relates in his book, The
Caucasian Highlands, that from the summit of Elbrus (18,000 feet), he en-
joyed a View which made such a powerful impression that compared with it the
peaks of the Central Alps only left a feeble remembrance.
He also declares that the Via Mala, the Tamina, the Liechenstein Gorge, and
other renowned places were left far behind by the wild, rocky scenery of the
Tchegen, or of the Alasan and Korsuf Rivers. Neither the Bernese Oberland
nor Engadine, neither Julikarien nor Cortina came near to equalling the
JNATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 239
Swanetnian landscape in the grandeur of its proportions, in the harmony of its
parts, in the wealth of its vegetation, or in the splendor of its colors.
I have quoted the testimony of the classic explorer" of the mountains and
peoples of the Caucasus, as I was prevented from enjoying its beauties on the
spot.
Merzbacher was as well acquainted with the Alps as with the Caucasus, and
others, who know both mountain ranges, consider the beauty and dimensions
of the Caucasus to be superior to those of the Alps. If the reader will imagine
the Bay of Naples to be a part of Switzerland, he will get an idea of the variety
and perfection of nature to be found in Georgia.
Georgia not only combines subtropical coasts and glaciers, but also contains
a great fullness of vegetation, produced by the tropical heat and great humidity,
and close to this are arid desert regions. There is also a surprising number of
medicinal springs of various kinds, which burst Out of the volcanic soil.
Georgia has much to offer to invalids as well as to nature lovers and
artists. Before the war, tourists and invalids, both from Russia and from
western Europe, had begun to visit the wonderful country whose attractions
were heightened by the fact that, unlike Switzerland and Italy, they were
in many respects as yet untried. In the Caucasus there are virgin forests
and remote valleys which no stranger has hitherto trodden. An evidence
Of the primitive character of the Country is furnished by the circumstance
that large beasts of prey are constantly met with there, as well as Other
kinds of wild animals. Bears' flesh comes into the market at Tiflis for
sale, like beef with us, and at no higher price. On One Occasion when,
Out Of Curiosity, I bought some bear’s flesh, I asked where the bear had
been shot, and was informed 50 miles from Tiflis—quite near the capital,
and not in some remote Caucasian valley.
But Georgia is not Only a veritable paradise for touristS, Sportsmen, and
invalids. Nature also felt obliged to please the economists. Natural beauty
and richneSS Of SOil, which are SO Seldom found together, are Combined in
Georgia to an extraordinary degree. The soil is extremely fruitful and
capable of bearing rich harvests of Southern and northern products, accord-
ing to the position of the land. Oranges, figs, Olives, and tea flourish on the
coast of the Black Sea, and cotton is cultivated toward Azerbaijan. Maize,
wheat, Or barley are sown almost everywhere. Georgia is particularly rich
in excellent wine, and Seems to be the home of the grape, which grows wild
in the woods. Tobacco also thrives very well, and, in quality, seems to
be better than that Of Trebizond. Nowhere have I seen such abundance of
fruit as in Georgia, and in this respect it can Only be compared with Cali-
fornia. The Georgian mountains, especially the Caucasus, are infinitely
rich in valuable woods. In minerals, too, Georgia conceals great treasures,
Of which the most important is the manganese Of Tchiaturi, which ranks
as the richest in the world. The three most considerable deposits of man-
ganese are to be found in Brazil, India, and Georgia. In 1913 these countries
exported manganese, as follows:
Tons
Brazil 122, 000
India------------------------------------------------------------ 772, 366
Georgia 1, 061, 731
Rich seams of coal are found in Georgia in at least two places, and in
addition, iron, Copper, lead, zinc, etc.
CHAPTER II—HISTORICAL
Thus Georgia lacks nothing to make her not Only one of the most beautiful,
but also one Of the richest countries in the world. But the material position
of the Georgians does not depend merely upon the richness Of the land in
which they live; it is also determined by the manner in which they have
made use of it, and the relations they are obliged to enter into with their
neighbors. In other words, it depends not only upon the natural, but also
upon the social and economic conditions in which they exist. And during
recent decades these conditions have been anything but brilliant in Georgia.
For about a thousand years Georgia was indeed favored by its geographical
position, in that it came into contact with Greece through the Black Sea.
240 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The soil of many Greek states was too stony and sterile to support their
growing populations. As seafaring progressed the Greeks learned to fetch
the corn which they needed from Southern Russia. Thus they came into con-
tact with the coasts of the Black Sea. They were also attracted to Georgia
by the gold which was then found there. As early as the eighth century
B. C. colonies were planted by Greek towns along the Black Sea. The Geor-
gians became acquainted with Greek civilization at a time when the Germans,
or their predecessors, living in primeval woods, stood on no higher plane of
civilization than the Savage Indians Of North America when they were dis-
covered by Europeans.
Even more than by gold, the Greeks must have been attracted to Georgia
because it provided so good a route, from the West to the East, to the then
rich territories of Persia and central Asia, Eastern and Western civilization
met in Georgia, and stimulated its intellectual development.
But highways to rich COuntries attract not Only the merchant, but also the
warrior, whether he be plunderer or conqueror. In the degree in which the
connection between West and East, Greece and central Asia, developed in
Georgia, the clashes of Western and eastern armies became more frequent,
and Georgia suffered devastation from being made a theater of war. But
it always recovered Speed Ily, So long as it remained a highway of world
CODADO €I'Cé.
In 1783, Catherine the Second concluded with the Georgian King, Heraklius
II, an agreement under which the latter accepted the protection of the empress.
This protection did not save Georgia from being again plundered by the
Persians, but it prepared the way for the complete subjugation of the country
by the Russians, Who annexed Georgia as a province to their empire in 1801.
The internal feuds and the hostile invasions now gradually ceased. Still
more important was the fact that Georgia Was Once more able to enter into
relations with Europe. But the representatives of European civilization were
practically confined to Russian Officials, generals, and aristocrats, who brought
from Europe what they themselves had assimilated, the external gloss which
did not always sufficiently hide Asiatic barbarism. The feudal oppression
and exploitation was not lightened, but even made heavier by the military
and beaurocratic régime,
Meanwhile the Russian autocracy did not remain completely unchallenged.
The economic development created in the Russian Empire revolutionary sec-
tions, which eventually became strong enough to give battle to absolutism,
although, at first, only by means of underground warfare.
In many of the border States, which formerly had known a separate political
life, the struggle against Russian absolutism became especially intensive owing
to the fact that it signified not merely the breaking of the fetters of absolutism
and feudalism but also the casting off of the foreign tyranny.
This was the case in Poland and also in Georgia. In these countries all
classes felt the pressure of the foreign bureaucracy in the most severe form.
In Poland the peasants were played off against the large landowners and some-
times favored, but nothing like this happened in Georgia. Those who were not
masters of the Russian language were everywhere degraded and excluded from
all offices. Even in the factories of Georgia a Worker who had not undergone
an examination in Russian was liable to be refused employment.
The growth of Georgian resistance to the foreign yoke was assisted for a time
by the practice of the Russian Government in banishing to Georgia, as well as
to Siberia, its subversive subjects, such as Poles. This practice did not last
long, as Georgia commenced to mutiny in the middle of the last century. It
was then the turn of the Georgians themselves to be banished, and they shared
this fate in the fullest measure. The struggle against Czardom had to be car-
ried on with the aid of the ideas of the more highly developed west. Not only
the officials, the military, and the aristocrats but also the revolutionaries of
Russia drew their knowledge and methods of thinking from western Europe.
This occurred at a time when the revolutionary movement of Russia received
such an accession of strength that the Liberals had become Conservative, and
only the Socialists represented revolutionary thought. Thus the Russian revo-
lutionaries became Socialists in Spite of the weakness Of the proletariat and its
class struggle in the Russian Empire. And just as the capitalists of Russia
chose the more perfected forms of European technique for the industry which
they founded so the Socialists of Russia chose the most perfected form of
Socialism, the Marxian.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 241
This also applied to Georgia. There only for a short time the opposition
movement was led by the aristocracy, as in Poland, and possessed a purely
nationalist character. At the time when serfdom was abolished in Russia an
echo was heard in Georgia in the form of peasant unrest, which was suppressed
with bloodshed.
The opposition movement first became strong and systematic when industrial
capital was attracted to Georgia by the building of the railway from Tiflis to
Baku (commenced in 1880); by the increasing significance of petroleum pro-
duction in Baku and its growing exports of that article. Although capitalism
was still in an undeveloped stage, socialism of the Marxian kind took root in
Georgia at this time. In the 10 years between 1890 and 1900 the socialist
movement rapidly gained in Strength.
Its first champions were the practical organizers and agitators, Sylvester
Jibladse and N. Teheidze, with whom was soon associated the publicist and
theoretician, Noe Jordania, who did even more for Georgia than Plechanoff did
for Russia, as he remained in the country instead of working from a place of
exile and as he united the talents of the practical fighter with the activities of
the thinker and publicist.
The first strike in Tiflis took place in the year 1896, and the 1st of May was
celebrated in that town from 1899 onwards.
In the following year, on May 1, 1900, a workers’ festival was arranged, at
which about 500 workers were present. The most hopeful outlook prevailed,
and for the first time revolutionary songs were heard in the Georgian language
in the midst of banners with the portraits of Marx, Lassalle, and Engels.
In the same year the socialist organizations of Georgia joined up with the
Social-Democratic Party of Russia, which was formed at that time.
The Georgian Socialists did not desire that local particularism Should cut
them off from the mass of the struggling proletariat of Russia. From the very
first they attached importance to the ideal of international solidarity as
opposed to Georgian nationalism. Without depreciating the demand of the
Georgian nation for self-determination, they believed this would be most
effectually promoted within the sphere of the Russian Social-Democracy, which
stood for universal self-determination. Unlike the Polish socialists, they en-
tered the International as Russian SOcial Democrats. The International did
not include any separate Georgian Social-Democratic Party.
By adopting this course, however, the Socialists of Georgia became involved
in all the errors and confusions through which Russian socialism has passed.
In contrast to Georgia, where the proletarian movement has nearly always
remained true to Marxian social democracy, the Socialist movement of Russia
has been split into various sections.
On the One hand was the social democracy, with tendencies in line with the
thought of Western Europe, and postulating an advanced stage of capitalism as
the indispensable preliminary to Socialism ; and, on the other hand was the
Social Revolutionary Party, with a specific Russian Socialism, which it
sought to base rather upon the peasants and the vestiges of village communism
than upon the proletariat. These doctrines could scarcely find any support in
Georgia, as in that country village communism had completely disappeared.
An antagonism soon arose within the ranks of the Russian social democracy,
between divergent conceptions of Marxism. The first conception, which may
be called that of Western Europe, emphasized the importance of the economic
movement, and the other, or Russian, conception perceived in force not merely
the midwife but the creator of a new society. The first conception involved,
in particular, the development of the self-consciousness and the independent
activity of the proletariat, and consequently favored democracy, which alone
formed the groundwork for this development; and the other conception saw
in the proletariat merely a tool to be wielded by a small and resolute organiza-
tion of Socialists. Those holding the firsts conception remained true to the
Marxian method, which they consistently employed in spite of all the diffi-
Culties which arose from the economic and political backwardness of the
country; those holding the other conception began by substituting the dic-
tatorship of a conspiracy society for democracy within the party organization;
and from this point they tended to move farther away from the Marxian
method towards the pre-Marxian ideas of Blanqui and Weitling. The more
the members of this section deviated from Marxian methods, the more ob-
Stinately they clung to Marxian phrases the better to exploit the repute in
Which the name of Marx was held in Russia, and they expended all their
242 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
energies upon learning by heart such phrases as suited them, which they
interpreted in their own way. In place, of Marxian science hey set up
Marxian scholastics.
In the early days of this split, which occurred in 1903, the Georgian Social
Democrats ranged themselves on the side that was dominated by the Marxian
and Western European outlook; that is, on the side of the Mensheviks.
They soon became the strongest element in this section, to which they re-
mained absolutely loyal. In Russia, on the other hand, there were constant
fluctuatiens in the relative strength of the Menshevists and the Bolshevists.
Yet the general tendency of the Russian proletarian movement showed itself
to be very favorable to Bolshevism. Certainly the Bolshevists were the worst
Marxians, but their preponderance was to be explained on Marxist lines by
the Special conditions in which the class struggle was carried on in Russia.
In Georgia, and also in Poland, which stood in national opposition to Russia,
the special Russian form of Marxism found no foothold. The Georgian Social-
Democrats were the picked troops of Russian Menshevism. Consequently, from
the commencement Georgia appeared to Bolshevism as the enemy deserv-
ing the most bitter hatred, and to-day it has become the hereditary enemy.
After the first Russian revolution Georgia was the country which constantly
returned the largest Menshevist majority in the Duma elections since 1906, and
which furnished many of the Menshevist martyrs.
Scarcely One of the leading comrades in Tiflis whom I have recently met has
Inot made acquaintance with Siberia.
Georgia also provided the Russian Party with a series of its best leaders
and representatives. Jordania, Ramishvily, Tsereteli, Japaridze, Tcheidse,
Lomtatize, Gêgêtchkori, Macharadze, and Tchenkeli played in Petrograd a
political rôle not less important than in Tiflis.
The Social-Democratic fraction of the last Russian Duma before the October
revolution chose the same Tcheidse to be its leader. It voted against War
Credits and adhered to the Zimmerwald conference. It was Tcheidse who read
the Zimmerwaldian manifesto in the Duma. And when the 1917 revolution.
created the workers' councils, Tcheidse was chosen president of the Petrograd
Workers' Council—a proof of the confidence reposed in him by the Russian
proletariat through his parliamentary activity.
By the side of Tcheidse in the Petrograd Workers’ Council was the Georgian.
Tsereteli, who had hastened there from his Siberian place of exile.
The Menshevists were not able to assert themselves in Russia. They were
too weak to carry out their peace policy in opposition to the war policy of the
cadets, in coalition with whom they had formed a ministry, of which Tsereteli
was a member ; and they could not decide to support the Bolshevist agitation,
which aimed at the dissolution of the army before the Conclusion of peace,
and the complete sacrifice of Russia to German, Austrian, and Turkish in-
vasion, plundering and Conquest. -
The middle course, which the Menshevists would have pursued, was well
conceived. But as is so often the case in history when great and irreconcilable
oppositions come into conflict, those who worked for the final result, which
was given by the parallelogram of forces, were paralyzed by the clash of the
antagonisms, and only after the strength of the two extremes had been ex-
hausted was this object of the middle party to be finally attained.
Thus the Menshevists were soon eclipsed in Russia but not in Georgia. In
that country there were no cadets and no Bolshevists of importance. The
majority of the Socialists of Georgia, supported by Jordania, had been un-
friendly to the coalition policy and demanded a purely Socialist ministry.
The revolution brought the Social-Democracy of Georgia, as a compact and
resolute party, to a dominant position, which was not seriously contested from
any quarter in the country.
But it was a bad heritage into which this party entered. The immediate
situation was desperate, in view of the masses of Russian soldiers, filled with
Bolshevist hatred against Menshevist Georgia, which in their retreat from the
yet more hostile and ferocious Turks, broke up into plundering bands and
swarmed into Georgia.
Apart from this, the economic position of the country was grievous in the
extreme, and its enduring power was slight. Even before the war it had.
suffered considerably from the neglect of its agriculture and its industry and
the inadequacy of its means of communication. And to this was now added.
the devastation of four years of war and protracted isolation from the in-
dustry, and civilization of Europe.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 243
CHAPTER III—AGRICULTURE
Even to-day the land of Georgia is cultivated in the most primitive fashion.
There, as elsewhere, feudal dependence and the prevalence of short leases im-
peded the development of agriculture. The implements of Georgian agricul-
ture reminded German observers, only a short time ago, of Biblical times.
In 1905, Paul Hoffmann wrote, in his book on German Colonies in Trans
caucasia, as follows:
“Only in recent times have modern plows been widely used in Transcau
casia, and the colonists are still partly assisted by the wooden plows of the
Georgians.”
If this is the case with the German colonists, who represent a higher type
of agriculture, it applies still more to the Georgian peasants themselves. The
plow does not penetrate the soil very deep, and requires an uncommonly strong
team, 5 to 10 pairs of buffaloes. Merzbacher saw plows drawn by 24 animals,
which needed seven men to guide them. What an expenditure of energy to
secure a scanty result. Thrashing is managed with a thrashing sledge, provided
with a flint, which appeared to Merzbacher to be a relic of the stone age.
The methods of soil cultivation are as primitive as the implements used.
Potation of crops and artificial manuring are quite unknown. The tillage
resembles the System which existed in Germany at the time of Charles the
Great. The same Crop, whether wheat Or barley, is planted year in and year
Out in the same field, sometimes three years in succession, until the harvest
decreases. Grass is then allowed to grow, and the SOil is used as pasture, again
for several years in succession, when it is sown. Once more with Crops.
The cattle which is put on the pastures is small and insignificant, at least
the horned cattle. The absence of the cultivation of fodder is not only preju-
dicial to the raising of cattle and to agriculture, but also to afforestation.
The sheep and goats ruin the woods, and destroy every aftergrowth of trees,
especially in the eastern and dry regions. We have spoken above of the
boundless riches of Georgia in Wood, but these are very unevenly distributed.
Wood is to be found in the districts of the Black Sea, and in the hardly-accessi-
ble and sparsely populated districts of the Caucasus. The drier and more
populous districts are in many cases completely Woodless.
Thus, for example, not a single tree is to be found on the whole range of
Imountains which Surrounds Tiflis. Nor is there any trace Of Soil tillage in
these desert places, which scarcely yields Sustenance for goats.
The growing destruction of the woods increases the dryness of the climate,
and, therefore, the danger of harvest failures. In former times this danger
was averted by great irrigation works. As in so many other countries of the
East, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia, there were great territories in
Georgia which, with the aid of artificial irrigation, gave the richest harvests,
without which they would have remained sterile. The laying out of irrigation
canals was an important task of the old Oriental Governments.
Since that time these territories have passed under the sway of rulers who
sprang from the nomad peoples of the steppes, and who had no understanding
of the importance of such works. They exhausted all the energies of their
lands in warlike undertakings. In the course of recent Centuries the irrigation
works in these countries have everywhere fallen into decay, and consequently
prosperity and civilization have shrunk. In the thirteenth century the popu-
lation of Transcaucasia was estimated to be 16,000,000. To-day it amounts
to hardly one-third of this number.
But even this third does not find sufficient support in its Own Country.
Georgia required constant imports of corn, which it could easily receive from
neighboring South Russia. These imports were paid for with tobacco and
wine, which are produced in abundance in Georgia. The Russian Government
encouraged this commerce, which was to the interest of the great wheat
growers, who found in Georgia a market close at hand for their surplus corn,
and received cheap wine and tobacco in exchange. If not for the cultivation
of wheat, the Russian Government has done much to promote the culture of
the vine in Georgia, and, in addition, has aided the production of tea. The
vine, tea, Olives, and almonds are in many parts Carefully Cultivated. The
remarks upon the backwardness of agriculture do not apply to these crops.
Nevertheless, owing to the primitive character of its agriculture, an agrarian
country like Georgia was not a little dependent upon a foreign market for its
Sustenance.
244 INATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
War and revolution would, therefore, menace the country in the extreme.
Bolshevism has cut off Georgia from the corn granaries of South Russia,
and deprived the Country of the markets for its surplus products. At the
same time the aftermath of the war has rendered it extremely difficult for
Georgia to find new markets in Western Europe, and fresh corn providers in
America and Australia. This explains the food difficulties which we find in a
country so richly dowered by nature, and in which over 80 per cent of the
population live by agriculture.
In addition to the backwardness of the mode of production, another circum-
stance contributed to diminish the yield of agriculture by decreasing the
amount of labor power which was engaged in it.
This factor is malaria, which in the most fruitful districts is a scourge to
the country and paralyses the strength and energy Of numerous inhabitants
during the best years Of their lives. If the dryness necessitates great irrigation
works, in order to increase the fertility of the country, malaria, on the other
hand, is best grappled with by draining the swamps which occupy wide
stretches of land, especially about the Black Sea. The Overcoming of malaria
would not merely raise the labor power of the inhabitants, but would also
rescue new land for cultivation. Both irrigation and draining works were
equally neglected by the Russian Government.
CEIAPTER IV—INDUSTRY
We are able to make our sketch of industry shorter than our sketch of agri-
Culture. Not because this sphere is less important, but because no great
industry of any consequence exists in Georgia. Very few capitalist under-
takings are to be found there, and handicraft on the smallest scale and home-
Work—carpet and cloth weaving—both in the textile and in the metal indus-
tries—are predominant. There are numerous handicraftsmen, who are
extremely clever and tasteful, and nearly all of whom work only for them-
Selves.
The Country produces an abundance of wool and silk cocoons. It also pro-
duces Some cotton, which grows in large quantities in the neighboring Aserbai-
jan and especially in Turkestan. But there exists no large undertaking to
work up this raw material. The jealousy of industrial Great Russia did not
allow competition of this nature to arise. In the capital of Tiflis women can
be seen at any moment walking and carrying in their hands the hand spindle
With which they spin wool. So far as they are concerned, not merely the
Spinning machine, but even the spinning wheel has not yet been discovered.
The largest industry in the country is the railway works. The railway from
the Black Sea to Baku is the artery of the country. In addition, account
must be taken of the arsenal and some electrical power stations. The rest
Of the large undertakings are almost all subsidiary to agriculture, such as
Cognac distilleries, oil mills, tanneries, and sawing mills. There are also
tobacco factories, tile works, and soap works.
Outside of the Special industries there are some large mining undertakings.
It is a remarkable fact that only the least significant of the coal deposits are
worked, namely, those in Tkvibuli, which are connected with the railway.
The far better coal of Tkvartscheli has not yet been won. Its deposits are
Quite near the Black Sea, in fact, only 45 miles distant. It is necessary, how-
ever, to Construct a railway to this spot, and to make the harbor of Ochemtchiry
accessible to large ships. This has not yet been done, and thus a source of
great riches for Georgia has remained untapped.
This neglect is explained by the nearness of Baku with its immense petroleum
Wealth. In a double connection Baku is of economic importance for Georgia.
A System of pipe lines connects the petroleum wells of Baku with Batoum,
Where a petroleum refinery has been established and numerous ships are col-
lected to pick up the petroleum. Batoum has experienced from this cause a
prosperity which is almost American.
-On the other hand, the railways and industries of Georgia have discovered
in masuth, a by-product of petroleum, a fuel which for cheapness, effectiveness,
and convenience, is not to be equaled. Coal did not come into vogue.
Since the revolution this has been altered. The military operations involved
in the struggle of the Bolshevists with the entente had not only, as we have
seen already, prevented the import of corn and the export of wine; but they
have also led to Baku being captured by the Bolshevists, who practically stopped
the export of petroleum to eGorgia. Without petroleum and masuth, thrown
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA. 245
back on bad coal, without light and good fuel. the condition of the population
of Georgia became desperate. Railway facilities had to be restricted, and
traveling was slow and difficult, owing to the new fuel.
These events also did harm to trade, which was always active SO long as
petroleum was available. Now the industrial products of which Georgia had
need were lacking. The disturbances to trade brought about by the war, which
persisted so long afterwards, were not overcome by the attractive force which
petroleum could have exerted.
The commodity most in demand for export was still manganese, which was
not dependent on the Russian market. Of the million tons of ore which Georgia
exported in 1913, merely 1 per cent went to Russia; on the other hand, 38 per
cent went to Germany, 22 per cent to England, and 17 per cent to Belgium.
From the outbreak of war up to the present time the export of this com-
modity has suffered considerably from transport difficulties.
These difficulties, which were not created by the democratic régime, formed,
together with the backwardness of agriculture, the chief cause for the blight
which rested after the revolution upon the Georgian paradise.
CHAPTER W. THE CLASSES
We have seen that Georgia participated in the March revolution of 1917 as
a part of the Russian Empire. Then came the Bolshevist dictatorship, which
at once began to exercise a repulsive influence on the Russian border states.
This movement spread to Georgia, which declared its independence on May 26,
1918. Its government was socialistic.
But this does not mean that a Socialist mode of production could be intro-
duced into the country. The economic foundation for this transition existed in
Georgia less than in Russia, where large-scale production had notably devel-
oped, in spite of the agrarian nature of the country.
The socialistic character of the régime after the revolution in Georgia con-
sisted in the fact that the country was ruled by its industrial proletariat. If
one likes, the phrase dictatorship of the proletariat can be used in this connec-
tion.
Even more than in Russia, was fit the dictatorship of a minority. But quite
different from Russia, it has been carried Out On the basis of democracy, and
without the exercise of any terrorism, as all classes have assented to it.
There was grumbling from all classes, even from those who ruled. This is
not to be surprised at in view of the already indicated lack, on the one hand,
of bread, and on the other, of industrial products, clothes, and tools; and as
we shall see, of houses. But no party has arisen which professes to be able
to cope with this condition of scarcity more effectively than the party till
February last in power.
Thus the discontent had nowhere assumed the shape of an attempt to over-
turn the democratic government. What did appear in this guise emanated
not from the country itself but was fed by foreign money, and, in spite of the
most lavish subsidies to the communist press and to communist branches, gained
no influence. tº
What is the explanation of the extraordinary phenomenon of a dictatorship
of the proletariat on a democratic basis in an agrarian country without any
industry worthy of the name?
The basis of all politics is the struggle of classes. Not every class, however,
is able to maintain an independent policy. The three great leading classes
in modern society, each of which follows its special class policy, are the re-
ceivers of ground rents, profits on capital, and the wages of labor. They form
the three great fundamental parties, which we find in every modern country :
that of the large landowners, or conservatives : that of the capitalists, or
liberals ; and that of the proletariat, or Socialists.
Between these three classes there are intermediate Sections which are not
capable of following any class policy; partly because the conditions of work
isolate their members too much from each other and from the seat of politics,
which is especially the case with the peasants; partly because their intermediate
position touches various class interests at the same time, as is the case with
the small handicraftsmen and likewise with the peasants. They live from the
labor of their hands, like the wageworkers, and yet receive an income from
their property, like the capitalist or the landowner. They are neither mere
workers nor mere capitalists or landowners, and at times they feel With the
one class and at times with the other classes.
246 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
As the third of these intermediate sections, we have to mention the intel-
lectuals, composed of Such diverse elements that at the most they can Only feel
professional interests, such as those of doctors, lawyers, professors, engineers,
but never a common class interest. Apart from their professional interests,
they always become the champions of the interests of another class, which
appear to them to be Synonymous with general social progress. Some attach
themselves to the landowners, others to the capitalists, and again others to the
proletariat. And it is the same with the peasants and lower middle-class.
The attempt to create special parties of the peasants or the small middle-class
have always ended by such parties becoming subservient to alien class interests.
NOW, in Georgia we find the peculiar phenomenon that of the three great
leading classes Only one exists. After the agrarian reform of 1918 there were
no large landowners in the country. There is also no capitalist class of any
importance. The nucleus of an energetic and independent capitalist class
has always been bound up with industrial capital. This condition has almost
Completely been wanting in Georgia. Money and trading capital is found to
be represented there more stróngly, but this is mostly in the hands of for-
eigners, and can not therefore enter directly into the struggle of parties.
Thus the proletariat remains as the only class which is capable of conducting
an independent and leading policy. But this capability is not possessed by the
entire proletariat of Georgia. We find in Georgia two sharply separated kinds
of the proletariat, an oriental and a modern. In the Georgian proletariat we
º distinctly that here we stand on the boundaries of two very different
WOrldS.
The Oriental proletariat deserves in reality the name of a vagabond prole-
tariat. It lives from hand to mouth in the greatest poverty, but by no means
Only from begging and stealing. The number of beggars is great. Yet among
the Oriental type of the proletariat there are many who live from the labor
by their hands. Being possessed of no implements of production, and often
Without any technical training, they earn their scanty bread mostly as car-
Tiers. Corn, wood, vegetables, and other products of the country are trans-
ported to the towns in Oxen-spanned wagons and on the backs of asses. Within
the town the means of transport are mostly the backs of men. In Tiflis a
furniture van is unknown. When a family changes its dwelling 60 to 80
musch as (carriers) are hired, who carry the furniture from house to house,
piece by piece. Even pianos are removed in this manner.
This class of proletarians is not organized, and is politically indifferent.
They are proletarians of the same kind as we find in antiquity, for example,
in Rome. They are without the capacity to engage in independent politics.
In sharp contrast to them is the proletariat composed of the wageworkers of
the large undertakings. The important difference between the two kinds of the
proletariat, of which we have hitherto only read in books, can be seen in Tiflis.
The wageworkers in the large undertakings are quite steeped in modern
ideas; above all, the railway workers, who are the proletarian élite in econom-
ically backward countries, where capitalism has commenced to penetrate. The
railway is responsible for carrying the modes of thought and the struggles of
the modern proletariat to the farthest Corners of the earth.
I also remarked scarcely any difference from their prototypes in the west
among the other members of this class of the proletariat whom I learned to
know, such as printers, metal workers, employees in the electricity works, to-
bacco factories, and commercial clerks. They were well disciplined and had
learned to think socialistically, but also on economic lines, So that socialism
does not appear to them as a mere question of power but also one of economic
conditions.
They are organized in trade-unions as well as in the Social Democratic
Party. During the first revolution numerous unions were formed in Georgia,
as in Russia, but in the reactionary period they were mercilessly suppressed,
more so than in Russia itself, as Georgia always returned Social Democratic
deputies to the Duma. Only after the March revolution of 1917 was it pos-
sible for trade-unions to be formed again in Georgia.
The printers were the first to make use of this opportunity. They were fol-
lowed by the commercial employees. Forty-one trade-unions, with 29,000 mem-
bers, were represented at the first trade-union congress in Tiflis at the end of
December; 1917. At the next congress, in April, 1919, there were 85 trade-
unions, and at the end of 1920 there were 113, with 64,000 members. The great
majority of the wage workers of Georgia, numbering about 100,000, of whom
73,000 are employed in large undertakings, are consequently organized in trade-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 247
unions. The trade-unions are neutral, but 95 per cent of their members belong
to the Social Democratic Party. This party itself has a higher membership
(80,000) than the trade-unions, an unusual circumstance, as, in addition to the
trade-unionists, peasants and intellectuals are represented. The party Con-
trolled four daily papers, five weekly papers, and two monthlyy reviews; the
trade-unions controlled two general trade-union organs, and the railwaymen
had also two special papers. Most of them appeared in both the Georgian and
the Russian languages.
The trade-unions are organized on an industrial basis and not on vocational
lines. Yet this principle is not rigidly applied. In Tiflis they own their own
premises and a theater and meetilng place, the Plechanoff House, which the
workers have lately built for themselves at great sacrifice. The railwaymen
own a special building for their union. The tendencies and institutions of
the trade-unions are quite those of western Europe, but they seemed to me to
suffer somewhat from divisions. But a movement which is only three years
old would not be perfect. It is perhaps due to the youth of the organization
that the spirit which prevails in it is in no Way narrow and professional, but
is concerned with the interests Of the Whole, not merely Of the Workers, but Of
SOciety.
This is exhibited, for example, in the attitude of the trade-unions toward
the strike. They regard the strike as the sharpest weapon in the proletarian
class struggle. How highly they esteem it is shown by the fact that they
demand the establishment of the right to strike in the constitution. But they
are quite clear on the point that this formidable weapon is only to be used in
Case Of direSt need.
The present condition of general economic exhaustion appears to them as
singularly unsuitable for a strike, which is not urgently called for. It would
disturb production, diminish the number of products, and thus increase the
suffering of the proletariat. To increase production is the most urgent need.
Under these circumstances, the trade-unions consider piecework and the system
of bonuses to be permissible. On their proposal a board of Wages was formed
as part of the ministry of labor, to which workers and masters each nominate
10 members. The president of this board is the minister of labor, last winter,
M. Eradse. This board of wages has to follow the movement of the cost of
living and of the wages of labor; to investigate the grievances of workers; to
discuss collective agreements and carry them through to a conclusion, and
finally to act as mediator in disputes between workers and masters.
This Office has hitherto succeeded in averting the outbreak of any open con-
flict. Since it began to function in May, 1919, the trade-unions of Georgia
have not found it necessary to declare a single strike, although they were
hindered from doing so by no prohibition. as in the case of bolshevist Russia.
In this respect Georgia is unique.
The avoidance of Strikes was made easier, apart from the exertions of the
board of wages, and Such labor protection as the 8-hour day, by the govern-
ment's care for the Sustenance of the worker. Vital necessaries such as bread
and Salt, at low prices, were provided for every worker, and every member of a
family receives a certain quantity. The difference between the price paid by
the government and the price at which the goods are sold was made up by the
employer with whom the worker was engaged.
This peculiar System of a sliding scale of wages which varies with the
changes in the prices of the necessaries of life has been found to work quite
Well.
The Wage workers are the only organized and resolute class in Georgia. They
know exactly what they want. They know not only their special interests, but
also the common interests of the community, which they allow to guide them.
This enables them to exercise an influence on the best sections of the
numerous intellectuals, such as teachers, doctors, engineers, artists—Tiflis is a
Very artistic town—lawyers, etc. The revolutionary section of the intellec-
tuals was inclined to Socialism during the struggle against czarism.
Among the 102 members of the Social-Democratic Party in the constituent
assembly are 32 Workers, the rest being intellectuals; 20 teachers, 14 journal-
ists, 13 lawyers, 7 doctors, 3 engineers, and 13 officials.
Nearly all of them are elected by peasants, who form over 80 per cent of the
population. The Social-Democratic deputies are nearly 80 per cent (102 out
Of 130) of the whole house.
248 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
In the February, 1919, elections to the constituent assembly the Social-
Democrats received 82 per cent Of all votes cast in the country on a total poll
Of 76 per cent.
In the towns they received 72 per cent on a total poll of only 52 per cent.
The heavy peasant vote for the Social-Democrats is partly explained by the
system of small holdings which prevails in Georgia. Most of the peasants can
not live from agriculture alone ; many Of them must seek to supplement their
scanty income by Casual labor. It was not difficult to accustom this class to
proletarian modes of thought. Add to this the fact that the Social democracy
carried on a powerful agitation for the expropriation of the large estates.
Thus the industrial wage earners have shown themselves the best champions
Of the Small peasants.
The Socialists Would not have gained their dominating influence Over the
minds of the revolutionary peasantry if they had been divided. They were only
able to prevail by means of democracy, and without terrorism, because they
were united and formed an Overwhelming Menshevist majority. In this respect
Georgia was fundamentally different from Russia.
Even the Russian socialists could have dominated the minds of the
peasants and governed by means of democracy if they had been united, or iſ
the Bolshevists could have resolved to form a coalition government with the
Menshevists and the entire party of the social revolutionaries.
It was not to hold down the capitalists that they needed to abrogate all the
democratic rights of the masses of the people, but to hold down the Other
socialists. In order to hide the real state of affairs, the Bolshevists have
promptly labeled the Menshevists and social revolutionaries of the right as
lackeys of the bourgeoisie and counterrevolutionists.
Thus the Bolshevist régime has been based On a lie from the commencement,
and that has become decisive in determining the direction of its further policy.
Quite different conditions and quite another policy in Georgia have permitted
the small minority of the industrial wage workers on the basis of democracy,
and without exercising any terrorism, to capture the political power of the
country and successfully to maintain their Government Without any Serious
internal Opposition until February of this year.
CHAPTER VI—THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION
The most important task of the new government consisted of clearing away
the remains of feudalism. The abolition of serfdom and the creation Of a free
peasantry happened in Georgia between 1864 and 1871, Somewhat later than in
Russia. sº º
As in Russia, this reform was carried out in such a Way that the peasant
lost land. He only received, in the capacity of proprietor, a small portion Of
the land to which he was attached as serf. The largest and best part remained
with the feudal lords, from whom the peasant was obliged to lease the land,
if he wanted to live. In this way the system of small holdings arose, similar
to what exists in Ireland and south Italy, which makes any rational agricul-
ture impossible and yields a scanty living to the countryman.
It was left for the revolution to take the land from the feudal nobles to
provide the poor peasant with land, and to change the leaseholder into a free-
holder. This Was no SOcialistic but a middle-class revolution, but the Con-
ditions rendered it necessary and it took place. We Marxians are distinguished
from utopian socialists by the fact that we recognize that socialism is only
possible under Specific circumstances. What it is incumbent on us to do is
always suggested by the circumstances which arise.
The agrarian revolution was rendered necessary by a set of circumstances
similar to those existing in Russia.
It came to the same end under democracy as under dictatorship. But under
democracy the revolution was carried out more peacefully, Systematically, and
consciously, in a less chaotic and disturbing manner and less to the special ad-
vantage of favored or reckless sections of the peasantry.
The agrarian reform was introduced by a decree of December 16, 1917,
of the first provisional government, in TranScaucasia (Georgia, Aserbaijan, and
Armenia), which was formed after its separation from Russia. The Social-
Demcratic Party of the Transcaucasian Parliament, which met in February,
1918, introduced an agrarian law which was passed on March 7. This
was valid for the whole of Transcaucasia. But it was only carried out in
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 249
Georgia, which soon separated from ASerbaijan and Armenia. The law ex-
propriated every large landowner. No compensation was paid to him, but he
was allowed to retain as much land as he could till, with his family—that 1s,
a medium-sized peasant holding. The maximum extent of land which a Single
family could own might not exceed 7 dessjatinen (1 dessjatin equals 2%
acres) of gardens or vineyards, 15 dessjatinen of arable land, or 40 dess-
.jatinen of pasture land. All estates which exceeded these dimensions are taken
into the possession of the State and form a land reserve.
Well-conducted, intensive, large-scale cultivation is maintained as far as
possible, and is either carried on under the auspices of the State or devolved
upon the local assemblies. The remainder, consisting of gardens and arable
land, is used to increase the holdings of poor peasants.
The peasant, who was formerly a tenant, obtains possession of the land
which he cultivates. Pasture land is chiefly given up to common usage.
The act passed on March 7, 1918, prescribed that poor peasants needing
land could only lease portions of the land reserve from the State. But a new
act, passed on January 29, 1919, specified that they could purchase the State
land at a moderate price. This is certainly not a socialistic step, but it was
rendered unavoidable by the pressure of the peasants. It was also expected
that the peasant, when he became the owner of his land, would more readily
make improvements and adopt a rational system of cultivation than when he
was a mere tenant. Bolshevism must likewise compound with this settlement.
Both Georgia and Russia are now in the same economic stage as was France
at the beginning of the great revolution. Peasant proprietorship is not, how-
ever, completely free in Georgia. In every sale of land the State has the first
right of purchase. In this manner about 2,600,000 dessjatinen of gardens and
arable land, pastures and woods have been acquired, of which the cultivated
land amounts to about half a million dessjatinen. Pasture land is almost
1.000,000 dessjatinen. In addition, the woods and domains of the old Russian
State and of the Czarist families have reverted to the Georgian State, which
has thus become possessed of an enormous extent of land. Including woods
which formerly belonged to the Russian State or czarist families, the whole
Of the forests of Georgia comprises 2,000,000 dessjatinen, or one-third of the
exploitable land of the country, and this land remains in the hands of and is
managed by the Georgian State.
In addition, there are great model undertakings which are either managed
by the State or by the local councils, and numerous mineral springs. Some of
which are equipped with adequate technical apparatus. These also have
passed into the possession of the State, which has likewise sequestrated all
Water power. The latter will become a source of immense wealth in the
future. Its average mechanical power is estimated at two million and a
Quarter horsepower, of which only 3,400 are actually exploited. All harbor
sites belong to the State, and last, but not least, the revolution has made the
State the master of all mineral wealth.
Hitherto the state has not been able to secure the needful staff and machinery
to Work the mines to advantage itself, but the coal fields of Tkvibuli are
directly exploited by the state. Other mines are leased, such as the manganese
deposits of Tschiaturi and the copper mines of Allaverdi to a French com-
pany, and others in the district of Batoum to a German company (Shuckert).
Nationalization has not been undertaken so energetically and consciously
in the manufacturing industries, as in the mining and agricultural branches.
Their present stage of development is little suited to state management. Only
isolated undertakings among them have been nationalized, not because of the
principle, but for special reasons.
Generally speaking, it may be said that all that can be nationalized under
existing conditions has been nationalized, and no further progress can be made.
According to statistics of the ministry of labor, there were 73,486 workers
engaged in large industrial undertakings in Georgia in 1920. Of these 38,743
(52.7 per cent) were occupied in state undertakings; 20,592 (28 per cent) in
municipal, cooperative, and local undertakings, and only 14,151 (19.3 per cent)
in private undertakings. This will show how insignificant private industry
is in Georgia at the present time.
In regard to commerce, some export monopolies have been introduced, such
as manganese, tobacco, silk, and wool. These are fiscal rather than socialistic
measures, and it remains to be seen how they Succeed. For export trade, a
state bureaucracy is as unsuitable an agent as is possible; the Georgian
bureaucrats are very inexperienced, and the traditions left behind by their
250 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
predecessors, the CZarist bureaucracy, are the worst possible. The world
market is at present as difficult to survey as ever it was.
To enable Georgia to thrive, it is necessary to open up many new branches
in trade as well as in industry. In the state in which the country finds itself,
private Capital can not be dispensed with in the establishment of such new
branches.
In this economic reconstruction a great part may be played by county coun-
Cils, communes, and cooperative societies, the adm.uistrations of which are
more flexible and capable of a greater initiative than the lumbering economic
machinery of the state.
The revolution has brought Complete self-goveſºnment to the counties and
municipalities Of Georgia. This self-government had to be created de novo
in place of the centralized, bureaucratic tutelage from above. All experience
was lacking, and Sometimes the necessary resources. In spite of this, the young
institutions have developed a vigorous life, and we have already Seen that some
large agricultural undertakings have been transferred to the municipalities.
The provincial assemblies have also established their own dispensaries, and
mills, spinhouses, and other undertakings for working up and completing the
ſraw products of the province. In addition, draining and irrigation works have
been taken in hand by them. Likewise, the regulation of the medical Service.
The 21 assemblies are combined in a union, which holds congresses for the
exchange of experiences, and the collection of information. The union has
appointed a committee of experts which overlook the individual undertakings
of the municipality, and tender advice.
These institutions are too new to allow a decisive judgment to be passed on
them, but a healthy life pulses through them, and the course they have fol-
lowed is almeady full of promise.
The above applies equally to the cooperative societies. They are depreciated
by many SOcialistS, Owing to the fact that they are represented by the advo-
Cates Of harmony as a panacea to cure the evils of capitalism. This is non-
sense. The great capitalist monopolies can be dealt with only by the power
of the State when it is directed by the proletariat. In those Spheres where the
monopolistic character of capital has Scarcely made itself felt, the production
carried on by organizations of consumers can create socialistic conditions of
production, if these consumers’ Organizations are dominated by the Socialist
Outlook, and thus are in the hands of proletarians conscious of their part in the
class struggle.
In this sense the consumers' cooperative societies may become of special im-
portance in countries where industry is as yet undeveloped, but where a class-
conscious proletariat already exists. In such places the cooperative societies
may take in the peasantry, which has not yet become consciously antagonistic
to the proletariat, as in western Europe, and make its purchasing power of
service in building up the cooperative industry which will arise in competition
with the capitalist industry, and tends to restrict and moderate the influence
Of the latter Over WOrkers and COnSumerS.
In such a country as Russia the cooperative societies may assume unsus-
pected importance for the proletarian class struggle, and the establishment of
socialism. This also holds good for Georgia. Its cooperative organizations
were first formed in the czarist period, but only Since the revolution have they
been able to develop freely, and they have expanded rapidly.
Already in May, 1916, the consumers’ societies of Transcaucasia (Georgia.
Aserbaijan, and Armenia), to the number of 126, united to form a wholesale
buying agency. Five hundred and sixty-five societies were attached to this
union in 1917, and in 1919, in Georgia alone there were 989 societies, with
about 300,000 members.
The Union of Cooperative Societies began to produce on its own account in
1919. A silk factory is established, a sausage factory, engineering works,
which turn out agricultural implements; then vegetable and fruit preserving
factories, and finally a printing press. None of these undertakings works at a
loss and m ‘st Of them yield a surplus.
It is all to the good that the cooperative societies have proceeded slowly and
cautiously in laying the foundations of their productive activities. The stormy
movement, which corresponds to the revolutionary temperament and is in
place when hostile positions are to be captured, is not advantageous in the
founding Of economic Organizations.
In this case it is necessary to make careful preparation to be sure of the
ground before advancing, and not to go further than is allowed by the avail-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 251
able resources. In economics it is not the same as in War, where a Vigorous
offensive often obtains the best result, but not in every case. The Bolshevist
outlook, which envisages the socialistic reorganization of the processes Of
production as a problem in military tactics, is generally doomed to failure.
In the economic domain overhasty procedure always leads to disasters, which
may sometimes jeopardize the whole movement, and entails the buying Of
experience very dearly.
The Georgian methods of socialization are, with all their energy, quite free
from overhaste and the danger of reaction. Thanks to the fact that they are
based on democracy, they have kept clear of that species of State and Barrack
socialism, which imagines that social production can be introduced by rigid
centralization of the entire productive forces, and their subjection to the
dictatorship of a small committee, excluding all self-government.
Our Georgian comrades know that many roads lead to socialism as well as
to Rome. The problem of social production may be attacked from many sides,
and State control forms only one of those starting points. Finally, Socialistic
production is impossible without the fullest development of the capabilities
of the workers, which can be attained only by the complete liberty of political
parties, trade unions, cooperative societies, the municipalities, and Provinces.
The stretching of all these institutions upon the procrusteam bed of an all-
oppressive and all-reaching centralized dictatorship means death to that kind
of socialism which signifies the emancipation of the proletariat. The latter
socialism is what We should aim at.
Democracy, and that alone, can provide for the complete liberty and pos-
sibilities of development of the workers, individually and as a class.
The communists think that they are uttering deep wisdom when they speak
of “formal democracy.” They teach us that the equality of citizens under
democracy is but a formal equality, as economic inequality is not thereby
removed. That the mere casting of a vote is an empty form, as the economic
* relations of power are not thereby disturbed. We knew all this quite well at
a time when the present communists were still in their cradles, but it has not
prevented us from agitating for democracy. For it spells freedom of investiga-
, tion, of discussion, of propaganda; the freedom of public meeting and of
organization ; the fullest participation in the self-government of municipalities
and provinces, in the legislation of the State, and in the control and determina-
tion of the Government.
Only a fool can assert that all these liberties and possibilities are of a merely
formal nature and make no difference to the position, the capacities, and
strength of the proletariat and the laboring masses.
In lucid moments the communists themselves recognize the importance Of
democracy and believe it will be of use to them, as they say that the proletariat
needs democracy—which in their eyes is an instrument of capitalistic domina-
tion—only so long as the capitalist class rules. So soon, however, as the
proletariat has captured the power, democracy ceases, according to communist
doctrines, to be a means for the development of proletarian strength and
capacity. Then it becomes a danger for the proletariat; henceforth the
proletariat must renounce all independence and submit itself blindly to the
absolute domination of the Government which it has placed in power. Accord-
ing to this conception, the proletariat needs democracy Only When it is in the
fighting stage, but when it is successful it requires an absolutism, which is
different from czardom only by its communist enlightenment. It may well be
wondered how such a doctrine could find disciples outside Russia. But it
should not be forgotten that the enlightened absolutism of Russia in former
times understood how to arouse enthusiasm for its social institutions and
actions among naive Spirits in Western Europe, and especially in France.
If a Diderot and a Voltaire could be inspired by Catherine the Second, why
should not the far less witty Cachin and Loriot perceive in the dictatorship of
the Moscow party leaders over Europe the way to the emancipation of the
proletariat and the progress of mankind?
CHAPTER VII. THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE GOVERNMENT
However favored Georgia may be by nature, and however rational the
democratic methods of its socialist government, its situation was anything
but brilliant.
We have already described the chief causes of its distress. They consist
in the dependence of the economic life of Georgia upon foreign countries.
252 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Without the importation of corn, as well as of industrial products, and a
corresponding exportation of its own products, such as manganese, copper,
tobacco, wool, silk, and wine, the country can not exist. The old trade con-
nections were destroyed by the war, which still continues on the borders of
Georgia, and renders difficult any relations with other countries This is
doubly unfortunate at a time when world commerce is impeded by various
measures arising Out of the aftereffects of the war and the general lack of
confidence, which would be merely ridiculous if they did not involve the ruin
of the people. * ſº
The Georgian Government is not in a position to change these disastrous.
international conditions, and thus the people of Georgia, like so many other
peoples, must suffer from their effects.
The inhabitants of the capital of Tiflis were hit the hardest. Until the
revolution Tiflis was the political center of the whole of the Caucasius, a
territory with about 10,000,000 people. To-day it forms the capital of little
Georgia, with 3,000,000 inhabiuants. This country by itself must sustain the
400,000 inhabitants of Tiflis. This would not have been a simple matter in a
state of uninterrupted world trade, but the task assumes fearful proportions
in the conditions of restricted trade.
Add to this that Tiflis, instead of losing its inhabitants, revealed a large
increase of population.
For with all its distress it was a paradise when compared with its neighbors,
Armenia, Aserbaijan, and Russia, where Bolshevism reigns, not only with
hunger and misery, but also with sullen silence and everlasting fear, with the
lack of all freedom of speech and of the press, with denunciations, arbitrary
imprisonments, and shootings, with brutality and cruelty. Those who can flee
from this hell—the conterrevolutionaries to Europe; the workers from the
towns to the villages, many democratic and social-democratic intellectuals,
and qualified workers fled to Tiflis. Even Bolshevists sometimes sought a
refuge there, in order to recover from communism. Through this immigra-
tion the intellectual life of the town was Variously stimulated. Eminent men
of learning and artists from Russia met together here. But the house famine
was made ten times Worse. *
After high prices the housing shortage is the most generally diffused after-
effect of the war. It is to be found even in New York. The war has used
up so much capital and so much of the productive forces that with what is
left one is only able to live laboriously from hand to mouth. There is neither
capital nor resources for undertakings which will repay the outlay on them
only after many years. Above all, not for buildings. All building activity
is paralyzed. In addition, numerous dwelling places situated on the various
theaters of war have been destroyed, and the inhabitants driven into countries
which were spared by the war. In those countries the accommodation, not
having been increased, suffices no longer.
Again, in those countries which did not take part in the war the popula-
tion has been increased by the normal processes, which still more accentuates
the housing difficulty.
Although the shortage is by no means confined to Tiflis, together with
the lack of food, it has been ascribed by the communist propaganda there to
the social-democratic government. This propaganda is addressed to the
simple folk who do not know that in Russia not merely dearness but the most
desperate hunger prevails. The housing shortage is certainly abating in many
of its towns. In Petrograd thousands of houses are empty, as of the popula-
tion of that city one-third has either starved, or frozen, or fallen victims to
pestilence or the extraordinary commission. Another third has fled to the
villages, and the remaining third still prolongs an anxious existence in the
to WIl.
As in the case everywhere else in the world, the building of new houses in
Georgia is much impeded by the absence of long credits. This is connected
with the general lack of capital, but also with the wretched state of the
exchange. *
This constituted the weakest point in the economic life of social-democratic
Georgia. The Georgian rouble was last year Worth less in gold than was
formerly worth a kopeck, although its value remained considerably higher
than that of a rouble of the Russian Soviet Republic.
As is the case with other countries, the principal cause of the fall in the
value of the Georgian rouble is to be looked for in the inflation of the cur-
rency and the excessive output of paper money. One immediate result of the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 253
revolution was to reduce considerably the revenue of the state. The old state
constitution, being corrupt and inimical to the people, had to be radically
reformed, which was not a simple matter in view of the lack of native ex-
perience. The new state machinery did not always work well. It takes time
to accustom the emancipated peasant to pay taxes, and the revenue from duties
Was very slight in consequence of the paralysis of trade. The state possessions
alone will suffice to cover the national expenses when once they are properly
exploited, and all taxation would be rendered unnecessary. The budget of
1919–20 estimated the income of the state at 749,000,000 roubles, of which
576,000,000, or 76 per cent, would represent revenue from the national prop-
erties. But the war has thrown the state undertakings into a condition of
confusion and lowered the revenue from them. The large estates, which were
taken over from the old régime, yield a surplus, it is true, but this is not very
large. Before the war the railway was one of the few Hussian state lines
which earned a net profit. On account of the lack of masuth and the great
exhaustion of material by the war. and lately by reason of the cessation of
trade, the services had been so restricted that they barely covered the run-
ning costs of the undertaking. Repairs can only be effected out of state
resources, and many repairs are necessary.
Generally speaking, the exploitation of the national properties of Georgia,
such as the forests and mines, has not yet been undertaken. Before they
can be set working large Outlays are needed for roads and railways.
Thus a great portion of the state possessions yield no immediate revenue
but entail expenditure.
Simultaneously Other branches of state expenditure have grown enormously.
It is not merely a question of repairing the immense damage wrought by the
war, but special demands are made on the Government because of its social-
istic character.
A Socialist government is not only expected to prepare the way for the de-
velopment of socialistic production, which, measured by our impatience, is a
protracted task. It must also put an immediate end to all the poverty which
it finds in existence. If the kind of poverty which capitalism creates is to
be found in Georgia in no small degree, all the more abundant is the poverty
which has been accumulated by the check to capitalist development—poverty
which has arisen from feudalism, absolutism, and war.
To make an immediate end of this poverty, with the scanty and impoverished
resources of the State, is a task which no government could achieve unless it
were possessed of magical powers. And our comrades who have been placed
in power by the revolution were not only wizards, but Menshevists, who neither
believe themselves nor seek to persuade the outside world that a dictatorship
endows them with magical powers.
However much the Government might strive to keep the tasks which it set
itself within the bounds of economic possibilities, the everlasting demands which
were pressed upon it surpassed so much the extent of the available income of the
State that the printing press was the only resource which was left. Conse-
quently, there was a constant fall in the value of the rouble and a continual
increase in prices.
The evil was still more accentuated by the adverse trade balance. Trade
with Russia, which formerly constituted the chief part of the export of tobacco,
wine, mineral waters, etc., has been destroyed to a large extent. This rendered
maritime trade with Europe, via the Black Sea, all the more important, but this
trade had been restricted for a long time Owing to the lack of shipping Space.
Georgia imported from Europe highly valuable industrial products, which
occupied little space. In exchange it had to offer only raw material, which, in
relation to its value, occupied much shipping space. No wonder the value of
imports exceeded the value of exports. In the year 1919 Georgia imported from
western Europe, Turkey, and America, goods to the value of 397,000,000 of
roubles and exported goods to the value of only 93,000,000. In the year 1920
the trade balance considerably improved. On the other hand, the inflation still
continued.
All this tended to depress the exchange to the lowest point. Still worse than
the falling of the rate of exchange and the dearness which it caused was the
constant fluctuations in the exchange, which occur in all countries with a system
of paper money. This makes all business uncommonly difficult. Under these
circumstances long-period credits are not to be looked for and short credits are
available only under oppressive conditions. As no one knows what prices and
Inoney values will be in the future, there is a preference for cash payments.
254 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Credit is the most potent means to vivify the mass of capital which exists in
society. Without credit the scope of a given mass of capital is notably
restricted. The effect is especially paralyzing at a period. When the maSS Of
capital is greatly reduced by the ravages of War.
Another circumstance is not less harmful. Under existing conditions there
is little incentive to invest capital in undertakings which do not turn over their
capital rapidly. Consequently there is the strongest motive to employ capital
in money speculations and usury instead of in industry. So long as a capitalist
mode of production exists, it is in the interest not only of the whole of Society
but also of the workers that the available capital be embarked upon productive
industrial undertakings giving employment to workers and increasing the Sum
of commodities. It should not parasitically be employed in Speculations and
usury, which employ no workers, yield no products, and Only increase prices.
The system of paper money not only threatens the State with complete bank-
ruptcy and with absolute worthlessness of the money which it issues; it has
brought growing confusion and paralysis into the whole economic machinery.
This condition can only be dealt with by placing the State finances upon a
sound basis, by balancing income and expenditure, so that the activities of the
printing press may be stopped. But how is the State to obtain the revenue it
needs so long as trade and commerce are suspended? Thus we find Ourselves
in a vicious circle, Out of which there seems to be n0 Way ; economy can not
become healthy without sound finances, and these can not become Sound unless
economy becomes healthy.
A considerable improvement could be effected if normal peaceful conditions
were established among Georgia’s neighbors, if the civil War and campaign Of
conquest ceased in Russia, Aserbaijan, Armenia, and Anatolia, and Georgia
could find there a market for its own products, and could also resume in full
measure its function as a trade channel connecting east with west.
This general conditon of peace would alone lead to a marked change in the
economic position of Georgia.
It is also most desirable to remove the restrictions which hamper the
traffic of steamers through the Dardanelles, and which are the result of the
state of war still prevailing in that quarter. Then the postal communications
between Georgia and the Outside World must be made more prompt and Secure.
The present state of these communications is deplorable, which naturally
prejudices all business relations with Europe.
Even when all these improvements have been introduced, the Overcoming of
the financial crisis of the country will remain a very difficult problem. It is
hardly conceivable that the crisis can be completely mastered without a for-
eign loan which would cover the deficit of the exchequer for One or two years
and thus grant the State a breathing space, during which it can function
Without using the printing press. If this respite were wisely and energetically
used, it should be sufficient to develop so far the economic resources of Geor-
gia that the finances could be placed on a stable foundation without requiring
further assistance from outside.
In this respect attention would naturally be paid first to an increased ex-
ploitation of the national possessions, which involves the building of railways,
Such as a line to the coal fields of Tkvartscheli, and roads to open the great
forests.
With all this is closely connected the encouragement of agriculture. The
drainage of 50,000 hectares of Swamps at Poti, the irrigation of 150,000 hectares
in the east—for these improvements the preliminary work of survey has
already been done—would suffice to render Georgia independent of outside help
for its Sustenance.
An improvement of agriculture may already be expected from the transforma-
tion of the peasant from a leaseholder into a freeholder. This process can be
accelerated by the giving of instruction in agriculture. It is true that the
small extent of the holdings is an obstacle to a rational system of agriculture
which is to yield a substantial surplus. And this surplus is all-important.
It is recognized even by many supporters of Small holdings in agriculture
that large-scale production yields a larger net profit than small undertakings,
but of the latter it is asserted that the gross yield is greater. But even if this
is the case, it would not dispose us more favorably to small holdings. The mass
of mankind who live in society outside of agriculture depend upon its net
profits. We speak of Society and not of the State, because an individual State
can find a way out by importing the means of subsistence. Without a large
surplus from agriculture, there can be no large population of those engaged in
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 255
intellectual and industrial pursuits, no high level of civilization, and therefore
no technical progress in agriculture itself. The transformation of a rational
system of large-scale agricultural production into small holdings signifies a
decrease in the surplus yielded by agriculture. It means an increase in the
amount of labor-power required for agriculture, and a decrease in the non-
agricultural population, and thus a set-back to civilization. Militarists, Who
look to the peasants for numerous recruits, might well be enthusastic for Small
Jholdings. Modern socialists, who have at heart, not the strength of the armies,
Jout the level of civilization, must support large-scale agriculture.
With the exception of the undertakings of the State and municipalities, few
opportunities existed for large-scale agriculture in Georgia after the agrarian
reforms. Large estates worked by private capital are scarcely likely to arise.
Perhaps the transition stage to rational methods of agriculture may give
rise to the development of the communal direction of husbandry. This is
already the case with pasture land. Communal agriculture would be large-
scale cultivation.
. There are many reasons why communal agriculture should be adopted in
Georgia. We have seen above that the old type of plow requires 10 to 20
animals to draw it, with 4 and more men. Of course, these resources are not
at the disposal of an individual small peasant. This difficulty is overcome by
:Several peasants joining together for plowing their fields. Such cooperation
is constantly found convenient for Other purposes than plowing. As many
as 50 small peasants combine together in order to perform the same work in
common on one of their fields, after another, and thereby enjoy the benefits
of this cooperation. This practice is called by a Special name, nadi, and the
songs which are sung during work in common, to give to it the appropriate
rhythm, are called naduri. This system of combined labor would be more
‘Successful if the many small fields were not separated, but thrown together and
worked according to a common plan. This should be made considerably easier
after the partition of the land has equalized the size of the separate holdings.
This process should also be aided by the introduction of modern agricultural
machines, which the individual peasant is too poor to acquire, and which
can be employed with success only over a large extent of ground.
It is therefore probable that in Georgia a system of cultivation by village
communes will grow up, which, although not socialistic in the sense that it
produces for the market, yet will be a nearer approach to socialism and a
better organization of labor-power than agriculture which is based on small
Tholdings.
Meanwhile, the domain of agriculture is not the only sphere in which it is
needful to make good as quickly as possible the effects Of the neglect and Obsta-
scles due to feudalism and absolutism. The general level Of Civilization must
also be raised by an improvement in education. In this province significant
progress has been made by the Socialist Government, in spite of its lack of
TeSOUITCéS. *
Finally, it is absolutely necessary for the prosperity of Georgia so to develop
its industry that, as far as possible, the raw materials are made use of in the
Tylace where they are produced. Paper factories and furniture factories
to realize the wealth in the form of wood, factories for preserving fruit "and
vegetables, spinning and weaving sheds for wool, silk, and cotton are, above all,
recessary. Next to them are wanted factories for the production of imple-
ments and simple machinery for agriculture.
We have seen that the municipalities and the cooperative Societies have
already commenced to work on these lines. But We have also pointed out that
they can only proceed very slowly if they are to maintain a Secure footing and
avoid mistakes. Moreover, they suffer from Want of capital.
Here there must also be some assistance from abroad if the development is
to be rapid and energetic. Only the western powers and America have the
Tesources and experience available to permit large undertakings of this kind
to be established and properly directed. But capitalism still prevails in those
countries. For the present help can Only take the form of the investment of
foreign capital in Georgian industrial undertakings.
Foreign loans to stabilize the State finances, to build railways, and construct
irrigation and drainage works, and foreign capital to establish factories are
urgently necessary in the interests of the Georgian people and of the Georgian
‘proletariat as well. Where capitalist economy is still the order of the day the
96153—26—17
256 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
worker thrives best with a rapidly growing industrial capital. A suspension,
of capitalist growth hits him the hardest.
The Georgian Socialist Government found itself in the paradoxical situation
of being obliged to create conditions which will attract capital—that is, by
promising a profit and giving the necessary guaranty that one fine day it will
not be expropriated without compensation.
This was not an easy problem for a socialist government to solve. But as
this Government was composed of Menshevists, it was aware of the economic
necessities and would do voluntarily what the Bolshevists are now compelled
to do by circumstances, after they have pursued the opposite policy for several
years past, in the doing of which they have fearfully devastated and ruined
the whole of Russia.
CHAPTER VIII. CAPITALISM AND SOCIALISM
However difficult it may be for a socialist government, supported by the
political power of the proletariat, to be obliged to encourage capitalist industry,
this is a problem which sooner or later confronts the Socialists in every Euro-
pean country. In the most important States the proletariat is already SO
strong and so matured in Self-consciousness that it will not be long before it
attains to political power not in spite of democracy, but precisely because its
strength is nourished by democracy.
A world revolution in the Bolshevist sense is, of course, not to be reckoned
with. Such a revolution Signifies the dictatorship of a Communist Party,
which assumes power, because it alone controls all armed forces and disarms
all the nonproletarian classes and the sections of the proletariat which are not
communist. This situation arose after the military collapse, first in Russia
and then in Hungary. It will not be repeated in any country, least of all in
the victorious States. *
In these countries the proletariat can not gain the upper hand by means of
a monopoly of arms but Only as a majority by means of its preponderance
among the democracy.
At the moment the democratic prospects of social democracy are in point of
fact not favorable. The period of disillusionment and tension which follows
upon every revolution has once more set in. Instead of a world revolution we
stand on the threshold of a general reaction.
But in no part of civilized Europe has socialism to-day suffered such a
crushing defeat as was experienced by the middle-class revolution of 1849,
and the Paris Commune Of 1871. After these defeats the reaction lasted
barely a dozen years, and this time it will be much shorter, perhaps only a
matter of two or three years. It can be terminated in no other way than by
the victory of social democracy in all civilized States, a social democracy
which will not only be far stronger than it is to-day, but also far more in-
telligent and experienced, thanks to the lessons of the present revolution,
and thanks to the possibilities of a richer development of the capacity of
the proletariat, through shorter working hours, workers’ councils and other
achievements which even the reaction will be obliged to leave intact. In a
few years’ time social democracy will find a far better economic foundation
for its activities than to-day, as by that time the worst effects of the war may
have been Overcome.
But then all the social-democratic governments will be faced by the same
difficulties as confronted the Georgian Government. Because of what the
revolution has taught them, they will know that capitalism cannot be abol-
ished at one stroke. Socialistic production can only be introduced gradually,
and after careful preparation. If the wheels of production are not to come
to a standstill, and thereby plunge the whole of society, and especially the
proletariat, into the direst poverty, capitalistic production must be maintained
in those branches Of industry which are not yet to be Socialized, and in some
branches of production it may survive for generations.
We may therefore expect to see everywhere socialist governments which
will have to allow, and even encourage, capitalist production, in a whole
series of branches of industry.
How is the rule of the proletariat to be expressed under these circumstances?
The desire for profit Or the extraction of surplus value from the labor
power that is purchased is not the Only cause of the class antagonism between
capital and labor. This antagonism is also nourished by the power over labor
which is invested in capital by its monopoly of the means of production.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 257
Every kind of social cooperation requires to be directed. But the capitalist
becomes a captain of industry because he owns the means of production, and
not because the Workers and COnSumers have any confidence in his capacity
or experience. In capitalist undertakings the master was originally an
autocrat, who not merely managed the business, but dominated it personally.
and gave it a code of rules. The worker was the Object, not the subject of
this legislation.
The struggle of the worker against capital is not merely directed against
exploitation; that is, against the creation of surplus value, but also against the
omnipotence of the captain of industry, against the attitude of “master in the
house.”
Both parts of the class struggle are inseparable and closely connected with
each other. In the one case, the restriction of the Omnipotence of capital,
visible progress is achieved during the lifetime of capitalism, but not in the
other case, the struggle against the exploitation of the workers. In the latter
case, progress is only made through increasing encroachments upon the domain
of capitalistic production, and the extension of socialization. As regards the
first-named aspect of the class struggle, progress commenced to be made 100
years ago, but in respect of the Second aspect, it has scarcely begun as yet.
The power of the master in industry tends to be restricted by the growing force
of labor organizations and of the state, “the Organized power of society.”
But this does not cause a diminution in the exploitation of labor, which often
shows a tendency to increase. Every labor protection law, every factory
inspector, every successful strike, every trade union which asserts itself, lessens
the power of the captain of industry. The revolution has considerably multi-
plied these restrictions, and added to them a new one in the shape of works
COuncils.
Thus, while during the Course Of the last century the factory has been trans-
formed from an autocracy into a constitutional monarchy, the rate of Surplus
value has grown in the same period, so that the tendency in the rate of profit
to fall has been always impeded.
This is not an accident. The great historical task if industrial capitalism
consists in increasing the productive power of labor to an enormous extent.
This fact enables it to win easy triumphs in competition with pre-capitalistic
modes Of production.
Only such restrictions as do not impair the productivity of labor can be
imposed and maintained. The measures and institutions which we now have
in mind have the effect of raising instead Of lowering the productivity of labor.
They increase the capacity and intelligence of the WOrker and give him an
interest in the Work and in the prosperity of the undertaking and branch of
industry to which he belongs. Their educational influence is not confined to
the Worker but also extends to the employer. Nothing is more convenient Or
more simple than dictatorial power which does not need to exercise the mind
in order to overcome all opposition. The dictum of Cavour that any fool could
govern in a state of siege is quoted with approval by people who are enthu-
siastic for the dictatorship that is only another name for a state of siege.
Where the employer can act and rule as dictator, he can pass on all the conse-
quences of incapacity, carelessness, and niggardliness in the conduct of the
business to the Workers, Who are obliged to pay the penalty for obsolete meth-
Ods and improper conduct of a business, and for the lack of requisite materials.
The stronger the Workers and the state become in comparison with the em-
ployer, the greater their demands upon him, and their powers of resisting him;
the more careful and intelligent the conduct of the business must be, the more
the employer must endeavor to make use of the most productive appliances
and methods, the more Of the extracted surplus value must be accumulated
by the capitalist to permit the introduction of improvements.
In this way each step of progress made by the proletariat against capital,
Which is inspired by economic foresight, and therefore does not aim at the
destruction of machinery and similar things, results in creating a strong in-
Centive to increase the productive power of labor, which also involves the
tendency to the growth of surplus value and exploitation.
However paradoxical it may appear, the growth of the power of the working
Class Over capital does not at the same time exclude the progression of the
exploitation of that class, but may even provoke it.
This explains why such growth does not impede the progress and develop-
ment of production, but promotes it. So long as capitalistic production subsists,
Capital must extract a profit from industry, or else mark time, which harms
258 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
the worker even more than the capitalist, as the former is dependent on the
uninterrupted sale of his labor power. Crises and unemployment are the
worst enemies of the worker, and nothing is greater than the folly of those
“revolutionaries '' who seek to save the proletariat by clogging the wheels of
production, and increasing the gravity of the crisis. The workers' Councils
will become effective and make themselves a definite power in the process of
production, when they succeed, in the same way as labor protection and trade
unions have succeeded, in raising the productivity of labor. If they should aim
at decreasing it and permanently impeding the process of production, they
would be soon played out. The necessities of production are the most irresisti-
ble of the needs of society. They show themselves to be more potent than the
bloodiest terrorism.
As long as capitalist production lasts, it will involve the necessity of a certain
rate of profit, and the tendency to the growth of exploitation.
It will be possible to remove these necessities and these tendencies when
Socialist production is substituted for capitalist production, and Social property
is established in place of private property. The possibilities of this transition
first arise in an advanced stage of capitalism, but not for all branches Of
industry at the same time. Railways, mines, and forests are by their nature
suited to become social possessions, but most luxury trades will remain in
private hands until a later period. The abolition of exploitation by means
of socialization can therefore only proceed gradually, and the whole of
industry can not be liberated at one stroke. On the other hand, many restric-
tions of the power of the employer, such as the 8-hour day or workers’ Council,
may be imposed upon the whole extent of industry at Once.
The mass of surplus value in society, which is appropriated by the capitalist
class, instead of falling to the workers or being used in the general interests
of society, will not be diminished as a result of the increased power in the
process of production which the working class secures, but will be decreased
in the degree that the scope of the capitalist is narrowed by the socialization
of single branches of industry. It is quite impossible to cut away profit from
those branches of industry, constantly diminishing in number, where capitalist
production still exists, and may continue to exist for the present, before the
private character of the ownership of such means of production is altered.
The abolition or even the visible restriction of profit in this sphere would
clog production generally. Matters would only become Worse if an attempt
were made to restart businesses by means of a policy of terrorism. Where
the employer is superfluous, industry should be socialized. Where he is still
necessary, he can not be compelled by force to manage his business in a
reasonable and conscientious manner, just as the war worker can not be
coerced into doing good work. Not compulsion but interest in the result secures
the best quality work on the part of employers as on the part Of Wage
WOrkers.
All this may not sound very revolutionary, but Marx would not have devoted
the best years of his life to the writing of “Capital,” and this would not have
been greeted as the “Bible of the working classes,” if the mere possession of
power had sufficed for the emancipation of the working class, and a knowledge
of the laws Of Capitalist economy had been superfluous.
A Socialist government must take these laws into consideration. As regards
this point, the distinction between a socialist and a nonsocialist government is
of the following description. The problem of the socialization of a branch of
industry has two sides, one, the degree of its economic development, particu-
larly the concentration of its capital and resources, the nature of its direction
(whether by employer or by managers), and the conditions of the market for
its goods. The other aspect, which is most important, is the power of the
classes which are interested in socialization. A number of branches of trade
and industry have long been ripe for socialization, and urgently require it, in
the general social interest as well as for the benefit of the proletariat. But the
principle of socialization remains unapplied, because its champions are weak.
On the other hand, there is a whole category of restrictions which could be
imposed upon the power of capital without lessening the productivity of labor,
which they would even raise, and which are not yet put into force because the
proletariat lacks the requisite power to do so.
When the proletariat is strong enough to put a Socialist government in
power, this step will enable it to enforce all necessary measures of socialization,
and to impose all reasonable restrictions upon the will of the employer. But
every care must be taken to avoid overestimating the efficacy of mere power,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC 6F GEORGIA 259
and thinking that its possession alone is sufficient to insure the fulfillment of
the desires and the satisfaction of the wants of the proletariat, at one stroke.
A Socialist government must always keep steadily in mind that its activities
are restricted by the economic necessities and possibilities, and it may not
overstep these limitations without jeopardizing society and the progress of the
workers to better conditions of living. With every measure of socialization, it
must verify exactly the condition of the branch of industry, and the capabilities
and resources which are at its disposal. With every limitation which it Sets
upon the will of the employer it must consider whether the productivity of labor
will not thereby be lessened. It must ceaselessly strive to develop the pro-
ductive forces of the country, and, in so far as this is not yet possible by
socialist means and methods, capitalist measures to further this object must
be permitted, and under Circumstances even encouraged.
The Social-Democratic Government of Georgia has been guided by these
principles, and in this have shown themselves to be intelligent pupils of our
great masters, Marx and Engels. Whenever a social-democratic government
may come into power it will be obliged to act on the same principles, and the
benefit of the Georgian experience will be at its disposal.
The idea that the Only task of a socialist government is to put socialism into
practice is not a Marxist one, but pre-Marxist and utopian. It conceives of
socialism as an ideal picture of a complete Society. Like ideal conceptions
generally, its nature is very simple. Once it has been thought out, only the
necessary power is required to realize this ideal everywhere and under all
circumstances. When this result does not immediately follow on the posses-
sion of power, it is due either to treachery or to cowardice. A socialist govern-
ment has no other task than the putting into practice of the ideal Socialist
State. The more absolute its power, the more effectually it will be able to do
this.
This conception of the task of socialism was completely upset by Marxism.
The starting point of Marxism was the class struggle, which is waged under
the conditions of capitalist production by the proletariat, itself the product of
industrial capitalism. The task of social democracy is to raise the physical,
intellectual, moral, and Organizing powers of the proletariat, as well as to
bring plan and method into the isolated proletarian struggles. This implies
that the proletariat must be taught what is the social and economic objective
which alone can satisfy it and put an end to its struggles. This objective is
the emancipation of the working class. which from being the mere tool will
become the master of production. Among the working class must be counted
not Only the industrial proletariat, but likewise peasants, handworkers, and in-
tellectuals. But the proletariat forms the strongest and most dependable factor
in this development.
This objective is the goal of the socialist movement. Its realization may
come about in various ways, which will depend upon the prevailing modes of
production, the relative strength of classes, the degree of their organization, in-
telligence, and discipline, and so forth. The forms of socialism may vary con-
siderably in different countries, at different times, and in different branches of
industry. They must everywhere be related to the existing forms of produc-
tion and permit their further development.
The common element of all of them will be the common ownership of the
means of production and management by social institutions with the object of
Satisfying the common need whether that be the need of the state, the munici-
pality, or Cooperative Societies instead of private ownership of the means of
production and private production for the market to secure private profit.
Socialist production will not be the realization of an ideal conception of a
complete Society which has been previously though out, but the result of a
fluctuating process of development, a result which in no way excludes or
renders unnecessary further development, but which forms merely the starting
point of a new order of social development.
The endeavor can and should be made to-day to visualize the picture of the
Coming Socialist mode of production, but it must also be remembered that
the reality will be far different from any mental picture and that the most
thorough investigations at the present time will never succeed in revealing all
Of the agents that Will enter into the development of the future and in esti-
mating how great a significance every one of these agents will assume. The
better We are able to investigate the present, the deeper will be our insight
into the future. But the forms of the future society will always be more mani.
fold than is possible for to foresee, and new momenta will COnStantly arise
*
260 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
which are inconceivable to us to-day. We may expect great surprises before
us in this sphere.
Nevertheless the socialist goal has a great significance for us. Champions
of the labor cause will the more readily avoid the contradictions and waste
of strength in their daily political and economic policies and effect the im-
provement and liberation of the working people the more speedily the more
they estimate how far each one of their demands and measures will subserve
or prejudice the ultimate objective.
As we have already observed, the development of the productivity of labor
is closely connected with the objective of the transformation of the property
basis of the means of production and with the establishment of the widest
self-government and freedom of expression and organization of the laboring
Iſla SSéS.
From the standpoint of this conception, the task of Socialists in relation
to socialism assumes a shape very different from the stanpoint of pre-Marxian
Socialism. The creation of a system of socialist production is now neither
the sole nor the first task of socialists. Such a System is rather to be con-
sidered as the end of their endeavor, the result of their total activity. Their
duty is, under all circumstances, the elevation and strengthening of the prole-
tariat, the giving it a keener insight into the economic process and its destiny
and the extension Of the productivity of labor.
This is the task of every Socialist party. From this point of view Socialist
parties will become possible and necessary everywhere, even in countries where
the prerequisites of Socialist production do not yet exist, provided that they
contain an industrial proletariat.
The position will be in no way modified when a Socialist party gains political
power, which permits it to set up a Socialist government. The immediate task
of such a government would likewise be to increase the strength and insight
of the proletariat, to subject the capitalist to the control of the State, and to
develop the productivity of labor; but not under all circumstances immediately
to abolish capitalism in its entirety and put socialism into practice. To how
great an extent socialism can be introduced must depend upon the degree of
ripeness which the country has reached.
If the tasks of a Socialist government are conceived in this wise, it will be
clear that the existence of such a government in an economically backward.
country is compatible with the Marxist theory, according to which the pre-
requisites of socialism are only to be found in a highly developed capitalism.
A socialist régime is thus possible under economically backward conditions, if
the State is democratic and the industrial proletariat is superior in intelligence
and organization, to the other classes which express their strength by and
through democracy. Provided also that the Socialist government remains
always conscious of the limits of its power and does not attempt more than
it can achieve with the strength and resources at its disposal, and if, finally,
it is anxious to develop the productive forces and to strengthen the proletariat.
From being the champion of the special interests of the proletariat it will be-
come the representative of the general social interests. In this capacity it will
be enabled to marshal behind it the majority of the nation and maintain their
allegiance.
Such a government must be guided by the principle that by limitation the
master reveals himself. A Socialist government which does not restrict its en-
deavors to the economic necessities and possibilities, but allows itself to be in-
fluenced only by the needs of the proletarians and the eagerness for power of
many party friends, so that it plunges into an immoderate policy of extrava-
gant radicalism, a Socialist government of this kind will never accomplish a
lasting liberation of the proletariat and an increase in the productive forces,
but it is sure to end in a new servitude by completely destroying the productive
forces, which will mean an indefinite postponement of its hopes.
The Government of Georgia has chosen the method of masterly limitation
and the country and the proletariat have felt the benefit of it. ----,
It is true that an economically backward country can never become a
pioneer in the development of Socialist forms. So far, Marxism requires no
modification. Only such advanced industrial countries as England and Ger-
many can develop models of socially worked undertakings, which, owing to
the object lesson they will teach, will find speedy recognition and imitation
in backward Countries.
If highly developed countries should soon come under a Socialist régime, this
fact will determine whether their assistance will cause the further develop-
&
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 261
ment of the productive forces in backward countries to assume socialist forms
and prevent the widening of the scope of capitalist production.
It is within the realm of possibility that such a régime will appear in
Germany and England in the course of a few years—after the present reaction
has been overcome.
This will provide a Socialist government in Georgia with a new Support.
Thus the possibility existed that this government would be able to maintain
itself in power without resistance. The immediate danger was not from
within but from without.
CHAPTER IX. THE PERMANENCE OF THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY
No government of the day was more firmly established than the Georgian
Government. We have seen how unusually large Was the majority of the
Social Democratic party in the Georgian Parliament. None of the opposition
parties dreamed of overturning the government or altering its policy.
In addition to the overwhelming majority in the parliament, the government
was supported by the overwhelming majority of the population.
The modern section of the proletariat, which is the politically decisive class
in present-day Georgia stood fast behind the government, which maintained a
close association with it.
The Communist party did indeed exist, and enjoyed the fullest liberty in
all its movements which were not directed to raising an armed rebellion ;
there was no obstacle in the Way Of its Open propaganda and legal Organized
activity and the latter ends were eagerly pursued by the side of an equally
energetic underground movement. The party operated with the most lavish
resources which emanated from Soviet Russia, but in spite of all this, it did
not succeed in gaining a following of any importance.
In contrast to the rest of Europe, bolshevism has been familiar in Georgia
from the commencement, and there it deceives nobody. In spite of boundary
divisions, the Georgians are too closely connected with Russia not to know
exactly how things are there, and, in comparison with the hell which Soviet
Russia represents, Georgia appeared as a paradise. The workers also know
©xactly the fearsome oppression which weighs upon the working class of
Russia, and the complete loss of rights and impotence of all sections of the
proletariat which do not cower in servile obedience before the dictatorship;
they perceive clearly that the dictatorship, which is supposed to be a dictator-
ship of the proletariat, has led and must lead to the dictatorship over the
entire population, including the proletariat, as dictatorship, by its essence,
means that even the ranks of the nominal ruling class are subjected to the
despotism of the Government. The workers of Georgia regard the Soviet
régime with peculiar bitterness, as its faithlessness toward its small neighbor
becomes more obvious every day.
The communists boasted, from time to time, that they were recruiting their
ranks from the Georgian proletariat. But, whenever an opportunity arose it
revealed their insignificance. Thus they commenced a great agitation amongst
the railwaymen. A brilliant result was to be achieved. Just as I was depart-
ing, a congress of railwaymen was held in Tiflis which was going to demon-
strate that the confidence of the railway workers in the government had
}. completely shattered. The communists expected to dominate the con-
efenCe. -
Behold, when the delegates were counted, one single communist was found
among them. All the others, and there were over 80, were Social-Democrats.
I had a similar experience with all the labor conferences at which I had
the Opportunity to be present.
In Europe to-day we frequently meet with an intermediate form of socialism,
which, dazzled by the apparent results of Bolshevism, declares in theory for
the dictatorship of the Soviets, but contrives to keep on firm ground, so that,
in practice, it declares for democracy and applies the methods of democracy.
This method is quite unknown in Georgia; neither from the left nor the right
was any considerable opposition forthcoming to the Social-Democratic gov-
-ernment.
One might, at least, have expected some resistance from the large land-
owners who have been expropriated. In reality they have acquiesced in
their fate, which overtook them with all the force of a natural catastrophe;
they know they are played out, and that any attempt to reestablish the old
262 NATIONAL REPUBLIC () F. GEORGIA
Order would raise against them the entire nation. Not a few of them were
giving faithful and intelligent service to the Republic.
The aristocrats of the great French Revolution, likewise those of the present:
Russian Revolution, would have accepted their fate as an inescapable dis-
pensation, had they not found allies abroad to arouse in them hopes of a
restoration. The Georgian princes have not enough friends abroad who
would seek to intervene in their favor. The only power whose interference
in the internal affairs of Georgia was to be feared was the Russian Soviet
Republic, and should they do so, the late landlords would fall out of the frying:
pan into the fire. The Social-Democratic régime has, indeed, taken the land.
from them without compensation, except for the peasant holding which enables
them to live by the labor of their hands; but it has not mishandled their
persons, it has respected their humanity. It shared the view of Marx that
we are not fighting the capitalists as persons, but are attacking their func-
tions. So far as the functions of capitalists are indispensable, we propose
they should be changed from private functions to social functions; so far
as their functions are Superflous Or harmful, we shall abolish them in an
economic Organization in which there will be n0 place for them. The Bol-
shevist régime has not merely undertaken the campaign against the func-
tions, but also against the persons of the capitalists and landowners, even
after they have ceased to be exploiters, and have become proletarians in
reality, as well as against those who are not willing or able to offer resistance.
to the new régime. And Bolshevism was not satisfied to render these per-
sons merely harmless, it had also degraded them and trodden them under
foot, and inflicted infinite torture upon them, and has aroused against them the
lowest instincts of the proletariat. In Georgia the expropriators, as well as
the expropriated, have been Spared this mutual degradation. The expro-
priated have likewise refrained from any attempt to resist their fate. The
alternative which confronted them—the Bolshevist régime—was too terrible.
Feudal lords belong to the past. The capitalist constitutes the exploiting
power of the present. We have already seen why their political power in
Georgia was negligible. Only a few of them are engaged in industry, and most
of them represent the parasitic forms of capitalism—as usurers, profiteers, and
landlords in towns. Among them, Armenians preponderate, and they are not
loved by the Georgian people. The Cause of this antagonism is described differ-
ently by each side, but the underlying facts remain the same. Interpretations
of the facts differ. The one side despises the Armenians as dirty, unscrupu-
lous traders and usurers; the other side declares the Armenians are thrifty
and industrious. The Georgians, on the other hand, have retained too much
feudal carelessness and love of enjoyment; therefore, the Armenians maintain
over them an economic advantage.
Besides Armenians, there are Germans, Russians, Italians, and Jews (who
are considered a special nationality in Georgia), and members of other foreign
nations among the capitalists, but few members of the Georgian nation.
The result of all this is that the frequent great dissatisfaction of the capi-
talists with the present régime finds no echo among the population, which, on
the contrary, rejoices When they are Severely treated.
In Capitalist Circles, complaint Was made that unreasonable measures were
often adopted, so that, not merely were the parasitic activities of capital re-
stricted, but obstacles were set up to its functioning in cases where it promotes.
the development of the productive forces. . So far as I was able to investigate
such complaints, I could not become convinced of their justification.
But it is possible, and even probable, that many mistakes of this order were
Committed in the excitement Of a revolutionary period, among the difficulties of
an economic system which had suffered destruction and confusion through the
war, and in view of the lack of resources essential to the needs of capitalist
production, which it is not the business of any capitalist interest to provide.
In the difficult task Of harmonizing the interests of the proletariat with the
development of the productive forces under Capitalist Conditions, occasional mis-
takes on one side or the other could scarcely be avoided.
All the complaints and all the discontent in capitalist circles did not, how-
ever, Crystallize in any important movement Of political Opposition. From this.
side the Social-Democratic government had not the least to fear. The only
chance of democratic opposition was that the capitalists might succeed in
winning over the peasants to their side. But this is unthinkable.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 263
The future of the Socialist régime, on the basis of democracy, depends upon
the peasantry. This is the case not alone in Georgia, but in all states where
the proletariat does not form the majority of the population.
If democracy should be unfavorable to the proletariat, this is not due
to the capitalists, whose numbers are relatively small, but to the peasants.
If the peasants form the majority of the population, and are hostile to the
proletariat, the latter can not hope to establish its rule under democratic
conditions. This fact is certainly unpalatable. It is in no way altered by
the soviet system, which is also obliged to make terms with the peasants, and
grant them peasants' councils.
The division into workers' and peasants’ councils makes the workers the
masters of the towns and the peasants the masters of the countryside. Both
classes may work together quite well so long as One does not interfere with
the other, and each is permitted freedom to act in its own sphere. But, un-
fortunately, in the long run, neither class may exist for itself alone; the
towns have to.rely upon the country, and vice versa. *
Once a common economic organism has been established, the mere form of
the Soviet constitution offers to the town proletariat no greater superiority
over the country people than the system of democracy, assuming that each class
is equally represented.
The fact that the proletariat in Russia has become the preponderating force
was not due to the Soviet constitution. The collapse and dissolution of the
Russian Army took place under conditions which left the Communist Party
and its Soldiers the Only armed force in the State, and, in addition, the
Russian peasants lacked all political discipline, and were without a compre-
hensive political organization.
Where the proletariat, or the proletarian party, belonging to an agrarian
state does not control the armed forces, it can only maintain itself in power
with the support of the peasantry. This support can not even be dispensed
with in cases where the proletariat is backed by arms. For we know as
Marxists that in the last resort State policy is decided not by machine guns,
but by economic necessities. Upon this we base our belief in the effect of a
mass strike. Upon this, too, is based the power of the peasantry in the kind
of state we have been considering. The industrial proletariat is able to
coerce the peasants as little as the peasants can coerce it. They must both
learn to settle their differences peacefully; which is more likely to be done
in a democracy than in a state of permanent separation of one class from the
other.
The problem is not an easy one to Solve. The antagonisms are very great.
The proletarians must aim at the common Ownership and social management
of the means of production, but the peasant is the most tenacious and fanatical
champion of private property in the means of production.
If we should decide upon the policy of immediate and complete socialization,
then this antagonism would inevitably develop into an implacable struggle
between the proletariat and the peasants. But even the Bolshevists have not
adopted this attitude, or else they would not have surrendered the countryside
to the peasants. -
So long as the mode of peasant production remains in existence, its social-
ization is out of the question. Such a measure can only be adopted on the
basis of large-scale management.
The socialization of the great monopolistic undertakings starting with the
mines and forests is as much in the interests of the peasant as of the Working
class, when it is carried out in a manner which will lead to increased pro-
ductivity.
The peasant is certainly skeptical and unsympathetic toward theoretical
Socialism. He is disposed to be friendly toward practical Socialism when it
requires no sacrifice on his part, and achieves what we Socialists expect of it.
In all events, the antagonism of the peasant as the seller and the proletariat
as the buyer of the means of subsistence will persist. But it is not a class
antagonism ; in this manner, the peasants are confronted by the entire popula-
tion of buyers of the means of subsistence, not only all the town dwellers, but
also many village hand workers and land Workers.
In this matter, democracy, in contrast to the Soviet system, would increase
the number of those who would combine with the proletariat against the pro-
ducers of the means of subsistence.
The vital part of any proletarian régime will not be the relation to the
capitalist class, but the connection with the peasants. The capitalists can soon
96153—26—18
264 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
be disposed of, provided the economic conditions permit, and the peasants,
accord their support. .
If the capitalist class should know how to secure the determined and ener-
getic support of the peasantry, the issue would be doubtful, especially in
countries in which the peasants formed the largest class of the population.
In this respect the conditions in Georgia are very favorable. We have seen
that here the Social-Democrats have been the leaders and executors of the
agrarian revolution which liberated the peasants from all the vestiges of
feudalism. e
It is true a similar relation exists also in Russia between the Bolshevists.
and the peasants, and it existed in France in 1789 until the close of the revo-
lution between the majority of the peasants and the Paris revolutionaries. In
these countries the peasants everywhere backed the revolution so long as the
reactionary powers threatened a restoration of feudal conditions. But as Soon
as the danger was over, the peasants went over as one man into the ranks of
the counter-revolution. In places they had already rebelled against the revolu-
tion, as we may recall La Vendee and the latest peasant revolts in Russia.
We have hitherto seen nothing like this in Georgia, nor any indication that a
change will occur within a measurable time. What is the reason for the
difference?
One of the causes which, during the French Revolution, led to peasant revolts
lay in the diversity of the peasants' conditions within the separate Provinces.
of the country. There were some backward districts in which the feudal lord.
and the church functioned as protectors and advisers, and not as exploiters, of
the peasants. When revolutionary France plunged into war, and required
sacrifices from the peasants, especially in the form of recruits, the feudal lords.
had no difficulty in provoking the peasants to rebellion in many of these back-
Ward Provinces.
What remains of the Russian Empire as Soviet Russia is better placed in
this respect. It was far more of a unity after it lost its border States than
was the old French monarchy. Had Russia retained its pre-war territory,
Poland would easily have become far more dangerous than was La Vendee
in 1793.
On the Other hand, another circumstance has influenced the peasant counter-
revolution in Russia to a greater degree than in France. In my book on.
Terrorism and Communism I have already pointed out that the French peasant.
was relieved by the revolution from the necessity of selling corn, as, in addi-
tion to getting rid of the feudal burdens, he was exempted from paying taxes.
This aggravated the task of feeding Paris, especially after the commence-
ment of the war, when large armies became necessary, requiring great quantities.
Of food.
In their need, the townspeople frequently endeavored to assist themselves,
by imposing forcible requisitions on the peasants, which the latter answered,
where they could, by forcible resistance. But this state of affairs did not last
long, as the revolutionary armies soon pressed victoriously over the country’s
borders, and were in a position to feed themselves at the expense of the
national enemies.
This advantage is lacking in the case of Russia. Its agriculture is So back-
ward that only a slight surplus is yielded. If even before the revolution the
peasant sold a great deal of corn, he did so because he and his family were
obliged to go hungry. As in France, heavy tributes were imposed On him by
the state and the landowner; in Order to pay these he Was COmpelled to Sell &
considerable portion of his harvest to the towns and to foreign countries.
Now that the tributes of the state and the landowner have been abolished, the
peasant no longer needs to sell. He sowed his ground more negligently, worked
less and ate sufficient, which he could not do formerly.
But hunger invades the towns.
The plight of Soviet Russia is all the worse because it has lost the most
fertile districts, which yielded the most abundant harvests. Its armies have
been numerous enough to lay waste large tracts of land, but not Sufficiently
victorious to conquer new territory beyond the borders from which to pro-
vision themselves.
The red armies can only extend in the direction of the South, toward the
Caspian Sea, Baku, North Persia, and Turkestan. They appear in these MO-
hammedan countries as allies of Pan-Islamism, as liberators from the yoke of
European Imperialism, and as such are welcomed. But performance assumes
a different shape from the promises. The peasantry of every district are plun-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 265
dered to the utmost. Latterly, Bolshevist sympathies have greatly cooled in
the Mohammedan World.
The peasant in Russia proper can not be dealt with so recklessly as in these
“liberated ” territories. The requisitions made on him are less heavy, although
more than he wants to give, and often more than he can. The dictatorship
is acquainted with only one method of solving every problem—brute force.
The tribute required is forcibly collected from the recalcitrant peasant.
With the exception of peasant revolts and the devastation of villages, this
method has only achieved one thing—the complete suspension Of all efforts On
the part of the peasant to make their industry yield a surplus. The cultiva-
tion of the land deteriorates. Lack of bread and hunger grow.
Once more an appeal was made to force. A demand was being put forward
in Soviet Russia that the peasant should be compelled to raise more crops.
Such compulsory tillage was doomed, just as all previous forcible measures
of Bolshevism have failed which have not been aimed at the destruction of
what is existing but at the construction of a new economy.
The protagonists of Compulsory tillage have not properly considered what
a gigantic apparatus is necessary to compel four-fifths of the population to
do WOrk.
The present population of the towns is not sufficient to supply the necessary
controlling and police force.
But even if the measure could be successful, which is out of the question,
it would be nothing more than an immense revival of the old serf labor, which,
next to slavery, is the least productive kind of labor. It would completely
Seal the economic downfall of Soviet Russia.
One permanent result of all these experiments, if they are continued longer,
or perchance multiplied, would be an increasing bitterness of the peasants
toward the town proletariat. They would immediately transform the peasants
into a reactionary anti-Socialist mass as Soon as the Entente abandoned its
foolish policy of trying to establish a new landlord régime in Russia. Once
this danger to the Russian peasants disappeared, the reaction would have full
scope. It is possible that the parallel to old France might extend to the emerg-
ing of a new peasant emperor from the ranks of the revolutionaries. In the
short period of its existence, the men of the dictatorship have undergone so
many changes that the last-named rôle would not be difficult for many of them
to a SSume.
Even this would find enthusiastic support among those who admire only the
Success Of the moment.
Quite different from Russia have been the lines of development in Georgia.
Instead of dictatorship, that country was ruled by democracy, and the Gov-
ernment could not simply dictate what it liked, and shoot at its pleasure those
who did not obey its instructions. The menace to the food supply of the in-
dustrial population, caused by the liberation of the peasants, exists there as
well as in Russia; the problem is common to all Eastern States which have
passed through an agrarian revolution as a result of the War.
The use of force against the peasants can not be thought of in Georgia.
How, then, can the peasants be induced to produce a surplus and supply it to
the towns?
In considering this question, we should not forget that more than one hun-
dred years have elapsed since the French Revolution. This has modified to
Some extent the problem which arose at that time. Then the village produced
almost everything needed by agriculture—the village hand-worker supplied the
peasants with what the latter did not produce himself. They had scarcely any
need Of the towns.
To-day the peasant is dependent on large-scale industry, which manufac-
tures his implements and often his manure, when it is of an artificial nature.
It supplies him with his clothes, as well as furniture, like iron bedsteads. The
peasant is anxious to have the products of industry, and in exchange for them
is prepared to produce a surplus. The greater the variety of goods that in-
dustry can furnish to him, the more intensively will he work his land, and the
more he will be able to produce.
The development of native industries and of foreign trade, to stimulate the
importation of foreign products, is essential if the peasant is to be induced to
yield a surplus for the towns. The problem is not solved by the mere manu-
facture of paper money. The peasant whistles at this money if it does not
enable him to buy industrial products.
266 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
At bottom, the Bolshevists know this. But their attempt to apply the policy
of immediate socialization has killed native industries, and their foreign propa-
ganda in favor of the world revolution has not achieved the latter, but
brought them the blockade.
The extension of native industries and of foreign trade is the first condi-
tion for an augmented voluntary supply of food to the towns. The second is
the raising of the productivity of agriculture itself. This is particularly neces-
Sary in countries where primitive agricultural methods obtain.
The Georgian Government had realized these facts. Alongside of their
endeavors to extend industry and trade, efforts were made to educate the
peasants by means of model agricultural undertakings and schools, and to
improve the means of communication and to construct drainage works, with
Which we have already dealt. s
Of course, such a program as this can not be carried out without the aid
of large capital resources, which means heavy taxation, not only of the Capi-
talists, but of the peasants as well. An income tax had already been intro-
*: Specially applicable to these two classes, and further taxes were bound
O IOI 10W.
The decisions on this point were likely to be vital for the Social-Democratic
Republic. If the peasants exhibited a willingness to bear this taxation, it
Would have been possible to give better guarantees for the feeding of the towns
than before; to permanently stabilize the exchange, and thereby give a rapid
impulse to the growth of industry and trade, and the improvement of agri-
Culture itself. Georgia would then have surmounted the crisis, which followed
in the wake of the war, more easily and quickly than most of the European
States and gained a secure economic basis. No great extension of agriculture
is needed for the country to become self-supporting. Before the war it pro-
duced five to six million hundredweights of wheat. In addition to this,
about One million hundredweights were imported, but half a million hundred-
Weights of maize were exported. Its deficit in breadstuffs, therefore, amounted
to Only half a million, hundredweights. There was hardly a deficit in the
Case of Other foodstuffs, with the exception of sugar. The difference between
now and formerly lies in the fact that then great abundance prevailed,
and to-day there is scarcity and dearness rather than gross shortage.
The antagonism between Workers and peasants, which would otherwise
be so sharp, is softened by the circumstances just described. Even the imposi-
tion of new taxes need not harden this opposition.
A government emanating from the towns, hostile to the peasant, and not
subject to his control, which demands from him contributions for purely urban
purposes, is quite a different thing from a government which is partly elected
by the peasant, through universal suffrage, is controlled by deputies elected by
himself, and aims at promoting his own welfare together with that of the
town population. y
Only under democratic conditions, and not under a dictatorship, is it
possible to enlist the interest of the peasants in a State that is ruled by the
proletariat.
In Georgia, the relation between the proletariat and the peasants is the best
possible. They worked together cordially in the building up of a new
economy. The peasants were inspired by the greatest confidence in the prole-
tarian leadership, and the latter did all that is possible to further the inter-
ests of the country alongside with its own class interests. This end is
achieved by keeping in the foreground the necessity for increasing the pro-
ductive forces of the country in which both classes are equally interested.
The cooperation of the classes was assisted by the fact that they are often
brought together in personal association. Many industrial workers possess
small plots of land, and many peasants are still Obliged to perform temporary
wage labor. The cooperation of the two classes is not less rendered easier by
the consumers' cooperative societies, which unite town workers and peasants,
than by the fact that the priests as well as the nobles have lost all influence
Over the peasantry. The historical moment, the tradition, which plays such
a big part with the conservative peasant, is in Georgia associated with the
social democracy, as it was the latter which, from the COmmencement led the
struggle for the peasants' emancipation from the Russian bureaucracy and
absolutism, and from native serfdom. Add to this a further motive. As soon
as the peasant emerges from his revolutionary period and becomes the undis-
puted owner of his land, he supports the readiest that government which not
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 267
only respects his property, but also protects it from devastation through
foreign invasion and civil war. This explains the support given by the French
peasants to the victorious Napoleonic Empire, and their hostility to the urban
revolutionaries as soon as the latter appeared to be the instigators of civil
War.
The Social-Democratic government of Georgia has not only liberated the
peasants from the feudal burdens, but its foreign policy, as we shall presently
See, in spite of stupendous difficulties, had till February, 1920, saved the
Country from foreign invasion. Its internal policy of democratic tolerance
and liberty, which did not, however, signify apathy or weakness, but was
Coupled with energy and Conscious initiative, has averted an internal catas-
trophe. Within recent years, When rebellions have broken out almost every-
Where from the Rhine to the Pacific Ocean, Georgia was the only country,
with the exception of German Austria, that has escaped violence. A few at-
tempts at rebellion in outlying districts in the south and the north are hardly
WOrth mentioning.
This peace and security have commended the Social-Democratic régime to
the peasants.
Perhaps in no other country at the present time are the conditions for
friendly relations between the peasantry and the proletariat, and for the sym-
pathetic neutrality Of the former toward industrial socialization so favorable
as in Georgia. -
Thus We find that in this period of revolution the government which was
most firmly supported at home was the Georgian government.
It is true the external situation was of quite a different cast.
CHAPTER X. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF THE REPUBLIC
We have seen that the Social-Democratic Party of Georgia, unlike that of
Poland, functioned, not as an independent party, but as a part of the social
democracy of Russia, as a citadel of Russian Menshevism. But it stood for
the Self-determination of the Georgian as of every other nationality. To
achieve this object, the party did not consider it to be necessary to separate
from the Russian state. It would have been quite satisfied if Georgia had
become One of the states of an allied republic of the United States of Russia.
Not as Georgians, but as Menshevists, it took part in the elections to the
Constituent assembly in November, 1917. In the interest of the whole of
Russia, Tsereteli defended the rights of the assembly on its opening against
the threatened coup d'état of the Bolshevists. He pointed out that the dis-
Solution of the assembly spelt nothing less than the ruin of industry, eternal
Civil War, and the disruption of the Empire. His arguments were answered by
the Bolshevists by means of the force of Lettish infantry and Cronstadt
Sailors. This has not prevented the attitude of Tsereteli being right in the
light of history.
The first consequence of the dissolution of the constituent assembly was the
disruption of the Empire. The centrifugal tendencies obtained the upper hand
in the eastern provinces, in the Ukraine, on the Don, and in Kuban, in Siberia,
and in the Caucasus.
The defection of Transcaucasia took place, not at once, but gradually.
The Transcaucasian deputies, Who had been elected to the constituent
assembly, were increased in number immediately after the elections by such
unsuccessful Candidates as had received the next largest number of votes
joining to form a Transcaucasian Parliament. Previously, the revolu-
tionary Organizations of the district had appointed an executive for its admin-
istration, namely, the Transcaucasian Commissariat, which assumed the char-
acter of a local government. Both these institutions quickly achieved inde-
pendence of Russia, not because they repudiated the central power, but because
the latter deserted the country and left it to itself. The retreating masses of
the Russian Army opened all roads to the pursuing Turks.
If Transcaucasia was not to be overwhelmed by the murderous and destroy-
ing Turk, it was obliged to help itself. Its “commissariat" entered into
negotiations with the Turks and their German allies for an armistice and
peace. It felt that it had been sold and betrayed by the Bolshevist Govern-
ment, and therefore declined to participate in the peace negotiations of Brest-
Iitovsk. It believed that it could better serve the interests of the country if
it pursued its own policy, independent of Russia, and in this has been justified
by the event.
268 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
After the capitulation of Russia at Brest-Litovsk, the complete Separation
of Transcaucasia was a question of Only a few weeks. On April 22, 1918, the
Transcaucasian Republic declared its independence.
This new combination was to remain in existence only for five weeks. Its
COnstituent parts were too diverse.
Georgia represented the leading element but, from the commencement, it
had great difficulty in holding together the other national members Of the Con-
federation—the Armenians, who chiefly dwell in Armenia, and the Tartars, Who
for the most part live in Azerbeijan. \
The Armenians have no greater enemies than the Turks, and the Kurds
who are related to them, who are chiefly Mohammedans. On the Other hand,
the people of Azerbeijan are mostly Mohammedans. They incline toward the
Turks, whereas the Armenians are disposed toward any régime which ShoWS
itself ready to free them from the Turkish danger, whether it be Czarism Or
the Entente. NOW the Georgians demanded complete neutrality, both toward
the Turks and Russia, and complete independence of both. For SOme time the
Georgians were able to recommend this policy to the two other great races
of Transcaucasia. But the Armenian-Tartar antagonism was too strong.
It broke up the Transcaucasian Republic in the exciting days which followed
the peace of Brest-Litovsk.
When the Turks presented an ultimatum to Transcaucasia on May 26, 1918,
the Parliament dissolved and declared the Republic to be ended. On the
same day Georgia proclaimed its independence.
Its foreign policy remained the same as it was during the Transcaucasian
partnership. In the declaration of independence of May 26, it is stated :
The National Council declares—
“(1) Henceforth the people of Georgia exercise sovereign rights over them-
Selves.
“(2) The political constitution of independent Georgia is that of a demo-
cratic republic.
“(3) Georgia will maintain an attitude of constant neutrality in any inter-
national conflicts that might arise.”
Hitherto Georgia has adhered steadfastly to this policy, however difficult
it has been, in View of the great struggles which have been waged on its
borders, and the COnstant temptation. On the part of one or the other of the
great military powers to win Or compel the allied cooperation of the Republic.
The first difficulty arose immediately after the declaration of independence.
The Turkish ultimatum placed Georgia in a desperate position. By itself it
was impotent to resist the Turkish invasion. To protect itself from this inva-
sion, it was obliged to choose the lesser of two evils. It opened the door to
the German occupation, under the agreement reached in Poti, on the 28th May,
between von Lossow and Tchenkeli.”
The German troops came to Tiflis as protectors from the Turks, and were,
therefore, cordially welcomed.
The country was important to the Germans, as a highway to the petroleum
wealth of Baku, and to Persia. They came to Georgia not as plunderers but
as organizers of its productive forces, as they needed the Georgian products,
especially manganese, and also its railways. Thus they brought to Georgia
precisely what was most lacking in the country, and what it could only obtain
speedily by foreign assistance, namely economic organization.
The Germans have been popular in Georgia for a long time, thanks to the
Wurtemberg colonists who settled there a hundred years ago, as peasants, and
retained their nationality until to-day, earning for themselves a good reputa-
tion. The German occupation was further raised by the achievement of troops
in Occupation. Georgia is one of the few countries in this war where the
German Armies have done propaganda work for Germany. Nevertheless, the
Georgian Government decisively rejected the overtures of the Germans to enter
into an alliance With them against Soviet Russia or the Entente.
“The Germans did not succeed in persuading Georgia to form an alliance
with the Central Powers. The attempts of German diplomacy to involve
Georgia in the Russian civil war were equally unsuccessful.
“When in the autumn of 1918 a group of Russian reactionaries attempted
to form an “Astrakhan Army,” the German command proposed to the Georgian
* Memoirs on the relation between the Transcaucasian and Georgian Republic and
Turkey and Germany, p. 21.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 269
“Government to permit the enrollment of volunteers for this army in its terri-
tory.
“The Government of the Republic answered with a categorical refusal.””
The policy of Georgia underwent no change when, after the collapse of the
-German Army and its Allies, the Entente invaded Transcaucasia. Now it was
;the Entente which sought to entangle Georgia in the Russian civil war, and
to draw it into an alliance with Denikin against the Bolshevists. These over-
tures, too, were definitely rejected by the Georgian Government, which contin-
ued to maintain the strictest neutrality. That was not easy, as the conflicting
classes in Russia adopted the attitude of who is not for us is against us.
The democratic country, which had expropriated the ground landlords, was a
thorn in the side of the generals of the counter revolution. The Republic
seemed to be not less inconvenient to the men of the Soviet Republic, if for
Other reasons. They hated Georgian Menshevism right heartily.
Both the dictators, who aimed at restoring Czardom, and the people’s com-
missaries could not bear to think that within their orbit was a free and in-
dependent community, which would not obey the dictates of Moscow. A great
part of the fighting between the Bolshevists and the white troops took place
On the northern borders of Georgia. Sometimes the one and sometimes the
other side, whichever happened to be victorious, attempted to subdue the
free mountain peoples of the Caucasus, and occasionally invaded Georgia, in
order either to set up the reaction, or to provoke a communist rebellion
which would lead to submission to the Moscow régime.
At first it was the Bolshevists who, without any declaration of war, invaded
the coast line of Georgia in the autumn of 1918 and captured Sukhum. The
“Georgian forces pressed them back. The Bolshevists were soon followed by
Denikin’s forces, who seized the territory which had been wrested from Georgia
by the former. Georgia endeavored to negotiate, but Denikin was not dis-
‘posed to do so. He advanced, but was at length thrown back, like the Bol-
shevists. The intervention of the English succeeded in restoring peace.
In the following year the white troops tried to subdue the mountain peoples
in the northern Caucasus, who had won their independence. Georgia re-
mained neutral, but its Sympathies lay with those who had been attacked
and were struggling for their freedom. It protested repeatedly against the
violence of the counter revolutionaries, and numerous Georgian Volunteers
fought in the ranks of the Caucasians.
A rapproachment between the Soviet Republic and Georgia began to take
place at the commencement of 1920. The people's commissaries proposed to the
“Georgian Republic an alliance for common action against the White volunteer
army. This alliance was refused, albeit the Georgian Government considered
that any foreign intervention in Russia and any participation of a foreign
power in the Russian civil war to be wrong and disastrous.
The Government of the Georgian Republic remained true to this attitude,
..and, whenever an opportunity arose, opposition was offered to foreign inter-
vention.
Although an alliance for military purposes was refused, a friendly approach
to Russia was welcomed. Eventually a definite treaty of peace was made with
Soviet Russia (May 7, 1920) whereby both powers mutually recognized each
other, and promised to live in peace and harmony.
Georgia has faithfully observed this peace, but not so the Soviet Republic.
Scarcely had the latter concluded peace than its troops invaded Georgia from
the side of Azerbaijan, which Soviet Russia had Seized shortly before by a
coup d'état. Once more the Georgians succeeded in throwing back the invading
enemy, and again offered peace as Soon as the beaten foe was ready for it.
“Scarcely had peaceful conditions been reestablished than Bolshevists organized
new military invasions from the north, in order to provoke insurrections in
northern Georgia. Almost at the same time (July) a communist conspiracy
was discovered in Abkhasia, having relations with the Russian military com-
mand, and implicating two officials belonging to the Russian mission in Tiflis.
But all these deceits and treacheries had attained no success worthy of men-
tion till February of 1921. This fact demonstrated the firmness as well as the
circumspection and energy of the Georgian Government. It also showed the
•shamelessness of the communists, who were never tired of waxing indignant
sover the terrorism in Georgia, because a few communist conspirators had some-
* Woytinsky Una Vera democrazia.
270 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
times been arrested and condemned to imprisonment, or some communist
newspaper which spread false news had been suspended for a few days.
In the few months prior to February of this year a new storm broke over
the Small but undaunted Republic. At the end of September, 1920, the Turkish
nationalists invaded Armenia.
Soon Russian troops from Azerbaijan proceeded to Armenia, in order to seize
the country and transform it into a vassal of Russia. Both in Armenia and
Azerbaijan Russian troops assembled in a threatening guise, On the borders of
Georgia. This fact compelled the latter to mobilize also.
The language of the Russian representative in Tiflis became increasingly
threatening. In the middle of December, a conspiracy was discovered in Tiflis,
the object of which was to provoke Street fighting in that town, which would
furnish a pretext for the invasion of Georgia by the Russian troops watching
On the border, 60 kilometers from Tiflis. Among the conspirators, officials of
the Russian embassy, were again discovered.
This would have justified the Georgian Government in giving Herr Schei-
mann, the Russian ambassador in Tiflis, his passports, but it contented itself
with asking Lenin to recall Scheimann and replace him by another person, be-
cause his activities disturbed the good relations between the two States.
But Scheimann remained.
Thus at the beginning of January the situation of the Small republic had
become very troubled.
The Bolshevist invasion which threatened in the spring if the Moscow dic-
tators had not themselves been checked, has now come Sooner than was ex-
pected. The fate of Georgia only depended on the strength of her arms.
CHAPTER XI. THE ARMED FORCES OF GEORGIA
The Social-Democrats of Georgia are pacifists in the sense that they abhor
war, and avoid it as much as possible, but not in the sense that they refuse to
meet force with force, and deliver themselves unarmed into the hands of their
Opponents, merely seeking to influence them by words. Where it is threatened
by force, Democracy also requires to defend itself by force.
Thus, when the Social-Democracy of Georgia became a power, it was obliged
to provide itself with weapons. In the revolution of 1905, the Georgian
Social-Democrats urged the arming Of the proletariat, but events taught them
greater wisdom. The possession of arms by the proletariat causes some of
them to have the feelings of bandits, and leads them to individual acts of
violence and Crime. The question Once again became acute in the revolution
Of 1917.
When the delirious joy which marked the beginning was followed by a
soberness, many comrades, even in Georgia, discussed the question of how the
revolution could be defended against a threatened armed attack from the
counter revolution. It thus appeared to be necessary to arm the working class,
but not all workers without distinction.
Only tried and disciplined comrades should receive arms.
The workers' guard was founded on the 5th Of September, 1917.
At the beginning it was of slight account, as it lacked arms. In December
the necessity and likewise the possibility, of arming a larger body of men arose
out of a conflict between the workers of Tiflis and the soldiers’ Council there.
In Tiflis, like everywhere else in Russia, a workers' council had been formed,
and Noe Jordania, afterwards President of the Republic, chosen as president.
The whole power in Tiflis devolved on the workers’ council, when, after the
Bolshevist coup d’état, the Russian armies dissolved, and came Swarming
over the Turkish border. Georgia, whose language they did not understand,
appeared to the Russian soldiers as a foreign country. Naturally inclined to
plunder, as is every army whose discipline has disappeared, they were all the
more eager for plunder in a district where they felt they were foreigners.
Moreover, as the soldiers were dominated by the spirit of Bolshevism, which
at that time meant the complete surrender of the country to the hostile
armies, they were not favorably disposed toward the Georgian Menshevists,
who did not consider the senseless retreat from the by no means Victorious
Turks to be necessary, however much they were convinced of the need for an
immediate armistice and peace. As a matter of fact, the Menshevist Trans-
, caucasian commissariat succeeded in concluding an armistice With the Turks
On the 18th of December. * *
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 271
f
At the beginning of December the disorganized masses of returning soldiers
threatened the security of the population of Tiflis to the utmost. In order to
protect the population, the Tiflis Workers’ Council demanded arms for the
workers' guard. These arms could be obtained only from the arsenal, which
was in the hands of the returned soldiers. The Menshevist Workers' Council
requested of the Bolshevist Soldiers' Council the delivery of weapons for
arming the workers' guard. This the soldiers' council refused.
Thereupon the Workers' council decided to help themselves and to capture
the arsenal. It was a hazardous enterprise. Only 225 armed men were at
its disposal, whereas the Tiflis garrison numbered 20,000 men. Nevertheless,
the stroke was succesful. In the early morning of the 12th of December
they attacked the arsenal and captured it after a short struggle, in which only
One soldier fell. This success revealed the great War weariness, apathy, and
demoralization which had overtaken the Russian Army, as well as the fearless
and defensive capacity of the Georgian proletariat. We have already noted
that all sections of the population of Georgia are characterized by the economic
carelessness and love of enjoyment which is a heritage of feudalism. To
this heritage must also be added a striking valor in the best sense of the Word.
After the 26th of May the date of the Declaration of Independence, the 12th
of December is celebrated in Georgia as a national holiday. On that day
the Georgian Social-Democracy captured the arms to defend itself against
Subsequent attacks.
The workers' guards now disposed of sufficient arms and Were able to Organ-
ize themselves in battalions. Their name varied; first they called themselves
the revolutionary miltia, then the red guard, and finally the people's guard.
. From Tiflis they spread themselves over the whole of Georgia. They Con-
stituted a volunteer army of tried Socialists, and numbered about 30,000 men.
Only a part of them were armed in time of peace, the majority being on fur-
lough, and following their callings. If the Republic had been in danger, they
would have been called up by the general staff, supplied with arms, and allotted
to their places.
The constitution of the guard was democratic. Its affairs were decided by
congresses, to which every 200 men sent a delegate. The guard belonging to
a district selected its officers. Likewise, the general staff is chosen for One
year. Its supreme commander was Valike Jugeli, who was the leader in the
bold stroke of the 12th of December, 1917.
The guard was not under the control of the war minister, but of the Presi-
dent of the Republic.
The military training of the guard was zealously fostered, but the troops
did not develop a military spirit. The people's guards in the barracks re-
mained the same Social-Democratic proletarians as they were outside it, and
their interest was occupied, not by military, but by SOcial questions.
The general staff has formed two sections; one for education and One for
agriculture. The former takes care of the continued education of the guards,
the increase both of their civil knowledge and Of their technical capabilities.
The other section pursues agricultural activities upon Some large estates
which are put at its disposal.
The Austrian popular militia also contains an educational Section, but the
agricultural section is a special feature of the Georgian Guard. This under-
taking is not to be confused with Russian compulsory labor. The Georgian
organization signifies the civilizing of militarism, but the Russian organization
is the militarizing of civil work. In the people’s guard, the Workers who would
prefer to be outsde the army, are not subjected to military discipline, which
would compel them to undertake specific work; but soldiers who would other-
wise stay in barracks without occupation are provided with the opportunity
of breaking the monotony of an unproductive existence by useful and various
activities. Only experience can show whether the guards can do more pro-
ductive work on these large estates than as private workers, but eyen if this
should not be the case, they will certainly be able to reduce the cost of their
maintenance.
The large estates cover a part of the requirements of the guards. We have
here a very interesting experiment, the extension of which deserves serious
consideration. Its maintenance and successful accomplishment in Europe
might lend a more reasonable and tolerable aspect to the enormous European
armies. It is not a specially Socialistic measure; it could be accepted by any
middle-class government, but if this were done, what would become of the
272 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
military contractors? How many European officer corps would not find employ-
ment in useful work below their dignity?
It is not a Socialistic measure to set to Work upon State land soldiers who
are undergoing their period of training, but it might be of importance for the
development of Socialism as a starting point for the establishment of one form
of Socialist agriculture.
In spite of their pronounced peaceable disposition and employment, the
people's guard have shown their readiness for fight on every occasion that has
arisen. Unfortunately such occasions have not lacked, as We have seen.
Voluntary armies alone can not permanently suffice for the Socialist Republic.
The spirit of democracy required participation in military Service of all capable
of bearing arms, which was equally reinforced by the necessity for securing
the Republic against its mighty external enemies.
Thus by the side of the people's guard arose the army of general military
Service. Its definite Shape represents a militia. Similar to the Swiss militia, and
is under the control of the War minister. In the event of war, the regular
army and the Volunteer army are united under the same Supreme Command.
In the general conscript army the war ministry zealously foster educational
activities, and the democratic principle has been widely applied for the first
time among these troops. Yet in this case the officers are not chosen by the
Soldiers, but are appointed by the war ministry. The majority of the officers
are Social-Democrats. As regards the military feeling of the troops and the
relations Of the separate sections of the army, a reasoned judgment can not
be passed by a layman, especially one who is not familiar with the language
and has not had the opportunity for a lengthy observation. I was assured
On Various sides that no jealously existed between the guard and the regular
army.
One thing is certain, that until February the whole army had been entirely
Successful in its compaigns; the entire army was feeling a great enthusiasm
for the independence of the fatherland. It suffered severely from the lack of
arms and munitions.
CHAPTER XII. THE BOLSHEVIST INVASION
In the first period of independent Georgia, its forces had been put to many
hard tests. But its Severest trial came last spring, as the result of the
Bolshevist invasion by the strong Russian forces, simultaneously from the
South, from the north, and from the east.
This treacherous invasion occurred without any declaration of war in the
first half of February. The world first heard of it from the Georgian side.
The Social-Democratic Party and the trade unions, as well as the Federal
Socialist Party, announced positively, together with the Georgian Government,
that Georgia had been invaded by Russian troops, and was threatened to the
utmost.
They expected an immediate and vigorous protest against the proceedings of
Moscow would be forthcoming from the International Socialist Congress at
Vienna.
Unfortunately the telegram arrived late, and, in addition, the Congress was
suffering under the influence of the formidable crisis into which continental
Europe had been plunged by the Senseless demands made on Germany by the
entente. Thus the general interest Was Occupied by Western rather than
eastern politics. Above all, the representations which came from Moscow, and
which decisively denied any invasion of Georgia by the Russian Army, served
to confuse the judgment.
It is not necessary to subject these representations to a detailed examination,
as they answer themselves by their contradictions and inconsistencies.
In order to be able to deny the invasion of Russian troops, it was first
stated that some villages on the Georgian frontier had revolted, embittered
by the tyranny of the Georgians. Some Armenians on the southern border
had given the signal, and then the rebellion spread to Signakh, which lies in
the east of Georgia, towards Azebaijan. Simultaneously, Abkhasia had risen
in the extreme northwest, close to the Russian border.
It is a remarkable fact that the rebellions broke out precisely in those places,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Abkhasia where large and constantly increasing
masses of Russian troops had been quartered since November. J
The inhabitants of some Armenian border villages are supposed to have
insisted on advancing toward Tiflis. The Russian Government stated it had
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 273
endeavored, out of love of peace and benevolence, to help the threatened Georg-
ian régime, and offered its mediation between the Georgians and the Armenians.
It could not help it if Georgia contemptuously rejected this mediation.
But scarcely was Tiflis captured than the picture immediately changed.
The Armenians had discharged their debt, the Armenians could go. No further
mention was made in the Russian telegrams of Armenian rebellions, but
now it suddenly appears that communists had captured Tiflis and Overthrown
the Menshevists.
“Pravda" (in Moscow) congratulates the Georgian comrades, and Says that
“Menshevist Georgia has become the last refuge for the counter-revolution.”
No further references to the Armenian rebellions or to the peace mediations.
Can any reasonable man hold it to be possible that Moscow would have offered
its helpful mediation to the Menshevist Government which was threatened
by Communists?
The later Russian telegrams about events in Georgia brand the first news as
lies. They more closely approach the truth, but do not quite touch it. They
admit that Tiflis was captured by communists, and not by revolting Armenians.
But they would have us believe that it was Georgian workers and peasants
who rose against their own Government and captured Tiflis.
One Moscow telegram stated: “The Georgian Revolutionary Committee an-
nounce the seizing of Tiflis by the revolutionary Georgian Workers and
peasants.”
Thus the same Georgian communists, Who up to January could Only Secure
an insignificant representation in any Worker’s or “peasant’ organization of
Georgia, under conditions of the fullest liberty of legal activity, had suddenly
gained sufficient strength in February to overthrow the Georgian Government.
This is sufficiently remarkable, but more remarkable is the following:
A rebellion of revolutionary Workers usually first breaks out in an industrial
Center, and thence spreads over the remainder of the country. The communist
revolt of the “revolutionary workers of Georgia. * did not break out in Tiflis,
which comprises half of the industrial workers of Georgia, but, as the Russian
report itself establishes, in remote Villages, inhabited by a backward agrarian
population.
In such villages there were, indeed, numerous communists, Well armed, and
led by those who cherished implacable hatred of any Menshevist Organization.
They were the Russian armies, and only they were in a position to lend the
“Georgian Revolutionary Committee’” the strength to advance successfully
against Tiflis, and to seize the town.
If, in spite of all, the Russian Government still attempts to create the belief
that its three strong armies on the Southern, eastern, and northwestern bound-
aries of Georgia refrained from any share in the fight between the communists
and Menshevist Georgia, this is obviously because invasion by the Russian
armies would represent the most impudent and shameless mockery of the prin-
ciples most Sacred to 'every Socialist, which principles even the most hardened
Bolshevists still had doubts about throwing on the scrap heap.
Yet stronger than such doubts is the hatred which the Moscow dictators
cherish against everything which is called Menshevist or Social-Democratic.
They consider this is to be synonymous with counter-revolution, but in reality
they hate it far more than the actual counter-revolution.
They enter into negotiations with capitalist England and America, but they
have sworn mortal enmity to every proletarian organization which accepts the
principle that the emancipation of the Working class must be the task of the
Workers themselves, and that it can not be introduced by the involuntary sub-
mission of the Workers to the commands of Moscow.
The men of the Moscow International endeavor, with the aid of every kind
of lie and every Species of corruption, to Split all Menshevist and Social-Demo-
cratic Organizations. And shall they tolerate right on their borders the Social-
Democratic Republic Of Georgia, this “last refuge " Of Menshevism, as
Pravda said, within the Russian Sphere Of power? Georgia was Menshevist.
Therefore, its death Sentence was pronounced in Moscow.
CHAPTER XIII. THE MOSCOW BONAPARTISM
The Menshevism of Georgia is the most important, but not the only cause
of the Bolshevist invasion. The World policy Of Moscow forms another reason.
As Czardom did formerly, so now Bolshevism, although from quite different
standpoints, regards England as the greatest and most dangerous enemy of
274 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Russia. And this great empire seems by its geographical position alone among
all the powers of the world to control the road on which England can be dealt
a blow, and brought to her knee, without the mastery of the seas, namely, the
road to India.
Soviet Russia is now playing with the grandiose idea of Napoleon the First,
to attack England in India. Napoleon came to grief by the first step which he
took, as he could not Stand up against the English at Sea. Without the Victory
Of the English at sea, his failure to penetrate into the interior of Asia would
have been much more inglorious, as it would have by mere insufficiency of the
means of transport prepared for him a Moscow at the very beginning of his
military Career.
Soviet Russia does not need to repeat the first step of Napoleon. It can com-
mence with the second. The has lost none of its difficulties, as a far larger
army is necessary for the Conquest Of India to-day than was the case at the
end of the eighteenth century. The Russians can hardly get very far without
great railway construction. Such Works are out of the question in the present
condition of Russian industry. However, the plan is bold, and in boldness the
Bolshevists equal Danton and the first Napoleon. In this quality, and not in
their positive achievements, rests the great power Of attraction which they ex-
ercise over so many persons who live far from their jurisdiction.
One of the stages of the road to India is Persia, into which the Bolshevists
have already penetrated, although unsuccessfully, last year. At that time, their
basis was too narrow. It would be considerably broadened by the possession
of Georgia. Thus Moscow world policy required this country for further mili-
tary progress.
As chance had it, Rosta at the same time as it announced its account of
the Georgian conflict had the following dispatch from Moscow : “On February
28 an agreement was signed in Moscow between Russia and Afghanistan.”
The conquest of Georgia is a part of Russia’s eastern policy directed against
England. *x
The likeness to the policy of Napoleon is a close one and has already been
pointed out. But the resemblance is more than a mere chance. We are struck
more and more with the manner in which the course of the great French
Revolution, has been repeated in that of Russia, although the international
situation and ideology are of quite a different Order to-day than at the end of
the eighteenth century.
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and J. J. Rousseau are scarcely read to-day ; Marx
dominates the hour, and present-day Russia is not, like the France of 100
years ago, the most highly developed, but the most backward of the Countries
of the European Continent. But the principal tasks, agrarian reform and the
Overcoming of absolutism, corresponded in Russia in 1917 so closely With those
Of France in 1789 that Since that date the revolution here has followed the
same stages as there, only in Russia. With younger and simpler social sections
in considerably grosser forms. *
Here, as there, we find first of all a middle-class revolution. In France it
developed into the reign of terror of the Jacobins, who were supported by the
lower classes, especially in the capital. In Russia the reign of terror of the
Bolshevists, who proclaim the dictatorship of the proletariat.
In order to maintain themselves the Jacobins found themselves obliged to
substitute for the bureaucracy the police and the army of the old régime,
which had been abolished by the revolution, a new police and army, much
stronger and more Centralized than the old, and therefore established that
machinery of domination which was to lead to the empire of Napoleon.
The Bolshevists have found themselves obliged to pursue the same course.
Gradually they have more and more restricted the Self-government of the
Working class in the domain both of economics and politics, created an all-
powerful police apparatus, proclaimed the dictatorship of the factory chiefs,
reduced the soviets to a shadow, and instead have built up a great, strictly
disciplined army, to Which all that remains of Russian industry is subservient.
Thus Soviet Russia has entered upon a phase of the revolution which cor-
responds with the third phase of the French Revolution, viz, the phase of
absolutism and the domination of the police and military forces.
We may class this the Bonapartist phase. The victorious general is, indeed,
lacking. Meanwhile Russia is in the Stage of the consulate of the two consuls,
Lenin and Trotsky.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 275
Like the Moscow Bonapartism, its French predecessor derived from the
revolution the allurements of which it retained, whereby so many enthusiasts
have been deceived. It is notorious that the fiery republican, Beethoven, Was
in 1804 an enthusiastic worshipper of Napoleon, immediately before the latter
made himself emperor. Napoleon passed as the incarnation of the revolution
only because the reactionary powers hated him as much as the revolution
itself, although the Napoleonic empire already possessed a character which
distinguished it fundamentally from the revolution.
The present-day Moscow régime has as little in common with the proletarian
dominance of the State as the French Empire at the beginning of the last
century had with the Republic.
The so-called Soviet Republic of to-day does not rest upon the power of the
proletariat, but on the strength of its army and on the impotence of the
proletariat against this army. As the strength of the army grows so the power
of the rulers of the State increases, but simultaneously grows their dependence
on the only element on which they are able to support themselves, the military.
Accordingly a new militarism is arising in Russia and likewise a new imperial-
ism. For the latter the impulse toward constant extension of power and fields
of exploitation is peculiar to militarism as well as to capitalism. The need for
employing his army and constantly providing fresh booty and advantages drove
Napoleon to that restless policy of conquest which finally collapsed at Moscow.
The same conditions are to-day creating in Russia similar efforts on the part
of the Moscow imperialism.
To this policy Georgia has now been sacrificed.
It is important to make this quite clear. The effect upon us would be
disastrous if it were a genuinely proletarian Republic which had suddenly
invaded another proletarian Republic, a small, friendly, and peaceful com-
munity. To invade it without any declaration of war, in the midst of peace,
was indeed an infamy more wicked than the German invasion of Belgium in
1914. For then Germany was engaged in a war for its existence, and the in-
vasion was an episode of the World War. The Bolshevist invasion threatens
to paralyze the Whole of the Socialist propaganda against the war and to brand
it as humbug.
Never before have wars wrought such destruction as to-day of technical
appliances for the needs of production and of communication, and never be-
fore was peace SO essential to the prosperity of the peoples.
It brings consolation, encouragement and hope to large sections of people
when We Socialists point out that it is capitalism alone that renders War
inevitable, and that the proletariat is the force that will bring peace and
maintain it.
The world rule of the proletariat would be synonymous with lasting world
peace | And now we have two Republics, governed by the proletariat, existi-
ing side by Side, and One makes war upon the other with a treachery that is
:Seldom met With among capitalist governments.
Were Russia still a proletarian republic, the events in Georgia would inflict
a serious blow on the whole of our propaganda, in which we describe the
proletariat as the firmest support of peace.
Yet, in reality, the Russian proletariat has borne no share in the invasion
of Georgia, because it has ceased to exercise political power in Russia. We
are justified in continuing to assert that the general rule of the proletariat
will Secure lasting world peace; that between two states, equally governed
py the proletariat, no occasion for war will any longer arise; and that the
international Solidarity of the workers will be strong enough to settle peace-
fully any possible conflicts between two proletarian states.
For the Russia which has just made this execrable invasion into Georgia
is no longer a proletarian, but a Bonapartist community. *
Far from rejoicing Over the conquest of Georgia, the proletariat of Russia
vigorously condemned it, as was shown by the protest issued in Berlin on
March 3 by the foreign agency of the Social-Democratic Labor Party (signed
loy Abramovitch and Martoff). In Russia itself the proletariat is muzzled, and
can not express itself freely, but the Social-Democratic Party, that is, the
Menshevists, is competent to speak in its name. Times have changed since
IBolshevism forced Menshevism into the background and won to its side the
mass of the workers in the large towns. This was the case in the autumn
of 1917, when the craving for peace outweighed every other consideration
among the masses, and the Bolshevists gave to it the most powerful and
unequivocal expression.
276 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Since that time the domination of Bolshevism has become synonymous with
constant war, with hunger and poverty, and also with the complete suspen-
sion of every kind of liberty of movement for the proletariat. Peace and
freedom are to-day most stoutly championed by the Menshevists; the mass
Of the Russian proletariat turns more and more toward them; and the
Bolshevists attempt in vain, by all means of electoral shuffling, corruption,
intimidation, bloody terror, to dam the rising tide of opposition.
The invasion of Georgia has been undertaken, not with the concurrence,
but against the wishes of the Russian proletariat. The latter is free from
the latest Moscow blood guilt.
We are entitled to expect that the entire international proletariat, so far
as it does not obey the behests of Moscow, will unanimously indorse the
protest of Our Russian comrades.
The fear is groundless that such a protest will strengthen French and English
imperialism, which is hostile to Soviet Russia. Quite the contrary. We
blunt the points of our weapons in the struggle against the imperialism of
the capitalist powers, if we are afraid to denounce imperialism when it
arises out of a proletarian revolution, and discredits the latter. It is our
business to remove the influence of imperialist ways of thinking from the
proletariat. How can we do this if we tolerate an imperialism which
masquerades in the name of the proletariat?
Yet another factor renders it necessary for the Social-Democratic parties ,
Of the World to make a decisive stand against the Moscow Bonapartism.
The close parallel which exists between the course which the Russian
revolution has hitherto followed and that of the great French Revolution
must not blind us to the differences between the two events. In the eighteenth
century France was the most progressive state of the European continent.
TO-day Russia is still the most backward amongst the great States of Europe.
Although the French Bonapartism constituted a strong reaction from the
Republic, its policy of expansion brought many improvements to the rest of
Europe. The present Moscow Bonapartism is not only reactionary in relation
to the proletarian revolution of Russia, out of which it arose, but even more
so in comparison with the proletarian movements of the rest of Europe, which
it seeks to fetter.
A further distinction exists between the Old Bonapartism of Paris and the
new one of MOSCOW.
No class-conscious proletariat existed at the time of the great French
revolution. The proletarian sections formed a tail to the small middle class,
an extremely divided and unreliable class, which constantly Swayed between
obstinate resistance and cowardly submission, between anticapitalist discon-
tent and capitalist covetousness.
At the time of the revolution this class was without the slightest political
experience. However wild its conduct had been during the reign of terror,
it was an easy matter for the empire to paralyze this class. The empire
was confronted with no other serious opponents than the old legitimate foreign
dynasties, which could not forget the revolutionary Origin of the new emperor,
For continental Europe at that time there were two alternatives, either bona-
partisan or the holy alliance.
To-day we are far removed from this. The revolutionary struggle is con-
ducted not by the small middle class, but by the proletariat, a class which,
in contrast to the former is of a homogeneous character and pursues a single
object. It will not make terms with capitalism, and much less will it permit
any restrictions on its liberty of movement. The workers are not always
conscious of the Socialist objective of their class struggle, as was shown in
the case of the English workers for more than a generation after the disap-
pearance of Chartism, but in all countries, and under all circumstances, they
zealously guard their freedom of movement. At times they may be sup-
pressed and forcibly held down, but this policy becomes more difficult as
they grow in numbers, as their political and organizing experience extends,
and as they become more indispensable in an economic sense.
For decades the proletariat has waged the Class struggle in an open and
Organized manner.
Under these circumstances the new Russian Bonapartism is faced with
Quite a different situation from that of the old French Bonapartism. The
wOrld is no longer Confronted with the choice of two alternatives, submission
to the dictation of the new absolutism, born of the revolution and the reaction;
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 277
that is, between Moscow and the Entente. A third possibility exists—the
overthrow of the Moscow Bonapartism from within by means of the strength-
ening of proletarian freedom, which is best represented by the growing power
of Socialist opposition.
The victory of the Alliance over Napoleon signified the triumph of reaction
and the defeat of the peoples of Europe for a generation. But this victory
was rendered unavoidable by the excesses which are necessarily bound up with
Bonapartism.
The victory of the capitalism of the Entente over Soviet Russia would like-
wise signify the victory of reaction and facilitate the defeat of the European
proletariat even if not for so long as a generation nor to the same degree as
before. In any event, the proletarian class struggle would be considerably
hampered.
Consequently, the workers of all countries, whatever their opinions of the
Bolshevist methods, have resisted the efforts of the Entente to crush Soviet
Russia.
But this does not imply that the Russian Bonapartism should be defended
against all criticism, especially against that which proceeds from the Men-
shevists. This is called the defense of the Russian revolution, but is merely
a defense of the exploiters of this revolution against the Social-Democratic
opposition, which would be best able to maintain and extend the revolutionary
achievements.
Not Boshevism, but this opposition, is now the real support of the Russian
revolution. Its fate depends upon the victory of this opposition and its speedy
victory.
Russia is a peasant State and will remain so far a long time. Russia’s.
political future rests upon this fact, whichever class or party may succeed
in gaining the leadership of the peasants, who are not fitted to pursue an
independent class policy.
Hitherto the Russian peasantry has followed the proletarian leadership.
The practice of the Bolshevists tends more and more to alienate the peasants
and to make them disposed to accept a capitalist or any other kind of counter-
revolutionary leadership.
It is not alone the victory of one of the counter-revolutionary generals.
which threatens to make Russia once more the citadel of reaction, but also
the transference of the allegiance of the peasants to the other side. This
Would be detrimental to the class struggle in Europe as well as in Russia.
The defection of the peasants who have hitherto been revolutionary and
led by the proletariat can only be arrested by the substitution of the Men-
shevist methods, so successfully practiced in Georgia, for the existing Bolshe-
vist methods. Thus the most urgent need of the hour and the best means
of Saving the jeopardized revolution is the overcoming of Bolshevism by
Menshevism. --- - -
*---------
It is the duty of the Social-Democrats of all countries to assist Menshevism
to the utmost extent of their power. This is the same thing as working for
the triumph of the methods of little Georgia. It still lies crushed and mis-
handled by its overwhelming opponent, but simultaneously the ideas which
inspired it and made it capable of great things are sweeping over the giant
empire of its oppressor. Russia will only be able to prosper when it is ani-
mated by the Spirit that inspired Georgia. This will constitute the revenge of
the Social-Democratic Republic of the Caucasus.
;
f
APPENDIX NO. 12
ALLIANCE BETwFEN THE REPUBLICs of ARMENIA, AZERBAIDJAN, NORTH CAU-
CASIA, AND GEORGIA, JUNE 10, 1921
The undersigned, representative of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaidjan,
Northern Caucasus, and Georgia, animated by the desire to assure the peoples
of Caucasus the benefits of independence, of democratic rule and economic
prosperity, and anxious to eliminate all causes for differences between these
Bepublics and to found their close solidarity on a firm basis, declare as
follows:
First. The foresaid representatives recognize unanimously that Caucasus,
isthmus with distinctly fixed limits between Europe and Asia, is because of
its geographical situation, the great international road connecting the Black
and Mediterranean Seas with the countries of central Asia and interior Asia,
and that the freedom of this road, to the interest of all the peoples, can only
be assured on the conditions of the complete independence of the Caucasian
Republics and of the establishment of an alliance among them.
Second. The representatives of the aforesaid Republics are unanimous in
recognizing equally that in order to consolidate the independence of the above-
mentioned Republics and to place Caucasus in a position to serve as connection
between the Occident and the Orient as well as between the Christian and
Mohometan world, it is indispensable that an intimate and fraternal union
be established among all its peoples.
Third. Wishing to remove all the causes for conflicts which have unfortu-
nately arisen in the past among the Caucasian peoples, and in order to accom-
plish as soon as possible the solidarity and friendship among these peoples
united by secular basis of neighborhood and by their common historic destinies,
the Caucasian Republics decide to henceforth resolve, by means of compulsory
arbitration, all strifes or differences now existing or arising among them in
the future, and especially litigations concerning frontiers.
Fourth. Considering that in order to attain the objects aimed at in the pres-
ent declaration a complete concordance of purpose and unity of Orientation
are indispensable in the domain of their foreign policies, the Caucasian Repub-
lics will abstain from any engagement, act, or understanding of international
Character capable of causing detriment to the alliance in general or to one of
its members; and they will contribute, in matters of foreign policies, to the
unity and coordination of action of the different Caucasian States united by
the treaty of alliance.
Fifth. Considering the independence of each of the peoples of Caucasus as
intimately united to the independence of the other Caucasian peoples, the
aforesaid Republics, with reference to the defense of each of them and of all
together against foreign aggressions, conclude a defensive military alliance.
Sixth. In view of the common economic interests of all the people of Cau-
casus, a community of which they are all deeply conscious, and in order to
strengthen the political Solidarity of these peoples, the undersigned declare
that the customhouse boundaries as well as all other obstacles to free circu-
lation among the territories of the different Caucasian Republics are abolished
and that the aforesaid Republics will henceforth form a custom union and a
single territory for transit for international commerce.
Seventh. In establishing the relations of alliance on the principals indicated
above, the Caucasian Republics are animate by a sincere desire to establish,
on the basis of their complete independence and the inviolability of their ter-
ritories, relations of friendship, and of neighborly feeling with the neighboring
States, namely, Russia, Turkey, and Persia. At the same time, the representa-
tives of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Northern Caucasus, and
Georgia declare that these republics are prepared to give, at the time of the
regulation of their relations with Russia, impartial (just) satisfaction to the
economic interests which the latter may have in Caucasus. The interests of
Persia with respect to the trade of Europe, will also be safeguarded. On the
278
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 279
other hand, attaching no less importance to the establishment of relations of
friendship and of good neighborly feeling with Turkey. The Caucasian Re-
publics will try to consolidate by their common efforts these relations on the
basis of the observation and respect shown by Turkey for the inviolability of
the territories of Caucasus in its boundaries of 1914. Considering also that the
nonsolution, up to the present time, of the Armenian question in Turkey has
constituted one of the principal obstacles to the establishment of a union of
the Caucasian States, to the great detriment of their evident interests, the rep-
resentatives of these States find that a prompt and just territorial delimination
of Turkey and Armenia conforming to their mutual interests, in the boundaries
of Turkey, will be one of the pledges of peace and of calm in the Near East and
that the solidarity and visibility of the Caucasian Republics, and of their
union, will depend in a large measure on this regulation, to the termination of
which the Caucasian State will.contribute by their common efforts.
Eighth. Believing that the moral and political cooperation of the powers is
assured for the cause of the independence of the Caucasian Republics, already
recognized by several international acts, the Governments of the aforesaid re-
publics will endeavor to strengthen by their common efforts their political,
commercial, and industrial relations with foreign States and to establish con-
ditions suitable for facilitating the cooperation of foreign capital, for the
development of the natural riches of Caucasus.
Ninth. The representatives of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaidjan, north-
ern Caucasus, and Georgia firmly convinced of the necessity for the union of
the independent Republics of Caucasus, for the maintenance of order and
peace in the Near East, declare that it will not be possible to attain the aims
held in view by their respective States unless the neighboring powers respect
the political independence as Well as the territorial integrity of the aforesaid
Republics; they declare in addition that the occupation in 1919, 1920, 1921
by the armed forces of Russia and Turkey of the territories of these Republics
constitutes a flagrant violation of their rights and is a source of future dis-
turbance and that all means of diplomatic action should be employed in order
to put an end to this illegal Occupation and reestablish order as soon as
possible.
Tenth. The representative of the Caucasian Republics declare that all the
treaties and arrangements concerning the cessions of territories and imposed
on the Caucasian States by the neighboring powers, as well as all privileges
or concessions granted to anyone in Armenia, Azerbaidjan, northern Caucasus,
and Georgia, by authorities, groups, or organizations which have not issued
from the freely expressed will of the peoples of these Republics, are deproved
Of all legal value and Will be considered as null and Void.
Executed at Paris, June 10, 1921, in four copies.
A. AHARONIAN,
President of the Delegation from the Republic of Armenia.
A. M. ToPTCHIBACHOFF,
President of the Delegation of the Republic of Azerbiadjan.
A. M. To HERMOEFF,
President of the Delegation of the Republic of Northern Caucasus.
A. J. To HENKELI,
Eaxtraordinary Envoy and Plenipotentiary
Minister of the Republic of Georgia.
Duplicate copy to first secretary of the Legation of Georgia.
APPENDIX No. 13
TEIE CAUCASIAN REPUBLICS
By Vasili D. Dumbadze, General Diplomatic and Economic Representative of
the Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
IN BEAUTIFUL CAUCASIA
NOE JORDANIA
President of the National Government of Georgia.
The scholarly President of the Georgian Republic is typical of the patriotic
men of Caucasia who preserved the ideals of nationalism. His brilliant
articles in the Georgian newspapers heartened the adherents of democracy
and inspired the youth of the nation. Twice imprisoned for his liberal views,
his name and fame as a leader spread throughout Europe.
Mr. Jordania was of noble parentage, born at Lantschchuty, in Western
Georgia, January 2, 1869. He was educated for the clergy in Tiflis, after-
wards attending the medical college in Warsaw. As the editor of a newS-
paper in Tiflis, he entered upon his career as an exponent of Social democracy
and the economic development of his country, being elected to the First
Russian Duma in 1905. He was active in the rebirth of the nation and led
his party in 1917 as president of the original central committee of Trans-
caucasia. He was elected President of Georgia, in 1918, and transferred the
Government to Paris, upon the invasion of the Bolsheviks in 1921, refusing
to compromise with the soviets, who urged him to return to Georgia. “I
.can not consent to government by assassination,” he said in a booklet, “My
Answer,” “and will not return until my country is freed from Bolshevism.”
FOREWORD ,
There have been written many versions of what has happened in the
Caucasus, subsequent to the breakdown of Imperial Russia. Most of the
published accounts are in the German, French, and Russian languages and
concern largely the activities of these nationalities in their Caucasian relations.
Books and articles that have been written in English, while in some in-
stances quite comprehensive, do not fully reveal the motivating forces that
led to the formation of the Republics of the Caucasus, largely within the
territorial boundaries of the ancient Georgian Kingdom. Such articles as
have appeared in American publications are largely fragmentary and sketchy.
In most of the literature that has been published there is a lack of Con-
tinuity and unfortunately a superficial knowledge Of not Only the past but
more immediate political history of the long existent nationalities that are
now united into a Confederation of the Caucasian Republics, through overrun
by the red army of Moscow, and held under the soviet dictatorship.
The narrative Of the struggle of the Caucasian States to maintain their
national independence and sustain their international relations has not hitherto
been assembled in One Work.
In view of the international importance of these submerged nationalities
and their relations to the unsettled problems of Europe and America, I have
prepared this brief account, which is drawn from various addresses and
talks at informal luncheons, and dinners to which I have been invited, at
the Metropolitan, University, Lotus, Lawyers, and National Republican Clubs,
and the National Civic Federation, all of New York City.
WASILI D. DUMBADZE.
280
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NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 281
NATIONALITIES THAT WEBE REBORN
I. The new Republics of middle Europe that were dissevered from Imperial
Bussia and the German and Austrian Empires, and attained their national
independence after the World War, form an uninterrupted chain from Finland
to Czechoslovakia. At the southernmost border of Russia is another group
Of non-Russian people, known in recent history as the Caucasian Republics.
They occupy the ancient trade highway of Europe and Asia, between the
Black and Caspian Seas, and embrace the territory of the Caucasus, stretch-
ing from beyond the northern slopes of the Caucasian Range, including the
range itself and down to the northern Persian and Turkish borders—in geo-
graphical extent about equal to New England and New York—with a popula-
tion of approximately 14,000,000.
NEGLIGENCE OF THE GREAT POWERS
. In the realignment of middle Europe, the protecting hand of the powers
Was extended to the new buffer States between Russia and Germany, but
they gave to the new Republics of the Caucasus little else than formal recog-
Inition. The result of this unfortunate neglect has been to precipitate in
the very Cock-pit of the Near East a conflict that has not diminished in the
aftermath of the World Peace, nor been solved by the recognition of the
principles of international law. The Republics of the Caucasus, nominally
free, are deprived by force of their sovereign rights.
IMPORTANCE TO AMERICANS
While the counsellors of the great powers at the Peace Conference were
agreed that most of the new democracies that were born in war could not
Stand alone, the people of the Caucasus, whose independence was reborn, were
extended no permanent protection, though they fought with the Allies during
the War. After gaining and maintaining their independence from Bolshevik
Russia, they were left a prey to the treachery of the Moscow terrorists and
the threatening incursion of their southern neighbors, the Turks. They became
a victim of both, while entitled to expect support that was so freely extended
by Europe and America to the other new neighboring Republics, whose inde-
pendence was recognized coincident with theirs. The great powers gave them
insufficient assistance and ineffective mandatory protection in the maintenance
of their established sovereignties, though both these principles were recognized
as essential in the maintenance of their independent state.
To-day these Near East Republics of the Caucasus are suffering under the
Crushing rule of Bolshevism. Their problem of sustaining the national exist-
ence that is theirs by right of demonstrated self-determination and interna-
tional recognition is of far-reaching importance to the peace and commerce of
Europe and the Near East, as well as of humanitarian, religious, and economic
interest to the United States. Theirs is a cause that concerns the civilized
world, for it involves the whole problem of the spread of the godless and
chaotic disorder of Bolshevism.
TEIE INCUBUS OF WORLD REVOLUTION
The conditions that exist in the Caucasus is not a remote and vague theorem
but an actual and living issue that touches the world’s hearthstones and con-
cerns the world’s economic life, for the destructive sophistries of communism
and the political aspirations of the Third International and the Moscow doc-
trine of world revolution are as dangerous to European and American civili-
zation as they have demonstrated themselves to be blighting to Russia and
the Caucasus and menacing in the Near and Far East. These doctrines and
the activities of their disciples are international in their reach and proclaim
the violent break-up of every form of government and religion by establishing
the “dictatorship of the proletariat” and the Sovietized irreligious cult of
atheism.
In the Caucasus the Bolshevik reigns. Let us glance at the picture and
consider the historic, political, and economic past and present of these peoples
and their claim to the attention of the civilized World, for they are amnog
those races that “present the greatest humanitarian opportunity of the age,”
and upon whose destiny depends the “world's peace at the World’s crossways,
the focus of war infection since the beginning of history.” "
1 Report of Major General Harbord, of 1919, upon conditions in the Near East.
282 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
THEIR. GREAT NATURAL WEALTH
II. The Caucasus—the southern part of which for 20 centuries was the
ancient Kingdom of Georgia, and more remotely the land of Colchis and Iberia,
the legendary site of the Garden of Eden and the cradle of the Aryan race—is.
now divided into four newly formed Republics. They include Azerbaijan, with
its vast pertoleum fields at Baku on the Caspian Sea ; Georgia, with its great
manganese deposits, and the western terminal of the Transcaucasian railroad
and pipe lines, on the Black Sea ; North Caucasia, embracing the Grosny oil
deposits, the buffer State to the south of Russia that took the brunt of the
armies of Denikin and the Bolshevik raids; and Armenia, overrun by the
Savage Kurds and the scene Of horror and famine that yet invokes the aid of
the charitable WOrld.
STRATEGIC INMPORTANCE
That these regions were of momentous Strategic as well as material concern
to the Allies and the Central Powers during the Great War is well known. '
The Turk Crossed the mountains and plains Of Armenia to extend the Otto--
man Empire to the Caucasian Range; Germany made a fruitless effort to gain
a foothold in Georgia, in the summer of 1918, at the eve of the great conflict;
British troops scaled the lofty passes of Persia to protect Baku and to assist
Georgia in counteracting the Bolshevik menace and its spread toward India ;-
and, finally, Moscow sent its red army down the Caspian and Black Sea lit-
torals and Over the Caucasian Mountains to recover what Imperial Russia had
lost and to Open the door of Bolshevik penetration in Asia Minor and India.
In those critical days, when the life of Europe was threatened, Transcau-
casia was the key of the Near Eastern situation. The strategic and economic'
importance of the Republics of the Caucasus has not diminished, though their
independence is unsustained and the freedom that was theirs suffers under
the rule of the Cheka and an imposed dictatorship from Moscow.
THEIR RIGHT TO LIVE
That the Republics of the Caucasus have a right to live and maintain their
independent state is demonstrated by their history. They occupy a territory
and embrace a people never wholly conquered by the invading races of the
earlier centuries nor merged or brought under the permanent yoke of Imperial
Russia or Mohammedan Turkey. They have preserved their language, racial
identities, religious and national status, despite the intermingling of alien
hordes, for over 2,000 years,
THE HEROIC STRUGGLE OF GEORGIA
All eastern races, from the Babylonians down, in turn unsuccessfully at-
tempted to dominate the Caucasus, whose history goes back 5,000 years. Chris-
tianity came to Georgia in the second century and was adopted early in the
fourth as a State religion, displacing the worship of fire. In the eleventh cen-
tury the Caucasian isthmus, from earliest times the natural trade route be-
tween Europe and Asia, was the battle field Of invading Mongols. In the
fifteenth century, isolated from Christian Europe by the capture of Constanti-
nople by the Turks, the Kingdom of Georgia found herself in the midst of a
secular struggle against the hordes of Mussulmen and Persians who ravaged
her people, burned her cities and villages, and threatened her existence.
The history of these centuries reveals the heroism and extraordinary gal-
lantry of the Georgian people. The fame of the powerful King Irakly II, in the
second half of the eighteenth century, Spread throughout Europe. To him,
Frederick the Great of Prussia liked to compare himself. “I, in Europe, and
the invincible King Irakly in Asia,” was his boast, and SO great was his esteem
for the Georgian King that he caused military medals to be stamped bearing
Irakly’s portrait and the inscription, “Fight like this lion of Georgia.”
A FRIENDLY TREATY WITH RUSSIA
But despite her continuous opposition to the Islamic tide, the crushing
majority of her enemies forced Georgia to turn to her Christian neighbor,
Russia, for protection and alliance. Out of her appeal came “a treaty of
friendship” with Catherine the Great, in 1783, the terms of which proclaimed
the equal sovereign rights of the two nations and guaranteed, on the part of
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 283
Russia, to treat the enemies of Georgia as her own enemies, and to assist her
in regaining territory overrun by the Turks. In return for this, the Georgian
IKing promised to consult Russia in relation to his foreign engagements. But
Russia never fulfilled the obligations imposed upon her by this treaty. When
the Turks and Persians, infuriated by this alliance, invaded Georgia, She Was
left unaided to defend herself against her enemies.
The goal of Russian policy is expressed in Doctor Dillon’s book, The Eclipse
of Russia, in which he quotes a Russian diplomat as saying:
“The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance. We made
it. Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days. Being attacked
by Persia, they claimed our active help as equals and allies. But we answered
we were too busy elsewhere, and left them to their fate. Whereupon the
Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three, so that the
nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came to us a second
time, now no longer as equals and allies, but as humble suppliants.”
RUSSIA’s FORCEFUL ANNExATION OF GEORGIA
Russia's method of subjugating Georgia was only too successful. The Tsarist
Government did not hesitate to take advantage of Georgia’s weakened state.
In 1801 it annexed, in open violation of the treaty of 1783, the entire territory
of the Georgian Kingdom, and by that edict declared it a Russian Province.
Proudly boasting of this usurpation, the Emperors of Russia assumed the title
of “Tsars of Georgia.” Both England and France made a formal protest
against the unlawful act.
Georgia was not actually conquered by Russia. Only by open violation of
the treaty of alliance which Georgia had concluded in good faith, was the Rus-
sian Tsar enabled to bring the Georgian Kingdom under his Scepter. That the
Russians became masters of Georgia by victorious warfare is not the historical
fact. By a breach of international law Russia established her overlordship
of this part as the Caucasus. Russia's subjugation of Georgia was completed
by the annexation of Mingrelia (in 1803) and Imeretia (in 1810), formerly
independent principalities and parts of the ancient Georgian Kingdom.
GEORGIAN BIIGEI IN CZARIST GOVERNMENT
But in spite of the advantage taken of her momentary weakness, Georgia
remained loyal to Russia which insured her the preservation of her Christian
religion. Following the annexation of Georgia, many Caucasians attained
prominence in the Russian Government. In Imperialist armies and as gov-
ernors of provinces Caucasian men occupied high posts and influenced the destiny
of Russia. The distinguished Russian prime minister, Witte, well known in
America for his activities in connection with the Portsmouth peace treaty dur-
ing the Russian-Japanese War, gives in his memoirs (Vol. III, pp. 37 and 44)
high praise for the loyalty, honesty, and courage of the Caucasians, “thousands
and thousands of whom,” he says, “ have shed their blood for the honor of
the Russian sword. * * * Caucasian generals have left behind the most
brilliant pages in Russia’s military history.”
FOUGHT WITH THE ALLIES
The Officials of the Caucasian vice royalty, however, were chiefly Russians
because the Czarist Government followed a policy of disrupting the national
sentiments of non-Russian minorities, by imposing local administration by
Russians. Thus in Czarist days Georgians and the other Caucasians seldom
found an opportunity of devoting their abilities to the direct benefit of their
own country, with the only exception of the small number who yielded to the
Russification policy and abandoned their native tongue and traditions. To
liberate her Provinces, lost to Turkey, Georgia gave full support to Russia
in the three wars against Turkey in the nineteenth century, and lastly in 1914,
When Georgia mobilized, apart from those special Georgian Volunteer corps
fighting on the Caucasus front, about 200,000 of her best manhood in the cause
of the Allies. These Georgians who followed Russia's call to arms, faithful
to their duty, were, however, not permitted to defend their country against
the Turk, but sent away to perish in the fields of East Prussia and Galicia.
The nation as a whole cherished the belief that the victory of the allied cause
would be better for the future of Georgia and for humanity.
284 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
BREAKDOWN OF THE IMPERIAL RULE
After the Russian revolution of February and March, 1917, and the over-
throw of imperial Russia, the viceroy who had governed Caucasia in the name
of the Czar ceased to function. The provisional government in Petrograd ap-
pointed as high commissioner for Transcaucasia—including Georgia, Azerbaijan,
and Armenia—the Duma deputy Akaky Tchenkeli, a Georgian patriot and
social democrat, who had been several times exiled from Caucasia under the
Czarist régime for his convictions.
SUPPORTED THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
The revolution revived the hope of Georgia’s best men to regain the liberty
and sovereignty to which they were rightfully entitled. The attitude of the
provisional government, however, destroyed these expectations. Despite the
promises previously given by the Russian liberals to undo the injustice inflicted
upon Georgia by the Czars’ administrations, the provisional government at-
tempted to continue the imperialistic policy of Czarism and opposed granting
the claims of non-Russian nationalities for self-determination. Though this
disappointed the Georgian nationalists bitterly, the Georgian statesmen con-
tinued to work loyally for the creation of a democratic Russia. The head of
the provisional government invited one of the foremost Georgians, the former
Duma Deputy Tseretelli, a social democrat, to enter his cabinet. The member
and leader of the social democratic party in the Duma, Tcheidze, was elected
president of the Council of Workers and Soldiers’ Deputies, which actually
ruled Russia. From this council finally originated the Bolshevik movement,
which the Georgian statesmen, Tseretelli and Tcheidze, had clearly foreseen
and against which they had warned the members of the council in Wain. To
the very last moment they tried to divert the approaching catastrophe, but
their efforts in Petrograd failed, and they returned to Georgia, where they
took a prominent part in the Organization of a national and democratic gov-
ernment, in Opposition to Bolshevism.
TRANSCAUCASIA REFUSED TO JOIN BOLSHEVISTIC MOSCOW
In October, 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and Moscow,
chaos followed in Transcaucasia through the withdrawal of the entire admin-
istrative, judicial, and military establishments, who fled across the frontiers
and joined the White Armies being Organized to restore old Russia.” This
abandonment on the part of Russia released Georgia from all obligations
toward the new government and threw her upon her own resources. The
national integrity Of the peoples that had been held forcibly under Russian rule
was thus automatically restored. The situation, demanding organization and
defense, forced the leaders and peoples of Georgia and the other nations of
the Caucasus to take their fate into their hands, particularly in view of the
imminence of the Turks On their frontiers, and especially to assure the con-
tinued development of their national life. The Transcaucasians united No-
vember 15, 1917, into a committee of government for the Transcaucasian States,
forming a combined assembly, or seim, in February, 1918.
III. The other nationalities of the Caucasus who, with Georgia, formed the
Transcaucasian committee, possess a history as eventful as that of Georgia
itself.
AZERBALJAN
Azerbaijan during the Middle Ages was the battle field of Turks, Arabs,
Persians, and nomadic tribes from the east. The new nation that has devel-
oped from the intermingling of all these different elements, with a preponder-
ance of Mongols and Turks, is known as the Tartars. Their faith is the
* “That very, day Russian soldats, freed from the yoke of autocracy by Tsar and
bureaucracy and blindly assuming the attractive but heavier yoke of autocracy by the
mob, were retreating in droves from the Turkish front, so eager to abandon all dreams
of conquest or defense of territory in which they had no interest, for one more visit
with the home folks, that many rode on the roof of the military train through the
bitter cold of winter, 6,000 feet above the sea. The veneer of Russian greatness, an
outside show which had caused even Germany to fear, has peeled off.”—From articles
§ Mºrd Owen Williams, of the staff of the National Geographical Magazine, Octo-
er, *
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 285
Islam. “They have,” says the Italian historian, Villari, in his Fire and
Sword in the Caucasus, “a dignity of bearing and a charm of manner which
endear them to all who come in contact with them.” After a period of Some
hundred years of Turkish, and later Persian, domination, the Tartars, having
definitely settled at the southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea and along the
Caucasian River Kura, came under the rule of Russia, which by the treaty of
1813 acquired the territory from Persia. More than a hundred years of Rus-
sian overlordship, however, did not suffice to extinguish the strong tendency
for national self-determination that was revealed after the outbreak of the
revolution of 1917 and led to the union with the other Transcaucasian States.
ARMENIANS JOIN THE CONFEDERATION
The last member of the Transcaucasian committee was Armenia, inhabited
by an ancient Christian race, settled for many centuries in the hills and
plains beneath the slopes of Mount Ararat. The Armenians had gained a pre-
dominent position in the economic life of the Caucasus. The last war between
Turkey and Russia, which was raging on Armenian territory, brought them to
the edge of ruin. During the last centuries the Armenians had often fallen
back upon the Georgians, as in 1795, when thousands of refugees came to
Georgia to escape the persecutions of the Persian Shah Agha-Mahomet-Kahn.
Between 1827 and 1829 Georgian hospitality was extended to more than a
hundred thousand Armenian refugees from Turkey and 30,000 from Persia. So
it was only natural that in their first attempt to organize an independent
nationality the Armenians approached their Georgian neighbors for mutual
assistance.
THE NORTH CAUCASIANS
Beyond the Caucasian Mountains are the Circassians and other mountaineer
tribes of Northern Caucasus who had for nearly 50 years fought fiercely for
their independence, when at the beginning of the nineteenth century Russia
tried to include the CaucasuS in its domains. Toward the middle of the cen-
tury these mountaineers of North Caucasus were conquered by the Russians.
The conquest was made possible only by the fact that RuSSia had previously
established a strategical basis in Georgia through its annexation. The moun-
taineers were chiefly Mohammedans. Their form of government, according to
the accounts of British and other travelers, who in the middle of the last
century visited the Caucasus, was “a species of aristocratic republic, composed
of chiefs, nobles, and clansmen, in whom rank is only recognized in their public
and patriarchal capacity, as chieftains, law givers, and elders,” while otherwise
a perfect equality existed in all the relations of social and domestic life.
The national hero Of these liberty-loving people, Shamil, had gained world-
wide fame in the first half of the last century, especially in the Mussulman
world. An incident is recorded in Caucasian history that reveals the promi-
nence of this Outstanding figure. By special permission of the Czar, whose
prisoner he was, he made the traditional pilgrimage to Mecca. When Sultan
Abdul-Asis received him in Constantinople he showed his esteem by kissing
Shamil’s hands, the token of the highest reverence among Mohammedans.
SET UP AN INDEPENDENT UNION
The attention of the whole of Europe was turned to the gallant and desperate
struggle for liberty that was taking place in Caucasia. In 1849 the famous
writer, Bodenstedt, prophetically wrote of the mountaineers’ heroic defense
these WOrdS :
“This war is not only a fight of men against men ; it is a struggle of the
mountains against the Steppe. The people of the Caucasus may change, but
the air of freedom blowing from its mountainous heights will remain always
the same.”
The mountaineers were never assimilated by the Russian conquerors, but
preserved their nationality in the face of all attempts of Russification. About
600,000 Cherkesses and other mountaineers emigrated to Turkey after the
Russian conquest. The greater part of them perished by disease and starva-
tion. Their deserted homes were taken over by Cossack immigrants who
formed the backbone of Russian rule in the mountains. In May, 1917, they
286 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
availed themselves of the opportuinty which the revolution offered to regain
their Sovereignty. They set up the independent “union of the peoples of the
Northérn Caucasus ” at Vladikavkaz, which was supplanted in December of
that year by the “union of mountaineers.” Their sympathies for the Trans-
Qaucasians did not lead to a formal union. Internal difficulties with Bolshevik
elements and General Denikin's attack, which finally in March, 1919, destroyed
the union of the mountaineers, prevented it from effective cooperation with
the Transcaucasian committee.
IV. Grave difficulties confronted the new Transcaucasian governments from
the very beginning. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March, 1918, by
Soviet Russia and German and her allies, conceded the whole Southern part of
Transcaucasia, the districts of Kars, Batum, and Ardahan, to Turkey. The
Transcaucasian Seim had protested against this act, which had been agreed
upon without its knowledge and approval.
THE TRANSCAUCASIAN FEDERATION FORMED
In March and April of 1918 delegates of Transcaucasia had been in confer-
ence with the Turks at Trebizond. But these negotiations, which aimed at a
separate peace between Transcaucasia and Turkey, were broken off as fruit-
less. The separate procedure of the Transcaucasian Government was legalized
by a formal declaration of the independence of Transcaucasia April 22, 1918,
followed by the formation of a Transcaucasian Federation which was created
to supplant the former Transcaucasian Committee. While the delegates at
Trebizond had been inclined to grant the excessive demands of the Turks,
yielding to the pressure of circumstances, the government and seim, or
assembly, in Tiflis, were resolved to continue the war, in the hope of forcing
from the Turks less Severe conditions of peace. However, the mixed army,
awaiting demobilization, opposed the continuation of hostilities, and, further-
more, the Mussulman members of the Seim from Azerbaijan, inspired by their
religious feelings, declared with their national frankness that they were
unable to participate in a war against their brothers in the faith.
'TUREXISH AMBITIONS IN CAUCASIA
Resolved to Settle all further issues by force, the Turks occupied the dis-
tricts which they claimed in accordance with the terms of the Brest-Litovsk
treaty. To prevent further bloodshed the Transcaucasian Federation, recours-
ing to diplomatic means instead of brutal force, convened with the Turks in a
conference at Batum. Now, however, the Turks wanted to gain control of all
of Transcaucasia in order to facilitate the aggression against the British in
Persia, and presented conditions far beyond the limits of the Brest treaty, to
which treaty they did not feel bound, as Transcaucasia had not accepted its
terms in Trebizond.
When the delegates refused to accede to these new conditions, the Turks
presented an ultimatum demanding acceptance within 72 hours. In this critical
moment the German delegate, General V. LOSSOW, approached the Transcau-
easian delegates with an offer of intervention. The delegates from Azerbaijan,
who were Mohammedans, did not wish, however, to accept this offer, and thus
offend the Turks. It became, therefore, imperative for the other States, to
whom the German intervention was agreeable, to act independently, and par-
ticularly as the Turks were already invading Georgia, Occupying a large part
of her territory.
THE REPUBLICS OF CAUCASIA DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE
Georgia realized that she must act independently or become the victim of
Turkish ambition, which sought to create a Turkish empire that included all
the Islamitic tribes of Caucasia and Persia, and extend its influence from the
Black to the Caspian Seas. In May, 1918, a German division occupied Georgia
and its capital, Tiflis, to prevent the Turks from exceeding the limits accorded
By the Brest-Litovosk treaty. Georgia therefore accepted the protection of the
German commander, extending to the German troops the use of the railways
and ports, and on May 26, 1918, in Tiflis, declared its independence. Azer-
baijan and Armenia followed on May 28. Thus were the Caucasian Republics
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 287
born and saved from Turkish rule.” On June 3, 1918, a treaty with Turkey
was signed, agreeing upon territorial boundaries identical with those specified
in the Brest treaty.
After the conclusion of the Armistice in France, November, 1918, the Ger-
mans withdrew from the Caucasus. The presence of British troops which
followed, did much to sustain the independence of the new Republics.
THE NEW GEORGIAN DEMOCRACY
V. The Georgian people under their restored sovereignty, which was abol-
ished under the Russian rule, built up their new government and established
international relations. Their act of independence” was approved, confirmed,
and ratified March 12, 1919, by their constituent assembly elected according
to the electoral system of direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportional”
voting of citizens of both sexes. The constitution and political organization
was that of a democratic republic. The executive power was entrusted to the
cabinet, whose president was elected by the assembly, and who appointed, as
does the American President, the members of his cabinet. The administrative
bodies were controlled by the assembly, to which the ministers were personally
responsible and whose confidence they must possess. Administration was de-
centralized by enlarging the power of the local councils, democratically elected.
Towns, rural districts, and villages exercised complete Self-government in all
Questions relating to local, economic, and educational questions. All citizens
were equal in the eyes of the law. The Georgian nobility, formerly enjoying
wide privileges, renounced them voluntarily, inspired by their democratic
feelings. The interests of workmen were fully protected. The church was
completely separated from the State.
THE MENSEIEVISTS
The controlling political party was the Social-Democratic, adherent to so-
called “menchevism.” “
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY IN GEORGIA
Social democracy in Georgia grew out of the economic unrest of the agrarian
population and the attachment to nationalistic principles of all classes uni-
versally opposed to the Russian yoke. Beginning as a political party of protest
against the excessive taxation and civil restrictions, it developed rapidly into a
national movement. Under the prevailing system of landed proprietorship
the small farmer was subjected to the dictation of the landlord as to the extent
and period of the tenancy. He did not possess the ability or power to secure
just rewards for his products. The obnoxious system of heavy taxation
* That these events are almost unknown or at least often completely misunderstood.
is exemplified by a statement in a recent book by an American professor of history.
He writes, after mentioning the formal announcement of Transcaucasia's Secession from
Russia, on April 22:
“The example of Transcaucasia became epidemic, however, for Georgia declared her
independence on May 26, 1918; on May 28 the Tatars of Azerbaijan and the Russian
Armenians did the same. The Transcaucasian Union went to pieces as the explosive
effect of revolution spread.” (Dennis, The Foreign Policies of Soviet Russia, p. 205.)
The fact is that the Transcaucasian Union consisted of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Ar-
menia. The declaration of the independence of Transcaucasia could not, therefore,
induce these states, who were identical with it, to follow its example. The union fell
apart when the situation in Batum, became critical and demanded separate action, and
not as an aftermath of the revolution. This fact has evaded the author.
* See Appendix.
8 Under the system of proportional suffrage, the whole country was taken as one
electoral district and the "130 seats of the assembly distributed among all parties in
gº. to the number of votes cast for their candidates. In the election to the
onstituent Assembly, February, 1919, 514,000 electors voted : Social Democrats, 408,000
gºo? seats; National Democrats, 30,000—8 seats; Federal Socialists, 33,000—
Se:8..T.S.
4 The Menshevist is the doctrine of the minority of the former Russian Social Demo-
cratic Party, deriving its name from the Russian, word, “menshe.” meaning, “ small.”
which came into existence in 1906 by separating from the majority, or “ Bolshevists,”
from “bolshe " meaning “great.” The Menshevists were the advocates of the form, of
Russian socialism, that aimed to attain its ends by, peaceful, economical progress within
the boundaries of law, by evolution. The bolshevists are their antipodes, pursuing, a
method of forcible change of society, the destruction of capitalism and the church, by
revolution.
96153—26—19
288 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
*
increased his burden. Since the beginning of the present century—the expan-
sion of the Chiatury manganese mines, the oil industry, and harbors at Poti
and Batum, the transcaucasion railways, and other commercial enterprises—
thousands of peasants and laborers were attracted to industrial occupation.
A permanent working class resulted and gradually organized itself into eco-
nomic bodies. Into these unions came the laborers from the farms, Who gave
part of their year to the industrial life of the nation, returning to their fields
at planting and harvest time. Agitated by the socialistic elements from
Russia, the disaffected farmers soon joined the permanent Working class
Organization.
SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM PRESERVED
The attempted Russification of the Georgians of all classes only helped to
preserve and stimulate the spirit of nationalism that never forgave or forgot
Russia's violation of her treaty of 1783 and her arbitrary annexation of
Georgia in 1801. This universal protest crystallized into the Social-Democratic
Party which, in the very nature of its character, readily realized in the political
party in Russia opposed to the autocratic czarist régime, a basis for affiliation.
The terroristic methods of the Russian “Social Revolutionaries" did not appeal
to the Georgians. The Social Democrats, on the other hand, were pursuing
their aims by regulatory political action. Moreover, the Russian Government
presented a tolerant front toward the Social Democrats, while vigorously
opposing the terroristic Social Revolutionaries and the nationalistic tendencies
which threatened to break up the empire.
In the movement toward social democracy in Georgia the Russian Govern-
ment thought it saw a breakdown or countermove that would effectively
destroy Georgian nationalistic unity by creating a breach between the middle
class and the peasantry. Though Imperial Russia suppressed nationalistic
agitation in Georgia, the growth of social democracy, in the beginning an
economic movement, was not impeded until the revolution of 1904–5.
DISSATISFIED ELEMENTS JOIN TOGETHER
Into the Georgian party of social democracy flocked all of the dissatisfied
elements of all classes, irrespective of their divergency of aims or views.” Thus
in a country where industrial development was still in its infancy there grew a
popular party of commanding position where a so-called industrial proletariat
hardly existed. While in other countries social democracy was antinational in
spirit, in Georgia it included nationalistic aspirations—political doctrines
normally incompatible. This was demonstrated in the spring of 1918, When
the Social Democratic Party unanimously supported the movement for inde-
pendence and took active part in the patriotic rebirth of Georgia's national
existence.
The menshevists carried out reforms in Georgia along democratic lines.
This policy was contrary to that of the Russian counterrevolutionary leaders,
Generals Yudenitch, Denikin, and Wrangel and Admiral Koltschak, Who
attempted restoration on a reactionary basis, which method without doubt
prevented their movements from gaining the support of the populace, espe-
Cially of the peasantry who feared the return of the old unsatisfactory methods
of landholding.
DEVELOPMENT UNDER INDEPENDENCE
The Georgian Government, and along similar lines the other Caucasion Gov-
ernments, SOught to bring their country up to the most perfect Organization of
life by means of systematic development Of all the material and educational
resources of the people, and by the consolidation of the democratic institutions.
All parties and all classes of the population cooperated willingly with the
Government regardless of personal sacrifices.
* Had not the Russification policy forced the Georgians into a party opposed to the
imperial sway over Georgia, these members of the Social-Democratic Party, who were
far from being proletarians, in , the , accepted meaning, of the word, would naturally
have become scholars instead of agitators, or have attached themselves to that class
of Caucasian officers, of whom Count Witte wrote, “they left behind the most splendid
pages in military history.”
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 289
PUBLIC UNDERTAKING's
The State embarked on far-seeing undertakings, such as construction of
railways, highways, roads, bridges, viaducts, drainage of marshlands, the
irrigation of arid plains, etc. That these plans were only partially carried
out and that the efforts to maintain a firm democratic commonwealth failed
finally, was due to the unsettled external situation which was created by the
intrigues of Moscow Bolsheviks.
Temporarily, the Bolsheviks were held off by the Enghish troops who occu-
pied Baku for a short time in August, 1918, and again in November, 1918.
The British expedition, under Major, General Thompson, withdrew to Batum
in the summer of 1919, and departed July, 1920.
PROTECTED BY THE ENGLISH TROOPS
Though the English forces gave transitory protection to the Georgian State,
and effectively prevented external interference, the political attitude of the
British Government toward the Caucasus was one of exigency. In the first
expedition to Baku in Azerbaijan, the British came up through Persia to pro-
tect the oil fields against the German-officered Turkish forces. In this they
failed. In their second expedition to Caucasia, after the armistice, they pre-
vented the occupation of Transcaucasia by the Bolsheviks and held off the
designs of the new Turkish Government, formed by Kemal Pasha, to regain
possession of part of Georgia, including the province and port of Batum, on
the Black Sea.
DISHEARTENING ATTITUDE OF SECRETARY COLBY
After the defeat of the white armies of Wrangel and Denikin, in South
Russia, Lloyd George questioned whether Soviet Russia in repossession of her
lost provinces was the greater menace to the British Empire in the Near East,
or the new Turkish Government with its territorial aspirations. Coincidently
the English trade mission at Moscow sought to secure the oil concessions in
Baku. The little republics of the Caucasus had become the victims of oil
diplomacy. In addition to the baleful influence of Lloyd George's position
came Secretary Colby’s declaration regarding the inviolability of Czarist Rus-
sia's frontiers, “with the exception of Finland proper, ethnic Poland, and such
territory as may by agreement form a part of the Armenian State.” The
Bolsheviks were heartened by the attitudes of the English Premier and the
United States Secretary of State, which brought consternation to the newly
formed democracies of the Caucasus.
FAVORABLE ATTITUDE OF M’DONALD AND CURzoN
The conclusion of an alliance between . Moscow and the new Turkish Gov-
ernment, in Angora, evidently led England to hope that the Russians would
refrain from their further advance against Afghanistan and India, as compensa-
tion for a free hand in Caucasia. Reawakening traditions of English policy
from the time of the Crimean War (1853–1855) when the support of the fight for
liberty of the independent Caucasian Mountaineers' Republic had been seriously
considered, inspired both the labor and conservative leaders, J. Ramsey Mc-
Donald and Lord Curzon, to advocate, at the end of 1920, the maintenance of
the free Caucasian States as a frontier between Russia on the One hand and
Persia and Turkey on the other. Lloyd George, the leader of the English
Liberals, at that time in power, had already decided otherwise.
RED ARMY INVADES CAUCASIA
VI. Beset on the south by the Turks and on the north by the Bolsheviks
the Republics of the Caucasus were confronted by a constant state of war.
The Northern Republic, beyond the Caucasian Mountains, which had, as has
been told, also formed an independent State, was invaded by the Bolsheviks
and later occupied by Denikin's army, who came in 1919 under the pretext of
fighting the Red Army. In January, 1920, Soviet Russia's proposal to Georgia
to enter into a military alliance against Denikin was rejected. In April,
1920, the Reds succeeded in Occupying Baku and assuming power in Azer-
290 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
baijan and later on in Armenia, taking advantage of the helpless state of
these two countries, that were paralyzed by economic chaos and internal dis-
Sensions. All attempts to counteract the Bolshevik menace effectively in Azer-
baijan and Armenia therefore failed entirely.
SOVIET RUSSIA RECOGNIZES INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
The war of Poland with Soviet Russia gave Georgia her first opportunity
to pursue a vigorous defense against the Bolsheviks in 1920, and Soviet Russia,
now anxious to placate Georgia, engaged in a treaty, May 7, 1920, recognizing
the independence of Georgia and her territorial integrity. In this treaty the
Soviet Government declared that “Russia recognizes without reservation the
independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State, and voluntarily renounces
all sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the Georgian
people and territory.” This was Georgia's final triumph and conclusive
release from the Soviet claims.
TREACHERY OF THE SOVIET GOVERNMENT
From Moscow’s point of view, however, this treaty was a cloak to enable
her within one month after its ratification to foment a communistic revolution
within the borders of the Republic and to accomplish by Secret propaganda and
treachery what she had failed to achieve by force. Nearly a thousand agents
of Cheka were imported, under various pretexts, resorted to by her diplomatic
mission at Tiflis, and by the expenditure of large sums of money and by ex-
travagant promises of loot the communists proceeded to disaffect the Georgians
and attempted to subvert the national army and to create irritating causes as
an excuse for forceful interference.”
In the meantime the independence of the Caucasian RepublicS was confirmed
through recognition by the European powers. The Allies, in convention at
Paris at the beginning of the year 1920, were regarding favorably the efforts of
the new Republics to stabilize their national life. On January 12, 1920, their
Supreme council, representing the Allied and Associated Powers, including
England, France, Italy, and Japan, formally recognized the de facto independ-
ence of Georgia and Azerbaijan. Armenia's recognition followed shortly after-
wards, including recognition by the United States.
CAUCASIAN REPUBLICS RECOGNIZED BY EUROPEAN POWERS
The average Russian, whose ideal was a Russia as great and centralized as
it had been in the czarist days, and even the Liberal, who had formerly pre-
tended to take the stand of the national minorities, had watched Georgia's and
Caucasia's advance toward independence with animosity, because some did not
know and others ignored Georgia's historical rights and the racial differences
between the Caucasians and Russians. Before the rise of Bolshevism the
Caucasians wanted to be on friendly terms with the 130,000.000 of Russians,
on whom they were dependent in many respects. But the Russians would
rather have seen the 14,000,000 of Caucasians their subjects than their friends.
The strongest exponent of this attitude was General Denikin, who in 1919–20
commanded the white armies operating in South Russia. Even he, however,
upon British representations, eventually recognized Georgia, Azerbaijan, and
Armenia's independence on February 11, 1920.
1 The system employed by the Third International of Moscow, a willing tool of the
Soviet Government, is to gain entrance to foreign countries under the protection of
Soviet Russia's treaties and to plot, with the help of Cheka agents, a revolution which
afterwards shall afford a pretext for military intervention on the request of “natives ''
who are usually imported from Moscow for this purpose. ...This System was lately tried
in Esthonia, this time, however, without success. A , still further example of Soviet
Russia's methods in planting propaganda agents of world revolution in foreign countries
with whom they have treaties is illustrated by recent events in Germany. . A dispatch
from Berlin of April 8, 1925, tells: “In the trial of 16 officials of the Hamburg Cheka,
which just ended, 5 executions are expected. ... Soviet Russia prepares for the exchange
of the condemned and of the ‘General ’ of the Red Army, Skobolesslai Gorey, for the
German, professors, Kinderman, Wohlstat, , Ditmaring, who, were arrested in Soviet
Russia irrespective of the previous permission to come to Soviet Russia for scientific
purposes.”
NATIONAL REPUBLIC or GEORGIA 291
GEORGIA’s DE JURE INDEPENDENCE RECOGNIZED
In spite of the favorable attitude toward Georgia, no material aid from the
Allies was forthcoming, when at the end of the year 1920 the intrigues of
Moscow grew more menacing. On January 27, 1921, the great powers con-
firmed their de facto recognition by recognizing, through the supreme council,
the de jure independence of the Georgian Republic. The conclusion of the
Polish war, however, and the collapse of the White Army in the Crimea gave
3. her chance to culminate her treacherous and stealthy invasion of
Georgia.
ITALY'S PROMISED MANDATE IGNORED
As a result of the establishment of Bolshevik rule in Azerbaijan in April,
1920, and Armenia, December, 1920, Georgia found herself threatened by the
Bolsheviks on the north and east and by the Turks on the South. An agree-
ment between the Italian and the British Governments, by which the former
had promised to accept a mandate, if necessary, upon the withdrawal of the
English troops from Georgia, was ignored when a new Italian Government
under Nitti came into power.
* INVASION OF THE RED ARMY
So the little Caucasian Republican faced, unaided, the danger that was men-
acing her existence through the gathering of strong Bolshevik forces near her
frontiers in Armenia and Azerbaijan. While the Turks again attempted to
occupy Batum, on which they had concentrated their interest after the depar-
ture of the British troops, the Bolsheviks grasped the opportunity to march on
Tiflis. Moscow moved its red army from the west across the Black Sea coast,
from the east along the River Kura and from Armenia in the south. Upon the
arrival of these overwhelming forces the officials of the Georgian Government
were, forced to remove to Batum and eventually to embark on an Italian war-
ship and to take refuge in Europe. This was in February and March, 1921.
France and England, who had recognized the independence of Georgia, con-
fined themselves to formal protests. France expressed her sympathy by ex-
tending cordial hospitality to the Georgian exiles and the Georgian Govern-
ment. The grave problems in Middle Europe and elsewhere which engaged the
whole attention of the European powers made them forget the calamity that
Overwhelmed the Small democracy in far-away Caucasia.
THE POWERS OF EUROPE REPUDIATE BOLSHEVIE RULE IN CAUCASIA
In the recent attempted rapprochement of 1924 between Great Britain and
Soviet Russia the English Government declared again that it would not recog-
nize the usurpation of Soviet Russia in Georgia. A similar position was also
taken by the French Government in its treaty of recognition with Soviet
Russia. France still declines to recognize Bolshevik rule in Georgia. She in
a most chivalrous manner adheres to the agreement previously made with the
free Georgian people and consistently refuses to yield to the Bolshevik re-
proaches for her dealings with the exiled Government, which, under France's
protection, is in Paris in diplomatic relations with the great European powers.
BOLSELEVIK OUTRAGES
VII. The murderous invasion of the Bolsheviks in Georgia was communistic
Moscow’s defiance to Europe’s recognition of the sovereignty of that republic,
and a typical example of the soviet government's treacherous use of its
treaties and disregard of its obligations under them. A more brutal violation
of the laws and customs of nations, than that Committeed in Caucasia could
not be imagined. Moscow delivered no ultimatum, made no declaration of
war, gave no valid excuse for her intrigue and surreptitious penetration, but
without warning or pretext swooped down upon Georgia, as she had on the
other Caucasian republics, for purposes of Conquest and the seizure of the
wealth Of the nation, and the despoliation of her Christian churches and
Schools. Priests of high and low degree were stripped of their robes, forced
into dirty Soviet uniforms, maltreated and many killed Or banished. The
Patriarch (Katholikos) Ambrosius was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment
292 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
for the only crime of having sent a protest against this horror to the League
of Nations. The churches were looted and turned into dance halls, the Women
outraged, and children massacred. Thousands were murdered and thousands
sent into exile. Others were forced to take refuge in foreign countries. Stores
and houses were plundered and the railroads and factories robbed of their
best equipment. A prosperous and happy country was brought to a state of
ruin and forced, against the will of the people, under the merciless and de-
wastating rule of Soviet communists, sent from Moscow.
Soviet hyprocrisy was revealed when the Bolshevik official press, of Moscow
declared that the overthrow of the Georgian Government had not been accom-
plished by the red army, but by a revolutionary movement from within the
Georgian State. In an attempt to justify her course,...an, entirely false account
of what transpired in the Caucasus was broadcasted to the World. Soviet
Russia sought to conceal her imperialistic ends by setting up a government
in Tiflis composed of red partisans of Georgian nationality, imported from
Moscow and long associated with the communistic state.
THE RULE OF THE Moscow CHEKA, A SECOND INQUISITION
The Soviet government which was forced upon the Georgian people and de-
rived its powers from the strength of the Russian army of occupation, is
not accepted by the Georgian people as their rightful government. Moscow
persists in its attempt to “Sovietize” these non-Russian democratic peoples.
Except where the red army's garrisons are maintained, and where the Cheka,
the Russian Inquisition, rules, this violent procedure is not successful. The
Cheka—prosecutor, judge, and executioner in one—imposes the death sentence,
or decree of deportation, without trial. Thus it is enabled to exert the great-
est terror without any restriction and it has not refrained from using its
powers rigorously.
MOSCOW’s ATTEMPT TO APPEASE THE CAUCASIAN REPUBLICS
The methods of the Cheka are hardly paralleled in ancient or modern times.
The policy employed is of false accusations, barbaric torture and terrorism, to
wholly break the spirit and morale of the people and reduce them to abject
obedience and nonresistance. According to statistics available until 1921, the
victims of this secret police in all of Russia exceeded three millions, among
them chiefly physicians, engineers, lawyers, other members of the Russian
intelligentsia, laborers, and peasants. Since the Occupation of Georgia in 1921,
the Cheka has continued its terrorism there, maintaining its headquarters in
Tiflis, and having its agents throughout Caucasia.
The Caucasians abhor Bolshevism, but as: the-communists’ press, dominates
and their own press and language is permitted for propaganda only, they are
unable to express their real feelings Openly. They will, it is certain, never
accept the communistic idealogies of Moscow nor Submit to the rule of the
soviets. The general discontent and Opposition of the population against
Moscow's method of governing by terror and the Cheka, became so strong
that the government in Moscow has tried to mislead the outside world and
appease its criticism by granting formal autonomy to the Caucasian States
by permitting them to establish a Transcaucasian Socialist Federal Soviet
Republic by an agreement signed March 12, 1922. This federation includes
the “soviet republics" of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia, and is a mem-
ber of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. According to the constitution
of this Union of Socialist Soviet Republics of July 6, 1923, each united repub-
lic retains the right of free withdrawal from the Union. (Ch. II, 4.) This
was the pretense of freedom that was inserted to deceive the people and fool
the WOrld.
MOSCOW's MEANINGLESS “CONSTITUTION " GRANTED THE “SOVIETIZED REPUBLICS ’’
Its true meaning was illustrated when, in September and October, 1924,
Georgia attempted to exercise this right and regain her independence. Her
movement was stamped as a revolt. This uprising revealed for a short time
to the outside World the real situation in Transcaucasia. The attempt on the
part of the Georgians Was the spontaneous outburst of a suppressed and suffer-
ing nation. Though it failed, it gave notice to the world that the Georgian
people did not accept the soviet rule, and it was Serious enough to frustrate
the Russo-British negotiations for a loan to Soviet Russia, as it emphasized
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 293
the contention of the national governments of Caucasia that the manganese
deposits of Georgia as well as the oil fields of Baku are very uncertain assets
for Soviet Russia to pledge for a loan. The peoples of the Caucasus have
demonstrated that they will never peacefully submit to the red “government by
assassination.”
i
GEORGIA’S REVOLT
The uprising of 1924 was suppressed with all the savageries and inhumanities
characteristic of Cheka rule. Among others, the metropolitan of the Georgian
Church, Nazarii, was murdered at Kutais. Women and children of the soldiers
fighting in the mountains were used as shields by the Bolsheviks during their
attacks. The number of victims of all the outrages was about 20,000. Even
Llyod-George, who had been deaf to the pleas from Caucasia, raised his voice
against the Bolsheviks. He emphatically denounced the Russian atrocities in
Georgia. “To-day,” he said, alluding to the bloodshed in Georgia, “it is a red
province in more senses than one.” The Soviet Government hastened to accuse
France and England of supporting and encouraging the “revolution ” in
Georgia. But their accusations were groundless, as the patriots had not
received any outside assistance. It was the absence of any support that finally
wrecked their heroic efforts, after a fortnight’s embittered struggle against the
overwhelming Bolshevik forces.
THE PEACE OF EUROPE IN THE BALANCE
VIII. The peace of Europe is dependent upon the preservation of the new
republics that border on Russia. Europe's political and economic life will be
in unrest unless they are sustained. The communistic futriques of Soviet
Russia, and especially the late communistic revolution in Esthonia, staged by
the Cheka in obeyance of Moscow’s orders, resulted in bringing together the
Governments of Bulgaria and Jugoslavia into a defensive union against Bol-
shevism—a union which is intended to include also the other Balkan States.
It is likely that Finland and Latvia will join Esthonia into a Baltic league in
a common defense against communism.” Poland, Czechoslavakia, and Ru-
mania, likewise threatened by the disease of Bolshevism, are about to unite
together for a like purpose.
A BULKEIEAD AGAINST THE “PROMISED LAND " OF BOLSEIEVISM
Were Georgia similarly assured as were her sister republics, her heroic
struggle against Bolshevism would have been conclusive and far-reaching.
The Caucasus is alone the geographical and racial barrier against Bolshevism
between Asia Minor and Russia. Asia, not yet fully aroused to the influence
of western culture, is the “promised land ” for Bolshevism, where it adapts the
radical idealogies of “liberty " to the strong tendencies of national inde-
pendence. The menace of communism in British India is a real danger for the
British Empire that would be minimized and perhaps effectively curbed by a
readjustment of the situation of the Caucasus. In 1921 J. Ramsay McDonald
(in the Contemporary Review) advocated the creation of a “solid block of
free and federated States to hold that strategic highway between Europe and
Asia.” One thing, in his opinion, made this policy practicable: Georgia.
“This is,” he said, “a people of determined nationality, a people that has inde-
pendence in its blood, that believes in self-help and is not imperialistic, that in
modern times will be a bulwark, as it was in olden times, against invasion both
from the east and the west, that will be a pillar of strength to both Azerbaijan
and Armenia.”
SOVIET PRETEN SES IN CAUCASIA
Furthermore, the reinstatements of these democratic border states would
encourage the elements in Russia which are striving for a democratic form
of government and the abolishment of the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”
The Outburst of the latent internal crisis in Russia, now suppressed by Bol-
shevist terror, but nevertheless spreading, slowly and steadfastly, would be
* A dispatch from. Riga, April 7, 1925, says: “A conference among the Baltic Republics,
Latvia, Esthonia, Finland, and Poland arrived at a decision establishing a common miſſi.
tary alliance against Bolsheviks.”—The Novoye Russkoye Slove.
294 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
,”
precipitated. This healing crisis against Bolshevism for which the world
is waiting, has so alarmed Soviet Russia that in March the meeting of the
so-called Soviet “Congress" was held in Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, in an
attempt to impress the world by its demonstrations and propaganda, its
empty promises Of “reform ' and its statements that the rule of the Red
Army was welcomed by Georgia and the other Caucasian Republics. It was
a gesture that was empty and hateful to the suffering people, deprived of their
Own government, their press, and their civil and religious freedom, and op-
pressed by the rule of the Cheka.
THE MINERALS OF GEORGIA
Georgia and the other Caucasian Republics, have the fortune, or misfortune,
of being among the richest little countries, in natural resources, in the
world. Georgia's great manganese deposits, essential to the steel industry
of the world, could supply the requirements for 200 years. They actually
contributed more than one-half of the world's needs, and supplied over half
of the manganese used in the United States before the war. The manganese
deposits have a potential output of more than $100,000,000 a year. The man-
ganese mines had before the war not reached the limit of their producing
capacity. By imposing excessive railroad freight rates and providing insuf-
ficient loading facilities in the seaports, the Russian Government was able to
Curb the further expansion of Georgia’s manganese export, a policy that was
inspired by the desire to lessen the strong competition for the Nikopol mines
in southern Russia, in which several members of the imperial family and other
influential Russians held controlling shares. Aside from the manganese mines,
Georgia possesses Several large deposits of iron Ore, the export of which,
however, has been hindered in by the cost of transportation, as the ore could
not be smelted in the country due to the inadequacy of the required fuel.
Immense quantities of copper ore exist in the Georgian soil. Copper is
found almost everywhere throughout the State and is regarded as one of its
great assets. One of the largest and most productive mines, in the south-
eastern part of Georgia, has been worked since 1864. Another copper zone
has been exploited for 160 years, originally by the Georgian Kingdom, and
later by a French company on a lease. There are many other mines of more
or less various conditions and workings although not in a high state of
development, due to the difficulty of access and the lack of transportation
for the necessary fuel. Georgia has been called, potentially, a second Mon-
tana, on account of the practically limitless copper deposits. Aside from
copper, which is found not only in Georgia, but throughout all of Caucasia,
silver-lead and zinc are plentiful; mercury, nickel, and cobalt are also mined,
and, to an insignificant degree, gold, which was in ancient times mined by
the Romans and in prehistoric times is said to have been the mythical “golden
fleece ’’ that lured the Argonautes to Caucasia.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
The development of hydroelectric power in Georgia is still in its infancy.
The great number of rivers and streams of the Caucasian Range, one of the
largest mountain chains in the world, offers vast opportunities as an inex-
haustible source of water-power energy, a source that has hardly been tapped,
due to the lethargy of the former Russian Government, which did not initiate
a hydraulic enterprise either for profit or public benefit. The power and
light installations now existing are all due to private capital. There are at
present in Georgia hydroelectric stations at Tiflis, Gori, Kutais, Batum, and at
several other places. It is estimated that Georgian water power, if utilized,
could supply at its lowest flow in the winter 2,500,000 horsepower, in the Spring
and fall, 4,000,000 horsepower, and in the Summer 6,000,000 horsepower.
The latest estimate of the water power for all of Caucasia is 16,000,000 horse-
power.
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS
Like all countries of eastern Europe, Georgia is predominantly agrarian.
The soil rivals in fertility the south Russian “humus,” but the agricultural
methods are very primitive. The main products grown are Wheat, barley,
oats, corn, and rice. In 1913 the crops of cereals were estimated at 204,000
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 295
bushels. With modern methods, the output could be increased twentyfold.
The variety of the other products, tea, wine, tobacco, silk cocoons, etc., shows
the immense versatility of this country. Before the war animal breeding was
one of the most valuable of agricultural occupations. In 1913, Georgia's
livestock amounted to 2,000,000 sheep and goats, 1,500,000 cows and buffaloes,
250,000 horses, and 4,000,000 hogs. g
Large forests are on the southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, cover-
ing 6,000,000 acres or 39 per cent of Georgia's territory. They are of the
greatest variety, containing about 300 kinds of trees, of which oaks, beeches,
chestnuts, boxwood, white and yellow pine are the most important. A con-
siderable part of Europe's timber supply originated from the Caucasus.
RUSSIA’s BACKwaBD EconoMIC POLICY IN THE CAUCASUS
Manufacture is not yet developed to the degree which could naturally be
expected in view of the opportunities of the country. This is due to the un-
favorable attitude of the former Czarist Government, which, through pro-
hibitive tariffs and by denying the proper communication facilities effectively
hampered the building up of the manufacturing industry in Georgia. The
economic policy of the Russian Government aimed to curtail the develop.
ment of industries in Caucasia, in order to avoid competition for central
Russian manufacturerS.
FAMED MINERAL SPRINGS AND RESORTS
The climate, as a rule excellent, varies with the different parts of the coun-
try. In the western parts the climate is subtropical, in the eastern parts dry.
Numerous mineral springs, of which there are about 500, partly containing
sulphur and radium, famed for purity and healing qualities, and many still
undeveloped, are the basis for the establishment of health resorts in the
southern Caucasus, comparable to the already famous resorts of the northern
slopes of the Caucasian Mountains. These mineral springs were in pre-war
days a Mecca for thousands of patients and pleasure seekers. Under a sta-
bilized government they have vast possibilities of development.
RAILWAYS IN THE CAUCASUS
Means of communication and transportation are developed to considerable
extent. In all of Caucasia there are about 4,600 miles of railroad touching the
leading cities, penetrating the agricultural districts, and reaching to the prin-
cipal mineral springs. The main railroads are the Transcaucasian (Baku-
Batum) Railway, crossing the picturesque valleys and fertile plains of Georgia
and Azerbaijan, 556 miles long, paralleling the great pipe line that Carries oil
from the fields of Baku on the Caspian to the ports on the Black Sea, the
routes running southward from Tiflis to Kars and Erivan in Armenia, and the
trunk line extending from Baku along the shores of the Caspian Sea to North
Caucasia and Rostow on the sea of Azof. There are four “military highways,”
great engineering achievements, crossing the Caucasus Mountains as a connec-
tion between northern and trans-Caucasia. The principal commercial com-
munications with the outside world are by sea from the port Of Baku on the
Caspian and Poti and Batum on the Black Sea. The bulk of Georgia’s manga-
nese output and large quantities of Azerbaijan’s oil products in the past were
shipped through the Black Sea ports. Batum is of great importance for transit
to and from Persia. Under normal conditions this port is assured a still greater
commercial and political future, as it is the main link of traffic between the
Near East and Europe. This is not lost sight of by the European powers.
BAKU OIL FIELDS
The territory of Azerbaijan has untold wealth in the great Baku oil fields,
potentially having an output of $400,000,000 in value annually, and actually
achieving a maximum of 10,000,000 tons of oil in one year. Farming, as in
Georgia and the other Caucasian States, is the chief occupation of the popula-
tion, aside from the laboring class who operated the oil fields, now, however,
widely scattered, due to the almost complete paralysis of the industry.
96153—26—20
296 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ARMENIA
Armenia is almost entirely devoid of mineral riches. The backbone of its
economic life, besides agriculture, is cattle breeding, for which an ideal Oppor-
tunity is provided by the vast pastures of the high table-land around Mount
Ararat. The torrent of the war and postwar period, however, has left Only
scant remainders of the former agricultural wealth. All the World has been
informed and has contributed to the relief of its stricken people.
North Caucasia possesses the great Grosny oil fields, a comparatively new
development, the output of which is valued at approximately $100,000,000 a
year. There are also large areas devoted to agriculture and cattle raising. Its
vast forests of valuable woods have hardly been touched. *
GROSNY OIL FIELDS
The practically unlimited wealth of the Caucasus is vested in the national
governments, aside from the immense industrial investment of foreign capital,
now inoperative under Moscow’s Bolshevik invasion. The attempts of groups
of business men to regain their properties and operate them, and of others to
secure concessions from Soviet Moscow, have not proved feasible or workable,
due to the Well-known doctrines and demands of the communistic government.
SIMILAR TO SITUATION OF BELGIAN GOVERNMENT DURING THE WAR,
IX. The situation of the Caucasian Republics is analogous to that of Belgium
during the Great War. They are overrun by a military force which they are
not yet strong enough to eject. Their governments are compelled to take
refuge in France, as was the Belgian Government, and as other governments in
times of duress have been obliged to seek temporary hospitality in foreign
friendly countries. But this exigency did not impair their constitutional rights
or international status. No European power has recognized the sovereignty of
Soviet Russia in the Caucasian Republics. The sovereign status. Of the Gov-
ernment of the Republic of Georgia is provided for in its constitution and
preserved in an emergency, as its powers are vested in the existing representa-
tives during the period of their inability to function in their own country. All
constitutional parties of the Georgian people are represented in a “committee
of independence ’’ to demonstrate their rejection of the Soviet rule in their
country and to signalize their support of the exiled GOvernment.
In Paris the Georgian Government officials met and convened with the repre-
sentatives of the other republics of the Caucasus that had been similarly in-
vaded and overwhelmed by the red army. In a joint declaration of June 10,
1921, the existing high officials and delegates of the four Caucasian Republics,
including the heads oft he delegations from Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern
Caucasus, and the minister to France for Georgia, entered into a defensive and
economic union. The declaration was sent to all the great powers and the
League of Nations, which body protested against Soviet Russia's oppression of
these Small nations. Says this declaration :
“Believing that the moral and political cooperation of the powers is assured
for the cause of the independence of the Caucasian Republics, already recog-
nized by several international acts, the governments of the aforesaid republics
will endeavor to strengthen by their common efforts their political, commercial,
and industrial relations with foreign states and to establish conditions suitable
for facilitating the cooperation of foreign capital for the development of the
natural riches of Caucasia.
*
“CAUCASIAN NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS IN A CONFEDERATION
“The representatives of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Northern
Caucasus, and Georgia, firmly convinced of the necessity for the union of the
independent Republics of the Caucasus, for the maintenance of order and peace
in the Near East, declare that it will not be possible to attain the aims held
in view of the respective states unless the neighboring powers respect the
political independence as well as the territorial integrity of the aforesaid
Republics; they declare in addition that the occupation in 1919, 1920, and 1921
by the armed forces of Russia of the territories of these Republics constitutes
a flagrant violation of their rights and is a source of future disturbance, and
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 297
that all means of diplomatic action should be employed in order to put an
end to this illegal occupation and to reestablish order as soon as possible.
“The representatives of the Caucasian Republics declare that all the treaties
and arrangements concerning the cessions of territories and imposed on the
Caucasian States by the neighboring powers, as well as all privileges or con-
Cessions granted to anyone in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Northern Caucasia, and
Georgia, by authorities, groups, or organizations which have not issued from the
freely expressed will of the peoples of these Republics, are deprived of all legal
value and will be considered as null and void.”
FORMAL PROTEST TO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
A formal protest on behalf, of the Caucasian Republics was submitted to the
Council of the League of Nations. It emphasized the fundamental diversity
of Russia and Caucasia, pointing out that the latter is a homogeneous or-
ganism different from Russia as a geographic, ethnographic, economic, and
political unity, and that for centuries the regions of the Caucasus have been
inhabited by native peoples, Armenians, Azerbaijanians, Circassians, and
Georgians, who have nothing in common with the Slavic race in Ianguage,
custom, or traditions.”
HOLD STATE AND PRIVATE PROPERTY INVIOLABLE
The unchangeable attitude of the national Government of Georgia toward
concessions on state and private property was reiterated in a statement, issued
in the name of the Georgian people by the Georgian ambassador to France,
Tschenkelli, to the Marquis of Crewe, ambassador of Great Britain to France,
April 18, 1924. It sets forth that “every concession, every privilege, or other
material advantages granted by the Russian Government and by its agents at
Tiflis to foreigners, among others, to Russians, in Georgia and at the expense
of the Georgian people shall be considered by this latter and by its Govern-
ment as null and void.” This statement further declares that “the Soviet
Russian Government and its foreign representatives base all their economic
and financial parleys almost exclusively on the inexhaustible wealth of the
Caucasus. There is no center of importance in Europe, nor even in America,
where the agents of Moscow have not solicited bids for concessions of pe—
troleum fields, manganese mines, brass, coal, etc., of Caucasia. After having
treacherously violated the liberty and independence of the peoples of Caucasia,
the Russian Government is striving to obtain the support of foreign capitalists
at the expense of these people.”
This communication closes with the following declaration: “In consequence
I declare again before the civilized world that the people of Georgia can not
consider themselves bound by political or economic acts, or any other signed
order, in opposition to their rights by the Russian Government or by its
agents.”
ECONOMIC LIFE OF BAECU PARALYZED
Devoid of the required ability and technical skill or economic policy neces-
sary to develop the natural wealth of the Caucasus, and incapable of success-
fully operating the “nationalized ” property of foreigners, the Soviets have
brought chaos and ruin to the Commercial and industrial life of Caucasia.
. A recent Associated Press dispatch from Baku gives a graphic picture of the
paralyzed commercial life of that large city and the great oil fields. “Only
a small percentage of them are in actual operation,” it states, and continues,
“the great wooden derricks and the pumps, compressors, and drills on the re-
maining walls are fast falling into decay. It is as if a great storm had
suddenly visited a primeval forest, stripping the trees of their limbs and roots,
and leaving ruin and desolation in its wake.”
1 The importance of Caucasia for the world business and the rehabilitation of Europe
was summed up as follows: “As a market place of considerable importance for the
importation of products of all, kinds , (technical, material, chemical products, textiles,
etc.), and as a trade route of the highest importance between Europe and Asia. Cau-
casia will undoubtedly be a great market for the industrial products of Europe. At
the same time by the riches of its subsoil in petroleum, manganese, copper, coal, and
other ores, by its forests, by its production of cotton, wool, silk, tobacco, etc., Caucasia
represents one of the most important sources of raw materials for the industries of
Europe.”
298 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
“At a distance the idle, decaying derricks, which cover an area of 60,000
acres, resemble a vast cemetery of conical tombstones. Scarcely a vapor of
Smoke issues, from the blackened walls of the neighboring refineries to give
the Sombre picture any form of animation. Only here and there does one see
a Workman. The interminable rows of small wooden houses, which is czarist
days housed the tens of thousands of employees, have degenerated into
wretched hovels, for the most part deserted and ruined. The roads leading
from the city are in a deplorable state, and it is positive punishment to traverse
them even in a cushioned automobile.”
This stagnation is due to the soviets' lack of capital, modern machinery, and
technical skill to develop the oil fields, which were taken over by the state .
soon after the seizure of Baku by the Bolsheviks in April, 1920.
THE “DEAD" PORTS OF BATUM AND POTI
The other extremity of the isthmus at the once teeming ports of Baku and
Poti, on the Black Sea, the picture is the same. In pre-war days these busy
entrepots of trade were visited by the fleets of World commerce that carried the
huge stream of oil from the Transcaucasian pipe lines and the hundreds of
thousands of tons of manganese ore from the mines of Chiaturi. Splendid
piers and docks, great steam-propelled cranes, and net works of truckage,
yet insufficient for the demands of the enormous export, hummed with the
traffic of industry. To-day the harbors are filled with dead ships, the cranes
and rails are rusting or looted, and commerce is only carried on in a desultory,
primitive way. Labor has sought other fields. Capital has fled, and the great
export traffic that once crossed the isthmus and discharged itself to Europe
and America is negligible.
“SOVIETIZING " RELIGION
X. All the world knows the story of the antireligious war in Soviet Russia.
The blighting hand of atheistic communism has swept over the Caucasus.
The soviet rule has played no favorite. Libels on religious orthodoxy have
extended to every faith. Cartoons of God and Saint of every sect have been
paraded through the streets. Priests and laymen have been imprisoned and
executed on trumped-up charges of counter-revolutionary acts. The church
and religious edifices have been brought under the control of the Red Church
and turned over to secular entertainment, dances, theatrical performances,
moving pictures. Bolshevist priests and bishops have been installed, irrespec-
tive of their former status or appointments by constituted church authorities,
and Bolshevik godliness has been “blessed ” and sanctioned, and imposed.
There is no free church, no freedom of religion in Russia, or the Caucasus, as
known to the religious world. The orthodox, Protestant, Mohammedan, Jew,
alike come under the ban. Religious observance, teaching or thinking is “coun-
ter-revolutionary '' and denied to the youth of the nation. There is no God
in the SOviet doctrine.
NO RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE
While the people of the Caucasus are ethnologically of different races, they
are inseparably bound by economic and political interests and geographical
isolation. They have no affinities with Soviet Russia and its communistic
state. The Christian population of Georgia and Armenia had long ceased to
be antagonistic to the Mohammedan peoples of Azerbaijan and north Caucasia.
The Christian faith was tolerated in Mohammedan territory and the Worship
of Islam was undisturbed in the Christian Republics. The church and the
state had been divorced by the progressive people of the Caucasian democracies.
Religious persecutions and intolerance, Once the bane of the Near East, no
longer entered into the political or economic life of the allied republics, and
until the Bolshevist dictators from MOSCOW came and crushed out the freedom
of worship, there survived no religious question. The schools and colleges and
the political life of these little nations were free of class and sectarian con-
troversies, Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, and Jew were free to follow
their own spiritual convictions, Worship in their own edifices, and not dis-
criminated against in any phase of activity, public or private.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 299
THE ANCIENT GEORGIAN CHURCH
In Tiflis, the metropolis of the Caucasus, was the seat of the Georgian Church,
one of the most ancient eastern Christian churches in the world. It was
second to the Greek Orthodox Church in antiquity. The head of the church
is the catholicOS-patriarch, still imprisoned by the Bolsheviks. The ancient
cathedral and throne of the catholicos is at Mtsketha (former capital of
Georgia until the fifth century) near Tiflis. The Georgian Church was inde-
pendent from the state, its funds and properties were administered by the
laymen’s Committee, and the clergy elected by the parishes.
CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The capital of Georgia was the educational and literary, as well as the
commercial and social center of the Caucasians. Many Georgian societies had
their head offices there, among them the Georgian Library Society, with its 35
branches and 20,000 members; also historical ethnographical and geographical
societies, and many others. The Georgian University at Tiflis had 35 pro-
fessors and 2,000 students, while a considerable number of Georgians studied,
abroad, especially at the universities in France, Switzerland, and Germany.
There was also one other college in Tiflis and one in Kutais, 2 theological col-
leges, 25 grammar schools, and about 4,000 so-called people's schools; and also
several agricultural and technical schools. Ninety per cent of the total popula-
tion of Georgia can read and write. There were 24 daily papers and weeklies,
and about 350 books in half-million copies published every year. Such was the
flourishing condition of the cultural life previous to the rule of Soviet Moscow.
LITERATURE AND ART
The nation is rich in ancient and modern literature, known to the world
through translations in many languages. In the public library of New York,
in the oriental and slavonic rooms, are sections devoted to Georgian literature
in the native tongue and in French, English, and Russian. The most famous
Georgian romance is Shotha Rusthaveli’s Man in the Panther's Skin, trans-
lated into English by Marjory S. Wardrop, , a sister of the British commis-
sioner in Georgia. It is the great epic by a contemporary of Queen Thamara,
in the twelfth century, and a literary monument to what is called the “Golden
Age” of Georgia, an age of splendor and intellectual progress. Many ancient
fairy tales are of Georgian origin, now included in the Grimm library of
Georgian folk tales, and well known to the children of all lands, and found in
American homes and libraries. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New
York, has examples of early Caucasian bronzes; the Morgan collection includes
rare specimens Of Georgian archaeology.
HOT SPRINGS
To middle Europe and Russia, Tiflis is the “hot springs” of the Caucasus.
Its private and public sulphur baths and its salubrious climate attract tens of
thousands between September and May. The curative waters of Georgia are
not restricted to the capital. Millions of gallons from the health-giving springs
in Georgia and north Caucasia were bottled annually and sent to Europe and
America, in pre-war days. Tiflis was the social and business Mecca of the
middle east, Second only to Constantinople, and one of the richest cities of the
Russian imperial domains. * • . . . . * 4f
The capital was supplied by hydroelectric power, had wide, well-paved ave-
nues, tram cars, telephones—in fact, with 400,000 population, mostly Georgians
of the Caucasian race, was an up-to-date metropolis of magnificent houses and
edifices comparable with any large European city. Its picturesque streets rise
in terraces from the River Kura to the slopes of Mount David, which is over
2,000 feet above the sea level, and is reached by a cable railway. On Mount
David are built beautiful Summer houses, large hotels and cafés—a retreat from
the almost tropical heat of midsummer. Among the city’s attractions are the
public parks and the botanical gardens. There are numerous schools, a con-
Servatory of music, a Caucasian museum, a railroad institute, a sericultural
1 The word, “Tiflis '' is derived from the Georgian “tbilis”—source of Warmth.
300 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
station, and a physical observatory. In pre-war days there were extensive-
leather, tobacco, and cotton-spinning factories in the city.
Before Bolshevism reigned, with its hunger, misery, and its sullen silence
and everlasting fear, its suppression of all freedom of speech and the press, its
denunciations, arbitrary trials and executions, its brutality and terror, Tiflis
Was the haven of the refugees, the workers and peasants, the intelligentsia
and the bourgeisie, who fled from the hell of Bolshevism in Russia to the pro-
tection of independent Georgia and its abode of law and justice.
THE SOUL OF NATIQRNALITY SURVIVES
To-day the torch of liberty flickers in the Republics of the Caucasus, but the
soul of nationality and the reverence for religion survive. The peoples of the
Caucasus are implacable foes of Bolshevism, and its twin fury, communism, but
the arm of the murderous Cheka holds them in bondage. As long as the
bayonet of Soviet Russia is pressed to their hearts they must bow to the
dictatorship of Moscow, and submit to the impositions of a military terrorism,
or become the victims of the torture chamber, banishment, and death.
APPENDIx
PARIs, January 27, 1921.
To His Excellency M. GUEGUETCHKORI,
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia, Paris.
Mr. MINISTER : After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the
supreme council, under date of January 26, has resolved to recognize de jure
the independence of Georgia, as soon as this country should formally express
the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27, to address to me the official
request of the Government and the people of Georgia to become recognized de
jure by the allied powers.
I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was
unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government.
. The allied powers are happy to be able to prove.thus anew the sympathy with
which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward independ-
ence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already accom-
lished.
p Be pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
TIFLIS, January 12, 1920.
YoUR ExCELLENCY : I have the honor to inform you that Lord Curzon desires
me to make known to you that yesterday he took upon himself the initiative of
proposing to the supreme council of the Allies the recognition de facto of the
Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
This proposal was accepted unanimously, and with the agreement of the
Governments of France and Italy.
It is not necessary to tell you with what great satisfaction I communicate
the preceding facts to the Georgian Government.
As concerning our Armenian friends, the question of their recognition is
closely bound up with the future peace treaty with Turkey.
WARDROP.
To Monsieur E. GUEGUETCHKORI,
Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Georgian Republic.
TIFLIs, January 19, 1920.
YoUR ExCELLENCY : I have just now received a radiotelegraph from the Royal
Government of Italy, by which I am informed that at a meeting of the Supreme
council, on the 11th of the current month, it was decided that the principal
allied and associated powers collectively recognized the Governments of Georgia.
and Azerbaijan as governments de facto.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 301
Whilst transmitting the decision of the supreme council in its exact terms,
I am very happy to have the opportunity of once more expressing my sincere
congratulations and my best wishes for the future of the Georgian Republic.
Receive, Your Excellency, the assurance of my profound consideration.
GABBA,
Colonel on the General Staff,
Chief of the Italian Military Mission in the Caucasus.
To His Excellency Monsieur E. GUEGETCHKORI,
Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia.
TIELIS, January 18, 1920.
MonsIEUR LE MINISTRE: I have the honor to transmit to you the copy here-
with annexed of a telegram received from my Government this morning.
I beg you on this occasion to accept my warm congratulations.
Receive, Monsieur le Ministre, the assurance of my profound consideration.
E. DE: NONANCOURT,
Chief of the French Military Mission in the Caucasus.
To Monsieur E. GUEGETCHKORI,
Minister for Foreign Affairs.
[Telegram received from Paris]
JANUARY 18, 1920.
The council of ministers for foreign affairs of the allied powers decided, on
the 6th of January to recognize Georgia and Azerbaijan as de facto Govern-
mentS.
QUAI D’ORSAY, PARIs, February 7, 1920.
The secretariat general of the peace conference has the honor to make known
to the president of the Georgian delegation that the Japanese Government have
just now notified to them that they associate themselves with the measure by
which the British, French, and Italian Governments recognize the Georgian
Government as a government de facto.
The PRESIDENT OF THE GEORGIAN DELEGATION.
The constituent assembly of Georgia, elected by citizens of both sexes,
according to the direct, equal, universal, secret and proportional electoral
system, at its first sitting of March 12, 1919, proclaims before the world and
history, that it fully confirms and approves the act of the independence of
Georgia, declared at Tiflis by the Georgian National Council, May 26, 1918.
ACT OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
For several centuries Georgia "existed as a free and independent State.
At the end of the eighteenth century, Georgia voluntarily allied herself
with Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should protect her against
enemies from without.
In the course of the great Russian revolution, conditions arose which resulted
in the disorganization of the entire military front and the abandonment of
Transcaucasia by the Russian armies.
Thus, left to their own devices, Georgia, and with her all Transcaucasia,
took into their hands the direction of their affairs, creating the necessary
organs for this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links
which united Transcaucasian nationalities were broken and the political unity
of Transcaucasia was thus dissolved.
The present position of the Georgian nation makes it imperatively necessary
that Georgia should create a political organization of her own in order that
302 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
she may escape from the yoke of her enemies and lay a solid foundation for
her free development. g -- *
Accordingly, the Georgian National Council, elected by the National Assembly
of Georgia on November 22 (December 5), 1917, declares:
1. In future the Georgian people will hold sovereign power, and Georgia
will be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and independent state.
2. Independent Georgia’s form of political organization will be a democratic
republic.
3. In case of international conflicts, Georgia will always remain neutral.
4. The Georgian democratic Republic will apply itself to establishing friendly
relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationalities and
States.
5. The democratic Georgian Republic guarantees to all citizens within its
territory all civil and political rights without distinction of nationality, religion,
social position, or sex. *
6. The democratic Georgian Republic offers to all inhabitants of its territory
a wide field for free development.
7. Until the convocation of the constituent assembly, the National Council,
with the addition of representatives of the minorities and the provisional
government responsible to the National Council, is at the head of all Georgian
administration.
APPENDIX NO. 14
CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS OF GEORGIA
About seventeenth century B. C. Togarmah (Genesis, Chap. X, 3), forefather
of the Iberians (Georgians, Karthavelians) who emigrated from Asia Minor
and appear as far back as the fifteenth century B. C. in the Caucasus.
Twelfth century B. C. Commercial relations of the Phoenecians with the
Colchians (inhabitants of western Georgia). Voyage of the Argonauts to
ancient Colchis in search of the “ Folden Fleece,” the mineral riches of the
Caucasus.
Eighth and tenth centuries B. C. Early Greek colonies on Georgia's Black
Sea coast. Beginning of Georgian alphabet. (Examples of Georgian letters
and writings of these centuries now in existence.)
323 B. C. Conquest of Georgia by the troops of Alexander the Great, of
Macedonia. *
. Beginning of third century B. C. Downfall of the Macedonians. Phar-
nawaz, first national king in Georgia. Iberian tribes molded into Georgian
nation. Cultural development; improvement of Georgian alphabet and growth
of reading and Writing. k
65 B. C. Conquest of Georgia by the Romans. Pompey reaches foot of
Caucasus Mountains. -
First and second centuries A. D. Roman suzerainty over Georgia, temporarily
challenged by the Parthians.
, Fourth century A. D. Introduction of Christianity under King Mirian through
efforts of St. Nino. Missionaries sent by Emperor Constantine. First transla-
tion of Bible into Georgian. º: *
Fifth century. Spreading of Christianity by Syrian fathers. Religious
enthusiasm; building of churches in Georgia and of Georgian monasteries in
Jerusalem, Syria, etc.
446–499. Eing Waktang Gurgaslan; Capital, Tiflis, founded.
‘. 571. Guram, founder of Bagratid dynasty (ruling until 1801), nominated
by Byzantine Emperor as King of Georgia. Georgia under influence of Greek
culture. . S
Seventh to ninth centuries. Arab conquest of central Georgia, First clash
with Islam. Arab Emir ruler in Tiflis. Western Georgia (Abkhasia) inder
pendent. • * 4 * e
• Eighth century. Georgian Church (Greek rite) is granted autocephaly; i. e.,
hierarchical independence from all other ecclesiastical authority. National
church Stimulates national feelings and enables nation to survive almost con-
tinual struggles against non-Christian neighbors and cruel persecutions by
Mohammedans.
Ninth century. Gradual decay of Arab power. Georgia under David I.
Curopalates, vassal Of Byzantium. i
Tenth century. Georgia as Byzantine province in bulwark against foes
of Christianity.
1048–1064. Invasion of Seljuk Turks. Second phase in fierce struggle against
Islam. * 3 * *
1099–1125. King David II the restorer; reconstructs country devastated by
the Turks; restores independence during the time of the Crusades. -
1184−1212. Reign of Queen Thamara, “Golden Age” of Georgia. Climax of
political power; establishment of Trebizond Empire; greatest achievements of
culture. w *.
1236. Invasion of Ghenghiz Khan, greatest enemy of Christianity. Georgia
frightfully devastated.
1365. Georgian armies save Europe from Mongol invasion. &
1386–1893–1394. Incursions of Mongols under Tamarlane strike death blow
to Georgian power and prosperity.
303
304 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. Endless struggles of Persia and Turkey
for hegemony in Georgia. Western Georgia comes under Turkish, eastern
Georgia under Persian influence. Attempts of Georgian princes to secure
aid in Russia, as the only neighboring Christian nation, against Mohammedans.
Eighteenth century. Cultural renaissance under King Vaktang VI of Kak-
hetia. Restoration of political power under Irakly II, King of Kakhetia and
Karthalinia (central and eastern Georgia).
1783. Treaty of Irakly with Catherine II of Russia. Russia assumes duties
of a protector in Georgia.
1795. Invasion of the Persians. Tiflis conquered and sacked. Russians re-
main passive.
1801. Georgia forcibly annexed by Russia under violation of treaty. Au-
tocephaly of Georgian Church abolished. England and France protest in
vain.
1867. Construction of Batum-Tiflis railway begun.
1883. Transcaucasian Railway (Batum to Baku) completed.
1913. Tchiaturi (Georgia) manganese ore production reaches 1,000,000 tons,
COVering almost one-half of the world's needs.
1914. Georgia, with its 3,000,000 inhabitants, sends 145,000 regulars and
50,000 volunteers to fight with the Allies.
1917. March : Russian revolution; Transcaucasia administered by special
high commissioner; autocephaly of Georgian Church reinstated. October, No-
Vember: Bolshevik uprising successful in Russia; Transcaucasia under rule of
anti-Bolshevik Commissariat, comprising principal nationalities (Georgians,
Armenians, Tartars); Georgian National Congress; Republic of North Caucasia
proclaimed.
1918. Transcaucasia refuses to participate in Brest-Litovsk peace negotia-
tions. April : Independence of Transcaucasia proclaimed. May: The Repub-
lics of Georgia (capital, Tiflis), Armenia (capital, Erivan), and Azerbaidjan
(capital, Baku) declare separate independence. November: British Occupation.
1919. Act of independence of Georgia confirmed by elected constituent assem-
bly. Georgia urges Cooperation among Transcaucasian republics; Georgian-
Azerbaidjanian defensive alliance. British evacuate. Transcaucasia except
Batum. General Harbord recommends a United States mandate Over Trans-
Caucasia.
1920. Great powers of Europe, Japan, and the Argentine recognize de facto
independence of Transcaucasian republics. Soviet Russia by treaty recognizes
independent sovereignty of Georgia Republic. British exacuate Batum. Ar-
menia recognized by the United States. April: Bolsheviks seize Baku and set
up Soviet government in Azerbaidjan. December: Armenia occupied by Moscow
Bolsheviks.
1921. After .de facto recognition, Georgia is recognized de jure by the great
powers of Europe. February, March : Soviet Russia violates treaty and in-
wades Georgia ; the Georgian Government retires to Batum ; accepts hospitality
of France and goes to Paris; Soviet Russia seizes Republic of Georgia and
imposes communistic dictatorship from Moscow ; loots the capital, closes the
churches, massacres and exiles 20,000 Georgians; declaration of Transcaucasian
republics, in Paris protesting to the great powers; League of Nations counsels
intervention. June: Declaration of alliance of Caucasian republics in Paris,
1922. Georgian Soviet agent refused at Genoa conference; Patriarch Am-
brosius, head of Georgian Church, arrested for sending protest against Bol-
shevik horrors to conference at Genoa. September 22: Third assembly of
League of Nations adopts following resolution with reference to Georgia: “The
assembly invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this
part of the world so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may
occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any
peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law.”
1923. Soviet Russia maintains a mock “republic" over Georgia. Holds
Azerbaidjan, Georgia, Armenia, and North Caucasia by quartering in the Cau-
casus Russian troops. July 6: Soviet constitution quotes right of all peoples to
freely withdraw from union. g
1924. Assembly of League of Nations reiterates resolution with reference to
Georgia passed in 1922; Soviet Russia attempts to sell out concessions of man-
ganese and oil rights in Europe; fails; negotiates with American capitalists;
recognition of Soviet Russia by France and Great Britain does not imply
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 305
recognition of annexation of Georgia; both countries make exceptions as to
soviet rule in Georgia. March : Patriach Ambrosius sentenced to nine years'
imprisonment. October: Georgian committee of independence appeals to League
of Nations and attempts to withdraw from Soviet union by right of clause in
Soviet constitution; attempt crushed out by soviets as revolt; more than 20,000
killed, banished, and imprisoned. Freedom crushed out by the red army;
Metropolitan (Archbishop) Nazari murdered by communists; the Cheka rules.
1925. Moscow government sells concession of Georgian manganese to Harri-
man interests as a bait for recognition. Georgian national government protests
validity of titles. Religious worship and education other than communism
prohibited by Soviet dictatorship.
APPENDIX No. 15
[Telegram]
JUNE 13, 1925.
Hon. FRANK M. KELLOGG,
Secretary of State, Washington, D. C.:
While acknowledging that I have no diplomatic status in America, yet as
the delegated representative of the Georgian National Government, now sitting
in Paris and driven by force-majeure from its rightful seat at Tiflis, may I
respectfully ask permission to file with you this notification of protest at the
action of the usurping Bolshevik Soviet Government in Moscow in entering
into a contract with W. A. Harriman & Co., of New York, to deliver to said
company the Georgian manganese mines and concessions which are owned by
the people of Georgia and private individuals receiving their title from my
Government, and to state most respectfully to you, sir, that my Government
will not recognize the legality of such proceeding, and may I further state that
the present superimposed Communistic Soviet Government of Georgia is not
representative of the people of Georgia nor elected or consented to by them,
and that their alleged acceptance of the granting of concessions in Georgia
by the Moscow Soviets to the firm of Harriman or any other firm is a hideous
mockery and a wholly illegal assumption. I beg to remain your most ºbedient
Servant.
WASILI D. DUMBADZE,
General Diplomatic and Economic Representatiº
of the Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
-$ºse
306 $º-
APPENDIX NO. 16
ExCERPTS FROM THE SPEECH BY Hon. EDWARD C. LITTLE, OF KANSAS, IN THE
House of REPRESENTATIVES, WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 17, 1921, ON THE SITU-
ATION OF ARMENIA
[Congressional Record, Vol. LXII, Pt. 13]
(Page 13702, fourth paragraph :) After the Russian collapse of November,
the people of Transcaucasia, Armenians, Georgians, and Tartars, proceeded to
organize at the great city of Tiflis (Georgia), in February, 1918, a provisional
government which governed Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and organized in
February, 1918, as such provisional government. On the 22d day of April,
1918, this Transcaucasian Parliament declared their independence and con-
ducted affairs for some five weeks, when, friction arising, they separated and
each declared its own independence, the Armenians, as aforesaid, May 28, 1918.
The difficulty was that the Tartars, being Moslems, were determined to assist
the Turks, and the Armenians (and likewise the Georgians) declined to accede
to any such arrangement and were determined to assist our allies in their fight
against Germany, Austria, and Turkey.
(Page 13702, second column, second paragraph :) During the same time
(referring to the fighting between the Armenians and the Turks during the
summer of 1918), Georgia was free, governing itsself and the Tartars of Azer-
baidjan, with their capital at Baku, after Bagratouni (the Armenian general)
withdrew and the Turks finally left.
(Page 13703, second column, first paragraph:) In December, 1920, the
Bolshevik Army began to stream into Caucasus, and the Turks contempo-
raneously Seized Kars and Alexandropol, and the Armenians were over-
whelmed. The Soviet Republic was established in Armenia and is still in pos-
session, June 22, 1922. Russia and Turkey both recognize it (Armenia) as
independent.
(Page 13703, second column, third paragraph :) The time has come when the
American Republic should take its place at the council table of the nations
and seek enforcement of the decrees its soldiers registered on the battle fields
of France. The judicious and timely insistence by our State Department upon
the release of American prisoners in Moscow and that concession by the Rus-
sians has opened the door to vast possibilities. America should now definitely
inform Russia that before our Republic opens up negotiations of friendly rela-
tions, Russia should show her respect for the rights of other nations by with-
drawing her invading troops from Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and Daghe-
stan (North Caucasia). Then those peoples will reestablish their local govern-
ments and law and Order will be maintained there, and the United States
should promptly recognize its sister and allied Republic of Armenia, send a
minister to Erivan, and receive one here.
307
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
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APPENDIX NO, 18
THE CASE of GEORGIA AND INTERNATIONAL LAW
In International Law, by Charles G. Fenwick, professor of political science
at Bryn Mawr College, author of the Neutrality Laws of the United States,
Political Systems in Transition, etc., Mr. Fenwick says, in respect of the many
interventions which have taken place in the history of Europe, that “it is
worthy of note that the guaranties given by the states recently admitted into
the family of nations, looking to the protection of racial minorities within their
national boundaries, promise to remove in large part the grounds for inter-
ventions”; i. e., interventions in respect of Turkish methods of Suppressing
the rebellion in Greece in 1827, the move to protect the Christians of Mount
Lebanon in 1860, or in 1878 to secure the deliverance of the Balkan States,
or in 1891–1896, following massacres in Armenia and Crete.
“To the same general principle must be referred,” says Professor Fenwick,
“such minor diplomatic interventions and official expressions of opinion as
are exemplified in the refusal of the United States to renew the commercial
treaty with Russia, upon its expiration in 1913, pending assurances from that
Government of fairer treatment of its Jewish population ; Or, again, the resolu-
tion adopted by both Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
in 1919 expressing sympathy with the desire of the Irish people for a govern-
ment of their own choice.”
Says Professor Fenwick in a footnote in reference to this paragraph :
“It was freely asserted by publicists at the time that the Irish question
was a “domestic problem ’ which Great Britain should be left free to handle
in its own way. But it may be questioned whether, in view of international
precedents, any problem can in point of law be considered as purely ‘domestic '
when as a matter of fact the methods resorted to for its solution actually
disturb the domestic peace of another country. Whether such interventions
are morally justified by the particular circumstances is a point outside the
Sphere of positive international law, each nation in such cases being the judg
of its own rights.” t
IN RE RECOGNITION OF TEXAS
On December 21, 1836, President Andrew Jackson, in a message to the Con-
gress, has this to say in regard to the proposal to recognize the independence
of Texas, the status of which was not dissimilar to that of the Greeks in
1821–1829 nor yet wholly unlike the present Status of Georgia :
“* * * that the two Houses at their last session, acting separately,
passed resolutions ‘that the independence of Texas ought to be acknowledged
by the United States whenever satisfactory information should be received that
it had in successful Operation a civil government capable of performing the
duties and fulfilling the obligations Of an independent power.’”
President Jackson follows this with a commentary to the effect that care
should be taken in prematurely recognizing a state which had formerly formed
an integral part of another country, lest War should follow, etc. This dictum
could not apply to Georgia, for Georgia has never been an “integral ” part
of Russia.
But the situation of Georgia, in its relationship with the joint resolution
of Mr. Representative Moore of Virginia and Mr. Senator Copeland, of New
York, is not analogous to that of Texas in this respect, for war did not follow
the recognition of Georgia by England, France, Germany, Japan, Italy, the
Argentine, etc.; nor, again, does the Moore-Copeland resolution recognize the
independence of Georgia but provides only that the President of the United
States may appoint a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of
Georgia whenever he should deem it expedient to make such appointment.
Even with close regard to what may be deemed to be the strict letter of
the theory of international law, yet it certainly must be admitted that in the
309
310
NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA
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NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 311
practice of it under the broad spirit of its innumerable precedents the
Congress of the United States might justifiably upon grounds of its own arbi-
trary choosing establish its own precedents based on the habitual moral
attitude of the native American peoples in all such cases, and hence give to
the National Republic of Georgia that species of recognition such as is con-
tained in the Moore-Copeland resolution.
It seems clear to me that in the matter of the Moore-Copeland resolution
there is less a legal than a moral question involved, which is just this, Have
the American people of the States of the Union in their relationships with
other peoples followed the urge and impulse of their own conscience, pouring
out their sympathy with, giving of their wealth to, and unofficially lending
their sons in aid of other peoples fighting for liberty and independence? Have
not they consistently always, privately, publicly, and through the expression
of the Congress or of legislatures of the respective States, given through their
words, their gifts, and their deeds, irrefutable evidence of their sympathy with
and adherence to the basic principle of this Republic, wherever and whenever
applied by other peoples similarly situated to ourselves in 1776? In regard to
all peoples, powerful and weak, who have given evidence of a high capacity for
Self-government, have we not consistently demonstrated in our acts of sym-
pathy with them our unswerving loyalty to our own declaration that men
are born with certain unalienable rights, and among these the rights of “life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”?
It seems to me that the major question involved in such provisional recogni-
tion as would be given Georgia in the Moore-Copeland resolutoin is whether the
Georgians have sufficiently established themselves by their outlook on life,
their own particular and peculiar way of doing things, their institutions, their
laws, their language, their high culture, their high record of literacy, such
capacity for self-government as to make them worthy that such a joint resolu-
tion as that drafted and presented for consideration by Mr. Moore and by Mr.
Copeland should receive the approval of the Congress?
Finally, to quote Prof. Charles G. Fenwick, who in his particular conception
of international law follows closely the authority of Mr. John Bassett Moore:
“The definition (“international law ') expresses, therefore, the positive
conception of the law as a body of rules, including both general principles of
conduct and concrete regulations, to which the nations can be said to have
given their adherence as judged by their public declarations and their daily
practice.
“But if moral standards, as belonging to the science of ethics rather than
that of law, must be kept distinct from rules actually observed, it must not be
inferred that the rules of international law, when definitely ascertained, are
not to be tested as to their conformity with the generally accepted principles
of justice. International law is confessedly a defective system of securing
justice among the nations when compared with the legal systems in force
within the more civilized states. It can be improved and developed only
through a more effective organization of the nations and a more equitable ad-
justment of their respective claims than has as yet been attained. In de-
termining the form of this better organization and the methods of this adjust-
ment Statesmen must necessarily be guided by comparisons between the rules
of international law and the principles of justice prevailing within the indi-
vidual states.”
The theory and generally the practice of international law give recognition
to the Sanctity of contract between states. If the letter and spirit of inerma-
tional law were wantonly disregarded when Germany invaded Belgium, then
must it not follow that Bolshevik Russia stands equally guilty with Germany,
when after having recognized the independence of the National Republic of
Georgia She wantonly and wickedly, without previous declaration, by her acts
and not by her Words, made likewise a “scrap of paper " of her constitutional
guaranty to Georgia of her right to independence and self-government?
Are there not ample legal and moral precedents for the Committee on For-
eign Affairs of the House of Representatives to follow in the case of the
National Republic of Georgia?
Respectfully submitted.
JOHN A. STEWART.
312 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
j
CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE SITUATION IN GREECE, 1821–1829, IN LIGHT
OF THE WEBSTER RESOLUTION OF DECEMBER 8, 1823
[Reference : Historians’ History of the World, vol. 24]
1821. Greek war for independence breaks out.
1822. Greece proclaims herself independent; civil conflict among the Greeks in
consequence of which at the battle of Janina the Greeks were badly
defeated ; Morea is invaded by the Turks.
1823. Greek civil conflicts result in civil war, which lasts until 1824, Turks
regaining strong control.
1824. Another civil war breaks out among Greek forces called “War of the
Primates.”
1825. Mehmet Ali, of Egypt, invades Greece successfully; siege of Missolonghi.
1826. Missolonghi falls.
1827. Athens captured by the Turks and treaty entered into between them and
England, France, and Russia for pacification of Greece.
1829. Capo d'Istria appointed President for seven years. Protocol at London
makes Greece hereditary monarchy tributory to Turkey.
NOTE:-The Battle of Novarino, 1827, four years after Webster’s resolution,
saved Greece. When the French general, Maison, landed in the Morea, Ibra-
him sailed for Egypt; so that in October, 1828, the Morea at least was free,
and “nothing stood in the way to prevent Greece from establishing an inde-
pendent government. President Capo d'Istria had entered Greek soil. On Janu-
ary 18, 1828. His presidency was a sort of dictatorship; his board of counsel-
lors his own creatures; he limited the power of the press, etc. On March 22,
1829, it was decided by England, France, and Russia that Greece should form
a limited monarchy; that it should reach to the Bays of Ceuta and Wola on
the north, but that it should be tributory to Turkey.”
Greece was not permitted to become wholly independent until February 3,
1830, seven years after Webster’s resolution.
“In 1827 Russia, France, and England assumed the rôle of armed arbitrators
between the Ottoman Empire and Greece. ; Greece at that moment having
successfully defeated the Turkish armies sent by Mahmud to reduce her to
obedience, had finally succumbed to the Egyptian armies called to the aid of
Islam.”
ARGUMENT
To judge from the above authoritative data, it must be admitted in a spirit
of fairness that the situation in Georgia from 1918 up to date has not been
unlike that of Greece.
There are areas in the mountains of Georgia, estimated at thousands of
square miles, which have never been conquered. Quoting from documents
prepared by the Georgian government and submitted to the assemblage of
European powers in Geneva in September, 1922: “In certain districts there
have been armed risings. In Svanetia, Pschawen, and Khevsurs, for example,
the struggle assumed such a character that the red army was compelled to
abandon its scheme of conquest, and part of the mountainous region remains
free.”
This situation still continues. The Georgian government sitting in Paris is
and has been in constant Communication with its nationals in these mountain
regions, where, as testified to by Mr. Vasili D. Dumbadze, the diplomatic and
economic representative of the National Republic of Georgia in the United
States, on April 1 of this year, schools, under the Orderly processes of local
government, are proceeding without interruption, except when the Bolshevik
leaders make their sporadic forays in vain attempts to Subject this uncon-
querable people.
Likewise it may be said as a fact that the Georgian government is in con-
stant communication with its people throughout the entire area of Georgia.
These practically uninterrupted communications between the Georgian govern-
ment in Paris and the Georgian people, independent or otherwise, on the terri-
tory of Georgia itself, have not been nor are they going on for any revolution-
ary purpose but only to encourage the people in Georgia patiently to await
their hour of deliverance.
It must not be understood that grave danger does not lie beside the path
which these messengers from Paris must pursue in order to reach contact with
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 313
their peoples on the Transcaucasian Isthmus. It is sad to have to relate that
in 1924, Mr. Noé Khomeriky, minister of agriculture; Mr. Benia Tchikvichvily,
mayor of Tiflis ; and Mr. Valiko Ghiugheli, commander of the national guard,
were captured and after the usual farcical Cheka trial were murdered. What
makes the case of these martyrs particularly harrowing is that they were Sent
from Paris by their government not alone to encourage their people to patience
but to beg them to commit no overt act that would endanger the lives Of inno-
cent people in any futile effort at that time to free themselves from the horrors
of the local communist rule.
While these Georgian heroes were meeting their death, Rev. Frank Thomas,
the celebrated Swiss preacher, was declaring in the hall of the University of
Geneva, on the 28th of May, 1924, before a distinguished body of diplomats,
jurists, and others that—
“You have without doubt been moved, like myself, in hearing the description
of Georgia as she has become under the Bolshevist political régimé, after that
which has been given us of Georgia as she was previously. You have been able
to get an idea of how the soviets found the means to make of this country, so
interesting and so prosperous from every point of view, a veritable desert by
reason of their abominable régimé. There remains for me but to say a few
words about the religious persecution. -
“All the tyrants of history know the immense rôle that religious faith can
play among men to preserve or to restore to them their dignity and their
liberty. Therefore when they wish to rid themselves of a people which is
annoying to them by crushing it more surely, they have but to attack its con-
science in trying to annihilate it. When the tyrants have still a bit of consider-
ation for those they oppress they leave them at least the liberty of conscience;
we know something of this at Geneva. we of whom the ancestors at the time
of Napoleon first preserved and developed their energy and their love of liberty
by strengthening themselves in our old sanctuary of St. Peter, where their
conquerors allowed them to adore God as they wished. The Soviets, who are
for the most part atheists, are only the more frightened of the influence of
religion and therefore strive the harder everywhere to cut without pity the
wings of those whom they wish to oppress, after having despoiled them of their
possessions. It is the most sure method of putting an end to all opposition by
destroying the personalities.
“This is what they have done everywhere, and particularly in unfortunate
Georgia, of which the church, one of the most ancient in Europe, since it dates
back to the fourth century of our era, has always sought to defend its inde-
pendence, and which has through this love of liberty given to the Georgian
people its SO Valient and so courageous soul, which is the admiration of all the
world. After having allied herself in the last century to the Orthodox Church
of Russia, she took advantage of the Russian revolution and the abolition of
the monarchy, of which she was a faithful upholder, to proclaim her indepen-
dence and press the Georgian people to organize itself into an independent repub-
lic. From that time on the fury of the Soviets was aroused ; it was a precious prize
which was escaping them ; it was necessary at all price to reconquer it. There-
fore, without the least respect for the rights of this little nation, numerous
troops of the red army invaded this country, which was thirsting only for
liberty. The Georgians resisted valiently, but they were crushed in the most
odious fashion ; the country was submitted to the yoke of the bolshevists, the
churches closed or transformed into places of amusement or of debauchery,
the priests imprisoned or put to death.
“Among these priests there was an exeremely worthy old man, the Metropoli-
tan Ambrosius, who, like all the true Christians, was at the same time an
ardent patriot, and he wished to defend those who were under his protection
and at the time of the conference of Genoa he wrote, on February 7, 1922, a
remarkable letter, in fact and form, in which he allowed his heart and his con-
science to speak, to beg the conference to intervene and to restore to his country
its liberty. This letter denounced the lie of the soviets, who pretended to have
freed Georgia and to have made it happy.
“‘We can affirm without exaggeration,’ it said, ‘that the incoherent experi-
ences of which the Georgian Nation is the object will bring it inevitably to
physical degeneration and to moral degradation. The people are being pillaged,
their mother tongue is being taken from them, their national culture is trampled
under foot. Under pretext of liberty and conscience the liberty of worship is
abolished, the clergy is persecuted. We demand therefore—
w
314 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
“‘1. That the Russian troops of occupation be immediately withdrawn from
the territory of Georgia, and that the Georgian inheritance be guaranteed from
all violation, forced protectorship, and foreign depravity.
“‘2. That the Georgian Nation be given the possibility of freely organizing
its life as it wishes, in establishing the forms of its social and political existence
which best suit its spirit, its aspirations, its customs, and its national culture.”
“The rage of the Soviets on hearing of this matter knew no bounds; Ambro-
sius was menaced, if he refused to make a retraction, with being broken,
imprisoned; the menaces of death were unable to move him. He was put in
prison, arraigned before a tribunal for having written this letter, and was
condemned to an imprisonment of nine years. On the 19th of March, 1922, the
sentence was rendered, and among other things it said this: ‘The crimes of
Ambrosius merit the sentence of death, but the authorities are now sufficiently
powerful to no longer have recourse to this penalty; the patriarch Will there-
fore only be condemned to nine years of prison with three weeks of increased
punishment.’ The term ‘of terrible isolation * is employed here. It is the
equivalent of his conscience in taking the defense of those for whom he was
responsible | Such is the delightful régimé to which those who boast of being
the friends of the people condemn those who among the people are resolved to
remain at any price faithful to their duty
“You understand why, ladies and gentlemen, we can not remain silent. In
our ancient city, land of refuge, we are in the habit of always protesting
against the injustices and oppressions, regardless of whence they come and
who might be the victims. And we are decided, a certain number among us,
and I hope a number which will increase throughout our country and on the
entire earth, to protect with so much force, with so much indignation, that the
redoubtable tyrants of Petrograd will be obliged to hear us and to change
their method, if they do not wish to incur the reprobation of the entire world
and particularly of all those who love the people and would be ashamed to
take advantage of it.
“We shall protest, firstly, because we are an already ancient democracy
and because there is in question a sister democracy which is being strangled
under the hypocritical cover of liberty.
“We shall protest, furthermore, because the Georgian people are extremely
worthy of universal sympathy; it has certainly shown this in battling SO
courageously and for so long for its liberty and for the realization of its
destiny of a sovereign and independent people. It is capable of governing
itself and it is worthy of it; much more capable and much more worthy than
those who are assassinating it for the purpose of taking what it possesses.
“We shall protest, finally, because it is a Christian people or one who at
least has a strong desire for the Christian ideal, which is an ideal of fraternity,
of solidarity, and of justice, the Only ideal which can still save our poor.
humanity, swept toward the abyss for having too often, at least in its politics,
forgotten this ideal. And we hope with all our soul that some day soon the
sister nation which suffers and laments so far away from Switzerland geo-
graphically but so near to it in heart may at last enjoy this liberty which we
possess since the declaration of the Grütli, and which is the greatest of the
benefits to which all peoples, small or great without exception, have the right
to lay claim. Is Our duty not to do everything possible to hasten the happy
days when on earth all the tyrants and all the tyrannies shall have disappeared
and when liberty shall be definitely victorious?”
Many other persons have before bodies of similar importance expressed
similar sentiments in respect of the case of the National Republic of Georgia.
Respectfully submitted.
JOHN A. STEWART.
*-
APPENDIX NO. 19
[New York Times, Sept. 26, 1924]
60,000 RED TRoops SENT To CAUCASUs—REvolT SPREADS THROUGH Soviet
REPUBLICS OF ARMENIA, Aze.HBAIJAN, AND DAGHESTAN–GEORGIA UPRISING
FAILs—BUT MoRE THAN 20,000 PEASANTS TAKE To MoUNTAINs To Continue
GUERRILLA WARFARE
TREBIzoND, Russian frontier, September 17 (delayed).-The revolution
against the Bolsheviki is spreading rapidly through the Soviet Republics of
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Daghestan.
The red general staff poured 60,000 troops into the Caucasus this week—
through Batum and via a roundabout railway through Rostov and Baku–and
spies from Batum report that the port is still packed with crowded troop ships.
The backbone of the revolution in Georgia has been definitely broken, but
revolutionary detachments with thousands of peasants are doggedly falling
back and digging into the mountains. Extraordinary tales are told about
peasant villagers living in the foothills of the mountains roll ng enormous rocks
down the mountains against the Bolsheviki, wiping out whole companies.
From these mountains the rebels will be able to raid down the fertile
valleys which stretch east and west through Georgia, cutting railways, captur-
ing troops and supplies, and annoying the Communist administration. A force
of from 20,000 to 30,000 revolutionists is now entrenched in the mountains,
particularly along the northern frontier.
A force of 5,000 revolutionists has reached the port and rail head of Poti
after defeating the Bolshevist forces at Sukhum, but the Bolshevist fleet
still is shelling them and a Bolshevist column is marching north from Batum
against them.
TURKISEI WIEW OF SITUATION
Turkish military observers along the frontier consider that the red staff
must keep 100,000 troops in the Caucasus indefinitely, which will greatly
weaken the other fronts. The red staff must not only employ large forces
to hold Batum, Tiflis, and Baku but also must keep the main railway open
between these points and watch the oil fields.
At least 40 scattered points throughout the Caucasus, where they are
rising up against the low state prices for wheat, the peasants must still be
-crushed and garrisons established, and the strained relations with Turkey
also require the maintenance of large forces in the Caucasus.
In spite of the 15,000,000 gold rubles ($7,500,000) cash and the huge
-quantity of military supplies which Moscow gave Angora to help defeat the
-Greeks in 1921, the relations between Turkey and Russia are becoming more
..and more strained.
Moscow is angry because Nationalist Turkey has a dream of expansion to
•Central Asia, which conflicts with the Russian domination of Persia and
"Turkestan, and particularly because the visit of Mustapha Kemal Pasha to
the frontiers encouraged the Caucasian revolutionists. Moscow is also
accusing Turkey now of helping the revolutionists in many ways.
The mutual defensive agreement between Poland, Rumania, and Turkey
against Russia has been strengthened by Polish Senators and Deputies who
have gone to Constantinople ostensibly to attend the opening of the Polish
Exposition, and that has angered Moscow.
Refugees now reaching Trebizond report that life has become almost un-
bearable in Georgia, which formerly was one of the richest provinces in
Europe. The peasants must surrender a large part of their wheat as taxes
: and the Soviets take the remainder at a low price, but Owing to the embargo
315
316 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
!
on imports all manufactured goods are prohibitively high priced. A pair of
shoes costs $20 and a suit of bad clothing $100 in Tiflis and Batum.
The Soviets stopped all imports into the Caucasus in Order to bolster up
the exchange, and the population is now in rags.
BATUM NOT TAKEN BY INSURGENTS
[Special cable to The New York Times]
CoNSTANTINOPLE, September 21.—According to the Hatest information re-
ceived by members of the Georgian colony here, serious fighting is in progress
between detachments of Georgian insurgents and Soviet forces. The , struggle
is said to be keenest in the Provinces of Senaki, Zougdidi, and Ozourgethll.
The Bolsheviki are said to have been greatly reinforced and are Supplied with
tanks, armored trains, airplanes, and artillery.
It is hard to arrive at the truth amid all the conflicting statements, but inde-
pendent accounts mostly agree that the Bolsheviki are masters of the big
towns and that, for example, the rumor of the capture of Batum by the
insurgents was merely due to the fact that a number of prisoners had escaped
from prison there. The new Persian ambassador to Turkey, who arrived three
days ago via Batum, declared that the town was quiet and a similar account
was given by two Englishmen who recently arrived from Tiflis via Batum.
One of these Englishmen says he is in telegraphic communication with his
partner in Tiflis and is about to consign thither a quantity of goods.
The only conclusion to be drawn is that the insurrection is more of the
nature of guerrilla warfare than regular compaign, and the fighting is now
chiefly confined to activity of bands in or near mountainous districts.
REDS USE WOMEN AS SEIIELDS IN WAR–MOSCOW TROOPS ACCUSED BY GEORGIA REVO-
LUTIONISTS AS FIERCE STRUGGLE GOES ON.—REBELS ARE FALLING BACK–COMBAT
IN THE CAUCAS US MOUNTAINS IS SAID TO BE CAUSING GREAT LOSS
[From the Chicago Tribune]
TREBIzoND, September 26.—In a battle now raging for more than a week in
the towering Caucasus ranges in the Province of Svanethie, 125 miles east of
Batum, the red armies are trying to crush Colonel Tcholkachvilis's insurgent
force of 20,000 by using thousands of women and children as shields at the
heads and sides of their attacking Columns.
The number of women and girls who have perished from the prodding of
Bolshevist bayonets, or falling by the Wayside exhausted, or from stray
bullets from the revolutionists runs into many hundreds.
The retreat of Colonel Tcholkachvilis’s forces into the almost inaccessible
dales of Mount Elbros to escape firing on their own flesh and blood, and the
pursuit of the red army which could plainly be seen dragging and pushing
and bayoneting the Women along, is described in minute detail in telegrams
received through an underworld Service of the Georgian Independence Com-
mittee. The last telegram is dated two days ago and the last newspaper four
days ago.
The final fate of between 2,000 and 3,000 women is unknown.
When the red army reinforcements from the Rumanian and Polish frontiers
broke the Georgian struggle for independence two weeks ago many revolu-
tionary bands which had been fighting along the Batum-Tiflis Railway and
pipe line fell back northward into the mountainous Province of Svanethie, 78
miles north of Kutals, and joined Colonel Tcholkachvilis, who had been carry-
ing on guerrilla warfare against the reds since the latter conquered Georgia
On March 21.
The red general staff telegraphed from Moscow that Colonel Tcholkach-
vilis must be crushed at any cost, because his powerful insurgent force could
keep Georgia in an uproar, and particularly could cut the Batum-Tiflis-Baku
Railway and the vital pipe line. Colonel Tcholkachvilis could force the Soviets
to keep almost 100,000 troops in the Caucasus, which would greatly weaken
the red army and be the rallying point constantly for a new revolution which
might even sweep the Soviets from power. The Soviets were terrorized with
the idea that if one powerful revolution got out of hand all Russia will rise
against them.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 317
On the lower slopes of Svanethie Province a big red army was sent out
from Batum, captured and burned all the villages, massacred many inhabitants,
and deported thousands of others to Siberia, but the colonel’s insurgents
held them back many days, rolling huge stones upon the advancing red columns
and fighting from behind trees. The reds used many batteries of field and
mountain guns, but the insurgents were Well protected by caves and rocks.
The reds even tried airplanes and tanks, but were unsuccessful.
Finally, Moscow telegraphed a furious order to use all the women, girls, and
children captured in the villages as shields for the red columns not only during
the day's marching but around the camps at night. The women, even some
with babies in their arms, were concentrated in one big camp near the town
of Oni, formed into companies, and assigned to different columns. When the
red columns started up the mountain sides on Saturday, morning Colonel
Tcholkachvilis's men holding a line of rocks and trees, 700 yards ahead, were
agonized to see their own wives, daughters, mothers, and sisters being pushed
ahead and beside the reds as shields.
Even the batteries used women when moving and firing, many being killed by
battery fire.
The force of the colonel was falling back in an orderly manner, according
to last accounts, but the mountains are bare of provisions.
sº
APPENDIX NO. 20
GENERAL HARBORD's REPORT-AMERICAN MILITARY MISSION TO ARMENLA
AMERICAN MILITARY MISSION TO ARMENIA,
On Board U. S. S. Martha Washington, October 16, 1919.
From: Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, United States Army.
To : The Secretary of State.
Subject: Report of the American Military Mission to Armenia.
The undersigned submits herewith the report of the American Military Mis-
sion to Armenia. The mission, organized under authority of the President,
consisted of Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, United States Army; Brig. Gen.
Frank R. McCoy, United States Army; Brig. Gen. George Van Horn Moseley,
United States Army; Col. Henry Beeuwkes, Medical Corps, United States
Army; Lieut. Col. John Price Jackson, United States Engineers; Lieut. Col.
Jasper Y. Brinton, judge advocate, United States Army; Lieut. Col. Edward
Bowditch, jr., Infantry, United States Army; Commander W. W. Bertholf,
United States Navy; Maj. Lawrence Martin, General Staff, United States
Army; Maj. Harold Clark, Infantry, United States Army; Capt. Stanley K.
Hornbeck, Ordnance Department, United States Army (chief of Far Eastern
Division, American Commission to Negotiate Peace); Mr. William B. Poland,
chief of the American Relief Commission for Belgium and Northern France;
Prof. W. W. Cumberland, economic advisor to the American Commission to
Negotiate Peace; Mr. Eliot Grinnell Mears, trade commissioner, Department
of Commerce; with other officers, clerks, interpreters, etc.
The instructions to the mission were to—
“Proceed without delay on a Government vessel to Constantinople, Batum,
and such other places in Armenia, Russian Transcaucasia, and Syria, as will
enable you to carry out instructions already discussed with you. It is desired
that you investigate and report on political, military, geographical, administra-
tive, economic, and other considerations involved in possible American interests
and responsibilities in that region.”
The mission proceeded by ship to Constantinople. From there it traveled by
the Bagdad Railway to Adana near the northeastern coast of the Mediter-
ranean Sea; the scene of the massacres of 1909, and the principal city of the
rich Province of Cilicia, where two days were spent visiting Tarsus, and the
ports of Ayas and Mersina ; thence continued by rail via Aleppo to Mardin;
from there by motor car to Diarbekir, Kharput, Malatia, Sivas, Erzinjan, Erze-
rum, Kars, Erivan, and Tiflis ; thence by rail to Baku and Batum. Erivan,
Tiflis, and Baku are the capitals, respectively, of the Republics of Armenia,
Georgia, and Azarbaijan, and Batum is the seat of the British military gov-
ernment of the Georgian district of that name. Members of the mission also
traveled by carriage from Ula-Kishla to Sivas; from Sivas to Samsun; visiting
Marsovan where there is much apprehension among the Armenian population
at this time; from Trebizond to Erzerum ; by horseback from Khorasan to
Bayazid ; from Erivan to Nakhichevan, near the Persian border. The Arme-
nian Catholicos, His Holiness Kevork V, was visited at Etchmiadzin the his-
toric Seat of the Armenian Church, with its ancient cathedral dated from 301
A. D. The mission traversed Asia Minor for its entire length and the Trans-
Caucasus from north to South and east to West. All of the Vilayets of Turkish
Armenia were visited except Van and Bitlis, which were in accessible in the
time available, but which have been well covered by Captain Niles, an Army
officer who inspected them on horseback in August, and whose report corrobo-
rates our observations in the neighboring regions; as well as both Provinces of
the Armenian Republic, and the Republics of Azarbaijan and Georgia. The
Turkish frontier was paralleled from the Black Sea to Persia. On the return
voyage from Batum the mission visited Samsun, the port of one of the world's
great tobacco regions, and Trebizond, the latter a principal port on the South
318
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 319
shore of the Black Sea, terminus of the ancient caravan route to Persia, of
historic interest as the point where the Greek 10,000 reached the sea under
Xenophon over 2,300 years ago.
The mission spent 30 days in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, and interviewed
at length representatives of every Government exercising sovereignty in that
region, as well as individual Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Kurds, Tartars,
Georgians, Russians, Persians, Jews, Arabs, British, and French, including
Americans for some time domiciled in the country. It also gave consideration
to the views of the various educational, religious, and charitable organizations
Supported by America. In addition to this personal contact, the mission before
leaving Paris was in frequent conference with the various delegations to the
peace Conference from the regions visited. It has had before it numerous
reports of the American Committee for Relief in the Near East and Food
Administration and that of the mission of Mr. Benjamin B. Moore sent by the
peace conference to Transcaucasia, as well as the very complete library on the
region, its geography, history, and governments, loaned by the Librarian of
Congress, the American Mission to Negotiate Peace, and others. It has listened
to the personal experiences of many Witnesses to the atrocities of 1915, and
benefited by the views of many persons whose knowledge of the various peoples
in the regions visited is that obtained by years spent among them.
The interest, the horror, and Sympathy of the civilized world are SO centered
on Armenia, and the purpose and Work of this mission so focused on that
blood-soaked region and its tragic remnant of a Christian population that this
report should seem to fall naturally under the following heads: (a) History
and present situation of the Armenian people; (b) the political situation and
suggestions for readjustment; (c) the conditions and problems involved in a
mandatory; (d) the considerations for and against the undertaking of a man-
date.
The report is accordingly so presented.
THE HISTORY AND PRESENT SITUATION OF ARMENIAN PEOPLE
The Armenians were known to history under that name in the fifth century
SE. C., and since that period have lived in the region where their misfortunes
find them to-day. Their Country is the great, rough table-land, from 3,000 to
8,000 feet above the level of the sea, of which Mount Ararat is the dominant
peak.
In ancient times it touched the Mediterranean, Caspian, and Black Seas.
In later days it has dwindled to about 140,000 square miles, an area about as
large as Montana, without political identity, but existing in 1914 in two parts,
the eastern belonging to Russia, which consisted of Kars and Erivan and some
portions of the present territory of Azerbaijan ; the remainder being Turkish
Armenia, comprised in the villayets of Van, Bitlis, Erzerum, Diarbekir,
Kharput, and Cilicia, though Armenians were scattered more or less throughout
the whole of Transcaucasia and Asia Minor. Armenia was an organized nation
1,000 years before there was one in Europe, except Greece and Rome. For
over 12 of the 25 centuries of its history Armenia enjoyed independence within
borders that shifted with the events of the times. Its last king, Leon VI, an
exile from his own land, spent his last years in the effort to bring about an
understanding between France and England. then in the struggle of the Hun-
dred Years War, and actually presided at a peace conference near Boulogne
in 1386, which brought about the understanding which led to the end of that
War. Armenia was evangelized by Apostles fresh from the memory of our
Lord as early as 33 A. D., and as a nation adopted Christianity and founded a
national church in 301 A. D., which has outridden the storms of the centuries
and is vital to-day. Armenia was the first nation to officially adopt Christian-
ity, with all that act involved in a pagan world.
The first two centuries following the foundation of the church were a golden
age of Armenian literature, witnessing the invention of an Armenian alpha-
bet; the translation of the Bible into the vernacular : the thronging of Ar-
menians to the great centers of learning at Athens. Rome, and Alexandria;
and the development of a flexible literary language, one of the great assets
of national life.
IBy its geographical location on the great highway of invasion from east
to west the ambitions of Persia, the Saracens and the rising tide of Islam,
and the Crusades found Armenia the extreme frontier of Christianity in the
96153—26—21
320 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
East. Persians, Parthians, Sarācens, Tartars, and Turks have exacted more
martyrs from the Armenian church in proportion to its numbers than have
been sacrificed by any other race. The last Armenian dynasty was over-
thrown by the Sultan of Egypt 78 years before the fall of Constantinople to
Mahomet II in 1453. From that time until to-day the story of their martyr-
dom is unbroken. In the Persian, the Roman, the Byzantine, the Armenian
found Aryan kinsmen and tyranny was tempered with partial autonomy.
Even the Saracen was a high racial type and reciprocal adjustments had been
possible. The Turk to whom they now fall prey was a raiding nomad from
Central Asia. His mainsprings of action were plunder, murder, and enslave-
ment; his methods the Scimitar and the bowstring. The Crusades were long
ended. Europe busy with her own renaissance contented herself with stand-
ing on the defensive against the Moslem, and the eastern Christian was for-
gotten. For more than three centuries the Armenian people figure little in
the history of the times, though at an earlier period 16 Byzantine Emporers
Were of that race, and ruled the eastern empire with distinction. Many indi-
viduals, and even colonies, however, played a part in distant lands. Europe,
India, and Persia Welcomed them. They were translators, bankers, scholars,
artisans, artists, and traders, and even under their tyrannical masters filled
postS Which called for administrative ability, became ambassadors and min-
isters, and more than once saved a tottering throne. They carried on trades,
Conducted commerce, and designed and constructed palaces. Nevertheless as
a race they were forbidden military service, taxed to poverty, their property
Confiscated at pleasure, and their women forced into the harems of the con-
Queror. Such slavery leaves some inevitable and unlovable traces upon the
character, but in the main the Armenian preserved his religion, his language,
and his racial purity, persecution bringing cohesion.
Time, temperament, and talent eventually brought most of the industry,
finance, commerce, and much of the intellectual and administrative work of
the Ottoman Empire into Armenian hands.
The progress of events in Europe brought about in the early nineteenth
century a revival of intorest in the forgotten Near East. As early as 1744
the treaty of Kainardje had placed Imperial Russia in the rôle of a protector
Of the Christians of the Near East, an attitude many times under the sus-
picion by contemporary statesmen, but whatever its motives, the only genuine
attempt by any European uation to afford such protection to helpless Armenia.
A plebiscite in Russian Armenia, if fairly held, would probably vote a recon-
stituted Russia into a mandatory for that region.
With Armenian consciousness of their own capacity to trade, to administer,
and to govern in the name of others there came in the last quarter of the nine-
teenth century the opportunity to throw their weight into the scale for the
reform of Turkey from within, at a time when the dismemberment of Turkey
was balanced in European politics against the possibility of her self-redemption.
In 1876 a constitution for Turkey was drawn up by the Armenian Krikor
Odian, secretary to Midhat Pasha, the reformer, and was proclaimed and almost
immediately revoked by Sultan Abdul Hamid.
The foregoing inadequately sketches the story of the wrongs of Armenia
down to our Own times. From 1876 it is a story of massacre and of broken
and violated guaranties.
The Russo-Turkish War ended in 1877 by the treaty of San Stefano, under
which Russia was to occupy certain regions until actual reforms had taken
place in Turkey. This treaty, through British jealousy of Russia, was torn
up the following year and the futile treaty of Berlin substituted, asking pro-
tection but without guaranties. Meantime there had been the convention of
Cyprus, by which that island passed to Great Britain, and the protection of
Turkey was promised for the Armenians in return for Great Britain's agree-
ment to come to the aid of Turkey against Russia. A collective note of the
powers in 1880 was ignored by Turkey. Then followed the agreement of
1895, which was never carried Out, and the restoration of the constitution
of 1876 in 1908. A further agreement in 1914 was abrogated at the entrance
of Turkey in the war—and the last of the series is a secret treaty of 1916
between Great Britain, France, and Russia, the existence and publication of
which rests on Bolshevik authority, by which Armenia was to be divided be-
tween Russia and France. Meanwhile there have been organized official
massacres of the Armenians Ordered every few years since Abdul Hamid
ascended the throne. In 1895, 100,000 perished. At Wan in 1908, and at
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 321
Adana and elsewhere in Cilicia in 1909, over 30,000 were murdered. The last
and greatest of these tragedies was in 1915. Conservative estimates place the
number of Armenians in Asiatic Turkey in 1914 over 1,500,000. though some
make it higher. Massacres and deportations Were organized in the Spring
of 1915 under definite system, the soldiers going from town to town. The
official reports of the Turkish Government show 1,100,000 as having been de-
ported. Young men were first summoned to the government building in each
village and then marched out and killed. The women, the Old men, and chil-
dren were, after a few days, deported to what Talaat Pasha called agri-
cultural colonies,” from the high, cool, breeze-swept plateau of Armenia to
the malarian flats of the Euphrates and the burning sands of Syria and Arabia.
The dead from this wholesale attempt on the race are variously estimated
from 500,000 to more than a million, the usual figure being about 800,000.
Driven on foot under a fierce summer sun, robbed of their clothing and such
petty articles as they carried, prodded by bayonet if they lagged; starvation,
typhus, and dysentery left thousands dead by the trailside. The ration was
a pound of bread ever alternate day, which many did not receive, and later
a small daily sprinkling of meal on the palm of the outstretched hand was the
only food. Many perished from thirst or were killed as they attempted to
slake thirst at the crossing of running streams. Numbers were murdered by
savage Kurds, against whom the Turkish soldiery afforded no protection. Lit-
tle girls of 9 or 10 were sold to Kurdish brigands for a few piastres, and women
were promiscuously violated. At Sivas an instance was related of a teacher
in the Sivas Teachers’ College, a gentle, refined Armenian girl, Speaking Eng-
lish, knowing music, attractive by the standards of any land, who was given in
enforced marriage to the beg of a neighboring Kurdish village, a filthy, ragged
ruffian three times her age, with whom she still has to live, and by Whom
she has borne a child. In the orphanage there maintained under American
relief auspices, there were 150 “brides,” being girls, many of them of tender
age, who had been living as wives in Moslem homes and had been rescued. Of
the female refugees among some 75,000 repatriated from Syria and Mesopo-
tamia, we were informed at Aleppo that 40 per cent are infected with venereal
disease from the lives to which they have been forced. The Women. Of this
race were free from such diseases before the deportation. Mutilation, violation,
torture, and death have left their haunting memories in a hundred beautiful
Armenian valleys, and the traveler in that region is seldom free from the evi-
dence of this most colossal crime Of all the ages. Yet immunity from it all
might have been purchased for any Armenian girl or comely woman by adjuring
her religion and turning Moslem. Surely no faith has ever been put to harder
test or has been cherished at greater COSt.
Even before the war the Armenians were far from being in the majority
in the region claimed as Turkish Armenia, excepting in a few places. To-day
we doubt if they would be in the majority in a single community even when
the last Survivors of the massacres and deportations have returned to the soil,
though the great losses of Turkish population to some extent Offset the differ-
ence brought about by slaughter. We estimate that there are probably 270,000
Armenians to-day in Turkish Armenia. Some 75,000 have been repatriated from
the Syrian and Mesopotamian side, Others are slowly returning from other
regions, and Some from One cause Or another remained in the country. There
are in the Transcaucasus probably 300,000 refugees from Turkish Armenia, and
Some thousands more in other lands, for they have drifted to all parts of the
Near East.
The orphanages seen throughout Turkey and Russian Armenia testify to the
loss of life among adults. They are Turkish as well as Armenian, and the mis-
sion has seen thousands of these pathetic little Survivors of the unhappy years
of the war. Reports from 20 stations in Turkey show 15,000 orphans receiving
American aid, and undoubtedly the number demanding care is double this, for
many were seen cared for under the auspices of the Red Crescent, the organi-
zation which in Moslem countries corresponds to our Red Cross. Twenty
thousand are being cared for at the expense of the various relief agencies in
the Transcaucasus. On the route traveled by the mission fully 50,000 orphans
are to-day receiving Government or other organized care. We estimate a total
of perhaps half a million refugee Armenians as available to eventually begin
life anew in a region about the size of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio,
to which would be added those, not refugees, who might return from other
lands. The condition of the refugees seen in the Transcaucasus is pitiable to
the last degree. They subsist on the charity of the American relief organiza-
322 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
tions with some help, not great, however, from their more prosperous kinsmen
domiciled in that region. Generally they wear the rags they have worn for
four years. Eighty per cent of them suffer from malaria, 10 per cent from
venereal troubles, and practically all from diseases that flourish on the frontiers
of starvation. There are also the diseases that accompany filth, loathsome
skin troubles, and great numbers of sore eyes, the latter especially among the
children. The hospitals are crowded with such cases.
The refugees in Russian Armenia have hitherto drifted from place to place,
but an effort is now being made by the administration of Colonel Haskell to
concentrate them in several refugee camps. The winter season will see many
deaths, for the winters there are extremely Severe, fuel is scarce, and shelter
inadequate. Medicines are Scarce and very dear. Quinine cost approximately
$30 a pound. On the Turkish side of the border where Armenians have re-
turned they are gradually recovering their property, and in some cases have
received rent for it, but generally they find things in ruins, and face winter
Out of touch with the American relief, and with only Such desultory assistance
as the Turkish Government can afford. Things are little if any better with
the peasant Turks in the same region. They are practically serfs equally
destitute, and equally defenseless against the winter. No doctors or medicines
are to be had. Villages are in ruins, some having been destroyed when the
Armenians fled or were deported ; some during the Russian advance; SOme on
the retreat of the Armenian irregulars and Russians after the fall of the
empire. Not over 20 per cent of the Turkish peasants who went to war have
returned. The absence of men between the ages of 20 and 35 is very notice-
able. Six hundred thousand Turkish Soldiers died of typhus alone, it is
stated, and insufficient hospital service and absolute poverty of Supply greatly
swelled the death lists.
In the region which witnessed the ebb and flow of the Russian and Turkish
Armies, the physical condition Of the Country is Very deplorable. No crops
have been raised for several years and the land Ordinarily cultivated has gone
to weeds. Scarcely a village or city existS Which is not largely in ruins. The
country is practically treeless.
Where the desperate character of the Warfare, with its reprisals of burning
and destroying as one side and then the other advanced, has not destroyed the
buildings, which are generally of adobe, the wooden beams have been taken for
fuel and the houses are ruined. In the territory untouched by war from which
Armenians were deported the ruined Villages are undoubtedly due to Turkish
deviltry, but where Armenians advanced and retired with the Russians their
retaliatory cruelties unquestionably rivaled the Turks in their inhumanity.
The reconstruction of this country will be little short in difficulty of its original
reclamation from virgin wilderness in days when the world was young.
Where the Russian went he built fine macadam highways, and even the
main Turkish roads generally built during the War over which our mission
traveled were passable, and some quite good. All highways are rapidly going
to ruin for lack of maintenance. A country Once fairly equipped for motor
traffic is sliding back to dependence on the camel caravan, the diminutive
pack donkey, and the rattly, ramshackly araba wagon. The Ox is the principal
draft animal. A good highway existed from Erzeruin to Trebizond, on the
line Of the most ancient trade route in the world, that from Persia to the Black
Sea, through which, in all ages, the carpets and jewels of Pérsia have reached
the western world. The distance is about 150 miles. The freight rate is now
between $145 and $150 per ton.
In the portion of Turkey traversed we heard of brigandage, but experienced
no inconvenience. Apparently the Turkish Government, inefficient and wicked
as it sometimes is, can control its people and does govern. In the region once
policed by Russia the relaxation from its iron hand has been great, and life
and property are unsafe in many regions. Our mission was fired upon by
Kurds in Russian Armenia and several motor cars struck by bullets, and over
half the party were kept prisoner one night by Moslems who claimed to have
been driven from their villages by Armenians.
In Azarbaijan we were also fired upon. Train wrecks for robbery are
frequent On the Transcaucasian Railroad, and the Georgian Government took
the precaution to run pilot engines ahead of our train for safety. The high.
ways are unsafe even to the suburbs of the large towns, Practically every
man in Georgia and Azarbaijan, outside the cities, carries a rifle. If he desires
to stop a traveler on the highway, he motions or calls to him, and if unheeded,
fires at him.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 323
The relief work consists of the allotment made to the Transcaucasus from
the unexpended balance of the hundred millions appropriated by Congress. for
relief in allied countries, and of the funds contributed through the American
Committee for Relief in the Near East. All circumstances considered, the
relief administration in the Transcaucasus seems to have been conducted with
more than average energy. It has rescued the refugees there from starvation,
and brought the name of America to a height of sympathy and esteem it. has
never before enjoyed in this region. It extends now throughout the Near
East and is felt by the wild, ragged Kurd, the plausible Georgian, the suspicious
Azarbaijan, the able Armenian, and the grave Turk with equal seriousness.
With it or probably because of it there has come widespread knowledge of
alie fourteen points submitted by the President, and “Self-determination ” has
been quoted to the mission by wild Arabs from Shamar and Basra, by every
governments in Transcaucasia, by the mountaineers of Daghestan, the dignified
and able chiefs of the Turkish Nationalist movement at Sivas and Erzerum,
and the nomad Kurds who 10 minutes before had fired at our party thinking
us to be Armenians. Undoubtedly some charges of corruption on the part of
native officials connected with the relief could be substantiated. Charges of
partiality favoring Christian against Moslem in equal distress are not infre-
quent. Due to inexperience, to difficulties of communication, and other causes,
there has been inefficiency on the part of American Officials and employees.
Enthusiastic young Americans out of touch with the sources Of their funds,
confronted with the horrors of famine in a refugee population, drew drafts
on the good faith and generosity of their countrymen, procedure not usual in
the business world. but drafts that were honored nevertheless. Any criticism
of unbusinesslike methods must be accompanied with the statement Of Work
accomplished, which has been very great and very creditable to America and
her splendid citizens who have so generously contributed to this cause. Colonel
Haskell has reorganized the work in the Transcaucasus and is getting better
results. In some way funds must be found and this work must be continued
and the people be sustained until they can harvest a crop. If seed is available
for planting, a crop should be due in August. 1920. Even this prospective
amelioration only applies to those repossessed of their lands.
There is much to show that, left to themselves, the Turk and the Armenian
when left without official instigation have hitherto been able to live together
in peace. Their existence side by side on the same soil for five centuries un-
mistakably indicates their interdependence and mutual interest. The aged
Vali of Erzerum, a man old in years and in official experience, informed us
that in his youth, before massacres began under Abdul Hamid, the Turk and
the Armenian lived in peace and confidence. The Turk making the pilgrimage
to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina left his family and property with his
Armenian neighbor; similarly the Armenian on the eve of a journey intrusted
his treasures to his Turkish friend. Testimony is universal that the massacres
have always been ordered from Constantinople. Some Turkish Officials were
pointed out to us by American missionaries as having refused to carry out
the 1915 order for deportation. That order is universally attributed to the
Commitee of Union and Progress, of which Enver Bey. Talaat Bey, and Djemal
Pasha were the leaders. A court has been sitting in the capital practically
since the armistice, and One man, an unimportant Subordinate, has been hung.
Talaat. Enver, and Djemal are at large, and a group of men charged with
various crimes against the laws of war are at Malta in custody of the British,
unpunished, except as restrained from personal liberty. Various rumors place
Enver Bey as scheming in the Transcaucasus, and a French officer is authority
for the statement that he has been in Tiflis within two months conferring
with government officials. This man is in Turkish eyes a heroic figure: risen
from obscurity by his own efforts, allied by marriage to the Imperial House
of Osman. Credited with military ability, the possibilities of disturbance are
very great should he appear in command of Moslem irregulars on the Azar-
baijan-Armenian frontier.
Such are conditions to-day in the regions where the remnant of the Armenian
people exist : roads and lands almost back to the wild : starvation only kept off
by American relief; villages and towns in ruins : brigandage rampant in the
Transcaucasus: lack of medicines and warm clothing ; winter coming on in a
treeless land without coal. We saw nothing to prove that Armenians who
have returned to their homes in Turkey are in danger of their lives, but their
natural apprehension has been greatly increased by unbalanced advice given
by officers on the withdrawal of foreign troops from certain regions. Tho
sº
324 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
events at Smyrna have undoubtedly cheapened every Christian life in Turkey,
the landing of the Greeks there being looked upon by the Turks as deliberate
violation by the Allies of the terms of their armistice and the probable fore-
runner of further unwarranted aggression. The moral responsibility for pres-
sent unrest throughout Turkey is very heavy on foreign powers. Meantime
the Armenian, unarmed at the time of the deportations and massacres, a brave
soldier by thousands in the armies of Russia, France, and America during the
war, is still unarmed in a land where every man but himself carries a rifle.
THE POLITICAL SITUATION AND STUGGESTIONS FOR READJUSTMENT
In seeking a remedy for political conditions which shriek of misery, ruin,
starvation, and all the melancholy aftermath, not only of honorable War-
fare, but of beastial brutality unrestrained by God or man, but which neverthe-
less prevail under an existing government with which the powers of Europe
have long been willing to treat on terms of equality, one's first impulse is
to inquire as to the possibility of reform from within. The machinery of gov-
ernment existing, can it be repaired and made a going concern, affording to its
people the guarantees of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness which the
modern world expects of its governments? The case of the Turkish Empire
was duly presented to the peace conference in Paris on June 17 last by the
Turkish Grand Vizier, Damad Ferid Pasha, in which he admitted for the
Turkish Government of the unhappy region under consideration, the commis-
Sion of “misdeeds which are such as to make the conscience of mankind
shudder with horror forever,” and that “Asia Minor is to-day nothing but a
vast heap of ruins.” In the reply made by the council of ten of the peace con-
ference, to the plea of the Grand Vizier for the life of his Empire, the prob-
ability of that Government being able to accomplish reforms from within which
will satisfy modern requirements and perhaps make amends for past Crimes,
is well weighed in the following words:
“Yet in all these changes there has been no case found either in Europe or in
Asia or in Africa in which the establishment of Turkish rule in any country has
not been followed by a diminution of prosperity in that country. Neither is there
any case to be found in which the withdrawal of Turkish rule has not been
followed by material prosperity and a rise in culture. Never among the Chris-
tians in Europe, nor among the Moslems in Syria, Arabia, or Africa has the
Turk done other than destroy wherever he has conquered. Never has he shown
that he is able to develop in peace what he has gained in War. Not in this
direction do his talents lie.”
It seems likely, therefore, that as far as the Armenians are concerned the
Turk has had his day, and that further uncontrolled opportunity will be
denied him.
With the break-up of Russia the Transcaucasus found itself adrift. This
Transcaucasian region is ethnographically one of the most complicated in the
world. In all ages it has been one of the great highways for mankind. Here
stragglers and racial remnants have lodged during all the centuries that the
tides of migration have Swept the base of the great Caucasus Range, until
to-day its small area contains five great racial groups, divided into some 40 dis-
tinct races. Nine of these have arrived in comparatively recent times, but the
remaining 31 are more or less indigenous. There are here 25 purely Caucasian
races. This racial diversity is complicated by the fact that with the exception
of the fairly compact group of Georgians and One of Tartars these peoples are
inextricably commingled throughout the region. Their civilization varies from
the mountain savage to individuals of the highest types. Of the 40 distinct
races, the most important groups are the Georgians, the Azarbaijanese Tartars,
and the Armenians.
A Transcaucasian confederation formed by all the peoples in that region was
followed by an alignment in three Small Republics, Georgia, Azarbaijan, and
Armenia. Georgia is Christian, and its Iberian population are in the majority;
Abarbaijan is Tartar and Moslem ; Armenia is made up Of the former Provinces
that composed Russian Armenia, less the part that went to Azarbaijan in the
split, and the majority of its people are the blood brothers of the Armenians
of Turkey in Asia. These Republics have been recognized by none of the
powers except Turkey. The Armenian Republic seeks at the peace conference
a union with the Turkish Armenians and the creation of an Armenian state to
include Russian Armenia and the six Turkish Vilayets (Van, Bitlis, Diarbekir,
Kharput, Sivas, Erzerum) and Cilicia, to be governed by a mandatory of the
*
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 325
great powers during a transition state of a term of years in which ArmenianS
of the dispersion may return to their homes and a constituent assembly be held
to determine the form of the eventual permanent Government. Georgia and
Azarbaijan ask independence at the peace conference with certain adjustments
of disputed boundaries in which all Transcaucasia is interested.
Both Georgia and Azarbaijan, living on the salvage from the wreck of
Russia, have persuaded themselves that the civilization and governmental and
business machinery they have taken over have been theirs from the beginning.
The Georgians, with a church of their own antedating that of Russia and tra-
ditions of a Georgian dynasty of Armenian origin which reigned in Tiflis for
a thousand years before Russia took over the country in 1802, are a very proud
and plausible race. They have been much influenced by the proximity of
bolshevism, fly the red flag of revolution over their own, and have nationalized
land, taking it from the original owners without compensation, to sell to peas-
ants. This measure has been unsatisfactory to both peasant and proprietor.
The Azarbaijanese are Tartars by blood and Moslem by religion and sympathy.
The varied topography of their little country and the diversity of its products
make them more independent of Outside help than either of the other Trans-
Caucasian Republics. Both Georgian and Azarbaijan Governments live in
terror Of the forces of Deniken coming south of the Caucasus Mountains.
Georgia has her little army on her northern frontier; and Azarbaijan has a
tacit agreement with General Deniken to refrain from hostilities against him
in return for immunity from attack by his gunboats on the Caspian Sea.
The Russian Armenians are the blood brothers of those in Turkey and came
under Russian domination in 1878. They absorbed many Russian manners and
customs, and the wealth and ability of the race gave them a predominant rôle
in the Transcaucasus under Russia. Tiflis, which was the Russian capital,
has probably the largest Afrmenian population of any city in the world except
New York and Constantinople. They are friendly to Deniken and a recon-
Stituted Russia, and their refusal to join Georgia and Azarbaijan against Deni-
ſken caused the break-up of the Transcaucasian Federation.
The dominant civilization in Transcaucasia is Russian. Everything worth
while in the Country is due to Russian money and Russian enterprise. Besides
this common bond, these countries are interdependent in the matter of trans-
portation. From Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, a railroad aruns west to the
Black Sea at Batum and east to the Caspian Sea at Baku, the capital of
Azarbaijan ; and south to Erivan, the capital of the Republic of Armenia. The
road is one of system, of the Russian gauge, with the three radii from Tiflis,
each ending in a different country, something like the following:
Batum Tiflis Baku,
sº On Black Sea (Georgia.) On Caspian Sea
(British military government.) (Azarbaijan.)
Erivan.
(Inland Armenia.)
Under Russia the road was, of course, under one management, with shops,
rolling stock, and policy in common. Georgia now controls the shops, Azar-
baijan the oil fuel, and each of the three such rolling stock as it can get. No
one of the three trusts the others; no through or continuous traffic is possible
without an Outside power guaranteeing the return of the rolling stock when it
passes from One jurisdiction to another. Georgia does not hesitate to embargo
326 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
freight against Armenia, and from her position of vantage simply, censors the
railroad traffic to that unfortunate country. Azarbaijan Controls the fuel
supply and combines with Georgia against Armenia, which along of the three
has nothing by which to exert leverage. The railroad can neither be con-
solidated nor properly operated under native control. Roadbed and rolling
stock are rapidly deteriorating. An example of the power of Georgia over
Armenia is that the latter is not permitted to import either arms or ammuni-
tion, though under almost constant menace from its neighbors.
The three Governments from an Occidental standpoint are now thoroughly
inefficient, without credit, and undoubtedly corrupt. Alone each faces inex-
tricable financial difficulties. Religious differences, added to racial, threaten
to embroil them unless brought under a Common control. Two of them have
no outlet to the Black Sea, except through Georgia over the railroad. They
have no present intermonetary, postal, or customs union, and, as stated, no
definite agreement for common control and use of the railroad, and are in
continual squabbles over boundaries. Azambaijan has no educated class
capable of well administering a government : Georgia is threatened by bol-
shevism : Armenia is in ruins and partial starvation. All our investigation
brings conviction that the people in each would welcome a mandatory by a
trustworthy outside power. Russian Armenia would to-day probably vote a
mandate to Russia iſ that power were reconstituted. Georgia recalls its an-
cient independence and was never thoroughly reconciled to Russian rule.
Azarbaijan, Tartar and Moslem, feels a double tie to Turkey and distrusts the
Christian, but the more intelligent people realize that outside control is
inevitable and even necessary to their relations with Christian countries, and
that Turkey is beyond consideration. So closely are the countries related
geographically, commercially, and by the habit of generations that this mission
not only believes that a mandatory is necessary for them but that it is impera-
tive from the standpoints of peace, order, efficiency, and economy that the
same power shall exercise a mandate over them all, leaving for the present
their interior boundaries unsettled. The ultimate disposition or form of gov-
ernment of these states, other than that they may look forward to autonomy,
but not necessarily independence, should in Our Opinion not now be announced.
Their capacity for self-government and their ability to sustain amicable and
workable relations among themselves remain to be tested under control by
such power as may be induced to undertake its supervision, facing a long
period of tutelage for possibly unappreciative and ungrateful pupils, much
expense, probably diplomatic embarrassment from a reconstitution of Russia,
and little reward except the consciousness of having contributed to the peace
of the world and the rehabilitation of oppressed humanity,
The covenant of the League of Nations contemplates that “certain commu-
nities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire " shall be subject to a manda-
tory power for an unstated period, thus appearing to recognize in advance
the dismemberment to some degree of that Empire. (The italic is ours.)
This, in connection with the arraignment of the Turkish Government in the
reply of the peace conference, partly quoted on page 15 ante (see page 6),
may not unreasonably be construed to apply to any or all parts of the Turkish
Empire, as fast as they reach a certain stage of development. As between
actual dismemberment and a receivership for his entire Country, the Turk
would beyond doubt prefer a mandatory for the whole Empire as it may stand
after adjudication by the peace Conference. Bad as he is. Without the pale
of consideration from many standpoints, there would seem to be n0 Objection
to action taken in his interest and in line with his preference if the interest
and inclination of the world lie in the same direction.
A power which should undertake a mandatory for Armenia and Trans-
caucasia without control of the contiguous territory of Asia Minor—Anatolia—
and of Constantinople, with its hinterland of Roumelia, would undertake it
under most unfavorable and trying conditions, so difficult as to make the
cost almost prohibitive, the maintenance of law and order and the security of
life and property uncertain, and ultimate success extremely doubtful. With the
Turkish Empire still freely controlling Constantinople, such a power would be
practically emasculated as far as real power is concerned. For generations
these peoples have looked to Constantinople as the seat of authority. The most
intelligent and ambitious Armenians have sought the capital as a career. The
patriarch of the Armenian Church in Constantinople, although subordinate
in matters of doctrine to the Catholicos at Etchmiadzin, is in reality the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 327
political head of the Armenian people by his location in Constantinople. Every
people in the Empire is numerously represented at the capital, the Armenians
reaching before the war the number of 150,000, with business connections
ramifying to distant corners of the entire country. To no small degree the
future business and industrial development of their native land will depend
upon these men. Transportation lines and commerce center at Constantinople.
Before the war Constantinople was the most important port in Continental
Europe, reckoned upon the basis of shipping clearances. There are well-
informed business men who believe it is destined to become the third most
important commercial city in the world. But, through generations of habit,
unless put under a mandatory, Constantinople will continue to be a whirlpool
of financial and political currents. Concession hunting, financial intrigue,
political exploitation, and international rivalries will center there in the future
as in the past. Concerted international action for administration of Con-
stantinople is impracticable. All concerts for governmental action are cum-
bersome; all concerts must have a leader to secure effectiveness, and were it
possible to agree upon one power which should really lead, the reality of a
mandate would exist with the handicap of a camouflage concert. In any con-
cert for the future government of Constantinople there would still exist the
temptation for single powers to play politics and befriend Turkey for value
received. There must be actual control, for responsibility without authority
is worse than useless in a land of oriental viewpoints.
As Americans supposed to be disinterested, this mission was the recipient of
confidences from the various sources. Turks when not deriding foreign efforts
were deploring their effect on their unfortunate Empire. Without dependable
centralized control of Constantinople, a power exercising mandate in Armenia
would be crippled in administration, restricted in trade development, ridden
by concessionaires, dependent on Turkish discredited diplomacy for redress of
local and boundary grievances, and in extreme case practically cut off from
communication with the western world. It is believed that allied sentiment is
so crystallized in the opinion that Constantinople must be placed under a
mandatory that it may safely be assumed for the purpose of this report that
this will be done.
Conceded that there shall be a mandate for Armenia and Transcaucasia and
One for Constantinople and Anatolia, there are many considerations that indi-
cate the desirability of having such mandates exercised by the same power.
If separate powers exercised such mandate the inevitable jealousies, hatreds,
exaggerated Separatist tendencies, and economic difficulties would compel
failure. With all its faults the Turkish Empire is an existing institution and
it has some rusty blood-stained political machinery which under control of a
strong mandatory can be made to function. The peoples in question live
in adjacent territory and whether they wish it or not are neighbors. A single
mandatory for the Turkish Empire and the Transcaucasus would be the most
economical Solution. NO intelligent Scheme for development of railroads for
Transcaucasia and Armenia can be worked out without extension into
Anatolia. Natural highways through the high mountains of Armenia are few,
and transportation development will, with proper feeders, at best be costly and
difficult ; without access into Anatolia it will be impossible. For many years
the expenses of exploitation will not be met by equivalent receipts. This
situation would be alleviated by control of both regions. With Constantinople,
Anatolia, and Armenia in different hands, the manufacturers and exporters of
Armenia could not hope for an equal share in the commerce and trade of
the Near East.
The Armenian patriarch, the head of the Armenian Protestants, and others
at Constantinople, on our return from Armenia. called and volunteered the
belief that the Armenian question could not be settled within the boundaries
Of that country, and that they were prepared to pass under a single mandate
which should include the other parts of the Turkish Empire. In a later writ-
ten statement, however,” they modified this, stating that while “Different na-
tions of this Empire may enjoy the help of the same mandatory power" they
felt that to bring Armenia under the same System of administration as that of
the Turks would defeat the object of development of Armenian ideals, “be-
cause by assuring the individual rights of a people the national rights and
* See Exhibit B, joint, letter, Qct. 15, 1919, from . Armenian Patriarch, Catholic
Armenian Patriarchat, and the Vekil of Armenian Protestant Community.
96153—26—22
328 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ideals of the same people can not necessarily be assured ”; that “giving a good
government to the whole Turkish Empire will not induce the Armenians to
gather to their native land. They will still be a scattered people, etc.”
A party of distinguished Turks, including a former cabinet minister of high
standing and a diplomat who for eight years represented his country at one of
the European courts, stated that as between the independence of Turkey as it
existed in 1914, and a mandate for the Empire given to the United States they
greatly preferred the latter and believed that they spoke for the educated
Classes Of all Turkey.
It has been very evident to this mission that Turkey would not Object to a
single disinterested power taking a mandate for her territory as Outlined in
the armistice with the Allies, and that it could be accomplished with a mini-
mum of foreign soldiery, where an attempt to carve out territory for any par-
ticular region would mean a strong foreign force in constant Occupation for
many years. The aim of the Nationalist or National Defense Party, as its
adherents style it, as stated by Mustapha Kemal Pasha, its head, is the preser-
vation of the territorial integrity of the Empire under a mandatory of a single
disinterested power, preferably America.
The mission, while at Sivas, had a conference with the chiefs of this party,
which held a congress at Erzerum in July and one at Sivas in September.
This movement has been the cause of much apprehension On the part of those
interested in the fate of the Armenians, to whose Safety it has been supposed
to portend danger. The leader, Mustapha Kemal Pasha, is a former general
Officer in the Turkish Army, who commanded with distinction an army Corps.
at the Dardanelles, and appears to be a young man of force and keen intelli-
gence. He is supposed to have resigned from the army to lead this movement.
It sought, as a means to its end, the Overthrow of the Ferid Pasha cabinet,
which has Since fallen, claiming that it was entirely under the influence of One
of the great powers which itself desires a mandate for the Empire. While
professing entire loyalty to the Sultan, the nationalist leader had gone to the
extremity of cutting all official telegraph communications between the capital
and the interior pending the removal of the cabinet. The fall of the Damad
Ferid Pasha ministry in October would seem to put the Empire behind the
movement, for the Turkish Officials in the interior were already identified with
it. In a statement given out on October 15, Mustapha Kemal” said:
“The Nationalist Party recognized the necessity of the aid of an impartial
foreign country. It is Our aim to Secure the development of Turkey as she
stood at the armistice. We have no expansionist plans, but it is our convic-
tion that Turkey can be made a rich and prosperous country if she can get a
good government. Our Government has become weakened through foreign
interference and intrigues. After all our experience we are sure that America
is the only country able to help us. We guarantee no new Turkish violences
against the Armenians will take place.”
The events of the Greek occupation of Smyrna and the uneasiness produced
by the activities and propaganda of certain European powers have so stirred
the Turkish people in the long interval since the armistice that the mission
fears that an announcement from Paris at this time of an intention to carve
from Turkey a State of Armenia, unless preceded by a strong military occupa-
tion of the whole Empire, might be the signal for massacres of Christians in
every part of the country. There is no wisdom in now incorporating Turkish
territory in a separate Armenia, no matter what the aspirations of the Arme-
nians. Certainly it is unwise to invite trouble which may be avoided by the
consolidation of the mandate region under a single power. Under one man-
datory they will be neighbors. Under two or more they will be rivals, their
small differences subjected to the interminable processes of diplomatic repre-
Sentation, with the maintenance of duplicate and parallel establishments in
many lines of governmental activity. Only under a single mandatory can the
matter of ultimate boundaries be deferred, which is believed by this mission to
be important,
In the proposition to carve an independent Armenia from the Ottoman Em-
pire there is Something to be said on the part of the Turk; namely, that his
1 See Exhibits “C,” Statement of Mustapha Kemal Pasha concerning grganizatiºn, Ob-
jects, “League for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Roumelia ’’; “D,” Gen.
Harbord’s letter, Oct. 9, 1919, to Mustapha Kemal; “E,” Declaration of the Congress of
Sivas ; “F,” Resolution of National Congress of Sivas addressed to Senate of the United
States of America requesting that Senatorial committee visit and investigate conditions.
Within Ottoman Empire.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 329
people, even when all the refugees shall have returned to their homes, will be
in the majority in the region contemplated for a reconstituted Armenia—and
they were in the majority before the deportations took place—e ven though due,
as it may be, to the gerrymandering of provincial boundaries and the partial
extermination of a people. § ſº
Notwithstanding his many estimable qualities, his culture, and his tenaCity
of race and religion, the Armenian generally does not endear himself to those
of other races with whom he comes in contact. The Armenian Stands among
his neighbors very much as the Jew stands in Russia and Poland, having, aS
he does, the strong and preeminent ability of that race. He incurs. the pen-
alty which attaches among backward races to the banker, the middleman,
and the creditor. Unjust as it may be, the Sentiment regarding him 1S €X-
pressed by this saying current in the Near East: “The Armenian is never
legally in the wrong; never morally in the right.” Even the American mis-
sionary, who in so many instances has risked his life for his Armenian charges,
does not as a rule personally like the Armenian as Well as he does the more
genial but indolent and pleasure-loving Turk. The Armenian is not guiltless
of blood himself; his memory is long and reprisals are due, and Will doubtless
be made if opportunity offers. Racially allied to the wild Aryan Kurd he is
cordially hated by the latter. Kurds appealed to this mission with tears in
their eyes to protect them from Amenians who had driven them from their
villages, appealing to be allowed to go back to their homes for protection
against the rigorous winter now rapidly approaching on the high interior
plateau. The Kurds claim that many of their people were massacred under
the most cruel circumstances by Armenian irregulars accompanying the Rus-
sian Bolshevists when the Russian Army Went to pieces after the Collapse of
the Empire.
s; claim is made by the people of Erzerum, who point to burned build-
ings in which hundreds of Turks perished, and by the authorities of Hassan-
Kala, who give the number of villages destroyed by the Armenians in their
great plain as 43. According to British Consul Stevens, at Batum, these state-
ments were verified by a commission Which examined into the allegations and
On which Armenians had a representation. In Baku the massacre of 2,000
Azarbaijanese by Armenians in March, 1918, was followed by the killing of
4,000 Armenians by Azarbaijanese in November of the same year. From the
standpoint of this mission the capacity of the Armenian to govern himself is
Something to be tested under supervision. With that still in doubt the possibil-
ity of an Armenian minority being given authority over a Moslem majority,
against whom its hearts are filled with rancor for centuries of tyranny, may
well justify apprehension. There are very many who believe that the best
elements of the Armenian race have perished. It is believed that with the
reestablishment of Order in their native country many of those who have
emigrated to other countries will return. That, however, can only come with
time, and even then it is doubted if many of the Wealthy and influential Arme-
nians long domiciled in happier lands Will return to their somewhat primitive
ancient home, even though such absentees have raised their voices most loudly
for an autonomous Armenia. Certainly with arbitrary boundaries on the
Anatolia side determined only by Armenian wishes, expediency, tradition, or
even verified historical claims of former Occupation, without regard to the
present population, the mandatory powers for both Anatolia and Armenia
should inaugurate government by placing a Cordon of trustworthy foreign
soldiers from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. With a single power in con-
trol of both peoples and boundaries unannounced except as they have hitherto
existed, such difficulties would not arise. Against such combination of author-
ity and postponement of delimitation of boundaries is to be weighed the
unchangeable belief of many that the Turk at the end of his tutelage will still
be the Turk, bloodthirsty, unregenerate, and revengeful, and that it is unthink-
able that Armenia shall ever again form part of a country which may be
governed by him ; that the sufferings of centuries should now be terminated by
definite and permanent separation of Armenia from Turkey, and that this
plan seems to contemplate a tutelage of indefinite length. To this the reply is
that the Armenian should have no fear to submit his case to the League of
Nations—the court of the World—and that he must in the meantime prove his
capacity not only to govern himself but others, and that at the behest of the
great powers a plebiscite could be had and the mandatory at any time be
terminated by detachment of his territory from Anatolia as well as now and
with much greater safety to him and convenience to his benefactors.
330 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
The conclusion of the American military mission to Armenia is that the
remedy for the existing conditions in Armenia and the Transcaucasus is a
mandatory control to be exercised by a single great power. The Armenian
Question can not be settled in Armenia. It can not be finally settled without
answering two questions:
What is to be done with Turkey'?
What is Russia going to do?
Pending the ultimate settlement of these questions the mission believes that,
for reasons set forth, the power which takes a mandate for Armenia should
also exercise a mandate for Anatolia, Roumelia, Constantinople, and Trans-
Caucasia ; the boundaries of the Turkish vilayets Of Armenia and Anatolia
and the interior boundaries of Russian Armenia, Georgia, and Azarbaijan
to remain substantially as they are for the present. The divisions of such
mandate are an administrative detail to be worked out by the mandatory
power. GOOd administration indicates that there should be some intermediate
authority between the provinces and the (‘apital. A natural subdivision of
such a mandate as has been indicated would probably be : Roumelia, city of
Constantinople (federal district), Anatolia, Armenia, district of Transcaucasia
(less Russian Armenia).
The inclusion of the whole Turkish Empire under the government of a
single mandatory would be simpler and proportionately more economical than
to divide it. A plebiscite fairly taken would in all probability ask for an
American mandate throughout the Empire. Syria and Mesopotamia, however,
not being considered essential to the settlement of the Armenian question or
as being the field for possible American responsibilities and interests in the
Near East as contemplated in the instructions to the mission, because actually
occupied by France and Great Britain at this time, have been considered by
us as excluded from Our considerations, as is for a similar reason Arabia.
In its belief that the Armenian problem is only to be solved by a mandatory
which should include also Constantinople, Anatolia, Turkish Armenia, and the
Transcaucasus, the mission has the concurrence of many Americans whose
views by reason of long residence in the Near East are entitled to great weight.
Such Americans are practically a unit in believing that the problems of
Armenia, Anatolia, Constantinople, and Transcaucasia must be considered as
an inseparable whole.
The mission has a strong conviction that the nation which may be induced
by its colleagues to undertake this mandate should be one prepared to stead-
fastly carry Out a continuity of policy for at least a generation, and to send
only its most gifted sons to leadership in the work without regard to political
affiliations. Only on the certainty of continuity of a nonpartisan policy would
the best men forsake their careers in their own country to take up its burdens
in these eastern lands. No disinterested nation would undertake such a man-
datory except from a strong sense of altruism and international duty to the
peace of the World in this breeding place of wars and at the unanimous wish
of other parties to the Covenant of the League of Nations.
No duty of modern times would be undertaken under so fierce a glare of
publicity. Such nation would hold the center of the international stage with
the spotlight from every foreign office and from every church steeple in the
world focussed upon it. No nation could afford to fail, or to withdraw when
once committed to this most serious and difficult problem growing out of the
Great War. No nation incapable of united and nonpartisan action for a long
period should undertake it.
THE CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN A MANDATE FOR TUREEY AND TRANS-
CAU CASIA
This report has heretofore endeavored to consider the conditions and ques-
tions of which it treats in the abstract sense applicable to any nation which
might be induced to assume the task of a practical regeneration of this region.
Its interest for Our country, however, lies in the possibility that the United
States may be called upon by the World to undertake the task, and the neces-
sity therefore of knowing what it would mean for America. The problems
for the United States would not be identical with those of any other nation
which might undertake it. A not too sympathetic Old World, without pre-
tensions to altruism or too much devotion to ideals, will expect of America
in the Near East the same loft standards shown in Cuba and the Philippines—
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 331
the development of peoples rather than of material resources and Commerge.
Distance, our time-honored detachment from the affairs of the 91d. World,
our innocence from participation in the intrigues which have hitherto Char-
acterized intercourse with the Turk, our freedom from bias through the neces:
sity of considering moslem public opinion in other parts of the world, and
the fact that we have no financial interest in the great foreign debt of the
Ottoman Empire, give America a viewpoint and an advantage in approaching
the situation that are enjoyed by no other great power. dº i.
A great part of the work of the mission has been devoted to a consideration
of the situation as it would affect our own country should it be invited to
assume a mandate in the Near East. The problem as a whole has been kept
in mind while individual members of the mission have made special inquiry
into different matters of which knowledge is necessary to reach an intelligent
appreciation of the difficulties to be solved in this region. Each of these
studies constitutes a unit on the subject with which it deals, too important to
justify the risk of an attempt at epitomizing for this report. They are there-
fore submitted as appendices, as follows:
A. Political Factors and Problems, by Capt. Stanley K. Hornbeck, Ordnance
Department, United States Army.
B. Government in Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Lieut. Col. Jasper Y. Brin-
ton, judge advocate, United States Army.
C. Public and Private Finance of Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Prof. W. W.
Cumberland.
D. Commerce and Industry in Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Trade Com-
missioner Eliot Grinnell Mears.
E. Public Health and Sanitation, by Col. Henry Beeuwkes, Medical Corps,
United States Army.
F. Population; Industrial and Other Qualities; Maintenance. by Lieut. Col.
John Price Jackson, Engineers, United States Army.
G. Climate, Natural Resources, Animal Industry, and Agriculture, by Lieut.
Col. E. Bowditch, Infantry, United States Army. *
H. Geography, Mining and Boundaries, by Maj. Lawrence Martin, General
Staff, United States Army.
I. The Press of Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Maj. Harold W. Clark, In-
fantry. United States Army.
J. The Military Problem of a Mandatory, by Brig. Gen. George Van Horn
Moseley, General Staff, United States Army.
K. Transport and Communications in Asia Minor and the Transcaucasus, by
William B. Poland, engineer member of the mission.
L. Bibliography.
THE MILITARY PROBLEM
Our country has so recently sent its young manhood to war overseas, and
the heart of the Nation is so sensitive to any enterprise which calls for its
Sons to serve as soldiers in distant lands, that the greatest interest attaehes
to the military problem involved in any mandate to which our people may
ever give consideration.
The immediate problems which would lie before the Army and Navy of a
mandatory power in Turkey and Transcaucasia are :
(a) The suppression of any disorder attendant upon withdrawal of
occupying troops and the initiation of the government.
(b) The maintenance of order until a constabulary could be organized
for the rural police of the mandatory region.
(c) To help organize and train a native constabulary.
(d) To constitute a reserve for moral effect; for possible actual use in
supplementing the local constabulary in case of emergency: and for the
prestige of the mandatory government in a region which has been governed
by force since the beginning of history.
The inauguration of a mandatory government would be followed at a very
early date by the withdrawal of the foreign troops now occupying the region
and by the dissolution, as Soon as practicable, of the permanent military
establishments now maintained by Turkey and Transcaucasia. The United
States accepting the mandate at the requést of the other great powers and
of the peoples interested, no resistance to her troops would be anicipated.
On the contrary, they would doubtless be welcomed. No problem of external
defense of the country occupied would exist.
332 N AT [.() NAI, REPU HILIC OF GEORGIA
*...
*
(a) The present occupying force of the region under consideration, Roumelia,
Constantinople, Anatolia, and Transcaucasia, excluding five Greek divisions
occupying Smyrna, is the Army of the Black Sea and the troops in Cilicia,
comprising about 50,000 of the British, French, Italian, and Greek Govern-
ments. The regular troops of Turkey and Transcaucasia to be disbanded in
the same region at the convenience of the mandatory government aggregate
about 92,000 men. The gendarmaerie of Turkey amounts to about 30,000 men.
The loss of man power in Turkey has been appalling, and too many men are
still absent from work and carrying rifles.
It is not thought that any serious disorder would attend this substitution
of the troops of the mandatory power for the army of occupation and for the
native regular forces.
(b) During the formation of an efficient native constabulary, a period of
six months to a year, small garrisons would have to be furnished along the
railroads and in isolated towns, especially on the old frontiers, where feeling
runs high between races. This would give security while the various nationals
are being repatriated, reconstructing their homes, and adjusting themselves to
new conditions. The suppression of outlaw bands, which already exist in Some
localities, and the formation of which in eastern countries invariably follows
the disbandment of armies after a long war, Would call for Constant use of a
certain number of United States troops pending the completion of the constab-
ulary organization for service. During this period the disarmament of the
civilian population would be accomplished.
(c) The first duty of a mandatory would be to guarantee the safety of life
and property through the country, and to this end its earliest efforts should be
directed to the establishment of a native rural police Or Constabulary for the
suppression of brigandage, Outlawry, and other crimes Outside the towns.
This force, with a military Organization, should be a force of peace Officers as
that term is used in Our Own country, empowered to make arrests of Criminals
of all kinds, serve warrants, execute orders of arrest, etc. While decentralized
in its administration and destined eventually to operate in small bodies, it
should be a Federal force, cooperating with but not serving under provincial
officials. Its personnel should absorb the best elements of the present gen-
darmerie, and also provide suitable employment for deserving officers of the
disbanded armies. For a Considerable period its highest Officers would neces-
sarily be Americans, but as fast as the quality of the native officers justifies,
the force should become native. The strength of the constabulary should be
Such as to enable it to take Over the Whole task Of maintaining Order Outside
the towns and release American troops at the earliest practicable date. Coin-
cident with the organization of the constabulary would be the creation of effi-
cient municipal police.
(d) Considering the uncertain character of the neighboring populations,
the traditional lawlessness of migratory Kurds and Arabs, and the isolation of
certain regions where the temptation to reprisals for past wrongs will be
strong for at least a generation, a certain force must be kept in hand to
Supplement the native COnStabulary when needed. Such a force Will also
be necessary for general moral effect. Its mere existence will prevent
Organized disorder. On a scale too large for a peace force to handle. Such a
force WOuld be stationed near the capital, trained for quick expeditionary
Work, and sent where needed.
The character of the troops should be suited to the purpose for which used.
For expeditionary purposes marines or infantry with artillery would be best.
For moral effect in the interior and during the period of constabulary, organi-
zation cavalry would be preferable. A small, efficient air service should be
maintained. The airplane is not only a means of very rapid communication,
but its value for dealing with a distant small problem among half-wild tribes
can not be overestimated. The country much resembles Mexico, and the con-
ditions would be not unlike our border cavalry service. A regiment of railway
engineers would be a necessity. During the initial period of the mandatory,
troops would be needed in connection with the general problem of Sanitation
and cleaning up, and an extra proportion of sanitary troops Would be necessary.
Estimates of the necessary number of mandatory troops Vary greatly—from
25,000 to 200,000. Conditions change so rapidly that plans made to-day for
the use of troops might be obsolete in six months. Uncertainty as to the time
the mandate will be tendered and accepted make estimates merely approximate.
Under conditions as they exist to-day the undersigned believes that a force of
two American divisions, with several hundred extra officers, or a total force
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOBGIA 333
of 59,000 would be ample. Such force would be specially organized; one air-
plane Squadron; a minimum of artillery; not to exceed one regiment of 75's
motorized ; a minimum of the special services; four times the usual number of
Sanitary troops; four regiments of Cavalry, with minor changes in organization
at the discretion of the senior general officer on duty with the mandatory
government. This force should be substantially reduced at the end of two
years, and by 50 per cent at the end of the third year. After that some
further reduction could be slowly effected, but the irreducible minimum would
be reached at about the strength of one division.
The annual cost for the force of the army above stated would be at the
maximum :
For the first year---------------------------------------------- $88, 500.000
At the end of two years perhaps 59,000, 000
At the end of three years - ___ 44, 250, 000
with thereafter a continuing appropriation of that sum less such amount
as the local revenues could afford, probably a very Substantial fraction of
the COSt.
To offset our expenditures there would be available at least a part of the
naval and military budget hitherto used for the support of the disbanded
armies in the region. In Turkey before the war this totaled about $61,000,000
annually for the army, including $5.000,000 for the navy.
The naval establishment should consist of a station ship for the capital,
and probably one each for Smyrna, Mersina, Batum, and Baku, to meet local
needs in quick transportation of troops. A transport of light draft capable of
carrying a complete regiment should be permanently on station at the capital.
Four to six destroyers would be needed for communication and moral effect.
Collier, repair, and hospital service afloat should be in proportion. Old ships
of obsolete type would probably answer for all except the station ship at the
capital and the destroyers. Some ships of the Turkish Navy, of which there
are over 30, could doubtless be used with American crews soon to be replaced
by natives.
The naval establishment might not entail any additional Federal appropria-
tions. Ships and personnel could probably be drawn from existing establish-
ment; the Only additional expense would probably be the difference in cost of
maintenance in near eastern and home waters.
It is very important that a proper military and naval setting be given the
mandatory government at the beginning. In no part of the world is prestige
so important, and in no region have people been so continuously governed by
force. The mandatory could at the outset afford to take no unnecessary risks
among such a population in densest ignorance as to our resources and Our
national traits.
CoNCLUSIONS
This mission has had constantly in mind the moral effect to be exercised
by its inquiry in the region visited. Very alarming reports had been received
from Transcaucasia for several months before its departure from France,
particularly as to organized attacks by the Turkish Army impending along the
old international border between Turkey and Russia. The itinerary of the
mission through Turkey was planned with those reports before it and with the
intention of observing as to their truth and, if possible, to exert a restraining
influence. We practically covered the frontier of Turkey from the Black Sea
to Persia and found nothing to justify the reports. The Turkish Army is not
massed along the border; their organizations are reduced to skeletons; and the
country shows an appalling lack of people, either military or civilian. At
every principal town through which we passed the chief of the mission held a
conference with the Turkish officials. Inquiry was made as to the Christian
community, some were always interviewed; the interest of America in its own
missionaries and in the native Christians was invariably emphasized ; the
Armenian deportations, the massacres, and the return of the survivors were
discussed on each occasion, as well as Other matters intended to convince
Turkish officials that their country is on trial before the World. The visit Of
the mission has had a considerable moral effect in Securing the Safety of
Christian lives and property pending action by the peace conference.
We would again point out that if America accepts a mandate for the region
visited by this mission, it will undoubtedly do so from a strong sense of inter-
national duty, and at the unanimous desire—so expressed at least—of its col-
334
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
leagues in the League of Nations. Accepting this difficult task without pre-
viously securing the assurance of conditions would be fatal to success. The
United States should make its own conditions as a preliminary to consideration
of the subject—certainly before and not after acceptance, for there are a
multitude of interests that will conflict with what any Americall Would con-
sider a proper administration of the country. Every possible precaution against
international complications should be taken in advance. In our opinion there
should be specific pledges in terms of formal agreements with France and
England and definite approval from Germany and Russia of the dispositions
made of Turkey and Transcaucasia, and a pledge to respect them.
Of particular importance are the following:
Absolute control of the foreign relations of the Turkish Empire, no ambassa-
dor, envoy, minister, or diplomatic agent to be accredited to Turkey, and the
latter to send none such abroad. .
Concessions involving exclusive privileges to be subject to review if shown to
be contrary to the best interests of the State.
Concessions undesirable from the standpoint of the mandatory upon which
work has not been started to be canceled. Compensation to be allowed to
holders when necessary.
The system by which specified revenues are assigned for particular purposes
to be discarded. All revenues to be controlled by the treasury and all creditors
to look Only to the treasury as the source of payment.
Foreign control over Turkey’s financial machinery to cease, meaning the dis-
solution of the council of administration of the Ottoman public debt, reserving
the right to retain some individual members of the council as advisors because
of the familiarity with Ottoman finances.
All foreign obligations of the Empire to be unified and refunded.
Those countries receiving territory of the Turkish Empire, e. g., Syria and
Mesopotamia, to assume their reasonable share of the paper currency, of the
foreign Obligations, and of obligations for possible reparation payments.
Abrogation, on due notice, of existing commercial treaties with Turkey.
All foreign governments and troops to vacate territorial limits of mandate at
dates to be fixed by the mandatory power.
Consent to many of these measures would not easily be obtained. Many
nations now have some sort of financial control within the Ottoman Empire,
and they would not see this control taken away without protest.
It needs no argument, however, to show that the United States could not
submit to having her financial policies controlled from foreign capitals. The
refunding of the debt, possibly with a reduction of the capital amount, would
raise a storm of protest, but it should be insisted upon. Otherwise an American
administration would be embarrassed and run the risk of being discredited.
The mission has not felt that it is expected to submit a recommendation as
to the United States accepting a mandate in the Near East. It therefore sim-
ply submits the following summary of reasons for and against such action,
based on all information obtainable during six weeks constant contact with the
peoples of the region :
REASON S FOR REASONS AGAINST
1. As one of the chief contributors to 1. The United States has prior and
the formation of the League of Na-
tions, the United States is morally
bound to accept the obligations and
responsibilities of a mandatory power.
2. The insurance of world peace at
the World’s crossways, the focus of
war infection since the beginning of
history.
nearer foreign obligations, and ample
responsibilities with domestic problems
growing out of the war.
2. This region has been a battle
ground of militarism and imperialism
for centuries. There is every likeli-
hood that ambitious nations will still
maneuver for its control. It would
Weakela Our position relative to Mon-
roe doctrine and probably eventually
involve us with a reconstituted Rus-
sia. The taking of a mandate in this
region would bring the United States
into the politics of the Old World,
Contrary to our traditional policy of
keeping free of affairs in the Eastern
Hemisphere.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
335
3. The Near East presents the great-
est humanitarian opportunity of the
age—a duty for which the United
States is better fitted than any other—
as witness Cuba. Porto Rico, Philip-
pines, Hawaii, Panama, and our altru-
istic policy of developing peoples
rather than material resources alone.
4. America is practically the unani-
mous choice and fervent hope of all
the peoples involved.
5. America is already spending mil-
lions to save starving peoples in Tur-
key and Transcaucasia and could do
this with much more efficiency if in
control. Whoever becomes mandatory
for these regions we shall be still ex-
pected to finance their relief, and will
probably eventually furnish the capi-
tal for material development.
6. America is the Only hope of the
Armenians. They consider but one
other nation, Great Britain, which they
fear would sacrifice their interests to
Moslem public Opinion as long as she
controls hundreds of millions Of that
faith. Others fear Britain’s imperial-
istic policy and her habit of staying
where she hoists her flag.
For a mandatory America is not
only the first choice of all the peoples
of the Near East, but of each of the
great powers, after itself.
American power is adequate ; its
record clean ; its motives above sus-
picion.
7. The mandatory would be self-
supporting after an initial period of
not to exceed five years. The building
of railroads would offer opportunities
to our capital. There would be great
trade advantages not only in the man-
datory region, but in the proximity to
Russia, Roumania, etc.
America would clean this hotbed of
disease and filth as she has in Cuba
and Panama.
8. Intervention would be a liberal
education for our people in world pol-
itics, give outlet to a vast amount of
spirit and energy, and would furnish
a shining example.
3. Humanitarianism should begin at
home. There is a sufficient number of
difficult situations which call for Our
action within the well-recognized
spheres of American influence.
4. The United States has in no
way contributed to and is not respon-
sible for the conditions, political, so-
cial, or economic, that prevail in this
region. It will be entirely consistent
to decline the invitation.
5. American philanthropy and Char-
ity are world wide. Such policy would
commit us to a policy of meddling or
draw upon Our philanthropy to the
point of exhaustion.
6. Other powers, particularly Great
Britain and Russia, have shown Con-
tinued interest in the welfare of Ar-
menia. Great Britain is fitted by ex-
perience and government, has great
resources in money and trained per-
sonnel, and though she might not be
as sympathetic to Armenian aspira-
tions, her rule would guarantee Se-
curity and justice.
The United States is not capable of
sustaining a continuity of foreign pol-
icy. One Congress can not bind an-
Other. Even treaties can be nullified
by cutting off appropriations. Non-
partisanship is difficult to attain in our
GOvernment.
7. Our country would be put to
great expense, involving probably an
increase of the Army and Navy.
Large numbers of Americans would
serve in a country of loathsome and
dangerous diseases. It is questionable
if railroads could for many years pay
interest on investments in their very
difficult construction. Capital for rail-
ways would not go there except on
Government guaranty.
The effort and money spent would
get us more trade in nearer lands
than we could hope for in Russia and
Roumania.
Proximity and competition would
increase the possibility of our becom-
ing involved in conflict with the poli-
cies and ambitions of States which now
our friends would be made Our rivals.
8. Our spirit and energy can find
scope in domestic enterprises, or in
lands South and West Of Ours. Inter-
vention in the Near East would rob
us of the Strategic advantage enjoyed
336 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
through the Atlantic which rolls be-
tween us and probable foes. Our rep-
utation for fair dealing might be im-
paired. Efficient supervision of a man-
date at such distance would be diffi-
cult or impossible. We do not need
or wish further education in World
politics.
9. It would definitely stop further
massacres of Armenians and other
Christians, give justice to the Turks,
Kurds, Greeks, and other peoples.
10. It would increase the strength
and prestige of the United States
abroad and inspire interest at home
in the regeneration of the Near East. º
11. America has strong Sentimental
interests in the region ; Our missions
and Colleges.
12. If the United States does not
take responsibility in this region, it is
likely that international jealousies
will result in a continuance of the un-
Speakable misrule of the Turk.
13. “And the Lord said unto Cain,
Where is Abel thy brother? And he
said: ‘I know not ; am I my brother’s
keeper?” ”
Better millions for a mandate than
billions for future Wars.
9. Peace and justice Would be
equally assured under any other of the
great powerS.
10. It would weaken and dissipate
our strength which should be reserved
for future responsibilities On the
American continents and in the Far
East. Our line of communication to
Constantinople would be at the mercy
of Other naval powers, and especially
of Great Britain, with Gibraltar and
Malta, etc., On the route.
11. These institutions have been re-
Spected even by the Turks throughout
the War and the massacres; and Sym-
pathy and respect would be shown by
any Other mandatory.
12. The peace conference has defi- i
nitely informed the Turkish Govern- #
ment that it may expect to go under a
mandate. It is not conceivable that
the League of Nations would permit
further uncontrolled rule by that
thoroughly discredited government.
13. The first duty of America is to
its OWn people and its nearer neigh-
bors.
Our country would be involved in
this adventure for at least a genera-
tion and in counting the cost Congress
must be prepared to advance some
Such sums, less Such amount as the
Turkish and Transcaucasian revenues
could afford, for the first five years,
as follows:
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
337
FIRST YEAR
General government____ $100,000, 000
Communications, r a i 1 -
roads, etc.------------ 20,000,000
Relief, repatriation, ed-
ucation, etc.---------- 50,000, 000
Army and Navy-------- 88, 500,000
Sanitation 17,000, 000
Total 275,000, 000
SECOND YEAR
General government---- 75,000,000
Communications, r a i 1 -
‘roads, etc.------------ 20,000, 000
Relief, education, etc.——— 13, 000, 000
Army and Navy------- 59, 000, 000
Sanitation, etc.--------- 7, 264,000
Total 174, 264,000
TELIRD YEAR
General government____ 50, 000, 000
Communications, r a il -
roads, etc.------------ 20, 000, 000
Relief, education, etc.---- $4,500,000
Army and navy--------- 44, 250, 000
Sanitation, ete---------- 5, 000, 000
Total ------------- 123,750, 000
FOURTEI YEAR
General government----- 25,000, 000
Communications, r a i 1 -
roads, etc 20,000, 000
Relief, education, etc. --— 4, 500,000
Army and navy--------- 44, 250, 000
Sanitation, etc.---------- 3, 000, 000
Total ------------- 96, 750, 000
FIFTH YEAR
General government----- 15,000, 000
Communications, rail-
roads, etc 20,000, 000
Relief, education, etc. --— 4, 500,000
Army and navy--------- 44, 250, 000
Sanitation, etc.---------- 2,000,000
Total ------------- 85,750, 000
SUMMARY
Total first year--------- 275, 500,000
Total second year------- 174, 264,000
Total third year-------- 123,750, 000
Total fourth year------- 96, 750, 000
Total fifth year--------- 85,750, 000
Grand total-------- 756, 014, 000
338 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
14. Here is a man's job that the
World Says can be better done by Amer- *
ica than by any other. America can
afford the money; she has the men ;
no duty to her own people would suf-
fer; her traditional policy of isolation
did not keep her from successful par-
ticipation in the Great War. Shall
it be said that our country lacks the
courage ta take up new and difficult
duties?
f
Without visiting the Near East it is not possible for an American to realize
even Laintly the respect, faith, and affection with which our country is regarded
throughout that region. Whether it is the world-wide reputation, which we
enjoy for fair dealing, a tribute perhaps to the crusading spirit which carried
us into the Great War, not untinged with hope that the same spirit may urge
us into the solution of great problems growing out of that conflict, or whether
due to unselfish and impartial missionary and educational influence exerted for
a century, it is the one faith which is held alike by Christian and Moslem, by
Jew and Gentile, by prince and peasant in the Near East. It is very grati-
fying to the pride of Americans far from home. But it brings with it the
heavy responsibility of deciding great questions with a seriousness worthy of
such faith. Burdens that might be assumed on the appeal of such sentiment
would have to be carried for not less than a generation under circumstances
so trying that we might easily forfeit the faith of the world. If we refuse to
assume it, for no matter what reasons, satisfactory to ourselves, we shall be
considered by many millions of people as having left unfinished the task for
which we entered the war, and as having betrayed their hopes.
Respectfully submitted.
JAMES G. HARBORD,
Major General, United States Army, Chief of Mission.
Y
AIPPENDIX NO. 21
THE BRITISH TRADE-UNION DELEGATION AND GEORGIA
The report of the British trade-union delegation about Russia has provoked
great dissatisfaction in the socialist circles of all countries. It praises the
Bolshevist régime more enthusiastically than any Communist party has ever
dared to do. Even the Russian Bolsheviks never painted their social Organiza-
tion in such rosy color as the British delegates.” But what they said about
Georgia surpassed even the expectations of the most Orthodox Bolsheviks.
The Georgian nation, fighting for its national and political emancipation, met
the representatives of a great nation trusting to find in them friends and de-
fenders. But an unexpected thing happened, not heard of in the history of the
labor struggle of the world—the delegates publicly ranged themselves against
the oppressed with the oppressors; the entire prestige of the British trade-
unions was used to justify Moscow’s conquering policy and enslavement of
Georgia. How did they come to pronounce such a judgment? Does their report
give sufficient data to justify their judgment in favor of the Soviets and their
accusation of Social democracy?
rº- THE ECONOMIC conDITION IN GEORGIA *
The report On Georgia begins with an economic analysis stating :
“And no One who visits the Country now and knows what its conditions were
can doubt that materially it is prospering as it never did under Menshevist
rule” (p. 210).
To prove this statement the author quotes some figures. It is sufficient
for us to compare these figures with those published by the Bolsheviks in
Georgia in order to see their worthlessness. So, for instance, the report says
that the cultivated land in 1920 under the Mensheviks was 1,270,000 dessiatines,
whilst in 1923 under the Bolsheviks it was 1,800,000 (p. 208). The untruth
of these figures is evident as in the whole of Georgia there is not so much land
fit for cultivation. “The Communist” (No. 96, 1925) itself admits that there
is Only 1,430,000 dessiatines of such land. As even in the most advanced coun-
tries not al. arable land is cultivated, it is natural that in Georgia the amount
of cultivated land is considerably less than the amount given by the Communist.
The commissar of agriculture in Georgia published in the Communist the fol-
lowing figures:
Dessiatines
(a) Land under the plough - - __ 616, 000
(b) Land used for vineyards ____ 30, 071
(C) Land used for Cotton ____ 4, 500
(d) Land used for tobacco_ 4, 020
Total--------------------------------------- - 654, 591
If we add the land used for gardens and vegetable gardens (35,000 dessia-
times), then we get a total of about 700,000 dessiatines cultivated land.
The delegation writes that the export in 1920 (under the Menshevik Govern-
ment) was 903,000 poods, and in 1923 (under the soviets) 12,609,000 poods
(p. 203). In reality in 1920 there were 10,703,031 poods of manganese exported.
* The delegation's praise of the régime, of oppression and misery under which the
working classes and the whole Russian nation is living is sure to call forth the indigna-
tion of every impartial reader.
* We are far from wishing to represent the period of Georgian independence as one of
economic prosperity. ... The country, exhausted by four years of war and just emerging
from the turmoil of the revolution, experienced many economic and financial difficulties;
it had to mobilize all its resources to meet them. But as the people were not exploited
from without, and a free, democratic régime gave the whole nation, a chance of helping
in the developing of national resources, Georgia's economic life during the independence
was in a far better condition than under the Bolshevist régime.
339
340 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
These figures were published by the Bolsheviks in their book, Statistics of
Manganese for 1918–1923 (pp. 45–36).
As is known, the decrease of export under the soviet régime is not accidental,
but the result of the régime itself.
Further: The delegation states that there were 15,000 poods raw silk cocoons
in 1920, but 50,000 poods, according to the Bolsheviks (Communist paper Zaria
Vostoka, February 25, 1925).
According to the delegation, the general value of state production in Georgia
was 7,000,000 gold roubles in 1923 (p. 209), whilst the official Bolshevik figures
state 4,670,550 roubles for 1923–24 (Zaria Vostoka, February 25, 1925).
The decrease of trade and industry under the Bolsheviks is also shown by
the decrease in the number of industrial workers; but the delegation attempts
to show how “the number of industrial workers was doubled under the BOl-
sheviks from 50,689 in 1920 to 95,777 in 1923 (p. 209). The official Bolshevik
statistics say, on the contrary: “In Georgia there are 8,123 industrial estab-
lishments, with 7,700 workers. The Communist, May, 1924.) If we take six
industries—manganese, coal, tobacco, hides, alcohol, and soap industry—we
find that the total number of workers engaged in them was 5,998 in 1919 and
3,259 in January, 1925 (See the Communist, April 5, 1925). This is a decrease
of 45 per cent. If the percentage of workers employed shows the economic
condition of the country, then the increase of 25,000 unemployed workers in
1925 compared with 1920 indicate only half its former industrial prosperity
and not double, as the delegates try to make Out.
Generally, the figures given by the delegation do not correspond to the figures
furnished by the Bolsheviks themselves. Whence this difference?
It must not be forgotten that to give foreigners informat on about the real
economic condition of a Soviet Country is called economic esp. Onage by Soviet
law and is punished with the utmost severity, even with death ; consequently
no Bolshevik, and still less a Soviet official, could give the delegation trust-
worthy figures without risking such penalty. However, in the official organs
the Soviet authorities sometimes give information more or less approaching
reality. As the delegation had with them experts knowing Russian they
should not have allowed themselves to be tricked ; they might at least have
acquainted themselves with the Official information published by the Soviets.
The administration of the SOvietS has thrown the country far back com-
pared with the period of Menshevik rule through the foreign, economic, and
political condition combined, for the last four years have been more favorable
than at the time of independence of Georgia. The Great War came to an end
in 1918; the Dardanelles, which are the only outlet for Georg' a to Europe,
were reopened by the Sevres treaty in 1920. During nearly the whole time
of her independence (May, 1918, to February, 1921), Georgia was cut off from
the world’s markets. In the Soviet period international pre-war relations were
resumed, and also the Russian market Was Opened up again ; nevertheless the
economic condition got worse. According to Bolshevik statistics the land for
wine growing has diminished by 52 per cent, the quantity of horned cattle by
20 per cent, and of other small cattle by 29 per cent. In connection with this
there was a decrease of export produce—wool, hides, bristles, meat, etc. (The
Communist, April 7, 1925). The area under tobacco diminished by 60 per cent
compared with pre-war time; it fell from 15,880 dessiatines to 6,000 dessiatines;
the cultivation of tea diminished by 72 per cent (in 1914, 1,383,317 pounds;
in 1924, 376,000 pounds); cotton decreased by 60 per cent; the production of
coal, which was 5,500,000 poods in 1920 under the Menshevist rule, fell 30 per
cent, and was 3,836,462 poods in 1925 (The Communist, February 25, 1925);
spirit distilling diminished 74.2 per cent compared with pre-war times (The
Communist, April 5, 1925). In the tobacco industry the fabrication of ciga-
rettes fell 73 per cent, and of smoking tobacco 92 per cent. (The Communist,
No. 46, 1924.)
Besides, this ruined and beggared country is to the utmost exploited by the
trade policy of Moscow. Imposing a prohibitive duty on foreign goods, Moscow
sends instead her bad and expensive goods from Russian Communist trusts.
Comparing Paris prices of manufacture—boots, sugar, and other articles—with
Moscow prices of the corresponding articles of Russian Origin we find the latter
from 70 to 300 per cent higher. Only on sugar and manufactured goods
Georgia overpays Russia 100,000,000 French francs. And if we consider besides
the great quantity of industrial and agricultural goods sent from Russia to
Georgia we get no less than 200,000,000 francs paid by Georgia to Moscow as a
yearly gift because the ports of Georgia are artificially closed for foreign goods.
Is this not a barefaced colonial robbery System?
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 341
FINANCIAL CONDITION OF GEORGIA
The trade-union report expresses its conviction that Georgia Was saved from
financial ruin by the Bolshevik administration. In reality the present financial
condition of Georgia is as deplorable as the economic. And it can not be else;
finances are closely connected with the economic and political condition of the
country, forming one entity. Comparing the data of the financial condition of
Russia and Georgia on the eve of the occupation and the changes in the finan-
cial condition of Georgia after the occupation, we see that the Bolsheviks not
only did not save the country from ruin, but, on the contrary, precipitated it
into an unprecedented financial misery.
In January, 1921, a month before the invasion of Georgia by the Russian
red army, there were in circulation in Russia 1,168 milliard paper rubles; in
Georgia 9,768,000,000 rubles, which means on every inhabitant of Russia (130,-
000,000 population) 8,907 rubles; in Georgia (2,800,000 population) 348 rubles.
At the same time the pound equaled over 1,000,000 Russian rubles, but only
11,000–12,000 Georgian rubles, so that the exchange value of the Georgian
money was one hundred times higher than that of the Soviet money.
After the occupation of Georgia by Moscow's army the local Bolshevik
authorities, under pressure from the people who refused to take Soviet money,
decided not to introduce into Georgia the Moscow ruble and continued the
financial policy of the Social-Democratic government; to go on with the issue
of the old paper money with the signatures of the President and Minister of
Finances of the national Georgian Government. Only at the end of 1923
Georgian finances were leveled with those of Russia by abolishing the financial
autonomy of Georgia and handing over to Moscow all the resources of the
COuntry.
Georgia has no longer the right of having its own mission or an independent
financial policy; the Georgian post and telegraph stamps were abolished, the
railways were taken over by Russia, generally the Georgian ministry of finances
was abolished and the rights of Georgia over her own budget was reduced to
a minimum.
By the existing law the central treasury of the Soviet Union receives the
following income: Direct taxes (e. g., agricultural tax, industrial tax, tem-
porary State tax), stamp tax, and indirect taxes. Further, the revenue from
the nonunion establishments and of the union commissariats, State revenue,
revenue from trade and industry, from loans concerning the union, and local
revenue. From the central treasury Georgia receives for her own needs only
º much and in such way as the central executive committee in Moscow yearly
8.IIOWS.
. In consequence of this appropriation by Moscow of Georgia's revenue and
rights of fixing the budget Georgia has a beggarly budget to meet the expenses
of the country. It is only necessary to compare the budget of the former
independent Georgia and that of occupied Georgia in order to see this.
The last budget of independent Georgia which was carried out (June 1,
1919–June 1, 1920) was 3.250,000,000 roubles. The exchange value of the
Georgian rouble was then between 300 and 1,300 roubles for £1 ; taking the
average as 800 roubles equals £1, the budget amounted to £4,062,000, or 40,000,000
gold roubles.” Now let us take the last soviet budget for 1924–25, the analysis
# which we find in the Communist of March 15, 17. and 18, which gives these
gures:
The budget for the whole of Transcaucasia is 29,800,000 roubles, equal
to £3,000,000; that is to say, £1,000,000 less than the budget of independent
Georgia alone. Of this pittance Moscow takes for herself 14,300,000 roubles
* Mr. Purcell, in his answer to Jordania's letter, in the Daily, Herald on the finances
of Georgia when free and when occupied, writes that the greater part of the revenue
of free Georgia must be traced to the sale of confiscated land to the peasants. But he
gives no figures to prove his statement, simply affirming that there were revenues from
the sale of land, because, those figures would have entirely, contradicted his assertion,
From the sum received, in 1919–20 (771,059,121 roubles) for the sale of the land
to the peasants, purely technical expenses, of the State during the introduction of
agrarian reforms. (as measuring,...etc.) swallowed up the greater part, and in reality
the treasury received only 2,455,670 roubles, that is no more than 0.3 per cent of the
whole amount; aggording to this calculation a net 5,000,000 roubles should have been
i.e., in 1920–21 from the total purchase sum of 8,552,414,771 roubles, which is 0.04
per cent.
Project of the State accounts, expenses, and contracts for 1920–21, pages 51 and 198.
342 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
and Only by exception leaves it this year at the disposal of the Transcaucasian
authorities, so that the budget will dispose this year of 15,500,000 roubles.
This general Transcaucasia budget is divided in the following way: Trans-
caucasian federal administrates 7,900,000 roubles; Georgia 10,800,000 roubles;
Azerbeijan, 8,000,000; Armenia 3,100,000.
So that the budget Of Soviet Georgia is four times less than that of inde-
pendent Georgia.
From the 29,000,000 budget only 18,000,000 is covered by revenue from the
Transcaucasia treasury; the remaining 11,000,000 are a “deficit.” If we add
those 14,000,000 which by law belong to the central Government, then the
“deficit ’’ becomes 25,000,000. So that in reality the sum at the disposal of
all the Transcaucasia Republics by Soviet law equals 4,000,000 roubles, of
which Georgia receives less than 2,000,000. The starved condition of Georgian
finances and all Transcaucasia is explained by the fact that the chief branches
of local industry, as oil, manganese, pipe lines, railways, post and telegraph,
transport, etc., are, as we said before, brought directly under the central
Government, and their revenues are going to Moscow ; that is to say, Moscow
simply robs the Transcaucasian people and keeps them enslaved.
Moscow in every way cuts down the budget of the Transcaucasian Republics,
condemning them to starvation. The Transcaucasian budget is cut down this
year compared with last year by 7,000,000 roubles, whilst the budget Of the
union has increased by 357,000,000 ; the whole reserve fund of Transcaucasia
is reduced to 14,500,000 roubles—that is, by 56 per cent—whilst the general
union reserve fund is increased by 300 per Cent, etc.
But even this miserable budget was Only passed with great difficulty at the
last session of the Union Central Executive Committee in Tiflis. The Presi-
dent of the Transcaucasian Government, Orakhvelashvili, said, in defense of
his budget : We must understand that we had till 1924 our mission in
Transcaucasia, and till October of the past administrative year we had Our
budget. During the past two or three years we have been trying to manage
with our means and to adapt ourselves to a certain definite level of expenses.
I think that not one member of the central executive committee of the union
will Create such a position that that level and that condition Of Culture which
we found in Georgia will be lowered by us because the necessary sums will be
cut off. (Zaria Vostoka, May 8, 1925.)
The intention of Moscow to reduce Georgia to the position of a backward
corner of Russia, and to make her again a simple province of Russia, has been
accomplished ; Georgia has been robbed of the last remnant of independence,
viz, her own budget. Besides, Georgia has no longer the right usually belonging
to local autonomy, that is to draw up her own budget, based upon the needs of
the population, and, in agreement with this, to impose taxes; Georgia is obliged
to fix her expenses as the Central Government is pleased to allow ; the ele-
mentary right of taxing herself as a territorial unit has been taken away.
It is evident that the trade-union delegation had no ground to praise Mos-
cow’s administration in Georgia and to state that Georgia had her own status
and budget (p. 207). On the contrary, she has not her OWI) budget Or any
financial rights.
THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT
The delegation devotes a special chapter to the cooperative movement in
Georgia, but does not give any facts about the whole, but Only small details
(p. 22). Evidently the delegates found that domain not suitable for their
purpose, but decided to praise everything Bolshevik they considered it neces-
sary to be enthusiastic also about the cooperative movement.
In matter of fact, the cooperative movement is in a miserable condition,
barely existing on State subsidies and by robbing the people. It could not be
different : If the economic life is ruined, the cooperative movement can not
flourish.
Though membership of cooperative societies is obligatory, at the end of 1924
there were, according to Official figures:
1. In the Union of Agricultural Cooperative Societies________________ 20, 590
2. In the Union of Consumers' Societies----------------------------- 110,000
3. In the Union Zakhtpo- 12, 236
Total in all cooperative societies in Georgia, 142,826 members, and the yearly
turnover was 11,660,935 roubles (The Communist, Nos. 45, 65, 73, 1925).
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 343
Whilst during the independence of Georgia, in the year 1918-19, there were:
1. In the Cooperative Credit Societies (then changed into agricultural
societies) 148, 367
2. In the Union of Consumers’ Societies ____ 127, 750
Total * – 276, 117
with a yearly turnover of 25,310,529 roubles.
In 1920 the number of members of the consumers’ Societies reached 362,788,
of which 90 per cent belonged to the central cooperative organization. (See
“The Cooperative Movement in Georgia,” published by the Central Cooperative
Union, and also “La Georgie Cooperative ’” by Victor Serwy, Brussels, 1922.)
The ruin of the cooperative movement went side by side with the economic
ruin of the country. Having seized power in Georgia, the Bolsheviks used
their police against the free cooperative societies, terrorizing and exiling
prominent cooperators. Finally, under this terror the cooperative societies
found themselves in the hands of the communists where their Cheka methods
were also introduced. (See V. Serwy, “La Georgie Cooperative,” where copies
of the police orders are given.) The people answered by passive resistance
and by leaving the movement whilst the cooperative societies were turned
into communist monopoly shops where the population is Obliged to Sell its
produce for a pittance, and where they must buy at high prices the goods of
Moscow State trusts. Cooperation, which was a weapon to help the people,
has become a means towards their enslavement. And free private trade has
now become one of the claims of the masses. --
The economic activity Of the Soviets in Georgia has taken the form of ruin-
ing industry, agriculture, finances, trade, cooperative movement—everything
On which independent Georgia was built up.
Finally, the people rose in defence of their freedom, their independent eco-
nomic and political existence.
TEIE RISING
The delegation arrived in Georgia soon after the rising, when the villages,
set on fire by the Soviet punitive expeditions, were still smoking and the blood
of thousands of innocent victims was still fresh. But the delegation did not
investigate this condition on the spot: they did not visit the provinces and
the districts in revolt; they did not question the oppressed ; yet they delivered
their final verdict, maintaining that “there is in Georgia no active discontent
with the soviet system,” and that the Menshevik “ leaders living comfortably
in Paris,” who are supported “by the financial and commercial combines inter-
ested in the oil and manganese wealth of the regions,” led astray the simple
people. (Report, pp. 211 and 212.)
Verily, a bureaucratic explanation of the people's despair : The people are
in favor of the revolt, and, at the same time, they are satisfied with the régime !
The happy rebels revolt against their own happiness
The delegates, describing the economic national prosperity of the Georgians,
can not understand why “the people revolt.” It is simply a puzzle—happiness
and contentment have driven them mad : But had they tried to look at the
event impartially, the mystery would have been cleared up.
Strange though it may seem, the Bolsheviks themselves showed a greater
frankness in this matter than their British advocates. The whole Soviet press,
including the central Organs, made it their duty to study the causes of the
revolt, and, as a result, a number of decisions were arrived at. These con-
clusions completely contradict the statement of the delegation that the country
enjoys “economic prosperity,” and quite clearly confirm our assertion that
Georgia is on the verge of economic ruin.
The President of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, Mr. Kalinin, who
toured himself the regions of the rising, describes the situation thus:
“One remarks among the peasantry, if not economic prosperity, at least
greater culture than, for instance, in the central regions of Russia. Generally
speaking, the population of the villages in western Georgia resembles very
closely the town population: the language is that of a town ; the percentage
of intellectuals is considerable; the clothes worn by the inhabitants are similar
to those worn by the townspeople. The impression one receives is that as
if one were in a health resort full of town inhabitants.” (Zaria Vostoka,
March 27, 1925.)
344 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
This urban character of the villages is explained by the insufficiency of the
land owned by the peasantry, who in Consequence are Compelled to look for
work in the towns and thus augment the pittance derived from their land.
The Georgian peasant owns land sufficient to keep himself busy in the village
for five months of the year. During the remaining seven months he is an
industrial worker.
The president of the Transcaucasian Government, Mr. Orakhvelashvili, in his
report to the last session of the union central executive committee in Tiflis,
described in the following words the economic position of the peasants:
“The Soviet régime found itself unable to do much for the peasantry; there
was not enough land to be distributed. We Could not increase or improve the
production. We only have constructed there a short railway line, but this can
not maintain them. What is required is food, clothing, footwear, etc. We
must take into consideration the great unemployment among the peasant popu-
lation among the small land-holding peasants, who before the war obtained
supplementary earnings by industrial employment in the ports of the Black
Sea from Batum to Odessa. These peasants, who worked in the docks and
ports, have had a sort of political schooling—most of them can even cite by
heart passages from Marx and Kautzky—and now they idle at home, unable to
procure even maize flour or salt.” (Zaria Vostoka, March 6 and 7, 1925.)
Thus the Georgian peasants, who, owing to insufficiency of land, were Com-
pelled to supplement their meager earnings by industrial employment, are now
deprived of this source of income and tied to the village where. half-starving,
they drag on a miserable existence.
“The fundamental cause of dissatisfaction,” writes a Bolshevist organ, “is
the economic situation. There is not enough land. If anyone possesses eight-
tenths latsev (eight-tenths acre) of land, he is regarded as a very rich man.
Formerly the peasants did the industrial work and had a supplementary in-
come, but to-day they can not obtain this kind of work.” (Zaria Vostoka,
March 14, 1925.)
To the unemployed peasants must be added the unemployed industrial work-
ers, whose number, according to the British labor delegation, reaches 28,000.
The majority of these have returned to their villages, thus increasing the gen-
eral poverty and dissatisfaction.
In Georgia happened the same as in Russia—disorganization, almost com-
plete destruction of industry, dispersion of labor, loss of employment by the
masses. The difference is Only that in Russia, thanks to the enormous estates,
there was enough land for everyone, and millions of proletarians returned to
agriculture. In Georgia, with its insufficiency of land, the proletarians,
thrown out of work by the disorganization of industry, remain without employ-
ment, and in the villages they swell the ranks of the discontented, the potential
army of revolt.
Moreover, the Soviet régime has reduced the population to dire poverty not
only through the disorganization of industry, but also through its trade policy.
The Black Sea ports have been brought almost to a complete standstill as a
result of the introduction of prohibitive duties. Batum and Poti are dead as
far as trade is concerned. The agricultural produce has no market or is
bought up by the Soviets at an absolutely contemptible price. The above-
mentioned Orakhvelashvili, describing the main branches of agriculture, says:
“Our wine-growing industry is threatened with COmplete annihilation unless
we find immediately some means that will create favorable conditions for the
disposal of its products.”
The tea crop has increased, but “this increase is a burden to the producer.
So far even the production of 1923 has not been realized. The wool has been
lying unsold up till almost very recently, and we were compelled to take steps
to obtain from the Center the necessary permit to sell abroad the goods in
question.” The production of silk cocoons has attained 60 per cent of that
prior to the war, but in this respect, too, “we have failed the peasantry in the
sense that we found ourselves unable to provide the necessary credit, in conse-
Quence of which our cooperative societies effected payments irregularly, and
the peasants evinced some dissatisfaction on this ground.”
These statements of Orakhvelashvili were confirmed by the peasants them-
selves when questioned by Kalinin, during the latter's tour of the Georgian
villages. “The most serious question,” he was told by an old peasant, “is
the absence of markets. We can not Sell Our produce. And, then, the agri-
cultural taxes are not correctly distributed, and we peasants have hardly any
voice at all in this distribution.” About the Sale of cocoons, the peasants told
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 345
him : “Formerly the price of a pood was 15 to 20 roubles; at present, we are
not allowed to sell our cocoons in the open market, but are ordered to deliver
them to the cooperative societies, which pay us 10 roubles a pood. And can
One buy to-day with 10 roubles the things that formerly could have been bought
with less?” (Zaria Vostoka, March 14, 1925.)
Thus, the peasants not only can not augment their income by casual indus-
trial employment but they can not even market the meager produce of their
land and cottage industry.
To all of this must be added the burden of agricultural taxes and the method
of their collection. This is what the Bolshevik delegates had to say on this
Question to the congress of Soviets of Georgia :
Delegate from Abkhasia: “We have paid the whole 100 per cent of the agri-
cultural taxes, but the taxes were so enormous that they were a great strain on
the population. The overwhelming majority of the population are very poor,
and the peasants demand that the taxes be reduced to a minimum.”
Delegate from Kakheti: “It was very difficult for the Kakhetian peasants
to pay the taxes. The peasants of one region decided, in order to pay taxes, to
sell 250 head of cattle, and with this view they approached the cooperative
Society, the bank, and the government, but no One Would buy their cattle. In
the end, the peasants were compelled to sell the animals to middlemen almost
for nothing.” (Communist, No. 84, 1925.)
Of the same nature were nearly all the reports of other delegates. The taxes
literally break the backbone of the peasantry. The prisons are full with peas-
ants who could not pay their taxes, and only the amnesty of last March set
them free, which freedom, however, may be supposed to be temporary.
The whole Georgian people are mercilessly ground between the Bolshevist
millstones. Independent social-democratic Georgia knew no unemployment,
crushing taxes, Or the absence of markets for agricultural produce, as the
Country developed then along the lines of normal economic progreSS. Is
there, then, anything to be surprised at if the people are determined to fight
for the recovery Of that independence, to fight against the occupation which
has brought them only poverty, oppression, and misery?
The president of the Moscow “Sovnarkom '' (Soviet of People's Com-
missaries), Rykoff, States that “here, in Georgia, there are groups of peasants
who do not regard the Moscow Government as their own,” and advises the
Georgian communists to take all necessary steps to bring the whole of
Georgia under the centralist System of Moscow. (Zaria Vostoka, March 4,
1925.)
The Soviet Occupation has deprived of work not only the workers and the
peasants, but also the great majority of Georgian intellectuals. Kalinin
Offers the Out-Of-Work intellectuals employment outside Georgia, which means
that they must leave their Country, perhaps for ever. (Zaria Vostoka, March
15, 1925.) Independent Georgia had no unemployment of intellectuals, as
their forces were utilized in the various fields of national reconstruction.
Why can not any work be found for them now? The answer is that Georgia,
having lost independence, has lost her national institutions and state organiza-
tions, and her intellectuals find themselves thrown overboard. The Bolshevist
statistics confirm that among the civil Servants in Georgia only 50 per cent
are Georgians; in Tiflis only 37 per cent (Communist, No. 106, 1924), the
remaining Officials being non-Georgians, newcomers, who use the Russian
language in their departments. The employment of Georgian intellectuals in
their native land Would necessitate the sanction of the Georgian language
as the language of State departments, and this is contrary to the Wishes
of Kalinin. The latter wants to have in Georgia the Moscow Government
with MOSCOW's language; to attain this, the Georgian intellectuals must be
got rid of—the well-known method of the Tsarist régime !
The central executive committee of the U. S. S. R., taking into consideration
the above-mentioned results of the investigation by the Bolsheviks of the
causes of the rising, made the following declaration at their session of March
7, 1925:
“The problems of first importance for the soviet authorities in Trans-
caucasia are : Organization of factories for local cotton and wool, also the
cocoons; restoration and Operation of the works at Batum, Zangezuri, and
Allaverdi; the erection of Oil refineries at Batum ; the enlargement of timber
mills, and the introduction of modern methods in the forest industry,” etc.
In short, restoration and development of the industries which ceased
activity with the advent of Bolshevism.
*
t
w
346 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Thus, the chief causes of the rising of the Georgian people are not the
machinations of the Mensheviks, but the economic and national conditions
prevalent in Soviet Georgia. All the active sections of the population—
workers, peasants, intellectuals—who created independent Georgia and her
Social-Democratic government, having lost their national freedom, found
themselves deprived, at the same time, of the possibility of economic and
political activity and progress. The only way out of this situation is the
fall of the MOSCOW tyranny.
SOME “ HIGH POLITICS ’’
Explaining in their own way the causes of the existing movement of the
Georgian people to regain independence, the delegation writes: “The medieval
independence of Georgia has never been forgotten by its people, and in Spite
of compulsory incorporation in the Russian Empire for over a century, they
continued to struggle for full sovereignty. * * * The insurrection in
September last probably had the sympathy of a majority of Georgians, and
would have had their support had it succeeded,” etc. (pp. 217, 208, 211, etc.).
Thus, the delegation has no doubt that Georgia is fighting for her inde-
pendence, for freedom. Every Socialist, every honest Democrat and friend
of freedom would have drawn from this the only possible conclusion, Viz, to
support the people in their struggle and to condemn the annexation. But
the authors of the report draw quite a contrary conclusion—they condemn
this struggle for freedom and support the annexation. Without much ado,
they maintain the idea “that it is in the interests of the workers and peasants
of Caucasia and of the world that inclusion of the Transcaucasian Federation
in the Union of Socialist Russia should continue * (p. 217).
Comrade Adler calls this interpretation “the greatest shame for the labor
movement.” (See his pamphlet “The Anglo-Russian Report,” p. 27. English
edition). And never, indeed, has the right Of a nation to self-determination
been so roughly brushed aside. The authors of the report, probably, thought
that the easiest way was to side with the conquerors.
Having so openly deserted the position of the international socialism, the
delegation try to cover their retreat by considerations of “high politics.” They
Write :
“Transcaucasia is a country where the most powerful of the strategic and
economic interests now controlling the world come into collision. For in
Transcaucasia, the west, headed by Great Britain and France, is competing
with the east, headed by Russia and Turkey, for economic control of oil and
manganese resources of immense importance and for the strategic command
of the Asiatic Continent” (p. 202).
In short, there are in this country national riches; the great States of Great
Britain, France, Russia, and Turkey are after them, and the only solution is
to hand this country over to Russia . But why this preference? The delega-
tion is giving a present, not of a desert but of a country inhabited by a people
who do not want to be given away as a gift. But the delegates do not take
any notice whatsoever of the people. They concern themselves only with the
great States competing for foreign territories and support only one of them.
In other words, having abandoned the socialist point of view, the delegation
adopts the imperialist one, which denies to the peoples the right to a free
existence. The political conception of the delegation is quite clear. The
country which, by its economic importance and strategical position, may even-
tually become an object of friction between the competing States must be
given to one of the competitors, and * * * international peace hencefor-
ward will reign forever. With such a conception only one conclusion is pos-
sible, namely, Transcaucasia must be given to to Russia; Mesopotamia with
Mosul to Great Britain ; Mexico to the United States of America, etc.; that
is, the division of the world among the great powers, which, in the language
of the diplomats, means the “delimitation of spheres of influence.” The dele-
gation sim}\l upholds isłaporialism. Hut is it not sufficiently kown that such
an apparently simple solution of the question—the ignoring of the rights and
interests of nationalities—has always been the source of wars? A world
founded up Conquest—that is the policy of the oppressors. A world founded
on freedom and the free will of the peoples—that is the policy of the oppressed,
the policy of socialist democracy.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 347
By adopting the point of view of the “delimitation of spheres of influence"
the delegation continues in regard to Transcaucasia the policy of Mr. Lloyd-
George, a policy which Tchiteherin revealed at the recent session of the central
executive committee of all Russia :
“Following on the evacuation by the British of Batum, Lloyd-George in-
formed Comrade Krassin that England would not interfere in the mutual rela-
tionship of Russia and Transcaucasia and that he (Lloyd-George) regarded
Caucasia as the sphere of influence of the Soviet Republic.” (Communist,
March 5, 1925.)
This statement makes it clear that MOSCOW embarked upon its conquest of
Georgia and Transcaucasia with the blessings of Lloyd George and his Gov-
ernment, and now the Delegation of the British Trade Unions approve of
the policy of conquest by Moscow. The Delegation could not maintain a
Socialist policy; they lost their way in an imperialistic point of view, and
Write :
“It had become for Georgia a choice between Turkish or Russian occupa-
tion, and the Russians gave them back their full territories and a very full
autonomy, which they would not have got from the Turks '' (p. 207).
As a matter of fact, this is all wrong. Independent Georgia was in peace-
ful relations with Turkey. If Turkey received new territory in Transcaucasia,
it was owing to the Bolsheviks who at Brest-Litovsk ceded to Turkey the
Georgian provinces of Batum and Ardakhan, and the Armenian territory of
the Kars district. Thanks to the victory Of the Allied Powers. the lost prow-
inces were returned to Georgia, who retained them up till the time of the
invasion by the Moscow Armies in 1921. Dºy the agreement of March 16th
of the same year, when Georgia was still defending herself against the Rus-
sian Army, the Moscow Government, without consulting the Georgians, handed
over to the Turks half of the Batum province and the whole of the Ardakhan
district. `
Thus, owing to Soviet Russia, Georgia lost not only her independence, but
10,000 square kilometers with a population of 250.000. This ceded territory
eontains, among others, rich copper mines with estinated deposits of 6,604,000
tons, invaluable forests, etc. Such are the facts. and Vef the L)elegates assure
us that “the Hussians gave them back their whole territories * * * * The
delegation even believed that “Moscow influenced Angora to return Batum
to Georgia.” To return what Georgia already possessed.
Having no serious facts to justify the occupation, the delegation is driven
to use such fantastic justification. Of the same nature is their Second state-
ment, namely, that Georgia was granted “a very full autonomy.” The coun-
try that has not even its own budget, its own fiscal system, its own expenses
and revenue—is autonomous ! If by this word we are to understand the right
to terrorize the population, to shoot the inhabitants without preliminary trial,
then autonomy is verily granted to the Tcheka.
There is no other form of autonomy existing in Georgia. The System of
government introduced is that of governing through the Special representation
of the Moscow center, who replace the former commissaries. There are spe-
cial representatives of war, trade, finance, and other departments. By this the
vice-regal system of government of tsarism has been reinstated. Nowhere
is any government at present so centralized as in the Union of Socialist Soviet
Russia. The great Russians are the real masters in the whole of the “ Union.”
Union, federation, autonomy are words intended for foreign dupes. In Russia
and in Georgia everyone knows that there exists no union or federation, but
only the all-powerful Russian communist party.
THE TERROR
The delegation of the British trade-unions do not aanywhere in their report
mention a word about the unprecedented persecution by the Bolsheviks of the
Socialists and of the old (now illegal) trade-unions in Georgia. They speak
enthusiastically and with admiration about the state trade-unions, but pass
over in silence the forcible suppression of the independent trade-unions,
the arrest and banishment of their leaders, and the confiscation of their prop-
erty, including the “Palace of Labor,” where now are housed various com-
munist unions, Working under Orders from above. It would seem that the
delegates of free trade-unions should have interested themselves in this aspect
of the Georgian trade-union movement : but, alas ! preoccupied with praising
the wonders of the Soviet System, the delegates did not dare to investigate what
labor organization means in Soviet Georgia. The delegation dares not admit
348 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
that there are no free, independent unions, but only labor Organizations con-
trolled by the government.
Even the recent events which excited the whole European proletariat—the
mass shootings by the Bolsheviks of political hostages and of political pris-
oners (an act worthy of General Galiffet, who shot en masse the arrested
communards in Paris in 1871)—even these events have been grossly perverted
by the delegation. The latter write unhesitatingly:—
“The shooting by the Mensheviks of 18 hostages exasperated the Bolshe-
viks. The worst stories refer to those days of guerilla in remote villages,
which was ruthless, as it always is in these regions. It is impossible to get
reliable information as to the number of lives lost, but 3,000 is probably a
fair guess '' (p. 211).
This seems to mean that hostages had been Shot not by the Bolsheviks but
by the Mensheviks; that thousands of innocent had been killed not by the ter-
rorist methods of the soviets but in the fighting between the parties.
But this is sheer invention from beginning to end. The authors of the report
have simply made it their aim to remove, at whatever cost, the responsibility
from the guilty and throw it on the guiltless. To say that in this respect, too,
the delegation have been duped by the Bolsheviks is no justification. Why, the
Bolsheviks themselves published the lists of the hostages Shot by them. And,
moreover, in none of the Officials reports, or in the publications of the Tcheka,
which gave reasons for the shooting of the hostages, has there even once a
hint been given of any Bolshevist hostages having been shot by the people in
revolt. The famous report of Kakhiani and the series of articles contributed
to the press by the Bolsheviks who had been taken prisoners by the Revolu-
tionaries invariably testify that their lives had, never, even for a moment,
been threatened. On the contrary, they are abusive and sarcastic about this,
taunting the Revolutionaries of having shown little courage, because they made
no attempt to shoot the Bolshevist prisoners, even when the revolt reached its
height; and this at 'the time when the Bolsheviks were shooting en masse the
rebels.
Adler comments as follows upon this passage of the report :
“Murder of hostages by the Bolsheviks took place, and it was Officially re-
ported for the purposes of terror, but the “impartiality' of the English expert
demands that his “results' should not contain a single word about the murder
of hostages by the Bolsheviks, and that what the Bolsheviks actually did
should be imputed to the Mensheviks. With this falsification this shameful
document achieves its acme * (p. 28, the Anglo-Russian report).
This unexampled cruelty and persecution against the Socialists is not a
casual event that took place only recently. It is the Bolshevist system Of
governing a country, long since elaborated and adopted by Moscow. The fol-
lowing is the Substance of what Bolsheviks write in their official party Organs:
“Comrade Trotsky, who was recently in Tiflis, characterized the situation
in Georgia, as follows: ‘Stalin told me in 1922 that it was necessary to plough
up the whole of Georgia if the influence and power of Menshevism were to be
destroyed there.' Now this task may be considered as accomplished—Georgia
is sufficiently ploughed up to prevent Menshevism from holding its own.”
(Materials for the political report of the central committee of the Communist
Party of Georgia, Tiflis, May, 1924.)
As we have seen, the order to “plough up" (i. e., to terrorize) Georgia
was given from Moscow as early as 1922. And the order was executed to
the letter. To quote again the same document:
“The application of the measures for the extraordinary repression is taking
place during the first half-year of 1923. * * * The central committee
Sanctioned at the beginning of 1923 the application of the highest punishment
to some scores of Mensheviks. * * * Our terrorist methods against the
Menshevik Party have been crowned with success.” (Ibid.)
It is abundantly evident that the terror was decided upon long ago as the
chief means for fighting the Georgian Social-Democracy and has been strictly
applied since 1922. The shooting of the socialists began in 1923; the mass
murder of our comrades kept in prisons took place recently, at the beginning
of September, 1924; the extermination en masse of peaceful inhabitants,
without distinction of sex and age and not guilty of any participation in
the rising, are well-known facts (for details see the pamphlet on “Terror in
Russia and Georgia,” published by the International); the Bolsheviks them-
Selves do not deny all this, but the British delegates do ! Ils sont plus
royalistes que le Roi !
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 349
THE SHOOTING OF THE 26 BAKU COMMUNISTS
The above shows that the condition in Georgia, under the occupation régime,
is represented by the delegation in an absolutely false light. But this. was not
enough. The delegation have found it necessary to reproduce in their report
a number of falsehoods spread by the Bolsheviks for their own purpose to
lower the prestige of our party, both among the Georgian masses and abroad,
such as, for instance, the break-up of the Menshevist Party, the revolts Sup-
posed to have taken place under the Menshevist Government, etc. We do
not think it necessary now to refute these customary Bolshevist insinuations,”
but it is impossible to pass over in silence one of the accusations against Our
party and excelling in its hideousness even the Bolshevist inventions. Without
even attempting to give proofs, the delegation state the following :
“The 26 Baku commissars who were murdered by the Mensheviks at Kizil
Avat in Transcaspia " (p. 220).
Who are meant by those Mensheviks? Russians? Evidently not, as it is
known that when those commissars were executed the Russian Mensheviks
were not in power anywhere in Russia, and therefore could not have had the
means to have the execution carried out. Besides, in that part the report deals
not with Russian but with Georgian Mensheviks, who then formed the Govern-
ment in Georgia. We must therefore conclude that the authors of the report
accuse the Georgian Mensheviks of being responsible for those executions. The
impossibility of that fact is evident, however, if we remember Georgia and
Transcaspia were separated by the whole of Azerbeijan and the Caspian
Sea, and besides by the Turkish, Bolshevist, and British troops which at that
period were in that region. The authority of the Menshevist Government
stopped at the frontier of Georgia.
Even the Bolsheviks who are always inclined to spread Calumnies have
never made such an accusation as contained in the report. The Bolsheviks
accused the British authorities in Transcaspia of those executions. Trotsky
says so clearly in his book, “Between Red and White,” which is chiefly directed
against the Mensheviks :
“To the memory of Stephen Shoumian, Alexei Djaparidze, and 34 other Baku
Communists, who were shot without investigation or trial, on a lonely spot
between the stations Pereval and Akhtcha in Transcaucasia, on September 20,
1918, by Teague-Jones, the chief of the British Military Mission at Askhabad,
with the knowledge and approbation of the other British authorities in Trans-
caucasia, notably the commander of the British forces in Transcaucasia, Major
General Thompson '' (Dedication).
“The manuscript of this book had been completed when I received a new
book by Vadim Chaikin, SOcialist-Revolutionary and member Of the Constituent-
Assembly, entitled, ‘A Contribution to the EHistory Of the Russian Revolution :
The Execution of 26 Baku Commissars,’ and published by Grzebin, Moscow.
This book, consisting mostly of documents of which the more important
Ones are in facsimile, narrates the story of the murder of 26 Baku commissars
by Order of the British military authorities, without the least pretense of a
public trial. The direct practical organizer of the massacre was the Chief of
the British Military Mission at Askhabad, Reginald Teague-Jones. General
Thompson was cognizant of the whole case, and Teague-Jones, as the evidence
shows, acted with the consent of the gallant general” (p. 37).
The Bolsheviks' accusation against the British authorities is precise and cate-
gorical. The trade-union delegation should know of it, as Trotsky's book
appeared in English some time ago; and the documents concerning the affair
have been, as Trotsky indicates, published in Russia.
But there are other documents which clearly prove that the Georgian Men-
sheviks, far from making matters worse for the Bolsheviks at Baku, did their
utmost to prevent bloodshed.
The facts are as follows: When the United Trans-Caucasian Republic was
dissolved and the national Republics created, the Baku Bolsheviks refused to
recognize the Azerbeijan Republic, and declared Baku and surroundings a Soviet
Republic. The Azerbeijan Government, which was at Gandja, obtained the help
of the Turks, and Baku was Surrounded. On the land side by the Azerbeijan-
i For details, see: N. Jordania, “Imperialism under the Mask of Socialism.”—A reply
to Trotsky.
350 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Turkish troops. Foreseeing a tragedy for Baku, the Georgian Mensheviks sent
the following radio on August 22 to the executive committee of Baku :
“To prevent bloodshed, do you consent to submit the Baku question to media-
tion by German mission at Tiflis for, a peaceful solution without bloodshed?
in case of consent, please formulate your conditions.
“ISIDORE RAMISH VILI.”
(The signatory, an old militant of 70 years, is at present deported and
imprisoned in Russia for having protested against the Occupation of Georgia.)
The answer- from Baku was :
“Your proposal is serious. The question of mediation is Submitted to the
military dictatorship of the Caspian center and of the presidium of the executive
committee. I must add that by military technical agreement the military Opera-
tions are carried out together with the British.
“MEMBER OF PRESIDIUM UMENSKY.”
The answer from the Georgian Mensheviks was :
“Consider the question from all sides. If circumstances are such that our
mediation appears necessary, we shall be happy to help you.
“ISIDORE RAMISHIVILI.”
Thereupon, the Baku Soviet answered that they consented to mediation. But
the mediation of the Georgian Mensheviks was not successful, and Baku was
taken by Storm.
These documents are in the collection of documents published (in Russian
language) by the Georgian Government in 1919 at Tiflis under the title, “Docu-
ments and Data on the Foreign Policy of Trans-Caucasia and Georgia.”
These telegrams sufficiently show the attitude of the Georgian Mensheviks at
that tragic moment.
During the exchange of those messages it became known at Tiflis that 26
commissars, Shaumian and Djaparidze at their head, had left Baku before the
battle against the Azerbeijan-Turkish troops, declaring that they would not
“fight the Turks with the British Imperialists together.” They left on a
steamer for Transcaspia to go from there to Russia.
The Hritish troops had arrived at Baku from Persia in Order to bar the
progress of the German-Turkish forces toward Persia and further. The British
were also in Transcaspia, where they supported the white Russian forces in the
civil war which reigned there as elsewhere. The Georgians had not yet any
relations with the British, from whom they were separated by the German
troops which then occupied Trans-Caucasia. After the fall of Baku the British
forces retired from there into Persia.
It is clear that the Georgian Mensheviks had nothing to do, and could not
have anything to do, with the execution of those 26 commissars.
Neither can we say anything about the Bolshevist accusation that the British
authorities were responsible for the executions. It is possible that the Bol-
shevist commissars were executed by the Whites in TransCaspia. Anyhow,
they were in the power of the authorities of that locality. If the trade-union
delegation now tries to lay upon the Georgians the responsibility for those
executions it is done to clear the real authors Of that act by accusing those
who had nothing to do with it.
Such an action seems all the more strange, especially as this section of the
report, as stated by the delegation themselves, is drawn up by the very person
against whom the above-mentioned accusation is directed. This person, Mr.
McDonell, who was British vice consul at Baku before the revolution and
later, during the conflicts between the British and the Bolsheviks, an officer
of the British Army, was marked down by the Bolsheviks in their lists as one
of their most active Opponents. He was, indeed, One of the intimate collabora-
tors of Reginald Teague-Jones, the chief of the British mission at Askhabad
(Transcaspia), With whom he was at Baku at the beginning of 1918 (a
month before the shooting of the 26 Bolshevist commissars), and the Bolshe-
vists considered him as one of the direct instigators of the shooting of their 26
COmrades.
It is evidently for the purpose of clearing the reputation of Mr. McDonell
that—
“Since returning to England the delegation has made careful inquiry into
this incident (i. e., the accusation of the British having instigated the shoot-
ing), and finds that the evidence entirely exonerates the British forces and
their Officers ” (p. 220). *
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 351
As the delegation undertook to find the real culprits, and as, on the other
hand, the author of the report is such a person as Mr. McDonell, it would seem.
most appropriate that, instead of accusing absolutely innocent persons, he
should have proved first his own innocence. *
CONCLUSION
The example of Georgia enables One to form a clear idea of the methods and
results of Bolshevist government in Contrast to those of the Menshevist gov-
ernment Óf independent Georgia. The latter, having been freely elected by
the people, showed itself capable to lift the country out of the chaos created.
by the war and to carry it through the revolution without civil war and terror.
This National Government led the people into the road of economic and
political regeneration simply by relying on the principles of freedom and
democracy. And if there are still some who attribute the Russian ruin and
downfall exclusively to the Civil war, intervention, and blockade. then the
example of Georgia, which had none of these disturbing causes, affords an
excellent opportunity of perceiving the destructive and ruinous nature of the
Bolshevist system. Georgia, under the Bolshevist régime, knew neither in-
tervention, blockade, nor civil war; besides, having occupied the country Sud-
denly, the soviets found there normal conditions of development and took over
an Organized and functioning administration. Under the circumstances, the
“creativeness " of the Soviet régime ought to have manifested itself there.
But what do we see? Moscow, with its system of government, has, in a short
time, literally plundered the country, caused it to fall into decay. Tuined the
people economically, and enslaved them politically.
The paralysis of the productive forces under the Soviet régime has its source
in the very nature of the régime itself, in its social and political principles, and
therefore the end of the régime is preordained. The British delegates have
chosen to defend this dying régime and are evidently endeavoring to bind up
With it the fate of British trade-unions. The entire Socialist and Labor
International has long since valued the soviets at their true merit and has
turned away from them. But the British trade-union delegates now declare
SOvietism a new social gospel, at least for Russia.
In the ranks of the labor movement of Great Britain there is at present,
after a delay of several years, developing that very same struggle which on
the Continent brought about the crisis of the labor movement in the years
immediately following the war. Attempts are being made to introduce into
the British labor movement Bolshevist methods and to idealize the Bolshevist
régime. On the Continent this struggle ended with the triumph of the European
democratic methods and with the isolation of the communist groups, which,
however, continue to exist, though only owing to the support they get from
MOSCOW.
We are deeply convinced that the soviet propaganda, of which the report in,
question is an insidious example, will be met by the workers with the rejection
it deserves, and that British labor, opposed to oppression and exploitation, will
resolutely repudiate any form of solidarity with the oppressors and exploiters
in Russia and Georgia.
The pres' dium of the foreign bureau of the Social-Democratic Labor Party-
40f Georgia.
N. JORDANIA,
N. CHKEIDZE,
N. RAMISH VILI.
96153—26—23 t
APPENDIX NO. 22
CERTIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS
I hereby confirm that the wording of inclosed exhibits, the same being letters,
documents, etc., are a true and precise copy or translation of the originals.
Yvonne W. GERARD,
Secretary of the Georgian Diplomatic and Economic
Representation in the United States.
The originals of all documents, all books mentioned in my brief from which
I have quoted, are available at any time, the same being on file at 211 West
Seventy-ninth Street, New York City.
* VASILI D. DUMLEADGE,
General Diplomatic and Economic Representative
of the Republic of Georgia.
352
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| KON OF THE ARCHANGEL GABRI EL
once reposing in the Monastery of Djumati in Georgia, nine medallions of which
are now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
An example of ancient Georgian Byzantine enameling of the eleventh Century,
352–1























|
d[.
HOLY GOSPELS EN CASED IN COVERS OF GOLD, RICHLY ENA MELED AND ORNAMENTED WITH PRE-
CIO US STON ES, AND SHOW ING THE REO N THE GEORGIAN ALPHABET IN USE IN THE SEVENTH
CENTURY
This is a product of Georgia's conversion to Christianity in the fourth century. Stolen by Russian Government and
its present whereabouts unknown

1184–1212, " The GOLDEN
QUEEN OF GEORGIA A. D.
TA MARA (THAMAR),
OF GEORGIA
AGE ''

SHOT HA RUST HAVELI, TWELFTH CENTURY GEORGIAN POET
Author of the romantic Georgian epic, “The Man in the Panther's Skin"
352–4

WHO CONCLUDED
. 1762–1798,
D
KING OF GEORGIA A
THE FIRST TREATY BETWEEN GEORGIA AND RUSSIA
| RAKLY II (ERECLE),
1783
|N
5
->
35

…….……**
）
！
First blinded and later brutally killed by the Mohammedans for her unfailing
****
1624
|N
KETEVAN, QUEEN OF GEORGIA
defense of Christianity

NINO, THE PATRON SAINT OF GEORGIA, A SLAVE GIRL WHO BROUGHT
CHRISTIANITY TO THE KING DOM OF GEORGIA |N THE FOURTH CEN-
TURY, A, D, 325
In the background is the Cathedral of Mzkhet, erected in the fourth century
352–7

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10
352

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-
MZKH ET
Panorama of the city and of the cathedral, which dates from the fourth century

THE DARI EL PASS
The fortress dates from the reign of Queen Tamara

CATH EDRAL AT ANANUR, FORTRESS OF GEORGIA'S CHRISTIAN FAITH,
DATING FROM THE SIXTH CENTURY
352–13

§
º
BORJOM, THE '' HOT SPRINGS '' OF GEORGIA IN THE CAUCASUS, WHERE THE BOLSHEVI KS HAVE
OVERRUN THE REPUBLIC OF GEORG|A
At about the same latitude as that of Rome, 2,600 feet above the sea, connected with the Transcaucasian Railway by a branch
line running through the picturesque Kura Valley, is the once famous resort frequented by the Imperial rulers of Russia.
It is the property of the Republic of Georgia
Borjom is famous throughout Europe and other countries as a rival of Vichy. In fact, in pre-war days Borjom shipped to
Europe and the United States over 9,000,000 bottles of this famous mineral water. A remarkable feature of the water
of Borjom is its radioactivity. Borjom waters are famous throughout Europe, though never exploited under their own
names
Tens of thousands of health seekers and recreation hunters visited Borjom annually. The most famous of the five hundred
mineral springs of Georgia, with its great hotels, is practically abandoned except for the occasional visit from a Bolshevik
official

...…，
|N GEORGIA
A TEA PLANTATION
15
352
|：….…..…

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16
352

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\
APPENDIX NO. 40
CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF THE CAUCASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA (INC.)
Received for record February 26, A. D. 1925.
EDGAR. H. ATKINSON, Recorder.
STATE of DELAwarE,
FCent County, 88:
Received in the Office for the recording of deeds, &c., at Dover, in and for
the said county of Kent, in corporation record F, volume 7, page —, &c., the
26th day of February, A. D. 1925.
Witness my hand and seal of said office.
EDGAR H. ATKINSON, Recorder.
Certified a true and correct copy as initialed.
[SEAL.] THom. As J. BELL, Notary Public.
CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF THE CAUCASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA (INC.)
First. The name of the corporation is “The Caucasian Society of America
(Inc.).” *
Second. The location of its principal office in the State of Delaware is in the
city of Dover, county of Kent. The name of its resident agent is United States
Corporation Co., whose address is No. 19–21 Dover Green, in that city.
Third. The nature of the business of the corporation and the objects and
purposes proposed to be transacted, promoted, or carried on by it, are as
follows:
(1) To afford opportunities for social intercourse and strengthen the bonds
of brotherhood amongst the Caucasians and Caucasian speaking peoples in the
United States of America and elsewhere.
(2) To promote and extend relations with Caucasian organizations of like
purpose in this and other lands, and generally in all lawful and proper ways
to promote a wider knowledge of and disseminate information in regard to the
Social and economic conditions of the peoples in the Republics of the Caucasus.
(3) To advocate and support the principles of Americanism and through
these principles to advance the cause and conditions of justice and the building
of sound and enduring institutions for the peoples of that section of the world.
(4) To disseminate information among the peoples of Caucasia now resident
in the United States of America relating to the laws and institutions of the
country of their adoption, to the end that they may become good citizens of
this great Republic.
(5) To foster shrines and landmarks of American and Caucasian patriotic
and historical interest in the United States and elsewhere.
(6) To do all and everything necessary, suitable, and proper for the accom-
plishment of any of the purposes or the attainment of any of the objects or the
furtherance of any of the powers hereinbefore set forth, either alone or in
association with other corporations, firms, or individuals, and to do every other
act Or acts, thing or things incidental or appurtenant to or growing out of or
connected with the aforesaid objects Or purposes or any part or parts thereof,
provided the same be not inconsistent with the laws under which this cor-
poration is organized.
(7) The objects or purposes of the corporation are from time to time to do
any one or more of the acts and things hereinabove set forth, and it shall have
power to conduct and carry on its operations, or any part thereof, and to have
one or more offices, and to exercise all or any of its corporate powers and
rights in the State of Delaware and in the various other States, Territories,
colonies, and dependencies of the United States, in the District of Columbia,
and in all or any foreign countries.
353
354 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Fourth. The corporation shall have no capital stock, and shall not engage
in any of its objects or purposes for profit. The members of the corporation
shall consist of such persons interested in the objects and purposes of the cor-
poration as shall be elected thereto by the board of directors upon such terms
and conditions as the board of directors may from time to time determine.
Fifth. The names and places of residence of each of the original-corporators
are as follows:
Arthur W. Britton, 150 Broadway, New York City.
Samuel B. Howard, 150 Broadway, New York City.
George V. Reilly, 150 Broadway, New York City.
Sixth. The corporation is to have perpetual existence.
Seventh. The private property of the members shall not be subject to the
payment of corporate debts to any extent whatever. -->
Eighth. The following provisions are inserted for the regulation and con-
duct of the affairs of the corporation, and it is expressly provided that they
are intended to be in furtherance and not in limitation or exclusion of the
powers conferred by the statutes of the State of Delaware:
“(1) The number of the directors of the corporation shall be fixed and may
be altered from time to time as may be provided in the by-lays. In case of
any increase in the number of directors, the additional directors may be elected
by the directors or by the members at any annual Or Special meeting as Shall
be provided in the by-laws.
“(2) The directors shall have power, without the assent or vote of the
members, to make and alter the by-laws of the corporation.
“(3) The board of directors may appoint from time to time such committee
or committees as, in their discretion, shall be desirable for the furtherance
Of the objects and purposes Of the corporation, and may delegate to Such
committee or committees Such powers as, in the discretion of the board of
directors, are necessary and desirable.
“(4) In addition to the powers and authorities hereinbefore or by statute
expressly conferred upon them, the directors are hereby empowered to exer-
cise all such powers and do all Such acts and things as may be exercised or
done by the corporation; subject, nevertheless, to the provisions of the statutes
of Delaware, of this certificate, and to any by-law from time to time made
by the members: Provided, however, That no by-law so made shall invalidate
any prior act of the directors which would have been valid had such by-law
not have been made.”
We, the undersigned, being the Original corporators of the corporation herein
named in order to form a corporation for the purposes above stated under
and pursuant to the provisions of the general corporation law of the State
of Delaware, being chapter 65 of the Revised Code of 1915, and the acts
amendatory thereof and supplementary thereto, do make and file this certifi-
cate, hereby declaring and certifying that the facts herein stated are true,
and have hereunto set our hands and seals this 25th day of February, 1925.
ARTHUR W. BRITTON [L. S.]
SAMUEL B. HOWARD [L. S.]
GEORGE W. REILLY [L. S.]
In the presence Of-
JULIA R. NEWIN.
STATE OF NEW YORK,
County of New York, ss:
Be it remembered, that on the 25th day of February, 1925, personally came
before me, Julia R. Nevin, a notary public in and for the State and county
aforesaid, Arthur W. Britton, Samuel B. N. Howard, and George W. Reilly,
being all of the parties to the foregoing certificate of incorporation known to
me personally to be such, and severally acknowledged the certificate of incor-
poration to be the act and deed of the signers, respectively, and that the
facts therein stated are truly set forth.
Given under my hand and Seal of Office the day and year aforesaid.
[SEAL.] JULIA R. NEVIN,
Notary Public, Brona, County, No. 5.
Certificate filed in New York County No. 53. Term expires March 30, 1925.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA 355
STATE of DELAwarE,
* Office of Secretary of State. - , *
I, Wm. G. Taylor, secretary of state of the State of Delaware, do hereby
certify that the above and foregoing is a true and correct copy of certificate
of incorporation of “The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),” as received
and filed in this office the 26th day of February, A. D. 1925, at 9 o'clock a. m.
In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and official Seal at Dover
this 26th day of February, in the year of our Lord 1925.
[ SEAL.] * ~ 1. WM. G. TAYLOR, Secretary of State.
Af
2,
APPENDIX No. 41.
MEMBERSHIP LIST, CAUCASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA (INC.), AND SUPPLEMENTAL
STATEMENTS OF INDORSEMENT
MILITARY ORDER OF THE WoRLD WAR,
New York, March 30, 1926.
Mr. JoBN A. STEWART,
Chairman Organization Committee,
The Caucasian Society of America, New York, N. Y.
MY DEAR MR. STEwART : I have your favor of March 19 and referred same to
Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, who is chief of staff of this organization as you
will see by Our letterhead. He was sent by Our Government to Georgia and
Armenia shortly after the World War and wrote most convincingly and sym-
pathetically of matters of international interest in that part of the world. I
received a reply yesterday from his secretary to the effect that he is abroad
and will not return until the end of April.
I will be glad to refer the matter to our general staff for discussion at its
next meeting. This will not be until after your hearing before Congress on
March 31. I expect to be in Washington on that date and will give myself the
honor, if practical, of being at the committee meeting at that time and hope to
meet you in perSOn. t tº
Faithfully yours,
MARK L. HERSEY,
Commander in Chief, Military Order of the World War.
MILITARY ORDER OF THE LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES,
Yonkers, N. Y., March 26, 1926. ,
Mr. JoBIN A. STEWART,
Chairman Organization Committee,
The Caucasian Society of America.
DEAR SIR : Replying to your letter of the 19th instant, I approve and com-
mend the resolution which your society will ask Congress to adopt in recog-
nition of the national Republic of Georgia. I can not call at this time a meet-
ing of the commandery in chief of the Loyal Legion, but I am sure that the
companions of the order would indorse your proposed action.
Yours truly, \
P. F. HARRINGTON,
Commander in Chief,
Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.
GRACE CHURCH RECTORY,
New York, March 29, 1926.
Mr. JoBIN A. STEWART, •
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
New York, N. Y.
MY DEAR MR. STEWART : In response to your letter of March 23 and the
pamphlet inclosed, I shall be very glad indeed to be counted among those appeal-
ing to the United States Government for the recognition of the independence of
the National Republic of Georgia. I am the more glad to join in this appeal
because I see that the congressional resolution is sponsored by Mr. R. Walton
MOOre.
Yours faithfully, f
W. RUSSELL BOWIE.
356
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA T 357
NorthERN PACIFIC RAILWAY Co.,
t & y * New York, March 29, 1926. ,
Hon. HENRY LANE WILSON,
President the Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
4. -- New York, N. Y. f
MY DEAR MR. WILson : Your letter of March 20 was duly received. There
is not very much that I can do to help in this matter, but I did take occasion
on Friday last to talk it over quite fully with a friend of mine who looks
-after some of our affairs in Washington, and he may incidentally at Some
time be in a position to say a good Word.
Yours very truly, HOWARD ELLIOTT.
BOWDOIN COLLEGE,
-- Brunswick, Me., March 26, 1926.
Mr. JoBIN A. STEwART, *
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
New York.
MY DEAR ME. STEwART : I am very glad to give my approval to the joint
resolution now before Congress providing for the appointment of a diplomatic
representative to the National Republic of Georgia. I am sorry that I can not
personally be present at the public hearing to be held in Washington on March
31, but it seems to me in every way consistent with American principles that
we should express our sympathy to the slster republic now in such great
distress. *
Yours very truly, KENNETH. C. MCSILLS,
NEw YoFK, March 30, 1926
HENRY LANE WILSON, Esq.,
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
New York City.
DEAR MR. WILSON : I have received and read with interest your letter of
March 19, a letter from Mr. Vasili D. Dumbadze, the diplomatic and economic
representative of the Caucasian Republics. I have also read the joint reso
lution introduced on March 10 by Senator Copeland and in the House of Rep-
resentatives by Congressman Moore, Of Virginia. I sincerely hope that the
resolution will pass, as the cause of the Caucasian Republics has my most
sincere sympathy.
With every good wish,
Faithfully yours, GEORGE GORDON BATTLE,
BUFFALO, N. Y., March 30, 1926.
, Mr. JoHN A. STEwART,
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
New York, N. Y.
MY DEAR MR. STEWART: Your recent letter remained unanswered, because I
was hoping I would have a chance to make some inquiries about the question,
namely, “the rights of the Georgian people,” but the pressure of matters have
made it impossible for me to give it attention. However, in any event any-
thing that you indorse I can readily back. I should therefore be pleased if
you or other members of your Society would present my sincere hope that the
resolution shall have favorable action.
Yours very truly, FENTON M. PARKE.
GENERAL SOCIETY OF MAYFLOWER DESCENDANTS,
\ Providence, R. I., March 22, 1926.
Mr. JOHN A. STEWART,
Chairman Organization Committee,
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York, N. Y.
DEAR MR. STEWART: I am very glad to express my personal approval of the
joint resolution now before Congress for the appointment of a diplomatic rep-
resentative to the National Republic of Georgia, provided that said Republic
Of Georgia be not a component part of the Soviet Union. -
Very truly yours,
- ADDISON P. MUNROE, Governor General.
358 NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
w HAMILTON College, • .
Clinton , N. Y., March 25, 1996.
Hon. JoHN A. STEwART, LL. D.,
New York, N. Y.
MY DEAR DOCTOR STEwART: I find myself wholly in sympathy with the at-
tempt which is being made to secure to the little Republic of Georgia some
of those privileges which attach to independent and well-developed nations.
I sincerely hope that your efforts may be availing and that the joint resolu-
tion now before the Senate and the House of Representatives may be approved
by those bodies. t t
With personal regards to you, I am, ^.
Yours very sincerely, FREDERICK C. FERRY.
DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION,
Arlington, N. J., March 24, 1926.
MY DEAR ME. STEwART: I regret that it will be impossible for me to attend
the hearing in Washington, before congressional committees, on the question .
of recognition of the independence of Georgia. Certainly the joint resolution
now before Congress has my own most enthusiastic approval and I know that
the society, which I have the honor to represent, would heartily indorse it
also, if opportunity were given.
Yours very truly, MINNIE STRONG LATHAM.
STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Hoboken, N. J., March 24, 1926.
Hon. HENRY LANE WILSON,
President the Caucasian Society of America, (Inc.)
New York City.
DEAR MR. WILSON : I am in receipt of your letter of March 20 in regard to
the sad situation Of the Caucasian Republic of Georgia and Azerbaidjen, ac-
companied by the letter from Mr. Vasili D. Dumbadze, the diplomatic and eco-
nomic representative of the Republic named.
I agree with you that we should express Our sympathy with these people
and particularly in the direction of protection from the cruel and irresponsible
Bolshevik Government. Let us Of the United States cease to boast of Ourselves
as a liberty-loving people if we do not at least express our abhorrence of the
oppressors in this case so plainly stated. The least we can do is to support the
joint resolution providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative
to the National Republic of Georgia.
Yours sincerely, ALEx C. HUMPHREYS, President. '
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,
Princeton, N. J., March 26, 1926.
Mr. JOBIN A. STEWART,
Chairman, the Caucasian Society of America, New York.
MY DEAR MR. STEWART: I have just received your letter and the inclosed
pamphlet concerning the National Republic of Georgia. I should be very glad
to have you use my name in indorsing the joint resolution now before Congress
which officially tenders to the Georgian people sympathy Of Our country and’
provision for appointment of a suitable diplomatic representative.
Faithfully yours,
JOHN GRIER HIBBIN.
NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE SONS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION,
i Rochester, N. Y., March 22, 1926.
JOHN A. STEWART, Esq.,
Chairman Organization Committee, #
Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York, N. Y.
MY DEAR MR. STEWART : May I ask that you present to the respective com-
mittees of Congress at the public hearing held in Washington on Wednesday,
March 31, my strong approbation of the joint resolution now before Congress
providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National
Republic of Georgia. N
^. A
*
NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA 359
Every nation having for its object the principles which these liberty-loving
people have advocated should be encouraged, and our own Government should
be represented at the seat of government of the Republic of Georgia. We
should not hold aloof from these people who have had many serious struggles
and well-nigh political extinction, and I am sure that favorable action by the
Congress will meet with the approval of the great mass of the American people.
I regret that my engagements will prevent my attendance at the hearing to
be held on March 31.
Very cordially yours,
HARVEY F. REMINGTON, President General.
DIOCESE OF HARRISBURG,
No. 321 Front Street, North, March 24, 1926.
JoBIN A. STEWART, Esq.,
Chairman Organization Committee Caucasian Society, New York.
MY DEAR MR. STEWART : In answer to your request I am pleased to reply that
I approve the resolution for recognition of the Republic of Georgia, and
sincerely hope it will pass.
Yours very sincerely, JAMES H. DARLINGTON.
RECTORY OF THE ADVENT,
Back Bay, Boston, March 26, 1926.
John A. STEWART, Esq.,
New York City.
MY DEAR MR. STEwART : Thank you for your note just received. I wish I
could be present at the hearing before Congress, but Holy Week is almost here
and I am absolutely bound by duties here in Boston. It will not be possible
for me to do very much in the field you indicate ; but I should be delighted to
have my name at the service of your committee, if it means the possibility of
a blow at Bolshevism, or a bit Of good work for the recognition of the indepen-
dence of that splendid Georgian people. When you are ready to do something
here in Boston, pray let me know and I will be glad to cooperate with you.
Please print my name in full, as it appears on this sheet, and believe me, with
cordial regards,
Yours always sincerely, W. H. WAN ALLEN.
BROADWAY TEMPLE, Now CHELSEA METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH,
- New York, March 31, 1926.
Mr. JoBIN A. STEwART,
The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.),
New York City.
DEAR MR. STEwART : Of course, I gladly respond to any request from you.
Also, I am convinced that the cause of the National Republic of Georgia is
a good One and I most heartily commend the effort to have the United States
recognize their independence.
I will be glad to send letters to any specific persons that you may direct
and I Will be most glad to have you use my name in any way that will aid
in securing the end sought.
With every good wish, I am,
Yours faithfully, CHRISTIAN F. REISNER.
; *: AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR,
Washington, D. C., March 31, 1926.
Mr. JoHN A. STEWART,
Chairman Organization Commitee, g
The Caucasian, Society of America, (Inc.), New York City.
DEAR MR. STEwART: We are in sympathy with the efforts being put forth
by those who represent the Republic of Georgia to secure from the other
nations throughout the World recognition of the republic's independence.
I regard it as inadvisable to appear personally before the Senate Com-
mittee on Foreign Relations, in behalf of the resolution to which you refer
in your letter of March 19, when the committee shall take this resolution
under consideration.
Very truly yours, WILLIAM GREEN,
* President American Federation of Labor.
360 NATIONAL REPUBLIC of GEORGIA
*
*
MEMBERSHIP LIST CAUCASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Chaplain and Mrs. William A. Aiken, Madison Barracks, N. Y.
Bartlett Arkell, New York City.
Andrew O. Banscker, Brooklyn, N. Y. ^,
Robert Appleton, New York City.
John G. Boles, Bridgeport, Conn.
John McE. Bowman, New York City.
Helen Varick Boswell, New York City.
Mrs. Mary S. Broad, Durhamville, N. Y.
Harry L. Brown, Lakeland, Fla.
George Gordon Battle, New York City.
Mrs. Lena Brown, Granville, N. Y.
Colonel and Mrs. Charles S. Bryan, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Milie Bunnell, Duluth, Minn.
Miron Bunnell, Duluth, Minn.
Dr. Harvey J. Burkhart, Rochester, N. Y.
Parron G. Collier, New York.
Jerome Chase, Care of Chase & Newman, Buffalo, N. Y.
W. Stanley Child, Oneida, N. Y. &
Robert Fulton Cutting, New York.
Right Rev. James H. Darlington, Harrisburg, Pa.
Rev. and Mrs. Thomas A. Fenton, Syracuse, N. Y.
Mrs. Royal S. Copeland, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Findlay, Cambridge, Mass.
Hugh J. Fleming, Philadelphia, Pa.
Mrs. J. B. Handley-Greaves, Great Kills, Staten Island, N. Y.
Henry H. Hawkins, Hamilton, N. Y.
Mrs. James Creelman, New York.
Thomas Hastings, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Wilbur M. Henderson, Morrisville, N. Y.
John Edmond Hewitt, New York.
Maj. Gen. C. R. Edwards.
William Holbert, Morrisville Station, N. Y.
Miss Carrie Holt, Morrisville, N. Y.
Dr. Alexander C. Humphreys, Hoboken, N. J. (president Stevens Institute
of Technology).
John Hays Hammond, Washington, D. C.
Mr. and Mrs. Johnson, Morrisville, N. Y.
Charles W. Larmon, Salem, N. Y. Jº.
Mrs. Darwin E. Leland, Hamilton, N. Y!
Everett Leland, Hamilton, N. Y. +
Isaac Leland, Hamilton, N. Y.
James Leland, Hamilton, N. Y.
Archibald Hopkins, Washington, D. C.
Henry T. Lewis, Morrisville, N. Y.
Edward Lounsbury, Oneida, N. Y. f
Dr. Henry N. MacCracken, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (president Vassar College).
John A. Hopper, New York,
Lawrence McGuire, New York.
Dr. Floyd H. Marvin, Tucson, Ariz. (president University of Arizona).
Albert Maydole, Buffalo, N. Y.
Perley Morse, New York.
Dr. E. S. Moore, Bay Shore, N. Y. A.
Dr. Sidney Mezes, New York (president College of the City of New York).
Miss Clara Patterson, -Brooklyn, N. Y.
Miss Hattie Patterson, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Col. George C.U.Priestley, Pittsburgh, Pa.
John A. Stewart, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Frank S. Ray, Canastota, N. Y.
Rev. Dr. Christian F. Reisner, New York.
Miss Alice Senior, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Mrs. John W. Senior, Brooklyn, N. Y.
George B. Slocum, Elizabeth, N. J.
Mr. and Mrs. Clifford Starke, Rochester, N. Y.
Miss Elizabeth Stewart, Morrisville, N. Y. f
Mr. Sidney W. Stewart, Corry, Pa.
t
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA +. 361
Aº
Rev. Dr. John Timothy Stone, Chicago, Ill. (Fourth Presbyterian ("hurch.)
Walter R. Stone, Syracuse, N. Y. ..a
William R. Wilcox, New York.
Mrs. J. J. Sweeney, New York.
T. Kennard Thomson, New York.
Charles M. Turner, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Henry Lane Wilson, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Harry C. Turner, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Rev. Dr. William Harman van 'Allen, Boston, Mass.
Lucius Wilmerding, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. D. T. Wadhams, Oswego, N. Y.
James Harold Warner, New York.
Frank M. Williams, Albany, N. Y.
Edwin Wildman, New York.
Miss Jessie Truby, New York.
Mrs. Helen Davis Young, New York.
Mr. Victor Young, New York.
Mrs. Carolyn A. Dwight, New York.
Mrs. Charlotte H. Sturtevant, New York.
Mrs. Constance Towne, Stamford, Conn.
Miss Madeline Maxwell, New York.
Mrs. B. N. Levy, New York.
Edwin Thankham, Port Washington, N. Y.
Miss Elaa L. Smith, New York.
Miss Margaret Fitzgerald, Riverside, Conn.
Miss Jacqueline de Moor, New York.
Miss Helén W. Peaslee, New York.
Miss Esther E. Swentzel, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Miss Hope Dillingham, Millburn, N. J.
Miss Josephine Forsyth, New York.
Miss Sara Bain, New York.
Mrs. C. Dyas-Standish, New York.
Miss Louise Dyas, New York.
Mrs. F. P. De La Mater, Canton, Ohio.
Miss Ethel M. Alexander, New York.
TMrs. Franklin J. Miller.
Mrs. Idalia Hare, New York.
Mrs. Henriette G. Briºs, Brooklyn, N. Y.
W. E. Cash, Philadelphiaº £a.
Justice Joseph D. Senn, Wamºsville
Mrs. Emma van Horne, New York.
T}r. Charles R. Borzilleri, Buffalo, N.
º
, N.
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