***-*... ', ...- : *******;
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DEVOE & C. T. RAYNOLDS CO,
Fulton Street, Corner William,
NEW YORK,
– & 9 - º OF - : - : A * * * .
Artists' materials, Brushes, Cºlors,
ETC. : -
Everything for Painting and Drawing. . .
Supplies for Colleges, Manual Training Schools a Specialty. –3
CAMEL HAIR WATER COLOR BRUSHES,
To retail at 5c. and 6c. each. See Illustrations.
MODELING TOOLS AND CLAY. DRAWING INSTRUMENTS,
ANGLES, SQUARES, ETC.
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1898
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Devoted to the presentation of informatiº. acerning the course of study
for the Public Schools of Greater New York.
SIDNEY MARSDEN F. UERST, Editor.
*x ºë \ *\\ * & his number has been prepared under the direction of
DR. JAMES P. HANEY,
Supervisor of Manual Training in the Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx.
Øontents for Hpril, isos:
The Spirit of Manual Training g e *. t L
- JAMES P. HANEY. s
Conventionalization (Illustrated) e tº t; 5.
SALLY E. FIELD.
Applied Design (Illustrated) I4
- GRACE WRIGHT.
Illustrative Drawing in Primary Grades (Illustrated) g e . . & g I9
- FRANCES RANSOM. - * .
School Collections º * º e º 23.
JESSIE KELLOGG.
Composition (Illustrated) & ſº w e 26
. . EDITH TAYLOR. º
The Study of Good Pictures (Illustrated) . & 1 & ſº . . . 33
- LOUISE PIERCE. -
Working Drawings (Illustrated) g • • º * 35
- ALBERT W. GARRITT.
Shop Work * & gº e g 4o .
WALTER M. MOHR.
Brush Work (Illustrated) e •. • . & 43
- JULIA"C. CREMINS. -
Perspective (I11ustrated) e tº & g 49.
, . . |HENRY TALBOT.
Color, Within and Without . . . * 56
º S. GRACE DEA.N.
Color in the Class Room (Illustrated) . & * * te 6o
- JENNIE. M. MACDONALD.
Figure Sketching (Illustrated) e ſº e e 66
ISABELLE IMRIE. .
Editorial Notes º • º & e & s g & e º * * 7I
Publisher's Notes, g * & & tº º . e º e e * “ 74
The New York Teachers’ Monographs is a quarterly periodical, published April, June,
October, December. Subscriptions may begin with any number. The subscription price is
One Dollar per year. - * - • ,
All of the articles in this issue are Copyrighted, 1898, by Sidney Marsden Fuerst, who
reserves all rights of publication.
Subscriptions and all business communications should be sent to
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS Co.,
Room No. 3, 25 East 14th Street, New York City.
Entered at Post Office, New York City, as second class matter.
. .” Jº
Steiger's Material
for Manual Training,
adopted for use in the Public Schools of Greater New York
and other cities—Special attention is invited to
Steiger’s Engine-Colored Papers,
- Steiger's Coated Glazed Papers,
Prang’s Standard Colored Papers and -
Steiger’s Coated Papers (in attorialſº with the White System),
Colored Cardboard and - -
Colored Tissue Paper, also
Imported Modeling Clay and American Artists' Modeling Clay
(both in brielics and powdered).
is Steiger's Object Teaching Charts,
comprising: Leutemann's Animal Kingdom (18 plates)—Leutemann's Zoë-
logical Wall Charts (56 pl.)—Leutemann's Types of Nations (6 pl.)—
Leutemann's Races (1 pl.)—Zoëtomical Wall Charts (12 pl.)—Ana-
tomical Charts (3 pl.)—Engleder's Zoëlogical Wall Charts (60 pl.)—
Hoelzel's Wall Charts for Object and Language Lessons (8 pl.)—
Schweissinger, The Four Seasons (4 pl.)—Natural History Charts
(28 pl.)—Botanical Wall Charts (54 pl.)—Plants of Commerce
(7 pl.)—Langl's Pictorial Illustrations of the Most Important
Architectural Monuments of Aſk Ages (61 pl.)—Hoelzel's Typical
Landscapes (30 pl.) and many other charts. –Catalogue mailed on application.
[gºs Steiger's Elementary Sewing Designs,
adopted for use in the New York Public Schools.-Send for Prospectus.
We are incessantly making additions to our -
Assortment of Kindergarten Material,
which is the largest in existence—and our stock of
Kindergarten and Manual Training Literature
(in English and other languages) comprises all Publications of value
published both in America and abroad. New Publications will be
added as soon as issued.—Steiger's Kindergarten Catalogue will be
mailed free to any address, upon request, -
E. Steiger & Co., 25 Park Place, New York.
ii
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The National Drawing Course.
By ANSON K. CROSS,
Instructor in the Massachusetts Normal Art School and in the School of Drawing and
Painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
TEXT-BOOKS.
Free-Hand Drawing. 8 vo. Cloth. 148 pages. Fully illustrated. For Intro- +
duction, - - - tºº - - ſº- - - - *-*. - - 80 cents
Mechanical Drawing. 8 vo. Cloth: 197 pages, I to Drawings and 28 Plates.
For Introduction, - - * * * - as sº - *s $1.00
Color Study. 8 vo. Cloth. 73 pages. Fully illustrated. For Introduction, - 60 cents
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duction, * * * = * * as º as sºme tº - - $1.00
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Printed on both sides. In sets of 9 cards in envelope. For Introduction, 10 cents
TEACHERS MANUALS.
Outline of Drawing Lessons, for Primary Grades. 8 vo. Flexible Cloth. 49
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The following books of this Series are on the
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use of Teachers: - - -
CROSS’S FREE-HAND DRAWING.
CROSSS MECHANICAL DRAWING.
CROSS’S COLOR STUDY.
CROSS's LIGHT AND SHADE.
CROSS’S DRAWING BOOKS
(Books IV. to VIII. inclusive).
Jºž.34.3%.3%
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sent to any address.
Jºº.24.3%.9%
GINN & COMPANY, Publishers,
70 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.
iii
periodical devoted to Art and Manual Training from the stand-
A point of the school and the teacher. It gives the best thought
of the best thinkers on these subjects, including methods of
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tion and Manual Training, with movements of teachers, Indis-
pensable to all who are interested in these subjects as it is the only
periodical in the world devoted exclusively to their interests.
The back files of ART EDUCATION contain more valuable material
relating to
MANUAL TRAINING
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Price per Number, 25 cents. Sample Copy, Io cents. Per Year, $2 oo.
We can supply any book on drawing, art or manual training published in the
BOOKS, world, at or below publisher's price. If a book is desired which we do not
carry in stock, we will procure it for examination.
CHARTS OF We have just
HISTóšić of six MENT ºré
AND DESIGN. of O r n a ment
and Design suf-
ficiently large for use in class instruction–I2 x 18
inches. The majority of the drawings are bold
brush drawings, and are just the thing for
Actual Work with Brush and Pen.
These charts consist of to plates each—Egyptian,
Greek, Gothic—on heavy and tough gray board.
Send for i11ustrated circular. -
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photograph. No other house in America carries
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CASTS. We carry a full line of casts suit-
able for drawing, school decora- .
tion, presents, and for home adornment. Call
and see them. Sole Agents for L. Castelvecchi
& Co. Photographs and Photo Prints.
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Prints from the Old Masters.
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! º " º!".
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The Addis' Genuine London
Carving Tools,
(OUR OWN IMPORTATION.)
special HAMMACHER, SCHLEMMER & CO.,
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WHITE'S SCHOOL DRAWING COMPASSES.
(Patented August 19, 1890.)
FOR MANUAL TRAINING AND GEOMETRIC DRAWING.
THESE COMPASSES are substantially made, beauti-
fully finished, and are accurate and practical. They
have recently been greatly improved by a new FLEXIBLE
PENCIL-HoldeR.
The needle point is made of steel, sharp and round,
and will not tear the paper. The standard size of pencil
can be used.
With an ordinary penholder a common pen can be
used when ink drawing is required.
Used exclusively in the Public Schools of New York
City, Brooklyn, Albany, Yonkers, N. Y., Pittsburg, Pa.,
and many other cities.
Read What Supervisors of Drawing Say of Them:
T. C. HAILES, Supervisor of Drawing, Albany, N.Y. —
“We have used white's fatent Drawing Compasses for
two years with much satisfaction. They are the best
cheap compasses in the market.
ºple. strong, durable and not easily gotten out of
order.
MRS. EMMA HINTZ NYE, Supervisor of Drawing,
Yonkers, N. Y.-“We have found the White's Patent
Drawing Compasses to be the best compasses that we
have ever seen. We have used them in the Yonkers
Public Schools for three years and they have given
good satisfaction.”
WALTER S. GOODNOUGH, §º. of Drawing,
Brooklyn, N. Y. —“The White School Compasses have
been in use in the Brooklyn Public Schools for the past
threeſº and º superior to most compasses, not exceeding them in cost.”
MRS. M. E. WAN WAGONEN, Supervisor of Drawing, Pittsburg, Pa.--"We have used White's Drawing Com-
passes in the º Public Schools for the P. four years and find them º satisfactory. As accuracy
and clear lines are insisted upon in mechanical drawing, we find them very practical.”
WHITE'S BLACKBOARD COMPASSES,
With rubber point set in a revolving cylinder socket. Commended by all teacners who have used
them, as the best in the market. Correspondence solicited.
H. P. SMITH PUBLISHING CO.,
11 East 16th Street, New York.
g
THE FINEST WORKS ON ART
Are Authorized for Use in New York Public School Libraries.
TEXT-B00KS OF ORNAMENTAL DESIGN.
NATURE IN ORNAMENT.
With 123 plates and 192 illustrations in the
text. Trick crown 8vo. $4 50.
CONTENTS.—Ornament in Nature–Nature
in Ornament-–Simplification and Elabora-
tion of Natural Forms—Consistency in the
Modification of Nature—Parallel Render-
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Animals in Ornament—The Element of the
Grotesque –Still Life in Ornament—Sym-
bolic Ornament, etc., etc.
THE ANATOMY OF PATTERN.
New edition, revised. 35 illustrations.
I am O. $1.25.
CONTENTS.—Pattern Dissection—Practi-
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THE APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.
New edition, revised. 42 illustrations.
I2mo. $1.25. .
CONTENTS.—The Rationale of the Con-
ventional—What is Implied by Repetition--
Where to Stop in Ornament—Style and
Handicraft—The Teaching of the Tool—
Some Superst1tions, etc., etc.
THE PLANNING OF ORNAMENT.
New edition, revised. 38 illustrations.
12mo, $1.25.
CONTENTS —The Use of the Border—
Within the Border—Some Alternatives in
Design on the Filling of the Circle and
other Shapes—Order and Accident, etc.,
etc.
ALL BY LEWIS F. DAY.
LESSONS ON DECORATIVE DESIGN.
An elementary text-book of Principles
and Practice. 8vo. I11ustrated. $2.oo.
CONTENTS.—Introductory—Linear Orna-
ment—Brush Work—The Study of Nature—
Convention al Ornament — Composition —
Acanthus Foliage, etc., etc.
BY FRANK
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.
An advanced text-book on decorative art.
8vo. 7oo illustrations. $2 50. -
CONTENTS – Introductory — Elementary
Forms—-Application to Ornament—Methods
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Architectural Elements — Industrial Ele-
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Edited by Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Prof. T. Roger Smith, F.R.I., B.A.
Profusely I11ustrated.
ARCHITECTURE.
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T. R. SMITH and JOHN SLATER.
and Renaissance by Prof. T. R. SMITH.
SCULPTURE.
Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman. By
GEORGE REDFORD. -
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AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART.
Architecture, Sculpture Painting.
Fourth Edition. Newly revised by the
author. Biographical Indices, etc. 373
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Bell). Half roan, thick crown, 8vo, $3 75.
THE FINE ARTS.
By G. BALDw1N BROWN, Professor of
Fine Arts in the University of Edinburgh.
12mo. With illustrations. $1.oo net.
The whole field of the fine arts, of paint-
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ART FOR ART’S SAKE.
Seven Lectures on the Technical Beauties
of Painting. By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, LL.D.
With 24 reproductions of representative
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By Prof.
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PAINTING.
Classic and Italian. By E. J. POYNTER
and PERCY R. H. EAD.
Spanish and French. By GERARD W.
SMITH.
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|Friglish and American. By H. J. WIL-
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORKS OF AR-
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In Italy, Greece and the Levant. Edited
by WILLIAM P. P. LONGFELLOw. With 256
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photogravures. C ne volume, quarto. Dec-
orated parchment binding. Uniform with
Cyclopedia of Painters, and Paintings and
Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. Special
price to New York Schools, $20.00. Regul-
lar, $25.00.
HANDBOOK.
STYLES.
Translated from the German of A ROSEN-
GARTEN by W. COLLETT–LANDERS. New
sºn, with 639 illustrations.
$2.50.
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENT.
The Characterization of Style. An intro-
ductory to the History of Ornamental Art.
By R. N. WoRNUM. Illustrated. 8vo.
OF ARCHITECTURAL
A majorićy of these books haze been specially recommended for tise 2% connection 292//, //he
Course of Study, and copies should be in every school in Žhe city. Prices given are
retail. A large reduction is allozved to the city.
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 153-157 FIFTH Ave., New YORK.
sº Psi Psi Psi_2 < De Dse De Ds: D = Ds Ds: Ds: Os: D&G -&GC-C-C-C-C-G->"&"Gº Gº &
vi
I vol., 8vo.
$3.20.
f
I)&W YOrk Cºachers' ſºil00tàpb$.
APRIL, 1898.
The Spirit Of Manual Training.
DY JAMES P. HANEy, M. D., SUPERVISOR OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE
BoRoughs of MANHATTAN AND THE BRONx,
NEW YORK CITY.
“And others’ follies teach us not,
Nor much their wisdom teaches:
And most, of sterling worth, is what
Our own experience preaches.”
—TENNYSON.
DUCATIONAL progress seeks to-day, as in the time of Comenius, to
discover a rule in accordance with which teachers shall teach less and
learners learn more: to evolve a system wherein the child shall be-
come the chief instrument in his own development.
A system so devised should aim to preserve the child’s imaginative
power, guide his spirit of inquiry, direct his constructive desires, should be
content with no passive reflection, should recognize that for intellectual de-
velopment using must come with learning. In such a system the teacher's part
must not be magnified at the expense of that of the child, who, more than
recipient, more even than reproducer, must learn and must use, but above
all must create. Creative self-activity—this was Froebel’s ideal; peculiar
to no special form of occupation, it is the essence of all that is included
in the term manual training.
The name manual training is misleading, is narrowing. It would seem
to involve but a schooling of the fingers, would seem to neglect the
brain which moves the hand. Thus some have pleaded for it merely as a
cultivation of the external sense organs, or have urged its cause for the sake
of the economic advantages which accrue to the skilled artisan. All such
ignore its higher claims to recognition. ... • * * * * > .
The seat of manual as of mental skill is in the mind. It wºre idle,.
therefore, to speak of an education training both mind and land: ‘:špecieſ •. ©
sense and motor training mean but the development of brain centres, nºt ‘.
special organs; through motor channels can mentai'itetion make its only e
signs, can brain making and brain co-ordination bgcºle visible. Only so - ... .
far as the material products of manual training exiàf the degree and per- . .”:
fection of intellectual processes are they educationáriºgluable. ... :
The economic and utilitarian advantages of surgh irgining do not com: "... ."
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst. • * ". .” ‘....' * . • * e e
2 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
pare with the moral and intellectual; Froebel saw that more valuable
than the things produced or the skill gained was the change that might be
wrought in selfhood. This idea of manual training has gained ground but
slowly. Educational ends and educational means are not always distinguished;
the first, constant, aiming at the development of the mind, is often confused
with the second, which changes with social conditions and knowledge of
how mental development takes place. But physiology and psychology bear
witness to the value and truth of Froebel's ideal; theirs is the power which
is to overcome the natural conservatism of the teaching class, which is to
gain for manual training recognition as an educational means making toward
the educational end.
Through the nerve channels to the hand and eye the child most natur-
ally gains experience; all knowledge so gained should seek expression.
Learning without the consciousness of application offers no incentive to the
child; thought and action are separate, the material learned is not made
part of the conditions of life. Increased power to execute should accom-
pany increased power to think. Constructive work, manual work, connects
itself easily with the child's everyday environment. It creates natural
motives for acquiring information, gives the power to accomplish with the
power to conceive. In the manual training idea, thought and action are
inseparable, material things are made the basis for the development of that
which Froebel terms the inner life of the child.
One of the purposes of education is to reveal to the pupil his true indi-
viduality, his special powers. This manual training aims to do. Productive
self-activity is greatest in the early years of the child’s evolution; given but
appropriate conditions and opportunities, he will develop by virtue of inher-
ent forces, will need no external stimulus on the part of the instructor to
draw him out. \
Children are naturally constructive rather than destructive; the
originating element of character should therefore be trained with the execu-
tive. The child develops by doing, “grows by doing,” but as motive power
is higher than operative power, the doing should be under guidance of the
will, should never degenerate into a mere mechanical performance. Self-
activity and spontaneity are mere empty terms unless the principles which
they represent are practiced; their education neglected in early years they
can never later be trained to produce their best results. The principles of
manual training teach that, not knowledge, but knowledge in use, is power.
They advocate not the theoretical alone or the practical, but a union of both,
a'inići. Wirień:respects the individuality of the child.
'.... ſºmânăl training idea partakes in a measure of the theory of Pesta.
It'zzi, but issil broader. Says Adler, “Pestalozzi aimed to introduce the
•child to the objects:0% nature by bringing him into direct contact with those
objects. Manuar.trºling causes pupils to learn the properties of things by
the making of them:It is in the ideal of Froebel that manual training
... finds its fullest expressiºn. To Froebel the child was more than an observer,
• more than a copyist"; he was an inventor, a creator.
" . In true selfºctivity the motive that causes the action originates with
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 3
the child itself. Observation thus induced from within is most definite 3.
thus stimulated it gives mental balance. Attention must be developed
through interest; manual training studies are interest studies. They seek
simultaneously to increase spontaneity of action and dexterity of execution;
this was Froebel's idea. Other educators have aimed to develop them apart
or have failed to heed the former. -
The discussion of the spirit of manual training need include no lengthy
recitation of physiological facts; nor concern itself with theories regarding
the development of new brain cells or the increase in the functioning
power of cells already present. Nerve cells grow like other parts of the
body, and, like other parts of the body, depend for their development upon
nutrition and the exercise of function. Years must elapse after birth
before the brain reaches its maximum power. This fact makes possible
higher evolution, makes possible the improvement of the race.
As the infant grows, sense impressions are recorded in the sensor
brain, and motor activities arise in motor areas. Education should look to
the development of sensor and of motor brain as such development becomes
possible, should look still further and to the more important end —their co-
ordination. Both fail of their full development in a system which stops at
receptivity and reflection without accompanying action. -
Education ought to follow the physical development of the brain. In
the words of a well known writer, “there is something paradoxical in the
fact that while education is professedly based on psychology, and psychology
ever since Locke has been emphasizing the importance of the senses in the
development of mental activity, nevertheless sense training is accorded
but a narrow corner in the school and that grudgingly.” The growth of
sense-power and of manual dexterity is but the growth of the brain.
“Every action,” writes Du Bois Raymond, “depends not so much on the
contraction of a muscle as on the exact force of that contraction. The
peculiar movements reside in the motor ganglion cells; such movements
are properly nerve gymastics.” -
Yet it is not as a form of physical exercise that manual training seeks
recognition ; nor does it aim at automatism. It teaches knowledge,
exercised as is power exercised, but not apart ; between work manual and
work intellectual it recognizes but a difference of degree. Ideas motor are
borne in memory as are sense impressions, “we see with all we have seen
and act with the help of past actions.” Education is, in the words of
Rousseau, nothing but a formation of habits, but the processes of manual
training should not be carried on after they have ceased tº-gºtrº 5?ain
work, have ceased to be instrumental in brain development: . . . . . ; ; ; ; ;
*
ſº
º
•
tº º
Q &
Manual training aims to broaden the sources ºf impressions, to.” .
strengthen the powers of expression. Its occupations thrawing, painting,
modeling, constructive work of every kind are therefjº:but means to an
end, never the end itself. More valuable are the injérºfesults of Imanual
training than the outer and material products. A natiºw' and utilitarian
spirit defeats this aim. - .*.*.*.*.
Utilitarianism always desires perfection of execution fiequently stifles ©
• a c •
© * º
*
& e
e
•.
2 o
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$ 9
* * * * * *
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4 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
the spirit in seeking the letter. “This demand for perfection,” says the
author of Fors Clavigera, “is always a sign of a misunderstanding of the
end of the art; the imperative demand for finish is narrow because it
refuses better things than finish.” Finish and uniformity may be obtained
far more easily than freedom and originality, but that work is not best for
the child which requires the least effort to teach.
Of all the forms of creative expression, drawing is the most funda-
mental. Connected with it are to be found the employments which afford
the training necessary to make symmetrical and unified a manual training
course. The spirit of such a course demands that drawing be of concep-
tions subjective as well as objective; when purely imitative it gives no
chance for self expression. Such expression should not be confined, should
seek for realization in all the studies of the curriculum. So, too, with
modeling and constructive work; these are not ends, but helps in connec-
tion with the subject matter found in literature, in science, in art.
If manual training is based on sound pedagogic principles, it should be
introduced into every grade of a school course. The power and dexterity
which it teaches cannot be learned otherwise than in the manner required
in school. The child who fails of the training, while passing through the
years when such development is possible, becomes incapable of acquiring
the highest skill. If this training is not given at School it can be gained
only at the cost of neglecting the education which can be gotten from books.
The curriculum which includes manual training prepares the child for
the labor of future years, as no curriculum can which does not include it.
Many-sided results are gotten from its courses. Neatness and dexterity are
cultivated, true conceptions of form and color are developed, the elements
of beauty in nature and art are studied and power is given to select
from masses of materials those most appropriate to specific purposes.
But no one operation, even that of drawing, is in itself essential. The
spirit of manual training recognizes a principle rather than a practice.
The principle teaches but one law—that power acquired shall be used again,
transformed by self. This only is essential. The time spent in completing
specific exercises may vary, the spirit of the work should pervade every
lesson of the day. - -
For Froebel has been claimed the fatherhood of all manual training;
his principles are applicable at every age and in every school; they are
fundamental, are dependent upon the nature of the child. The purpose of
the work is to stir up, animate, awaken the human being to labor un-
... • inflºppedly at his own education, the power, that of the grand old fairy of
3.
• “.....Kittgsley's.charming tale, who passive, caused beings to make themselves.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 5.
Conventionalization.
By SALLY E. FIELD, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY.
look ahead is proverbially the wise thing to do, there-
fore it were wise before discussing the subject of design
to examine the end for which it is created. This will
be found to be, the ornamentation of all the common
objects of every day use, as well as objects already rare
and beautiful in themselves. The desire to put some-
thing of ourselves into our surroundings dates back to the days when “our
father Adam sat under the tree and scratched with a stick in the mould.”
It has been common to humanity through all ages and all peoples, though
in the art of primitive people like the Aztecs, the effort was all expended
in the ornamentation of their few possessions. Without the stimulus which
comes from a study of the work of former peoples, and with few crude
tools, the decorations of their water jars, blankets and weapons were simple
and naive. -
Yet even in these earliest records of design, we find two distinct sources
of inspiration: the one being merely a pleasing arrangement of lines, or
lines and spots, the other a more or less realistic treatment of some natural
form. To distinguish between the results of these -
entirely different sources is not always easy. Take for "/ 7 // / / / / /
instance these two borders: - - - .
The first suggests nothing, and is merely pleasing 25 2S25 2.NZS
in its repetition. The second is distinctly traceable to ZS ŽS Ø\ ^ à
- EF
the marks of the waves on the Sand. -
As the use of an abstract form comes thus early in the progress of
design, it is the first effort required from the child. Many good variations
can soon be produced with simple abstractions—tablets and sticks; and
later, still more varied designs with lines and spots. Below are shown a few
examples of the latter, which are particularly pleasing in the originality
that is shown in the arrangement of such limited material.
—- s—es—- \"\"\"\"\"\"\\
3 & 23.2% & See-Se’.
Now let us examine that form of design that has been thought out by
man from his observation of certain forms or suggestions found in Nature.
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
Žºržoz's renderings %
ºffe 2.72%
FROM “NATURE IN ORNAMENT.” -
* By permission Charles Scribner’s Sons.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ M ON OGRAPHS. º
It is obvious that this does not mean a reproduction of Nature; that has its
place in pictorial art, and its reason for being in the portrayal of some par-
ticular phase or effect. Its charm and suggestiveness would become trite,
were it repeated or applied to some object which in its use is separate in
idea. As in ornament our purpose is different, so our treatment is different.
There must be certain self restraint, together with a selection of important
facts in perfect accord with the conditions under which we work.
Following out these thoughts let us contrast these vases.
In the first we are impressed by the simplicity of the form, though
when we consider the decoration we find a new pleasure in the use the artist
has made of his motive and in the natural interest attached to the motive
itself. It is the positive idea of the wave, not the accidental aspect of
the moment. - -
In the other example the same motive has been used,
but the designer is an evident adherent of the mistaken
creed that all Nature being good, we may use her forms
without modification. He has simply copied a phase of the
sea, one beautiful in itself, but possessing chiefly the beauty
of constant change, which has its place on the canvas. Be-
cause of the inherent difference between pictorial and
decorative art it is out of place on the useful article. -
Now that we see the necessity of a special treatment in the making of
ornament, we may venture to use the term “conventionalization ” to describe
that treatment. It is a wide term, however, and admits of various inter-
pretations. We can best understand these various possibilities of treatment
by analyzing some representative historic styles. Let us contrast the two
earliest, the Egyptian and the Greek. -
NEW YORK TEACHERS
MONOGRAPHS.
“ NATURE IN ORNAMENT.”
I'ROM
SOns.
Charles Scribner's
By permission
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 9
A very slight familiarity with Egyptian art would instantly suggest
the Lotus. But what form can we discern in the Greek example? We
see numerous indications of plant forms, but not a group of the character-
istics of one plant. Examining more closely it would seem that the artist has
started with certain beautiful lines and had clothed them from his recollec-
tions of plant forms in general. It is more of a composition than a con-
ventionalization. We must believe that the leaves, branches, and even the
tendrils—these last comparatively natural—are placed in their position more
from a feeling of happy arrangement of spaces than from the desire to
make the most of any local truth. The laws of natural growth are pre-
served, but the growth peculiar to the vine, which the presence of the ten-
dril might have led us to expect, is wholly missing. * -
In contradistinction to the Greek method
we have the more suggestive Egyptian. Here
is all the beautiful composition of line and mass,
not so varied as in the Greek, but full of
truth. By this is retained, in solemn and digni-
fied manner, the particular characteristics of the
Lotus.
So much for the way in which these ancient
works were conceived. By bringing our study
- down to more modern days we shall discover
what variations, if any, may be found in the moods of interpretation. Tran-
isitional styles will not help us, so we will pass by all intervening epochs in
decorations and take two distinctive types, the Saracenic and the Gothic.
In the two examples here shown, executed in widely different countries
and times, we find the same motive and even the same relative placing of
masses. Yet how widely different the whole effect! The Gothic designer
made a careful study of the vine, noting the laws of growth, its tendency to
coil, the way in which it supports itself by the clutching tendrils, and its
manner of branching. He was clever enough not to disregard the laws of
growth for the sake of perfect symmetry, yet he gave his branches that effect
Saracenic Ornament.
without actual bilateral arrangement. The effect of symmetry would have
been more apparent, had not the drawing been left unfinished, to illustrate
the “growth.” Notice, too, the use the artist has made of certain decorative
features of the plant. The intricacy of the tendrils and the pleasing con-
T0
YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
NEW
FROM “ NATURE IN ORNAMENT.”
I3y permission Charlos Scribner’s Sons.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 11
trast of line in the serrated edge of the leaf, as opposed to the long sweeps
of the stem and branches. In the Saracenic treatment of the vine there is
nowhere visible a close study of the plant. There is fashioned a pleasing
flow of lines without restraining fancy by the laws of growth. This does
not jar because all the details have been treated with the same impartial
freedom. It would seem that the thoughts of the designer had played
around the idea of the leaf giving, even in this short section of the design,
two distinct modifications. -
With this great difference in method between the Gothic and the
Saracenic styles goes a connection in spirit which has guided our choice of
them for purposes of contrast. Their similarity is caused by a certain in-
tricacy or mystery in the thought of both peoples. It was accompanied in
the Gothic art, by a feeling for vigor and strength; in the Saracenic by
grace and subtlety. The Egyptian and Greek are without these sprightly
qualities. In method, we properly class the Egyptian and Gothic together
as adhering more closely to Nature in her particular phases. In contrast,
the Greek and Saracenic simply take general ideas of their model, allowing
great latitude in their detail. We might call the first a literal, the second,
a free translation of the form, or in designer's terms, “strict” and “free”
conventionalizations. -
It can readily be seen how much may be gained through the study OI’
even the drawing of good examples of the historic styles. But the help
that we get must be through the method, not the spirit, for the spirit of our
time is not the spirit of the Gothic, Saracenic or Greek. There is an old
proverb concerning new wine and old bottles, and we shall do well to avoid
Gothic Ornament.
the equal incongruity of an Egyptian symbol modified by Young America.
Or, as Taine has put it, “We must neither depreciate nor imitate, but invent
and comprehend. History must be respectful and art original. We must
admire what we have and what we lack; we must do otherwise than our
ancestors and praise what our ancestors have done.”
Turning from the study of the historic styles let us take our first step
toward original design by the study of a plant with a view to its habit.
There are, of course, some plants far more adaptable to decorative purposes.
than others –for instance, the poppy, dandelion, tulip and wistaria. The
12 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MON OGRAPHS.
list could be lengthened indefinitely. There are others however, so prim and
stiff in themselves that an attempt to use them is likely to result in still
greater rigidity. Among these may be classed the dahlia, oxalis, aster and
daisy. The peculiarity of a plant's growth, the attitude in which it holds
its head, the manner in which the leaves grow, branching or opposite, or in
a spiral, all these things suggest possibilities. Add to these the various
forms of seed vessels, pods or berries, and the ways in which the fruit is
scattered, or grouped, and we realize that from the smallest garden may
come material that will serve every purpose.
To one of these garden flowers, the crocus, we will now direct our
attention. Our first step is to make a study of it as it appears, this with a
view to our acquaintance with the flower itself. It has been pictured just
as it grew without regard to our ultimate end. -
Our next step is to discard all accident of light and shade, and small
irregularities of line. We also cease to regard the exact relationship of
particular flowers and leaves, and use our modified flowers in space division.
We gain a general concept from our sketch of the flower, and from this
knowledge have been able, with forms conventionalized for that purpose,
to fill our space. It has been built up with no reference to geometrical
repetition; our one thought has been to make a pleasing arrangement of
lines and spaces. We have striven for variety of proportion. This means
little more than an adaptation of large and small spaces, which in itself
gives an element of interest. We must have variety in the shapes of the
spaces and in the lines surrounding them.
Now for our consideration of the treatment of the flower for geometri-
cal repetition. It is evident that as the form is to be reproduced many
times and by mechanical means, we must necessarily use more restraint in
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 13
the expression. We have retained and made the most of the upward growth
of the leaves and of the irregular patches in which the flowers grow.
There is still another kind of modification, that of abstract forms, such
as the square, diamond, kite, triangle and circle. Here we pursue the same
method we have used in the consideration of flower forms. We take the
positive truths or underlying proportions, (as for instance the four equal
sides and equal corners of the square, the four equal sides and two acute and
two obtuse corners of the diamond) and no matter how varied our line
keep these facts constantly in view.
Egº,
It is always encouraging to see what has been done in the development
of a subject, so that some illustrations of what good work the children can
do may prove inspiring. These figures illustrate proportion and strength,
and are free from useless interior decoration.
14 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Applied Design.
• . ; BY GRACE WRIGHT, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL
* TRAINING, NEw York CITY.
gºN the making of a design, besides the appropriate placing
and spacing of the pattern, consideration must be given
to the question of the material in which it is to be repro-
duced and of its comparative suitability for the purpose
to which it is to be applied.
All processes of reproduction, printing, casting, carving
or weaving have their limitations. Within certain limits, they determine
the method of treatment. This is particularly true of the first limitation—
space division.
Ornament to keep its true position, subordinate to the use of the form
for which it is designed, requires the existence of a particular space to be
covered. This space may be the oblong of a book cover, the curved surface
of a cup, the general form of a lock or the shapes made by the intersection
of the lines or geometric pattern. . .
In the study of conventionalization the square form is treated as a unit
—m- to be modified. It may now be examined as a space
offering many possibilities for decoration. One of the sim-
plest ways in which to break up the surface is by a plaid
or chintz pattern. The checkered appearance thus pro-
duced is made up of straight lines and right angles. These
could of course be placed at regular intervals making but
but an assembly of smaller squares. But such a design would lack the
variety which is displayed in the illustration though the lines composing
the pattern are all of the same length.
With the circular space it is difficult to
follow this method of using the boundary of
lines, though, in the arrangement of a plant
motive it is possible to give a suggestive con-
formity to the surrounding lines, while still
preserving the character of the plant and the
laws of its growth. The general trend of the
main lines should be in harmony with the
circle though certain minor lines are in opposi-
tion for the sake of variety.
A third way in which the arrangement
may be brought in accord with the figure,
is shown in the spotting of the flowers in the triangular space. The
Copyrightod, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
* * * * * *
*::-": ;
*Y. j
-, *-'. - ... "... — *...*- **:--- *** - -
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 15
effect aimed at here is grace and movement. It would have been out
of keeping with this spirit had a more exact symmetrical placing of the
flowers been adopted. The drawing of the leaves is in keeping with this
spirit yet the way in which they sweep toward the corners gives emphasis
to the triangular form.
Again the tulip as motive may be made to fill an oblong space. Here
is evident a more severe arrangement, to correspond with the upright char-
acter of the panel. The flowers and leaves grow in harmony with the verti-
cal lines, while imaginary horizontal lines are indicated by their tips.
Fitness is a limitation equally important - - -
to the designer. It must be taken into at-
tention the moment an ornament is planned
for an object. The decoration of an object
should never interfere with its utility. The
door knobs, the hand rail, should be smooth
no matter how ornate the lock scutcheon or
the balusters. The carved chair or table
should have no deep indentations or sharp
points which might cause discomfort to the
sitter or catch and tear the clothing.
A design unsuited to its purpose is shown ||
in the illustration of the chair back. The space ||
division is good and the lines interesting, but
the purpose is defeated by placing the carved head, just where the sitter
would lean back for support. * * *
Perhaps the most imperative restriction is that
of the material in which the design is to be worked
out. The same space division might be suitable to
different materials, but the details must be made to
conform to the possibilities of the medium. In the
illustrations of wrought iron and lace, the same struc-
tural spiral has been used, but the treatment has been
strictly in accord with the limitations of the reproduc-
but the filmy character of the lace forbids the long
Design Illustrating sweeps of the metal and necessity causes the designer
Lack Of Fitness. - . . • º' - º w" . . * * : * > . . . . .
- to break the line of the woven form by the addition
of as much detail as possible. •
tive processes. The use of iron presupposes strength,
16 NEW YORK TEACHERS ’ MONOGRAPHS.
Again that which seems well applied in printed designs, either upon
paper or textile, would be far too intricate and minute to be executed in
wood or cast iron because of the tendency of these materials to chip.
A certain phase of design con-
nected with interior decoration has
another restriction, that of the plane
at which it is to be viewed. This
applies particularly to the planning
of carpets, wall and ceiling deco-
rations and curtains. It is really a
question in most cases of the effect
of distance or perspective on the -
pattern. Consequently in a carpet a prominent figure reproduced yard by
yard, diminishes, and instead of giving an appearance of flatness, always
desirable in a floor covering, seems to rise toward the line of vision with
distinctly unstable effect.
! #ſº tº
| ſºil; §º. \\
;"|| Wºłº Cºs
ſº. § jś N
. A . i - -
This is obviated by giving to carpet
designs a certain indistinctness of line and
tone. The intricacy of the lines, effectually
preserves the unity, and does not attract
attention to the exact dimensions of the
I’OOIſl.
In a wall covering which should al-
ways serve as a background, there should be
no obtrusive element but rather a feeling of
restfulness and continuity in design, instead
- of a scattered arrangement.
In a curtain, any design which depends for effectiveness on its appear-
ance as a whole, is wasted. This is, of course, due to the obliteration of
portions of the design by the folds in which it hangs. Pleasing juxtaposi-
tion of colors and an intricacy of lines which does not tease the eye, by
reminding us that part of the design is concealed, are
the best qualities of curtain patterns. Another re-
striction concerns a very large class of designs. This
is the necessity of constructing a pattern to be re-
peated by some mechanical means. It is evident that
any prominent feature of such design upon repetition
becomes emphasized and it is, as a rule, the aim of
the designers to avoid, this effect.
The first repeated patterns were probably made
in woven fabrics. From the equal arrangement of
spaces made by the plaiting, there is gotten a pattern
of squares. These as they are variously colored form
checks and plaids. It is often satisfactory to use a
modification of the same form to fill the spaces, as a
modified square unit within a square. The square
turned on end gives us a form approaching the diamond and by drawing
:
§
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|R D
.
f
y
~~~ses
*
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 17
horizontal lines through the corners, there is formed that interesting and
valuable space the triangle. The lines of the square slightly narrowed
from side to side give the diamond and if the diamond be drawn with the
two acute angles equal to one of the obtuse, we can by drawing the hori-
zontal lines form equilateral triangles, six
of these giving the hexagon.
Within these skeleton outlines almost
any design can be built, and in these
shapes or their combinations, there is pre-
sented again the first limitation—a space
to be filled.
Having considered the limitations, the
principles upon which designs must be
planned may be reviewed. These have not been arbitrarily made by
any one man, but have been deduced from a careful study of the practice
of the craftsmen of all times. Because some of the principles have been
peculiar to certain periods of history, there will be found in examples of
such epochs, their most perfect expressions.
The simplest of these repetitions is,
in a certain way, a restriction; it may
also appear as a useful aid, not in the
formation of patterns, but in the arrange-
ment of any form.
The early peoples understood how
to make pleasing ornament out of the
repetition of some simple unit. Two .
borders are shown from the countless -
number that might have been selected
from the Egyptian mummy cases. º
B iation of size in f * S. 20 tº S-
y a variation of size in form or QSS Z.
Egyptian Example of Repetition.
wº.
IVA NAWA A/A AA ANN.
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tº a tº £ g *S*oº
position in these repeated units we F =-º-
bring into use a new principle, alterna-
tion. Alternation of size is here repre-
sented in other Egyptian borders, while from the portal of St. Anne, Notre
Dame, is taken an example of alternation of position and of form.
Radiation from a point is another form of repetition or alternation.
This is expressed in all rosette forms. -
Symmetry can best be defined though not fully ex-
pressed by the word, balance. Its possibilities are many;
a form irregular, even unmeaning in itself gains char-
acter and dignity when bi-laterally repeated. From the
illustration of Gothic carving, the effect of the principle
can be appreciated.
'', In the foregoing principles only the possibilities of
form arrangement have been dealt with. A design of all straight or all
curved lines has its place but much more can be done with a happy
combination of both. None knew this better than did the Greeks who
G.l-Naſ,
Egyptian and Romanesque Borders.
18 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
used effectively not only the straight and curved lines, but also mastered
the use of combined full and gentle curves. In the modeling on the
Temple of Apollo, the constant variety of line is well shown. .
Greek Border Illustrating Variety.
Gothic Example of Symmetry.
All these principles may be followed and yet the pattern may violate
the most important law, that of unity. The subordination of detail.
In a design, if it is to be good each part must lend itself to the general
effect. The “oneness” of the whole must be established and unquestionable.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 19
Illustrative Work In The Primary.
BY FRANCEs RANSOM, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY.
“You may read the character of men in their art, as in a mirror.
“A man may hide himself from you, may misrepresent himself to you in every other way,
out he cannot do so in his work ; there you have him to the inmost. All that he likes, all
that he sees, all that he can do—his affection, his perseverance, his impatience, his clumsi-
ness, cleverness, everything is there. If a work is a cobweb, you know it must be made by
a spider ; if a honey-comb, by a bee; a worm cast is thrown up by a worm; a nest wreathed
by a bird; and a house is built by a man—worthily, if he is worthy; ignobly, if he is
ignoble.”—JoBIN RUSKIN.
There is no subject in our school curriculum that can equal drawing in
externalizing the child’s thoughts and ideas. Many of the leading educa-
tors and psychologists have been giving much scientific attention to the
teaching of drawing for this reason. -
What is known as unconscious drawing has enabled the educator to look
at the world from the standpoint of the child. This standpoint gives him
vantage ground from which he can work out more effective and natural
methods of education. The teacher can thereby gain a surer comprehension
of each little child intrusted to her care.
What must we consider in undertaking to teach drawing to children :
In order to get their freest, fullest expression, they must be surrounded by
an atmosphere of encouragement. We all know how we show our best side
to certain people when sure of sympathy. As a plant to develop to its
fullest glory, must have warm, genial air and sunshine, so children under
the proper conditions, often cause us to be astonished, though sometimes
amused, at their early attempts in drawing. Now, the important side of
this instruction for the little folks is the idea side, not the technique side.
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
20 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Thought should be liberated first. As the minds of the children struggle to
gain a hold on the world around them, their impressions are acted. Chil-
dren talk constantly, are always moving, and it is only when they act out
these impressions by words, making gestures or pictures, that these ideas
become a part of their knowledge. This reproduction is what helps them get
a tangible hold of the idea, for the impression is strengthened by the expres-
ision. If the idea side is kept prominent, the perfection of expression will
come later. - - * *
Very simple stories told in rhyme are excellent subjects for illustrations
by the children in the first three years of school life. In the first place,
poetry appeals to them more than prose, and if the poetry is simple, the
rhyme helps them to remember it. The story should relate some little inci-
dent, “full of action,” but with few actors. In this way they can be taught to
concentrate upon one central thought. - -
Children themselves, however, have no
fear of any subje no matter how large it
may be. They knºw no limits. A line is
swept in for the earth, another line, usually
curved, represents the sky, and everything
between is rapidly indicated. They even
at times try to soar above the sky line and
picture what they have heard of heaven.
No train on the elevated road or twenty-
story sky-scraper baffled a child of normal
development. If we expect from these
young draughtsmen a roomful of pictures
worthy of reproduction in I/arper's Monthly
we will be sadly disappointed, for the anat-
omy of the human figure is most sadly
distorted. The head is a circle with dots'
for eyes, the mouth sometimes represented -
by a miniature ladder, and the nose by the letter A. Very often the nose
becomes a problem in a full face view and is put on the side (see illustra-
tion). With very young children the body is often entirely missing, and
the arms and legs burst spontaneously from the head. Sometimes a hat
suspended in midair above the head, and a row of buttons where the body
and coat ought to be, complete the picture which the little artist views
with much satisfaction. The drawings might be arranged in three classes—
those which are mere scribbles, those which are coherent, and those in a
transitional stage between the two. - -
The rhyme of “Ding, dong bell, Pussy’s in the Well” was to be illus.
trated by a 1A class. The best of the coherent drawings is shown in Fig. 1,
while Fig.2 shows the most incoherent expression. All the other drawings
show different stages between these two. Fig. 1 shows the work of a child
who has much natural ability. He is very peculiar, talking little and with
great effort, but expressing himself freely with the pencil. The little boy
who drew Fig. 2, is a bright child who talks freely, but finds it hard to ex-
press himself well through material. -
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 21
Now, although everything should be done to conserve American
genius, our public schools are for the many and not the few. What can be
done to help children who express themselves after the fashion of Fig. 2 or
who are in the transitional stage After the drawing is completed a little
talk reviewing points spoken of before the drawing commenced, will show
how many have expressed certain points in the story correctly.
Out of fifty-seven drawings there were only four which did not make a
difference in the size of “Little Tommy Green” and “Big John Stout.”
From the corpulency with which many drew the latter they must have in-
terpreted it as “Stout John.” One had little Tommy in the well with the
cat. An X-ray seemed to be turned on the wells as every one seemed in a
transparent state, showing the water and the cat in it, the drawings being
“knowledge pictures” telling all they knew about a thing—a record of
facts instead of a picture drawing. Usually these facts have to do with the
Muse of the object. -
ſ - A. tº: \
Ö tººl, ſhlºt \g.
To bring the children out of this scribble age is our object, to give play
to their originality and imagination along with the power of expression
That they made a difference in the size of the two boys was one conquest.
Another conquest was shown in the fact that all but two or three had the
cat in the well or in the hands of one of the boys.
Where the objects are scattered about on the paper it often indicates a
scattered mind. So, often we find children who tell with their tongue how
a thing looks, but on trying the same story with the pencil seem wanting.
This shows that they did not have the visual image connected with the right
expression. These children are the ones we should help to make sure of
themselves, whom we should help to get their ideas together so that they
may express those ideas intelligibly to others. g
When a child makes a little picture he turns a mirror on his inner self
and gives more of himself than in any other kind of expression. He is more
sensitive to a criticism on this work than any other and if we find fault with
22 - NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
it or make fun of it we injure him. Immediately he shuts himself up and
curbs that freedom of thought and action so necessary to full development.
To the child, drawing is a more
natural method of conveying his
thoughts than in writing, for long
before he is taught writing he at-
tempts pictures. This natural ten-
dency should be utilized in stimulating
thought and power of observation.
The attention is called to certain
points and a new visual image con-
trols the motor expression. As he
grows older he gains a greater com-
mand over material and can use those
to express himself in other studies —
language, geography, Science.
The muscles of the eyes and
hands of little children are not suffi-
ciently developed to do fine or ac-
curate work and much harm may be
done by exacting perfect work at an
early age. With training and en-
couragement they will soon become
possessed of more ideas and ways to
express them. In starting the work
do not despise small beginnings or
what often seem to be no beginnings.
It is not always necessary to use
chalk, charcoal or pencil in this kind
of reproduction, for scissors may be
employed advantageously in “story
work.” - -
The use of Scissors may at first
seem difficult but a few lessons will
prove them to be valuable aids. After
the story is talked over, the children take the sheet of paper and a pair of
scissors and without any preliminary drawing with pencil proceed to cut,
out the picture which is in their mind. This form of exercise has it
advantages, for it necessitates simple expression, the elimination of much
detail and the estimation of the amount of material. -
Incidental criticism or suggestion may be begun very early, and large,
full, free work encouraged from the start, the teacher remembering always.
that “the letter” of the law leads to death and “the spirit” leads on to life
full, rich and abundant.
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPH.S. 23
School Collections.
By JESSIE KELLOGG, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY. -
TN the far-away childhood of the race, man lived a desultory sort of life, in -
keeping with his nomadic impulses, having little and seeming not to
need. In the course of his progress he brought to himself the things
of the world about him, the character of his accumulations varying as his
conditions changed. -
Gathering in his early days bright pebbles, and shells, skins, metals and
precious stones, he went on through the years bringing together not only
the things of nature, but those of manufacture as well, the results of his
own growth and development, textiles, embroideries and tapestries for his
own use first, later for the mere pleasure of collecting and possessing.
The great museums of the present day witness to this human desire to
collect things. The nature of the collections differ as the temperaments,
tastes and aims of the collectors vary. - -
In collecting coins, bric-a-brac, curios, pottery, paintings and Sculpture,
and things wonderful and beautiful in nature, men of wealth satisfy the in-
herent tendency in themselves, and give to the world the opportunity for
greater development through study of material arranged and classified.
To a great degree, this same story of the race is repeated in the devel-
opment of the little child through the incoherent acts of its babyhood until
it begins to associate sound with things and things with each other, so that
they come to be known as truths. There is in the existence of every
boy, a period which might be known as the “Stamp Age,” to which he is
sure to come. This passion for collecting expresses itself in pockets full of
marbles, boxes of birds' eggs, cases of butterflies and beetles, stamp albums
and even collections of cigarette cards. Cannot we, whose happiness it is
to lead little children, turn to good account this certain propensity ? -
Only as we associate our study with the world of things, does it become
itself a living thing. Especially is this true in the study of the type solids,
dead things in themselves unless clothed by the imagination, and associated
with the familiar forms of life. There are many simple things resembling
the types which even the very poor children may find and bring—a big
spool, perhaps, a tiny cup and saucer, a toy rolling-pin, a little basket, a
bottle. . . . . - -
“But how shall we go at it?” sighs the weary teacher; “we ask them
to bring things but they don’t bring them.” Those who most inspire to
noble striving are those who have themselves achieved the thing, or at least
a part of that to which they incite the efforts of others. “If you would
lift me up, you must be on higher ground,” said one who thought truly.
The teacher’s field of observation is broader than that of the children; her
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
24 - NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
possibilities are greater. So she will work together with them, and as she
interests them in searching for things, she, too, will look for things. She
will compare notes with the children from day to day; she will be one with
them, by conversations, by joyous comradeship, by keeping ever-open eyes.
By making use of the sketches of the simple things that are brought in,
the collection grows, and at the close of the term the class has a museum of
which it may be proud. The less desirable things may then be cast aside
and the better ones retained as a nucleus for the collection of the next class.
So, little by little, the teacher forms a permanent collection of still life
objects. - -
In a similar way the first collection of pictures may be commenced, the
teacher working with the children. Papers and magazines, catalogues and
advertising pamphlets furnish an inexhaustible store for the collector.
Many undesirable things may be brought in, and many surprisingly good
ones from unexpected sources. Discrimination plays an important part
right here. It will often be wise to suppress some offerings, and perhaps give
the little worker an opportunity to exchange a picture from a few reserved
by the teacher for this purpose. - -
Though a large part of the value of this work is the mere fact of col-
lecting, and the interest and enthusiasm which this incites and stimulates,
the interest itself dies soon, if the children do not see the fruits of their
labors. The question of keeping the offerings thus becomes a not inconse-
quent one. For pictures of things like the type solids, it is perhaps better
to have a large chart, or two charts upon which pictures may be mounted.
These may be made from cardboard or from heavy oak tag paper. The
pictures of things “round like the ball” may be mounted upon one chart,
and those “round like the penny ” upon the other—those resembling the
geometric plane figures upon the other.
Much, so much of the appearance of the charts depends upon the trim-
ming and mounting of the pictures. They should be trimmed evenly and
with narrow margins when possible, and mounted with thought of size, po-
sition and space. A tiny drop of mucilage or paste near the corners will be
found much neater than to gum the entire back. -
A deal of help will be found in the borders and rosettes with which
the advertising pages abound, and which illustrate the principles of orna-
mentation which are to be taught. These designs may form an additional
chart; while still one other suggests itself as a means for preserving the bits of
colored material brought in by the children. Here, perhaps still greater
care is needed in mounting, to avoid the bizarre effect produced by bring-
ing together many different and unrelated colors. Pieces of textile fabrics
should not be too large, should be carefully trimmed and with the other
color examples may be mounted with some reference to the order of the
spectrum chart, and to strength of tone, the lighter towards the top. It is
a good idea to mount bits of the standard color papers along the upper
edge as guides, and the children may discuss with the teacher the placing
of specimens upon the chart. Thus are excellent lessons learned in judg
ment of color relations. -
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. - 25,
As the holidays come near and the children study the lives of men
whose days they celebrate, many pictures will come to their notice and
other charts will grow. With the close of the term, such of these as have
served their purpose, should be destroyed and new ones commenced with
the new class. . . - -
Pictures are helpful in the study of almost every subject, making real
and vivid what otherwise is perhaps an indistinct or distorted impression of
places, people or things. Teachers who feel that they have not time for this.
will find, if they try it, that they have not time to teach without these helps.
In the study of Historic Ornament, perhaps the work depends more
upon the teacher, for less material comes within the reach of the student,
though much may be available. Pictures representing people and customs
as well as the architecture and ornament of the various countries and styles.
will be found helpful. These may be mounted upon charts, or separately
upon heavy paper or card-board if large enough for classroom purposes, or
used as illustrations for note books as they seem best suited.
Pictures which tell an evident story, perhaps some story which the
children are familiar with, may gradually be collected. These may be
mounted separately upon heavy paper or light card-board—a soft gray or
a dull terra cotta makes a satisfactory background. They may be kept in
folios, sometimes passed among the pupils, sometimes hung upon the wall,
often the subjects of conversations. Thus utilized they are ever a delight
and a pride to the children, because they are visible results of their own.
achievement. These may be kept from term to term, the pupils of succeed-
ing classes adding to the collection as may be possible. - -
How may a principle of good composition or indeed, any special point
in any particular line be better illustrated than by showing how a master.
has treated a similar subject? In many schools the only pictures available.
are those bought by the teachers and students, and the only opportunity for
the study of good pictures is from these. Is there anything more helpful
and inspiring than good work from a master hand? “You can’t do a fine
thing without having seen fine examples.” The magazines abound in re-
productions from the old and the modern masters, that there is no lack of
very fair material, and in passing from the lower to the higher grades, the
research is ever more fascinating. -
Aside from the direct help which is found in the pictures for study and
illustration, it is not an insignificant consideration that the boys and girls.
are opening their eyes to the simple material at hand and learning to dis-
criminate between the good and the bad. -
Viewed in this light, the gathering of collections is no burden but.
rather a powerful aid. But one should bear in mind the words of a great.
teacher: “Above all, see that your work is easily and happily done, else it.
will never make any one else happy.” -
26 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS'.
Composition.
By EDITH TAYLOR, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY.
HE underlying idea in the arrangement of a group of objects is sociabil-
ity. The objects should appear to be good friends, drawn together by
similarity of tastes, or by common pursuits. The vegetables of the
kitchen form a pleasant though humble little coterie with perhaps a bright
copper kettle shining in the background, but are uncouth when brought into
contrast with visitors from the upper circles, the more polished grapes,
pears, and apples. The type solids should not be combined with natural
objects, but drawn in groups by themselves.
Contrast in form and line should be aimed at. The straight lines of
a basket group well with the rounded contours of natural objects spilled
from its mouth. Contrast may also be obtained by variety of position, one
subject lying on its side, and another standing upright. The objects should
not be placed at equal distances from each other, nor should they be placed
in a straight line, a square, or a circle. The eye detects at once the
geometric arrangement, and the effect is unpleasant. -
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The best groups are those which “tell a story.” Articles of no intrinsic
beauty sometimes combine to form an interesting composition by reason of
their association. Even a prosaic scrubbing brush, and a pail with a wet
cloth draped over its side are not beneath our consideration, if they are
well arranged. They are better represented standing on a floor, the cracks
of which are suggested, than raised to nearly the level of the eyes on a chair
or desk. It is not always possible for the groups to be a story, and arti-
cles inharmonious in size and form should not be combined simply for lit-
erary effect. We should be careful, however, that no glaring iucongruities
occur. The real purpose is to create a harmony of line and mass, no part
of which shall detract from the unity of the whole. Composition is the
putting together of parts to form an harmonious whole.
Simplicity should be observed here as in all art. Many small objects -
are confusing and uninteresting. Comparative size should be considered,
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
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28 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
and nothing introduced which is out of scale with the rest. There should,
however, be one principal object about which to center the interest of the
group. Sir Joshua Reynolds says: “In a composition when the objects
are scattered and divided into many equal parts, the eye is perplexed and
fatigued, not knowing where to find the principal action, or which is the
principal figure. When all are making equal pretentions to notice, all are
in equal danger of neglect. The expression which is used very often on
these occasions is, ‘The piece wants repose,’ a word which expresses per-
fectly the relief of mind from that state of hurry and anxiety which it suf-
fers when looking at work of this character.” - 4.
The most interesting object naturally takes a position near the center
of the field, by virtue of its importance; yet, noblesse oblige, if large, it
modestly retires to the background for fear of obscuring some humbler
member of society. -
- Objects should not be piled upon one another in an undignified mass,
nor yet be so scattered as to appear to have no connection with each other.
We enjoy having our friends about us, but good breeding demands that
they do not crowd us. Even in the case of the type solids, it is not well,
as a rule, to place one upon another, as such an arrangement suggests build-
ing rather than grouping. Leaning one model against another suggests in-
Security, and in a measure destroys the repose of the group.
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impression is given of depth and distance, and an effect of atmosphere is
secured. The result is not pleasing if the entire base of the rearmost form
is hidden, and it is impossible to secure a pleasing arrangement if the
group is on or above the level of the eye. The base line of the composi-
tion then becomes a straight line, and all effect of distance is lost. The
forms themselves become indistinguishable when the contour of the base is
not seen; the cone and the pyramid appear alike, and it is quite impossible
to distinguish the square from the triangular prism, or even from the
cylinder. There should be several groups, arranged in different parts of
the room, at a suitable light, to appear to the best advantage to the pupils.
Individual models for the pupils cannot be too highly recommended, and
may easily be folded of heavy paper. These strips of paper may be col-
lected, tied in a package, and will be found to require very little room for
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 31
storing. With the object so near the eye, the foreshortening will be rather
violent, but at times this is an advantage, as it may be readily demonstrated.
With individual models the position may be dictated, and all the groups
will appear alike. The difficulty of the teacher is thus greatly lessened, for
it otherwise requires considerable experience to enable one to criticize forty
drawings, all from different points of view. -
Books are always at hand and make excellent groups for use in the
higher grammar grades. They are more interesting if signs of wear tell of
a long human companionship. -
The size and position of the drawing on the paper are highly im-
portant, and many a good drawing is made uninteresting by bad placing.
The drawing should be large. Too often the tendency is to make a timid
sketch afloat in a sea of blank paper. Frequently the group is placed too
low on the paper. These difficulties will disappear when the pupils have
been led to see that group as a whole. They should think at first, not of
the individual objects composing the group, but of the greatest width and
the greatest height of the whole. . They should then consider the size suita-
ble for the paper and lightly “block in ’’ or plan out the general propor-
tions of the group before studying any object contained in it. In drawing,
as in education, “The whole before the parts.” -
In arranging a group, the shape of the group as one mass, and particu-
larly the upper line should be studied, as the architect studies the sky-line
of his building. This will not be pleasing if two objects are exactly the
same height, nor if they are graduated in light like a flight of steps.
The best group is perhaps the one with a small object in the center and
a tall one on either side; the safest group, the one pyramidal in form. This
arrangement has been used in very many of the great masterpieces of
painting, sculpture, and architecture. - -
Ruskin and other art critics have said that composition cannot be
taught. A modern artist says, “Art can be caught but not taught.” This
is undoubtedly true of the highest art, but a study of the principles of
unity, variety and repose will bring more art into the pupils’ work and help
them to enjoy the rarely good things of art. The public school does not
seek to develop artists. Its aim is but to open the eyes of the pupil to the
beauties of art and of nature, to give him some power to appreciate, some
power to produce. - -
32
NEW YORK
TEACHERS’
MONOGRAPHS.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. . 33
The Study Of Pictures.
By Louis E PIERCE, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY. - -
ARIOUS are the methods adapted in the solution of the problem of
how best to educate the child; yet nearly all who have practically
essayed it agree that the best results are not to be expected from
a system which demands that pupils spend seven years in dull routine and a
continual grind in the “three R’s.”
However much we may admire the men who have made their mark in
the world and who have had, practically, to educate themselves, we have
long since ceased to expect the majority of children to follow in their foot-
steps with a similar amount of training. As a result there are being
brought as aids in training several forms of work which appeal to the child
and give to him a many-sidedness that is so much to be desired. Among
these as a means of both ethical and mental training comes the study of
pictures. -
Oftentimes there arises the idea that if the school room is made bright
and cheerful with pictures, all has been done that is needed in order to make
the children love and appreciate them. Pictures as mere decorations serve
but half their purpose. There should be an intimate acquaintance with
them. A love for them should be developed. This comes only when the
child has told what he sees in the picture or as it suggests to him some story
which he may tell. Thus only does he make its beauty his very own. Only
by such close acquaintance does he become thoroughly imbued with the
thought and action which the artist seeks to portray.
It cannot be expected that a very young child will be able to interpret
and appreciate the great themes of the masters of art. The pictures presented
to him should be simple and should be such as will appeal to his own ex-
perience. “We know with all that we have known,” is as true in connection
with this work as with any other. There must be something in the thought
expressed by the picture that is not entirely new to the child, else he will
be unable fully to grasp the ideas there suggested. It is possible, however,
that even in a comparatively short time, the children will be able to discern
the beauty and truth of a really artistic production. -
A short time ago, several pictures were placed before the children of
a fourth year class and they were asked to select the one they liked best.
The pictures were of subjects generally very attractive to the children.
Among them was one Madonna. After a short time they were called upon
to express their choice. Nearly three-fourths of them preferred the
Madonna. As that was really the best picture in the collection, the teacher
felt much gratified and concluded that her work with her pupils had not
been in vain. -
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
34 - NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Even if the study of pictures were to bring about no other result than
filling the child’s life with beauty and helping him to appreciate high aims
and lofty ideals, the work would accomplish much towards the elevation of
mankind and the production of the conscientious and honest citizen.
There is, however, another side to this work which appeals to the so-
called “practical educator.” Many times do children listen to lengthy,
labored descriptions which fail of their purpose. Much less time and talk-
ing would have been required had a good photograph or other picture of
the place been presented to the class. Their ideas would then have been
made clear and their interest in the lesson greatly increased. The Natural
Bridge or the Grand Canyon cannot be brought accurately to the child’s
mind even by means of a picture, but without the picture there is nothing
at all of the grandeur of the scenery impressed upon them. An eloquent
speaker may tell a wonderful story of travel, but how much more enjoyable
to the adult as well as to the child is the same lecture when fully illustrated
by means of a stereopticon. If then, we ourselves gain so much from such
illustrations why should we expect children whose experience is so limited
to be able to comprehend their geography lessons without the aid of pictures.
Undoubtedly it would be much better if we could follow the method of
the Germans and take the class to visit some of the places about which they
are studying, but as that is seldom possible, we certainl y should aim to pro-
duce upon the child’s mind just as vivid an impression as possible. There
is no doubt that much may be accomplished in this way by pictures.
Have we then reached the limit of what may be accomplished through
pictures? Not so. We have still an important point to consider. After
seeing the delight with which a small child gazes at a picture “which tells
a story” can we wonder if his whole day is made brighter and happier
when the reading lesson is composed of the sentences he himself makes
from the picture. Imagination takes him far away from the routine of
school work. He travels fairer fields and pastures untrod by adult feet.
Quite unconsciously he gains a power to express his ideas and a confidence
in himself that may carry him easily over many rough places later on.
Much as we should like to see every school so well supplied with pictures
that they might be constantly in use, there seems to be no immediate pros-
pect of reaching such a happy state. Many teachers are doing very good
work along this line, but there is much that remains to be done. Let it be
known among school boards, public spirited Societies and charitably inclined
people that there is nothing which will have a more humanizing influence
over children or be more helpful in the work of the regular curriculum
than an abundant supply of pictures, photographs of great men, photo-
graphs of scenery, and really good productions of pictures telling the
grand themes of the old masters, and we may hope in time that there will
be a response both generous and hearty. With such coöperation there will
be opened to the teacher a splendid opportunity to create in the minds of
the children the higher ideals and nobler ambitions that spring into exist-
ence through the contemplation of beauty and a full understanding of the
elevating thoughts expressed in the pictures of the great masters of art.
}*.
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 35
Working Drawings. -
Dy ALBERT W. GARRITT, INSTRUCTOR IN SHOP WoRK,
P. S. 151, NEw York City.
F the reader will endeavor to describe any object so minutely that some one
I who has not seen it could reproduce the model, he will soon learn that
the simplest form frequently defies word description. A sketch in per-
spective will help materially to give a general idea of its proportions, but a
workman requires more definite information regarding the object which he
is to make. Its size, and the size of all its parts, must be clearly expressed
before he can construct it. The necessary information can only be gained
from a working drawing. - - -
In schools, where constructive work of any kind is performed, instruc-
tion in making and interpretation of working drawings must, of necessity,
form part of the curriculum. The knowledge thus gained gives to the
pupil a means of planning his work before attempting its execution.
Educationally considered, this subject is of value for the mental and manual
training it in itself affords. The proper execution of a working drawing
requires accuracy of thought and skill. - .
A working drawing is the outline of the several direct views of an
object accurately drawn to scale and dimensions. The arrangement of these.
views in the group that forms the working drawing is regulated by the
theory of projection. - . - e
This theory supposes every object that is to be represented to be placed
in one of the four angles formed by the intersection of the vertical and
horizontal planes of projection. The observer is then imagined as looking
directly at the top or front plane, as shown by the arrows in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 represents the planes of projection, and shows a box placed in
the first angle and one in the third. Arrangements of views derived from
these two views are the only ones used in practice. The figure also repre-
sents a side plane in each angle, on which is projected or traced the end view.
Were the planes transparent we might imagine the outlines of the
solids, seen through or against them, to be traced upon their faces. These
planes with the tracings of the object, the theory of projection supposes to
be revolved so as to bring the three views into a vertical position. Such
alteration in their position is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. On comparing the
diagrams in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, a difference in the relative position of the
views after the revolution will be seen, and the cause of this difference be
revealed. - 8
The third angle method is the one generally employed in draughting
rooms and schools. It is easy to see why it receives the most favor, for the
pyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
36
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
1st
ANGLE,
33
ANGLE,
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 37
top view comes above, the front view and the left view come to the left.
In the first angle method the top view comes below and the left view to
the right. The position a view occupies in the group determines therefore
whether the drawing is in the first or third angle. In making a working
drawing of a complicated object, a drawing board, T-square and triangles
are indispensable. If the object be the box illustrated in Fig. 1 the top view
will appear as in Fig. 4. All measurement will of course be taken from the
box itself. To complete the front view the lines A and B of Fig. 4 are to
be prolonged as indicated with the aid of the T-square and triangle. The
front view is then drawn between these two lines as shown in Fig. 3. The
measurements A and B and B C are to be taken from the box.
To draw the side view, the lines A, B and C of Fig. 3 are first prolonged
with the T-square as shown and the distances 1, 2 and 3 obtained from the
box or from the other view by the use of the dotted arcs as illustrated.
A section is a view which would be obtained by looking directly at an
object supposed to have been cut in two in order to more clearly show its
construction or some hidden detail. Fig. 6 illustrates the division of the
box, and the drawing of the section is shown in its proper place in Fig. 7.
The parts that represent the cut surface of the section are shown tinted
with lines drawn at an angle of 45°. Adjacent parts are lined in opposite
directions, to show that they are separate pieces.
It is not always necessary, however, to draw a section in order to repre-
sent hidden parts, for dotted lines are as often used for this purpose. Their
use may be seen in Fig. 13. The dotted lines in front of the view of Fig.
7 show the same fact that is more clearly conveyed by the section below,
namely, that the ends of the box are let into grooves in the bottom.
Every working drawing to be of value should have clearly indicated
on it the dimensions of the parts shown. Fig. 7 gives the principal measure-
ments of the box. In dimensioning a drawing it should be remembered
that the top view shows length and width; the front, height and length;
the side view, height and width. The essentials of a dimension are, first,
two extension lines E, E, Fig. 7, a dimension line D, and two arrow heads
placed exactly at the ends of the dimension lines. The figures have two
dashes placed over them to indicate inches. -
Every working drawing should also be lettered, i. e., should have its
title, and the scale to which the drawing was made, neatly printed with free
hand letters. An alphabet with both vertical and slant letters is shown in
Fig. 20. In printing, the novice is apt to make the letters too narrow. To
guard against this, after having drawn the two parallel lines marking the
height of the letters, a square should be lightly drawn, and the majority of
the letters made to fill these squares as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig.
20. The guide lines must afterwards be erased. It will be noted that the
I, J, and U are narrower, and that M and W are wider than the other letters.
When it is inconvenient to place the full size drawing on a sheet, it
should be made to a smaller scale, that is, drawn half or quarter the size.
There are two methods of doing this. If we are to make a drawing half
size, one way would be to divide each measurement by two as it is taken
38 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
- I
FIG 7. º
.SCALE & S/ZE. %
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F’ſ G. 6. Vſf,\A/
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. . 39
from the object, thus making each line as it is drawn one half its true
length. - * -
The other and more convenient method is to make a scale as shown
in Fig. 8. This is done by laying off several half inches on a straight line.
and numbering each space as one inch. The first space, however, is divided
into halves, quarters and eighths, which divisions represent the corresponding
fractions of an inch. The measurements are taken with an ordinary ruler
from the object but are applied to the drawing with this scale. Fig. 8 also
shows the manner of taking from the scale measurements involving fractions
of an inch. -- - - - -
In drawing an object with several parts, as the wrench, illustrated in
Fig. 13, it is necessary to represent each part in a drawing made to scale.
Fig. 14 thus shows one part of the wrench, Fig. 15 another, and Figs. 16, 17,
18 and 19 still others. The illustrations are termed detail drawings. The as-
sembled drawing, Fig. 13, shows all the parts in place.
There are two other methods of representation sometimes employed
in making working drawings, but more often used in connection with these
drawings, to help in giving an idea of the general appearance of an object.
when completed. r - -
The one method is called isometric projection and is illustrated in Figs.
1 and 11. By this method of representation all horizontal lines are drawn
at an angle of 30° as pictured in Fig. 9, while vertical lines are drawn as,
such. The lines A, B and C of Fig. 9 are the initial lines of every
isometric drawing and are drawn with a T-square and 30° triangle, as illus-
trated in this figure. ...
Oblique projection is the other method referred to and is illustrated in
Fig. 12. By this method of projection, horizontal lines parallel to the
picture plane are drawn at such, while those vertical to the picture plane are:
drawn at any convenient angle, as indicated in Fig. 10. The lines A, B, and
C of this figure are again the initial lines.
40 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Shop Work.
BY WALTER M. MoHR, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR IN SHOP WoRK,
. - P. S. 77, NEw York CITY.
“MTANUAL TRAINING is training in thought and expression by other
means than gesture and verbal language, in such a carefully graded
- course of study as shall also provide adequate training for the judg-
ment and executive faculty,” so reads one of the many definitions which
have been given to Manual Training. Instruction under this head usually
consists of two reciprocal branches—drawing and constructive work. Both
of these branches are developed with reference to the age, strength and
capacity of the pupil, and the nature of the material used. Shop practice
is one form of the constructive work which, begun in the kindergarten, is
continued in the stick laying, pasting, cutting and developments of inter-
mediate grades. As the strength and capacity of the pupils permit, the
shop-work is executed in a material which requires greater strength and
dexterity in handling than do the materials used in earlier years. -
The course in shop-work requires special tools for its execution and a
very considerable amount of space. The use of a separate classroom is
therefore essential. It is largely because of this fact that such work has
Often been erroneously regarded as a study separated from the course. It is,
in fact, but a part of the course in constructive work which follows the lines
begun in the first year of the school life of the child. The opening sentence
of the shop-manual for the New York Schools defines this clearly. It reads
as follows: “Mechanical laboratory work or shop practice in the use of wood
working tools demands a more serious and exacting form of manual training
than that previously required of the pupils, and is designed to supplement.
the other form of inventive and creative effort pursued in the lower grades.”
Of all the materials available for the purpose of such instruction, wood has
been selected because it is the cheapest, the most easily procured, the most
successfully worked and on the whole the best adapted for the age and
capacity of the pupil, and in addition the operations which can be performed
with it are fundamental and contain the principles of all mechanical
operations. *~ , - - º -
The term shop-work itself gives a clue to the purposes aimed at ; for
the work-shop or wood-working room is the only proper term applicable
to our shops. The term carpenter shop is a misnomer, as the educative
value of the problems offered and the operations performed alone determine
their employment. Technical training is not given. Industrial education
is in no sense the equivalent of manual training. .
Technical training is particular training, especially adapted to the needs
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst. - -
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 41
of men whose business in life is to pursue some handicraft. The trade and
technical school are institutions designed for the special purpose of prepar-
ing these men for work at their vocations. The effort to encourage the
factory idea of producing articles of immediate value has led, in more than
one manual training school, to disappointment and failure. A mere utili-
tarian spirit is not that of the school shop. The aim of the manual training
school is the mastery of fundamental principles and processes.
The course now followed in the public schools of New York city is,
perhaps, an example of what may be called the American system of shop
work. Of foreign systems, those of Russia and France most nearly resemble
it. Most of the exercises in it are made as exercises and not as finished
articles. Much practice with different tools is made to precede the construc-
tion of the useful articles. The latter completes the work of the term and
embodies the principles previously learned and practiced.
The course begins in the second half of the fifth year of school life,
and continues for two and one-half years, one and a half hours per week.
A pupil thus receives about thirty hours of shop-work per term—some hun-
dred and fifty hours in all.
From the start great emphasis is laid upon the laying out of work with
accuracy and neatness. To this end the scratch awl, try square, gauge and
dividers are employed. Very few pencil lines are used. Planing, gouging
and chiseling are taught in graded exercises, and from the beginning the
necessity of an accurate guide line, and the importance of carefully working to
it, is made clear. Two principles, accuracy and self-dependence, are insisted
upon as fundamental. From their observanceresult many benefits. A number
of channeled and chamfered blocks are made throughout the term, and at
the close, the knowledge thus gained is employed to construct some useful
article, whereby the necessity and value of the preceding exercises are made
manifest. For such special exercises each boy makes his own working
drawing, with as many views and sections as may be necessary. Thus he
applies the knowledge derived from the course in mechanical drawing. In
the first term the articles take the form of table mats, paper knives, ink
stands, simple brackets and toys.
The making of a box involving end grain planing and the use of ham-
mer and nails, opens the work of the second term, while some difficult chisel-
ing and gouging is required in the shape of a picture moulding. Instruction
in veneering and chip carving is also given in this grade. These exercises
precede as before the construction of some more advanced form of utilitarian
exercise as, a key rack, a lamp bracket, a towel roller, a whisk-broom holder,
etc. Many of these forms are ornamented with simple carvings. In the
third term many joints are made for practice, and the knowledge gained
is then employed in the making of boxes, of trays, or of picture frames.
The two following terms require additional exercises in joinery, the
course being completed by the making of a work box, a desk or other article
which gives the pupil an opportunity to apply his knowledge in the construc-
tion of an article requiring no small skill. All practice exercises made, are
finished with but the aid of the plane, chisel or gouge, no sandpaper or file
42 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
being used. The supplementary exercises are, however, smoothed, stained
and varnished. Throughout the course instruction is given upon the nature
of the material employed, the different varieties of wood, their structure,
growth, causes of decay and means of preservation. The proper manner of
grinding and sharpening edge tools is taught, as is the composition of steel
and the methods of tempering it. Each pupil is expected to keep all his
tools in proper condition. - -
The class method of instruction is pursued. A working drawing of
each exercise is placed upon the blackboard, and with the aid of a model is
carefully explained by the instructor. He then slowly executes before the
assembled class each step of the lesson, calling attention to the correct man-
ner of holding the tool, and explaining the principles involved with their
application. The practical use of the exercise itself is also dwelt upon. The
pupil is not required to make a drawing of every exercise he executes in
the shop, but a certain number are included in the course of working draw-
ings. The course in mechanical drawing aims to give to the pupil a knowl-
edge of elementary projection sufficient to enable him to make and read a
working drawing independent of all aid. In the upper grades he works
from a printed plan. This he is expected to study until he can indicate the
steps necessary to complete the exercise. It is the instructor’s part to see
that the sequence which the pupil has planned is correct, and that each step
is properly executed. * .
Although the particular exercises vary in different courses in shop-work
yet the aims and fundamental principles of all successful courses must be
alike. The active interest of the pupil is a condition necessary to success.
The series of models or exercises must progress from the easy to the diffi-
cult, each giving the skill necessary for the completion of the one which
follows. The work should develop the sense and love of order of clean-
liness and of economy; should necessitate accuracy and perseverance and
should lead to independence of thought and of action.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 43
sº
Brush Work.
By JULIA. C. CREM.INS, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY. - -
Q O keen is the desire to get mass effects in their pictures, that children
S welcome every opportunity to paint, even if it be with no better brush
than one fashioned of a toothpick or a splint. A smile of eagerness
awaits the distribution of these simple tools, a hush of interest marks their
use. Intent upon his own work, no one observes his companion's move-
ments, until the final touches are bestowed. Then heads are raised and
papers lifted while the pride of the worker shines in admiring eyes.
A lesson of this kind, even in a class of young pupils, produces many
drawings as Satisfactory as those given in Figs. 1 and 2. These would
have been more effective had they been done with
a brush, and still more satisfactory had colors been
used instead of ink.
To paint leaves and flowers as they appear in
nature, affords much pleasure to the child. Color
appeals to him, and the lead pencil seems but a
sorry medium for the expression of his thoughts.
He loves to fill in his outline with crayon, and
will so use it whenever the opportunity presents,
itself. &
The use of pigments is necessary for a com-
plete training in color. The pupil then produces
for himself his tints and shades, experiments with
many hues, and seeks to find the mixture required
for a given tone. A knowledge of tints, shades
and intermediates thus becomes fixed in his mind.
– ; This is a personal experience and as such it is not
3 B forgotton. - - *
It is possible to train young children to pre-
pare their own hues and tones. Much of the real
benefit and pleasure attached to the lessons is lost
if they are not permitted so to do. Good work
| - has been done with three pigments, red, yellow
and blue. All other colors may be obtained by mixing these, but a
palette of six colors is more convenient for advanced work. In very
early lessons a piece of colored paper of the desired hue is given as a guide;
this the pupil endeavors to match, experimenting until success is achieved.
Evident is the training which the eye must receive in the effort to recognize
Fig. 1.
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
44 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
the presence of too much of one or the other pigment. Thus empirically is
a knowledge gained of colors and their composition. After some practice
of this nature flat washes may be taken up. The brush, held in the middle
and well filled with color is passed straight across the surface to be covered.
To insure an even tone it is necessary to see that the color flows freely from
the tip. The fluid color should form a pool in advance of the brush and
be gently swept across the paper. A little experience will show that when
the brush is not used full of color the moistened paper dries so rapidly that
the attempt to join the first wash with the second will result in the forma-
• G B -
ammº r lº
Fig. 2.
tion of a darkened line between them. The covering of squares, oblongs
and circles with flat washes of color gives good practice in preserving an
even tone and of keeping within the surrounding lines.
Graded washes may be practiced later. For these the brush is filled
with the color and the first stroke of the wash laid on. Then just before
the second stroke is swept across the paper, the brush is charged with pure
water. The result in the completed wash is a gradual change in tone from
the full color to its lightest tint. This is useful when it is desired to repre-
sent in one wash objects showing the effects of light and shade. Practice
should also be given in making blots or simple impressions of the brush
held at different angles. These suggest many leaf and flower forms very
satisfactorily. For Fig. 3 the brush is well filled with color held with the
point straight forward and pressed lightly on
the paper. The reverse form is made by point- § | 0 -- \\ 4//
ing the brush downward and pressing straight Q
up. Some of the leaf and flower forms made !- 2×3
by combining these impressions are also shown. -: % A -
Before beginning to work from nature it Fig. 3. !
will be necessary to give some additional prac-
tice in drawing straight and curved lines. Some examples are suggested
further on. For these exercises the brush should be held with the fingers
at the same distance from the point and in a vertical position. The hand
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
45
DIFFERENT. TREATMENTS OF DESIGN FROM UNIT.
SUGGESTED BY CUCUMBER SECTION.
Courtesy of J. C. Witter. I'l'OIn “With Blush and Ten.’”
46 - NEW York TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
should not touch the paper, and all movements should be free. These,
though practice exercises, need not be such in name, since so called
they would soon be thought tiresome. Interest may rather be awakened
by appealing to the child's ever ready imagination. His lines straightway
become fences, soldiers, fountains, waves, etc. He certainly will take pleas-
ure in making such simple designs as the following (Fig. 5). These can
be made even by small children and suggest handkerchief borders and
calico designs. The effect is very pleasing when colors are used.
In the Japanese schools the use of the brush is taught with great suc-
|=1/\o, ecº
x---—
CeSS. Every line is free, direct, full of life and meaning, not a superfluous
stroke throughout. Each is made at a single sweep of the reed-handled
tool. Some examples of their outline drawings are shown in the sketch of
the rabbit and of the turtle. 4.
In class-work, grasses, twigs and simple leaves furnish excellent sub-
jects for study. These may be attempted as soon as the children have had
some little experience in handling the brush. Both in Spring and Fall
beautiful examples are easily obtained.
Success depends largely upon the teacher's power to arouse and sustain
interest. Nothing is so prejudicial to a lesson, as an order interrupting it
and necessitating a wait for further instruction. Before beginning work
give full directions. Call attention to the growth of the plant, the colors
to be found in its parts, the combinations required to produce the hues
which are seen. Then set the children to work and allow the lesson to pro-
ceed without interruption except for individual criticism. To get pupils to
feel color is an important aim. It is never accomplished without careful
study on their part. That a flat even tone of one color is never seen in
nature soon becomes evident even to the youngest pupils. A blade of
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 47
grass at first glance apparently all green is seen to have here a little yellow,
here a little blue, while at the tip it is quite brown. These facts may all be
easily elicited. The ability to reproduce on paper is gained only with
practice. - ... -
Here it might be well to note that it is not a good plan to mix
the colors thoroughly before applying them. A -
much better effect is obtained if the colors are *
only slightly blended, or the brush may be filled © ©
with the prevailing color and the end merely O O
dipped into the second tint before the stroke is O O
made. Another way is to wash one color over : :
another while the first is still wet, or to place *
the pure colors side by side and allow them to g 3
blend upon the paper. Both methods require @ &
considerable skill to, insure successful results. - © &
Minor details are to be omitted in copying. O | 9 |
Where but one model can be had, a subject like
a tall grass or a long twig may be placed in the
front of the room upon a sheet of paper. Only
the important lines and masses are to be painted.
If possible the pupils should be furnished with
individual models for close study.
Even in the first lesson some attention can
be given to the arrangement in a pleasing man-
ner of the form within some space. By trying
the model in a square, a long, or a short oblong,
s
:
4
*
-N-
or a circle, the enclosing form best Suited to it | |
may be soon selected. Suggestions for space lº) &
filling should be given, and with these advice —V
as to arranging the foundation lines. The Fig. 4.
breaking up of the space into equal parts is to be avoided. It is advisable
to make a division introducing opposition of line and to keep the largest
mass the most important feature of the composition. -
It is very interesting to study the pleasing effect of plants as they stand
within the borders of the window frame; many valu-
able suggestions for the -
work may be derived from
such observation.
For practice in getting
mass effects, painting in
silhouette is to be recommended. This work
may be early introduced by lessons on the vege-
tables and fruits. Later on, the lessons may in-
clude animal forms painted in solid color.
Window plants seen against the sunlight, º
the shadows of trees cast by electric light and of figures thrown on the
window shade of a well-lighted room and seen from without, are examples
/
48 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
of things seen in silhouette.
To get effective work, special attention must
be given to the important lines and masses. Common ink is perfectly satis.
factory for this kind of work. - -
With large classes the distribution of material is a matter of much
importance. The early afternoon seems to be the best time for such lessons
because the preliminaries may be attended to before the class puts in an
appearance. Where tube colors are used, a small amount of each pigment
should be placed on the pallette, or pan, and it is well, if several colors are
Trººmsm-
- *mºs
to be placed on one plate, to preserve un-
changed their arrangement from lesson to
lesson. The pupils thus learn to know the
position of each color and can find it without
a moment's thought. -
Careful directions as to the cleaning of
brushes and pan should be given at the close
of the lesson. The former should be rinsed,
the latter sponged off, not scrubbed with the
brush. Then when the pans are collected and
the brushes set away, points upward in some
old ginger jar, a moment offers in which to
inspect the chefs-d'oeuvre of the day’s work—
to hang for the edification of the class a little
gallery. The test of the work is in its
approach to truth. Is the grass a living
blade of green 2 Does the turtle paddle quick with life?
NEJW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. r 49
Perspective.
By HENRY TALBOT, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY.
PERSPECTIVE drawing, to those unacquainted with the simple
laws which govern such a production, is frequently deemed by
them to be something far beyond the power of a child to produce.
Yet the difficulties which hedge the subject rest rather with the in-
structor than with the pupil, and could the former bring to the study the
naive, unprejudiced vision of the child, but little study would be necessary
to make plain the elementary principles which govern the drawing of things
“as you see them.” Too often, however, the intimate acquaintance of the
learner, young or old, with the so-called facts of form, and the unfortunate
conviction that all the principles of theoretical perspective can be applied
without alteration in the depiction of objects “free-hand,” cause him to mis-
interpret the message read by his eyes, or worse if an instructor, garble
it, and force it to be falsely translated by the obedient child.
Such faults of knowledge, when associated with faults of method, pro-
duce results which may well give the teacher pause, and cause her to doubt
the possibility of securing from her charges drawings which may be termed
“representative.” But as the difficulties are few, and on examination, so
very apparent, even the most dubious may have their doubts dispelled and
be assured of success in this subject if they will approach it with a deter-
mination to allow no preconceived notions to interfere with their judgment
of the truth of statements which may be proved with the aid of an A B C
block, a baking powder can, and a bit of string.
Of the block let us first premise boldly that it has not six separate sides,
and that no matter how many sides it has, if one of them is in a plane at
right angles to a line drawn to the form from the observer, no other side-
face can possibly be visible. The first of these points is perhaps liable to
be misunderstood. By it is meant, not that the cube has fewer than “six
plane faces,” a statement dear to the heart of every teacher of form lessons,
but that these faces are not separate. They are nothing but faces of the
one surface which bounds the cube. This distinction may appear to savor
of hair splitting, but upon it depends the notion which the little child
gathers from his first lessons on the block. Too often do teachers dwell
more upon the distinction of these faces and their edges than upon—if the
term may be allowed—the solidity of the solid. Under such circumstances
it is small cause for wonder that the child essays to depict all six faces that
his drawing may agree with his teaching, and this despite the fact that the
simplest experiment, comprehensible by the smallest primary child, will lead
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
50 - NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 51
to the conviction that one can never see more than three of the faces of the
cube at once. In object drawing, therefore, the “seeing ” lesson must take
precedence over the one upon “the facts of form.”
The second point referred to above is concerned with the melancholy
error, sanctioned in many cases by long usuage, which teaches that in object
drawing a solid may appear in so-called “parallel perspective,” with one
edge of the solid drawn parallel to the bottom of the paper while an adja-
cent side vanishes to a point somewhat in the centre of the picture. Such
appearance is represented in Fig. 6. This error is widespread and is based
upon the notion that the imaginary plane betwixt the observer and the ob-
ject, the so-called picture plane upon which the drawing is to be made, re-
mains unchanged as we shift the object from immediately before us, to the
right or left until one of the sides is seen. The truth is that the picture
plane changes with the object and always remains at right angles to the
line from the observer to the observed. *
This may be more apparent after the following statements are verified
with the aid of the block and the can. The string can be used as illustra-
tive of the vision line, i. e., the line from eye to object, as the picture
plane, when held at right angles to the vision line, or as a line continuing
any edge of a solid which it is desired to so prolong that the point to which
it vanishes may be determined. -
In Fig. 1, three views are shown, a plan or view from above, a side
view and a drawing of the object as it would appear in perspective from
the situation marked by the word “eye ’’ in the diagram. • . -
The observer is supposed to stand opposite one corner of the cube
which rests upon a table a little below his eye. The front vertical edge of
the block touches the edge of the table, and the top of the cube is just upon
a level with the eye.
If the picture plane is imagined to touch the front edge of the block
this edge will appear in the picture of full size. All other vertical edges
being farther back in the picture will appear shorter. The comparative
lengths of these distant edges are shown in the side view of Fig. 1, where
the dotted lines from the eye to the ends of the further vertical edges are
seen to be cut off and are but part of the length of the front edge. Prac-
tically they may be tested by pencil measurements made at arms length.
To make the idea of the picture plane clearer, it may be imagined as a
sheet of glass through which the cube may be seen and upon which the
drawing may be made. Indeed a sketch may be so lined in upon such
transparent surface with a bit of soap. It must be remembered in this con-
nection that the drawing paper ordinarily used, even when flat on the desk
represents the picture plane. Tests of the truth of any drawing should
therefore always be made by holding the paper up in the true position of
the plane. Comparisons of the real and counterfeit form may thus be
easily determined. -
In the side view it will be noted that all the top corners are shown to
be on a level with the eye. In the perspective drawing, therefore, these will
appear of equal heights, but the line frong, he corner A of the base strikes
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52 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
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NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 53
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higher upon the picture plane than the lower end of the front edge of the
cube. This point then, also shown in the plan, will and does appear higher
in the perspective drawing. t
From a study of the “plan” it will also be noted that the lines to the
-eye from the points A cut off distances either side of the centre vertical
line which are shorter than the actual length of the sides, but the distances
so cut off determine the width of the sides in the perspective view, and are
accordingly seen to be narrowed or foreshortened. Moreover, as it will be
observed, that the point A (in the side view) appears higher than the point
at the lower end of the front vertical edge, it will be plain that the line ad-
joining these two points will appear in the perspective view to slant. upward
either to the left or right. So, indeed, it is shown, while the continuation
of the same slant lines may be observed to lead to two points on right and
left of the eye line. These are known as vanishing points.
When actually sketching from an object these two points can be deter-
mined approximately by the eye, if it is remembered that they are on a
level with that organ. In the working out of architectural perspective on
paper, however, it is possible to ascertain exactly their position upon the
plan by drawing lines from the “eye ’’ parallel to the sides of the rectangular
object until they intersect the picture plane. This method of determining
the vanishing points in theoretical perspective is shown in the “plan” draw-
ing of Fig. 1. The distance of these points right and left from the observer
thus ascertained, they may be easily located in like positions to the right and
left in the perspective view. The situation of these points has thus been
found in the “perspective” view of Fig. 1.
To one prepared to find the study of the “elements of perspective ’’ a
difficult one, it may scarcely appear possible that in the brief explanation
given above are summed all of the principles which one is ordinarily called
upon to apply, yet a glance at the succeeding figures will show that the ex-
planation serves as well in the case of prism or cylinder as for cube. The
theoretical determination of the vanishing points is seen in each case to de-
pend upon the lines drawn from the “eye” to the picture plane parallel to
the rectangular sides of the object. This is shown in each “plan.” In
drawing circles it is necessary to find the apparent length of the cross di-
ameters which form the major and minor axes of the elliptical figure repre-
senting the circle in perspective.
To revert Once again to Fig. 6 will be to make more plain the reason
why no such perspective view as is therein depicted, is possible, for the
picture plane shown in the plan is evidently misplaced. It is not at right
angles to the line of vision. But one vanishing point can thus be discovered,
and the perspective drawing is seen to be an entirely artificial representation
such as can never be actually observed.
If the picture plane in Fig. 6 were swung round into its proper position,
the finding of the vanishing points right and left would be but the work of
an instant and the whole problem would resolve itself into one similar to
Fig. 2, save that the cube in Fig. 6 is represented below and not above
the eye. |
54 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
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Were it not for the grevious errors grounded in childish minds by
the teaching of the method illustrated in the last figure, it would, in view
•of the reiterated statements made above, seem unnecessary to repeat the
caution already given. Those, however, acquainted with the prevalence of
the misconception and aware of the difficulty of correcting it will be the
first to pardon this repetition. The following assertions are therefore made
with emphasis. Always in object drawing, cause each pupil to determine
for himself the position of the picture plane of which his sketch is to be
representative and never permit a child to draw one face of a rectangular
figure parallel to this plane, while adjacent faces vanish to points to the
right or left. -
56 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Color–Within and Without.
By S. GRACE DEAN, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY. -
HIS as a text has been worn nearly threadbare in these recent years
of scientific investigation and psychologic l experiment. Springing
from the theory known as the educational, it has assumed almost a
hydra-headed character. Scientists have argued hypothesis as to light
waves and retinal filaments, have propounded theories innumerable to
account for the power of the eye to see that which we agree to call color.
On some points of the discussion, however, there arises but small
differences of opinion. One of these is that color be studied with a view
to utilizing the knowledge in practical ways; and another that “it is best
for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth.”
It will be assumed that color is a natural force, such as light and heat;
that it can be investigated and handled, can have its laws taught. Its
study is important to the child’s complete development. How far can this
study be carried ? This is a question hard to answer, because of the diffi-
culty of fixing a standard of attainment. Even those among teachers and
students who have both time and interest, can scarcely reach the enjoyment
of color knowledge in all its connections and realize all the manifold rela-
tions between this and other natural forces.
The poet writes of “soft eye music, of slow waving boughs,” calling
to pictures of the forest and the rhythm of the pine tree's motion. Music
thus may be in part a thing of vision and sound according to recent experi-
ments, a thing of shape. Color, too, is not alone a thing of sense percep-
tion but a tone picture in a chromatic symphony. It is only when we
study color as the expression of something which relates to other than the
mere beautifying of objects, that we can comprehend the necessity for its
instruction. “The text,” we will subdivide into three parts: Color, within
and without the child; Color, within and without the appreciation; Color,
within and without the schoolroom. - •
Color is without the child at every turn through the world. In all the
natural kingdoms from the polar regions to the tropics. It revolves
through the seasons, like the old earth itself, from the cool and sombre
tones of winter to the glowing brilliancy of autumnal fruitage.
Within the child, from quite early infancy, it seems, to manifest itself.
This is not merely the awakening of the child’s observation ; for we find
cases in which forms have no attractions, but their colors please the early
vision. The latter attract in the order of their brilliancy and warmth.
Later, when the child chooses and picks for himself, the result is usually
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 57.
the same. An ugly form, if it is of pleasing hue, is all right in the opinion
of little people.
We can rightly think of the color sense as a sense apart, within the
child, because it seems from such developments as those in the case of
Helen Keller, that it is not inevitably related to that of sight.
Perhaps it is impossible to say when, in the child’s life, occurs the
blending of the sense of color with the appreciation of it. Sometime they
are one and the same thing, sometime closely allied. Rarely is either
wholly missing.
Learning, recognizing, knowing, and calling by name, all these do not
mean appreciation, for that is sºmething which takes these as the outward,
and relates them closely to the inward. In most cases the appreciation
depends upon a training, based upon the inherent love of colors. The
Italians have the love hereditary like that of the German for his music ;
but we can scarcely imagine all of them to be the possessors of appreciative
minds, even, though some of the master colorists in Art History have been
people of this nation.
We must admit that, on the whole, we are very short of the mark, for
even a mature mind might be unable to grasp the following word-picture
in its poetic sense, and might fail to see its underlying beauty:
“Such a starved bank of moss,
Till, that May morn,
Blue ran the flash across,
Violets were born
Sky—What a scowl of cloud,
Till, near and far, *
Ray on ray split the shroud—
Splendid—a star!”
Or this—
“Each matchless morning, marches from the East
In tints inimitable, divine.”
The questions “Why?” “When º’ “How 7" to develop this sense to.
its fullest, can be answered by all who will but grant its educational and
ethical value. - -
With children, as with trees, the bending twig gives the first hint of
the inclination of later growth; but better a leaning trunk, provided the
roots are firm, than a starved and stunted growth.
Color knowledge does not begin in the school room, it should never
end there; but there for many years it should be cultivated. Even the
poorest, barest, most dismal School room has its color studies close at hand,
all from nature’s storehouse. The bit of plant on the window-sill, seen in
the sunshine, is full of varying lights and shadows. - -
The shell, the piece of moss, of lichen ; the stones, nuts and leaves—
all these are full of lovely harmonies for those who have eyes to see. Fruits.
in their seasons are easily obtained. Not a bit from nature, however in-
significant, is devoid of its color lessons. Outside, all too near, perhaps, the
gloomy building towers against the sky; but there are the russets, grays,
browns and reds, showing marks of time and weather. The whole small
58 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
world of the pupil is opened to him filled with things, which he can call
by color name. -
Lead children to nature as soon as possible. First, however, the per-
ceptions must be trained to recognize standard colors and hues. The glass
prism will here be of great assistance. Without it, one must turn to color
papers as the next most satisfactory form in which to present the principal
colors in their purity.
Beginning with the six important colors of the prismatic spectrum,
the children should be led to their tints, shades and intermediate hues.
With six related hues, the spectrum of twelve is formed; with twelve re-
lated hues the spectrum of eighteen. A hue is a mixture of one color with
an adjacent color of the prismatic scale. *
Children should be led slowly through these color perceptions and re-
lations. They will learn to lay the scale of colors; that is, the spectrum
in order, according to their relations, and will quickly detect errors, long
before the color name is thought necessary. The scale of eighteen is
thought by many to be more easily formed by children than that of twelve,
or even six, the reason being that the gradation is more gradual and the re-
lations closer. Naming the hues, such as red-orange and yellow-green, etc.,
seems entirely natural after the children are helped to classify and arrange
according to similarity.
A good exercise after the children are acquainted with the order of the
scale, is to require them to lay the colors in order, beginning with one near
the middle and building out towards the red and violet ends, or to start
with a given hue or color and form a wheel. This leaves no chance for
the memorizing of color-name according to rotation; instead, it calls Only
for eye training.
Said a teacher one day, “What shall I do with my children, now that
they know all the colors and can match ribbons º' What do we do with
children after teaching them the number 27 Do they stop with merely
recognizing 2 when they see it on the blackboard, or holding up that num-
ber of sticks or fingers when the teacher says “23” No ; 2 is a step to the
other numerals—a factor in many products. The pupil must not stop with
the ability to name 2 when it stands alone, but must be able to know every
combination which contains it and how to combine it in various ways.
To appreciate color in natural objects, children should be trained early
to recognize tints and shades. Call a color a key of music, and, forming its
own scale with its tints and shades, any note we choose to strike is a tone.
Of course it takes no little help to keep the children from getting “off the
key’” at first; but with the use of color crayons mixed with chalk or char-
coal, or washes of water color thinned more or less for tints and touched
with ink for shades, the thing becomes not only easy but most delightful to
children.
How to lead them on and on—to see all the beauties of variation and
combination, to find the harmonies and see them in designs—these topics
almost need bold and separate headings. -
As study advances, color analysis is most helpful. For this use the
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 59.
things familiar to children. Therefore, name interesting objects and ana-
lyze them—grasses, textiles, and the like—to find the different “key tones,”
or standard colors, then the tints and shades. Just one Autumn leaf will
furnish marvellous lessons of harmony and contrast.
Let perception always precede the name, and the materials for study
within the schoolroom be as varied and helpful as possible. The names
should never be so allied to the special devices of the lesson as to lose their
truest associations with the things without.
Thus through color study may we open a boundless, glowing field to
the sensitive eye of the child. A place where a butterfly's wing is some-
thing other than “what he flies with,” a bit of ore more than a “lump of
stone,” scales and feathers more than mere covering for the skin. All
speak with the blending tones of the flower's petal, of the invisible brush
which nature has ever lovingly wielded for the pleasure and profit of her
children. -
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60 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Color in the Class Room.
By JENNIE M. MACDONALD, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEW YORK CITY.
N beginning the study of color in the class room, the first question is that
I of material; the greater the amount of material the greater the possi-
bilities of the color lesson. For standards of comparison, colored
papers will serve well, but for the actual making of tints, shades and hues,
good chalks or water colors are indispensable. There will be no lack of
objects to compare and analyze after the children have had their interest
roused to the study, and they will need small encouragement to induce
them to contribute to the class color box or chart, a varied assortment of
worsteds, cloths, ribbons, feathers, bright hued pictures, pebbles, shells and
scraps of tinsel. These with bits of treasure-trove from the field or back
yard—flowers, leaves and waving grasses—will soon form a collection
sufficient in extent to show examples of man’s handiwork and of nature's
paints as they come from her own dye-works in forest and field.
A glass prism is very useful and to the little children most delightful;
they often beg that the color fairy may come to visit them. A fair spectrum
may be obtained with the aid of the prism and a bicycle lamp if direct sun-
light cannot be had, or in default of the actual spectrum a rainy-day chart
may be manufactured of strips of colored paper arranged in the order of
the spectrum. Those of the colored papers with which comparions must
frequently be made, should if furnished loose, be mounted on white card-
board that in handling them their beauty be not dulled by finger marks.
The mount being stiff, also permits the individual colors to be hung as charts
or ranged in order along the edge of the blackboard. But color study must
be a study of real things, not merely of tints and shades of colored paper.
All knowledge gained of tones and hues should be applied to the detection
of the delicate color harmonies of nature, that the child may learn keen
appreciation of the beauty of the world and greater power in the produc-
tion of designs which require pure taste and nice discrimination.
The introduction to color should be through the child’s previous
knowledge; the idea should always be given before the name. The
approach may be made perhaps, best of all, through the study of the
rain-bow.
A bridge weaves its arch with pearls
High over the tranquil sea;
In a moment it unfurls
Its span unbounded, free:
The tallest ship with spreading sail
May pass 'neath its arch with ease.
And who can guess the riddle? Who has seen a rain-bowº A short
talk may be given on the bow, perhaps the ever beautiful story of the
covenant or the Indian tale of the home of the flowers which are dead.
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst.
NEW YORK TEACHIERS’ MONOGRAPHTS. 6 |
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Who can lay the bow with colored tablets? Twelve colors should be
used for this; indeed, some prefer eighteen that thus early the idea of color
relationship may be given with color perception. Not all will see the
sequence of the twelve colors, and there will be many mistakes in their order
at the violet end ; but these should go unreproved, a finer sense will come
later. Color perception grows slowly, it cannot be forced. When twelve
colors are used in making the bow, the relationship is seen more readily by
the children than when but six are employed. Some colors look quite a
good deal alike, almost brothers and sisters in their resemblance. Who can
find the colors nearest to this one º Let us place each color with its own
people, its own family. Let us lay the bow again, remembering about the
families. -
After the spectrum is thus laid it should be compared with the teacher's
chart, and if possible with a solar spectrum. The colors may be laid in a
circle as well as in a line, but they should not be copied from the chart.
Thus the spectrum is first laid freely, then “by relationship,” but no
color names are as yet given or needed. -
Every one is said to have a favorite desert; has each a favorite color?
Let each pick out from these six (the standards) the one to him the finest.
How many like this beautiful one, more than half the class have chosen it.
Let us study it. Thus choice is made and should be recorded, for each
individual if possible, for future reference.
To study a color, a large square of it should first be hung in a good light.
How many can see it? How many know its name? What is it? (The color
elected for study by the class may be any of the standards.) Who can find
it in the long (spectrum) chart Who will pick from my desk all the things
colored like the square ? Let us compare them with it. Who can place
them in order on the edge of the blackboard, beginning with the sample
most like the square; who will pick from this pile of tablets all those just
like the color here before us? Lastly, the class may think of all the things
which they know that are of the color of the lesson. Make a list of them.
In this manner each standard, principal, or leading spectrum color may be
studied, by presenting, recalling, naming and classifying it and objects.
relating to it. Some teachers like to take a week for the study of each
standard. Thus they have a red week or a green week. The children help
by bringing many red objects; some of them like to wear a bit of cherry
ribbon; some a scarlet button or a coral pin. The smallest children may
care to give a party to the little color fairy “red.” All of red’s brothers
and sisters may be invited.
A color tone indicates any one of the gradations of a color from light
to dark. The changes caused by the addition of white light to spectrum
colors, or white chalk to crayons, or water to water-colors are known as
tints. They range from the closest approach to the standard through all
the lighter tones to white; for every color they are innumerable. The
same is true of shades which extend from the standard downward to black.
Shades may be made on the blackboard by mixing charcoal with the chalk
or by rubbing the chalk so lightly on the surface that the black of the slate
NEW YORK TEACHERS MONO, RAPHS. 63
shows through the film of color. Both tints and shades may be admirably
studied with the aid of a few tubes of pigments, the various tones being
made in three or four tumblers, and also painted in successive deepening or
lightening strokes on a sheet of drawing paper. • ‘
- To give the idea of a color scale to a class, one of the standards should
be reviewed and various modifications made of it with chalk and pigment.
The idea of tint and shade should thus be developed. Then on the desk-top
or upon a strip of gray or neutral paper, three or five tones of the color may
be arranged in series, beginning with the lightest or with the darkest.
Collected examples of color should be classified in scales according
to their tones, and such scales sought in nature—in the clear heavens
from the horizon to the dome, in the tiny grass blade with its whitened stalk
and deep green leaf. - -
The word hue is variously defined and understood. In teaching it
generally signifies (and is better confined to this meaning) a modification of
one of the standards by the addition of an adjacent spectrum color. . The
hue has for surname the title of the predominating color; the name of the
added color precedes this, as yellow-green when there is less than half
yellow in the mixture, green-yellow when there is more.
In studying hues or intermediates, squares of the two adjacent colors
should be kept before the class. Both of these standards should be
reviewed, modifications of each with the other should be made by mixtures
of chalk or pigment; the idea of the standard so modified should be devel-
oped, and with it, the name. Hues may be arranged in series. The term
“scale of hues” is sometimes used to indicate such arrangement. Collected
examples of hues should also be classified according to their relation to the
standards and to each other.
All the work in color should be associated as far as possible with the
work in construction and design, as well as with the great field of nature
study. With the smallest children the season will often suggest appro-
priate subjects for color study—the green of early spring, the yellow of
summer, orange and red of autumn, and all the year the blue, blue sky
above. Later, with the use of chalk and pigment, will arise necessity for
illustrating the meaning of opaque and transparent colors. A study may
then be made of the effect of washing one transparent color over another,
as a yellow over a blue, a blue over a red, and the difference between warm
colors—those in which red and yellow predominate, and cold colors wherein
blue plays a part—should also be explained. Reference may well be made
to a colored lithograph, as one of a greenfield of grass, yellow in the brightest
sunlight, bluish in the shadows beneath the trees. Compare with this warm
picture a winter scene with cold blue-gray sky and snow with violet
shadows in the hollows of the sleigh tracks, or in the footprints of the
venturesome rabbit.
Older children will be interested to the study color values, that is, the
relative amount of light contained in different tones. The strongest color
gives the most light. The local color of the nearest house is strong and red,
that of the one a block away weaker in value though of the same brick,
64 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
while on the horizon the red houses seem purplish-gray. All light reflected
from surfaces is modified by the intervening blue of the atmosphere.
Harmony, or the appropriate combination of color, should also be
studied from nature. For convenience sake, certain names have been
assigned to different pleasing effects gotten from the juxtaposition of differ-
ent hues and tones. Each author has his own nomenclature and all systems
are necessarily artificial. Of the various arrangements, one of the simplest
is that devised by Bailey, who divides the subject of harmony into a
study of the contrast of a neutral or gray with a color (contrasted harmony);
of one tone with another tone of the same scale (dominant harmony); of
two complementary colors (complementary harmony); of tones from
neighboring scales (analogous harmony), and of a tone of one scale with a
complementary color and other tones or analogous colors of nearly related
scales (perfected harmony). * h
The subject of the study of harmony is so broad that no teacher need
ever be at a loss as to how to proceed with instruction in color after the
preliminary work in the way of learning the names of tints, shades and
hues has been accomplished. t
Harmonies should be sought in grass and shell and pebble. Beautiful
dominant and contrasted effects will thus be discovered, while in the
flowering geranium, or the Autumn leaf there will be found complementary
colors of brilliant tones. -
The complementary colors themselves may be taught with the aid of a
color-wheel, if such is at hand; or a home-made top with circles of red and
blue-green, of orange and greenish-blue, of yellow and blue, of green and
violet, and violet and purple will serve to demonstrate how the mixture of
these upon the spinning disk will give gray, which is the nearest
approach to the white which the combination of two pure spectrum colors
would produce. . -
All designs made in the class-room should be of colors that harmonize,
and attention should be called to the fact that some colors “advance” more
than others in such patterns. The blues recede, the yellows come forward.
Note how carefully the artist or sign painter abstains from introducing more
than a spot or two of pure red in the great mass of lighter background.
The study of the effects of contrast, caused by colors placed next one
another, may be demonstrated with superimposed squares or circles, the
smaller on the larger. A light color on a darker one, appears still lighter,
the dark still darker, especially at the junction of the two tones. The
complementary colors enhance each the brilliancy of the other, but colors
not complementary may be quite changed in appearance when placed
together; a gray background with a green design sometimes will seem
almost pinkish in hue. So too the light which falls upon a color changes it
greatly. In the yellow sunlight by the window the color first seen in the
shadow of the school-hall will scarce be recognized; the fresh leaves of the
potted plant on the sill are yellow-green by transmitted light and blue-
green in the shadows, while the pure bright blue of the heavens is re-
flected by some of their shining surfaces. The material for color study
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. - 65
is everywhere, the phenomena of appearance are fascinating, exhaustless.
A bright leaf or bit of textile is an excellent subject for analysis. The
colors therein seen, may be matched in water color or from the color book,
and the scales of tones and series of hues neatly arranged upon a chart.
The colors and harmonies discovered should be named and carefully written
each in place. Tests in the perception of color may thus be made in the
frequent opportunities given for matching two related hues, and other tests
of color memory by having pupils select one day from a group of tablets
a square, like that one which the day before they examined, numbered and
handed in to the teacher. On the third day another trial may be given.
Some will have forgotten the tone they first had, a number will pick out a
darker tablet, a few will make no mistake. The few should in time become
many. -
No color teaching should be done without constant reference to the
beauties of nature as described in verse and song. With the smaller chil-
dren all such lessons should be tuned in the “play key”—the flowers must
nod and beckon, and leaves softly whisper of the fairies of the sunlight,
while the birds sing the glory of their painted plumes—
- Spoke the Swan: “There's nothing sweeter
For the lawn or lake
* Than simple white, if fine and flaky,
And absolutely free from speck.”
“Yellow,” hinted a Canary,
“Warmer, not less distingué; ”
“Peach-color” put in a Lory,
“Cannot look outré.”
“All the colors are in fashion,
And are right,” the Parrots say.
—ROSSETTI.
66 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Sketching From Life.
By ISABELLE IMRIE, SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR MANUAL TRAINING,
NEw York City. -
HILDREN will draw squares from dictation and cubes at command,
their interest will quicken when a nodding grass-top serves for copy
or a burly turnip is displayed, but no form to be drawn so pleases
them, stimulates their interest, and claims their attention, as a living model,
a class-mate posed. -
The love of the “make-believe,” inherent in every child, finds ex-
pression in all its games and plays. Around the imaginative as a center is
encircled the orbit of the child’s small world. Any form is willingly in-
, vested with the charming mystery of pretense, but none more eagerly
than the volunteer who for the nonce serves as * .gº,
• º e 4 gº º
the target for the pointed pencils of his mates. ſº f
To them, he for the moment is sailor, soldier *ś
or Indian-chief, to himself the groaning capstan.
is a reality, the flag he bears or sword he waves
no mere figment of the imagination. By mak-
ing a legitimate appeal to fancy, interest may
be thus added to the drawing lesson, vivacity
to the model, and earnestness to the workers.
Such enthusiasm goes a great way in the
class-room, aiding to secure from the children a
careful attention to facts not otherwise demon-
strable and inducing them to make studied judg-
ments of form and proportion.
Every pose, even the most rigid or most
to
2
w
listless, is said to possess “action.” This is a .**** - If &
term which is used to include all that goes to . . dº -
make the pose what it is. Any departure in the g ſºv 94.5 &
drawing, from the characteristic “set’ of the
model , is therefore said to misrepresent the action.
The chief lines of the body determine the general appearance of the
pose, and upon them—the long curves—and the accuracy with which they
are drawn, depends the action shown in the sketch. -
Attention should therefore be early called to the long lines, the essen-
tials, and all neglect of them at the cost of securing details, should be
deprecated. If the figure leans, the great curve which marks the bending
spine and steadying legs should be sought; if the arm is raised, the sweep
of line from finger tip to feet should be noted. k -
A Child's Drawin 9.
Copyrighted, 1898, by S. M. Fuerst. . .
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 67
Upon the long lines, like ripples upon a great wave, will be seen other
and more subtle curves. These indicate the swelling muscles beneath the
garments which clothe them. Such characteristic curves of forearm, arm,
hip, thigh and leg are most important. They mark the living body and
when neglected or omitted, make the drawing appear stiff and wooden.
Teaching from the pose is not a
matter of teaching art but a training of
the eye to observe, and the hand to ex-
press with accuracy and truth the thing
perceived. The nature of such drawing
is no other than that taught with the aid
of the type solids and familiar objects,
the only difference is that there is an
added stimulus—a model with an active,
vivid interest for the child.
In such teaching, the simpler poses
should first be attempted, the pupil stand-
ing in the front of the room, raised if
possible that the position of the feet may
be seen. The model should be repre-
sented as Occupied in some manner,
holding a pole, a flag, or reading a letter
or book. Such occupation will tend to
prevent the stiffness and self-consciousness of one who merely “stands.”
The interest in the pose should be aroused, as has been suggested, by the
relation of some anecdote, or the description of a character which the stand-
ing figure well illustrates. To this end, the model should be one who will
enter into the spirit of the pose as far as possible and should also be
capable of Sustaining, for a few minutes, the slight incident fatigue. The
poses should be short, or if necessarily prolonged, there should be fre-
Quent rests. -
At first a pose may be chosen in which the model stands with his back
to the class, that the puzzling question of the head be reduced to its
simplest terms, but even this device is not necessary if insistence be placed
upon the point, that until the teacher sanctions the drawing of the features,
the head shall be merely sketched in as an oval, but of course with atten-
tion to its carriage or inclination.
68 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Among the simpler poses may be noted the postman delivering a
letter, or the messenger posting one, Little Red Riding Hood, the school
boy, the standard bearer, etc.
Before any drawing is done, the pose should be analyzed by the
teacher. The trunk and limbs in their characteristic positions may be
illustrated by mere straight lines. With such lines the members of the
class will soon be able to depict any action from the mildest to the most
violent. Such practice should be given in the earlier lessons.
The foundation or skeletal
lines thus being demonstrated,
attention should be called to
the long lines which have been
alluded to, and to the minor
curves which mark the rounded
muscles which cover the long
bones of the extremities. The
oval shape of the head should
be noted, the slope of the
shoulders and relative positions
of the waist-line, elbows and
hands. Main proportions
should be sought, the length of
the head in terms of the total
height (about one-seventh) the
length of trunk and limbs. The
attachment of the arms to the
trunk is often a stumbling
point; note how low it is and
how the shoulder rounds. The
feet should not be drawn, of
course, unless they can be seen,
and even then they should be
represented, as indeed should
the whole figure, by the sim-
plest lines. The great wrinkles A Child's Drawing. Grade 7A.
may be indicated, but all shad-
ing, buttons, seams and minor wrinkles should be omitted.
To insure the entire figure finding proper place upon the paper, the
lesson should proceed after a quick analysis of the pose, by a few directions
to that end. The extreme limits of height should be indicated on the
sheet, leaving the proper margin top and bottom, and then the general
proportions, length of head and width of shoulders, position of waist line or
coat line (whichever is the more prominent) and of the knees, should be
noted by light dashes. The general outline may then be lightly
sketched in.
The time given to the drawing should not be long, and little or no
erasing should be permitted. The draughtsman should try to think of the
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. - 69
arm or leg beneath the clothes, and to make his sketch show the “anatomy,”
as it is called, of the figure. Note the slender ankle and wrist, see the
swell of the hips beneath the coat, as shown by the curve in the outline at
that point. - - - -
The hands should be drawn in or blocked in, without any attempt
being made to draw the separate fingers. The effort should be to get the
&
shape of the hand as a whole. When the first sketch is finished and while
the model is resting, some of the drawings should be displayed for
criticism. Why is this good and that poor . This life-like and that
wooden & - . * -
As soon as the model is rested and retakes the position for another
short pose, a comparison should be made of the better drawings with the
figure, the best selected, and its good points commented upon.
2~ Ş. Q
Reminded then of the mistakes to be avoided, the class should make a
second sketch, after which the model may be excused, and with a second
examination for the “best drawing ” and a comparison of the first and
second attempts, the lesson should be brought to a close. .
As the skill of the class increases poses showing more violent action
may be attempted. Here there must be a hearty co-operation on the part
of the model, who may be selected from the number who are usually eager to
volunteer. The driver of the team, the sailor at the rope, the soldier jerk-
Ö)
ing the lanyard for the morning gun, the boy with the kite, or girl with
broom or hay rake; these and many more concerning the games of the
children or lives of their elders, may be represented.
To enable the class to catch the spirit of the action, the driver must
guide his flying horses with sawing rein, or the sailor pull to the masthead
70 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
the waving ensign. Then when the motion is well understood and analyzed
the most characteristic attitude of the action personated should be struck,
and held while the busy eyes and pencils of class-mates note the essential
lines of the supple body. If the pose is a tiresome one it should soon be
stopped. Chalk marks on the floor will serve to show where again to place
the feet when it is to be retaken.
Acquired skill will enable the pupils to essay the more difficult details,
as the features, indicating first the hair masses, position of the ear and
sweep of the jaw, and later the eyes, mouth and nostrils with simplest
lines. Additional spirit will be given to the more advanced drawings if
they are properly accented or darkened in the spots which mark the deeper
shadows, but all general shading, save in exceptional cases, should be
avoided. This does not preclude the indication of general masses of color
as the dark cape or stockings, the cap or cloak, but such attempts as
contrast must be made with circumspection. -
In certain schools drawings from
the pose have been made to relate to
the various chapters of history, the story
of the New World, of de Soto, of Ponce
de Leon and the long train of explorers
being illustrated in this manner. At
one time Columbus was drawn, as he
first caught sight of land; at another,
IBalboa as he stood viewing with admi-
ration the gleaming bosom of the un-
known ocean. Thus did the pose draw-
ings help drive in the historical pegs
upon which much interesting matter
was later hung. In some cases, a slight
addition in the way of costume, enhanced
the pleasure in this work, the long cloak
of the Spanish cavalier serving in turn
to clothe the Indian and the Puritan - -
father. To visitors, the children sur- - t -
rendered without a murmur drawings they had made of the geometric solids ;
their sketches from the pose they said they preferred to keep. . . .
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 71
Editorial Notes.
Twice in the past two years has it been the editor's pleasant duty to
say a few words in introducing to the teachers of New York City educa-
tional periodicals devoted to their interests. With the end in view of
displaying their professional knowledge and training, he has published, with
pecuniary loss to himself, although with considerable gain to the Teachers'
Mutual Benefit Association, the “Annual,” and afterwards the “Quarterly.”
If the opinions expressed by the administrative and executive officers of our
school system, by the principals and teachers, by others who have identified
themselves with education, and by the press, are criterions, he has demon-
strated the value of educational periodicals conducted in sympathy with
the teaching body. -
While he has prosecuted the work with untiring effort, he feels that
the publications would not have prospered but for the advice and encour-
agement and the literary contributions of persons interested in reaching
higher ideals in education, and he shall never fail to express his appreciation
of the disinterested motives which prompted the superintendents, principals
and teachers, and leading educational writers to labor with him.
-k * *
A number of undesirable conditions attended the publication of the
second periodical, and seriously interfered with its effectiveness. One of
these was the necessity of a three month's interval before successive install-
ments of serial articles could be presented to the teachers.
The criticism was also advanced that a quarterly magazine which tried
to present the science of pedagogy in detached sections was open to the
objection made to reading-books containing choice extracts torn from their
setting. The nature of the articles and the intervals between them combine
to destroy interest in the subject matter. Teachers are apt to turn to what
is entirely new rather than to incur the labor of referring to back numbers,
so that instead of adding to the value of the contents, these articles trans-
form the professional magazine into a periodical fostering desultory
reading. - - • ,
All who were consulted in the matter recognized the advantage of
devoting each number to the consideration of a single subject and to the
presentation of a comprehensive view of its essential parts. The only way
in which this can be done successfully is by means of monographs.
72 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
Such periodicals are popular with the teachers of continental Europe.
In this country the same method of presentation of valuable material has
been adopted by the leading colleges, notably Cornell, Leland Stanford
and Clark Universities.
In consonance with these conclusions, and in order to secure to every
teacher the benefit of his observation and experience with other periodicals,
the editor begs leave to present to the principals and teachers the NEw
York TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. It is most important to state that the mono-
graphs will be prepared under the direction of those who are recognized as
the educational experts of our system—a number of the associate super-
intendents.
Apropos of the manual training monograph, it is interesting to refer to
the reports of Superintendent Jasper for the years 1887, 1888 and 1891.
As early as the year 1885 “the question had arisen whether the manual
training method of instruction should be made a part of the course of study
in the common schools of the City of New York. If so, what kind of ex-
ercises should constitute the work of the proposed new branch : What part
of the school-time should be assigned to them?
“A special committee of the Board of Education was appointed, and one
of its first acts was to direct an extensive special inquiry as to the actual
and practical condition of the subject in those cities where it already, to a
greater or less degree, had become experimentally or otherwise, a part of
public or private instruction.
“A general report was made to the Committee by the Superintendent,
accompanied by detailed reports and a large number of relevant documents
obtained in cities visited.
“Among the many inquiries made, three were of leading importance.
Is the discipline of manual training profitably applicable to all the various
grades of pupils in the common schools, or are its advantages necessarily
confined to the limited number who reach the highest grammar school
grade and the high schools and colleges' What effect, if any, has the in-
troduction of this new subject had upon the proficiency of pupils in other
departments of instruction? The answers to these questions were in every
way encouraging, and the Committee, after many and careful deliberations,
made a full report to the Board in June, 1887. The report contained, in
general outline, a course of instruction in the proposed department. The
additional elements recommended were ‘modeling in clay, construction work
in paper, pasteboard and other suitable materials, and drawing to scale for
both boys and girls; carpenter work or the use of wood-working tools for
boys, and sewing and cooking for girls.’
“This report was adopted by a unanimous vote of the Board, and then
by further resolution the committee and the City Superintendent were
directed to prepare in detail a course of study in harmony with the views
presented, and also, by means of a Teachers' Manual, suggestive and expos-
itory, to furnish a full statement of the particulars and methods required
by the new work.
NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS. 73
“This was done, and on February 1st, 1888, three grammar depart-
ments, two primary departments and three primary schools entered upon
the work of the new course.”
At the close of the year, the City Superintendent reported in part as
follows in relation to the progress and purpose of the instruction:
“The progress that has been made in the initial stage of a new and
untried method is to be highly commended, and the readiness with which
most of the teachers have fallen into line in the effort to help the good work
along is greatly to their credit. They aim at opening channels, hitherto
more or less unobserved or unpopular, for the development of manly and
womanly qualities that must and will have a powerful bearing on the future
happiness and prospects of the nation.
“People who dream of pedagogic branches and of manual training
branches in the same department, as separate and unrelated things, have not
yet grasped the subject. The manual of this course of study has been so
arranged that all the branches of education are interwoven in such a manner
as to make a distinction impossible.
“Manual training does not mean merely the training of the hand; it
means the training of our every faculty. The fundamental truth under-
lying the manual training methods should above all things, be known and
understood by the teachers and the public generally. They aim at no
specialty of any kind, no carpentry, no art in designing or modeling, cook-
ing or sewing, no geometry or mechanical drawing as such ; they aim simply
at a rational means to obtain and transmit useful knowledge.”
At the close of the year 1891 the City Superintendent recited at
length the condition of the subjects especially related to manual training,
and gave full expression to his judgment upon their influence. Upon the
latter point he said: “The question of the amount and character of the
influence which the so-called manual training subjects exert upon the ordi-
nary branches of school education is one that is not to be settled by a mere
off-hand statement. The correct answer cannot be given by the enthusiast
who finds in m \nual training a panacea for all the ills of school life and
who sees in shop-work or in cooking an ennobling influence that transforms
the character of the wayward pupil; nor can it be given by the half-
hearted; doubting teacher who fails to give to the pupils a fair opportunity
to obtain the benefit to be obtained from the really excellent methods
which are characteristic of the manual training course.
“The true condition of affairs can be determined only by carefully and
dispassionately viewing the whole field and by obtaining, as nearly as may
be done, the consensus of judgment of those who have been responsible for
the application and enforcement of the provisions of the manual training
course of study.”
“To sum up the whole matter, I would say that, in my judgment, the
experiment made by the Board in establishing manual training schools has
been eminently successful.”
Up to the present time he has seen no reason to modify this opinion.
74 NEW YORK TEACHERS’ MONOGRAPHS.
The Monographs which will be issued during 1898-1899 include:
No. 1, April, 1898.—MANUAL TRAINING.
Supervisor JAMES P. HANEY.
No. 2, June, 1898.-NATURE STUDY : Botany, Zoëlogy, Geology, Mineralogy, Physics,
etc., illustrated by drawings wherever possible.
Associate Supt. GUSTAVE STRAUBENMULLER.
No. 3, October, 1898.-ENGLISH, embracing all the features of this subject as laid down
in the course of study.
Associate Supt. EDWARD D. FARRELL.
No. 4, December, 1898.—ARITHMETIC,
x- Associate Supt, JAMES LEE.
No. 5, –GEOGRAPHY.
Associate Supt. EDWARD D. FARRELL.
No. 6. –THE SCIENCE OF PEDAGOGY.
Associate Supt. EDGAR DUBS SHIMER.
No. 7.-HISTORY. (To be announced.)
No. 8. —MUSIC. (To be announced.)
N. .3% * *
Besides these, the following members of the Board of Superintendents
have signified their intention to contribute to the MonoGRAPHs: Messrs.
James Godwin, George S. Davis, Henry W. Jameson, Seth T. Stewart, A.T.
Schauffler, A. P. Marble and A. W. Edson. Other educators who also have
made life-long studies of the subjects of which the Monographs will treat, and
whose fame as scholars and writers is national and international, have signi-
fied their intention to contribute to the successive Monographs, so that each
issue will prove to be a treasury of information for the instruction and the
guidance of progressive teachers.
.# -k *
All of the illustrations in this number have been drawn by the special
supervisors of manual-training. Miss MacClinchy furnished the cover
design.
* * *
Thanks are due to Charles Scribner's Sons for the use of the illustra-
tions from “Nature in Ornament” (on the Library List), to J. C. Witter
Co., and to A. W. Elson & Co. The latter's copy of the “Theseum ”
(copyrighted) is one of a series of excellent photographs for the decoration
of school rooms.
PUBLISHER'S NOTES.
It is advisable that one dollar be sent in advance for a year's subscrip-
tion to the MonoGRAPHS, four numbers, for there is no certainty that the
number printed of each issue will be sufficient to supply the demand for
single copies. Annual subscriptions may begin with any issue, yet the
publisher does not guarantee to supply back numbers.
Remittances may be made by cheques or postal orders, at the pub-
lisher’s risk. Address all business communications to New York Teachers’
Monograph Co., Room 3, No. 25 East 14th Street, New York City.
BINCHES
FOR
Our Benches are Standard with
------**** . the Leading Manual Training
- Schools.
Our “J” Bench.
sº. HAMMACHER, SCHLEMMER & Co.,
SCHOOL
DISCOUNT.
209 BOWERY, NEW YORK,
BOOKS WHICH EVERY TEACHER SHOULD HAVE.
HEWITT'S MANUAL TRAINING EXERCISH S FOR TRAINING THE HAND AND EYE.
By W. H.Ew ITT, B. Sc. PART I First and Second Series With 4 Colored Plates and numerous
Diagrams. PART II Containing Third and Fourth Series. With 5 Colored P1ates and numerous
Diagrams. Both volumes are on the New York Library List. 12mo. 80 cents each.
UNWIN'S MANU AL OF CLAY-MoD ELLING FOR TEACHERS AND SCHOLARS.
By MARY LOUISE HERMIONE UN wiN, Examiner in Clay-modelling to the Educatiºnal Handwork
Union. Sixty-six half-tone illustrations. On the Library List, and already very popular and in
Imuch demand. $1 oo.
•. HE WITT'S E LEMENTA RY SCIENCE LES SONS. -
Being a Systematic Course of Practical Object Lessons. Illustrated by Simple Experiments. By
W. H. Ew ITT, B.Sc. These are new additions to the List, and are indorsed by the highest authority.
Parts I., II, III. and IV. Each, 50 cents.
G.A.H.L. ICP-2 S NEW AIANUAL OF MITF.TH OD.
By A. H. GARLICK, B. A., Headmaster of the Woolwich P. T. Centre
“It is the best manual of its scope and size in English.” - -
Recommended by Supt. Maxwell for teachers’ examinations in Brooklyn. It is cn the List. .
CONTENTS – I. School Economy. II. Discipline. III. Classification. ..I.V. Notes ºn Lessons. V.
Class Teaching. VI. Object Lessons. VII. Kindergarten. VIII. Arithmetic. . IX. Reading. X.
Spelling XI. Writing XII. Geography XIII. History. XIV, English. XV. Elementary Science.
XVI. Music. Appendix. Crown 8vo. 398 pages. $1.20. -
. B.A.R. NIETT’S TE A CHING AND ORGANIZ ATION. - -
A Manual of Practice. Edited by P. A. BARNETT, M.A., 1ate Principal of the Isleworth Training
College for Schoolmasters.
*** The object of this Manual is to collect and co-ordinate for the use of students and teachers the ex-
perience of persons of authority in special branches of educational practice, and to cover as nearly as possible
the whole field of the work of common and secondary schools. -
Added to the List this year. Crown 8vo, $2.oo.
LONGIWIA.N S2 OBJECT LIESSONS IN TELEMIENTARY SCIENCE.
Hints on Preparing and Giving Them. With full Notes of Complete Courses of Lessons on
Elementary Science. By DAVID SALMON, Principal of the Training College, Swansea ; Revised and
Adapted to American Schools by JOHN F. WOODHULL, Professor of Methods of Teaching Natural
Science in the N. Y. College for the Training of Teachers. 12mo, 236 pp. 152 Illus. $1 Io.
- JUST A20 B/ASA/EZ).
HOUSEHOLD SEWING WITH HOMIE DRESSMA KING.
By BERTHA BANNER, Training Teacher of Sewing and Dressmaking at the Liverpool Technical
College for Women - f
Intended principally for teachers Of technical classes and manual training schools; but it will also be
found useful to learners who are desirous of supplementing what knowledge they possess of domestic science.
Crown 8vo, 160 pages, 90 cents. -
Gº The above are Catalogue Prices. Liberal discownts to teachers actively engaged as such.
LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers, 91 and 93 Fifth Avenue, New York.
vii
AN AUTHORITY AT HAND.
new York Cºachers' monºgraphs
When you are in doubt,
DON'T WORRY
CONSULT THEM,
Yearly subscriptions may begin with any number. Four
numbers, helpful, suggestive, a year's issues, will be sent to your
address on receipt of one dollar.
new York Cathers' monographs Cº.,
Room 3, No. 25 E. 14th St., New York City.
É
#
É
É
The following goods manufactured by
E - F
appear on the New York List for the Public Schools
-- during 1898: - -
LEAD FENCILS.
No. 365, “ Drawing ”—Five grades of lead. For drawing, considered the
- best on the list.
No. 310, “ School ’’—Three grades of lead for regular work. . .
Rubber Erasers—“Cabinet.”
Typewriter’s Erasers—No. 102.
Brass=edged Rulers.
Water Colors—7 colors, in 4-1b. tubes.
We have also the Planetary Pencil Pointer on the List.
. . . . . .
• * º - sº a
Colored Pencils—Nine colors.
Penholders—2140, thin ; 2560, thick.
Steel Pens—No. 1, medium ; No. 2,
vertical. -
The high quality of our goods is known throughout the
entire world, and we wish to assure our patrons that the same
standard of excellence will be maintained.
WM. S. EBBETS,
Educational Department,
Principals and Teachers |
Samples.
always welcome to
No. 545. Pearſ St., New York.
viii
NEW-PROGRESSIVE-ATTRACTIVE
Cbe |\rang Elementary Course
in Elrt Instruction.
The gradual improvement of school work in ſ ! \ \
form study and drawing during the last few
years makes it now practicable to undertake a
course of elementary Art study involving im-
portant advances on former work, beginning
with the third year of school, after the form
study work of the first and second years has
been completed. -
These new books put the most progressive
ideas on elementary Art teaching into practical
form, so that they can be successfully worked
out under ordinary school conditions.
www \{\}_2~
SPECIAL FEATURES: | %
Large amount of work in Object Drawing, t } %
. Early introduction of Group Work, | ||
Nature Drawing, t
|
Drawing from the Human Figure, -
Correlation with other School Subjects,
Design, Color, Methods of ;
Rendering, Mediums for Drawing, etc.
***
ART EXAMPLES
FOR STUDY.
Each book is provided with eight pages
of specially chosen art examples including a
wide range of artists, subjects, and styles. In
many cases the examples are reproduced from
* Full manuals present for the teacher all
* needed help in both method and detail.
CORRESPONDENCE INVITED.
(Ibe |\rang Eöucational Co.,
5 W. Eighteenth St., 646 Washington St., 15I Wabash Ave,
NEW YORK, BOSTON. (CHICAGO.
ix
Whittling Trays
With Outfits.
Trays well made and nicely finished.
Tools the best of their kind.
SPECIAL HAMMACHER, SCHLEMMER & Co.,
SCHOOL
DISCOUNT. 209 BOWERY, NEW YORK.
FOR COLOR AND MANUAL TRAINING.
THE BRADLEY starvdARD water coLoRs.
- Exactly suited to COLOR and BRUSH work and consist of the six standard colors and warm.
and cool grays. They are put up in three forms:
Dry Colors in Cakes, 8 cakes in handsome box. . . . . ........................... 25C.
Semi-Moist Colors in Pans, 8 pans in box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35C.
Moist Colors in Collapsible Tubes..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ſº tº tº e º ºs & s $ each Ioc.
THE BRADLEY EDUCATIONAL COATED FA PERS
For color instruction in kindergarten and primary Schools include the standard spectrum colors.
with hues, tints and shades; the broken spectrum colors, black, white and the grays. These papers
are sold in full sheets 20 x 24 in... or cut to various sizes for school use. Our other COLOR AIDS are:
the BRADLEY COLOR WHEEL, COLOR TOP, COLOR CHARTS, PAPER TABLETS, WAX
CRAYONS and GLASS PRISMS.
MAWUAL TRAI WING SUFFLIES.
Drawing Kits, made in 4 sizes, consisting of Board, T Square and pair of Triangles. Also the
Perfection Cardboard Protractors, Springfield School Compass, Manual Training Rule, Industrial
Drawing Rule, Flat Drawing Scales, Architects' Triangular Scale, Thumb Tacks, Drawing Paper in
various grades, etc. -
OUR BOOKS ON COLOR AND MANUAL TRAININC A RE =
“Elementary Color,” by M.1"On Bradley. . . . . . . . . . . ......................... $o.75
“Color Primer,” Teachers’ Edition, Bradley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , TO
“Color Primer,” Pupils’ Edition, Bradley. . . . . . . . '• • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .OS
A Class Book of Color, by Mark Maycock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Is OO
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