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LEGAL NOTICE
This report was prepared as an account of
Government sponsored work. Neither the
United States, nor the Commission, nor any
person acting on behalf of the Commission:
A. Makes any warranty or representa-
tion, expressed or implied, with respect to
the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness
of the information contained in this report,
or that the use of any information, appa-
ratus, method, or process disclosed in this
report may not infringe privately owned
rights; or
B. Assumes any liabilities with respect
to the use of, or for damages resulting from
the use of any information, apparatus,
method, or process disclosed in this report.
As used in the above, “person acting on
behalf of the Commission”includes any em-
ployee or contractor of the Commission, or
employee of such contractor, to the extent
that such employee or contractor of the
Commission, or employee of such contractor
prepares, disseminates, or provides access
to, any information pursuant to his employ-
ment or contract with the Commission, or
his employment with such contractor.
.
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-
1964
9/14
DATE
ISSUANCE
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.
.



ORNEP - 199 Dneas
conf-642-1
31900. ADUATE PROGRAMS FOR THE HEALTH PHYSICIST IN THE UNITED STATES**
AUG 1 3 1984.
.
by
Karl Z. Morgan
Health Physics Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Focsimile Price $370
Microfilm Price $ 1.40
Available from the
Office of Technical Service
Department of Commerce
Washington 25, D. C.
.
Historical
re
The first man-made nuclear reactor -- or "pile" as it was then called -- was
rather hurriedly improvised and operated in crowded space under the athletic bleachers
of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago on December 2, 1942. Just prior to this
time, there began the assembly of a group of physicists with an unusual assignment.
A. H. Compton, Project Director, and R. S. Stone, Associate Project Director, were
determined that radiation hazards of unprecedented proportions must be coped with
successfully in the conduct of reactor programs as planned. E. O. Wollan, a cosmic
ray physicist, was made leader of this group. Since these physicists were to be
concerned with the health of radiation workers, they were called health physicists.
Thus, health pl.ysics as a profession had its origin. During the first year, eight senior
persons were assembled in ihis group. In addition to Wollan, there were H. M. Parker,
a hospital physicist, C. C. Gamertsfelder, a physicist, K. Z. Morgan, a cosmic ray
physicist, J. C. Hart, a chemical engineer, R. R. Coveyou, a mathematician,
0. G. Landsverk, a physicist, and L. A. Pardue, a physicist.
Vita
ini
aman
n
There was no formal instruction available to this first group of health physicists
and they perforce received training as they felt their way by firsthand experience and by
trial and error. At that time, there had been very little development in nuclear physics,
radiation chemistry or radiation biology and even less development in what was to become
health physics. While at the University of Chicago, this small group added to its
knowiedge by citending many informal seminars with physicists, biologists, chemists,
radiologists and engineers but it was educated principally by the day-to-day process of
working together on many new and diverse problems and speculating on the outcome of
$
-
*Presented at the Health Physics Society Ninth Annual Meeting in Cincinnati, Ohio,
June 15, 1964.
☆ Work sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission under contract with Union Carbide
Corporation.
their experiments and calculations which could be put to the final test only when the
big reactors would be placed in operation. The primary objective of this group was to
establish principles, basic standards and monitoring procedures for the protection of
the radiation workers and for the prevention of radiation damage to people living in
the neighborhood of these operations. Also, it was necessary to develop survey
'instruments and dosimeters and these, for the most part, were modified instruments that
had been in use in hospital roentgenology, in physics research laboratories and on cosmic
ray expeditions. Although much of the success of the early nuclear energy industry was
due to the foresight of the first project directors and to the activities of this small nucleus
of health physicists, it cannot be denied ihat in view of their many guesses and extrapolations,
the phenomenal success in protecting man from radiation hazards was indeed little more than
fortuitous. As indicated, this small group was made up predominantly of physicists but
physicists in general had not established the reputation of being overcautious in the use of
ionizing radiation. It is fortunate that this particular group was overly impressed by the
hazards of the radium industry and determined that the radiation damage to nuclear energy
workers must not be scaled up from the sad experience of the radium industry in its use of
about two pounds of radium to the potential hazards of a new industry where the radiation
would be equivalent to that from thousands of tons of radium.
In the fall of 1943 just prior to the star iup of the nuclear reactor in Oak Ridge
on November 4, 1943, five of this first group (Parker, Gamertsfelder, Hart, Morgan
and Coveyou) moved into Tennessee und set up an operating health physics program
under the direction of H. M. Parker. By December, 1943, there was a total of 24
employees in this group. During the following year, the number was increased to a
total of 84 employees and, of these, 29 were GI's assigned by the Army and many of
the others were du Pont trainees for Hanford Works. During 1944 and in the years that
followed, many persons were assigned to the Oak Ridge health physics group for training
and then moved into various other operations. During this year, Parker and the du Pont
trainees moved to Richland, Washington, where Parker became director of the Hanford
health physics prograin and at this time, Morgan became director of the Oak Ridge
health physics program. *
*This Oak Ridge health physics program was located at what was then called Clinton
Laboratories. Later, the name was changed to Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
In the early period of the University of Chicago and later at Oak Ridge, health
physics was a section of the medical department with S. T. Cantril as director. Several
distinguished medical radiologists were members of this early medical program but, one
by one, they left because it became increasingly apparent that so long as health
damage except in the rarest events; there would be few, if any, radiation burns,
cataracts, leukemias, bone tumors, etc. As time went on, it became evident that
health physics, the science of radiation protection, was a challenging profession of .
interest to scientists -- physicists, biologists, chemists, mathematicians and engineers --
but it offered very little of interest to the radiologist and had little in common with
made its appearance. As a consequerce, at Oak Ridge, Chicago and Hanford, health
physics was separated from the medical departments which became primarily departments
uniquely essential part of this new radiation industry and expanded its role into research,
education, training and applied activities. From the very beginning, health physicists
have refrained from engaging in activities that should be more appropriately carried
on by the doctors in the department of occupational medicine. Likewise, the doctors,
realizing their lack of knowledge in the physical sciences, were happy to assume no
responsibility for health physics with its many problems of physics, engineering, chemistry
and mathematics. If a man working in the field contaminated his hands with radioactive
material or received a contaminated wound, he followed immediately the standard field
decontamination procedures and then hurried to the medical depaitment for further check
and decontamination, if necessary. If he inhaled or ingested radioactive material, he
was provided with containers and instructions for furnishing urine and fecal samples and
the health physicist then carried out the necessary radiochemical analyses of these samples
and used the total body counter to estimate his body burden. Only in the very rare event
(of the order of one per year per 10,000 employees) was there a radiation accident of
sufficient import at Oak Ridge National Laboratory to require medical treatment.
Pre-employment and annual physical examinations were conducted by the medical
department for all the employees and careful medical records were kept but there was
no evidence of radiation damage. X-ray examinations revealed no increased incidence
of tumors and special eye examinations did not indicate an unusual number of cataracts.
Even the blood counts failed to reveal any changes indicative of the effects of radiation
exposure.
Present Health Physics Program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Health physics at Oak Ridge National Laboratory from the very beginning has
been organized into three principal areas: applied activities, education and training
and research. The applied activities have been concerned with personnel monitoring,
building surveys, environmental surveys, body fluid analysis and instrumentation. The
research program has been concerned with the broad problem of understanding the
interaction of ionizing radiation with matter with an ultimate goal of developing a
coherent theory of radiation damage. Until such a theory is better developed and
supported by experimental evidence, all of our extrapolations to man of dose-effect
relationships in animals and even our interpretation of instrument data will be subject to
questionable normalizations and serious uncertainties. One important program at Oak Ridge
has been to seek out, study and evaluate cases of human exposure, wherever they can be
found. This led (from 1956 to the present time) to a cooperative program with the Atomic
Bomb Casualty Commission for the evaluation of doses received by the Japanese at
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Also, this interest has resulted in our investigation and
evaluation of various radiation accidents and to our initiation of interrol dose studies
including a cooperative program with the University of Tennessee for the trace element
analyses of tissues from the various organs of the human body. Our research has included
theoretical, experimental and engineering activities. It can be broken down into the
broad categories of radiation physics, radiation dosimetry, radiation ecology, internal
dosimetry and radioactive waste disposal. In fact, this research covers a series of
studies in the whole spectrum -- atomic, molecular, solid, gaseous, liquid, plasma,
cell, organism, animal and ecosystem. From the very beginning of health physics, one
of the principal instrument problems was that of measuring accurately the dose of ionizing
radiation and weighting this dose appropriately by modifying factors such as the
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) and the radiation damage term (n). A great deal
-5-
of effort has gone into calculations and instrumentation for the evaluation of mixed
radiation from neutrons and electromagnetic radiation of different energies and various
distributions in the body. These health physics research and applied activities were
carried on not only at Oak Ridge National Laboratory but at Argonne National
Laboratory, Hanford, Los Alamos, the University of Rochester, the University of
California and later at Brookhaven National Laboratory and other laboratories
throughout the United States and the rest of the world.
Education and Training Programs at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
From the very beginning of the program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
education and training was an important health physics activity. A large number of
young scientists were brought into the Laboratory and trained in this new profession of
radiation protection. These students became the nucleus of health physics programs not
only at Oak Ridge but mariy became senior health physicists in other laboratories.
Table 1 lists the early du Pont trainees, most of whom moved to Hanford in 1944 and
have now become leaders in health physics programs in the United States. The author
was in charge of these early training programs. There was no suitable health physics
text so instructional material was written and furnished to the students on a day-to-day
basis. During the early period, instruction was limited primarily to those subjects
relating to applied health physics operations and to basic supporting information. Some
of the subjects were atomic physics, nuclear physics, radiation physics, electronics,
instrumentation, units of radiation exposure and their physical meaning, methods of
calculating radiation exposure and radiation dose, instruments and their application for
radiation protection, radiation shielding and scattering, internal dose, radiation biology
and maximum permissible exposure. Later, instruction was given in radiation biophysics,
evaluation of human exposure data, prevention of criticality accidents, hazard
evaluation of reactors, accelerators and associated facilities, radioactive waste disposal,
environmental contamination, radiation ecology, rules, regulations, codes of practice,
public relations, etc. Following the completion of instructional programs for du Pont
trainees, a number of others, including military personnel, came to the Laboratory for
applied training and classroom instruction in health physics. These included personnel
có.
TABLE I
DU PONT TRAINEES - HEALTH PHYSICS DIVISION
First Group
January, 1944 - July, 1944
Second Group
September, 1944 - December, 1944
Badger, C. W.
Cherubin, L. J.
Delaney, W. H., Jr.
Durum, W. H.
Eisenacher, P. L.
German, L. L.
Healy, J. W.
Lewis, C. G.
Lindvig, P. E.
Lowe, J. T.
Patterson, C. M.
Seymour, F. P.
Wilson, J. N. (special trainee)
Barker, L. V.
Bauer, R.
Bradley, J. G.
Chastain, G. W.
Clough, V., Jr.
Kesel, G. P.
McAdams, W.
McCrary, L. C.
Morris, J. W.
Moulthrop, H. A.
Pahnke, L. E.
Ruppert, H. G.
Singlevich, W.
Stevenson, D. H.
Turner, J.
Whitaker, E. S. (special trainee)
from the Army, Air Force, Navy, public health officers, trainees from many industrial
organizations, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission personnel, civil defense officials,
university groups, radiation ecology training programs and many trainees from overseas.
The duration of instruction of a student ranged from a few weeks to two years and the
level of instruction from that for technicians and non-technical laboratory employ-3s to
that for engineers, medical doctors, professional health physicists and postdoctoral
students. Table 2 lists some of the early health physics trainees from military and other
government organizations and the reader will recognize among these many who have
since become leaders of the national and international level where health physics plays
an important role.
Ross S. Thackeray was in charge of the health physics education and training
programs from 1947 through 1949, when he left on a Rhodes Scholarship. During this
period, the need for senior health physicists became rather acute and in order to meet
the demand, the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission sponsored a special fellowship program
to provide education, training and experience to specially selected college graduates.
This program was administered by the National Research Council for the school years
1948-1949 and 1949-50. There were 20 students in each of these courses. Fc: the
most part, the students had majors in physics but a few had majors or minors in engineering,
mathematics, biology or chemistry. These two programs were conducted entirely at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the courses were taught without college credit.
In 1949 the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies was given the responsibility
of administering this and other fellowship programs. It was decided to move the formal
classroom training to one or more universities since much of this health physics instruction
was at a graduate level. A number of universities were considered but Vanderbilt
University and the University of Rochester were selected to start this program in the
academic year 1950-51. It was arranged that the students assigned to Vanderbilt would
spend the summer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) after completing the
academic year and those assigned to the University of Rochester would spend the summer
at Brookhaven National Laboratory for their practical training.
ivit;**
*man
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-
-8-
TABLE 2
EARLY HEALTH PHYSICS TRAINEES FROM MILITARY AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
Name, Rank and Organization
Colvin W. Saliey, Col., Army Medical Corps
Walter A. Burkus, Maj., Army Medical Corps
Raymond V. Randall, Ist Lt., Army Medical Corps
Albert H. Holland, Jr., Ist Lt., Army Medical Corps
David H. Naimark, Lt. Col., Army Medical Corps
Vun C. Tipton, Captain, USN, MC
Delbert S. Barth, ist Lt., CmlC
Ralph H. Pennington, Ist Lt., Cmic.
Louis O. Elsaesser, ist Lt., Cmic
H. W. Speicher, Westinghouse
Paul B. Klevin, AEC-NYO
Edith R. Newton, Purdue
David Balber, Brookhaven National Laboratory
R. C. Roth, Brook haven National Laboratory
L. E. Tryon, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Raymond B. Krum, Corndr., USN, CEC
Thomas E. Shea, Lt. Comdr., USN, MSC
Francis J. Aldwin, Maj., USAF
John E. Boysen, Maj., MC
Melvin F. Eyerman, Lt. Col., MC
Patrick H. Hoey, Maj., MC
Oliver R. Placak, Captain, USPHS
Clinton B. Powell, Captain, USPHS
Conrad P. Straub, Maj., USPHS
Ben Kalmon, NACA
L. R. Seiter, TVA
Francis W. Chambers, Navy Dept.
Hilda Bass, Ner: York Radiological Laboratory
Evelyn Jetter, New York Operations
P. B. McKay, University of Tennessee
Robert D. Bowers, Maj., USAF
Thomas A. Gibson, Captain, US Army
Clarence A. Grubb, Lt., US Navy
Gregg Henry; Captain, US Army
Glenn A. Kent, Maj., USAF
Burris D. Lamar, Lt. (ig), US Navy
Richard B. Laning, Lt. Comdr., US Navy
Russell H. Maynard, Comdr., US Navy
George E. Moore, Maj., USMC
Joseph J. Newman, Lt. Comdr., US Navy
Charles R. Robbins, Lt. Col., US Army
Louis N. Saunders, Lt. Comdr., US Navy
John H. Terry, Lt. Corndr., US Navy
Albert C. Wells, Lt. Col., US Army
Thomas R. Ostrom, Lt., USMC
R. J. Farber, Hazeltine
Year Arrived
1946
1946
1946
1946
1946
1947
1947
1947
1947
1947
1947
1947
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
194€
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1948
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
TABLE 2 (cont'd)
Name, Rank and Organization
Year Arrived
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
Paul R. Wignall, Maj., USAF
O. W. Kochtitsky, TVA
E. G. Purdom, Guilford College
Olon D. Satterfield, Lt., USAF
Eurle F. Mitchail, Maj., Army Signal Corps
Donald E. Demet, Capt., MC, US Navy
Paul M. Hoot, Capt., MC, US Navy
Peter S. Kwiatkowsky, Lt. Comdr., MC, US Navy
Garner L. Lewis, Lt. (ig), MC, US Navy
Samuel C. Ingraham, USPHS
Clinton S. Maupin, Lt. Col., MC, US Army
Ellis Oster, Ist Lt., MC, US Army
John H. Rust, Lt. Col., VC, US Army
Soul Harris, Brook haven National Laboratory
William H. Bishop, Jr., Brook haven National Laboratory
Angella F. Soannell, Brook haven National Laboratory
John S. Handloser, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Ralph J. Connelly, Brook haven National Laboratory
Robert H. Jones, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Hugo Di Giovanni, New York Operations Office
Louis E. Browning, Maj., MC, US Army
Kent T. Woodward, Capt., MC, US Army
Victor E. Archer, USPHS
James S. Reed, Lt.(ig), MC, US Navy
Angel A. Cardona, Lt. Col., MC, US Army
Irvin W. Cavedo, Captain, MC, US Army
Robert M. Davis, Lt. Col., MC, US Army
Wright A. Gates, Maj., MC, US Army
William L. Reed, Captain, MC, US Army
Marshall Cohen, Comdr., MC, US Navy
Walter F. V. Bennett, Lt. Cmdr., US Navy
Russell B. Buchanan, Jr., Captain, US Army
Richard A. Chidlaw, Ist Lt., US Army
Arthur B. Chilton, Cmdr., CEC, US Navy
Benjamin H. Colmery, Jr., Lt., US Navy
Truman F. Cook, Maj., US Army
Howard J. Dager, Jr., Ist Lt., CEC, US Army
Robert H. Dempsey, Captain, US Army
Alexander Grendon, Col., US Army
Philip S. Gwynn, Maj. USAF
Robert Louis Harvey, Lt., US Navy
Gordon L. Jacks, Caplain, US Army
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
-10-
TABLE 2 (cont'd)
Name, Rank and Organization
Year Arrived
Neil E. Kingsley, Cmdr., CEC, US Navy
John D. Liechty, Lt. Cmdr., US Navy
John H. Lofland, Jr., Cmdr., CEC, US Navy
Norair Lulejian, Maj., USAF
Ragnwold Muller, L., US Navy
Paul R. Peok, Jr., Lt., US Coast Guard
Henry J. L. Rechen, Captain, USPHS
John D. Servis, Captain, US Army
Morris L. Shoss, Maj., US Army
James G. Terrill, Jr., Maj., USPHS
John M. Wilson, Captain, US Army
Gerald Bryce Zwetzig, Ist Lt., USMC
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
-Il-
In 1949 Elda E. Anderson was placed in charge of the health physics education
and training program at ORNL. By her students she was affectionately called "the
flying mom" because during the winter months she would fly to Vanderbilt University
where she conducted a special course in general health physics which the students took
in addition to the regular course requirements leading to the masters degree in physics.
The Vanderbilt-Oak Ridge program was orientored toward physics, whereas the emphasis
of the Rochester-Brookhaven program was toward radiation biology. Thus, it was
recognized then as now that there is a need for several types of health physicists. This is
not surprising because the breadth of responsibility of health physics in problems of plıysics,
engineering, biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, etc., requires men with advanced
education in many of the sciences. Thus, in some cases a person with principal background
in biology might be in greater demand in health physics radiation ecology or internal dose
programs; a person with background in chemistry might be sought after for the body fluid
analysis or chemical dosimeter programs; a person with background in chemical engineering
might be the one most suited for a particular health physics job dealing with radioactive
waste disposal or chemical hood design und a person with principal background in physics
might be one most suitable for particular jobs in applied health physics or in the physics
portion of health physics research having to do with the interaction of ionizing radiation
with matter.
Some of the AEC Health Physics Fellowship students have conducted their research
leading toward a masters degree at the university campus while others have conducted this
research at a national laboratory, i.e., Vanderbilt students at ORNL and Rochester
students at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Altogether since 1950, 45 Vanderbilt
students have conducted their masters theses in the Health Physics Division of ORNL.
In addition, 7 students have conducted their Ph. D. theses research in our Division.
A review of titles of the research theses of these students as listed in Table 3 will give
some idea of the caliber of this portion of our health physics graduate program.
In the years that followed, other university and national laboratory groups were
added to the program as indicated in Fig. I which shows the AEC Health Physics
Fellowships held at the beginning of a school year. There are two striking features
-12-
TABLE 3
RESEARCH THESES CONDUCTED IN THE HEALTH PHYSICS DIVISION AT ORNL
UU
Title
s
Author
Year
Abee, H. H. * The Relatior ship Between Radiation Exposure and Industrial Injuries 1962
Bergstein, Joe Design and Construction of a High Voltage Accelerator and Spectrometer 1953
Blackstock, A. * Discrete Electron Energy Losses in Thin Metallic Foils**
1955
Blanchard, R. L. The Preparation of Thin, Uniform Sources for a Beta-Ray Specirometer 1957
Blaylock, B. G. * Chromosomal Aberrations in a Natura! Population of Chironomous
tentans Exposed to Chronic Low-Level Environmental Radiation** 1953
Butcher, H. E. * A Study of the Removal of Radioactive lodine from Hospital Waste
by Laboratory Trickling Filters
1952
Carter, J. G. Low Temperature Therr.columinescence of the Gamma Irradiated
Amino Acids and Proteins
1960
Carter, M. W. * Results of an Investigation of the Removal of a Radioactive
Isotop: (1131) from Sewage by the Use of Laboratory Trickling Filters 1951
Crowell, Julian A Thermal Problem Associated with Underground Storage of
Radioactive Wastes
1960
Cure, John
Neutron Scattering
1955
Davis, Norma O. Angular and Spectral Distribution of Light Emitted from
Electron-Bombarded Silver Foils
1964
Denman, Eugene Radiation Measurements by Frequency Variation
1952
Dillow, W. D. A Study of Cavity Ionization as a function of Atomis Number by Use
of a Miniature Counter
1959
Eldridge, H. B. * On the Energy Distribution of Slow Electrons in Molecular Gases
1961
Edmundson, Mildred Disposition of Alpha Particle Radiation in Binary Gas Mixtures
Containing Argon
1963
Emerson, L. C.* Emission Spectra of Electron Irradia:ed Metal Foils**
1963
Finston, R. A. Measurement of Electron Flux in Irradiated Media by AC Methods 1959
Forester, D. W.* Diffusion of Slow Electrons in Gases
1961
Frank, A. L.
Optical Emission from Irradiated Thin Metallic Foils
1962
Friend, A. G.* Report on the Investigation of the Removal of lodine (1131) and
Strontium (Sp89) from Water by Ion Exchange Resins
1952
Gilbert, H. E. Neutron Scatterin
Neutron Scattering from Thick Slabs
1958
Gilliland, J. W., Jr. Thermoluminescence Studies of th: Gamma-Irradiated Ferroelectrics
Rochelle Salt and Guanidine Aluminum Sulfate Hexahydrate
1959
Gunter, B. D. The Physical Properties of Rock Salt as Influenced by Gamma Rays 1961
Gupton, E. D. Recombination Losses in Pocket Ionization Chambers
1955
Hammer, D. C. Optical Emission from Electron Irradiated Thin Gold Foiis
1963
Hoyt, W. A. * The Effects of Lime-Soda Water Softening Process on the Removal
of Radioactive Strontium-90-Yttrium-SO
1952
*from a university other than Vanderbilt University
** doctoral dissertations
-13-
TABLE 3 (cont'd)
Author
Year
1956
1960
1959
1958
1957
1952
1953
1959
1952
1964
1960
1963
1964
1954
1958
1954
Huffman, F.
Spatial Distribution of Electron Depth Dose ir Aluminum
Hull, A. P.
A Small Wrist Dosiine ter for Beto and Gamma Radiation
Hurst, G. S. * Capture of Electrons in Molecular Oxygen**
Johnson, R. M. Pocket lon Chamber for Beta Radiation Dose
Johnston, L. W. Response of the Anthracene Scintillation Crunter to Low Energy
Electrons
Kahn, B.
Counting Efficiency of a Gas Flow Proportional Counter
Kalil, Ford
Straggling Distributions of High Energy Electrons Traversing Thin Foils
Kalil, Ford
Stopping Power for Low Energy Electrons**
King, William Meteorological influences on the Natural Radon and Thoron
Concentrations in the Free Atmosphere at OP.NL
Labor, D. A. Time-of-Flight Electron Beam Monochromator
Lee, P. K.
Determination and Evaluation of the Radiation Field Above
White Oak Lake Bed
Martin, R. E. * Crowth and Movement of Smallmouth Buffalo (Ictiolius babalus Rof)
in Watts Bar Reservoir, Tennessee
McConnell, W. J. Electron Slowing Down Spectrum in Cw of Beta Rays from Cuot
Melton, C. E. Measurements of lonization Produced by 5-Mev Alpha Particles
in Argon Mixtures
Mendell, J.
Application of Information Theory to Aging and Radiation Damage
Mills, W. A. Fast Neutron Dosimetry in a Small Tissue Equivalent Phantom
Moe, Harold
Tonization of Acetylene Mixtures and Other Mixtures by Pu 239
Alpha Particles
Moore, Wesley Backscattering of Beta Particles
Neel, Robert B. * Use of Analog Computers for Sinulating the Movement of
Isotopes in Ecological Systems
Nelson, .. R. Measurement of Electron Flux in Media Bombarded by X-Rays
Nix, W. B.
Kinetics of Radiation-Induced Free Radicals
O'Brien, Jack A Mobile Laboratory for Radiological Defense
O'Kelly, L. B.
Measurement of Electron Attachment in Oxygen-Methane and
Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures
Olson, W. W. A Study of Pre-Acceleration in Beta-Ray Spectroscopy
Patton, W. F. Measurement of the Average Energy Lost by a 5 Mev Alpha Particle
in Producing an Ion Pair in Water Vapor
Ritchie, R. H. * On the Interaction of Charged Particles with Plasma**
Ritchie, Jerry C. * Distribution of Fallout Cesium-137 in Litter, Humus, and Surface
Soil Layers Under Natural Vegetation in the Great Smoky Mountains
Sanders, F. W. A Study of Alpha Particle lonization in Argon Mixtures
Sims, T. M.
Low Temperature Thermoluminescence of Gamma Irradiated
Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate
Thorngate, J. H. The Cosine-Cubed Neutron Spectrometer
Thornton, W. T. Some X-Ray and Fast Neutron Response Characteristics of Silver
Metaphosphate Glass Dosimeters
*from a university other than Vanderbilt University
** doctoral dissertations
1956
1953
1962
1958
1960
1952
1960
1958
1957
1959
1962
1959
1962
1961
1961
-14-
TABLE 3 (cont'd)
Author
Title
Year
1958
Villforth, J. C.
Weinberg, C. J.
1963
Wilkie, W. H.
Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Filtered X-ray Spectra
Thermoluminescence Spectra and Activation Energies for Aromatic
Acids and Proteins
Measurement of the Slowing Down Spectrum of Cu64 Positrons
in an Infinite Copper Medium
Cycling of Cesium-134 in White Oak Trees on Sires of
Contrasting Soil Type and Moisture**
Measurements of Stopping Power of Copper by Calorimetric Methods
1963
Witherspoon, J. T. *
1962
1959
Ziemer, P. L.
*from a university other than Vanderbilt University
**doctoral dissertations
L
!: .Wilwer.

.
.
-
-·
-
-
-
X-
X
w
a ANDERBILT - ORNL (300)
ROCHESTER -BAL (191)
WASHINGTON -HEW (85)
- KANSAS (48)
You CALIFORNIA (34)
- PUERTO RICO (4)
- MICHIGAN (14)
O.. HARVARD (8)
TENNESSEE (3)
X-
--
-
..
..
..
..
.......
......
....
.--...-
.
. .
-
-
-
.
-
..-
-
.
-
-
-
-
.
NUMBER OF FELLOWSHIPS HELD
.
- .
-
-
.
. .
.
.
. .
.
.
-
... -
-
- -
-
- -
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
57 58
SCHOOL YEAR
FIG. I. AEC HEALTH PHYSICS FELLOWSHIPS (1 st. YEAR APPOINTMENTS) AT BEGINNING OF SCHOOL YEAR AT
INDICATED UNIVERSITIES. EACH CURVE BEGINS WITH THE YEAR THE PROGRAM BEGAN IN A
SCHOOL, NUMBERS IN PARENTHESIS INDICATES TOTAL NUMBER OF FELLOWS ON EACH PROGRAM.
- 16-
pointed out in this figure: (1) the great variability in size of the programs from year
to year in the various universities and (2) Vanderbilt hus had without exception the
largest number of reilowship students each year. Altogether through the fellowship
year 1964-65 there have been 2, 366 applications. Of this number, 1,048 were offered
tellowship appuintments and 749 appointees accepted the offers. Table 4 indicates the
distribution of the applicants and fellowship acceptances in relation to the state from
which the undergraduate degree wus received. Here it will be noted that schools of
13 states have each supplied 20 or more fellows. Listed in the order of the most
students supplied, they are New York, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Illinois,
Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Minnesota, Texas, Massachusetts, lowa and Virginia. It
is not surprising that states wira lurge college enrollment such as New York, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, Ohio, Texas and Massachusetts should be in this list but it is disappointing that
the states of California and Michigan with large college enrollments and in which there
are AEC Health Physics Fellowship programs are not attracting their share of students
into the program. Also, we might have expected Kansas and Washington to be in this
top list because they have had these AEC Health Physics Fellowship programs for many
years. The fourth column in Table 4 listi itie Fellows as percent of 1960 college
enrollment in the state. Here in order of rank are Idaho, Wyomir:g, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Maine, Wisconsin and Mississippi. It is of interest to ask why these states
rank high. I do not have the answer to this question but may hazard the guess that some
of the reasons are as follows: (1) The local health physicists at the AEC Operations at
Idaho Falls have done a good job of selling health physics. One school, Idaho State
College, has furnished six of the 12 Fellowship students from Idaho. (2) ORNL and
Vanderbilt University have done a great amount of advertising of health physics by
visits to the schools in Tennessee and Kentucky. Vonc'erbilt University has supplied
25 and Memphis Siate University has supplied 10 of the 55 Fellows from Tennessee. In
Kentucky, Berea College has supplied six; Western Kentucky State has supplied six and
Murray State College has supplied five of the 27 Fellows from Kentucky. (3) Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, Paducah, Kentucky, and Idaho Falls, Idaho, stand as local examples of job
TABLE 4
APPLICATIONS RECEIVED, NUMBER OF FELLOWS 5Y
STATE OF UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL
Number of
Applicants
Fellows
o Fellows as %
ä 1950 College
Enrollment
Fellows as % !
br Applicants
Applicants
odfellows as %
1960 College
Enrollment
ū
of Applicants
55
Il
75
.076
.038
A
.0068
.014
.0022
.028
.012
.013
.051
.023
.029
.012
.015
.032
.0077
.025
.0046
.018
25
20
NEWS WAS
.013
-17-
21
20
New York
Tennessee
Wisconsin
Pennsylvania
Illinois
Ohio
Kentucky
Indiana
Minnesota
Texas
Massachusetts
Towa
Virginia
Idaho
California
Michigan
Kansas
Washington
Wyoming
Mississippi
New Mexico
Nebraska
Maine
Nevada
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
.030
Fellows
oli iwoo ameninaäö-üuinn JW Jani A 00 od Number of
12
Arkansas
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Louisiana
Maryland
Missouri
Montana
New Hampshire
New Jersey
North Carolina
North Dakota
Oklahoma
Oregon
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Utah
Vermont
West Virginia
Puerto Rico
District of Columbia 11
Foreign
Undetermined 32
14
.015
.0050
.015
.0062
.016
.031
.026
.0053
12
.086
.0025
.0066
.025
.025
.078
.035
.034
.022
.047
.021
.015
ùô
u
.013
.0090
.018
.027
.0059
i u
2017
이
​-18-
opportunities in health physics and (4) in these states a few schools have publicized
the profession of health physics and supplied most of the Fellows from the state. For
example, all six of the Fellows from Wyoming were supplied by the University of
Wyoming; in Maine six of seven Fellows come from the University of Maine; in
Wisconsin 12 of 33 Fellows come from Wisconsin State College and in Mississippi
13 of 18 Fellows come from Millsaps College. Thus, it would appear there are two
principal sources from which the AEC Health Physics Fellows have been drawn:
makes the program attractive to its own undergraduate students and (2) small
colleges and universities in which beachheads are established by a participating
university and with whom sufficient feedback is maintained by faculty, alumni
and visiting health physicists to cause the students to plan and work toward
entering health physics as an interesting and challenging profession. In these
schools the science majors have heard of and formed a good impression of health
physics. On the other hand, my visits to some other schools have revealed that
not only the students but also the science faculty have never heard of health physics
or in many cases have a warped and often an unflattering concept of health physics.
The last column of figures in Table 4 indicates the relative quality of
the applicants as judged by the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies Review
Committee. In this case, the top ranking of schools by states is in the order of
Wyoming, New Mexico, Maine, Nebraska, Nevada and Tennessee. Thus, it
would appear that Wyoming, Maine and Tennessee not only rank high in supplying
applicants for AEC Health Physics Fellowships but also they supply applicants a
large percent of whom qualify for fellowships.
-19-
The applicants and Fellows originate with many undergraduate majors in
engineering and science as indicated in Table 5. Forty-six percent of the Fellows
come from physics, 12% from science combinations, 11% from chemistry, 10% from
other sciences, 9.6% from engineering, 5% from mathematics and 4% from biology.
Only 34% of the applicants become Fellows. There is good reason to keep this percent
low; for example, the present value of 34% means that on the average the ORINS
Review Committee has been able to choose whom it considers the best qualified
candidate from among each three applicants. It must be kept in mind, also, that
the selection of a Fellow must depend on the school in which he indicates he wishes
to conduct his graduate program. For example, a sanitary engineer might be quite
acceptable for the programs at the University of Michigan or Harvard University but
lack the necessary entrance requirements for the programs at the University of Tennessee,
Vanderbilt University, the University of California, etc. Fig. 2 indicates the ranking
of these Fellows in graduate school. Although the differences in these rankings may not
be very significant, it can be seen that engineers rank best; physicists and chemists rank
second and biologists third. Part of the poor showing of the biologists may result from
insufficient preparation in mathematics and/or an unwise selection of school; e.g. the
biology major would be expected to do better at the University of Rochester, the University
of Michigan or the University of Kansas than at the University of Washington, University
of Tennessee or Vanderbilt University.
As shown by Fig. 3, a studeni with a high undergraduate grade point average
has a good chance of becoming a Fellow with a high average. It is to be noted that
62% of the students from the large colleges (or universities) and 67% of those from small
colleges with undergraduate average of 2.6 to 3. O had (for the years 1954-63) above
average or superior performance in the AEC Health Physics Fellowship graduate programs.
This 5% difference is probably not significant. However, for the students with
undergraduate grude point averages of below 2.6, the curves reverse and the students
from the large schools appear to do better in graduate school than those from the small
schools. The moral of this is probably that a superior student will remain superior
regardless of the handicap of a small school but the average or poor student from a small
TABLE 5
UNDERGRADUATE MAJORS OF FELLOWS AND APPLICANTS
ma Number and %
my
Number and %
of Fellows
% of Applicants who
Become Fellows
Engineering
Chemical
Electrical
Engineering Physics
Mechanical
Sanitary
Other Engineering
26 (1.4%)
29 (1.5%)
16 (0.8%)
15 (0.8%)
4 (0.2%)
28 (1.5%)
13 (2%)
18 (2.8%)
9 (1.4%)
6 (0.9%)
4 (0.6%)
12 (1.9%)
62 (9.6%)
1 18 (6.3%)
Science
Biology
Chemistry
Mathematics
Physics
Science Combinations
Other Science
72 (3.3%)
150 (8.0%)
50 (2.6%)
487 (26.0%)
156 (8.3%)
102 (5.4%)
26 (4.0%)
70 (11%)
32 (5.0%)
301 (46%)
77 (12.0%)
67 (10.0%)
1017 (54.0%)
573 (89.0%)
Undetermined
748 (40.0%)
12 (1.9%)
Total
1883
647
UNCLASSIFIED
05!:L-LF-WC. On-Line

BIOLOGIST
WENGINEERS
PHYSICIST
% OF FELLOWS IN A GIVEN RANK
CHEMISTS
-21-
.
AVERAGE
SUPERIOR
BELOW
AVERAGE
ABOVE
AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE OF AEC HEALTH PHYSICS FELLOWSHIP
STUDENTS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL IN RELATION TO
UNDERGRADUATE MAJORS
FIG. 2
-
.
.
.
.
...
~
-
...
..
20F2
199
ORNL P
UNCLASSIFIED

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0
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DATE

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at
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DI!LIni-Mi. Oli-,,,,
100
267%
64%
62%
LARGE
COLLEGES
044%
% OF FELLOWS ABOVE AVERAGE OR SUPERIOR GRADUATE STUDENTS

- SMALL
COLLEGES
034%
623%
BELOW 2.00
2.00-2.59
2.60-3.00
UNDERGRADUATE GRADE-POINT
AVERAGE
ABOVE AVERAGE AND SUPERIOR FELLOWS
BY SIZE OF COLLEGE AND UNDERGRADUATE GRADE-POINT
AVERAGE
FIG. 3
-23-
school cannot overcome the handicap of poor preparation or inadequate course selection.
There are, of course, notable exceptions to sich generalizations for a few small schools
prepare the students for graduate school work as well or better than the large university.
As would be expected, only the Fellows with a graduate record of better than
average and superior have much chance of receiving a graduate degree. For example,
as shown in Fig. 4, of those below average only 14% attained the M. S. degree and
2% the Ph. D. degree; of the superior students, 46% attained the in. S. degree and
37% the Ph. D. It is interesting, also, to note there is a maximum in the curve of
percent of Fellows attaining ihe M.S. degree. This occurs because many of the
superior students do not take time out to do a masters research and thesis project but
instead work uninterruptedly toward the Ph. D. degree.
One measure of success of the AEC Fellowship program is the number of advanced
degrees conferred on the Fellows. Some of the participating universities require much
more advanced course work than do others and in these universities it is only the
exceptionally well prepared student who can receive a M. S. degree in one year.
Fig. 5 indicates the number of extensions granted holders of first-year AEC Health
Physics Fellowships at the various participating universities. It is interesting that of the
total of 188 extensions that have been granted, 116 were given to students in the
Vanderbilt program. Fig. 6 indicates the number of M. S. and Ph.D. degrees awarded
by the participating universities to the Fellows and in Table 6 a summary of these data
is given. Altogether there has been a total of 272 M. S. degrees and 63 Ph. D. degrees
awarded to Fellows on this program. Admittedly, these are small numbers but importantly
for the past 13 years this hes been the principal source of senior health physicists in the
United States.
* the moderne '.
.
.
In 1959 the advanced fellowship program was added. A student became eligible
for this fellowship only if he had completed at least two years of work in the field of
health physics; he was presently employed in the field of health physics and had an
exceptionally good record. These fellowships have been a stimulation to highly
qualified young practicing health physicists in providing them the opportunity to return
to the university and obtain the Ph. D. degree. This fellowship is awarded on a one-year
..
- 24-
UNILATE!!
11:?L-W-IW . ( -it'sd.
80
0(56)
(128)
ATTAINED MASTER'S
AND/OR PhD LEVEL
(104)
(102)
CATTAINED MASTER'S
LEVEL
6131)
% (FELLOWS)
20
ATTAINED PRO
LEVEL

(16)[/
(26)
-
(10)
BELOW
AVERAGE
ABOVE
AVERAGE AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE
SUPERIOR
Fig. 4. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL ATTAINED BY FELLOWS
WITH VARIOUS UNIVERSITY PERFORMANCE RATINGS
(NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE NUMBER OF STUDENTS
IN EACH PERFORMANCE RATING)
::..!ki.
..."

VANDERBILT
a ROCHESTER
A WASHINGTON
- two-+----
--- +- KANSAS
o CALIFORNIA
• PUERTO RICO
O MICHIGAN
de TOTAL EXTENSIONS
ㅗ
​EXTENSIONS
-23-
-
--
--
-
-
PUERTO RICO
.
51
52
53
54
55
56
61
62
63
64
57 58 59 60
YEAR EXTENSION BEGAN
FIG. 5. EXTENSIONS GRANTED TO AEC-HP FELLOWS

70
UMS DE GREE ONLY
A RECEIVED Pho

DEGREES AWARDED
- 26-
w wou voooo

. we u ovoooo
-
-
-
-
----
' 51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
YEAR AWARD GIVEN
FIG. 6. DEGREES AWARDED TO AEC - HP FELLOWS
-27-
TABLE 6
ADVANCED DEGREES RECEIVED*
(1950-51 Through 1962-63 Fellows)
Received
Doctor's
Degrees
Received
Master's
Degrees Only
Received
No Advanced
Degrees
Total
Extensions
26 (13%)
101 (48%)
82 (39%)
209
Fellows Who Did Not
Receive Extensions
37 (9%)
171 (41%)
210 (50%)
63 (10%)
272 (43%)
292 (47%)
627
*Advanced degrees known to be received to date.
-28-
basis but if the student does high-quality graduate work, it is extended up to three
years. For these advanced fellowships the student may select any university he chooses
in which to do graduate work, provided it has strong departments in disciplines related
to health physics. The regular fellowships pay a stipend of $2,500 annually plus $500
for each dependent; the advanced fellowships pay a basic stipend of $4,000 annually
plus $500 for each dependent. Both fellowships provide additional allowances for
tuition, textbooks and travel. These fellowships compare favorably with, and in some
cases the stipends are higher than, those offered in other fields but the competition is
keen both from the standpoint of job opportunities and the many fellows::ip possibilities
which the good student must consider.
In 1963 the regular AEC Health Physics Fellowship was extended to become a
three-year fellowship program; that is, the awards are now made to the student with the
understanding that if he does acceptable work, the fellowship may be extended for a
period of three years. This is a big improvement in the fellowship program because, as
indicated in Fig. 4, the students of superior performance prefer not to delay their Ph. D.
in order to get a M. S. degree. Instead, they would rather work steadily ahead to obtain
the Ph. D. degree. Usually it takes four or five years beyond the B. S. degree to obtain
the Ph. D. degree in one of the sciences (e.g. physics) with a speciality in health physics
but, fortunately, the universities are able in most cases to take on the student for his last
one or two years as a graduate assistant. Also, there are advanced fellowships such as
the Oak Ridge Fellowship paying a basic stipend of $3,000 plus $ 500 per dependent
which are available to the outstanding graduate students. Having obtained the Ph.D.,
inany of the students carry out a year or two of post-doctorate work which I consider is
worth much more to the student than a masters degree. Although the percent of AEC
Health Physics Fellowship students going on for the doctorate degree is relatively low,
it is expected that this percentage will increase now that the regular fellowships are
offered potentially on a three-year basis making them more attractive, especially to the
better students. Also, many of the better jobs call for health physicists holding the Ph.D.
degree so there is considerable incentive for the better students to work toward the Ph. D.
-29-
Healin physicists are in demand not only in AEC operations but with many
government operations, national laboratories, hospitals, universities, military
organizations, public health service, industry, state organizations and international
ogencies. Table 7 summarizes the occupational activity of the Fellows in the spring of
1964. This includes all the Fellows through 1963 insofar as their occupation could be
determined. It is impressive that 68% of these definitely are in the field of health
physics. Many of the remaining 32% are not entirely out of health physics and may
be contributing in an important way to health physics in other lines of work or their
further study may lead later to greater contributions to health physics. For example,
many of those in industry who are not actively engaged in health physics can nevertheless
find many opportunities to put their health physics training to good use. Less direct but
perhaps worthwhile application of health physics training is made by the 7% of the Fellows
who are females and for the most part now list their occupation as "housewife." This
situation must be faced as one of the facts of life so long as our daughters are given the
same educational opportunities as our sons. In Table 8 it will be noted that except for
academic employment, there appears to be a slight financial advantage to those Fellows
who have left health physics. Although the figures are not available, it has been
confirmed that in many cases this is attributable to the fact that those heuith physicists
who have gone on to higher administrative positions in industry and government are
receiving higher salaries. Here health physics is an important scientific background and
in some cases an essential part of their career. Thus, health physics was not a stumbling
block but a stepping-stone to those interested in the work of administrator, director or
plant manager. I daresay industry would be better off if more top executives had come
up through the health physics ranks.
These health physics fellowship programs have been an invaluable asset to the
safety of the nuclear energy industry and the principal source of supply of health physicists
in the United States for the past 13 years. In spite of the large number of these Fellows
(647 through 1963), the demand has exceeded considerably the supply. Often a student
must choose between eight to ten job offers when he graduates. This means that in some
areas there has been rather keen competition and the only way to fill certain health
-30-
TABLE 7
ACTIVITY OF FELLOWS IN SPRING, 1964
(1964 Activity of Former Fellows Who Were on Programs
for School Years 1950-51 Through 1960-61)
Field of Employment
In Health Physics Field
Not in Health Physics Field
Total
Industry
Government
Academic Employment
Further Study
Military
Other Known
51 (16%)
140 (44%)
60 (19%)
46 (15%)
13 (4%)
6 (2%)
42 (27%)
17 (11%)
28 (19%)
31 (21%)*
17 (11%)*
16 (11%)*
93 (20%)
157 (34%)
88 (19%)
77 (16%)
30 ( 6%)
22 ( 5%)
316 (68%)
15! (32%)
Undetermined
* These have not necessarily left the field of health physics.
-31-
TABLE 8
CURRENT ANNUAL SALARIES OF FORMER FELLOWS*
1950-51 through 1962-63

Employed in Health Physics
Number of Average Salary
Fellows**
Not Employed in Health Physics
Number of Average Salary
Fellows**
Field of Employment
Industry
$ 10, 669
$11,834
9,703
Government
137
9,084
Academic
Employment
8,663
8, 253
224
$ 9, 270
$10, 107
*Spring, 1964
** Number of fellows who submitted salary information
-32-
physics jobs has been to rob someone else. Although various chapters of the Health
Physics Society and individual health physicists mode contacts with senior students and
their faculty in many of the colleges and in other ways attempted to improve the situation
and increase the number of applicants, there was a decline after 1960 as indicated by
Fig. 7. As a consequence of this discouraging trend, Myron Fair was loaned to the
Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies for a yedi of recruitment beginning in the fall
of 1963. The fact that the number of applicants returned again to the high value
reached in 1960 testifies to the need of having someone knowledgeable in the field of
health physics visit the various colleges and universities for consultation with faculty
and student. The purpose of these visits is to explain the challenging opportunities in
the field of health physics and dispel incorrect impressions that have developed by those
who picture the health physicist as a technician in coveralls wandering about with a
geiger counter in his hand. Also, in 1963 the participating universities were given the
opportunity to assist in the recruiting. Table 9 gives some indication of the effectiveness
of these methods of recruitment. Thus, it appears that with more attention given to
recruiting methods, it will be possible to obtain sufficient applicants to fill these
fellowship runks. More importantly, it should provide a better selection and choice
of top-grade students. Also, it is to be hoped that the AEC will furnish more financial
support for these fellowship programs at least until the supply of health physicists more
nearly meets the needs and the urgent demands. This is true especially in view of the
fact that many highly qualified applicants in 1964 were not awarded fellowships (see
Fig. 7) because of insufficient fellowship funds.
As indicated earlier, there is a need for many types of health physicists. There
are those who believe a health physicist should be given graduate training in many
disciplines to meet any combination of these needs. However, I think this would be a
serious mistake because in such cases most of the student's time in a four- or five-year
graduate program wouid be spent in taking prerequisite courses or material of a descriptive
nature so he would not acquire sufficient depth of knowledge and would not complete a
genuine graduate program. Another equally undesirable alternative would be for the
student to spend 10 to 12 years in graduate school acquiring all the breadth and depth
of knowledge he ideally should have. I firmly believe the best arrangement is for the

240
220
200
180
160
REGULAR HEALTH
PHYSICS APPLICATIONS ---
140
NUMBER
REGULAR FELLOWSHIP
APPOINTMENTS OFFERED
100
-33-
REGULAR FELLOWSHIP
APPOINTMENTS ACCEPTED
d
o
enama
ADVANCED HEALTH PHYSICS APPLICATIONS
APPOINTMENTS OFFERED A.
11 APPOINTMENTS ACCEPTED O
| 1111.11 11
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
SCHOOL. YEAR
50
60
61
63
APPLICATIONS, APPOINTMENTS AND ACCEPTANCE OF REGULAR
AND ADVANCED AEC HEALTH PHYSICS FELLOWSHIPS
FIG. 7
-34-
TABLE 9
APPLICATIONS FOR THE REGULAR AEC HEALTH PHYSICS FELLOWSHIPS FOR
SCHOOL YEAR 1964-65 AS A RESULT OF VARIOUS RECRUITMENT METHODS
(These numbers can ot best be only poor estimates. In this casc, credit for an
application was given to the person or organization that visited or otherwise
contacted the school from which the application originated.)
Related to Recruitment Visits of M. F. Fair
Related to Recruitment Visits Sponsored by Health Physics Society
Related to Recruitment Contacts by Universities
Harvard Unive.sity
Texas A & M
University of California
University of Kansas
University of Michigan
University of Puerto Rico
University of Rochester
University of Tennessee
University of Washington
Vanderbilt University
Related to Other Recruitment Efforts of ORINS*
Total Applicants
co ao Ñ con
109
27
*Results of literature furnished universities, ORNL-ORINS Traveling Lecture Program, visits of
various AEC employees, etc.
-35-
student 10 take all the course requirements for a graduate degree in one of the
standard diciplines such as physics, chemistry, or biology, and, in addition, to
meet certain health physics requirements. For example, in our programs at Vanderbilt
and the University of Tennessee, the students take all the course and thesis requireinents
for the M. S. and/or Ph. D. degrees in physics so they can stand shoulder-to-shoulder
with any other physicist. In addition, they must meet certain requirements to qualify
as health physicists. Table 10 summarizes some of the characteristics of the program at
the University of Tennessee which qualify the student to become a health physicist. In
many respects the programs at Vanderbilt und the University of Tennessee are quite
similar. At the present time, several staff members in the Health Physics Division of
Oak Ridge National Laboratory are assisting in the instruction of these specialized
courses both at Vanderbi!t and the University of Tennessee. Also, during the summer
months when the students are in the Laboratory, they attend a number of classes for
special instruction as well as obtain firsthand experience in applied health physics and
a brief introduction to health physics research. Thus we hope the graduates of these
programs can hold their own with the best of the physicists and with the best of health
physicists after they have had a few years of professional experience.
Some have suggested the possibility that the graduate degrees should be offered
in health physics and that undergraduate courses and degrees should be offered in this
profession. At least at the present time I think it unnecessary and undesirable to offer
undergraduate degrees or graduate degrees in health physics. I do believe, however,
that in many colleges and universities it would be helpful to offer at the junior-senior
level a course in general health physics. All the courses under "3" in Table 10 are
available to any University of Tennessee student with proper background.
Conclusions
I believe that support for graduate training of health physicists should be continued
but at an accelerated rate in order to keep pace with an expanding nuclear energy industry
and an increasing use of ionizing rudiation in innumerable industrial and domestic
applications. Because of the need of health physicists in state and federal agencies of
-36-
TABLE 10
FEATURES OF ORNL-UT DOCTORATE PROGRAM THAT MAKE IT A HEALTH
PHYSICS AS WELL AS A PHYSICS PROGRAM
1. One of Preliminary Examinations will be Given on General Health Physics
2.
Summers of Students will be spent in the Health Physics Division at ORNL
3.
Curriculum will include special courses* in:
a. General Health Physics (Physics 472-3)
b. Radiation Chemistry (Chemistry 546)
c. Radiation Biology (Zoology 577-8)
d. Radiation Physics (Physics 661, 662, 663)
4. Dissertation will be on subject relating to ionizing radiation
* 400 courses are undergraduate level; 500 courses are graduate level and
600 courses are advanced graduate level.
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public health, it would seem appropriate that the U. S. Public Health Service should
support programs similar to the AEC Health Physics Fellowship program. I am pleased
grant to the University of Tennessee will take the same program as outlined above for
AEC Health Physics Fellowship students and, in addition, will take nine quarter hours
in epidemiology, statistics and public health administration. There is little doubt that
graduates of this program can make a valuable contribution to public health.
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In order to guide the future course of health physics at the graduate level, I am
recommending that the Health Physics Society take a more active port in supporting the
Health Physics Fellowship programs and other programs such as those sponsored by the
U. S. Public Health Service which are designed to train personnel who are to practice
professionally in the field of radiation protection. I suspect many schools would like to
get into this business of training professional health physicists and I believe the Health
Physics Society could serve a useful and welcome function by appointing a permanent
Council or Division of Education to study this problem and perhaps recommend several
courses of action on the port of the Society. For example, some of the functions of
such a Council on Education might be as follows:
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(1) Prepare a set of standards and professional goals of attainment
for the various health physics education and training programs.
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(2) Prepare a list of specific suggestions that can be used by the
various universities engaged in these programs. These suggestions,
on the one hand, should specify a program that would give a reasonable
guarantee that vie are training health physicists and, on the other, that
the graduates of these programs meet all the professional requirements
of excellence in one of the standard scientific professions, e.g. physics,
chemistry or biology.
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(3) The Council might in time assist the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear
Studies, the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, the U. S. Public
Health Service and any other agencies supporting such programs by
reviewing applications from universities desiring to set up new
training programs and by periodic review and evaluation of programs
in progress.
(4) Develop broad outlines of a graduate health physics program indicating
those courses that should be considered as minimuin requirements.
(5) Assist in the establishment and conduction of health physics education
and training programs in any part of the world in which such programs
are needed. Elda E. Anderson conducted health physics
education and training programs in Stockholm, Sweden (1955),
in Mol, Belgium (1957) and Bombay, India (1958), all sponsored by
WHO, the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission and the government of
each country. The need for such programs continues to exist and
several agencies such as WHO, IAEA and UNESCO might wish to
sponsor them in collaboration with the Health Physics Society. Also,
efforts should be made to make the Health Physics Fellowship graduate
programs which I have described above more readily available to overseas
students. The AEC Fellowship grants are available only to United States
citizens but a number of students from other countries have participated
fully in these programs. In such cases, however, financial support has
been provided from some source other than the AEC, e.g. their own
government, some international agency or a fellowship available to
overseas students.
(6) Study the need for radiation protection and the opportunities for health
physicists to be of service in minimizing radiation damage while at the
same time stimulating and encouraging its full use to the benefit of man.
The goal of this Council might be to keep a hand on the pulse of health
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physics needs while translating these needs into educational
requirements in the university.
(7) Encourage health physics research at all levels -- basic, engineering
and applied.
The time may come when it will be desirable to establish schools of health
physics or radiation protection and to have degrees at the B.S., M. S. and Ph. D. levels
offered in health physics. However, at the present time I am not convinced that a move
in this direction is desirable. I would much prefer that students be taken at the B. S.
level with majors in one of the physical, biological or engineering sciences and be
given special training in health physics along with the usual requirements for a M. S.
or Ph. D. degree in one of the sciences such as physics, chemistry, ecology, etc. For
example, I would like to have reason to believe that a graduate from our programs at
Vanderbilt and the University of Tennessee or a student from the University of California
would meet all the requirements for a Ph. D. in physics and could stand his ground
professionally against any other physicist. At the same time, I would like to be assured .
that he is a health physicist and I would like to have him meet certain special requirements
(such as those summarized in Table 10) so we recognize him as a well-qualified health
physicist. Thus, the graduate is a good physicist, biologist or engineer and at the same
time he is recognized as, and proud to be, a practicing health physicist. The health
physics profession is perhaps a bit unique in that it has drawn together men of many
professional backgrounds but with one point of focal interest -- radiation protection.
Our goal is to make it possible for man to live safely with the atom while at the same
time reaping a maximum of its benefits. I think this new profession offers many challenging
opportunities in education, research and applied activities and the Health Physics Society
can render to itself and to the younger generation a valuable service by forining a Council
or Division to study this problem and present a plan by which the Society can offer its good
services to the various agencies supporting training programs in the field of radiation
protection. Such a Council or Division should, of course, work very closely with the
American Board of Health Physics (and with similar boards in other countries) established
for the certification of health physicists.
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Finally, health physics must at all times maintain a clear vision of its purpose
and all of its diverse educational, research and applied programs must be brought into
focus on its one objective -- radiation protection. Although none of us will live to see
the development of a completely coherent theory of radiation damage, this can serve as
our long-range research objective so we can set safe and reasonable levels of maximum
permissible exposure and implement reliable radiation protection standards and so that
man can weigh intelligently the benefits against the hazards of ionizing radiation. So
long as there is a nuclear energy industry, so long as we must depend at some points on
the human elements of decision and action and until we have developed a complete
theory of radiation damage and are certain of the accuracy of our estimates of hazards
and the appropriateness of our radiation standards, there will be a need for health
physicists of many grades and ranks in education, research and applied activities. Young
scientists in our footsteps must be educated in universities through programs of study
adjusted up to and not down to their needs.
I wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance of S. Z. Haidri, C. Slattery,
Ann Patton and other members of ORINS who collected the data on the AEC Health
Physics Fellowship programs as used in this report. Also, I wish to acknowledge the
assistance of Marie G. Wright in assembling some of the early student records.

V
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words and see them to
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