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MANUAL FOR
ARMY BAKERS
1910
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UNITED
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1910
WOOD
WAR DEPARTMENT
Document No. 358
OFFICE OF THE COMMISSARY GENERAL.
WAR DEPARTMENT,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF STAFF,
Washington, December 15, 1909.
The following “Manual for Army Bakers,” prepared under the
direction of the Commissary-General, U. S. Army, by a board of
officers consisting of Capt. Henry T. Ferguson, Commissary, Capt.
Francis J. Koester, Commissary, and Capt. Lucius R. Holbrook,
Commissary, is approved and herewith issued for the information
and guidance of the Regular Army and the Organized Militia of the
United States.
By order of the Secretary of War:
J. FRANKLIN BELL,
Major-General, Chief of Staff.
3
207443
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER 1.-WHEAT AND FLOUR.
CHAPTER II.-YEAST....
CHAPTER III.-BREAD...
CHAPTER IV.--SPECIAL RECIPES.
CHAPTER V.-Post BAKERY EQUIPMENT.
CHAPTER VI.-FIELD BAKING AND FIELD BAKERY EQUIPMENT.
CHAPTER VII.-FIELD BAKING EXPEDIENTS.
INDEX..
Paragraphs.
1-20
21-40
41-70
71-81
82-91
92-95
96-99
81-89
5
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
8
10
20
38
Samples of wheat....
Structure of the wheat kernel....
The yeast plant as seen under the microscope..
The flour cell as seen under the microscope...
Cellular structure and proportions of a well-formed loaf.
Dough mixer:
(a) In working position...
(6) In position for dumping..
Molding table......
Bread troughs....
Bread box for small bakery..
Extemporized oven built on level ground..
Extemporized oven built in a bank...
Baking in the open trench..
Double-barrel oven.....
6
42
43
66
66
67
72
76
78
79
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
CHAPTER I.
WHEAT AND FLOUR.
1. Flour is a general term used to designate the finely ground meal
of wheat, rye, or other cereals, but in this manual it will be used
specially to designate wheat flour unless otherwise stated.
2. Wheat flour is ground from
(a) Winter wheat, which is sown in the fall and is hardy enough
to survive the winter; or from,
(b) Spring wheat, which is sown in the spring.
CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT.
3. Winter wheat is generally classed as soft wheat and spring wheat
as hard wheat, but there are hard and soft varieties of both. Generally
speaking, flour from hard wheat contains a relatively large propor-
tion of gluten, say from 10 per cent to 16 per cent, and flour from soft
wheat much less, generally from 7 per cent to 9 per cent. From a
baker's standpoint, starch is of secondary importance. Flour is
composed almost entirely of these two elements and each serves a
most important function in the process of bread making.
Winter wheat is divided into two general varieties, red winter
wheat, which is hard, and white winter wheat, which is soft. It is
raised in climates where the weather is not excessively cold, e. g.,
Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Pacific coast.
Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma produce specially fine hard winter
wheat. The grains of the Pacific coast winter wheat are large and
well formed, but contain a relatively large proportion of starch and

little gluten.
7
8
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.

I
2
3
4
000000000
000000000
U.S. Dept. of Agr., Bul. 156, Office of Expt. Stations.
1 and 2 are samples of Oregon White Winter Wheat.
3 and 4 are samples of Oklahoma Winter Wheat.
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
9
Spring wheat is generally classed as a hard wheat, and its value
rated according to its strength (par. 7). It may be raised in the
more severe climates, and we find most excellent spring wheat flour
of a hard variety coming from Minnesota and the Dakotas, the newer
the territory, the harder is the variety of wheat produced.
SWEATING OF WHEAT AND FLOUR.
4. About September or October the wheat from the new crop and
the flour made from it undergo a natural change of condition. They
evolve (or give off) a portion of the water contained in them, and
this change is accompanied by a rise in temperature. After passing
through the sweat the wheat becomes dry, hard, and flinty, and it
should not be milled until this time. Flour takes on a darker appear-
ance during this period, and if it does not sour it becomes white
again as the sweat passes off. While passing through the sweat it
should not be used. If made from wheat that has not yet passed
through the sweat it should be used up as soon as practicable in order
that it may not become musty and a total loss. "Wheat is generally
allowed to sweat in the stack, and always before milling, unless it is
intended to use the flour at once.
MILLING
5. There are two processes of milling which are known as-
(a) Low milling, in which the grain is ground between two large
round flat stones with radial grooves cut in their grinding faces.
One revolves at such a distance from the other, which is stationary,
as to crush the grains and finally reduce them to powder. In this
process the flour is heated to a temperature of at least 120° F., and
it is believed that this injures the gluten, making it less tenacious
and consequently less fit for making light bread. In addition there
is the objection that portions of the indigestible husks are ground into
meal and mixed with the flour.
(b) High milling, in which the grains of wheat are passed suc-
cessively between several sets of rollers, crushing the flour out of the
husks, which are easily removed. The screened wheat is first
moistened and passed between the corrugated surfaces of two rollers
placed at such a distance apart as to simply crack the grains. The

10
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
D
E
H.
STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.
A, Germ; B, Starch cells; C, Gluton cells; D, Inner coat of bran; E, Testa (coloring
matter of bran); F, G, H, Three outer coats of bran.
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
11
moisture prevents the outer husks from breaking up into small parti-
cles and renders the separation of the bran a comparatively easy
matter. The rollers of the next set are placed much closer together,
and after the grains have passed through, a small quantity of flour,
called “break flour,”' together with larger particles of wheat, called
"middlings,”' is separated by means of screens and bolting cloths.
The remainder, called “tailings,” is passed through the next set of
rollers. After each of several such"reductions” the flour and
middlings are separated and the latter passed between closely set
smooth rollers. The bran, shorts, and other offals are removed at the
different boltings from the several breaks.
In both processes the flour is bolted through successive sieves of
different fineness, the last being white silk of the finest bolting cloth.
The finest grade of flour passes through the last sieve, and the coarser
grades are left on the way, while the bran husk is entirely separated.
High patent and family flours have more or less of the gluten re-
moved in the successive bolting processes through which they pass
and are consequently slightly less nourishing.

COMPOSITION OF WHEAT.
6. Hard wheat ordinarily contains about-
10 per cent water.
12 per cent gluten (the inner coat and distributed throughout the
grain, producing flesh and muscle).
The amount and quality determine the water-retaining capacity
of a flour and regulate the quantity of bread produced. (See pars.
8 and 9.)
13 per cent bran (the five outer coats), strong in woody fiber, mineral
ingredients, and coloring matter. It is very indigestible and is
mostly excluded from the flour in the process of manufacture, except
where graham is desired.
65 per cent starch, producing heat and fat. It is the water absorber.
During the process of fermentation a small proportion-about 2 per
cent-is transformed into alcohol and carbonic gas. The carbonic-
acid gas forms in cells, giving lightness to the bread, but the alcohol
is vaporized in the oven, where most of it escapes.
The proportions in which the several ingredients appear vary con-
siderably in different flours. For example, Oregon white winter
wheat contains about 9 per cent gluten, Minnesota hard spring wheat
9




12
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
about 14 per cent, and Oklahoma hard winter wheat about 16 per
cent. All wheat raised in low damp countries contains more mois-
ture and generally less gluten than that raised in higher and drier
climates.
Soft wheat contains less gluten and more starch and water than
hard wheat.
STRENGTH OF FLOUR.
7. THE STRENGTH OF A FLOUR depends upon the amount and
quality of the gluten it contains. The great elasticity and tenacious
character of gluten render the making of light bread possible. It
forms layers of envelopes within the dough, preventing the escape of
the carbonic gas resulting from fermentation. This gas, as it rises,
,
forms in pockets or cells, causing the dough to expand, and gives
corresponding lightness to the bread.
GLUTEN IN BREAD.
8. The best bread is made from a flour containing from 10 per
cent to 16 per cent of gluten, but the quality of the gluten has as much
to do with the bread as the quantity. The gluten in wheat raised in
low damp countries contains much moisture, and therefore appears
to be in greater quantity than it really is. It is not tough enough to
retain the fermentative gases, and consequently the bread is heavy
and of poor quality. Gluten of poor quality is also found in the flour
of sprouted wheat, of wheat that has been frosted, and of that which
is immature or that has been raised on worked-out soil.
SEPARATING THE GLUTEN.
9. In order to determine the percentage of gluten contained in a
certain lot of flour, weigh out a definite amount, say 1 to 3 pounds,
very carefully. Add sufficient water to make into a stiff dough.
Let stand for about an hour (if convenient, though this is not abso-
lutely necessary). Place in a bag of muslin and knead gently under
a quiet stream of running water. The starch gradually separates,
making the water “milky.” When it runs clear, the starch has all
disappeared.
The substance remaining is known as “wet gluten.” In this
state it contains approximately three parts water and one part gluten,
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
13
66
so that the amount of dry gluten ” can be ascertained approxi-
mately by dividing by four; but it would be better to set it on the
top of the oven and determine its weight accurately after it has
dried out for forty-eight hours. If 1 pound of flour were taken, the
amount of “wet gluten” obtained might run as high as 7 or 8 ounces,
and this would be reduced to, say, about 2 ounces after thoroughly
dried out. The percentage of gluten present in the flour is found by
dividing the weight of the dried gluten in ounces by the number of
ounces of flour used in the test.
The actual amount of gluten found is of importance, in that it rep-
resents the percentage of muscle-building material present in the flour.
The strength of the flour is determined more by the quality of the
gluten found than by the amount. If strong, the gluten will be
solid and tough; but if from a weak flour it will be more plastic. It
would be well to make the test with flours that are known to be
strong and others known to be weak, in order to get a standard in the
mind for comparison.
As a matter of fact gluten as such does not exist in wheat or dry
flour. Two elements of flour, known respectively as glutenen (a
light grayish substance) and gliadin (resembling glue) quickly unite
in the presence of water and form the so-called gluten.
FLOUR USED IN BREAD MAKING.
10. White bread (or light bread) is made principally from white
flour, which is also an important ingredient in most other breads.
Bread, if made of rye flour alone, would be heavy, moist, sticky,
and indigestible. Čorn meal alone would make a dry and crumbly
loaf. Excellent bread results when there is a mixture of wheat
flour with either of the other kinds mentioned. (See par. 72.)
11. Graham flour is a mixture of bran and shorts generally with a
more or less inferior grade of flour, and although it was formerly
considered a valuable article of diet-especially for those suffering
from constipation-it is now deemed best to discard bran as unfit
for human food; and where the large flakes of bran are found in
graham flour it would be best to sift them out. The outer bran husk
is almost pure silica (glass), and in passing through the system it
scratches the delicate membranes, setting up an irritation, causing
increased secretions, and consequently acting as a laxative. For
this reason its constant use is not recommended.

14
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
A first-class milling company has given the following formula for
the preparation of graham flour:
270 pounds of second grade flour.
100 pounds of shorts.
30 pounds of bran.
Total.....400 pounds.
As shorts and bran are practically indigestible in the human
stomach, it is noted from the above formula that the graham thus
prepared contains but 673 per cent as much actual nutriment as a
corresponding weight of the white flour used.
12. Rye is darker than wheat, but is otherwise similar in appear-
ance. It differs from it in that its gluten has not the same elastic
and tenacious quality, and consequently it will not produce as light
a loaf. It is more easily cultivated than wheat, especially in cold
countries, and consequently costs less when raised in quantity.
Wheat is fast replacing rye throughout the world, although the
latter grain contains more muscle-making material (though probably
it is less completely digested), and it is still the principal food used
among the poor of certain countries of the old world. It constitutes
the bread component of the ration of the Russian soldier.
WHERE TO STORE FLOUR.
13. Flour ordinarily contains from 9 to 14 per cent of water, and
under the influence of heat--natural or artificial--not strong enough
to expel the moisture, but strong enough to start fermentation, it
will heat and sour. Flour is peculiarly sensitive to the exhalations
from other substances, and should not be stored in the same room
with sour liquids, decaying vegetables, or articles that emit unsavory
or noxious vapors. For the reasons stated it is evident that flour
should be kept in a cool, dry, well-ventilated store-room. If properly
taken care of it will keep in a good condition for a year or more.
A temperature of 70° F. or slightly less is best. High temperature
favors acid fermentation and mold.
In order to protect flour against rats and mice newspapers should
be loosely stuffed in convenient cracks. They will use these in
preparing their nests and leave the sacks alone.

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
15
KEEPING QUALITIES.
14. Wheat improves in quality until after it passes through the
sweat (par. 4), after which it does not undergo any perceptible
change for years.
By some bakers it is claimed that freshly ground flour is the best.
Generally, it is claimed that it increases in bread-making properties
as it gets older up to a certain limit and should not be used until it
is at least thirty days old. It reaches a stage in three or four months
beyond which time it does not continue to improve, and while it
retains its acquired good qualities for a few months it soon begins to
deteriorate and should not be kept for more than a year. When
animal and vegetable parasites begin to appear it is generally an
indication of decomposition of the gluten and consequent deteriora-
tion of flour.
15. Weevils and cockroaches often work their way into good flour
under certain circumstances and should be removed by passing the
flour through a sieve. Much of the flour received in the Philippines
(after a long ocean voyage in the hold of a ship) is found to be fairly
alive with these little insects, and if the flour were destroyed or
thrown away the troops would at times be without bread. Inas-
much as such insects have frequently been found in tinned flour
presumed to have been hermetically sealed soon after milling, it
must be that the germs from which they develop exist in the wheat
and survive the process of milling, or that some cans are not air
tight, and that the vermin enter at the leaks and deposit their eggs,
which is more likely. Bread made from such flour has a distinctly
cockroach flavor.
16. Wet flour. Flour that has become wet and quickly dried is not
spoiled. Sacks of flour left in the rain or dropped into the water
should be dried at once in order to prevent molding. If taken care
of at once the loss will be small.

TESTS OF FLOUR.
17. The best test of flour is said to be in the baking, but there are
many indications as to its true quality before we have proceeded to
this stage. Good flour should not be of a pure white color, but of a
creamy, yellowish-white shade, although color alone is not a guar-
antee of quality. If pure white, or nearly so, the indications are
20685—10—2

16
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
that a large part of the gluten has been removed in milling and what
is left is almost pure starch. If flour feels damp or sticky it is not of
the best. Good flour falls loosely apart when squeezed in the hand
and retains the impression of the fingers and even of the skin much
longer than poor flour. If a handful is thrown against the vertical
side of the trough, and a considerable portion of it hangs there, the
indications are that the flour is rich in gluten; when rubbed between
the fingers it should not feel too smooth and powdery, but its indi-
vidual particles should be vaguely distinguishable; when put be-
tween the teeth it should "crunch" a little; its taste should be sweet
and nutty without a suspicion of acidity and it should have the smell
and taste of freshly ground wheat. Good flour, when kneaded into
dough, is elastic and easy to handle. It will stay in a round puffy
shape and will have taken up a great deal of water. Poor flour will
be sticky, flatten out, and run over the board, and will never seem
to get sufficiently stiff, no matter how much flour is added to it.
BLENDING OF FLOUR.
18. Good bread can be made from the flour of either winter or
spring wheat, but best results are obtained from a mixture of two
or more brands of flour, using both spring and winter wheat where
practicable. The flour from winter wheat is required for light color
and superior flavor and that from spring wheat for strong gluten.
The miller can do the mixing in the process of manufacture and
civilian bakers by specially prepared apparatus, but in the hands
of the post baker it can be best done by using the best flour in the
sponge and the poorer flour-that is, the one containing the least
amount of gluten-in kneading the dough. Winter wheat alone
is often used in making crackers and pastries, as the resulting
product is white and brittle. A flour strong in gluten is desired for
making bread.
19. Sifting.-All flour, regardless of its presumed condition, should
be carefully sifted before used. Nails, pieces of twine, slivers of
wood, mouse droppings, etc., in addition to hard lumps, are fre-
quently removed from flour supposed to have been put up in the
most careful manner,
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
17
BLEACHED FLOUR.
20. Very good flour, as well as the inferior grades, has frequently been
bleached in order to secure a higher price or more ready sale on the
market, as very white bread as well as light bread is frequently in demand.
Flour may be bleached by careful exposure to the sunlight, but
ordinarily bleaching is accomplished by passing nitrous or sul-
phurous fumes over it. The actual chemical change resulting and
the effect upon the system are not yet well understood, but where
chemicals are used the Department of Agriculture holds that there
is adulteration.
When electrical appliances are used in connection with bleaching
of flour, it is possible that the actual bleaching is still done by the
fumes of nitrous oxide produced by the electric current. The
exact cause of the bleaching seems to be unknown, even to the De-
partment of Agriculture. Bleached flour is not usually purchased
for army use.

CHAPTER IT.
YEAST.
(A) ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF FERMENTATION IN
BREAD MAKING.
21. In order to understand the process and purpose of bread
making, it must be remembered that flour consists largely of starch
and gluten and that these ingredients can be taken up and used
in the system only after they have been converted into more soluble
forms.
Something must also be known about the process of fermentation
which renders it possible to make bread that can be easily digested
by the juices supplied within the body for that purpose.
22. Fermentation.- Light bread can be made by forcing com-
pressed air through wet dough and baking at once, or by making
use of the gas generated by certain so-called "baking-powders
(see par. 30), but from time immemorial the ordinary process has
been to set up fermentation within the dough by some means or
other, utilizing the gas generated to produce the cellular structure.
“A microscopical examination was recently made of some bread
over four thousand and four hundred years old, found in Egypt,
with other remains of a long vanished people. It was made of
ground barley and the yeast cells were plainly visible.”-H. W.
Atwater, U. Š. Department of Agriculture.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Now fermentation is simply the change which takes place in vege-
table matters when the starch and sugar they contain are decomposed
and changed into new compounds. The change is hastened by the
presence of a certain amount of moisture and a uniform temperature
of from 80° to 90° F., and may take place in two ways:
18
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
19
(a) It may be spontaneous under favorable conditions of air,
moisture, and warmth. Such is the case when head (virgin or maiden)
yeast is made, no ferment being added to the solution to start the
fermentation. Grape juice, cider, etc., ferment in the same manner.

Atwater, Bull. 112, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
YEAST PLANT.
(Highly magnified.)
Each yeast cell is said to reproduce itself in from four to five hours under favorable
conditions. The growth and development of cells as seen under the microscope
is illustrated above.
Spores of fermentation are at all times floating about in the air and
fermentation will start up spontaneously wherever proper conditions
exist.
20
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
(6) Fermentation can be quickly started and greatly hastened by
the introduction of a ferment.a Thus we are accustomed to hasten
the process by the following methods:
1. By adding head yeast to the mixture from which stock yeast
is developed.

After Cobb. Atwater, Bul. 112, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
FLOUR CELL.
(Highly magnified.)
Notice the bands that must be dissolved or broken before the grains of starch are
exposed to the free action of the yeast plant.
2. By adding stock yeast to the mixture from which potato fer-
ment is developed.
3. By adding stock yeast, compressed yeast, dried yeast, or
potato ferment to the other ingredients used in the preparation of
a sponge or straight dough.
a A ferment is a form of bacteria or germ that causes fermentation. The term was
first applied to the yeast plant, which in its growth, caused the decomposition of sugar
into alcohol and carbonic gas. It is also applied to other bacteria, which produce
fermentation,
as, for example, in milk causing it to sour, or in cider causing it to turn
to vinegar. These ferments belong to a class called organized ſerments; during their
growth the fermentation of substances in which they are found takes place.
There is a second class of ferments called unorganized ferments. These are chemical
substances called "enzymes” in whose presence certain fermentations take place
without any change whatever in the ferment producing them. In nature we find
enzymes in all grains. Thus when a grain of wheat, barley, or oats is moistened
and subjected to a certain amount of heat, an enzym, called diastase, appears and
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
21
Fermentation would eventually take place in each of the cases
just cited without the introduction of a ferment, but we would not
get the lively action desired, in some cases not even the same kind
of fermentation; sour fermentation is apt to predominate and ruin
the dough, sponge, or other mixture.
In the beverage called malt extract active ferments do not appear.
They are killed by sterilizing before being placed on the market.
Ground malt contains these active elements as well as the sugar
and digested gluten produced by them; hence it is a most useful
ingredient to be used in making yeast. If, however, it is subjected
to temperatures above 160° F. the ferments will be killed; conse-
quently, this ingredient should be added to the flour batter after
it has cooled to below that temperature. Enzymes, in contrast to
organized ferments, do not "grow" or otherwise change their form
while fermentation is taking place, and the reason why fermentation
occurs in their presence is not understood. It is said that in certain
malt extracts there is sufficient diastase to transform six times its
weight of starch into sugar. It reduces the amount of sugar to be
used in bread making and adds desirable flavors. For each 100
pounds of flour used in bread making about 13 pounds of Standard
Malt Extract should be used.
In the human body, enzymes are found in the saliva (the element
here found is called ptyaline), and by its action starch is transformed
into sugar. Other enzymes are found in the pepsin and tripsin of
the digestive juices of the stomach, where they perform their im-
portant function.

causes the starch present to turn into sugar; and another enzym, called peptase
causes the gluten to be transformed into a more digestible form. These two elements
are necessary for the growth of the germ (baby plant), and nature has ordained that
growth shall not take place so long as they exist in a raw state, but by its laws these
substances are transformed into digestible forms by the enzymes, in the presence
of heat and moisture. Now it is evident that if we produce the necessary conditions
in grain we can start the growth of the germ, the starch and gluten being changed
into certain forms that are food for the plant.
In making barley malt the germination of the seed is stopped as soon as the trans-
formation has taken place. The plant is killed by drying the grain at a moderate
temperature, but the diastase and peptase retain their fermenting power. Malt
extract contains
these elements in a concentrated form and it presents the appearance
of molasses.

22
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
THE DIFFERENT GENERAL METHODS OF MAKING BREAD.
23. Lactic fermentation. If a dough were made without a ferment
and set in a warm place, what is called lactic fermentation would
take place. Acid would be formed the same as in the souring of
milk, and the bread baked from the dough would be sour and heavy:
Leavened bread.-Now, if a piece of old dough is left to sour and
is then mixed with new dough, both lactic fermentation and alcoholc
(or yeast) fermentation would take place. As a result of the lactic
fermentation an acid is formed which causes sourness in the bread.
(See pars. 54 and 70.) As a result of the alcoholic fermentation car-
bonic gas is formed, and the bread, although sour, would be light and
spongy. The sour dough here referred to corresponds to the leaven
(**left-over” dough) of Bible times.
Salt-rising bread.-Suppose we make a stiff batter of hot milk and
corn meal and let it stand in a temperature of blood heat for several
hours, when it will have become fermented throughout. Now make
a stiff sponge with warm water, to which considerable salt has been
added; mix thoroughly with the corn-meal batter, and allow to rise
as usual before baking. In this case a spontaneous alcoholic fermen-
tation is set up and the bread produced would be light and good, but
it is not liked by many people, and it does not keep well. This is
called salt or milk-rising bread. This manner of making bread is not
entirely satisfactory for all purposes. Salt-rising bread is not gen-
erally liked as a regular diet.
Yeast bread.-Making bread by using yeast as a ferment is the
best method known, and it is probably the only one that you will
have to put into practice in the post bakery. In making yeast
bread, alcoholic fermentation alone (or accompanied by slight acid
fermentation) takes place, and the carbonic gas, rising toward the
surface, is retained within the dough by the tenacious gluten, and a
light spongy loaf is formed.
If, however, fermentation is allowed to proceed too far, or in a tem-
perature much above 90° F., a change to acetic fermentation takes
place, an acid is formed, and sour bread is the result. (See pars.
49 and 55.)
24. Necessity for light, spongy bread.--Take a small piece of fresh
bread, bread that is less than twenty-four hours old, and roll it in the
hands until it forms a solid mass. This is practically the condition



MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
23
of fresh or heavy bread when it is swallowed. On account of its
indigestibility it rests like a heavy weight in the stomach; the juices
can not penetrate and digest it. In order that bread can be digested,
something must be done in order that the juices may come in con-
tact with all the particles that compose it.
Place the mass in water and only the particles you see on the sur-
face become wet. Now, if it were spongy, the water would penetrate
it at once and come in contact with particles throughout the mass.
Just so it is with light, spongy bread that is at least eighteen hours
old. The digestive juices easily penetrate to all parts of the masses
swallowed, and the conversion of starch into sugar goes on throughout
the masses at the same time. A piece of candy placed in the mouth
will disssolve very slowly; crush it into powder and it will soon be
gone. This is exactly similar to the action of the digestive juices
upon a gummy piece of bread as compared with one that is light and
spongy and crumbles into small particles during the process of masti-
cation.
25. Gluten and starch must be converted into more soluble forms
before they can be taken up and used in the system.
This is done to a greater or less degree in fruits while they are ripen-
ing on the trees and in some foods during the process of cooking; but
in the case of bread almost all of this work must be done by the
digestive juices after the bread is taken into the mouth.
Hence, we see that the art of making bread consists largely in producing
a light, spongy loaf. In addition, the bread must be palatable, being
properly seasoned and flavored. Bread is the most important of
foods and the cheapest article of diet. The more flour and bread
used in the company kitchen, the cheaper will be the running
expenses of the mess.
Hard bread is made from water and inferior flour, with a little salt
added to make it more palatable. Hot cakes and dumplings furnish
altogether too much of the gummy masses spoken of above. Good
bread is in a class by itself, and post bakers fill a most responsible
position in supplying this most important component of the army
ration.

(B) THE GROWTH, CULTIVATION, AND USE OF YEAST.
26. Wild yeast and other microscopic plants in the air.-Floating
about in the atmosphere at all times are found certain spores (minute

24
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
particles capable of reproducing their kind) which multiply rapidly
wherever they find lodgment under conditions that favor their
growth. These conditions are suitable food, warmth, moisture, and
atmosphere. Air is not essential, but hastens the process.
The spores here referred to are the active agents in fermentation,
and are at all times found mixed with flour, grain, and particles of
food from which the air has not been excluded.
Yeast is but one of the various microscopic forms of plant life
found in the air, and in this state it is called "wild yeast.”'
27. What results from the growth of certain of these spores.-
(a) Certain of the spores above referred to find conditions suitable
for their growth in cider, and if they develop here an acid (acetic
acid) will be formed, changing the cider into vinegar. In this case
"acetic fermentation” will be said to have taken place.
(6) Certain spores develop in sweet milk, producing lactic acid.
The milk sours and “lactic fermentation” is said to have taken place.
(c) Now if spores of “wild yeast” find lodgment in food suitable
for their growth and the proper conditions of moisture, warmth, and
air exist, they will grow, quickly reproducing themselves and during
this process feed upon the starch and sugar present, transforming
it into alcohol and carbonic gas. “Alcoholic (or yeast) fermentation
will then be said to have taken place.
Many other microscopic plants floating in the air find their way
accidentally into surroundings that favor their growth, and in each
case a certain kind of fermentation peculiar to that plant results.
28. Cultivation of the yeast plant.--If we mix up certain ingredi-
ents and produce conditions suitable to the growth of the yeast
plant, we find that it will soon develop. We do this frequently in
making "head (maiden or virgin) yeast. Other kinds of fermentation
may also be set up accidentally and produce acids, so that the action
of the yeast in bread making will be more or less ununiform (variable)
and unreliable, and sour bread will result without apparent cause.
In the preparation of compressed yeast (such as Corbey's, Fleisch-
mann's, Spielmann's, Riverside, and Red Star) a pure culture of
the yeast plant has been made-that is, the spores producing acids
have been eradicated, so that more uniform results are secured by
its use than when a chance is taken of the accidental fermentation
that may be set up in the dried compressed yeast or in yeast of our
own manufacture.

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
25
Yeast can not grow except in the presence of a certain amount
of moisture. While in a dry state it will lie dormant for an indefi-
nite period. Many different commercial companies take advantage
of this fact and prepare a dried yeast that will keep for several months
if not exposed to a moist atmosphere. It is generally supplied in
the form of square or round cakes of granular appearance and can
be prepared by any baker. The method of preparation is fully
explained in paragraph 40.
29. Yeast in bread.— Yeast feeds largely upon sugar, but sugar
alone does not contain all the elements necessary to its growth.
Certain albuminates and phosphates are also necessary, and these
are found in the food prepared for the reception of the yeast plant.
Incident to its growth, considerable sugar is decomposed into alcohol
and carbonic gas, and "alcoholic fermentation" is said to have
taken place. The carbonic gas forms in pockets and cells throughout
the dough, causing it to rise and expand and producing the desired
cellular structure. It finally escapes from the bread, upon which
it produces no chemical change whatever.
30. Much more sugar (or starch) is decomposed than is necessary for
the growth of the yeast plant, and it is on account of using up so much
of the nutriment in the flour that efforts have frequently been made
to discover some other process of producing the cellular structure in
bread. As a result we have the * aerated process” of making bread,
and others in which baking powder and other chemicals are used.
Both of the latter methods have their advantages and are used to
considerable extent. The great convenience and saving of time
effected by using baking powder in making biscuits, etc., is familiar
to all, but in its use certain compounds are formed and left in the
bread, are said to be more or less injurious if used contiuously.
(C) INTERESTING NOTES ON YEAST FERMENTATION.
31. 1. A solution containing more than one-third of its weight in
sugar will not be fermented by yeast. Bread can be made without
it, but if used it adds an agreeable flavor.
2. Yeast fermentation is arrested (checked) when the amount of
'alcohol in the solution reaches about 18 per cent. If the percentage
of alcohol present is reduced, yeast fermentation will start up again.
3. Yeast fermentation is arrested and the yeast plant killed by
strong acids or large quantities of salt

26
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
4. Yeast fermentation practically ceases at temperatures below 67°
F. or above 95° F.
5. In liquid yeasts or compressed yeasts the plant is killed by freezing
or by a temperature of 158° F., but the dried yeasts are not so easily
injured.
6. Air is not essential to yeast fermentation, but greatly favors it.
7. The total amount of starch, etc., lost as a result of yeast fermen-
tation amounts to about 2 per cent of the flour used.
8. The alcohol resulting from yeast fermentation assists in pro-
ducing the cellular structure in bread, when it is vaporized during
baking. Most of it escapes into the oven, but a small amount (about
0.3 per cent) remains in the bread. In stale bread this is reduced to
about 0.15 per cent.
9. Hops are not a necessity in the preparation of yeast; they are
not a food for the yeast plant, but rather check sour fermentations
and permit the yeast to work.
10. Lard is used in bread to prevent it from drying out and to
give a superior flavor. If used in larger proportions than given it
retards fermentation very perceptibly.
11. The most favorable temperature for yeast fermentation is 80° F.
For preservation yeast should be kept below 55° F.
(D) THE INGREDIENTS USED IN THE PREPARATION OF
YEAST AND THE PROPERTIES OF EACH.
CLASSIFICATION.
32. (a) Dried yeast (or desiccated yeast), also sometimes erroneously
called "dried compressed yeast,” such as Magic Yeast, Hart's Yeast,
Ralston's Yeast, Yeast Foam, etc. It is generally made in square
or round shapes, of granular appearance, and sold in pasteboard
packages. If hermetically sealed, it will keep in good condition
for several months, and hence can be taken and used anywhere. It
gives best results in the sponge and dough process. Its action will
be greatly stimulated by the addition of about 2 pounds of cane
sugar per 100 pounds of flour used, or better yet by 5 pounds of
5
boiled and mashed potatoes placed directly in the sponge.
Not being a pure culture like the compressed yeast, it does not give
the same uniform and reliable results.
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
27
(6) Compressed yeast (sometimes called “moist compressed
yeast”), such as Corby's, Fleischmann's, Spielmann's, Riverside,
and Red Star, in which a pure culture of the yeast plant is made and
mixed with a certain proportion of starch to give it a body. It is
pressed into blocks about the size, shape, and color of butter bricks,
except that it may have less color. It is very perishable and spoils
quickly when removed from cold storage and exposed to a warm
temperature, and for this reason can be used at posts distant from the
railroad and in the field only when careful arrangements are made
for its cold storage. If wrapped in heavy paper when removed from
cold storage, or if placed in a moderately cool place, a basement, a hole
in damp ground, or a porous jar covered with wet cloths, compressed yeast
will keep for a number of days. If well chilled, it can be shipped
almost any distance in a "fireless cooker.” It may keep for weeks
if submerged in cool water. When required, the water should be
poured off and the desired amount spooned out.
(C) Liquid yeasts.--Stock yeast (or flour yeast) and potato ferment
(or potato yeast) are the most common yeasts prepared by post bakers.
(See pars. 36 and 37.) These are really old-fashioned yeasts, and are
generally considered as out of date or behind the times, and they
have been almost entirely displaced by the compressed yeasts, which
are great savers of time and trouble and a boon to those who do not
or can not make liquid yeast. Liquid yeasts are, however, a great
stand-by of army bakers, who have to make bread under any and all
conditions, and the ingredients for making them are always obtain-
able through the commissary.
Rice and bean yeasts have their advantages, and formulas for their
preparation are also given. (See par. 39.)
It would be difficult to state positively exactly what process of
making liquid yeast is the best. Yeasts that produce equally good
results are made in accordance with methods which first appear to be
quite different, but which in reality amount to practically the same
thing. In order to make yeast, all we need is a suitable food, mois-
ture,
and the proper degree of warmth. Free
access to the air assists in
its growth, and if hops, salt, or ginger are added certain undesirable
acid fermentations are checked, thus preventing sourness in the
bread and at the same time adding certain agreeable flavors.
The starch used in the preparation of yeast food, whether from the
potato or flour, is found to be in minute cells covered with a thin




28
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
membrane. This membrane is in practice dissolved
or ruptured by
contact with scalding hot water (water about 160° F. is sufficiently
hot) before the introduction of the yeast, which, in liquid forms, is
killed by high temperature. It really makes no difference whether
the potatoes are boiled and mashed or whether they are grated raw
and then mixed in boiling hot water.
Similarly the flour batter may be added to the hop tea, which
should not boil thereafter; or, the batter may be made by adding
sufficient hop tea to dry flour, and the remainder of the hop tea imme-
diately thereafter, or when both it and the batter have cooled to a
temperature below that at which the yeast plant is killed (preferably
about 90° F.). The stock yeast should be added at this time. The
only advantage of the second method is that the preparation is re-
duced to a working temperature in a short period. If ground malt is
used in making the yeast, it should not be added to the latter until it
has cooled to a temperature below 160°F. A higher temperature than
this would kill its active element (Diastase, 226 note) which trans-
forms starch into food for the yeast plant.
If these simple facts are borne in mind, much of the mystery con-
nected with the making of yeast is removed. It is the ignorant baker
who condemns all methods of making yeast except that followed by
himself.
PROPERTIES OF THE INGREDIENTS USED IN MAKING LIQUID YEAST.
33. (a) Hops do not furnish food for the yeast plant, but they add
a pleasant flavor. Their greatest usefulness, however, lies in the fact
at they contain than element (called lupulin) which is active in
checking the acetic and lactic fermentations that generally accom-
pany the alcoholic fermentation which always takes place as an
incident to the growth of the yeast plant. To extract this active
agent (lupulin) from hops, place them in water (temperature imma-
terial), and allow it to boil for about ten minutes (fifteen minutes in
the case of very fresh hops). Longer boiling will extract a bitter
flavor. One-half ounce to 1 ounce of fresh hops to each gallon of
water should be used, or generally twice this amount of compressed
hops according to their strength as found by experience. The re-
sulting liquid is commonly called "hop tea." If it is desired to make
the whitest bread possible the hops should be strained out. If they
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
29
are left in the solution they make it a trifle darker and small pieces
of the hops may be found in the bread. For the purpose stated hops
surpass any other ingredient used in the food for the yeast plant.
The best hops are of a bright color, between yellow and green,
Yellowish-brown hops are old and require less boiling. Brown hops
are generally unfit for use.
(6) Salt.-Salt may also be added to check undesirable acid
fermentations that may set up accidentally in the yeast. In the
absence of hops salt is always used and generally in addition to
them. The amount is from 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls to each gallon
of water. Used in small quantities, salt renders fermentation more
uniform, thus giving a more even grain to the loaf. In larger
quantities salt would retard yeast fermentation. Salt is a necessity
in bread making—not only on account of the property just cited
but in order to make the bread more palatable. It is generally
added when making the dough, about 3 ounces to each gallon
of water used in making the bread. The quantity of salt should
never exceed 14 per cent to 2 per cent of the weight of the flour used.
(c) Potatoes. -Chemists tell us that the potato furnishes the best
form of starch for the growth of the yeast plant. Yeast made from
it ripens quickly but does not keep so long as flour yeast. The
bread resulting is light and sweet and does not dry out or sour so
quickly as that from other yeasts. Old potatoes contain more sugar
than new ones and should be used in the preparation of this yeast.
As a matter of economy of time and material the potatoes may
be washed clean and boiled with their jackets on and finely mashed
in a portion of the water in which they were boiled, the remainder
being added later. If this water is much discolored clean boiled
water should be used. To produce equally good yeast that will make
whiter bread the potatoes should be pared before boiling. Some
bakers pare the potatoes and grate them and afterwards mix in
boiling hot water. The final result is the same—the starch cells
—
are broken and the starch is exposed to the action of the yeast.
(d) Flour.–Flour is used in the preparation of yeast-to furnish
starch, albuminous matter (gluten), and phosphates for the growth
of the yeast plant. It should be strong in gluten-a deficiency in
starch should be made up by the addition of sugar. Cane or malt
sugar is best. The granules of starch are bound together into cells
by means of fibrous bands. To rupture these cells and expose the

30
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
starch to the action of the yeast the application of hot water is neces-
sary. This process is generally called scalding” the flour.
(e) Malt. - Although barley, oats, wheat, corn, and rice are all
capable of being "malted” as the expression goes, the term malt
is generally applied to barley malt, and it is this kind that is used in
connection with making yeast. It is the crushed barley that has
first been allowed to germinate (grow) in warm, moist rooms of even
temperature for two or three weeks, the grain then being dried at a
moderately low temperature and crushed. Malt contains certain
elements (diastase and peptase) which induce a change of starch
and gluten into other forms more favorable to the growth of the
yeast plant, and the formation of alcohol and carbonic gas incident
to its growth. (See par. 22, b note.) As noted above, oats can be
malted and used the same as barley, but generally facilities are not
at hand in a post bakery to "malt” either one, and as a substitute
oats may be ground moderately fine in a coffee mill, soaked in luke-
warm water for an hour or more, and then quickly dried or lightly
parched in an oven. If treated in this manner they will not contain
the active elements found in malted grain, but for the purpose of
preventing scalded flour from lumping they will do very well.
Even bran is good for this purpose, though it will be of little or no
use as a food for the yeast plant. In practice we also get good
results by scalding the flour and malt together, but it is probable
that the flour and malt mixture drops below 160° F. before the ele-
ments referred to have been greatly injured.
(f) Malt extract.—Malt extract contains these important elements
(diastase and peptase) in a more concentrated form, and by diastase
companies several different grades of it have been so prepared as to
be best suited to the different qualities of flour that may be used in
bread making. The quantity used depends upon the particular
brand and strength. It is used as a substitute for sugar and to give
an agreeable flavor to the bread. Its general use in the army is not
recommended.
(9) Sugar.-During the growth of the yeast plant sugar is decom-
posed into alcohol and carbonic gas. When the bubbles of gas rise
to the surface we say that the yeast has begun to "work.” Sugar
may be used as an ingredient of the mixture prepared for the growth
of the yeast plant; if so, cane sugar, malt sugar (or maltose), or
glucose is best. However, it generally appears in the yeast food first

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
31
in the form of starch. During the process of fermentation it is
transformed into sugar and then decomposed into alcohol and car-
bonic gas. (See pars. 6, 7, and 27-c.)
(h) Water.-Fresh soft water should be used in the preparation of
yeasts and doughs as far as practicable. Long boiling of water
removes the air which promotes fermentation.
Salt water (that is, sea water) may be used in the preparation of
doughs and sponges, no salt being added to the mixture.
Hard water retards the working of yeast.
Note: Porcelain and granite ware.- Porcelain or granite ware should, if practicable,
be used in boiling hops and potatoes, as tinware or iron will cause the hop tea or
potato water to take on a darker color, and the bread produced will not be as white
as it otherwise would be. Clean hard wood, glass, or porcelain-lined receptacles
should be used for yeast, as otherwise certain chemical action might take place that
would either darken the solution or spoil it altogether.
34. Résumé. For the growth of the yeast plant we must have
certain albuminous matters and phosphates (see par. 29), and in addi-
tion starch, which is transformed into sugar and converted into
alcohol and carbonic gas, incident to the growth of the yeast plant.
Boiling-hot water must be added to the mixture in order to rupture
the starch cells and expose the starch used in fermentation. After
the solution has cooled to about 90° F. we have a proper food for
the development of the yeast plant, and fermentation may take
place spontaneously if the solution is left undisturbed in a moderate
temperature. In this case “head yeast” would be formed, but if a
yeast is introduced to start the fermentation the solution is said to
be "stocked," and the yeast resulting is called “stock yeast," or
"potato ferment,” according to the ingredients used. The livelier
the yeast introduced the stronger will be the yeast which results.
In addition to the food for the yeast, hops, salt, or ginger should be
introduced to check the acid fermentations that would otherwise
set up and spoil the yeast. Many different formulas for preparing
the yeast bring about the same result.
(E) RECIPES.
35. Head yeast (maiden yeast or virgin yeast).-Ingredients (6
quarts). 5 quarts of water; 1 ounce fresh hops (see par. 33-a); 10
ounces of malt (see par. 33-e); 14 pounds of flour (see par. 33-d).
Put the water on the stove; add the hops, and boil for about eight
or ten minutes. This preparation is known as “hop tea.” Mix the
20685-10-3



32
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
2
dry flour and malt together in a keg or other suitable receptacle;
add sufficient boiling-hot “hop tea” to make a medium thick paste
and mix well. (See par. 33-d.) Strain the remainder of the hop
tea” into a separate jar or keg and set both aside until they have
cooled to about 80° or 90° F., then pour the “hop tea” into the flour
and malt mixture. Set in a warm, even temperature; in about
twenty-four hours spontaneous fermentation will have set up and
foam will be seen to gather on the surface, a deep light scum will
rise and a strong beer odor will be present. In about forty-eight
hours the scum will begin to settle and soon thereafter will disap-
pear from the surface of the liquid. The yeast is ready for use as
soon as it begins to settle. It should now be set in a cool place,
where it will keep from eight to ten days.
Head yeast is developed spontaneously from wild yeast (that is,
yeast spores found floating about in the air) and is generally pre-
pared only as a starter for a stronger yeast. It may, however, be
used directly in the dough or sponge the same as stock yeast. If
other yeasts are at hand there is no necessity for its preparation.
It is possible to get good results by omitting the hops and malt, but
in case they are omitted about 1} ounces of sugar and 1 ounce of
salt per gallon of water should be added.
36. Stock yeast (or flour yeast).-Ingredients (7 gallons): 5 gal-
lons of water; 2 ounces of fresh hops (see par. 33–a); 23 pounds of malt
(see par. 33-e); 5 pounds of flour (see par. 33-d); 3 quarts of head yeast.
Prepared in exactly the same manner as head yeast, except that
the mixture is stocked (head yeast is added) when the cooled hop
tea is added to the flour and malt mixture. On account of having
the head yeast as a starter, this preparation will begin to ferment at
once and it will be ready for use in about twenty-four hours.
In the absence of hops and malt, salt and sugar should be sub-
stituted as noted in paragraph 35.
Stock yeast may be used directly in the sponge or dough in the
proportion noted in paragraph 52-i, but its chief function is in stocking
the preparation for making potato ferment, though in its absence, any
other yeast would do as a starter.
37. Potato ferment (or potato yeast).-Ingredients (30 gallons):
24 gallons of water; 28 pounds of sound, well-matured potatoes (par.
33-c); or 14 pounds of desiccated potatoes, or 9 pounds of potato flour;
5 pounds of flour (par. 33-d); 8 quarts of stock yeast, or 8 ounces of
compressed yeast, or 20 ounces of dried yeast.

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
33
Wash the potatoes thoroughly and let boil in about 6 gallons
of water until well done (par. 33-c). Drain off the water into 2
buckets. Put the potatoes in a clean barrel and mash well, then add
5 pounds of flour and 1 bucket of the potato water (to break the
starch cells of the flour), and mix thoroughly. (If using desiccated
potatoes, place in a boiler with sufficient water to cover them and
boil until thoroughly done; if using potato flour it is thoroughly
mixed with the wheat flour and scalded.) Add the remainder of
the potato water and about 18 gallons of fresh water at such a tem-
perature that the mixture will be about 85° or 90° F.; add 8 quarts
of stock yeast (or the quantity of compressed yeast or dried yeast
noted above) and stir for a few minutes. Let it remain undis-
turbed in a warm, even temperature. The preparation will begin
to ferment at once and in a few minutes bubbles will be seen rising
to the surface. In about six or eight hours the scum will begin to
settle and the yeast will be ready for use. Always stir well and
strain through a colander before using. Set in a cool place and it will
keep from five to seven days.
Potato ferment, or potato yeast (see par. 36) as it is sometimes called,
produces as good bread as can be made, but it works quickly (see
pars. 52 g and h, 53 c and d) in the sponge or straight dough and
must be carefully watched. In making it, great cleanliness is neces-
sary, as acid fermentations may set up from obscure causes and pro-
duce sour bread. (See par. 70.) It is best to have two sets of
.
utensils, in order that one set may be thoroughly cleaned while the
other is in use. Potato ferment is the form in which liquid yeast is
generally used in making bread and generally it should be made fresh
each day for use the next.
38. Tuba de nipa, as it is commonly called by the Filipinos,
furnishes an excellent substitute for stock yeast. It is the sap col-
lected from the nipa palm. The sap, having been placed in a deep
can with a small exposure, is set in the sun for about twelve hours
and allowed to ferment. A thick scum forms on the surface and
the tuba is removed to a cool place where it will keep for several
days. The scum should be allowed to remain on the tuba as a pro-
tection against contamination.
Fermented tuba de nipa is used as stock yeast and in the same
proportions.

34
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
(A) CAPTAIN RENNISON’S INDIAN YEAST (FOREZOPORE
YEAST).
39. In handling this yeast it is first necessary to prepare a
head yeast by using ground rice. At the end of forty-eight hours
it is ready for use in a so-called "sponge.” After the “sponge” is
ripe a “renewed yeast” is made, using a certain amount of the so-
called “sponge” as a starter. Thereafter the ground rice is not
used, but a “sponge” is set from a “renewed yeast" made daily.
It is recommended that three iron kegs be provided, if possible, in
order that the “renewed yeast” may be three days old when used,
the "renewed yeast” being started each day (though a "renewed
yeast” started at 6 a. m. may be used at 10 p. m. the same day).
Where iron kegs have not been obtained, beer kegs have been found
satisfactory, if provided with an iron bung in place of a wooden
plug, which would be blown out on account of the gas pressure.
The rice may be ground in a coffee mill, but boiled rice has been
found to work equally well.
Generally it is best to set the so-called "sponge” at about 10 p. m.
The dough may then be made up at about 6 a. m., and the bread
will be ready to bake at about 10 a. m. In the absence of rice,
beans are said to be a good substitute, though from our experiments
yeasts made from them are apt to sour more quickly.
To prepare the head yeast (for a 100-pound dough).-13 pounds of
rice (or beans); 13 pounds brown sugar (native Philippine preferred);
14 gallons water, about 80° F. Mix the ingredients well, pour into
a keg, and cork down tightly. Shake every hour or so—the more
the better. In forty-eight hours it will be ready for use.
Setting the "sponge.”—Sift the flour (100 pounds) into the trough.
Hollow out the center and pour in the yeast and gradually mix in
enough flour from the sides to make a thin batter. This so-called
"sponge” should be ready in about eight hours.

(B) RENNISON'S FORMULA, MODIFIED SO AS TO USE WHEAT
FLOUR IN THE PLACE OF RICE.
Take 2 pounds of brown cane sugar, 2 pounds of wheat flour, and
2 gallons of water, about 80° F. Mix thoroughly and allow to stand
a In recent experiments equally as good and even better results have been
attained by substituting wheat flour for the rice flour here used.
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
35
for about forty-eight hours, when it will be ready for use. (Use a
closed jug, and do not shake.)
Sift 50 pounds of ilour into the trough, and hollow out in the center,
pouring in the yeast. Gradually mix in enough flour from the sides
to make a thin batter, and then dust lightly with flour.
Let stand for about nine hours.
Dip out 4 pints of the yeast for renewing the process, and then
proceed to make the dough from the remainder by adding 10 ounces
each of salt, sugar, and lard, and about 2 gallons of water, so as to
make a slack dough. Allow to prove for about three hours and
mold into loaves, allowing them to prove for about two hours. Then
bake.
Renewing the yeast.—To renew the yeast, mix the sponge dipped
out with 2 pounds of cane sugar, 2 pounds of wheat flour, and 2 gal-
lons of water, and let stand in a temperature of 80° F. for about
fourteen hours, when it will be ready for use.
The amount of yeast prepared is sufficient for a 100-pound dough.
In preparing it dip out the 4 pints of sponge each time for renewing
the yeast, which need not be started fresh so long as the process is
continuously used.
This process has given excellent results-far better than "Indian
yeast” proper. The renewed yeast seemed to improve from day to
day when the process was used continuously
(Renewing the yeast.-When the "sponge” is ripe, dip out 13 pints; mixing it
with 13 pounds of brown sugar (native) and 13 pounds of flour, to which 17 gallons
of lukewarm water has been added. Pour this mixture into the iron keg. Cork
down and shake well—the more the better. This yeast should be ready in about
eight hours, but, as before stated, will be better if not used for two or three days.)
Making the dough.-The "sponge” being ripe and a portion dipped
out for the renewed yeast,” the dough is made up the same as usual.
Advantages. The advantages claimed for this yeast are that, on
account of the benefit derived from shaking, it can be transported
by pack or otherwise. It has kept as long as sixteen days. It is
said to be unaffected by climate, thunder, or ordinary variations
of temperature. It is very cheap, and the ingredients are generally
obtainable. The results obtained in the Tropics have been quite
uniformly successful, and its use has been greatly appreciated where
other yeasts could not be obtained. For unknown reasons the
results obtained in the United States have not generally been equally
as good.

36
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
40. Dried yeast.-Dried yeast is very easy to manufacture, and can be
made with facility by any baker. If made from the potato ferment,
the results obtained at the training schools have been better than
those obtained when using the commercial product, probably for
the reason that such yeast is fresh or of known age.
(a) Dried yeast from potato ferment.—Make a potato ferment ac-
cording to formula given, using compressed yeast as a starter in
preference to stock yeast or dried yeast. After working pour off
the supernatant liquid, disturbing the sediment as little as possible.
Take i} gallons of sediment, 13 pounds of corn meal, and 1 ounce of
cooking soda, and mix into a stiff dough. Shape into cakes about
half an inch thick and 21 inches square, drying at a temperature of
about 60° F. or less.
This mixture makes about 151 pounds of dried yeast, and it has
been found to be superior to any purchased on the market.
(6) Dried yeast from stock yeast.- Make a stock yeast according to
formula given. After working, pour off the supernatant liquid, dis-
turbing the sediment as little as possible. Take 1 quart of sediment,
21 pounds of corn meal, and 1 pound of flour, and mix into a stiff
dough. Shape into cakes and dry as above.
This mixture makes about 3 pounds of dried yeast of excellent
quality, but hardly equal to that prepared as in the preceding
paragraph.
(c) Dried yeast from a sponge (Dunne's formula).- Take one-half
gallon of water and 6 ounces of hops, boil for fifteen minutes and
strain through a colander. Add 12 ounces of sugar and 3 quarts of
potatoes, peeled and sliced, to the hop tea, and boil until the potatoes
fall to pieces. Then beat with a wire whip until smooth, add 12
ounces of flour, by mixing to the above while it is still hot enough
to scald it—that is, above 160° F.
Start work at 3 p. m. About 8 p. m. (or after the mixture has
cooled to below 90° F.) stock with one-fourth pound of compressed
yeast, adding 1 pint of lukewarm water, or substitute 8 ounces of
dried yeast, adding 1 quart of water. If practicable, use a 6-gallon
crock. Take a clean brick and stand on end in the yeast, setting
a saucer of water upon it. Cover the crock with a tight lid—the
idea being to produce a very moist atmosphere. Set in a temperature
of about 80° F. until it rises and falls once—say, about ten hours.
Then add flour, making a soft sponge, adding no more water at this

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
37
time. In from three-fourths of an hour to one hour this will rise and
fall. Then add more flour, making a slightly stiffer sponge. This will
rise and fall a little quicker than before. Twice more repeat this
process of adding flour, each time making a little stiffer mixture-
the last dough being very stiff.
After the last proving roll out the dough to about one-eighth of
an inch in thickness (so that it will dry quickly), dusting with corn
meal. Cut into pieces about 2 inches square.
Dry at a temperature of from 50° to 60° F., spreading the squares
of dough on boards that have been well dusted with corn meal,
and turn the cakes once a day. If a good current of dry air is allowed
to pass over the drying mixture, it will be ready for use or storage
in about three days.

38
MANUÁL FOR ARMY BAKERS.

Showing cellular structure and proportions of a well-formed loaf.
CHAPTER III.
BREAD.
GENERAL CLASSES.
41. There are two general classes of bread:
(a) Fermented bread. This includes all breads made with yeast,
such as issue bread, graham bread, rye bread, and all rolls made with
yeast.
(6) Unfermented bread.—This includes all breads made without
yeast, such as aerated bread, hard-tack, crackers, baking powder
biscuits, etc.
GENERAL METHODS.
42. There are two general methods of making bread:
(a) By the sponge and dough process, in which a sponge is first
set, by using one-half of the flour, about four-sevenths of the water,
and all of the yeast, and incorporating all the other ingredients in a
second operation some time later, when the dough is made. The
sour-dough process, or left-over process, is a modification of the sponge
and dough process. (See par. 54.)
(b) By the straight-dough process, in which all of the ingredients
are incorporated in one long process of mixing and kneading rather
than in two short ones, as in the sponge and dough process.
43. General remarks.-In preparing the sponge or dough the
temperature of the ingredients used and of the bakery should aver-
age about 80° F. (about 78° F. in summer and 82° F. in winter).
Even experienced bakers should take the temperature of the flour
and atmosphere with the thermometer and regulate the temperature
of the water so that the sum of the three temperatures will be very
close to 240° F. We must, however, also consider what effect the

39
40
MANUAL FÓR ARMY BAKERS.
outside temperature may have upon that of the bakery during the
proving. If the bakery is likely to be chilled, the sponge should
be set a little warmer than usual; if the nights are very warm, the
sponge should be set with cooler water. Sometimes it may be nec-
essary to add small chunks of broken ice. Very hot water should
not be used, as it will kill the yeast. (Pars. 31-36.)
.
If the flour is cold, it must be left in a warm place for a time before
using. Several hours before it is time to set the sponge the flour
may be sifted and spread in the open trough and stirred and turned
over from time to time, to expose all portions of it to the warm atmos-
phere.
Considerable heat is generated as a result of fermentation during
the proving of a dough or sponge, and the trough should be well
covered to retain this heat; and in addition, in the case of the dough,
to prevent currents of air from circulating over the surface, as this
would cause the formation of a crust unless the dough has been well
greased.
44. Great care must be exercised in mixing in order to distribute the
yeast equally throughout the sponge, to break up any lumps that
may have formed, and to allow the air to come into contact with all
parts of the mixture, as the presence of the oxygen (in the air) assists
in fermentation.
Careful and thorough kneading of dough and molding of loaves rup-
tures all large bubbles that have formed and further distributes the yeast
to every part and insures an even texture. Careless and indifferent
work or insufficient kneading are apparent to the careful observer in
examining the crumb of the bread produced. It will be "coarse
grained” in appearance and of very ununiform cellular structure.
45. If the dough has been properly handled and baked, the tops
of the loaves will present a nicely rounded and browned appearance
and the crumb a uniform cellular structure. The color of the
crust is regulated by the amount of sugar present and the tempera-
ture of the oven. A pale loaf results from an absence of sugar or a
very "slow oven.'
Sometimes the tops of the loaves present a flat appearance. This
may arise from various causes.
First, if the yeast of the sponge is young, the loaves will be flat
on top, large holes will be observed for an inch or so underneath the


و
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
41
top crust, the crust will present rather a reddish brown appearance,
and the crumb will be of a dull, grayish color.
Second, if the flat top is accompanied by a good color and normal
cellular structure, the dough was too soft.
Third, if the top is flat and dents and wrinkles appear in it, the dough
was overproved and the crumb will be dark and crumbly. A coarse
cellular structure is noted, and streaks of dough may result from a
shaking down through careless handling of the pans before the
framework is fixed.
A long fermentation produces certain acids that act directly on
the gluten, weakening the cellular walls and rendering them deli-
cate and easily ruptured.
46. When a new brand or grade of flour has been received, or if
there is doubt as to the quality or strength of yeast used, or if the
bakers are inexperienced, no attempt should be made to turn out
large batches of bread or to use the straight-dough process at once.
A small sponge should be set, as any yeast, and especially a weak
one, will work better in a moderately thin sponge than in a straight
dough, and if the batch of bread is ruined the loss of flour will not
be so great as it otherwise would.
47. Generally when using the dried yeast, or any yeast of doubtful
strength, the sponge and dough system should be used. It is also
a great convenience to set a sponge in case graham bread, rye bread,
rolls, etc., are to be baked.
48. In civilian bakeries the straight-dough process is used almost
exclusively at the present time, and great care is exercised in main-
taining an even temperature of about 80°F. for all proving of sponges
and doughs. It is said of this process that it requires stronger flour
and that a bread of finer cellular structure results; that the bread
will keep longer and that it has a finer flavor, and further that a
greater number of rations is produced. After comparing the bread
produced by this process with that produced (in which the sponge
has proved in nine hours or less in a temperature of about 80° F.)
by the sponge and dough process, we are of the opinion that the
differences noted are largely a matter of fancy, and that for our pur-
pose it may be considered that equally good results are obtained by
either method, and that whether the one process or the other is used
should be rather a matter of convenience than otherwise. Bread
can be produced in a much shorter time by this method and con-


42
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
sequently it is the one to be used in the field when short stops are
made. In the post bakery it may be used along with the sponge
and dough process in order that several runs of bread may be made
without interference in the ovens, and the work be done in season-
able hours.

RPF CENDERER
DE MICH
SONRA
80W
5566
DOUGH MIXER.
In working position.
49. The sponge and dough process is, from long habit, the one most
commonly used in post bakeries. In following this method we
first take one-half of the flour to be used in baking, all of the yeast,
and enough water to make a batter of such stiffness that it will
scarcely drip from the hand when taken up. This mixture (called
the sponge) is set in an even temperature of about 80° F. to rise or
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
43
prove. When it has about doubled in volume bubbles will be seen
breaking at the surface-portions of the gluten having been stretched
beyond its elastic strength—and the sponge will begin to fall. It is
now said to be ripe and is ready to be worked into dough. It may

DOUGH MIXER.
In tilted position for dumping the dough after kneading.
fall an inch or two without detriment, depending upon the depth
of the trough. If not disturbed it may rise and fall two or three
times, but if this takes place the dough is liable to sour. (See par. 70.)
This is especially true with any yeast except a pure culture. (See
par. 28.)
44
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
50. Kneading the dough.-Lard, and water in which salt and
sugar have been dissolved, are now added to the sponge, which is
made into a thin batter. After the sponge is well broken up and
no stringy portions remain, the remainder of the flour is added and
the whole is mixed into a stiff elastic mass which may be picked up
and thrown or carried about at will. One end of the trough is care-
fully cleaned with a scraper, brushed and then greased with a small
quantity of lard. Portions of dough, weighing about 30 pounds,
are now cut from the general mass and kneaded until the desired
degree of stiffness is attained, and are then piled in the end of the
trough just cleaned. The dough should about half fill that part of
the trough occupied by it. The partition board is now placed
against the dough and is held in position by a sack of flour or other
heavy mass. The top of the dough is greased to prevent the forma-
tion of a crust, and it is again set in a warm, even temperature to
prove. When it has about doubled in size it will begin to fall and
should be punched down to free it from the large bubbles of gas that
may have formed within. As soon as it has risen again to the same
height as before it should be molded into loaves as fast as possible.
51. General rule for amount of ingredients used in bread making.-
The following general rule should be learned. For each 100 pounds
of flour used in baking, about 7 gallons of liquid will be required, no
matter what process is used. If the sponge and dough process, four-
sevenths of it will be used with one-half of the flour in the sponge
and three-sevenths in preparing the dough. If the straight dough
process, all is used at once. Each gallon of liquid used will take about
3 ounces of salt, 3 ounces of sugar, and 3 ounces of lard. In setting a
sponge or making a straight dough, 1 ounce of compressed yeast or
2 ounces of dried yeast per gallon of water used at that time is the
amount generally used, but the times of proving vary inversely
with the amount of yeast, and the following table should be
consulted:


MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
45
52. Recipes for sponge and dough process.

Rations of bread desired. 65 125 250 500
Total flour used,
pounds ....
50 100 200 400
Total water used,
gallons...
3. 7 14 28
Time in Time in
sponge. dough.
Remarks.
SPONGE.
Ingredients:
Flour..... pounds.. 25
Water....gallons.. 2
(a) Compressed
yeast ounces.. 2
50 100 200
4 8 16
9 hours..
3
6 12
DOUGH
(Add to above).
Ingredients:
Flour...... pounds..
Water. .-gallons.
Salt... -pounds..
Sugar... ....do....
Or Malt extract -pints..
Lard (or com-
pound)..pounds..
101-ergoiente
25 50 100 200
11 3 6
11
سه ها
ܗܘܘ ܥ
Results excellent.
This formula is
24 hours.
recommended for
general use in the
sponge
and
dough process.
1
8 11 21
5
If instead of compressed yeast being used in the proportion given
in the preceding recipe, the following kinds and quantities of yeasts
be substituted, the times of proving in the sponge and dough, will
be about as noted. In summer the amount used may be reduced by
about one-fourth.
46
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.

25 25
Rations of bread desired. 65 125 250 500
Total flour used,
pounds....
50 100 200 400
Total liquid used,
gallons....
31 7 14 28
Time in Time in
sponge. dough.
Remarks.
SPONGE.
4
Ingredients:
Flour.... ... pounds.. 25 50 100 200
Water.. ...gallons.. 1 2 4 8 16
(6) And compressed
$10 hours. 2 hours.
Results not as cer-
tain as with (a).
yeast... ...ounces.. 1 2 4 8
(c) Or dried yeast (com-
mercial)...ounces.. 4 8 16 32...do..... ...do..... Results very good.
(d) Or dried yeast (from
potato ferment),
ounces.
4 8 16 32 ...do..... ...do..... Results excellent.
(e) Or dried yeast (from
stock yeast),
ounces..
4 8 16 32..do..... .do..... Do.
(1) Or dried
yeast
(Dunne's recipe),
ounces..
4 8 16 32 9 hours.....do..... Do.
a(g) Or potato ferment,
gallons...
1 2 4 841 hours. 3 hours. Do.
a(h) Or potato ferment,
gallons...
11 3 6 1234 hours. 2 hours. Do.
a(i) Orstock yeast,
gallons..
21 2 4 10 hours. 3 hours.. Results fair to
good.
4
a Total amount of liquid used is as given in paragraph 51, i. e., about 7 gallons per
100 pounds of flour.
NOTE.- For the method of handling Indian yeast (Rennison's formula) see para-
agraph 39.
Under no circumstances should a sponge be allowed more than
ten hours to ripen-a limit of nine hours is better, and for such long
fermentations only a compressed or dried yeast should be made. A
sponge set with potato ferment should not be allowed more than six
hours to ripen. A longer period of fermentation with this yeast is
apt to produce sour bread. Shert fermentations in the sponge are
generally productive of much better results than the longer fermen-
tations which were formerly so common. In any case where dried

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
47
yeast is used a more active and reliable fermentation will result if
about 5 pounds of potatoes, boiled and mashed through a colander,
are added to each 100 pounds of flour used in a sponge.
53. Recipe for straight-dough process.

Rations of bread desired...... 65. 125. 250. 500.
Time in
dough.
Remarks.
Ingredients:
Flour...
..pounds.. 50 100
Water
..gallons.. 32 7
(a) Compressed yeast ounces..
6
Salt..
-pounds.
11
Sugar
..do..
11
Or malt extract. ...pints..
1
Lard (or compound). pounds. 11
200 400
14 28
12 a 24
21 519 hours... Results excellent.
23 5
4
23 5
a Sixteen ounces when using mixer.
If, instead of compressed yeast being used in the proportionsgiven
in the preceding recipe, the following kinds and quantities of yeast
be substituted, the times of proving in the dough will be about as
noted:

Rations of bread desired..
65. 125. 250. 500.
Time in
dough.
Remarks.
7
14
28
5 hours... Results excellent.
32
Ingredients:
(6) Water.
-gallons.. 33
And compressed yeast,
ounces..
(c) Or water. gallons..
And potato ferment....do... 11
(d) Or water... ...do.
And potato ferment....do.
3 821
16
4
Do.
46 hours...
NOWA
64
16
12
20
8
8
6
10
4
5
2
74 hours..
Do.
Generally speaking, no yeast other than a compressed yeast or a
potato ferment is recommended in making straight doughs. In case
of necessity, however, dried yeast may be used in double the amount
20685-10— 4
48
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
indicated in the sponge-and-dough process. To stimulate fermenta-
tion, an additional amount of potatoes, about 5 pounds per 100
pounds of flour (see par. 52), should be added or about 2 pounds of
cane sugar to each 100 pounds of flour used at the time.
54. (a) Left-over dough process.--Take 40 pounds of dough from a
batch about to be molded into loaves and keep in a cool place (pref-
erably a refrigerator) for the next batch of bread (up to twenty-four
hours). Mix this 40 pounds of dough with 26 pounds of flour and
about 14 quarts of water at about 80° F. into a sponge and allow
to prove as in the regular sponge-and-dough process. (See par. 43.)
When ripe make into a dough by adding 14 quarts of water, 11
pounds of sugar, 14 pounds of lard, 14 pounds of salt, and 68 pounds
of flour.
This will produce about 132 rations of bread after keeping out 40
pounds of dough for the next batch.
By this process results have continuously been attained unex-
celled by any other method used in the bakery. If impossible to
preserve the left-over dough in a cool place, the same method may
be pursued, but the results will approach' those obtained in the
sour-dough process.
(b) Sour-dough process (a second-rate method).-Take 20 pounds of
flour, 2 gallons of water at about 80° F., and 3 ounces of dried yeast.
Mix into a sponge and let stand for forty-eight hours. Then add 30
pounds of flour, 5 ounces of salt, 5 ounces of sugar, 5 ounces of lard,
2 ounces of baking soda (if practicable), and 6 quarts of water,
and mix into a dough. Let rise once only. This will require about
three hours. Mold into loaves and continue according to the regular
method.
Set aside 10 pounds of the dough for twelve hours. Then make a
sponge, using 8 quarts of water and 20 pounds of flour, and allow to
rise over night until ripe, and add flour and ingredients as above.
This method should be resorted to only in case yeast can not be
obtained in sufficient quantity. The results are not as satisfactory
as with yeast, and a sour dough should be started anew every three
or four days to get best results.
To make a straight dough.—Let the left-over dough stand for twenty-
four hours; then make a straight dough by adding 14 quarts of water,
50 pounds of flour, 5 ounces of salt, 5 ounces of sugar, and 5 ounces of
lard. Let prove for four or five hours (until ripe) and mold into
loaves, retaining sufficient dough for a new starter,

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
49
55. Remember that the most favorable temperature for the work-
ing of yeast and proving of sponge and dough is about 80° F. (say,
78° in summer and 82° in winter). Fermentations at higher tem-
peratures promote acidity and ruin the flavor of bread-the same
may be said of long fermentation. Bakers should regulate the length
of fermentation in a sponge or straight dough so as to secure the
best results and not solely to suit their personal convenience.
56. Scaling. --It is customary, especially in garrison, to make
issue of bread in 2-ration loaves-i. e., in loaves that will weigh 36
ounces when twenty-four hours old. Single ration loaves should
weigh 18 ounces. A 2-ration loaf will dry out from 3 to 31 ounces
while baking and before issue, and this must be taken into consid-
eration in scaling the dough before molding. We have found
that a loaf scaled at 39} ounces weighed 37.2 ounces when withdrawn
from the oven and 36 ounces when twenty-four hours old.
In fast scaling, overweight is the rule. In addition a certain
amount of moisture is lost during the process of fermentation and
prior to scaling, so that each 2-ration loaf may be considered as
having resulted from about 40 ounces of ingredients used in making
the loaf; each ration from 20 ounces.
Taking the ordinary formula as given in paragraph 51-a, for each
100 pounds of flour used we would attain the following weight of
ingredients:
Pounds.
Flour...
100
Water, 7 gallons, 8 pounds per gallon.
56
Sugar, salt, lard, and yeast...
Total...
160 or 2,560 ounces.
Dividing 2,560 by 20 we get 128—the approximate number of
rations baked from each 100 pounds of flour. The number should
differ but two or three from this amount. Each ration would then
require 121 ounces of flour and 54 ounces of water and other ingre-
dients.
While as a rule the scales should be set at about 391 ounces, this
can be determined accurately only by experiment with the par-
ticular kind of flour in use, and sheets of bread should be weighed
frequently to see that the scaling of loaves is properly regulated,

4
50
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS,
There is a difference in flours as to the amount of water that will
be taken up in the sponge and dough and in the corresponding loss
while baking and before issue. This difference in flour is due to
the amount of moisture it already contains, and to the character
and quality of the starch and gluten. Starch is the great absorber
of water, but retention of moisture depends upon the quality of the
gluten.
57. Molding.—The loaves should be molded until firm and free
from large gas pockets. The loaf should retain its form until laid in
the pan and not gradually spread out into a shapeless mass.
58. Proving.- After the loaves have been carefully formed they
are placed in bake pans--the number and arrangement depending
upon the size and shape of the pans. If too few loaves are placed
in a pan, they will have a low “squatty” appearance as though they
had not risen properly; if too many, they will be high and narrow,
and although they will be of uniform porosity near the top and bottom,
large blow holes are apt to appear in the center, where fermentation
has continued, without escape for the gas, after the baking elsewhere
is well under way.
It has already been noted that up to a certain temperature proving
is accelerated by heat. The temperature of the room being greater
from the floor toward the ceiling, the pans first filled should be
placed on the bottom shelf of the proof rack (or proof box) and the
others on the next higher shelves as they are filled.
59. Proof room and proof box.—In the larger bakeries, iron racks,
mounted on rollers, are provided to receive the pans as they are
made ready for the proof room. The proof room, free from drafts
and heated to a temperature of about 80° F. by free steam, is made
ready to receive the racks which are wheeled into it. These facili-
ties are not found in the smaller bakeries and proof boxes are provided
instead. The boxes should be practically air tight, and, if proof
racks are provided, of proper size to receive them. If proof racks
are not provided boxes should be made with shelves of narrow slats
to permit free circulation for such steam as may be generated within.
Often a pan of water is placed on the bottom shelf, and when the
proof box is filled hot bricks are dropped into it to generate steam
which should be present during the proving of the loaves. If gas
is provided, a better method is to let the jet play upon the bottom
of the pan, which is conveniently exposed beneath the box, If


MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
51
steam is not provided, the tops of the loaves should be greased to
prevent the formation of a crust. (See par. 90.)
If the pans have been properly filled the loaves should generally
occupy about one-half their depth; when they have about doubled
in size, i. e., when they are about on a level with the top of the pan,
they are ready for the oven.
If the ovens are not ready to receive the loaves, the proving should
be checked by lowering the temperature of the proving room or
proof box, or by placing them in open air in cool weather. In family
kitchens the loaves are sometimes placed in an ice box to accomplish
this purpose.
60. Baking.-Great care must be exercised to have the ovens
ready at the proper time. The proper temperature back in the
ovens is from 2000 to 450° F., and if a pyrometer is not provided, the
temperature should be tested with the hand or by putting a spoonful
of dough on a tin well back in the oven-it should be brown in five
minutes. While filling the oven and for about ten minutes thereafter
or longer, depending upon the temperature of the oven, the oven
dam per should be left open to carry off moisture and such dust as
may be raised in the oven. Incidentally, the temperature of the
oven is lowered very slightly, giving the loaves a better chance to
spring up from the bottom before the framework is fixed.
It will be noted that the dough has been proving constantly from
the setting of the sponge until the loaves have been placed in the
ovens, about doubling in volume in the sponge, dough, and in the
loaves. In the oven the change is even more remarkable, as the
loaves nearly double in size in from fifteen to twenty minutes. (Pars.
52, 53.)
During the proving process the yeast plant has been growing con-
tinuously, and the carbonic gas, liberated as a result of fermentation,
has produced the increased size and porous structure. When the
loaves are placed in the oven, the heat penetrates to the center,
killing the yeast plant and, in consequence, arresting the fermenta-
tion, but the gas already formed expands, rapidly increasing the size
of the loaf. The loaves should brown in from fifteen to twenty
minutes. If the oven is too hot, the crust will become dark and
thick and before there has been sufficient time for the dough within
to become properly baked the loaves will be heavy; gummy streaks
will be found near the center, and large blow holes will have formed
within.



52
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
61. The crust is formed on account of the intense heat to which
the outside of the loaf has been subjected, together with the incident
drying out of this portion. Here the gluten is changed into a stiff
gum and the starch into a more digestible form. The brown color is
due to drying out of the exposed surface and to a certain chemical
change in the starch, known as “caramelization. Within the loaf
the conditions are entirely different. The crumb near the crust is
subjected to a temperature as high as 300° F. or more, being bathed
in superheated steam. The temperature grows less as we approach
the center, where it seldom rises above 200° F, although maximum
dough thermometers have registered as high as 212° F.--the highest
temperature of free steam in contact with moisture and not sub-
jected to pressure. Under the action of this temperature the gluten
becomes sufficiently stiff to give permanent shape and form to the
loaf and to retain the cellular structure even after the gas which has
produced it has escaped. From what has just been said it is easy
to understand why the crumb of the bread presents such a uniform
appearance throughout instead of being baked to different degrees
of hardness from the crust toward the center, as one might very
naturally expect.
62. The time of baking in a temperature of about 385° F. may be
assumed to be about ten minutes for each inch of depth of the loaf,
as measured after springing up in the oven.
As it does not take so long for heat to penetrate to the center of
the small loaves, it is evident that they can be baked in a much
hotter oven than the larger ones, the loaves being subjected to the
intense heat for a shorter period. If placed together in the same
oven, the smaller loaf will bake in a shorter time; therefore, as a rule,
loaves baked at the same time should be of the same depth.
Care must be exercised, especially with overproved dough, not to
jar the pans while placing them in the oven, as this might cause the
loaves to fall. They will not have time to rise again before the
yeast plant is killed, and the bread resulting will show soggy streaks.
63. To prevent too rapid formation of the crust many bakers moisten
the tops of the loaves with water before placing them in the oven,
or arrangements are made to pass steam over the loaves during the
process of baking. This causes the loaves to run together in a more
compact mass, and it stimulates the tendency to mold, especially in
warm damp climates. If the loaves are treated in this manner or if
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS,
53
they are painted with water immediately after taking them out of
the oven, they will present a shiny surface-much the same as is
generally present in Vienna bread.
To produce nicely separated loaves and bread of better keeping
qualities, in addition to preventing too rapid formation of the crust
in the ovens, the loaves may be painted with lard immediately after
molding and again after taking them from the oven.
64. Cooling.– After removal from the oven, the bread should be
placed on edge (preferably on a slat-top table) to permit free circu-
lation of air while the gases are escaping and the bread is drying
out, unless iron racks are provided on which to store it until issue.
Where conditions require, clean cloths of porous material should be
spread upon the loaves to keep off the dust and to prevent flies from
spreading infection. Bread, on account of its porous and spongy
nature, might easily become a spreader of disease, a point that
should be borne in mind by parties carrying bread from the bakery
in open wagons. While in transit the bread should be carried in a
closed box or crate, or it should be laid on a clean wagon sheet so
arranged as to completely cover it and protect it from the dust and
flies.
65. Keeping.–Where a bread room is provided, the loaded bread
racks may be wheeled directly into it. Good ventilation should be
provided, and an effort made to regulate the amount of bread on
hand so that none need be issued until twenty-four hours old, and
generally none should be stored at the bakery more than about forty-
eight hours. If bread boxes are provided for the storage of bread,
the following method should be followed: After four or five hours
the bread may be removed to the cupboards or bread boxes-pro-
vision being made for a small amount of ventilation during the first
a
twenty-four hours, after which all chemical changes will have
ceased within the loaf. The bread should then be placed in a closed
box or closet to prevent further drying out. If kept for several days,
it may be necessary to provide bowls or pans of water to prevent
further evaporation.
66. Stale bread. When bread is taken from the oven, the crust
is hard and dry and breaks with a snap. If tapped with the fingers
a distinctly hollow sound will result (providing it has raised well
and is properly baked); the crumb is moist and elastic. Within a
few hours a large portion of the moisture within the loaf spreads to


54
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
the crust making it soft and tough; the remainder combines chem-
ically with the crumb, giving it the appearance of dryness. When
bread has attained this condition, it is said to be staie, and until this
time-eighteen to twenty-four hours—it is generally considered as
unfit for immediate use.
67. Slimy or sticky bread. Sometimes in warm weather bread
that is several days old may take on a brown color and have a pecul-
iar taste and odor. The bread becomes sticky or slimy and may
be pulled out into strings. This condition in bread is produced by
a certain microscopic organism often found in the common potato,
and may exist in "potato yeast” or compressed yeasts in which
potato has been used in the manufacture. The organism having
found its way into the bread, survives the heat of baking and under
favorable conditions of warmth and moisture causes decomposition
of the bread. As a remedy, keep the bread in a cool, dry place and
bake in such quantities that it will not be necessary to keep it on
hand for more than a day or two. Scald the troughs once a week
and place them in the sun for about two hours.
68. Rope in bread.-What is commonly called “rope” sometimes
appears in bread that is not more than twelve hours old. The bread
can be pulled out into long strings. This condition is also due to
the presence of a certain potato organism. It seems to develop in
the cracks of wooden troughs, survives the heat of baking, and grows
rapidly in fresh bread. Treat as explained in preceding paragraph.
69. Mold in bread.-Mold is one of those minute spores that float
about in the air and develop wherever suitable conditions of food,
warmth, and moisture are found. Hence, when the proper condi-
tions exist for its growth, it will be found to develop either on the
outside or inside of bread. In the Philippines freshly baked bread
has been known to become moldy in a few hours when transported
in canvas-covered escort wagons under the tropical sun; it will be
seen that here the moisture escaping from the bread has been re-
tained under the canvas and that with the heat present we have
ideal conditions for the growth of these particular spores. The
bread must be given free access to dry atmosphere while becoming
stale and should then be stored in a cool, dry place.
70. Sour bread.--Sour bread generally results from certain acid
fermentations that are set up during the proving of the sponge or
dough. They may occur as a result of unclean utensils, as, for in-

MANUAL FOR ARMY BA KERS.
55
stance, in troughs, where the organisms may have developed in
cracks that have not been cleaned out, or they may be due to the
acetic or lactic fermentations that generally set up after alcoholic
fermentation has ceased, as in the case of overproved dough or
sponge. Bread may, however, grow sour with age, as frequently
happens when the undesirable organisms from the air have taken
lodgment, as in the case just cited.
CHAPTER IV.
SPECIAL RECIPES.

71. The following “special recipes” are those now used daily
at the Training School for Bakers and Cooks at Fort Riley, Kans.,
and the quantities of rolls, pies, etc., baked is such as to supply
the demands of the post and at the same time does not in any way
interfere with the baking of the bread used-about 2,000 rations
daily. At all points especially at a distance from towns—the
baking of these articles should be a part of the daily routine, and
arrangements should be made to take orders through the commis-
sary and make deliveries in the same manner. Troops should get
their pies, etc., at the same time that they draw their bread.
72. Rye bread.—Set a sponge, using white flour, as explained in
paragraph 49, or dip out as much as may be desired from a sponge
set for white bread. The sponge being ready, take about the same
amount of rye flour as there was of white flour used in the sponge
and mix a stiff dough, using white flour for dusting; add carroway
seed as desired. When sufficiently proved, mold into Vienna-
shaped loaves scaled at 18 ounces and place in the proof box. When
ready for the oven, make about three oblique shallow cuts across
the top of the loaf to prevent ragged tears while crusting, and bake
from twenty-five to thirty minutes. (See pars. 12 and 62.) The
reduction in size of loaf is recommended on account of the increased
cost of rye flour. For better quality, increase amount of sugar and
lard used.
73. Graham bread.-Made in exactly the same way as the rye
bread, omitting the carroway seed and substituting graham for rye
flour. Mold into loaves scaled at about 192 ounces and, after proving,
bake in single-ration bake pans. Made in the same size as issue
.
bread, graham costing about the same as issue flour.

56
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
57
74. Sales bread.—100 pounds straight dough. Use 75 pounds of
issue flour, 25 pounds of family flour, 2 pounds of issue sugar (or,
better, 14 pounds of malt extract, standard, and 1 pound of sugar),
1} pounds of salt, 1 pound of lard, 1 pound of compressed yeast, 1
gallon of milk, and 6 gallons of water. Make a loaf scaled at 18
ounces and bake in the same manner as graham bread. If a thin
crust is desired, cover each ration of bread with an inverted bake
pan of the size of the baked loaf. This will retain the moisture
and prevent heavy crusting. Small size of loaf recommended on
account of the increased cost of the ingredients used, all “rations”
of bread may then be sold at the same price.
75. Parker House rolls.-Straight dough for about 150 rolls.
Flour 11} pounds, water or milk 2 quarts, potato ferment 3 pints,
lard 14 pounds, sugar pounds (or, better, 1 pound of malt extract,
standard, and į pound of sugar), salt 3 ounces.
With the amount
of ferment given, the dough will be ready in eight or nine hours.
The same result would be obtained by the use of 2 ounces of com-
pressed yeast and 31 quarts of water. When sufficiently proved,
take pieces of dough of convenient size and roll out until about ſ
of an inch thick. Cut out with the top of a can or cutter, about 3}
inches in diameter, having first greased the top surface of the dough.
Strike through the center of each piece with the edge of the hand;
double over one half
upon the other, and place in a bake pan, keeping
them well separated and edges greased to prevent sticking together.
After about doubling in size in the proof box, bake in a quick oven
for about fifteen minutes. For quicker work the dough is rolled
into cylindrical shape under the hands, as in molding a loaf, until
it is about l} inches in diameter. Pieces are broken successively
from the end of the roll in sizes suited to the roll desired, and these
pieces of dough are quickly rolled into balls—one under each hand-
by a rapid inward circular motion. The balls are then greased,
struck in the middle with the edge of the hand and doubled over as
before.
76. Cinnamon buns.-Straight dough for about 150 buns. 111
pounds of flour, 2 quarts of water or milk, 3 pints of ferment (or 2
ounces of compressed yeast and 3 quarts of water or milk), 2 pounds
of sugar, 1 pound of lård, and 3 ounces of salt. Mix well and allow
to prove for eight or nine hours. When ready, roll out into thin
sheets about 8 inches wide and of convenient length, grease well


58
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
(except about 1 inch of the inner edge, which should be wet with
water to make the bun stick together when rolled). Sprinkle liber-
ally with sugar and cinnamon. Begin with the outer edge and grad-
ually roll firmly toward you until the roll is completed. Cut into
lengths of about 1 inch (depending upon the thickness of the roll
desired) and place them close together in the bake pan, greasing the
edges to prevent sticking; or if there is plenty of room, separate
them well in the pan, and instead of securing a tall bun you will
get one that is flat, as in this case the bun will widen out in proving
instead of pushing upward. Let prove for about one and one-half
hours and bake in a quick oven.
77. Tea buns.-Prepare dough the same as for cinnamon buns.
When the dough has proved sufficiently roll out into sheets about
of an inch thick, cut into disks about 3 inches in diameter. Place
in bake pans, keeping the buns well separated; let prove for about
one and one-half hours and bake in a quick oven.
78. Crullers. Prepare in the same way as tea buns, except
that when they have proved sufficiently they are fried in an iron pot
containing several inches of smoking fat. When well browned
they are removed, using a long pine stick (as a matter of conven-
ience), and rolled in sugar.
79. Doughnuts.—Whip together for about five minutes 1 pound of
sugar, 6 eggs, 2 ounces of salt, and 1 teaspoonful of lemon extract.
Mix in 6 pounds of flour and 5 ounces of baking powder, adding
enough water to make a soft dough. Drop the dough into the hot
fat with a basting spoon; each time before using, dip it into the
water to prevent the dough from sticking to it; repeat until the sur-
face of the fat is covered, leaving only room for turning. Turn the
doughnuts with a clean stick until evenly browned; remove with a
skimmer and place in the dripping-pan. Sprinkle lightly with
sugar. Repeat the operation until all the dough has been used up.
80. Jelly rolls (20-inch lengths).-Mix 1 pound of sugar, 2 ounces
of lard or butter, 8 eggs (add a little flavor), pint of milk, 1 ounce
of baking powder, 18 ounces of family flour.
Bake in a sheet 20 inches long and 15 inches wide. After baking
turn it upside down on a sheet of paper spread on a table. Spread
jelly on the top surface and roll it up, leaving the paper on the table.
81. Pie crust.-Take 5 pounds of flour, 21 pounds of lard, about 1
ounce of salt, and 1 quart of water. Mix the lard and salt with the
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
59
dry flour. Add the water gradually and work just enough to hold
together. Roll out about 1 of an inch thick.
For 100 pies about 34 pounds of flour will be required. Have the
tins well greased. When baking lemon, custard, or other pies without
a top crust, bake the lower crust slightly before putting in the filling,
providing cooked material is used.
NOTE.- A flour with little gluten and much starch (say, white winter wheat) is best
for pies and pastries, the idea being
to make pie crust that is crisp and crumbly in
distinction to one that is tough. The latter result is obtained by using a strong
glutenous flour.

CHAPTER V.
POST BAKERY EQUIPMENT.
82. Ovens-classification.-Ovens are classified
1. As to the manner of firing, into-
(a) Continuous types, in which the heat generally passes around
the oven, rendering it possible to make successive bakings by the
same continuous fire. În the “draw plate” ovens, however, heat is
introduced directly into the oven chamber by means of the so-called
“steam pipes." Among the former are the Simpkins, Clauss, Peter-
sen, Duhrkop, etc., and the only "draw plate” oven now installed
at army posts is the Werner and Pfleiderer.
(6) Intermittent types, in which it is necessary to draw the fire
before each baking, if baking is done in the chamber in which the
fire is built, as in the common brick oven and the semicylindrical
type of the knockdown field oven; or in other types, to let the fire
die down at some time while each successive batch is being baked,
thus requiring a certain lapse of time between the bakings.
2. As to their portability, into-
(a) Permanent ovens, which are generally built of solid brick, with
no intention of moving them, and weighing as much as 50 tons.
Such ovens are installed at most post bakeries. They include the
Simpkins, Clauss, Duhrkop, Petersen, Werner, and Pfleiderer“ draw
plate,” the common brick oven, etc.
(6) Portable ovens, which can be taken down and moved. The
term is applied to the Middleby, that can be taken down tile by tile
and moved in many days, as well as to the light knockdown field
ovens that may be taken down and prepared for wagon transporta-
tion, or set up in a few minutes.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING AND REPAIRING.
83. (1) Brick ovens:
1. Firing.—(a) First time. An oven that has never been fired
should be heated by a slow continuous fire for four or five days, with
60
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
61
all the dampers open to allow the moisture from the materials of
which it is constructed to escape, then fire heavy enough for two
days to attain a baking temperature. (If not required for imme-
diate use it would be advisable to let the oven stand with all drafts
open from two to four weeks before starting the first fire.)
(6) Cold oven: Brick ovens, if cold, take from two to four days to
heat up before they will do good work, and even then the chances are
that they will not have become equally heated throughout, baking
top and bottom equally well.
(c) Daily: For the daily firing when the oven is regularly used,
start the fire at least two hours before baking, leaving the draft
dampers open. After the fire is well started put in about 2 bushels of
coal, and after it is about half consumed, close the draft dampers
and the ash-pit door. Be careful not to make too hot a fire at any
time, but regulate the dampers according to the draft. Fire boxes
have frequently been practically ruined in a few weeks by intense
heat. Keep the fire “clean” at all times and do not allow the ashes
to accumulate in the pit. Should the grate bars become embedded
in ashes, they will warp and burn out.
All ovens possess certain peculiarities and new bakers can not
expect to turn out loaves of uniformly good quality until they have
become accustomed to the particular oven in use. In many double
ovens, that part near the common partition becomes hotter than
other parts-likewise the parts of the oven farthest from the door.
Hence it is that pans of bread first run into the oven may, go to the
hottest parts, and from necessity may be the last to be withdrawn.
If such an oven is used to its fullest capacity, some of the loaves are
apt to be highly browned or even burned before others are ready
to be withdrawn, as shifting under these circumstances is done with
difficulty. Care must be taken to keep pans away from the common
partition of such an oven and to fill the cooler parts first.
2. Dampers.-While preparing the oven for firing the oven damper
should be kept closed. In case the oven becomes too hot the tem-
perature may be reduced by opening this damper and also the oven
door to give circulation through the oven. When running bread
into the oven this damper should be opened to draw off the dust that
is raised and the moisture from the loaves. It should be left open
for the next ten minutes or such a matter, cooling the oven and
giving the bread a better chance to spring up from the bottom before
the framework is fixed.

62
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
Brick ovens with hot-water connection also have another damper
to be used in connection therewith and it should be regulated
according to circumstances.
After each day's firing all dampers should be kept closed to retain
all the heat possible within the oven.
3. Firing from the rear.-Most ovens are fired from the baking
room, causing unnecessary littering up and annoyance. Wheel-
barrows of coal, or piles of wood, may be in the way, and present an
untidy appearance. On cold mornings, when first firing ovens,
gas and smoke may escape into the baking room, blackening the
walls, and rendering work at such times most disagreeable. In the
larger bakeries the ovens should be fired from the rear—from a room
entirely detached from the baking room-unless oil or gas is used
for fuel. It can generally be arranged to have the firing done from
the boiler room, without extra assistants, where other fires are nec-
essary for heating the bakery, supplying hot water, and running
machinery.
4. Tiles.-Furnace tiles should last about three years. They
should be installed by a mechanic familiar with such work.
Water must not be thrown in the oven to cool it. If this is done
the tiles will crack.
5. Grates.- If care is taken in keeping the fire clean and not
allowing ashes to accumulate in the ash pit, the grates will last
about three years. Any mechanic can replace damaged grates.
If the casing which contains the sockets for the grates is burned
out, a mechanic familiar with such work should be employed to install
the new casing.
6. Repairs.-All repairs, especially brickwork, should be made by
a mechanic familiar with brickwork in oven construction.
7. Mopping out the oven chamber.-It is necessary, from time to
time, to mop out the oven chamber to remove dust, etc. Water
must not be thrown in the oven for this purpose, as this will cause
the tiles to crack.
To mop out an oven, tie a gunny sack on a long pole, dampen the
sack (not soak in water), and mop out the oven chamber with the
damp sack.
8. Cleaning the flues.-About once in ten days a quick wood fire
should be made in order to burn out the flues and maintain a good
draft, “Clean-out” doors are provided for removing such ashes
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
63
as accumulate and can not otherwise be removed. Generally it
will not be necessary to use them oftener than once in six months
or a year.
(2) Marshall continuous baking oven.-This oven is constructed
by the Middleby Oven Company, of Chicago, Ill. The oven with
outside measurements 10 by 12 feet is designated as No. 30, and the
12 by 14 feet as No. 40.
1. Firing. The same general rules for firing as given for brick
ovens should be observed, though it does not require so long to
prepare for the first baking.
2. Tiles.—The tiles are said to be practically indestructible, except
those of the arch directly over the furnace. These are interchange-
able, and should one be required for repairs it can be replaced by a
mechanic unacquainted with the oven.
3. Grates.-In ordering, give designation of oven.
4. Cleaning.—The only flue of the oven that will ever require
cleaning out is the top or roof flue, and this is easy of access. It
should be cleaned out with a brush every six months to a year,
depending upon the kind of fuel used.
(3) Middleby ovens:
i. Firing.-(a). First time. An oven that has never been fired
should be heated with a slow continuous fire for about forty-eight
hours, with dampers open to allow the moisture from the materials
of which it is constructed to escape. Baking is more uniform after
several days use.
(6) Daily. In firing, build fire with damper and lower ash-pit
door open. As soon as fire is well started, put in as nearly as possible
all the fuel that is needed for heating the oven. If using coal or
coke, from 1 to 2 bushels should be sufficient for a single batch; if
using wood, about one-sixth
of a cord for a single batch or one-half
cord for five consecutive firings and bakings in ten hours. When
the fuel is burning properly, close the damper in the pipe one-half
to two-thirds, according to the strength of the draft. Allow the
oven to heat in this manner for about one hour and a half, then
close the damper in the pipe and lower ash-pit door, the oven to
remain closed in this way for about an hour and a half, in order
that the heat may become "solid” or even. In consecutive bakings,
after the first, allow one hour for firing and equalizing temperature.
Care must be taken that the damper is closed before the fire is so
20685—10—5

64
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
low that more heat escapes up the chimney than is received from
the furnace.
Never in any event build or allow a fire to remain inside of the
lower two doors in the ash pit.
2. Tiles.-In ordering tiles state whether they are required for
the hearth, walls, roof, or furnace of oven. If for the roof, state
whether they are approximately 19 or 23 inches long. If tiles for
the furnace are required, give description and rough sketch showing
shape of tiles.
3. Grates.-In regard to grates, styles Nos. 1 and 2 purchased
prior to March, 1905, and No. 3 purchased to February, 1904, are
equipped with round grates, and the order should call for round grates.
No sketch is needed. Style No. 4, purchased prior to February, 1904,
is equipped with shaking grates or bars. Since November, 1905,
all ovens are equipped with a standard grate.
In requesting any grate except the round grate, send a rough sketch.
4. Material for plastering.--Slake one bushel of lime, mix into
mortar with sand, and work into this mortar about 15 pounds of
loose asbestos cement. This will furnish enough for the largest
Middleby oven. Sufficient asbestos paper will be sent for use
with the asbestos cement.
5. Plastering.- Plaster the joints, bottom of the oven, along the
sides, corners, and ends, as may be required. When this is done,
cover the whole of the top of the oven with asbestos paper, each
strip lapping over the next about 5 inches, so that there will be no
chance for the sand to leak through into the oven. Care must be
taken in putting the asbestos paper over the beams; that is, not to
draw it so tightly that the weight of the sand will tear it.
6. Repairs.- If not sure how to make the repairs, instructions
should be requested from the chief commissary of the department.
84. Dough mixer.- Each day after using, scrape clean and grease
thoroughly with about 1 pound of lard or compound.
All bearings should be oiled three times a week.
85. Dough troughs.-Dough troughs were formerly made of wood,
and of such kind (generally poplar) that an objectionable flavor
would not be taken up by the dough. A wooden trough has the
advantage of being a poor conductor, and therefore keeps the dough
at a more constant temperature than a steel trough would in the field
or small bakeries subject to sudden changes. These troughs have,

MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
65
in the larger bakeries, been replaced by steel troughs, which are
easier to keep clean. The latter are mounted on rollers for more con-
venient use in connection with the dough mixer and for running in
and out of the proving room.
Sourness in bread is frequently caused by particles of dough
becoming lodged in the cracks of wooden troughs, souring and setting
up acid fermentations in dough that is afterwards set in the trough.
Wooden troughs must be frequently washed with hot water and lye,
thoroughly rinsed and dried-preferably in the sun. Steel troughs
are so constructed that they are readily cleaned with a scraper and
brush, and there are no cracks in which the dough can lodge and
become sour. (See pars. 23 and 70.) Steel dough troughs are gen-
erally kept in the baking or mixing room with a temperature of 80°
F. or more, and consequently can not as a rule be of a much lower
temperature than the dough or sponge. It does not therefore
necessarily reduce the temperature of the dough, as is sometimes
stated, but is simply cold to the touch for the reason that it is a good
conductor.
86. Molding table.—Molding tables should be constructed of the
same material as wooden troughs. For large bakeries, where many
bakers are employed, the table should be broad and set out in the
room so that the bakers may work on both sides of it. Where there
are but few bakers, the table should be smaller and built with a flange,
as indicated in illustration. The flange is for the purpose of prevent-
ing the dough from spreading and falling to the floor.
87. Proof room and proof box.-In the larger bakeries proof
rooms are generally provided, and the bread as soon as molded is rolled
into the room on specially constructed "proof racks." The room
is generally heated with free steam and kept at a temperature of about
80° F. The proof room is also a great convenience for proving the
sponge and dough; the sponge is set, or the dough kneaded, in a con-
venient place at a moderate temperature and the trough, mounted
on rollers, is run into the proof room, where the dough will prove
most satisfactorily under the fixed and favorable conditions pro-
vided. Especially is the proof room appreciated in cold and un-
certain weather, when it is difficult or impossible to keep the tem-
perature of the baking room at the same even temperature. (See
par. 58.)

66
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.

71
MOLDING TABLE.
Material.- Preferably poplar.
Capacity.--About 500 rations.
Dimensions.--Length 15 feet, width 4 feet, height 2 feet 10 inches. Flange 8 inches
high,
The top and flange are of 2-inch lumber, thoroughly seasoned; the supporting frame,
strong and firm.
Pans when not in use are telescoped and placed bottom side up on subshelf-this
prevents dust from settling on the inside of pans.

W
Material.-Preferably poplar.
Capacity.- About 500 rations.
Inside dimensions.---Length 14 feet 6 inches, width at top 26 inches, at bottom 22
inches, top flange 8 inches high. Inside raised 10 inches above the floor by means of
supports. The trough proper is constructed of 2-inch lumber. The top is provided
with two lids of 1-inch lumber, each covering one-half of the trough and provided with
strong hinges. Two dam boards are provided to fit the trough-they are of 2-inch
poplar.
At the smaller posts proof rooms are not generally provided, and
proof boxes are supplied instead. A proof box consists essentially
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
67
of a box or cupboard that is practically air-tight; several shelves of
slats are provided for supporting the pans and permitting free circu-
lation of such heat and steam as may be generated for heating the
box. (See par. 65.)
88. Bread room and bread box.-In the larger bakeries bread
rooms are generally provided and the bread may, for convenience,

BB
pe
BREAD BOX.
Inside dimensions.—80 inches high, 90 inches wide, 36 inches deep, about 25 inches
between shelves.
Box divided into two equal compartments by a solid partition through the middle.
On each side of box sufficient space is left in front and rear of shelves to allow an up-
ward draft of air.
Capacity.-About 1,000 rations.
be placed on the steel racks as soon as it comes from the oven and be
wheeled into the bread room, where it remains undisturbed until
issued. If a bread room is not provided, the bread must be cared
for in bread boxes or closets, as explained in paragraph 65.
68
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
89. Fixtures.-Wooden shelving, cupboards, bread boxes, etc.,
are great cockroach and vermin gatherers and so far as possible
should be done away with.
It is recommended that sinks be set out from the wall, that pan
racks be made of metal and set on wheels, and that when practica-
ble a bread room be provided so that the bread may be issued from
the racks upon which it is placed when drawn from the oven.
90. Number of bakers required.-One baker should be able to
handle 250 rations of bread, two bakers 700 rations, three bakers 1,000
rations, providing they are not required to attend to any other duty.
In addition, there should be an apprentice.
91. Daily routine, etc.—The post bakery should be scrupulously
On account of the nature of their work, bakers must bathe
daily, making a complete change of underclothing. They should
be provided with 12 aprons and 4 caps each, furnished and laundered
at the expense of the bakery fund.
The necessity for clean utensils and equipment is appreciated by
every up-to-date baker and is fully explained in preceding pages.
Each morning, after the molding is done, advantage should be
taken of the period of proving—about one and one-half hours—to
clean up the bakery and equipment, as there generally would not be
any further littering up for the day. The mixing machine and
dough troughs should then be thoroughly cleaned and greased.
Each time a bread rack is emptied it should be brushed clean or
washed when necessary.
Once a week wooden dough troughs should be scrubbed out with
lye and hot water and then sunned for an hour or two. Molding
tables and floors should be brushed or swept clean daily and scrubbed
twice a week.
The chief baker should be held responsible for the police of the
grounds in the immediate vicinity of the bakery.
CHAPTER VI.
FIELD BAKING AND FIELD BAKERY EQUIPMENT.
92. Equipment. The proper equipment for field bakeries, as
determined by experiment and practical experience, is announced
from time to time in circulars from the office of the Commissary-
General. It is based upon the requirements of a regiment of infantry,
with a view to combining two or more regimental bakery equipments
to form a bakery for a brigade or division. Detached battalions
should draw bread from the nearest bakery.
The authorized equipment for a regimental field bakery is given
in the Subsistence Manual.
A field bakery should be established and operated in connection
with every post bakery in order that bakers may become thoroughly
familiar with the field equipment and confident of success when
required to use the same.
93. System used. The straight dough system should be used in
the field as a saving of time and labor. if using the intermittent
type of oven, the doughs should be set so as to follow each other at
a period of about two hours and a half if baking double rations, and
two hours if baking single rations.
This will allow three-fourths of an hour for firing and one-half
hour for equalizing temperature. This has been found to be suffi-
cient for each firing after the first, for which one hour and a half
should be allowed. While using this equipment from three to four
runs of bread will have to be made daily.
94. Straight fire knockdown field oven. In this kind of an oven
:-)
a jacket of earth forms an essential part, and the baking properties
depends largely upon the heat absorbing and radiating capacity of
the materials used. If the soil is sandy, the jacket of earth may be
dried out in a few hours and good results obtained, but if the soil is
of clay and permeated with moisture, it will take much longer to
get satisfactory results; especially is it difficult to get a good brown-
ing on the bottom of the loaves until the oven has been used for
69
70
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
several days. Wet clay can not take up and radiate heat of a suffi-
ciently high temperature for baking. This temperature should not
be below 385° F.
The ovens here referred to are called “straight fire” or “draw
fire" for the reason that the fire is built in the oven chamber, and
is drawn when the oven has been sufficiently heated for baking.
The amount of fuel to be used can be so regulated by experience that
there will be few coals remaining to be withdrawn when the oven
is ready for use. The fire being withdrawn, the oven should be
closed up tightly for an hour or more to equalize the temperature
throughout. The oven is then ready to receive the loaves, and care
should be exercised to have it in readiness when they are sufficiently
proved.
Great care should be exercised in firing these ovens. Intense heat
must be avoided, as it will ruin an oven in a few weeks. A slow fire
for an hour to an hour and a half produces best results, and an oven
so fired has been used almost continuously for fifteen months, while
others heavily fired have been ruined in one month.
As a substitute for a proof box, the mixing tent will have to be
maintained at about 800 F., and a suitable proof rack constructed
from materials at hand.
95. Size of loaf to bake in field oven.-There are certain dimen-
sions that go to make up a well proportioned loaf. For instance,
a single ration loaf about 12 inches long should be about 3 inches
wide and from 31 to 4 inches high, while a 2-ration loaf of the same
lenzth should be about 4 inches wide and from 5 to 6 inches high,
the height of the loaves depending upon the proof that is given them
and the temperature of baking.
It takes a certain amount of heat, about 385° F., to bake one ration of
bread, and under the same conditions it would take about twice as
much heat to bake two rations or a 2-ration loaf. Suppose that the
capacity of the oven is 84 single rations of the dimensions given and
that the heat developed is just about sufficient to bake them. It
is at once apparent that there may not be enough heat to bake the
full number of double rations that may be placed in the oven. In
the first instance we may consider that sufficient heat has to be
stored up to bake a sheet of dough about 3} inches deep, and in the
second a sheet of dough about 6 inches deep, and the number of
heat units and the time required will be about in the same propor-


MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
71
tion. From experience we find that a 2-ration loaf taken from the
oven at the time a single ration is baked will be underdone-a por-
tion through the center being a mass of dough. If such loaves are
returned to the oven and are left in a temperature much less than
about 350°, they will be subjected to a drying-out process rather
than to a baking heat, and the resulting loaf will have a thick, dry
crust and a soggy interior. Hence, we see that in this particular
case it would have been safer to have baked single rations than double
ones. It is evident that the only way in which the heat of the oven
can be increased is by refiring.
On the other hand, if the oven is too hot and not carefully man-
aged, a 2-ration loaf is apt to be burned on both the top and bottom
while a single-ration loaf might be baked without burning, being
subjected to this intense heat for only about half as long a time.
Single rations of the dimensions given should be baked in from
twenty-five to fifty minutes and double rations in from fifty minutes
to one hour and twenty minutes.
It is evident that if single rations be crowded in a pan we soon ap-
proach the difficulties met with in baking a double ration and at
the same time we get a loaf of awkward and irregular outlines. On
the other hand, if 2-ration loaves are allowed to spread out until they
have about the same thickness as single rations, they can be baked
with the same facility.
In any case great care must be exercised while baking in a straight fire
field oven, as the amount of heat is variable and not easily judged;
therefore the door should be left slightly ajar from the time the
loaves are placed in the oven until they are browned, and looked at
frequently to see that they are not burning. They should be brown
in about fifteen minutes and then the door may be closed, and the
baking proceed with less attention. One shifting at least will gen-
erally be necessary, and care should be exercised not to jar the pans
at this time, for the framework of the loaf is not yet formed through-
out and if the crumb falls away from the crust it will not be restored
and the bread will be heavy.
It is recommended that single rations be baked until great facility
is required in handling the oven.
72
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.

An Oven above ground
0
NO 1
NO2
NO 3
2 3
SCALE OF FEET
EXTEMPORIZED OVEN BUILT ON LEVEL GROUND.
No. 1.-Longitudinal section, showing method of construction. No. 2.- Plan. No. 3.- Transverse section
at centre of dome.


MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
73
To build such an oven a rounded heap of dry earth or sand, about 5 feet long, 2 feet
6 inches wide, and 1 foot 9 inches high, should be raised. This is the mold on which
the oven is to be formed. Sand is more suitable for the mold than earth, it being
more readily removed. Willow twigs bent over and closely wattled together, or å
flour barrel laid flat and covered completely with earth, will likewise suffice to give
form to the mold. Mix a stiff mud or mortăr, and plaster the mold over 5 or 6 inches
thick, commencing at the base. Allow one or two days for it to dry and harden,
plastering up all cracks which may appear. When nearly dry, cut out the door at
one end and the flue at the top of the other end. A small mud chimney raised over
the flue will greatly improve the draft. Carefully withdraw the loose earth or
sand from the interior. If a barrel has been used for the mold it may be burned out
without damaging the oven. Keep a small fire in the oven for at least half a day
before attempting to bake. Dig a pit in front of the oven for the convenience of the
baker.
Two men can build this oven in three hours, but it will generally not be fit for use
for two days. It will last several weeks, and prove very satisfactory.
This oven may also be built dome-shaped, like the household ovens used by the
Mexicans. This kind of an arch would be stronger than the semicylindrical form,
but with the same quality of material used would not have as great a baking capacity.
The clay oven is peculiarly adapted for use when camping on swampy ground.
Under such circumstances it may be constructed upon a platform of stones or logs
covered with clay.


CHAPTER VII.
FIELD-BAKING EXPEDIENTS.
96. Essential principles.-Occasions are sure to arise when it is
desirable to bake bread in the field when no proper baking equip-
ment or no equipment at all is provided. Under these circum-
stances the essential principles to be followed in the construction of
earth or clay ovens must be thoroughly understood, as well as the
methods to be followed in preparing and preserving yeasts and prov-
ing the sponge and dough.
97. Ovens. —The entire principle of baking is based upon the fact
that for each ration of bread baked a certain number of heat units
must be provided at a temperature from about 385° F. to 450° F.,
striking the top and bottom of the loaf with about the same intensity.
The quantity of the heat available must be such that a baking tem-
perature will be maintained from thirty minutes to an hour and a
half, depending upon the depth of the dough to be baked.
Such ovens as are generally constructed in the field must gener-
ally be of the simplest type possible—that is, of a single chamber in
which the fire is built and withdrawn after sufficient heat has been
stored up in the surrounding material to do the necessary baking.
Such ovens are generally called "straight-fire" or "draw-fire” ovens,
and for temporary use are very satisfactory, though they are more
laborious to handle than continuous ovens. In the construction of
these ovens the following points should be kept in mind:
1. The oven must be built of material suitable for absorbing and
radiating the heat required in baking. Brick, rock, adobe, clay,
sods, sand, and loamy soil will all do if properly handled.
2. About 8 inches of earth of any kind is required to take up and
radiate sufficient heat for baking even small batches of bread. A
greater depth on top of an oven will cause premature breaking-a
lesser amount would not generally retain sufficient heat.


74
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
75
3. A slow fire must be placed in the oven in order that the heat may
gradually be taken up in the surrounding material. A flash heat
will quickly heat up the inner lining of the oven and produce an
intense heat for a short time, but to store up a sufficient amount of
heat requires a long, slow firing.
4. The greatest difficulty is in getting a bake on the bottom of the loaves
in newly constructed ovens, as the heat from the fire rises from the
bottom, which is further protected by the ashes as they accumulate.
Especially in damp and loamy soils should a hearth of stone or brick
be provided to overcome this difficulty.
5. Soil while damp can not take up and radiate sufficient heat
between 385° and 480° F. to bake bread. Hence the material imme-
diately surrounding an oven must be thoroughly dried out before
any attempt is made to bake. Generally a "slow" fire for several
hours will be necessary before the first baking can be made, but after
a successful baking not more than three-fourths of an hour to an
hour will be required for heating the oven and equalizing the tem-
perature by tightly closing up the oven after the fire is drawn.
6. The temperature is best determined by inserting the arm well back
into the oven chamber and holding it there as long as possible, counting
seconds. For a new oven about 12 counts (second counts) will be
about right, as a little moisture is still present, or the surrounding
material is not dried to as great a depth as in later bakings, and hence
the first heat should be a little stronger. Later on 15 or 16 counts
will be the right number.
76
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
Plate 10
An Oven in a steep bank
NO 1
NO3
NO 2
NO 4
2
3
SCALE OF FEET.
EXTEMPORIZED OVEN BUILT IN A BANK.
No. 1.-Longitudinal section. No. 2-Plan. No. 3.-Front view; not on the scale. No. 1.-Transverse section
of interior.


MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
77
This is recommended as a very good and convenient oven. A bank from 4 to 6
feet high is the best for the purpose. The roof covering need not exceed 13 feet. Two
men with a spade and a long-handled shovel can build it, in light soil, in three-quarters
of an hour. If such tools are not available, it may be constructed with trowel, bayo-
net, intrenching tools, or even with knives. To build the oven, dig down the bank
to a vertical face and excavate at the base a hole from 4 to 5 feet horizontally, care
а
being taken to keep the entrance as small as possible; hollow out the sides of the
excavation and arch the roof until the floor is about 2 feet 6 inches in its widest part
and the roof 16 inches high in the center of the arch. Then tap the back end for the
flue. A hole from 4 to 6 inches in diameter will furnish a good draft. A piece of tent
stove pipe may be utilized for this purpose. When difficult of construction, the flue
may be omitted, and practically as good results will be obtained. The time required
for drying will depend upon the character of the soil; if ordinarily dry, a fire kept up
for an hour will suffice.
After the oven has been heated the temperature may be regulated by means of
the door and flue--opening or closing them as may be necessary.


78
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
3
BAKING IN THE OPEN TRENCH.
A trench is dug about 6 feet long and 15 inches wide and about 1 foot deep. A fire
is built in the trench about two hours before the time to bake. A few minutes before
the loaves are ready the coals are withdrawn and the trench swept clean. The loaves
(Vienna-shaped and very dry on the exterior) are carefully laid in the trench about
1 inch apart, covered with an iron sheet ofany kind, and the coals, which were drawn
from the trench, distributed over the top. By carefully watching the bread and
regulating the top heat most excellent bread can be produced, and in an oven of the
dimensions given 25 rations (single) can be baked.
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
79

DOUBLE-BARREL OVEN.
Made by placing two sugar barrels end-on and covering with about 2 inches of wet
sand and 4 inches of common clay mixed with straw or hay. The oven is let stand a
couple of days and then dried out by a slow fire. Thereafter it is used, as explained,
for straight-fire knockdown oven and with equally good or better results. Capacity,
80 rations.
20685—10—6
80
MANUAL FOR ARMY BAKERS.
98. Proving the sponge and dough.-In order that the sponge and
dough may prove satisfactorily there must be a uniform temperature
of about 80°F., and the same may be said of the loaves while proving
in the pan. Small sponges and doughs may be proved in a fireless
cooker, if they are of the proper temperature when put in. Fol-
lowing the same idea a small pit may be dug in the ground and heated
with hot bricks that are withdrawn before the receptacle containing
the dough is introduced. After the sponge or dough is put in the
pit provided, it should be covered tightly to retain the heat and
keep it warm. Remember that while the sponge or dough is prov-
ing a certain amount of heat is being generated as a result of fer-
mentation (working of the yeast) and this will generally offset the
loss when the fireless-cooker or pit method is used. More satisfac-
tory still would be a small cave or closet covered with earth, large
enough to put in shelving for the pans of loaves. The cave or closet
should be heated with bricks or hot water and the door should be as
small as practicable. In mild weather a box with shelves, or a rack
closely covered with canvas and heated as above indicated will prove
satisfactory. Greased paper spread over the loaves in a pan will do
much to retain the heat generated, but alone this will not be suffi-
cient in cold weather.
99. Preparation and preservation of yeasts.—Materials for the
preparation of yeasts according to some one of the formulas given in
Paragraphs 35–37 will generally be at hand, and if yeasts are not pro-
curable on the market, they should be prepared.
For the preservation of yeasts it will generally be sufficient in
either warm or cold weather to utilize the fireless-cooker or pit idea,
being careful to get a proper temperature for the receptacle and then
to maintain it by nonconductors. To preserve yeast in hot weather,
a pit should be dug in mọist soil or in a constantly shady spot and
the receptacle for the yeast should be surrounded with damp
gunnysacks,



INDEX.
23, 27-(a)
23,27
31-32
6
90
91
92-95
89
89
91
60
[Numbers refer to paragraphs.]
Acetic fermentation......
Alcoholic fermentation...
Alcohol in yeast......
Alcohol in bread, formation of..
Bakeries, field. (See Field bakeries.)
Bakers, number required..
Bakery:
Daily routine.
Field....
Fixtures..
Furniture.
Police of....
Baking, general instructions.
Baking powders:
Make bread light....
Injurious compounds.
Barley malt in yeast making.
Bleaching of flour...
Blending of flour.
Bran....
Bread:
Properties of..
Aerated.....
Amount produced per 100 pounds flour.
Baking
Baking powder
Classification of.
Cooling of...
Fermented
General methods of making.
Graham...
Hard...
Heavy..
Ingredients in making
Issued, when...
30
30
33-(e)
20
18
11
6
30
56
60
30
41
.64
41
23,42
73
25
24,95
51
66
归​仍​%的​乱​%
81
82
INDEX.
65
23
54-(6)
22
Bread-Continued.
Keeping....
Leavened..
Left-over dough process.
Light, how made.....
Making. (See Bread making.)
Mold in...
Molding.
Most important of foods.
Necessity for light, spongy-
Proving..
Recipes..
Room..
Rope in.
Rye...
Sales..
Salt-rising.
Scaling...
Slimy or sticky.
Sour.....
Sour-dough process...
Sponge and dough process.
Stale.....
Straight-dough process..
Time for proving and baking.
Unfermented....
Yeast....
Bread box:
69
57
25
24
58
52-54
88
68
12,72
74
23
56
67
70
54-6)
42,52
66
43,53
62
41

23
Construction of.....
Substitute for bread room.
Bread making:
General methods.....
Importance of kneading.
In field...
Ingredients used in.
Left-over process..
Remarks.....
Sour-dough process.
Sponge and dough process.
Straight-dough process,
65
88
23,60
44,50
92-95
51
54-(6)
43
54-(6)
42,52
43,53
INDEX.
83
65,88
82
83
83
76
77
6
15
6
31-5
32-(6)
32-(6)
28
32-(6)
64
10
Bread room, generally provided...
Brick ovens:
Classification of.
Daily firing
Firsi firing..
Buns:
Cinnamon.
Tea......
Carbonic gas, formation of..
Cockroaches in flour ....
Composition of wheat..
Compressed yeasts:
Fermentation...
How made...
Preservation of..
Value of.....
Varieties of
Cooling, of bread...
Corn meal, in bread.....
Desiccated yeast. (See Dried yeast.)
Diastase, element of malt, 22-Note....
Dough:
Kneading of..
Molding..
Proving and baking..
Temperature...
Scaling..
Sour.....
Sour-dough process
Troughs.......
Dough mixers, cleaning and care of..
Doughnuts, recipe for.
Dough troughs:
Construction of......
Wood v. metal troughs..
Dried yeasts:
How made..
Varieties of..
Enzymes, in yeast, 22-Note.
Equipment, field bakery
33-(e)
44,50
57
58-63
55, 59
56
70
54
85
84
79
85
85
40
32-(a)
92
84
INDEX.
96-99
22
37
23, 27-(a)
23, 27
27-(6)
21
22
31
92
92
93
93
92
99
Expedients, field baking...
Ferments:
Notes on...
Potato...
Fermentation:
Acetic...
Alcoholic.
Lactic.....
Principle of, in bread making
Sour.....
Yeast..
Field bakery:
Equipment of......
Number of ovens required..
Numbers of runs required...
Systems of bread making used.
Utensils for....
Yeast used in...
Field-baking expedients:
Essential principles..
Ovens....
Fixtures, construction and care of.
Flour:
Bleached....
Blending of....
Composition of.
Definition of...
Deterioration of
Family....
For pie crust..
Freshly ground.
Graham....
High patent..
In yeast.
Manufacture of.
Milling...
Rye.....
Sifting of.
Storage of...
Strength of.
96-99
97
89
w
20
18
3
1
4,5,15
5-(6)
81
14
11
5-(6)
33-(d)
5
5
10,12
19
13
7
INDEX.
85
4
43
17
16
2
46
10,20
9
3,6
9
6,8,9
9
9
33-(h)
35
Flour-Continued.
Sweating.
Temperature when used.
Tests of.......
Wet, not necessarily ruined...
Wheat......
When using new brands..
White.....
Gliadin, in flour.
Gluten:
Amount of, in bread
Importance of, to bakers
Properties of....
Separating the
Glutenen, in flour.
Granite ware, use of, recommended..
Head yeast, how made...
Hops:
Color of .....
Importance of, in yeast making
In yeast...
Hop tea, in yeast
Indian yeast. (See Rennison's yeast.)
Keeping of bread......
Kneading, importance of...
Lactic fermentation. (See Fermentation.)
Left-over process, recipe for
Liquid yeast:
Fermentation of.....
Ingredients of
How made.
Loaf:
Light, spongy...
33-(a)
31-9
33-(a)
32-(c), 33
65
44-50
54-(a)
31
32-(c), 33
32-(c)
24
Size to bake in field...
Lupulin, active element of hops.
Malt, in yeast making..
Malt extract, in yeast making.
Marshall continuous-baking oven, general instructions.
Mice, to keep out of flour.....
Middleby ovens, general instructions..
95
33-(a)
33-(e)
33-)
82-2
13
82-3
86
INDEX
5-(6)
5-(a)
69
57
86
33-(e)
Milling:
High...
Low...
Mold, in bread.
Molding of loaves
Molding table, construction of..
Oats, in yeast making..
Ovens, bake:
Brick....
Classification of.
Continuous bakers..
· Draw piate....
Firing from rear
Interunittent...
Knockdown, field
Marshall.....
Material used in jacket for.
Middleby....
Permanent.
Portable..
Rear-fire..
Straight-fire.
Parasites in flour...
Peptase, element of malt, 22-Note..
Pie crust, recipe for....
Porcelain receptacles, use of, recommended.
Potato ferment:
Ingredients of..
Recipe for...
Potatoes in yeast making
Proof box:
Construction of...
Substitute for proof room..
Proof room, purpose and construction of..
Proving:
In proof room....
Of sponge and dough.
Rations:
83
82
82
85
83-3
82
94
83-(a)
94
82-(b)
82
82
83-3
91
14
33-(e)
81
33-(h)
32-(c)
37
33-(0)
87
59
59,87
87
58
Double..
Single..
95
95
INDEX.
87
13
83-3
83-3
33-(h), 39
Rats, to keep out of flour.
Rear-fire ovens:
Advantage of.....
Construction of......
Receptacles, materials preferred.
Recipes:
Bread.
Cinnamon buns.
Crullers....
Doughnuts.
Graham bread.
Head yeast..
Jelly rolls....
Parker House rolls
Pie crust...
Potato yeast.
Rye bread...
Sales bread...
Sponge and dough process.
Stock yeast.......
Straight dough process.
Tea buns....
Rennison's yeast, recipe for.
Rope in bread.
Rye:
The cereal...
Value in bread making -
Rye bread, recipe for.
Sales bread:
How made..
Weight of...
Salt in bread and yeast...
Scaling, general rule for...
Sifting, all flour should be sifted.
Sour dough process, recipe for..
Special recipes. (See Recipes.)
Sponge and dough process:
Method in common use at post bakeries..
Recipe for..
52-53
76
78
79
73
35
80
75
81
37
72
74
52
36
53
77
39
68
12
12
72
74
74
33-(0)
56
19
54-(6)
44 の​8
42, 49
52
88
INDEX.
22
26
6
6
36
42, 48, 53
45
29
4
33
17
62
85
85
38
33-(h)
Spontaneous fermentation, conditions favorable to..
Spores, yeast..
Starch:
Amount of, in wheat..
Properties of.....
Stock yeast how made....
Straight dough process, prevalent in civilian bakeries.
Sugar:
In bread making...
In yeast making.
Sweating, wheat and flour.
Tea, hop...
Tests of flour....
Time required for baking.
Troughs, dough:
Construction of.
Wood v. metal troughs..
Tuba de nipa, substitute for stock yeast..
Utensils used in yeast making -
Water:
Distilled ..
Hard...
In bread..
Salt...
Soft..
Use of, in doughs and yeasts.
Weevils in flour...
Wheat:
33-(h)
33-(h)
51
33-(h)
33-(h)
33-(h)
15
Classification of......
Composition of.
Hard....
Keeping
Milling ..
Soft.
Spring
Sweating.
Varieties.
Winter.
3
3,6
3
14
5
3
3
4
3
3
INDEX.
89
26
32-(c), 39
32
28, 32-(b)
22-(a), 26
26
Yeast:
Air favors growth.....
Amount used. (See Recipes.)
Bean.....
Classification of..
Compressed....
Conditions favorable to growth.
Cultivation....
Desiccated. (See Dry yeast.)
Dried.......
Effects of acids..
Effects of temperature.
Flour in.....
Food for....
Hastened by the introduction of a ferment.
Head.......
General remarks.
Growth of...
In bread..
Indian...
Ingredients used.
Liquid.....
Notes on fermentation..
Plant, cultivation of..
Potato.....
Preparation in field
Preservation in field..
Pure culture.....
Reduced amount in warm weather..
Renewed.....
Rennison's...
Results of growth.
Rice.....
Salt in..
Spores..
Standard commercial.
Stock......
Tuba de nipa...
Wild....
28, 32-(a), 40
23, 27
31-5
33-(d)
28, 29
22
35, 39
34
26, 29
29
39
32
32-(0)
31
28
33-(c), 37
99
99
32-(a)
52
39
39
27
32-(c), 39
33-(6)
26
32-(a), 32-(6)
32-(c), 36
38
26, 27-(0)
0
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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