m
J
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I



OF THE

TRANSPORTATION
LIBRARY







NOTES
IN 0 I''E -S
ON THE
RIVER NAVIHOATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA.

BY
CAPTAIN F4 41AIG, R.E.,
NISTRICT ENGINEER UPPER  CODAVERY.
MADRAS:
PRINTED AT THE UNITED SCOTTISH PRESS,
BY GRAVES, COOKSON AND CO.
1863.



I



NOTES
ON THE
RIVER NAVIGATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA.
CHAPTER IL
THE North American Continent is the most highly favored portion
of the earth's surface in respect of natural facilities for communication.
No other country possesses river systems so vast, or so admirably
arranged for the purposes of trade. None, it is probable, is so rich in
natural resources, or furnishes such striking illustrations of wise and
beneficent design in the adaptation of its physical structure to the wants
of its inhabitants, and to their part and place in the world's history.
Mr. Ellet, in his remarkable work on the Mississippi, has pointed out
the relation which everywhere subsists between the geographical extent
of each of the great natural divisions of the land and the configuration of
its surface, and shows that the distribution of its river basins, the position
of its mountain ranges, and the lengths and declivities of the great plains
which slope thence to the ocean, have been fixed with as manifest reference
to convenience of commercial intercourse as to peculiarities of climate and
soil. " It seems," he says, " to be a rule in the natural economy that
" countries remote from the ocean shall have outlets through great rivers of
"slow descent; rivers which serve primarily for their drainage,butso formed
"that they may be used, in the progress of time, for the highways ofciviliza" tion. The plains of China are thus supplied with the Amour, and Russia
" with the Volga; Germany has the Danube; and Brazil and the States,each
" of the Andes, the Amazon, Orinoco, and La Plata; all rivers of gentle
" descent leading far into the interior, and all adjusted for navigation."
The most remarkable exemplification of this universal law is afforded
by the physical geography of that part of North America, which lies
between the Rocky Mountains, the forty-ninth parallel, and the Atlantic. Of
this vast tract, containing two and a half million square miles,and embracing



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

the most'fertile portion of Canada, as well as the greatest and richest part
of the States, the two basins of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence occupy
more than three-fourths, or 1,750,000 square miles; the former alone
covering 1,226,000 square miles, an area equal to that of India between
the sea, the Himalayas and Cabul.
So gentle is the descent from  the heads of these great valleys to
the ocean that sea-going vessels may load at Chicago on Lake Michigan
(1,600 miles from  the Gulf of St. Lawrence) and deliver their cargo
unbroken at Liverpool; while a boat may descend from the sources of
the Alleghany, " within sight of the sails which whiten the approach to
" the harbor of Buffalo," 2,400 miles to the Gulf of Mexico, and the produce
of the far west is sent by the Missouri and Mississippi from the flanks
of the Rocky Mountains 4,000 miles to New Orleans.
The St. Lawrence, with the chain of lakes, of which it is the outlet, is
said to have a development of 2,500 miles, while the Mississippi with its
numerous tributaries, which spread their ramifications over every part of its
valley, is calculated to afford 16,000 miles of navigation even in its natural
condition, unimproved by the hand of man.
Even the comparatively narrow strip of land which lies between the
Alleghanies and the Atlantic, and skirts the northern shore of the Gulf of
Mexico, possesses numerous streams, which are utilized for the purposes of
transport, and which in any other country would rank with rivers of the
first magnitude, though they dwindle into insignificance in the presence of
the colossal systems above described.
Thle ludson, though mostly a tidal navigation, is one of the first order,
and is in the architecture, speed, and magnificence of its Steamers without
a rival on the globe. The cotton lands of the Carolinas, of Georgia,
Alabama, and Mississippi are pierced by numerous rivers, which bear their
rich products to the sea. The Alabama and Tuscaloosa, by which nearly
the whole of the cotton exported from Mobile finds its way to the coast,
swarm with Steam-boats, and have a development of several hundred
miles.
Thus every province of this great continent is supplied with the means
of communication, and each in that degree which its geographical position
demands. None is excluded by its position from easy access to the others
and to the ocean, the common highway of every land. The vast and fertile
prairies of the west have not in vain been endowed with those capabilities,
which fit them to be the granary of the world. So cheap, so easy, and so
-widely diffused are the means of transport, that the farmers of Missouri,



OF NORTH AMERICA.

Illinois, and Iowa, feed the slaves of Louisiana and Mississippi, and
compete successfully with the local grower not only in the market of
New York, but in those of Liverpool and Bordeaux. The hardware of
Pittsburgh, and the minerals of Wisconsin are exchanged at a distance
of 2,000 miles for the rich products of Cuba and the south. The coal
of Pennsylvania tis to be found in every city along 2,000 miles of the
Ohio and Mississippi; and the pork and flour of Cincinnati and St.
Louis victual the ocean Steamers of New Orleans, and the Whalers of
the north-eastern States. The wharves of New Orleans are thronged with
Steamers from every part of a territory extending over nineteen degrees
latitude and twenty of longitude, while Quebec is the terminus of a
navigation second only to that of the Mississippi in its development
The country thus richly endowed by nature with the means of
locomotion, and stored with untold treasures of cereal and mineral
wealth, has been committed to a nation pre-eminent for energy, intelligence, and enterprize.
The Americans have not been slow to turn its vast capabilities to
account. They early understood the importance of connecting their
magnificent systems of internal navigation with one another, and with
those points on the Atlantic coast which from their natural advantages
had become important centres of trade. As wave after wave of immigration rolled westward from the Atlantic, and the fruits of the newly
subdued earth poured eastward and southward by the two great water
routes in an ever increasing stream, a keen competition sprang up
between the various sea-board States and Canada, for a share of the
rich traffic. The men of New York were not content to allow the
whole of the vast trade of the Lakes to flow past their shores to
Montreal and Quebec. They soon availed themselves of the remark.
able break in the chain of the Alleghanies which occurs within their
State, to:connect Lake Erie with the Hudson, and so divert a large
portion of the trade into that channel
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and still later Virginia, followed their example, though under far less favorable circumstances, and with very
different success, each striving to attract to itself a part of the trade of
the Mississippi basin by connecting its chief city with the Ohio. The
Canals constructed for this purpose have, with the exception of the Erie,
not been fully completed, and Railways have now for the most part
taken their place. In a similar manner, the two great systems of tli



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

Mississippi and St. Lawrence have been linked together by Canals connecting the Ohio and Upper Mississippi with the Lakes. These works
were mostly carried out in the infancy of the States through which they
run, and with very limited capital, and though creditable as specimens
of Engineering skill, and of the energy and enterprize of their founders
are of contracted dimensions, and altogether inadequate to the prodigiously increased requirements of the trade of the present day.
Meantime the Canadians had cut a ship Canal round the falls of
Niagara. Another, less successful, at the Sault St. Marie, united Lakes
Superior and Michigan, and thus completed the connection of the Lakes
with one another and the Mississippi. Later still the introduction and
rapid spread of Railroads, has, by opening new fields of commerce,
and bringing those parts of the country most remote from the great
water lines into cheap communication with them, enormously added to
their traffic, and extended the sphere of their operations, while it has
to a considerable extent modified their mutual relations, and diverted
a part of their traffic into new channels. It cannot indeed be said that
the extraordinary energy with which Railroad extension has been
pushed forward in the States in the last twenty years, and which is
rapidly covering the land with a net work of iron ways, has been
always, wisely directed, or that a greater amount of legislative interference and control than is congenial to American instincts, might not
have been beneficially introduced in the planning of these great undertakings, in deciding between conflicting interests, and in preventing
the fruitless waste of capital in the construction of competing lines.
INor can it be doubted that a part at least of the capital so lavishly
expended on Railways would have been far more advantageously devoted to the completion of the great water lines, whose value and
paramount importance have been for the time altogether lost sight of.
But as the ardor of Railway enterprize cools, and men are able to take
a wider and more dispassionate view of the requirements of the country, we may expect to see these great national highways receiving their
due share of attention; and when art shall have skilfully combined
both modes of transport, and experience shall have assigned its proper
function to each, this highly favored continent will probably possess
the most perfect as well as the most extensive system of internal communication in the world.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

CHAPTER II.
The early history of Inland Navigation in America is not wanting
in that interest which attaches to every thing connected with the origin
and growth of all great communities.
Civilization did not first penetrate the Mississippi valley from the
south, following the course of the mighty stream, which it might have
been supposed would have been its natural inlet into the great wilderness of the interior.
The southern extremity of the Delta was then in the possession of
Spain, which denied to the Americans the right of free navigation of the
Mississippi, and the first attempts of this nature were made from
another quarter.
The settlers about the head waters of the Ohio were the first to
avail themselves of its stream for the purposes of transport. The hardy
adventurers who had pushed forward westwards from the Atlantic States
across the chain of the Alleghanies, which in those days was not
seamed by even a bridle path, bethought themselves of the new outlet
which the rivers descending to the west afforded for their produce, and
the first rude attempts at navigation were made in that direction.
Soon, however, the purchase of Louisiana removed the restraints
which a jealous legislation had placed on the use of the Mississippi;
roads were opened at various points through the Allegharies, the Pennsylvania and the Ohio and Chesapeake Canals were commenced, and
the tide of immigration gradually poured into the interior from the
east and south.
Previous to the invention of steam propulsion, the ascent of the
strong current of the Mississippi was a most laborious and tedious
operation, and the rude craft which first bore the produce of the interior
to New Orleans were broken up, and sold for lumber on their arrival
there. Gradually a better description of boat was introduced and, by
the aid of sails and tracking, the down voyage was accomplished in a
month, and the up-trip, though with infinite labor and fatigue, in four
months. One of the earliest recorded attempts at an intercourse with
New Orleans by the iiver, strikingly illustrates the enterprize and
perseverance of the early settlers. In 1770, Messrs. Gibson and Lime
descended from Pittsburgh to New Orleans to procure military stores
for the troops stationed at the former place. They completely succeeded in their hazardous enterprize, and brought back a cargo of 136
kegs of gunpowder. On reaching the falls of the Ohio, on their retur



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

in the spring of 1777, they were obliged to unload their boats and
carry the cargo round the rapids, each of their men carrying three
kegs at a time on his back. The gunpowder was delivered at Wheeling,
and afterwards transported to Fort Pitt.
The distance thus accomplished was 4,000 miles, through an almost
unknown, and in many parts unhealthy wilderness, swarming with hostile
Indians.
The deadly enmity between these wild tribes and the new comers, who
gradually dispossessed them of their ancient inheritance, for a long time
surrounded the navigation of the rivers with the utmost danger.
An exterminating warfare was waged between the two races, producing its demoralizing and brutalizing effects upon both. The boatmen of
those days were a rude and desperate set, who have long since passed.away.
They voyaged fully armed, and often had to fight their way to their destination.
The first line of regular transit boats was started on the Ohio in 1794.
It was duly advertised in the local papers, and the announcement which
has been preserved curiously illustrates the state of society at that period,
and the character and extent of the traffic. The projector, after stating
that two boats were to be employed, and the trip from Pittsbyrgh to
Cincinnati, a distance of 480 miles, to be made in four weeks, proceeds to
describe the arrangements on board for the comfort and security of passengers. " The proprietor of these boats having maturely considered the
" many inconveniences and dangers incident to the common method
" hitherto adopted of navigating the Ohio, and being influenced by a love
" of philanthropy, and a desire of being serviceable to the public, has
" taken great pains to render the accommodations on board as agreeable
" and convenient as they could possibly be made.
" No danger need be apprehended from the enemy, as every person
" on board will be under cover, made proof against musket or rifle balls,
" and convenient port-holes for firing out of. Each of the boats are armed
" with six pieces carrying a pound ball; also a number of good muskets,
" and amply supplied with ammunition; strongly manned with choice
" hands, and the masters of approved knowledge."
Four such boats, carrying about twenty tons each, were then considered sufficient for the whole trade between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati.
Such was the state of the navigation of the western rivers up to
the era of the introduction of the Steam-boat. The rivers themselves
were in a state of nature.  Art had done nothing to improve them.
They swarmed with snags, and the falls of the Ohio at Louisville were only



OF NORTH AMERICA.

passable during floods. Yet it deserves to be recorded as an instance of
that capability for cheap transport which is one of the essential characteristics of water communication, however imperfect, that merchandize
was then carried from Philadelphia, vid New Orleans to Pittsburgh, a
distance of 4,000 miles (one-half of which was up stream against a strong
current), for five to eight dollars per 100 lbs., or 1 d. to 21c. per ton per
mile, including the cost of loading, transhipment, and port dues. If, as is
probable, the river carriage was four times as costly as that by sea, this
would give 2}d. to 3.d. per ton per mile, as the cost of the river navigation; not more than double the Railway rate for goods of this class at
the present day, allowing for the saving in time and distance.
The first Steam-boat placed on the western rivers was built at
Pittsburgh in 1811, but the progress of the invention was at first slow,
not more than seven or eight other Steam-boats having been built in the
next five years. So low indeed was the speed and power of these boats
that for some years it was considered questionable whether steam could
be successfully applied to the ascending navigation, and it was not till
1816 that the ninth boat that had been built up to that time made the
first trip to now Orleans and back iii a manner which determined the
question of practicability.
The general adoption of the new system of propulsion dates from
1817. In that year there do not appear to have been more than half a
dozen Steamers afloat, and the tonnage of all the boats of every class on
the western rivers was estimated at 6,500.
In 1834, the number of Steamers had increased to 230, with a
tonnage of 39,000. In 1842, the number was 450 and the tonnage
1,26,278. In 1846 the steam tonnage was 2,49,055.
From this time forward it is difficult to ascertain with precision
the rate of increase. No very reliable statistics appear to be available.
The s atements occasionally met with in the periodicals of the day
are evidently based on very loose data, and of little value.
Nothing more than an approximation can be attempted to the
growth since 1842, and the present extent of the steam carrying trade
of the Mississipfi and its tributaries. In 1853, Mr. Ellet, a careful and
reliable authority, estimated the number of Steam-boats at about 1,000.
In 1858 it appears to have been 1,200, with an aggregate tonnage of
3,60,000 tons. If there is any error in these figures, it is on the safe
side. It would appear from them that the number of Steamers multiIlied much more rapidly in the first twenty years after their introduc


NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

tion than in the last. Unexampled as has been the rapidity of the
growth of western commerce, there seems little doubt that the supply of
the means of transport has more than kept pace with it; the carrying
capacity of the Steam Flotilla at present being, it is generally considered,
somewhat in excess of the demand. One cause to which this is to be attributed is the diversion by the Railways towards the Lakes, the St. Lawrence
and Erie Canal, of a considerable portion of the trade which formerly
had its outlet at New Orleans. In a country extending, it may almost be
said, from the tropics to the arctic regions, other considerations than those
which ordinarily determine the course of inland trade enter into the calculations of the merchant. The climate of the southern part of the
Mississippi valley is sometimes injurious to the products which are floated
down to it from the temperate regions of the north. The Steamer that
descends in a week from the falls of St. Anthony to New Orleans, passes
from a latitude where the lakes and rivers are ice-bound for five months of
the year, to one where frost is comparatively rare; from the parallel of
Odessa to that of Cairo. Hence the Railroads which connect the Ohio
and the Upper Mississippi with the Lakes, as well as those which pierce
the north-eastern corner of the Mississippi basin from the Atlantic, afford
at certain times of the year a more favorable outlet to the perishable
products of Ohio, Illinois,and Indiana, than the river route. The summer
heat of the Gulf of Mexico is injurious to flour, and still more to animal
products. Thus Cincinnati, the largest pork market in the world, sends
by rail and lake to New York an immense quantity of fresh and
salted meat, which otherwise must have been exported to New Orleans.
Hence also it is easy to understand that the Railroads connecting the two
great river systems have added to the traffic of the northern at the
expense of the southern, and proportionately diminished the demand for
water carriage in the latter. But it is by affording a means of transport
for goods and passengers at those times of the year when the navigations are either stopped,altogether closed, or seriously impeded by frost
or drought, that the Railways have most effectually injured the Steamboat interest.
Before their introduction, the traffic of the country was at a standstill at such times. Immense accumulations of goods took place at the river
ports, and freights fluctuated in consequence in an injurious degree. It
cannot be said that Railways have altogether removed the evil, though they
have greatly mitigated it, as they invariably take advantage of such
opportunities to raise their rates to the utmost amount the public patience
will endure. Twenty-five to fifty per cent. above the summer rates is a



OF NORTH AMERICA.

common standard for the winter season. But in thus supplying the
means of carriage at all times, they have, as in so many other ways,
conferred immense benefits on the country.
The river steamers have consequently been forced to resign a,part of their business to these formidable competitors, and their
numbers do not appear to have multiplied of late years as they once did.
At the same time, there is apparent a very marked increase in
their size and tonnage, the latter having risen from an average of 170 in
1834, to 210 in 1842, and 300 at the present day. There is a corresponding improvement in their speed and power. The first steamers built
on the western river could with difficulty stem   the current of the
Mississippi; now a speed of seventeen and eighteen miles an hour is
attained.
The Ohio, with an average fall of only five inches per mile, was at
first believed to be practicable only for descending navigation. Now
tugs of 700 horse-power take 3,000 tons of coal at one tow from
Pittsburgh to Cincinnati, a distance of 480 miles, and return with the
empty boats in eleven days. The Alleghany, with a fall of two feet per
mile, is ascended at the rate of six miles per hour over the current.
Every tributary is explored by steamers of the smaller classes, while
vessels of 1,000 tons and 1,500 horse-power are employed in the vast trade
of the lower Ohio and Mississippi. Each river has its appropriate class
of steamers; the largest size, vessels of 800 to 1,400 tons, running for about
ten months on the lower Mississippi, but not more than five or six months
on its larger tributaries. The cost of transport is wonderfully low. Passengers are carried at id. to Td. per mile, at fifteen to twenty miles per
hour down stream, and six to twelve miles up. Goods are conveyed at
rates below anything known in any other country. A barrel of flour is
sent from Cincinnati to New Orleans, 1,500 miles, for Is. 3d. Agricultural produce is carried at.d. to id.; manufactures at id.; and merchandize up stream at 4d. to Ad. per ton per mile. Such is the steam fleet
of the Mississippi valley; in the rapidity of its growth, the size, power,
aud speed of its vessels, and their admirable adaptation to the rivers
they work upon, it is without a parallel in any other country. Twelve
States of the union depend upon it more or less for the means of carriage.
Its tonnage is one-half that of the wholeUnited States, and the interests
involved in it are said to include an aggregate capital of $100,000,000.
The navigation of the St. Lawrence and its great chain of lakes,
though scarcely inferior in interest to that of the Msississippi is one so
B



10

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

entirely sui generis that it will not attract the same attention in reference
to river improvement in other countries.
It belongs to a class of which the globe presents no other example.
It can scarcely indeed be called a river navigation, if w.e suppose that
term to include only the part of a river above the influence of the tide,
or at least above the point where navigation by ocean vessels commences.
In this point of view, taking Montreal as the terminus, the whole 2,000
miles of navigation include but 125 of river, namely, the part of the St.
Lawrence between Prescott and Montreal, and the short reach which
unites Lakes Michigan and Erie. These are but two short links connecting a chain of inland seas with the Atlantic, and the vessels which
ply upon them are of a class more adapted to ocean than to ordinary
river navigation. The hand of art has indeed been required to adapt
the St. Lawrence to the purposes of transport, and the works constructed
with this view will bear comparison with those of a similar class in any
other country, but still the defects of the stream were of a kind which
admits of complete removal. The difficulty of deficient depth had not
to be encountered. The drainage discharge of the vast area, whose surplus waters find a vent by this river, is so regulated by the great basins
which receive it, and partially store it ere it reaches the St. Lawrence, that
the column of water which rolls down the latter to the sea has a comparatively uniform volume, its surface elevation in flood and in ordinary
stages differing only a few feet, and a constant depth is thus maintained
sufficient even for sea-going vessels.
The following account of the Canadian inland navigations, extracted
from an official paper, affords as full information on the subject as the
scope of the present paper will admit of.
" The port of Montreal forms the dividing point between the navigation of the upper and lower St. Lawrence, being the present termination
of Atlantic voyages. This city, containing 60,000 inhabitants, situated
at the foot of the natural obstructions upon this great river, is 580
miles above its discharge into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 800 miles
from the Atlantic Ocean.
"Between the town of Prescott and city of Montreal, a distance of 125
miles, the waters of the St. Lawrence make a descent of 220 feet, English
measure, over a series of reefs and rocky impediments, causing violent
swells, known as the Galop's rapids, the Long Sault rapid, the Coteau,
Cedars, Cascades, and Lachine rapids; down which steam-boats crowded
with tourists, and freight-vessels with heavy cargoes, drawing eight to



OF NORTH AMERICA.

11

nine feet water, are safely steered. These turbulent pitches of water
occur with lakes, and reaches of smooth river intervening. The St.
Lawrence canals were constructed by the Canadian Government to facilitate the upward passage of vessels to the western lakes; their aggregate
length- is forty-two miles; the number of locks twenty-seven; the amount
of lockage 205 feet. The Welland canal, also constructed by the Provincial Government, to overcome the falls of Niagara, and connect Lakes Erie
and Ontario, is twenty-eight miles in length from lake to lake; the number of locks twenty-seven; the lockage 346 feet. These canals were twenty
years in constructing, and make a total length on the upward route, of
seventy miles; the whole number of locks, fifty-four; and the entire lockage
551 feet. The gross expenditure thereon up to 1st January 1854,
amounted to ~1,839,372 Sterling.
" The locks on the St. Lawrence canals are 200 feet long between the
gates, forty-five feet wide, with nine feet depth of water on the mitre
sills.
" The locks on the Welland canal are 150 feet long between the gates,
twenty-six and half feet wide, with nine and half feet depth of water on
the mitre sills; they are adapted for Propellers of from 300 to 500 tons
burthen, carrying from 3,000 to 5,000 barrels of flour.
" The abovementioned canals complete a continuous inland navigation to Chicago on Lake Michigan, 580 feet above the sea, and a distance
of 1,400 English miles from the port of Montreal. By the completion of
the canal at the Sault Ste. Marie, of one mile in length, overcoming a
fall of eighteen feet, the navigation will be continued in the course of the
present summer of 1855, from Lake Huron into Lake Superior; the latter,
of itself a fresh water ocean, covering 43,000 square miles; the whole
length of navigation from the head of Lake Superior to Cape Roziere in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence being 1,860 miles.
"The five larger Lakes, Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario,
with the river St. Lawrence and its wide estuary, comprise an area of
water 149,000 square miles in superficial extent.
" Skirting the margin of this great basin of the St. Lawrence or debouching upon its American and Canadian shores, are 12,000 miles of
Railway in present operation, with 8,000 more in course of construction.
The larger tributaries, to this great chain of waters, namely, the Ottawa,
the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and Richelieu, are rivers of great length,
and immense volume, and navigable for great part of their course by vessels
of large draught. The less important streams and feeders, intersecting



12

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

innumerable lakes, are calculated by thousands of miles; their more distant
sources of supply being on the northern plateau overlooking Hudson's bay
or on the heights to the south which fence off the St. John's, the Hudson,
the Ohio and Illinois rivers.
" This mighty water-course gathers, as it rolls its flood along; every
valuable natural production in abundance,-the finest of wheat, maize,
and other grains; coal, mineral ores, gypsum, ocherous pigments, salt,
&c., the best building materials in hydraulic and common limestone,
sandstone, granites, and marbles; the choicest timber in oak and pine
for useful, and the curled maple, cherry and walnut trees for ornamental
purposes; not to mention potash, hides, furs, cured fish, beef, pork,
and every other description of agricultural produce. Its auxiliary canals
exceed 1,500 miles in extent, connecting its waters with the cities of the
Alantic sea board on the east, and the city of New Orleans to the south.
Its harvest fields are the fertile prairie lands stretching away to the Mississippi and Missouri rivers; its granaries and marts of commerce, the
rising capitals of the Western States. The Michigan coal field of 12,000
square miles crops out upon its coast line; and the copper and iron of
Lake Superior, the quality of which is second to none in the world, are
now being brought into the markets of America and Europe."
The lakes were doubtless used for the purpose of communication from
the period of the first settlements on their shores. The first steamer is
said to have been built in 1818.
Since then the number has increased to several hundreds, both paddle and screw, the latter being chiefly employed in the St. Lawrence trade,
being best adapted to the passage of the canals and locks. There is also
Sa large fleet of sailing ships. Their size varies from 50) to 400 tons, and
as they carry more cheaply than the screw propellers, the greater part
of the grain trade is monopolized by them.
A very active intercourse is maintained both by sail and steam
between the different ports on the lakes, but the great mass of the traffic
flows in the direction of the St. Lawrence and the Erie canal, the latter
carrying off by far the largest share of it.
It is perhaps impossible to give an accurate statement of the total
tonnage of the St. Lawrence basin, but the following is offered as an
approximate estimate.
It appears from the official returns of the trade and commerce of
Canada for 1857, that the numbers of arrivals and departures of vessels



OF NORTH AMERICA.

13

at Canadian ports, exclusive of ships entered inwards from, or outwards
to sea, was in that year:Canadian Vessels.                  American Vessels.
No.         Tonnage.            No.          Tonnage.
Steam:.... 10,500...... 3,887,829......  30,023...... 3,841,092
Sail.........  7,047......  647,715......  5,744......  572,297
No.          Tonnage.
Total Steamers.. 20,523...... 7,728,921
Sailing Ships... 11,791...... 1,220,012
This represents the total coasting traffic on Canadian inland waters,
and the intercourse, exclusive of ferryage, between Canada and the
United States; but it does not include the traffic between ports along
American shores, an important item which must be sought elsewhere.
Of the above totals a small part, which it is not possible to estimate,
represents a duplicate tonnage, namely, that engaged in the coasting
trade between Canadian ports only, the arrivals in this case at one place
being most probably entered as departures at another. On the other
hand this statement does not include the American coasting traffic,
which it is certain at least equals that of the opposite shore.
It appears that about thirty trips may be taken as the average work
of a steamer on the lakes during the seven months of navigation, and
ten for that of a sailing vessel; but as some of the steamers included in
*the above statement are employed in short passenger lines, forty trips
is perhaps nearer the truth. Dividing then, the total steam tonnage by
forty, and the sail tonnage by ten, we find the actual number and
tonnage of vessels, which the foregoing traffic statement represents
to be:No.     Tonnage.
Steamers...............  513  193,223
Sailing Vessels............ 1,179  122,000
To this should be a4ded the tonnage engaged in the great trade
between New York and the American lake ports which flows to tide
water by the Erie and Champlain canals and the New York Central and
New York, and Erie Railroads. This is obtained as follows:The total number of tons, the produce of western
state, arriving at tide-water on thelludson by Erie
and Champlain canals in 1857, was..................  1,112,178
Tons of merchandize, going west by same routes......  86,890
Tons of goods by the two Railroads from same points,
for same destinations, east and west...............  494,021
Total tons...... 1,693,089



14

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

This tonnage, almost exclusively the produce of, or destined for, the
western States, was brought to, or carried from the lake ports, where it
was received from, or delivered to the land lines, in American vessels, fivesixths of them sailing vessels.
Allowing this proportion of sail to steam, and an average tonnage for
each class of 400 and 150 respectively, we obtain for the tonnage engaged
in this trade
No.         Tonnage.
Steamers........................  18......  7,415
Sail...................... 31 616......  92,681
Adding these to the former totals, the result is, for the whole tonnage
of the St. Lawrence basin.
No.         Tonnage.
Steamers.....................  531......  200,638
Sailing Vessels................ 1,815......  214,681
That of the Mississippi and its tributaries has been already stated to be
No.        Tonnage.
Steamers................... 1,200...... 3,00,000
Barges, &c..........................   10,00,000
This would make the aggregate lake and river tonnage (exclusive of
canal) of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi vallies to be
Steam.........................................  500,000
Sail................................................  214,681
Barges, &c............................................  1,000,000
Assuming that the average number of trips per year of each class is,
steamers 30, sailing vessels 10, and barges 1- (a large number of the flat- *
boats on the western rivers making but one trip, and being broken up at
the end of it), the total carrying power of this fleet would appear to be
Tons.
Steam......................  15,000,000 per annum.
Sail......................  2,146,800
Barge............................  1,500,000
Total......  18,646,800
This amount, however, requires correction. The tonnage of steam
and sail here given is that according to the old Custom House measurement still in vogue, which represents much less than the actual burthen
of a vessel.  The real tonnage is estimated to exceed this from one-third
to one half. Applying the first co-efficient to the foregoing amounts we have
Tons.
Steam........................  20,000,000
Sail...........................  2,860,000
Barge.......................  1,500,000
Total......  24,360,000



OF NORTH AMERICA.

15

as the total carrying power, for the distances goods are usually moved, of
the Lake and River Flotillas of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi.
It would be interesting to add to this the tonnage of the canals and
coasting trade of the United States and Canada, but the information required
for the purpose is not now available.  When we consider that the
tonnage of New York alone exceeds that of any British port, and that
the actual movement on the canals of that State is about 4,000,000 tons
annually, while that on the anthracite coal lines of Pennsylvania is nearly
as much more, we can have little doubt that the calculation, if it could be
made, would exhibit such a stupendous machinery of water conveyance as
no other country could match.
It is difficult to assign a value to this vast commerce, but the materials
are not wanting for such an approximation to it as may afford an adequate
idea of its importance.
The official report to the United States Senate of the Committee of
trade and commerce for 1843 makes the value of the commerce of the
western rivers $ 22,000,000. Mr. Hall" estimates it for 1843 thus,
Exports to New Orleans.......... $ 90,033,256
Interior trade.........................  125,000,000
Value of steam-boat tonnage....  J6,2 0,000
Do. flat and keel do.....     525,000
231,838,256
Imports into the west...... 185,000,000
Total $ 416,838,256
The report of the St. Louis Committee for the same year makes the
amount run greater, viz., $ 432,651,000, and M.r E. D. Mansfield, a very
high authority on such matters, estimates it at $ 500,000,000.
We may then with tolerable certainty assume $450,000,000 as the
money value of this commerce in 1847. In seeking a correct expression
of its present value, the only paper I have met with on the subject is one At
by Lieutenant Alert, United States Topographical Engineers, who assuming an annualincrease of tonnageof seventeen per cent. since 1847, estimates
the present number of steamers on the western rivers at 2,596, and the
value of the floating commerce $1,178,000,000, but this, there can be
no doubt, is far in excess of the truth. Seventeen per cent.is a rate ofincrease
which, it appears certain, hasnot been maintained since 1847, indeed, if we
may judge from the reports of the numbers of arrivals and departures of
Steamers at one or two of the principal ports, the number of steamers is
* " The West, its Commerce and Navigition."



16

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

not very much greater now than it was ten years ago, though the average
tonnage has increased.  This estimate must therefore be set aside. The
following is offered instead. The four great river ports of the west, are
Pittsburgh and Cincinnati on the Ohio, and St. Louis and New Orleans on
the Mississippi. From an examination of their trade, as far as information
on the subject is available, we may approximate to that of the whole valley
of which they are the chief centres.
The trade of Pittsburgh is thus stated in a report of T. J. Bigham, Esq.,
to the President of the Chicago Convention in 1847.
Arrivals.

No.
From the Ohio......  3,178
Monongahela...  1,500
Alleghany...    118
Total of steam-boat arrivals...  4,796
Flat and keel boats......  2,392
Pennsylvania canal boats...  4,046
Total... 11,134

Tonnage.......... 1,013,970.........  55,000........    3,447......... 1,092,436.........  118,410......      150,000......... 1,360,846

This does not include the coal and lumber trade, which probably
amounted to at least 500,000 tons more. It is nearly three times that
amount at the present day.  This wculd give for the total import and
export trade of this city in 1847, 1,860,000 tons.
The river trade of Cincinnati in 1857 is thus given in a statement furnished for the information of the Government by Mr. W. Smith, Superintendent of the Merchants' Exchange.
The number of arrivals of steamers was... 2,703

Do.      departures.... 2,G48

The imports by river were
By Steamers
By keel and flat boatsCoal
Timber
Produce...

Tons.
713,346
570,000
183,300
44,000
1,510,646
449,630

Value....... $67,310,102......... 1,600,000.........,650,000.........,500,000...... $ 74,060,102........ 50,322,160..... $124,382,262

Total imports...
Exports by steamers.. ~.. @

Total exports and imports... 1,960,276



OF NORTH AMERICA.

17

For St. Louis our information is not so complete. It appears by the
Harbour Master's report, that the number of arrivals of steamers was in
1857, 4,003. The number of departures must have been about the same.
In assuming an average burthen for each, the data presented by the trade
of Cincinnati as above may be taken with confidence. There were at that
city 5,351 arrivals and departures of steamers, and the number of tons
exp)rted and imported was 1,162,976, giving an average of 217 tons
per steamer. But it is to be remembered that the average tonnage
of steamers frequenting the port of St. Louis is much greater than that of
Cincinnati, both on account of the more limited depth of the Ohio, and
the confined dimensions of the locks at Louisville. Hence we find that
the exports to New Orleans from St. Louis in 1856, 206,230 tons,
were carried by 473 steamers, giving an average burthen of 440 tons
each; 270 tons will, therefore, be a low estimate of the average load of
the steam-boats arriving and departing at the port in 1857. This would
give a total movement of 270 x 8,000         = 2,160,000 tons
to which has to be added the receipts by keel
and canal boats as per Harbour Master's report.    40,000 tons
2,200,000 tons.
It is necessary here to remark that the year 1856, to which these
figures apply, was one of extreme drought, and that the navigation of
the western rivers suffered severely in consequence, as well as from the
severity of the winter months. The annual report of the St. Louis
Chamber of Commerce for that year states that during the first quarter
such was the accumulation of ice that navigation was almost suspended, only one-fifth the usual number of boats arriving at that
city. In December again running ice compelled the greater part of
the boats to stop; so that " three months, or one-fourth of the year,
may be said to have been lost to the navigation.  The water in the
Ohio remained at a very low stage the whole year, and in that state
was frozen over for thirty days in the winter; the supplies of coal
from Pittsburgh, for which Cincinnati is almost wholly dependent on the
river, ceased; all the Railroads together could not supply the demand;
factories were shut up, and so enormous] was the price of coal that the
poor were only enabled to procure it by the aid of subscriptions raised
in Pittsburgh and other cities. Hence the traffic returns for this year
are considerably below the average.



18

NOTES ON THE RTYER NAVIGATIONS

From  the above data we obtain for the annual arrivals and
departures of
Steam-boats at St. Louis......     8,000
Do.      Cincinnati......      6,000
Do.      Pittsburgh......      6,000
Io. (estimated) New Orleans...      8,000
28,000
This represents the total traffc by river between each of these
ports, and all others on the Mississippi. Hence a part of this amount,
viz., that which expresses the traffic between each of these four ports,
and the other three, must be double the actual amount.
It appears from  the returns of the Cincinnati and St. Louis
Chambers of Commerce, that the intercourse of each of these two cities
with the other three is one-third to one-fourth of their whole river traffic;
and as we may very safely assume this ratio (one-third) for all four,
a deduction of one-sixth must be made from the above total of 28,000,
reducing it to 23,334, which multiplied by 220, gives 46,668,000 tons
as the total annual traffic by steamer of the four great commercial
marts of the western rivers.
The steam tonnage of these four ports is about three-fifths of
that of the whole valley, and supposing the remaining two-fifths
to be as busily employed, the total traffic by steamer would amount
to 7,778,000 tons.
To this has to be added the coal and lumber trade carried on
by barges and flat boats. One million tons of coal are exported in this
manner from the head waters of the Ohio, and about 300,000 tons of
boards from the Alleghany alone, besides rough timber, shingles, &c.
We have noted too as much as 42,000 tons of produce brought in barges
to Cincinnati alone. The export of lumber from New Orleans and Mobile
is one-half that from the whole United States. Probably at least two and
half million tons should be added to the above for the coal, lumber and
produce trade, carried on without the aid of steam, making the total
traffic movement of the western rivers 10,500,000 tons per annum.
It is not difficult to assign a money value to this commerce. The
trade of the Upper Mississippi and Ohio is of much the same character
as that of the Lakes, the two water-ways carrying the products of the same
tract. It appears from the Annual Reports of the Canal department of
the State of New York that the value of the tonnage of all classes moved
on the canals of that State is $ 53 per ton. inclusive of timber. Excluding



OF NORTH AMERICA.

19

this item, for the purpose of comparison with the steam commerce of the
Mississippi, the value is $80 per ton.
The report of the Chamber of Commerce of Cincinnati for 1857
gives the value of 1,162,976 tons of exports and imports by steamer
that year at $117,632,262, or $101 per ton.
This increased value of the Ohio commerce is what we should expect from the canals of New York, having been deprived by the Railroads of a considerable part of the valuable merchandize which they
once qarried, and which is still moved in vast quantities on the rivers.
We find in fact that the value per ton of imports and exports by Railway at Cincinnati' is $107 against $101 by river, showing that they
do the same class of business. But the trade of the lower Mississippi is
more valuable than this, in proof of which it is only needful to point
to the great export of cotton, value at least $220 per ton, little of
which appears in the commerce of the upper rivers.
One hundred Dollars per ton may then safely be assumed as the lowest value of the steam commerce
of the Western rivers, which would make its total
value........................... 100 x 6,500,000=$650,0,000,000
Add for coal and lumber trade.........................$20,000,000
And for value of the steamers themselves, 300,000
tons @  $90 per ton.................................. 27,000,000
Total value of commerce afloat..................$697,000,000
on the Mississippi and its tributaries.      ---
The nearest approximation that can perhaps be made to the trade
of the St. Lawrence basin, is by adopting Colonel Abut's estimate of
the number of trips made by each steamer on the Lakes, ind a proportionate number for each sailing vessel, and applying this to the
tonnage of each class above given.
We thus obtain for
Tons.
Total movement by steamers      28 x 200,000......5,600,000
Do.         sailing vessels 10 x 214,680......2,146,800
Total annual movement...7,746,800



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

Of which the experts and imports by the St. Lawrence were in 1857,
987,102 tons; value, $33,714,030, or per ton $35.
By the Erie canal and Railroads
tons 1,693,089; value $84,154,000; per ton $50. Forty dollars per ton
may perhaps be taken as an average, which would make the value of the
Whole commerce of the St. Lawrence basin in 1857, $309,872,000. In
1985 it was estimated by Mr. McAlpin, State Engineer of New York, at
$151,255,000, and there is no doubt that there has been a great inerease in the lake trade since that time. The trade of the State of
Ohio with Canada, for instance, has increased five-fold in the last ten
yers, and the tonnage of ship building trebled.
To sum up these results we haveS         0                       b
El III.-,;4       &a
$
St. Lawrence. 200,638  214,68110,860,000 7,700,000  309,872,000
Missimippi.... 300,001,0001,0001,0003,506,00010,500,000  697,000,000
Total... 500,638 1,214,68124,366,000 18,200,000 1,006,872,000
CHAPTER III.
Of the two river systems, whose trade and navigation have formed
the subject of the preceding Chapter, that of the St. Lawrence has,
for reasons already given, been described in sufficient detail. It is
necesamzy, however, before proeeding to a more minute exposition of
the physio~ a and commercial characteristics of that of the Mississippi
to fill in a little nwre distinctly the outline already given of its extent
and coafigur'tioe.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

21

The estimates formed of the actual length of practicable navigation on the Mississippi and its tributaries vary greatly; but the follow
ing is deduced from the most recent
Mississippi...
lMissouri
Ohio
Tributaries of Ohio.
Tennessee

and reliable authorities.
Miles...  2,200
2,000..  980

j1

Cumberland..
Wabash
Green
Alleghany
MIonongahela...
Five other small tributaries
Red river...
Arkansas
Illinois...
Wisconsin
Des lMonies...
Iowa, imperfect
Rock,    do.
Osage    do.
Kansas   do....
Yellowstone do....

720
400
400
150
200
60
300--  2,230...1,100... 000
304... 100... 250
110
250... 275... 150... 300

Total... 10,849
Besides a number of smaller tributaries which, it is calculated, raise the
total amount to about 12,000 miles. Many of the tributaries are, however,
in a very imperfect state, and the actual length of river now used for the
purposes of trade probably does not exceed 9,000 miles.
That which confers its chief value upon this remarkable river is its
extremely gentle and regular descent, combined with an almost total
absence of any formidable natural obstacles to its course. In a length of
some 3,000 or 4,000 miles, there are not more than two points at which rocky
obstructions of a serious character appear in the bed, and in summer time
shoals and sand bars are the only impediments which it is left to art to
remove.



22

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The surface fall of the Mississippi from Cairo, at the confluence of the
Ohio, to the Gulf of Mexico, is three and a quarter inches per mile in flood,
but not more than two and three quarters inches at low water; this very
gentle slope results from extreme tortuosity of the channel which in a direct
distance of 500 miles describes a course of 1,180. Its width is about 3,000
yards, and the current from four to five miles per hour, at some points as
much as seven.
The levels of the Upper Mississippi are not so well determined, but
from Cairo to the confluence of the Missouri it would appear to have a fall
of about 4" per mile, the slope gradually increasing from that point
towards the source, the average of the next 500 miles being about ten
inches per mile.
The descent of the great Missouri, whose navigable length is variously
estimated at from 2,000 to 3,000 miles, is not determined. Steamers now
ascend it to a distance of 1,800 miles from its mouth. Its current is more
rapid, and its bed more shifting than that of the Mississippi. Iii the lower
170 miles of its course it would appear to have a fall of one and a quarter
feet per mile.
The Ohio is the most important of all the tributaries, from its
navigable capabilities, and the wealth of the States through which it
flows.  At Olean point, on the Alleghany, its highest tributary, a
distance of 2,300 miles from the sea, its surface is only 1,400 feet above
tide-water, and to this point it has been ascended by steamers.  At
Pittsburgh, 2,130 miles from the sea, the elevation of its bed is only
700 feet above tide. The descent of the Ohio from  this point downwards to its mouth is,
In the first 26 miles......   11" per mile.
Next 62 miles.........          9",, 270 miles......        6", 433 miles.........          44",, 189 miles......          2A"
The surface velocity of the river in flood varies from three miles per
hour in the lower part of its course, to five and six in the upper. In
summer these velocities are of course reduced with thel iminished
depth of water. At extreme low water they are probably not more
than one to one and a half miles.
The principal tributaries of the Ohio, the Tennessee, Cumberland,
and Wabash, have an average fall of about 7 inches per mile; some of
the minor affluents a foot and more; the Alleghany as much as two feet.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

23

In the order then of their natural capabilities for navigation, we
should arrange the Mississippi and its branches as follows:1. Lower Mississippi, from New Orleans to the confluence of
the Ohio.
S2. Ohio and its principal tributaries.
3. Upper Mississippi.
4. Missouri.
5. Other tributaries.
The average annual amount of rain-fall throughout the Mississippi
valley is computed by Mr. Ellet at forty inches, probably very nearly
the same as that of India. It is, however, more evenly distributed
over the year than in the latter country, but not to such an extent as
to render the rivers exempt from great fluctuations in their depth and
volume, with all the disadvantages to navigation attendant thereon.
Spring and autumn are the flood seasons, the heaviest rain falling
in the latter; and the intervening summer and winter months, the
periods of low water.
The seasons, however, vary from year to year, and the times of
flood and drought do not alternate with that regularity which characterizes the rivers of more tropical countries. The dry season of one
year may be the rainy season of the next, and hence the times of
favorable and unfavorable navigation have no very distinct or definite
limits.
To the interruptions arising from drought, are added those consequent on frost in winter. These of course vary much in degree in a
valley extending over nineteen   degrees of latitude.  The Upper
Mississippi and its tributaries is ice-bound for four months of the year;
the Ohio for not more than ten to thirty days; while the Lower
Mississippi is only occasionally obstructed by accumulations of drift
ice. The suspension of navigation from these causes is, however, at
times much more prolonged. The Chamber of Commerce of St. Louis
report, that in the year 1856 the Mississippi and its tributaries were
perfectly bridged with ice up to the beginning of March, and that the
arrivals of steamers during the first quarter of the year was only 120
against 585 in the same period of the preceding year, showing a difference of 465 boats, or a measurement of 108,000 tons.
Running ice in December again interrupted navigation, so that it
reckoned that one-fourth of the year was entirely lost.



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The duration of the season of navigation on the different rivers
may be thus stated:Upper Mississippi... 8  months.
Lower    do.... 10  to 12 months.
Ohio...... S   months.
Other tributaries... 5 to 8 months.
It is not to be supposed that there is no navigation whatever
during the remaining months of the year. For a part of that time a
smaller class of boats run, but the amount of business done at such
times is insignificant.
Almost the whole of the carrying trade takes place within the
periods mentioned, the economy from using steamers of very large
burthen, though of heavy draught, being so great as to give them the
monopoly during the portion of the year when there is depth sufficient for them to run, of nearly the whole of the river trade. The traffic
by light draught boats is in fact very trifling now, as the higher rates
which, when they had no rivals they were able to charge, and which
made them remunerative, have fallenbefore the competition of Railroads.
It will no doubt surprise many who have been accustomed to regard the limited period during which our Indian rivers are iiavigable,
as a decisive objection to attempting to make any use of them, to learn
that those of America, which are the channels of the most stupendous
inland trade of any country in the world, labor under precisely similar
disadvantages. How often has this very objection been urged against
improving the Godavery. Yet this river possesses a navigation season
not much inferior in point of duration to that of the Ohio, the trade
of which has now an estimated annual value of several millions.*
In one respect the Godavery, like other Indian rivers has an advantage over the Ohio, in possessing a season of navigation which is
continuous and invariable, and not as in America divided into two and
at times three parts, by intervals of drought both in summer and winter. The value of navigations of only limited annual duration is still
further exemplified in the case of the smaller tributaries of the Mississippi, which are available for even a shorter period than the Ohio. Even
the Alleghany, which has a fall of two feet per mile, and is only navigable during three months of spring and two of autumn, possesses in
addition to its vast lumber trade a small fleet of steamers, which ascend
to Franklin at a rate of five and six miles per hour over the flood,
and carry comparatively cheaply. And it is particularly worthy of
note that for many years after the introduction of steam, and when
* Note. Since this was written, further investigations have shewn that this statement
requires considerable modiication.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

25

there was already an immense trade in the western rivers, they were,
owing to a less perfect construction of vessels, navigated for a shorter
time than they are now. Thus in 1834, boats over 200 tons measurement were reckoned to run not more than six months; those of 120
to 200, not more than eight months; and those under 120 tons, not
above nine months of the year. And to go still further back, there
was, as has already been mentioned, a time when a boat made but one
trip in the year, and was broken up for fuel at the end of it. Yet, even
under these conditions, these rivers afforded such extremely cheap
transport, as to render them the very basis of that edifice of wealth and
prosperity which has since arisen along their shores. The Americans
with their usual shrewdness at once perceived the value of their rivers,
and availed themselves of them for the purposes of commerce. Content
at first, if they could only send their produce to a Port by their means
once in a year, they soon improved upon the means of conveyance,
and now have covered their rivers with a fleet of steamers of unrivalled
magnificence. We, on the other hand, have scarcely been at the pains
to examine any of ours. We seem to have been as grossly ignorant
of their value as the stupid natives who have for ages seen them flow
past their doors unused, or fettered them with restrictions prohibitory
of all trade. It is to be hoped that more rational views are gaining
ground, and that the successful example of our American brethren
will not be lost upon us.
The beds of the Missississippi and its branches are of a similar
character to those of the rivers of India, sandy and shifting, and in
times of low water present the same obstructions to navigation. Little
or nothing has been effected in the way of improvement, and. the
traffic is, as already stated, chiefly confined to those months of the
year when obstructions from    insufficient depth are not met with.
The sand bars and shoals do, however, frequently cause serious detention to steamers, and as the river trade assumes year by year more
gigantic proportions, the question of river improvement is more prominently forced upon the attention of the community. This will form
the subject of another chapter.  Here it is only necessary to remark
that if little has been effected for the removal of these obstructions,
the delays and losses consequent on them have been very greatly reduced
by providing every steamer with the means of shoving herself off a
shoal whenever she may happen to ground.       Two large spars are
placed in the fore-part of the boat, and when not in use are lashed in an



26

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

upright position, one on each side, to the corners of the fore-end of the
upper or passenger deck.
When intended to be used to move the boat off a bank, a spar is let
down on to the lower deck, and laid out in a line perpendicular or oblique
to the axis of the boat, according to the direction in which it is intended
that the thrust should be given. The outer end is then planted firmly
in the sand, and the inner end is connected with a windlass by a rope
which passes under a pulley, in such a manner that a strain applied to
the rope is exerted upon the head of the boat, where the pulley is attached,
in a direction opposite to that of the spar, and consequently tendiong
to force the two apart. The spar being firmly fixed in the sand the
head of the boat must move, and thus by a repetition of this process,
which is technically termed " sparring," using either both spars, or each
alternately, as may be necessary, vessels of several hundred tons
are twisted and turned and shoved about till they are afloat again.
The process is facilitated in most steamers by substituting for the
windlass a drum worked by a small engine, which is bolted on to one of
the standards supporting the passenger deck, and characteristically
called " the Nigger," being used for all sorts of work, chiefly for loading
and unloading cargo. The hulls of the steamers are so constructed as to
bear an immense amount of the straining and bending caused by
"sparring," and suffer little injury from it.
The plan of " dam and slackwater" improvement has been adopted
with very encouraging results on some of the smaller tributaries, as the
Moonogahela, Muskingum, and Kentucky rivers, but it has not yet been
applied on a large scale.
This, with a few disconnected, unsustained, and in most instances
unsuccessful attempts to restrain the stream by means of wing-dams, is all
that has been accomplished on the American rivers, as yet, for the improvement of low water navigation. The problem, in the case of rivers of the
class described, is unquestionably one of the utmost difficulty, and has
met with no practical solution as yet in either the old or new world,
though it is unquestionably true, that in neither have the various means
proposed been so far carried into execution as to warrant any very confident conclusion as to.their fitness.
The most formidable of all the impediments to American river
navigation, is one to which, in India, we are almost strangers; the numerous
stumps of sunken trees, locally termed sng rsawyers, which are dotted



OF NORTH AMERICA.

27

about over the bed, and which coming into collision with the bottoms of
boats moving at speed are the cause of innumerable disasters. A snag
is generally formed in this way. A tree is washed down from the bank
by an undermining current, and perhaps carried roots and all some distance
down stream. In process of time the smaller branches rot and are torn off,
and further encroachments of the stream on the banks leave the tree well
out in the channel. Its heavy butt and roots, loaded with mud and pinned
down by accumulations of silt, adheres to the bottom; while the buoyancy
of the upper part, and the pressure of the current, cause the trunk to take a
slightly sloping position down stream. It is now ready for mischief. A
steamer coming up stream at fifteen miles an hour strikes on it, is pierced
through, and goes to the bottom in a few minutes. The chief danger is
thus in coming up stream; there is little or none in going down.
The annual losses to steamers from this cause are almost incredible,
and the apathy of the Government and of the community generally on the
subject most astonishing. Not a year passes without the destruction of
numbers of magnificent steamers, and yet though the remedy is as simple
as it has been proved to be efficacious, the efforts of the Government for
the removal of the evil, instead of increasing with the increasing importance of the interests at stake, have actually declined. Many years ago
a very simple and effective means of removing snags was devised and put
in operation. It consists simply of a large boat fitted with very powerful
windlasses by means of which the snags are seized, torn from their position, and carried to a place of safety. For some years a number of these
boats worked on the Mississippi with such success that the dangers to the
navigators were largely diminished. Many thousands of snags were taken
out, so that while in the years from 1822 to 1827, the loss of property on
the Ohio and Mississippi from snags alone amounted to $1,362,500, in
the succeeding five years it was only $381,600. In spite of this success,
the operations of the snag boats for some years almost ceased, and in a
memorial to Congress of the citizens of St. Louis, about 1847, it is stated
that in the year 1839, there were forty steam boats lost; forty-one in
1840; twenty-nine in 1841; and forty-three in 1842; making a total in
four years of 138 boats.
" Between the llth September and the 15th October in the year 1842,
" the losses on the Mississippi between St. Louis and the mouth of the Ohio,
"a distance of only 180 miles were $234,000. Within the succeeding
"seventeen months there were lost seventy-two steam boats, worth
" $1,200,000, besides their cargoes which were of great value.



28

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

" The losses paid by the Insurance Offices in Cincinnati alone, on boats
" and cargoes during a period of five years, from  November 1837 to
"Novemberl842,including only the losses by obstructions in the navigation,
"and excluding all losses by explosion, fire, and other causes, were $442,930.
"As insurance is made also at Pittsburgh, Louisville, Nashville, St. Louis,
"Wheeling,Natchez,New Orleans, and at some of the smaller towns,the above
"might be multiplied by seven to arrive at something like a fair approxima"tion of the losses sustained by under-writers from the dangerous condition
" of the navigation, and the result would be $3,000,000 or $600,000 per
" annum. If to this be added the losses from the same cause, on which
( there was no insurance, the amount would be not less than $1,000,000
" per annum. Dollars 1,000,000 is actually taxed on the commerce of
" the west, forlosscs sustained, in consequence of obstructions which might
" be wholly removed by ani appropriation by Congress of a comparatively
" trifling sum.
" An additional fact showing the danger of this navigation is that
" many Offices have declined to insure the hulls of boats, and such risks are
"only taken on the best boats, and at rates varying from twelve to eighteen
" per cent: the Insurers are said to lose money at even these enormous rates.
" The amount then of the annual risk on the $7,200,000 invested in
"steam boats alone is more than $1,000,000."
Even at the present day, the losses from this cause are very heavy.
In 1856 there were twenty-eight accidents to steamers from collision with
snags; and in 1857, out of a total of forty-six accidents from all causes
on the western rivers, those caused by snags amounted to 27 or 60 per cent.
Yet it does not appear that any adequate effort has been made for three or
four years past for the removal of these dangerous obstructions. In
fact, in 1856, the total expenditure under all heads on the improvement
of the Mississippi and its tributaries only, amounted to about $33,000.
The appropriations for this purpose from the Public Treasury seem
to be made on a scale of short-sighted parsimony, unparalleled even in
India, and almost inexplicable in a people of such bold and comprehensive views on all questions of internal improvement as the Americans.
The loss of property in steamers wrecked by snags in the same year
is officially estimafed at $538,000; but. the actual loss to the community including not only the damage done to the boat and its machinery
and cargo, but also the injuries sustained by Officers and crews from.loss of employment, and by passengers from detention, interruption of
business, and loss of time, money, and health, is probably much more



OF NORTI AMERICA.

29

correctly estimated by Colonel Long, of the U. S. Topographical Engineers, at $50,000 for each steamer wrecked, which would make a total
of $1,400,000 in the year nentioned.
To this has to be added a large and uhknown sum for the losses
sustained by coal boats, barges, &c.,'from the same cause, of which no
notice is taken in the official returns. Adopting Colonel Long's estimate,
these would swell the total annual value of property sacrificed needlessly,
through inattention or indifference to the question of river improvement,
to $1,650,000. This calculation, however, gives a very inadequate idea
of the loss actually sustained by the country from the neglected state of
its rivers.  An annual loss of $300,000 or $400,000 on account of
injuries to a steam fleet valued at $20,000,000 may not appear of
very great implortance; but the dangers to navigation which cause
it, keep up the rates of insurance to an amount, which is a heavy
tax on the cost of transportation, and if by removing   these the
cost of carriage could be reduced from five mills to four and a half
per ton per mile, this on 10,000,000 tons moved an average distance of
300 miles or 3,000,000,000 tons per mile, would be an annual saving of
$1,500,000 or 10 per cent. on the present charges for transport, a reduction which, in the case of goods, moved such immense distances as they are
in the Mississippi valley, might often make the difference of whether it
would be profitable to move an article or not, and have a marked effect on
the river-traffic and on trade generally.
The largest sized snag boats cost about $30,000, the smnaller or light
draught boats $15,000.
It appears from a statement in a report by Colonel Long, that five
of these boats removed 2,600 snags, and twenty-seven wrecks, in four
months of 1853, besides felling 1,411 trees along the banks, and cutting
across 565 stumps on shoals and sand bars. The monthly expenses of
each boat for crew and fuel are about $1,500, and if to this be added
20 per cent. on the cost of the boat for interest, repairs and depreciation,
the total expense per month would be $9,000. This would make the
cost of removing each snag probably about seven dollars.
CHAPTER IV.
It has already been remarked that the beds of the Mississippi rivers
are remarkably free foom rok&1y  '  onis. In the whole course of the
Mississippi Proper and Ohio, a length of 3,200 miles, impediments of tiis



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVICATIONS

class are only met with at three places.  Two occur on the Mississippi,
at distances of 1,566 and 1,700 miles respectively from its mouth, and one
on the Ohio at Louisville. The latter being on the line of the greatest
traffic received the earliest attention, and has been the subject of important
works which have removed the obstructions it once opposed to navigation.
The two former have only assumed importance of late years as trade and
population extended higher up the river.
These will be first described.
They are termed the Des Monies and Eock Island rapids. The lower
one consists of a bod of compact stratified limestone, extending over eleven
miles in length of the river. The rock is disposed in a number of ridges of
reefs with intervening pools. The total fall in the whole distance at
low water is twenty-one feet, or about two feet per mile; the maximum
lope at any place being six feet per mile. The maximum range of the
water surface at the head of the rapids is twelve feet, and twenty-one feet
at foot. The current does not exceed five miles at low water and seven
miles in floods. The rapids are passable by steamers of the lightest
draught, two and a half feet, only at times, and then with imminent
danger, at low water. The place has been the scene of many disasters.
The upper, or Rock Island, rapids, are thirteen miles in length.
The rock which is a soft friable limestone interspersed with granite boulders, consists of seven principal reefs. The fall is twenty-two feet, or one
and three-quarter feet per mile. The current four to five miles an hour.
The rapids are navigable to the same extent as the Des Monies.
These two rapids, though such serious impediments to navigation,
Shave not prevented the Americans making use of the river. In floods
Ssteamers run over them, and during low stages of water they tranship
their cargoes on to lighters, which are tracked by horses, shooting the
rapids themselves at considerable risk.  The charge for lighterage at
each rapid is 75 to 1.25 cents. per ton.
The Government Engineers have been engaged for some years in
attempts to improve the passage by blasting a channel through the rock.
Little, however, seems to have been effected as yet, and a Railway has
meantime been laid round the rapids to afford a portage for goods.
A Company has been formed for constructing a Canal round the
Des Monies rapids, but has not commenced operations. Mr. Roberts, an
eminent Engineer, objects to the plan of attempting to cut through the
oAstacle, and suggests one or two other modes of improvement instead.



OF XORTHI AMERICA.

31
40

One, evidently very simple and practicable, is to throw a weir furnished
with locks across at the foot of the rapids, of a height equal to the total
fall in them, so as to make a slackwater navigation.
The yearly increasing importance of the traffic will probably compel
the State within a short period to energetic action in the matter. The
appropriations hitherto have been small and altogether inadequate to
the requirements of the case.
The falls of the Ohio at Louisville are of a different character from
the rapids of the Mississippi, the declivity in the bed being too great to
admit of the possibility of cutting a, simple navigable channel through
them. The river which in all the rest of its course descends with a regular and gentle slope of three to nine inches per mile, drops at this
point twenty-five feet, at low water, in a distance of little more than two
miles, over a bed of rock. The rise of the water below the falls being of
course much more rapid than immediately above, the surface slope over
them is greatly reduced as the volume of water in the river increases.
When the river has risen ten feet above, the descent is only three and a
half to four and a half feet in two miles. Hence for about two months of
the year the navigation is perfectly practicable for both ascending and
descending craft, and it is for the remaining ten months that an artificial passage is necessary.
In the earlier stages of the navigation, descending boats alone
ventured over the falls, but the channels which exist through them
were by degrees improved by blasting, a regular establishment of Pilots
grew up, steam power was introduced, and steamers gradually learnt to
ascend and descend with safety at certain heights of the water.
The following table, extracted from the Report by a Board of Officers
on the canal round the falls in 1853, gives an interesting view of what
can be accomplished by steam-boats against a stream    with various
degrees of surface slope and current.



32

NOTES ON TIIE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

tic
Feet.

kc/ oJRemalrks.
C) r1  ~
~1D C

0
I...
3...
4..
5..
6..
7...

0
I to
23 to
4` to
-71 to
101 to

2
83
131

134 to 171 -191 to 22

8... 14j to 271 -
9} to 13)
6    to    9
4,   to    6
31 to      41 -+(to    3l.

9...
10.

281 to 29-a
30O to 31.

Flat boats of light draught descend
Indiana channel.
Boats of three feet draught descend,
Indiana channel.
Boats of four feet draught descend
Indiana channel.
Boats of five feet draught descend
Indiana channel.
Boats of six feet draught descend
Indiana channel, and boats of three
feet draught t ascend and desceidd
middle channel.
SBoats of seven feet draught descend
Indiana channel, and boats of six
feet draught ascend   and  descend
middle channel.
Boats of eight feet draught descend.
Indiana channel, and boats of eightl
feet draught ascend   and descendý
middle channel.
Boats of nine feet draught ascend andl
descend both channels.
Boats of ten feet draught ascend and'
descend both channels.
Boats of eleven feet draught ascend and.
descend both channels.
Boats of maximum draught in lthese and
all higher stages ascend and descend
both channels.
N.B.-Steam-boats have ascended the
Indiana channel when the rise is six
feet at the head of the falls, but with
difficulty. It is not until the rise is
somewhat greater, that they can
ascend that channel with safety, and
in all the earlier stages in which that
channel may be ascended, the boats
must be of the smaller classes, and
with powerful Engines, in order that
they may make the turns around
certain projections, rocks, &c.

11    32     to 033 *

12...34 to34)    21 to  31
13... 351to36    21 to 3!From 14 to 20 feet
inclusive.       2 to 20
From 21to -10I feet
inclusive, the latter height was?
the level of the
extremely high
flood of 1847.   I1!- to o
Level of the extremely high flood ofj
1832, viz., fortyone feet.        1~



OF NORTH AMERICA.

33

Plate No.--  gives a profile of the bed and of the surface slopes at
various stages of water. The performance of the steamer " Uncle Sam"
then recorded, is probably the most remarkable feat ever accomplished
by steam afloat. It appears that this boat ascended the falls at a time
when the mean surface slope of the water was five feet per mile, and
the maximum at one place 8.27 feet. The current at the latter place
could not have been less than eight miles per hour, which was overcome
against a grade of 1 in 610. The steam power mentioned, 250 H. P.
is no guide to the real power of the Engines. The term      horsepower is never used on the Western rivers, and here it is quite uncertain
what its signification may be. The effective power, for a steamer of that
measurement, judging bythe present boats, was probably about 450; but
this would not be sufficient for the work actually performed, though it
is probable from the great draught, nine and half feet, compared with
the tonnage, that the steamer had much finer lines than those usually
given to the Ohio steamers now. In those days the law had not interfered to place any restriction on the pressure of steam used in boilers,
and as it is mentioned that the whole power of the Engines was required
to overcome the fall, it is not improbable that the safety valve may have
been loaded for the occasion, so as to raise the actual steam power far
above what the foregoing figures would indicate.
It is impossible to withhold a tribute of admiration to the daring
and skill with which steamers of several hundred tons burthen are
piloted over the falls.  I descended them in one of about 300 tons
measurement in the summer of 1858, at a time when the descent must
have been about eighteen feet, or nine feet per mile, and at the point
when the principal fall takes place probably not less than twelve feet
per mile. The passage chosen was the one along the Indiana shore,
which as a glance at the map will show, required very skilful steering
and management. The Captain before starting took the precaution
to slacken the tension of the hog chains, which in combination with
wooden struts form a truss to stiffen the hulls of all the western
steamers, so as to allow some play longitudinally in the hull, to enable
it to adapt itself to the great inequalities of the water-surface at some
points in the " Chute." This done, we pushed out some distance upstream till a good command and view of the entrance to the passage
was obtained, then turned and went full speed, with occasional slackening down it.
There was no noise or confusion among the crew, no frantic gesticulation on the part of the Captain to convey his instructions to the



34

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

helmsman, no shrieking of his orders down the hatchway to the
Engineer; none of the roaring, bawling and cursing, which one too often
witnesses on board English ships under far less exciting circumstances.
The Captain was up beside the Pilot at the wheel in the pilot-house on
the upper or third deck in the fore-part of the boat, and a touch of a
spring, communicating with a series of bells in the engine-room, conveyed full and instantaneous directions to the Engineer. Every body
was in his place, and not a word was spoken. The passengers held
their breath for a moment as the boat guided with consummate skill,
dashed through the agitated waters, undulating through her whole
length as she rode over the waves, and avoiding, as if by magic, the
rocks which bristled along each side of the narrow and tortuous passage,
and in a few minutes we were safely through.  A fellow-passenger
drily remarked to me in allusion to the wavy motion of the deck under
our feet, that it was like a-black snake going over thorns, and certainly.the comparison was not inappropriate.
The Captain, however, knew his boat and the passage well, and
conducted her nobly through it, without shipping a drop of water
or sustaining the slightest damage. It was considered to be the last
day of the season that the passage would be practicable.
The project of a Canal round the falls seems to have been first
started about the year 1822. A Company was formed in 1825, with a
capital of $600,000, with power to borrow more if necessary; the United
States subscribing more than one-third of the whole.  A favorable site
for the Canal was selected along the Kentucky shore parallel with the
river. - The work was commenced immediately, and completed in 1830,
the first boat passing through in December of that year. Its cost was
as follows:$      Cents.
Interest on money borrowed to carry on
construction, and allowances to Shareholders............      152,827  37
Excavation, Embankments, Locks, Masonry Pavements, and expenses incidental
thereto............    802,273  47
Incidental account, including Engineers'
and Officers' salaries, and Office expenses  21,881 25
Damages for Right of Way......    19,225  71
Sundries............             3,792  20
Total... $1,000,000  0



OF NORTH AMERICA.

35

The average prices under which the work was completed were,
for excavation of rock $1-50 per cubic yard; paving slopes one foot
thick, 15 cents, per square yard; excavation 15 cents; per cubic yard;
lock and other masonry $13-40 per cubic yard.
The length of the Canal is 10,800 feet, or little less than two miles.
There are three lift-locks (of 82 feet lift each, and 200 feet long by
50 feet wide in the entrance), and a guard lock, all at the lower
extremity of the canal.  There being no guard lock at the head of the
canal, the water in it rises and falls with the surface of that in the
river. The width of the canal is sixty-four feet at the water line, and the
least depth at low water about three feet. The depth of cutting in
the construction of the canal was from twenty-five to thirty feet, eight
feet of which at the bottom was solid rock.  The slopes are paved
with stone. The amount of work done in the construction of canal was,
Earth work.........  788,452 cubic yards.
Rock Excavation......      162,551,,
Masonry.........    26,000,,
Pavement......           113,635 square yards.
There is nothing peculiar about the      construction of the
locks. They are built of good substantial masonry, and are in
fair condition, though they bear the traces of thirty years' active
traffic. The gates are of wood, and are worked by chains attached
low down, one on each side, and which passing through small openings
in the side walls are connected with powerful winches above. It takes
from thirty to forty minutes to pass a steamer through the locks at low
water, when there is the full lift of twenty-five feet, and about twenty
minutes or less at other times.
The locks are submerged during floods, the river rising from forty to
sixty feet at such times. The deposit of silt in the lower locksis consequently very serious, and necessitates a large annual expenditure for
dredging. As much as ten feet in depth of silt has been known to be
deposited in the lower lock in a single fresh, and serious detention to
steamers is caused at such times. The Ohio in floods is heavily charged
with mud. Its specific gravity at such times is 1'2745, that of the
clear water being 1-000. One-hundred cubic feet of the muddy water
hold nearly two cubic feet of mud in suspension, and it is calculated that
in high freshes the quantity of silt passing over the fall in twenty-four
hours is sufficient, if spread over an area one mile square, to cover it to
a depth of thirty-three feet.



36

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

Even the canal banks are not raised above the flood-level through
a great part of their length. There being no guard lock at the head
of the canal, it is open to obstructions from accumulations of drift wood,
and there is only one passing place for steamers in its whole length.
In fact the work bears evident marks of imperfection in its original
design, and though it did for many years fully answer the requirements
of the river trade, the increase in the size of the steamers, and the
increasing exigencies of the traffic, are now such as to render it inadequate to the purposes it was intended to fulfil, and to force upon the
attention of the community, the necessity of very extensive enlargements and alterations.
As far back as 1844, the question of the best method of improving the navigation at the falls formed the subject of a report by
Captain Cram, U. S. Engineers. Again in 1852, it was submitted by the
United States Government to a Committee of Engineers for investigation.
The various competing places of improvement are reviewed in both reports, which will be read with interest by Indian Engineers, as containing
a very elaborate and thorough discussion of the comparative merits and
demerits of the different modes of treatment applicable to rocky obstructions in rivers of similar magnitude and characteristics to our own.
A brief analysis of them is all that can be here attempted.
The objections to the existing canal are stated to be,
1st.-That its locks are too small. They will only admit boats 182
feet in length, by 49J feet in extreme width. These dimensions were
sufficient at the time the canal was constructed, but the increase in the
size of steamers has been so great since then, that now forty-three per
cent. of the tonnage of the Ohio is excluded from the use of the canal by the
contracted size of the locks.
2nd.-The canal is too narrow. Loaded boats moving in opposite
directions can only pass each other at one place, and that close to the locks.
This causes serious' detention. A steamer of the largest size the locks
will admit, takes from two to six hours to pass from the head of the canal
to the locks, a distance of less than two miles. If several boats happen to
be awaiting a passage through the canal in opposite directions, and have
to be passed through alternately, not more than four or five can pass in
twenty-four hours.
3rd.-The depth of the canal is insufficient.
4th.-The freshes not being excluded from the canal, owing to the
absence of a guird-lock at its head, heavy deposits of silt, and frequent
obstructions from drift wood, are the result.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

37

5th.-The locks being submersible, the lower ones are frequently silted
to a degree, causing great inconvenience and delay.
In view of the heavy expense which an enlargement of the canal
would require, other proposals for the relief of the navigation were brought
forward. These are reviewed and severally disposed of by the Commissioners.
Two competing lines of canal on the Indiana side are rejected, as
having nothing whatever to recommend them in preference to the existing
canal. Three, or four different plans, are also brought forward for the
improvement of the natural passes through the falls themselves by means
of channels, excavated through the rock, dams, submersible locks, and
sluices or races, in various combinations, and the decision of the Commissioners respecting them generally is, that no construction of this description, subject to submersion with the consequent liabilities to obstruction by silt, and damage from drift-wood, possesses those elements of
security which are essential in a work intended to meet the requirements
of so vast and important a commerce as that of the Ohio. The wisdom of
this decision can scarcely be questioned. Works of this description may
be applied with advantage on lines of small and unimportant traffic, or
where great economy in first cost is compulsory; but in rivers of the same
class as the Ohio and those of India, they are unquestionably attended
with risks which render them inapplicable on the main arteries of trade.
With respect to the best method of improvement, the Committee are
not quite unanimous, one member proposing to substitute a canal formed
in the bed of the river along the Kentucky shore, by means of a masonry
wall running parallel to the bank, and raised wall above the highest flood
level, for the enlargement and partial extension of the existing canal recommended by his colleagues. There is, however, no difference of opinion
as to the general principle that the works, whatever their plan and location, should be placed beyond the reach of the freshes; that the floods
should be excluded from the canal, and the locks not be liable to submersion. The majority of the Committee give sufficient reasons for their decision in favor of an enlargement of the existing canal, and with the general concurrence of the third member, who only differs from them on one
or two unimportant matters of detail, lay down the following as the conditions which the intended works should fulfil.
1. The width of the canal to be 200 feet, that boats of the largest
class that go through its locks may pass each other readily and easily at any
point.



38

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

2. Its lockage, twenty-five feet at low-water, to be effected byineans
of a single lift lock.
3. The largest steamer now on the river having an extreme width
from out-to-out of the paddle boxes of seventy-seven feet, the width of
the lock-chamber to be eighty feet.
4. The lock to have three sets of lower gates, instead of one as in
ordinary cases, so placed respectively that the chamber of the lock may be
220 feet, 320 feet, or 420 feet long, as will best suit the lengths of the
boats passing through. The largest steamer now on the river is 360 feet
in length.
5. The lock to be filled by means of culverts or openings passing at
right angles through one of its side walls; the number to be sufficient,
and so distributed lengthwise of the lock, that it may be filled in the
same time, whether it be used as a lock of 420 feet, 320 feet, or 220 feet
length of chamber, and in as short a time as steam-boat locks of much
less size are now filled through valves in the upper gates.
The lock to be emptied in a similar manner by a like number of
openings in the opposite wall.
6. A double set of guard gates, side by side, to be placed at the
head of the canal, each abutting against walls eighty feet apart, and
raised four feet above the level of the highest known flood.
Two sets are proposed in order, first, to throw a larger body of
water into the canal for the purpose of scouring when required; and
second, to enable boats to enter and leave the canal at the same time.
7. The depth of the canal to be such that boats with a maximum draught of eleven feet may pass at the lowest stage of the river at
which that draught is practicable in the open parts of the river.
8. The bed of the canal to have a descent of 1lrd feet per mile.
9. The depth of water on the lower mitre sill of the lock to be six
feet below the surface of ordinary low water.
10. The floods to be completely excluded from the canal by raising
its banks, the guard gates, and guard walls parallel to the lock, four
feet above the highest flood level. The river will at certain times stand
back up the canal from its lower end, but no inconvenience from silt or
drift is anticipated from this.
11. The highest stage of water at which the canal will be used is
assumed at ten feet above ordinary low water at the head of the falls.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

39

In all stages above this the river passage is practicable. The lock
walls and gates to be raised five feet above this level.
12. The canal to hare vertical side-walls, battering one and a half
per foot on their face, raised to a level five feet above the assumed
height of the highest stage at which the canal will be used. The banks
above this level to be sloped off.
The point most note-worthy, in an Engineering point of view, in
the project, as thus elaborated by the Commission, is the great lift
proposed for a lock of such imperial dimensions.
On this the Board remark:Some may think that the lift, viz. about twenty-six feet in low
and four and half to five and half feet in high water, and averaging
probably about sixteen feet during the whole time the lock would be
in use, would be too great. Such persons may not be aware, that locks
of even greater lift, although of less size, have been for years in successful
use.
The upper section of the Lebigh navigation has twenty-nine locks,
with chambers 20 by 100 feet in the clear, that have an aggregate lift
of 5995-6 feet, or an average lift per lock of 2068 feet. Of these locks
there are four that have a lift of twenty-one feet each; three that have
a lift of twenty-two feet each; one that has a lift of twenty-three feet;
four that have a lift of twenty-five feet each; one that has a lift of
twenty-five and half feet; one that has a lift of twenty-eight feet; one
that has a lift of thirty feet.  The canal is five feet deep. A report of
the Lebigh Navigation Company made in 1839, says-" The thirty feet
lift-lock, is filled or emptied in two minutes and a half." It is then
shown that "each boat making a trip up and down," saves from theadoption of " the hiigh lifts instead of the common lifts" "ten and three-quarter
hours" and that, supposing the canal worked up to its capacity, the
consequent " saving to the public per annum would be 80,000 dollars."
The adoption of the small lifts of eight to ten feet, that locks on
canals usually have, is generally from necessity rather than choice; for
it rarely happens that lifts much greater would suit the ground within
the limits that must be occupied, or that enough water can be commanded
for their supply. Or it may be thought that the great size of the gates,
consequent on the high lift, and great width of lock-chamber would be
objectionable. Supposing that such an objection might be raised, the
Board has given much consideration to the subject, and is satisfied that



40

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

wooden gates of the size that would be required, may be constructed
on a plan entirely different from that usually adopted for gates of large
dimensions, that would be comparatively light and cheap, and could
easily be managed. Improvements have already been made in the
hanging of large gates, in consequence of which they may be turned
with much less power than was formerly necessary. It would have
occasioned too much delay to have arranged the details of the plan
above alluded to, and prepare drawings of them to accompany this report.
It should be remarked, however, that the timber of which the gates
would be made, on account of the great cost of such gates, should be
prepared in the manner best calculated to promote its durability.
The American Engineers can do anything with wood. Their constructions in this material are probably unrivalled, and doubtless the
project of the Board for gates of these dimensions would be promptly
carried into execution. It appears very questionable however whether
on a line of traffic of such vast importance, where any interruption to
navigation must be attended with such serious consequences, iron might
not be substituted with advantage for wood in the construction of the
lock gates, not only on account of its greater durability, but also of the
prodigious strength in combination with lightness and stiffness, which
may be obtained with this material, when distributed in plates connected
by vertical and horizontal diaphragms, in the manner in which it is now
beginning to be so extensively applied in England. I have myself visited
the Lebigh navigation in company with the Engineer, Mr. Douglas, and
witnessed the performance of one of his thirty feet locks, which was so
entirely satisfactory, and presented such manifest superiority to the usual
low-lift arrangement, as at once to decide the question of the applicability
of this mode of construction in all situations where the levels and supply
of water admit of it.
The cost of the original canal was $1,000,000. In twelve years
from the time it was opened it had more than paid for itself in dividends;
the United States having received in that time in cash dividends $258,378
upon $235,000 originally invested. The net revenues of the canal in the
twenty-two years from the time it was first brought into use up to 1853,
were $2,000,000, an interest on its cost of more than 9 per cent. per
annum. In 1853 it was calculated that while 256 steamers of an aggregate
tonnage of 57,256 tons availed themselves of it, eighty-two other, aggregating 44,760 tons, were excluded from it by the limited dimensions of the
locks. It is plain, therefore, that a large amount of revenue has been



OF NORTH AMERICA.

41

sacrificed, in addition to the severe restraints placed upon the river trade, by
postponing the enlargement of the canal so long, and as the tonnage of the
western rivers is now nine or ten times what it was when the canal was
constructed, there can be no doubt that the capital invested in the proposed
improvements, which are estimated to cost $ 2,462,348, or two and a half
times the amount of the original stock, would prove equally remunerative,
in spite of the reduction from 60 cents to 20 cents per ton measurement
which has been gradually made in the toll.
The tolls seem to have been fixed at first solely with a view to the profits
of the shareholders, and without any reference to the national interest at
stake in the river trade. Mr. Hall shows that the original rate of 60
cents per ton, which appears to have been maintained up to about 1845, was
a most burdensome tax upon the cost of carriage.   It amounted in four or
five years to the cost of a steamer, making the average number of trips in
those waters, and as five years is the ordinary term of life of a western
steamboat, the tax swallowed up the whole of the earnings which would
otherwise have gone to replace the capital in that period. The evil however
gradually worked its own cure. The canal shares were all purchased by
the United States Government, and as the work had now become national
property, and was known to have been amply remunerative, the pressure of
public opinion compelled a gradual reduction of the tolls to the present rate.
It appears from a table given in Captain Crain's report of the revenues
and expenditure of the canal from 1832 to 1842, that the average annual
receipts from tolls were.........................................  $100,690
And the charges were for.
Repairs, including some alterations..................    9,064
D redging..............................................  4,250
Collection.................................................  2,112
Administration, including salaries of Directors and
office expenses...............................   1,971
Total...   $17,397
leaving a net annual profit equal to rather more than 8 per cent. on the
capital, the expenses being only 1-7 per cent. on the same, and 17 per cent.
of the receipts.
A statement furnished to me at the canal office makes the average
annual expenses for the succeeding ten years 23,642 or 2-3 per cent on the
F



42

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

capital. The average for the whole twenty years from the first opening of the
canal, (2 per cent.) for so very imperfect a work, is a charge so low as to
encourage the most favorable expectations with regard to the cost of
maintenance of similar works in India. The tonnage annually passing through
the canal increased from an average of 156,925 tons in the first five years
from its opening, to 312,749 tons in a similar number of years ending in
1851, or 200 per cent.; but as at the latter period half the tonnage that
would otherwise have used the canal was excluded from it by the contracted
size of its locks, we may safely conclude that had this defect been remedied,
the increase would have been more than 400 per cent4
The foregoing sketch of the history and trade of the Louisville and
Portland canal is more lengthy than would be justifiable in the case of any
ordinary work of the same class; but this canal acquires a peculiar interest
for the Indian Engineer, from the fact of its being the only one in the world
to be met with on rivers which, in point of magnitude as well as in their
general charcteristics, bear a close resemblance to those of India. The
canals of the St. Lawrence are noble undertakings, but they differ in some
essential points from that of the Ohio, and nowhere else, I believe, is to be
found a work furnishing such valuable and appropriate hints for constructions
of a similar kind in this country.
CHAPTER V.
In the following account of the steamers used on the inland navigations
of America, those only will be described in detail which are employed on rivers
of a similar class to those of India, Hence, the inland sea steamers of the
Lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the immense deep draught steamers of the
Hudson, admirably adapted as they are to their respective navigations, but of
litttle special interest in reference to India, will be but lightly touched upon.
They will be first noticed in the order in which they have been mentioned.
The lake steamers are both paddle and screw.  They are of all sizes up
to 1,200 tons measurement. The largest propellers are about 1,000 tons.
Those used on the Welland and St. Lawrence canals are limited by the size
Sof the locks to about 400 tons. They are all low pressure boats, the usual
working pressure of steam being from 30 to 40 lbs. per square inch. They
are nearly all fitted to carry passengers as well as goods, and have accommodation for from  150 to 500 passengers according to their size.  In their
general characteristics, they are very mnch of the same class as ordinary
sea going steamers.



OF NORTH AMBRIC4.

43

The steam boats of the Hudson, and Long Island Sound, surpass those
of any other country in respect of size, speed, and the comfort, perfection, and
magnificence of their internal arrangements.  They are of a class so totally
different from any thing to be met with on any other waters in the world,
except on the western rivers, that they may be said to be an institution peculiarly American, one of which the country is justly proud, and which no
other nation can match.
The Englishman, whose previous experience of river navigation has been
limited to an occasional trip in a Thames steamer, where, without any adequate
protection against sunshine or rain, he has been squeezed, jostled, and knocked about among a dense crowd, and overwhelmed with volumes of smoke from
the lowered funnel at every bridge passed, cannot but feel his national selfesteem considerably lowered on stepping on board a Hudson river steamer.
He there finds himself in a huge floating palace, propelled at 18 or 20 miles
an hour through the water, without the slightest sound or motion. There is
a total absence of every thing that could remind him that he is afloat, a perfect freedom from all the disagreeable sights, sounds, and smells which are
inseparable from steam boat life on British waters. There are hundreds of
passengers on hoard, but not the least crowdiqg, the spacious saloons, fitted
up with the utmost elegance and luxury, affording ample space for every body.
All the internal arrangements are excellent, the table well furnished and
well attended; nothing s wanting that can in any way minister to the comfort of the traveller. It is beyond all comparison the most pleasant and
luxurious mode of travelling in the world.   And it is the cheapest, the
charge being only 6 mills, or about a farthiing per head per mile.  There
are two lines of steamers running between New York and Albany, one in
the day time, the other at night. The latter is generally preferred, as it makes
fewest stoppages, and gives the voyager the benefit of a comfortable night's
rest at the same time.     The night boat starts in the    evening at a
convenient hour after dinner, and makes the trip to Albany, 160 miles,
in nine or ten hours, there being no occasion to do it in less time, as by this
arrangement the steamer arrives at a suitable hour, either for business or for
the morning train, west or north.  Seventy-five cents, in addition to the
fare of a dollar procures an excellent supper and good bed, and the night is
spent as comfortably as in an hotel. Nothing in fact, next to the size, splendor, and speed of the vessels, is more striking to an Englishman on first making acquaintance with American steamers than their admirable arrangements
for comfort.  There seems to be a peculiar faculty for this purpose in the



44

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

American mind, for which there is no corresponding bump in the English
cranium. A steamer is seldom to be met with in England, where the traveller can
find proper protection from the weather, without taking refuge in such a purgatory of a cabin as he gladly escapes from at the very first opportunity. There
is hardly one in America, be it passenger steamer, tug, or ferry boat, which
is not provided with a proper roof on deck, and a cabin arranged for comfort as well as for shelter. Too much attention cannot be paid to this point
in the internal fittings of Indian river steamers.
According to Dr. Lardner, the Hudson river steamers formerly drew
not more than 4 or 41 feet water.    This may have been the case at a
time when the river was in worse condition than it is now. I however met
with no one who could recollect such a light draught as this being given to
the larger class of boats.  At present, and certainly for many years past, all
the fast boats draw at least 6 feet of water. Their hulls are modelled with
the utmost care and skill, each maker having his own particular lines, which
are of course a secret, and a most important part of his capital.  In general,
however, it may be said that the vessels being constructed almost entirely for
speed, the water lines are the finest possible, and are on the wave principle
both vertically and horizontally. The importance of combining vertical with
horizontal displacement is very strongly insisted on. The length of the entrance is always more, and of the run rather less than one-third tlhe whole
length of the hull, and so nice and delicate is the modelling that there are
maid to be not six frames amidships of the same shape.  In boats like these
in which the average proportion of length to beam is only 7 or 8 to 1, it is
very evident that the foregoing conditions which are essential to speed, are
quite incompatible with any very light draught of water.
The hulls are built of wood, iron having scarcely been used at all as
yet for this purpose in the States. They have a plain painted surface uncoppered; a few yards in length only of the entrance being sheathed with iron, as
a protection against occasional collision with ice in winter. The saloons, with
sleeping berths and state rooms on each side, extend along the greater p:art of
the vessel.  They are ranged in two tiers above the main or boiler deck,
where the machinery is placed, and in many steamers the boilers are placed
on the "guards," or over-hanging deck formed by carrying out the beams
of the main deck several feet over the sides of the boat.  This arrangement
allows of the saloons being carried fore and aft, without interruption and
without annoyance to the passengers from the proximity and heat of the boilers.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

4.3

The low pressure system is universal; the ordinary working pressure
being from 25 to 40 lbs.
The boilers are cylindrical, both flue and tubular, mostly the former.
In many the fire is urged by a fan blast, worked by a small engine. This
affords a reduction of heating surface and of weight of boiler, which are the
points aimed at, but is attended with an increase of 20 or 30 per cent. in the
consumption of fuel. The engines are all of the kind known as " beam
engines," one end of the beam connecting with the piston, the other with
the cranked paddle shaft, and the other parts of the mechanism for working
the air pump, &c., being much the same as in an ordinary land engine
of the same description. Slides however, both on the Hudson and on the
western rivers are entirely discarded, valves, termed "poppet valves," being
substituted. They are placed in pairs at either end of the cylinder, one
for the introduction and the other for the emission of the steam, and
worked by cams on a rocking shaft set in motion by an eccentric.
The mechanisam is simple, and is believed to have great advantages over
the ordinary slide valves, being  less liable  to derangement, affording
a  freer ingress and egress for the    steam, and being exempt from
the cutting and wear and tear which slides suffer from when very muddy
water is used in the boilers. The engines work at a low velocity, the ordinary number of revolutions being from 15 to 18 per minute. The wheels
are of proportionate size, varying from 38 to 46 feet in diameter. The
cylinders being single, are of great size, varying from 72 to 90 inches
diameter, and the stroke from 12 to 15 feet.  The Metropolis, the largest
steamer now afloat in those waters, has a cylinder of 105 inches diameter, and
12 feet stroke.
Expansion is universally used, the steam being cut off at I to -ths of
the stroke. Much attention is paid to the clothing of the boilers, cylinders
and pipes, and the economy of steam is said to be very great, the indicator
cords showing an unusually close approximation of the power actually utilized to that developed by the boiler. The fuel used is the anthracite coal of
Pennsylvania, and the consumption of this appears to be 44 to 61bs. per
effective H. P. per hour. The proportion of power to speed and tonnage is
not easily obtained. A much more extended series of observations of the
working of the best steamers than my time admitted of, would be necessary
to determine this with certainty. From my own notes, and the records I obtained of the performance of a few of the largest boats, the proportion appears to be about 5 effective H. P. per square foot of immersed midship sec


NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

tion at 18 miles an hour. This is for boats of the very finest lines, and
drawing 6 to 11 feet water, and corresponds I believe pretty closely with
the resistances of the fastest ocean steamers at similar speeds.
The cost of the Hudson steamers is about 120 to 130 $ per ton, custom house measurement; about 40 per cent, more than that of the western
river boats, which have lower proportionate power, and are neither so well
built, well finished, or expensively fitted up.
The dimensions and other details of two of the finest of these steamers
are as follows.
Metropolis.
Tonnage 2103.
Longth 342 feet on deck; 320 on keel. Beam 46 feet.
Depth of hold 15 feet. Draught of water fully loaded 11 feet.
Cylinder 105 inches diameter; 12 feet stroke.
Pressure of steam, avarage 221bs, maximum 15; cut off at j stroke.
4 Tubular boilers; heating surface 12,000 square feet.
Wheels 40 feet diameter; 12 feet wide.
Floats 30 inches deep; dipping 5 feet in water.
Number of revelations 15l to 161 per minute.
Speed 17 to 19 miles per hour.
Consumption of coal 41 tons per hour.
Cost 275,000 $
Estimated effective horse power 2400.
Has accommodation for 1000 passengers.
Bay State.
Tonnage 1554.
Length on deck 300 feet. Beam 42 feet.
Depth of hold 13~ feet. Working draught 10 feet 6 inches.
Cylinder 76 inches diameter; 12 feet stroke.
Steam pressure, average 35 Ibs, maximum  42 lbs; cut off at -ths
stroke.
2 Flue boilers, 6000 feet heating surface.
Wheels 38 feet diameter, 10 feet 6 inches wide.
Floats 26 inches deep; dipping 4 feet 6 inches in water.
Number of revolutions 16 to 18 per minute.
Speed 16 to 19 miles per hour.
Consumption of coal, about 5 tons per hour.
Estimated effective horse power 1980.
Has accommodation for 500 passengers.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

47

Goods Sleamers.
If the passenger steamers of the Hudson are the finest and fastest in the
world, and travelling by them the cheapest and most comfortable, the goods
steamers of the same river may claim a similar pre-eminence in respect of all
the qualities requisite in their own department of steam transportation.
The Hudson is a tidal navigation as far as Albany, 160 miles above
New York. It there receives from the Erie and Clamplain canals, as well
as from the New York Central rail road, the vast traffic, which flows eastwards by these routes from the lakes and Canada. It is the trunk of which
these are the branches, the link which connects the different lines of water
communication with the great commercial centre of New York. It has been
formed by nature to receive and accommodate their united trade, even when
that shall have swelled to many times its present dimensions.   For nine/
months of the year, this river affords excellent navigation for vessels drawing 6
to 9 feet water. During the remaining three months it is closed by ice. It is
during the former period, consequently, that nearly the whole of the transport
business is done. The river has indeed one competitor, the rail road which
runs along its shore and connects the same important termini as itself, but
such is the superiority in cheap carrying power of the water line, that it almost monopolizes the goods traffic, and leaves to its rival only the comparatively trifling business of the winter months when navigation is impracticable.
The whole goods tonnage of the rail road is only about 170,000 per annum,
while the number of tons arriving at and leaving tide water at Albany by the
canals only, almost the whole of which is carried through to New York or vice
versa, is about 2,300,000.  In other words, the through tonnage of the river
is seventeen times the whole tonnage, both through and way, of the rail road.
But the through traffic of the latter is only 120,000 tons, or the twentieth
part of that of the river; and that the rail road obtains this only from the
closing of the water lines in the winter months is shown plainly enough by the
statement of the business done in 1856, when it appears that out of a twelvemonth's tonnage of 118,152, 83,000 tons, or 70 per cent., were moved in
the five months of winter, when the canals which furnish so large a portion of
the river trade were closed by ice, and during the greater part of which, vizfrom 20th December to 11th April, the navigation of the river itself was at a
stand from the same cause. Those who suppose that a rail road is at any
time a more than sufficient substitute for a canal or river on lines where vast
quantities of goods of low valle have to be moved, will do well to ponder
these figures.



48

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The closing of the Hudson, were that possible, would be the death
blow to the commercial supremacy of New York, and would alone be
sufficient to turn the main stream  of western trade down the channel
of the St. Lawrence. In the keen competition between these two great
routes to the sea board, the difference of cost between the carriage by
rail and by river on this one link in the New  York line would go far
to decide the contest ii favour of its rival. And this, even if it' were
possible that the rail road with its present traffic could accommodate an additional through business alone of 2,300,000 tons, which of course it could
not do without several additional lines of rail, involving a proportionately
increased charge upon the traffic.
The goods traffic of the Hudson is carried on by means of powerful steam
tugs towing barges.  The great draught of water which the river permits,
would probably allow of the transport being accomplished with equal economy by means of steamers carrying on board as by the method in use; but the
reason why the towing system  has been adopted is, that the greater part of
the goods moved arrive from, or are destined, for the canals connecting with
the Hudson at Albany, and carriers prefer having their boats towed through
the river part of the transit, without breaking bulk, to the transhipment
which the opposite system would involve. There are however large numbers
of barges employed by the tug steamers specially as tow boats, which cannot
enter the canals, and which tranship on arriving at Albany.
The steamers used are of similar construction to the passenger boats
already described, with the exception of the cabin fittings, which are of course
unnecessary. Some of them    are boats which were formerly employed for
Spassengers, and one, the Alida was a noted fast boat in former days. They
take from 20 to 60 boats and barges, varying from 150 to 400 tons burthen
at a time. A powerful steamer will sometimes bring down as much as 6,000
tons of goods from Albany in one tow. The up trade being only about onefourth of that down stream, a large number of the boats return empty. The
trip is made in twenty-eight to thirty hours, either up or down, the tide in a
river of that length affecting the progress of a boat in much the same way in
both directons.
The following figures, kindly furnished me by the manager of one of the
largest transportation companies, will give a fair idea of the scale on which
these operations are conducted. The company owns four steam tugs, averaging
260 feet in length, with a draught of, 5-  feet. Cylinders 65 to 72 inches
diameter, and 11 to 12 feet stroke. Cost $ 90,000 each.



OF NORTN AMIRICL.

49

Usual time of passage up, 28 hours,
do.           down, 33,,
Average number of boats towed, 6 barges and 11 canal boats. As many
as 52 have been taken at a time.
Average number of tons of merchandize each passage,
Down..................................   3,980
Up....................................  930
Total quantity transported by the company per
annum (264 working days,) down river......    1,030,000
Up...............  241,000
Total tons... 1, 72,000
There are three such companies; the total quantity transported by them
would appear to be about 3,000,000 tons per annum. There is besides a
large traffic without the aid of steam, and a heavy way trade, so that these
figures only represent a part of the total movement on the Hudson.
The boats towed are lashed to the steamer all round, fore, aft, and
alongside. Sometimes for want of room, a few additional are towed astern.
Thus the whole of one of these gigantic " tows" moves en masse, the tug in
the centre, and at an average speed over the ground of 5 to 6 miles an hour.
The boats and barges are of the usual shape, with full well-rounded lines,
adapted not for speed, but for carrying heavy loads. Yet the power required
to move them at the speed mentioned, when clustered together in this manner,
which it might be supposed must greatly increase the resistance, appears to
be much the same as in Mr. Bourne's steam train, which theoretically would
seem to effect so great a saving in this respect.  Other peculiarities of the
system will be noticed in connextion with the western river steamers, some
of which are employed for towing coal in a similar manner.
Miuisssippi Steamers.
The steamers of the Mississippi valley differ in two important points
from those of the Hudson.
They are for the most part adapted to rivers of less depth, and consequently draw less water; and the motive power is high instead of low
pressure steam. The latter characteristic is indeed in great part a consequence of the former, the saving in weight of machinery which the high
t



NOTES ON fri  RITllR NAVIGATIONS

pressure system offers, being one of its chief recommendations, and in fact
making it a sine qmd non in the case of light draught steamers.
With few exceptions, the steam boats of the western rivers are not built
for high speed, but rather to combine a moderate speed with great carrying
capacity. A few, chiefly on the lower Mississippi, are devoted entirely to
passenger traffic, and are constructed on much the same model as those of
the Hudson, which they rival in speed; but the greater part of the western
I river boats carry both goods and passengers, and consequently have more
beam, coarser lines, and less speed.  The conditions required in the hull of a
steamer intended for this service are, lightness, combined with strength, and
a certain degree of pliability, to enable the vessel to stand the twisting and
Sstraining consequent on grounding and " sparring," and such proportions of
length and beam as shall afford the largest amount of displacement with the
least degree of immersion, without exceeding the limits due to strength on
the one hand, and to a medium co-efficient of resistance on the other.
The steamers may be divided into two classes.
1. Those intended chiefly for goods traffic, including both side-wheel
and stern-wheel boats.
2. Those in which the carrying capacity has been to some extent
sacrificed to speed in order to attract more passenger traffic.  The proportions
adopted in the two cases are, in the 1stLength to beam, 5 and 6 to 1, in side-wheelers.,      4 and 4 to 1, in stern-wheelers.
The bottom of the hull is made perfectly flat, the sides perpendicular, slightly
rounded off below; bow and stern very fall, (in a large number of instances
as full as the planks will bend); with very slight rise of floor at stem and stern.
In the stern wheel boats, the beam astern is nearly as large as amidships,
there being not more than' 1k or 2 feet "tuck" in the very largest boats.
In the 2nd case the proportions areLength to beam 8 and 9 to 1.
Bottom as flat as possible, but the hull moulded according to the
speed desired.
The following are the dimensions given to some of the principal parts.f i    u  o t  ku the wofstmf steefrers.



OF NORMW AMInCIk.

$1

Largest class Medium class. Smaller clas.
of boats.
Length............     293'       248'         146'
Beam............   44'        36'          36'
Depth...........        8'          7'          4'
Draught light....3'             6"     3'     6"    1'    4"
Floor timbers  4.........  4" x 10"'   3" X    8"    3" x   6"
Side    do.......    4" x   8"     3" X   7"    3" (   6"
Main kelson..........       9" x 20"   10f X 14"     4" x 12"
Bilge   do.........  8" x 12"     4k" x   8"    4" ) 10"
Deck beams.....4" x 10"                 4" x   7"    4" X   7"
Thickneass of plank.
Bottom............    4' to 4"     31" to  4"    3" to S3i"
Side............. 3..        " to 3"     2-4"         2 -Tonnage measurement...       930         500           150
The kelsons are generally made in three or four thicknesses bolted together, which affords greater toughness and pliability. The frames are
placed from 8 to 12 inches apart. There are three decks. The first, or boiler
deck, carries the machinery, the boilers being placed forward, with the engines in the after part in the case of stern wheelers, but nearer amidships
in the side wheelers, and the " doctor" or pumping engine between, near
the after end of the boiler. The fuel is stowed about the boiler and on the
guards; the cargo chiefly on this deck, and in the hold beneath.
The second, or passenger deck, is supported on standards rising from
the boiler deck. It carries the saloons, which run fore and aft, and which
are plainly but very comfortably fitted up with the berths and State rooms
on each side. The after part of the saloon is appropriated to ladies, while a
piece at the fore end, called the " social hall" forms the smoking room, with
the bar and Captain's office on either side. There is a broad covered pa".
sage round the outside of the saloons and sleeping berths, protecting them
from sun and from rain, and affording a eool and pleasant walk or lounge in
all weathers.
The roof of the saloons forms the third or hurricane deck. A portion
of the centre part of it, called " Texas," is occupied by the cabins of the crew,
and on top of these again is raised the pilots, or steerage house.  In this is
placed the wheel, and here stand the pilot and steersman, the wheel connecting
with the rudder by ropes and chains. A thin straight rod with a ball at top
is reared upon the stem post, and thus gives the steersman the true centre
line of the boat.
Tiisa arrangement of the de.ks is excellent. The lower one is left per


NO'MS ON WII RIYB~ NAVTIWATIONS

fectly free for the machinery and cargo, and the next or passenger deck being
raised some 10 feet above it, there is a free circulation of air underneath, and
little or no annoyance is felt from the heat, smells, and dirt below. The
Officers and crew, instead of being stowed away in all sorts of uncomfortable
corners, have a tier of comfortable rooms to themselves, and the steersman,
placed aloft, at an elevation of 30 feet above the water, with nothing whatever to obstruct his view, or distract his attention, can see a long distance
ahead, and guide the boat with the utmost precision as the pilot by his side
may direct. All orders to the Engineer are conveyed by signals. Wires,
whose upper extremity is in the pilot's house, communicate with a series of
bells in the engine room, so that the boat is moved in instant obedience to the
will of the pilot without the slightest noise or confusion. A touch of his hand
and a word to the helmsman does all. Additional steering apparatus, independent of the wheel, is provided in case of fire or accident, and with this precaution the system appears to possess unquestionable advantages over the
common one of placing the wheel astern.
I cannot think that any thing but the most inveterate prejudice can have
prevented its adoption in Europe. It is universally in use in all parts of
America, and is applied to sea going steamers as well. It was used on
board the Vandcrbilt, in which I returned from New York, and with the
same evident advantages as on inland waters. It is one of the peculiarities
of American steamers most worthy of imitation.
The general arrangement, and disposition of the machinery has been
already sketched. A more detailed description of its several parts is now
necessary.
The boiler is cylindrical, varying from 36 to 42 inches diameter, and
20 to 25 feet in length, with a double return flue of 12 to 15 inches, the
furnace being at the fore end, and the flame passing first underneath the
boiler, then back through the flues, and up the stack. The tops of the flues
are placed at about 2 inches above the horizontal diameter of the outer shell,
and the minimum depth of water over them allowed by law is 4 inches.  As
many of these cylindrical boilers as are required to furnish the requisite
quantity of steam, are placed side by side. They are generally 3 to 4 in
number, communicating only with the steam receiver common to all. A
mud receiver, a most important adjunct, is placed beneath transversely,
behind the firo at the bridge. The current induced in the boiler tend to



OF NOWN AMRaIC5A.

58

collect any sediment about this spot, where its presence as a non-conducting
substance would be peculiarly dangerous.  Here, consequently the means are
provided for removing it from the reach of the fire, by passing it down into
the receiver, the water in which is blown off from time to time. The boilers
are well covered in, and rest on iron standards raised about 2 feet above the
deck.
The steam pipe takes off from the steam  receiver, and is led aft to the
engines, the pressure gauge being attached to it just before the throttle valve.
An apparatus is provided for economising heat by using the waste steam for
heating the water.
There are two separate engines, each driving its own paddle wheel. The
wheels are disconnected, the shaft of each extending into the boat only so
far as required for the crank and eccentrics, leaving an open passage along
the deck between the two. This separation of the two paddle wheels is invariable, and is considered to possess advantages over the ordinary mode of
placing both on the one shaft, in enabling the boat to turn more quickly, and
in a much shorter space, and so giving a more ready and perfect command
over her movements. The necessity for this arrangement however appears
to me questionable, and those who have witnessed the skill with which the
long and awkward steamers of the Rhone are guided through channels
more tortuous than those of the Mississippi, will hesitate before they
sacrifice the undoubted advantages of the ordinary double cranked axle,
for those claimed for the opposite system. It must however be admitted,
that the great length of stroke and of connecting rod given to the engines,
and the great size of the wheels, carry the cranks over the dead-points without difficulty and impart perfect evenness to their motion.
The engines are on the American plan, all of long stroke, compared
with diameter of cylinder, the proportions 31 and 4. to 1. Valves similar
to those of the Hudson steamer engines are substituted for slides.  Very
complete drawings of these parts of the machinery are given in the Appendix. It will be observed that motion is imparted to the rocking shaft
with its cams, by a peculiarly shaped cam on the paddle shaft rather than by
an eccentric. The motion thus obtained is more sudden at the moment of
the opening and closing of the valves, and better suited to their peculiar
action. The steam is cut off at - to Iths the stroke, and used at a pressure,
varying from 120 to 150 lbs., the average being about 132 lbs. The exhaust
steam is not led into the chimney, but after doing its work in the heater, is



NO1MS ON TRE Rf lYM  NAVIATIONS

allowed to escape freely, there being sufficient draught without the aid of the
blast.  Both cylinders and steam pipe are in general wholly uncovered. The
cylinder is laid, it will be observed, at a slight inclination to the horizon, in
the case of both side, and stern wheelers, the same timbers supporting both it
and the paddle shaft, and resting on a strong lattice truss. The connecting
red, or " Pitman" is of wood bound with iron.
The wheels are of wood also, with shifting floats adaptable to varying
degrees of immersion. In some of the steamers of the upper Ohio, which
are made of the largest size that can pass through the Louisville locks, the
wheelsare placed in a slight recess in the side of the boat, so as to diminish
the total width. The whole vessel is well held together by "hog frames,"
both longitudinal and transverse, the struts abutting on the kelsons, and
the tie rods which are always furnished with turn-buckles, being attached to
the same. A large bell, placed in the fore part of the hurricane deck, gives
notice of the times of arrival and departure, and every steamer is furnished
with a powerful steam whistle, or rather trumpet, whose frightful notes are
heard at an immense distance, resembling rather the braying of a mammoth
jackass than the familar sounds of the railway whistle.
The stern wheel steamers of the upper Ohio, though of a class not
altogether unknown in other countries, deserve to be numbered among the
peculiar "institutions" of America. They have some special advantages,
and though now-a-days not quite so much the rage as they were some years
ago, are still built in large numbers and of great size, some of the largest
ones being as much as 600 and 650 tons measurement. The general arrangement of their machinery has been already sufficiently indicated. The wheel,
which is from 13 to 28 feet diameter, according to the size of the boat, rests
on heavy beams projecting over the stern, and held up by hog chains. Its
width is about iths that of the hull amidships.  The rudders are two, sometimes three, in number, owing to the confined space which the close proximity of the wheel to the stern of the boats allows for each.  They are shaped
so as to occupy the most of this space, and their helms are connected together
and with the steering wheel. In other respects, the internal arrangements
ase all similar to those of the side wheel boats.
The advantages claimed for this class of steame-rs is their superior
carrying capacity, on equal draughts of water, compared with the sidewheelers. This they derive from  the fulhess of the after part of the hull,
which, as before stated, is nearly as wide as amidships.   This is a great
recemmendation in the case of shallow rivers. Another curious advantage



OF NC"KI AMIRICA.

they possess is, that in ascending a rapid stream, the wheel working in the
backwater astern instead of in the current, meets with more resistance from
the water, and the slip is diminished, with a proportionate gain in speed.
This fact is well established. It has been several times found that of two
steamers, one side-wheel, the other stern, of equal speeds, in slack-water, the
latter will, when opposed to a strong current, quite distance the former, and
even ascend a rapid which the other could not face. I myself made a
trip up the Alleghany, from  Pittsburgh to Franklin, in a boat of this
class, when the river was in flood, and the current generally 6 miles an
hour, and in many places more.   The distance was 130 miles, which was
accomplished in 22 hours actual steaming, or at the rate of 6 miles an hour
over the current. We returned at night in 9 hours, but frequently went only
half speed on account of the extreme darkness.  The speed of the steamer
must have been certainly 12 miles per hour. The dimensions of her hull and
machinery are given in the Appendix. Her entrance was perhaps a little
flner than usual, but still very full, and her width astern only 2 or 3 feet
less than amidships. Her burthen was 250 tons, and her estimated indicator
horse power 294.  Draught of water 3J feet. This is a fair specimen of
what steamers of this class can do. They are well suited to shallow rivers,
and will, I have no doubt, be introduced in India before long.  It is objected
to them that they are not so manageable as the side wheel boats with disconnected wheels, and it is easy to see that the latter must be more readily
and quickly manceuvred.
The size of the western river steamers varies with the different rivers
according to the available depth of water.  Those of the upper Ohio are from
150 to 420 tons measurement, the latter being the largest size boat that the
Louisville locks will admit. Those of the upper Mississippi and Missouri are
of much the same dimensions.  Those of the lower Mississippi are from 600
to 1,000 tons.  Steamers carrying both goods and passengers, have a speed
of 9 to 12 miles per hour on the upper rivers, and as much as 14 miles on
the lower. 'their draught of water, with a full lead, is 31 feet on the
Alleghany and smaller tributaries, 3- to 7 feet on the Ohio and upper
Mississippi, and 7 to 10 feet on the lower Mississippi.  The proportion of
power to tonnage in boats of this class is I, 11, and rarely 2 I.H.P. per toin
measurement, or 0'7, 1, and 1-4 I.H.P. per ton of actual displacement.
There are also light draught boats, used in low stages of water, capable of
carrying 100 tons of eargo on a draught of 20 inches.
TNe passidger steaers, aiit for sped, have, wri4t  ii!ike s, awn



56

NOTIS ON TNE RIVIR NAVIGATIONS

about 1'6 I.H.P. per ton measurement, or 1-14 per ton of displacement,
a speed of 16 to 18 miles per hour. They vary in size from 800 to 1000 tons,
and draw 6 to 8 feet water. The consumption of fuel is about 51 lbs. of
coal per horse power, per hour. Wood is burned very largely on many
of the rivers, and costs from 2 $ to 3 $ per ton, but the bituminous coal of
Pittsburgh, and that part of Pennsylvania, is daily coming more into use. It
is put on board the steamers at Pittsburgh at 5 cents. per ton, and is sent
down the Ohio in immense quantities in barges, which float down with the
current, or are towed by powerful tugs in the same manner as on the Hudson.
The steamers used for this purpose are both side and stern-wheel. The
largest are about 180 feet long, by 25 feet beam, drawing 31 feet light, but
with the full load of coal for the voyage from Pittsburgh to Cincinnati, 480
miles, and back, 6 feet water. They are of 700 to 760 I.H.P., and take
7 to 10 barges at a tow. These barges are of great size, carrying 10,000
bushels, or 360 tons of coal, each. The total tonnage of a tow is therefore
2,500 to 3,600 tons. The barges are fastened round the steamer as described
in the case of the Hudson boats. The barges are perfectly square in their horizontal dimensions, with only a slight rake at stem and stern. They thus admit of being well secured alongside of one another and of the tug. They are
generally about 131 feet x 24 feet x 7 feet; working draught 6 feet.  The
trip to Cincinnati and back, a total distance of 960 miles, with a heavy tow of
about 80,000 bushels, is made in 11 days, viz., 3 days down, 1 day discharging cargo, 5 days to return, and 2 Sundays rest on the way. A smaller tow
may be run down in 50 hours, and back in 3 to 3j days. The boats return
emply. No difficulty whatever is experienced in steering under this system
of towing. The mass of the tow being kept as much as possible before the
beam of the tug, her stern is free to move in obedience to the helm, and she
pushes the tow before her. There is no possibility of the loss of power from
the increased resistance consequent on the bad steering of any of the boats,
as frequently happens under the common system of towing them astern
by a rope, for all are fastened immoveably about the tug. There is also a
perfect freedom from the inconvenience that would otherwise be felt in towing
a long train of barges through winding channels. The whole of the boats
move together under the guidance of one helm, and in a compact mass,
which* can be directed with the utmost precision. It might, as already
observed, be supposed, that with boats closely packed together in this manner,
the resistance of each would be greatly increased in consequence of the dispicsti watr bring l.s free to escape, And ~sequently that there would be



OF NORTH AMERICA.

57

a waste of power, but I believe that such is not the case, but that on the
contrary, there is even an economy of power under this system, and that if
the displacement rdistance is somewhat enhanced, the increased expenditure of
power which this involved is no more than that which practically results from
the disadvantages above alluded to as attendant on the common method of
towing.
From data supplied me, with their usual kindness, by the Captains and
Engineers of some of the Ohio boats, I deduce the following results as to
the work done by tug steamers.

Name of Tug
Steamer.
J. lil'son.
Down stream.......
Up stream.......
Alps.
Down stream.......
Up stream.....,....
J. Gzulrie.
Down stream.......
Up stream.........
Alida.
Slackwater......

Tons.   Miles per
hour.
4,100      412
1,100      8-1

C-';4;

Current.
Miles per
hour.

o
01
0'

3,762
1,110
4,311
1,575
5,700

364
690
360
706
496
764
672

do,
do.
31d
do.

Ohio.
do.
do.
do
do.
do.
Hudson.

5
6-7
5.7

These results, reduced to an unit of I H. P. at 4A and 81 miles per hour, will
be found to approximate very closely.



NOTES ON TUE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

They are:
A. Filson.
Down stream, 1 H. P.=11*3 tons at 4, miles.
Up     do.             1-6,,
Alps.
Down stream, 1 H. P.=10-3 tons at 4- miles.
Up     do.,_,,
7. Guthrie.
Down stream, 1 IHI. P.=S-7 tons at 5 miles.
Up     do.,,    =2.,,   6-7,,
Alida
Slackwater.  1 H. P.=9 tons at 4-9 miles. And assuming that the
loads vary inversely as the cubes of the speeds, we have, for a common speed,
of 4) miles per hourDown stream, 1 II. P.==11 3 tons.
Up     do.   1 H. P.=10-8
Down    do.   1 II. P.=105,,
Up     do.   1 H. P.= 10-5
Down    do.  1 11. P.=1-I 16
Up     do.   1 H. P.=    7 -0
Still water  1 H. P.=1l5,,
This would give for the duty of 1 effective IH. P., at the speeds at which
towing may be most economically carried on.
Hudson,...... 11-5 tons gross, at 4T miles per hour.
Ohio, down stream,     11P tons    do.   41,,
Do., up stream,...  1-6 tons   do.   81
Or, if we consider the Tug as the locomotive, the barges as the train,
and the cargo they carry as the useful load, we have,
Useful load.
Ohio, down stream.... 1 H. P.= 7 tons at 41 miles.
Do., up stream.... 1 H. P.=  1 ton at 8jy miles.
Hudson....... 1 H. P.=  9 tons at 41 miles.
Reducing these amounts to the more convenient unit of speed, 5 miles
per hour, the result is for-.m



OF NORTH AMERICA.

59

Tidal rivers with good depth       Useful load.
of water.........    II. P. = 6-5 tons at 5 miles.
Rivers with current of 2 to 3
miles per hour, and depth
not less than 5 feet...  1. II. P. =  5 tons at 5 miles
To  which   may be   added
rivers, as the Loire, Rhone,
with currents exceeding 3
miles and available draught
of water 3 to 4 feet... 1 II. P. =  2 to 3 tons at 5 miles.
The expense of towing back the empty barges is a heavy item in the
cost of transporting coal in this manner on the Ohio; and it is only when
they can carry heavy loads, that the business is remunerative, for prices are
kept down by the competition of the common barges, or " arks," propelled
without the aid of steam. It is generally considered that the system would
not pay with a less available draught of water than 6 feet, and hence the
traffic is limited to about three months of spring and two of the winter, five
months in all. The charge for coal transported in this manner is 2 to 2 -cents per bushel from Pittsburg to Cincinnati, a distance of 480 miles, or
3 to 4 miles, (,-ths to - penny), per ton per mile, and at these rates the
business pays well.
Some of the tow companies own coal mines, and in such cases the profits are still higher. The coal is shipped on the Monongahela at 3- cents
per bushel, towed to Pittsburgh for - cent, thence to Cincinnati for 2 to 2~
cents, and sold there for 8 cents; a striking illustration of the value of
water carriage, a commodity of the low value of four shillings per ton being
by this means sold with profit, at a distance of 500 miles from the place of
production, at an advance of only 250 per cent on its cost price. I cannot
here help remarking, both for the purpose of comparison, and for theinformation of those who still believe that rail roads doing a mixed business,
and with high speed passenger trains, are sufficient to meet all the requirements of a country like India, where raw products of very low value have to
be carried distances of 400 to 1000 miles, that coal raised from mines owned
by a Railroad Company in the North of England and placed on the rail at
double the price at which it is shipped at Pittsburgh, is carried to London
only half the distance it is moved on the Ohio, and then sold at double the
cost at the pit's mouth, and this though it is quite an open question whether



60

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

the sale price in London is such as to cover the expense of carriage, or
whether this is not met by the profits on other classes of goods traffic.
It is evident that this system of towing is only applicable where there
is a very large and steady traffic in some one commodity between two points
or localities at a considerable distance from each other, and where that trade
is a descending one, or as in the case of the Hudson, where a river forms
one link in a line of water communication adapted to boats which, whether
from their limited size, or from their being unprovided with any suitable
means of propulsion, require the aid of steam for the river part of the transit.
Wlhere the river trade is of the ordinary mixed description, and, as is
generally the case, the through traffic is small compared with the way, and a
steamer would have to wait long to make up a cargo, and then have to discharge and ship freight at many different points, this mode of carriage would
I  e unsuitable. Where a river is entirely in the hands of some one powerful
Company, as in the case of the Danube, the system might be applied; but it
would inevitably break down under competition o: any open line, with a
brisk trade in commodities requiring quick dispatch.
The cost of the western river Steamboats is now about 90$ per ton
measurement, including machinery.  That of the hull varies from 16 to 25$,
average 20.  The machinery, including- Engines, boilers, " doctor" and
" Nigger" Engines and heater, is about 20$ per effective H. P., and as the
power is proportioned to the tonages as 1 to 1 on an average, the cost in
terms of the steam power is 60$ per H. P.
The following are given as specimens of the different classes of Steamers
in use on the Mississippi and its tributaries.
1. Highl speed passenger steamers.
Oio TELEGRAPH. Tonnage 748.
Length 311 feet. Beam 36 feet.  Draught loaded 6- feet.
2 Cylinders 30 feet Diameter, 10 feet stroke.
Maximum pressure of steam permitted   1461bs.
Average          do         do        1301bs.
Point of cut off (-ths stroke.
6 Boilers, 23 feet long, 46 inches diameter.
Side Wheels, 36 feet diameter, 13 feet wide.
Estimated effective Horse Power 1320.
Speed 17 miles in deep water.
Has accommodation for 192 cabin, and 350 deck passengers.
JACOB STRADER.    Tonnage 906. A sister boat of the above, has low
pressure engines, using steam of 25 to 40 lbs.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

61

Length 332 feet. Beam 37 feet. Draught of water 6 to 7 feet.
2 Cylinders 60 inches diameter, 10 feet stroke.
Estimated effective Horse Power 1420.
Speed 17 miles in deep water.
Has accommodation for 250 cabin and 100 deck passengers.
This is the only boat built on the low pressure principle on the western
rivers. It was placed on the Ohio some years ago ini the hope of attracting
more passengers by its supposed freedom from all danger of explosion. The
experiment is not likely to be repeated.
2. Steamers carrying both goods and passengers.
Lower Mississippi. Largest class of steamer.
CITY OF MEMPHIS.    Tonnage 865.
Length 293 feet. Beam 44 feet. Draught light 31 feet; with full load,7fcet.
2 Cylinders 32 inches diameter, 8 feet stroke.
6 Cylindrical boilers 30 feet long, 46 inches diameter.
Allowed to carry 126 lbs. steam.
Boiler proved by hydrostatic pressure to 200 lbs.
Wheels 40 feet diameter.
Estimated effective Horse Power 1350.
Ohio. Largest class of steamer passing through the Louisville locks,
Side wheels.
A. 0. TYLER.   Tons measurement... 420
Do.   Capacity... 800
Length 176 feet. Beam 44 feet. Draught light 3 feet 6 inches; loaded,
6 feet to 7 feet.
2 Engines; Cylinders 221 inches diameter, 8 feet stroke.     Steam,
maximum pressure 138 lbs., cut off at --ths stroke. 4 double flue boilers 26 feet
long, 42 inches diameter.  Wheels placed in recess in sides of boat, 32 feet
diameter, 7 feet wide. Estimated effective Horse Power about 450.
3 Ohio. Largest class of stern twheel steamers.
MARENGO. Tonnage 240 -Length 165 feet. Beam 35 feet. Draught light 2 feet 6 inches; fully
loaded, 6- feet.
2 Engines, Cylinders 18 inches diameter, 5 feet stroke.
Steam, 132 lbs., cut off at |ths stroke.
3 Boilers 24 feet long, 38 inches diameter.
Wheel, 20 feet diameter, 25 feet wide.
Floats 16 inches deep. Estimated effective Horse Power 213.



62;

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

ALINA Tonnage 312.
Length 152 feet, Beam 391" Draught light, 2 feet 2 inches; fully
loaded, 7 feet.
Tie wheel of this boat is divided into two parts, each worked by two
Engines, the object being to facilitate steering by using one wheel only at a
time if necessary.
There are thus 4 Engines, Cylinders 15 inches diameter, 41 feet stroke.
Steam 133 lbs., cut off +-ths stroke. 4 Boilers, 24 feet long, and 38
inches diameter; 2 stern wheels of 23 feet diameter, and 13 feet wide each.
Estimated effective Horse Power 260.
GLENWOOD. A smaller size stern-wheel steamer, running between
Pittsburgh on the Ohio, and Nashville on the Cumberland river, distance
1120 miles.
Tonnage 145, Capacity 300 tons.
Length  153 feet. Beam 29 feet. Draught light 12 inches; loaded,
3 feet 6 inches.
2 Engines; Cylinders 13 inches diameter, 31 feet stroke. Steam 132 lbs.,
cut off at 5--ths stroke.
2. Boilers,.2 feet long, 38 inches diameter.
Wheel 16 feet diamneter, 27 feet wide.
Estimated Effective Horse Power 112.
Speed about 8 miles.
FoRTUNE. Specimen of lightest class of stern wheel steamer on Ohio.
Tonnage 86.
Length 121 fe-t.   Beam 22 feet.   Depth of hold 3 feet 4 inches.
Draught light 12 iuches.
2 Engines, Cylilders 10 inches diameter, 31 feet stroke.
Steam, maximum pressure 147 lbs., cut off at s5ths stroke.
2 Boilers 20 feet long, and 34 inches diameter.
Wheel 13 feet diameter, 161 feet wide.
Effective 11. P. about 70.
Speed about 8 miles per hour.
ALLEGHANY BELLE.     A stern wheel, steamer suited to the uavigation of
rivers with a fall of 2 or 2~ feet per mile, and currents of 6 to 8 miles per hour.
Tonnage 148. Capacity 250 tons.
Length 138 feet-   Beam  23 feet. Draught light 1 foot 9 inches;
loaded, 3 feet 6 inches.
2_Engines; Cylinders 16 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

63

Steam, ordinary pressure 1221bs, maximum 150 lbs; cut off at Iths
stroke.
3 Boilers, 24 feet long, 36 inches diameter.
Wheel 18 feet diameter, and 18 feet wide.
Estimated effective Horse Power 290.
Speed 11 miles per hour.
LIME GREEK. A     side-wheel steamer of the very lightest class, suited
to goods transport in times of low water.
Tonnage 92. Capacity 175.
Length on deck 125 feet; on keel 115 feet.
Square low and Stern. Beam 22 feet 4 inches. Depth 3 feet 6 inches.
Draught, light, 8 inches. Carries 70 tons cargo on a draught of 20 inches.
2 Engines; Cylinders 8 inches diameter; 2 feet stroke.
1 Boiler 18 feet long, 36 inches diameter.
Steam probably 1301bs., cut of --ths stroke.
Wheels 10 feet diameter, 4 feet 4 inches wide.
Speed probably not above 6 miles per hour.
Effective H. P. about 30.
The distinctive peculiarity of the Mississippi Steamboats is the
high  pressure at which   steam  is used.   The   reports  which  have
reached other countries from   time to time of the fearful loss of life
and property from explosion on the American rivers have given rise
to a very general impression that these accidents are inseparable from
the use of high pressure steam, and have operated to its prejudice
in a degree which a better acquaintance with the facts of the case
would have shewn to be unwarrantable. A brief sketch of the history and
present position of the system in America will therefore not be without
interest. It appears to have been introduced at an early period in the progress of steam navigation on the western rivers, and though for some years
the old low pressure system maintained its ground, it was gradually displaced,
owing to the superior advantages in point of lightness and simplicity of
machinery presented by its rival. There is no record of any low pressure
boats having been built on the western rivers subsequent to 1831; and at
the present time there is, it is believed, but one steamer of this description
on those waters.
This rapid supercession of the old system is altogether opposed to the
idea of its superiority in point of safety to the new; and that as then ap.



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

plied it possessed no such advantage is shown by the fact that while out of
about 350 steamers built and running on the Mississippi and its tributaries
between the years 1814 and 1829, only 52 or one-seventh had low pressure
Engines, there were 8 explosions in steamers of this class out of a total of
22 between 1817 and 1831. In other words while the proportion of low to
high pressure steamers afloat was as 1 to 7, the proportion of explosions was
as 1 to 3, shewing a very decided superiority in respect of safety in favor of
the high pressure boats.
It is very evident from this, that these accidents were, in those days at
least, to be traced to some cause independent of the particular density of the
steam employed. They were in fact mainly attributable to the ignorance and
carelessness of those entrusted with the construction and management of the
boilers. The continued operation of these causes, combined with the rapid
increase of the steam flotilla, led at last to such an enormous annual destruction of life and property as compelled the legislature to interfere, and in
1838 a law was passed providing for a general inspection of steamers by
competent Engineers, and compelling under certain penalties the adoption
of such rules in the construction and working of the boilers as appeared
necessary to their safety. The provisions of this act seem to have been altogether insufficient, and in some respects objectionable, and even calculated to
increase the very evils they are intended to remove.
In 1848, the subject of steam boiler explosions, having previously been
very elaborately investigated by a Committee of the Franklin Institute, was
brought before the House of Representatives by the Commissioner of Patents
in a Report embodying the views of the Committee, and of other scientific and
practical men, as to the causes of these explosions, and the best mode of providing a remedy. In this Report a list is given of 233 accidents of this nature subsequent to the year 1816, of which 98 cases, the full details of which
had been furnished, are thus classified in reference to their causes.
Excessive pressure gradually increased was the cause in.. 16 Cases.
The presence of unduly heated metal,................. 16,,
Defective construction,................................. 33,,
Carelessness or ignorance,.............................. 32
Accidental rolling of the boat,....................  1,,
Total... 98



OF NORTH AMERICA.

The several causes thus assigned are still further subdivided as follows:I. Undue pressure within the boiler, the pressure being gradually increased,.........       16
2. Presence of unduly heated metal within a Boiler,
In this class are included-.
Deficiency of water,........ 14
Deposits,............  2

3. Defective construction of the boiler and its appendages.
In this class are included(Cast Iron boiler head,... 5
Improper ordefec-  Inferior Iron,.........
tive material...  Iron too thin,..... 3
Cast iron boiler,.........      1
LDefective iron in flue,... 1
15
(Want of proper gauge cocks,...... 3
I Defective flue,.........
BadWorkmanship.. Extending fire walls,......... 1
Pipe badly constructed,...               1
LWant of slip joint on pipe,...... 1

16

Defective boiler, defect not stated,

Total...       33
4.  Carelessness or ignorance of those entrusted with the management
of the boiler.
In this class are included
Racing,...
Incompetent Engineer...
Old boilers,
Stopping off water
Carelessness,

Ott...  6
2.s....       1,.4...       22

97



NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

It will be observed that 66 per cent, or two-thirds, of the whole number of explosions, are distinctly traced to defective construction of the boiler
and its appendages, improper or defective material, bad workmanship, and
carelessness or ignorance on the part of the Engineer. It is proper here to
remark that the term defective construction does not imply any thing objectionable in the form, dimensions, and distribution of the different parts of
the boilers; but that, these being assumed to be, as they are, for the most
part excellent, there was in the cases specified a departure from the rules
universally recognised as essential to the security of these parts of the machinery. But in truth nearly the whole of the accidents included in the list are
referable to these causes. Deficiency of water in a boiler can only arise
either from inattention on the part of the Engineer, or from an insufficient
provision for its supply, while undue pressure in many cases results directly
from the rapid evolution of high pressure steam produced by the sudden injection of water upon the heated metal previously exposed to the action of the
fire by the too low level of the water within the boiler.
It thus appears that almost the whole of these accidents are referable
to defective workmanship, the use of bad or improper material such as cast
iron, and careless or reckless management, causes which might be present
and produce equally disastrous results where steam is used of only half or a
third the pressure customary on the Mississippi steamers. There is nothing
whatever to shew that steam   of 120 and 140 lbs. pressure may not under
proper conditions of construction of a boiler, and attention on the part of
those in charge of it, be used with the same safety as steam of 40 or 50 lbs.
We find precisely the same effects follow similar causes to those above
mentioned in England.   Explosions there are, ceterisparibus, as disastrous
as in America, and are in every case traced to defective construction or bad
management; and if experience shews that to one or other of these causes
the whole of the accidents happening, to either high or low pressure
boilers are in every case attributable, it follows that safety is equally attainable under either system, due regard being had to the form of boiler and
strength of material used.
The recommendations put forth in the Patent Commissioner's Report
were made the basis of an Act " to provide for the better security of the lives
of passengers on board of vessels propelled in whole or in part by steam."
This act provided for the appointment of an Inspector of Hulls and an
Inspector of Boilers at each of the principal ports on the Coast, the Rivers,



OF NORTH AMERICA.

87

and the Lakes-the whole being divided into eight Districts with a supervising Inspector to each.
The Captain of every steamer carrying passengers, is compelled to make
application to these functionaries for the inspection of his vessel when firsL fit
for use, and again at least once every year after, and is prohibited, under
heavy penalties, from navigating any of the waters of the United States, without a certificate granted by the Inspector that his vessel is in every respect
conformable to the provisions of the Law.
No Engineer of Pilot is permitted to serve on board such steamers without having previously appeared before a board of Inspectors, and after ex.
amination obtained a certificate of fitness for his particular duty.
The duties of Inspectors are thus defined:First. " Upon application in writing by the master or owner, they
shall, once in every year at least, carefully inspect the hull of each steamer
belonging to their respective Districts, and employed in the carriage of
passengers, and shall satisfy themselves that every such vessel so submitted
to their inspection is of a structure suitable for the service in which she is
to be employed, has suitable accommodations for her crew and passengers,
and is in a condition to warrant the belief that she may be- used in navigation as a steamer, with safety to life, and that all the requirements of the
law in regard to fires, boats, pumps, hose, life-preservers, floats, and other
things, are faithfully complied with; and if they deem it expedient, they
may direct the vessel to be put in motion, and may adopt any other suitable means to test her efficiency and that of her equipment.
Second.   "They shall also inspect the boilers of such steamers before
the same shall be used, and once in every year thereafter, subjecting them
to a hydrostatic pressure, the limit to which, not exceeding one hundred
and sixty-five pounds to the square inch for high pressure boilers, may be
prescribed by the owner or the Master, and shall satisfy themselves by
examination, and experimental trials, that the boilers are well made, of good
and suitable material; that the openings for the passage of water and
steam respectively, and all pipes and tubes exposed to heat, are of proper
dimensions, and free from obstruction; that the spaces between the flues
are sufficient, and that the fire line of the furnace is below the prescribed
water line of the boilers; and that such boilers and the machinery and the
appurtenances may be safely employed in the service proposed in the written
application, without peril to life; and shall also satisfy themselves that the



68

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

safety-valves are of suitable dimensions, sufficient in number, well arranged,
and in good working order (one of which may if necessary, in the opinion
of the inspectors, to secure safety, be taken wholly from  the control of all
persons engaged in navigating such vessel;) that there is a suitable number
of gauge-cocks properly inserted, and a suitable water gauge and steam
gauge indicating the height of the water and the pressure of the steam;
that in or upon the outside flue of each outside high pressure boiler there
is placed in a suitable manner alloyed metals, fusible by the heat of the boiler
when raised to the highest working pressure allowed, and that in or upon the
top of the flues of all other high pressure boilers in the Steamer such alloyed
metals are placed, as aforesaid, fusing at ten pounds greater pressure than
said metals on the outside boilers, thereby, in   each case, letting steam
escape; and that adequate and certain provision is made for an ample supply
of water to feed the boilers at all times, whether such vessel is in motion or
not; so that, in high pressure boilers, the water shall not be less than
four inches above the flue; provided, however, in Steamers hereafter supplied with new high pressure boilers, if the alloy fuses on the outer boilers
at a pressure of ten pounds exceeding the working pressure allowed, and at
twenty pounds above said pressure on the inner boilers, it shall be a sufficient compliance with this Act.
"Third. That in subjecting to the hydrostatic test aforesaid boilers
called and usually known under the designation of high pressure boilers,
the inspectors shall assume one hundered and ten pounds to the square inch
as the maximum pressure allowable as a working power for a new boiler
forty-two inches in diameter, made of inspected iron plates at least onefourth of an inch thick, in the best manner, and of the quality herein required, and shall rate the working power of all high pressure boilers, whether of greater or less diameter, old or new, according to their strength
compared with this standard; and in all cases the test applied shall exceed
the working power allowed, in the ratio of one hundred and sixty-five to
one hundred and ten, and no high pressure boilers hereafter made shall be
rated above this standard, and in subjecting to the test aforesaid that class
of boilers usually designated and known as low pressure boilers, the said
inspectors shall allow as a working power of each new boiler a pressure of
only three-fourths the number of pounds to the square inch to which it
shall have been subjected by the hydrostatic test and found to be sufficient
there for using the water in such tests at a temperature not exceeding sixty
degrees Fahrenheit, but should such inspectors be of the opinion that said



OF NORTH AMERICA.

boiler, by reason of its construction or material, will not safely allow so
high a working pressure, they may, for reasons to be stated specifically in their
certificate, fix the working pressure of said boiler at less than three-fourths
of said test pressure, and no low-pressure boiler hereafter made shall
be rated in its working pressure above the aforesaid standard; and provided that the same rules shall be observed in regard to boilers heretofore
made, unless the proportion   between  such boilers  and the cylinders, or
some other cause, renders it manifest that its application would be unjust,
in which cases the inspectors may    depart from   these rules, if it can be
done with   safety; but in no case   shall the  working   pressure allowed
exceed the hydrostatic test, and no valve under any circumstances shall
be loaded or so managed in any way as to      subject a boiler to a greater
pressure than the amount allowed by the inspectors, nor shall any boiler
or pipe be approved     which   is made in whole or in part of bad material, or is unsafe in its form, or dangerous fiom defective workmanship,
age, use or any other cause."
When the inspection in detail is completed, a certificate to that effect is
given by the Inspector to the Collector of the District, by whom two certified
copies are delivered to the Master or owner of the steamer.  One of these is
required to be kept permanently pasted up in some conspicuous place on board.
It is also the duty of inspectors to examine the plates of which the boilers are made, to see whether in their judgment they are of suitable material;
and all boiler plates are by the law required to be stamped with the names of
the makers, and that in such a manner tftat the stamp shall be visible after
the plates have been worked into the boiler.
Inspectors are empowered to compel the attendance of witnesses by the
same process as in Courts of law, to examine them on oath, to suspend or
revoke the licenses of pilots and engineers, to enforce certain provisions respecting the number of passengers to be carried by steamers, to recover penalties for detentions on passage, insufficient accommodation, or inadequate
provision for the escape of passengers in case of accident.
This law, of which the foregoing is but a brief outline, came into operation in 1852.    Though capable doubtless of improvement in some of its
provisions, it applies as effectual a remedy to the evils and abuses against
which it is directed as can be expected from legislative interference in cases
of this kind. That its main objects have been attained, and a degree of security imparted to both life and property on American inland navigations, such
as was never before enjoyed, is shewn by the marked decrease in the yearly



70

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

number of accidents from explosion of boilers since the Act was first put in
force.
It appears from a table furnished in the Annual Report of the Supervising Inspectors for 1857, that the number of explosions and loss of life on the
western rivers during the five years previous to the passing of the Steamboat
Law, was as follows,
In 1848, Explosions were 6......Lives lost 141
1849,...,,...,,  8......,,...,,  183
1850...,,...,,  13......,,...,,  284
1851,...,,...,,  5......,,...,,  152
185,...,,...,,  18......,,...,,  395
Total...50                 1155
This table, the Inspectors remark, was taken from Lloyd's Steamboat Directory, the best and most reliable authority from which the information could
be procured.
" It is well known however that even this does not embrace all the dis.
" asters that occurred during that time; indeed there are comparatively few
" of the collisions and other disasters of the like kind given, and Members of
" the Board well remember several very disastrous explosions that took place
" which are not enumerated in that work."
In the four years subsequent to the passing of the law, the disasters by
Explosions were as follows:-    *        Explosions. Lives lost.
In the year ending 1st October...1854... 2... 72,,,...1855... 2...  35,,,,...1856...  2...  14,,,..1857... 1 -..   11
Total...... 7   132
- WWWW
Shewing an average of less than 2 explosions per annum, subsequent to
the law coming in force against an average of 10 previously.
This comparison however does not fully exhibit the beneficial operation
of the Steam boat Law, for it does not express the proportion of accidents to
the number of Steamers afloat in each of the twe periods embraced in the
statement, and as there was a considerable increase of the steam marine in
the latter period, the proportionate decrease of explosions was greater than is
here shewn. It is most important also to remark that nearly the whole of



OF NORTH AMERICA.

71

the boilers which exploded since 1853, were built previous to the Act
coming into force, and therefore not under its provisions. The Inspectors
observe: " We are aware of but two explosions of the boilers of a steam boat
constructed under the regulations established by the law in 1852." It is
worthy of notice also that within the same period at least four explosions of low
pressure boilers are recorded, so that the result of the operation of the law
hitherto goes a long way towards establishing the fact that under an efficient
system of check and supervision, the employment of steam of very high pressure is attended with no greater risks than those incident to the low pres.
sures in ordinary use.
Admitting however the signal success which has attended this attempt
to enforce the use of properly constructed boilers only, as well as the employment of competent Engineers on board steamers, it appears questionable
whether the dimensions assumed for the standard boiler, to which all others
are to be compared in due proportion to their diameter and the pressure of
steam used, are such as to allow a sufficient excess of strength to meet the
various contingencies which are inevitable in the ordinary use of boilers,
even where the greatest pains are taken to secure efficiency and trustworthi.
ness on the part of the Engineers in charge of them.
The following table, deduced from the dimensions of the standard boiler
on the principle that with the same pressure the thickness of the plates
should vary as the diameters, and that with equal thicknesses of plate the pressures should be inversely as the diameters, is the one adopted for the guidance of Boiler Makers and Inspectors.
DIAMETER OF BOILERS.
Pressure equivalent to the standard pressure for a 42 inch boiler, - inch iron.
E    Thick. 34 inches in 36 inches in 38 inches in 40 inches in 42 inches in 44 inches in 46 inches in
-   of Iron. Diameter.  Diameter.  Diameter.  Diameter.  Diameter. Diameter.  Diameter
lbs.     lbs.     lbs.    lbs.     Ibs.     Ibs.    Ibs.
1    A     169.85   160.41 151.97    144.37   137.50   131.25  125.54
2      4   158.52   149.72   141.84  134.75   128.33   122.50   117.17
3          147.20   139.03   131.76  125.12   119.16   113.75  10S.80
4          135.88   128.33   121.57  115.50   110.00   105.00 100.43
5   t8     124.55   117.63   111.44  105.87   100.83    96.25   92.06
6    4-    113.23   106.94   101.31    96.25    91.66   87.50   83.69
7     -3   101.91    96.24    91.18    86.62   82.50    78.75   7532
It will be observed that according to this table a 36 inch boiler of i inch
iron is allowed a maximum    pressure of 128-33 lbs. Now the pressure



72

NOTES ON THI RIVER NAVIGATIONS

recommended for such a boiler by Mr. Fairbairn, the highest authority on
the subject in England, is 751bs, or 60 per cent only of the American standard.  Mr. Fairbairn, calculating the ultimate strength of such a boiler at
4501bs, allows -th of this as the working pressure, whereas the American
rule permits rather more than ~th. An American 42 inch boiler to carry a
maximum pressure of 1371bs., would be constructed of n-ths iron, and subjected to a testing pressure of 50 per cent. above this or 2051bs.  Mr. Fairbairn would build such a boiler of J inch plates, and test it to 7001bs, the
ultimate or bursting pressure being calculated at 8091bs. There is an immense discrepancy of opinion here, and a great weight of authority on both
sides. It may ultimately be found that the proper dimensions lie somewhere between these two extremes, but nearer to the American than the
English standard.
On the one hand there seems room for doubt whether in the American
calculations sufficient allowance has been made for the weakening effect of
the rivetting on the iron plates, and on the other I think that the Engineers
of that country object with good reason to subjecting the boiler to a strain
approaching to within a fraction of its ultimate strength.  When such excessive precaution is used, there will always be the danger of defeating the
very object of the test, by permanently weakening the boiler by the extreme
severity of the strain put upon it, and there will also be the incidental disadvantage of using a thickness of plate which greatly adds to the weight of
the boiler, and which will of course be more liable to burn, from the low
conducting power of the material, than a thinner plate. At the same time,
even retaining the dimensions of the American standard boiler, there seems
no reason why the testing pressure should be limited to only 50 per cent.
above the working pressure.
The ultimate strength of a 36 inch boiler I inch thick is 4501bs; the
pressure allowed by the rule 128 lbs; the hydrostatic test 192 lbs, or 42 per
cent of the ultimate strength. Now 24 times the working pressure or 3201bs.
as a testing strain would be only 70 per cent of the bursting pressure, which
might be safely allowed, and would furnish far more conclusive results as to
the trustworthiness of the boiler than the pressure fixed by law.
Were this increased precaution adopted, the test applied twice, instead
of only once, a year, and a slightly increased thickness of plate adopted, it
seems probable that the American boiler might be used with perfect safety.
The proportion of explosions to the number of boilers actually in use on the
Western rivers appears to be now about '17 per cent, or 1 in 600, which



OF NORTH AMERICA.

73

considering that -ths of the accidents which have occurred sinc te the Steamboat Act came into operation have been with boilers not built under the
provisions of the law, and that the American iron is much inferior to that
used in England, while there is not as yet the same care exercised in its
selection, must be admitted to be very strong testimony in favor of the American practice; and it is not likely that in order to gain still greater security
than that which may reasonably be expected from the present mode of
construction, with some such slight modifications as those above suggested
the American Engineers will consent to double at once the thickness of the
iron and the weight of their boilers.
The cylindrical boiler of the Western river boats possesses the form of
greatest strength, and when the diameter is limited as it is there to 28 to
42 inches, combined with two return flues of 12 to 15 inches diameter, the
evaporative surface is in a higher proportion to the contents and weight of
the boiler than in any other construction, excepting the locomotive.  The
latter possesses advantages in point of lightness and compactness, which will
probably give it the preference wherever the water used is not very highly
charged with sedimentary matter, or if effectual means of filtration can be
applied. This has recently been tried on the tug steamers of the Oriental
Inland Navigation Company, and I believe with some success though it was
found that the original dimensions given to the filters were very insufficient.
It remains to be seen what addition this appliance makes to the weight of
the machinery, and to the space which it occupies, before the superiority of
this kind of boiler to the American can be established.
The multitubular construction has been tried on the Mississippi, and
rejected, as unsuited to muddy water, though no attempt appears to have
been made to obviate this difficulty by the use of the filter.  For the present
it must be regarded as on trial in India, and if found unsuitable will probably
give place to some modification of the American flue boiler above described.
One very desirable alteration in the latter, if it could be introduced, would be
to place the fire within the flues, and so to remove the bottom of the boiler,
where sediment must deposit, from the direct action of the flame. It is over
the fire that these boilers mostly give way, as might be expected, though the
mud receiver placed just behind it, and in the line of the current produced by
the cold water which enters at the other end, and flows towards the fire,
greatly lessens the danger of the formation of scale or deposit on this part.
Closely connected with this part of the subject is the question whether the
use of low or high pressure steam is best adapted to Indian river navigation.
K



74

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The superiority of the latter, or high pressure system, appears to me incontestable. In point of simplicity of machinery, and economy of fuel, it possesses
advantages which peculiarly recommend it wherever cheapness of motive power,
combined with lightness and little liability to derangement in the apparatus
for its production and transmission, are the grand desiderata.  For light
draught steamers high pressure Engines are simply an essential, and even
where diminished immersion of a vessel is not of great importance, the reduction of dead or non-paying weight which results from the saving of fuel as
well as of the weight of the machinery should always give this class of engines
the preference.
There are four different ways in which steam is now applied to the propulsion of vessels.
1st. Where it is used at, or a little above, the atmospheric pressure with
condensation.
2nd. Where a pressure of 25 to 40 lbs. is combined with condensation and a low degree of expansion, as in the Hudson river steamers.
3rd. Where a pressure of 50 to 60 lbs. is combined with condensation,
and a higher degree, - to iths of expansion, as in the French river steamers.
4. Where the condenser is suppressed altogether, and steam of 120 to
150 lbs. is used with an expansion of - to Ard, as in the steamers of the Mississippi and its tributaries.
Now the dynamic power, or theoretic work of a given weight of steam
used in each of these four different ways is as 15, 26, 35, and 30, or taking
that of the first or low pressure condensing system as unity, as 1 to 1*73
2'33, and 2")0, and as the quantity of heat in equal weights of steam
at these different densities is very nearly the same, that in a lb. of steam  at
120 lbs. pressure being only ~-th more than that in the same quantity at 15
lbs. the question of the relative economy of the different systems is at once
disposed of. And as economy of fuel is economy of dead weight or of displacement, the relative applicability, other things being equal, of the different
systems to steamers intended for the navigation of shallow rivers is equally
clear.
It is true that the advantages thus indicated by theory are as yet but
imperfectly realized in practice, but it is not difficult to account for the
discrepancy.  A defective adjustment of the different parts of a boiler'may
produce such a waste of heat as will more than neutralize the economy due
to the high pressure at which the steam is used, aod the disuse of the steam



OF NORTIH AMERICA.

75

jacket, or of some analogous method of preventing the condensation within
the cylinder, will in great part sacrifice the economy resulting from expansion.  But with properly proportioned boilers, and cylinders protected from
loss of heat by radiation, a saving closely approximating to what has been
stated is inevitable.  Tie apparatus now in use for the employment of high
pressure steam may be and confessedly is imperfect; but its defects do not
invalidate the theory, which is a simple deduction from  the now well ascertained nature and properties of steam, and which points us with certainty to
the employment of this agent in a highly concentrated form, for the realization of its full economic value as a motive power.
An intelligent and enlightened practice will follow the sure guidance of
that theory, and seek to remedy those defects, rather than abandon itself to
conclusions and modes of -construction suited only to the state of science
and of the mechanical arts in the days of Watt.
The leading questions connected with the use of high pressure steam
for the propulsion of light draught boats are1st. The degree to which expansion should be carried.
2nd.   Whether the steam   jacket or some other means of heating the
cylinder is necessary.
3rd.  Whether it is best to retain or to suppress the condenser.
With regard to the first, it should be observed that the disadvantages
connected with expansion in this particular case are the increased size and
consequent weight of the cylinders required, and the irregularity of the
piston's motion consequent on the Varying pressure of the steam upon it.
Both these increase with the increase of expansion, but the second is very
greatly reduced in degree when two engines are used attached to cranks at
right angles with each other, and would appear to be of no consequence even
when the steam is cut off at +th of the stroke in the case of two engines
coupled in this manner to a paddle shaft, the paddles acting as fly
wheels to equalize the motion of the piston.*     The capacity which must
Note.-It may perhaps be asked why, if the advantages of expansion are so great,
the system has not been more fully carried out in the American high pressure river
Engines. I never received a very satisfactory answer to the question myself when in that
country, but the simple reason seems to be that where the wheels are disconnected, as they
are there, the irregularity of the piston's motion would be too great for the momentum
of the wheel to counteract if the point of cut-off were less than 4 stroke, especially when
starting the Engine.



76

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

be given to the cylinders in order that the same amount of work may
be done with each degree of expansion increases in a much higher ratio
than the useful effect of the corresponding volumes of steam admitted into
the cylinder. Thus taking as a unit the amount of work in a given volume
of steam of 120 lbs. pressure, when used without expansion, the corresponding values when it is used with the cut-off at 1, ~th and -th of the stroke
will be 1-65, 2-2, and 2*36, while the capacity of cylinder required to
give the same dynamic effect in each case will be, 1-2, 1-67, and 2-2, that
of the cylinder without expansion being taken as unity.   So that while
lowering the point of cut-off from Ith to -th gives an increase of --th to the
efficiency of the steam, the increase in the capacity and weight of the cylinder required for this purpose is ~th, or nearly 3 times as much, and of course
the loss of heat from cooling of the cylinder, or the expenditure of steam required to obviate this defect increases in the same proportion.
Hence it appears probable that in light draught steamers about ~th or
}th the stroke will be found the most suitable point of cut-off.
With regard to the use of the steam jacket: While there is no doubt
that the full effect of condensation cannot be obtained without some such
appliance, and the additional weight it involves would be more than compensated for by the consequent saving in weight and consumption of fuel, it
is probable that the use of super-heated steam will obviate the necessity for
it altogether.
As to the condenser: Its use even with steam of very high pressure will
always be attended with a certain saving of fuel and therefore of dead weight
to be carried, but the economy thus effected will of course be in a less and
less ratio to the total consumption as the pressure at which the steam is
used increases. Thus while the amount of work in a given weight of steam
of 45 lbs. pressure expanded one-half is increased by the use of the condenser in the proportion of 19 to 30, or 63 per cent, the increased efficiency due
to the same appliance in a given quantity at 120 Ibs, expanded five-fold, is
as 41 to 52 or 27 per cent. It thus appears that while condensation is
attended with a notable saving of fuel even when applied to steam of very
high pressure, and might be used with great advantage where this is the
grand desideratum, it may be dispensed with at a less sacrifice of economy
the higher the pressure of the steam.
This is an additional argument in favor of high pressure engines on
Indian rivers, where the inconveniences connected with the use of muddy



OF NORTH AMERICA.

77

water for condensation are aggravated by the higher temperature of the
water itself, and the consequent increased volume required to absorb the
same quantity of heat, as compared with that of the rivers of temperate
climates, and where the utmost simplicity in the machinery is of consequence.
Upon the whole it appears to me that the increased liability to injury
which the use of the condenser involves, especially in cases of a vessel
running aground, a common occurrence on shallow rivers, render it geneally inapplicable in this country, but that if any means of obviating
these disadvantages can be found, its use may in some cases be attended
with important economy of weight, when used with steam of high pressure,
and when two or more days' consumption of fuel must be carried on board.
Practice, in this particular, may vary on different rivers, according to the
available draught of water, the  quantity of sediment held in suspension,
the description and price of fuel used, whether coal or wood, and the
number of days' consumption which must be carried on board.       Similar
considerations will also determine the pressure at which steam is to be used
in each case, whether at 60 lbs. 80, or 100 and 120 lbs.
Where the condenser is suppressed, 100 or 110 lbs. will probably be
found, all things considered, the most economical working pressure. The following table shews that up to this limit increased density is attended with a
large and important increase of efficiency, but that beyond it where expansion
is limited to five times the initial pressure, as we have seen reason to believe
it should be, the gain is in a much lower degree.,Z          TTheoretic work in ll
Pressure of.    equal weights of steam,
steam.           o         that at 60 lbs.
o         being taken as 100.     (            2 S
60 lbs.         a               100                0         0
75,,         1                115              15        15
90,,                         131               31        16
105,,    I                    147               47 -      16
120,,                          156              56          9
120,,                         160               60         4
As the increase of heat in the steam in the two last cases is 1"4 per
cent., the net gain in them is reduced to 7-6 and 2-6 per cen only. It is



78

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

matter of calculation whether this will not be more than balanced by the
disadvantages attending the increased weight of the machinery
With these remarks I dismiss the subject of Indian river steamers.   The
fundamental question in regard to them     is the description of engine to be
used, whether low   or high pressure.    The build of the hull, its size, the
material to be used  whether iron or wood, the internal fittings, the mode in
which cargo should be carried, whether on board or in barges, the mode of
towing adopted, &c., will all vary with almost every river according to its
physical characteristics and the nature of the trade.  I may remark however
in conclusion that, with regard to the material of the hull, while iron will
generally be preferred to wood, it is questionable whether where high speed
is the object sought, wood coppered may not have the advantage, in spite of
the somewhat increased draught, as presenting a smoother surface to the
water, and so reducing the friction which at high speeds seems to be a
principal element in the resistance.     Our knowledge of the dynamics of
floating bodies is still obscure, and the part which surface friction plays in
the total resistance has not been determined.  Recent investigations however
shew that the friction of copper in water is much less than that of painted
iron and painted wood, and if, as there is reason to believe, with very fine
lines the resistance of friction is much greater than that due to displacement,
the substitution of wood coppered for iron would greatly augment the speed.
The specimens before given of the different classes of steamers in use
on the Mississippi and its tributaries will furnish useful hints in regard to
goods steamers for Indian rivers.
The stern wheel boats are especially deserving of consideration.*
Note. -The views here expressed differ from those of the Commission appointed in 1857
by the Government of India to investigate the question of the best description of steamer
for the Indus and other Indian rivers. The Commissioners in their Report recommend
condensing engines working at 16 to 18 lbs. pressure, and reject high pressure engines as
being heavier, consuming more fuel, and as having been tried on the Ganges, but found
unsuccessful. The last objection is surprising as only a few paragraphs before it is stated
that engines of this description, viz., working at 60 lbs. are in use on the Rhone, a
more muddy river than the Ganges. It is true the condenser is used in the former case,
but it is hard to see why if high pressure engines with condensation succeed on the one
river, they should when simplified by the suppression of this adjunct, fail on the other.
Moreover, if experience is to be the test of efficiency, that of the comparatively few
steamers running on the Ganges is of little weight compared with that of the hundreds
which swarm on the Mississippi and its tributaries, There the low pressure system  was



OF NORTH AMERICA.

79

CHAPTER VI.
COST OF CARRIAGE.
The charges for transport on the American rivers are as variable as thle
seasons, the physical characteristics of the different rivers, the available
draught of water on       each, and   the average    time during    which it is
navigable.    The limits between     which they    vary   have   however been
reduced   since the introduction   of railroads, which    by their competition
place a   check   upon   the river prices, ard     by   affording  a  means   of
transport at those times of the year when drought or frost has closed
the water lines, prevent those excessive fluctuations in the demand for
carriage which were inevitable when the rivers monopolized the traffic of the
country. The railroads however act upon the same principle as their rivals,
of regulating their charges by the demand, and an increase of 20 to 50 per
cent. on thier ordinary rates is quite common at those times of the year when
the river or canal Companies are compelled by the climate to suspend operations. Hence, there are still considerable variations in the prices of carriage
throughout the country generally whether by land or water.
also tried, and so entirely rejected, that there is now but one boat on this principle on the
whole of those rivers.
With regard to the other two points, weight and consumption of fuel, the Commissioners in comparing the two classes of engines, altogether ignore the effect of expansion.
The case is supposed of an engine working with steam of 80 lbs. pressure unexpansively, and
the result arrived at is that the boiler must be much heavier than one generating steam of
16 lbs., and must consume one-eighth more fuel. The Commissioners subsequently express
a doubt of the economy of great expansion without the aid of the steam jacket, but they
cannot question the fact of the great saving, even without this appliance, with such
moderate amounts of expansion as those in common use. No man now-a-days would think
of using 80 lbs. of steam unexpansively unless weight of machinery and expense of fuel were
matters of indifference; and if the reasonable supposition be made that the steam in the
case supposed is cut-off at 4 or 3ths the stroke, the whole of the Commissioners' reasoning
falls to the ground, and their conclusions are directly reversed.
The Commissioners also state that by dispensing with the condenser, a great addition
is made to the quantity of fuel burned, which is true, as has been above shewn, for any
but very high pressures, but they altogether lose sight of the fact that by the use of
atmospheric instead of high-pressure steam  a very  much heavier waste of fuel is
involved.



80

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The following table, extracted from a Report by the Superintendent of
the Western rivers Improvements for the year 1857, gives the ordinary rates
for passenger and goods transport on the principal rivers.
CHARGES FOR CHARGES FOR
GOODS.     PASSENGERS.
Distance Per ton Per ton Per head Per head
Miles. Dollars. Mile. Dollars. Per Mile.
Mills.       Mills.
1400   6-00    4*3  5-00   3-6 Down Ohio & Mississippi.
580   6*00   10-0  3-00   5-0 Up & down Ohio & U.Mississippi.
618   6*00    9-0  3-0    4-6Up Ohio.
160   3-00  19-0   1-00   6-3 do. do.
523   3*50   6-8   2-00   3-8 do. do.
1300   6-00   4-6   5-00   3-8 Down Mississippi.
692  10*00  14-2   5*00   7-0 Up Upper Mississippi.
25.0   5-00  1-00OUp Missouri.
290   5-00  17-0   2-00   7-0 Up Illinois.
650   5*00   7 -7  5-00   7-7 do. Mississippi.
400   3-00   7-5   2-00   5-0 do.    do.
586   4-00   7-0   3-00   5-0 do.    do.
991   5-00   5-0   4-00   4-0 do.    do.
960  10,00  10-4   8000   8-0 Unknown.
1208 12-00   10-0   8-00   6-6 Mississippi and Arkansas.
1027 10-00    9-8   8.00   8-0 Missouri and Arkansas.
180   3 00  17.0   100    5-6 Up Upper Mississippi.
660 13-00   20-0   6-00   9-0 do.    do.
470   6-00  12-5   5-00  10-0 Up Illinois.
375   5-0()  13-5  3-00   80 do.    do.
622   7-00   113  4-00   6 5 do.   do.
872 12-00   12-5   6*00   6-7 do.   do.
325   5*00  15-6   3-00   9-8 Tennessee.
263   5-00  19-0   2-00    8O 0Up Cumberland.
400   5-00  12-5   2-50   6-2 Up Ohio.
560   6-00   10-7  300    5-8 do. do.
643   6-00   9-3   3-00   4-6 do. do.
910   7-00    7-7  4-00   4-4 do. do.
1005   7-00   7.0   5001   5-0 do. do.



NAME OF RIVER.

WHEAT.
d.
a       a
k    H
A     P.4  P.4
s. d.I d.

AND GROCERIES.

--

FLOUR.

4
0
P.,
is. di.

d.

IRON
NAI
0
Ps. cd.
9-4
14-0
18-8
18-8

L     GROCERIES.
LS.
+2   --)   -4J
d,   s. d.  d.
-25 11-8 -29
27514-0 275
P.4   P.4   PI
ci. Is. d. dl.
~25111-8   -21
~275 14-0 ~2Th

DaY
GOODS.
4a
H1   H1
0     o
4C    k
Gc DL
s. d. d.
14-0.35
ti-Ul

GROFLOUR. CERIES.
s. d.  d.  s. d!.
7-0 175
70  0   0   0

P.4
s. d.

I  i -lO

a
C-C
P.4
d.

COTTON.

Ohio.
Pittsburghand Cincinnati.
Pittsburgh and Louisville.
Ohio & Lower Mississippi:
St. Louis to Wheeling..
Ohio and St. Louis
Cincinnati to St. Louis.
do.     New Orleans
Memphis to Cincinnati...
Lower Missiasippi.
St. Louis to New Orleans
Memphis to New Orleans
Missouri.
St. Louis to St. Joseph...
Do. to Sioux City.
Upper Mississippi and
Illinois.
St. Louis to St. Paul
St. Lawrence.......
Hudson.........

FLOUR
AND
WHEAT.

0
s. d.
12-6...

480...
610.

6
P--4
P-1
d..14...
Salt.
-06
Salt.
13

1190
710
1550
750
1240
800
552
1000
800
100
to
200
160

19-0

145
*145

13-0...

610...

111
*14...

9
0

28-0
23-0,28
-40

17-0U
37-0.................

15-0 -145 15-0 145 17-0
Cotton
18-9  28 13-0 '19 18-9
11-0   *9 11-0 '90
3-9 -28   for all classes

-16... -
-28 18-9

'33.,37............. 23-0 '40.     o.........  23-4  '18....~........-S...
18-8 -18. 18-9i 28..... 37-0 *80.so..... 93-0 112.o...,  47-0  -70....17-0 130.............I~~

o -
CD M
CD  a,  )-ft FC-..  c.  0 -
0 0C
-  CD  -  CD
CD
-r cD 0
o  C D
D   CDCD
cnc
Ct-  D  eCS C  CD
rtr
CI) -CID
CD
En c
E. ~ a, o
CD
C C
U)  "  CI)
o th
~" CD CD
ccCD
00 m
"1~ 0+ CD
"18
CDt  r
"1r.c

2-80I -45 45.

at low water.

0
z
0
-i
0
c-c

Note.- The charges per ton are given in shillings and pence, and those per ton per mile in fractions of a penny.



82

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

From these two tables, the following have been deduced. The first shows
the ordinary charge per passenger per mile, and for goods per mile, both up
and down stream on the several rivers, which for simplicity are arranged in
the three classes to which their peculiar characteristics in reference to their
capabilities for navigation respectively assign them. Lower Mississippi (viz.,
that river from St. Louis to New Orleans), Ohio, and Upper Mississippi and
other tributaries. The second table exhibits the charges, on the several rivers,
for different descriptions of goods according to the ordinary classification.
U                                   DOWN.
100   200   300    450  650 9001...  100
to    to    to     to   to  to 1200  to
200   300   400    650  900 10001... 1400
Passengers.
Lower Mississippi......... 0-28...  0"25...... 1020...  0-185
Ohio.............       0315......  0"235 0-23 0-25...
Upper Mississippi and Tributaries......  0-375 0-45  0-38  0-34 0"40 0-33
Goods.
Lower Mississippi.........   0S85...  0-375...... 0-25...  0222
Ohio...............  0-85......  0-45  0-46  0-35.
Upper Mississippi and Tributaries...  0-90   0"70  0'68  0-67 0-49 0-50

LOWER MISSISSIPPI.
1. Coal and Minerals.  -07d. distances of 1,500 to
2,000 miles.
2. Iron, Castings, Nails, 0l16d. to 0"28d. according(
&c., glass and other    to distance.
weighty articles of low
value.
Flour......................... 0-10 to 0'19  a. d. according to distance.
Wheat, Indian corn, and 0-145 to 0"28 a. d.
grain generally.
All agricultural products 0-16 to 0-28 a. d.
not of very high value;
animal products, meat
salted and fresh, cheese,
lard, &c.
LIVE STOCK,
Beef cattle.............. 16 to32 per hd.) Carried
Horses and mules.......... 16 to 28,,  1,300
Sheep and hogs........   2 to 5,,     miles.
Cotton, Tobacco in bulk, 0-16 to 0-40 a. d.
Sugar.
Merchandise, Groceries, 0-25 to 0-85 a. d.
&c.
Dry goods, as cottons, ha- 0-28 to 0-85 a. d.
berdashery, and bulky
goods of high value.

OHIo.
~058d. to -072 by
steam, 0*072 without steam, distances
of 400 to 600 miles.
0 -20 to 0"3 according
to distance.
0"14 to 0-20 do. do.
0 175 to 0'30 do. do.
0"20 to 0'275 do. do.
0"25 to 0-40 do. do.
0-275 to 0-85 do. do.
0'33 to 0e85 do. do.

UPPER MISSISSIPPI AND TRIBUTARIES.
0-50 to 0-90 according to distance.
0-25to 040do. do
1, to 3 times the
Ohio prices.
do.
do.
do.
do.

i                                                                         I

Note.--The ratee in these two tables are given in fractions of a penny.



OF NORTH AMERICA.

83

These prices do not include insurance, which from the high rates chargeed in consequence of the liability to accidents from the neglected state of the
rivers, forms an important item in the cost of transporting the more valuable
commodities.   The rates of insurance on the Ohio and Mississippi areFor distances of 500 miles............  per cent.,  of 750 to 1,000,, J,,    of 1,000 to 1,500,,   1
For the other tributaries, the charges are increased in proportion to the risks
of each navigation. For the Missouri for instance, as well as the Arkansas,
Red river, and others like them, swarming with snags, the rates of the insurance are double and treble those of the Mississippi. In order to show the
actual expense of transport on the Western rivers, it will be necessary to include this item.
The following table, prepared for this purpose, shews for each of the
different classes into which goods are usually divided, the steam charges, insurance, and total cost of transport. Insurance is calculated on the average
values of the goods composing each class, which have been deduced with care
from price lists and other commercial statistics obtained in the Western
cities, as well as from the valuable reports of the New York canals.



__ __

I                \-  I I

DaISCRIPTIOW OF GooDs.

0
o
cac

LOWER MISSISSIPPI.
300 to S0
300miles. 00 700tol,000 miles.
Insurance     Insurance
Insurance      Ipecnt
Sper cent.    1 per cent.
s Do      D.
0 P, 0        4.C   0
Cdt o  w   CS   -
W."         $-,  Cek ~
0 Ce        0  45Fre~
-      H            H~L~
Dolls Dolls. Dolls Dolls. Dolls. Dolls.

I I

I                                               a

Iron, Castings, glass and weighty articles
of low value...
Flour...........
Grains generally...
Agricultural and animal products not of
high value    a
Do. of higher value, as Cheese, Lard,
Butter, &c.....
Cotton...
Merchandise, Groceries..
Dry goods of high value......

Dolls.
60-00
45-00
35-00
100-00
200-00
225-00

1 2
0.9
0.7

8.5
8-0
10.0

9.7
8 90
10-7

2-01 10-0 12 0

40
4.5

250-00 5-0
to
400-0 8-0
500.0110.0
to
2)000 40-0

12.0
12-0
12-0
12-0
15.0
to
22-0

16-C
16.5
17-5
20-5
25 -
62*5

2-4
1-8
1-4
4-0
80
90
10*0
16.0
20-0
80-0

13-0
160
12-0
12-0
14-0
13-0
21-0
21-0
21,0
to
30-0

15-4
17-8
13-4
16'0
22-0
22-0
31.0
37-0
41-0
110-0

OHIO.
300 t~o 500
10ito00   700to 1,000miles
miles.       Insurance
Insurance     Inspaence
Sper cent.    1 per cent.
12 95 107 24 160       18 4
0 9 8-0 8 -9 1*8 12 0 13 8
07 12r0 127 14 4 140   154
20 11 0 13 0 4       P0 170  21 0
4-0 13*0 17-0 8-0 21-0 29 0
Dols. Dolls. Dolls. Dolls. Dolls. Dolls.
415 12-0 1605 90 2160  3010
0-9 8-0 8 -9 1 -812-0  13-8
o-7 12-0 12-7 104 114-0  15-4
2- 11-0 13.0 4*0 17,0  21-0
4-0 13-0 1 17-o 8*0 21-0( 29-0
4-51 12*0 116-5 9*0 21-0  30-0
5-0 140 19-0 10 1)...  330
8-0 14-0 220 16*0 23-0  39-0
10-0 15-0 25-0 20-0 28-0  48-0
40-0 250 65-0 80-0 35-0 115-0

4-01 22-0

2-4
1-8
1-4

8-0
9-0
10-0
16-0
20-0

26-0
24-0
28-0
28-0
30-0

300 to 500GO
m iles.
Insurance
1 per cent.
0
54
E1
Dolls. Dolls. Dolls.

19.0
16-0
24-0

21-4
17-8
25-4
26-4
34-0
33-0
38-0
44-0
50-0
125-0

700 to 1,000 miles.
Insurance
2 per cent.
0oPl
Dolls.  Doll.  Dolls.

UPPER MISSISSIPPI AND
TRIBUTARIE8.

4-8
3-6
2-8

801 34-0

16.0
18-0
20-0
32-0
40-0
160-0

42-0
42-0
46-0
46'0
56,0
65-'0

32-0
24,0
28-0

36.8
27-6
30-8
42-0
58-0
60.0
66-0
78*0
96-0
225-0

18001 45-01

_ _

--

I

180-0 4501



OF NORTH AMERICA.

85

It is important to remark in reference to this table that the rates therein given are those at which the great mass of the goods are moved. It has
already been explained that the steam charges vary greatly. They oscillate
in fact between rates 30 per cent. less, and 250 per cent. more, than those
here given. It would be a great mistake to take the mean of these extremes as
the average cost of transport; the true means are those here given, being the
prices at which by far the greater part of the movement of goods is effected.
It willbe observed that insurance increases the cost of transport by river 10
per cent. in the case of goods of low value; 20 to 30 per cent. in the case of
goods of medium value; and 50to 300 per cent. in the case ofgoods of great value.
This explains why such a rude classification of goodsis still in force among
the river carriers, and why there is so little difference between the rates for
the carriage of goods of such low value as flour and grain, and those for the
most costly commodities. The insurance swallows up a large portion of the
carrier's profit, and compels him to lower his charges to a degree which leaves
him no more profit on the transport of valuable than of cheap goods. For
instance, the freight on merchandise,groceries,and dry goods, is only from 20 to
50 per cent. higher than on grain and flour, whereas by railway the difference
is 70 to 100 per cent. This is one way in which the neglect of river improvement acts so injuriously upon the interests of the river carriers. It will be interesting to compare the rates of river carriage, thus enhanced by the insurance
charges, with those by rail, in order to form some idea of the comparative value
of the two modes of transport in the conditions in which they now exist in
America. The following table prepared for this purpose, shows, for each of the
three classes into which I have divided the Western rivers, 1st, the cost per ton
per mile, insurance included, of goods transport by river a distance of 500 miles,
contrasted with the cost by rail on aths that distance or 375 miles, that
being about the average proportionate lengths of river and railroad lines connecting the same termini; and, 2nd, the same for a distance of 1,000 miles of
river, and 750 of rail.

Class of
CLASS OF RIVER.             Classof
goods.
Lower Mississippi,............       1st
S...................  2nd
S................  3rd
Ohio,....................     1st
S.................  2nd,...............   3rd
Upper Mississippi and Tributaries......  1st
S..................  2nd,,...............   3rd

COST OF CARRIAGE.
River Railroad  River IRailroad
500     375     1,000   750
miles.  miles.  miles. j miles.
10      31      15      47
17      47      25      78
36      62      62      94
14      31      17      47
17      47      31      78
38      62      67      94
22      31      34      47
35      47      61      78
73      62     130      94



86

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

The goods are here divided into three classes for convenience sake, the
first comprehending all of a ~25 value and under, the second all from ~50 to
~60, and the third all from ~100 to ~500. It will be observed that the costs
of transport as given in the preceding tables admit of a classification in this
simple form without material error.
The rail road rates are taken at 1 penny, lid. and 2d. for a distance of
500 miles, and Id., 1ld. and 1Id. for 1,000 miles. These certainly cannot
be objected to as excessive.  They are in fact below the average, and there
can be little doubt below what are really remunerative. I adopt them rather
than enter into a discussion of the vexata questio of what rates are really
remunerative.
The results exhibited by this table are as follows:1st.  That for the first or lowest class of goods, the cost by rail
is 300 per cent. of that by the Lower Mississippi, 220 per cent
that by the Ohio, and 140 per cent. that by the other tributaries.
2nd. That for the second class, the cost by rail is 300 per cent. that by
the Mississippi, 260 per cent. that by the Ohio, and 130 per cent. of
that by the other tributaries.
3rd. That for the third or most valuable class of goods, the cost by
rail is 140 per cent. of that by the Mississippi, 130 per cent. that by
the Ohio, and 72 to 85 per cent. of that by the other tributaries.
Hence it is only in the last case, viz., rivers with considerable fall, utterly
unimproved, passing through thinly populated countries, and more or less
dangerous to navigate, that the cost of transport exceeds that by rail under
the most favorable circumstances.
It might at first be supposed from these figures that the river carriers
could have nothing to fear from the competition of the rail roads, but such
has been far from being the case. It is impossible under any circumstances
that two such powerful antagonists should come into conflict with each other
without mutually inflicting immense injury, and the extreme recklessness of
consequences with which competition is carried on in America greatly aggravates this result. But where the advantages of enormous capital, unbounded
credit, and power of combination, are all on one side, there must be a vast
preponderance of inherent force on the other to stand such odds.  The water
lines of America have to withstand the competition of rail roads competing
with one another, and, in the general scramble for traffic, lowering these
prices to a degree ruinous to all. The internecine warfare waged between
the rail roads inflicts as much injury on the canals and rivers as on themselves; and if in such a contest, against such odds, the water lines have on



OF NORTH AMERICA.

87

the whole been able to hold their own, it shows that they must possess intrinsically a very important superiority of cheap carrying power. The steam boat
interest on the Western rivers has unquestionably suffered in some respects
from the competition of the railroads. Wherever the two have come into
direct conflict, the railroad has always deprived the river of the greater part of
the passenger traffic. It is true the steamers carry at the rate of 1 cent. per
head per mile, while the railroad charge is twice or three times as great; but
in a country where money is of such low value, where the common labourer's
pay is a dollar a day, the highest of these rates is so very cheap in proportion
to the means of the people, that the superior speed which it affords gives
it the preference in a large majority of cases, especially in the case of upstream traffic.
Again, the superiority of the river to the rail in the carriage of goods of
high value is not so great as the foregoing figures would seem to shew.  In a
young country like America, where a large proportion of the trade in articles
of this kind, such for instance, as the grocery and dry goods trade, is in the
hands of dealers of small capital, speed of transport possesses an unusual
value. To such dealers quick returns are absolutely essential. They cannot
make large purchases, and wait long for the receipt of them, they must buy in
small quantities and sell as soon as possible.  Hence, the interest on the
capital invested in the goods moved, which ordinarily forms a very small item
of the whole cost of transit, may in these cases become a heavy charge upon
it, and make it worth while to pay a much higher rate for the gain of a few
days time.  Such at least is unquestionably the principle on which most men
act, though it may not always be possible to shew that the real gain is as great
as is supposed.  In thus multiplying as it were the available capital of the
country, the railways confer one of their most important benefits, and take as
their rightful heritage the trade which formerly flowed through other channels.
They have however taken far more of this description of traffic from the canals
than from the rivers, as might be supposed.
The railroads of the Western states have also diverted northwards to
New York. by the line of the Lakes and New York canals and railroads, a
portion of the trade which otherwise must have found its vent by the Ohio and
Mississippi at New Orleans. They have in fact greatly extended the area of
the trade basin of the Lakes and Erie canals. Flour, pork and whiskey,
may now be sent to New York from the bank of the Ohio at Cincinnati direct
by lake, rail and canal, instead of round by N.ew  Orleans, or through to
Philadelphia and Baltimore from Pittsburgh and Wheeling. The rates are in



883

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

fact in favor of the Northern route instead of that through the Gulf of Mexico
and up the coast, and the railroads of Ohio and Illinois drain a great amount
of produce in that direction.
On the other hand, the immense impetus which the railways have given
to trade and to commercial enterprize generally, has necessarily re-acted upon
the water lines.  While a division of the traffic to a certain extent has taken
place, the aggregate has immensely increased.  There are no signs of any
falling off of the river trade, and the boat building business is as brisk as
ever. The tonnage of steamers and barges built at Cincinnati averaged 7,900
per annum in the six years, from 1816 to 1851, and 8,490 in the subsequent
five years.
At Pittsburgh the number of steamers built was
In 1852............70,, 1853.......... 78,  1854............83,  1855............72,,  1856............59
The business of 1856, in consequence of the unusually low stage of water
which prevailed in the Ohio, and the great depression of trade owing to the
commercial failures of that year, was reckoned to be about one-third less than
it would otherwise have been. In 1857 commerce revived, and it was
estimated that by the close of that year, there would have been completed at
that port 84 steamers of a value of $ 1,840,000, besides a large number of
barges and coal boats.
Thus it is certain that the river trade is as great and important as it ever
has been, in spite of the loss of a large portion of the passenger and a part
of the light goods traffic on some lines.  It is only by taking advantage of
the interruptions caused by the seasons, and which art has as yet done nothing
to remedy, that the railroads are able to abstract a part of the traffic.  At all
other times, the steam boat rates for any considerable distances are unapproachable, and the through traffic by rail bears consequently no proportion whatever to that by water.  The following statistics for the year 1856-57, furnish
some curious illustrations of these remarks. That year was one of disaster
throughout the country. The commercial panic of the autumn, and the
subsequent great depression of trade, were felt throughout every department
of industry. The general stagnation of business told upon the traffic of every
line of transit, whether land or water; but in the case of the river carriers of
the Ohio, these evils were aggravated by the long continued drought of the



OF NORTH AMERICA.

89

autumn and winter months, and the consequent low stage of water which
prevailed throughout three-fourths of the year.  For 200 days or 6j months,
from the 14th May to 1st December, the river was too low to run coal fromt
Pittsburgh. It was also frozen over the whole of January, and not a single
steamer arrived at Cincinnati from Pittsburgh till the 13th February.   This
then was a year when a great amount of the legitimate river traffic must have
been thrown into the hands of the railways.   Yet it is instructive to note,
how even at such an enormous disadvantage the steamers still retained the
great bulk of the traffic, and not only so, but that their rates were so far below
those of the railroads that they fluctuated between very wide extremes.
Cincinnati is the centre from  whence diverge six or eight important
lines of railroad.  It has direct connexion by this means with the Lakes at
Toledo, and so with the Erie canal, or through by rail the whole way to New
York.   It has similar connexion by Pittsburgh and the Pennsylvania Central
with Philadelphia, and by Marietta and the Baltimore and Ohio road with
Baltimore.   By the Kentucky central railroad, it drains the produce of that
state, by three or four others it receives the surplus of Ohio, and in the year
under notice the opening of the Ohio and Mississippi railroad placed it
in direct communication with St. Louis. Cincinnati has also at least two distinct lines of rail to Pittsburgh in, the normal condition of American roads,
furious competition.
The following statement of the tonnage and commerce of Cincinnati for
the years 1.856-57 is extracted from a Return in the report of the Secretary of
War for that year. It was furnished by the Superintendent of the Merchants
Exchange.
Tonnage and value of     Commerce of Cincinnati for fiscal year.
IMPORTS.          EXPORTS.             TOTAL.
Tons.    Value.   Tcns.    Value.    Tons.     Value.
Dollars.          Dollars.            Dollars.
By river,........ 713,346 67,310,102 449,6 3  50,322,160 1,162,976 117,632,262
By canals, 8.....   82,284  7,886,134  24,360  2,870,149  106,644  10,756,283
By railroads,...... 91,360  9,785,321  54,12 5,1 5,102,640  145,480  14,887,961
Total... 886,990 84,981,557 528,110 58,294,949 1,415,100 143,276,506
-



V                  NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATI ONS
It appears from   this table, that the imports and exports by the
river steamers were 1,162,976 tons against 145,480 by the railroads, or
in the proportion of 8 to 1.  In addition to this, the receipts by flat boats
amounted to 734,000 tons, making the total of thle river trade 1,896,976 tons,
or i u the proportion of 13 to 1 of tlhe railroads. What portion of the whole
railway traffic belolnged to the two lines to Pitisburgh, there are no means of
judging'; it was certaintly only a small fraction of the whole.  If we take it
at 40,000 tons, we shall certainly not be below the truth.  Tl:e returns furnished by the Board of Trade and Commerce of Cincinnati in their Annual
Report for 1856-57 supply the means of approximating closely to the trade
of that city witil Pittsburgh.  The arrivals and departures of steamers
aggo'regOte 778, an&d the average load would appear to be about 200  toens,
making a total export and import of 155,600 tons, being four-fold that by
the railroads, and as the same report informs us that these roads cartied coal
that year in conszcquence of the complete suspension of the supplies by the
Oihio, the imports of this article as well as of timber may be added for the
purpose of comparison. We have thus 845,600 tons by river against 40,000
by rail, or 21 times as much.
The conclusions wlhich this comparison would at first sighlt seem to
warrant must not be strained too far. 'The railroads are as yet yourng.
T'hey have been only a few years in existence. They are all, or nearly
a!l single  lines, and  their capacity for traffic is small.  Yet, makilg allowance for these defects, it is nevertheless remarkable that a city,
placed as Cincinnati is in direct communication by rail with the t1hree great
commercial centres of the Atlantic coast, as well as with the most importnit towns of the west, should export and import by half a dozen railroads a
tonnage so utterly insignificant in comparison of that by river, as these
firgares shlew it to be.  If we assume that onle-half of the whlole export and
import trade was with the Atlantic cities, the other half with the towns of
the interior, tlien the former is only equal to that by the river with
the single city of New Orleans, which would appear from the records
of the arrivals and departures of steamers alone to amount to 63,000
tons; and only two-fifths of that with St. Louis which amounted to.192,000 tons. And again, we have the important fact that that two railroads in
direct competition with th e river and one another only succeeded in obtaining about on:e-fifthl of tl:e whole steam traffic between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, in a year of extraordinary embarrassment to the navigation; while
their through tonnage is a mere fraction of that of all classes of goods by



OF NORTH AEERICA.

91

the river.  It appears too from the list of freights each week of that year,
given in the Report of tile Chamber of Commerce, that the railway rates
exercised so little restraint on those of the steamers, that the latter varied
betweenl 10 and 20 cents. for a barrel of flour, and bethwecu 35 and 75 cents.
for a barrel of whiskey, whlile at tlhe conmmnccemelnt of the sprilg season,
after a six weeks total stoppage of navigaxtion, whlen the supply of carriage by
river ought to lhave been greatly in excess of the demand, if the railway hlad
afforded sufficient vent to the trade, the rates of freight opened at.22.
anlld 90 cents.  I must not however pursue this subject further here, but
pass on to consider,
The effect which the neglected state of th:e rivers has upon the prices of
carriage, and the extent to which these might be reduced   by an efficient
system of improvement.
There are three ways in which the natural defects of, the navigable way
operate on prices1st, by raising the rates of Insurance on both steamers and goods.
2nd, by increasing the charges for interest, repairs, and depreciation.
3rd, by increasing the expense of Transport by an amount sufficient to
cover the cost of keep of boat and crew during the season of the year when
navigation is impracticable.
We have already seen the influence which the high rates of Insurance
demanded on the Western rivers exercise on prices, increasing them from
10 to 300 per cent. and depriving the carrier of a large part of his legitimate
profit on the transport of goods of h]igh value.  The Insurance on tile steamers tlhemselves is yet higher, and tends still more to enliance thle cost of
carriage.  The dangers from snags, collisions, fire, and until late years of
explosion, are such that the average life-time of a Western steamer is only
five years.  The capital invested has consequently to be repaid with interest
in this time, and an Insurance can only be effected at correspondingly high
rates.
The losses from snags have already been noticed.  To the disgrace of
the United States Government, it must be stated that about 70 per cent. of the
whole of the accidents on the Western rivers are owing to this cause.  In
1857, the total number of accidents were 63, of which--.



NOTES ON THBR IVBER NAVIGATIONS

Snagged and sunk................................. 40
Burnt.........................................  8
Collisions.....................................  8
Lost by  Ice........................................  3
Snagged but not sunk...........................  2
Grounded.......................................  1
Exploded.............................................  1
Total......... 63
A few years before, out of a total of 85 wrecks on the Western rivers,
47 were caused by snags, and 11 by rocks; 64 per cent. of the whole occurred
on the Ohio and Mississippi, the two lines of greatest traffic.  There would
appear to be about 500 steamers running on these two rivers, so that the
loss that year amounted to 12 per cent. This is exclusive of the wrecks
from collisions and the other causes enumerated.  In 1857, the losses from
snags were 70 per cent. of those from all other causes.  We may safely assume then that at least 60 per cent. of the risks attending the navigation of
the Western rivers might be at once removed by a little energetic action on
the part of the Government.
But a machine like the Federal Government of the United States is slow
to move in any matter that does not excite very general attention, and on
which the popular will is not very strongly pronounced. It only acts
under high pressure, and to set it going in a matter of this kind where the
interests of a large part of the States are concerned, it is necessary that
the community generally should be enlightened on the subject, and made to
feel the necessity for action.  But it is almost impossible now for any
advocate of river improvement to obtain a hearing in Congress.  The introduction of the subject would lead to a count out as surely as that of India in
the House of Commons. The thoughtless multitude who know not, nor
are at the pains to consider the real value of their magnificent water communications, are but too faithfully represented in the halls of the representative assembly.  Railway influence is supreme.  " It is notorious," say the
Canal Commissioners of New York, " that railroad influences have controlled
the legislation of this State, when they pleased to do so, at any time since the
Consolidation of 1853." "The Railway monopolies of Pennsylvania," says the



OF NORTH AMERICA.

93

Auditor of the Canal Department of New York in his report of 1857, " have
crushed out the public works of that State."  What more striking proof
could we have either of the profound ignorance and apathy of the public
generally, or of the predominance of some sinister influences at Washington
than the fact that the magnificient river system of the west, the very basis
of the agricultural and industrial wealth of three-fourths of the Union, should
be left in such a disgraceful state of neglect, that property to tile annual
value of many millions should be sacrificed, and a tax, in the shape of increased rates of transport, placed upon every single department of industry,
for the want of a yearly appropriation of a few thousand dollars to the removal of snags and rocks.  It is pitiable to read in the official reports of the
purchase of a few snag boats one year, of their being worked for one or two
more, then laid up for want of money, and finally sold by auction for whatever they may fetch.
It was estimated by Mr. Hall in 1848, that the annual risk on the
7,200,000 $ then invested in steam boats alone amounted to more than
3,000,000 $, and the proportionate risk can be very little less now.
Steamers are at present insured on three-fourths their value the first
year, on Aths the fourth year, and after four years on ~, at rates varying
from 10 to 25 per cent. On the Ohio above the falls, the rate is 10 per
cent.  Below  the falls and on the Mississippi 12~ per cent. Steamers
plying on the Missouri, Arkansas, Red River and other tributaries of like
character, are charged an additional premium of 21 per cent. on each voyage.
The rates on goods have already been given.
The prices of transport are also enhanced in consequence of the limited
period of the year during which the rivers are navigable, and the variable
duration of that period from year to year. In general it may be taken at 8
to 9 months, but on the tributaries it is usually only about 6 months. The
interest on the capital invested, and the cost of keep of the boat during tlhe
time it lies idle, are consequently a charge upon the business of the working
months. The detentions and injuries received from grounding during low
stages of water is another cause of loss.
The proper means of remedy for all these defects need not now be discussed. For the present, assuming that their removal is only a question of
money, and that the amount required would be trifling in comparison of tlhe
advantages secqred, I proceed to shew to what extent it would probably
operate to reduce the cost of transport.



91                NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS
The following is an analysis of the expense of two different classes of
steamers on the Ohio in its present condition.
The first is that of a -tedium sized steamer suited to the Upper Ohio
and running between Pittsburghi and Cincinnati, a distance of 4S0 miles.
Period of navigation 8 months.
Tonnage, American Custom House measurement, 240. Length (mean)
156. Beam 35. Stern wlheel, lines very full.
Draught lighlt, with boilers filled and half day's fuel, 2'3".
With 61 feet draught of water, load......  500 tons.
5  feet,,......       330,,
4  feet,,,,......  250,,
Time of trip, 2 days down, 44 days up; total, 6 days under steam,
12 trips inl the 8 working months, viz:6 trips with a down load of......  500 tons.
3............                         3,,
3............  250,,
Up stream loads, lhalf the down.
Total, 7,110 tons moved 4S0 miles..Epenses.
Cost of steamer,......   21,600$
Interest at 8 per cent.,......       1,728 $
Deprecia.tion, 16 per cent.......  3,456,,
Repairs, 2 per cent.......          464,,
Insurance, 10 per cent. on -ths value....  1,440,,
7,088,, per annum
Crew per month, wages        1,385 $
Food.........    0.. 310, total 1,695 x 8 = 13,660 $
Stores,...............  125,,
Fuel, 500 busliels coal @ 7 cents = 35 $ x 78 days...  2,730,,
Expenses during 4 montlhs of suspended navigation...  1,600,,
Labor, loading and unloatding cargo.......   1,100,,
Sun dries............ 500,,
Total...20,715,,
Add.... 7,088,,
Total expences...27,803,,
Deduct fares of 25 cabins, and 25 deck passengers at 5 $
and 2 $ each, on 24 passages,......... 4,200,,
Expenses to be covered by goods receipts...   23,603,,,  __2  _.'



OF NORTH AMERICA.

95

23,603$ on 7,110 tons = 3-32 $ per ton.
on 480 miles, = 6-9 mills,
or 0-345 penny, per ton per mile.
2nd.  Largest class of steamers navigating the OhioLength 230; beam 34 feet.
Custom House tonnage 426.
Plyiing between Pittsburghl and Cincinnati.
Workiing months 6.
Time of trip-5 dcays and nights under steam (10 trips in the 6 months
of navigation, viz.)
5 with a draught of   8 feet, net load 820 tons.
3         do.         7 feet,   do    650,,
2         do.        6 feet,    do    470,,
Up loads, half the down.
Total work doe--= 11,425 tons carried 480 miles.
Expenses.
Cost of steamer,......        40,000$
Interest at 8 per cent........        3,200 $
Depreciation, 16 per cent..........   6,400,,
Repairs, 2 per cent.......        800,,
Insurance, 10 per cent. on th value....     2,500,,
Total... 12,9)0,,
Crew-wages per month 2,000 x   6 months...      12,000,,
Their food,............   2,60,0
Stores,...............       3,750,,
Fuel, 700 bushels  coal per day  @   7 cents
49 $ X 55 days.........       2,695,,
E]xpences during 6 idle months,.........   2,400,,
Loadillng and unloading cargoes,......       1,800,,
Sundries,............... 1,00,,
2c. 245,,
Add... 12,900,,
39,1445,,
Deduct fares of 75 first and 60 second class passengers.  10,000
Balance,.. 29,145,,
On   11,425 tons = 2"55 $    per ton.
On     4S0 miles --  53 mills.
or 0-265 penny per ton per mile.
This steamer would probably make another one or two trips between
Cincinnati and St. Louis after the Upper Ohio had ceased to be navigable.



96

NOTES ON THE RIVER NAVIGATIONS

3rd.  The same steamer, running between Pittsburgh and St. Louis,
distance 1,200 miles.
Navigation season, 6 months.-No. of trips 6.
viz., 3 trips with  820 tons
2,,,,   650,,
1,,,,    470,,
Up loads, half the down.
Total work, 7,575 tons carried 1,200 miles. Another two trips would probably be made on the lower Ohio and Mississippi, for which add 1,000 tons
on the distance of 1,200 miles.
Expences.

Crew, wages and board as before
Stores,..............
Fuel, 700 bushels at 9 cents. = 63 $ for 97 days.
Expenses during 6 idle months.
Loading and unloading cargo.
Sundries............
Interest, Depreciation, &c. as before.... 14,600 $
6,750,,
6,251,,
2,400,,... 1,500,,...  2,000,,
33,50],,
12,900,,
46,401,,

Deduct fares of 75 first class and 75 second class
passeugers at 12$ and 6$ respectively...
Balal
On 7,575 tons -   3"C3 $ per ton per mile.
On 1,200 miles - 3 mills.
or 0-15 penny per ton per mile.... 18,900,,
ice... 27,500,,

If this steamer carried no passengers, and were built accordingly, her
cost would be about irds that mentioned, and there would be a reduction in
the expenses of
4,300 $ on account of interest.
2,000 expense of crew.
6,000,,    stores.
Total... 12,300
and a loss of 18,900 of fares, leaving an addition of 6,600 to the expenses,
which would make the cost per ton 4.50$ or per ton mile, 3.75 inills--0'187
penny.



OR NOITH.f AxMBWXCA.
We thus obtain as the cost of transport on the,Ohio in ordinarily favorable seasonsFor distances of 500 miles 5.3 to 6.9 mills.,,      1,200,,   3         mills.
These are the mean costs of both up and down stream navigation.
Where, as is generally the case, the down traffic is much the largest and
the least valuable per ton, a considerable reduction might be made in the
rates.  Moreover, this calculation is made on the supposition of a through
traffic only, whereas the way trade is always the largest of the two, and
pays much the best, as the mileage rates are higher.
Mr. MacAlpine,* an excellent authority, gives as the actual cost of
transport on the Western rivers 3 mills on the Mississippi, and 5 to 10
mills on the tributaries, which fully corroborate the above conclusions
which I think may be relied on as correct. The materials for the calculations have been collected with considerable trouble from the best authorities
on the spot.
Now, if we suppose the Ohio, by means of a proper system of improvement, to be rendered navigable during the whole year, instead of as now for
only 8 months, and that a minimum depth of 6 feet is maintained, which
Mr. Ellet shews to be quite practicable, and if we suppose the stream to be
perfectly cleared of snags, then the cost of carriage by this river would be
reduced, first, by nearly the whole amount of the Insurance upon the goods
carried, four-fifths of which is now caused by the damage done to steamers
by snags alone, and which, as above shewn, makes the actual cost of transport from 10 to 300 per cent., according to the class of goods, greater than
the steamer charges.
In the next place, the amount of the depreciation would be reduced,
as well as that of insurance of steamers, and these charges, together with
those for interest and repairs, which now have to be covered by the returns
from a six or eight months navigation only, would be distributed over the
work of a whole year. It would appear that the saving from   these last
sources, in other words the reduction in the cost of navigation, would be
very much less than that which would result from the diminution of the
insurance charges.
The working expenses are, as will be seen by the above figures, much
greater than the amount required to cover the interest.ad depreciation ou
* Late State Engineer of New York.
x



NUTEs ONffm: It '..1  *AV6LATIONS

the post.of thestfeamer, ald as the fermer would be enhranced in the same
ratio as the increase in the duration of the navigation season, the decrease
effected in the latter would not have so marked an effect upon the cost of
carriage as might have been expected.  In the case however of the Upper
Ohio steamers, there would certainly be a reduction of 17 per cent. in the
actual cost of navigation due to this cause alone.
With improved rivers, rendered perennially navigable, carriage by
steamer would possess all the advantages in point of fixity of charges, regularity and punctuality of delivery, which now belong almost exclusively to
railroads, and which, far more than mere superiority in point of speed, so
often give them the preference for the transport, even at higher rates, of
articles of value.
Were the rivers thorong!ily cleared of snags and rocks, which it has'
been shown might be done at a very trifling cost, carriage by steamer would
be quite as safe as that by railroad, and the Insurance charges would therefore be as insignificant an element iii the cost of transport in the one case as
in the other. With a minimum depth of 6 feet, a speed of at least 20 miles
an hour is perfectly attainable.
With therefore the present Insurance charges abolished, with reduced
working expenses, and a permanent security and punctuality of transport
practically equal to that of railroads, andwith a speed when required not
much inferior, there can be no doubt that the river navigations, which now
carry the great ma~s of the traffic of the Western States, would recover from
the railroads the greater part of that of which the latter have deprived them,
and maintain a superiority in all the essentia!s of transport which their rivals
could not venture to dispute.  It has been shown that they possess intrinsically a superiority in cheap carrying power, and that it is only in consequence
of the high cost of the Insurance of goods moved by water, and by taking advantage of this and of the natural defects of the rivers to which it is owing, and
which in the other ways which have been described so seriously diminish their
value as communications, that the railroads in competition with the water lines
have succeeded in abstracting a part of their traffic. If these defects were once
removed, and the cost of carriage by water reduced, as it probably would be
20 to 100 per cent., the effect upon the trade and upon every depart.
mneat of industry in the Western States would be immense.  The introduction of rgulroads reduced the cost of land transport from 6d.to Id. perton per
milerafd imparted at the same time a speed and regularity of locomotion, the
marvellous effects of which are pateut to the vorld. What would be the



OP NOWrH.AMERICA. *s
result, if on the main arteries of traffic in a Continent where distances are
measured by thousands, not hundreds of miles, the cost of carriage were
now to be reduced to one-third or one-fourth that of railroads, without the
sacrifice of any one of their peculiar advantages?
The possibility of perfecting river navigations to this degree was
long looked upon as chimerical, and still is so by those whose pursuits
or interest in the question have not led them to the study of all that
has been written upon it of late years. In England, the question is of no
special interest, but in America it has been not a little discussed. The
controversy that arose between some of the leading Engineers there on
Mr. Ellet's promulgation of his proposal to effect all and more than I have
supposed possible in the improvement of the Western rivers by means of
a system of reservoirs has thrown much interesting light upon the whole
subject. Three years ago matters seemed in a fair train for putting Mr.
Ellet's proposal to  a practical test, a Company having been formed for
the  improvement of the Great Kanawha, one of the tributaries of the
Ohio, on his system.   It is melancholy to reflect that this undertaking,
fraught as it was with results of such incalculable importance to America,
has, with so many others in which the best interests of the country were
involved, been indefinitely postponed by   the tremendous social convulsion which has rent the great Union asunder. What the results of the
present struggle will be no one pretends to foresee. How     long it will
be before peace and good-will shall be   so firmly re-established between
the two sections of the republic as to enable them to combine to carry
out those great works of material improvement in     which   thiy have a
common interest no one can say; but all, and especially those who, from
travel through the States, have brought away with them kindly and enduring remembrance of their inhabitants, must ardently desire that the
time may not be far off when the energies now. so fearfully wasted in
mutual destruction shall be turned once more into the paths of peaceful
industry. When that time comes, it is to be hoped that the rivers of
America will receive their due share of attention, and that their great
national importance will be more fully recognized than it has been
hitherto: and if a comprehensive system of improving them is determined
upon, Mr. Ellet's plan will probably find no other competitor in the
field, his principal opponent having not only fully admitted its practica.
bility, but declared that if it cost twice as much as his own, he would give
it the preference.
[Tnm Enn]