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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS - 1963
ORNLP-2531
-
NOV 2 9 1966
110.9 Lill: MN_.50
CONF-660904-13

PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF DIFFUSION MEMBRANE STUDIES FOR THE
SEPARATION OF NOBLE GASES FROM REACIOR ACCIDENT ATMOSPHEI
S. Blumkin?
H. Briggs 3
A. Dounoucos 3
E. Von Halle?
J. M. Holmes
A. H. Rainey"

RELEASED FOR ANNOUNCEMENT
IN NUCLEAR SCIENCE ABSTRACTS
LEGAL NOTICE
This report was prepared .18 an account of Goveroment sponsored work. Neither the United
States, nor the Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission:
A. Makes any warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to the accu-
racy, cnmpleteness, or useful::888 of the information contained in this report, or that the use
of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report may not infringe
privately owned rights; or
B. Assumes any Habilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the
use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report.
As used in the above, "person acting on behalf of the Commission" inciudes any em-
ployee or contractor of the Commissior., or employee of such contractor, to the extent that
such employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contractor prepares,
disseminates, or provides acc688 to, any Information pursuant to his employment or contract
with the Commission, or his employment with such contractor,
To be presented at the 9th AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Boston,
Massachusetts, September 13-16, 1966..
Research sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission under
contract with the Union Carbide Corporation.
COak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
"General Electric Company, Research and Development Center,
Schenectady, New York.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

1 N
.
1
1.
12.
"LLL
PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF DIFFUSION MEMBRANE STUDIES FOR THE
SEPARATION OF NOBLE GASES FROM REACTOR ACCIDENT ATMOSPHERES
giá
3
S. Blumkin
H. Briggs
A. Dounoucos
E. Von Halle
J. M. Holmes
R. H. Rainey
1.
INTRODUCTION
The removal of krypton and xenon from off-gas streams during reactor
emergencies and normal chemical reprocessing has long been the subject of
research by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Dr. Walter Belter, in his
* introductory remarks to the 8th Air Cleaning Conference, I mentioned this problemi di
as one that "could be the controlling factor in the building of large power
reactors in populated areas, as well as being the most restrictive factor in
bringing some of our nuclear-powered ships into populated ports."
At least three low-temperature processes have been developed for the
removal of both xenon and krypton from off-gas streams where air is the prime
constituent and other contaminants, such as the oxides of nitrogen and water : :
vapor, are present. One system used batch -Adsorption of the rare gases on &
coconut charcoal bed at liquid-nitroger temperature after the oxides of nitrogen,
were removed in scrubbers and catalytic beds and the water vapor was removed in
alumina adsorbers. Another system suhstituted a continuous liquid-nitrogen
scrubber for the charcoal beds, followed by batch distillation to produce a
mixture of rare gases dissolved in liquid oxygen. In this process, however,
the presence of liquid oxygen in a gamma -radiation field introduces a potential
hazard through the buildup of ozone. A more recent process developed by
Steinberge consists in absorbing the rare gases in a fluorocarbon solvent at
temperatures near -70 to -10°C, thus eliminating the ozone hazard since a
liquid-oxygen phase is not formed.
at
.
i
Recently, the General Electric Company's Research and Development Center
developed a thin silicone-rubber membrane that has attractive selective perme-
ability properties for the rare gases and can be operated at ambient tempera-
ture. Initial results of a study to develop a separation process using this
membrane are reported.
3 x1
A diffusion cascade has been designed to reduce the krypton level in a
3 containment vessel by a factor of 100 in one week. It has been
propc 3 that such a system be made nortable so that it could serve as an
emergency standby for several reactors and thus save part nf the cost of a
permanent installation at each reactor site.
1.1 Consideration of Containment -Vessel
Decontamination During a Reactor Accident
Efficient methods have been developed for the removal of iodine vapors and
...compounds during reactor accidents,-- Equipment has been lastalled to reduce the ..
lodine level in a secondary containment vessel either by circulating the con:
teminated gases through activated charcoal beds and then back to the vessel, 4 or
by discharging the gases to a stack after filtration and decontamination in a
similar charcoal unit. It can be shown that, if adequate circulation rates are
provided for the recirculating system, reactor low-population-zone radii will no
longer be fixed by the total thyroid dose caused by iodine leakage from the con-
tainment shell, but by the direct gamma dose caused by the leakage of rare gases.
Figure I shows the effect of iodine and rare -gas decontamination on the low-
population -zone radii required by the code of reactor site criteria.) The low-
population -zone radii set by permissible thyroid dose rates with no decontamina-
tion have been given by DiNunno. The thyroid -dose data after decontamination
(of iodine) were calculated by using the equations proposed by Arnett, 4 assuring
a circulation rate of 50,000 cfm for a 3 x 100 ft3 containment vessel and a
charcoal-bed efficiency of 9986. Figure 1 indicates that the gamma dose from a.
cloud containing primarily rare -gas leakage (assuming jodine decontamination)
would necessitate moving the low-population zone to a distance about 30% beyond
that set by the thyroid dose zone. However, if decontamination of the lare
gases is also assumed, the thyroid dose limit again becomes the controlling
factor Containment-vessel decontamination for both the iodine and the rare
gases would reduce the low-population zone radius by a factor of about 22, which -
would probably result in a substantial reduction in reactor siting costs.
-
The calculations for the decontamination of the rure gases considered only
those isotopes with half -lives greater than 5 hr since transport, installation,
and startup of a rare -gas decontamination system protably could not be accom-
plished in less than 12 hr. Isotopes with half-lives less than 5 hr would have
decayed significantly by the time the system was ready for operation.
Further justification for disregarding those rare-gas isotopes with half-
lives less than 5 hr is provided by considering the relative magnitudes of the
removal rate by the cascade and the radioactive decay rate. Actually, in the
case of isotopes with half-lives less than 5 hr, decontamination achieved by
the cascade in one week would be negligible when compared with the decay rate
of these short-lived isotopes. As a result, the longer-lived radioactive
isotopes that have to be removed from the reactor vessel by the gas separation
cascade are:
Isotope
Half-life
131mye
133M%e
133xe
235xe
85XT
12.0 days
2.3 days
5.3. days
9.1 hr
10.3 years
Selection of the one week period for rare -gas decontamination of the
containnent vessel was the result of a compromise. Rapid cleanup is desirable
to prevent excessive leakage to the atmosphere. However, since the size of the
cascade is inversely proportional to the cleanup time, a period shorter than
ore week was considered to be an unreasonable requirement as an initial design
criterion.
The design of the cascade was based on the separation of radioactive and
stebi krypton from air since this is the most difficult separation to be
... accomplished by the system. Separation of xenon, at the same time, 18 more
1..- efficient since the permeation rate of xenon through the membrane is much higher
than that for krypton.
2
ti
:
.
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ORNL DWG. 66-6223
10.000
Total Thyroid Dou For Infinite
Time: 300 Rod With 12
Decontamination -
Direct Comme Dore From Clouds
25 Rod For 30 Days With 12
Decontamination
- Direct Gamma Dose From Clouda
26 Rog fer 30 Days
No Docontamination
1,000
Dirca Goramo Dos. From Cloud
25 Rod For 30 Days with 12 And
Ran Ggs Docontamination -
REACTOR POWER LEVEL (mwpd
O
Total Thyroid Osse For
Infinite Time 300 Pad
Ho iz Docontamination
(From TID-14844)
10
100
10,000
100,000

1,000
LOW POPULATION ZONE ( Moren)
Low Population Zone Radius vs. Reactor Power Level for Decontamination
of lodine and Roro Sesus.
.
..
.
.......
3
***
Two basic criteria for the design of the cascade are that the quantity of
kryptor in the containment vessel be reduced by a factor of 100 in one week, and
that the maximum total volume of the air mixture, enriched in krypton and xenon,
leaving the cascade be 50,000 scf. Estinates indicate that this lume could be
trana ported in a shielded railroad car.
2. PERMSELECTIVE MEMBRANES FOR RARE -GAS SEPARATION
2.1 Membrane Theory
Since the late 19th century it has been known that certain materials
exhibit selective permeability to the flow of gases. Under the same conditions
of pressure difference across & thin membrane of ouch a material, one gas will
flow through or permeate it faster than another.
This unique property led to the choice of the term "permselective" for such
& membrane. This term distinguishes these materials from those that are merely
porous, such as paper. Gases will pass through paper, but in & nonselective
manner.
ît should be noted that the term "selective" does not imply the pebbage of
one gas to the complete exclusion of others. It merely indicates a difference
in the flow rates of two molecular species through a permeable membrane. The
net result is always that the concentration of the gas mixture on the high-
pressure side of the membrane is depleted in the more permeable component as
the gas mixture on the low-pressure side of the membrane is enriched in the more
permeable component. Theoretically, then, a permselective membrane can be used
either to:
(1)
reject & more permeable contaminant from a multicomponent mixture,
or
(2) produce a product from a multicongonent gas mixture that is enriched
in the more permeable components.
The mechanism by which gas or vapor permeates the membrane is not a simple
dirfusion process as one might find in the case of a material that is porous.
Instead, the gas dissolves in the membrane on the side having a high partial
pressure, then diffuses through the membrane, and comes out of solution on the ....
side having a low partial pressure. This mechanism 18 shown schematically in /
Fig. 2. When the idea of using permeable menibranes to separate gases was first:
conceived, it was not practical because the permeation rates of the available i
materials were so low that prohibitively large membrane areas were requir
In 1957, however, silicone rubber was found to have a uniquely high permeability
to a variety of gases (see Table 1).
:
Table 1 shows that helium, which has the smallest molecular diameter, does :
not permeate the silicone -rubber membrane as readily as the gases with larger
diameters, which is contrary to what might be expected if the gas transport
were by diffusion alone. This is explained by the fact that the permeability
18 & function of both diffusion and solubility of the gases in the membrane. 7o.
If permeability is expressed in terms of diffusion and solubility, it is found :
that the permeability is proportional to the product of the diffusion coefficient
... and the solubility coefficient.
The variables that determine the magnitude of the driving force for the
flow of a component through a membrane of given dimensions are tlie membrane's
permeability to this component, and the partial pressure difference of this
component across the membrane. Thus the membrane area required to effect a
:
:
:::. .
lị: 4
DE
RE
ORDINARY POROUS MEMBRANE
PERMSELECTIVE MEMBRANE
-
Molecule in solution
AIR O
(Mixture of gases)
AIR.
( Same mixture)
AIR O
(Mixture of gases)
0 0
Higher Percentage
of Oxygen
Higher
Pressure
FLOW
Lower
Pressure
Higher
Pressure
FLOW
...
Lower
Pressure
I
2
1
TUTTIT .'11 JAL

oxygen
Of Nitrogen
Molecule going into
solution with membrane
Molecule coming out of
solution with membrane
Molecules pass through openings
Permeability = ( Solubility ) x ( Rate of Diffusion )
3
.1 :
Table 1. A Summary of Some Rooin-Temperature
Permeation Rates for Dimethyl Silicone Rubber
EGIN
CLINE
Permeability
(cm of gas, cm thick
sec, cms, cm Hg Ap
1 9
590
9
320
9
9
60
9
60
9
34
9 9
28 x 109
-
9
760
60
... ...- - - -
9
ส...
น
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650
n. A sel::.
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3ooo
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9ooo
95 x 10 9
203 x 109
98 x 2.09
1000 x 109
Kr
Iodine (estimated)

6
t!; }
- - MAGO MUWMER
given separation is inversely proportional to the total proscure difference
across the membrane. At the time of this study, the practical pressure limit
that a 1-mil-thick silicone rubber membrane can withstand indefinitely appeared
to be 150 psi.
1.*
2.2 Application of Silicone Rubber Membranes to Rare -Gas Separation
.
The permeability values shown (Table 1) for silicone rubber are on the
order of 30 times greater than for other known permselective mergizanie materials
In spite of this high permeation rate, it was not possible to produce a...
practical membrane device until recently because silicone -rubber films :
were not thin enough to produce devices of reasonable size. The
permeation rate is inversely proportional to the thickness of the
fillm.
(2)
Could not be made free of pinholes. Since the gas permeation
rate per unit area is very small, even in membranes of high
permeability a few small pinholes will pass enough feed gas to
cause serious dilution of the product.
W. L. Robot disclosed a method for making silicone -rubber films that
solved both these problems. He was able to make thin membranes (0.001 in.)
that were free of pinholes. As a result of this invention, the developmert
now within reach.
Both xenon and krypton, which are the principal noble gases of concern in
nuclear reactor accident atmospheres, have higher perneabilities than oxygen
and nitrogen; therefore, a separation can be made from an air mixture. A
detailed diffusion -cascade design for this separation is presented in Sect. 3
of this paper. The perueability data of Table were obtained with a bare
0.001 -in. silicone -rubber membrane supported on a porous -metal structure. To
properly support the membrane against pressure differences of 150 psi, the
membrane is bonded to porous Dacron mats and supported by wire screen, which
also serve as flow passages. The membrane package experiments were performed
to determine the effect of the support structure on absolute permeation rates
and to determine its ability to separate the rare gases when they are in low
concentration.
Of the gases expected to be present in the atmosphere of a reactor vessel
after an accidental release, only iodine appears to be corrosive to the silicone
rubber membrane. As a result, the iodine will have to be scrubbed out of the
stream ieeding a separation cascade that uses the membrane. Tests have
indicated that the membrane is stable to radioactivity at the levels expected from
to be er.countered in this study.
2.3 Description and Results of Membrane Package Experiments
Design data for the membrane pressure package were obtained by bonding .
various screen-membrane packing material combinations to test blocks (Fig. 3)
and testing them in a pressure vessel (Fig. 4). The low-pressure taps of the
blocks were connected to gas flow measuring devices. Tests conducted on various
sample combinations, effective membrane area of 16 in.', verified the perme -
ability ratio of oxygen to nitrogen and the bonding techniques at pressures to
200 psi. Permeability constants obtained in these tests for oxygen and nitrogen,
28.8 x 20-4 and 13.5 x 10-9 cm of gas, cm thick
:
gec yama. am Ho 1o, respectively, are approxi
mately equal to one half of the values given in Table 1 for these gases.
However, the separation factor of 2.15 to 1 remains the same for the gases
tested. The decrease in the permeability constant may result from the fact...-

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that the membrane as mounted in the test blocks was backed on both sides with ...
Dacron fiber material, whereas the data presented in Table 1 were obtained with
un backed membrane material. The membrane is also compressed by the gas on the
high side, which forces the membrane and backing material to conform to the
screen on the low-pressure side; thus the effective gas permeation area and flow
are decreased. This theory is being tested further by the use of finer-mesh
screens to reduce the unit stress on the membrane.
A large membrane pressure package was designed and constructed (Fig. 5),
· with an effective membrane area of 2.0 fta. Provisions were made to extract.
the flow through the membrane package under countercurrent flow and concurrent
flow conditions. Design and structural integrity were verified by pressurizing
with pure oxygen and then pure nitrogen (Fig. 6), and calculating the permeation
separation factor from the extract flow rates.
A test facility was constructed whereby radioactive tracer techniques could
be used to measure the efficiency of the membrane package for air -krypton and
oxygen-krypton separation. A schematic diagram of the measurement system is
shown in Fig. 7. Air or oxygen labeled with radioactive krypton is fed into
the membrane package at various flow rates and pressures. A small amount of
the gas from the feed, raffinate, and the extracts is bypassed, in turn, through
a radiation detection chamber containing an array of Geiger counters. The
amount of radioactive krypton in each of the gas streams can be measured and
directly related to the total krypton in each stream by comparing this value
with the value obtained from measuring a known ratio of a standard mixture of
radioactive krypton and gas. The gas from any of the flow streams can also be
measured continuously by setting up a constant flow rate through the chamber.
The purge gas and vacuum pump are used to remove all traces of the sample gas
after analysis before gas from another stream is introduced. The readout data
are displayed on a scaler for a digital display or on a chart recorder for a
continuous analog readout.
The radiation detection chamber contains two arrays of Geiger counters
arranged parallel to the flow stream. The remaining electronic circuitry
: includes a high-voltage power supply, amplifiers, count-rate meter or scaler,. I
and a chart recorder for continuously recording of concentrations in counts
per minute.
gas
At present, the radioactive tests are awaiting the arrival of
: mixtures.
2.4 Cost of Membranes - Present and Future
At present, silicone rubber is being manufactured (though not yet commer-
cially available) in nominally 0.0010-, 0.0015-, and 0.0020-in. thicknesses,
supported and unsupported, in 2 x 5 ft sheets. The membrane is now being
produced with hand-operated prototype equipment, and therefore is quite expen-
sive. The manufacturing cost ranges from $25 (unsupported) to $45 (doubly
backed with 0.005 in. Dacron mat per square foot. However, order
estimates by the General Electric Company indicate an eventual mass-production
cost of less than $.
Continuing assessment is being made of the potential demand for this
membrane as the applications now under development approach realization so
that the necessary production facilities will be available to meet this demand.
Packaging and support -structure costs are considerably more difficult to .
estimate since the choice of materials is determined by the operating conditions.
However, where plastic screen and Dacron mat combinations can be used, a packaged
' cost of $10/ya2 is a reasonable estimate.
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**********
GAGE
FEED GAS
WITH Kr 85
RAFFINATE
FM
FM
MEMBRANE
CELL
TO EXHAUST DUCT
EXTRACT
GAGE
FM
$
·
*
*
*
GAGE
DETECTOR
CHAMBER
LAL. TO EXHAUST DUCT

PURGE
GAS
VACUUM
PUMP
HIGH VOLTAGE
SUPPLY
AMPLIFIERS
COUNT RATE
METER/SCALER
CHART
RECORDER
3. DESIGN OF A GAS SEPARATION CASCADE
3.1 Magnitude of the Separation Job
A cascade having silicone -rubber membranes as the separating elements has
been designed to clean up the atmosphere in a reactor containment vessel after
an accidental release of fission-product gases. It was asswned that the reactor
vessel has a capacity of 3 x 100 scf and that the air in it will be contaminated
with 3 opm of krypton and 12 ppm of xenon. The objective, as has already been
indicated, is to reduce the krypton concentration in the vessel by a factor of
100 m. one week and to collect for storage no more than 50,000 scf of air
enriched in krypton and xenon.
The manner in which it is envisioned that the gas separation cascade will
be utilized is shown schematically in Fig. 8. In this scheme the krypton 18
removed from the reactor vessel only through stream P. Thus, the rate of
reduction of the krypton content in the containment vessel will depend only on
the size of the cascade enricher; however, a minimal stripper will be necessary.
Now if it is assumed that the flow rates into and out of the cascade are
that the ratio of xp to Xt is a constant* for a given cascade
with a specified F and P, and neglecting the decay of the radioactive isotopes
it can be shown that
where
t = time,
V = volume of reactor containment vessel,
= concentration of krypton in the reactor vessel prior to cascade
startup, and is also the initial concentration of krypton in the
cascade,
Xx = concentration of krypton in the reactor vessel, and also in the
feed to the cascade,
F = the cascade feed rate (flow rate from vessel to cascade),
0 = krypton removal rate as a fraction of the krypton in the feed to
the cascade; Ø = Px. FX+.
Now, with given values for the vessel volume, the cleanup time, the desired
reduction in concentration, and the limitation on the
compute the required initial Xp, which with P and x specifies the magnitude of
the separation job. Thus, to accomplish the specified objective, a cascade is
required that is capable of enriching the krypton content in its feed by a
factor of 276 at a product withdrawal rate of 5 scfm.
3.2 Cascade Design Bases
The cascade, of course, will consist of some number of membrane packages
of various sizes. Each package will have associated
*The assumption is implicit here that the equilibrium time of the cascade is
short with respect to the one -week processing time and that, though xx
decreases with time, xo/xt does not.
24
ORNL DWG 66-8343

.
Storage
Reactor
Containment
Vessel
Gas
Separation
Cascade
Vox
Wi *w
V is the volume of the reactor vessel.
F, P, and W are gas flow rates and are time independent.
x, is the krypton concentration in the reactor vessel at any time
and also the feed concentration to the separation cascade.
x. and xw are the product and reject krypton concentrations,
respectively, and are time dependent. However x,/x, and
Xw/x, are time independent.
DECONTAMINATION SCHEME.
gas cooler, interconnecting piping, and instrumentation, which together comprise
a stage of the cascade. An arbitrary, four-stage cascade is shown schematically
in Fig. 9. Each stage, with the exception of the ones at the ends, has fed to
it a mixture of the permeated stream from the preceding stage and the unpermeated
one from the stage ahead.
The fundamental variables that determine the separation performance of the
stage are: (1) the permeability of the membrane to each comp
partial pressure difference across it for each component, and (3) the membrane
area. The equations that govern the stage performance for a multicomponent
system are given in Fig. 10. A description of the method used to solve these
equations for the stage flows and concentration gradients across the stage, and
of the iterative procedure used to match the cascade concentration gradients
with the cascade material balances would increase the length of this presenta -
tion prohibitively and is therefore omitted from the discussion here. The
assumptions and bases underlying the design calculations made for this study,
then, will simply be enumerated. The inajor assumptions are:
1.
There is no pressure drop in the cascade other than the one
specified across the membrane of the stage.
2.
There is no concentration gradient normal to the membrane on
the high-pressure side; that is, the mixing efficiency is 100%.
3.
The flow on the low-pressure side is in cross-flow with respect
to that on the high-pressure side.
The bases are as follows:
1. The high-side pressure is 10 atm, and the low-side pressure is
1 atm.
2. The stage is operated at ambient temperature.
3. The membrane is 1 mil in thickness.
4. The system, as considered, has four components: Xe, Kr, O., and
No. The concentracion of these elements, respectively, in the
initial feed is as follows: 12 ppm, 3 ppm, 21%, and 79%. The
assumption is made that the iodine in the released gases has been
removed by adsorption on a charcoal bed.
5.
The permeability o1º the membrane to each of these components in
the mixture is the value given in Table 1. This value was
measured by the General Electric Company in tests performed with
the pure gas with unbacked membrane at ambient temperature.
6. With the feed composition given above, the cascade must be
capable of yielding 5 scfm of gas with a krypton content of
830 ppm.
3.3 Design Criteria
Generally, the optimum separating cascace is considered to be the one that
yields the desired product at a minimum unit cost. For the case under considera -
tion here, where mobility of the system is a requirement, minimum physical size
of the cascade would be a better criterion. For a binary separation, the
"ideal" cascade is the minimum-size cascade. Such a cascade is defined as one
in which any two streams that mix are of identical composition. For a multi-
component mixture this is possible only with respect to one component. To
ORNL DWG 66-8342
Piro

Permeated
Flow
Compressor
and Cooler
'b Membrane
Unpermeated
Flow
-8-F, x
W.
Pe = pressure on upstream side of the membrane.
PL = pressure on the downstream side of the membrane.
P, W, F are product, reject, and feed streams, respectively.
xos xwe xp are concentrations in the product, reject, and .
feed streams, respectively,
SCHEMATIC OF A 4-STAGE CASCADE.
ORNL DWG 66-8344
THE POINT EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION
Po qal, v
og 'L, X
THE PERMEATION RATE THROUGH THE MEMBRANE
da
za
P x - Pori)
HE CONCENTRATIONS ACROSS 18
o
TO OBTAIN THE CONCENTRATIONS ACROSS THE
STAGE, THE FOLLOWING PERTAINS
WHERE:
Q;= THE POINT SEPARATION FACTOR
Log L = FEED AND PERME ATED STAGE FLOWS
L'= FLOW AT ANY POINT ALONG MEMBRANE ON UPSTREAM SIDE;
:.L2L'ELEL
À = MEMBRANE AREA
S = MEMBRANE THICKNESS
Y = PERME ABILITY OF THE MEMBRANE
xç, X, Y = CONCENTRATIONS IN STREAMS AS INDICATED IN THE STAGE
DIAGRAM
.x, y' = CONCENTRATIONS ON EACH SIDE OF THE MEMBRANE AT ANY
POINT ALONG THE MEMBRANE
i, k = INDICES DESIGNATING ANY TWO COMPONENTS
n = THE NUMBER OF COMPONENTS IN THE SYSTEM
Pf = THE PRESSURE ON THE UPSTREAM SIDE OF THE MEMBRANE
Pb = THE PRESSURE ON THE DOWNSTREAM SIDE OF THE MEMBRANE

La-L
Lollip - ; * {by - L)x;
THE PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS.
design a no-nixing -1088 cascade, the stage separation factor must be known..
When the point separation factor is just slightly larger than 1, simplifying
assumptions allow the stage separation factor to be computed directly for all
stages. The theoretical point separation factors in this system are quite
Large (2 to 8), and the stage separation factors cannot be computed directly
As a consequence, a cascade for separating krypton from air using a dimethyl
silicone -rubber membrane, designed for no-mixing of streams with unlike
krypton concentrations, can be computed only by successive iterations.
Furthermore, the total size of such a cascade will, generally, vazy...
inversely as the feed rate, since the lower the feed rate
stripping section required. There is also a minimum feed rate (1382 scfm in
this case) for a specified production goal, since, at less than this rate, it
is impossible to satisfy the material balance for the system.'
II
3.4
A Cascade Design
A cascade that will accomplish the cleanup job as specified has been
designed. It is an approximation to a no-mixing loss
mation to a no-mixing loss cascade for krypton, and
as such is also an approximation to the minimum size one. (However, continuing
design calculations indicate that the optimum cascade will not be more than in
to 15% smaller.) This cascade requires 31, 300 yde of membrane area, allocated
into 17 stages of various sizes, with the largest stage at one end and each
succeeding one smaller. Gas from the reactor vessel is fed to the largest
stage. Thus the high-pressure side of the feed stage is the stripping section
of the cascade, and the low-pressure side of this stage, plus all the other
stages, comprises the enriching section. A minimum power supply of 2 MW will
be required to operate the cascade. The membrane area, the permeation rate,
the krypton concentrations in the exit streams, and the power requirement for
each stage are given in Table 2. For calculation of the power requirement, a
single-stage compression with 75% efficiency was assumed. The computed concen
trations of all four components in the feed and withdrawal streams of this
cascade are given in Table 3. Since the separation factor for xenon (from air)
is several times greater than that for krypton, the xenon in the containment
vessel will be depleted by a factor of 3860 during the one week of cascade
operation. To check the validity of the assumption that the ratio of x to x
is independent of Xt, calculations were made with the krypton feed concentration
at 0.03 ppm instead of 3 ppm. The xxt ratio obtained at the minimum feed
concentration differed from the design value by less than 1%. An estimate of
the time required for this cascade to attain steady-state conditions yielded a
maximum value of 25 min, which is small relative to the planned cleanup time.
It should be noted here that the assumption of 100% mixing efficiency and
no-pressure drop along the membrane and in the piping leads to a smaller cascade
than that which would be obtained if these variables were taken into account.
3.5 Cascade Cost
A rough estimate (see Table 4) was made of the capital investment required
I'or such a cascade, exclusive of the cost of the mobile equipment in which it
would be installed. The construction cost is on the order of $1.1 million
The assumption was made that the cost of a membrane package is $10 per square
yard of membrane*. The power consumption cost, at 4.5 mills/kwhr, will be
$215/day.
*The current price of membrane sheet is several times this figure. However,
this is a projected estimate by the manufacturer, the General Electric Company,
of the eventual cost.
were the
flowme followers
19
Table 2. Cascade Characteristics
-
-
-
Membrane
Area
Permeation
Rate
Compressive
Power
(hp)
Krypton Concentration (ppm)*
In Permeated In Unpermeated
Stream
. Stream
Stage
(8cfm)
......2134*
15.7
. 10.0
.1.6
8.7
15.2,
6.5
12,620
5,820
3, 420
2,380
1,800
1,400
1,060
1150
788
610
489
595
321
220
170
136
109
21.0
10.0
27.8
391
36.5.
14.2
19.4
26.2
34.9
48.1
807
301
230
171
63.8.
á a ñ E ő ocoran Fwn
84.2
46.4
599
44
127
112
26
148
321
232
197
162
262
349
mao
--61.6
–82.0
-109
145
"193
-258
-344
110
466
12
3.
623
17
835
-462
6664
1856
Total :. 31, 300
Feed stream
Total'
2900
808
2664
9564
Note:
The slant lines connect concentrations of streams that mix in the cascade.
Steady-state values; based on initial feed concentrations.
------, --.
........--.--...
-- ..........
rma
-
HL
Table 3. Cascade Sti'eams
Return to
Reactor Vessel
Feed
To Storage
(P)
Feed
Reactor Vessel
5
:
2900
....
2895
Flow rate, scfm
Concentrations, mole fraction*
Xenon
Krypton
0.59 x 10-2
0.83 x 10-3
0.993
0.3 x 10-5
0.12 x 10-4
0.3 x 10-5
0.210
0.789985
0.18 x 10-5
0.16 x 10-5
0.2086
0.7913
*Steady-state values; based on initial feed concentrations,
Table 4. Estimate of Cascade Capital Cost
----
Item
Thousands of Dollars
Membrane packages
313
Compressors
141
Coolers
17
Auxiliaries
Piping and installation
Instrumentation
Electrical system
Engineering and inspection
Contingencies
91
149
1146
r.
. .
. .
. . ..anamo
...21
3.6
Cascade Size
It is expected that the membrane packages and compressors would take up
the greater part of the space required by this cascade. On the basis of 20 to
30 ya of membrane per cubic foot of membrane package, the membrane packages
wowid require about 1300 ft3 of space. However, it is estimated that the
compressors would occupy a larger volume. On the basis of a rough layout, the
total volume of the system should be approximately 6000 ft). A cascade of this
size would occupy three semitrailers of the type that can be air-lifted. Each
of the semitrailers have inside dimensions of 40 x 7-1/2 x 7 ft.
3.7 Discussion and Conclusion
As already mentioned, additional design calculations that have been made
indicate that a decrease in cost or size of the cascade by more than 10 to 15%
is probably not realizable. To effect a significant decrease in the size of the
separation cascade, one will have to resort to means other than cptimization of
the design. One way is to diminish the magnitude of the separation job by
relaxing either the time specified for cleanup or the maximum storage volume.
The cascade requirements would be cut approximately in half for a doubling in
the time allowable for decontamination. Also, if the acceptable limit in
storage volume for the hot gases is increased, the cascade size would be dimin-
isheà, though probably not nearly in direct proportion. The quantitative
relationship in this case is not obvious and would have to be developed from
design calculations.
Another possibility is the removal of most of the oxygen by absorption or
chemical reaction from the feed stream to the cascade. If this can be accom-
piisheà economically, the size of the membrane system would be reduced consider-
ably.
---
.. -
.
-
-
.
.
-
-
- -
Investigation of the possible use of permselective membranes for xenon,
krypton, and air separation is continuing, not only for the particular applica-
tion described here, but also for cleanup of off -gases from a reactor fuel
cierent reprocessing plant. Membranes of different composition, which may
exhibit larger separation factors for this mixture, thinner silicone -rubber
membranes, and operation with larger pressure drops across the membxane, and
the possibility that the separation factors may be larger at temperatures other
than ambient are paths that are being examined for possible improvement of this
separation method.
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REFERENCES
.
N
W. G. Belter, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, introductory remarks in
Eighth AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, October 22-25,
1963, USAEC Report TID -7677, pp. 3-6.
2.
M. Steinberg, The Recovery of Fission Product Xenon and Krypton by
Absorption Processes, USAEC R port BNL-542, Brookhaven National Laboratory,
January 1959.
ery
v
3. H. Bernard, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C., personal
communication, 1966.
4.
L. M. Arnett and B. C. Rusche, The Application of Iodine Absorber Units
to the HWCTR Containment System, in Eighth AEC Air Cleaning Conference,
Oak Ridge, October 22-25, 1963, USAEC Report TID-7677, pp. 248-257.
5. Reactor Site Criteria, Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 100
(10 CFR 100), Feb. ll, 1961.
6. J. J. DiNunno, Calculations of Distance Factors for Power and Test Reactor
Sites, USAEC Report TID-14844, p. 30, Mar. 23, 1962.
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B. M. Barrer, Diffusion in and Through Solids,
Press, London, 194).
M, Bermeo, Biffusion in and
3, Cambridge University
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10. W. L. Robb, Thin Silicone Membranes - Their Permeation Properties and
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